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■1
WHO'S WHO, 1899
AN ANNUAL BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY
Edited by DOUGLAS SLADEN
The fifty-first year of the issue of this established stand-
ard work of reference sees a number of new features, the
most prominent of which is the enlarging and perfecting
TL L J ^. • J of the Biographical Dictionary, which
The broad field . , r , ,
. , .^ IS drawn up tor the cosmopolitan
covered by it
reader who feels the pressure of the
bond that yearly draws closer all English-speaking
people, so that the need of the day is not an American
or an English Biographical Dictionary, but the broader
work contaming lives of men of both nations; in brief,
Who's Who, 1899.
Range of the
information
included
Not only are the names selected those which every one
meets with in reading of public affairs, but in every line
of effort in which English-speaking
people engage, those who have
achieved the greatest success are
noted, and their names are included
in the Biographical Dictionary, be they men or women,
explorers, writers, scientists, men of rank in the army,
the navy, in politics, etc. ; they are easily referred to in
Who's Who, 1899.
The book is one that is needed by every student or
educator for the sake of its information in regard to men
of prominence in the educational world : by editors,
reviewers, writers of all kinds, as containing hundreds of
names constantly referred to in the
public press. Had this been at
hand when " The Celebrity " was
published, fewer papers would have confused Winston
C'hurchill its author, with Winston L. S. Churchill of
the English army, nor is it nt)w necessary to refer to two
Dictionaries, English and American, to straighten out
'•hi record of each. Eor these and other names, refer to
Who's Who, 1899.
published by
Essential to
all readers
Among new Tables
see: American Rail-
ways ; American
Periodicals ; Amer-
ican Ladies with
English Titles, etc.
WHO^S
BIGELOW, Poult-
ney, Correspondent
Harper's Weekly.
BISPHAM, David
S., Baritone, Grand
Opera.
CURZON, Geo. N.,
Viceroy of India.
KITCHENER, Her-
bert, Sirdar of
Egyptian Army.
SIGSBEE, Charles
D., Captain of the
"Maine."
ALLBUTT, Thos.
C , M D.
DECLE, Lionel,
Explorer.
GILL, David,
Astronomer.
McKINLEY, Wm.,
President, U. S.
PENNELL, Joseph
and Elizabeth,
Artist and Author.
PADEREWSKI,
I. J , Pianist.
REHAN, Ada,
Actress.
CRAWFORD, F.
Marion, Author.
FISKE, John.
GARLAND, H.
HIGGINSON,Thos.
Wentworth.
STOCKTON, F. R.
WHO
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, New York.
THE UNITED STATES
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL DATA
FKOM ORIGINAL AND LATEST
" OFFICIAL SOURCES
1899
EDITED BY
CARROLL D. WRIGHT, LL.D.
UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF LABOR
PRESIDENT AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION
AUTHOR " INDUSTRLA.L EVOLUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
"OUTLINE OF PRACTICAL SOCIOLOGX/' ETC., P:TC.
'J%Q^(s:o
NOTE. ^
The matter relating to the U. S. is paged in
Roman numerals and is immediately followed by
a special index for this part.
The matter relating to the rest of the world
follows, and is itself indexed at the end of the
volume.
THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANNUAL OF THE
STATES OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR
1899
EDITED BY
J. SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., and L P. A. REXWICK, M.A., LL.B.
ametncan tUtion
EDITED BY
CARROLL D. WRIGHT, LL.D.
UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF LABOR
PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION
THIRTY-SIXTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION ^^
HE VISED AFTFAi OFFICIAL RETURNS
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd.
1899
All riglits reserved
Copyright, 1899,
By the MACMILLAN CO.
LIBRARY
yWiv£.:SiTY OF |VBIA8«
TCortoooli ^3rfS3
J. S. Gushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
Or
PREFACE
The English editions of " The Statesman's Year-Book "
have contained about forty pages relating to the United
States. The American publishers conceived the idea that
the public would welcome an edition containing more ex-
tended data, and to that end there have been prepared from
the latest official and from original sources the facts con-
tained in this chapter. The aim of the editor has been to
present the information most desired by legislators, publicists,
authors, professional and business men, not expecting, however,
to meet all demands, but the wants of the greatest number of
those who will use the annual. The difficulty has been to
keep the work within necessarily prescribed limits. It would
have been an easier task to have compiled a whole volume
on the United States.
I wish to extend my heartiest thanks to the municipal,
state, and federal officers who have assisted me in securing
data, and to Mr. Charles W. Morris, jr., for his valuable per-
sonal assistance.
CARROLL D. WRIGHT.
Washington, March 31, 1899.
57517
CONTENTS
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I. The Nation
Constitution and Government
U. S. Embassies and Legations .
Foreign Embassies and Legations
Consular Officers of United States
Army ....
Navy ....
Legislative Department
Judiciary
Population .
Public Domain
Immigration
Divorce
Agriculture .
Forestry
Mining
Manufactures
Liquor Traffic
Commerce
Merchant Marine
Life-saving Service
Railways
Telegraphs .
Telephones .
Postal Service
Finance
National Banks
Loan and Trust Companies
Private Banks
Building and Loan Associations
Failures
Bankruptcy Act .
Fire Insurance
PAGE
i
XXlV-XXVll
xxvii-xxxi
xxxi-xlvii
xlvii
liv
Ixvii
Ixxxi
Ixxxvii
xci
xciv
xcviii
xcix
cvii
cviii
cxvi
cxx
cxxiv
cxlviii
cxlix
cl
clvii
clviii
clviii
clix
clxxx
clxxxiv
clxxxiv
clxxxvi
clxxxvii
clxxxix
cxc
8
CONTENTS
Life Insurance
Pensions
Patents
Instruction
Newspapers
Religion
Crime, Pauperism, etc.
Strikes and Lockouts
Arbitration .
Political Parties .
Naturalization
Spanish War, 1898
XL States and Territories
Qualifications for Voting
Labor Legislation
State Boards of Arbitration
Factory Inspection
Bureaus of Labor Statistics
State Finances
Hawaii ....
Porto Rico .
Philippine Islands
Guam (Ladrones)
Cuba ....
III. Principal Cities and Towns
Government
Population ...
Municipal Statistics
Street Railways .
PAGE
cxcii
cxciv
cxcvi
cxcvii
cciv
ccv
ccvii
ccix
ccxi
ccxiii
ccxv
ccxvi
ccxx
ccxxiii
ccxxiv
ccxxvi
ccxxvi
ccxxvii
ccxxvii
ccxxvi ii
ccxxxvi
ccxli
ccl
ccl
cclviii
cclviii
cclix
cclx
cclxx
IV. Books of Reference concerning the United States cclxxii
MAPS
1. Showing ratio of Imports to Exports, and general direction
OF EACH.
2. Territorial Growth of the United States.
3. CCBA AND POUTO RiCO.
4. Hawaiian Islands and Philippine Islands
$ ^""vL J^A L A S K A K
;^ ^\fiUSSIA, 1 867\ P O SS
n PI
^ 0
TEKRITORIAL GROWTH
OF THE
tJ]S^ITED STATES
TORTUGAS i'.'
4
^-^'^ -0
vP
eOflMAY ^ CO.,&NjK'S,N.Y.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
I. THE NATION
Constitution and Government
A Congress representing the thirteen original colonies
declared their independence of Great Britain July 4, 1776,
and thereafter each colony was known as a State. As a result
of the war with Great Britain, the latter acknowledged the
independence of the United States Nov. 30, 1782, and Sept. 3,
1783, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Paris.
The government of the United States continued under the
Congress provided by the Articles of Confederation until
March 4, 1789, when a constitution, which had been adopted
by representatives of the different States Sept. 17, 1787,. went
into effect. March 4, 1789, then, is the date of the inception
of the present constitutional government of the American
Union.
Ten amendments were added to the original Constitution
Dec. 15, 1791 ; the eleventh amendment, Jan. 8, 1789 ; the
twelfth amendment, Sept. 25, 1804 ; the thirteenth amend-
ment, Dec. 18, 1865 ; the fourteenth amendment, July 28, 1868 ;
and the fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870. Amendments
proposed by the Congress must be adopted by three-fourths of
the States, acting through their legislatures.
In the table of States hereafter given, the date of the adop-
tion of the original Constitution by each is stated, and also the
dates of the admission of States subsequent to that time, there
having been thirty-two States admitted since the adoption of
the Constitution, the whole number of States now being forty-
five.
By the Constitution, the government of the nation is in-
trusted to three separate departments, the Executive, the Leg-
islative, and the Judicial. The executive power is vested in a
President, who holds his office during the term of four j^ears,
and is elected, together with a Vice-President chosen for the
ii UNITED STATES
same term, in the mode prescribed as follows: "Each State
shall ai)point, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may
direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of
senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled
in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States,
shall be appointed an elector." The practice is that in every
State the electors allotted to the State are chosen by direct
vote of the citizens on a general ticket, on the system known
in France as scrutin de liste. The Constitution enacts that
"the Congress may determine the time of choosing the elec-
tors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which
day shall be the same throughout the United States ; " and
further, that " no person except a natural-born citizen, or a citi-
zen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this
Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither
shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have
attained to the age of thirty -five years, and been fourteen years
a resident within the United States."
Executive
The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy,
and of the militia in the service of the Union. The Vice-
President is ex-officio President of the Senate ; and in case
of the death or resignation of the President, he becomes the
President for the remainder of the term. The elections for
President and Vice-President are at present held in all the
States on Tuesday next after the first Monday in November,
every leap-year ; and on the 4th of March following, the new
President-elect assumes office.
By a law approved Jan. 19, 1886, in case of removal, death,
resignation, or inability of both the President and Vice-Presi-
dent, the Secretary of State, and after him, in the order of the
establishment of their departments, other members of the Cabi-
net, shall act as President until the disability of the President
is removed, or a President shall be elected. On the death of
a Vice-President the duties of the office fall to the President
pro tempore of the Senate, who receives the salary of the Vice-
President. The party in the majority usually elects a Presi-
dent pi'o tempore at the beginning of each term of Congress,
or reorganization of the Senate, who acts as President of the
Senate whenever the Vice-President is absent.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
111
President of the United States. — William McKinley, of Ohio, born
in Ohio Jan. 29, 184;J; served as private in tlie 23d Ohio volunteer
infantry during the Civil War, leaving the service July 26, 1805, as
captain and brevet major ; admitted to the bar in Ohio in 18G7, and
practised at his home in Canton ; member of the U. S. House of Repre-
sentatives, 1877-90 ; elected Governor of Ohio in 1891, and reelected in
1893 ; elected President in 1896, and inaugurated March 4, 1897. The
President has an annual salary of 850,000.
Vice-President. — (Jarret A. Hobart, born in New Jersey June 3, 1844 ;
admitted to the bar in 1869 ; served in Assembly of New Jersey legisla-
ture, 1873-76, the latter year being Speaker of the House ; served in New
Jersey Senate, 1879-82, being president of that body ; elected Vice-Presi-
dent in 1896, and inaugurated March 4, 1897. His annual salary is $8000.
Private Secretary to the President. — John Addison Porter, of Con-
necticut, born April 17, 1856.
Since the adoption of the Constitution the offices of President and Vice-
President have been tilled as follows (the star indicates those who were
elected as Vice-President, but who on the death of the President tilled
that office) :
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
George Washington .
Virginia . . .
1789-1797
1732
1799
John Adams . . .
Massachusetts .
1797-1801
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia . . .
1801-1809
1743
1826
James Madison . .
((
1809-1817
1751
1836
James Monroe . . .
((
1817-1825
1759
1831
John Quincy Adams
Massachusetts .
1825-1829
1767
1848
Andrew Jackson . .
Tennessee
1829-1837
1767
1845
Martin Van Buren .
New York . .
1837-1841
1782
1862
William II. Harrison
Ohio ....
^farcli-April 1841
1773
1841
*John Tyler ....
Virginia . . .
1841-1845
1790
1862
James K. Polk . .
Tennessee . .
1845-1849
1795
1849
Zachary Taylor . .
Louisiana . . .
1849-1850
1784
1850
*Millaid Fillmore . .
New York . .
1850-1853
1800
1874
Franklin Pierce . .
New Hampshire
1853-1857
1804
1869
James Buchanan . .
Pennsylvania
1857-1861
1791
1868
Abraham Lincoln . .
Illinois . . .
1861-1865
1809
1865
*Andrew Johnson . .
Tennessee . .
1865-1869
1§08
1875
Ulysses S. Grant . .
Illinois . . .
1869-1877
1822
1885
Rutherford B. Hayes
Ohio ....
1877-1881
1822
1893
James A. Garfield
((
March-Sopt. 1881
1831
1881
♦Chester A. Arthur .
New York . .
1881-1885
1830
1886
Grover Cleveland . .
tt
18S5-1889
1837
—
Benjamin Harrison .
Indiana . . .
1889-1893
1833
—
Grover Cleveland . .
New York . .
1893-1897
1837
—
William McKinley .
Ohio ....
1897-
1843
—
IV
UNITED STATES
VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
John Adams . . .
Massachusetts .
1789-1797
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson . .
Virginia . . .
1797-1801
1743
1826
Aaron Burr . . .
New York . .
1801-1805
1756
1836
George Clinton . .
u
1805-1812
1739
1812
Elbridge Gerry , .
Massachusetts .
1813-1814
1744
1814
Daniel D, Tompkins.
New York . .
1817-1825
1774
1825
John C. Calhoun . .
South Carolina .
1825-1832
1782
1850
Martin Van Buren .
New York . .
1833-1837
1782
1862
Richard M. Johnson .
Kentucky . .
1837-1841
1780
1850
John Tyler ....
Virginia . . .
March-April 1841
1790
1862
George M. Dallas . .
Pennsylvania .
1845-1849
1792
1864
Millard Fillmore . .
New York , .
1849-1850
1800
1874
William R. King . .
Alabama . . .
1853
1786
1853
John C. Breckinridge
Kentucky . .
1857-1861
1821
1875
Hannibal Hamlin . .
Maine . . . .
1861-1865
1809
1891
Andrew Johnson . .
Tennessee . .
March- April 1865
1808
1875
Schuyler Colfax . .
Indiana . . .
1869-1873
1823
1885
Henry Wilson. . .
Massachusetts .
1873-1875
1812
1875
William A. Wheeler .
New York . .
1877-1881
1819
1887
Chester A. Arthur .
u
March-Sept. 1881
1830
1886
Thomas A. Hendricks
Indiana . . .
March-Nov. 25.1885
1819
1885
Levi P. Morton . .
New York . .
1889-1893
1824
—
Adlai E. Stevenson .
Illinois . . .
1893-1897
1835
Garret A. Hobart
New Jersey . .
1897
1844
—
Bides of the Executive Mansion. — By order of the President, the
Cabinet meets on Tuesdays and Fridays of each week from 11 a.m. until
1 P.M. Senators and representatives are received from 10 a.m. to 12 m.,
except on Cabinet days. Visitors having business with the President are
admitted from 12 to 1 o'clock daily, excepting Cabinet days, so far as
public business will permit. The East Room, the general reception room
of the Executive Mansion, is open daily, Sundays excepted, for the inspec-
tion of visitors between the hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m.
The administrative business of the Government is conducted
by eight chief officers, or heads of Departments, denominated
<' Secretaries," who constitute what is popularly known as the
"Cabinet," although there is no legal or constitutional pro-
vision for that designation. The Secretaries are chosen by
the President, and commissioned by him after confirmation by
the Senate. Each Secretary presides over his particular de-
partment, and acts under the immediate authority of the Presi-
dent. Each Secretary receives an annual salary of $8000,
and holds office during the pleasure of the President. The
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT y
Departments, in the chronological order of their establishment,
with their respective heads, together with the bureaus under
each, and the duties, are as follows :
1. Secretary of State. — John Hay, of the District of Columbia, born
in Indiana Oct. 8, 1838 ; educated to the law and admitted to practice in
Illinois in 18G1 ; served as Assistant Secretary to President Lincoln tlirough
his entire term; secretary of legation to France, 18G5-G7 ; secretary of
legation to Austria-Hungary, 1807-68 ; secretary of legation to Spain,
1869-70 ; Assistant Secretary of State, 1879-81 ; Ambassador Extraordi-
nary and Plenipotentiary to court of St. James, 1897-98 ; appointed
Secretary of State Sept. 20, 1898.
The Department of State is charged with all duties appertaining to
correspondence with public ministers, American consuls, and representa-
tives of foreign powers accredited to the United States, and with negotia-
tions of whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the nation.
The Secretary is accorded first rank among the members of the President's
Cabinet. He is the custodian of treaties made with foreign states, and
of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and
exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States are issued under his
supervision.
Assistant Secretary. — David J. /////, of New York.
Second Assistant Secretary. — Alvey A. Adee.
Third Assistant Secretary. — Thomas Wilbur Cridler.
The Assistant Secretaries are charged with such duties as may be
assigned to them by the Secretary.
Chief Clerk. — AVilliam H. Michael. Has the general supervision of
the clerks and employees and of the business of the Department,
Diplomatic Bnreaii. — Sydney T. Smith, Chief. This bureau is charged
with the diplomatic correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence
relating thereto.
Consular Bureau. — Tloheit S. Chilton, Jr., Chief. Charged with cor-
respondence relating to the consular service.
Bureau of Indexes and Archives. — Pendleton King, Chief. Opens,
prepares, indexes, and registers all correspondence to and from the De-
partment, and is charged with the preservation of the archives.
Bureau of Accounts. — Fra^nk A. Branagan, Chief. Has the custody
and disbursement of appropriations and the care of the property of the
Department.
Bureau of Foreign Commerce. — Frederic Emory, Chief. Edits and
publishes the monthly consular reports, special consular reports, and the
annual report entitled "Commercial Relations of the United States."
Bureau of Rolls and Library. — Andrew HMS^ey Allen, Chief. Has
in its custody the rolls, treaties, etc. ; is charged with the promulgation
of laws and the care and superintendence of the library and publicdocu-
rnents and of the Revolutionary archives and papers relating to interna-
tional commissions.
Bureau of Appointments. — Robert Brent Mosher, Chief. Takes
charge of matters relating to appointments, and has the preparation of
commissions, exequaturs, and warrants of extradition. It also has the
custody of the Great Seal and of applications and recommendations
for office.
2. Secretary of the Treasury. —Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois, born in
vi UNITED STATES
the State of New York June 28, 1836 ; was engaged in banking business
in Chicago, resigning presidency of First National Bank of that city to
accept portfolio of Treasury Department ; appointed March 5, 1897.
The Secretary of the Treasury is charged with the management of the
national finances, and prepares plans for the improvement of the revenue
and the support of public credit. He controls the construction of public
buildings ; the coinage and printing of money ; the collection of com-
mercial statistics ; the administration of the Coast and Geodetic Survey,
Life-Saving, Light-House, Kevenue-Cutter, Steamboat-Inspection, and
Marine Hospital branches of public service, and annually submits to
Congress estimates of probable revenues and disbursements of the
Government.
Assistant Secretaries. — O. L. Spauhling, Horace A. Taylor, and
Frank A. Vanderlip. They are assigned such duties as the Secretary
may determine, dividing the supervision of the different bureaus among
them.
Chief Clerk. — Theodore F. Swayze. Supervises duties of clerks and
employees connected with Department ; superintendence of all buildings
occupied by Department in Washington ; supervision of all official cor-
respondence of Secretary's office ; the enforcement of general regulations
of Department, and has charge of all business of Secretary's office not
assigned.
Disbursing Clerks. — George A. Bartlett and Thomas J. Hohhs. Pay
salaries of clerks and employees and settle accounts against the Depart-
ment.
Comptroller of the Treasury. — Robert J. Tracewell. Designates forms
of keeping and rendering public accounts, and has charge of preservation,
with their vouchers and certificates, of accounts finally adjusted. He
must pass upon the rulings of auditors in their adjustment of the accounts
of the different Departments. Disbursing officers may appeal from the
decisions of auditors to the Comptroller, his decision being final and con-
clusive upon the executive branch of the Government.
In immediate connection with the Secretary's office there are the Di-
visions of Appointments; Bookkeeping and Warrants ; Customs; Revenue-
Cutter Service ; Stationery, Printing, and Blanks ; Loans and Currency ;
Mail and Files ; Special Agents ; Miscellaneous.
There are also six Auditors in the Treasury Department, whose duty
it is to audit and pass upon the accounts of each Department. They are
known as Auditor for the Treasury Department, W. E. Aiidreivs ; Auditor
for the War Department, William Wallace Broiim ; Auditor for the In-
terior Department, William Younghlood ; Auditor for the Na\y Depart-
ment, Frank IL Morris; Auditor for the State and other Departments,
Ernest G. Timme; Auditor for the Post-Office Department, Henry A.
Ca.'ttle.
Treasurer of the United States.— ^Wis H. Boherts. Is charged with
the receipt and disbursement of all public moneys that may be deposited
in the Treasury, either at Washington or at the sub-treasuries at Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New
Orleans, and San Francisco, and in the national banks of the United
States which may be designated as depositories. In the Treasurer's office
there are various divisions, known as Cash Division, Division of Accounts,
Division of National ]5anks, Division of Loans, Division of Redemption,
Division of Issues, the National Bank Redemption Agency, and the
Sinking Fund Office, District of Columbia.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT vii
The Assistant Treasurers of the United States, with the cities where
they are located, are :
C. N. Jordan, New York, N.Y.
James M. Sloan, Chicago, 111.
George A. Marclen, Boston, Mass.
William P. Williams, Chicago, 111.
Charles A. Bosworth, Cincinnati, O.
Charles J. Bell, New Orleans, La.
John F. Finney, Philadelphia, Pa.
George H. Small, St. Louis, Mo.
Julius Jacobs, San Francisco, Cal.
Begister of the Treasnrij. — Judson W. Lyons. Signs and issues all
bonds and all transfers conveying money from the United States Treasury
to all sub-treasuries and depositories ; he receives, examines, arranges,
and registers all redeemed United States notes, gold certificates, silver
certificates. Treasury notes, and all other evidences of issue. In his
bureau there are the Division of Loans and the Division of Notes,
Coupons, and Currency.
Comptroller of the Currency. — Charles G. Dawes. Has the super-
vision, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, of national
banks. In this bureau are the Division of Organization, of Issue, of
Reports, and of Redemption.
Director of the Mint. — George E. Boherts. Has general supervision
of all the mints and assay offices of the United States. All tests of the
weight and fineness of coins struck at the various mints are under his
charge, and he determines the values of standard coins of foreign
countries.
llie Superintendents of Mints, with the places where located, are :
Henry K. Boyer, Piiiladelphia, Pa.
Charles W. Boothlnj, New Orleans, La.
Frank A. Leach, San Francisco, Cal.
James L. Hodges, Assayer in Charge, Denver, Col.
R. K. Colcord, Carson, Nev.
The foUownig-named persons are in charge of the Assay Offices at the
places indicated :
Andrew Mason, Superintendent, New York, N.Y.
John ^V. Cunningham, Assayer in Charge, Boise, Idaho.
Eugene B. Braden, Assayer in Charge, Helena, Mont.
Samuel S. Clanton, Assayer and Melter, Charlotte, N.C.
John Boyle, Jr., Assayer in Charge, St. Louis, Mo.
Patrick J. Minter, Assayer in Charge, Deadvvood, S.D.
Frederick A. Wing, Assayer in Charge, Seattle, Wash.
Supervising Architect. — James K. Taylor. Has charge of the plan-
ning and construction of all public buildings, such as post-otfices, custom-
houses, etc.
Secret Service Division. — John E. Wilkie, Chief. Detection and prose-
cution of all frauds upon customs and internal revenue service and the
counterfeiting of money.
Commissioner of Liternal Bevenue. — George W. Wilson. Makes
assessment of and has general superintendence of the collection of all-
internal revenue taxes, and of*the enforcement of internal revenue laws.
In this bureau are the Division of Appointments, of Law, of Tobacco, of
Accounts, of Distilled Spirits, of Stamps, of Assessments, of Revenue
Agents, and of Chemistry.
viii UNITED STATES
Commissioner of Navigation. — Eugene Tyler Chamberlain. Has
general superintendence of the commercial marine and merchant seamen
of the United States, except so far as supervision is lodged with other
officers of the Government. He is specially charged with the decision of
all questions relating to the issue of registers, enrolments, and licenses
of vessels, with the supervision of laws relating to the admeasurement,
letters, and numbers of vessels, and with the final decision of questions
concerning the collection and refund of tonnage taxes. He is empowered
to change the names of vessels, and prepares annually a list of vessels of
the United States.
Office of Steamboat Inspection. — James A. Dumont, Supervising
Inspector-General. Superintends the administration of the steamboat
inspection laws.
Light-House Board. — Secretary of Treasury, President ; Commo-
dore Francis J. Higginson, U.S.N., Chairman. Has charge of all
administrative duties relating to the construction and maintenance
of light-houses, light-vessels, beacons, fog signals, buoys, and their
appendages.
Life-Saving Service. — S. I. Kimball, General Superintendent. Super-
vises the organization and government of the employees of the service and
the expenditure of all appropriations for its support and maintenance, and
makes all rules and regulations necessary for its purposes.
Marine Hospital Service. — Walter Wyman, Supervising Surgeon-
General. Charged with supervision of the marine hospitals and other
relief stations of the service and the care of sick and disabled seamen, and
under his direction all applicants for pilots' licenses are examined for the
detection of color blindness. He also passes upon the medical certificates
of claimants for pensions under the laws of the life-saving service, and
frames regulations for the prevention of contagious diseases. He is also
charged with the conduct of the quarantine service, and has the direction
of laboratories for the investigation of the causes of contagious diseases.
Connected with this office is tlie Hygienic Laboratory.
Coast and Geodetic Survey. — Henry S. Pritchett., Superintendent.
Charged with the survey of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts of the
United States, including the coasts of Alaska ; the survey of rivers ; deep-
sea soundings ; magnetic observations and gravity research, and all matters
which naturally come under an office of survey.
Bureau of Immigration. — T. V. Poicderly, Commissioner-General.
Prepares and revises all regulations pertaining to immigration ; supervises
the expenditures for the same and the enforcement of the alien contract
laws ; collects and compiles all statistics relating to immigration, a duty
which was formerly performed by the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury
Department.
Bureau, of Statistics. — Oscar P. Austin., Chief. Collects and publishes
the statistics of foreign commerce, with tables showing imports and
exports, and all data relating to foreign trade ; also publishes an Annual
Report on Commerce and Navigation, an Annual Statistical Abstract, and
Monthly Reports on Commerce and Finance.
Bureau of Engraving and Printing. — Claude M. Johnson., Director.
Designs, engraves, prints, and finishes all the securities and other similar
work of the Government, so far as they are printed from steel plates,
including notes, bonds, certificates, national-bank notes, internal revenue,
postage, and customs stamps. Treasury drafts and checks, licenses, com-
missions, patent and pension certificates, and such portraits as may be
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT ix
authorized by Congress of deceased members thereof and other public
officers.
National Bank Itedemption Agency. — Thomas E. Bogers, Superin-
tendent. KecL'ives and makes expert examination of all burned and badly
mutilated currency, except national-bank notes, presented for redemption.
3. /Secretary of War. — Russell A. Alger, of Michigan, born in Ohio,
Feb. 27, 188() ; colonel of Fifth Michigan ( 'avalry during the Civil War,
and brevetted brigadier-general and major-general for gallant services ;
Governor of Michigan 1885-80 ; appointed Secretary of War March 5,
1807.
The Secretary of War performs all duties relating to the military ser-
vice ; he has supervision of the United States Military Academy at West
Point, of the national cemeteries, and of all matters relating to river and
harbor improvements, the prevention of obstruction to navigation, and
the establishment of harbor lines.
The military bureaus of the War Department constitute a part of the
military establishment, and have officers of the regular army at their
head, while the Secretary and his immediate assistants are civilians as a
rule.
Assistant Secretary of War. — George D. Afeiklejohn. Performs such
duties as are prescribed by the Secretary or as may be required by law.
Chief Clerk. — John C. ScofieJd. Has charge of official mail and corre-
spondence, and performs duties enjoined by law or assigned him by
Secretary.
Disbursing Clerk. — William S. Yeatman. Pays salaries of clerks and
employees.
The divisions immediately connected with the Secretary's office are
those of Correspondence, Requisition and Accounts, Supply, Record,
and Appointment.
The headquarters of the army, Maj. Gen. Nelson A. Miles, command-
ing, are attached to the War Department.
Adjutant- General. — Brig. Gen. Henry C. Corbin. Promulgates all
orders of a military character of the President, Secretary of AVar, and
the Commanding General of the army ; receives reports and returns per-
taining to army ; and prepares commissions, appointments, and accept-
ances of resignations for issuance.
Inspector-General. — Maj. Gen. Joseph C. Breckinridge. Inspects all
military commands and stations, the schools of application, the military
department of all colleges and schools at which officers of the army are
detailed, all depots, rendezvous, armories, arsenals, fortifications, and
public works of all kinds, so far as they are carried on by officers of
the array.
Judge- Advocate-General. — Brig. Gen. G. N. Lieber. Receives, re-
views, and causes to be recorded the proceedings of all courts-martial,
courts of inquiry, and military commissions; reports upon applications
for clemency in cases of military prisoners, and examines, revises, and
drafts charges and specifications against officers and soldiers.
Quartermaster-General. — Brig. Gen. M. I. Ludington. Provides trans-
portation, clothing, equipage, horses, mules, wagons, vessels, forage, sta-
tionery, and all stores and property for the army, and all clothing and
equipage for the militia ; constructs necessary buildings, wharves, roads,
and bridges at military posts.
Commissary-General of Subsistence. — Col. John F. Weston (acting).
Has administrative control of the subsistence department.
X UNITED STATES
Surgeon-General. — Brig. Gen. George M. Sternberg. Has immediate
direction, under the Secretary, of the administrative duties of the medical
department ; designates stations of medical officers and issues all orders
and instructions relating to their professional duties ; also directs the
selection, purchase, and distribution of medical supplies of army. The
Army Medical Museum is also under his direct control.
Paymaster- General. — Brig. Gen. T. H, Stanton. Is charged with the
payment of the officers and enlisted men of the army.
Chief of Engineers. — Brig. Gen. John M. Wilson. Commands the
Corps of Engineers, and is charged with all duties relating to construction
and repair of fortifications, works of defence, military roads and bridges,
and such surveys as may be required. He is also charged with river and
harbor improvements and with military and geographical explorations
and surveys.
Chief of Ordnance. — Brig. Gen. D. W. Flagler. Commands the ord-
nance department ; his duties consist in providing, preserving, distribut-
ing, and accounting for every description of artillery, small arms, and all
the munitions of war.
Chief Signal Officer. — Brig. Gen. A. W. Greely. Has supervision of
all military signal duties, including telegraph and telephone apparatus ;
the use of meteorological instruments ; the construction and repair and
operation of military telegraph lines.
Becord and Pension Office. — Brig. Gen. F. C. Ainswoi'th, Chief. Has the
custody of the military and hospital records of the volunteer armies and
the transaction of the pension and other business of the War Department
connected therewith. He answers calls from the Commissioner of Pen-
sions, the accounting officers of the Treasury, and others for information
required for the adjudication of claims.
Also connected with the War Department are the Office of Publication
of Records of the Rebellion, Brig. Gen. F. C.Ainsworth, Chairman of the
Board ; Office of Public Buildings and Grounds and Washington Monu-
ment, Col. Theodore A. Bingham in charge, and the Office of Washington
Aqueduct, Lieut. Col. Alexander M. 3Iiller in charge. The duties of
these officers are sufficiently indicated by the desighation of the office.
The composition of the army, pay of officers, etc., will be found under
the title "Army."
Colonial Commission. — Gen. Robert P. Kennedy., of Ohio; George
M. Curtis., of Iowa ; and George W. Watkins, of Michigan. The duty
of this commission is to aid the Secretary of War in the administration of
insular affairs. It will deal with the bestowal of franchises and con-
cessions, the distribution of moneys to be spent in public improvements,
and all the various issues that have arisen or are likely to arise in Cuba,
Porto Rico, and the Philippines. The commission is to act entirely
within the powers conferred by the Secretary of War, and his sanction is
necessary to give effect to any line of action proposed by the conmiission.
It is practically a new bureau in the War Department.
4. Department of Justice. — John William Griggs, Attorney-General,
born in New Jersey July 10, 1849 ; admitted to bar in 1871 ; member of
New Jersey General Assembly 187G-77 ; State senator 1882-88 ; inaugu-
rated Governor of New Jersey January, 1890 ; resigned to take appoint-
ment as Attorney-General, Jan, 31, 1898.
The Attorney-General represents the United States in matters involving
legal questions, and gives advice and opinion, when so required by the
President or by the heads of the Executive Departments, on questions of
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT Xi
law arising in the administration of their respective offices ; he exercises
a general superintendence and direction over United States attorneys and
marshals in all judicial districts in the States and Territories, and pro-
vides special counsel for the United States whenever required by any
department of the Government.
Solicitor-General. — John K. liichards.
Assistant Attorneys-General. — James Edmmid Boyd., John G. Thomp-
son., Louis A. Pradt., Henry M. Hoyt, Willis Van Devanter (for Depart-
ment of the Interior), and James N. Tyner (for Tost Office Department).
Solicitor of Internal lievenue (Treasury Department). — George M.
'jyiomas.
Solicitor for Department of State. — AVilliam L. Penfield.
Solicitor of the Treasury. — Maurice D. 0'' Council .
Chief Clerk. — Cecil Clay.
Disbursing Clerk. — Henry Bechtin.
The Solicitor- General and the Assistant Attorneys-General assist the
Attorney-General, anct those assigned to the different Departments, as
designated above, act with especial reference to those Departments.
The Solicitor of the Treasury, although attached to the Department of
Justice, takes cognizance of all frauds or attempted frauds on the customs
revenue.
5. Postmaster-General. — Charles Emory Smith, of Pennsylvania, born
in Connecticut in 1842 ; Minister to Russia in 1890 ; has been editor of
the Albany Express, Albany Evening Journal, and Philadelphia Press ;
appointed Postmaster-General April 21, 1898.
The Postmaster-General has the direction and management of the gen-
eral postal business of the Government ; he appoints officers and employees
of the Department, except the four Assistant Postmasters-General, who
are appointed by the I'resident, by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate ; appoints all postmasters whose compensation does not exceed
31000 ; makes postal treaties with foreign governments, by and with the
advice and consent of the President, and directs the management of the
domestic and foreign mail service.
First Assistant Postmaster-General. — Perry S. Heath. Has charge
of the Divisions of Salary and Allowance, Free Delivery, Post-Oflfice Sup-
plies, Money-Order, Correspondence, and Dead-Letter Office.
Second Assistant Postmaster-General. — W. S. Shallenberger. Has
charge of the transportation of mails ; his office embraces four divisions
— Inspection, Railway Adjustment, Mail Equipment, contract — and the
Office of Railway Mail Service and the Office of Foreign Mails.
Third Assistant Postmaster-General. — John A. Merritt. Has charge
of the finances of the Department, working under live divisions — Finance,
Postage Stamps and Stamped Envelopes, Registered Letters, Mail Classi-
fication, and Files, Mails, etc.
Fourth Assistant Postmaster-General. — Joseph L. Bristow. Duties
comprehend the Divisions of Appointments, Bonds and Commissions, and
Post-Office Inspectors and Mail Depredations.
Chief Clerk. — Blain W. Taylor. Has general supervision of clerks
and employees and of business of the Department.
Disbursing Clerk. — Rufus B. Merchant. Pays salaries of clerks and
employees and settles accounts against Department.
6. Secretary of the Kavy. — John Davis Long, of Massachusetts, born
in Maine Oct. 27, 1838 ; lawyer by profession ; member of Massachusetts
legislature, 1875-78 ; Speaker Massachusetts House of Representatives,
xii UNITED STATES
1876-78 ; Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts, 1879, and Governor from
1880 to 1882 ; member of U. S. House of Representatives, Forty-eighth,
Forty-ninth, and Fiftieth Congresses ; appointed Secretary of the Navy
March 5, 1897.
The Secretary of the Navy has the general superintendence of con-
struction, manning, armament, equipment, and employment of vessels of
war. The Secretary, Assistant Secretary, and the attaches of what is
known as the Secretary's office are civilians, while the heads of all bureaus
are navy officers.
Assistant Secretary. — Charles H. Allen. Performs such duties as the
Secretary may assign to him or as may be required by law.
Chief Clerk. — B. F. Peters. Has general charge of the records and
correspondence of the Secretary's office.
Disbursing Clerk. — F. H. Stickney. Pays salaries of clerks and em-
ployees and settles accounts against the Department.
Bureau of Ordnance. — Commander Charles ,0'i\^6'27. Chief. Looks
after the manufacture or purchase of offensive and defensive arms and
apparatus, ammunition, war explosives, vessels for submarine torpedo
service, magazines on shore, and all machinery, apparatus, equipment,
and things for use with the above.
Bureau of Equipment. — Commander R. B. Bradford., Chief. Duties
relate to the general equipment of all vessels.
Bureau of Navigation. — Capt. A. S. Crotoninshield., Chief. Duties
relate to tlie promulgation, record, and* enforcement of the Secretary's
orders to fleets and to the officers of the navy, except such orders as per-
tain to the immediate office of the Secretary ; has charge of the education
of officers and men, including the Naval Academy and technical schools
(except the War College and Torpedo School), the apprentice establish-
ment, and the schools for the technical education of enlisted men ; the
enlistment and discharge of all enlisted persons ; controls all rendezvous
and receiving ships, and provides transportation.
Bureau of Yards and Docks. — Civil Engineer Modecai T. Endicott,
Chief. Is charged with the planning, construction, and maintenance of
all docks, wharves, slips, piers, etc., and buildings of all kinds for what-
ever purposes needed by the navy.
Bureau of Supplies and Accounts. — Paymaster-General Edwin Ste^v-
art. Chief. Supplies the navy with provisions, clothing, small stores, etc.
Bureau of Steam Engineering. — Engineer-in-Chief George W. Mel-
ville, Chief. Duties relate to the designing, building, fitting out, repair-
ing, and engineering of the steam machinery used for the propulsion of
naval vessels.
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. — Surg. Gen. W. K. Van lieypen,
Chief. Supervises laboratories, naval hospitals, and dispensaries, and
furni-shes all supplies, medicines, and instruments required for the medical
department of the navy.
Bureau of Construction and Bepair. — Chief Constructor Philip Hich-
horn, Chief.' Duties relate to the designing, building, fitting, and repair-
ing the hulls of vessels and their equipment ; has control of all vessels
building and under repair.
Jiidge Advocate-General. —Capt. Samuel C. Lemly.
Office of yautical Almanac. — Prof. William H<trkness, Director.
Naval War Records Office and Library. — Prof. E. K. Bawson,
Superintendent.
Board of Inspection and Survey. — Capt. Frederick Eodgers, President.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT xiii
Navy-Yard and Station, Washington, D.C. — Capt. A. II. McCormick,
Commandant.
Naval Observatory. — Capt. Charles H. Davis, Superintendent.
Marine Corps. — Col. Charles Hey wood, Commandant.
Attached to the navy, and having their offices located in Washington,
are the Navy Pay Office, Hydrographic Office, Naval Hospital, Museum of
Hygiene, Naval Dispensary, Naval Examining Board, Naval Retiring
Board, Board of Medical Examiners. The duties of these offices and of
those not specifically stated above are sufficiently indicated by their
titles.
The composition of the navy, pay of officers, list of war-vessels, etc.,
will be found under the title " Navy."
7. Secretary of the Interior. — Ethan Allen Hitchcock, of Missouri,
born in Alabama, 18o5 ; was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary at St. Petersburg by President McKinley, which
position he resigned to accept appointment as Secretary of the Interior ;
appointed February 20, 1899.
The duties of the Secretary of the Interior are varied ; he is charged
with the supervision of the public business relating to patents, pensions,
public lands, and surveys, Indians, education, railroads, the Geological
Survey, the census, Indian reservations, the Territories, the various public
parks, and certain hospitals and eleemosynary institutions in the District
of Columbia.
First Assistajit Secretary. — Thomas Ttyan.
Assistant Secretary. — AVebster Davis.
The Assistant Secretaries are assigned such duties as the Secretary may
direct.
Chief Clerk. — Edward M. Dawson. Has general supervision of clerks
and employees, and of business, records, and correspondence of Secre-
tary's office ; also superintendence of buildings occupied by the Depart-
ment.
Disbursing Division. — George W. Evans, Chief. Pays salaries of
clerks and employees, and settles accounts against the Department and
the bureaus under it, with the exception of the Geological Survey, which
has its own disbursing officer ; also settles accounts, and pays salaries of
office of Supervising Architect of Capitol.
Attached to the immediate office of the Secretary are the First
Assistant Attorney and the Chiefs of the Divisions of Appointment,
Lands and Railroads, Indians, Patents and Miscellaneous, Stationery and
Printing, Document, and, until a Census Office is established by law, the
Census ; also the Board of Pension Appeals.
General Land Office. — Binger Hermann, Commissioner. Has charge
of the survey, management, and sale of the public domain, and the
issuing of titles therefor.
Patent Office. — Charles H. Duell, Commissioner. Is charged with
the administration of the patent laws.
Bureau of Pensions. — H. Clay Evans, Commissioner. Examines and
adjudicates all claims arising under the laws passed by Congress granting
bounty lands or pensions on account of service in the army or navy.
Office of Indian Affairs. — William A. Jones, Commissioner. Has
charge of the several tribes of Indians in the States and Territories ; also
superintends the Indian schools.
Bureau of Education. — William T. Harris, Commissioner. Collects
such statistics and facts as are necessary to show the condition and
xiv UNITED STATES
progress of education in the several States and Territories, and publislies
such information as may be required.
Commissioner of Railroads. — James Lonystreet. Charged with the
duty of prescribing a system of reports to be rendered by the railroads
that have subsidies granted them by the Congress, and makes annual
report to the Secretary of the Interior of the condition of said roads.
Geological Survey. — Charles D. Walcott., Director. Has charge of
the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological
structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain, and of
the survey of forest reserves.
Census Office. — William R. Merricnn, Director; F. H. Wines^ Assist-
ant Director. In accordance with provisions of the Constitution a
census of the population is taken every ten years, and for the last few
decades the enumeration has also comprehended production and many
other features relating to the business of the country. Since 1850 the
census has been conducted under the general supervision of the Secretary
of the Interior. It is an office created just prior to the enumeration, and
When the work is performed the office is abolished.
8. Secretary of AgriciiUure. — James Wilson of Iowa, born in Scot-
land Aug. 16, 1835 ; elected to Congress in 1872, and served in the
Forty-third, Forty-fourth, and Forty-eighth Congresses ; for six years
was director of the agriculture experiment station and professor of
agriculture at the Iowa Agricultural College ; was appointed Secretary of
Agriculture March 5, 1897.
The Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the supervision of all
public business relating to the agricultural industry, and he exercises
advisory supervision over the agricultural experiment stations deriving
support from the National Treasury ; he also has control of the quaran-
tine stations for imported cattle, and of interstate quarantine when
rendered necessary by contagious cattle diseases.
Assistant Secretary. — Joseph H. Brigham. Performs such duties as
may be required by law or prescribed by Secretary.
Chief Clerk. — Andrew GecMes. Has general supervision of clerks and
employees and of business and correspondence of Secretary's office.
Disbursing Clerk. — Frank L. Evans. Pays salaries of clerks and
employees and settles accounts against Department.
Weather Bureau. — AVillis L. Moore, Chief. Has charge of the fore-
casting of weather, the issue of storm warnings, the reporting of tempera-
ture and rainfall, and all matters relating to meteorological conditions
and observations.
Bureau of Animal Industry. — D. E. Salmon, Chief. Makes investi-
gations as to the existence of contagious diseases of live stock, and
superintends measures for their extirpation, etc. ; also has charge of the
inspection of import and export annuals and the inspection of vessels for
the transportation of the same.
Division of Statistics. — John Hyde, Statistician.
Division of Chemistry. — Harvey W. Wiley, Chemist.
Office of Experiment Stations. — A. C. True, Director.
Division of Entomology. — L. O. Howard, Entomologist.
Biological Survey. — C. Hart Merriam, Cliief.
Division of Forestry. — Gifford Pinchot, Cliief.
Division of Botany. — Frederick V. Coville, Botanist.
Division of Agrostology. ■ — F. Lamson-Scrihner, Chief.
Division of Pomology. — Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT XV
Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. — B. T. Galloway,
Chief.
Division of Soils. — Milton Whitney, Chief.
Division of Seeds. — Robert J. Whittleton, Chief.
Office of Fuhlie-Iioad Inquiries. — Roy Stone, Director.
Division of Accounts. — Frank W. Evans, Chief.
Division of Publications. — George William Hill, Chief.
The duties of the divisions above enumerated are sufficiently indicated
by the titles.
Bureaus and Offices not attached to the Executive Departments
There are various offices having executive and administrative duties the
heads of which report either directly to the President or to Congress, but
^Yhich are not in any way attached to any of the great Executive Depart-
ments enumerated above, nor are they responsible to the heads thereof.
The Assistant Secretaries of the great Departments and the heads of
bureaus are appointed by the President, on confirmation by the Senate ;
so the commissioners in what may be termed the unattached offices are,
as a rule, appointed in like manner. These offices, with their respective
heads, are as follows :
Department of Labor. — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner. Is directed
to acquire and diffuse useful information on subjects connected with labor,
especially upon its relations to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings
of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material,
social, intellectual, and moral prosperity ; publishes an annual report,
and may publish special reports whenever deemed expedient, and under
autliority of law publishes a bimonthly bulletin giving information as to
the condition of labor in this and other countries, condensations of State
and foreign labor reports, and such other facts as may be deemed of value
to the industrial interests of the United States. He is also charged with
certain duties under the arbitration act of June 1, 1898, as stated under
" Interstate Commerce Commission."
Chief Clerk. — Oren W. Weaver. Has general supervision of clerks
and employees and of business of Department.
Disbursing Clerk. — Charles E. Morse. Pays salaries of clerks and
employees and settles accounts against Department.
Interstate Commerce Commission. — Martin A. Knapp, oi New York,
Chairman ; Judson C. Clements, of Georgia ; James D. Yeomans, of
Iowa ; Charles A. Prouty, of Vermont ; and AVilliam J. Calhoun, of
Illinois. Commission was appointed under "An act to regulate com-
merce," approved Feb. 4, 1887, and has authority to inquire into the
management of the business of all common carriers who are subject to
the provisions of that act. It has jurisdiction to inquire into and report
upon the reasonableness of rates on interstate traffic, to decide questions
of unjust discrimination and of undue preference, to prescribe the pub-
licity to be given to joint tariffs, and to institute and carry on proceedings
for the enforcement of the provisions of the law. It publishes statistics
of railroads, accidents, etc. The Chairman of the commission, in associa-
tion with the Commissioner of Labor, is directed by the act of June 1,
1808, concerning carriers engaged in interstate commerce and their em-
ployees, known as the "Arbitration Act," to use his best. efforts, by
mediation and conciliation, to settle controversies between railway com-
panies and their employees, and in case of disagreement in arbitration, to
select a third arbitrator.
xvi UNITED STATES
Secretai'y. — Edward A. Moseley. Has general supervision of the clerks
and employees and business of the commission.
Civil Service Commission. — John R. Froctor, President; John B.
Harlow^ Mark S. Brewer.
Chief Examiner. — A. R. Serven.
Secretary. — John T. Doyle.
Tliis commission was establislied by law approved Jan. 16, 1883, being
an act "to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States."
The duties of the commission are to conduct competitive examinations,
certify appointments when called for by officers having the power of
appointment, and in general to execute the laws relating to the civil ser-
vice and the rules established thereunder. The Chief Examiner has
charge of the construction of examination papers and the conduct of
examinations, while the Secretary performs the duties of a chief clerk.
Government Printing Office. — F. W. Palmer, Public Printer. Has
charge of all business relating to the public printing and binding.
Chief Clerk. — W. H. Collins. Has general supervision of the clerks
and clerical business of the office ; conducts correspondence relating to
public business, and performs such other duties as may be assigned to
him by the head of the office.
Connected with the office are the Foreman of Printing, Foreman of
Binding, Superintendent of Documents, and Foreman in charge of Con-
gressional Records. Tiie duties of these officers are sufficiently indicated
by their titles, except those of the Superintendent of Documents, who
has general supervision of all public documents other than those
printed for the use of the two houses of Congress and the several
Departments.
Commission of Fish and Fisheries. — George M. Bowers., Commissioner.
Chief Clerk. — I. H. Dunlap.
Disbursing Agent. — W. P. Titcomb.
The Commissioner is required to be a person of scientific and practical
acquaintance with the fish and fisheries of the sea, coast, and inland
waters. His work covers the propagation of useful food fishes ; the in-
quiry into the causes of decrease of food fishes in the lakes, rivers, etc.,
and the collection and compilation of statistics of the fislieries, and the
study of their methods and relations. In the prosecution of its work tlie
Commission has 30 stations in different parts of the countr}-, 4 fish-dis-
tributing cars, 2 steam vessels, and 1 sailing vessel.
Board on Geographic Names. — Henry Gannett., Chairman, with eight
associates.
Secretary. — Marcus Baker.
This board was organized to secure uniform usage in regard to geo-
graphic nomenclature and orthography, particularly upon tlie maps and
charts issued by the various Departments and Bureaus, and its decisions
are to be accepted as standard authority in such matters.
Bureaii of American Bepublics. — Russell Hastings, Director.
Secretary. — Horacio Guzman.
Chief CVerA;. —Williams C. Fox.
This bureau was established to secure the prompt collection and distri-
bution of commercial information concerning tlie different American Re-
publics, and is supported by contributi(Uis from them in proportion to their
population. It publishes translations of the tariffs of the countries of
Latin America; hand-books of the different countries ; a monthly bulletin
containing the latest information respecting resources, commerce, and
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT xvii
general features ; and The Commercial Directory of the American Re-
publics, an international publication.
Smithsonian Institution. — Presiding Officer ex-officio, William McKin-
ley, President of the United States.
ChanceUor. — Melville AV. Fuller, Chief Justice of the United States.
Secretary. — S. P. Langley.
Assistant Secretary. — Richard Rathhun.
The members of the Institution are the President, Vice-President,
Chief Justice, and the members of the President's Cabinet. The regents
of the Institution are the Chief Justice, the Vice-President, and such mem-
bers of the Senate and House of Representatives and distinguished citi-
zens as Congress may designate.
The objects of the Institution are to increase knowledge by original in-
vestigations and study, either in science or literature, and to acquire and
disseminate information of a scientific and general character.
Connected with the Smithsonian Institution are the following-uamed
offices :
National Museum. — Keeper ex-officio, S. P. Langley.
Assistant Secretary in Charge. — liiohaxd Eathbun.
Executive Curator. — F. W. True.
Chief Clerk. — William V. Cox.
Disbursing Clerk. — W. W. Karr.
The National Museum collects and preserves specimens relating to the
development of the country, races, production, and, in fact, every line
that may serve to illustrate scientific discovery. It is the only lawful
place of deposit in Washington of all objects of art and of foreign and
curious research, and all objects of natural history, plants, and geological
and mineral specimens belonging to the United States.
Bureau of American Ethnology. — Director, John W. Powell.
Ethnologist in Charge. — W. J. McGee.
Chief Clerk.— ¥. W. Hodge.
The object of this bureau is the investigation of the languages, habits,
customs, and classification of the North American Indians.
Bureau of International Exchanges. — Assistant Secretary in Charge,
Richard Rathbun.
Chief Clerk. — W. I. Adams.
National Zoological Park. — Superintendent, Frank Baker.
Astrophysical Observatory. — Director, S. P. Langley.
Intercontinental Railway Commission. — A. J. Cassatt, President,
Henry G. Davis, and R. C. Kerens, for the United States.
Secretary and Engineer. — E. Z. Steever.
Executive and Disbur.^ing Officer. — R. M. G. Brown.
The duty of this commission is to make an examination of the possible
routes and the preparation of reports on their length, cost, and advan-
tages, together with the conduct of proper surveys for an intercontinental
railway to connect the United States and the other Republics of the
American continent.
Industrial Commis.'tion. — Senator James IT. Kyle, Chairman, of South
Dakota ; Senator lioivs Penrose, of Pennsylvania ; Senator Lee Mantle,
of Montana; Senator S. R. Malloiy, of Florida ; Senator John W. Daniel,
of Virginia; Representative John J. d'ardner, of New Jersey; liepre-
sentative William Lorimer, of Illinois; Representative L. F. Livingston,
of Georgia ; Representative John C. Bell, of Colorado ; Representative
Theoboid Otjen., of Wisconsin ; Mr. A. L. Harris, of Ohio ; Mr. S. N. D.
xviii UNITED STATES
North, of Massachusetts ; Mr. Ellison A. Smyths of South Carolina ; Mr.
John M. Farquhar^ of New York ; Mr. E. D. Conger, of Michigan ; Mr.
Thomas W. Phillips^ of Newcastle, Pa. ; Mr. Charles J. Harris, of North
Carolina ; Mr. M. D. Ratchford, of Ohio ; and Mr. John L. Kennedy, of
Washington, D.C.
Secretary. — William E. Sackett.
Chief Clerk and Disbursing Agent. — P. H. Donnelly.
The sub-commissions are as follows :
Agricultnre. — A. L. Harris, Chairman.
Manufacturing. — Ellison A. Smyth, Chairman.
Mining. — John W. Daniel, Chairman.
Transportation. — Thomas W. Phillips, Chairman.
Statistics. — S. N. D. North, Chairman.
This commission was established by act of Congress approved June 18,
1898. It is composed of nineteen members — five Senators appointed by
the President of the Senate, five Eepresentatives appointed by the Speaker
of the House, and nine civilians appointed by the President of the United
States. The duties of the commission are to investigate questions per-
taining to immigration, labor, agriculture, manufacturing, and general
business, and to report to Congress and suggest such legislation as deemed
best upon these subjects. It shall also furnish such information and
suggest such laws as may be made a basis for uniform legislation by the
various States.
Beciprocity Commission. —John A. Kasson, Commissioner Plenipo-
tentiary to Negotiate Reciprocity Treaties.
This commission was established by the President under what is known
as the Dingley tariff act of July 24, 1897, its duty being to assist the
President in preparing treaties for the purpose of equalizing the trade of
the United States with foreign countries and their colonies producing and
exporting to the United States certain articles.
Nicaragua Canal Commission. —John G. Walker, L. M. Haupt, and
Peter C. Hains.
This commission was appointed to investigate the feasibility and cost of
the Nicaragua canal.
Hawaiian Commission. —^\\Q\hy M. Cullom, Chairman, of Illinois;
John T. Morgan, of Alabama ; Robert T. Hitt, of Illinois ; Sanford 15.
Dole, of Honolulu, II. I.; and Walter F. Frear, of Honolulu, II.I.
Secretary. — Henry L. Hayes.
Executive and Disbursing Officer. —Daniel A. Ray.
This commission was appointed July 13, 1898, in accordance with reso-
lution approved July 7, 1898, for the purpose of constructing a suitable
government for the Hawaiian Islands, which had been declared as a part
of the United States. The action of the commission was reported to the
Congress in December, 1898.
United States and Brilish Joint High Co?nmm?on. —Commissioners
on the part of the United States: Charles W. Fairbanks, of Indiana;
Charles J. Faulkner, of West Virginia; Nelson Dingley,'^ of Maine;
John W. Foster, of Indiana ; John A. Kasson, of Iowa ; T. Jefferson
Coolidqe, of Mass. Commissioners on part of Great Britain : Right Hon.
Lord JlerscheU;^ Right Hon. Sir Wilfrid Lanrier, (J. C. M. G. ; Hon. Sir
Richard J. Cartwright, G. C. M. G. ; Hon. Sir Louis G. Davics, K. C. M. G. ;
Mr. John Charlton, M. P. ; Hon. Sir James S. Winter, K. C. M. G.
1 Died J.'in. 18, 1S!»9 ; Sereno D. Payne, of New York, appointed in his place.
2 Died March 1, 1899 ; Baron Kussell, of Killowen, Lord Chief Justice of England, ap-
pointed In his place.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT xix
Joint Secretaries. — Chandler P. Anderson, United States ; W.
Chauncey Cartwright, United States; Henri Bonrassa^ M.P., Canada.
The duty of this connnission is to arrange a treaty of reciprocity wliich
shall adjust the coniniercial affairs, in some respects, of the United States
and Canada. The results of the deliberations of the com mission are not
yet made public.
United jStates Peace Commission. — AVilliam R. Daij, of Ohio ; Cushman
K. Davis, of Minnesota ; William T. Fri/e, of Maine ; George R. Gray, of
Delaware ; Whitelaw lieid, of New York.
Secretary and Counsel. — John B. Moore.
Assistant Secretary. — John K. MacArthur.
This commission was appointed by the President to act with a com-
mission of like numbers on the part of Spain, for the arrangement of a
treaty of peace between Spain and the United States, and a treaty was
signed at Paris Dec. 10, 1898, and was ratified by the Senate, Feb. 6,
1899.
Commission to Paris Exposition of 1900. — Ferdinand AV, Peck, of
Illinois, Commissioner ; Benjamin Duryea Woodward, of New York,
Assistant Commissioner.
Secretary. — Maj. Frederick Brackett.
The duties of the commission are to represent the United States at the
exposition to be held in Paris in 1900, to secure exhibits of the industries,
the arts, education, science, etc., etc., of the United States, and to conduct
all the business which may be necessary to secure proper representation
of the country at the exposition.
Commission appointed by President to Investigate the Conduct of the
War Department in the War with Spain. — Gen. Grenville M. Dodge,
President, of Iowa ; Col. James A. Sexton,^ of Illinois ; Col. Charles
Denby, of Indiana ; Capt. Evan P. Howell, of Georgia ; Ex. -Gov. Urban
A. Woodbury, of Vermont ; Brig. Gen. John M. Wilson, Chief of En-
gineers, U. vS.A. ; Gen. James A. Beaver, of Pennsylvania; Maj. Gen.
Alexander McD. McCook, U. S. A. ; Dr. Phineas S. Conner, of Ohio.
Secretary. — Richard Weightman.
Disbursing Officer. — Lieut. Col. F. B. Jones.
Commission on Industrial and Commercial Conditions of Cuba and
Porto Pico. — Robert P. Pointer, of New York, and II. K. Carroll, of
New Jersey.
This commission was appointed by the President for the purpose of
studying the industrial and commercial conditions in Cuba and Porto
Rico, with a view to establishing proper rates of tariff. The results of
their inquiries have enabled the administration to promulgate customs
duties.
Philippine Commission. — J. G. Schurman, of New York ; Charles
Drnby, of Indiana ; Dean C. Woi'cester, of Michigan ; Maj. Gen. E. S.
Otis, and Admiral George Dewey.
Secretary.— FjdwAYd W. Harden, of Illinois.
This commission has been appointed by the President to study the
political and industrial conditions of the Pliilippine Islands, and for that
purpose the members have temporarily taken up their residence at Ma-
nila.
The foregoing completes the enumeratiou of the general offices con-
nected with the Federal Government, either directly or indirectly, located
» Died Feb. 5, 1S99.
XX UNITED STATES
in the city of Washington, or that can be described as representing the
Government in any executive or semi-executive capacity.
Official Correspondence; Documents
There are no titles known under the laws of the United States as at-
taching to any of the Federal officers. Custom, however, has established
certain rules which it is well to follow. The President should be addressed
"The President," but no communication should be sent to him unless
absolutely essential. All correspondence relating to the different Depart-
ments should be addressed to the heads thereof ; as, for instance, " Secre-
tary of War, Washington, D.C. Sir : " The Vice-President is addressed
simply as "The Vice-President," but when in his capacity as President
of the Senate, the form should be "To the President of the Senate." The
Speaker of the House of Representatives should be addressed simply as
" Speaker of the House of liepresentatives." It is not essential to use
names, it being customary to address the office rather than the individual
holding it. In addressing the purely military or naval bureaus of the War
and Navy Departments, the heads of bureaus should be addressed by
their names, using specific titles; as, for instance, "Brig. Gen. Henry C.
Corbin, Adjutant-General, U. S. A., Washington, D.C. Sir:"
In making applications for documents, requests should be sent to the
head of the particular Department or Bureau issuing them. Each De-
partment distributes only its own reports, although members of the Senate
and House can usually supply current reports of all Departments. Some
of the documents of the Departments and Bureaus, like the decisions of
the Department of the Interior, and the charts, bulletins, and monographs
of the Hydrographic Office, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the Geo-
logical Survey, are not furnished gratuitously, but are sold. A complete
list of Government publications, with the prices of those which are sold,
can be had by application to the Superintendent of Documents, Govern-
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C, and many public documents, the
general editions of which have been exhausted, can be obtained by pur-
chase from him, but he is not permitted to sell more than one copy of any
public document to the same person. When writing to any Department
about publications, it is not necessary to inclose stamp to secure reply.
Bules Governing Applications for Passports
The following rules are prescribed for applications for passports :
1. To citizens- only. — The law forbids the granting of a passport to
any person who is not a citizen of the United States. — Revised Statntes,
sec. 4076.
2. Who are citizens. — All persons born in the United States and sub-
ject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States.
So are all children born out of the limits and jurisdiction of the United
States whose fathers were at tlie time of their birth citizens thereof.
An alien woman, with certain exceptions, who marries a citizen of the
United States acc^uires his citizenship.
An alien, having complied with the requirements of law, may become
a citizen by naturalization before a court having competent juristliction.
Minor ciiildren, resident in the United States, become citizens by
naturalization of their father.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT xxi
The widow and minor children of an alien who dies after he has de-
clared his intention of becoming a citizen of the United States and before
he has secured naturalization are considered as citizens of the United
States upon taking the oaths prescribed by law.
8. Who may issue j^assports. — Under the law passports can be issued
in the United States only by the Secretary of State. In a foreign country
they may be issued by the chief diplomatic representative of the United
States ; or, in the absence of a diplomatic representative, by a consul-
general ; or, in the absence of both, by a consul. — lievised Statutes^ sees.
4075, 4078.
4. Applications. — A citizen of the United States desiriug to procure
a passport nuist make a written application, in the form of an affidavit,
to the Secretary of State.
If he is temporarily abroad, he must apply to the nearest diplomatic
representative of the United States ; or, in the absence of a diplomatic
representative, to the highest consular officer of the United States. The
necessary affidavit may be made before a consular officer of the United
States.
In this country the affidavit nmst be attested by an officer duly author-
ized to administer oaths. If he has no seal, his official character must be
authenticated by certificate of the proper legal officer.
If the applicant signs by mark, two attesting witnesses to his signa-
ture are required.
Every applicant is required to state the date and place of his birth, his
occupation, and the place of his permanent residence, and to declare that
he goes abroad for temporary sojourn and intends to return to the United
States with the purpose of residing and performing the duties of citizen-
ship therein.
Every applicant must take the oath of allegiance to the Government
of the United States.
Every application must be accompanied by a description of the person
applying, stating the following particulars, viz. : Age, years ; stat-
ure, — '- — feet inches (English measure) ; forehead, ; eyes,
; nose, ; mouth, ; chin, ; hair, ; com-
plexion, ; face.
Every application must be accompanied by a certificate from at least
one credible witness that the applicant is the person he represents him-
self to be, and that the facts stated in the affidavit are true to the best of
the witness's knowledge and belief.
5. Native citizens. —The application containing the information indi-
cated by rule 4 will be sufficient evidence in the case of native citizens.
6. A person horn abroad xohose father vms a native citizen of the United
States. — In addition to the statements required by rule 4, his application
must show that his father was born in the United States, has resided
therein, and was a citizen at the time of the applicant's birth. The De-
partment may recpiire that this affidavit be supported by that of one other
citizen acquainted with the facts.
7. Xaturalized citizens.— In addition to the statements required by
rule 4, a naturalized citizen must transmit his certificate of naturalization,
or a duly certified copy of the court record thereof, with his application.
It will be returned to him after inspection. He must state in his affidavit
when and from what part he emigrated to this country, what ship he
sailed in, where he has lived since his arrival in the United States, when
and before what court he was naturalized, and that he is the identical
xxii UNITED STATES
person described in tlie certificate of naturalization. The signature to the
application should conform in orthography to the applicant's name as
written in the naturalization paper, which the Department follows.
8. The xoife or loidoio of a naturalized citizen. — In addition to the
statements required by rule 4, she must transmit for inspection her hus-
band's naturalization certificate, must state that she is the wife or widow
of the person described therein, and must set forth the facts of his emi-
gration, naturalization, and residence, as required in the rule governing
the application of a naturalized citizen.
9. The child of a naturalized citizen claiming citizenship through the
naturalization of the father. — In addition to the statements required by
rule 4, the applicant inust state that he or she is the son or daughter, as
the case may be, of the person described in the naturalization certificate,
which must be submitted for inspection, and must set forth the facts of
his emigration, naturalization, and residence, as required in the rule gov-
erning the application of a naturalized citizen.
10. Expiration of passport. — A passport expires two years from the
date of its issuance. A new one will be issued upon a new application,
and, if the applicant be a naturalized citizen, the old passport will be ac-
cepted in lieu of a naturalization certificate, if the application upon which
it was issued is found to contain sufficient information as to the emigration,
residence, and naturalization of the applicant.
11. Wife, minor children, and servants. — When an applicant is ac-
companied by his wife, minor children, or servant, being an American
citizen, it will be sufficient to state the fact, giving the respective ages of
the children and the citizenship of the servant, when one passport will
cover the whole. For any other person in the party a separate passport
will be required. A woman's passport may include her minor children
and servant under the above-named conditions.
12. Professional titles. — They will not be inserted in passports. There
are no exceptions to this rule.
13. Fee. — By act of Congress approved March 23, 1888, a fee of one
dollar is required to be collected for every citizen's passport. That amount
in currency or postal money order should accompany each application.
Orders should be payable to the Disbursing Clerk of the Department of
State. Drafts or checks will not be received.
14. Blank forms of application. — They will be furnished by the De-
partment to persons who desire to apply for passports, upon their stating
whether they are native or naturalized citizens or claim through the
naturalization of husband or father. Forms are not furnished, except as
sami)k'S, to those who make a business of procuring passports.
15. Address. — Comnmnications should be addressed to the Depart-
ment of State, Passport Division, and each conmiunication should give
the post-office address of the person to whom the answer is to be directed.
Department of State,
Washington, Sept. 15, 1896.
FEDERAL OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES : SALARIES
According to the latest statement by the Civil Service Com-
mission, there are 178;717 officers and employees, classified as
follows :
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
XXlll
Department, Bureau, Office, or Commission
Number
Executive Office
Civil Service Commission ....
State Department
Treasury Department .....
War Department
Department of Justice .....
Post-Office Department
Navy Department
I'ositions registered under Navy Departmen
regulations
Interior Department
Pension Examining Surgeons
Department of Agriculture
Department of Labor
Commission of Fish and Fisheries .
Interstate Commerce Commission .
Smithsonian Institution ....
Library of Congress
Superintendent State, War, and Navy Building
Total Departmental Service .
t
21
62
122
15,163
14,967
704
8,465
1,252
5,063
9,713
4,120
2,241
95
183
142
292
39
25
62,669
General Statement
Departmental Service
Post-Office Service
Government Printing Office
Custom-House Service
Internal-Revenue Service
Total Executive Civil List, United States
62,669
104,811
2,852
5,103
3,282
178,717
Of this total number, 87,108 are in the classified service, that is to say,
are appointed under the rules of the Civil Service Commission as approved
by the President, and 91,609 are in the unclassified service.
All officers known as Assistant Secretaries, Commissioners, Chiefs of
Bureaus, Postmasters receiving $1000 or over in salary. Collectors of
Customs, sub-Treasurers, Collectors of Internal Revenue, are appointed
by the President, by and with the consent of the Senate. Chief Clerks,
Disbursing Clerks, Chiefs of Division, and all the minor force of the dif-
ferent Departments are appointed by the heads thereof, all the latter,
excepting laborers and charwomen, being selected from the eligible lists
of the Civil Service Commission.
The method of appointing a clerk from such eligible lists is as follows :
When a vacancy exists the officer having the appointment makes a requi-
sition on the Civil Service Commission, in response to which the commis-
sion furnishes him a certified list of three persons ranking highest in the
competitive examinations and from the State or States next entitled to an
appointment, under an apportionment according to population. From
xxiv UNITED STATES
this list, unless serious objection exists, the appointing officer must make
his selection.
The annual salary roll of this force of nearly 179,000 people aggre-
gates nearly $100,000,000. The compensation of Assistant Secretaries,
Commissioners, and heads of bureaus ranges from $3000 to $7500 per
annum. Chief Clerks receive from $2000 to $2o00 ; Disbursing Clerks
are generally paid $2000, although in some instances they receive more.
The clerical force at Washington is graded from $900 per annum, for
copyists, to $1800. There are clerks at $1000 ; clerks of the first class,
$1200; clerks of the second class, $1400; clerks of the third class,
$1600, and clerks of the fourth class, $1800. Messengers are paid $840,
and assistant messengers $720 per annum. A captain of the watch is
paid $840, and watchmen $720 per annum. Skilled laborers are paid
$660, laborers $600, and charwomen $240 per annum.
UNITED STATES EMBASSIES AND LEGATIONS
ARGENTINA
William I. Buchanan, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Buenos Ay res.
Francois S. Jones, Secretary of Legation, Buenos Ayres.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Addison C. Harris, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Vienna.
Charles V. Herdliska, Secretary of Legation, Vienna.
Commander F, M. Barber, Naval Attache.
BELGIUM
Bellamy Storer, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Brussels,
BOLIVIA
George IT. Bridgman, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
La Paz.
BRAZIL
Charles Page Bryan, Envoy Extraordinary and INIinister Plenipotentiary,
Kio de Janeiro.
Thomas C. Dawson, Secretary of Legation, Rio de Janeiro.
Lieut. James A. Shipman, Military Attach 6.
CHILE
Henry L. Wilson, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Santiago.
Henry J. Lenderink, Secretary of Legation, Santiago.
CHINA
Edwin H. Conger, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Peking.
H. G. Squiers, Secretary of Legation, Peking.
William K. Bainbridge, Second Secretary, Peking.
Lieut. Albert L. Key, Naval Attach^.
Fleming D. Cheshire, Interpreter, Peking.
COLOMBIA
Charles Burdett Hart, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Bogota.
James C. McNally, Secretary of Legation and Consul-General, Bogota.
EMBASSIES AND LEGATIONS XXV
COSTA RICA
William L. Merry, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
San Jos6.
Kiifus A. Lane, Secretary of Legation, San Jos6.
DENMARK
Laurits S. Swenson, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Copenhagen.
ECUADOR
Archibald J. Sampson, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Quito.
FRANCE
Horace Porter, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Paris.
Henry Vignauil, Secretary of Embassy, Paris.
Edgar Tliomson Scott, Second Secretary of Embassy, Paris.
Sanmel Morrill, Third Secretary of Embassy, Paris.
Brig. Gen. Alfred E. Bates, Military Attach^.
Lieut. W. S. Sims, Naval Attach^.
GERMAN EMPIRE
Andrew D. White, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary,
Berlin.
John B. Jackson, Secretary of Embassy, Berlin.
George M. Fisk, Second Secretary of Embassy, Berlin.
H. Percival Dodge, Third Secretary of P^mbassy, Berlin.
Commander F. M. Barber, Naval Attach^.
Maj. James N. Wheelan, Military Attach^.
Dr. Charles W. Stiles, Agricultural and Scientific Attach^.
GREAT BRITAIN
Joseph H. Choate, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary,
London.
Henry White, Secretary of Embassy, London.
John R. Carter, Second Secretary of Embassy, London.
Spencer F. Eddy, Third Secretary of Embassy, London.
Lieut. John C. Colwell, Naval Attach^.
Brig. Gen. Alfred E. Bates, Military Attach^.
GREECE, ROUMANIA, AND SERVIA
William AVoodville Rockhill, Envoy Extraordinary and IMinister Pleni-
potentiary and Consul-General, Athens.
GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS
W. Godfrey Hunter, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Guatemala City.
x\rthur M. Beaupre, Secretary of Legation and Consul-General, Guate-
mala City.
HAITI
William F. Powell, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Port au Prince ; also Charge d'Affaires to Santo Domingo.
ITALY
WillinmF. Draper, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Home.
Lewis Morris Iddings, Secretary of Embassy, Rome.
Richard C. Parsons, Jr., Second Secretaiy, Rome.
Commander F. M. Barber, Naval Attach^.
xxvi UNITED STATES
JAPAN
Alfred E, Buck, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Tokyo.
Joseph R. Herod, Secretary of Legation, Tokyo.
Huntington Wilson, Second Secretary of Legation, Tokyo.
Lieut. Albert Key, Naval Attach^.
Ransford Stevens Miller, Jr., Interpreter.
KOREA
Horace N. Allen, Minister Resident and Consul-General, Seoul.
William F. Sands, Secretary of Legation, Seoul,
Pang Kyeng Hui, Interpreter, Seoul.
Kwon Yu Sup, Interpreter, Seoul.
LIBERIA
Owen L. W. Smith, Minister Resident and Consul-General, Monrovia.
James Robt. Spurgeon, Secretary of Legation, Monrovia.
MEXICO
Powell Clayton, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Mexico.
Fenton R. McCreery, Secretary of Legation, Mexico.
William Heimke, Second Secretary of Legation, Mexico.
THE NETHERLANDS
Stanford Newel, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, The
Hague.
Maj. James N. Wheelan, Military Attach^.
NICARAGUA AND SALVADOR
William L. Merry, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
(See Costa Rica.)
John F. Baker, Secretary of Legation, Managua.
PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY
William R. Finch, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Montevideo, Uruguay.
PERSIA
Arthur S. Hardy, Minister Resident and Consul-General, Teheran.
John Tyler, Interpreter.
PERU
Irving B. Dudley, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Lima.
Richard R. Neill, Secretary of Legation, Lima.
Capt. James B. Hickey, Military Attach^.
PORTUCiAL
Lawrence Townsend, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Lisbon.
Lieut. S. L'H. Slocum, Military Attach^.
RUSSIA
Charlemagne Tower, Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary, St. Petersburg.
Herbert U. D. Pierce, Secretary of Embassy, St. Petersburg.
Herbert J. Hagerman, Second Secretary of Embassy.
Lieut. W. S. Sims, Naval Attach^.
SIAM
Hamilton King, Minister Resident and Consul-General, Bangkok.
James A. Cnivers, Interpreter, Bangkok.
FOREIGN EMBASSIES AND LEGATIONS xxvii
SPAIN
Stewart L. Woodford, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Madrid.
Stanton Sickles, Secretary of Legation, Madrid. (See note.)
Note. — The diplomatic and consular ofticers of the United States in
Spanish doniiniou have been withdrawn during the continuance of the war
with Spain.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
William W. Thomas, Jr., Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary, Stockholm.
SWITZEKLAND
John G. A. Leishman, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Berne.
Lieut. J. R. Williams, Military Attach^.
TURKEY
Oscar S. Straus, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Constantinople.
John W. Riddle, Secretary of Legation, Constantinople.
A. A. Gargiulo, Interpreter, Constantinople.
VENEZUELA
Francis B. Loomis, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Caracas.
William W. Russell, Secretary of Legation, Caracas.
Lieut. Charles L. Collins, Military Attach^.
EGYPT
Thomas S. Harrison, Agent and Consul-General, Cairo.
FOREIGN EMBASSIES AXD LEGATIONS TO THE UNITED STATES^
ARGENTINA.
(Office of the Legation, 2107 S Street, NW) •
Dr. Martin Garcia M6rou, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary.
Senor Antonio del Viso, First Secretary of Legation and Charge
d' Affaires ad intenm.
Col. Ricardo A. Day, Military Attach^.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
(Office of the Legation, 1307 Connecticut Avenue)
Mr. Ladislaus Ilengelmliller von Hengervar, Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary.
Baron Franz Riedl von Riedenau, Secretary of Legation and Charge
d'Affaires ad interim.
G. de Szilassy, Attach^.
BELGIUM
(Office of the Legation, 1752 M Street, NW)
Count G. de Lichtervelde, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary.
Mr. Maurice Joostens, Counsellor of Legation and Charge d' Affaires ad
interim.
Baron Raymond Nothomb, Secretary of Legation.
1 Stationed at Washington, D.C., unless otherwise stated.
xxviii UNITED STATES
BOLIVIA
(Office of Legation, care of Consulate of Bolivia, 15 Whitehall Street, New York City)
Senor Luis Paz, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
BRAZIL
(Oflloe of the Legation, 1744 N Street, NW)
Mr, J. F. de Assis Brasil, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary.
Mr. Manoel de Oliveira Lima, First Secretary of Legation.
CHILE
(Office of the Legation, 1719 De Sales Street, NW)
Sefior Don Carlos Morla Vicuna, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary.
Seiior Don Eliodoro Infante, First Secretary.
Senor Don Manuel Balmaceda, Second Secretary of Legation.
Senor Don Enrique Cuevas, Attach^.
CHINA
(Office of the Legation, 1764 Q Street, NW)
Mr. Wu Ting-fang, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Mr. Shen Tung, First Secretary.
Mr. Shoii Ting, Second Secretary.
Mr. Chow Tsz-chi, Second Secretary.
Mr. Chung Mun-yew, Secretary Interpreter.
Mr. Yung Kwai, Interpreter.
Mr. Hwang Chung-huei, Attach^.
Mr. Chwang Hai-Kwan, Attach^.
Mr. Hsu Choo, Attach^.
Mr. Li Kwang Heng, Student Interpreter.
COLOMBIA
(Office of the Legation, 1728 I Street, NW)
Senor Don Climaco Calderon, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary.
Seiior Don Julio Rengifo, Secretary of Legation and Charge d' Affaires
ad interim.
COSTA RICA
(Office of the Legation, 2111 S Street, NW)
Seiior Don Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, Minister Resident.
Senor Don Luis Yglesias, Attach^.
DENMARK
(Office of the Legation, 1521 Twentieth Street, NW)
Mr. Constantin Brun, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Sefior Don Alejandro Woz y Gil, Charg^ d'Affaires, 31 and 33 Broadway,
New York.
Sefior Don Perry Allen, Counsellor of Legation, The Cochran, Washington.
ECUADOR
(Office of the Legation, The Arlington)
Seiior Don Luis Felipe Carbo, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary.
FOREIGN EMBASSIES AND LEGATIONS xxix
FRANCE
(Office of the Embassy, ITIO II Street, NW)
Mr. Jules Cambon, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Mr. Eugene Tlii^baut, First Secretary and Charg^ d' Affaires ad interim.
Mr. Olivier Taigny, Second Secretary.
Comte d'Apchier le Maugin, Third Secretary.
Commandant Clement de (iran])rey, Military Attach^.
Mr. Jules Bceufv(^, Chancellor and Attache, 23 Lafayette Square.
GERMANY
(Office of the Embassy, 1435 Massachusetts Avenue, NW)
Ilerr Von Holleben, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Freiherr Speck von Sternberg, Counsellor, First Secretary and Charge
d'Affaires ad interim, 1816 Jefferson Place, NW.
Count von Ilacke, Second Secretary.
Lieut. Commander von Kebeur-Paschevitz, Naval Attach^.
Freiherr Beno von Herman, Agricultural and Forestal Expert of Em-
bassy.
Herr von Bredow, Attach^.
GREAT BRITAIN
(Office of the Embassy, 1800 Connecticut Avenue)
The Right Honorable Sir Julian Pauncefote, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Ambas-
sador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, British Embassy.
Mr. Godfrey Bland, First Secretary.
Capt. Alfred W. Paget, R.N., Naval Attach^.
Mr. Reginald Tower, Second Secretary.
Mr. C. A. E. Eliot, C.B., Second Secretary.
Mr. Hugh J. O'Beirne, Second Secretary.
Mr. Young, Attache.
Mr. Robert Bromley, Honorary Attach^.
Mr. Arthur E. Owen Humphreys Owen, Honorary Attach^.
GUATEMALA
(Office of the Legation, The Cairo)
Seilor Don Antonio Lazo Arriaga, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary.
Dr. Joaquin Yela, Jr. , Secretary of Legation.
HAITI
Mr. J. N. L^ger, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 1461
Rhode Island Avenue.
Mr. Alfred L6ger, Attach^.
ITALY
(Office of the Embassy, 1926 I Street, NW)
Baron de Fava, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Count Vinci, First Secretary of Embassy and Charg^ d' Affaires ad interim,
1015 Connecticut Avenue.
Marquis Camillo Romano, Second Secretary, 1587 I Street, NW.
Duke Gaetano Castagueta Caracciolo, Honorary Attach^.
Lieut. Carlo de Luca Kennedy, Naval Attach^, 15o7 I Street, NW.
Lieut. Ferr\ic?'.D Vilale, Mibiary Attach^.
XXX UNITED STATES
JAPAN
(Office of the Legation, 1310 N Street, N"W)
Mr. J. Komura, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Mr. Tsune Jiro Nakagawa, First Secretary of Legation,
Mr. Durham White Stevens, Counsellor of Legation, The Bancroft.
Commander Katsuro Narita, I.J.N., Naval Attach^.
Mr. Mitsunojo Funakoshi, Third Secretary of Legation.
Mr. Jiujiro Sakata, Attach^.
Mr. Matsujiro Kamayama, Attach^.
KOREA
(Office of the Legation, 1500 Thirteenth Street, NW)
Mr. Chin Pom Ye, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Mr. Tarn E. Ye, Secretary of Legation.
Mr. Chong Ki Ye, Attach^.
MEXICO
(Office of the Legation, 1413 I Street, NW)
Senor Manuel Aspiroz, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Seiior Don Jos6 F. Godoy, First Secretary and Charge d' Affaires ad
interim.
Senor Don Enrique Santibanez, Second Secretary.
Senor Don Jos6 V. Dosal, Attach^, The Majestic.
NETHERLANDS
Mr. G. de Weckherlin, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten-
tiary. Address 1746 M Street, NW.
PORTUGAL
Viscount de Santo Thyrso, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary.
RUSSIA
(Office of the Embassy, 1829 I Street, NW)
Comte Cassini, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
Mr. de Wollant, First Secretary of Legation.
Mr. Alexander Zelenoy, Second Secretary.
General Mertvago, Naval and Military Agent.
Mr. M. Routkowsky, Financial Attach^.
Mr. Pierre Rogestvensky, Attach^.
SIAM
(Office of the Legation, The Arlington)
Phya Visuddha, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
23 Ashburn Place, London ; American address. The Arlington.
Mr. Fred. W. Vernay, Counsellor of Legation.
Luang Prakich, Attach^.
Mr. Edward H. Loftus, Attach^.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
(Office of the Legation, 2011 Q Street, NW)
Mr. A. Grip, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Mr. G. V. T. de Strale, Secretary of Legation.
SWITZERLAND
(Office of the Legation, 1518 K Street, NW)
Mr. J. B. Pioda, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Mr. Walter Deucher, Secretary and Charg^ d' Affaires ad interim.
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
XXXI
TURKEY
(Office of the Legation, 1S18 Q Street, NW)
AH Ferrouh Bey, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.
Edliem Bey, First Secretary of Legation.
Sidkey Bey, Second Secretary,
Gen. H. Enver Pacha, ^Military Attach^.
Aziz Bey, Military Attach^.
VENEZUELA
(Otfice of the Legation, 2 Iowa Circle)
Senor Don Jos6 Andrade, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary.
Sefior Don Mannel M. Ponte, Jr., Secretary of Legation.
Senor Augusto F. Pulido, Attach^.
Senor Don Jos6 Andrade Penny, Attach^.
Senor ])r. P'dnardo Andrade Penny, Attach^.
Senor Don Antonio Duplat, Attach^.
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Rank
Aarau, Switzerland
Aberdeen, Scotland
Abo, Finland
Acajutla, Salvador
Acapulco, Mexico
Adelaide, Australia
Aden, Arabia
Aguadilla, Puerto Rico
Aguas Calientes, Mexico
Aix la Chapelle, Germany .
Akyab, Bengal .
Albany, Australia
Alberton, Prince Edward
Island . . . .
Albert Town, West Indies .
Aleppo, Syria
Alexandretta, Syria .
Alexandria, Egypt
Algeciras, Spain .
Algiers, Algeria, Africa
Alicante, Spain .
Almeria, Malaga, Spain
Amapala, Honduras .
Amherstburg, Ontario
Amoy, China
Amsterdam, Netherlands .
Ancona, Italy
Angers, France .
Annaberg, Germany .
Henry H. Morgan
Andrew Murray
Victor Forselius
F. W. Melville .
George W. Dickinson
Charles A. Murphy
Edwin S. Cunningham
Augustus Ganslandt
Alfred M. Raphall
Frank M. Brundage
Charles Findlay
Frank R. Dymes
Albert Glidden .
Jos^ G. Maura .
Frederic Poche .
H. L. Washington
James Hewat
Charles T. Grellet
Franklin C. Bevan
William Heyden
Chester W. Martin
Anson Burl in game
Johnson .
George J. Corey
A. P. Tomassini
Jules H. Luneau
John F. Winter .
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
xxxu
UNrfED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Annapolis, Nova Scotia
Antigua, West Indies .
Antofagasta, Cliile
Antwerp, Belgium
Apia, Samoa, and Nukua
lofa, Tonga
Aracaju, Brazil .
Arecibo, Puerto Rico .
Arendal, Norway
Arica, Chile
Aricbat, Nova Scotia .
Arnprior, Ontario
Arthabaska, Quebec .
Assioot, Egypt .
Asuncion, Paraguay .
Athens, Greece .
Athlone, Ireland
Auckland, New Zealand
Augsburg, Germany .
Aux Cayes, Haiti
Azua, Santo Domingo
Bagdad, Turkey .
a u
Bah la Blanca, Argentina
Bahia, Brazil
Bahia de Caraquez, Ecuador
Ballymena, Ireland
Bamberg, Germany
Bangkok, Siam ,
Baracoa, Cuba .
Barbados, West Indies
Barcelona, Spain
Barcelona, Venezuela .
Bari, Italy .
Barmen, Germany
Bariisley, England
Barranquilla, Colombia
Barrie, Ontario .
Barrington, Nova Scotia
Basle, Switzerland
Bassein, India
Bassorah, Turkey
Bastia, Corsica .
Batavia, Java
Bathurst, Africa .
Bathurst, New Brunswick
Batoum, Russia .
Beira, Africa
Beirut, Syria
Belfast, Ireland .
Jacob M. Owen .
Henry M. Hunt .
Charles C. Greene
George F. Lincoln
Luther W. Osborn
Luiz Schmidt
J. B. Carrion
Christian Eyde .
John W. Lutz .
Peter Campbell .
Charles H. Sawyer
Arthur Poitras .
Bestanros W. Khayat
John N. Ruffin .
W. W. Rockhill
John Burgess
Frank Dillingham
G. Oberndorf
Henry E. Roberts
John Hardy
Rudolph Htirner
Walter T. Jones
Henry W. Furniss
Zephyr Constantine
John G. Ballentine
Louis Stern
Hamilton King .
Perry Glasscock
S. A. Macallister
Herbert W. Bowen
Ignacio H. Baiz .
Nicholas Schuck
Max Honchsein .
Robert D. Maddison
W. Irving Shaw
A. E. H. Creswicke
Thos. W. Robertson
George Gifford ,
John Young
James Hamilton
Simon Damiani .
Sydney B. Everett
Henry Goddard .
Benedict C. Mullins
James C. Chambers
William T. Caton
G. Bie Ravndal .
W. W. Touvelle
Consular agent
Consul
Consul-general
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Vice-consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
a u
Commercial agent
Consul-general
Consul
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
u u
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
XXXlll
Consular Office
Belgrade, Servia .
Belize, British Honduras
Belleville, Ontario
Beni-Saf, Africa .
Bernen, Norway .
Berlin, Germany
Bernuida, West Indies
Berne, Switzerland
Bilbao, Spain
Birniingham, England
Black River, Jamaica .
Bloemfontein, Orange Free
State . . . .
Bluetields, Nicaragua .
Bocas del Toro, Colombia .
Bogota, Colombia
Bologna, Italy
Bombay, India .
Bonacca, Honduras
Bone, Africa
Bordeaux, France
Boulogue-sur-mer, France .
Bradford, England
Brake and Nordenhamm,
Germany ....
Brantford, Ontario
Brava, Cape Verde Islands
Bremen, Germany
Bremerhaven-Geestemiinde,
Germany . . . .
Breslau, Germany
Brest, France
Bridgewater, Nova Scotia .
Brisbane, New South Wales
Bristol, England
Brockville, ( )ntario
Brunn. Austria .
Brunswick, Germany .
Brussels, Belgium
Bucaramanga, Colombia
Bucharest, Roumania .
Budapest, Hungary
Buen Ayre, West Indies
Buenos Ayres, Argentina .
Cadiz, Spain
Cagliari, Italy
Cairo, Egypt
Calais, France
Calcutta, Bengal, India
Caldera, Chile
Consular Officer
William L. Avery
Michael J. Hendrick
E. L. G. Milson
Victor E. Nelson
Frank H. Mason
W. Maxwell Greene .
A. L. Frankenthal
Marshal Halstead
C. M. Farquharson ,
Alfred Elliott .
M. J. Clancy
David R. Hand .
James C. McNally
Carlo Gardini
William T. Fee .
^V'■illiam Bayly .
Antoine Felix Garbe
Albion W. Tourgee .
William Hale
Erastus S. Day .
Wilhelm Clemens
Frank B. Pollard
J. J. Nunes
Louis Lange, jr.
John H. Schnabel
Charles W. p]rdman .
A. Pitel .
William H. Owen
William J. Weatherill
Lorin A, Lathrop
Charles W. Merriman
Gustavus Schoeller .
Talbot J. Albert
George W. Roosevelt
Gustave Volkman
William G. Boxshall .
Frank Dyer Chester .
L. C. Boy6
Daniel Mayer
John H. Carroll
Alphonse Dol
Thomas S. Harrison .
James B. Milner
R. F. Patterson
John C. Morong
Rank
Vice-consul-general
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consul-general
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Vice-consul-general
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Ct)nsul-general
Consul
Consul-general
Consular agent i
XXXIV
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Callao, Peru
Camargo, Mexico
Campbellton, New Bruns-
wick ....
Campeche, Mexico
Campobello Id., New Bruns-
wick ....
Canclia, Crete
Cannes, France .
Canton, China
Cape Canso, Nova Scotia .
Cape Coast Castle, Liberia .
Cape Haitien, Haiti
Cape Town, Africa
Caracas, Venezuela
Cardenas, Cuba .
Cardiff, Wales „
Carini, Italy
Carlisle, England
Carrara, Italy
Carril, Spain
Cartagena, Colombia .
Carthagena, Spain
Carupano, Venezuela .
Casa-Blanca, Morocco
Cassel, Germany
Castellamare di Stabia, Italy
Catania, Italy
Caudry, France .
Cayenne, British Guiana .
Ceara, Brazil
Cebu, Philippine Islands
Ceiba, Honduras.
Ceylon, India (Colombo) .
Champerico, Guatemala
Charleroi, Belgium
Charlottetown, Prince Ed-
ward Id
Chatham, Ontario
Chaudiere Junction, Quebec
Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzer-
land ....
Chefoo, China
Chemainus, British Columbia
Chemnitz, Germany .
Cherbourg, France
Chiclayo, Peru .
Chihuahua, Mexico
Chin Kiang, China
Chittagong, India
Consular Officer
William B. Dickey
James S. Benedict
Raphael Preciat
John I. Alexander
Andrew L. Calkerinos
Philip T. Riddett
Edward Bedloe .
Alfred W. Hart
L. W. Livingston
James G. Stowe
F. De Sola
German Biilee .
Daniel T. Phillips
F. Crocchioli
Thomas S. Strong
Ulisse Boccacci .
R. Ferreiros
Rafael Madrigal
Juan A. Orsini .
John Cobb
Gustav C. Kothe
Joseph E. Hay den
Alex. Heingartner
Hans Dietiker .
Edouard A. 1. Lalanne
A. E. da Frota ,
G. E. A. Cadell .
Louis Bier .
William Morey .
J. A. C. Kauffmann
J. Fisher Reese .
Delmar J. Vail .
Charles E. Monteith
James M. Rosse .
Henri Rieckel, jr.
John Fowler
James S. Gibson
James C. Monaghan
H. J. E. Hainneville
Alfred Solf
W. W. Mills
William Martin .
R. A. Mactaggart
Rank
Consul
Consular agent
Commercial agent
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
u
Consular agent
Commercial agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Commercial agent
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
XXXV
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Christchurch, New Zealand
Robert Pitcaithly
Consular Agent
Christiania, Norway .
Henry Bordewich
Consul
Christiansand, Norway
Berne Reinhardt
Consular agent
Christiansted, West Indies .
A, J. Blackwood
u u
Chung King, China
George F. Smithers .
Consul
Cienfuegos, Cuba
• • . • .
a
Ciudad Bolivar, Venezuela .
Robert Henderson
Consular agent
Ciudad Juarez, Mexico
Charles W. Kendrick .
Consul
Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Mexico
Charles P. Snyder
a
Civita Vecchia, Italy .
G. Marsanick
Consular agent
Clarenceville, Quebec .
Edmund Macomber .
(( u
Clifton, Ontario
Harlan W. Brush
Consul
Clinton, Ontario .
A. 0. Pattison .
Consular agent
Coaticook, Quebec
Joel Linsley
Consul
Coatzacoalcos, Mexico
Walter K. Linscott .
Consular agent
Coburg, Germany
Oliver J. D. Hughes .
Consul
Cockburn Harbor, West In-
dies . . . .
C. H. Durham .
Consular agent
Cognac, France .
James H. Warman .
Commercial agent
Cologne, Germany
John A. Barnes .
Consul
Collingwood, Ontario .
William Small .
li
Colon (Aspinwall), Colombia
Wni. W. Cobbs .
u
Colonia, Uruguay
B. D. Man ton .
u
Constantinople, Turkey
C. M. Dickinson
Consul-general
Cookshire, Quebec
William F. Given
Consular agent
Copenhagen, Denmark
John C. Ingersoll
Consul
Coquimbo, Chile.
Andrew Kerr
Consular agent
Corcubion, Spain
P. Castro .
U ((
Cordoba, Argentina .
John M. Thome .
Vice-consul
Corfu, Ionian Isles, Greece .
Charles E. Hancock .
Consular agent
Corinto, Nicaragua
Henry Palazio .
U ((
Cork (Queenstown), Ireland
Daniel Swiney .
Consul
Cornwall, Ontario
David A. Flack .
Consular agent
Cornwallis, Nova Scotia
F. W. Rand
it ii
Coro, Venezuela .
Josiah L. Senior
a ti,
Coronel, Chile
William Taylor .
a li
Corunna, Spain .
Julio Harmony .
Consul
Coteau, Quebec .
'Thomas Stapleton
Consular agent
Courtwright, Ontario .
Frederick W. Baby .
i i a
Crefeld, Germany
Julian Phelps
Consul
Cronstadt, Russia
Peter Wigius
Consular agent
Cucuta, Colombia
Philip Tillinghast, jr. .
a u
Cumana, Venezuela .
Jos6 G. N. Romberg .
(( u
Cumberland, British Colum-
bia
George W. Clinton .
(( ((
Cura5ao, West Indies .
Elias H. Clieney
Consul
Damascus, Syria .
N. Meshaka
Consular agent
Dantzic, Germany
Philipp Albrecht
ii li
Dardanelles, Turkey .
Frank Calvert .
Vice-consul
1 Dartmouth, England .
Jasper Bartlett .
t( ((
XXXVl
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Dawson City, Northwest
Territory ....
James C. McCook
Consul
Deloraiiie, Manitoba .
Albert M. Herron
Vice-consul
Demerara, British Guiana .
George H. Moulton .
Consul
Derby, England .
Charles Kirk Eddowes
Consular agent
Deseronto, Ontario
Charles A. Millener .
(( u
Dieppe, France .
RaouUe Bourgeois
n u
Digby, Nova Scotia
William B. Stewart .
U ((
Dijon, France
Ernest Bourette .
(( u
Dover, England .
Francis W. Frescott .
U ((
Dresden, Germany
Charles L. Cole .
Consul-general
Drontheim, Norway .
Claus Berg .
Consular agent
Dublin, Ireland .
Joshua Wilbour .
Consul
Dundee, Scotland
John C. Higgins .
u
Dunedin, New Zealand
W. G. Neill
Consular agent
Dunfermline, Scotland
John N. McCunn
Consul
Dunkirk, France .
Benjamin Morel
Consular agent
Dunmore Town, West Indies
Norman E. B. Munro .
Cl ((
Durango, Mexico
Walter H. Faulkner .
Consul
Durban, Cape of Good Hope,
Africa ....
Alex. H. Rennie
Consular agent
Dtisseldorf, Germany .
George P. Pettit
Consul
Dy re fjord, Iceland
N. Chr. Gram .
Consular agent
East London, Cape of Good
Hope, Africa .
William H. Fuller .
u u
Edinburgh, Scotland .
Rufus Fleming .
Consul
Edmunston, New Brunswick
J. Adolph Guy .
Consular agent
Eibenstock, Germany .
Ernest L. Harris
U 4(
El Triunfo, Salvador .
Julius H. Ellis .
u u
Emerson, Manitoba
Duncan McArthur
(( u
Ensenada, Mexico
....
Consul
Erzerum, Armenia
Leo Bergholz
u
Esmeraldas, Ecuador .
Ferdinand Servat
Consular agent
Essen, Germany .
F. Asthorver, jr.
U 11
Fajardo, Puerto Rico .
Jorge Bird Arias
(C u
Falmouth, England
Howard Fox
Consul
Falmouth, Jamaica, West
Indies ....
Charles A. Nunes
Consular agent
Farnham, Quebec
William L. Hibbard .
u u
Faro, l*ortugal .
F. L. Tavares
u u
Fiume, Hungary .
Giovanni Gelletich
(; u
I'lorence, Italy .
Edward C. Cramer .
Consul
Flores, Azores
James Mackay, jr.
Consular agent
Fort Erie, Ontario
Ossian Bedell .
Consul
Fort William, Ontario
C. W. Jarvis .
Consular agent
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Ger-
many ....
Richard Guenther
Consul-general
Fredericksted, West Indies
William F. Moore
Consular agent
Fredericton, New Bruns-
wick ....
James T. Sharkey
u u
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
XXXVll
Consular Office
Frelighsburg, Quebec . ^ .
Freeinantle, Australia * .
Freibiirii;, Baden, Germany .
Frontera, Mexico
Fuchau, China .
Funelial, Madeira
Galasliiels, Scotland .
Gait, Ontario
Gananoque, Quebec .
Garrucha, Spain .
Gasp^ Basin, Quebec .
Geestemiinde, Germany
Geneva, Switzerland .
Genoa, Italy
Georgetown, Prince Edward
Island . . . .
Gera, Germany .
Ghent, Belgium .
Gibara, Cuba
Gibraltar, Spain .
Gijon, Spain
Girgenti, Italy
Glasgow, Scotland
Glauchau. Germany .
Gloucester. England .
Goderich, Ontario
Gonaives, Haiti .
Gor^e-Dakar, Africa .
Gothenberg. Sweden .
Governors Harbor, West
Indies . . . .
Grand Canary, Canary Isl-
ands . . . .
Grand Manan, New Bruns-
wick . . . ,
Grao. Spain
Greenock, Scotland
Green Turtle Cay, West
Indies . . . .
Grenada. West Indies .
Grenoble, France
Grenville, Quebec
Gretna. B.N. A .
Guadalajara
Guadeloupe, West Indies .
Guanajuato, Mexico .
Guantanamo, Cuba
Guatemala, Central America
Guayama. Fuerto Rico
Guayaquil, Ecuador .
Consular Officer
William A. Reynolds
Edward Mayhew
E. Theophilus Liefeld
Michael Girard .
Samuel L. Gracey
Thomas C. Jones
John Stalker
William II. Wilson
E. E. Abbott .
Jos6 G. Suesa .
Almar F. Dickson
Benjamin H. Ridgely
James Fletcher .
A. J. MacDonald
Charles Neuer .
Richard le Bert .
Jos^ Ilomobono Beohi
Horatio J. Sprague
Francis Ciotta .
Samuel M. Taylor
George Sawter .
Arnold H. Falin
Robert S. Chilton
Peter Strickland
Robert S. S. Bergh
Abner W. Griffin
Thomas Miller .
William A. Eraser
Theodore Mertens
James A. Love .
Edward W. Bethell
P. J. Dean .
George B. Anderson
Alex. Pridham .
Enoch Winkler .
Edward B. Eight
Louis II. Aym^ ,
Dwight Furness
Paul Brooks
Arthur M. Beauprc^
J. C. McCormick
Perry M. De Leon
Kank
Consular Agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
(I
Consular aeent
Commercial agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Commercial ag'.nt
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
Consul
Consular agent
(.1 ((
Consul-general
Consular agent
Consul-general
XXXVlll
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Guayinas, Mexico
Frank M. Crocker
Consular agent
Guelph, (Ontario .
Charles N. Daly "
Consul
Guernsey. Great Britain
William Carey .
Consular agent
Habana, Cuba
• • • • •
Consul-general
Haida, Austria .
Frank Siller
Consular agent
Haifa, Syria
Gottlieb Schumacher .
U ii
Halifax, Nova Scotia .
John G. Foster . • .
Consul-general
Hamburg, Germany .
Hugh Pitcairn .
Consul
Hamilton, Ontario
James M. Shepard
ii
Hankau, China .
Levi S. Wilcox .
li
Hanover, Germany
William K. Anderson
u
Harput, Armenia
• • • • •
(C
Hartlepool, England .
Hans C. Nelson .
Consular agent
Havre, France
Alex. M. Thackara .
Consul
Helsingborg, Sweden .
Lars Virgin
Consular agent
Helsingfors, Finland .
• • • • •
Consul
Hemmingford, Quebec
W. W. Wark .
Consular agent
Hereford, Quebec
John R. Nichols
u a
Hilo, Hawaiian Islands
Charles Furneaux
a a
Hobart, Tasmania
Alex. G. Webster
Consul
Hodeida, Arabia
Vittorio Cremasche .
Consular agent
Holyhead, England
Richard D. Roberts .
a a
Honda, Colombia
Henry Hallam .
11 11
Honfleur, France
Henry M. Hardy
Consul-general
Hongkong, China
R. Wildman
a u
Huddersfield, England
Benjamin F. Stone .
Consul
Huelva, Spain
John R. Catlin .
Consular agent
Hull, England
William P. Smyth .
Consul
Huntingdon, Quebec .
John Dineen
Consular agent
Iloilo, Philippine Islands .
.....
(( a
Innsbruck, Austria
August Bargehr .
(4 u
Iquique, Chile
Joseph W. Merriam .
Consul
Jacmel, Haiti
Jean B. Vital
Consular agent
Jeremie, Haiti
L. Trebaud Rouzier .
U ((
Jeres do la Frontera, Spain
....
u u
Jersey, Great Britain .
E. B. Renouf
(( ((
Jerusalem, Syria
Selah Merrill
Consul
Johannesburg, South Afri-
can Kepublic, Africa
J. C. Manion
Consular agent
Kahului, Hawaiian Islands.
Arnot G. Dickins
u u
Kalamata, Greece
D. A. Pantasopolous .
u u
Karachi, India
A. H. R. Armstrong .
(( ((
Kehl, Germany .
Max J. Baehr .
Consul
Kempt, Nova Scotia .
John G. Burgess
Consular agent
Keneh, Egypt . .
A. K. M. el Ammari .
(4 4(
Kidderminster, England
James Morton .
U . 4(
Kiel, Germany .
August Sartori .
U U
Kimberly, Cape of Good
Hope, Africa .
Gardner Williams
4( ii
Kingston, Ontario
Marshall H. Twitchell
Consul
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
xxxix
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Kank
Kingston, Jamaica
Louis A. Dent .
Consul
Kirkcaldy, Scotland .
Andrew Innes .
Consular agent
Konigsberii;, Germany .
U ((
La Colle, Quebec
Henry Hoyle
U 11
La Guayra, Venezuela
Louis Goldschmidt .
Consul
Laijuna de Terminos, Mexico
German Ilalin .
Consular agent
La Libertad, San Salvador .
Alfred Cooper .
11 11
Langen Schwalbach, Ger-
many ....
Ernest Grebert .
U 11
Lanzarotte, Canary Islands
John G. Topham
(( 11
La Paz, Bolivia .
Gerardo Zalles .
Vice-consul
La Paz, Mexico .
Elias H. Cheney
Consul
Laraiche, Morocco
Harry Carleton .
Consular agent
La Rochelle, France .
George H. Jackson
Consul
Launceston, Tasmania
Lindsay Tulloch
Consular agent
La Union, San Salvador
John B. Courtade
(( i(
Leeds, England .
Lewis Dexter
Consul
Leghorn, Italy
James A. Smith .
((
Leicester, P^ngland
S. S. Partridge .
Consular agent
Leipsic, Germany
B. H. Warner, jr.
Consul
Lethbridge, Manitoba
Thomas Curry .
Consular agent
Libau, Russia
Hugo Smit
U 11
Licata, Italy
Arthur Verderame
U 11
Li^ge, Belgium .
Alfred A. Winslow .
Consul
Lille, France
C. Dubois Gregoire .
Consular agent
Limerick, Ireland
Edmund Ludlow
11 11
Limoges, France .
Walter T. Griffin
Commercial agent
Lindsay, Ontario
James M. Knowlson .
Consular agent
Lineboro, Quebec
Hoel S. Beebe .
11 11
Lisbon, Portugal .
Jabob H. Thieriot
Consul
Liverpool, England
James Boyle
11
Liverpool, Nova Scotia
Jason M. Mack .
Consular agent
Livingston, Guatemala
Frank C. Dennis
11 11
Llanelly, Wales .
William Bowen .
11 11
Loanda, Africa .
Frank Weston .
11 11
London, England
William M. Osborne .
Consul-general
London, Ontario .
Henry S. Culver
Consul
Londonderry, Ireland.
P. T. Rodger .
Consular agent
Louren90 Marquez, Africa .
W. Stanley HoUis .
Consul
L'Orient, France
Leon Deprez
Consular agent
Louisburg, Nova Scotia
Henry C. V. LeVatte .
U 11
Ltibeck, Germany
Jacob Meyer, jr.
11 11
Lunenburg, Nova Scotia
Daniel M. Owen
11 11
Lurgan, Ireland ,
Fred W, Magahan
u u
Luxor, Egypt
Aly Mourad
(1 u
Lyons, France
John C. Covert .
Consul
Macassar, Celebes
Karl Auer .
Consular agent
Maceio, Brazil
Charles Goble .
Consular agent
Macoris, Santo Domingo
Edward C. Reed
u u
Madras, British India .
Henry Scott
^^ 11
xl
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Rank
Madrid, Spain
Ignacio F. Hernandez
Vice-consul
Magdalena Bay, Mexico
.
Consular agent
Magdeburg, Germany
Henry W. Diederich .
Consul
Mainz, Germany
AValter Shuman .
ii
Malaga, Spain
R. M. Bartleman
u
Malmo,' Sweden .
Peter M. Elensburg .
Consular agent
Malta, Malta Island .
John H. Grout, jr.
Consul
Manaos, Brazil .
John C. Redman
Consular agent
Managua, Nicaragua .
Chester Donaldson .
Consid
Manchester, England .
William E. Grinnell .
u
Manila, Philippine Islands .
Oscar E. Williams
u
Mannheim, Germany .
William J. Hoffman .
((
Mansourah, Egypt
Ibrahim Daoud .
Consular agent
Manta, Ecuador .
I'edro A. Moreira
(( ((
Manzanillo, Cuba
W. Stakeman .
(( u
Maracaibo, Venezuela
E. H. Plumacher
Consul
Maranhito, Brazil
L. E. da S. Santos
Consular agent
Markneukirchen, Germany.
Oscar Malmros .
u u
Marseilles, Erance
Robert P. Skinner
Consul
Martini(|ue, West Indies
George L. Darte
((
Maskat, Arabia .
. ....
((
Matagalpa, Nicaragua .
J. B, Connelly .
Consular agent
Matamoras, Mexico .
P. Merrill Griffith
Consul
Matanzas, Cuba .
Henry D. Saylor
a
Mathewtown, West Indies .
Daniel D. Sargent
Consular agent
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico
Manuel Badnena
(( ((
Mazatlan, Mexico
Louis Kaiser
Consul
Medellin, Colombia
Thomas Herran
((
Megantic, Quebec
Henry W, Albro
Consular agent
Melbourne, Australia .
John P. Bray
Consul-general
Mentone, Erance
Achille Isnard .
Consular agent
Mersiiie, Syria .
Richard Viterbo
U ((
Messina, Italy
Charles M. Canghy .
Consul
Mexico, Mexico .
Andrew D. Barlow .
Consul-general
Mier, Mexico
Henry Vizcayo .
Consular agent
Milan, Italy
William Jarvis .
Consul
Milford Haven, Wales
George S. Kelway
Consular agent
Miragoane, Haiti
Erancis W. Mitchell .
a u
Mogador, Morocco
George Broome .
u ((
Mollendo, Peru .
Enriijue Meier .
(( u
Monaco, Erance .
Emile de Loth .
U ((
Moncton, New Brunswick .
Gustave Bentelspacher
Commercial agent
Monganui, New Zealand
Robert Wyles .
Consular agent
Monrovia, Liberia
Owen L. W. Smith .
Consul-general
Monte Christi, Santo Do-
mingo ....
Isaac T. Petit .
Consular agent
Montego Bay, Jamaica,
West Indies
G. L. P. Corinaldi .
U 4(
Monterey, Mexico
John K. Polhird
Consul-general
Montevideo, Uruguay
A. W. Swalm .
Consul
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
Xli
Consular Otlice
Consular Ollicer
Kank
Montreal, Quebec
John L. Bittinger
Consul-general
Montserrat, West Indies
Richard Hannani
Consular agent
Morrisburi?, Ontario .
John E. Hamilton
Commercial agent
Moscow, Russia .
Thomas Smith .
Consul
Mouhnein, India
W. J. ])avidson .
Consular agent
Munich, Germany
James II. Worman .
Consul
Mytilene, Turkey
M. M. Fottion .
Consular agent
Nacaonie, Honduras .
John E. Foster .
(c u
Nagasaki, Japan .
Charles B. Harris
Consul
Nanainio, British Columbia.
George L. Schetky
Consular agent
Nantes, France .
Joseph I. Brittain
Consul
Napanee, Ontario
William Templeton .
Consular agent
Naples, Italy
A. Homer Byington .
Consul
Nassau, West Indies .
Thomas J. McLain
((
Natal, Brazil
Apollonio Barroca
Consular agent
Neustadt, Germany
Leopold Blum .
U ((
Nevis, West Indies
Charles C. Greaves .
(( u
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Eng-
land ....
Horace W. Metcalf .
Consul
Newcastle, New South
AVales ....
Fred'k W. Godding .
u
Newcastle, New Brunswick.
Robert R. Call .
Consular agent
Newport, Wales .
William E. Heard
ti ii
Nice, France
Harold S. Van Buren.
Consul
Niuchwang, China
J. J. Fred'k Bandinel.
Vice and deputy
consul
Nogales, Mexico .
James F. Darnell
Consul
Norfolk Island, New South
Wales ....
Isaac Robinson .
Consular agent
North Bay, Canada
Daniel J. McKeown .
u u
North Portal, Assiniboia
W. H. Dorsey .
U ((
Nottingham, P^ngland .
Silas C. McFarland .
Consul
Noumea, New Caledonia
Paul E. Wolff .
Commercial agent
Nuevitas, Cuba .
Henry Seymour .
u u
Nuevo Laredo, Mexico
Robert B. Mahone
Consul
Nuremberg, Germany .
Gustave C. E. Weber .
((
Ocos, Guatemala.
Samuel Wolford
Consular agent
Odessa, Russia .
Thomas E. Heenan .
Consul
Oporto, Portugal.
William Stuve .
Consular agent
Oran, Algeria, Africa .
Benj. A. Courcelle
(( ((
Orillia, Ontario .
Ernest A. Wakefield .
Commercial agent
Osaka and 1 1 logo, Japan
Sanuiel S. Lyon
Consul
0.shawa, Ontario .
W. P. Sterricke .
Consular agent
Ottawa, Ontario .
Charles E. Turner
Consul-general
Owen Sound, Ontario .
W. T. Robertson
Consular agent
Padang. Sumatra
H. J. P. Haacke.
«( ((
Paita, Peru ....
Jolm F. Hopkins, jr. .
u u
Palermo, Italy
Church Howe
Consul
Palma, Majorca, Spain
Ernesto Canut .
Consular agent
Palmerston, Ontario .
Loton S. Hunt .
Commercial agent
xlii
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Panama, Colombia
Hezekiah A. Gudger .
Consul-general
Para, Brazil
K. K. Kenneday
Consul
Paramaribo, British Guiana
Arthur Dayo
u
Paris, Ontario
W. W. Hume .
Consular agent
Paris, France
John K. Gow^dy .
Consul-general
Parrel], Mexico .
James I. Long .
Consular agent
Parrsboro, Nova Scotia
David A. Huntley
(( t (
Parry Sound, Ontario .
Walter R. Foot .
U ((
Paspebiac, Quebec
Daniel Bisson
U ((
Patras, Greece
Alonzo C. Gates
Consul
Pau, France
J. Morris Post .
Consular agent
Paysandu, Uruguay .
J. G. Hufnagle .
Commercial agent
Penang, India
Otto Schule
Consular agent
Pernambuco, Brazil .
Benjamin F. Clark .
Consul
Peterboro, Ontario
Frank J. Bell .
Consular agent
Petit Goave, Haiti
F. Merantie
(( u
Picton, Ontario .
Jacob F. Beringer
u u
Pictou, Nova Scotia .
John R. Davies .
U ((
Piraeus, Greece .
Marino T. Sourmely .
(( u
Piura, Peru ....
• • • • •
U ((
Plauen, Germany
Thomas W. Peters
Consul
Plymouth, England
Joseph G. Stephens .
ii,
Point de Galle, India .
H. Breitenstein .
Consular agent
Port Antonio, Jamaica,
West Indies .
Nicholas R. Snyder .
Commercial agent
Port au Prince, Haiti .
John B. Terres .
Vice-consul-general
Port de Paix, Haiti
Carl Abegg
Consular agent
Port of Marbella, Spain
Miguel Calzado .
a a
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
John A. Chabaud
u u
Port Hawkesbury and Mul-
grave, Nova Scotia .
Alexander Bain .
il ((
Port Hope, Ontario
Harry P. Dill .
Commercial agent
Port Joggins, Nova Scotia .
William Moffat .
Consular agent
Port Limon, Costa Rica
• • • • •
(( it
Port Louis, Mauritius .
John P. Campbell
Consul
Port Mahon, Spain
.
Consular agent
Port Maria, West Indies
Reuben R. Baker
u u
Port Morant, West Indies .
Lorenzo D. Baker, jr.
U li
Port Rowan, Ontario .
George B. Killmaster .
Commercial agent
Port Said, Egypt
Samuel G. Broadbent
Consular agent
Port St. Marys, Spain .
George M. Daniels
u u
Port Sarnia, Ontario .
Neal McMillan .
Consul
Portsmouth, England .
William Joseph Main
Consular agent
Port Stanley, Falkland Isl-
ands ....
John E. Rowan .
Consul
Potton, Quebec .
Chandler Bailey
Consular agent
Prague, Austria .
Hugo Donzelhnan
Consul
Prescott, Ontario
Grenville James .
u
Pretoria, South African Re-
public ....
Charles Macrum
u
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
xl
111
Consular Office
Consular OlReer
Rank
Prooreso, Mexico
E. H. Thompson
Consul
PuL'bla, Mexico .
James R. Hardy
Consular agent
Puerto Cabello, Venezuela .
Luther T. Ellsworth .
Consul
Puerto Cortez, Honduras .
William E. Alger
Consular agent
Puerto Plata, Santo Do-
mingo ....
Thomas Simpson
Consul
Pugwash and Wallace, Nova
Scotia ....
Conrad W. Morris
Consular agent
Puuta Arenas, Chile .
Moritz Braun
1( u
Punta Arenas, Costa Rica .
Max Diermissen
li ((
Quebec, Canada ,
William W. Henry .
Consul
Quezaltenango, Guatemala .
Grant A. Morrill
Consular agent
Rangoon, Burmali
Charles Gairdner
U ((
Rat Portage, Ontario .
G. Clayton Frisbie
(( u
Redditch, England
H. C. Browning .
u u
Reggio, Italy
Nicola Siles
i(. u
Reiclienberg, Austria .
Frank W. Mahin
Consul
Rennes, France .
Ernest Folliard .
Consular agent
Revel, Russia
E. von Glehn
U li
Rheims, France .
William A. Prickett .
Consul
Ricliibucto, New Brunswick
George V. Mclnerney
Consular agent
Riga, Russia
N. P. A. Bornholdt .
Consul
Rimouski, Quebec
C. A. Boardman
Commercial agent
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Eugene Seager .
Consul-general
Rio Grandp do Sul, Brazil .
Jorge Vereker .
Consular agent
Rio Hacha, Colombia .
T. V. Henriquez
U ((
Ritzebiittel and Cuxhaven,
Germany ....
J. G. F. Starke .
u u
Rodi, Italy ....
T. del Giudice .
U (C
Rome, Italy
Hector de Castro
Consul-general
Rosario, Argentina
James M. Ayers
Consul
Roseau, Dominica
Henry A. Frampton .
Consular agent
Rossland, British Columbia
George S. Armstrong
u u
Rostoff and Taganrog, Rus-
sia
William R. Martin .
(( t(
Rotterdam, Netherlands
Soren Listoe
Consul
Roubaix, France .
William P. Atwell .
Commercial agent
Rouen, France .
Horatio R. Bigelow .
Consul
Ruatan, Honduras
William C. Wildt .
Consular agent
Sagua la Grande, Cuba
Walter B. Barker
Consul
Saigon, Cochin China .
Edward Schn^egans .
Commercial agent
Salonica, Turkey
P. H. Lazarro .
Con.sular agent
Salt Cay, West Indies
Daniel F. Harriott
u a
Saltillo, Mexico .
Charles B, Towle
Consul
Samana, Santo Domingo .
Jean M. Villain .
Vice commercial
agent
Samarang, Java .
Arthur Thomson
Consular agent
Samsoun, Turkey
G. C. Stephopoulo
(( u
San Benito, Mexico .
L. R. Brewer
i( u
Sanchez, D. R. .
Jos^ A. Puente .
U ((
xliv
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
San Cristobal, Venezuela .
Alexander Boue
Consular agent
San Feliu de Guixols, Spain
Jos6 Sibils .
(( a
San Jorge, Azores
J. J. Cardoza
n a
San Jos6, Costa Rica .
John C. Caldwell
Consul
San Jos^, Mexico
Abraham Kurnitzky .
Consular agent
San Jos^ de Guatemala
Upton Lorentz .
u u
San Juancito, Honduras
E. E. Dickason .
Consular agent
San Juan de los Kemedios,
Cuba ....
, , , ,
Vice commercial
San Juan del Norte, Nica-
agent
ragua ....
William B. Sorsby .
Consul
San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua
Charles Holmann
Consular agent
San Luis Potosi, Mexico
John H. Farwell
(( ((
San Pedro Sula, Honduras .
J. M. Mitchell, jr. .
u u
San Remo, Italy .
Albert Ameglio .
u u
Santa Cruz, Cuba
Walter Voigt .
U ((
Santa Marta, Colombia
Gerardo M. Danies .
u u
San Salvador
John Jenkins
Consul
San Sebastian, Spain .
Julian de Salazar
Consular agent
Santander, Spain
Faustino Adriozola .
(( u
Santiago, Cape Verde Islands
E. Beaumont
Vice-consul
Santiago, Cuba .
Pulaski F. Hyatt
Consul
Santo ])omingo. West Indies
Campbell L. Maxwell
Consul-general
Santos, Brazil
....
Consul
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario .
George W. Shotts
Commercial agent
Savannah la Mar, West Ind-
ies
Chas. S. Farquharson
Consular agent
Scarboro, West Indies
Edward Keens .
u a
Scheidam, Netherlands
Ernest A. Man .
u u
Scilly Islands, England
John Banfield, jr.
U ((
Seoul, Korea
Horace N. Allen
Consul-general
Seville, Spain
Samuel B. Caldwell .
Consular agent
Setubal, Portugal
John P. T. O'Neill .
U ((
Shanghai, China .
John Goodnow .
Consul-general
Sheffield, England
James Johnston
Consul
Shelburne, Nova Scotia
T. H. White
Consular agent
Sherbrooke, Quebec ,
Paul Lang .
Consul
Sierra Leone, West Africa .
John T. Williams
a
Sierra Mojada, Mexico
Henry B. Hackley
Consular agent
Singapore, Straits Settle-
ments ....
Robert A. Moseley, jr.
Consul-general
Sivas, Turkey
Milo A. Jewett .
Consul
Smyrna, Turkey .
Rufus W. Lane .
u
Solingen, Germany
Edmund Z, Brodowski
((
Sonneberg, Germany
Verne E. Joy
Consular agent
Soerabaya, Java .
B. N. Powell
C( ii
Sorau, Germany .
William B. Murphy .
u u
Sorel, Quebec
Isaie Sylvestre .
(; ((
Sorrento, Italy .
Francesco Ciampa
U ii
SouriSjPrince Edward ]
.sland
Caleb C. Carlton
UNITED STATES CONSULAR OFFICERS
xlv
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Rank
Southampton, England
John E. Hopley
Consul
St. Anns Bay, West Indies .
R. W. Harris .
Consular agent
St. Andrews, New Brunswick
George H. Stickney .
u ^n
St. Bartholomew, West In-
dies
R. Burton Dinzey
Commercial agent
St. Catharines, Ontario
Leonard H. Collard .
Consular agent
St. Christopher, West Indies
.
Commercial agent
St. Etienne, France
Hilary S. Brunot
Consul
St. Eustatius, West Indies .
J. G. C. Every .
Consular agent
St. Gall, Switzerland .
James T. Dubois
Consul-general
St. George, New Brunswick
Edward Milliken
Consular agent
St. Georges, Bermuda .
•
Commercial agent
St. Helena (island of) .
Robert P. Pooley
Consul
St. Helens, England .
John Hammill .
Consular agent
St. Hyacinthe, Quebec
Joseph M. Authier .
Commercial agent
St. John, New Brunswick .
Ira Buyers .
Consul
St. Johns, Newfoundland .
Martin J. Carter
((
St. Johns, Quebec
Charles Deal
u
St. Lucia, West Indies
William Peter .
Consular agent
St. ]\Ialo, France .
Raymond Moulton .
u u
St. Marc, Haiti .
Charles Miot
U ii
St. JNIartin, West Indies
D, C. von Romondt .
Consul
St. Michaels, Azores .
Geo. H. Pickerill
u
St. Petersburg, Russia .
W. R. Holloway
Consul-general
St. Pierre, St. Pierre Island .
Charles N. Freeman .
Commercial agent
St. Stephen, New Brunswick
C. A. McCullough .
Consul
St. Thomas, Ontario .
Michael J. Burke
( ;
St. Thomas, West Indies
Mahlon Van Home .
u
St. Vincent, Cape Verde
Islands ....
Joao B. Guimaraes .
Consular agent
St. Vincent, West Indies
Ernest A. Richards .
a a
Stanbridge, Quebec
....
Commercial agent
Stanstead, Quebec
B. F. Butterfield
Consular agent
Stavanger, Norway
Chr. Fr. Falck .
(( u
Stettin, Germany
John E. Kehl .
Consul
Stockholm, Sweden
Edward D. Winslow .
Consul-general
Stratford, Ontario
A. G. Seyfert .
Consul
Stuttgart, Germany .
Edward H. Ozmun .
((
Sudbury, Ontario
William P. Martin
Consular agent
Suez, Egypt
Alfred W. Haydn
a n
Summerside, Prince Edward
Island ....
John Gaffney
u u
Sunderland, England .
Thomas A. Horan
(1 (I
Sundsvall, Sweden
Victor Svensson
U 11
Sutton, Quebec .
James E. Ireland
U ((
Suva, Fiji Islands
Alex. B. Joske .
Commercial agent
Swansea, Wales .
Griffith W. Frees
Consul
Sydney, New South Wales .
George W. Bell .
u
Sydney, Nova Scotia .
George N. West .
((
Tahiti, Society Islands
Jacob L. Doty .
((
xlvi
UNITED STATES
Consular Office
Consular Officer
Eank
Talcahuano, Chile
John 0. Smith .
Consular agent
Tamatave, Madagascar
Mifflin W. Gibbs
Consul
Tampico, Mexico
Samuel E. Magill
u
Tamsui, Formosa
James W. Davidson .
u
Tangier, Morocco
Samuel R. Gunnere .
Consul-general
Tarragona, Spain
....
Consular agent
Tegucigalpa, Honduras
Frederick H. Allison .
Consul
Teheran, Persia .
Arthur S. Hardy
Consul-general
Tehuantepec and Salina
Cruz, Mexico .
Jervas Jefferies .
Consular agent
Teneriffe, Canary Islands .
Sol Berliner
Consul
Terceira, Azores .
Henrique de Castro .
Consular agent
Three Rivers, Quebec .
Urbain J. Ledoux
Consul
Tien-Tsin, China
James W. Ragsdale .
u
Toronto, Ontario
William L. Sewell .
( '.
Toreon, Mexico .
....
Consular agent
Torrevieja, Spain , ^
Jos6 Hodar
u u
Toulon, France .
Louis J. B. Jouve
u u
Tovar, Venezuela
W. J. H. Much^
C( ((
Townsville,New South Wales
J. H. Rogers
(( ((
Trapani, Italy
Ignacio Marrone
(( u
Trebizond, Turkey
H. Z. Long worth
U ((
Trenton, Ontario
Stephen J. Young
U ((
Trieste, Austria .
Frederick W. Hossfeld
Consul
Trinidad, West Indies
Alvin Smith
u
Trinidad, Cuba .
Carlos Yznaga .
Consular agent
Tromso, Norway .
Richard Killengren .
( ( a
Troon, Scotland .
Peter H. Waddell
(( ( (
Troyes, France .
Gaston Baltet .
u u
Truxillo, Honduras
H. P. Boyce
i( ((
Truxillo, Peru
Edward Gottfried
< ( i(
Tunibez, Peru
AVilliam Balami.
li a
Tunis, Africa
Evan L. Barryte
Consul
Tunstall, England
William H. Bradley .
u
Turin, Italy
Percy McElrath .
u
Turks Island, West Indies .
Henry H. Ellis .
((
Tuxpan, Mexico .
Abram B. Jones
u
Utilla, Honduras.
Benjamin Johnston .
((
Valera, Venezuela
• • . • •
Consular agent
Valparaiso, Chile
John F. Caples .
Consul
Valencia, Spain .
.
u
Valencia, Venezuela .
Otto H, Becker .
Consular agent
Vancouver, liritish Columbia
L. Edwin Dudley
Consul
Venice, Italy
Henry A. Johnson
((
Vera Cruz, Mexico
William W. Canada .
u
Verviers, Belgium
Henry Dodt
Consular agent
Vevey, Switzerland
William Cufeuod
U l(
Victoria, Brazil .
Jean Zinzen
Consular agent
Victoria, British Columbia .
Abram E. Smith
Consul
Victoria, Mexico .
William J. Storms
Consular agent
ARMY
xlvii
Consular Oflice
Consular Officer
Kank
Vienna, Austrica .
Carl Bailey Hurst
Consul-general
Vigo, Spain
Enrique Mulder
Consular agent
Vivero, Spain
Joaquin Mufiiz ,
u u
Vladivostok, Russia .
Richard T. Greener .
Commercial agent
Wallaceburg, Ontario .
Isaac G. AVorden
(C u
Warsaw, Russia .
Joseph Rawicz .
Consul
Waterford, Ireland
William H. Farrell .
Consular agent
Waterloo, Quebec
Arthur S. Newell
(( u
Waubaushene, Ontario
Ronald F. White
;( ( (
Weiuiar, (xerinany
Thomas Ewing Moore
Consul
Wellington, New Zealand .
John Duncan
Consular agent
Weymouth, England .
Alfred C. Higgs
u u
Wiarton, Ontario
J. H. Tibeando .
u ' u
Wiborg, Finland
C. E. Ekstrom .
(( ((
Windsor, Nova Scotia
Joseph T. Hoke .
Consul
Windsor, Ontario
Julius G. Lay .
(.1,
Wingham, Ontario
• • • •
Consular agent
Winnipeg, Manitoba .
W. H. H. Graham .
Consul
Winterthur, Switzerland
Heinrich Langsdorf .
Consular agent
Woodstock, New Brunswick
Frank C. Denison
Consul
Wolverhampton, England .
John Neve .
Consular agent
Yafa, Syria
E. Hardegg
(( ii
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia
Radcliffe H. Ford
Consul
Yokohama, Japan
John F. Go way .
Consul-general
Zacatecas, Mexico
E. vonGehren .
Consular agent
Zante, Greece
Alfred L. Crowe
li, (.1
Zanzibar, Africa .
John C. Billheimer .
Consul
Zittau, Germany .
William K. Herzog .
a
Zurich, Switzerland .
A. Lieberknecht
1, 1
ARMY ^
By the provisions of the Constitution of the United States
Congress is empo^Ye^ed to "raise and support armies," and the
same instrument provides that the President of the United
States " shall be the commander-in-chief of the Army and
Xavy and of the militia of the several States when called into
the service of the United States."
During the war of the Revolution the military operations
were directed by a " Board of War and Ordnance," created by
the Continental Congress, June 12, 1776.
The War Department was established Aug. 7, 1789, and
tlirough it the President as co'mmander-in-chief conducts the
military affairs of the nation.
1 Information furnished for the " Statesman's Year Book " through the courtesy of Brig.
Gen. H. C. Corbin, Adjutant General, U.S.A., and Maj. John Tweedale, late Chief Clerk,
War Dcpt,
xlviii UNITED STATES
During the various wars in which, the United States have
engaged the following numbers of men have been enrolled :
The exact number of men in the Continental Establishment,
furnished by each State in the War of the Revolution, is not
known, but an approximate estimate made by Colonel Pierce,
Paymaster-general of the Continental Army and the Treas-
ury Accountants, in 1787 are approximately correct : namely,
231,771 Continental troops and 145,000 State troops, militia,
et cetera, a total of 376,771. This total may be excessive, as
many served two, three, and even four terms. From best
information attainable it is fair to assume that the number
of individuals actually in the military service during the war
did not exceed 250,000.
During the War of 1812 there were enrolled 471,622 regular
and militia troops, of whom 62,674 were regulars.
In the war with Mexico there were enrolled 116,321, of
whom 42,545 were in the regular army.
In the war of the Rebellion there were furnished by the
United States 2,259,168 troops, of whom 178,975 were colored,
and in addition thereto 67,000 regulars, making a grand total
of 2,326,168.
In the war with Spain the total force enrolled was 219,035
volunteers (of whom 10,189 were colored troops), and 55,682
were in the regular Army, making a grand total of 274,717.
The losses sustained by the American troops in war are as
follows :
War of the Revolution : From incomplete records on file in
the State and War Departments and authoritative historical
statements the losses, as nearly as can be calculated, were, 4044
killed, 6004 wounded, and 2104 missing. These figures are
undoubtedly much below the actual numbers, although it has
been impossible to make a reasonably accurate record of the
losses on account of the paucity and incompleteness of records.
War of 1812 : Killed, 1877 ; wounded, 3737.
In the Mexican War there were killed and died of wounds
1557 j wounded, 3420.
War of the Rebellion: Losses of Union army, 110,070
killed in action and died of wounds; 199,720 died of disease;
a total loss of 359,528 from all causes, or about 15^ per cent.
The losses in the recent war with Spain were :
ARMY
xlix
GRAND TOTAL OF CASUALTIES IN KILLED AND WOUNDED
Locality
KiLLKD
Wounded
Officers
Enlisted
Men
Officers
Enlisted
Men
Cuba
Porto Rico
Manila
Total
23
237
3
17
99
4
10
1 ,332
36
96
23
257
113
1,464
The number of deaths, from all causes, between May 1 and Sept. 30, in-
clusive, as reported to the Adjutant-General's Office up to Oct. 3, were —
Officers
Enli.sted
Men
Killed
Died of wounds
Died of disease
Total
23
4
80
257
61
2,485
107
2,803
being an aggregate of 2910 out of a total force of 274,717 officers and
men, or a trifle over one per cent.
No compilations of the troops engaged or of the losses sus-
tained in the various Iiidian wars have ever been made. The
struggles having been conducted by the small regular army,
usually attracted no attention unless attended with such trage-
dies as the Dade or Custer massacres.
The strength of the regular army and proportion of officers to
enlisted men at various periods are shown in the following table :
Year
General
and
Staff
Officers
Line
Officers
Total
Commis-
sioned
Enlisted
Men
Proportion
of General
and Staff
Officers to
Enlisted
Men
Proportion.
of Line
Officers to
Enlisted
Men
Proportion
of All Com-
missioned
Officers to
Enlisted
Men
1792 .
1802 .
1817 .
1820 .
1826 .
1837 . • .
18.50 .
18,53 .
1855 .
1860 .
1878 .
1898 .
18981 .
Averaj^e .
82
55
179
190
117
157
299
829
319
.348
562
5:35
.578
182
152
346
555
427
491
585
685
7.52
735
1..599
1,629
1.S78
214
207
525
745
544
W8
884
9W
1,071
1,088
2,161
2,164
2.4.56
5,120
3,067
7,. 580
12,011
5,&42
7,310
9,431
9,284
11,6.58
11,848
25,000
25,000
<W.106
1 to 160
1 to 55.78
1 to 42.35
1 to 63.22
1 to 48.22
1 to 46.56
1 to 81.54
1 to 28.22
1 to 86..55
1 to 84.05
1 to 44.48
1 to 46.73
1 to 109.18
1 to 28.13
1 to 20.18
1 to 21.91
1 to 21.64
1 to 13.21
1 to 14.89
1 to 16.12
1 to 14.62
1 to 1.5. .50
1 to 1G.12
1 to 15.68
1 to 1.5.35
1 to .33.60
1 to 23.88
1 to 14.82
1 to 14.44
1 to 16.12
1 to 10.87
1 to 11.28
1 to 10.67
1 to 9.m
1 to 10.89
1 to 10.94
1 to 11.57
1 to 11. .55
1 to 25.69
285
766 1,(151
15,081
1 to 52.99
1 to 19.67
1 to 14..35
1 In time of war with Spain.
The law requires that upon a restoration of peace the regular
army shall be reduced to the strength it was prior to the war
with Spain.
1
UNITED STATES
The actual commissioned and enlisted strength of the army
varies but little from that authorized, and was at the beginning
of the war with Spain 2143 officers and 26,040 enlisted men,
and is at the present writing (Dec. 31, 1898) from latest reports
2330 officers and 55,682 enlisted men.
The aggregate commissioned force comprises 19 General
Officers, 78 colonels, 98 lieutenant-colonels, 247 majors, 716
captains, 657 first lieutenants, and 515 second lieutenants.
The 9th and 10th regiments of cavalry and the 24th and 25th
regiments of infantry are composed of negro men with white
officers.
The pay of officers of the army is as follows :
Pay of Officers in Active Service
PAY OF
GRADE
MONTHLY PAY
Grade
After
After
After
After
Yearly
Mon'ly
5 years'
10 years'
15 years'
20years'
Service
Service
Service
Service
10%
20%
30%
40%
Lieutenant-general .
$11,000.00
$910.07
Major-general ....
7,500.00
G25.00
Brigadier-general
5,-500.00
458.33
Colonel
3,500.00
291.67
$.320.83
$350.00
$375.00
$375.00
Lieutenant-colonel .
3,000.00
250.00
275.00
300.00
325.00
333.33
Major
2,500.00
20S..33
229.17
250.00
270.83
291.67
Captain, mounted .
2,000.00
166.67
183.33
200.00
216.67
233.33
Captain, not mounted
1,800.00
150.00
165.00
180,00
195.00
210.00
Kegimental adjutant
1,800.00
150.00
10.5.00
180.00
195.00
210.00
Regimental quartermaster
1,800.00
150.00
165.00
180.00
195.00
210.00
First lieutenant, mounted
1,600.00
133.33
146.67
160.00
173.33
ISC). 07
First lieutenant, not mounted
1,500.00
125.00
137.50
150.00
162.50
175.00
Second lieutenant, mounted .
1,500.00
12,5.00
137.50
1.50.00
162.50
175.00
Second lieutenant, not mounted
1,400.00
116.67
128.33
140.00
151.67
163.33
Chaplain
1,500.00
125.00
137.50
150.00
162.50
175.00
Pay 0
F Retiri
:d Officers
PAY OF (
JRADE
MONTHLY PAY
Grade
After
After
After
After
Yearly
MonMy
5 years'
10 years'
15 years'
20years"
Service
Service
Service
Service
Lieutenant-general .
.$8,250.00
$687.50
Major-general ....
5.625.00
468.75
Brigadier-general
4,125.00
843.75
Colonel
2,025.00
218.75
$240.62
$262..50
$281.25
.$281.25
IJeutenant-colonel .
2,2.50.00
187.. 50
206.25
225.00
24;:^. 75
2.50.00
Major
1,ST5.00
156.25
171.87
187.50
203.12
218.75
Captain, mounted
1,500.00
125.00
137.50
1.50.00
162..50
175.00
Captain, not mounted • .
1,350.00
112.50
123.75
135.00
146.25
157.50
Kegimental adjutant
Regimental quartermaster
First lieutenant, mounted
1,200.00
100.00
110.00
120.00
130.00
140.00
First lieutenant, not mounted
1,125.00
93.75
103.12
112.,50
121.87
131.25
Second lieutenant, mounted .
1,125.00
93.75
103.12
112.50
121.87
131.25
Second lieutenant, not mounted
1,050.00
87..50
96.25
105.00
113.75
122.50
Chaplain
1,350.00
112.50
123.75
135.00
146.25
157.50
ARMY
The pay of enlisted men is as follows :
TABLE OF MONTHLY PAY OF ENLISTED MEN OF THE UNITED
STATES ARMY
First Five Years' Seuv
ice
Year in each enlistment ....
Istyr.
2d yr.
3d yr.
4 th yr.
5th yr.
Yeau of total continuous service
. Istyr.
2d yr.
3d yr.
4th yr.
5th yr.
Rank and Service
company
Private — Artillerj', Cavalry, and Infantry .
\
Private — (Second class) Eng-ineers and Ordnance
' Ul3
$13
$14
$15
$16
Musician — Engineers, Artillery, and Infantry
Trumpeter — Cavalry
)
Wagoner — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
14
14
15
16
17
Artificer — Artillery and Infantry
\
Corporal — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
.
15
16
17
18
Blacksmith and Farrier — Cavalry
Saddler — Cavalry
I
Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
18
18
19
20
21
Private — (First class) Engineers and Ordnance
17
17
18
19
20
Corporal — Engineers and Ordnance .
20
20
21
22
23
First Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
25
25
26
27
28
Sergeant— Engineers, Ordnance, and Signal Corps
34
34
35
36
37
Sergeants — (First class) Signal Corps
45
45
46
47
48
REGIMENT
Chief Trumpeter — Cavalry ....
)
Principal Musician — Artillery and Infantry
V 22
22
23
24
25
Saddler Sergeant — Cavalry ....
f
Chief Musician — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantrj
60
60
61
62
63
Sergeant Major— Artillerj-, Cavalry, and Infantrj
)
Quartermaster Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, ant
y 23
23
24
25
20
Infantry
i
Sergeant Major and Quartermaster Sergeant —
Engineers
{- 36
36
37
38
39
rosT
Ordnance Sergeant
)
Commissary Sergeant
} 34
34
35
36
37
Post Quartermaster Sergeant , . . ,
)
hospital corps >^
Hospital Steward
45
45
46
47
48
Acting Hospital Steward
25
25
20
27
28
Private
18
IS
19
20
21
1 Veterinary surgeon (senior) $100 per month.
lii
UNITED STATES
TABLE OP MONTHLY PAY OF ENLISTED MEN OF THE UNITED
STATES ARMY
After Five Years' Continuous
Service
$2 EXTRA
Year in each enlistment .
1st vr.
Year of total continuous service
Eank and Service
company
Private — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry .
Private — (Second class) Engineers and Ordnance
Musician — Engineers, Artillery, and Infantry .
Trumpeter — Cavalry
Wagoner — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
Artificer — Artillery and Infantry
Corporal — Artillery, Cavahy, and Infantry
Blacksmith and Farrier — Cavalry
Saddler — Cavalry
Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
Private — (First class) Engineers and Ordnance .
Corporal — Engineers and Ordnance .
First Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
Sergeant — Engineers, Ordnance, and Signal Corps
Sergeants — (First class) Signal Corps
regiment
Chief Trumpeter — Cavalry
Princii)al Musician — Artilleiy and Infantry
Saddler Sergeant — Cavalry
Chief Musician — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
Sergeant Major — Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry
Quartermaster Sergeant — Artillery, Cavalry, and
Infantry
Sergeant Major and Quartermaster Sergeant^
Engineers
Ordnance Sergeant
Commissary Sergeant .
Post Quartermaster Sergeant
hospital corps*
IIosi)ital Steward . . . .
Acting Hospital Steward
Private
Gthvr.
$18
19
20
23
22
25
30
39
50
27
G5
28
41
39
50
30
23
2d yr,
Tth vr.
$18
19
20
23
22
25
30
39
50
27
65
28
41
39
50
30
28
3d yr.
8th vr.
$18
19
20
23
22
25
30
39
50
27
65
28
41
39
50
30
23
4th yr.
9th vr,
19
20
23
22
25
30
39
50
27
65
28
41
39
50
80
23
5th yr.
10th vr
$18
19
20
23
22
25
30
89
50
27
65
28
41
39
50
30
23
1 Veterinary surgeon (junior) $75 per month.
Enlisted men receive slight increase of salary for continued
service, and in addition to their cash pay are furnished with
rations, clothing, medical attendance, and medicines and
shelter, light, and fuel ; after thirty years of service they may
retire on three-fourths pay and allowances, which for a private
soldier amounts to about $ 25 per month.
This enables a man who at 21 years of age adopts the pro-
fession of arms to retire at 51, and if he has been as saving of
ARMY liii
his pay during the period of his military service as he would
have to be in civil life to provide for old age, he may in the
extreme case of having remained a private soldier throughout
the period of his service (a most unusual case) have saved
between 5^5000 and |57000, and would in his declining years
have the income therefrom in addition to his retired pay.
The territory of the United States is divided for military
purposes into the following military departments, known
respectively as:
The Department of the East, headquarters, Governor's Island, New
York Harbor.
The Department of the Lakes, headquarters, Chicago, 111.
The Department of the Gulf, lieadquarters, Atlanta, Ga.
The Department of Dakota, headquarters, St. Paul, Minn.
The Department of the Missouri, headquarters, Omaha, Neb.
The Department of the Colorado, headquarters, Denver, Col.
The Department of the Columbia, headquarters, Vancouver's Bar-
racks, Washington State.
The Department of California, headquarters, San Francisco, Cal.
The Hawaiian Islands constitute a portion of the Department of Cali-
fornia.
'The Island of Porto Rico constitutes the Department of Porto Rico,
with headquarters at San Juan.
During the time of military occupation by the United States the Island
of Cuba constitutes a grand military division, with headquarters at
Havana.
The Island is divided into seven geographical Departments, as follows :
Department Havana, including the City of Havana.
Department Havana Province, including the Island of Pines, with
headquarters at .
Department Santiago, with headquarters at Santiago.
Department Puerto Principe, with headquarters at Puerto Principe.
Department of Santa Clara, with headquarters at Cienfuegos.
Department Matanzas, with headquarters at Matanzas.
Department of Pinar del Rio, with headquarters at Pinar del Rio.
The Philippine Islands constitute the Department of the Pacific, with
headquarters at Manila, Luzon Island.
In addition to the regular army nearly every State and
Territory has an organized militia force, popularly known as
the National Guard, organized and governed in each State by
special statute laws, presenting little uniformity of organiza-
tion or methods of administration.
The total organized militia of the United States Dec. 31,
1897, was as follows : 9196 officers, 105,166 men.
The number of citizens in the United States between the
ages of 18 and 45 years who might be enrolled for military
duty is approximately 10,000,000.
liv
UNITED STATES
NAVY^
Within recent years the United States Navy has been greatly
increased, and is now a powerful force. The control of naval
affairs is vested in the Secretary of the Navy, a Cabinet officer,
appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate.
The Assistant-Secretary, a civilian, also appointed by the
President with the approval of the Senate, the chiefs of eight
administrative bureaus, the Commandant of the Marine Corps,
and the Judge-Advocate-General are directly responsible to the
Secretary. The administrative bureaus are : yards and docks,
equipment, navigation, ordnance, construction and repair, steam
engineering, supplies and accounts, and medicine and surgery.
The Government constructive and repairing establishments
are at Portsmouth, N. H. ; Boston, Mass. ; Brooklyn, N. Y. ;
League Island, Pa. ; Washington, I). C. ; Norfolk, Va. ; Pensa-
cola, Fla. ; and Mare Island, Cal. ; and the naval stations are
at New London, Conn. ; Port Koyal, S. C. ; Key West, Fla. ;
and Puget Sound, Wash.
All warships, under the requirements of law, are built within
the country and of home material.
The personnel of the navy, Dec. 31, 1898, was as follows :
Rear-admirals
7
Commodores .
10
Captains
45
Commanders .
85
Lieutenant-commanders
74
Lieutenants (senior)
250
Lieutenants (junior)
76
Ensigns ....
157
Chief engineers
70
Pay assistant engineers .
66
Assistant engineers
44
Naval cadets 2
64
Medical directors .
15
Medical inspectors .
15
Surgeons
50
Past assistant surgeons .
52
Assistant surgeons
37
Pay directors .
13
Pay inspectors
13
Paymasters .
40
Past assistant paymasters
20
Chaplains
24
Professors of mathematics
11
884
233
80
Naval constructors
21
Assistant naval con-
structors
16
Civil engineers .
18
Boatswains
50
Carpenters
56
Pharmacists
25
Mates
34
261
Marine Corps :
Colonel commandant
1
General staff .
5
Colonels .
2
Lieutenant-colonels
2
Majors
4
Captains .
20
First lieutenants
30
Second lieutenants
_8
72
Total official perso
nnel
1,536
Enlisted men (thre€
years) .
' 11,037
Enlisted men (one
year) .
4,472
Apprentices
2,276
18,685
1 Information furnished for the " Statesman's Year Book " throuph the courtesy of Capt.
A. S. Crownlnshiekl, Prof. E. K. Kawson, and Mr. Frank Hamilton of the Navy Department.
2 Who have passed the requisite course and are performing two years' service at sea
pursuing special studies prior to final graduation.
NAVY
Iv
At the end of the fiscal year, June 30, 1898, there were
22,828 enlisted men and apprentices in the service, Go per cent
of whom were native born and 80 per cent citizens of the
United States. The enlisted force of the navy the 15th day
of August, 1898, when it reached its maximum during the war
with Spain, numbered 24,123 men and apprentices. On the
31st day of October the enlisted force had been reduced to
19,401, and on the 31st day of December, as stated, to 18,685,
and is being still further decreased. The official personnel is
nearly that allowed by law.
In the Marine Corps there are 72 officers and 3170 men,
making a total in the navy, officers and men, of 23,463.
The strength of the navy has been increased greatly during
the past year. It is difficult to present a classification in har-
mony with that used by other governments. It is believed,
however, that the following statement as to the vessels will
give not only the layman but the professional naval officer a
fair knowledge of the composition of the ^avy. For exact
statements as to caliber of guns, armor, and matters that naval
officers alone would care to see, reference is made to the annual
reports of the Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair,
Washington, D.C.
LIST OF SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY
[\hhre\i&tions — Propulsion : S., screw; T. S., twin screw; Tr. S., triple screw; P., paddle ;
I. H. P., indicated horse power.]
First Kate
Name and Date of
Launching
Dis-
place-
ment
(tons)
Type
Hull
I.
H. P.
Pro-
pul-
sion
Speed
in
Knots
per
Hour
Guns
(Main
Bat-
tery)
Guns
(Sec-
ond-
ary
Bat-
tery)
Iowa 1896
Indiana 1893
Massachusetts "
Oregon "
Brooklyn 1895
New York 1891
Columbia 1892
Minneapolis 1893
Texas 1892
Puritan 1882
Olympia 1892
11,340
10,288
10,288
10,288
9,215
8,200
7,375
7,375
6,315
6,060
5,870
1st class battleship
It it
<( It
II <i
Armored cruiser
11 11
Protected cruiser
2d class battleship
Double-turret
monitor
Protected cruiser
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
Iron
Steel
12,105
9,738
10,403
11,111
18,769
17,401
18,509
20,862
8,610
3,700
17,313
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
Tr.S.
Tr. S.
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
17.08
15.54
16.21
16.79
21.91
21.
22.8
23.07
17.08
12.04
21.68
18
16
16
16
20
18
11
11
8
10
14
30
29
30
29
22
14
17
17
25
11
24
Second Rate
Chicago 1885
Baltimore 18S8
Philadelphia 1889
Monterey 1891
4,500
4,413
4,324
4,084
Protected cruiser
II Ii
Barbette turret,
1 0 w freeboard
monitor
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
9,000
10.064
8,815
5,244
T S
T.S.
T.S.
T.S.
18.
20.09
19.67
13.6
18
10
12
4
12
15
15
13
Ivi
UNITED STATES
Second Rate —
Continued
Name
Dis-
place-
ment
Type
Hull
I.
H. P.
Pro-
pul-
Speed
in
Knots
Guns
(Main
Bat-
Guns
(Sec-
ond-
ary
(tons)
sion
per
Hour
tery)
BaV
tery)
Newark
1890
4,098
Protected cruiser
steel
8,869
T S
19.
12
15
San Francisco
1889
4,098
" "
Steel
9,913
T. S.
19.52
12
19
Charleston
1888
3,730
" "
Steel
6,660
T.S.
18.20
8
19
Miantonomoh 1876
3,990
Double - turret
Iron
1,426
T.S.
10.5
4
13
monitor
Am phi trite
1883
3,990
" "
Iron
1,600
T.S.
10.5
6
14
Monadnock
'•
3,990
(( u
Iron
3,000
T.S.
12.
6
11
Terror
(1
3,990
U (1
Iron
1,600
T.S.
10.5
4
11
New Orleans
1896
3,437
Protected cruiser
Steel
7,500
T.S.
20.
10
20
Albany-
Lancaster
3,437
" "
Steel
7,500
T.S.
20.
10
20
3,250
Cruiser
Wood
1,000
S.
9.6
12
13
Cincinnati
1892
3,213
Protected cruiser
Steel
10.000
T.S.
19.
11
13
Kaleigh
i(
3,213
" "
Steel
10,000
T.S.
19.
11
15
Atlanta
1884
3,000
It ((
Steel
4,030
S.
15.60
8
13
Boston
"
3,000
(I tt
Steel
4,030
s.
15.60
8
13
Third Kate
Hartford
2,790
Cruiser
Wood
2,000
s.
12.
13
7
Mayflower
2,090
"
4,700
T.S.
16.8
2
14
Katahdin
1893
2,155
Harbor-defence ram
Steel
5,068
T.S.
16.11
4
—
Ajax
2,100
Single-turret mon-
itor
Iron
340
s.
5 to 6
2
—
Canonicus
2,100
(i i(
Iron
340
s.
6.
2
2
Mahopac
2,100
(( <t
Iron
340
s.
6.
2
2
Manhattan
2,100
ti ((
Iron
340
s.
6.
2
2
Detroit
1891
2,089
Unprotected cruiser
Steel
5,227
T.S.
18.71
10
11
Montgomery
"
2,089
11 u
Steel
5,580
T.S.
19.05
10
11
Marblehead
1892
2.089
(( ((
Steel
5,451
T.S.
18.44
10
11
Mohican
1,900
Cruiser
Wood
1,100
S.
10.65
8
9
Comanche
1,875
Single-turret mon-
itor
Iron
340
s.
5 to 6
2
—
Catskill
1,875
(( (1
Iron
340
s.
6.
2
—
Jason
1,875
U 11
Iron
340
s.
5 to 6
2
2
Lehigh
1,875
1( it
Iron
340
s.
"
2
2
Montauk
1,875
u u
Iron
340
s.
It
2
2
Nahant
1,875
(( tl
Iron
340
s.
It
2
2
Nantucket
1,875
11 11
Iron
840
8.
"
2
2
Passaic
1,875
11 11
Iron
340
s.
11
2
2
Bennington
1S90
1,710
Gunboat
Steel
3,486
T.S.
17.5
6
9
Concord
"
1,710
"
Steel
3,405
T. S.
16.8
6
9
Yorktown
188S
1,710
Gunboat
Steel
3,392
T.S.
16.4
(■)
11
Topeka
1881
1,700
"
Iron
2,000
S.
16
6
9
Dolphin
1884
1,480
Despatch boat
Steel
2,253
s.
15.50
3
8
Wilmington
1895
1,392
Light-draft gunboat
Steel
1,894
T.S.
12.88
8
13
Helena
1896
1,392
" "
Steel
1,988
T.S.
15.50
8
11
Adams
1,375
Cruiser
Wood
800
s.
9.8
6
6
Alliance
1,375
"
Wood
800
s.
9.98
6
6
Essex
1,375
11
AVood
800
s.
10.4
6
9
Enterprise
1,375
11
Wood
800
s.
11.4
4
1
Nashville
1895
1,371
Light-draft gunboat
Steel
2,536
T.S.
16.30
8
9
Monocacy
1,370
11 11
Iron
850
P.
11.2
6
10
Castine
1892
1,177
Gunboat
Steel
2,199
T.S.
16.03
8
8
Machias
1891
1,177
'•
Stoel
2,046
T. S.
15.46
8
8
Alert
1,020
Cruiser
Iron
500
s
10
3
6
Kanger
1,020
"
Iron
500
s.
10
6
6
Annapolis
1896
1,000
Composite gunboat
Comp
1,227
8.
13.17
6
7
Vicksburg
"
1,000
11 11
Comp
1,118
S.
12.71
6
7
Wheeling
1897
1,000
11 11
Comp
1,081
T.S.
12.SS
6
8
Marietta
"
1,000
" "
Comp
1,054
T.S.
13.03
6
8
Newport
1896
1,000
(1 11
Comp
1,008
S.
12.29
6
7
Princeton
1897
1,000
(1 11
Comp
800
s.
12
6
7
NAVY
Ivii
Fourth Rate
Dis-
Pro-
Speed
in
Guns
Guns
(Sec-
Name
place-
ment
(tons)
Type
Hull
I.
11. P.
pul-
sion
Knots
per
Hour
(Main
Bat-
tery)
ond-
ary
Bat-
tery)
Dynamite-gun ves-
Vesuvius 1888
929
sel
steel
3,795
T.S.
21.42
3
6
IVtrel •'
892
Gunboat
Steel
1 ,095
S.
11.79
4
7
Fern
840
Training ship
Wood
s.
9
3
4
Baiu'ioft 1S92
889
Gunboat
Steel
1,213
T. S.
14.37
4
10
Micliitran
C85
Cruiser
Iron
365
P.
10.5
4
—
I'iiita
.OSO
Gunboat
Iron
310
s.
8.5
2
4
ToKPEDO Boats
Gushing (No. 1 ) "OO
105
Torjiedo boat
Steel
1,720
T.S.
22.5
aS
3
Ericsson (No. 2) '1)4
120
Steel
1,800
T.S.
24
a 8
4
Foote(No. 3) IbltG
142
Steel
2,000
T.S.
24.53
aS
3
Kodj,'ers (No. 4) "
142
Steel
2,000
T.S.
24.5
a 3
3
Winslo\v(No.5)"l)T
142
Steel
2,0U0
T.S.
24.5
aS
3
Porter (No. 6) 1S96
165
Steel
T. S.
2i<M
aS
4
Dupont (No. 7) '97
165
Steel
T.S.
28.58
aS
4
Morris (No, 14) "
105
Steel
1,750
T.S.
24
«3
3
Talbot (No. 15) "
46^
Steel
850
S.
21.15
a 2
1
Gwin (No. 16) "
46
Steel
850
s.
20. S8
«2
1
Mackenzie (No. 17)
1S9S
65
Steel
850
s.
20
a 2
1
McKee(No.lS) "
65
Steel
850
s.
19.82
«2
2
Manly (No. 22)
ct 1
—
Soraers (No. 23)
145
Steel
1,900
s.
23
—
Stiletto
31
• (( ((
Wood
359
s.
18.22
«2
—
(I In ordinary.
Tugs
Fortune
450
Tug
Iron
340
s.
10.
Iwana 1S92
192
'
Steel
300
s.
11.5
—
Levden
450
Iron
340
s.
10.
—
NaVkeeta 1892
192
Steel
300
s.
11.5
—
Nina
357
Iron
388
s.
11.12
—
Kocket
187
Wood
147
s.
8.5
—
Standish
450
Iron
340
s.
10.
1
Traffic
2S0
Wood
s!
10.
—
Triton
212
Steel
300
s.
13.
—
Wahneta
192
Steel
300
Ji.
11.5
—
Una<lilla 1S95
345
Steel
500
s.
12.
—
!?anioset 1S97
225
Steel
450
s!
12.
—
Sailing Ships
Monoupahela
2,100
Wood
Sails
4
i_
Constellation
1,1S6
Wood
8
9
Jamestown
1,150
Wood
—
—
Portsmouth
1,125
Wood
12
—
Saratoga
1,025
Wood
—
—
St. Mary's
1,025
Wood
—
—
Keceiving Ships
Franklin
5,170
Wood
1,050
S.
9.
4
1
Wabash
4,650
Wood
950
s.
9.15
—
2
Vermont
4,150
Wood
Sails
1
Independence
3,270
Wood
"
6
1
Pensacola
8,000
Wood
680
8.
9.
—
—
Richmond
2,700
Wood
692
s.
9.5
2
—
Iviii
UNITED STATES
Unserviceable
Name
Dis-
place-
ment
Type
Hull
L
H. P.
Pro-
pul-
Speed
in
Knots
Guns
(Main
Bat-
Guns
(Sec-
ond-
ary
(tons)
sion
per
Hour
tery)
Bat-
tery)
New Hampshire
4,150
Sailing ship
Wood
Sails
6
—
Omaha
2,400
Cruiser
Wood
953
S.
—
—
Constitution
2,200
Wood
Sails
4
1
Iroquois
1,575
Cruiser
Wood
1,202
S.
10.7
—
—
Nipsic
1,375
"
Wood
839
S.
10.7
4
—
St. Louis
830
Sailing ship
Wood
Sails
—
—
Dale
675
" "
Wood
Sails
—
—
Minnesota
4,700
Cruiser
Wood
1,000
S.
9.25
9
7
Marion
1,900
a
Wood
1,100
S.
11.25
8
6
Thetis
1,250
i(
Wood
530
s.
7.55
—
—
Yantic
900
((
Wood
310
s.
8.30
4
—
Under Construction
Kearsarge 1S9S
11,525
1st class battleship
Steel
10,000
T.S.
16.
22
32
Kentucky "
11,525
Steel
10,000
T. S.
16.
22
32
Illinois "
11,525
Steel
10,000
T.S.
16.
IS
28
Alabama "
11,525
Steel
10,000
T.S.
16.
18
28
Wisconsin
11,525
Steel
10,000
T.S.
16.
IS
26
IMaine
12,500
Steel
16,000
T.S.
13.
20
31
Missouri
12,500
Steel
16,000
T.S.
18.
20
31
Ohio
12,500
Steel
16,000
T.S.
18.
20
81
Plunger 1897
168
Submarine torpedo
boat
Steel
1,200
T.S.
8.
2
Panacook
225
Tug
Steel
450
S.
—
—
—
Pawtucket
225
Steel
• 450
S.
—
—
—
Chesapeake
1,175
Sailing ship
Com J)
Sails
—
0
6
Gunboat No. 16
Gunboat
Steel
—
—
—
Arkansas
2,700
Monitor
Steel
2,400
T.S.
12.
(i
7
Connecticut
2,700
"
Steel
2,400
T.S.
12.
6
7
Florida
2,700
t(
Steel
2,400
T.S.
12.
6
7
Wyoming
2,700
"
Steel
2,400
T. S.
12.
6
7
Bain bridge
420
Torpedo-boat de-
stroyer
Steel
8,000
T.S.
29.
a2
2
Barry
Chauncey
420
Steel
8,000
T.S.
29.
rt2
2
420
Steel
8,000
T.S.
29.
a 2
2
Dale
420
Steel
8,000
T.S.
28.
a2
2
Decatur
420
Steel
8,000
T.S.
28.
«2
2
Hopkins
Hull
408
Steel
7,200
T.S.
29.
rt2
2
408
Steel
7,200
T S.
29.
a2
2
Lawrence
435
Steel
8,400
T.S.
30.
al
2
Macdonough
435
Steel
8,400
T. S.
30.
a2
2
Paul Jones
420
Steel
7,000
t!s.
29.
«2
2
Perry
420
Steel
7,000
T. S.
29.
rt2
2
Preble
420
Steel
7,000
T.S.
29.
a2
2
Stewart
420
Steel
8,000
T.S.
29.
a2
3
Truxtun
433
Steel
8,300
T.S.
30.
al
2
Whipple
Word en
433
Steel
8.300
T.S.
30.
a 2
2
433
Steel
8,300
T.S.
30.
a2
2
Powan(No. S) 1R98
182
Torpedo boat
Steel
3,200
T.S.
26.
rt3
2
Dahlgren (No. 9)
146
>4 tt
Steel
4,200
T. S.
30.5
«2
4
T.A.M.Craven(No.
10)
146
U 11
Steel
4,200
T.S.
30.5
«2
4
Farragut (No. 11)
1898
273
" "
Steel
5,600
T.S.
30.
a 2
4
Davis (No. 12)
132
" "
Steel
1,750
T.S.
22.5
«3
3
Fox (No. 13) 1898
132
U 11
Steel
1,750
T.S.
22.5
«3
3
Stringham (No. 19)
340
11 11
Steel
7,200
T.S.
30.
«2
7
Goldsborough (No.
20)
247^
11 11
Steel
T.S.
30.
rt2
4
a Torpedo t
ubes.
NAVY
lix
Under Construction — Continued
Guns
Dis-
i>».^
Speed
Guns
(Sec-
Year
place-
ment
Type
Hull
I.
H. P.
1 ro-
pul-
in
Knots
(Main
Bat-
ond-
ai'y
(tons)
sion
per
Hour
tery)
Bat-
tery)
Bailev (No. 21)
235
Torpedo boat
Steel
5,000
T. S.
30.
a 2
4
Hagley (No. 24)
1C7
Steel
T. S.
28.
aii
3
Barnev (No. 25)
107
Steel
T. S.
2S.
(f.i
3
Biddle (No. 2t!)
1()7
Steel
T. S.
2S.
aS
3
Blakely (No. 27)
1G5
Steel
8,000
T. S.
20.
a'i
3
l)e Long (No. 28)
105
Steel
3,000
T. S.
20.
aS
3
Nicholson (No. 2l»)
174
Steel
T. S.
20.
«3
8
O'Brien (No. 3t))
174
Steel
T.S.
20.
aS
8
Shubrick (No. 81)
105
Steel
3,000
T. S.
20.
u3
3
Stockton (No. 8-J)
105
Steel
3,000
T.S.
20.
o3
3
Thornton (No. 33)
105
Steel
3,000
T.S.
20.
«3
3
Tinge V (No. 34)
105
Steel
3,000
T. S.
20.
aS
3
Wilkes (No. 35)
105
Steel
3,000
T. S.
20.5
«3
3
a Torpedo tubes.
The effective navy, including all vessels in service and under c6nstruc-
tion, consists of: —
First-class battleships
Second-class battleship
Armored cruisers
Armored ram .
Double-turreted monitors
Steel single-turret monitors
Iron single-turret monitors
Protected crui.sers
Protected cruisers sheathed with
wood ....
In addition to the above there
Submarine torpedo boat
"Wood torpedo boat .
Captured in Spanish-American
war ....
Iron cruising vessels .
Wooden cruising vessels .
Sailing vessels .
12
1
2
1
(3
4
13
13
are
1
Unprotected cruisers .
Gunboats . . . .
Liglit-draft gunboats .
Composite gunboats .
Training ship (Naval Acade-
my)
Special class
Torpedo-boat destroyers
Steel torpedo boats
Real effective navy .
3
9
3
6
1
2
16
35
129
Tugs
Wooden steam vessels unfit
for sea service .
Wooden sailing vessels unfit
for sea service .
Aggregate number of vessels
in regular navy
The auxiliary navy during the Spanish war consisted of : —
1
G
14
11
6 60
189
Mercliant vessels converted into
auxiliary cruisers . . .11
Converted yachts . . .28
Converted tugs . . . .27
Steamers converted into colliers 19
Special class
Revenue cutters .
Light-house tenders
United States Fish Commis-
sion
17
15
4
Total number of vessels in auxiliary navy . . . 123
Aggregate of all vessels in the United States navy . 312
The number of vessels in the auxiliary navy, as given above, is being
rapidly reduced as their services can be dispensed with.
It will be noticed that in the classification by rates the type of war-
vessels is given as " first-class battleship," "second-class battleship,"
*' armored cruiser," etc. The classification by rates is on tonnage, for
Ix UNITED STATES
marine purposes. The other classification is for naval purposes. The
distinctions, however, are sometimes so closely drawn as to make it diffi-
cult for a layman to understand the difference between a battleship and
a cruiser. The classification in the United States navy resembles that
in the British navy very closely, but differs from the Continental classifi-
cations; as, for instance, some of Cervera's fleet designated under the
Spanish classification as "first-class battleships" would be called "cruis-
ers " in the United States navy. The vessels denominated "battleships"
in the foregoing list are first-class according to a general system of classi-
fication, so far as the same can be adopted. The first-class cruisers are
of more than 6000 tons, and exceed 17 knots in speed. So far as the
batteries are concerned, it has been considered sufficient to give the total
number of guns in the main and secondary batteries respectively, as a
classification as to calibres is of no great use to the layman, while naval
officers have recourse to official descriptions.
Specific information as to a few of the leading vessels in the navy may
be of interest. In the Texas the guns are mounted singly in two turrets,
which are sheltered within an oblique redoubt, as in the Italia and other
Italian ships. The Oregon^ Massachusetts^ and Indiana are practically
identical. They have a partial belt of 17-inch armor, 1\ feet wide,
extending over 56 per cent of the whole length. This belt rises 3 feet
above the water-line, and extends 4| feet below ; it is capped by a fore
and aft armored deck. At either end of the belt are armored redoubts
17 inches thick, rising to 3^ feet above the protective deck ; these redoubts
protect the turning gear of the turrets and all the operations of loading.
The tubes through which the ammunition is hoisted are also armored.
Above the belt, and extending from one redoubt to the other, the side is
protected by 5 inches of armor. The main armament consists of four
13-inch 35-calibre guns mounted in pairs in two turrets, one forward, one
aft, protected with 17-inch armor, placed on an incline, with a horizontal
cover of 20- inch thickness ; and eight 8-inch guns mounted in four turrets,
formed of inclined armor from 8^ inches to 6 inches thick, and placed at
the four corners of a deck on a level with the top of the larger tvirrets.
The length at the water-line is 348 feet, beam 62 feet 3 inches, and draft
2-4 feet. The lowa^ which is in an earlier stage of construction, is of
similar design. The United States battleships are to carry small torpedo
boats on their decks.
Among the coast-defence vessels the ram Katahdin deserves to be
noted. She was designed by Admiral Ammen, and, beyond a small sec-
ondary battery, depends for offensive force upon her ability to ram a foe.
To accomplish this purpose, she can be submerged until only her turtle
back, funnel, and ventilating shafts, all of which are armored, remain
above water. Her dimensions are 251 feet by 42^ feet beam, 15 feet
normal draft, and 2155 tons displacement.
The Neio York and the Brooklyn are the largest cruisers in the United
States navy, both armored and designed on the same lines. The dimen-
sions of the former are: length, 380 ft. 6 in.; beam, 65 ft.; draft, 23 ft.
3 in. She has a heavily armored steel deck, in conjunction with light side
plating, besides a cellulose belt. Two 8-incli guns are mounted forward
and two aft in turrets, and one on either beam slightly sponsoned out.
The 4-inch guns are carried on the deck below, and so placed as to fire
fore and aft.
Special interest attaches to the commerce destroyers Columbia and Min-
neapolis^ which, on their official trials over the course (88 nautical miles)
FORCES AND LOSSES OF NAVY Ixi
off the coast of Massachusetts, made respectively an average speed of 22.81
and 23.07 knots per hour. The vessels are sister ships, and the following
description of the Cohnnhia will therefore serve for both. Her principal
dimensions, etc., are: Lengtli, 412 ft.; beam, 58 ft.; mean draft, 23 ft.;
displacement, 7375 tons ; indicated horse power, 20,000, with a maxinmm
of 23,000 ; coal supply, 750 tons ; maximum coal stowage, 2000. She has
a double bottom and a protective deck, which rises from 4-|- feet below the
water-line at the sides to 1 foot above amidships, except at the bow and
stern, where it slopes down below the water-line, 'jlie protective deck
is 4 inches thick on the slopes and 2\ inches thick elsewhere. There can
be also a wall of patent fuel 5 feet thick opposite the boilers. The motive
power consists of three sets of triple-expansion vertical inverted direct-
acting engines, each placed in a separate water-tight compartment. Each
set of engines drives its own screw. One screw is placed amidships at the
extreme stern just above the keel ; the other two are set one on each
quarter, considerably forward and outboard of the midship screw and 4|
feet above it. For long distance, economical cruising the midship screw
alone will be used, the other two being uncoupled ; for medium speed the
twin screws under each counter will be worked, the midship screw being
uncoupled ; for full speed all three screws will be driven at their highest
power. Her nominal cruising radius is 26,240 miles.
Forces Engaged and Losses of American Navy in Different Wars
The data relating to the Revolutionary War are necessarily incom-
plete ; they are based on the Battle Calendar of Maclay. The killed
luimbered 449 and the wounded 463.
In the naval battles of the War of 1812 there were 394 killed and 838
wounded.
In the naval battles of the Mexican War (1845 to 1848) 21 were killed
and 119 wounded. The war allow^ance of the navy was 10,000 men, but
it was never filled. The peace allowance was 7500 men. In the Mexican
War the operations of the naval forces consisted mainly in landing parties
and bombardments. The statistics of the loss of life due to disease,
wounds, accidents, drownings, etc., cannot be furnished.
The losses of the navy during the Civil War (1861 to 1865) were re-
ported by the Surgeon-General of the Navy as 4588. The Secretary of
the Navy has reported the casualties during the War of the Rebellion
as : —
Killed 1,406
Wounded 1,638
Missing 176
3,220
The difference in the two reports is probably owing to deaths from in-
cidental causes and otherwise, not accounted for by the Secretary. The
figures cannot be verified with absolute accuracy, but it is thought they
are substantially correct, and that discrepancies are comparatively few.
The average force of the navy for the four years of the Civil War was
38,000 men. There were 6000 officers, the average during the war being
4500.
The casualties of the navy during the late war with Spain are shown
in the following table : —
Ixii
UNITED STATES
Number
of
Casu-
alties
Killed
Wound-
ed
Died
subse-
quently
as Re-
sult of
Wounds
Dis-
charged
to re-
turn to
Duty
In-
valided
from
Service
Con-
tinued
under
Treat-
ment
Action of Manila Bay
9
0
9
0
9
0
0
Action off Cienfuegos
12
1
11
1
9
0
1
Action otf Cardenas .
8
5
3
0
3
0
0
Action off San Juan,
Porto Rico .
8
1
7
0
6
1
0
Engagement at Guanta-
namo, Cuba .
22
6
16
0
9
8
4
Engagement oif Santiago
(June 22)
10
1
9
0
7
1
1
Engagement off Santiago
(July 3) . . . .
11
1
10
0
10
0
0
Miscellaneous —
Eagle (July 12) .
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
Bancroft (Aug. 2)
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Amphitrite (Aug. 6) .
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Yankee (Aug. 11)
Total .
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
84
17
67
1
54
6
6
NAVY PAY TABLE
Rank
REAR-ADMIRALS
COMMODORES
CAPTAINS
COMMANDERS
LIEUTENANT-COMMANDERS —
First four years after date of commission
After four years from date of commission
LIEUTENANTS —
First five years after date of commission
After five vears from date of commission
LIEUTENANTS (Junior Grade) —
First five years after date of commission
After five years from date of commission
ENSIGNS —
First five years after date of commission
After five years from date of commission
NAVAL CADETS 1
MATES • .
MEDICAL AND PAY DIRECTORS AND
MEDICAL AND PAY INSPECTORS AND
CHIEF ENGINEERS, HAVING THE SAME
RANK, AT SEA
FLEET SURGEONS, FLEET PAYMASTERS,
AND FLEET ENGINEERS . . . .
SURGEONS, PAYMASTERS, AND CHIEF
ENGINEERS —
First five years after date of commission .
Second five years after date of commission
Third five years after date of commission .
Fourth five years after date of commission
After twenty years from date of commission
At Sea
$6,000
5,000
4,500
3,500
2,800
3,000
2,400
2,600
1,800
2,000
1,200
1,400
500
2 900
4,400
4,400
2,800
3,200
3,500
3,700
4,200
On Shore
Duty
$5,000
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,400
2,600
2,000
2,200
1,500
1,700
1,000
1,200
500
2 700
2,400
2,800
3,200
3,600
4,000
On Leave
or Waiting
Orders
$4,000
3,000
2,800
2,300
2,000
2,200
1,600
1,800
1,200
1,400
800
1,000
500
2 500
2,000
2,400
2,600
2,800
3,000
1 Naval Cadets at sea, in other than practice shii)S, $950 per annum.
2 Mates who were in the service Aug. 1, 1894, are entitled to receive annual pay at
the rates following : at sea, $1,200 ; on shore duty, $900 ; on leave or waiting orders, $700.
(Act Aug. 1, 1894.)
NAVY PAY TABLE
NAVY PAY TABLE
Ixiii
Rank
At Sea
On Shore
Duty
On Leave
or Waiting
Orders
PASSED ASSISTANT SURGEONS AND
PASSED ASSISTANT PAYMASTERS —
First five years after date of appointment .
^2,000
♦ 1,800
$1,500
After tivevears from date of appointment
2,200
2,000
1,700
PASSED ASSISTANT ENGINKKUS —
First five years afterdate of appointment .
2,000
1,800
1,500
Second five years after date of appointment
2,200
2,000
1,700
Third five years after date of a[)pointment
2,450
2,250
1,900
Fourth five voars after date of appointment
2,700
2,350
1,950
ASSISTANT SUHGKONS, ASSISTANT PAY-
MASTERS, AND ASSISTANT ENGINEERS —
First five years after date of appointment .
1,700
1,400
1,000
After five years from date of appointment
1,900
1,000
1,200
NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS—
First five years after date of appointment .
3,200
2,200
Second five years after date of ap{)Ointment
3,400
2,400
Third five years after date of appointment
3,700
2,700
Fourth five years after date of appointment
4,000
3,000
After twenty years from date of appointment .
4,200
3,200
ASSISTANT NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS —
First four years after date of appointment
2,000
1,500
Second four years after date of appointment
2,200
1,700
After eight years from date of appointment
2,000
1,900
CHAPLAINS —
First five years after date of commission .
2,500
2,000
1,600
After five vears from date of commission .
2,800
2,300
1,900
PROFESSORS OF MATHEMATICS AND CIVIL
ENGINEERS —
First five years after date of appointment .
2,400
2,400
1,500
Second five years after date of appointment
2,700
2,700
1,800
Third five years after date of appointment
3,000
3,000
2,100
After fifteen years from date of appointment .
3,500
3,500
2,600
BOATSWAINS, GUNNERS, CARPENTERS,
SAILMAKERS, AND PHARMACISTS —
First three years after date of appointment
1,200
900
700
Second three years after date of appointment .
1,300
1,000
800
Third three years after date of appointment
1,400
1,300
900
Fourth three years after date of appointment .
1,600
1,300
1,000
After twelve \"ears from date of appointment .
1,800
1,600
1,200
Rank
Pay per
annum
SECRETARY —
To Naval Academy
,
.
$1,800
CLERKS —
First clerk to Commandants of navj'-yards
.
,
1,500
Second clerk to Commandants of navy-yards .
• • •
1,200
To Commandant at navy-yard. Mare Island .
•
1,800
To Commandants of naval stations .
1,500
CLERKS TO PAYMASTERS —
At navy-yard. Mare Island ....
• ■
1,800
At navy-yards, Boston, New York, League Islan
d, and Wasl
lington .
1,600
At navy-yards, Portsmouth, Norfolk, and Pensac
!ola
,
1,400
At other stations
1,300
At receiving-ships, Boston, New York, and Leag
'ue Island .
1,600
At receiving-ship, Mare Island ....
.
1,800
At other recoiving-shi[)s, on vessels of the firs
t rate, at t
lie Naval
Academy, and at the Naval Home
•
1,300
On vessels of the second rate and to fleet payma
3ters .
.
1.100
On vessels of the third rate and supi>ly vessels an
d storeships
1,000
To Inspectors in charge of provisions and clothin
ton. New York, League Island, and Washingto
g at navy-ya
rds, Bos-
n
1,600
At other inspections
1,300
Ixiv
UNITED STATES
Note. — From and after July 1, ISTO, the spirit ration is totally abolished, and in lieu
thereof the navy ration, under the appropriation of provisions for the navy, is 30 cents per
day.
No officer on the retired list of the navy shall be employed on active duty except in
time of war ; and those otficers on the retired list, and those hereafter retired, who were, or
who may be, retired after 40 years' service, or on attaining the age of 02 years, in con-
formity with section 1 of the act of December, 1S61, and its amendments dated June 25,
1864, or those who were or may be retired from incapacity resulting from long and faithful
service, from wounds or injuries received in the hne of duty, from sickness or exposure
therein, shall, after the passage of this act, be entitled to 75 per centum of the present sea
pay of the grade or rank which they held at the time of their retirement. The rear-admirals
provided for in the act of June 5, 1872, shall be considered as having been retired as rear-
admirals. [Act 3d March, 1873.]
CLASSIFICATION AND PAY OF PETTY OFFICERS, ENLISTED MEN, ETC.
Chief Petty Officers
Seaman Branch
Monthly
Pay
Artificer Branch
Monthly
Pay ■
Special Branch
Monthly
Pay
Chief Masters-at-
Chief Machinists .
$70
Chief Yeomen
$60
Arms .
$65
Chief Carpenters'
Hospital Stewards
60
Chief Boatswains'
Mates .
50
Bandmasters
52
Mates .
50
Chief Electricians .
50
Chief Gunners'
Mates .
50
Chief Gun Captains
50
Chief Quartermas-
ters .
50
Petty Officers, First Class
Masters-at-Arms,
Machinists, first
First Musicians
$36
first class .
$40
class .
$55
Y''eomeu, first class
40
Boatswains' Mates,
Boilermakers
CO
first class .
40
Coppersmiths
50
Gunners' Mates,
Blacksmiths .
50
first class .
40
Plumbers and
Gun Captains,
Fitters
45
first class .
40
Sailniakers' Mates,
Quartermasters,
first class .
40
first class .
40
Carpenters' Mates,
first class .
Water Tenders
Electricians, first
class .
40
40
40
40
Petty Officers, Second Class
Masters-at-Arms,
Machinists, second
Yeomen, second
second class
$35
class .
$40
class .
$35
Boatswains' Mates,
Oilers
37
second class
35
Carpenters' Mates,
Gunners' Mates,
second class
35
second class
35
Printers .
35
Gun Captains,
Electricians, second
second class
35
class .
35
Quartermasters,
second class
35
Petty Officers, Third Class
Masters-at-Arms,
Carpenters' Mates,
Yeomen, third class
$30
third class .
$30
third class .
$30
Hospital Appren-
Cockswains .
30
Painters .
80
tices, first class .
30
Gunners' Mates,
third class .
30
Quartermasters,
third class .
30
CLASSIFICATION AND PAY TABLES
Ixv
CLASSIFICATION AND PAY OF PETTY OFFICERS, ENLISTED MEN, ETC.
— C'oiitiinu'd
Seamen, First Class
Seaman Branch
Scainon Gunners .
Seamen .
Apprentices, first
class .
Monthly
I'av
$■26
'2-t
Artificer Branch
Firemen, first class
Monthly
Pay
$35
Special Branch
Musicians, first
class .
Monthly
Pay
Seamen, Second Class
Ordinary Seamen .
Apprentices, second
class .
$19
15
Firemen, second
class .
Shipwrights .
Sailmakers
$.30
25
25
Musicians, second
class .
Buglers .
Hospital Appren-
tices
$30
30
20
Seamen, Third Class
Landsmen
Apprentices, third
class .
$16
9
Coal Passers
$22
MESSMEN BKANCII
Stewards to Commanders-in-Chief
Cooks to Commanders-in-Chief .
Stewards to Commandants .
Cooks to Commandants
Cabin Stewards ....
Cabin Cooks
Wardroom Stewards .
Wardroom Cooks
Steerage Stewards
$45
40
45
40
37
32
37
32
25
Steerage Cooks
Warrant Officers' Stewards
Warrant Officers' Cooks
Ship's Cooks, first class
Ship's Cooks, second class .
Ship's Cooks, third class
Ship's Cooks, fourth class .
Mess Attendants .
$22
24
20
35
30
25
20
16
(1) Cockswains detailed as Cockswains of boats propelled by machinery, or as Cock-
swains to Commanders-in-Chief, shall receive $5 per month in addition to their pay.
(2) Seamen in charge of holds shall receive $5 per month in addition to their pay.
(3) Landsmen assigned to duty as Jacks-of-the-Dust, or as Lamplighters, shall receive
$5 per month in addition to their pay.
(4) Any person who, after having enlisted in the navy for a term of three years and
received an honorable discharge, or a recommendation for recnlistment, upon the expiration
of his term of service, reenlists for three years within three months from the date of his
discharge, shall receive an increase of $1 per month to the pay prescribed for the rating in
which he serves for each consecutive recnlistment.
Twenty cents per month is deducted from the pay due each Officer, Seaman, and Marine
in the navy, to be applied to the fund for Naval Hospitals.
MARINE CORPS PAY TABLE
[All officers below the rank of Brigadier-General are entitled to 10 per cent, in addition to
their current yearly pay as given below, for each and every period of five years' service,
provided the total amount of such increase shall not exceed 40 per cent of their current
yearly pay ; and provided further, that the pay of a Colonel shall not exceed $4500 per
annum, and that of a Lieutenant-colonel, $4000 per annum. Officers on the retired list are
entitled to 75 per cent (salary and increase) of their rank.]
COLONHI^COMMANDANT
COLONEL
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ....'.
MAJOR (Staff and Line)
CAPTAIN AND ASSISTANT QUARTERMASTER
CAPTAIN
FIRST LIEUTENANT
SECOND LIEUTENANT
$3,500
8,500
8,000
2,500
2,000
1,800
1.500
1.400
Ixvi
UNITED STATES
NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS, MUSICIANS, AND PRIVATES
[" Class 3 is the term used to designate pay of men who have ever received reenlisted
pay under the act of Aug. 4, 1S54, but have allowed a longer period than three months to
elapse before again enlisting. The amount is the same as that received by a man serving in
the fifth year of a first enlistment."
Twenty (20) cents per month will continue to be deducted from the rates below, as usual,
for the Navy Hospital Fund.
Members of the Marine Band are allowed $4 per month in addition to rates of pay as
given below for playing at the White House and Public Grounds, under the provisions of the
act of Congress of Aug. IS, 185G.]
First enlistment or first five years
Grade
First
Year
Second
Year
Third
Year
Fourth
Year
Fifth
Year
Sergeant-major .
Quartermaster-sergeant
Drum major
First sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Drummer and fifer
Private
Leader of the band
Musician, first class .
Musician, second class
Musician, third class .
$23
23
25
25
18
15
13
13
90
34
20
17
$23
23
25
25
18
15
13
13
90
34
20
17
$24
24
26
26
19
16
14
14
90
35
21
18
$25
25
27
27
20
17
15
15
90
36
22
19
$26
26
28
28
21
18
16
16
90
37
23
20
Grade
First
Reenlist-
ment or
Second 5
Years
Second
ReiJnlist-
ment or
Third 5
Years
Third
Reenlist-
ment or
Fourth 5
Years
Fourth
Reenlist-
ment or
Fifth 5
Years
Class 3
Sergeant-major .
Quartermaster-sergeant
Drum major
First sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Drummer and fifer
Private.
Leader of the band
Musician, first class .
Musician, second class
Musician, third class .
$28
28
30
30
23
20
18
18
90
39
25
22
$29
29
31
31
24
21
19
19
90
40
26
23
$30
30
32
32
25
22
20
20
90
41
27
24
$31
31
33
33
26
23
21
21
90
42
28
25
$26
26
28
23
21
18
16
16
90
37
23
20
The relative rank of army and navy officers is as follows :
Admirals rank with Generals.
Vice-Admirals rank with Lieutenant-Generals.
Rear-Admirals rank with Major-Generals.
Commodores rank with Brigadier-Generals.
Captains rank with Colonels.
Commanders rank with Lieutenant-Colonels.
Lieutenant-Commanders rank with Majors.
Lieutenants rank with Captains.
Ensigns rank with Lieutenants
LEGISLATIVE Ixvii
Legislative
The whole legislative power is vested by the Constitution in
a Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Eepresenta-
tives. The Senate consists of two members from each State,
chosen by the State Legislatures for six years. Senators must
be not less than thirty years of age; must have been citizens
of the United States for nine years ; and be residents in the
States for which they are chosen. Besides its legislative
functions, the Senate is intrusted with the power of ratifying
or rejecting all treaties made by the President with foreign
powers, a two-thirds majority of senators present being re-
quired for ratification. The Senate is also invested with the
power of confirming or rejecting all appointments to office
made by the President, and its members constitute a High
Court of Impeachment. The judgment in the latter case ex-
tends only to removal from office and disqualification. The
House of Representatives has the sole power of impeachment.
The House of Representatives is composed of members
elected every second year by the vote of citizens who, according
to the laws of their respective States, are qualified to vote. In
general such voters are all male citizens over 21 years of age.
Xeither race nor color affects the right of citizens. The fran-
chise is not absolutely universal ; residence for at least one
year in most States (in Rhode Island and Kentucky two years,
in ^Michigan and Maine three months) is necessary, in some
States the payment of taxes, in others registration. On the
other hand, many of the Western States admit to the franchise
unnaturalized persons, who have formally declared their in-
tention to become citizens. Untaxed Indians are excluded
from the franchise, in most States convicts, in some States
duellists and fraudulent voters ; in Massachusetts ^'oters are re-
quired to be able to read English, and in Mississippi and South
Carolina there are also educational restrictions. Colorado,
Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming admit women to the franchise on
equal terms with men. The number of members to which each
State is entitled is determined by the census taken every ten
years. B3'' the Apportionment Act consequent on the census
of 1890, the number of representatives Avas 357, distributed as
follows :
Ixviii
UNITED STATES
Alabama
. 9
Maine .
Arkansas
. 6
Maryland
California
. 7
Massachusetts
Colorado
. 2
Michigan
Connecticut
. 4
Minnesota .
Delaware
. 1
Mississippi .
Florida .
. 2
Missouri
Georgia .
. 11
Montana
Idaho .
. 1
Nebraska
Illinois .
. 22
Nevada
Indiana .
. 13
New Hampshire
Iowa
. 11
New Jersey .
Kansas .
. 8
New York
Kentucky
. 11
North Carolina
Louisiana
. 6
North Dakota
Ohio
. 21
Oregon .
. 2
Pennsylvania
. 30
Rhode Island
. 2
South Carolina
. 7
South Dakota
. 2
Tennessee
. 10
Texas .
. 13
Utah
. 1
Vermont
. 2
Virginia
. 10
Washington .
. 2
West Virginia
. 4
Wisconsin
. 10
Wyoming
. 1
Total .
357
4
6
13
12
7
7
15
1
6
1
2
8
34
9
1
On the basis of the last census there is one representative to
every 173,900 inhabitants. The popular vote for President in
1896 was about 14,000,000, or nearly one in five of the entire
population. In 1890 there were in the United States 16,940,-
311 males of voting age — 21 years and over, including un-
naturalized foreigners.
The next apportionment will be based upon the Federal
census of 1900, the results of which census will be reported to
the Congress assembling the first Monday in December of that
year, the Congress passing an apportionment act providing the
requisite number of representatives from each State, and noti-
fying the respective States of this action. Each State will
then rearrange its congressional districts for the next election,
which will take place in November, 1902, and the apportion-
ment then established in accordance with the next enumeration
will hold for ten years. The apportionment at the various
censuses has been as follows :
Census
Apportionment
Whole
Number
of Koj)-
rcsonta-
tives
Year
Population
Year
Katio
Constitution
First Census .
Second Census
Third Census .
Fourth Census
Fifth Census .
Sixth Census .
Seventh Census
Eighth Census
Ninth Census .
Tenth Census .
Eleventh Census
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1S50
1860
1870
1880
1800
8,929,214
5,308,483
7,239,881
9,633,822
12,866,020
17,069,453
23,191,876
81,443,321
38,558,371
50,155,783
62,622,250
1789
1793
1803
1813
1823
1833
1843
1853
1863
1873
1883
1893
30,000
33,000
33,000
35,000
40,000
47,700
7O,(»80
93,423
127,381
131,425
151,911
173,901
65
105
141
ISl
213
240
223
233
243
293
325
356
LEGISLATIVE
Ixix
REPRESENTATION OF THE STATES UNDER THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH
CENSUSES, WITH INCREASE UNDER THE LATTER
State
Tenth
Census
(825
M KM-
KERS)
Eleventh
Census
(356 Members)
State
Tenth
Census
(325
Mem-
HERS)
Eleventh
Census
(350 Memheks)
Number
Number
Increase
Number
Number
Increase
Alabama .
Arkansas .
California .
Colorado .
Connecticut
Delaware .
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa .
Kansas
Kentucky .
Louisiana .
Maine
Maryland .
Massachusetts .
Michigan .
Minnesota .
Mississippi
Missouri .
8
5
6
1
4
1
2
10
20
13
11
7
11
6
4
G
12
11
5
7
14
9
6
7
2
4
1
2
11
1
22
13
11
8
11
6
4
6
13
12
7
7
15
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
Montana .
Nebraska .
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina .
North Dakota .
Ohio .
Oregon
Pennsylvania .
Rhode Island
South Carolina .
South Dakota .
Tennessee .
Texas
Vermont ,
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia .
Wisconsin .
Wyoming .
3
1
2
7
34
9
21
1
23
2
7
10
11
2
10
4
9
1
G
1
2
8
34
9
1
21
2
30
2
7
2
10
13
2
10
2
4
10
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
Since the census of 1890 Utah has been admitted as a State with one
representative, making the present membership of the House 357.
According to the terms of the Constitution, representatives
must not be less than twenty-five years of age, must have been
citizens of the United States for seven years, and be residents
in the States from which they are chosen. In addition to the
representatives from the States, the House admits a "delegate"
from each organized Territory, who has the right to speak on
any subject and to make motions, but not to vote. The dele-
gates are elected in the same manner as the representatives.
Each of the two houses of Congress is made by the Consti-
tution the " judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications
of its own members " ; and each of the houses may, with the
concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.
The Congress of the United States has the power to propose
alterations in the Constitution, by the 5th article of the same.
The article orders that the Congress, whenever two-thirds of
])oth houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments
to the Constitution, or, on the ap|)lication of the Legislatures
of two-thirds of all the States, shall call a convention for pro-
posing the amendments, which in either case shall be valid to
Ixx UNITED STATES
all intents and purposes as part of the Constitution when rati-
fied by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States,
or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or other
mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United
States by the Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution,
adopted Dec. 18, I860. The vast change in the political and
social organization of the E-epublic made by this new funda-
mental law was completed by the fourteenth and fifteenth
Amendments of the Constitution, adopted in 1868 and 1870,
which gave to the former slaves all the rights and privileges
of citizenship.
Under an act of Congress approved Jan. 20, 1874, the salary
of a senator, representative, or delegate in Congress is $5000
per annum with travelling expenses calculated at the rate of
twenty cents per mile, by the most direct route of usual travel,
and similar return, once for each session of Congress. There
is also an annual allowance of $125 for stationery, etc., for
each member. The salary of the Speaker of the House of
Eepresentatives is, under the same Act of Congress, $8000
per annum.
No senator or representative can, during the time for which
he is elected, be appointed to any civil office under authority of
the United States which shall have been created or the emolu-
ments of which shall have been increased during such time ;
and no person holding any office under the United States can
be a member of either house during his continuance in office.
No religious test is required as a qualification to any office or
public trust under the United States.
The period usually termed " a Congress " in legislative lan-
guage continues for two years ; as, for example, from noon,
Marcli 4, 1899, until March 4, 1901, at which latter time the
term of the representatives to the Fifty-sixth Congress expires,
and the term of the new House of Representatives commences ;
but a new Congress does not assemble, unless called together
by the President in special session, until the first Monday in
December following, and the organization of the House, that
is, the election of the Speaker and other officers, takes place
on the first assembling, whether in special session after the
4th of March of every second year, as stated, or on the first
Monday in December after its term begins. While the sessions
of the Senate are hekl contemporaneously with those of the
House, its organization may continue from Congress to Con-
gress.
LEGISLATIVE Ixxi
There are usually two sessions of each Congress — the first
or long session, which may hold until adjourned by resolution
of the two Houses, and the short session, which is the closing
one, and which expires on the 4th of March every second year,
the new Congress beginning its term the same day.
Neither house of Congress can adjourn for more than three
days at any one time without the joint action of both. In
case of a disagreement of the two houses as to adjournment,
the President has the right to prorogue the Congress.
The Vice-President of the United States, as before stated, is
President of the Senate, but he has no vote unless there is a
tie. The Senate has the sole power to try all impeachments,
and it acts upon the nominations for appointment by the
President ; it also acts upon treaties submitted to it by the
administration. The Senate may be called in extra session
for these purposes by the President without the Congress
being called together.
All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of
Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with
amendments to such bills, as on all other laills.
By Article I., Section 8, of the Constitution, the Congress
has power —
To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts
and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United
States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout
the United States ;
To borrow money on the credit of the United States ;
To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
States, and with the Indian tribes ;
To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on
the subject of bankruptcies throusjhout the United States ;
To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix
the standard of weights and measures ;
To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and cur-
rent coin of the United States ;
To establish post offices and post roads ;
To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing; for
limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respect-
ive writings and discoveries ;
To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ;
To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas,
and offences against the law of nations ;
To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules
concerning captures on land and water ;
To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
use shall be for a longer term than two years ;
To provide and maintain a navy ;
To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
naval forces ;
Ixxii
UNITED STATES
To provide for calling forth -the militia to execute the laws of the
Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ;
To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the
United States, reserving to the States, respectively, the appointment of
the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the dis-
cipline prescribed by Congress ;
To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such dis-
trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular
States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern-
ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards,
and other needful buildings ; and
To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into
execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this con-
stitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or
officer thereof.
THE SENATE
President. — Vice-President Garret A. Hobart.
President pro tempore. — William P. Frye.
Secretary to the Vice-President. — Frederick Evans.
Chaplain. — Kev. William B.. Milbiirn.
Secretary of the Senate. — William R. Cox.
Chief Clerk. — John S. McEwan.
Principal Legislative Clerk. — Henry H. Gilfry.
Beading Clerk. — A. C. Parkinson.
3Iinute and Journal Clerk. — H. B. McDonald.
Financial Clerk. — R. B. Nixon.
Librarian. — A. W. Church.
Sergeant-at-arms. — Richard J. Bright.
Assistant Doorkeeper. — Alonzo H. Stewart.
Postmaster of the Senate. — James A. Crystal.
Superintendent of Document Boom. — Amzi Smith.
COMMENCEMENT AND EXPIRATION OF THE TERMS OF SERVICE OF
SENATORS
Class I. — Senators whose Terms of Service Expire March 4, 1001
(Thirty Senators in this class)
[R., Rt'i)ublican ; D., Democrat ; P., PopuHst ; S. R., Silver Eepublican ; S. Silver;
Ind., IndependentJ
Name
Residence
Commencement
of Service
Bacon, Augustus 0.
D.
Macon, Ga.
Mar. 4, 1895
Baker, Lucien
R.
Leavenworth, Kan .
Mar. 4, 1895
Berry, James II. .
I).
Bentonville, Ark.
Mar. 25, 1885
Butler, Marion
P.
Raleigh, N.C. .
Mar. 4,1895
Caffery, l^onelson
D.
Franklin, Ua. .
Jan. 7, 1898
Carter, Thomas II.
R.
Helena, Mont.
Mar. 4, 1895
Chandler, William E. .
R.
Concord, N.II.
June 19, 1889
Chilton, Horace .
D.
Tyler, Tex.
Mar. 4, 1895
SENATE
Ixxiii
Class I — Continued
Name
Cullom, Shelby M.
Elkins, Stephen B.
Frye, William P. .
Gear, John H.
Hoar, George F. ,
Kenney, Richard 1\,
Lindsay, William .
McBride, George W.
MciNIillan, James .
Martin, Thomas S.
Morgan, John T. .
Nelson, Knute
Pettigrew, Richard F
Sewell, William J.
Shoup, George L.
Sullivan, Will Van Amberg
Thurston, John M.
Tillman, Benjamin R.
Turley, Thomas B.
Warren, Francis E.
Wetmore, George P.
Wolcott, Edward 0.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
D.
D.
R.
R.
D.
D.
R.
S.R.
R.
R.
D.
R.
D.
D.
R.
R.
R.
Residence
Springfield, 111.
Elkins, W. Va.
Lewiston, Me. .
Burlington, Iowa
Worcester, Mass.
Dover, Del.
Frankfort, Ky.
St. Helens, Ore.
Detroit, Mich. .
Scottsville, Va.
Selma, Ala.
Alexandria, Minn. .
Sioux Falls, S. Dak.
Camden, N.J. .
Boise, Idaho .
Oxford, Miss. .
Omaha, Neb. .
Trenton, S.C. .
Memphis, Tenn.
Cheyenne, Wyo.
Newport, R.I. .
Denver, Col. .
Commencement
of Service
Mar. 4
Mar. 4
Mar. 8
Mar. 4
Mar. 4
Feb. 5
Feb. 21
Mar,
Mar,
Mar
Mar,
Mar,
Dec.
Mar. 4
Dec. 29
May 20
Mar. 4
Mar. 4
July 20
Mar. 4
Mar. 4
Mar. 4
1883
1895
1881
1895
1877
1897
1893
1895
1889
1895
1877
1895
1889
1895
1890
1898
1895
1895
1897
1895
1895
1889
^ Appointed to fill a vacancy.
Class II. — Sexators whose Terms of Service Expire March 4, 1903
(Thirty Senators in this class)
Allison, William B.
Clay, Alexander S.
Deboe, William J.
Fairbanks, Charles W.
Foraker, Joseph B.
Gallinger, Jacob H.
Hansbrough, Henry C.
Harris, William A.
Heitfeld, Henry .
Jones, James K. .
Jones, John P.
Kyle, James II.
McEnery, Samuel D.
McLaurin, John L.
Mallory, Stephen R.
Mason, William E.
Morrill, Justin S.i
Penrose, Boies,
R.
D.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
P.
P.
D.
S.
Ind.
D.
D.
D.
R.
R.
R.
Dubuque, Iowa
Marietta, Ga. .
Marion, Ky. .
Indianapolis, Ind. .
Cincinnati, O.
Concord, N.H.
Devils Lake, N. Dak.
Linwood, Kan.
Lewiston, Idaho
Washington, Ark. .
Gold Hill, Nev.
Aberdeen, S. Dak. .
New Orleans, La.
Bennettsville, S.C. .
Pensacola, Fla.
Chicago, 111.
Strafford, Vt. .
Philadelphia, Pa.
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Apr.
28,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
June
1.
May
14,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
Mar.
4,
1873
1897
1897
1897
1897
1891
1891
1897
1897
1885
1873
1891
1897
1897
1897
1897
18G7
1897
* Died Dec. 28, 1998. Jonathan Ross appointed by Governor of Vermont to fill vacancy
till Legislature elects.
Ixxiv
UNITED STATES
Class II — Continued
Name
Eesidence
Commencement
of Service
Perkins, George C.
Pettus, Edmund W. .
Piatt, Orville H. .
Piatt, Thomas C. .
Pritchard, Jeter C.
Kawlins, Joseph L.
Simon, Joseph
Spooner, John C. .
Teller, Henry M. .
Turner, George .
Vest, George G. .
Wellington, George L.
R.
D.
R.
R.
R.
D.
R.
R.
S.R.
P.
D.
R.
Oakland, Cal. .
Selma, Ala.
Meriden, Conn.
Owego, N.Y. .
Madison, N.C.
Salt Lake, Utah
Portland, Ore.
Madison, Wis.
Central City, Col. .
Spokane, Wash.
Kansas City, Mo. .
Cumberland, Md. .
July 22, 1893
Mar. 4,1897
Mar. 4, 1879
Mar. 4, 1897
Jan. 24, 1895
Mar. 4, 1897
Dec. 5, 1898
Mar. 4, 1897
Mar. 4, 1885
Mar. 4, 1897
Mar. 4, 1879
Mar. 4, 1897
Class III. — Senators whose Terms of Service Expire Mar. 4, 1905
(Thirty Senators in this class')
Aldrich, Nelson W.
Bate, AVilliam B. .
Beveridge, Albert J.
Burrows, Julius C.
Clark, Clarence D.
Clark, William A.
Cockrell, Francis M.
Culberson, Charles A.
Daniel, John W. .
Davis, Cushman K.
Depew, Chauncey M.
Foster, Addison G.
Hale, Eugene
Hanna, Marcus A.
Hawley, Joseph R.
Hay ward, Monroe L.
Kean, John .
Lodge, Henry Cabot
McComas, Louis E.
McCumber, Porter J.
Money, H. D.
Pasco,! Samuel
Proctor, Redfield .
Quarles, Joseph V.
Scott, Nathan B. .
Stewart, William M.
R.
D.
R.
R.
R.
D.
D.
D.
D.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
R.
D.
D.
R.
R.
R.
S.
Providence, R.I.
Nashville, Tenn.
Indianapolis, Ind. .
Kalamazoo, Mich. .
Evanston, Wyo.
Butte, Mont.
Warrensburg, Mo. .
Dallas, Tex.
Lynchburg, Va.
St. Paul, xMinn.
New York, N.Y. .
Tacoma, Wash.
Ellsworth, Me.
Cleveland, 0. .
Hartford, Conn.
Nebraska City, Neb.
Elizabeth, N.J.
Nahant, Mass. .
Hagerstown, Md. .
Wahpeton, N. Dak. .
Carrollton, Miss.
Monticello, Fla.
Proctor, Vt.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Wheeling, W.V. .
Virginia City, Nev. .
California 2
Delaware ^
Pennsylvania 2.
Utah 2 .
Oct. 5, 1881
Mar. 4, 1887
Mar. 4, 1899
Jan. 23, 1895
Feb. 6, 1895
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1875
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1887
]\Iar. 4, 1887
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1881
Mar. 4, 1897
Mar. 4, 1881
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1893
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1899
Oct. 8, 1897
Mar. 4, 1887
Nov. 1, 1891
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1899
Mar. 4, 1887
1 Appointed by Governor of Florida till legislature elects in April, 1899.
' Elections pending.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
Ixxv
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
Speaker. — Thomas B. Reed.
Private Secretary to the Speaker. — Amos L. Allen.
Chaplain. — Rev. Henry N. Couden.
Clerk of the House. — Alexander McDowell.
Chief Clerk. — William J. Browning.
Clerk of Doctimod Boom. — John H. Evans.
Sergeant-at-Arms. — Benjamin F. Russell.
Doorkeeper. — W.J. Glenn.
Superintendent of Folding Room. — F. B. Lyon.
Superi)itendent of Document Room. — C. H. Pierce.
Postmaster. — Joseph C NcElroy.
Clerk in Charge of Congressional Record at Capitol. — W. A. Smith.
The foregoing are the chief officers of the Fifty-fifth Congress. The
terms of all the members thereof expire March 4, 1899.
The members-elect of the Fifty-sixth Congress are as follows : —
[U., Eepublican; D., Democrat; P., Populist; F., Fusion; S., Silver; G.D., Gold
Democrat ; *, Member of the Fifty-fifth Congress.]
ALABAMA
1. * George W. Taylor, D.
2. * Jesse F. Stallings, D.
3. * Henry D. Clayton, D.
4. * Gaston A. Robbins, D.
5. * Willis Brewer, D.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6. * John H. Bankhead, D.
7. John L. Burnett, D.
8. * Joseph Wheeler, D.
9. * O. W. Underwood, D.
1. *P. D. McCulloch, D.
2. * John S. Little, D.
3. * Thomas C. McRae, D.
L * John A. Barbara, R.
2. * ]\r. De Vries, T>.
3. Victor H. Metcalf, R.
4. Julius Kahn, R.
1. * John F. Shafroth, S.
1. * E. Stevens Henry, R.
2. * N. D. Sperry, R.
At large
L * S. M. Sparkman, D.
* Rufus E. Lester, D.
* James M. Griggs, D.
* Elijah B. Lewis, 1).
* William C. Adamson, D.
* L. F. Livingston, D.
* Charles L. Bartlett, D.
ARKANSAS
4. * William L. Terry, D.
5. * Hugh A. Dinsmore, D.
6. * S. Brundidge, jr., D.
CALIFORNIA
5. * Eugene F. Loud, R.
6. R. J.^ Walters, R.
7. J. C. Needham, R.
COLORADO
I 2. * John C. Bell, P.
CONNECTICUT
3. * Charles A. Russell, R.
4. * Ebenezer J. Hill, R.
DELAWARE
-John H. Hoffecker, R.
FLORIDA
I 2. * Robert W. Davis, D.
GEORGIA
7. * John W. Maddox, D.
8. * William M. Howard, D.
9. * Farisli C. Tate, D.
10. * William H. Fleming, D.
11. * William C. Brantley, D.
Ixxvi
UNITED STATES
IDAHO
At large — James Gunn, P.
ILLINOIS
1. *. James R. Mann, R.
2. * William Lorimer, R.
3. George P. Foster, D.
4. Thomas Cusack, D.
5. Edward T. Noonan, D.
6. * Henry S. Boutell, R.
7. * George E. Foss, R.
8. * Albert J. Hopkins, R.
9. * Robert R. Hitt, R.
10. * George W. Prince, R.
11. * Walter Reeves, R.
1. * J. A. Hemenway, R.
2. * Robert W. Miers, D.
3. * William T. Zenor, D.
4. * F. M. Griffith, D.
5. * G. W. Paris, R.
6. James E. Watson, R.
7. * Jesse Overstreet, R.
1. Thomas Hedge, R.
2. Joseph R. Lane, R.
3. *D. B. Henderson, R.
4. Gilbert N. Haughen, R.
5. *Robert G. Cousins, R.
6. *J. F. Lacey, R.
At large — W. J. Bailey, R.
1. *Charles Curtis, R.
2. J. D. Bowersock, R.
3. *E. R. Ridgeley, F.
1. *Charles K. Wheeler, D.
2. Henry D. Allen, D.
3. *John S. Rhea, D.
4. *David H. Smith, D.
5. Oscar Turner, D.
6. *Albert S. Berry, D.
12. * Joseph G. Cannon, R.
13. * Vespasian Warner, R.
14. * Joseph V. Graff, R.
15. * Benjamin F. Marsh, R.
16. William E. Williams, D.
17. Benjamin F. Caldwell, D.
18. * Thomas M. Jett, D.
19. Joseph B. Crowley, D.
20. James R. Williams, D.
21. William A. Rodenburg, R.
22. * George W. Smith, R.
INDIANA
8. George W. Cromer, R.
9. * Charles B. Landis, R.
10. * E. D. Crumpacker, R.
11. * George W. Steele, R.
12. * J. M. Robinson, D.
13. Abraham L. Brick, R.
IOWA
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
KANSAS
4.
5.
6.
7.
*John A. T. Hull, R.
*William P. Hepburn, R.
Smith McPherson, R.
*J. P. Dolliver, R.
Lot Thomas, R.
J. M. Miller, R.
W. A. Calderhead, R.
W. A. Reeder, R.
C. I. Long, R.
KENTUCKY
7. *Evan E. Settle, D.
8. George G. Gilbert, D.
9. *Samuel J. Pugh, R.
10. *T. Y. Fitzpatrick, D.
11. Vincent Boreing, R.
1. *Adolph Meyer, D.
2. *Robert C. Davey, D.
3. *Robert F. Broussard, D.
1. *Thomas B. Reed, R.
2. *Nelson Dingley, R.i
LOUISIANA
4. Phanor Brezeals, D.
5. *Samuel T. Baird, D.
6. *S. M. Robertson, D.
MAINE
3. *Edwin C. Burleigh, R.
4. *Charles A. Boutelle, R.
1 Died Jan. 18, 1899.
HOUSE OF- REPRESENTATIVES
Ixxvii
John W. Smith, D.
*William B. Baker, R.
Frank C. Wachter, R.
MARYLAND
4. James W. Denny, D.
5. *Sydney E. Mudd, R.
6. George A. Tearre, R.
MASSACHUSETTS
*George P. Lawrence, R.
*F. H. Gillett, R.
J. R. Thayer, G. D.
*G. W. Weymouth, R.
*\Villiam S. Knox, R.
*William H. Moody, R.
E. W. Roberts, R.
*John B. Corliss, R.
Henry C. Smith, R.
"Wasliington Gardner, R.
*E. Larue Hamilton, R.
*William A. Smith, R.
*Samuel W. Smith, R.
*James A. Tawney, R.
*James T. McCleary, R.
*Joel P. Heatwole, R.
*Fred C. Stevens, R.
*John M. Allen, D.
*Thomas Spight, D.
*T. C. Catchings, D.
*Andrew F. Fox, D.
*James T. Lloyd, D.
William W. Rucker, D.
John Dougherty, D.
*Charles F. Cochran, T).
*William S. Cowherd, D.
*D. A. De Armond, D.
*James Cooney, D.
*Richard P. Bland, D.
8. *Samuel W. McCall, R.
9. *J. F. Fitzgerald, D.
10. Henry F. Naphen, D.
11. *Charles F. Sprague, R.
12. *William C. Lovering, R.
13. *William S. Greene, R.
MICHIGAN
7. Edgar Weeks, R.
8. J. W. Fordney, R.
9. *Rosvvell P. Bishop, R.
10. *R. O. Crump, R.
11. *William S. Mesick, R.
12. *Carlos D. Sheldon, R.
MINNESOTA
5. *Loren Fletcher, R.
6. *Page Morris, R.
7. *Frank M. Eddy, R.
MISSISSIPPI
5. *John S. Williams, D.
6. *F. A. McLain, D.
7. *Patrick Henry, D.
MISSOURI
9. *Champ Clark, D.
10. *Richard Bartholdt, R.
11. *Charles F. Joy, R.
12. *Charles E. Pearce, R.
13. *Edward S. Kobb, D.
14. *W. D. Vandiver, D.
15. *M. E. Benton, D.
MONTANA
At large — A. J. Campbell, D.
Elmer J. Burkett, R.
* David II. Mercer, B
John S. Robinson, F.
NEBRASKA
4. * William L. Stark, F.
5. *R. D. Sutherland, F.
6. * William L, Greene, F.i
NEVADA
At large — * F. G. Newlands, S.
1 Died March 11, 1&99.
Ixxviii
UNITED STATES
NEW HAMPSHIRE
1. * Cyrus A. Sulloway, R. | 2. * Frank G. Clarke, R.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
NEAV JERSEY
* H. C. Loudenslager, R.
* John J. Gardner, R.
* Benjamin F. Howell, R.
J. S. Solomon, D.
5. * James F. Stewart, R.
6. * Richard W. Parker, R.
7. William D. Daly, D.
8. * Charles N. Fowler, R.
NEW YORK
Townsend Scudder, D.
John J. Fitzgerald, D.
* Edmund H. Driggs, D.
B. T. Clayton, D.
F. E. Wilson, D.
Mitchell May, D.
Nicholas Muller, D.
Daniel J. Riordan, D.
* Thomas J. Bradley, D.
* A. J. Cummings, D.
* William Sulzer, D.
* G. B. McClellan, D.
Jefferson M. Levy, D.
W. Astor Chanler, D.
Jacob Ruppert, jr., D.
J. Q. Underbill, D.
A. S. TomjDkins, R.
18. * Jobn H. Ketcbam, R.
19. A. V. S. Cochrane, R.
20. M. H. Glynn, D.
21. Jobn K. Stewart, R.
22. * L. N. Littauer, R.
23. L. W. Emerson, R.
24. * C. A. Chickering, R.
25. * James S. Sherman, R.
26. * George W. Ray, R.
27. M. J. Driscoll, R.
28. * Sereno E. Payne, R.
29. * Charles W. Gillet, R.
30. * J. W. AVadswortb, R.
31. J. M. E. 0' Grady, R.
32. William H. Ryan, D.
33. * De A. S. Alexander, R.
34. * W. B. Hooker, R.
NORTH CAROLINA
J. H. Small, D.
* G. H. AVhite, R.
Charles R. Thomas, D.
John J. Jenkins, P.
* William W. Kitchin, D.
6. John D. Bellamy, D.
7. Theodore F. Klutz, D.
8. * R. Z. Linney, R.
9. W. T. Crawford, D.
NORTH DAKOTA
At large — B. E. Spalding, R.
OHIO
* William B. Shattuc, R.
* J. H. Bromwell, R.
* Jobn L. Brenner, D.
Robert B. Gordon, D.
* David Meekison, D.
* Setb W. Brown, R.
* Walter L. Weaver, R.
* Archibald Lvbrand, R.
* J. H. Southard, R.
Stephen Morgan, R.
* C. H. Grosvenor, R.
12. *
13. *
14. *
15. *
16. *
17. *
18. *
10. *
20.
21.
John J. Lentz, D.
James A. Norton, D.
Winfield S. Kerr, R.
H. C. Van Voorhis, R.
Lorenzo Danford, R.
J. A. McDowell, D.
Robert W. Tavler, R.
Charles Dick, R.
. O. Phillips, R.
Theodore E. Burton, R.
1. * Thomas H. Tongue, R.
OREGON
I 2. M. A. Moody, R.
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
Ixxix
PENNSYLVANIA
At large —
* Galusha A. Grow, R.
* S. A. Davenport, R.
1. * H. II. Bingham, R.
2. * Kobert Adams, jr., R.
3. ** William McAleer, G. D.
4. * James R. Young, R.
6. * Alfred C. Harmer, R.
G. * Thomas S. Butler, R.
7. * Irving P. Wanger, R.
8. L. 11. Barber, I).
9. * Daniel Ermentrout, D.
10. * Marriott Brosius, R.
11. * William Connell, R.
12. S. W. Davenport, D.
13. James W. Ryan, D.
RHODE
14. * Marlin E. Olmstead, R.
15. F. C. Wright, R.
16. * H. B. Packer, R.
17. Rufus K. Polk, D.
18. * T. M. Mahon, R.
19. Edward Ziegler, D.
20. Joseph E. Thropp, R.
21. S. N. Jack, R.
22. * John Dalzell, R.
23. * William H. Graham, R.
24. * E. F. Acheson, R.
25. * J. B. Showalter, R.
26. A. Gaston, D.
27. Joseph C. Sibley, D.
28. James K. P. Hall, D.
ISLAND
1. * Melville Bull, R.
1. * William Elliott, D.
2. * W. J. Talbert, D.
3. *A. 0. Latimer, D.
4. * S. Wilson, D.
I 2. * A. B. Capron, R.
SOUTH CAROLINA
5. D. E. Fenley, D.
6. * James Norton, D.
7. * J. W. Stokes, D.
SOUTH DAKOTA
At large — R. J. Gamble, R. ; C. K. Burke, R.
TENNESSEE
* W. P. Brownlow, R.
*H. R. Gibson, R.
* John A. Moon, D.
C. E. Snodgrass, D.
* J. D. Richardson, D.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
TEXAS
* J. W. Gaines, D.
* N. N. Cox, D.
* T. W. Sims, D.
* R. A. Pierce, D.
* E. W. Carmack, D.
1. * Thomas H. Ball, D.
2. * S. B. Cooper, D.
3. * R. C. De Graffenrcid, D.
4. J. L. Sheppard, D.
5. * Joseph. W. Bailey, D.
6. * R. E. Burke, D.
7. * R. L. Henry, D.
8. * S. W. T. Lanham, D.
9. A. S. Burleson, D.
10. * R. B. Hawley, R.
11. *R. Kleberg, D.
12. *J. L. Slayden, D.
13. * J. H. Stephens, D.
UTAH
At large — B. II. Roberts, D.
1. *II. H. Powers, R.
1. * William A. Jones, D.
'2. * William A. Young, D.
3. *John Lamb, D.
4. * S. P. Epes. D.
5. * C. A. Swanson, D.
VERMONT
I 2. * William W. Grout, R.
VIRGINIA
6. * Peter J. Otcy, D.
7. * James Hay, I).
8. *J. F. Kixev, D.
9. William F. Rea, D.
10. J. M. Quarles, D.
Ixxx UNITED STATES
WASHINGTON
At large — F. W. Cushman, R. ; W. L. Jones, R.
WEST VIRGINIA
3. D. E. Johnston, D.
1. * B. B. Dovener, R.
2. * A. G. Dayton, R.
1. * H. A. Cooper, R.
2. H. B. Dahle, R.
3. * Joseph W. Babcock, R.
4. * Theobold Otjen, R.
6. * S. S. Barney, R.
4. R. H. Freer, R.
WISCONSIN
6. * J. H. Davidson, R.
7. John J. Esch, R.
8. * Edward S. Minor, R.
9. * Alexander Stewart, R.
10. * J. J. J^kins, R.
WYOMING
At large — F. W. Mondell, R.
DELEGATES
ARIZONA NEW MEXICO OKLAHOMA
J. F. Wilson, D. | * Harvey B. Fergusson, D. | Dennis Flynn, R.
THE CAPITOL
The Capitol is situated in latitude 38"^ 53' 20.4" north and longitude
77° 00' 35.7" west from Greenwich. It fronts east, and stands on a
plateau 88 feet above the level of the Potomac.
The entire length of the building from north to south is 751 feet 4
inches, and its greatest dimension from east to west 350 feet. The area
covered by the building is 153,112 square feet.
The Senate Chamber is 113 feet 3 inches in length by 80 feet 3 inches
in width and 36 feet in height. The galleries will accommodate one
thousand persons.
The Representatives' Hall is 139 feet in length by 93 feet in width and
36 feet in height;
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
Librarian of Congress. — Herbert Putnam.
Chief Assistant Librarian. — A. R. Spofford.
Superintendent (f Beading Boom. — David Hiitcheson.
Assistant Librarians. — A. P. C. Griffin; John 3Iorrison ; H. A. Mor-
rison, jr. ; W. T. Moore; D. V. Jones; Daniel Murraii ; Fred. Foider ;
H. Bncker ; A. R. Kimball; M. I. Cavanagh ; A. Stephens; F, W.
Hebard; E. J. Giffin.
Custodian of Washington Library. — Lawrence Washington.
Chief of Catalogue Department. — J. C. M. Hanson.
Superintendent of Art Gallery. — Thomas G. Alvord.
Superintendent of Hall of Maps and Charts. — P. L. rhiUips.
Superintendent of Periodical Department. — A. B. Slawson.
Superintendent of Manuscript Department. — H. Friedenwald.
Superintendent of 3Iusic Department. — W. R. Whittlesey.
Superintendent of Congressional Beference Library. — J. Q. Hoivard.
Superintendent of Law Library. — T. H. Clark.
Begister of Copyrights. — Thorvald Sulberg.
JUDICIARY Ixxxi
LIBRARY BUILDING AND GROUNDS
Superintendent of. — Bernard R. Green.
Chief Clerk to Superintendent. — Ed. Sutherland.
The new building for the Library of Congress was provided for by an
act of Congress approved April 15, 1886. The Library was opened to the
public in the new building in November of the same year. The actual
cost of the building was $0,032,124.54, or $213,443.40 less than the limit
fixed by law. The book shelving is 231,680 running feet, or about 44
miles, which will accommodate 2,000,000 volumes. When completely
filled the Library, without encroaching on pavilions, reading rooms, or
exhibition halls, will accommodate 4,500,000 volumes, occupying a little
less than 100 miles of shelving. The Library embraces 800,000 printed
books, in which is included the law library of 100,000 volumes. There
are also 240,000 pamphlets, 25,000 original manuscripts, 60,000 graphic
arts, 210,000 pieces of music, 45,000 bound volumes of newspapers and
periodicals. There is also a pavilion for the blind, open daily, with a
special library of books in raised letters.
Judiciary
THE judicial SYSTEM
The judicial system, like the executive and legislative sys-
tems, is dual. The Federal Government maintains courts for
the trial of civil causes arising out of the admiralty, patent,
banking, and other laws of the United States; of certain
causes between citizens of different States ; and of crimes
against the United States. These crimes are few in number,
and the criminal jurisdiction of United States courts is com-
paratively insignificant, extending only to piracy, murder on
the high seas, offences against the postal and revenue laws,
and the like. Almost all offences against the person and
against property are dealt with by the State courts; also all
civil causes Avhere the parties are residents of the same State,
and matters of probate, divorce, and bankruptcy.
In the separate States the lowest courts are those held by
Justices of the Peace, or, in towns and cities, by Police Judges.
In the counties courts of record are held, some by local county
officers, others by District or Circuit Judges, who go from
county to county. In these courts there are usually the grand
and petty jury. The highest court in each State is the Supreme
Court, or Court of Final Appeal, with a Chief Justice and
Associate Judges. These judges are usually elected by the
people, but sometimes appointed by the Governor, with or
without the Senate or Council ; they usually hold office for
terms of years, but sometimes practically for life or during
good behavior. Their salaries vary from $2500 to $7500.
Ixxxii UNITED STATES
Of the Federal Courts the lowest are those of the districts,
of which there are about 60, each State forming one or more
districts. These courts may try any case of crime against the
United States not punishable with death. Above these are
nine Circuit Courts, each with a Circuit Judge, with or without
the local District Judge ; but one or two District Judges may
by themselves hold a Circuit Court. The Circuit Court Judges
appoint commissioners, whose duty it is to arrest, examine,
and commit persons accused of crime against the United
States, and to assist the Circuit and District Judges in taking
evidence for the trial of such persons. These duties may,
however, be performed by a judge or magistrate of either a
State or the Federal Government. Each of the nine Justices
of the Supreme Court must hold a Court in one of the nine
circuits at least once every two years, and with each may be
associated the Circuit or District Judge. The Supreme Court
consists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Judges, ap-
pointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. It
deals with appeals from inferior courts, and has original juris-
diction in cases affecting foreign ministers and consuls, and
those in which a State is a party.
Other courts with criminal jurisdiction are the Court of the
District of Columbia and those of the Territories.
There is also at Washington a Court of Claims.
This court was established by act of Congress, Feb. 24,
1855 (10 Stat. L., 612). It has general jurisdiction of all
" claims founded upon the Constitution of the United States
or any law of Congress, except for pensions, or upon any regu-
lation of an Executive Department, or upon any contract,
expressed or implied, with the Government of the United
States, or for damages, liquidated or unliquidated, in cases not
sounding in tort, in respect of which claims the party would be
entitled to redress against the United States, either in a court
of law, equity, or admiralty, if the United States were suable,
except claims growing out of the late civil war and commonly
known as war claims," and certain rejected claims.
It has jurisdiction also of claims of like character which may
be referred to it by any Executive Department, involving dis-
puted fa(;ts or controverted questions of law, where tlie amount
in controversy exceeds $3000, or where the decision will affect
a class of cases or furnish a precedent for the future action of
any Executive Department in the adjustment of a class of cases,
or where any authority, right, privilege, or exemption is claimed
or denied under the Constitution. In all the above-mentioned
JUDICIARY Ixxxiii
cases the court, when it finds for the claimant, may enter judg-
ment against the United States, payable out of the public
Treasury. An appeal, only upon questions of law, lies to the
Supreme Court on the part of the defendants in all cases, and
on the part of the claimants when the amount in controversy
exceeds f 3000. The findings of fact by the Court of Claims
are final and not subject to review by the Supreme Court.
By the act of March 3, 1883, chapter 116 (22 Stat. L., 485,
and 1 Supplement to 11. S., 2d ed., p. 403), called the " Bowman
Act," the head of an Executive Department may refer to the
court any " claim or matter " pending in his Department involv-
ing controverted questions of fact or law. The court is required
to find the facts and its conclusions of law and to report the
same to the Department for its guidance and action. The same
act authorizes either house of Congress or any of its committees
to refer to the court any "claim or matter" involving the
investigation and determination of facts, the court to find the
facts and report the same to Congress for such action thereon
as may there be determined. This act is extended by act of
March 2, 1887, chapter 359 (24 Stat. L., 505, and 1 Supplement
to R. S., 2d ed., p. 559).
There is a statute of limitations which prevents parties from
bringing actions on their own motion beyond six years after
the cause of action accrued, but the Departments may refer
claims at any time, if they were pending therein within the
six years. The only limitation under the Bowman Act is that
the court shall have no jurisdiction of any claim barred before
the passage of the act by any then existing provision of law.
By act of March 3, 1891, chapter 538 (26 Stat. L., 851, and
Supplement to B. S., 2d ed., p. 913), the court is vested with
jurisdiction of certain Indian depreciation claims.
The court sits at Washington, D.C., in the Department of
Justice Building, 1509 Pennsylvania Avenue, on the first Mon-
day in December each year, and continues into the following
summer and until all cases ready for trial are disposed of.
Cases may be commenced and entered at any time, whether the
court be in session or not.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Chief Justice. — Melville W. Fnller of Illinois, born in Maine Feb. 11,
18:33 ; appointed July 20, 1888.
Associate Justices. — John M. Harlan of Kentucky, born in Kentucky
June 1, 1838, and appointed Nov. 21), 1877 ; Horace (jvay of Massachusetts,
bom in that State March 24, 1828, and appointed Dec. 10, 1881 ; David
J. Brewer of Kansas, born in Smyrna, Asia Minor, June 20, 1837, and
Ixxxiv UNITED STATES
appointed Dec. 18, 1880 ; Henry B. Brown of Michigan, born in Massa-
chusetts March 2, 1836, and appointed Dec. 23, 1890 ; George Shiras, jr.,
of Pennsylvania, born in that State Jan. 26, 1832, and appointed in July,
1892 ; Edward D. White of Louisiana, born in that State November, 1845,
and appointed Feb. 19, 1894 ; Kufus W, Peckham of New York, born in
that State Nov. 8, 1838, and appointed in December, 1895 ; Joseph
McKenna of California, born in Pennsylvania Aug. 10, 1843, and ap-
pointed Dec. 16, 1897.
Clerk. — James H. 3IcKenney.
Marshal. —S. M. Wright.
Reporter. — J. C. Bancroft Davis.
CIRCUIT COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES
First Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Justice Gray. Districts of Maine, New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island.
Circuit Judges. — Le Baron B. Colt, Providence, R.I., and William L.
Putnam, Portland, Me.
Second Judicial Circuit. — Mr, Justice Peckham. Districts of "Vermont,
Connecticut, Northern New York, Southern New York, and Eastern
New York.
Circuit Judges. — William J. Wallace, Albany, N. Y. ; E. Henry La-
combe, New York City ; and Nathaniel Shipman, Hartford, Conn.
Third Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Justice Shiras. Districts of New Jersey,
Eastern Pennsylvania, Western Pennsylvania, and Delaware.
Circuit Judges. — Marcus W. Acheson, Pittsburg, Pa., and George M.
Dallas, Philadelphia, Pa.
Fourth Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Chief Justice Fuller. Districts of Mary-
land, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina.
Circuit Judges. — Nathan Goff, Clarksburg, W. Va., and C. H. Simon-
ton, Charleston, S.C.
Fifth Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Justice White. Districts of Northern
Georgia, Southern Georgia, Northern Florida, Southern Florida,
Northern Alabama, Middle Alabama, Southern Alabama, Southern
Mississippi, Eastern Louisiana, Western Louisiana, Northern Texas,
Eastern Texas, and Western Texas.
Circuit Judges. — Don A. Pardee, New Orleans, La. ; A. P. McCor-
mick, Dallas, Tex. ; and David D. Shelby.
Sixth Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Justice Harlan. Districts of Northern Ohio,
Southern Ohio, Eastern Michigan, Western Michigan, Kentucky,
Eastern Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and Western Tennessee.
Circuit Judges. — William H. Taft, Cincinnati, O.; Horace II. Lur-
ton, Nashville, Tenn. ; and William R. Day, Canton, O,
Seventh Judicial Circuit. '— Mr. Justice Brown. Districts of Indiana,
Northern Illinois, Southern Illinois, Eastern Wisconsin, and West-
ern Wisconsin.
Circuit Judges. — W. A. Woods, Indianapolis, Ind, ; James G. Jenkins,
Milwaukee, Wis.; John W. Showalter, Chicago, 111.; and Peter S.
Grosscup, Chicago, 111.
Eighth Judicial Circuit. — Mr. Justice Brewer. Districts of Minnesota,
Northern Iowa, Southern Iowa, Eastern Missouri, Western Mis-
souri, Eastern Arkansas, Western Arkan.sas, Nebraska, Colorado,
Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Utah, and
Territories of New Mexico and Oklahoma.
I
JUDICIARY
Ixxxv
Circuit Judges. — Henry C. Caldwell, Little Rock, Ark. ; Walter H.
Sanborn, St. Paul, Minn. ; and Amos M. Thayer, St. Louis, Mo.
Ninth Judicial CircAiit. — Mr. Justice McKenna. Districts of Northern
California, Southern California, Oregon, Nevada, Montana, Wash-
ington, Idaho, and Territories of Alaska and Arizona.
Circuit Judges. — William B. Gilbert, Portland, Ore. ; Erskine M. Ross,
Los Angeles, Cal. ; and William W. Morrow, San Francisco, Cal.
COURT OF CLAIMS
Chief Justice Charles C. Nott.
Judge Lawrence Weldon.
Judge John Davis.
Judge Stanton J. Peelle.
Judge Charles B. Howry.
Chief Clerk. — Archibald Hopkins.
Assistant Clerk. — John Bandolph.
Bailiff. — Stark B. Taylor.
UNITED
STA
T.
ES DISTRICT COURTS
Judges
Districts
Addresses
John Bruce . ' .
Ala.: N. & M.
Montgomery
H. T. Toulmin
" S. D.
Mobile
Chas. S. Johnson .
Alaska
Sitka
Webster Street
Arizona
Phoenix
John A. Williams .
Ark. : E. D.
Little Rock
John H, Rogers
W. D.
Fort Smith
John J. DeHaven .
Cal.: N. D.
San Francisco
Olin Wellborn
" S. D.
Los Angeles
Moses Hallett
Colorado
Denver
W. K. Townsend .
Connecticut
New Haven
Ed. G. Bradford .
Delaware
Wilmington
Charles Swayne
Fla.: N. D.
Pensacola
James W. Locke .
" S. D.
Jacksonville
Wm. T. Newman .
Ga. : N. D.
Atlanta
Emory Speer
" S. D.
Macon
James H. Beatty .
Idaho
Boise City
C. C. Kohlsaat
111. : N. D.
Chicago
William J. Allen .
" S. D.
Springfield
William M. Springer
Indian Ter.
Muscogee
W. H. H. Clayton .
(( u
S. McAlester
Hosea Townsend .
(( u
Ardmore
John II. Baker
Indiana
Indianapolis
Oliver P. Shiras
Iowa: N. D.
Dubuque
John S. Woolson .
" S. D.
Mt. Pleasant
William C. Hook .
Kansas
Topeka
Walter Evans
Kentucky
Louisville
Charles Parlange .
La.: E. D.
New Orleans
Aleck Boarman
" W. D.
Shreveport
Nathan Webb
Maine
Portland
Thomas J. Morris .
Maryland
Baltimore
Francis C. Lowell .
Mass.
Boston
Ixxxvi
UNITED STATES
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURTS
Judges
Districts
Addresses
Henry H. Swan
Mich.: E. D.
Detroit
H. F. Severens
W. D.
Grand Rapids
Wm. Lochren
Minnesota
Minneapolis
Henry C. Niles
Miss. : N. & S.
Kosciusko
Hiram Knowles
Montana
Helena
Elmer B. Adams
Mo.: E. D.
■St. Louis
John F. Philips
" W. D.
Kansas Gity
Wm. H. Hunger
Nebraska
Omaha
Thos. F. Hawley
Nevada
Garson Gity
Edgar Aldrich
N. H.
Littleton
A, Kirkpatrick
New Jersey
Newark
William J. Mills
New Mexico
Las Vegas
Alfred C. Coxe
N. Y. : N. D.
Utica
Addison Brown
S. D.
N. Y. Gity
Edw. B. Thomas
E. D.
Brooklyn
Thos. R. Purnell
N. G.: E. D.
- Raleigh
H. G. Ewart .
W. D.
Hendersonville
Chas. F. Amidon
N. Dakota
Fargo
A. J. Ricks .
Ohio : N. D.
G level and
A. C. Thompson
" S. D.
Gincinnati
John H. Burford .
Oklahoma
Guthrie
C. B. Bellinger
Oregon
Portland
John B. McPhersoi
1
Pa. : E. D.
Harrisburg
Jos. Buffington
" W. D.
Pittsburg
Arthur L. Brown
R. Island
Providence
Wm. H. Brawley
S. Garolina
Gharleston
John E. Garland
S. Dakota
Sioux Falls
Gharles D. Glark
Tenn.: E. & M.
Ghattanooga
E. S. Hammond
" W. D.
Memphis
David E. Bryant
Tex.: E. D.
Sherman
Thos. S. Maxey
" W. D.
AiLstin
Edw. R. Meek
" N. D.
Dallas
John A. Marshall
Utah
Salt Lake C.
H. H. Wheeler
Vermont
Brattleboro
E. Waddill, jr.
Va. : E. D.
Richmond
John Paul
" W. D.
Harrisonburg
G. H. Hanford
Washington
Seattle
J. J. Jackson
W. Virginia
Parkersburg
W. H. Seaman
Wis.: E. D.
Sheboygan
Romanzo Bunn
" W. D.
Madison
John A. Riner
Wyoming
Gheyenne
COURT OF APPEALS OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Chief Justice. — Richard H. Alvey.
Associate Justices. — Martin F. Moiris, Seth Shepard.
Clerk. — Robert Willett.
Assistant Clerk. — II. W. Hodges.
JUDICIARY.— AREA AND POPULATION Ixxxvii
SUPREME COURT OF THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
Chief Justice. — Edward F. Bingham.
Associate Justices. — Alexander B. Hagner, Walter S. Cox^ Andrew
C. Bradley, Harry M. Clabaugh, Charles C. Cvle.
Clerk. — John K. Young.
Betired Justices. — Andrew Wylie., Charles P. James.
The salaries of Federal Judges range from $4500 to $10,500. The
salary of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is
$10,500, and of the Associate Justices §10,000 each. Circuit Court Judges
are paid $0000 each ; District Court Judges, $5000, as a rule, although
those situated in Territories are paid $3000. The salary of each of the
justices of the U. S. Court of Claims is $4500, and of the Court of Ap-
peals of the District of Columbia, $0000, except the Chief Justice, who
receives $6500. The justices of the Supreme Court of the District of
Columbia are paid $5000 each.
Area and Population
The area of the United States March 4, 1789, when the
present Constitution went into effect, consisted of 827,844
square miles. This area was increased by the accession of
the Louisiana and Oregon tracts in 1803-5, of 1,171,931 square
miles; by the Florida purchase in 1819, of 59,268 square miles;
by the accession of Texas in 1845, of 376,163 square miles ; by
the first Mexican cession, 545,753 square miles ; through the
Gadsden purchase in 1853, 44,064 square miles; by the pur-
chase of Alaska in 1867, 532,409 square miles ; by the annexa-
tion of Hawaii in 1898, 6740 square miles, and by the cession
of Porto Kico in 1898, 3600 square miles ; the total area of the
national domain now being 3,567,772 square miles. ^
Progress and Present Condition
The following table gives the total white and colored jjopu-
lation of the United States, at each of the eleven censuses from
1790 to 1890 :
Increase
Year
White
Free Colored
Slave
Total
per cent,
per ann.
1790
3,172,006
59,527
697,681
3,929,214
—
1800
4,306,446
108,435
893,602
5,308,483
3.51
1810
5,862,073
186,446
1,191, .362
7,239,881
3.64
1820
7,862,166
233,634
1,538,022
9,633,822
3.31
1830
10,537,378
319,599
2,009,043
12,806,020
3.36
1840
14,195,805
386,293
2,487,355
17,069,453
3.27
1850
19,553,068
434,495
3.204,313
23,191,876
3.59
18(30
26,922,537
488,070
3,953,760
31,443.321
3.56
1870
33,589,377
4,880,009
38,558,-371
2.26
1880
43,402,970
6,580,793
50,155,783
3.01
1890
54,983,890
7,470,040
62,622,250
2.49
^ This does not agree with the total derived from adding the land area of separate
States and Territories, owing to differences in local surveys.
Ixxxviii
UNITED STATES
There are also included in the total for 1860, 34,933 Chinese
and 44,021 Indians; for 1870, 63,199 Chinese, 55 Japanese,
and 25,731 Indians; for 1880, 105,465 Chinese, 148 Japa-
nese, and 66,407 Indians; for 1890, 107,475 Chinese, 2039
Japanese, and 58,806 Indians.
The following table shows the population at the censuses of
1880 and 1890, and the area and population per square mile
in 1890 of the States and Territories arranged by geographical
divisions. The dates indicate the year in which the Constitu-
tion was ratified by each of the thirteen original States (these
being indicated by a *), and the year of the admission of each
of the other States into the Union :
States and Territories
Land Area:
English
sq. mi.,lS90
Population in
ISSO
Population in
1S90
Pop. per
sq. mile,
1S90
North Atlantic Division :
*
Maine (1820)
29,895
648,936
661,086
22.1
*New Hampshire (1788).
9,005
346,991
376,530
41.8
Vermont (1791)
9,135
332,286
332,422
36.4
*Massachusetts (1788) .
8,040
1,783,085
2,238,943
278.5
*Rhode Island (1790) .
1,085
276,531
345,506
318.4
*Connecticut (1788)
4,845
622,700
746,258
154.0
*New York (1788) .
47,620
5,082,871
5,997,853
126.0
*New Jersey (1787)
7,455
1,131,116
1,444.933
193.8
^Pennsylvania (1787)
Total .
44,985
4,282,891
5,258,014
116.9
162,065
14,507,407
17,401,545
107.4
South Atlantic Division:
^Delaware (1787) .
1,960
146,608
168,493
86.0
*Maryland (1788) .
9,860
934,943
1,042,390
105.7
D. of Columbia (1791) .
60
177,624
230,392
3839.9
* Virginia (1788) .
40,125
1,512,565
1,655,980
41.3
West Virginia (1863) .
24,645
618,457
762,794
31.0
*North Carolina (1789) .
48,580
1,399,750
1,617,947
33.3
*South Carolina (1788) .
30,170
995,577
1,151,149
38.2
*Georgia (1788)
58,980
1,542,180
1,837,353
31.2
Florida (1845)
Total .
54,240
269,493
391,422
7.2
208,620
7,597,197
8,857,920
33.0
North Central Division :
Ohio (1802) .
40,760
3,198,062
3,672,316
90.1
Indiana (1816)
35,910
1,978,301
2.192,404
61.1
Illinois (1818)
56,000
3,077,871
3,826,351
68.3
Michigan (1837) .
57,430
1,(536,937
2,093,889
36.5
Wisconsin (1848) .
54,450
1,315,497
1,686,880
31.0
Minnesota (1858) .
79,205
780,773
1,301,826
16.4
Iowa (1845) .
55,475
1,624,615
1,911,896
34.5
Missouri (1821)
68,735
2,168,380
2,679,184
. 39.0
North Dakota (1889)
70,195
36,909
182,719
2.6
South Dakota (1889) .
76,850
98,268
328,808
4.3
Nebraska (1807) .
76,840
452,402
1,058,910
13.8
Kansas (1861)
Total .
81,700
996,096
1,427,096
17.5
753,550
17,364,111
22,362,279
29.7
AREA AND POPULATION
Ixxxix
States and Territories
Land Area':
English
sq. miles, 1S90
Population in
1880
Population in
1890
Pop. per
sq. mile,
1890
South Central Division :
Kentucky (1792)
40,000
1,048,090
1,858,635
46.5
Tennessee (1790)
41,750
1,542,359
1,767,518
42.3
Alabama (1819)
51,540
1,202,505
1,513,017
29.4
Mississippi (1817)
40,340
1,131,597
1,289,600
27.8
Louisiana (1812)
45,420
939,940
1,118,587
24.6
Texas (1845) .
202,290
1,591,749
2,235,523
8.5
Oklahoma (Ter.) (1890)
38,830
61,834
1.6
Arkansas (1830)
Total
53,045
802,525
1,128,179
21.3
579,215
8,919,371
10,972,893
18.9
Western Division :
Montana (1889) .
145,310
39,159
132,159
0.9
Wvomina; (1890) .
97,575
20,789
60.705
0.6
Colorado (1875) .
103,045
194,327
412,198
4.0
New Mexico(Ter.)(1850)
122,400
119,565
153,593
1.3
Arizona (Ter.) (1803) .
•112,920
40,440
59,620
0.5
Utah (1896) .
82,190
143,903
207,905
2.5
Nevada (1804) .
109,740
02,200
45,761
0.4
Idaho (1890)
84,290
32,010
84,385
1.0
Washington (1889)
00,880
75,110
349,390
5.2
Oregon (1859) .
94,500
174,708
313,767
3.3
California (1850) .
Total .
155,980
804,094
1,208,130
7.8
1,175,550
1,767,097
3,027,613
2.0
Totals
2,939,000
50,155,783
62,622,250
21.3
Indian Territory (1854)
31,000
Alaska (Ter.) (1808) .
Grand Totals
531,000
3,501,000
In addition to the general enumeration of population for the
organized States and Territories in 1880 and 1890, there were
returned for Alaska 33,426 persons in 1880, and 32,052 persons
in 1890 ; while for the Indian Territory and Indian Reserva-
tions there were returned in 1890 a total of 325,461 persons,
subdivided as follows :
Indian Territory :
Indians ....
Whites ....
Persons of negro de-
scent, etc.
Total for Indian Ter-
ritory
51,279
110,254
18,049
180,182
Indian Reservations :
Indians .... 138,168
AVhites, employees, and
others . . . 7,114
Total on Indian Reser-
vations, etc. . . 145,282
Grand total . 325,464
xc
UNITED STATES
In 1880 no return of population was made for Indian Terri-
tory and Indian Reservations.
The population of Hawaii is 109,020 (census of 1896), and
of Porto Rico, about 900,000.
Should the Philippines be constituted a territory of the
United States there would be added 120,000 square miles and
an estimated population of 8,000,000.
As regards sex, the total population of the States and Terri-
tories at the census of 1890 comprised 32,067,880 males, and
30,554,370 females.
At the first census of the Union, in 1790, there existed only
13 States and 4 Territories, the largest of the States, as then
constituted, being Virginia, with a population of 747,610. In
1800 there were 16 States and 4 Territories, Virginia having
then a population of 880,200. In 1810 the same State, with
a population of 974,600, took the lead of 17 States and 7 Ter-
ritories. In 1820 there were 23 States and 3 Territories, New
York standing first with a population of 1,372,111. In 1830
there were 24 States and 3 Territories ; in 1840, 26 States and
3 Territories ; in 1850, 30 States and 5 Territories ; in 1860,
33 States and 8 Territories ; in 1870, 37 States and 9 Terri-
tories ; in 1880, 38 States and 8 Territories ; in 1890 there
were 44 States and 6 Territories. At the present time (1899)
there are 45 States and 6 Territories (including Hawaii), in
addition to which Porto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippine Islands
may be considered as territorial dependencies, with their status
not yet defined.
In 1890 the numbers engaged in the various classes of occu-
pations were returned as follows :
Class of Occupations
Male
Female
Total
Agriculture, fisheries, and mining
Professional services .
Domestic and personal services .
Trade and transportation .
Manufacturing and mechanical
industries ....
Total employed
8,333,813
632,646
2,692,879
3,097,701
4,064,051
679,523
311,687
1,667,698
228,421
1,027,242
9,013,336
944,333
4,-360,577
3,326,122
5,091,293
18,821,090
3,914,571
22,735,661
THE PUBLIC DOMAIN
XCl
The Public . Domain
The public domain consists of lands held by the Government
for settlers under the settlement laws. These lands at the
present time are as follows :
Area Unappropriated and
State or Terri-
tory
Unresekvei
»
Area
reserved
Area ap-
propriated
Total Area
of Land
Surface
Surveyed
Unsur-
veyed
Total
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Alabama .
5-2'2,373
522,373
86,240
32,049,387
32,058,000
Arizona ,
ll,98U,s-20
42,438,203
54,369,023
12,738,022
5,6.85,455
72,792,500
Arkansas.
3,096,990
3,696,990
1,920
29,844,590
33,54:3,500
(.'alifornia
34,27'2,434
8,230,589
42,503,023
16,189,170
40,668,890
99,361,08:3
Colorado .
35,273,705
4,4;34,S46
39,708,551
6,225,533
20,456,566
66,390,050
Florida
1,59-2,893
164,382
1,757,275
19,840
33,487,385
35,204,500
Idaho
11,268,786
32,939,163
44,207,949
1,939,869
6,682,382
52,830,200
Indian Ter.
19,575,040
19,575,040
Iowa
35,228,800
35,2-28,800
Kansas
1,060,883
1,060,883
987,875
50,334,242
52,383,000
Louisiana
690,527
65,018
755,545
1,474,834
26,632,809
28,863,188
Michigan .
505,895
505,895
87,746
36,225,:359
36,819,000
Minnesota
3,246,498
2,473,828
5,720,326
4,983,409
40.985,705
51,689,440
Mississippi
383,950
383,950
29.;3(.)l.(l50
29,685.000
Missouri .
445,911
445,911
43,350,0-59
43,796,000
Montana .
16,932,837
54,674,779
71,607,616
11,424,213
12,-2-27,891
95,259,720
Nebraska .
10,548,450
10,548,450
70,522
38,518,367
49,137,339
Nevada .
29,179,480
32,179,129
61,358,609
5,983,409
2,994,482
70,336,500
New Mexico .
42,960,793
13,917,042
56,877,835
6,029,448
15,289,722
78,197,005
North Dakota .
11,717,278
8,857,335
20,574,613
3,050,610
21,277,7(U
44,902,987
Oklahoma
7,004,362
2,860
7,007,222
7,207,160
10.5:39,281
24,75:3,66:3
Oregon
24,095,76:3
11,802,106
35,897,869
5,467,702
20,260,647
61,626,218
South Dakota .
10,890,2S4
2,092,542
12,982,826
10,922,506
•24,25:3,2-23
48,158,555
Utah
9,816,110
34,121,786
43,937,896
5,383,467
3,258,037
52,580,000
Washington
5,319,428
8,123,154
13,442,582
11,181,345
18,110,157
42,684,084
Wisconsin
413,799
413,799
365,353
34,495,848
35,275,000
Wyoming
Grand Total .
42.946.054
6.135.209
49.081. -26:3
8.171.04:3
5.180.694
62.433.000
316,716,303
262,651,971
579,368,274
139,516,276
637,339,422
1,356,-2-23,972
This aggregate is exclusive of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, in
which, if any public land remains, it consists of a few small
isolated tracts. Alaska, which contains about 577,390 square
miles, or 369,529,600 acres of land, mostly unsurveyed and
unappropriated, is also excluded.
" Area reserved " means lands that have been disposed of for
settlement or for other purposes under the public land laws of
the United States.
The immense extent of land, forming part of the United
States, as yet uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be
national property, at the disposal of Congress and the execu-
tive of the Kepublic. The public lands of the United States
which are still undisposed of lie in 23 States and 4 Territories.
The public lands are divided into two great classes. The one
xcii UNITED STATES
class have a dollar and a quarter an acre designated as the
minimum price, and the other two dollars and a half an acre,
the latter being the alternate sections, reserved by the United
States in land grants to railroads, etc. Titles to these lands
may be acquired by private entry or location under the home-
stead, preemption, and timber-culture laws ; or, as to some
classes, by purchase for cash. The homestead laws give the
right to 160 acres of a-dollar-and-a-quarter lands, or to 80 acres
of two-dollar-and-a-half lands, to any citizen or applicant for
citizenship over twenty-one who wdll actually settle upon and
cultivate the land. The title is perfected jjy the issue of a
patent after five years of actual settlement. The only charges
in the case of homestead entries are fees and commissions.
Another large class of free entries of public lands is that pro-
vided for under the Timber-Culture Acts of 1873-78. The
purpose of these laws is to promote the growth of forest trees
on the public lands. They give the right to any settler who
has cultivated for two years as much as five acres in trees to
an 80-acre homestead, or, if ten acres, to a homestead of 160
acres, and a free patent for his land is given him at the end of
three years instead of five. On June 30, 1898, 1,067,313,014
acres of public lands had been surveyed. Of the total area of
public lands 369,528,455 acres w^ere in Alaska, unsurveyed.
In 1898, 6,206,557 acres were taken up under the Homestead
Act, and 8,421,703 acres were disposed of for cash under the
Homestead Acts, under the Timber-Culture Acts, located with
Agricultural College and other kinds of scrip, and located wath
IMilitary Bounty land w^arrants and selected by States and rail-
roads in the several States and Territories. It is provided by
law that two sections, of 640 acres of land, in each "town-
ship," are reserved for common schools, so that the spread of
education may go together with settlement.
The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive
and universal, except so far as restrained by stipulations in
the original cessions.
Public Forests^
There are thirty forest reservations (exclusive of forest
and fish culture reserves in Alaska) so designated by the Pres-
ident in accordance with the act of March 3, 1891. These
forest reservations embrace an estimated area of 40,719,474
acres, and are distributed as follows:
^ From annual report of Commissioner of General Land Office, 1898.
MOVEMENT OF POPULATION
XClll
States
and
Territories
Alaska
Arizona
California
Colorado
Idaho and
Montana
Idaho and
Washington
Montana
New Mexico
Oregon
South Dakota
Utah
Washington
Wyoming
Names of Reservations
Afognak Forest and Fish Culture Reserve. (Re-
served under sees. 24 and 14, act Mar. 3, 1891.)
Grand Canyon Forest Reserve
The Prescott Forest Reserve
San Gabriel Timber Land Reserve
Sierra Forest Reserve
San Bernardino Forest Reserve
Trabuco Canyon Forest Reserve
The Stanislaus Forest Reserve
The San Jacinto Forest Reserve
The Pine Mountain and Zaca Lake Forest J
Reserve I
White River Plateau Timber Land Reserve
Pike's Peak Timber Land Reserve \
Plum Creek Timber Land Reserve
The South Platte Forest Reserve
Battlement Mesa Forest Reserve
The Bitter Root Forest Reserve
The Priest River Forest Reserve
The Flathead Forest Reserve
The Lewis and Clarke Forest Reserve
The Pecos River Forest Reserve <
Bull Run Timber Land Reserve
The Cascade Range Forest Reserve
Ashland Forest Reserve
The Black Hills Forest Reserve
The Uintah Forest Reserve
The Washington Forest Reserve
The Olympic Forest Reserve
The Mount Rainier Forest Reserve. (Includes
the Pacific Forest Reserve, created Feb. 20,
1893, embracing an area of 967,680 acres)
Yellowstone National Park Timber Land J
Reserve |
The Big Horn Forest Reserve
The Teton Forest Reserve
Dates of
Proclama-
tions creat-
ing Reserva-
tions
Dec. 24, 1892
Feb. 20, 1893
May 10, 1898
Dec. 20, 1892
Feb. 14, 1898
Feb. 25, 1893
Feb. 22, 1897
Mar.
June
Oct.
Feb.
Mar.
June
Dec.
Dec.
2, 1898
29, 1898
16, 1891
11, 1892
18, 1892
23, 1892
9, 1892
24, 1892
Feb. 22, 1897
Jan. 11, 1892
May 27, 1898
June 17, 1892
Sept. 28, 1893
Feb. 22, 1897
Mar. 30, 1891
Sept. 10, 1891
Feb. 22, 1897
Estimated
Areas in
Acres
Not ascer-
tained
1,851,520
10,240
555,520
4,096,000
737,280
49,920
691,200
737,280
M, 644,594
1,198,080
j- 184,320
179,200
683,520
858,240
4,147,200
645,120
1,382,400
2,926,080
j- 431,040
142,080
4,492,800
18,560
967,680
875,520
3,594,240
2,188,800
2,234,880
1,239,040
1.127,680
829,440
Movement of Population
There is no systematic registration of births, deaths, and
marriages in the United States as a whole. The birth rate
computed for 1890 by the Census Office was 26.68 per 1000
of population ; but this is acknowledged to be too low. Death
rates are computed from returns for certain areas, where local
registration records are kept. These areas are the New Eng-
land States (except Maine), New Jersey, New York, Delaware,
the District of Columbia, and the principal cities in the re-
maining States, furnishing for 1890 a total of 409,125 deaths
out of 875,521 for the whole country. The highest death rate
among whites in these areas was 23.19 per 1000 ; the lowest
XCIV
UNITED STATES
15.60; among colored persons, highest 34.14; lowest 18.78 per
1000.
Of the population of the States and Territories in 1890
53,372,703 (or 85.23 per cent) were natives and 9,249,547 (or
14.77 per cent) foreign born. In 1880 there were 43,475,840
natives and 6,679,943 foreign born (13.32 per cent). In 1870
the population was 14.44 per cent foreign born; in 1860,13.16
per cent ; in 1850, 9.68 per cent.
The following table shows the origin of the foreign-born population at
the census of 1890 :
England.! .
909,092
Wales ....
100,079
Scotland
242,231
Ireland
1,871,509
Total United Kingdom
3,122,911
Germany
2,784,894
Canada and Newfound-
land
980,938
Sweden
. 478,041
Norway-
322,665
Russia
182,644
Italy ....
182,580
Poland
147,440
Denmark .
132,543
Austria
123,271
Bohemia
118,106
France
113,174
China ....
106,688
Switzerland
104,069
Holland
81,828
Mexico
77,853
Cuba and West Indies
23,256
Hungary
62,435
Belgium
22,639
Portugal
15,996
Spain ....
6,185
South America .
5,006
Other foreign countries
54,385
Total .
9,249,547
^ Includes Great Britain, not specified.
Thus of the foreign-born population 33.76 per cent were
from the United Kingdom (20.23 per cent from Ireland, 10.91
per cent from England and Wales, and 2.62 per cent from
Scotland); 30.11 per cent were from Germany; 10.61 per cent
from Canada; 10.09 per cent from Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark; 1.22 per cent from France; and 14.21 per cent from
other countries.
IMMIGRATION
From 1775 to 1815 immigration into the United States was
very small, on account of the American Revolution and the
European wars, not over 3000 or 4000 a year arriving during
this period. When peace between England and America was
reestablished, in 1815, immigration took a fresh start. Prior
to 1820 no official record of arrivals was kept, but it is esti-
mated that, from the foundation of the Government up to that
year, about 250,000 alien passengers arrived, 98 per cent of
whom were immigrants. The total number of immigrants
from 1821 to 1898 (June 30) was 18,490,368.
IMMIGRATION
XCV
The following table shows the total immigration to the
United States since 1821 :
Countries
1821-1830
18-31-1840
1841-1850
1851-1800
England and Wales .
Scotland
Ireland
(Jreat Britain, not specified
Germany
British North American Provinces
Norway and Sweden
Austria-lliinyary
Italy .
France
Russia and Poland
China .
Switzerland
Denmark .
Netherlands
Other Countries
Total
14,225
2,ill2
50,724
7,t>42
6,761
2,277
91
408
8,497
91
2
3,226
169
1,078
45,036
7,796
2,667
207,381
65,347
152,454
13,624
1,201
2,253
45,575
646
8
4,821
1,063
1,412
92,877
33,353
3,712
780,719
229,979
434,626
41,723
13,903
1,870
77,262
656
35
4,644
539
8,251
81,979
143,439
599,125
1,713,251
253,444
38,331
914,119
132,199
951,667
59,309
20,931
9,231
76,358
1,621
41.397
25,011
3,749
10,789
60,058
2,598,214
Countries
Eng-land and Wales .
Scotland
Ireland
Great Britain, not specified
Germany
British North American Provinces
Norway and Sweden
Austria-Hungary
Italy . . .
France
Russia and Poland
China .
Switzerland
Denmark .
Netherlands
Other Countries
Total
1861-1870
226,590
38,768
435,778
341,538
787,468
153,871
109,298
7,800
11,728
35,984
4,536
64,301
23,286
17,094
9,102
47,682
2,314,824
1871-1880
444,337
87,564
436,851
16,142
718,182
383,269
211,245
72,969
55,759
72,206
52,254
123,201
28,293
81,771
16,541
61,587
2,812,191
1881-1890
657,320
149,809
655,482
168
1,452,970
392.8021
568.362
353,719
307,309
50,464
265,088
61,711
81,988
88,132
5;3,701
107,528
5,246,613
1891-1898
251,020
54,437
334,425
83
503,761
1,152
278,102
361,850
468,407
31,599
409,034
19,824
30,286
46,720
28,092
243,929
3,062,721
1 1831 to 1885. Since 1885 no account has been taken of the Canadians coming over
the border.
The following statement shows the countries from which
the principal elements of the total immigration for the past 78
years have been derived, although many persons born in Ireland
have been included in the number of immigrants coming from
England and are brought in under "Great Britain not speci-
fied" and the British American Provinces. The figures are
also incomplete in this, that no separate record has been kept
of the English, Scotch-Irish, and French-Canadians and Mexi-
cans who have come over the land borders :
XCVl
UNITED STATES
Countries
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Great Britain, not specified .
Germany ....
Norway and Sweden
British North- American Provinces
Austria-Hungary .
Italy
France . . . . .
Russia, including Poland
China
Switzerland ....
Denmark ....
Netherlands ....
Other Countries
Total ....
Number from
1S21-1898
1,888,085
378,250
3,815,499
793,398
5,007,889
1,203,133
1,048,027
796,338
857,065
397,845
733,926
310,479
201,555
189,237
128,966
740,676
18,490,368
The following table shows the comparative increase of the
population during the last six decades by reproduction and
by immigration :
Year
Population
Decade Total
Increase
Decade
Increase by
Immigrants-
Percentage of Decade
Increase
Total
By
Immi-
gration
r.y
Ilepro-
duction
1840 .
1850 .
1860 .
1870 .
1880 .
1890 .
17,069,453
23,191,876
31,443,321
38,558,371
50,155.783
62,622,250
4,203,433
6,122,423
8,251,445
7,115,050
11,597,412
12,466,467
599,125
1,713,251
2,579,580
2,278,425
2,812,191
5,246,613
32.67
35.87
35.58
22.63
80.08
24.86
4.66
10.04
11.12
7.25
7.29
10.46
2^.01
25. S3
24.46
15.38
22.79
14.40
Population according to Color ^
The distribution of the population relative to color consti-
tutes a valuable feature of any sociological study of the people.
Out of a total population of 62,622,250 in 1890, the persons of
negro descent numbered 7,470,040. In addition to these there
were 107,475 Chinese, 2039 Japanese, and 58,806 Indians to be
enrolled among the general population of the country, making
the total of the colored element of the United States in 1890
7,638,360, or about one-eighth of the whole population.
1 From " Outline of Practical Sociology," by the editor.
IMMIGRATION
XCVll
The relative proportion of negroes and of whites is a factor
of great importance in the conditions of Southern agriculture
and manufactures. The following table gives the figures since
1790. The figures of 1870 are known to be very defective :
Census
Years
White
Negro ^
Number
Per cent
of Total
Increase in
Per cent
Number
Per cent
of Total
Increase in
Per cent
1790
1800
1810
1820
18;^0
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
3,172,006
4,306,446
5,862,073
7,862,166
10,537,378
14,195,805
19,55:^,068
26,922,537
83,569,377
43,402,970
54,98:3,890
80.73
81.12
80.97
81.61
81.90
83.16
84.31
85.62
87.11
86.54
87.80
35.76
36.12
34.12
34.03
34.72
37.74
37.69
24.76
29.22
26.68
757,208
1,002,037
1,377,808
1,771,656
2,328,642
2,873,648
3,638,808
4,441,830
4,880,009
6,580,793
7,470,040
19.27
18.88
19.03
18.:39
18.10
16.84
15.69
14.13
12.66
13.12
11.93
32.33
37.50
28.59
31.44
23.40
26.63
22.07
9.86
34.85
13.51
* Includes all persons of negro descent.
The following table shows the proportion of whites and
negroes, by geographical divisions, 1850-1890 :
PER CENT OF WHITES AND NEGROES i OF TOTAL POPULATION,
BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS, 1850-1890
Geographical Divisions
1850
1860
IsTO
White
Negro
White
Negro
White
Negro
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
North Central Division .
South Central Division .
Western Division ....
The United States .
98.26
60.23
97.49
65.35
99.31
1.74
39.77
2.51
34.65
0.69
98.53
61.61
97.84
64.64
88.95
1.47
38.37
2.03
35.-34
0.72
98.52
62.10
97.82
65.71
91.91
1.46
37.87
2.10
34.25
0.64
84.81
15.69
85.62
14.13
87.11
12.66
Geographical Divisions
1880
1890
White
Negro
White
Negro
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
North Central Division
South Central Division
Western Division
98.39
61.26
97.68
66.16
91.21
1..58
38.71
2.22
33.78
0.67
98.39
63.13
97.99
68.24
94.80
1.55
36.83
1.93
31.71
0.89
The United States
•
86.54
13.12
87.80
11.93
^ Includes all persons of negro descent.
XCVlll
UNITED STATES
IMMIGRANTS IN INDUSTRIES
The following table shows the total number of persons and
the per cent of foreign-born persons engaged in different
occupations : ^
Classes of Occupations
1870
Persons Engaged in Gainful Occupations
PERSONS ENGAGED
PERCENTAGES
Total
Persons
Foreigners
Foreigners
of Total
Foreigners
Engaged
of All
Foreigners
Agriculture
Manufactures
Mining
Domestic and Personal .
Trade and Transportation
other Occupations ....
All Occupations
5,922,471
2,452,243
165,696
2,311,820
1,229,399
424,294
619,108
804,919
102,288
788,716
327,034
61,824
10.45
32.82
61.73
34.11
26.60
14.57
11.12
14.45
1.84
14.17
5.87
1.11
12,505,923
2,703,889
21.62
48.57
Classes of Occupations
1890
Persons Engaged in Gainful Occupations
PERSONS engaged
PERCENTAGES
Total
Persons
Foreigners
Foreigners
of Total
Foreigners
Engaged
of All
Foreigners
Agriculture
Manufactures
Mining
Domestic and Personal .
Trade and Transportation
Other Occupations ....
All Occupations
8,466,363
5,091,293
387,248
4,360,577
3,326,122
1,104,058
1,089,944
1,610,730
195,594
1,438,386
724,316
158,898
12.87
81.64
50.51
82.99
21.78
14.39
11.78
17.41
2.11
15.55
7.83
1.72
22,735,661
5,217,868
22.95
56.41
1 From " Outhne of Practical Sociology," by the editor.
DIVORCE
There are no general statistics of divorce from year to year.
A few of the States report them annually. The only report
comprehending the whole country is for the twenty years from
1867 to 1886, inclusive, the results of an investigation by the
United States Department of Labor. From this report the
movement of divorces for that period is taken and shown in
the following table :
AGRICULTURE
XCIX
Year
Number
Year
Number
Year
Number
1807
1808
1809
1870
1871
1872
1873
9,937
10,150
10,939
10,902
11,586
12,390
13,156
1874 .
1875 .
1876 .
1877 .
1878 .
1879 . .
1880 .
13,989
14,212
14,800
15,087
10,089
17,083
19,003
1881 .
1882 .
1883 .
1884 .
1885 .
1886 .
Total .
20,762
22,112
23,198
22,994
23,472
25,535
328,716
Agriculture
According to census returns the total acreage of farms and
the improved acreage have been :
Years
Farm Area
Acres
Improved Area
Acres
1870
1880
1890
407,735,041
536,081,835
632,218,619
188,721,099
284,771,042
357,616,755
In the same years the numbers of farms of different sizes
were :
Acres
ISTO
ISSO
ISOO
Under 3 acres
3 and under 10
10 " 20
20 " 50
50 " 100
100 " 500
500 " 1,000
1,000 and over
Total .
6,875
172,021
294,607
847,614
754,221
505,054
15,873
3,720
4,352
134,889
254,749
781,574
1,032,810
1,695,983
75,972
28,578
1 150,194
205,550
902,777
1,121,485
2,008,094
84,395
31,540
2,659,985
4,008,907
4,504,041
In 1890 there were 4,767,179 families occupying farms. Of
these, 3,142,74:6 families occupied farms which they owned
(2,255,789 farms being free, and 886,957 encumbered), while
1,624,433 families occupied hired farms.
The average size of farms in tlie United States is constantly
decreasing. In 1850 it was 203 acres; in 1860, 199 acres; in
1870, 153 acres ; in 1880, 134 acres ; 1890, 137 acres.
UNITED STATES
ESTIMATED PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF CEREAL CROPS OF THE
UNITED STATES, 1890 TO 1898
[From reports of the Department of Agriculture]
Corn
Calendar Year
Total
Average
Production
Area of
Crop
Value of
.Crop
Value per
Bushel
Yield per
Acre
Value of
Yield
per Acre
BufiheU
Acres
Dollars
Cents
JBus7iels
Dollars
1S90 .
1.489,970,000
71,970,763
754,433,451
50.6
20.7
10.48
1891 .
2,060,154,000
76,204,515
836,439,228
40.6
27.0
10.98
1892 .
1,628,464,000
70,626,653
642,146,630
89.4
23.1
9.09
1893 .
1,619,496,131
72,036,465
591,625,627
36.5
22.5
8.21
1894 .
1,212,770,052
62,582,269
554,719.162
45.7
19.4
8.86
1895 .
2,151,138,580
82,075,830
544,985,534
26.4
26.2
9.91
1896 .
2,283,875,165
81,027,156
491,006,967
21.5
28.2
. 6.06
1897 .
1,902,967,933
80,095,051
501,072,952
26.3
23.8
6.26
1898 .
1,924,184,660
77,721,781
552,023,428
28.6
24.7
7.10
Wheat
1890 .
899,262,000
36,087,154
334,778,678
83.8
11.1
9.28
1891 .
611,780,000
39,916,897
513,472,711
83.9
15.3
12.86
1892 .
515,949,000
38,554,430
322,111,881
62.4
18.4
8.35
1893 .
396,131,725
34,629,418
213,171,381
53.8
11.4
6.16
1894 .
460,267,416
34,882,4:36
225,902,025
49.1
18.2
6.48
1895 .
467,102,947
34,047,332
237,938,998
50.9
13.7
0.99
1896 .
427,684,346
34,618,646
310,602,539
72.6
12.4
8.97
1897 .
530,149,168
39,465,066
428,547,121
80.8
13.4
10.86
1898 .
675,148,705
44,055.278
392,770,320
58.1
15.8
8.91
Eye,i 1886 to 1898
Bushels
Acres
Dollars
Cerits
Bushels
Dollars
1886 .
24,489,000
2,129,918
13,181,330
53.8
11.5
6.19
1887 .
20,693,000
2,053,447
11,283,140
54.5
10.1
5.09
1888 .
28,415,000
2,364,805
16,721,S69
58.S
12.0
7.47
1893 .
26,555,446
2,038,485
13,612,222
51.3
13.0
6.68
1894 .
26,727,015
1,944,780
13,395,476
50.1
18.7
6.89
1895 .
27,210,070
1,890,345
11,964,826
44.0
14.4
6.33
1896 .
24,369,047
1,831,201
9,960,769
40.8
13.8
5.44
1897 .
27,363,324
1,703,561
12,239,647
44.7
16.1
7.20
1898 .
25,657,522
1,643,207
11,875,350
46.2
15.6
72.2
1 No es
timates prepared by Agricultural Depar
Oats
tment for lb
89 to 1892.
1886 .
624,134,000
23,658,474
186,137,930
29.8
26.4
7.87
1887 .
. 659,618,000
25,920,906
200,699,790
30.4
25.4
7.74
1888 .
701,735,000
26,998,2S2
195,424,240
27.8
26.0
7.28
18S9 .
751,515,000
27,462,310
171,781,0OS
22.9
27.4
6.26
1890 .
523,621,000
26,431,369
222,048,4St;
42.4
19.8
8.41
1891 .
738,394,000
25,581,861
232,312,207
81.5
28.9
9.08
1892 .
661,035,000
27,063,835
209,253,611
81.7
24.4
7.78
1893 .
638,854,850
27,273,033
187,576,092
29.4
28.4
6.88
1894 .
662,036,928
27,023,553
214,816,920
32.4
24.5
7.95
1895 .
824,443,537
27,878,406
163,655.06^
19.9
29.6
5.87
1896 .
707,346,404
27,565,985
132,485,033
18.7
25.7
4.81
1897 .
698,767,809
25,730,375
147,974,719
21.2
27.2
5.75
1898 .
730,906,643
25,777,110
186,405,364
25.5
28.3
7.28
AGRICULTURE
CI
ESTIMATED PRODUCTION AND VALUE OF CEREAL CROPS OF THE
UNITED STATES, 1886 TO 1898 — Continued
Barley i
Total
Average
Calendar Year
Production
Area of
Crop
A'alue of
Crop
Value per
Bushel
Yield per
Acre
Value of
Yield
per Acre
Bush el H
Acres
Dollars
Cents
Bushels
Dolhi rs
1886 .
59,428,000
2,652,957
31,840,510
5:3.6
22.4
12.00
1SS7 .
56,812,000
2,901,95:3
29,464,390
51.9
19.6
1(M5
1S88 .
63,884,000
2,996,382
37,672,032
59.0
21.3
12.57
1893 .
69,869,495
3,220,371
28,729,386
41.1
21.7
8.92
1894 .
61,400,465
3,170,602
27,134,127
44.2
19.4
8.56
1895 .
87,072,744
3,299,973
29.312,413
33.7
26.4
8.88
1896 .
69,695,223
2,950,539
22,491,241
32.3
23.6
7.62
1897 .
66,685,127
2,719,116
25,142,139
37.7
24.5
9.25
1898 .
55,792,257
2,583,125
23,064,359
41.3
21.5
8.92
Buckwheat ^
18S6 .
11,869,000
917,915
6,465,120
54.5
12.9
7.04
1887 .
10,844,000
910,506
6,122,320
56.5
11.9
6.72
1SS8 .
12,050,000
912,630
7,627,647
63.3
13.2
8.:36
1893 .
12,132,311
815,614
7,074,450
58.3
14.9
8.67
189-4 .
12,668.200
789,232
7,040,238
55.6
16.1
8.92
1895 .
15,341,399
76;3,277
6,936,525
45.2
21.1
9.09
1896 .
14,089,783
754,898
5,522,339
39.2
18.7
7.32
1897 ,
14,997.451
717,836
6,319,188
42.1
20.9
8.80
1898 .
11,721,927
678,332
5,271,462
44.9
17.2
7.77
1 No estimates of crops prepared by Agricultural Department for 1889 to 1892.
The following table shows the acreage, product, and value
of the tobacco crop of the United States from 1888 to 1896 ;
with the exception of the years 1889 to 1892, inclusive :
Year
Total
Area
Product
Value
1888 ....
1893 ....
1894 ....
1895 ....
1896 ....
Acres
747,326
702,952
523,103
633,950
594,749
Pounds
505,795,000
483,023,963
406,678,385
491,544,000
403,004,320
Dollars
43,666,665
39,155,442
27,760,739
35,574,220
24,258,070
The comparative acreage and production of cotton for 1896
and 1897 are shown in the following table :
Cll
UNITED STATES
COMPAEATIVE ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION, 1896 AND 1897
Acres
Bales
1896
1897
1896
1897
Alabama
Arkansas .
Florida
Georgia
Indian Territory
Kansas
Kentucky .
Louisiana .
Mississippi .
Missouri
North Carolina .
Oklahoma .
South Carolina
Tennessee .
Texas .
Utah .
Virginia
Total .
2,656,338
1,542,652
264,825
3,468,335
141,124
150
1,200
1,245,399
2,835,316
77,868
1,228,714
78,550
2,014,348
912,337
6,758,656
155
47,747
2,709,460
1,619,785
251,109
3,537,702
317,992
285
105
1,245,399
2,778,610
83,319
1,302,437
216,664
2,074,778
967,077
7,164,175
75
50,612
833,789
605, &43
48,730
1,299,340
87,705
61
414
567,251
1,201,000
24,119
521,795
35,251
936,463
236,781
2,122,701
128
11.5;39
1,112,681
942,267
53,657
1,350,781
207,386
139
35
788,325
1,524,771
26,848
646,726
110,175
1,030,085
268,635
2,822,408
60
12,878
23,273,209
24,319,584
8,532,705
10,897,857
States and Territories
Acres
Bales
Increase
Decrease
Increase
Decrease
Alabama
Arkansas .
Florida
Georgia
Indian Territory
Kansas
Kentucky .
Louisiana .
Mississippi .
Missouri
North Carolina
Oklahoma .
South Carolina
Tennessee .
Texas .
Utah .
Virginia
Total .
53,127
77,133
69,367
176,868
135
0
5,451
73,723
138,114
60,430
&4,740
405,519
2.865
13,216
1,095
0
56,706
SO
278,892
336,624
4,927
51,441
119,681
78
221,074
328,771
2,729
124,931
74,924
93,022
31,854
699,707
1,339
379
63
1,046,3751
2,365,1521
1 Net increase
UNITED STATES CROPS, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, AND CONSUMPTION OF
COTTON, 1888-89 TO 1897-98
Tears
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
United States
Crop (com-
mercial Bales)
6,988,290
7,311,322
8,652,597
9,035,379
6,700,365
Exports
(commercial
Bales)
4,813,374
4,979,412
5,817.990
5,893.868
4,473,206
Consumed
Average
by U.S. mills
net
(commercial
Weight
Bales)
per Bale
Pounds
2,814,091
470
2,890,959
471
2,632,028
473
2,876,846
473
2,431,134
475
Average
Price
(middling
Upland)
New
York
Cen ts
10.71
11.53
9.03
7.64
8.24
Imports
(500-pound
Bales)
995
946
,212
,818
,328
■1
I
AGRICULTURE
cm
UNITED STATES CROPS, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, AND CONSUMPTION OF
COTTON, 1888-89 TO 1897-98 — Continued
Years
1^93-94
189J-95
1895-96 1
1696-97 1
1697-98 1
United States
Crop (com-
mercial Bales)
7,549,817
9,901,251
7,161,094
8,532,075
10,S97,S57
Exports
(commercial
Bales)
5,300,458
6,850,327
4,701,791
6,036,713
7,648,699
Consumed
Average
b}^ U.S. mills
net
(commercial
Weight
Bales)
per Bale
Pounds
2,319,688
474
2,946,677
484
2,504,972
477
2,847,351
477
3,443,581
482
Average
Price
(middling
Upland)
New
York
Cents
7.67
6.50
8.16
7.72
6.22
Imports
(500-pound
Bales)
86,736
55,412
98,6()4
110,701
103,798
1 Estimates of Department of Agriculture ; all other figures are those of Latham,
Alexander & Co.
QUANTITIES OF CANE SUGAR AND MOLASSES PRODUCED IN
UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1S73 TO 1898
[Prepared by Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department]
THE
Year
Sugar
Molasses
Louisiana
Other
Southern
States
Total
Louisiana
Other
Southern
States
Total
1872-73
1879-80
1889-90
1893-94
1894-95
189.>-96
1896-97
1897-98
Pounds
125.346,493
198,962,278
287,490,271
595,473.374
710,S27,43s
5;^2,494,652
631,699,561
695,101,878
Pounds
9,486,000
8,688,000
18,276,000
15,352,244
18,565,123
11,139,074
12,475,762
12,850,000
Pounds
134,832,493
207,877,278
305,766,271
610,825,618
729,392,561
543,633,726
644,175,823
707,951,878
Long Tons
60,193
92,802
136,503
272,913
325,621
242,693
287,578
316,183
Gallons
8,898,640
12,189,190
1 8.431, 96S
18,469,529
28.334,513
21,663,410
20,820,130
22,241,510
Gallons
601,000
1,211,000
3,950,000
8,439,197
9,282,561
5,569,547
6,886,927
7,093,634
Gallons
9,499,640
13,400,190
22,381,988
26,908,726
37,617,074
27,232,957
27,707,057
29,335,441
QUANTITY IN TONS OF SUGAR CONSUMED IN THE UNITED STATES,
VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1884 TO 1898
[Prepared by Bureau
of Statistics, Treasury Department]
Refined
Domestic Product
Con-
Calendar
Year
Product
of
Imported
S ugar 1
Manu-
factured
from
Imported
Of
Cane
Of
Maple
Of
Beet
Of Sor-
ghum
and
Other
Total
sump-
tion
per
Capita
Molasses 1
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Pounds
1884
1,098,090
50,000
135,243
25,000
737
813
1,309,883
53.4
1890
1.257,292
53,282
136,503
25,000
2,800
1,500
1,476,877
52.8
1894
1,700,6:^5
15,000
271.336
5,000
20,443
300
2,012,714
66.0
1895
1,572.438
15,000
824,506
7,500
30,000
300
1,949,744
62.6
1696
1,670,96;3
603
243,220
5,000
40,000
800
1,960,086
61.6
1897
1,760,607
150
289,009
5,000
41,347
3(»0
2,096,263
64.5
1898
1,638,937
1,700
317,447
5,000
83,960
800
1,997,344
* Leading refiners state that little or no sugar is manufactured from domestic mo-
lasses ; also that in refining there is only about 2 per cent waste of original weight.
Messrs. Willett k. Gray, New York, state that of the sugar consumed iu 1897 only about
187,920 tons were unrefined.
CIV
UNITED STATES
ESTIMATED PRODUCTION OF HAY AND POTATOES FOR 1897
[From reports of the Department of Agriculture]
Hay
Potatoes
States and Territories
Acreage
Production
Price
per Ton
Acreage
Production
Price per
Bushel
Acres
Tons
Dollars
Acres
Bush eh
Cents
Maine
957,976
1,053,774
9.75
41,769
2,464,871
89
New Hampshire
602,338
692,689
11.50
17,294
881,994
90
Vermont
852,269
1,107,950
9.25
23,783
1,664.810
70
Massachusetts
585,206
819,288
13.90
25,243
1,565,066
90
Rhode Island .
73,074
84,035
14.50
6,192
681,120
97
Connecticut .
461,54^3
55:3,852
13.00
24,104
1.301,616
90
New York
4,451,777
6,009,899
8.25
339,679
21,060.098
67
New Jersey .
490,318
700,556
10.75
42,325
2,878,100
78
Pennsylvania .
2,636,028
3,690,439
9.15
169,060
10,650,780
66
Delaware
52,470
70,834
10.00
5,035
802,100
65
Maryland
289,003
390,154
10.50
21,542
1,594,108
60
Virginia .
548,254
592,114
10.25
34,756
2,120,116
78
North Carolina
132,507
165,634
9.75
16,295
1,075,470
64
South Carolina
137,795
137,795
11.50
4,059
263,835
105
Georgia .
123,740
167,049
13.00
5,137
267,124
100
Florida .
6,383
6,383
14.25
1,295
97,125
120
Alabama .
54,111
78,461
10.25
6,585
362,175
94
Mississippi
55,490
82,125
9.50
5,886
847,274
82
Louisiana
24,227
46,081
8.75
8,74:3
559,552
85
Texas
305,145
427,203
7.25
13,162
789,720
95
Arkansas
143,109
186,042
8.65
24,139
1,327,645
84
Tennessee
282,175
409,154
10.75
29,205
1,168,200
73
West Virginia
504,141
680,590
8.85
36,762
2,058,672
65
Kentucky
350,713
410,:3:34
10.00
42,644
2.004,268
67
Ohio
1,819,429
2,619,978
6.25
174,053
7,310,226
62
Michigan .
1,499,865
2,100,699
7.75
175,040
12,602,880
4:3
Indiana .
1,678,003
2,;399,544
5.90
96.891
3,003,621
62
Illinois
2,017,474
2,602,541
6.15
169,740
6,450,120
62
Wisconsin
1,461,052
1,972,420
6.25
148,808
14,731,992
38
Minnesota
1,514,929
2,378,537
4.50
107,960
11,443,760
31
Iowa
4,474,206
6,711,309
4.25
200,605
12,036,300
47
Missouri .
2,214.177
2,546,304
6.15
97,717
4,104,114
63
Kansas .
3, 125; 850
4,603,605
3.40
101,710
4,882,080
55
Nebraska
1,918,678
3,069,885
3.00
131,5137
9,076,05:3
46
South Dakota
1,886,710
2,358,388
2.95
54,183
5,093,202
32
North Dakota
388,163
621,061
3.25
29,857
2,955,84:3
38
Montana .
328,305
492,458
7.75
4,506
702,936
40
Wyoming
228.923
377,723
6.00
3,084
455,100
55
Colorado .
784, («S
1,765,4:36
5.50
32,022
3,106,1:34
56
New Mexico
37,976
132,916
7.00
727
65,430
78
Arizona .
33,961
101,88:3
5.00
Utah
18:3,185
510,;396
4.75
5,293
788,864
30
Nevada .
145,721
364,302
5.00
1,349
1S2,115
78
Idaho
18:3,482
422,009
5.25
3,888
544,320
82
Washington
292.025
657,056
9.00
14,5:35
2,8.54,670
28
Oregon
572,601
1,087,942
7.75
14,9:35
2,3.s9,600
40
California
1,697,562
2,716,099
9.00
21,498
2,256,765
49
Total
42,426,770
60,664,876
6.62
2,5:34,577
164,015,964
54.7
PRODUCTION OF WOOL
cv
The statistics of the number of sheep and of the wool clip of the
United States are from estimates made by Mr. S. N. 1). North, Secretary
of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, and the reports by
State authorities and the United States Department of Agriculture. The
figures are not claimed to be mathematically accurate, but they are trust-
worthy as thoroughly indicative of conditions.
WOOL PUODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1S98
States and Territories
No. of Sheep,
April 1, 1S98
A v' rape
Weight
Wool W^ashcd
and Unwashed
I'er
cent of
Shrink-
age
Wool Scoured
Pout)df^
PduihIx
Pound H
Maine .
226,851
6
1,361,106
42
789,441
New Hampshire .
74,221
Gk
482
437
55
217,096
Vermont
156,274
7"
1,093
918
57
470,384
Massachusetts
40,31)5
5.V
222
173
42
128,860
Rhode Island
10,564
5i
58
102
42
33,699
Connecticut .
30,265
5^-
166
458
42
95,545
New York
703,254
6"
4,759
524
50
2,379,762
New Jersey .
39,096
5
195
480
47
103.604
Pennsylvania
763,989
5J
4,392
937
52
2,108,620
Delaware
12,479
5
62
395
46
33,693
Maryland
126,619
5
633
095
47
335,540
Virginia
363,813
5
1,819
065
42
1,055,058
North Carolina
273,890
5
1,369
450
43
780,587
South Carolina
66,540
5
332
700
44
]8i3,312
Georgia .
318,370
4
1,273
480
40
764,088
Florida .
74,159
4
296
636
42
172,049
Alabama
204,001
41
867
004
42
502,862
Mississippi
245,580
4
982
320
42
569,746
Louisiana
116,754
4.\
525
393
50
262,697
Texas
2,520,068
^
16,380
442
70
4,914,133
Arkansas
131,162
4
557
438
42
323,314
Tennessee
309,080
4>,
1,390
860
43
792,790
.West Virginia
422,952
5|
2,326
236
48
1,209,643
Kentucky
617,131
5^
3,085
655
37
1,943,963
Ohio
2,307,610
^\
12,114
953
50
6,057,476
Michigan
1,312,018
4
8,856
122
53
4,162,377
Indiana .
643,810
6
3,862
860
45
2,124,573
Illinois .
583,133
^
3,644
582
50
1,822,291
Wisconsin
688,608
4
4,475
952
52
2,148,457
Minnesota
395,535
r
2,768
745
58
1,162,873
Iowa
555,448
H
3,610
412
58
1,516,373
Missouri
629,211
Q
3,775
266
52
1,812,128
Kansas .
220,993
8
1,767
944
67
583,421
Nebraska
258,977
H
2,201
305
69
682,404
South Dakota
343,414
Q
2,060
484
60
824,194
Nortli Dakota
342,793
6
2,056
758
60
822,703
Montana
3,101,497
6.1
20,935
105
62
7,955,340
Wyoming
1,703,338
8
13,626
704
68
4,360,545
Colorado
1,475,388
6]
9,958
809
68
3,186,838
New Mexico .
2,741,871
4i
12,338
420
53
5,799,057
Arizona .
803,822
'1
6,229
621
70
1,868,886
Utah
1,800,396
(j
10,802
376
65
3,780,832
CVl
UNITED STATES
WOOL PEODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1898 — Continued
States and Territories
No. of Sheep,
April 1, 1898
A v' rage
Weight
1898
Wool Washed
and Unwashed
Per
cent of
Shrink-
age
Wool Scoured
Nevada .
Idaho
Washington
Oregon .
California
Oklahoma
526,988
1,548,960
726,302
2,580,833
2,418,999
24,463
Pounds
8^
?^
7
Pounds
3,952,410
11,617,200
6,173,567
21,291,872
16,932,993
171,241
68
68
72
71
66
66
Pounds
1,264,771
3,717,504
1,728,599
6,174,643
5,757,218
58,221
89,545,210
22,116,371
Total .
Pulled Wool
35,671,914
6.44
229,860,065
36,860,619
61
40
Total Product, 1898
—
266,720,684
—
111,661,581
The estimates for the past eleven years have been as follows
FLEECE AND PULLED WOOL, WASHED AND IN THE GREASE
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Pounds
301,876,121
295,779,479
309,474,856
307,401,507
333,018,405
348,538,138
325,210,712
294,296,726
272,474,708
259,153,251
266,720,684
Decrease
293,829
6,096,642
2,073,349
23,327,426
30,913,986
21,822,018
13,321,457
Increase
13,699,377
25,606,898
15,519,733
7,567,433
The scoured wool production for the same years has been as
follows : SCOURED WOOL
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Pounds
136,591,955
134,795,350
139,628,220
139,326,703
145,300,318
151,103,776
140,292,268
125,718,690
115,284,579
111,365,987
111,661,581
Decrease
3,964,730
1,796,605
301,517
10,811,508
14,573,578
10,434,111
3,918,592
Increase
4,832,870
5,973,615
5,803,458
295,594
FORESTRY
evil
The following statement shows the quantity of wool retained for con-
sumption in tlie United States for the years 1890 to 1898, inclusive. As
the wool clip of the year reaches the market during the governmental
fiscal year, the clip of any year is added to the imports of the fiscal year
then about to begin, so the manufacturers' available supply is very fairly
indicated by this combination of home product and imports :
WOOL PRODUCED, IMPORTED, EXPORTED, AND RETAINED FOR CONSUMPTION,
1890-1898, FISCAL YEARS i
Year
Total Im-
ports
Exports,
Domestic
and
Foreign
Net Impouts
Produc-
tion
Retained
for Con-
sumption
Fine Wool
Classes
I and II
Class
III
Retained
for Con-
sumption
Per
cent of
Foreign
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
189^96
1896-97
1897-98
1898-99
1*0 amis
129,303,648
1 4 s, 670, 652
172,433,8;38
55,152,585
206,081,890
230,911,473
350,852,026
132,795,302
Pounds
2,930,045
3,210,019
4,310,495
6,497,654
6,622,19(1
12,972,217
8,700,598
2,625,971
Pounds
36,783,501
53,350,167
46,189,082
7,167,8.s0
98,388,31b
126,966,355
235,282,735
47,480,038
Pounds
89.S82.024
92,312,922
122,026,119
42,007,798
105,402,507
97,918,8S2
112,141,4.^7
82,810,437
Pounds
309,474,856
•■;o7,101,.5()T
333,018,405
348,538,138
325,210,712
294,296,726
272,474, 7(1^
259,153,251
266,720,684
Pounds
.1,S5, 848,4.59
452, .562, 14(1
5(11, 141,74s
397,193,069
524,722,428
512,235,982
614,627,365
389,322,582
Pounds
345,966,435
.•1(;( 1,219,2 18
379,115,629
355,185,271
419,319,921
414,317,100
502,485,908
306,512,145
10.63
14.81
12.18
2.(12
23.46
30. W
46.84
15.50
1 The yearly exports of domestic wool have never exceeded 500,000 pounds except as follows :
1893-94
1895-96
520,247 pounds
6,945,981
1894-95
1896-97
4,279,109 pounds
5,271,535 "
Forestry
There are no statistics of forestry in the United States, and
the following data, supplied by the Forestry Division of the
Department of Agriculture, are only approximations. The
forest area (exclusive of Alaska) is somewhat under 500,000,000
acres, about seven-tenths being on the Atlantic side, one-tenth
on the Pacific coast, one-tenth on the Kocky Mountains, and
one-tenth in the interior of the Western States. A rough and
liberal estimate puts the quantity of timber standing and ready
for the axe at 2,300,000,000,000 feet, B.M., while the total
annual cut, including all material requiring bolt or log size, is
estimated at 40,000,000,000 feet, B.M., three-fourths being
conifers, and the remainder oak and other hard woods. The
value of the forest raw material handled, in forest industries
only, in the census year 1890, was put at ^245,169,000, and of
the products at $446,034,000, the capital employed being
$561,943,000, and the employees numbering 347,700. If other
kindred industries are included, the value of the raw material
was $688,339,000; and of the products, $1,352,742,000.
CVIU
UNITED STATES
Mining
MINEEAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES |
Calendar Years 1S92 to 1894
[From reports of United States Geological Survey]
1892
1893
1894
Products
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Metallic
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
■"yuraf""'!'™^ '»-'">
(c) 9,157,000
131,161,039
(c) 7,124,502
84,810,426
(0)6,657,388
65,007,247
'"s/dr^h"^—
63,500,000
82,099,150
60,000,000
77,575,757
49,501,122
64,000,000
Gold, coining 1 ,1
value (e) |
1,596,375
33,000,000
1,739,081
35,950,000
1,910,816
39,500,000
Copper (/), j
value at New v pounds
352,971,744
37,977,142
339,785,972
32,054,601
364,866,808
33,141,142
York City \
Lead, A-alue at 1
New York V- short tons ((/)
173,654
13,892,320
163,982
11,839,590
159,331
9,942,254
City \
Zinc, value at )
New York V
87,200
8,027,920
78,832
6,306,560
75,328
5,288,026
City )
Quicksilver, 1
value at San j- flasks {h)
27,993
1,245,689
30,164
1,108,527
30,416
934,000
Francisco )
Aluminum, i
value at v pounds
259,885
172,824
339,629
266,903
550,000
316,250
Pittsburg )
Antimony, i
value at San > short tons
56,466
250
45,000
200
36,000
Francisco )
Nickel (*),
value at >- pounds
92,252
50,739
• 49,399
22,197
9,616
3,269
Philadelphia j
Tin
162,000
32,400
8,938
1,788
Platinum, val- ,
S^Kn?"' '™y«»--
SO
550
75
517
100
600
Cisco '
Total value of metallic
products
307,716,239
249,981,866
218,168,788
NONMETALLIC
(Spot Values a)
Bituminous 1 short tons
coal (m)
126,856,567
125,124,381
128,385,231
122,751,618
118,820,405
107,653,501
Pennsylvania h^ng tons
anthracite ( "
46,850,450
82,442,000
48,185,300
85,687,078
46,358,144
78,488,063
Building I
stone (n) f
48,706,625
38,885,573
87,055,030
Petroleum barrels (o)
50,509,136
26,034,190
48,412,000
28,932,326
49,344,510
35,522,095 -
Natural gas
14,800,714
14,346,250
13,954,400
Brick clay
(;>)9,000,000
9,000,000
9,000,000
Clav (all other 1 , . „
than brick) ,' »0"& tons
420,000
1,000,000
400,000
900,000
300,000
800,000
CcMuent barrels (7)
8,758,621
7,152,750
8,002,407
6,262.841
8,362,245
5,030,081
Mineral waters gallons .sold
21,870,004
4,905,970
23,544,495
4,240,734
21,509,008
8,741,846
IMiosphaterock long tons
681,571
3,290,227
941,30s
4,130,070
990,949
8,479,f)47
Salt barrels (/•)
11,098,890
5,054,915
11,810,772
4,054,00s
12,907,417
4,739,285
Limestone for I , . ,.
irontlux f lone tons
5,172,114
8,020,480
8,958,055
2,374,833
8,698,550
]*,849,275
Zinc, white short tons
27,500
2,200,000
24,059
1,804,420
19,987
1,399,090
<Iypsum "
250,259
695,492
25;i,015
090, (il 5
239,312
761,719 1
Borax pounds
]3,50(»,0(K)
900,000
8,099,00(1
052,425
14,080,130
974,445
Mineral paints short tons («)
51,704
767,700
37,724
5,S(),3,s4
41,920
498,093
Grindstones
272,244
338,787
223,214 1
Fibrous talc short tons
41,925
472,485
35,801
403,436
39,906
435,060
MINING
CIX
Mining
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES
Calendar Years 1895 to 1897
[From reports of United States Geological Survey]
1895
1896 '
1897
Products
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
(P)9,446,308
Dollars
105,198,550
8,623,127
DolltD-K
90,250,000
9,652,680
DolUirx
95,122,299
Pig iron
55,727,000
72,051,000
58,884,800
(cZ)76,069,236
53,860,000
(rf)69,637,172
Silver
2,254,760
46,610,000
2,568,132
53,088,000
2,774,935
57,368,000
Gold
892,639,964
38,682,347
460,061,430
49,456,603
491,638,000
54,080,180
Copper
170,000
11,220,000
188,000
10,528,000
208,192
14,885,728
Lead
89,680
0,278,020
81,499
6,519,920
99,980
8,498,300
Zinc
86,104
1,337,131
30,765
1,075,449
26,648
993,445
Quicksilver
920,000
464,600
1,300,000
520,000
4,000,000
1,500,000
Aluniiiiuin
(/) 450
68,000
(*)601
84,290
(«)756
109,655
Antimony
10,302
3,091
17,170
4,404
23,707
7,823
Nickel
Tin
150
900
163
944
150
900
Platinum
281,913,639
287,596,906
302,198,502
185,118,193
115,749,771
137,(>t0,276
114,891,515
147,789,902
119,740,052
Bituminous coal
61,785,122
82,019,272
48,523,287
81,748,651
46,814,074
79.129,126
Pennsylvania anthracite
34,688,816
31,346,171
36,070,651
Building stone
52,9'^3.520
57.632,296
13.00(',,6r)0
9,000,000
60,960,361
58,518,709
13,002,512
9,000,000
60,568,081
40,929,611
13,820,422
8,000,000
Petroleum
Natural pas
Brick clay
360,000
800,000
360,000
800,000
1,000,000
Clay (all other than brick)
8.731.401
21,463.54.3
1.038,551
13,669,649
5,4S2,2r>4
4,2f)4._'37
3,606,094
4,423,084
9,513,473
25,795,312
930.779
13,850,726
6,473,213
4,136,192
2,803,372
4,040,«39
10,989,463
23,255,911
1,039,345
15,973,202
8.17><,2^3
4.5119,1 (10
2,673.2(»2
4,920,020
Cement
Mineral waters
Phosphate rock
Salt
5,it7.949
2,623.974
4,120,102
2,060,000
4,247,688
2,124,000
Limestone for iron flux
20.710
265..'^^)3
ll,91s,(iOO
50.(595
39,240
1,449.700
807.447
595.ii(Ml
621. .'.52
2i!5.7C.S
370,^95
20.000
224.139
13,508,(Mt(»
48,032
46,089
1,400,000
572,344
675.400
530,455
326,826
899,4-y3
25,000
288,982
16,000,00(»
60,913
57,009
1.750,000
l,(l^(».(MM»
79.">,7'.t:!
:{0■^,(l.'»^
396,930
Zinc, white
Cvpsum
lil.rax
Mineral paints
C rind stones
Fibrous talc
ex
UNITED STATES
Mining — Continued
1892
1893
1894
Products
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
NoNMETALLic — Continued
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Asphaltum short tons
87,680
445,357
47,779
372,232
60,570
353,40(
Soapstone "
23,908
437,449
21,071
255,067
23,144
401, 82J
Precious stones
312,050
264,041
182,25(
Pyrites long tons
109,788
305,191
75,777
256,552
105,940
363,184
CbrundumandUhorttons
emery )
Oilstones, etc. pounds
1,771
181,300
1,713
142,325
1,495
95,9361
146,730
135,173
186,873
Garnet for )
abrasive > short tons
purposes )
Mica pounds
75,000
100,000
66,971
88,929
52,389
Barj-tes (crude) long- tons
32,108
130,025
28,970
88,506
23,335
86,983
Bromine pounds
379,480
64,502
348,399
104,520
879.444
102,450
Fluorspar short tons
12,250
89,000
12,400
84,000
7,500
47.500
Feldspar long tons
15,000
75,000
18,391
96,558
17,200
98.900
Manganese ore "
13,613
129,586
7,718
66,614
6,308
53.635
Flint "
"20,000
80,000
29,671
103,848
38,000
145,920
Monazite pounds
H)
130,000
7,600
546,855
36,193
Graphite
104,000
848,103
63,232
918,000
64,010
Bauxite long tons
10,518
84,183
9,079
29,507
11,021
35,818
Sulphur short tons
2,688
80,640
1,200
42,000
500
20,000
Fuller's earth "
(0
U)
il)
Marls
125,000
65,000
75,000
40,000
75,000
40,000
Infusorial )
earth and > "
43,655
22,582
2,584
11,718
Tripoli )
Millstones
23,417
16,645
13,887
Cromic iron ore long tons
1,500
25,000
1,450
21,750
3,680
53,231
Cobalt oxide pounds
7,869
15,738
" 8,422
10,346
6,763
10,145
Magnesite short tons
1,004
10,040
704
7,040
1.440
10,240
Asbestos "
104
6,416
50
2,500
825
4,463
Rutile pounds
100
300
150
450
Ozocerite, 1 n
refined f
Total value of non metal-
60,000
8,000
(0
(0
(/)
(n
lic mineral products .
339,958,842
323,318,020
307,975,593
Total value of metallic
products
307,716,239
249,981,866
218,168,788
Estimated value of min-
eral products unspeci-
fied (m) ....
Grand Total .
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
648,675,081
574,299,886
527,144,381
(a) By " spot" value is meant value at t
he point of
production.
(b) Long tons are tons of 2240 avoirdupc
)is pounds ;
sliort tons a
re tons of 2
000 avoirdup
ois pounds.
(c) Iron ore ls!)-i : \(],2'jr),W>{) long tons ;
value at mil
les: .$33,2(14
S96. Iron
)rc ls<.l3: 11,
')87,629 long
tons; value at mines : ^11»,2()5,<,»73. Iron o
^el894: 11,!:
79,679 long
tons ; valu
L' at mines :
$13,577,325.
Iron ore 1895: 15,957,614 long tons; value i
it mines : $1
8,219,684.
ron ore 18!
(!: 16,005,44S
long tons 1
value at mines : $22,788,069. Iron ore ls97
: 17,518,046
long tons ;
value at mil
les : $18,953,
221. '
(fl) Figures of production furnislR-d by t
K" Bureau of
the .Mint, Ti
•easurv De]
artmont. Co
ining value,
$1.2929 per troy ounce, ('omincrcial value
ls!»r>: .t:!C,,4-
5,000. 1891
: .$39" 655,0
to. 1897: $;
52.31 6,000.
(e) Figures of production furnislied by tl
e Bureau of
the Mint, Ti
easury Dep
artment. Co
ining value.
$20.6718 per troy ounce.
(/) Including copper made from import
ed pyrites.
{(/) The product from domestic ores onl)
r.
(h) Of 76^ avoirdupois pounds net.
(i) Includes antimony smel
ted from imp
orted ores.
MINING
CXI
Mining — Continued
IS
95
1896
1897
Products
Quantity
Valuo
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Valuo
Dolhu's
Dollars
Dollars
68,163
348,281
80,503
577,563
75,945
664,632
Asphaltum
21,495
266,495
22,183
354,065
21,923
365,6'2'.t
Soiipstone
113,621
97,850
13(»,67r>
I'rfcious stones
99,549
322,845
115,483
320,163
143,201
391,541
Pyrites
2,102
106,256
2,120
113,246
2,165
106,574
Corundum and emery
155,881
127,098
149,970
C'ilstones, etc.
/ Sheet
2,554
Sheet, lbs.
80,853
Garnet (abrasive)
55,831
J 65,441
) scrap
( 1,750
82,676
Scrap, tons
740
80,774
14,452
Mica
21,529
68,321
17,068
46,513
26,042
58,295
IJarytes
517,421
134,34^3
546,580
144,501
487,149
129,094
Bromine
4,000
24,00(t
6,500
52,000
5,062
37,159
Fluorspar
23,200
133,400
9,114
35,20(1
11,175
43,10(1
P'eldspar
9,547
71,769
10,088
90,727
11,108
95,505
Manganese ore
36,800
117,760
11,124
24,226
11,952
26,227
Flint
1,573,000
137,150
30,000
Crystalline, lbs.
1,500
44,000
Crystalline, lbs.
/
Monazite
52,582
535,sr)S
Amorphous, tons
76(1
V 48,460
1.254,402
Amorphous, tons
1,108
3 43,099
1 11,178
Graphite
17,069
44,000
18.364
47,338
20,590
57,652
Bauxite
1,800
42,000
5,260
87,200
2,275
45,590
Sulphur
6,900
41,400
9,872
59,360
17,113
112,272
Fuller's earth
60,000
80,000
60,000
30,000
60,000
30,000
Marls
4,954
20,514
3,846
26,792
3,833
22,835
Infusorial earth and Tripoli
22,542
22,567
25,932
Millstones
1,740
16,795
786
6,667
Chromic iron ore
14,458
20,675
10,700
15,801
19,520
81,232
Cobalt oxide
2,200
17,000
1,500
11,000
1,143
13,671
Mapnesite
795
13,525
504
6,100
580
6,4.'")(i
Asbestos
100
350
100
350
100
350
K utile
Ozocerite
Nonmetallic
339,715,046
335,140,332
329,113,845
281,913,639
287,596,906
302,198,502
Metallic
1,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
Unspecified
Total
622,628,685
623,737,238
6:32,312,347
(A') Inchidinf^ nickel in copper-nickel alloy, and in exported ore and matte.
(/) Not reported.
(m) Includinsj: brown coal and lig-nite, and anthracite mined elsewhere than in Pennsylvania.
(«) Not including limestone for iron llux, or grindstones.
(o) Of 42 gallons.
(;>) Kstimated from Census returns. Value of clav products in 1894 : |64,575,885 ; 1895 : $65,819,806 ;
1896: |62,143..'i(»7; 1S97: $60,911,641.
(y) Of 3(M) pounds for natural cement, and 400 pounds for artificial Portland.
(r) Of 280 pounds net. The reduced price in 1893 is due to omitting cost of packages.
(h) Including metallic paints, ochre, umber, Venetian red, sienna, ground soapstone, ground slate,
and mineral black.
(n Included in asphaltum.
(«) Including building sand, glass sand, iron ore used as fiux in lead smelting, tin ore, nitrate of Boda,
carbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, and alum clays used by paper manufacturers.
CXll
UNITED STATES
APPROXIMATE DISTPJBUTION, BY PRODUCING STATES AND TERRI-
TORIES, OF THE PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SILVER IN THE UNITED
STATES FOR THE CALENDAR YEAR 1897, AS ESTIMATED BY THE
DIRECTOR OF THE MINT
Go
LD
Silver
State or Territory
Total
Value
Fine
Ounces
Value
Fine
Ounces
Coining
Value
Alabama
358
$7,400
100
$129
$7,529
Alaska
86,011
1,778,000
116,400
150,497
1,928,497
Arizona
140,089
2,895,900
2,239,900
2,896,032
5,791,932
California
707,160
14,018,300
474,400
613,366
15.231.666
Colorado
924,166
19,104,200
21,036,400
27,974,335
47,078,535
Georgia
7,222
149,300
600
776
150,076
Idaho .
82,320
1,701,700
4,901.200
6,336,905
8,038,605
Iowa .
5
100
100
Marj'land
5
100
100
Michigan
3,033
62,700
60,300
77,964
140,664
Minnesota
145
3,000
3,000
Montana
211,563
4,373,400
15,667,900
20,257,487
24,630,887
Nevada
143,983
2,976,400
1,228,900
1,588,881
4,565,281
New Mexico
17,246
356,500
539,500
697,535
1,054,035
North Carolina
1,674
34,600
300
388
34,988
Oregon
65.456
1,353,100
69,000
89,2i2
1,442,312
South Carolina
4,097
84,700
200
259
84,959
South Dakota
275,491
5,694,900
147,600
190,836
5,885,736
Tennessee .
5
100
100
Texas .
358
7,400
404,700
523,249
530,649
Utah .
83,500
1,726,100
6,265,600
8,100,978
9,827,078
Vermont .
5
100
100
Virginia
189
3,900
3,900
Washington
20,312
419,900
106,900
138,214
558,114
Wyoming .
542
11,200
100
129
11,329
Total
2,774,935
$57,363,000
53,860,000
$69,637,172
$127,000,172
The production of gold and silver from the mines of the United States
since 1860 is shown in the following table.
The silver product is given at its commercial value, reckoned at the
average market price — based on daily quotations — of silver each year,
as well as its coining value in United States dollars.
PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SILVER FROM MINES IN THE UNITED
STATES, 1860 TO 1S97
[The estimate for 18C0-1S72 is by R. W. Raymond, Commissioner, and since 1872 by
the Bureau of the Mint]
Gold
Silver
Calendar Years
Fine
Ounces
Value
Fine Ounces
Commercial
Vahie
Coining
Value
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
Total
2,225,250
2,080.125
1,896,300
1,935.000
2,230,088
2,574,759
2,588,063
2,502,197
2,322,000
2,394.563
2.4 IS, 750
2.104,313
1.741,500
$46,000,000
43,000,000
39,200,000
40.000,000
46,100,000
53,225,000
5:^,500,000
51,725,000
48,000,000
49,500,000
50,000,000
43,500,000
36,000,000
116,015
1,546,875
3,480,469
6,574.219
8,507,812
8,701,171
7,734,375
10,441,406
9,281,250
9,281,250
12,375,000
17,789,062
22,236,328
$157,000
2,062,000
4,685,000
8,842.000
11,44:^,000
11,642,000
10,;^56,000
13,866,000
12,307,000
12,298,000
16,734,000
23,578,000
29,396,000
$150,000
2,000,000
4,500,000
8,500,000
11,000,000
11,250,000
10,000,000
13,500.000
12,000,000
12,000,000
16.000,000
23,000,000
28,750,000
29,012,908
599,750.000
118,065,232
157,366,000
152,650,000
PRODUCTION OF GOLD AND SILVER
CXlll
PRODUCT OF GOLD AND SILVER- Continued
Gold
Silver
Calendar Years
Fine
Ounces
Value
Fine Ounces
Connnercial
Coining
^ alue
Value
1S73
1,741,500
36,000,000
27,650,000
35,890,000
85,750,000
1S74
l,C20,5r>3
33,500,000
28,849,000
36,869,000
87,300,000
lSiT5
1,(515,725
83,400,000
24,51 s,000
3(»,549,000
31,700,000
18T6
1,930,162
39,900,000
30,009,(100
34,690,000
3S,hOO,o(io
1877
2,268,788
46,900.000
30,783,0(10
36,970,(100
39,soo,(iO(i
1S78
2,476,800
51,200,000
34,960, (_»( 10
40,270,000
45,200.000
1879
1,881,787
38,900,000
31,550,000
3r>,-!.';o,i)oo
40,800,00(1
ISSO
1.741,500
36,000,000
30,320,000
34.7'.'o.ooo
89,200,000
1881
1,678,612
34,700,000
33,2(')0,ooo
37,S"iO,0(i(l
43,000,000
1882
1,572,187
32,500,000
36,200,(100
41,120,000
46,800,000
1883
1,451,250
30,000,0(10
35,730,000
39,('i60,(i0l)
46,200,000
1884
1,489,950
30,800.01)0
37,800,000
42,070,000
48,800,000
1885
1,5;?8,325
31,800,(1(10
89,910,000
42,500,000
51,600,000
1886
1,693,125
35,000,000
39,440,000
39,230,(100
51,000,000
1887
1,596,375
33,000,000
41,260,(I(J0
40,410,000
5;3,350,(I0(»
1888
1,604,841
33,175,000
45,780,000
43,020,000
59,195,000
1889
1,587,000
32,800,000
50,0(»0,(l(IO
46,750,000
64,(")46,000
1890
1,588,880
32,845,000
54,500,000
57,225.000
70,465,000
1S91
1,604,840
33,175,000
58,330,000
57,(')30.000
75,417,0(JO
1892
1.596,375
33,000,000
63,500,0(10
55,563,000
82,101,000
1893
1,739,323
35,955,000
60,000,000
46,>^00.000
77,576,000
1894
1,910,813
39,500,000
49,500,00(t
31,422,000
64,000,000
1895
2,254,760
46,610,000
55,727,000
36,445,000
72,051,000
189G
2,568,132
53,088,000
58,835,000
39,655,000
76,069,000
1897
Total .
2.774,935
57,3(>3,000
53,S6(»,000
32.316,000
69,637,000
45,526,54S
941,111,000
1,052.271,000
1,015,054,0(10
1,360,457,000
Grand
total
74,539,456
1,540,861,000
1,170,336,232
1,172,420,(100
1, 513,107, 0(t()
The following table shows the amounts and the classification of gold
and silver used in the industrial arts in the United States each year since
1880:
GOLD AND SILVER BARS FURNISHED FOR USE IN MANUFACTURES AND
THE ARTS, AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE MATERIAL USED DURING
THE CALENDAR YEARS 1880-1897
Gold
Calendar Years
United States
Coin
New
Material
Old
Material
Foreifrn
Bullion
and Coin
Total
l^^sO .
$3,300,000
$6,000,000
$395,000
$1,267,600
$10,962,600
1881
2,700,000
7,000,000
522,900
1,547,8(!0
11,770,700
1882
2,500,000
7,000,000
696,500
671,500
10,868,000
18*3
4,875,000
7,840,000
1,519,300
194,500
14,458,S00
1884
5,000.000
6,000,000
3,114,500
385,500
14,500,000
1885
3,500,000
6,73(),927
1,408,902
178,913
11.824,742
1886
8,500,000
7,003,4^0
1,928,046
6;3S,O03
13,069,529
1887
3,500,000
9,090,342
1,8:^5,882
3<4,122
14,810,346
1888
3,500,000
9,893,057
2,402,976
71s,809
16,514,842
1889
3,r)00,()00
9,686,827
3,218,971
291,258
16,697,056
1890
3,500,000
10,717,472
8,076,426
362,065
17.655,960
1891
3-,500,000
10,697,(m9
4,860,712
628,522
19,686,916
1892
8,500,000
10,588,703
4,4(>8,6,85
771, ()86
19,329,074
1893
1,500,000
8,354,482
2,777,165
804,254
13,435,901
1894
1,500,000
6,480,073
2,1.84,946
548,585
10,658,6(>4
1895
1,500,000
8,481,789
2,976,269
471,027
13,429,086
1896
1,500,000
7,209,787
2,369,343
816,804
11,395,9:34
1897
1,500,000
7,184,822
2,571,428
613,981
11,870,281
To
tal
$58,875,000
$145,915,440
$42,857,951
$10,789,929
$252,938,320
CXIV
UNITED STATES
Silver (Coining
r Value)
Calendar Tears
United States
Coin
New
Material
Old
Material
Foreign
Bullion
and Coin
Total
18S0 .
$600,000
$5,000,000
$145,000
$353,000
$6,098,000
ISSl .
200.000
5.900,000
178,000
371,000
6,&49,000
18S2 .
200,000
6,344,300
212,900
440,300
7,197,500
1883 .
200,000
4,623,700
561,900
155,000
5,540,600
1SS4 .
200,000
4,500,000
170,000
650,000
5,520,000
18S5 .
200,000
4,539,875
462,186
62,708
5,264,769
1886 .
200,000
3,626,195
404,155
825,615
5,055,965
1887 .
200,000
4,102,734
480,606
654,991
5,438,331
1888 .
200,000
6,477,857
652,047
771,985
8,101,889
1889 .
200,000
7,297,933
611,015
657,997
8,766,945
1890 .
200,000
7,143,635
640,100
1,245,419
9.229,154
1891 .
200,000
7,289,073
858,126
1,256,101
9,603,300
1892 .
200,000
7,204,210
647,377
1,249,801
9,301,388
1893 .
100,000
6,570,737
1,222,836
1,740,704
9,634,277
1S94 .
100,000
8,579,472
1,221,177
982,399
10,883,048
1895 .
100,000
9,825,387
1,378,136
973,501
12,277,024
1896 .
100,000
7,965,449
1,076,829
1,061,995
10,204,273
1897 .
Total
100,000
9,200.497
1,103.460
797,193
11,201,150
$3,500,000
$116,191,054
$12,025,:S50
$14,249,709
$145,966,613
Machine Mining (Bituminous Coal)
The reports for 1897 show that mining machines were in use in twenty-
States in 1897, as compared with sixteen in 1896, and eight in 1891.
Utah and Washington, which had a machine-mined tonnage of 760 and
3920, respectively, in 1896, did not report any product so won in 1897 ;
while six States which did not report any coal won by machines in 1891
or 1896 had a combined machine-mined product of nearly 2,000,000 short
tons in 1897. These States, with the amounts of coal extracted by
machines, were as follows : Alabama, 294,384 short tons ; Kansas, 4500
short tons; Kentucky, 1,299,436 short tons; Tennessee, 47,207 short
tons; Texas, 11,750 short tons ; and Virginia, 323,649 short tons.
The statistics of the production of coal by machines in 1891, 1896, and
1897 are shown in the following table :
BITUMINOUS COAL MINED BY MACHINES IN TWENTY-TWO STATES IN
1891, 1896, AND 1897
State
FiuMS Using
Machines
Machines
Use
in
Tons M
iNED BY Machines
1891
1896
1897
1891
1896
1897
1S91
1896
1897
Alabama
—
—
3
—
—
46
294,384
Alaska
—
1
1
—
6
6
15,232
17,920
Arkansas
—
1
1
—
14
15
21,094
87,532
Colorado
1
6
8
20
34
37
284.646
318,172
352,400
Illinois
16
21
85
241
807
820
3,027,305
3,871,410
3,946,257
Indiana
3
11
11
47
186
174
212,8.30
964,378
1,023,361
Indian Territory
—
3
3
—
56
54
191,585
263,811
Iowa
2
5
t
9
45
67
41,540
84,556
181,209
Kansas
—
—
1
—
—
1
4,500
Kentucky
—
—
13
—
—
162
1,299,436
Missouri
—
1
1
—
4
3
47,827
59,692
Moiitiina
—
3
2
—
62
61
579,414
720,345
North Dakota
—
1
1
—
1
2
15,0(10
20,000
Ohio
19
31
39
114
209
224
1,654,081
3.368,349
3, 84)^345
Pennsylvania
7
41
64
72
454
690
431,440
6,092,644
8,925.293
Tennessee
—
—
2
—
—
8
47.207
Texas
—
—
1
—
—
5
11,750
Utah
—
1
—
—
1
—
760
Virfjinia
.—
_
1
—
—
22
323,649
Wasliiiigton
—
1
—
—
3
—
3,920
West Virginia
1
7
18
8
25
47
205,784
430,944
673,523
Wyoininf^
Total
2
2
136
4
84
89
45
854,106
419,647
555.526
51
211
545
1,446
1,988
6,211,782
16,424,932
22,649,220
PETROLEUM
CXV
BITUMINOUS COAL MINED BY MACHINES IN TWENTY-TWO STATES IN
1891, 1896, AND 1897 — Continued
State
Total Tonnage
Percentage of Total
Product Mined by
Machines
1S91
1896
1897
1891
1896
1897
Alabama
Alaska .
Arkansas
Colorado
Illinois .
Indiana
Indian Territorj' .
Iowa
Kansas .
Kentucky
Missouri
Montana
North Dakota
Ohio .
Pennsylvania
Tennessee .
Texas .
Utah .
Virginia
Washington .
West Virginia
AVyoming
Total .
4,759,781
542,379
8,512,632
15,600,098
2,973,474
1,091,032
3,825,495
2,716,705
2,916,069
2,674,606
Ml,861
30,000
12,868,683
42,788,490
2,413,678
172,100
371,045
736,399
1,056.249
9,220,665
2,327,841
5,748,697
15,232
675,874
3,112,400
19,786,626
3,905,779
1,366,646
3,954,028
2,884,801
3,383,478
2,331,542
1,543,445
78,050
12,875,202
49,557,453
2,663,106
544,015
418,627
1,254,723
1,195,504
12,876,296
2,229,624
5,893.770
17,920
850,190
3,861,708
20,072,758
4,151,169
1,336,380
4,611,865
3,054,012
3,602,097
2,665,626
1,645,799
77,246
12,196,942
54,597,891
2,888,849
639,841
521,560
1,528,302
1,484,112
14,248,159
2,597,886
8.10
19.33
7.16
1.09
12.85
1.01
2.23
15.21
100.00
3.12
10.22
19.57
24.69
14.02
2.14
2.56
37.54
19.22
26.16
12.29
0.18
0.33
3.35
18.82
4.99
100.00
10.30
10.48
19.66
24.65
19.74
3.93
0.15
30.07
2.24
43.77
25.89
31.51
16.35
1.63
1.84
21.18
4.73
21.38
118,199,882
132,350,648
141,993,577
5.49
12.41
15.95
Petroleum
Quantity of crude petroleum produced in, and the quantities and
values of petroleum exported from, the United States during each of the
calendar years 1880 and 1890 and from 1893 to 1897 :
[From report of Geological Survey]
Production 3
Year ending
Dec. 31 —
Total Exports *
Barrels (of 42
gallons)
Gallons
Gallon a
Dollar ft
1880 .
26,286,123
1,104,017,166
346,779,443
84,505,645
1890 .
45,822,672
1,924,552,224
693,829,848
52,270,953
18981 .
48,412,666
2,088,381,972
804,221,280
42,142,058
1894 .
49,344,516
2,072,469,672
908,252,814
41,499,806
1895 .
52,892,276
2,221,475,592
884,502.082
46,600,082
1896 .
60,960,361 2
2,560,335,162
890,458,994
62,383,403
1897 .
60,568,081 2
2,543,859,402
973,514,946
62,635,037
1 Exports are for fiscal years since 1898.
2 In addition to this amount, 4^525 barrels of crude oil were produced in Kentucky and
Tennessee in 1896, and 4377 barrels in 1897, for which, as none were sold or used, no value
could be given.
3 It is stated on pood authority that the distillation of 100 gallons of crude petroleum will
yield 76 gallons of illuminating oil, 11 gallons of gasolene, benzine, or naphtha, 3 gallons of
lubricating oil. and 10 gallons of residuum and loss.
* Include crude, refined, and manufactured products of petroleum and residuum.
CXVl
UNITED STATES
Manufactures
There are no facts relating to mannfactures for the whole
country except for census years, but in a few cases, like the
production of iron, data are available for other years. Use
has been made only of those sources which are considered
fairly trustworthy. In the following table, which gives the
great items for 1870, 1880, and 1890, the figures are taken
from the Eeports on Manufactures of the Eleventh Census
(1890), on a comparative basis ; as, for instance, the total value
of products, including receipts from custom work and repair-
ing, at the census of 1890 was ^9,372,437,283. This figure
could not be brought into comparison with the value of prod-
ucts at previous censuses because of the inclusion of things in
1890 not accounted for in 1870 or 1880. Such extra items have
been eliminated, therefore, that the figures may be more thor-
oughly comparative. The table shows the number of persons
employed, while the census figures, as usually quoted, include
oflB.cers, firm members, and clerks. This explanation will account
for any difference between the figures of the table and those
popularly used from the census reports :
Year
Establish-
ments Ke-
porting
Capital
Persons
Employed
Total Wages
Paid
Value of
Products
1870 .
1880 .
1890 .
252,148
258,502
322,638
$1,694,567,015
2,780,766,895
6,139,397,785
2,053,996
2,700,732
4,476,884
$620,467,474
939,462,252
2,171, 750,;S3
$3,385,860,354
5,349,191,458
9,056,764,996
The value of products, as given, is somewhat misleading.
The values are those at the works where the goods are pro-
duced, and while for a series of census years they indicate the
growth of manufacturing industries, they in no way indicate
the real value added by labor and skill to raw material. The
value of materials used in 1890 was $5,021,453,326. The value
of products, as stated, was nearly twice the value of materials.
The difficulty lies in the fact that in the materials there are
very many completed products used as raw materials for further
production, and those materials are counted in the value of
products to the extent to which completed products are used
as materials for a further product. No analysis, therefore,
should be attempted relative to per capita production, or the
relation of products to capital, or to wages paid.
MANUFACTURES
CXVll
Iron Manufactures
The development of the iron and steel industries since 1875 is shown by
the following figures, supplied by the American Iron and Steel Associa-
tion :
Years
Furnaces
iu Blast
Pig Iron
Produced
Pig Iron
Consumed
Rails Produced
Steel Ingots
and Cast-
Iron
Steel
ings
Number
Gross Tons
Gross Tons
Gross Tons
Gross Tons
Gross Tons
1875 . .
293
2,023,733
2,000,000
447,901
259,699
389,799
1885 .
276
4,044,526
4,348,844
13,228
963.750
1,711,920
1892 .
253
9,157,000
9,303,315
10,487
1,541,407
4,927,581
1893 .
137
7,124,502
6,982,607
6,090
1,130,368
4,019,995
1894 . .
185
6,657,388
6,694,478
4,674
1,017,098
4,412,032
1895 . .
242
9,446,308
9,628,572
5,810
1,300,825
6,114,a34
1896 .
159
8,623,127
8,275,774
4,347
1,117,663
5,281,689
1897 . .
—
9,652,680
2,872
1,(>45,020
7,156,957
The latest bulletin of the American Iron and Steel Association says
that the total production of pig iron in 1898 was 11,783,934 gross tons, an
increase of 2,121,264 over the production of 1897. The production in the
second half of the year exceeded that of the first half by 34,528 tons. The
production of bessemer pig iron in 1898 was 7,337,384 tons, an increase
over 1897 of 1,541,800 tons. The production of basic pig iron was 785,444
tons, against 556,391 tons in 1897.
The production of basic pig iron in 1898 was distributed as follows :
Allegheny County, Pa., 378,156 tons; other counties in Pennsylvania and
New Jersey, 205,192 tons; Maryland and Virginia, 54,535 tons; Ala-
bama, 100,294 tons ; and Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri, 47,267
tons. The production of spiegeleisen and ferro-manganese wa§ 213,769
tons, against 173,695 tons in 1897. The production of charcoal pig iron
was 296,750 tons, against 255,211 tons in 1897.
The stock of pig iron unsold in the hands of manufacturers on Decem-
ber 31, 1898, was 291,233 gross tons, against 656,489 tons similarly held on
Dec. 31, 1897.
The total production of rolled iron and steel in the last 6 years is given
(in gross tons) in the following table :
Years
Iron and
Steel Kails
Bars, Hoops,
Skelp, and
Shapes
Wire Rods
Plates and
Sheets, except
Nail Plate
Cut Nails
Gross Tons
Total
Gross Tons
1892 .
1N93 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1,551,844
1,136,458
1,021,772
1,306,135
1,122,010
1,(>47,892
3,033,439
2,491,497
2,155,875
3,005,765
2,731,932
3,081,760
627.829
537,272
673,402
791,130
623,986
970,736
751,460
674,345
6S2.900
991,459
905,776
1,207,286
201,242
136,113
10^,262
95,()s5
72,137
94,053
6,165,814
4,975,685
4,642.211
6,189,574
5,515,841
7,001,728
The iron and steel industries flourish chiefly in the States of Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio, Alabama, Illinois, and New York.
The manufacture of tin plates in the United States was undertaken in
1873 at Wellsville, ()., and at Leechburg, Pa. In 1875 it was also under-
taken at Demmler, near Pittsburg.
CXVlll
UNITED STATES
Since 1878 the tin-plate industry in the United States has grown with
wonderful rapidity, the production in the six fiscal years beginning with
July 1, 1881, and ending with June 30, 1897, having been as follows, in
long tons :
[Fiscal years]
Articles
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1S9T
Tin plates .
Terne plates .
Total . .
Long
Tons
2,026
4,066
Long
Tons
20,421
24,141
Long
Tons
36,433
25,720
Long
Tons
53,718
32,800
Long
Tons
94,906
42,250
Long
Tons
158,638
40,908
6,092
44,562
62,153
86,518
137,156
199,546
In April, 1898, there were in the United States 69 completed tin-plate
works, and one additional works was in course of erection.
The following table, compiled from the publications of the Bureau of
Statistics of the Treasury Department, shows the quantities of tin plates
and terne plates imported into the United States in each calendar year
from 1893 to 1897, with their foreign values. It shows a steady and
rapid decline in imports.
IMPORTS OF TIN PLATES AND TERNE PLATES INTO THE UNITED
STATES, 1893 TO 1897
Year
Quantity
Value
Year
Quantity
Value
1893
1894
1895
Long tons
253,155
215,068
219,545
$15,559,423
12,053,167
11,482,380
1896
1897
Long ions
119,171
83,851
$6,140,161
4,366,828
The estimated number of cotton spindles (according to "Cotton Facts,"
by A. \^. Shepporson) in the United States on September 1 of the years
named was as follows :
Year
In the Northern
States
In the Southern
States
Total in
United States
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
13,500,000
13,700,000
13,800,000
13,!)00,000
13,900,000
2,200,000
2,400,000
2,850,000
3,250,000
3,550,000
15,700,000
16,100,000
16,650,000
17,150,000
17,450,000
MANUFACTURES
CXIX
The following table shows the production of oleomargarine and total
receipts from all oleomargarine sources for each fiscal year since June 30,
1893:
Produced
lieceivc'd
During the fiscal year ended June 30 —
1894
1895
1890
1897
1898
Total .
Pounds
69,632,246
50,958,105
50,853,234
45,631,207
57,516,136
280,490,928
!$1, 723,479.90
1,409,211.18
1,219,-132.46
1,034,129.60
1,315,708.54
6,701,961.68
PEODUCTION OF OLEOMARGARINE OF THE UNITED STATES ON WHICH
INTERNAL-REVENUE TAX WAS PAID, 1895 TO 1898
1S95
1896
1897
1898
States
Quantity
Tax paid
Quantit}^
Tax paid
Quantity
Tax paid
Quantity
Tax paid
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Georgria
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Maryland
Missouri
Nebraska
New Jersey
New York
Ohio
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Tennessee
West Virginia
Pounds
232,730
6,392,092
31,336,797
647,617
6,922,394
1,017,108
2,991,561
130
3,378,624
498
841,016
750
3,258
Dolla rs
4,654.60
127,841.84
626,735.94
12,952.34
138,447.88
20,342.16
59,831.22
4.50
67,572.48
9.96
6,820.32
15.00
65.16
Pounds
6,451,019
28,356,388
619,943
41,440
5,877,914
688,475
1,588,624
62,214
3,930,010
7,325
421
Dollars
129,020.38
567,127.76
12,398.86
828.80
117,558.28
13,769.50
31,772.48
1,244.28
78,600.20
146.50
8.42
Pounds
5,086,884
24,747,971
1,313,835
5,538,257
381,900
540
220,510
1,800
5,234,997
12,865
Dollars
101,737.68
494,959.42
26,276.7(1
110,665.14
7,638.0(1
10.80
4,410.20
36.(10
104,699.94
257.30
Potitids
5,290,412
65
20,835,316
5,485,631
13,331,614
247,640
988,268
409,705
8,795,891
4,185
Dollars
105,808.24
1.30
416,706.32
1(J9,712.62
266,6,32.28
4,952.80
19,765.86
8,194.10
175,917.82
88.70
Total .
i_
53,264,475
1,065,293.40
47,623,773
952,475.46
42,534,559
850,691.18
55,388,727
1,107,774.54
1 Imported.
CXXll
UNITED STATES
members engaged in the liquor traffic was 191,519, and the
employees 241,755.
Consumption of Liquors
The total production of liquors in the country is not, of
course, the same as the consumption. Large quantities of the
liquors produced are exported every year, and of the exports
considerable is returned. There are, in addition, large quan-
tities imported for consumption. The quantity of distilled
spirits withdrawn from bond for consumption for any year
may be less or more than the production for the same year.
The Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department has for
a number of years published a table giving the total and per
capita consumption of distilled spirits, wines, and malt liquors.
The facts for certain years from 1840 to 1896 are reported
from this table in the following statement :
GALLONS OF DISTILLED SPIRITS, WINES, AND MALT LIQUORS CON-
SUMED IN THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1&40 TO 1898
[From the reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treasury Department]
Year
ending'
June 30
Distilled Spirits (a)
W INES
DOMESTIC
Imported
Total
Domestic
Imported
Total
From Fruit
All Other
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1896
1897
1898
(c)
(c)
ic)
1,223,830
1,005,781
rfl,440,810
1,146,131
1,411,448
40,378,090
46,768,083
83,904,258
77.260,368
61,126,634
(768,069,563
69,789,991
79,207,887
2,682,794
5,065,890
6,064,393
1,405,510
1,394,279
1,541,504
2,230,711
916,549
43,060,884
51,833,473
89,968,651
79,895,708
63,520,694
71,051,877
73,166,833
81,535,884
124,734
221,249
1,860,008
3,059,518
23,298,940
14,599,757
38.940,819
20,567,317
4,748,862
6,094,622
9,199,133
9,105,549
5,030,001
4,101,649
4,647,988
3,113,633
4,873,096
6,315.871
11,059,141
12,225,067
28,829,541
18,701.406
38,588.307
23,680,950
Year
t-ndinp
June 30
Malt Liquors
Total Con-
sumption of
Wines and
Li(iuors
Consumption per Capita
Domestic (h)
Im-
ported
Total
Dis-
tilled
Spirits
(a)
Wines
Malt
Liq-
uors
All
Liquors
and
Wines
1840
ls.50
IsOd
1870
18S0
1896
1897
1898
23,162,571
30,361. 7(ts
l()0,225,s79
2(13,743.401
413,2ns,ssr)
1.077,325,034
l,O()0,3O7,7O4
1,100,651,991
148,272
201,301
1,120,790
1.012.755
1.011,2s(i
3,300,531
3,002,5.58
2,457,348
23,310,843
36,503,(Ui<t
101,340.6(;'.i
204.750,150
414,220,165
1, (ISO, 020, 105
1.009,810.262
1,163,109,339
71,244,823
94,712,353
202,374,401
296,S70.931
506,076,400
1,170,379,448
1.181,065,402
1,268,326,173
2.52
2.23
2.86
2.07
1.27
1.00
1.01
1.10
0.29
.27
.35
.32
.56
.26
.53
.28
1.36
1.58
3.22
5.31
8.26
15.16
14.69
15.64
4.17
4.08
6.44
7.70
10.09
16.42
16.22
17.05
(a) Proof gallons.
(6) Product less exports.
(c) Included \vith "All other."
(d) Includes domestic spirits exported and returned.
CONSUMPTION OF LIQUORS
CXXlll
The quantities shown in the preceding table include liquors
consumed for all purposes, not only as a beverage, but in the
arts, manufactures, and medicine. At the Eleventh Census
an investigation was made to ascertain the quantity of distilled
spirits consumed in the arts, manufactures, and medicine.
Inquiry was made of manufacturers and wholesale druggists,
eleemosynary institutions, and retail apothecaries. The num-
ber of proof gallons of distilled spirits consumed in the arts,
manufactures, and medicine, as disclosed by this investigation,
is shown in the following table :
PROOF GALLONS OF DISTILLED SPIRITS CONSUMED IN THE ARTS, MANU-
FACTURES, AND MEDICINE FOR THE YEAR ENDING DEC. 31, 1889
Returns received
from —
Alcohol
Cologne
Spii'its
High
Wines
Whiskey
Brandy
Rum
Gin
Total
Manufacturers and
wholesale drug-
gists .
Eleemosynary in-
stitutions .
Retail a p o t h e-
caries
Total
5,425,791
30,092
1,289,269
1,334,033
4,374
114,641
54,737
883
20,372
879.282
59,222
1,085,396
100,482
6,599
159,793
87,378
841
101,362
84,937
779
136,579
7,966,640
102,790
2,907,412
6,745,152
1,453,048
75,992
2,023,900
266,874
1«9,581
222,295
10,976,842
The total consumption for all purposes of distilled spirits,
wines, and malt liquors of all kinds during the year ending
June 30, 1889, was 894,655,061 gallons. If it be desired to
obtain the quantity used strictly as a beverage, there should
be deducted the quantity used in the arts, manufactures, and
medicine.
The total annual revenue derived from liquor manufacture
and traffic may be recapitulated as follows :
Tax on real and personal property employed in liquor
manufacture (estimated)
Tax on real and personal property employed in liquor
traffic (estimated)
Ad valorem tax in Kentucky and Missouri .
United States internal-revenue tax
License fees or special taxes, States
License fees or special taxes, counties .
License fees or special taxes, municipalities .
Fines, States
Fines, counties
Fines, municipalities
Fines, sales of confiscated liquors, etc., United States
(estimated)
Customs duties on imported liquors
Total
$1,225,805.85
10,075,120.00
32,115.70
114,450,861.77
10,390,015.60
5,011,225.06
34,155,209.25
91,299.56
378,557.75
533,916.01
123,844.96
6,7:;6,063.00
$183,213,124.51
cxxiv UNITED STATES
Commerce
[From report of Secretary of Treasury, 1898]
The foreign commerce of the fiscal year 1898 in many-
respects was phenomenal. The exportations of the products
of both field and factory exceeded in value those of any pre-
ceding year, and the grand total of exports was the largest
ever recorded. For the first time in the history of our for-
eign commerce the year's exportations averaged more than
$100,000,000 per month, the total being $1,231,482,330, against
$1,050,993,556 in 1897 and $1,030,278,148 in 1892, no other
years having reached the billion-dollar line.
Of our domestic exports the value of agricultural products
was $853,683,570, surpassing by $54,355,338 the highest record
ever before made, that of 1892. Our manufacturers also made
their highest record of exports, those for the year being
$290,697,354, against $277,285,391 in the preceding year.
For the first time also in the history of our foreign commerce
the exports of domestic manufactures were greater than the
imports of foreign manufactures, while the total exports of
the year were twice as great as the total imports — a condition
heretofore unknown, the trade balance in our favor being more
than twice as great as that of any former year. Nearly all
branches of the great manufacturing industries shared in this
increase of the export trade, particularly manufactures of iron
and steel, leather, boots and shoes, and mineral oils, the prin-
cipal exception being cotton goods, the demand for which was
somewhat reduced by the fact that certain countries formerly
buying our manufactured goods are now buying our raw cotton
for use in their own factories. Nearly all classes of the great
agricultural products made their highest record of exports in
the past year. The value of the wheat and flour exported was
greater than in any preceding year, except 1892 ; the quantity
of cotton, corn, and oats surpassed in each case that of any
preceding year, and the exports of meat and dairy products,
grouped under the general head of provisions, exceeded in
value those of any former year.
The prices realized on nearly all important articles of export
were higher than in the preceding year, the notable exceptions
being cotton and mineral oils, in each of which the production
in the United States, the world's chief producer of these arti-
cles, has been in the past few years phenomenally large, thus
affecting the prices abroad as well as at home.
In importations the year has shown an equally remarkable
record, the value of foreign imports being less than in any
COMMERCE CXXV
previous year, with a single exception, 1880, though the popu-
lation has increased 50 per cent since that time. The total
imports were but {^610,049,654 in value, against $764,730,412
in the preceding year and $779,724,674 a year earlier. The
falling off was almost entirely in manufactures and arti-
cles of food. The importation of woollen manufactures was
$14,823,771, against $49,162,992 in the preceding year; of cot-
ton goods $27^,267,300, against $34,429,363 in 1897 ; of manu-
factures of iron and steel $12,626,431, against $16,094,557 in the
preceding year ; of earthenware and china $6,687,360, against
$9,977,297 a year earlier ; of glass and glassware $3,782,617,
against $5,603,868 in 1897 ; and of tin plate $3,809,148, against
$5,344,638 in the preceding year.
The year's record of the imports and exports of the precious
metals was also an unusual one. The importations of gold
were greater than in any preceding year in the history of the
country, and the exports smaller than in any year in the
present decade, making the net importations the largest ever
known. The total imports of gold were $120,391,674, and the
exports $15,406,391, the net imports being $104,985,283, the
largest in any preceding year being $97,466,127 in 1881, while
on only twelve previous occasions since 1850 have the year's
imports of gold equalled the exports. The importation of sil-
ver, most of which comes into the country in lead ore and base
bullion, amounted to $30,927,781 in value, against $30,533,227
in 1897 and $28,777,186 in 1896, while the exportation of the
year amounted to $55,105,239 in value, against $61,946,638 in
the preceding year.
This satisfactory condition of our foreign trade extended to
our commerce with practically every nation and all the great
geographical divisions. Our sales to Europe alone increased
$160,420,601, while our purchases from that section of the
globe decreased $124,258,514; and to all the great divisions,
except Oceanica, there was an increased sale, and from all,
except Asia and Oceanica, decreased imports. Our exports
to Asia show a gratifying gain, those of 1898 having been
$44,707,791, against $25,630,029 in 1896 and $11,645,703 in
1880, thus having quadrupled since 1880, and nearly doubled
within two years.
The following table shows the domestic exports of the fiscal
year 1898 by classes, compared with those of 1896 and 1897 :
cxxvi UNITED STATES
DOMESTIC EXPOKTS, ACCORDING TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION
Classes
Year Ending June 30 —
1896
1897
1898
Agriculture
Manufactures .
Mining ....
Forest ....
Fisheries
Miscellaneous .
Total
$569,879,297
228,571,178
20,045,654
83,718,204
6,850,392
4,135,762
$683,471,139
277,285,391
20,804,573
40,489,321
6,477,951
3,479,228
$853,683,570
290,697,354
19,410,707
37,900,171
5,435,483
3,164,628
863,200,487
1,032,007,603
1,210,291,913
The following shows the importations by classes, compared
with those of 189G and 1897 :
IMPORTS BY CLASSES
Year
ENDING JUNB
30 —
Classes
1806
1S97
1898
Free of duty :
Articles of food find live animals
$123,674,270
$124,012,968
$105,072,254
Articles in a crude condition foi
domestic
industry ....
.
186,417,181
194,564,240
155,251,519
Articles manufactured —
For mechanic arts
29,854,940
29,864,421
17,391,491
For consumption .
20,496,034
24,750,275
9,241,512
Articles of voluntary use,
luxuries,
etc
Total free of duty .
Dutiable :
•
9.815,045
8,746,339
4,457,399
369,757,470
381,938.243
291,414,175.
Articles of food and live animal.
113,350,775
121,153,211
76,528,984
Articles in a crude condition for
domestic
industry ....
, ,
22,951,536
20,352,385
49,205,666
Articles manufactured —
For mechanic arts
64,878,779
57,309,091
52,576,492
For consumption .
.
124,778,005
109,624,851
73,829,175
Articles of voluntary use,
luxuries,
etc
Total dutiable .
Free and dutiable :
•
84,008,109
74,352,631
72,995,162
409,967,204
382,792,169
324,635.479
Articles of food and live animalf
.
237,025,045
245,166,179
181,601,238
Articles in a crude condition foi
domestic
industry ....
209,368,717
214,916,625
204,457,185
Articles manufactured —
For mechanic arts
.
94,733,719
87,173,512
69,967,983
For consumption .
145,274,039
134,375,126
82,570,687
Articles of voluntarv use,
luxuries,
etc
Total imports .
Per cent of free ....
Duties collected on merchandise
•
93.323,154
83,098,970
77,452,561
779,724,674
764,730,412
616,049,654
47.4
49.1
47.30
157,013,506
172,760,361
145,438,885
EXPORTS — BY COUNTRIES
CXXVll
The following tables show the imports and exports of the
fiscal year 1898 by geograpliical divisions, compared with 1896
and 1897 :
IMPORTS BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS
Geogi-aphical Divisions
Year ending June 80 —
1S96
189T
Is'.is
Europe ....
North America
South America
Asia ....
Oceanica
Africa ....
Total
$418,639,121
126,877,126
108,828,462
89,592,318
24,614,668
11,172,979
$430,192,205
105,924.053
107,389,405
87,294,597
24,400,439
9,529,713
$305,933,691
91,376,807
92,091,694
92,594,593
26,859,230
7,193,639
779,724,674
764,730,412
616,049,654
EXPORTS BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS
Geographical Divisions
Year ending June 30 —
1S96
1S9T
1898
Europe ....
North America
South America
Asia ....
Oceanica
Africa ....
Total
$673,043,753
116,567,496
36,297,671
25,630,029
17,197,229
13,870,760
$813,385,644
124,958,461
33,768,646
39,274,905
22,652,773
16,953,127
$973,806,245
139,627,841
33,821.701
44,707,791
22,003,022
17,515,730
882,606,938
1,050,993,556
1,231,482,330
DISTRIBUTION OF THE COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES, BY LEADING
COUNTRIES AND GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE, DURING THE YEAR
ENDING JUNE 30, 1898
Exports
Total
Excess of
Countries
Imports
Exports and
Exjiorts or
Domestic
Foreign
Total
Imports
Imports
United Kingdom .
1534,398,302
♦6,542,303
1540,940,605
1108,945, is:,
$649,885,790
r/ 1431, 995,420
Germany
153,171,100
1,868,872
155,039,972
69,697,37s
•->24, 737,350
a 85,342,594
France .
93,790,717
1,668,573
95,459,290
52,730,84s
148,190,138
rt 42,728,442
Netlierlands .
63,417,547
856,977
64,274,524
12,525,065
76,799,589
a 51,749,459
Belgium .
47,466,600
152,601
47,619,201
8,741,826
56,361,027
« 38,877,375
Italy
23,067,997
222,861
23,290,858
20,832, 6;37
43,623,495
a 2,958,221
Other Europe .
46,890,515
291,280
47,181,795
32,960,752
80,142,547
a 14,221,043
British North Amer-
ican Possessions .
78,621,365
6,268,454
84,889,819
32,242,601
117,132,420
a52,&47,218
West Indies .
25,580,303
862,591
26,442,894
32,070,631
58,513,525
6 5,627,737
CXXVIU
UNITED STATES
DISTRIBUTION OF THE COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES, BY LEADIN(
COUNTRIES AND GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE GLOBE, DURING THE YEAI
ENDING JUNE 30, 1898 — Continued
Exports
Total
Excess of
Countries
Imports
Exports and
Exports or
Domestic
Foreign
Total
Imports
Imports
Mexico .
20,405,952
800,987
21,206,939
19,004,863
40,211,802
a 2,202,076
Central American
States . . • .
4,819,467
500,691
5,320,158
7,266,480
12,586,638
h 1,946,322
Other North Amer-
ica ...
1,721,363
46,668
1,768,031
792,282
2,560,268
o 975,799
Brazil
18,262,951
54,085
13,317,086
61,750,369
75,067,405
6 48,438,333
Argentina
5,948,846
480,224
6,429,070
5,915,879
12,344,949
a 513,191
Venezuela
2,704,908
41,353
2,746,261
7,722,564
10,468,825
& 4,976,303
Other South Amer-
ica .. .
11,117,260
212,074
11,329,334
16,702,882
28,032,216
7^5,373,548
Japan
20,354,689
30,852
20,385,541
25,228,610
45,609,151
Z/4,8;38,069
China
9,992,070
824
9,992,894
20,826.^36
30,319,330
1 10,333,542
Other Asia
14,295,854
33,502
14,329,356
47,044,547
61,373,908
6 32,715,191
Hawaiian Islands .
5,773,672
133,483
5,907,155
17,187,380
23,094,585
tll,2S0,22f
British Australasia
15,520,987
88,876
15,609,863
5,578,898
21,188,761
a 10,030,96£
Other Oceanica
474.588
11,416
486,004
4,092,952
4,578,95(5
?> 3,606,948
Africa
Total
17,494,860
20,870
17,515,730
7,193,639
24,709,369
r/ 10,322,091
1,210,291,913
21,190,417
1,231,482,330
$616,049,654
1,847,531,984
a 615,432, 67(
a Excess of exports.
h Excess of imports.
The following shows the principal features of the foreign
commerce during the fiscal year 1898, compared with 1897 :
PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF FOREIGN COMMERCE
1897
1898
-I-, increase ;
-, decrease
Imports:
Merchandise : Free ....
Dutiable
Total
Per cent dutiable .
Gold
Silver
Exports :
Merchandise : Domestic
Foreign
Total
Gold
Silver
Imports of merchandise for consumption
Duties paid
Ad valorem duties :
On dutiable . . percent
On free and dutiable . "
$381,938,243
382,792,169
$291,414,175
324,635.479
- $00,524,06"^
— 58. 156. »;!)()
764,730,412
616,049,654
— 148,680,75s
50.1
52.7
85,014.780
30,533,227
120,391,674
80,927,781
+ 35,376,894
+ 394,554
$1,032,007,603
18,985,953
$1,210,291,918
21,190,417
+ $178,284,310
+ 2.204,4(U
1 ,050,993,55()
1,231,482,330
+ 1S0,4SS.774
40,361,580
61,946,638
15,406,391
55,105.239
- 24,955,189
- 6,S41,399
789,251,030
172,760,3(;i
587,163,700
145,438,385
- 202,097,330
- 27,321,976
42.41
21.89
48.86
24.77
IMPORTS AND EXrOllTS — BY COUNTRIES cxxix
TOTAL VALUES OF IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN
MERCHANDISE, BY COUNTRIES, DURING THE TWELVE MONTHS
ENDING JUNE 30, 1897 AND 1898
Countries
Twelve Months ending June 30
Imports
Exp
orts
1S97
1898
1897
1898
Europe
Doll a rs
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Aiustiia-nunf,'arv
8,15^.828
4,716,510
4,023,011
5,697,912
Azores, and Madeira Islands .
i2.r,;;r)
28,797
298,809
377,715
Belfriuin
14,082,414
8,741,826
33,071,555
47,606,311
Denmark
35(1,855
211,837
10,194,857
12,697,421
France .....
(57,5;30,281
52,730,003
57,594,541
95,452,692
Germany
111,210,014
69,090,907
125,246,088
155,039,972
Gibraltar
20,402
32,519
332,245
304,829
Greece
732,702
910,390
110,763
127,559
Greenland, Iceland, etc. .
40,056
144,227
225
Italy
19,067,352
20,300,291
21,502,428
23,270,858
Malta, Gozo, etc.
8,(>47
13,476
29,520
64,352
Netherlands ....
12,824,126
12,535,110
51,045,011
64,274,622
Portnpal
2,234,291
2,605,323
2,520,058
3,532,057
Roumania . . . . •
12
42,005
111,154
Russia, Baltic, etc. .
1,865,967
2,649,966
5,995,204
6,333,317
Russia, Black Sea
1,338,692
1,889,723
1,607,072
1,002,765
Servia
12,646
12,095
Spain
3,631,973
3,575,385
10,912,745
10,228,545
Sweden and Norway
2,500,118
2,673,880
5,403,041
6,813,786
Switzerland ....
13,849,782
11,38(1,835
2,119,887
70,871
263,970
Turkey in Europe
2.766,094
54,767
139,075
United Kingdom
Total Europe
North America
167,947,820
109,188.865
4a3,270,398
540,860,152
430,192.205
30(),0!» 1,814
813,385,644
973,699,289
Bermuda
621,881
466,780
854,a82
998,941
British Honduras
British North America :
226,68:3
156,875
569,767
555.179
Nova Scotia, New Bruns-
wick, etc
5,751,302
4.262,641
4,247,724
4,537,518
Quebec, Ontario, etc. .
30,919,400
22,774,918
57,139,661
74,965,989
British Columbia .
3,638,669
4,604,853
3,541,436
4,202,483
Newfoundland and Labrador
Total British N. America .
Central American States :
413,421
375,855
1,099,904
1,205.275
40,722,792
32,017,767
66,028,725
84,911,260
Costa Rica ....
3,439,374
2,597,661
1,357,472
1,578,343
Guatemala ....
1,862,589
1,837,459
3,047,181
1,205,280
Honduras ....
847,230
844,533
724,991
702,171
Nicaragua ....
1,262,701
1,095,513
1,190,695
1,086,680
Salvadar ....
Total Cent. Am. States .
Mexico
1,112,5:34
891,314
1,619,508
747,684
8,524.428
7.266,480
7,9:39,907
5,820.1.58
18,511,572
19,000,1:37
23,421,064
21,205,2:34
Miquelon, Langley, etc. .
West Indies :
139,803
161,080
167,449
205,005
British
12,285,885
10,664,410
7,943,299
8,382,740
Danish
367,289
327,759
521,765
707,622
Dutch
96,343
174,243
652,341
514,463
French
9,944
30,888
1,679,625
1,617,248
Haiti . . . . ^ .
1,460,220
1,127,675
3,832,388
2,968,579
Santo Domingo . . .
2,369,424
2,131,046
1,098,6:35
1,151,258
Spanish — Cuba
18,406,815
15,232,477
8,259,776
9,561,656
" Puerto Rico .
Total West Indies
Total North America
2,181,024
2,414,:356
1,988,888
1,505,946
37,176,944
32,102,854
25,970,717
26,4^39,512
105,924,05:3
91,171,923
124,95S,461
139.(i;35.289
cxxx
UNITED STATES
Countries
T^
VELVE Months ending June 30
Imports
Exports
1897
1898
1897
1898
South Amkricv
Dolla rs
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Argentina .....
10,772,627
5,915,875
6,384,984
6,429,070
Bolivia
5,155
19,675
Brazil
69,039,389
61,750,369
12,441,065
13,317,056
Chile
3,792,434
3,736,622
2,590,539
2,351,727
Colombia
4,730,933
5,185,295
8,807.165
3,277,507
Ecuador .....
566,526
765,590
734,868
855,193
Falkland Islands
800
1,010
Guianas :
British
3,661,956
3,058,896
1,565,936
1,792,912
Dutch
1,036,688
1,455,749
384,336
381,322
French
8,137
16,009
113,674
132,596
Paraguay
740
699
Peru
722,089
725,362
1,108,436
1,302,695
Uruguay
3,515,054
1,772,310
1,213,426
1,214,248
Venezuela
Total South America
Asia
9,543.572
7,711,449
3,417,522
2,746,261
107,389,405
92,093,526
33,768,646
33,821,971
Aden
1,503,802
2,017,756
991,397
593,345
China
20,403,862
20,326,388
11,924,433
9,992,894
East Indies :
British
20,567,122
27,238,459
8,844,911
4,695,855
Dutch
15,604,866
14,529,335
2,094.109
1,201,574
French
135,183
152,147
Portuguese . , . .
519
Hongkong
923,842
746,517
6,060,039
6,265,200
Japan
24,009,756
25,224,102
13,255,478
20,502,136
Korea
509
125,936
IJussia, Asiatic ....
201,421
111,050
413,942
618,015
Turkey in Asia ....
4,009,027
2,325,078
74,899
243,190
All other Asia ....
Total Asia.
OCEANICA
70.380
76,352
480,005
433.976
87,294.597
92,595.037
39,274,905
44,824,2(58
Auckland, Fiji, etc. .
19,776
4,743
British Australasia .
5,900,144
5,578,898
17,460,283
15,603,763
French Oceanica
378,144
185,121
830,364
300,446
German Oceanica
4,594
11,102
8,959
Hawaiian Islands
13,687,799
17,187,370
4,690,075
5,906,361
Spanish Oceanica
5,047
8,811
4,503
Tonga, Samoa, etc. .
40,971
68,605
46,576
84.802
Philippine Islands
Total Oceanica .
4,383,740
3,830,415
94,597
127,804
24,400,439
26,859,220
22,652,773
21,991,381
Africa
British Africa ....
1,468,994
875,338
18,096,643
12,027,142
Canary Islands ....
French Afiica ....
49,909
26,283
297,878
274,827
254,755
476,836
802,010
668,186
(icrinan Africa ....
96
320
2,819
Liberia
7,023
6,670
11,443
12,688
Madagascar ....
17,088
15,365
473,353
226,738
Portuguese Africa
23,253
15,343
1,869,933
2,898,053
Spanish Africa ....
33
4,740
29,674
Turkey in Africa :
Kpypt
7,027,005
5,033,295
823,761
686,005
Tripoli
119,238
59,470
87
130,910
All other Africa
Total Africa
Grand total ....
IJkcapitui.ation
Europe
562.352
685,006
578,009
401.210
9,529,713
7,193,6.39
16,953,127
17,357,752
7W,780,412
616,005,159
1,050,993,556
1,231,329,950
4.30,192,205
306.091,814
818,885,644
978,699,289
North America ....
105,924,053
91,171,923
124,958,461
139,685,2S9
South America ....
107,389,4(15
92,093,526
33,768,646
33,821,971
Asia
87,294,.597
92,595,(137
39,274.905
44,824,268
Oceanica
24,400,439
26.859,220
22,652,773
21,991,381
Africa
9,529,713
7,193,639
16,953,127
17,357,752
EXrORTS — BY SOURCES OF TllODUCTION cxxxi
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1896 TO 1898
[Preliminary figures for 1898, corrected to Jan. 14, 1899]
Twelve Months ending December
Increase (+) or
decrease (— )
Twelve Months
1897 and 1898
1896
1897
1898
Merchandise
Imports — Free of Dntv .
Dutiable . ' .
Total .
Exports — Domestic
Foreign .
Total .
Excess of imports .
Excess of exports .
Gold
Imports ....
Expcu'ts ....
Excess of imports.
Excess of exports .
Silver
Imports ....
Exports ....
Excess of imports .
Excess of exports .
Dollars
322,952,457
358.627.090
Dollars
377,288,396
;!65.:;(i(;.s;!:',
Dollars
207,797,915
365,sC,r),719
Dollars
-109,490,481
+ 559,886
681,579,556
742,5!t5,22'J
6;33,(;64,634
-108,930,595
986,830,080
19.007,161
1,079,834,296
19.874.749
1,233,600,630
21.324.533
+ 153,766,340
+ 1,449,784
1,005,837,241
1,099,709,045
1,254,925,109
+ 155,216,124
324,257,685
357,113,816
621,200,535
+ 264,146,719
104,731,259
58.256,s90
34,020,592
34.276.401
158,030,252
lO.i94.9r4
+ 124,015,660
-18,081,447
46,474,369
255,809
141,841,298
30,279,740
64,056,741
33,082,302
58,661,292
29,029,724
53,797.104
-4,052,578
-4,864,188
33,777,001
25,578,990
24,767,380
-811,610
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893 TO 1898
Products of Agriculture
Values
Articles
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Animals :
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Cattle
26,032,428
33,461,922
30,603,796
34,560,672
30,357,451
37,827,500
Hogs
397,162
14,753
72,424
227,297
295,998
110,487
Horses
718,607
1,108,995
2,209,298
3,5:30,703
4.769,265
6,176,569
Mules
210,278
240,961
186,452
406,161
545,331
664,789
Sheep
126,394
832,763
2,630,686
3,076,384
1,531,(545
1,213,886
All other, and fowls
Total ....
Bones, hoofs, horns, horn tips.
4;3,116
53,247
51,389
39,752
0,8.771
250,175
27,527.985
35,712,641
35,754,045
41,840,909
4^3,568,401
40.248,406
strips, and waste
Breadstuffs :
Barley
319.848
260,675
288,084
321,680
280,140
174,861
1,468,843
2,379,714
767,228
3,100,311
7,040,384
5,542,040
Bread and biscuit
752,353
723,873
634,600
694,323
097,695
788,264
Buckwheat ....
678,959
589,285
Corn
24,587,511
30,211,154
14,650,767
37,836,862
W,087,152
74,196,850
Corn meal ....
793,081
770,526
648,844
0M,121
902,061
1,766,068
Oats
951.920
2,027,934
200,793
3,497,011
S.756,207
20,032,914
Oatmeal ....
100,600
238,528
566,321
939,502
1,071,340
1,757,978
Rye
1,002,790
126,532
5,340
445,075
3,667,505
8,825,709
Rve flour ....
10,290
4,273
12,062
11,103
7,800
11,815
Wheat
93,534,970
59,407,041
43.805, 6C);3
39.709.80^
50.920,17s
145,084.659
A\ heat flour ....
75,494,347
69,271,770
51,651,92-^
52,(125,217
55.914,347
69.2(W,71&
All other breadstuffs, etc. .
Total ....
1,555,88;^
1,610,8S4
1,661,234
2,442,940
4,508,025
4,-837,759
200,312,654
166,777,229
114,604,780
141.356.993
197,857,219
383,897,119
CXXXll
UNITED STATES
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893 TO 1898— Continued
Products of Agriculture — Continued
\'Ai.rr:s
Articles
1S93
1^94
1^95
1896
1897
1898
DoUars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dolla ;'.s-
Broom corn ....
163,105
210,742
169,503
181,853
136,007
163,066
Chemicals, drugs, dves, and
medicines ....
987,643
863,552
1,058,808
924,569
995.033
786,285
Cotton, uniuanufactured
188,771,44;!
210,869,289
204,900,990
190,056,460
230,890.971
230,442,215
Eggs .....
33.207
27.497
2.5,317
48,3.39
18(».954
448,370
Fruits, including nuts :
Ai)ples, dried
482,08,^
168.0.54
461,214
1.340.507
1,340,159
1,897,725
Ain>les, g-reen or ripe .
1,097,967
242,617
1,954,318
930,289
2,371,143
1,684,717
Fruits, preserved —
Canned ....
1,137,660
660,723
871,465
1,376,281
1,686,723
1,624,741
Other
224,381
211,215
47,420
70,353
43,276
82,504
All other green or ripe, or
dried fruits
881,804
1,016,397
1,522,100
1,868,353
2,172,199
8,562,191
Nuts
Total ....
Glucose or grape sugar .
94.902
125,2.33
115,274
93.283
125.805
161.432
3.918.799
2.424,239
4.971,791
5,679.066
7,739.305
9,013,310
2,204.2 l(i
2,328,707
2,567,784
2,772,335
2,73C),()74
2,871,N34
Glue .....
74,722
101,372
114,493
166,930
132,581
209,491
Grease, grease scraps, and
other soa]) stock
1.067,723
1,380,299
904,071
1,516,763
2.07(\111
1,964,565
Hair, and manufactures of .
459,048
353,729
505,029
455,880
517,4»)9
635,716
Hav
519,640
890,654
699,029
874.048
845,590
1,151,273
Hides and skins, other than
fur skins ....
1,497,003
3,972,494
2,310,323
3,858,946
2,388,530
1,015,032
Honey
15,115
127,282
118,873
90,909
22,368
98,. 504
Hops
2,695,867
3,844,232
1,872,597
1,478,919
1,304,183
2,642,779
Oil cake and oil-cake meal .
Oils:
Animal (not including whale
9,688,773
8,807,256
7,165,587
7,949,647
9,611,044
12,.581,5;M
and tish oil)
442,888
599,372
379,678
477,240
467,639
356,412
Cotton seed ....
3,927,556
6,008,405
6,813,313
5,476,510
6,897,361
10,137,619
Linseed ....
ToUU ....
Provisions, etc. :
54,356
48,550
37,363
33,260
42,70(1
1 614,085
4.424,S0()
6.656,327
7,230,354
5,987,010
7,4(t7,7()(t
11,108,116
Meat |»roducls —
Beef products —
Beef, canned
7,222,824
5,120,851
5,720,933
.5,636,953
4,656,308
3,279,657
Beef, fresh
17,754,041
10,700,163
16,832,860
18,974,107
22,653,742
22,9()6,556
Beef, salted or pickled
3,185,321
3,572,054
3,558,230
3,975,113
3,514,126
2,368,467
Beef, other cured
87,776
100,631
73,569
59,371
83,701
150,051
Tallow ....
Total ....
Hog products —
3.129,(159
2,766,164
1,293,059
2,323,704
2,782,595
3.141,653
31,379,(121
28,259, S()3
27,478,651
30,969,308
33,690,472
31,906,384
Bacon ....
35,781,470
38,338,843
37,776,293
33,442,847
34,187,147
46.380,918
Hams ....
9,933,096
9,845,062
10,960,567
12,669,763
15,970,021
18,987,525
Pork, fresh
79,317
92,095
60,660
43,739
94,816
815,075
Pork, iiickled
Lard
Total ....
Lard compounds and sub-
4,116,946
5,067,773
4,1.38,400
8,973,461
3,297,214
4,906,961
34,6413,993
40,089.809
36,821,508
33,589,851
29,12(').485
39,710,672
84.5.54,822
93,433.582
89,757,428
83,719,()61
82,675,683
110,801.151
stitutes for
1,118,659
CJasing.s for sausages
1,409,280
1,280,.514
1,581,891
1,771,(')80
1,514,6,51
1,821,519
Mutton ....
9,175
174,404
47,832
31,793
28,341
27,961
Including corn oil, $575,646.
EXPORTS — BY SOURCES OF PRODUCTION cxxxiii
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893-1898 — Continued
Products of Agriculture — Continued
Articles
Vai.uks
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Provisions, etc. — Coutiuued
Oleomargarine —
Imitation butter
The oil ....
Total ....
Poultry and game
All other meat products .
Dairy products —
Butter ....
Cheese
Milk
Total ....
Total provisions .
Rice
Seeds :
Clover
Cotton
Flaxseed or linseed
Timothy ....
All other ....
Total ....
Sugar, brown. Molasses, and
syrup . . ...
Tobacco : Leaf, stems, and
trimmings ....
Vegetables —
Beans and peas .
Onions ....
Potatoes ....
Vegetables, canned
All other, including pickles
Total ....
Wax, bees' ....
Wine
Wool
All other agricultural products
Total value of exports of
agricultural products
Per cent of total exports .
Doll(t7-8
416,386
11,207,250
Dollars
475,003
11,942,842
Dollars
992,464
7,107,018
Dollars
587,269
8,087,905
Dollars
472,856
6,742,061
Dollars
386,297
7,904,413
ll,ti2:-!,(;36
12,417,845
8,099,482
8,675,174
7,214,917
8,290,710
17,978
1,245,466
18,633
1,886,089
17,898
1,000,231
40,647
1,767,437
72,082
3,802,194
85,739
4,193,078
1,672,690
7,()24,648
274.1.55
2,077,608
7,180,331
322,288
915,533
5,497.539
219,785
2,937,203
3,091,914
270,453
4,493.364
4,636,063
524.968
3,864,765
4,559,324
671,670
9,571,493
9,580,227
6,6:^2,8.57
6,299,.570
9.654,395
9,095,759
139,S10,871
146,551,157
135,216,270
133,275,270
138,652.735
167,340,960
25,126
19,884
4,687
14,117
14,617
62,999
988,029
35,809
2,195,374
504,937
269,580
4,540,851
41,866
2,126,284
449.207
484,013
2,124,997
86,695
1,433
277,160
3.58,800
437,493
179,621
73,207
518,755
382,941
1,003,157
170,604
3,850,835
574,457
429,379
1,892,101
197,258
231,2:37
3l7,n3
316,954
3,993.729
7,942,221
2,849,145
1,592,017
6,028,432
2,954.723
1,005,646
22,891,899
1,064,611
24,08.5,234
872,452
25,798,968
748,259
24,.571,362
823,690
24,711,446
1,079,282
22,171,581
1,094,094
90,832
460,66(5
386,039
3.50,1.57
745,636
60,878
700,032
242,284
149,167
576,657
69,823
651,877
255,857
190,248
429,002
46,703
418,221
441,388
208,144
632,073
61,181
371,435
407,506
182,805
1,110,387
60,088
515,067
408,840
243,542
1,897,997
1,744,462
1,54:3,458
1,055,050
2,337,924
2,:381.7s8
22,048
421.547
14,S0S
627.122
118,093
444,448
90,676
694,136
90,875
601,910
484,463
486,340
65,844
651,287
855,950
888,765
56,462
698,714
619,932
842,847
41,827
728,749
18,071
1,456,160
615,382,986
628,3(t;3,038
553,210,026
569,879,297
683,471,139
853,683,570
74.05
72.28
69.73 66.02
66.23
70.54
Products of the Mines, including Crude Mineral Oils
Coal :
Anthracite ....
Bituminous ....
Total ....
Copper ore ....
Marble and stone, unmanu-
factured ....
Oil, mineral, crude
Quicksilver ....
Zinc ore
All other products of mining
Total value of exports of
products of mining .
Per cent of total exports .
4,854,604
5,149,5,34
6,656,590
5,252,375
5,918,229
5,180,398
5,717,246
4,928,816
5,678,198
5,330.445
5,906,171
5.777,.578
10,004.138
11,908,965
11,098,627
10,646,062
11,008.643
11,68:3,749
4,591,338
153,428
4,567,-391
204,908
5,990
492.833
2,435,716
142,691
4,415,915
618,297
36
927,978
1,104,515
83,359
5,161,710
425,724
415
635,4fr4
2,033,858
74,878
6,121,836
628,673
1,401
538,946
2,059,779
66,665
6,171,852
448,333
122,765
926,536
824,165
95,953
4,343,262
414,938
313,370
1,73.5.270
20,020,026
20,449,598
18,509,814
20,045,654
20.804,573
19,410.707
2.41
2.35
2.33
2.32
2.01
1.60
CXXXIV
UNITED STATES
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1S93 TO ISitS — Continued
Products of the Forest
Articles
Values
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Bark, ami extracts of, for
tanning ....
Naval stores :
232,269
271,236
290,362
354,007
241,979
329.994
Rosin
3,333,267
3,285,896
3,351,250
4,151,748
4.688,163
3,689,252
Tar
40,244
37.736
41,673
34,046
34,878
86,475
Turpentine and i)itcli .
20,254
30,071
28,573
43,959
44,366
48,611
Turpentine, spirits of .
Total ....
Wood, and manufactures of:
3.893,436
3,437.245
3,998,277
4,613,811
4.447,551
5,380,806
7,287,301
6.790,94s
7,419,773
8,s43,5t54
9,214,958
9,155,144
Firewood ....
5,877
6,922
Lumber —
Boards, deals, and planks .
9,642,599
9,355,025
8,860.235
10,116,598
13,076,247
12,080,818
Joists and scantling .
171,025
176,798
300,357
361,194
423,875
387,671
Hoops and hoop poles
40,350
44,510
Laths
8,663
14,164
Palings, pickets, and bed
slats
3,854
7,300
Shingles ....
72,562
80,018
93,046
111,052
103,231
101,040
Shocks —
Box
238,605
275,140
359,451
514,976
529,492
486.860
Other ....
702,403
620,311
565,404
638,339
597,606
557,895
Staves and headings .
2,499,520
2,891,805
3,138,424
3,256,553
3,922,031
3,787.078
All other lumber
1,44^3,537
1,602,293
1,642,370
2,149,891
3,162,470
3,256,880
Timber —
Sawed
2,320,123
2,411,229
2,971,785
3,415,546
4,036,214
3,438,578
Hewn
1,188,353
816,322
1,121,134
1.160,441
1,236,112
1,128,893
Logs and other timber
Total ....
Total value of exports of
2,270,072
2,636,608
1,813,894
2,796,04:3
3,945,106
3,189,820
20,607,543
20,938,445
20,866,100
24,520,6:33
31,0;32,3S4
28,416,033
products of the forest .
Per cent of total exports
28,127,113
28,000.629
28,576,235
33,718,204
40,489,321
:37,900,171
3.38
3.22
3.61
3.91
3.92
3.13
Produc
rs of thi
: Fisher
[ES
Fish :
Fresh, other than salmon .
100,656
48,820
67,272
84,814
59,563
48,878
Dried, smoked, or cured —
Codfish, including had-
dock, hake, and pollock .
728,475
704,652
514,370
448,286
396,422
800,953
Herring ....
93,412
123.882
97,719
96,462
105,770
74,844
Other
88,258
50,966
61,082
37,654
38,571
48,442
Pickled —
Mackerel ....
33,4s0
43,082
35,725
15,692
28,990
14,880
Hciriiig ....
8,660
13,457
Other
139,272
135,859
108,178
104,374
84,978
75,403
Salmon —
Canned ....
2,279,625
1,026,215
2,266,727
3,084,889
3,215,798
2,564,017
Other
49,230
58,659
88,789
167,991
284,891
832,023
Canned fish, olla-r than sal-
mon
166,902
148,402
141,311
198,199
213,669
146,510
Slu'lUish —
Oysters ....
625,079
688,65:3
6:34,573
696,179
623,285
586,403
Other
275,793
249,721
279,043
291,707
309,498
266,406
All other (ish
Total ....
161,927
204, 8)33
207,041
222,511
254,3:34
215,950
4,750,769
3,492,201
4,501,830
5,448,758
5,615,769
4,674,659
EXPOliTS — BY SOURCES OF PRODUCTION
CXXXV
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893 TO 1898 — Coutinued
Products of the Fisheries — Continued
Articles
Values
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Oils :
Whale
Other fish ....
Total
Spermaceti and spermaceti
wax
Whalebone ....
All other products of fisheries
Total value of exports of
the products of fisheries
Per cent of total exports .
DolUirs
61,245
31,683
Dollars
107,077
33,774
Dollars
50,214
142,553
Dollars
32,872
163,829
Dollars
21,288
155,052
Dollars
87,720
108,194
92,928
140,851
198,707
196,701
170.285
145,920
105,012
543,045
49,624
99,467
441,969
87,4:32
73,189
699,495
144,474
81,221
990,395
133,317
72,568
383,603
229,726
68,428
382,786
163,690
5,541,378
4,261,920
5,328,807
6,850,392
6,477,951
5,435,488
.67
.49
.07
.79
.08
.45
Miscellaneous Products
Fur and other skins
Ice
All other articles .
Total value of exports of
products other, etc. .
Per cent of total exports .
3,699,579
41,702
194,883
4,238,690
37,097
125,157
3,923,180
41,915
200,929
3,800,168
48,376
287,218
3,284,349
51,560
148,319
2,980,970
38,116
139,542
3,936.164
4,400,944
4,171.974
4,135,702
8,479,228
3,lf>4.028
.47
.52
.52
.48
.34
.20
Products of Domestic Manufacture
Agricultural implements
Art works: Paintings and
statuary ....
Blacking ....
Books, maps, engravings,
and other printed matter .
Brass, and manufactures of .
Bricks
Brooms and brushes
Candles
Carriages and horse cars, and
parts of ....
Cars, passenger and freight,
for steam railroads
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and
medicines ....
Clocks and watches, and
parts of ....
Coff"ee and cocoa, ground and
prepared, and chocolate
Copper and manufactures of,
not including copper ore
Cotton, manufactures of
Earthen, stone, and china
ware
Fertilizers ....
Flax, hemp, and jute, and
manufactures of .
Glass and glassware
Gunpowder and other explo-
sives
4,657,833
210,892
241,990
1,803,873
519,435
196,159
241,34:3
155,403
1,005,801
969,871
5,766,425
1,204,181
93,292
4,525,573
11,809,355
226,806
3,927,343
1,778,746
973,827
861,513
5,027,915
391,763
295,505
2,620,046
808,427
177,904
179,098
189,462
1,649,154
1,700,521
6,537,401
1,302,813
137,777
19,697,140
14,340,886
127,437
5,038,445
1,712,744
922,072
1,002,126
5,413,075
471,104
464,707
2,316,217
784, WO
127,888
165,672
190,980
1,514,336
868,378
7,130,334
1,204,005
104,317
14,468,703
13,789,810
141,021
5,741,262
1,722,559
946,381
1,277,281
5,176,775
524,077
533,058
2,338,722
872,396
128,055
180,183
230,146
1,884,658
1,002,940
8,138,789
1,460,375
107,740
19,720,104
16,a37,390
1,898,012
149,388
4,400,593
1,868,001
1,062,225
1,381,102
5,24O,0S()
301,362
3&4,937
2,647,548
1,171,4.31
148,389
186,050
216,565
1,955,760
990,950
8,792,545
1,770,402
128,078
31,621,125
21,037,078
7,005,323
177,832
5,005,929
2,216,1S4
1,208,187
1,555,318
7,009,732
273,521
733,568
2,484,325
1,320,098
157,274
158,272
232,214
1,685,838
1,788,581
8,655,478
1,727,469
137,369
32,180.872
17,024,092
6,^6,529
232,992
4,359,834
2,557,465
1,211,084
1,395,406
CXXXVl
UNITED STATES
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BT ARTICLES ACCORDING
TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893 TO 1S9S — Continued
Products of Domestic Manufacture — Continued
Yal
ues
A rti^A^
XXl Irl^l^O
1893
1S94
1S95
1890
1897
189S
India rubber and gutta-
JJoUars
Dollar H
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollar. <i
percha, manufactures of
1,609,400
1,461,842
1,505,142
1,858,556
1,8(17,145
1,981,501
Ink, ])rintors' and other
118,480
154,691
154,152
165,238
162,955
203,927
Instruments and apparatus
for scientific purposes .
1,845,621
1,534,277
1,912,771
2,522,217
3,054,453
2,770,803
Iron and steel, and manufac-
tures of, not including iron
ore
30,106,482
29,220,2(>4
32,000,989
41,160,877
57,497,872
70,406,885
Jewelry, and manufactures
of gold and silver .
881,893
851,084
716,844
800,951
658,676
747,780
Lamps, chandeliers, and all
appliances for illuminating
purposes ....
561,358
650,418
669,777
719,178
710,997
672,010
Lead, and manufactures of .
316,943
638,636
216,087
872,941
656,088
228.018
Leather, and manufactures of
11,912,154
14,283,429
15,614,407
20,242,756
19,161,446
21,118,640
Lime and cement .
166,381
162,096
127,256
121,914
143.471
128,476
Malt hquors ....
665,538
548,979
558,770
659,875
723,949
585,579
Marble and stone, manufac-
tures of ....
703,081
912,123
885,179
901,585
1,316,815
1,792,582
Matches
67,974
66,614
94,799
90,315
70.988
78,548
Musical instruments
1,824,107
972,590
1,115,727
1,271,161
1,276,717
1.388,867
Oil, mineral, refined
37,574,667
37,083,891
41,498,372
56,261,567
56,463,185
51,782,316
Oils, vegetable (not including
cotton-seed and linseed oils)
583,443
403,670
491,436
587,252
1,571.557
1,267,365
Paints and painters' colors .
700,308
825,987
729,700
880,841
944,530
1,079.518
I'ai)er. and manufactures of .
1,540,886
1,906,034
2,185,257
2,713,875
3,883,103
5,494,564
Parartin and paraflin wax
4,515,534
3,820,656
3,569,614
4,406,841
4,957,096
6,080.292
Perfumery and cosmetics
345,041
327,835
338,495
850.116
816,913
306,308
Plated ware ....
322,010
281,390
836,018
408,314
448,(132
417,824
Silk manufactures .
161,673
288,765
256,181
80(»,884
224, OOu
297,074
Soap
1,007,233
1,139,722
1,092,120
1,278,045
1,136,880
1,890.603
Spirits
2,724,057
5,676,936
2,991,086
1,780.804
1,941,703
1,850,853
Starch
707,093
727,011
366,800
885.198
1,665,926
1,371,519
Stationery, except of paper .
597,169
683,278
681,689
774,264
928,878
1,005,016
Stereotype and electrotype
jdates'
62,722
58,124
44,839
73,980
69,505
61,482
Straw and palm leaf, manu-
factures of .
155,783
186,427
177,946
269,311
305,418
317,468
Sugar, refined, including
candy and confectionery
1,297,730
1,144,800
1,119,476
966,016
885,272
1,032,376
Tin, manufactures of .
223,441
290,494
277,796
240,526
300,441
263.365
Tobacco, manufactures.
4,050.555
3,849,990
3,953,165
4,380,301
5,025,817
4,818.493
Toys
109,890
114,431
133,557
143,390
133,792
177,668
Trunks, valises, and travel-
ling bags ....
147,335
123,968
104,275
118,118
100,882
104,002
Varnish
258,400
282,278
303,959
862,975
431,761
422.693
Vessels sold to foreigners
124,13--^
99,042
94,951
154.610
191,84(1
144.543
Vinegar . . . .
12,177
9,587
11,278
16.975
1 1,572
12,939
Wood, manufactures of
6,058,896
6,773,724
6,249,807
7,426,475
8,592,416
9,098,219
Wool, manufactures of .
326,055
774,580
670,226
913,609
947,808
1,089,632
Zinc, manufactures of .
610,709
456,856
237,815
228,605
1,829,560
1,889,668
All (tther manufactured arti-
cles, not agricultural, min-
ing, forest, or fishery prod-
ucts
Total value of exports of
1,752,588
1.088,097
1.264,207
1,919,812
3..52S.921
4,760.7-15
domestic manufacture
Per cent of total exports
158,023,118
183,728,808
183,595,743
228,571,178
277,285,391
290,697,854
19.02
21.14
23.14
26.48
26.87
24.02
IMPORTS — IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE cxxxvii
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, GROUPED BY ARTICLES ACCORD-
ING TO SOURCES OF PRODUCTION, 1893 TO 1898 — Continued
Rec.vpitulation of Domestic Exports, 1893 to 1898
Groups
1893
1894
1895
Value
Per cent
Value
Per cent
Value
Per cent
DolldrK
Uo/lars
Dollars
Agriculture
6i:>.3s2,9s6
74.05
62^.363,038
72.28
55:3,210,026
69.73
Mines
•J0,()'.'0,(t2()
2.41
20,449,598
2.35
18,509,814
2.33
Forests
28,127,11;!
3.38
28,000,629
3.22
28,576,235
8.61
Fisheries .
5,541,378
.67
4,261,920
.49
5,328,807
.67
Miscellaneous .
3,936,164
.47
4,400,944
,.52
4,171,974
.52
Manufactures .
Aggregate .
158,023,118
19.02
183.728,808
21.14
183,595,743
23.14
831,030,785
100
869,204,937
100
793,392,599
100
Groups
1896
1897
1898
Yaluo
Per cent
Value
Per cent
Value
Per cent
Dot la /-.s
Dollars
Dollars
Agriculture
569,879,297
66.02
683,471,139
66.23
853,683,570
70.54
Mines
20,045.654
2.32
20,804,573
2.01
19,410,707
1.60
Forests
33,718.204
3.91
40,489,321
3.92
37,900,171
3.13
Fisheries .
6.850,392
.79
6,477,951
.63
5,435,483
.45
Miscellaneous .
4,135,762
.48
3,479,228
.34
3,164,628
.26
Manufactures .
Aggregate .
228.571,178
26.48
277,285,391
26.87
290,697,354
24.02
863,200,487
100
1,032,007,603
100
1,210,291,913
100
IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE, BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES AND CLASSES, IN ORDER
OF MAGNITUDE, 1894 TO 1898
Articles
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Percent
of Total,
1898
Coflfee
Sugar, molasses, and confec-
tionery :
Molasses ....
Sugar and confectionery .
Total . . . •
Silk, and Manufactures of:
Unmanufactured
Manufactures of
Total ....
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and
medicines ....
Hides and skins, other than fur
skins
Fibres, vegetable, and manu-
factures of:
Unmanufactured
Manufactures of
Total ....
Cotton, and manufactures of:
Unmanufactured
Manufactures of
Total ....
Wool, and manufactures of :
Unmanufactured
Manufactures of
Total ....
India rubber and gutta-percha,
and manufactures of:
Crude ....
Manufactures of
Total ....
Dollai'S
90,314,676
Dollars
96,130,717
Dollars
84,793,124
Dollars
81,544,384
Dollars
65,067 JS31
10.55
1.984,778
126,914.104
1,295,146
76,493,581
737,265
89.248,752
586,513
99,090,933
544,016
60,499,882
.09
9.82
128,898,882
77,7^8,727
89,986,017
99,677,446
61,043,898
9.!tl
16,234,182
24,811,773
22,626,056
31,206,002
26,763,428
26,652,768
18,918,283
25,199,067
32.110,066
23,523,665
5.21
3.82
41,045.955
53,832,058
53,416,196
44,117,:350
55,633,731
9.03
37,553,170
16,786,152
43,567,609
26,122,942
48,310,866
30,520,177
44,948,752
27,863,026
41,470,773
37,068,932
6.73
6.01
12,163,481
19.360,761
13,282.081
26,290,994
12,870,694
27,119.640
12.336.418
32,.546,867
13,446,186
21,899,794
2.18
3.56
31.524.242
39,573,075
39.990,:3:S4
44,88:3,285
35,:345,9S0
5.74
3.0(t3,888
22.346,547
4,714,375
33,196,625
6,.578.212
32.437,.504
5,884,262
34.429,363
5,019,503
27,267,300
.82
4.42
25.:3.^0.4:35
37,911,000
39,015,716
4(».313,625
32,286,803
5.24
6,107,438
19,439.372
25,.556,421
36,543,0*4
.32,451,242
53,494,400
5:3.24:3,191
49,162,992
16,783,692
14,823,771
2.72
2.41
25,546.810
62,099.505
85,945,642
102,406,183
31,607,463
5.13
15,162,333
339.962
18,475,382
387.101
16,781.538
379,4.59
17,558,163
39.5,147
25,545,391
466,244
4.15
.07
15,502,295
18,862,4^:3
17,160,992
17,953,810
26.011,685
4.22
CXXXVIU
UNITED STATES
IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE, BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES AND CLASSES, IN ORDER
OF MAGNITUDE, 1894 TO 1898 — Continued
Percent
Articles
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
ofTotal,
1898
Dollars
DolUi IK
Dollars
DoUa rs
Dollars
Fruits, including nuts
18,7^,771
17,289,928
19,032,439
17,126,932
14,566,950
2.36
AVood, and manufactures of .
18,154,073
17,814,119
20,567,967
20,543,810
13,861,928
2.25
Iron and steel, and manu-
factures of:
Ores
388,720
379,682
1,220,612
778,084
470,089
.13
Manufactures of
Total ....
Leather, and manufactures of .
20.925,769
23,048,515
25,338,103
16,094,557
12.626,431
2.00
21,814,489
23,428,197
26,558,715
16,872,641
18.(196.520
2.18
9,416,145
18,819,038
13,460,142
13,2^8,151
11,414,125
1.85
Tea
14,144,243
18,171,879
12,704,440
14,885,862
10,054,283
1.63
Spirits, malt liquors, and wines
10,660,375
11,429,128
11,849,715
12,272,872
9,805,504
1.51
Tobacco, and manufactures of :
Unmanufactured
10,985,386
14,745,720
16,503,130
9,584.155
7,488,608
1.21
Manufactures of
Total ....
Tin, bars, blocks, or pigs
2,154,186
2,142,892
2,200,812
2.097,547
1,608,506
.27
13,139,572
16,888,612
18,708,942
11,681,702
9,092,114
1.4S
2,640,770
6,787,424
6,761,716
6,585,852
8,776,151
1.41
Precious stones
5,411,076
7,426,178
6,712,415
2,672.598
8,406,424
1.36
Furs, and manufactures of
7,620,284
10,322,157
9,303,898
6,015,104
7,881,172
1.28
Earthen, stone, and china ware
6,879,437
8,956,106
10,605,861
9,977,297
6,687,360
1.08
Fish
5,399,705
5,756,210
6,323,299
6,172,082
5,985,045
.97
Feathers, flowers, etc., arti-
ficial, perfumeries, pipes,
toys, etc
5,346,776
6,784,976
6,218,718
6,502,439
5,919.553
.95
Oils
3,950,341
5,119,646
5,493,348
5,594,111
5,198,002
.86
Animals
2,401,246
2,737,078
3,252,477
4,285,455
4,675,125
.76
Metals, metal compositions,
and manufactures of .
4,486,395
4,228,046
4,614,955
4,118,598
3,821,068
.62
Articles, the i»roduce, etc., of
the U. S. i-eturned
2,543,924
2,293,822
3,434,790
3,370,107
3,783,241
.61
Rice
2,374,835
3,445,512
2,185,579
3,517,160
3,746,838
.61
Glass and glassware
5,216,816
6,627,473
7,435,792
5,603,868
3,675,045
.60
Cocoa, crude, and leaves and
shells of ....
2,402,382
3,195,811
2,387,078
2,997,866
3,492,033
.57
Coal, bituminous
3,704,118
3,848,865
3,559,283
3,553,876
8,401,301
.55
Breadstuffs ....
2,201,887
2,859,813
2,780,814
2,774,763
8,152,067
.51
Copi)er, and manufactures of.
not including ore .
366,478
434,839
1,195,814
1,080,638
3,120,565
.51
Books, maps, engravings, etc.
. 3,459,468
3,831,687
3,493,011
3,179,706
2,888,992
.47
Paper stock, crude .
3,048,094
3,786,026
3,445,723
3,071,705
2,870,828
.46
Pai)er, and manufactures of .
2,628,351
2,863,533
3,169,480
3,121,530
2,838,78>
.46
Lead, and manufactures of
6,606.865
2,488,584
2,447,575
1,948,225
2,600,779
.42
Cement
3,265,087
3,409,937
3,889,321
2,972,350
2,578,282
.42
Spices
2,262,55;^
2,6-10,235
2,378,519
2,576,716
2,404.629
.39
Art works ....
1,724,994
3,843,097
4,819,840
4,424,533
2,263,427
.37
Hats, bonnets, etc., materials
for, of straw, etc.
2,017,678
2,755,450
2,769,993
1,990,785
2,244,349
.37
Hair, and manufactures of
962,438
2,125,475
2,141,813
2,052,204
2,126,366
.35
Vegetables ....
3,896,067
8,971,536
2,521,206
2,610,854
2,034,600
.38
Provisions, comprising meat
and dairy products
1,797,847
2,028,658
2,095,015
2,884,632
1,841,515
.30
Household and jicrsonal effects.
etc.
2,775,982
2,242,961
2,585,749
2,438,363
1,779,055
.29
Corkwood, etc., and manu-
factures of ... .
1,280,982
1,400,830
1,619,337
1,751,652
1,403,826
.23
Fertilizers ....
1,139,294
1,092,449
1,106,846
1,111,532
1,870,588
.22
Bristles
929,281
1,244,151
1,435,348
1,217,179
1,249,119
.20
Seeds
2,895,603
6,535,580
2,688,154
1,428,926
1,231,766
.20
Paints
980,715
1,246,924
1,309,041
1,387,858
1,065,088
.17
Platinum
397,087
522,896
860,127
1,049,780
1,082,192
.17
Clocks and watches, and parts of
1,200,620
1,319,521
1,628,222
1,566,999
966,422
.16
All other articles
Total ....
31,173,966
32,619,022
39,099,119:! :!T..".rit.'_'98
80,616,408
5.00
654,994,622
731,969,965
779,7'-' 1. (ill Tt;i.T;;it.412
1
616,050,654
100
EXPORTS — IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE cxxxix
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES AND
CLASSES, IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE, 1894 TO 1898
Percent
Articles
1S94
1895
1896
1897
1898
ofTotal,
1898
Bread stuffs:
iJoi/ars
J)oU(irf<
Dolhi rs
JJollars
DolldrH
Corn and corn meal .
30,9S1.6S0
15,299,011
38,490,9.s3
54,989,213
75,902,918
6.28
"Wheat and wheat Hour
128,678,811
95,457,591
91,735,085
115,8;34,525
214,948,377
17.76
All other
Total
Cotton, and manufactures
of:
Unmanufactured .
7,110,738
3.847,578
11,130,925
27,033,481
42,985,824
3.55
100,777,229
114,004,7.>0
141,356,993
197,857,219
333,897,119
27.59
210,809,289
204,900,990
190,056,400
230,890,971
230,442,215
19.04
Manufactures of .
Total
Provisions, comprisinj?
meat and dairy products :
14.340,880
13,7S9.S10
10,837,390
21,037,678
17,024,092
1.41
220,210,175
2 lb, 090,800
200,893,850
259,928,649
247,400,307
20.45
Meat products
135,090,416
127 001,522
125,204,020
127,483,089
158,245,201
13.08
Dairy products .
Total
Iron and steel, and manu-
factures of . . .
Mineral oils :
Crude ....
9,580,227
6,032,857
0,299,570
9,054,395
9,095,759
.75
145,270,643
133.034,379
131,503,590
137,138,084
167,340,900
13.N3
29,220 204
82.0it0.989
41,100,877
57,497,872
70,400,885
5.82
4,415,915
5,161,710
6,121,836
6,171,852
4,343,202
.30
Relined or manufac-
tured ....
Total
Animals :
Cattle ....
37.083,891
41,498.372
56,261.567
56,463,185
51,782,316
4.28
41,499,800
40,000,082
62,383.403
02.035,(t37
50.125.57s
4.04
33,401.922
30,003,790
34,560,672
36,357,451
37,827.500
3.13
AU other
Total
Wood, and manufactures of
Copper, and manufactures
of:
Ore ....
2,250,719
5,150,249
7,280,297
7,211,010
8,415,900
.69
35,712,041
35,754,045
41,840,969
43,568.461
40,243,400
3.82
27,712.109
27,115,807
31,947,108
39,024,800
37,513,252
3.10
2,435,710
1,104,515
2,033,848
2,059,779
824,165
.00
Manufactures of .
Total
Tobacco, and manufactures
of:
Unmanufactured .
19,097,140
14,468,703
19,720,104
31.021,125
31,180,872
2.58
22,132,850
15,573,218
21,753,962
33,6!50,904
32,005,037
2.04
24,085,234
25,798,968
24,571,362
24,711,446
22,171,580
1.83
Manufiictures of .
Total
Leather, and manufactures
of
3.849,990
3,953,155
4,380,861
5,025,817
4,818,493
.40
27.935,230
29,752,133
28,951,723
29,737,263
26,990,073
2.23
14,283,429
15,614,407
20,242,750
19,161,446
21,118,640
1.74
Oil cake and oil-cake meal .
8,807,256
7,165,587
7,949,047
9,611,044
12,581,534
1.04
A'ejretable oils
6,400,625
7,342,112
6,097,022
8,511,618
12,019,009
.99
Coal
11,908,905
11,098,627
10,646,062
11,008,642
11,683,749
.97
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and
medicines
7,400,953
8,189,142
9,063,358
9,787,578
9,441,763
.78
Naval stores
6,790,948
7,419,773
8,843,564
9,214,958
9,155,144
.76
Fruits, including- nuts
2,424,239
4,971,791
5,679,066
7,739,305
9,013,310
.74
Agricultural implements .
5,027,915
5,413,075
5,176,775
5,240,686
7,009,732
.63
Cycles
1,898,012
7,005,323
6,840,529
.57
Paratiin and jiarafiin wax .
3,820,656
3,569,614
4,406,841
4,957,096
0,030.292
.50
Paper, and nuiuufactures of
l,900,fr34
2,185,257
2,713.875
3,333,163
5,494,504
.45
Fish
3,492.201
4,501,830
5,448,758
5,615.769
4,674,659
.39
Fertilizers ....
5,038,445
5,741,262
4,400,593
5,005,929
4,359,834
.36
Carriaces, horse cars, and
railroad cai's .
3,349,675
2.382,714
2,887,598
2,946,710
3,424,419
.28
Furs and fur skins
4,238,690
3,923,130
3,800,168
»,2>^4,349
2,980,970
.25
Seeds
7,942,221
2,849.145
1,592,017
6.(128,432
2,954,723
.24
Glucose or grape sugar
2,.32S,707
2,567,784
2,772,335
2,736,674
2,871,839
.24
Instruments, etc., for sci-
entific purposes
1,534,277
1,912,771
2,522,217
3,054,453
2,770.803
.24
Hops
3,844,232
1,872,597
1,478,919
1,304,183
2,642,779
.22
Fihris. vegetable, etc.,
mauufactui-es of .
1,712,744
1,722,559
1,868,601
2,216,1&4
2,557,465
.21
cxl
UNITED STATES
EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE, BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES AND
CLASSES, IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE, 1894 TO 1898 — Continued
PerCent
Articles
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
of Total,
1898
Books, maps, engravings,
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
etc
2,620,046
2,316,217
2,338,722
2,(>47,54S
2,434,325
.20
Vegetables ....
1,744,462
1,543,458
1,655,050
2,337,924
2,381,788
.20
Sugar and molasses .
2,209,411
1,991,928
1,714,275
1,708,962
2,111,658
.17
India rubber and gutta-
percha, manul'actures of
1,461,842
1,505,142
1,858,556
1,807,145
2,057,713
.17
Grease, grease scrajis, and
all soap stock .
1,380,299
904,071
1,516,763
2,070,111
1,964,565
.16
Marble and stone, manu-
factures of . . .
1,054,814
968,538
976,463
1,316,815
1,888,535
.16
Spirits, distilled .
5,676,936
2,991,686
1,730,804
1,941,703
1,850,353
.15
Clocks and watches .
1,302,813
1,204,005
1,460,375
1,770,402
1,727,469
.14
Soap
1,139,722
1,092,126
1,278,645
1,136,880
1,390,603
.11
Musical instruments .
972,590
1,115,727
1,271,161
1,276,717
1,383,867
.11
Starch
727,011
366,800
885,198
1,665,926
1,371,549
.11
Zinc, and manufactures of
456,856
237,815
228,605
1,829,560
1,339,668
.11
Glass and glassware .
922,072
946,381
1,062,225
1,208,187
1,211,084
.10
Hides and skins, other than
furs
3,972,494
2,310,323
8,858,946
2,388,530
1,015,032
"^ .09
All other articles
Total domestic .
19,779,744
19,668,972
24,084,034
17,469,362
27,942.270
2.30
869,204,937
793,392,599
863,200,487
1,032,007,603
1,^10,291,913
100
PRICES OF LEADING ARTICLES OF DOMESTIC PRODUCTION EXPORTED
FROM THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1872 TO 1898
[The values of the goods represent their market value at the time of exportation]
Year
ending
June 30 —
Corn, per
Bushel
Wheat,
per
Bushel
Wheat
Flour,
per
Barrel
Cotton,
per
Pound 1
Leather,
Sole, per
Pound
Illuminat-
ing Oils,
Eetined,
per
Gallon
Bacon
and
Hams,
per
Pound
Lard,
per
Pound
1872
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Dollar's
.695
.543
.418
.46
.53
.38
.31
.36
Dollars
1.47
1.25
.83
.67
.58
.65
.75
.98
Dolhi rs
7.11
5.88
4.66
4.11
3.38
3.56
3.84
4.51
Cents
19.3
11.5
10.1
7.8
5.8
8.1
7.4
5.9
Cents
23.7
23.8
16.0
15.1
15.8
17.9
16.9
17.5
Cents
24.9
8.6
7.4
4.2
4.9
6.8
6.3
5.7
Cents
8.6
6.7
7.7
9.6
8.7
8.8
7.5
7.7
Cents
10.1
7.4
7.1
9.0
7.8
6.6
5.1
5.6
1 Upland.
Year
ending
Juno 30 —
Pork,
Salted,
per
Pound
Beef,
Salted,
l>er
Pound
Butter,
per
Pound
Cheese,
per
Pound
Eggs,
per
Dozen
Starch,
per
Pound
Sugar,
Refined,
per
Pound
To-
bacco,
Leaf.
per
Pound
1872
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Cents
7.2
6.1
6.0
8.0
7.1
5.7
4.9
5.6
Cents
7.0
6.4
5.4
5.7
5.7
5.6
5.2
5.5
Cents
19.4
17.1
14.4
17.6
16.4
15.2
14.3
15.0
Cents
11.7
9.5
9.0
9.7
9.1
8.4
9.1
8.6
Cents
20.8
16.5
15.4
16.9
16.8
14.7
18.8
16.3
Cents
5.0
4.3
4.1
8.2
8.2
2.7
2.1
1.9
Cents
12.6
9.0
7.0
4.4
4.6
4.9
4.7
5.0
Cents
10.8
7.7
8.6
8.5
8.7
8.5
8.0
8.7
IMPORTED MERCHANDISE
cxli
PRICES OP LEADING ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED INTO THE
UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 18S1 TO 1898
[The values of the goods represent their values in the foreign market]
Year
Coal,
end-
Bitu-
Coffee,
ing
mi-
per
June
nous,
Lb.
30 —
per T.
Dol.
Cts.
ISSl
2.97
12.5
1890
3.30
16.0
1894
3.23
16.4
1895
3.05
14.7
1896
2.86
14.6
1897
2.76
11.1
1898
2.67
7.5
Copper,
Pigs,
Bars,
Ingots,
Old, and
Other,
Unmanu-
factured,
per Lb.
Cotton Cloth
Not
Bleached,
etc., per
Sq. Yd.
Cis.
{<')
7.7
8.9
8.1
8.3
8.2
8.4
Bleached,
per
Sq. Yd.
eta.
12.6
12.7
14.0
13.0
12.5
12.0
12.0
Fla.v,
per
T.
Dol.
268.51
271.87
307.18
284.71
230.36
206.53
315.88
Cylinder,
Crown,
and
Common
Window
Glass,
Unpol-
ished,
per Lb.
CU.
3.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.4
Plate
Glass,
Un sil-
vered,
per
So. Ft.
Hemp,
per
T.
India
Rubber
and
Gutta-
percha,
Crude,
per Lb.
Dol.
CU.
126.31
55.2
200. 03
44.0
146.74
44.3
126.94
45.0
126.57
C45.2
124.27
49.1
139.49
55.1
Year
end-
Pig
ing
Iron,
June
per T.
30 —
Dol.
1881
20.98
1890
25.09
1894
22.74
1895
27.27
1896
23.05
1897
23.50
1898
26.36
Bars,
Railway,
of Steel,
or in Part
of Steel,
per T.
Sheet,
Plate,
and
Taggers
Iron,
per Lb.
Cts.
5.3
3.0
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.4
3.1
Tin
Plates,
Terne
Plates, or
Taggers
Tin,
per Lb.
CU.
3.8
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
Le.vf To
BACCO,
PER LlJ.
Suitable
for
Other
Cigar
Leaf
Wrappers
CU.
CU.
(a)
52.2
h 92.8
61.0
114.0
38.7
127.1
35.9
107.4
39.4
93.5
50.6
98.11
55.10
Mackerel,
Pickled,
per
Barrel
(200 Lbs.)
Dol.
5.11
14.35
11.53
10.45
14.27
11.35
12.23
Molasses,
per Gal.
Rice,
per Lb.
Cis.
23.5
16.0
10.1
8.6
15.7
15.8
15.10
CU.
2.3
2.0
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.9
2.1
(a) Not separately stated. b Prices of imports for consumption. c India rubber only,
PRICES OF LEADING ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED, ETC.,
VARIOUS YEARS, ISSl TO 1S9S — Concluded
Year
ending
June 30 -
Silk, Raw
or as
reeled
from the
Cocoon,
per
Pound
Still
Wines
in
Casks,
per
(lallon
Sugar,
per
Pound
Tea,
per
Pound
Tin, Bars,
Blocks.
or Pigs,
Grain, or
Granulated,
per Pound
Cloth-
ing
Wools,
per
Pound
Comb-
ing
Wools,
per
Pound
Carpet
and
Other
Similar
Wools,
per
Pound
Carpets
and
Cari)eting
of All
Kinds of
Wool, per
S(|uare
Yard
Doll a m
CenU
Cevts
CenU
(•fills
Cents
Cents
Cevifi
Dollars
1881 .
4.27
62.3
4.41
25.7
20.8
23
29
14
1.08
1890 .
3.92
70.0
3.28
15.0
20.0
23
25
12
1.23
1894 .
3.16
70.0
2.92
15.1
15.7
16
26
9
2.28
1895 .
2.76
69.7
2.15
13.5
14.2
15
20
9
1.95
1896 .
3.28
68.8
2.29
13.5
13.5
17
22
10
1.43
1897 .
2.84
94.0
2.01
13.1
12.9
17
22
11
1.66
1S98 .
3.05
72.13
2.24
14.17
13.73
18
20
10
3.04
cxlii
UNITED STATES
Imports and Exports of the Precious Metals ^
Gold Imports. — Foreign gold bullion of the value of $25,568,368 was
imported into the United States during the fiscal year 1898. Of this
amount 816,449,134 came from England, $2,386,453 from Mexico, $2,337,-
243 from France, §1,911,948 from Australasia, $852,201 from the Do-
minion of Canada, $498,790 from Italy, $459,974 from Germany, and the
remainder principally from South and Central America.
Foreign gold coins of the value of $48,511,019 were imported ; $20,306,-
976 came from Australasia, $10,151,284 from England, $5,901,449 from
Germany, $5,097,428 from France, $3,868,298 from Cuba, $1,993,747
from Japan, and the greater part of the remainder from Central Ameri-
can States and from possessions in the West Indies.
Gold ore of the value of $737,266 was imported, $733,309 being re-
ceived from iNIexico, and gold of the value of 84,994,595 contained in
copper matte, lead bullion, and silver-lead ore was also imported, princi-
pally from British Columbia and Mexico.
There were returned to this country domestic gold coins of the value
of $40,590,947, of which $33,944,525 came from Great Britain, Germany,
and France ; $4,284,621 from Ontario and Quebec, $1,293,905 from Cuba,
and the remainder from various other countries.
GOLD IMPORTS, FISCAL YEAR 1898
Items
Value
Foreign bullion
Foreign coin
Foreign ores
Gold in copper matte $88,227
Gold in lead bullion 1,823,968
Gold in silver-lead ore 3,082,400
$25,568,368
48,511,019
737,266
4,994,595
Total foreign
United States coin
Total imports
$79,811,248
40,590,947
$120,402,195
Gold Exports. — Gold bars, bearing the stamp of a United States mint
or assay office, of the value of $1,507,535, were exported, all of which
went to France. There was also exported other domestic gold bullion of
the value of $469,115, nearly all of which went to England.
Gold coins of the United States were exported of the value of $8,402,-
210, of which $2,509,042 went to Ontario and Quebec, $2,500,000 to
France, $1,250,000 to Germany, $1,080,355 to the Hawaiian l.slnnds, and
the remainder to various countries, prineipally to Central American States
and the West Indies. Domestic gold ore valued at $160 was exported
to Nova Scotia.
Foreign gold bullion valued at $1000 was exported to France, and
foreign gold coin valued at $4,935,020 was also exported, the greater part
of which went to Cuba.
1 For production of gold and silver see Manufactures.
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF PRECIOUS METALS cxliii
Gold contained in foreign base bullion, of the value of $39,973, was
exported to England.
The total gold exports from the United States during the fiscal year
1898 were as follows :
Items
Value
Domestic bullion (United States mint or assay office
bars)
Other domestic bullion
Domestic coin
Gold in copper matte and base bullion (custom-house
returns ^81,345)
Domestic ore
Total domestic
Foreign bullion reexported .... $1,000
Foreign coin reexported 4,935,020
Gold in foreign base bullion reexported . . 39,973
$1,507,535
469,115
8,402,210
178,700
160
$10,557,726
4,975,993
Total foreign
Total gold exports
$15,533,719
In the above table, the item " in copper matte and bullion, $178,700,"
8645 ounces, fine, ascertained by the Bureau of the Mint, from the super-
intendent of the United States assay office and the collectors of the ports
at New York and Baltimore, has been substituted for the amount of gold
exported in the form of copper matte and base bullion, viz., $81,345, con-
tained in the custom-house returns to the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury
Department.
The value of the net gold imports for the fiscal year 1898 was $104,-
868,476, as against $44,609,841, net exports for the fiscal year 1897.
VALUE OF GOLD COIX AND BULLION IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, VARI-
OUS YEARS, FROM 1850 TO 1898; ALSO ANNUAL EXCESS OF IMPORTS
OR OF EXPORTS
Year ending
June 30 —
Exports
Imports
Excess of —
Domestic ^
Foreign
Total
Exports
over
Imports
Imports
over
Exports
1850 .
1860 .
1870 .
1880 .
1890
1891 .
1892 .
1893 .
1S94
1895 .
1896
1897 .
1893 .
Dollars
2,046,679
56,946,851
28,580,609
1,775,039
13,403,6:32
84,939,551
4:3,321,351
102,068,153
r)4,487,354
56,218,307
106.934,336
39.152,522
10,470,371
Dollars
2,513,948
1,499,188
5,055,353
1.863.986
3,870,859
1,423,103
6,873,976
6,612,691
12,490,707
10.250.174
5.475.611
1,209,058
4,936,020
Dollars
33,635,962
3,639,025
17,274,491
S6,362,6.>4
50,195,327
108,680,8+4
76,978.061
66,468.481
112.4(19.947
40,361,580
15,406,391
Dollarfi
1,776,706
2,508,786
12,056,950
80,758,396
12,943.342
18,232,567
49,699,4^4
21,174,381
72,449,119
36,384.760
33,.525,065
85,014.780
120,391,674
Dolla rs
21,579,012
4.331,149
08.130,087
495,873
87,506,463
4.528,942
30.08:3.721
78,884,882
Dollars
77,119.371
44,653,200
104,985,283
^ Gold and .silver cannot be separately stated prior to 1864, but it is probable that the
greater portion of the exports was gold.
cxliv
UNITED STATES
Silver Imports. — During the fiscal year there were imported 4,411,528
ounces of foreign silver bullion, of the commercial value of $2,566,338,
of which $2,333,823 came from Mexico, $226,292 from Honduras, and
the remainder from various countries.
The imports of foreign silver coin amounted to $7,615,826, of which
$6,199,203 came from Mexico, and the remainder principally from the
West Indies and Central and South America.
Foreign silver ore of the value of $230,789 was imported, of which
amount $194,228 came from Mexico, and the balance from Peru and
Colombia.
Silver coins of the United States were returned to this country amount-
ing to $148,410, of which amount $68,049 were returned from Canada,
$51,235 from Central America, $13,485 from the West Indies, $3554
from South America, and the remainder from various countries.
The invoiced value of silver contained in copper matte, lead bullion,
and silver-lead ore imported was $20,368,088, received principally from
British Columbia and Mexico.
The value of the total silver imports into the United States during the
fiscal year 1898 was as follows :
Items
Value
Foreign bullion (commercial value) ....
Foreign coin
Foreign ores (commercial value) ....
Silver in copper matte .... $59,684
Silver in lead bullion .... 12,790,554
Silver in silver-lead ore .... 7,517,850
Total foreign bullion
United States coin
Total silver imports
$2,566,338
7,615,826
230,789
20,368,088
$30,781,041
148,410
$30,929,451
Silver Exports. — Domestic silver bullion bearing the stamp of a United
States mint or assay office, containing 375,523 ounces, of the value of
$21 1,948, was exported ; .$176,711 of this amount went to Mexico and the re-
mainder to England and Canada. Other silver bullion, containing 82,796,775
ounces, of the invoiced value of $47,342,174, was exported, $41,002,577
of which went to England, $2,115,880 to Hongkong, $1,417,588 to the
British East Indies, $1,062,250 to France, $928,066 to Mexico, and the
remainder to various other countries.
Domestic silver coins of the value of $112,201 were exported, $75,000
of which went to the Hawaiian Islands, $23,108 to British Columbia, and
the remainder to Canada and the British West Indies.
The following table shows the silver exports from the United States
during the fiscal year 1898 :
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS — PRECIOUS METALS cxlv
Items
Domestic bullion (United States mint or assay office
bars, commercial value) .
Other domestic bullion (commercial value)
Domestic coin .....
Silver in copper matte and base bullion (custom-
house returns, $10:3,202) .
Silver in domestic ore
Total domestic ....
Foreign coin reexported
Silver in foreign base bullion
Total foreign
Total silver exports
r,275,594
107,714
A'aluo
$211,948
47,342,174
112,201
701,866
100
$48,368,289
7,383,308
$55,751,597
In the above table the item "in copper matte and bullion, $701,866,"
1,216,911 ounces fine, ascertained by the Bureau of the Mint from the
superintendent of the United States assay office and collectors of the
ports at New York and Baltimore, has been substituted for the amount of
silver exported in the form of copper matte and base bullion, viz, $163,202,
contained in the custom-house returns to the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury
Department.
The value of the net exports of silver for the fiscal year was $24,822,146,
against $32,636,835 for the previous fiscal year.
VALUE OF SILVER IMPORTED AND EXPORTED, VARIOUS TEARS, FROM
1850 TO 1898; ALSO OF SILVER IN ORE, 1890 TO 1898
Coin and Bullion
Silver in Ore
Year ending
June 30 —
EXPORTS
Imports
Excess of
Exports over
Imports
Domestic ^
Foreign
Total
Imports
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1850 .
2,962,367
2,852,086
1860
8,100,200
6,W1,349
1870
15,303,193
9,216,511
24,519,704
14,362,229
10,157,475
1880
7,572,854
5,931,040
13,503,894
12,275,914
1,227,980
1890
22,378,557
12,495,372
34,873,929
21,032,984
13,S40,945
7,748,572
1891
14,033,714
8,557,274
22,590,988
18,026,880
4,-564,108
8,953,608
1892
16,765,0(57
16,045,492
32,810,559
19,955,086
12,855,473
9,656,761
1893
23,559,254
17,178,065
40,737,319
23,193,252
17,514.067
11,100,747
1894*
39,069,087
11,382,178
50,451,205
13,286,552
37,164,713
6,631,011
18952
40,119,428
7,175,858
47,295,286
20,211,179
27,084,107
10,658,659
18962
53,196,559
7,345,111
60,541,670
28,777,186
31,764,484
15,859,228
1897 2
56,541.823
5,404,815
61,946,638
30,5:33,227
31,413,411
19.552,522
18982 .
47,829,645
7,275,594
55,105,239
30,927,781
24,177,458
20,037,520
1 Gold and silver cannot be separately stated prior to 1S64, but it is probable that the
greater portion of the exports was gold.
- Includes silver in ore. •
cxlvi
UNITED STATES
IMPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER, BY COUNTRIES
Countries
France
Germany .
United Kinj^dom
Other Euroi)e .
British Honduras
Dominion of Canada :
Quebec, Ontario, etc.
British Cohimbia .
Central American States
Mexico
West Indies:
British .
Spanish — Cuba
Other West Indies .
Other North America
Colombia .
Venezuela .
Other South America
British Australasia .
Other Asia and Oceanica
Africa
Total .
Ore and bullion .
Coin ....
Gold
Silver
Twelve Months ending
June —
1S97
Dollars
16,444,810
3,554,697
40,360,216
28,593
8,174
1,316,324
2,660,197
479,569
4,823,380
167,173
4,454,032
822,981
340,284
370,132
482,568
100,459
8,404,160
178,797
12,234
85,014.780
15,377,502
69,637,278
1898
J)olla?'s
22,799,157
8,428,050
43,133,5:38
545,724
35,976
4,707,493
8,427,358
516,943
5,122,282
127,909
5,165,063
558,739
535,484
238,596
620,287
18,508
22,279,470
2,131,097
120,391,674
31,287,488
89,104,186
Twelve Months ending
June —
1897
Dollars
2,722
12,573
60,405
1,102
353,986
79,562
2,639,410
1,114,061
25,068,145
30,707
67,652
366,552
19,277
273,827
10
425,325
8,650
3,421
5,840
30,533,227
23,556,982
6,976,245
1898
Dolla rs
24,718
3,240
26,063
1,982
193,239
69,821
3,871,275
790,646
25,025,062
18,746
2,095
654,046
12,241
137,553
495
576,956
16,403
30,924,581
23,160,035
7,764,546
EXPORTS OF
GOLD AND
SILVER, BY COUNTRIES
Countries
Gold
Silver
Twelve Months ending
June —
Twelve Months ending
June —
1897
1898
1897
1898
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
France ....
18,989,041
4,016,585
1,632.866
1,062.250
Germany ....
18,478,682
1,260,840
17,221
945
United Kingdom
906,017
444,109
50,144,804
42,456,009
Other Europe .
750,410
12,200
100
Dominion of Canada:
Quebec, Ontario, etc. .
3,629,140
8,191,356
111,572
142,585
British Columbia .
174,563
93,972
13,885
25,245
Central American States .
37,454
113,778
268,089
878.887
.Mexico ....
4,962
11,158
109,787
1,199,071
West Indies:
Haiti ....
920,049
343,771
2,050
960
Santo Domingo
30,281
182.559
259,491
339,996
Spanish — Cuba
4,197,546
900
Other West Indies .
20,285
40,049
14,420
83,341
Other Xorth America
167,440
211,741
7,124
1,996
Colombia ....
37,900
25,100
49
25,635
\ tMU'Zuela ....
149,986
106,422
679
Other South America
9,900
22,710
42,868
65,820
China
1,838,250
978,458
I'.ast Indies : British .
585,800
1,489,588
Hongiiong ....
77,680
64,390
8,827,202
6,824,747
Japan
2.987,851
61,910
Hawaiian Islands
975,088
1,080,355
116,100
75.000
All otiier countries .
Total ....
Ore and bullion .
2,752
14,4;W
8,246
40,86 1,.')S(»
15,406,391
61,946,{«8
.V). 105, 289
15,518,874
2,069,155
56,411,538
47,717,444
Coin
24,842,706
18,887,236
5,535,105
7,887,795
MERCHANT MARINE
cxlvii
Merchant Marine
The merchant marine of the United States, for various years,
since the adoption of the Constitution to the present time, is
shown in the following table :
AMOUNT OF REGISTERED, ENROLLED, AND LICENSED SAILING AND STEAM
TONNAGE, CONSTITUTING THE TOTAL MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED
STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 17i>9 TO 1898
Year
Registered Vessels
Enrolled Vessels
ending —
Sailing ^
Steam
Total
Sailing 2
Steam
Total
Dec. 81-
iVo.
Tons
iVo.
Tons
^0.
Tons
Xo.
Tons
^'o.
Tons
^^0.
Tons
1789
—
123,893
—
—
123,893
—
77,66f
—
—
77,669
1800
—
669,921
—
—
669,921
—
268,25^
[ —
—
268.254
1810
—
984,269
—
—
984,269
—
397,70-J
1 —
—
897,704
1820
—
619,048
—
—
619,048
—
600,97"
—
—
600,977
1830
—
575,05(]
—
1,41S
—
576,475
—
528,:394
1 —
63,053
—
591,447
Sept. 30—
1840
—
895,610
—
4,15£
—
899,765
—
1,042,67(
) —
198,184
—
1,240,860
June 30—
1850
—
1,540,769
—
44,942
—
1,585,711
—
1,418,55(
) —
481,005
—
1,899,555
1860
—
2,448,941
—
97,29fc
—
2,546,237
—
1,982,29'
" —
770,641
—
2,752,938
1870 '
>,742
l,:324,25(j
200
192,544
2,942
1,516,801
18,431
1,798,41S
-. 3,094
879,522
12,525
2,677,940
1880 '
2,240
l,206,2O{j
132
146,604
2,378
1 ,352, 81 (
12,;331
1,590,76
3 4,079
1,058,587
16,410
2,649,:3.53
1890
1,294
749,065
233
197,631
1,527
946,695
10,32(
» 1,752,24
1 4,743
1,639,643
15,063
:3,89 1,884
1891
1,316
765,952
271
239 99c
1,587
1 ,005,95(
10,:35
s 1,837,81
J 4,904
1,753,417
15,262
:3,.591,227
1892
1,278
765,77(
254
228,890
1,5:32
994,675
10,:39
I 1,857,52
2 5,07(
1,821,997
15.461
3,679,519
1893
1,094
638, 70(
249
261,10.'^
1,;343
89 9, SOS
lo,4(t-
1 1,934,85
3 5,210
1,897,97s
1.5,020
8,s82,S33
1894
1,104
650,089
246
266,091
1,350
916,18(
9.47:
3 1.776,24
3 5,172
1.898.97:^
14,645
8,675,216
1895
1,021
586,142
239
252, 04f
1,260
8:38,187
9.20
•) 1.768,90
> 5,202
1.9:36.204
14,408
8,705,104
1S96
1,013
580,072
244
2t>4, 882
1,257
844,954
8.75;
3 1.744,:35
1 5,246
2.018.14!
13,999
3,762,500
1897
983
547,110
247
258,474
1,230
805,584
8.50.
) 1,791,06
i 5,217
2,075,46t
13,722
3,866,536
1898
824
443,615
312
294,064
1,136
737,709
8,51
" 1,864,38
1 5,208
2,053,210
13,725
3,917,590
Licensed Vessels under
20 Toxs
Total Merchant Marine
Annual
increase
or
decrease
Year
Sailing i
Steam
Total
Sailing*
Steam
Total
(-)
N-o.
Tons
^0.
Tons
yo.
Tons
iVo.
Tons
Xo.
Tons
^0.
Tons
Per cent
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
201,562
—
—
201,562
1789
—
:U,3r
—
—
—
;34.317
—
972,492
—
—
972,492
3.52
1800
—
42,SK
) —
—
—
42,810
—
1,424,78:3
—
—
1,424,783
5.51
1810
—
60,14-.
)
—
—
6(»,142
—
1,280,167
—
—
1,280,167
l.,54
1820
—
•>S,S54
1 —
—
—
23,854
—
1,127,304
—
64,472
—
1,191,776
— 5.47
1830
—
40,13i
> —
—
—
40,1:39
—
1,978,425
—
202,339
—
2,180,7&4
4.02
1&40
50,18'
^
50.18S
3,009,507
525,947
3,535,454
6.04
1850
—
r>4,69:-
i —
—
—
54.693
—
4,485,931
—
867,937
—
5,353.868
4.06
1860
4,301
48,73;
^ 23(
) 3,029-
i.rm
51.767
25,474
3,171,412
3.524 1
.075.095 i
8.998
4.246.507
2.41
1870
5,418
59,5(>J
1 50(
) 6.367
').924
f'>5.s71
19.99.")
2.sr)(;.47c.
4.717 1
.211.5")> 1
4."712
4.oi;s,ii;u
—2.43
1880
5,888
64,10:.
! 98J
> 21,815
i."^77
s5.i»l^
17.5n-j
2.. ")(')."). 409.
"..'.IC,.-. I
.S59,088 1
3,407
1.424.497
2.71
1890
6.009
tU,73(
) 1,041
22,852
■.(l.")0
^7,5vj
17.(N1
2.(;c.s.4'.l.'ij
■..21(112
.016,2(>4 2
3,899
4.6*4,759
5.88
1891
6,322
67,20(
) l,06i
i 23.521
-.M'HI
'.to. 727
17.991
2.t)l»(i,.'){i4
■i.:'>li2 2
.074.417 2
4,383
4,7(>4.921
1.71
1892
6,45:3
68,2+J
1 i.(t;i»
; 24.i:ti
'."4!)
!i2.4:!.".
7.9.M
2.<U1.7!'9
\.'>r,\'-i
.W^.272 •-
4.51-_>'
4.v2.5,o71
1.26
1893
6,48:3
68, 26'
l.Kh
V •-'4.;!(;(;
■.nlM
;••_', tl{:!
7.o(')0
_'.494.:.99
').')2('i •_'
.iv.t.4-!it •-
:3,5m".
4.(;s4,o-_'9
-2.90
1894
6,459
68,ir
■ 1,11:
{ 24.. Vp-.'
■ *,"•>
'.>-2.M'.>
o.Ci^r.
2.42:;.1.'.9,
\j>:a 2
.212.^ol •_
3.240
4.(;35,96(t
-1.0:3
1895
6..>t7
72,24f
t l,ln,-
. 24.177
'.'>'<-
ii<;.4-jr,
c.-.m
-'.:!9ti.(;72
i..">'.i.") •_'
.:ioT.-jos •_
2.9o>
4.703.-^s(|
1.47
1896
6,546
72,2,8r
)l,l;i.
)24.r,i.^
ViM
'.•(■), '.too
16.o;34
2,4lO,4(;-.>
;..v.t9 -J
,:l.")"^..")t"^^ 2
2.t;:3;3
4.709.020
l.:38
1897
6,652
69,791
) 1,19-.
J|24,(>49
■,:=44
94,4:39
15,993
2,;377,815
6,712 2
,:371,9232
2.705 -
4.749,738
—0.40
1898
^ Including barges. 2 Including canal boats and barges.
For a separate report of canal boats and barges, see statement under Internal Communicationa.
cxlviii
UNITED STATES
VALUE OF FOREIGN CARRYING TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES IN
AMERICAN AND FOREIGN VESSELS RESPECTIVELY, VARIOUS YEARS,
1860 TO 1898
[Merchandise and specie to 1879, inclusive ; merchandise only after 1879]
Imports into the United States
Year
ending
June 30 —
By Sea
Per Cent in
American
Vessels
By Land,
in Vehicles
Total by
Land and
Sea
In American
In Foreign
Total
Vessels
Vessels
Doll (W 8
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1860
228,164,855
134,001,399
362,166,254
63
362.166,254
1870
153,237,077
309,140,510
462,377,587
33.1
462,377,587
1880
149,317,368
503,494,913
652,812,281
22.9
15,142,465
667,954,746
1890
124,948,948
623,740,100
748,689,048
16.7
40,621,361
789,310,409
1891
127,471,678
676,511,763
803,983,441
15.9
40,932,755
844,916,196
1892
139,139,891
618,535,976
787,675,867
17.7
39,726,595
827,402,462
1893
127,095,434
695,184,394
822,279,828
15.5
44,121,094
866,400,922
1894
121,561,193
503,810,334
625,371,527
19.4
29,623,095
654.994,622
1895
108,229,615
590,538,362
698,767,977
15.5
33,201,988
731,969,965
1896
117,299,074
626,890,521
744,189,595
15.7
35,535,079
779,724.674
1897
109,133,454
619,784,338
728,917,792
15
35,812,620
764.730,412
1898
93,535,867
492,086,003
585,621,870
16
30,427,784
616,049,654
VALUE OF FOREIGN CARRYING TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES IN
AMERICAN AND FOREIGN VESSELS, ETC. — Continued
[Merchandise and specie to 1879, inclusive ; merchandise only after 1879]
Exports from the United States
Year
ending
June
80—
By Sea
Per Cent
in
American
Vessels
By Land,
in Vehicles
Total by
Land and
Sea
In American
Vessels
In Foreign
Vessels
Total
1860
1870
1880
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Dolla rs
279,082,902
199,732,324
109,029,209
77,502,138
78,988,047
81,033,844
70,670,073
73,707,023
62,277,581
70,392,813
79,441,823
67,792,150
Dollars
121,039,394
329,786,978
720,770,521
747,376,644
773,569,324
916,022,832
783,132,174
769,212,122
695,357,830
751,083,000
905,969,428
1,090,406,476
Dollars
400,122,296
529,519,302
829,799,730
824,878,782
852,457,371
997,056,676
803,802,247
842,919,145
757,635,411
821,475,813
985,911,251
1,158,198,^26
70
37.7
13.1
9.4
9.8
8.1
8.8
8.7
8.2
8.5
8.1
5.9
Dollars
5,838,928
32,949,902
31,923,*39
33,221,472
43,862,947
49,221,427
49,902,754
61,131,125
65,082,305
73,283,704
Dollars
400,122,296
529,519,302
835, 6^38, 658
857,828,684
884,480,810
1,030,278,148
847,665,194
892,140,572
807,538,165
882,006.938
1,050,993,556
1,231,482,880
TONNAGE OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN SAILING AND STEAM VESSELS
ENTERED INTO THE SEAPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM FOR-
EIGN COUNTRIES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1870 TO 1898
Year
ciiiling
.June
30—
1870
1880
1890
1891
1H92
IK!).'}
1H94
lua-)
IWMi
1H}»7
1898
Sailing Vessel.s
Ameri-
can
Tons
1,615,770
1,944,2(J9
I,394,6«5
l,336,4fia
1.4'i7,976
l.'.'HO,(iO()
1.2:)H.217
l,2<)5,ft23
l,()(i«,49.')
1,129,745
1,499,505
Foreign
Tons
2,137,259
5,720,034
3,071,111
2,942,1 15
3,044,5<I4
2,932.3liK
2,47(),7(i()
2,474, 3!t2
2,531.52!)
2,715,!l!rj
3,109,229
Total
Tons
3,753,029
7,()<i4,303
4,4()5,77ti
4,278,.583
4,472,57(1
4,212,!»74
3,734,!t77
3,74(t,315
3,(i(l(l,()24
3,H45,737
4,608,734
Steam Vessels
Ameri-
can
Tons
830,450
,195,!l()0
;,()(i!i.!iii)
!.:!:i:f.!i(l4
!.:ns.(i7'>
!.2r.'.(i:t(i
!,:i!i(i,H(i:i
!.41(),72H
;.(>(I4. !•!)-'
;.4M1.431
1,707,568
Foreign
Total
Tons
2,517,160
7,587,n2()
10,WI!I.H'_'S
11.115,(i2,S
Tons
1,680,704
0,391. 12(i
8.HS!l,!l(m
H,7Sl,724
11.3«!).(itl5
l(l.253,lM(i:i
1(I,H!IH,!H7|I
1(1,574.3(1411
11.247.!»52il
13.(i75.471jl(i,15ti.!»(l2
17,232,214 20,!)3!i,782
(I8,2K(I
2.4()5,81()
t.2K!l,7H(»
J,!»K5,():)2
{,K52.944
Total Sailing & Steam
Ameri-
can
Foreign
Tons
2,452,226
3,14(t.l(« 12
3,4(14. 5S4 11
3,(i7(»,372 11
3,74(i,(>51il4
3.493.242 13
3,()49,()S(I,13
3,(i7(),(>51 13
3.(>73,4H7 13
3.H11,17() l(i
5,207,073 20
Tons
t.Kl7,!1()3
lll.KiO
!l(i 1.020
723.K:i9
433.H29
1K5..548
,375,(i77
,04H,(i!)(;
779.4S1
3!)l,4(i3
,341,443
Total
Tons
0,270,189
15,251,329
15,3(i5,(i04
15.3!t4.211
18,1^0,480
l(;,(i7H,790
17,024,757
l(i,725,347
17,452,9(i8
20,(l02,(i39
25,548,506
CARRYING TRADE
cxlix
TONNAGE OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN SAILING AND STEAM VESSELS
CLEARED FROM THE SEAPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES FOR FOR-
EIGN COUNTRIES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1870 TO 1898
Year
eniling
June
30 —
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Total Sailing & Steam
Ameri-
can
Foreign
Total
Ameri-
can
Foreign
Total
Ameri-
can
Foreign
Total
1870 .
1880 .
1890 .
1891 .
1892 .
189:t .
1894 .
1895 .
189(> .
1897 .
1898 .
Tons
1,707,477
1,918,949
1,372,947
1,343,089
1,425,906
1,270,962
1,;?26,434
1,205,714
1,126,9.58
1,139,285
1,458,243
Tons
2,164,120
5,813,;{02
3,153,641
2,915,7.53
2,982,504
2,908,809
2,.554,733
2,479,509
2,.507,0:}8
2,.5.57,985
3,281,742
Tons
3,871,597
7,732,251
4,526,588
4,258,842
4,408,410
4,179,771
3,881,167
3,t)S5,223
3.633.99(1
3,(>97,270
4,739,985
Tons
822,121
1,158,775
2,017,070
2,372,994
2,:t25,l44
2.2(>6,l(i9
2,420,214
2,409,944
2,614,111
2,498,164
3,()52,604
Tons
1,667,910
6,404,671
8,885,:391
8,778,874
11,.524,611
l(l,:{79,541
11,004,952
10,928,478
11,570,683
13,682,971
17,355,043
Tons
2,490,031
7,563,446
10,902,461
ll,151,8(i8
13,849,755
12,ti45,710
13,425,1(56
13,338,422
14,184,794
16,181,1:35
21,007,647
Tons
2,.529,.598
3,077.724
3,;i90,(ll7
3,716,(183
3,751,05(1
3,537,131
3,746,(i48
3,615,(i58
3,74l,0(i9
3,6:37,449
5,110,847
Tons
3,832,030
12.217,97:i
12.<i:!9,(l3J
n,(i94,(i27
14.5(17,115
13.2S8,:{5()
13,559,(i85
13,407,987
14.077,721
16,240,956
20,636,785
Tons
6,361.628
I5.'_'95.(;!»7
15,lJi).(ll9
15,410.710
18,2.58,1(55
16,825,481
17,31)6,3:33
17,(123,645
17,818,790
19,878,405
25,747,632
VESSELS BUILT, CLASS, NUMBER, AND GROSS TONNAGE IN THE
UNITED STATES, VARIOUS Y'EARS, 1871 TO 1898, INCLUSIVE
[Prepared by the Bureau of Navigation]
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
ending
June 30 —
Ships
and
Barks
Brigs
Schoon-
ers
Sloops
Num-
ber
Gross Tons
Side
Wheel
Stern
Wheel
Pro-
peller
1871 . .
1S80 . .
1890 . .
1894 . .
1895 . .
1S96 .
1897 . .
1898 . .
40
23
10
3
1
2
1
1
14
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
498
286
347
25:3
188
215
160
159
204
149
148
221
208
152
177
199
756
460
505
477
397
369
338
359
97,175.96
59,057.19
102,873.03
37,827.41
34.899.80
65,2:36.45
64,:30S.60
34,416.00
78
71
26
26
17
25
20
15
128
95
99
61
70
84
88
170
96
182
285
206
161
177
180
209
Steam Vessels
Canal Boats
Barges
Gr.-vnd Total
Year
ending
June ;30 —
Num-
ber
Gross
Tons
Num-
ber
Gross
Tons
Num-
ber
Gross
Tons
Num-
ber
Gross
Tons
302
348
410
293
^48
286
288
394
87,842.49
78,853.70
159,045.68
8:3,720.07
69,753.6:3
138,028.20
106,152.85
105,838.00
468
17
40
14
11
13
70
20
41,385.63
1,887.04
4,;346.03
1,522.22
1,225.42
1,495.29
10,216.41
2,386.00
229
77
96
54
38
55
195
179
46,822.43
17,611.97
27,858.02
8,125.65
5,723.38
22,336. (U
51,554.79
37,818.00
1,755
902
1,051
8:38
694
723
891
952
273,226..51
157,409.90
294,122.76
131,19.5.:35
111,602.23
227.096.5'^
2:32,2:32.05
lS0,45'-;.(ltt
. . 1871
. . 1880
. . 1890
. . 1894
. . ls95
. . 1S96
. . 1S97
. . 1S9S
For commercial statistics relating to Hawaii, Porto Rico, Cuba, and
the Philippine Islands, reference is made to their respective titles under
States and Territories.
Life-Saving Service
The Life-Saving establishment, at the close of the fiscal year, embraced
264 stations, of which number 192 were situated on the coasts of the
Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, 50 on the American coasts of the
Great Lakes, 1 at the Falls of the Ohio River, Louisville, Ky., and 15 on
the Pacific Coast.
cl
UNITED STATES
There were within the scope of the Service 402 disasters to documented
vessels, having on board 3113 persons, of whom only 12 were lost. The
estimated value of the vessels was $5,861,320, and that of the cargoes
$1,307,070, making the aggregate value of property imperilled $7,168,390.
Of this amount, $6,410,630 was saved and $757,860 lost. The number
of vessels totally lost was 59.
The number of disasters to undocumented craft, comprising sailboats,
rowboats, scows, etc., was 365, involving 874 persons, 10 of whom per-
ished. The value of property involved is estimated at $199,705, of which
amount $177,825 was saved and $21,880 lost.
The following statement shows the aggregate number of disasters and
their results :
Total number of disasters
Total value of property involved
Total value of property saved .
Total value of property lost
Total number of persons involved .
Total number of persons lost .
Total number of persons succored at stations
Total number of days' succor afforded .
Number of vessels totally lost .
767
$7,368,095
$6,588,355
$779,740
3,987
22
663
1,328
59
The total number of disasters during the year was much larger than
appears in the records of any former year. It is noted, however, that
the loss of life was only 22, as against 53 during the year 1897, when the
total number of disasters was not nearly so great, and is considerably less
in proportion to the number of disasters in any previous year.
The net expenditure for the maintenance of the Service for the fiscal
year was $1,497,676.35.
The following is a general summary of the statistics of the Service from
the introduction of the present system in 1871 to the close of the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1898 :
10,448
$113,346,275
$47,839,149
$161,185,424
$125,630,262
$35,555,162
81,245
845
13,876
35,199
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
number
value of
value of
value of
value of
value of
number
number
number
number
disasters
vessels
cargoes
property involved
property saved
property lost .
of persons involved
of lives lost .
of persons succored
of days' succor afforded
Internal Communications
Railways
The growth of the railway system of the United States dates
from 1827, when the first line was opened for trafHc at Quincy,
Mass. According to Poor's Railroad Manual, the extent of rail-
ways in operation in 1830 was 23 miles; it rose to 2818 miles
in 1840 ; to 9021 miles in 1850 ; to 30,626 miles in 1860 ; to
52,022 miles in 1870 ; to 93,296 miles in 1880 ; to 166,698 miles
in 1890; and 182,600 in 1896.
RAILWAYS
cli
MILES OF RAILWAYS IN OPERATION AND THE INCREASE OF MILEAGE
IN THE UNITED STATES EACH CALENDAR YEAR, VARIOUS YEARS,
FROM 1830 TO 1897
[From Poor's Railroad Manual]
Calendar
Year
Miles in
Opei-ation
at Knd of
Year
Increase
516
1,656
1,837
Calendar
Year
Miles in
Operation
at End of
Year
Increase
Calendar
Year
Miles in
0])erati()n
at ICnd of
Year
Increase
18:30
1840
1850
1860
23
2,818
9,021
30,626
1870
1880
1890
1893
52.022
166,691
177,485
6,o7S
(;.7I2
5,34.5
2,297
1894
1S95
1S96
1897
179,393
lso,912
182,000
184,603
1,908
1,519
l,6ss
2,094
LENGTH OF RAILWAY LINES AND COST OF CONSTRUCTION, VARIOUS
YEARS, 1873 TO 1897
[ Pre par
ed for Treasury Department by John P. Meany, editor of Poor's Railroad Manual]
Length
Cost of Construction
Total
Cost of
Year
of
Construc-
tion per
Lines
Capital
Funded
Floating
Total
•
Stock
Debt
Debt
Liabilities
Mile
Miles
Dolhn-s
Dollars
Dolla rs
Dollars
Dollars
1873 . .
70.278
1,947,638.584
1,836,904,450
a 3,7iyi,5t3,034
h 5;3,851
1880
92,147
2,708,673,375
2.530,874,943
102,489,939
5,402,038,257
58,624
1890
163,359
4,590,471,560
5,055,225,025
375.228, 0;30
10,020,925,215
61,343
1891
107,846
4,751,750,498
5,180,227,024
345,051,807
10,277,029,329
61,229
1892
171,805
4,863,119,073
5,400.955,004
285,212,887
10,555,280,964
61,496
1S93
175.442
5,021,576,551
5,510,225,528
409,909,045
10.941,711,122
62.367
1S92
178,054
5.027,604.717
5,605,775,764
382,927,834
11,016,308,315
61,871
lb95
179,821
5,182,121,999
5,fr40,942,567
418,505,092
11,241,569,65s
62,515
1896
178,549
5,290,730,507
5,416,074,969
339,502,302
11,046,307,8:38
61,867
1S97 . .
179,718
5,453,782,398
5,405,457,522
374,289,005
11,233,529,588
62,500
a Total capital stock and funded debt.
& These figures show total stocks and bonds per mile.
TRAFFIC EARNINGS OF RAILWAY LINES, VARIOUS YEARS,
1873 TO 1897
[Prepared for Treasury Department by John P. Meany, editor of Poor's Railroad Manual]
Year
Gross Traffic Earnings
Percentage
of Gross
Traffic Earn-
ings to Total
Liabilities.
Net Traffic
Earnings
From
Passengers
From
Freight
Miscella-
neous
Total Gross
Receipts
1873
1880
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Dollars
137.3^4,427
147.65:3,003
272.:320.961
290,799,696
293,557,476
310,442,870
275,352,190
260.929,741
265.313,258
253,557,936
Dollars
3s0.035.508
467.74>.02s
7:34,>21.7;f3
754,185.010
794,526.500
808.494. 66>>
700,477,409
743,784,451
770,424,01:3
780,351,0:39
Dollars
(«)
(a.)
71.602.r45
^o.:40,2O0
^11, 052. St 4
ss,lOS,4SS
91,113,759
N7.6sl.'245
S9,>04,7f4
S9,(>30,791
Dollars
526,419,0:35
613,7:33.610
1.07s.s-35.3:39
1.125.5:34,815
1.160.o36,!i40
1,207,106,026
1,006. 943, :35S
1,092,:305,437
1,125.6:32,025
1,123,546,666
11.4
10.8
11.0
11.1
11.0
9.7
9.7
10.9
10.0
Dollars
ls:3.sl(»,.502
255,,")5",5,'")5
:341,ti60,369
:350, 807,370
352,817,405
:358.(>4.s,918
317,757,:399
;323, 196,454
;3:32,:3:33.756
:3:38,170,195
a Included in foregoing.
h Total stocks and bonds only reported.
clii
UNITED STATES
INTEKEST, DIVIDENDS, AND EARNINGS OF RAILWAYS, VARIOUS
YEARS, 1S73 to 1S97
[Prepared for the Treasury Department by John P. Meany, editor of Poor's Railroad Manual]
Year
1S73 .
ISSO .
1890 .
1S91 .
1892 .
lS9:i .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
Interest
paid on
Bonds and
Other Debt
Dollars
a
107,S(56.82s
224,499,571
228,572,708
286,502,570
244,965,44(1
242.147.714
248,185,884
250,411,950
286,680,114
Dividends
Paid on
Stock
Interest
Per Cent
of Bonds
and Debt
DoUar.s
67,120,709
77,115,371
4.00
8:^,575,705
4.13
8!).090.757
4.14
!»;!.m;2.412
4.16
94.295,815
4.14
s.S,478,669
4.04
81.875,774
4.10
81,864,854
4.85
82.();30,989
4.09
Dividends
Per Cent
of Stock
3.45
2.84
1.80
1.85
1.93
1.88
1.64
1.59
1.54
1.52
Earnings per Milk
OF Railroad in
Opkration
Gross
Net
Dollars
Dollars
7,948
2,775
7,471
3,111
6,822
2,162
6,852
2,186
6,852
2,068
6,963
2,069
6,054
1,803
6,097
1,804
6,228
1,S37
6,203
1,867
Percentage
of Expense;^
to Earnings
65.08
58.86
68.:33
68.S;3
69.82
70.29
70.22
70.41
70.48
69.91
a Interest payments not compiled.
PASSENGERS AND FREIGHT CARRIED BY RAILWAYS, AND RECEIPTS
PER MILE, VARIOUS YEARS, 1882 TO 1897
• [Prepared for the Treasury Department by John P. Meany, editor of Poor's
Railroad Manual]
Year
Passengers
Passengers
Average
Receipts
per Pas-
senger per
Mile
Freight
Freight Car-
Average
Keceipts
Carried
Carried 1 Mile
Carried
ried 1 Mile
per Ton
l>or Mile
Cenis
Tons
Tons
Cents
1882 . .
875.891. SI 2
10.4^.868.728
1.85
360,490,375
89,:302.209.249
1.24
1890 . .
520. 489, 08-.^
12,5-.'l,5t;5,Chl9
2.17
691,344,4:37
79,192.9^5.125
.98
1891 . .
556,015,802
18,816,925,289
2.18
704,898,609
8l,210,li>4.528
.93
1892 . .
575,769,678
13,5^,34;3,804
2.17-
7:30,605,011
84,413,197,1:30
.94
1893 . .
597,056,539
14,979,847,458
2.07
757,464,480
90,552,087,290
.89
1894 . .
569,660,216
18,600,5:31, 6;35-
2.03
674,714,747
82,219,900.498
.86
1895 . .
529,756,259
12,609,082,551
2.07
755,799,88:3
88,567,770.801
.at
1896 . .
585,120,756
13,054,840,243
2.03
773,868,716
98,885,85:3,684
.82
1897 . .
504,106,525
12,494,958,000
2.03
788,385,448
97,&42,569,150
.80
The foregoing statistics of railroads are taken from the
Statistical Abstract, published by the Bureau of Statistics of
the Treasury Department; they were compiled for that docu-
ment from Poor's Railroad Manual for calendar years. They
do not agree in all respects with the statistics published by
the Interstate Commerce Commission for the fiscal years end-
ing June 30, but the variations are not particularly important.
According to the Federal commission the total railway mile-
age in the United States, June 30, 1897, was 184,428, the
increase during the year being 1651 miles. With the excep-
tion of yard track and sidings, about 32 per cent of which are
laid with iron rails, substantially 95 per cent of the railway
tracks in the whole country are laid with steel rails.
PUBLIC SERVICE OF RAILWAYS cliii
The number of railway corporations June 30, 1897, was 1987.
The total number of locomotives in service was 35,986, of
which 10,017 were classed as passenger locomotives, 20,398 as
freight locomotives, and 5102 as SAvitching locomotives, 469
being unclassed.
The total number of cars of all classes in the service on the
date named was 1,297,480. Of these 33,626 were used for
passenger service, and 1,221,730 for freight service, and 42,124
cars were assigned to the special service of the railway com-
panies. Twenty locomotives and 708 cars were used per 100
miles of line. Forty-eight thousand eight hundred and sixty-
one passengers were carried, and 1,223,614 passenger miles
accomplished for each passenger locomotive, while there were
36,362 tons carried and 4,664,135 ton-miles accomplished for
each freight locomotive.
The number of passenger locomotives fitted with automatic
couplers was 4687, and of freight locomotives so fitted 4192.
The number of passenger cars fitted with train brakes was
33,078, and the number fitted with automatic couplers was
32,661. The number of freight cars fitted with automatic
couplers was 629,399. Of the total cars in service June 30,
1897, 492,559 were fitted with train brakes and 668,937 with
automatic couplers. There is a constant increase in the num-
ber of cars being fitted with the latter devices.
PUBLIC SERVICE OF RAILWAYS
The number of passengers carried during the year ending June 30,
1897, as reported, was 489,445,198, there being a decrease of 22,327,539 as
compared with the year ending June 30, 1896. The number of passen-
gers carried 1 mile during the year was 12,256,939,647, a decrease of
792,007,586 being shown in this item as compared with 1896. The num-
ber of passengers carried 1 mile per mile of line — that is, the average
indicating the density of passenger traffic during the year ending June 30,
1897 — was 66,874, a decrease of 4831 in this item being shown. The
number of tons of freight carried during the year was 741,705,946, which
is 24,185,439 less than ^f or 1896. The number of tons of freight carried 1
mile was 95,139,022,225. This item also was less than for 1896, the
decrease being 189,338,053.
EMPLOYEES
The number of men employed by the railways of the United States on
June 30, 1897, as reported, was 823,476. These figures, assigned on the
mileage basis, show that 449 men were employed per 100 miles of line.
The corresponding figures for the year ending June 30, 1896, were slightly
larger. For the year ending June 30, 1897, it appears that the aggregate
amount of wages and salaries paid was 8465,601,581. This amount repre-
sents 61.87 per cent of the total operating expenses of railways, or $2540
P£r mile of line. The total compensation for 1896 was $3,222,950 greater.
cliv UNITED STATES
CAPITALIZATION AND VALUATION OF RAILWAY PROPERTY
On June 30, 1897, the amount of railway capital outstanding was
$10,635,008,074, which, assigned on a mileage basis, shows a capital of
$59,620 per mile of line. The amount of capital stock was §5,364,642,255,
of which 34,367,056,657 was common stock, and $997,585,598 preferred
stock. The amount of funded debt was $5,270,365,819.
EARNINGS AND EXPENSES
The gross earnings of the railways of the United States for the year
ending June 30, 1897, as reported for an operated mileage of 183,284.25,
were $1,122,089,773. In comparison with the preceding year this amount
shows a decrease in gross earnings of $28,079,603. The sources of income
comprised in gross earnings from operation for the year were Passenger
revenue, $251,135,927, decrease as compared with the previous year,
$15,426,606; Mail $33,754,466, increase $1,374,647 ; Express 824,901,066,
increase 820. 683 ; Other earnings, passenger service $6,629,980, freight
revenue 8772,849,314, decrease $13,766,523 ; Other earnings, freight ser-
vice $4,209,657, increase $323,767 ; Other earnings from operation, includ-
ing a small amount of unclassified items, $28,609,363. The expenses of
the operation of railways for the fiscal year covered by the report were
$752,524,764. This amount is $20,464,280 smaller than the corresponding
amount for the year ending June 30, 1896, the operated mileage for that
year being 181,982.64 miles.
The income from operation, that is, .the amount of gi'oss earnings
remaining after the deduction of operating expenses, commonly termed
net earnings, was $369,565,009. This amount is $7,615,323 less than
the corresponding item for the previous year. The income from other
sources, mainly derived from leases and investments in stocks and bonds,
was 8125,090,010, which, added to the income from operation, shows that
the total income of the railways as a whole was $494,655,019.
RAILWAY ACCIDENTS
The total number of casualties to persons on account of railway acci-
dents for the year ending June 30, 1897, was 43,168. Of these casualties,
6437 resulted "in death, and 36,731 in injuries of varying character. Of
railway employees, 1693 were killed and 27,667 were injured during the
year. According to the three general classes these casualties were divided
as follows: trainmen, 976 killed, 13,795 injured; switchmen, flagmen, and
watchmen, 201 killed, 2423 injured; other employees, 516 killed, 11,449
injured. The casualties to employees resulting from coupling and un-
coupling cars were 214 killed, 6283 injured.
The casualties to the three general classes of employees mentioned
caused by collisions and derailments were as follows: trainmen, 250
killed, 1327 injured; switchmen, flagmen, and watchmen, 11 killed, 74
injured; other employees, 42 killed, 251 injured. The total number of
passengers killed during the year under review was 222 ; injured, 2795.
Ninety-three passengers were killed and 1011 injured in consequence of col-
lisions and derailments. Other than emi)loyees and passengers, the total
number of persons killed was 4522 ; injured, 6269. Included in these
figures are casualties to persons classed as trespassers, of \Vhom 3919
were killed and 4732 were injured. From summaries showing the ratio
RAILWAY MILEAGE
clv
of casualties, it appears that 1 out of every 486 employees was killed,
and 1 out of every 30 employees was injured, during the year.
The railway mileage of the country, June oO, 1897, by States and Terri-
tories, was as follows :
State or Teuritory
Mileage June 30, 1897
State or Ter-
ritory
Mileage June 30, 1897
Official
Un-
official
Total
Mileage
Official
Un-
official
Total
Mileage
Alabama .
Alaska ....
Arizona
Arkansas .
California .
Colorado .
Connecticut
Delaware .
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Indian Territory
Iowa ....
Kansas
Kentucky .
Louisiana .
Maine
Maryland .
Massachusetts .
Michigan .
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri .
3,752.66
1,320.07
2,706.45
5,218.89
4,535.09
1,009.05
317.36
29.75
3,127.85
5,203.4:3
1,106.91
10,752.27
6,383.25
1.200.44
8,508.98
8,794.38
3,022.49
2,352.26
1,707.36
1,253.19
2.089.65
7;808.42
6,198.10
2,565.77
6,6:37.33
93.75
40.78
55.59
37.10
55.00
200.00
23.31
1.00
1.87
18.06
45.25
34.32
88.06
29.80
1:33.75
29.00
11.97
:3,S46.41
1,320.07
2,747.23
5,274.48
4,572.111
1,00',».(I.-|
317.:36
29.75
3,182.85
5,403.4:3
1,106.91
10,775.58
6,:3.84.25
1,200.44
8,510.85
8,794.38
3,040.55
2,397.51
1,741.68
1,341.25
2,119.45
7,942.17
6,198.10
2,594.77
6,649.30
Montana .
Nebraska .
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York .
North Carolina .
North Dakota .
Ohio .
Oklahoma .
Oregon-
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina .
South Dakota .
Tennessee .
Texas .
Utah .
Vermont .
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia .
Wisconsin .
Wyoming .
2,907.45
5,557.05
908.37
1.222.18
2,202.36
1,487.03
8,131.07
3,500.48
2,547.00
8,719.25
454.20
1,529.59
9,886.33
220.56
2,596.82
2,782.58
3,009.96
9,503.53
1,415.84
988.56
3,574.95
2,691.08
1,070.27
6,231.94
1,179.97
32.00
3.33
18.00
12.88
34.00
10.00
5.00
81.79
33.50
16.84
82.00
61.40
70.60
1:38.70
10.00
2,907.45
5,589.05
908.;37
1,225.51
2,220.36
1,487.03
8,143.95
3,534.48
2,547.00
8,729.25
459.20
1,529.59
9,968.12
220.56
2,6:30.:32
2,799.42
3,091.96
9,564.93
1,415.84
988.56
3,(>45.55
2,829.78
2,080.27
6,231.94
1,179.97
Official
Unofficial
Total Mileage
Grand total in United States 1897 .
Grand total in United States 1896 .
Grand total in United States 1895 .
Grand total in United States 1894 .
Grand total in United States 1893 .
Grand total in United States 1892 .
Grand total in United States 1891 .
Grand toUvl in United States 1890 .
182,919.82
181,153.77
179,175.51
176,602.61
170,332.30
165,690.97
104,602.79
159,271.74
1,508.65
1,622.86
1,481.96
2,105.94
6,128.77
5,872.55
3,799.95
4,325.31
1^,428.47
182,776.6:3
180,657.47
178,708.55
176,461.07
171.563.52
168,402.74
163,597.05
The "Railway Age" reports that the road construction for the year 1808
amounts to a total of 3018 miles, representing construction by 222 different
companies. This is the largest road construction in any year since 1802,
wlien 4191 miles of new road were constructed. The largest number of
miles added to existing railroads in any one State was 250 in Minnesota
and 124 in Maine. These are the only Northern States in which large
enterprises were carried out during 1898. The only other Northern State
showing any considerable exten.sion is Pennsylvania, in which 105 miles
were added to its railroad mileage. The other States showing any con-
siderable additions are Texas, 183 miles ; New Mexico, 103 miles ; Louisi-
ana, 158 miles; Arkansas, 157 miles; Alabama, 154 miles; Oklahoma,
147 miles; North Carolina, 122 miles; Missouri, 120 miles; California,
118 miles; and Georgia, 112 miles, fifteen Southern and Southwestern
clvi
UNITED STATES
States and Territories contributed 1478 miles to the aggregate, and the
nine Pacific coast States 430 miles, while in the middle west the record
of 1898 shows only 532 miles, nearly half of which, as indicated, was
constructed in Minnesota.
From the advance report of the Statistician of the Interstate Commerce
Commission for the year ending June 30, 1898, covering 97 per cent of
the operated mileage in the United States, it is learned that the total
gross earnings of the mileage represented were §1,238,523,380 for the
year ending June 30, 1898. The distribution of these earnings shows that
$332,892,782 were derived from the passenger service and .^874,865,487
from the freight service. Other earnings from operation amounted to
$30,765,111. The operating expenses of the railways during the year
were $811,241,458. The net earnings for the year were'.S427,281,922.
The total income of the operating railways covered for the year ending
June 30, 1898, was $466,790,116. The total deductions from income,
which term embraces taxes ($41,699,348), interest on funded debt, rents
for leased lines, and other charges against income, were for the same
period $358,189,202, while the aggregate of dividends declared by the
operating railways was $65,995,915. The deduction of these items from
the total income of the operating railways shows a surplus of $42,604,999
from the operations of the year ending June 30, 1898. The corresponding
figures for the year ending June 30, 1897, resulted in showing a deficit
from operations of $1,412,399.
Railroad Commissions
The composition and duties of the Interstate Commerce Commission
of the Federal Government have been given on page xv. The following-
named States have railroad commissions : Alabama, Arkansas, California,
Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mis-
souri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, North
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin, and
Wyoming.
Shipping
NUMBER AND GROSS TONNAGE OF CANAL BOATS AND BARGES IN
THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1870 TO 1898
[These vessels are included in Statement following this.]
Tear ending June 30—
Canal Boats
Barges
Total
A^o.
Tonn
No.
TOVH
No.
Tom
1870 . . . .
6,410
567.915
\,:m
240,411
7,940
808,326
1880
1,235
106,590
1,930
38;i,629
3,165
490,219
1890
1,097
1 14,95:}
1,241
341,042
2,338
455,995
1894 -
745
82.362
1,370
389,338
2,115
471,700
1895
680
75,051
1,368
3S2,632
2,04:3
457,683
1896
682
75,225
1,357
393,188
2,039
468,413
1897
650
73,786
1,480
4;52.523
2,130
.506,309
1898 ....
660
74,640
1,667
467,348
2,327
541,988
TELEGRAPHS
clvii
NUMBER AND GROSS TONNAGE OF SAILING VESSELS, STEAM VESSELS,
CANAL BOATS, AND BARGES, ON THE NORTHERN LAKES, VARIOUS
YEARS, 1870 TO 1898
Year
Sailing
Steam
Canal Boats
Barges
Total
Xo.
Tons
Xo.
Tons
No.
Tons
Xo.
Tons
No.
Tons
1870 . .
1.699
264,609
642
142,973
2,894
249,553
114
27,569
5,349
6,84,704
1880 . .
1.459
304,933
931
212,045
572
47,159
165
40,965
3,127
605, 10-2
1890 . .
1,272
328,656
1,527
652,923
657
67,574
54
13,910
3,510
1, 06:3,1 1(>3
1894 . .
1,139
302,9>5
1,731
84:3,240
386
41,961
!?5
39,214
3,341
1,227,400
1895 .
1,100
300,642
1,755
857,735
406
44,074
M
39,008
3,:342
1,241,459
1S96 . .
1,044
309,152
1,792
924,631
416
45,109
81
45,175
3,:3:33
1,324,067
1897 . .
993
3:34,104
1.775
977,235
361
37,978
101
60,785
3,230
1,410,102
isy.s .
960
;333,704
1,764
993,644
3^
40,456
148
69,696
3,256
1,4:37,500
Telegraphs
mileage of lines and wires, number of offices, and traffic of
the western union telegraph company, various years, 1866
TO 1898
Year
end-
ing
June
30—
Miles
of
Line
Miles
of
Wire
Offices
Messages
Sent
Receipts
Expenses
Profits
Average
PKE
Message
Toll
Cost
1866
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
37,380
54,109
85,645
183,917
190,303
189,714
189,918
190,614
189,847
75,686
112,191
2:33,534
678,997
790,792
802.651
826,929
&4 1,002
874.420
2,250
3,972
9,077
19,382
21,166
21,:360
21,725
21,769
22,210
9,157,646
29,215,509
55,878,762
58,632,237
58,307,315
58,760,444
58,151,6*4
62,173,749
Dollars
7,138,738
12,782,895
22,387,029
21,852.655
22,218,019
22,612.736
22,638,859
23,915,733
Dollars
4,910,772
6,948,957
15,074,304
16,060,170
16,076,6:30
16,714,756
16,906,656
17,825,582
Dollars
2,227,966
5,8:33,93s
7,312,725
5,792,485
6.141,389
5.S97.9S0
5,7:32,203
6,090,151
Cts.
75.5
38.5
32.4
30.5
30.7
:30.9
30.5
30.1
Cts.
51.2
25.4
22.7
23.3
23.3
24.0
24.3
24.7
MILEAGE OF LINES OPERATED, NUMBER OF MESSAGES SENT, AND NUM-
BER OF OFFICES OF POSTAL TELEGRAPH CABLE COMPANY
Tear
Miles. Poles,
and Cables
Miles of Wire
Oflices
Messages
1885
2,811
23,587
260
1,428,690
1890
11,142
67,751
1,050
7,380,000
1894
17,715
108,695
1,759
10,965,509
1895
19,477
117,344
2,067
12,493,892
1896
20,165
126,483
2,101
13,461,452
1897
21,098
130,449
2,133
13,628,064
1898
24,547
143,290
2,601
15,407,018
The aggregate mileage of telegraph lines which carry varying numbers
of wires, according to the business requirements of the localities through
which they run, in the United States, open for public business, exceeds
210,000 miles, besides railways, government, private, and telephonic
lines ; length not ascertainable.
clviii
UNITED STATES
Telephones
statement of the american bell telephone company on
JAN. 1, 1891 TO 1898
1S91
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Exchanges ....
774
788
812
838
867
927
967
1,025
Branch offices
467
509
539
571
572
686
832
937
Miles of wire on poles
171,49^
180,139
201,259
214,676
232,008
260,324
286,632
237,315
xMiles of wire on buildings .
13,445
14,954
14,980
16,492
14,525
12,861
12,594
13,776
Miles of -wire underground
54,690
70,334
90,216
120,675
148,285
184,515
234,801
282,634
Miles of wire submarine
779
1,029
1,336
1,637
1.856
2,028
2,818
2,675
Total miles of exchange ser-
vice wire ....
240,412
266,456
307,791
353,480
396,674
459,728
536,845
626,400
Total circuits
173,665
186,462
201,322
205,891
212,074
237,837
264,645
295,904
Total employees .
7.845
8,376
9,970
10,421
11,094
11,930
14.425
16,682
Total subscribers
202,931
216,017
232,140
237,186
24:3,432
281,695
325,244
384,230
This company practically conducts the telephone business of the United
States.
The aggregate length of wire operated is 951,283 miles. The number
of instruments in the hands of licensees under rental at the beginning of
1898 was 919,121. The number of exchange connections daily in the
United States was 3,099,472, or a total per year of about 998,000,000.
The average number of daily calls per subscriber is about 8^^. The com-
pany received in rental of telephones in 1895, $1,475,850.64 ; in 1896,
$1,450,032.85 ; in 1897, $1,597,959.36. It paid its stockholders in divi-
dends in 1897, $3,682,948.50. The capital of the company in 1897 was
825,886,300. The gross earnings for 1895 were $4,475,445.42 ; for 1896,
$4,538,979.07 ; for 1897, $5,130,844.92. Net earnings for 1897, $4,169,874.73.
The Long Distance Telephone Company represents about $20,000,000
of capital.
Postal Service
The postal business of the United States for six fiscal years was as
follows :
Through Regis-
Year ending
June 30 —
Pieces of Mail
handled
Registered
Packages
and Cases
tered Pouches
and Inner
Registered
Sacks handled
Total
1893
9,772,075,810
16,487,241
1,302,466
9,780,865,517
1894
10,033,973,790
15,253,586
1,33:3.454
l(l.(t50.560,8;30
1895
10,377,875,040
14,720,002
1,:357,723
l(t.:^03,952,765
1896
11,166,323,240
14,970,775
1,465,395
11.182,759,410
1897
11,571,540,680
14,640,832
1,615,8:31
11,587,797,343
1898
12,225,700,220
15,416,292
1,661,416
12,242,783,928
The Number of Money Orders
Issued during 1897-1898 was as follows :
Domestic .
International
Total .
27,798,078, amounting to $191,354,121.63
955,344, amounting to 13,239,769.27
28,753,422, amounting to $204,593,890.90
FINANCE
clix
These figures show the phenomenal increase of 2,640,000 in the num-
ber of money orders issued during the last fiscal year, and an increase of
more than $10,000,000 in the total amount of money carried.
NUMBER OF POST-OFFICES, EXTENT OF POST-ROUTES, AND REVENUE
AND EXPENDITURES OF THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTxMENT, INCLUDING
AMOUNTS PAID FOR TRANSPORTATION OF THE MAIL, VARIOUS
YEARS, 1871 TO 1898
[From the Annual Reports of the Postmaster-General]
Year
ending
June 80 —
Post-
offices
Extent
of Post-
routes
Revenue of
the Depart-
ment
Expended for Transpor-
tation OF —
Total Expen-
diture of the
Department
Domestic Mail
Foreign Mail
1871
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Xumher
30,045
42,989
62,401
69,805
70,064
70,860
71,022
73,570
Miles
288,859
343,888
427,990
454,746
456,026
468,818
470,032
480,461
Dollars
20,037,045.00
33,815,479.00
60,882,097.00
75,080,479.00
76,983,128.19
82,499,208.40
82,665,462.78
89,012,619.00
Dollars
13,669,585
20,857,802
34,116,24^3
45,375,359
46,336,326
47,993,067
48,028,094
50,444,291
Dollars
975,024.73
199,809.28
563,630.52
1,239,862.58
1,173,561.45
1,530,S(>1.00
1,890,099.19
1,760,091.00
Dollars
24,390,104.00
36,542,801.00
65,930,717.00
84,824,414.00
86,790,172.82
90,626,296.84
94,077,242.38
98,033,524.00
RAILROAD MILEAGE UPON WHICH MAIL WAS CARRIED, ANNUAL CO.ST
AND AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF RAILROAD MAIL TRANSPORTA-
TION, AND EXPENDITURE FOR RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE EMPLOYEES,
VARIOUS YEARS, 1871 TO 1898
[Prepared in the office of the Postmaster-General]
Year
end-
ing
June
30 —
Total
Railroads in
Operation
in United
States,
Dec. 81
Railroads
upon
which
Mail was
carried
Annual
Transpor-
tation of
Mail by
Railroads
Railroad Mail
Transportation
Railway Mail
Service
Annual
Cost of
Average
Annual Cost
per Mile
Number
of Em-
ployees
Annual
Expendi-
ture
1S71
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Miles
60.293
93,296
166,691
179,898
180.912
182.600
184,603
Miles
49,8:34
85.820
154,779
169,768
171,212
172,794
173,475
174,777
Miles
55,557,048
96.497,46:3
215,715,680
204,717,595
267,117,787
268,806,324
273,190,856
281.585,612
Dollars
5.724,979
10,648,986
23,395,232
:30,358,190
31,205,342
82,405,797
83,876,521
34,703,847
Dollars
.10:30
.1103
.10^
.1146
.1168
.1205
.1240
.1232
1,382
2,946
5,836
6,852
7,045
7,408
7,602
7,999
Dollars
1,441.020
2.^.')0.;)so
5,.')ti2,s44
6,989,449
7,194.220
7.594.877
7.782.r)47
^^.222, 504
Finance
Wealth of the United States
The true valuation of all tangible property in the United
States, exclusive of Alaska, at the close of the census period,
1890, amounted to $65,037,091,197. In this total no account
is taken of property not within the limits of the United States
at the period mentioned ; nor is any account taken of 2ii\j
form of credit money, or of promissory notes, mortgages, or
securities, although such items are frequently subject to ad
valorem taxation.
clx
UNITED STATES
The term " true valuation " is used to express a fair selling
price for the property in question at the date mentioned, and
is used in distinction from that of "assessed valuation," which
is a valuation put only upon property taxed and for taxation
purposes.
The true valuation for 1890 is classified as follows:
Real estate, with improvements thereon
Live stock on farms, farm implements, and machineiy .
Mines and quarries, including product on hand
Gold and silver coin and bullion .....
Machinery of mills and product on hand, raw and
manufactured
Railroads and equipments, including $389,357,289 for
street railroads
Telegraphs, telephones, shipping canals, and equipment
Miscellaneous
Total
$39,544,544,.333
2,703,015,040
1,201,291,579
1,158,774,948
3,058,593,441
8,685,407,323
701,755,712
7.893,708.821
$05,037,091,197
The term "real estate" includes all lands and lots with
improvements thereon, but does not include mines, quarries,
telegraphs, telephones, or railroads, except that in a few States
where the roadbed, station houses, and repair shops of railroads
are classed as real estate for purposes of taxation and their
value not separately reported.
The true valuation of the real and personal estate of the
country has been made at the end of each decade, commencing
with 1850, and published by the Census Office. The following
table shows the true valuation for each decade, the assessed
valuation, the per capita, and the increase per cent for each
period of both valuations :
Years
True Valuation
Assessed Valuation of Keal
AND Personal Property taxed
Total
Per
Capita
Increase
(Per Cent)
Total
Per
Capita
Increase
(Per Cent)
1850
1800
1870
1880
1890
$7,135,780,228
10,159,010,008
30,008.518,507
43,042,000,000
05,037,091,197
$308
514
780
870
1036
120.46
80.07
45.14
49.02
$0,024,000,909
12,084,500,005
14,178,980,732
17,139,903,495
25,473,173,418
$200
384
308
342
407
100.58
17.33
20.88
48.02
The figures given for 1890 in the foregoing statements are
nearer the truth than those for any of the previous census
years. They must not be accepted as exact in any respect,
but only as indicative and as approximating the truth. No
statement of wealth can be exact.
MONEY AND CREDIT
clxi
Money and Credit
The monetary system is theoretically bimetallic, gold being
legal tender, and also silver dollars. In 1853 the fractional
silver pieces were reduced to token money. In 1873 the silver
dollar was omitted from the list of coins to be struck, but in
1878 it was restored by the Bland Act, which required its
coinage to the extent of from $2,000,000 to |4,000,000
per month. In July, 1890, the Sherman Act was passed,
whereby silver was to be purchased, and silver certificates
issued, to the amount of $4,500,000 per month. The silver
purchase clauses were, however, repealed Oct. 30, 1893. The
amount of silver purchased under this Act (July 14, 1890, to
Nov. 1, 1893) was 108,674,682 fine ounces, costing $155,931,002.
The total amount of silver purchased by the government from
Feb. 12, 1873, to Nov. 1, 1893, was 496,984,889 fine ounces, cost-
ing $508,933,975. Legal tender notes are issued by the Treas-
ur}^, and silver certificates, being received in payment of taxes,
circulate freely.
REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES ^
The net ordinary revenues and expenditures for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1898, present this comparison w^ith those
of the preceding twelve months :
Account
1S97
1898
Increase
Decrease
REVENUES
Customs .
$176,554,126.65
$149,575,062.35
$26,979,064.30
Internal revenue
146,688,574.29
170,900,641.49
$24,212,067.20
Lands
864,581.41
1,243.129.42
378,548.01
Miscellaneous .
Total ,
23.614.422.81
S;3,602.501.94
59,988,079.13
$;347,721,7U5.16
$405,321,335.20
$84,578. 694.:34
$26,979,064.:30
Net .
EXPENDITURES
57,599.6:30.(14
Customs .
$18,356,864.82
$19,764,251.59
$1,407,386.77
Internal revenue
8.678,929.54
4,902,511.15
3,776,418.39
Interior civil
8.814,999.20
8,671,352.8:3
143,646.37
Treasury proper
46,545,332.21
54,;355,678.84
7,810,346.63
Diplomatic
2,076,876.&4
2,485,581.13
408,704.29
Judiciary .
5,928,265.21
6,341,129.63
412,8(>4.42
War Department
48,950,267.89
91,992,000.29
43,041,732.40
Navy Department .
34,561,546.29
58,823,984.80
24,262,438.51
Indians
13,016,802.46
10,994,667.70
2,022,1:34.76
Pensions .
141,053,164.6:3
147,452,368.61
6,399,203.98
Interest .
Total .
37,791,110.48
37.585,056.23
206,054.25
$365,774,159.57
$443,368,582.80
$83,742,677.00
$6,148,253.77
Net .
Deficiency .
77,594.423.23
$18,052,454.41
$38,047,247.60
$19,994,793.19
With a net addition of $57,599,630.04 to the revenues, and
of $77,594,423.23 to the expenditures, a deficiency was created
of $38,047,247.60, which exceeds that of the preceding year
by $19,994,793.19.
^ Data relating to finance are from Reports of Secretary of Treasury.
clxii
UNITED STATES
The revenues of the Government from all sources for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, were
From internal revenue .
Erom customs ....
From profits on coinage, bullion deposits, etc
From District of Columbia
From fees — consular, letters patent, and land
From tax on national banks .
From sales of public lands
From navy pension and navy hospital funds
From miscellaneous ....
From sinking fund for Pacific railways .
From sales of Indian lands
From customs fees, fines, penalties, etc.
From payment of interest by Pacific railways
From immigrant fund
From sales of Government property
From deposits for surveying public lands
From Soldiers' Home, permanent fund
From donations . . .
From sales of lands and buildings .
From sales of ordnance material .
From reimbursement for cost of water supply, District
of Columbia ....
From depredations on public lands
From sale of Kansas Pacific Railroad
From sale of Union Pacific Railroad
From Postal Service
Total receipts
$170,900,641.49
149,575,062.35
4,756,469.71
3,693,282.98
2,639,750.54
1,975,849.28
1,243,129.42
1,146,590.41
1,007,352.96
781,986.83
576,687.41
576,487.50
526,286.13
306,992.86
224,331.32
113,049.08
107,612.49
102,394.87
99,273.95
94,638.59
93,086.98
29,154.30
6,303,000.00
58,448,223.75
89,012,618.55
$494,333,953.75
The expenditures for the same period were :
For the civil establishment, including foreign intercourse,
public buildings, collecting the revenues. District of
Columbia, an(i other miscellaneous expenses . . $86,016,464.75
For the military establishment, including rivers and har-
bors, forts, arsenals, seacoast defences, and expenses
of the Spanish war . ' 91,992,000.29
For the naval establishment, including construction of
new vessels, machinery, armament, equipment, im-
provement at navy yards, and expenses of the Spanish
war 58,823,984.80
For Indian Service 10,994,667.70
For pensions 147,452,368.61
For interest on the public debt 37,5H5,056.23
For deficiency in postal revenues 10,504,040.42
For Postal Service 89,012,618.55
Total expenditures
Showing a deficit of
$532,381,201.35
,047,247.60
RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
clxiii
POPULATION, NET REVENUE, AND NET EXPENDITURES OF THE UNITED
STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1840 TO JUNE 30, 1898, AND PER CAPITA OF
THE REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES
Per Capita
Per Capita
Year
Population
Net Revenue
on
Revenue
Net Expenses
E.vpondi-
1 11 res
1840 .
17,069,453
$19,480,115.00
$1.14
$24,317,579.00
$1.42
1850
28,191,876
4;-!,6(»8,-ti9.00
1.88
39,548,492.00
1.71
1860
81,44:3,:321
56, 064, 60S. 00
1.78
6:3,1:30,598.00
2.01
1870
:38,558,371
411,255,47!5.00
10.67
309,653,561.00
8.03
1880
50,155,783
333,526,611.00
6.65
267.642,95s.()0
5.:34
1890
62,622,250
403,080,982.00
6.43
a318,04O,71O.O0
5.07
1891
6:3,975,000
392,612,447.31
6.14
&365,778,9ur..;i")
5.71
1892
65,516,000
354,987,7^.24
5.42
345,0L'8,:3;;(i.r>s
5.27
1893
66,946,000
385,819,628.78
5.76
383,477,951.49
5.78
1894
68,397,000
297,722,019.25
4.37
367,525,27it..S]
5.37
1805
69,878,000
313,:390,075.11
4.48
356,195,298.29
5.10
1 ^96
71,390,000
326,976,200.;38
4.58
352,179,446.08
4.93
1M>7
72,937,000
347,721,705.16
4.77
365,774,159.57
5.01
1898 .
c 74,522,000
405,82 1,:3:35. 20
5.41
443,:36S.5S2.80
5.95
a This includes $20,304,224.06 of " premiums on purchase of bonds."
b This includes $10,401,220.61 of " pi-emiums on purchase of bonds."
c Estimated.
Note. — The net revenue and expenses and per capita on revenues for 1891 were errone-
ously stated by the Register of the Treasury in his reports for 1891, 1892, and 1893. (See
Finance Reports for those years, pp. 845, 767, and 906 )
INTERNAL AND CUSTOMS REVENUE AND EXPENSES OF COLLECTING,
VARIOUS YEARS, 1860 TO 1898
Internal Revenue
Customs Revenue
Year enoiiifj
June 30—
Revenue
Expenses of Col-
lecting a
Revenue
Expenses of Col-
lecting &
1860
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Dollars
(c)
184,899,756.49
124,009,373.92
142,606,705.81
147,111,232.81
14:3,421,672.02
146,762,864.74
146.688.574.29
170,900,641.49
Dollars
(c)
7,253,439.81
8,657,105.10
8,780,950.41
8,749,029.22
3,7.>1,9:35.45
3,846,887.55
3,606,798.85
8,705,256.95
Per cent
(c) -
3.92
2.95
2.65
2.55
2.62
2.62
2.46
2.17
Dollars
53,187,511.87
194,538,874.44
186,522,064.011
229,668,584.57
131,818,5:30.62
152,158,617.45
160,021,751.67
176,554,126.65
149,575,062.35
Dollars
3,387,188.15
(5.2:38,747.68
6,(128,253.58
6,S59,9S6.09
6,791,872.86
6,780,690.92
7,237,796.40
7,075,372.05
7,152,276.58
Per cent
6.27
3.20
3.23
J.98
5.15
4.48
4.52
4.01
4.78
a The cost of collecting the internal revenue embraces the following items : Salaries and
expenses of collectors, including pay of deputy collectors, clerks, etc., and including expenses
incident to enforcing the provisions of law taxing oleomargarine ; salaries and expenses of
revenue agents, surveyors of distilleries, gaugers, storekeepers, and miscellaneous expenses ;
jiaper for internal-revenue stamps, and expenses of detecting and punishing violations of
internal-revenue laws.
b The expenses of collecting the revenue from customs includes all sums drawn from the
appropriation made by Congress for that purpose. The money is expended for salaries,
rents, labor in weighing, gauging, and measuring imported merchandise, revenue boatmen,
repairs, and other expenses incident to rented buildings, stationery, and the travelling ex-
penses of special agents, but does not include expenditures for revenue cutters, fuel, lights,
water, furniture, janitors, etc., for buildings owned by the Government^ nor expenditures
fur erecting new buildings, all of which are paid for from specific appropriations made for
those purposes.
Tile expenses of collecting internal and customs revenue do not include the expenditures
for salaries, etc., incident to auditing these accounts in the Departments at Washington.
c No data.
clxiv
UNITED STATES
RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, MARCH 4, 1791, TO
JUNE 30, 1898, BY CALENDAR YEARS TO 1840, AND BY FISCAL YEARS
(ENDING JUNE 30) FROM THAT TIME
Year
Balance in
Treasury at
Commence-
ment of Year
Customs
Internal
Revenue
Direct Tax
Public Lands
Miscella-
neous
1791
1800
1810
1820
18:30
1840
1850
1860
1^70
1>>-«(I
Is; Id
1s;m
lMt2
IsitS
1S^94
1S95
1896
1897
1898
$2,161,867.77
3,^48,056.78
2,079,992.38
5,755,704.79
33,157,503.68
32,827,082.69
33,193,248.60
18:3,781,985.76
8sC,.v;;i'. .-)><>-; (55
i;7:;.:;'.f.i.ii>.is
<i:M..V.'T.4o:;.Tt;
T7^.tl04. ;!:!'.>. '_'s
738,4()7.5.'>5.ilT
763.565,54(1.75
773,61(1,0(18.76
846,093,:349.62
864,790,237.71
$4,399,473.09
9,080,932.73
8,58:3,:309.31
15,005,612.15
21,922,:391.39
13,499,502.17
39,668,686.42
53,187,511.87
194,538,374.44
1>=:6,522.(164.60
■.'2'.i.(;()s,.")S4.57
•_'li 1.522. 21 15.23
1 77.452, !M'4. 15
203,;3")5.i)l().73
131,818.5:3(1.62
152.158,617.45
160,021,751.67
176,554,126.65
149,575,062.:35
$809,396.55
7,4:30.63
106,2(50.53
12,160.62
1,682.25
184,899,756.49
124,009,373.92
142,606,705.81
145,686,249.44
153,971,072.57
161,027,623.93
147,111,2:32.81
143,421,672.02
146,762,864.74
146,688,574.29
170,900,641.49
$734,223.97
12,448.68
31,586.82
16,980.59
229,102.88
30.85
$443.75
696,548.82
1,635,871.61
2,329,356.14
3,411,818.63
1,859,894.25
1,778,557.71
3,350,481.76
1,016,506.60
6,358,272.51
4,029,535.41
3,261,875.58
3,182,089.78
1,673,637.30
1,103,:347.16
1,005,523.43
864,581.41
1,24:3,129.42
$10,478.10
152,712.10
84,476.84
61,3:38.44
73,227.77
2,567,112.28
2,064,:308.21
1,088,530.25
12,942,118.30
21,978,525.01
24,447,419.74
23,374,457.23
20,251,871.94
18,254,898.34
17,118,618.52
16,706,4:38.48
19,186,060.54
23,614,422.81
83,602,501.94
Total for whole
period
7,902,022,450.01
5,181,644,479.46
28,131,990.32
292,8:39,825.60
889,606,115.27
EXPENDITURES OF THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, FROM MARCH 4,
1791, TO JUNE 30, 1898, BY CALENDAR YEARS TO 1840, AND BY FISCAL
YEARS (ENDING JUNE 30) FROM THAT TIME
Year
War
Navy
Indians
Pensions
Miscellaneous
1791
1800
1810
1820
W30
1<10
1S50
1S60
1870
1880
1890
1891
1892
1S93
1S94
1»95
1896
1897
1898
$632,804.03
2,56(1,878.77
2,294,:323.94
2,63o,:392.31
4,7(m,12s.ss
7,(l9.'"),2i;7.2;:!
9,6S7,024.5S
16,472,202.72
57.(i55.(i75.4(l
3^.11(■..'.l 16.22
44,5S2,Si8.0S
48,72(1,065.01
46,895,45().30
49,641,773.47
54,567,929.s5
51,804,759.13
50,8:3(1,920,89
48,950,267.89
91,992,000.29
$3,448,716.03
1,654,244.20
4,387,990.00
3,239,428.6:3
6,113,896.89
7,904,724.66
11,514,649.8:3
21,780,229.87
13,536,984,74
22,006,200.24
2(5,113,896.46
29,174,1:38.98
3(l,l:<6,084.4:3
31,701,293.79
28,797,795.73
27,147,7:32.3s
34,561,546.29
58,823,9^.80
$27,000.00
31.22
177,625.00
315,750.01
622,262.47
2,331,794.86
1,663,591.47
2,991,121.54
3,407,9:38.15
5,945,457.09
6,708,046.67
8,527,469.01
11,150,577.67
13,345,:347.27
10.293,481.52
9,9:39,754.21
12,165,528.28
13,016,802.46
10,994,667.70
$175,813.88
64,130.73
83,744.16
3,208,376.31
1,363,297.31
2,603,562.17
1,866,886.02
1,100,802.32
28,:340,202.17
56,777,174.44
106,936,S55.07
124,415,951.40
1:!4.5S{,(I52.79
159,:357,557.87
141,177,284.96
141,395,228.87
l:59,4^>4, (1(10.98
141,055,164.6:3
147,452,368.61
$1,08:3,971.61
1,337,613.22
1,101,144,98
2,592,021.94
3,237,41(5.04
5,995,398.96
16,043,76:3.:36
27,977,978.30
53,237.461.56
54,713,529.76
81,403,256.49
110,048,167.49
99,841,988.61
103,732,799.27
101,94:3,884.07
93,279,7:30.14
87,216,2:34.62
90,401,267.82
96,520,505.17
Tota
whole
1 f(
perio
'i
5,1?2,546,448.44
1,447,941,052.77
:345,377,399.27
2,378,342,597.21
3,041,485,705.18
Note. — Thi.s statement is made from warrants piiid by the Treasurer up to June 30,
1866. The outstanding warrants are then added, and the statement is by warrants issued
from that date.
RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES
clxv
RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, MARCH 4, 1791, TO JUNE 80,
1898, BY CALENDAR YEARS TO 1840, AND BY FISCAL YEARS (ENDING JUNE 30)
FROM THAT TIME — Continued
a Amount heretofore credited to the Treasurer as unavailable and since recovered and charged to his
account.
EXPENDITURES OF THE UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, FROM MARCH 4, 1791,
TO JUNE 30, 1898, BY CALENDAR YEARS TO 1840, AND BY FISCAL YEARS (END-
ING JUNE 30) FROM THAT TIME — Continued
Net ordinary
Expenditures
Premiums
Interest
Public Debt
Gross Expendi-
tures
Balance in
Treasurv at
End of Year
Yr.
$1,919,589.52
7,411,369.97
.5,311,082.28
13,1:34.5:30.57
13.229..5:33.:33
24.1:39.920.11
37.1(i5.91M).09
60.050,754.71
1(U.42 1.507. 15
109.09it. 002.25
20)1. (»7. 202. 55
317,^25,.549.37
821,<>45,214.35
856,213,562.31
839,683,874.19
325.217,268.08
816.794,417.15
327.98:3,M9.09
405,783,526.57
$15.996.5.55.60
2.795.320.42
20,304,224.06
10,401,220.61
$1,177,86:3.03
3,402,601.04
3,163,671.09
5,151.004.32
1,912,574.93
174,598.08
3,782,393.03
3,144,120.94
129.235.498.00
9.5.757,575.11
3(),O'.i9.2s4.05
;37,;"47, 1:35.37
23,378,116.23
27,264,392.18
27.^41,405.64
30,978,0.30.21
3.5,385,028.93
37.791,110.48
37..585,0.56.23
$699,9.'U.23
1,1:38,563.11
4,835,241.12
8,477,489.96
9,44:3,173.29
3,912,015.62
3,656,335.14
13,854,250.00
393,2.54,282.13
4^32,-590,280.41
312,206,307. .50
36.5,:3.52,470.87
3.38,995.958.98
3S9,.530.044..50
3;31.:3S:3.272.95
.S.>4.270.s.-,^.l»;5
396,190,023.:]5
353,180,877.50
384,219,542.00
$3,797,4:36.78
11,952..5;34.12
13,309.994.49
21,70:3.024.85
24,5-85,2^1. .55
28,226,5:«.81
44,604.7 ls.20
77,055,125.05
702,907. S42.S8
70(t.2:3y.2:i^.l9
6.30.247.07^.10
731,120.37<',.22
684,01 9,2-s9.56
773.0(t7,998.99
69^.90«^..5.52.78
710.472,1.57.22
74.>,:!09.469.4;3
718.955,037.07
827.588, 1'24.S0
$973,905.75
2,62:3,311.99
2,672,276.-57
1,198,461.21
6,014,5:39.75
29,963,163.46
35,871, 75;3.31
32,979,5:30.78
177,604,116.51
231,940,004.44
091.527.403.70
720.222,332.00
778,604,3.39.28
738,467,.555.07
763.505..^40.75
77:3.<;io,(iO'>.76
846,()93,:349.62
864,790,2.37.71
775,7.51,368.11
1791
ISOO
IblO
1820
18.30
1840
18,50
I860
1870
1880
1890
wn
l!?92
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Total
for
whole
period
12,385,693,202.87
125,698,013.65
2,902,298,910.08
14,3^,907,1 10. (U
29,768,597,237.24
Note. — This statement is made from warrants paid by the Treasurer up to June 30, 1866.
standing warrants are then added, and the statement is by warrants issued from that date.
The out-
clxvi
UNITED STATES
THE PUBLIC DEBT
OUTSTANDING PEINCIPAL OF THE PUBLIC DEBT OF THE UNITED
STATES VARIOUS YEAES, JAN. 1, 1791 TO l&iO, AND JULY 1, 1850 TO
1898
Year
Amount
Year
Amount
Jan. 1, 1791
$75,463,476.52
July 1, 1870
$2,480,672,427.81
ISOO
82,976,294.35
1880
a 2,120,415,370.63
ISIO
5:3,173,217.52
1890
b 1,585,821,048.73
1820
91,015.566.15
1894
h 1,668,757,127.68
is;30
48,565,406.50
1895
h 1,701,033,661.25
1840
3,573,343.82
1896
h 1,787,990,491.40
July 1, 1850
63,452,773.55
1897
h 1,8:32,074,708.90
1860
64,842,287.88
1898
b 1,798,066,921.90
a In the amount here stated as the outstanding principal of the public debt are included
the certificates of deposit outstanding on the 30th of June, issued under act of June 8, 1872,
for which a like amount in United States notes was on special deposit in the Treasur)' for
their redemption and added to the cash balance in the Treasury. These certificates, as a
matter of accounts, are treated as a part of the public debt, but being offset by notes held
on deposit for their redemption, should properly be deducted from the principal of the pub-
lic debt in making comparison with former years.
b Exclusive of gold, silver, currency certificates, and Treasury notes of 1890 held in the
Treasurer's cash, and including $14,133,560 bonds issued to the several Pacific railroads not
yet redeemed.
Money
money in the united states, in the treasury, and in circu-
lation, on the dates specified
[The difference between tlie amount of money in the country and the amount in circulation
represents the money in the Treasury.
Currency certificates, act of June 8, 1872, are included in the amount of United States
notes in circulation in the tables for the years 1873 to 1891, inclusive ; since 1891 they
are reported separately.
The tabic rejjresents the revised figures for each of the years given.]
Year
Money in
Monev in
Population
Money
Circulation
United States
Circulation
per Capita
per Capita
1860
$442,102,477
$435,407,252
31,443,351
$14.06
$18.85
1870
722,868,461
675,212,794
38,558.371
18.73
17.50
1880
1,205.929,197
973,382,228
50.155,783
24.04
19.41
1890
2,144,226.150
1,429,251.270
62,622,250
34.24
22.82
1894
2.42().4;U.7sl
1.6(;0.80'<.708
68,307,000
35.39
24.28
1895
2,:)9>i,('i<i7,4'iO
1. 601, '.m;>, 47:1
(■.'.I.s7s,(til0
84.33
22.98
1896
2,;347,:'.in;,(l06
1, 506,434, itOC)
7i,;)90,oo()
32.88
21.10
1897
2,497,405,572
1,640,209,510
72,937,0(H)
34.24
22.49
1898
2,637,4:33,375
1,837,859,895
74,522,000
85.89
24.66
MONEY
clxvii
The following table shows the stock and location of the metallic and
paper money in the United States on July 1, 1898 :
LOCATION OF THE MONEYS OF THE UNITED STATES JULY 1, 1898
Moneys
In Treasury
In National
Banks July 14,
1898
In Other Banks
and in General
Circulation
Total
METALLIC
<H)1(I bullion
Silver bullion
Gold coin .
Silver dollars
Subsidiary silver coin
Total ....
PAPER
Legal-tender notes (old is-
sue)
Leg-al-tender notes (act July
14,1890) ....
Gold certificates .
Silver certificates
National-bank notes .
Currency certificates .
Total ....
Grand total
$96, 688, 582
99,354,337
106,930,733
405,022. 5.")0
12,o7o.6ltO
a $266,464,037
7,963,587
6,334,15:3
$194,274
391,431,428
49,010,385
57,722,767
$96.6s8.5v2
99,r.4s.(;il
764,826,198
461,996,522
76,127,610
720,066,892
280,701,777
498,35S,S.">4
1.499,187,523
62,111,994
2,900,843
1,608,560
8,429,994
4,909,189
1,110,000
114,914,997
18,457,340
36,458,014
& 26,600,544
20,385,000
169,654,025
98,306,437
17,354,249
35:3,668,496
196,390,444
5,180,000
346,681,016
101,207,280
37.420,149
398,550,504
227,900,177
26,675,000
81,070,580
216,815,s!t5
840,553,651
1,138,440,126
801,137,472
497,577,672
1,338,912,505
2,637,627,649
a Includes $133,576,000 gold clearing-house certificates.
h Includes $5,788,852 of their own notes held by ditferent national banks.
On July 1, 1897, the stock and the location of the metallic and paper
money in the United States was as follows :
In
Treasury
In National
In Other Banks
Moneys
Banks July 23,
and in General
Total
1897
Circulation
.METALLIC
Gold Bullion
$25,571,628
$25,571,628
Silver bullion
106.490,744
$206,926
106,697,670
Gold coin ....
153,109,226
a $176,893,606
340,696,082
670,698,914
Silver dollars
400,05:3,461
6.SJ3.275
45,087,006
451,993,742
Subsidiary silver coin .
Total ....
PAPKR
16,201,960
5,756,106
5:3.86(t.:303
75.818,369
701,427,019
189,.5(»2,987
4^.9.s.')0.:!lT
l.:3:3O,780,:323
Legal-tender notes (old issue)
100,726,394
126,511,020
119,443,602
346,681,016
Legal-tender notes (act July
14, 1890) ....
31,397,763
83,469.517
114.867,280
Gold certificates .
1,496,8:30
16,792,990
20,492.349
38,782,169
Silver certificates .
17,630,192
34,626,625
323,222.687
375,479,504
National-bank notes
5,123,6>;;3
h 28.9:32.602
197.385.401
231.441,686
Currency certificates .
Total ....
1,380.000
^(i.n-^.'i.iiuo
14.^T5,(MMt
'■>2.340,000
1.1';:'.:.9 1,655
157.7r>4.s(j2
-•'-■■" ^■-■'
75s. V-.-. .-,.-,,;
a Includes $57,426,000 gold clearing-hou.se certificates.
6 Includes $8,326,505 of tlieir own notes held by different national banks.
A comparison of the above tables shows an increase in the Treasury in
1898 over 1897 of $18,039,873 in gold and silver bullion and coin, and a
decrease during the same period of $76,084,282 in the amount of paper
money — a net decrease in metallic and paper currency of $58,044,-109.
clxviii
UNITED STATES
In gold bullion there was an increase of $71,116,954, and in gold coin a
decrease of 846,178.493.
In silver bullion there was a decrease of §7,136,407, and in silver dollars
an increase of $4,969,089.
On July 1, 1898, the metallic stock in the national banks was $280,-
761,777, as against $189,502,987 on the same date for the previous year,
or an increase in 1898 of $91,258,790. The increase in gold coin for 1898
was $89,570,431, that in silver dollars being $1,110,312.
The amount of paper money held in the national banks July 1, 1898,
was less by $36,132,342 than on July 1, 1897. The total increase in
metallic and paper money held in the national banks on July 1, 1898,
over that of July 1, 1897, was $55,126,448.
The total metallic stock in other than national banks and in general
circulation on July 1, 1898, was $498,358,854, and in paper currency
$840,553,651, as against $430,850,317 and $758,888,556, respectively, on
July 1, 1897 — an increase in the former of $58,508,537, and in the latter
of $81,665,095.
The increase in gold coin over the previous fiscal year was $50,735,346,
and in standard silver dollars $3,923,379.
The increase in the total metallic stock on July 1, 1898, over that of
July 1, 1897, was $168,407,200. The increase in gold coin was $94,127,-
284, and in standard silver dollars $10,002,780. There was a decrease
during 1898 of $31,151,529 in the total stock of paper currency and an
increase of $137,255,671 in the total stock of metallic and paper currency.
The stock of gold and silver and the amount per capita, various years,
from 1873 to 1898, in the United States, is exhibited in the following
table, compiled from the reports of the Director of the Mint :
•
Total Coin and Bullion
Per Capita
Fiscal Year ending
June 30 —
Population
Gold
Silver
Gold
Silver
Total
Metallic
1873 ....
41,677.000
$135,000,000
$6,149,305
$3.23
$0.15
$3.38
1880 .
50,155,78^3
351,841,206
148,522,678
7.01
2.96
9.97
1890 .
62,622,250
695,563,029
4():3.211.919
11.10
7.39
18.49
1894 .
68,397,000
627,293,201
624,347.757
9.18
9.13
18.31
1895 .
69,878,000
636,229,825
(V.'5.srv4.949
9.10
8.97
18.07
1896 .
71,390,000
599,597,964
628,728,071
8.40
8.81
17.21
1897 .
72.937,000
696,270,.542
(>:34,509,7S1
9.55
8.70
18.25
1898 .
74,522,000
861,514,780
637,672,743
11.56
8.56
20.12
VALUE OF THE GOLD AND SILVER (NOT INCLUDING EEDEPOSITS)
RECEIVED AT THE MINTS AND ASSAY OFFICES, VARIOUS YEARS,
1880 TO 189S
Fiscal Year.s
Gold
Silver (Coining
Value)
Total Value
1880 .
1890 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1898 .
$9S,&35,096
42,6(>3,095
71,909,513
65,161,067
68,769,384
87,003,338
147,693,195
$34,640,522
42,644,719
28,697,031
15.234.700
11,672,078
9,470,623
13,261,600
$133,475,618
85,307,814
100,606,544
80,395,767
80,441,462
96,473,961
160,9r>4,795
COINAGE
clxix
The value of the deposits of gold bullion, coin, and jewellers' bars at
the mints and assay offices of the United States, various years, from 1873
to 18U8, is exhibited in the foUowhig table :
Fiscal
Year
ending
June
30 —
Cii.\R.vcTER OF Gold Deposited
Total
Domestic
Bullion
Domestic
Coin (Coin-
ing Value)
Foreign
Bullion
Foreign Coin
(U.S. Coining
Value)
Je\veller.s'
Bars, Old
Plate, etc.
1873
ISSO
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
$28,868,569.78
35,821,705.40
30,474,900.25
38,696,951.40
44,371,949.83
53,910,957.02
60,618,239.77
69,881,120.57
$27,116,948.27
209,328.82
655,474.96
2,093,615.46
1,188,258.21
1,670,005.53
1,015,314.39
1,187,682.99
$426,107.44
21,200,997.23
2,691,932.29
15,614,118.19
14,108,435.74
6,572,390.14
9,371,521.03
20,477,370.06
$518,542.14
40,426,559.63
5,298,773.93
12,386,406.81
2,278,614.07
3,227,409.06
13,188,013.86
47,210,077.84
$774,218.25
1,176,505.77
3,542,013..S^
3,118,421.45
3,213,809.43
8,388,622.01;
2,810,248.66
2,936,943.37
$57,704,385.88
98,835,096.85
42,663,095.26
71,909,513.31
65,161,067.28
68,769,383.81
87,003,337.71
147,693,194.83
Gold and silver coinage operations were conducted during the fiscal
year 1898 at the mints at Philadelphia, San Francisco, and New Orleans,
and amounted to 44,708,144 pieces, of the value of .^81,120,449.
The coinage of nickel and bronze is confined by law to the mint at
Philadelphia, at which institution 72,887,039 pieces, of the value of
$1,489,484.11 were manufactured.
Coinage operations were suspended at the mint at New Orleans from
January to May, 1898, owing to the exhaustion of the supply of silver
bullion at that institution.
Coinage operations at the mint at Carson have been suspended since
May, 1893.
The value of the domestic coinage executed by the mints of the United
States during the fiscal years 1897 and 1898 and the increase or decrease
in the nominal value of the coinage during the year named are shown by
the following table :
COINAGE OF THE MINTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BY VALUE, DURING
THE FISCAL YEARS 1897 AND 1898, WITH THE INCREASE OR DE-
CREASE OF THE SAME DURING THE LATTER YEAR
Classification of Coinage
Fisc.vL Year
Increase, 1898
Decrease, 1S9S
1897
1898
Gold coins
Silver dollars .
Subsidiary silver coins .
Minor coins
Total ....
$71,646,705.00
21.203,701.00
3.124,08.^65
984.509.59
$64,634,865.00
10.002,780.00
6,482.804.00
].4>9.4^4.1]
$3,358,718.35
504.974.52
$7,011,840.00
11,200,921.00
96,959,001.24
82,609,933.11
3,863,692.87
18,212,761.00
The standard silver dollars for 1808 embraced in the above table
(10,002,780) were coined from the balance of silver bullion on hand, pur-
chased under the act of July 14, 1890, and contained 8,590,139.05 standard
ounces of silver, costing §6,928,821.41.
clxx
UNITED STATES
The seigniorage or profit on this coinage was 83,073,958.59, which has
been deposited in the Treasury of the United States.
Of the subsidiary coinage ($6, 482, 804) executed during the year 1898,
$5,962,141 were from bullion resulting from the melting of uncurrent
silver coins received from the Treasury for recoinage, and $520,663 from
silver bullion purchased under the provision of section 3526 of the Revised
Statutes.
The loss on the recoinage of $1,198,860 in worn and uncurrent gold
coins was 811,177.01, and the loss on the recoinage of $6,109,772.32 in
worn and uncurrent silver coins was $289,613.16, for which the Treasurer
of the United States was reimbursed from the appropriations for that
purpose.
The number of silver dollars coined from bullion purchased under the
act of July 14, 1890, from Aug. 13, 1890, to June 80, 1898, aggregated
78,751,257 pieces, containing 60,909,175,32 ounces of fine silver, costing
$58,460,975.54, giving a seigniorage of $20,290,281.46. All profits on the
coinage of silver dollars are deposited each month in the Treasury of the
United States. The aggregate number of silver dollars coined from
March 1, 1878, to June 30, 1898, under the provisions of the acts of Feb.
28, 1878, July 14, 1890, and March 3, 1891, was $461,996,522, as shown
by the following table :
Coinatre under Act of
Amount
Feb. 28, 1878 (Bland-Allison)
From July 14, 1890, to repeal of purchasing
clause of Sherman act, Oct. 31. 1893 .
From Nov. 1, 1893, to June 30, 1898 .
Total under act of July 14, 1890
March 3, 1891 (recoinage of trade dollars)
Total
$36,087,285
42,663,972
^378,166,793
78,751,257
5,078.472
461,996,522
The following table exhibits the number of fine ounces and value of
gold and silver coinage of the United States, by various calendar years,
from 1873 to 1897 :
Gc
LD
Silver
Calendar Years
Fine Ounces
Value
Fine Ounce.s
Coining Value
1ST3 ....
2,758,475
$.57,022,748
3,112,801
$4,024,748
isso
3,014,1 ft?
f)2,3()S.279
21,201.232
27,411,694
ISDO
000,100
20,4(57.182
30.320,000
39.202,008
lsl)4
3,S4S,045
70,.54r..ir)0
7,115.896
9,200,351
1S05
2,SS:^.041
50,ei(),3.58
4,407,055
5,608,010
T^Ofi
2,276,102
47.053.0(50
17.8.58,.504
23,089,809
IS'JT
3,077,878
76,028,485
14.208,769
18,487,297
The following tables show the amount, cost, average price per fine
ounce, and the bullion value of the. silver dollar, of silver purchased
under the different acts, by fiscal years.
SILVER MARKET
clxxi
AMOUNT, COST, AVERAGE PRICE, AND BULLION VALUE OF THE SILVER
DOLLAR OF SILVER PURCHASED UNDER ACT OF FEB. 28, 1878.
Averaj^o
Bullion
Fiscal Year
Ounces, Fine
Cost
Price per
Ounce, Fine
Value of a
Silver Dollar
1.^78
10,809,350.58
$13,023,268.96
$1.2048
$0.9318
1879.
19,248,086.l»9
21.593.W2. 99
1.1218
.8676
1880.
22,057,8()2.G4
25,235,081.53
1.1440
.8848
1881.
19,709,227.11
22,327,874.75
1.1328
.8761
1882.
21,190,200.87
24,054,480.47
1.1351
.8779
1883.
22,889,241.24
25,577,327.5S
1.1174
.8642
18S4.
21,922,951.52
24,378,3*3.91
1.1120
.8600
1885.
21,791,171.61
23,747,460.25
1.0897
.8428
1886.
22,690,652.94
23,448.960.01
1.0334
.7992
1887.
26,490,008.04
25,988,620.46
.9810
.7587
1888.
25,386,125.32
24,237,553.20
.9547
.7384
1889.
26,468,861.03
24,717,853.81
.9338
.7222
1890.
27,820,900.05
26,899,326.33
.9663
.7477
1891.
2,797,379.52
3,049,420.46
1.0901
.8431
Tot
al
291,272,018.56
308,279,260.71
1.058;3
.8185
AMOUNT, COST, AVERAGE PRICE, AND BULLION VALUE OF THE SILVER
DOLLAR OF SILVER PURCHASED UNDER ACT OF JULY 14, 1890
Fiscal Year
Ounces, Fine
Cost
A veragre
Price per
Ounce, Fine
Bullion
Value of a
Silver Dollar
1891
1892
1893
1894
Total .
48,393,113.05
54,355,748.10
54,008,162.60
11,917,658,78
$50,577,498.44
51,106,607.96
45,531,374.53
8,715,521.32
$1.0451
.9402
.8430
.7313
$0.8083
.7271
.6520
.56.56
168,674,6^2.53
155,931,002.25
.9244
.7150
AMOUNT, COST, AVERAGE PRICE, AND BULLION VALUE OF THE SILVER
DOLLAR OF SILVER PURCHASED UNDER THE ACTS OF FEB. 12, 1873,
JAN. 14. 1S75. FEB. 28. 1>>7S, AND JULY 14, 1890
Acts Authorizing
Ounces, Fine
Cost
Average
Price per
Ounce, Fine
Bullion
Value of a
Silver Dollar
Feb. 12. 1^73 .
Jan. 14, Ls75 .
Feb. 28, 1878 .
July 14, 1890 .
Total .
5,434,282.00
31,603.906.00
201.272,018.56
1<>>.<')74,(;v2..t:3
$7,152,564.00
37,571,148.00
308.279.260.71
155,981. 01 12. 25
$1.3162
1.1888
1.058:3
.9244
$1.0180
.9194
.8185
.7150
4y6,984,Ss'J.09
508,933,974.96
1.0240
.7920
Silver Balances
The balance of silver bullion on hand June 30, 1898, at the United
States mints and assay offices, for the coinage of silver dollars, subsidiary-
silver coinage, and for payment of deposits of silver bullion in fine bars
was :
Items
Fine Ounces
Cost
Purchased under act of July 14, 1890 .
For subsidiary silver coinage at mints .
For subsidiary silver coinage at assay offices
At United States assay office. New York, for
payments of deposits in fine bars .
Total
107,701.936.56
1,041, 122.r)4
201,494.06
419.951.13
$97,407,490.82
1,356,316.97
122,815.17
466,612..37
109,364..504.39
99,:353,235.33
clxxii UNITED STATES
The Market for Silver during the Fiscal Tear 1898
The steady decline of silver which began after January, 1897, continued
until the end of the first month (July) of the fiscal year 1897-98. This
decline was caused, in great part, by the adoption of the gold standard
in Japan. The causes of the decline in the first part of August continued
throughout the month, at the end of which the lowest figure of the calen-
dar year was reached — 23|(?. per ounce standard.
The decline in August was caused by a species of panic. Speculators
abstained from purchasing, while the American holder hastened to sell,
so that in the space of three weeks silver fell from 27^^ d. to 23|f?. on the
25th of August.
On Sept. 3 the Indian council announced that it intended to stop
drawing on India for three or four months, and that it was ready to
purchase bills on India in the market. It felt bound to come to this
decision by the state of the Indian treasury, due to the revolt of the
Afridis and other tribes, and the decline of revenues due to the failure
of crops. The result was an immediate rise in exchange on India and
silver. Silver was quoted Sept. 6 at 25^ d. and on Sept. 20 at 27^ d. It
subsequently fell to 25 d. on the 29th of September, and rose to 27| d. on
the Gth of December.
On the 7th of December the Indian council decided to resume the sell-
ing of drafts on India and the silver market remained firm between 26 d.
and 26f d. During the first week in January, 1898, the price declined
to 26j% d. , showed a slight recovery on the 6th to 26i d. , after which it
gradually hardened, owing to special orders, and after touching 26|d. fell
rapidly to 26|^. Considerable purchases were made for China and India,
resulting in a rise on Jan. 20 to 26|d. Toward the close of January
the plague in Bombay interfered to some extent with Indian sales, but
there was a good demand for the Straits at 26y\ d. The silver market was
very inactive during February, resulting in a decline as compared with
prices in January. The decline was intensified early in March by the
repeated circulation of Indian rumors that a prohibitive duty would be
placed on silver, and to a momentary cessation of purchases for the Straits,
rising to 26} d. on the 17th, after the Indian rumors ceased, but the im-
provement did not last to the end of March, which closed with silver at
25j^(Z. Orders from India and the Straits and the cessation of American
sales early in the month caused a rise in the first half of April, followed
by a decline on the 21st and an advance to 2Q\d. on the 28th. In May a
large coinage order from Paris raised the price to 26^'^ d. , but the price
soon relapsed to 26 j\ d., owing to the United States selling freely. It rose
again for like causes to 26 /^ d. about the middle of May and increased to
the end of the month. In June the market fluctuated greatly, owing largely
to the demands for Spain, beginning with 27^ d. and closing with 21f'^d.
The highest price of silver during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898,
was 27f d. for silver 0.925 British standard, equivalent with exchange at
par (4.8()6o) to $0.60831 per ounce for silver 1000 fine. The lowest mar-
ket price was 23^ rZ., equivalent to $0.51789 per ounce fine, and the aver-
age London market price for the twelve months ending June 30, 1898,
was 26y^^ d., equivalent to $0.57675 per ounce fine. At the highest market
price during the fiscal year the bullion value of tlie standard silver dollar
was $0.47040 ; at the lowest market price $0.40055 ; at the average mar-
ket price, $0.44607.
At the highest market price, the commercial ratio of silver to gold was as
1 to 33.98 ; at the lowest price, 1 to 39.91 ; at the average price, 1 to 35.84.
SILVER BULLION
clxxiii
The number of gmins of pure silver purchasable with .$1 in United
States money at the highest price for silver during the year was 799.015
grains ; the lowest price, 926.710 grains ; and at the average price, 830.204
grains.
The table following is self-explanatory :
HIGHEST, LOWEST, AND AVEllAGE PRICE OF SILVER BULLION AND
VALUE OF A FINE OUNCE EACH MONTH DURING THE FISCAL YEAR
1898
Month
High-
est
Lowest
Average
Price per
Ounce,
British
Standard,
0.925
Equivalent
Value of
a Fine
Ounce,
with Ex-
change at
Par
($4.8665)
Average
Monthly
Price at
New York
of Ex-
change on
London
Equivalent
Value of a Fine
Ounce Based
on Average
Monthly Price
and Average
Rate of
Exchange
Average
Monthly
New Y'ork
Price of
Fine Bar
Silver
1^97
July ....
August. . .
September
October . .
November
December . .
1898
January . .
February . .
March . . .
Ai)ril . . .
May ....
June . . .
Pence
27}|
26|
27i
27^
27^
272
26S
26i
26
26i
26|
27^
Pence
26^
23f
23|
25A
26
2611
26i
25§
25
25iJ
25S
2'H^
Pence
27.3503
24.9567
25.6500
27.1418
26.8125
26.8050
26.2000
25.8984
25.4583
25.9453
26.3150
27.0932
$0.59955
.54708
.56453
.59498
.58776
.58759
.57433
.56772
.55807
.56875
.57685
.59392
$4.8725
4.8596
4.8544
4.8485
4.8566
4.8520
4.8497
4.8525
4.8405
4.8377
4.8557
4.8582
$0.60024
.54625
.56082
.58435
.58646
.58588
.57578
.56606
.55509
.56543
.57554
.59274
$0.60639
.55394
.56S90
.58812
.56785
.58971
.58035
.54570
.55990
.56961
.58015
.59644
Average
—
—
26.3105
.57676
4.8531
.57455
.57559
HIGHEST, LOWEST, AND AVERAGE PRICE OF SILVER BULLION AND
VALUE OF A FINE OUNCE EACH MONTH DURING THE CALENDAR
YEAR 1897
Month
High-
est
Low-
est
Average
Price per
Ounce,
British
Standard,
0.925
Equivalent
Value of a
Fine Ounce,
with Ex-
change at
Par
($4.8665)
Average
Monthly
Price at
New Y'ork
of Ex-
change on
London
Equivalent
Value of a
Fine Ounce,
based on Aver-
age Monthly
Price and Aver-
age Rate of
Exchange
Average
Monthly
New York
Price of
Fine Bar
Silver
ls97
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Average
Pence
2911
29i
29S
28J
28ft
27f
27H
2C|
271
27i
27i
27i
Pence
29U
29H
2Si\
2Sft
27^
27^
26i
23i
28|
25ft
26
25}i
Pence
29.7275
29.7119
28.9W7
28.3726
27.7750
27.5817
27.3503
24.9567
25.6500
27.1418
26.8125
26.8050
$0.65166
.65131
.6:3494
.62105
.60886
.60462
.59955
.54708
.5&453
.59498
.58776
.58759
$4.8717
4.8690
4.8730
4.8766
4.8734
4.8725
4.8725
4.8.596
4.8544
4.S485
4.8566
4.8520
$0.65235
.65169
.63577
.62323
.61010
.60536
.60024
.54625
.56082
.5&4.35
.58646
.5S5SS
$0.65975
.65931
.64231
.62950
.61590
.61129
.60639
.55:394
.56S90
.5SS12
.56785
.58971
27.5708
.60449
4.8&49
.60354
.60774
clxxiv
UNITED STATES
HIGHEST, LOWEST, AND AVERAGE VALUE OF A UNITED STATES SIL-
VER DOLLAR, MEASURED BY THE MARKET PRICE OF SILVER, AND
THE QUANTITY OF SILVER PURCHASABLE WITH A DOLLAR AT THE
AVERAGE LONDON PRICE OF SILVER, VARIOUS YEARS SINCE 1873
Calendar Years
1873
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898 (9 months)
Bullion Vali-e of a Silver
Dollar
Highest
.016
.896
.926
.538
.532
.523
.505
.481
Lowest Average
.981
.875
.740
.457
.461
.504
.400
.424
$1,004
.886
.810
.491
..505
.521
.467
.452
Grains of Pure
Silver at Aver-
age Price pur-
cliasable with a
United States
Silver Dollar i
369.77
419.49
4.58.8:3
756.04
7:33.87
711.93
795.98
822.15
^ 371.25 grains of pure silver are contained in a silver dollar.
Circulation of Silver Dollars
The following table exhibits the total number of silver dollars coined,
the number held by the Treasury for the redemption of certificates and
Treasury notes, the number held in excess of outstanding certificates, and
the number in circulation on Nov. 1 of each of the last thirteen years :
Total Coinage
In the Treasury
In Circulation
Date
Held for Pay-
ment of Cer-
tificates
Out.standing
Held in Excess
of Certificates
Outstanding
Nov. 1 —
1886 .
1887 .
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
1891 .
1892 .
1893 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1898 .
244,4.33,386
277,110,157
309,750,890
343,638,001
380,988,466
409,475,368
416,412,8:35
419.3:32,550
421,776,408
423,289,309
4:39,5.52,141
4.52,713.792
466,836,.597
100,306,800
160,713,9.57
229.78:3.1.52
277,319,944
.308,206.177
321.142,642
324.552, ."):52
325,717,2:^2
;«1.14:3,:50l
342,409.504
366.463.504
372,s:ls,!M9
:398,7.'):<,504
82,624.4:31
5:3.461, .575
20.196,288
6,219,577
7.072.725
2(i.l '.17.265
:^0.ls7.?v48
:34,ss9,.5O0
;34.1s9,437
22.52.\713
14.S!I7,S35
19,<i7s.095
4,(U.">,S^S
61,502,155
62,934, ()25
59,771,4.50
60,098,480
65.709.56-1
62.1:3.5.461
61,672,455
58,725,818
56,44:3.670
58,354.092
.58,190,802
60,196.778
6:3,4:37,2.55
On July 1, 1897, the balance on hand at the mints on account of profits
accruing in the coinage of silver was §501,500.18.
The seigniorage on the coinage of silver during the fiscal year 1808 was,
on silver dollars, 63,073,058.50, and on subsidiary pieces $280,311.22, a
total seigniorage of 83,300,200.81.
The amount reimbursed on account of silver wastage and loss on sale
of sweeps paid from this seigniorage was .$270.14, leaving the net seignior-
age on the silver coinage of the fiscal year, §3,359,903.07.
SILVER MAllKET
clxxv
The amount deposited in the Treasury during the year was $8,406,-
459.70. leaving a balance of §455,100.15 on hand at the mints June 30,
1898.
Including the balance on hand at the mints July 1, 1878, the net
seigniorage or profits on the coinage of silver from that date to June 30,
1898, aggregated $88,182,815.37.
The "seigniorage on the coinage of silver dollars under the act of July
14, 1890, from Aug. 13, 1890 (the date the act went into effect), to June
30, 1898, was §20,290,281.46.
HIGHEST, LOWEST, AND AVERAGE PRICE OF BAR SILVER IN LONDON,
PER OUNCE BRITISH STANDARD (.925), SINCE 1833, AND THE EQUIVA-
LENT IN UNITED STATES GOLD COIN OF AN OUNCE 1000 FINE, TAKEN
AT THE AVERAGE PRICE
Value
Value
Calen-
dar
Lowest
Quota-
Highest
Quota-
Average
Quota-
of a Fine
Ounce at
Average
Quota-
Calen-
dar
Lowest
Quota-
Highest
Quota-
Average
Quota-
of a Fine
Ounceat
A vera ""6
Years
tion
tion
tion
Years
tion
tion
tion
Quota-
tion
tion
fl.
d.
d.
DoUa rs
d.
d.
(/.
Dollars
1833
5Sf
591
59i=»g
1.297
1866
60§
&->i
61 i
1.339
18^34
5!i2
OOf
59^1
1.313
1867
601
ou
00ft
1.328
1835
5!t|
60
59U
1.308
1868
60i
ou
00^
1.326
1836
59|
601
60
1.315
1869
60
61
60ft
1.325
1837
59
601
59A
1.305
1870
60|
60f
60ft
1.328
1838
59^
6(ii
59^
1.304
1871
60ft
01
6(1^
1.326
18:39
60
60|
60f
1.323
1872
59i
6U
60ft
1.322
1840
m
60|
60f
1.323^
1873
57|
59i|
59^
1.298
1841
5()a
OOi
60r^
1.316'
1874
5U
59^
58ft
1.278
1842
59i
60
59/5
1.303
1875
55^
57f
56|
1.246
1^43
59
59|
50ft
1.297
1876
46|
58^
52f
1.156
1844
59^
59|
59^
1.304
1877
53J
b<i
51il
1.201
1845
m
59|
5ili
1.298
1878
49i
55^
52ft
1.152
1^6
59
60i
59ft
1.300
1879
4Si
53f
5U
1.123
1847
5^1
60g
59i|
1.308
1880
51f
52|
52i
1.145
1848
5.S1
Oil
59J
1.304
1881
50S
m
5UI
1.138
1849
59^
00
59i
1.309
1882
50
52f
5111
1.136
1850
59^
61^
61ft
1.316
1883
50
51ft
5(i|
1.110
1851
60
61|
61
1.337
1884
49^
511
50J
1.113
1852
m
615
60^
1.326
1885
46|
50
4Sft
1.0645
1853
m
61S
6H
1.348
1886
42
47
45§
.9946
1S.>4
601
61 §
6H
1.348
1887
43i
47^
44|
.97823
1855
60
61|
61ft
1.344
1888
41 1
44ft
421
.93974
1856
60^
62i
61ft
1.344
1889
42
44§
41 H
.93512
1857
61
62i
61i
1.353
1890
43|
511
47f
1.04633
1858
60J
61S
61ft
1.344
1891
43J
48J
45ft
.98782
1859
61J
m
62ft
1.360
1892
371
43J
393
.87106
1860
6U
62g
01 ii
1.352
1893
80i
3Si
35ft
.78031
1861
6t>i
61i
mi
1.333
1894
27
31 i
28S
.63479
1862
61
62|
61ft
1.346
1S95
27ft
8li
295
.6.5406
1863
61
61|
611
1.345
1896
29i
31il
30i
. 674^37
1864
60|
62i
61i
1.345
1897
23|
29H
27ft
.60449
1865
60i
61f
61ft
1.338
1S9S
(9mo5. )
25
28i
261
.5S397
clxxvi
UNITED STATES
COMMERCIAL RATIO OF SILVER TO GOLD EACH YEAR SINCE 1687
[From 1657 to 1832 the ratios are taken from Dr. A. Soetbeer ; from 1833 to 1878 from
Pi.vley and A bell's tables ; and from 1879 to 1S96 from daih' cablegrams from London to
the Bureau of the Mint.]
Years
Ratio
Years
Ratio
Years
Ratio
Years
Ratio
Years
Ratio
Years
Ratio
1687
14.94
1723
15.20
1758
14.85
1793
15.00
1828
15.78
1863
15.87
1688
14.94
1724
15.11
1759
14.15
1794
15.37
1829
15.78
1864
15.37
16S9
15.02
1725
15.11
1760
14.14
1795
15.55
1S30
15.82
1865
15.44
1690
15.02
1726
15.15
1761
UM
1796
15.65
1831
15.72
1866
15.43
1691
14.98
1727
15.24
1762
15.27
1797
15.41
18:32
15.73
1867
15.57
1692
14.92
1728
15.11
1763
14.99
1798
15.59
1833
15.93
1868
15.59
1693
14.^3
1729
14.92
1764
14.70
1799
15.74
1834
15.73
1869
15.60
1694
14.f57
1730
14.81
1765
14.83
1800
15.68
1835
15.80
1870
15.57
1695
15.02
1731
14.94
1766
14.80
1801
15.46
1836
15.72
1871
15.57
1696
15.00
1732
15.09
1767
14.85
1802
15.26
1837
15.83
1872
15.63
1697
15.20
1733
15.18
1768
14.80
1803
15.41
1838
15.85
1873
15.92
1698
15.07
1734
15.39
1769
14.72
1804
15.41
1839
15.62
1874
16.17
1699
14.94
1735
15.41
1770
14.62
1805
15.79
1840
15.62
1875
16.59
1700
14.S1
1736
15.18
1771
14.66
1806
15.52
1841
15.70
1876
17.88
1701
15.07
1737
15.02
1772
14.52
1807
15.43
1842
15.87
1877
17.22
1702
15.52
1738
14.91
1773
14.62
1808
16.08
1S43
15.93
1878
17.94
1703
15.17
1739
14.91
1774
14.62
1809
15.96
1S44
15.85
1879
18.40
1704
15.22
1740
14.94
1775
14.72
1810
15.77
1845
15.92
1880
18.05
1705
15.11
1741
14.92
1776
14.55
1811
15.53
1846
15.90
1881
18.16
1706
15.27
1742
14.85
1777
14.54
1812
16.11
1847
15.80
1882
18.19
1707
15.44
1743
14.85
1778
14.68
1813
16.25
1848
15.85
1883
18.64
1708
15.41
1744
14.87
1779
14.80
1814
15.04
1849
15.78
1884
18.57
1709
15.31
1745
14.98
1780
14.72
1815
15.26
1850
15.70
1885
19.41
1710
15.22
1746
15.13
1781
14.78
1816
15.28
1851
15.46
18b6
20.78
1711
15.29
1747
15.26
1782
14.42
1817
15.11
1852
15.59
1887
21.13
1712
15.31
1748
15.11
1783
14.48
1818
15.35
1853
15.33
1888
21.99
1713
15.24
1749
14.80
1784
14.70
1819
15.33
1854
15.33
1889
22.10
1714
15.13
1750
14.55
1785
14.92
1820
15.02
1855
15.38
1890
19.76
1715
15.11
1751
14.39
1786
14.96
1821
15.95
1856
15.38
1891
20.92
1716
15.09
1752
14.54
1787
14.92
1822
15.80
1857
15.27
1892
23.72
1717
15.13
1753
14.54
1788
14.65
1823
15.84
1858
15.38
1893
26.49
1718
15.11
1754
14.48
1789
14.75
1824
15.82
1859
15.19
1894
32.56
1719
15.09
1755
14.68
1790
15.04
1825
15.70
1860
15.29
1895
31.60
1720
15.04
1756
14.94
1791
15.05
1826
15.76
1861
15.50
1896
30.66
1721
15.05
1757
14.87
1792
15.17
1827
15.74
1862
15.35
1897
34.28
1722
15.17
1898 1
35.40
1 Nine months.
AVERAGE PRICE OF AN OUNCE OF GOLD IN LONDON AND EQUIVALENT
VALUE IN UNITED STATES, VARIOUS YEARS, 1870 TO 1898
Calendar Years
Average
London Price
Equivalent Value
in United States
Gold Coin of
an Ounce of Gold,
British Standard
(.9161)
Value in
United States
Gold Coin
of an Ounce
1000 Fine
Per Cent
Premium
above Bank of
Enj,'land's
Minimum
Rate
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898 (9 months) .
Mint price
Bank price .
£ s. d.
8 17 9.01
8 17 9.15
8 17 9.44
8 17 9.33
3 17 9.03
8 17 10.16
8 17 11.23
8 17 10.39
$18.9187
18.9215
18.9274
18.9256
18.9191
18.9420
18.9637
18.9467
$20,638
20.641
20. (US
20.646
20.639
20.664
20.688
20.669
0.00106
.01607
.04715
.03747
.00324
.12433
.23901
.14909
3 17 10.50
3 17 9.00
18.9491
18.9185
20.671
20.638
.16208
RATIO OF SILVER TO GOLD
clxxvii
COINAGE VALUE IN GOLD OF AN OUNCE OF FINE SILVER AT THE
RATIOS 1 : 15 - 1 : 40
Value of an
Value of an
Value of an
Ratio
Ounce of
Ratio
Ounce of
Ratio
Ounce of
Fine Silver
Fine Silver
Fine Silver
1 to 15 ....
$1.8780
1 to 28 . .
$0.S9S7
1 to 32 . .
$0.6459
1 to 15J ....
1.8336
1 to 23^ .
.8796
1 to 32i .
.6360
1 to 15.9SS (United
1 to 24 . .
.8613
1 to 33 . .
.6264
States ratio) . .
1.2029
1 to 24^ .
.8437
1 to 33^ .
.6171
1 to 10 ....
1.2'.M'.t
1 to 25 . .
.8268
1 to 34 . .
.6080
1 to IC^ . . . .
1.2r.2T
1 to 25^ .
.8106
1 to 34^ .
.5992
1 to 17 ....
1.2159
1 to 26 . .
.7950
1 to 35 . .
.5906
1 to 17^ . . . .
l.lSll
1 to 2(:^ .
.7800
1 to 85^ .
.5823
1 to IS ....
1.14S8
1 to 27 . .
.7656
1 to 36 . .
.5742
1 to 18^ . . . .
1.1173
1 to 271 .
.7517
1 to 36^ .
.5663
1 to 19 ....
1.0S79
1 to 28 . .
.7382
1 to 37 . .
.5587
1 to 19^ ....
1.0600
1 to 2S^ .
.7253
1 to 37^ .
.5512
1 to 20 ....
1.0335
1 to 29 . .
.7109
1 to 88 . .
.5439
1 to 2(1^ ....
i.oos;3
1 to 29 i .
.7007
1 to 38^ .
.5869
1 to 21 ....
.9St3
1 to 30 . .
.6890
1 to 39 . .
.5300
lto21^ . . . .
.9614
1 to 30| .
.6777
1 to 39^ .
.5233
1 to 22 ....
.9396
1 to 31 . .
.6668
1 to 40 . .
.5168
1 to 22^ ....
.9187
1 to 31| .
.6562
BULLION VALUE OF 37U GRAINS OF PURE SILVER AT THE ANNUAL
AVERAGE PRICE OF SILVER EACH YEAR, 1887 TO 1898
Years
Value
Years
A'alue
Years
Value
Years
Value
18:37 . .
$1,009
1858 . .
$1,042
1868 . .
$1,025
1883 ...
$0,858
1S38
1.008
1854
1.042
1869
1.0^
1884
.861
1S89
1.028
1855
1.089
1870
1.027
1885
.823
1340
1.023
1856
1.089
1871
1.025
1886
.769
1S41
1.018
1857
1.046
1872
1.022
1887
.756
1842
1.007
1858
1.039
1873
1.004
1888
.727
1S43
1.003
1859
1.052
1874
.988
1889
.723
1844
1.008
1860
1.045
1875
.964
1890
.809
1845
1.004
1861
1.031
1876
.894
1891
.764
1846
1 .005
1862
1.041
1877
.929
1892
.673
1S47
1.011
1863
1.040
1878
.891
1893
.603
184S
1 .008
ISW
1.040
1879
.868
1894
.491
1849
1.013
1805
1.085
1880
.886
1895
.505
ISOO
1.018
1866
1.036
1881
.880
1896
.522
1851
1.084
1867
1.027
1882
.878
1897
.467
1852
1.025
1898 (9 mos.)
.452
clxxviii UNITED STATES
VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS OCT. 1, 1S9S
Value
inTernas
of
Countries
Standard
Monetary Unit
United
States
Gold
Dollar
Coins
Argentine Repub-
Gold and
Peso
$0,965
Gold : argentine (#4.824) and
lic
silver
J argentine. Silver: peso
and divisions
' Gold : former system — 4
florins ($1,929), 8 florins
($3,858), ducat ($2,287),
Austria-Hungary
Gold
Crown
.203
and 4 ducats ($9,149).
Silver : 1 and 2 florins
Gold : present svstem — 20
crowns ($4,052); 10
[ crowns ($2,026)
Belgium
Gold and
silver
Franc
.193
Gold : 10 and 20 francs.
Silver : 5 francs
Bolivia
Silver
Boliviano
.486
Silver : boUviano and divi-
sions
Brazil
Gold
Milreis
.546
Gold : 5, 10, and 20 milreis.
Silver ; §, 1, and 2 milreis
British Posses-
Gold
Dollar
1.000
sions, N.A. (ex-
cept Newfound-
land)
Central American
States —
Costa Rica
Gold
Colon
.465
Gold : 2, 5, 10, and 20 colons
($9,307). Silver : 5, 10, 25,
and 50 centimos
British Hon-
Gold
Dollar
1.000
duras
Gautemala "j
Honduras [
Nicaragua 1
Salvador J
Silver
Peso
.436
Silver : peso and divisions
Chile
Gold
Peso
.365
Gold : escudo ($1,825), doub-
loon ($3,650), and condor
($7,300). Silver: peso and
divisions
'Amoy
.TOfi
Canton
.704
Chefoo
.675
Chin Kiang
.690
Fuchau
.653
Haikwan
.718
(Customs)
China
Silver
Tael-
Hankow
Hongkong
Niuchwang
Ningpo
Shanghai
Swatow
Takau
Tientsin
.660
io)
.662
.679
.645
.652
.710
.684
Colombia
Silver
Peso
.436
Gold: condor ($9,647) and
double condor. Silver :
Cuba
Gold and
Peso
.926
peso
Gold : centen ($5,017). Sil-
silver
ver : peso
a The " British dollar " has the same legal value as the Mexican dollar in Hougkong, the
Straits Settlements, and Labuan.
VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS clxxix
VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS OCT. 1, 189S — Continued
Value
in Terms
of
Countries
Standard
Monetary Unit
United
States
Gold
Coins
Dollar
Denmark
Gold
Crown
$0.2GS
Gold : 10 and 20 crowns
Ecuador
Silver
Sucre
.4;3G
Gold : condor (|9.64T) and
double condor. Silver :
Sucre and divisions
Egypt
Gold
Pound (100 pias-
ters)
4.943
Gold : pound (KM) piasters),
5, 10, 20, and 50 piasters.
Silver: 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20
piasters
Finland
Gold
Mark
.193
Gold : 20 marks ($3,859), 10
marks ($1.93)
France
Gold and
silver
Franc
.193
Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
francs. Silver : 5 francs
German Empire
Gold
Mark
.238
Gold : 5, 10, and 20 marks
Great Britain
Gold
Pound sterling
4.sm^
Gold : sovereign (pound ster-
ling) and 5 sovereign
Greece
Gold and
silver
Drachma
.193
Gold: 5, 10, 20, 50, and
100 drachmas. Silver, 5
drachmas
Haiti
Gold and
silver
Gourde
.965
Silver : gourde
India
Silver
Rupee 1
.207
Gold : mohur ($7,105). Sil-
ver : rupee and divisions
Italy
Gold and
silver
Lira
.193
Gold : 5, 10, 50, and 100 lire.
Silver : 5 lire
Japan
Gold
Yen
.498
Gold : 5, 10, and 20 ven. Sil-
ver : 10, 20, and 50 sen
Liberia
Gold
Dollar
1.000
Mexico
Silver
Dollar
.474
Gold : dollar ($0,983), 2^ 5,
10, and 20 dollars. Silver :
dollar (or peso) and divi-
sions
Netherlands
Gold and
silver
Florin
.402
Gold: 10 florins. Silver: ^,
1, and 2^ florins
Newfoundland
Gold
Dollar
1.014
Gold : 2 dollars ($2,027)
Norway
Gold
Crown
.268
Gold : 10 and 20 crowns
Persia
SUver
Kran
.080
Gold : ^. 1, and 2 tomans
($3,409). Silver: I, i, 1,
2, and 5 krans
Peru
Silver
Sol
.436
Silver : sol and divisions
Portugal
Gold
Milreis
l.OSO
Gold : 1, 2, 5, and lo milreis
Russia
Gold
Ruble
.515
Gold : imperial, 15 rubles
($7,718), and ^ imperial,
7J rubles ($3.^59). Silver :
I. ^, and 1 ruble
Spain
Gold and
silver
Peseta
.193
Gold : 25 pesetas. Silver : 5
pesetas
Sweden
Gold
Crown
.268
Gold : 10 and 20 crowns
Switzerland
Gold and
silver
Franc
.193
Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50. and 100
francs. Silver : 5 francs
Turkey
Gold
Piaster
.044
Gold : 25, 50, 100, 250, and
500 jtiasters
Uruguay
Gold
Peso
1.034
Gold : peso. Silver : peso
and divisions
Venezuela
Gold and
silver
Bolivar
.193
Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100
bolivars. Silver : 5 boli-
vars
* Value of the rupee to be determined by consular certificate.
Clxxx UNITED STATES
Money, Weights, and Measures
The dollar of 100 cents is the par value of 49.32(Z., or 4.866 dollars to
the pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 10- and 5-dollar pieces called eagles and
half-eagles. The eagle weighs 258 grains, or 16.71818 grammes .900 line,
and therefore contains 232.2 grains, or 15.0464 grammes of fine gold.
The silver dollar weighs 412.5 grains, or 26.729 grammes .900 tine, and
therefore contains 371.25 grains, or 24.0561 grammes of fine silver. Sub-
sidiary silver coins contain 345.6 grains of fine silver per dollar.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Win-
chester gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards.
They are :
Wi7ie Gallon = 0.83333 gallon
Ale Gallon = 1.01695 "
Bushel = 0.9692 imperial bushel
Instead of the British cwt., a Cental, of 100 pounds, is used.
National Banks
During the existence of the national banking system up to
the close of the year ending Oct. 31, 1898, 5151 national banks
were organized. The number in operation is 3598. Of the
closed associations, 1194 were placed in voluntary liquidation
by the shareholders, and 359, insolvent, in charge of receivers.
On Oct. 31, 1897, there were in active operation 3617 associa-
tions. During the past year 56 were organized, 69 placed in
voluntary liquidation, and 7 failed, including one of the banks
in liquidation above referred to, making a net reduction during
that period of 19 banks.
The authorized capital stock of the banks on Oct. 31, 1898,
was $624,552,195; the circulation outstanding, $239,546,281,
of which $210,045,456 is secured by bonds and $29,500,825 by
lawful money deposited with the Treasurer of the United States
on account of liquidating and insolvent associations and those
reducing circulation. A comparison of the circulation account
on Oct. 31, 1898, with Oct. 31, 1897, shows an increase of
$9,582,771 in the total amount of circulation outstanding, and
of $6,119,776 in circulation secured by bonds.
Since July 12, 1882, the date of the passage of the act pro-
viding for the extension of the corporate existence of national
banks, the charters of 1670 have been extended, their capital
aggregating $407,531,115. In the past year the corporate ex-
istence of 20 associations, with capital aggregating $2,145,000,
was extended. Three associations, the corporate existence of
which expired, liquidated, although 2 of them reorganized
under different titles. During the coming year 22 banks,
NATIONAL BANKS
clxxxi
with capital amounting to ^3,155,000, will reach the close of
their corporate existence. The capital and circulation of the
1134 banks, the charters of which will expire during the ten
years ending with 1908, amount, respectively, to $162,418,150
and $44,293,753.
The capital of the 69 banks placed in voluntary liquidation
during the year, exclusive of that of the one subsequently de-
clared insolvent, amounted to $12,509,000 ; and the capital of
the 7 insolvent associations, $1,200,000.
The last reports of condition of the 3585 national banks, made
Sept. 20, 1898, show that the aggregate resources were $4,003,-
611,044.87, an increase since Oct. 5, 1897, of $298,377,337.16.
Loans and discounts, including overdrafts, have increased $105,-
743,496.64, and they now aggregate $2,172,519,610.54. Govern-
ment securities on hand and deposited with the Treasurer of
the United States to secure circulation, and public deposits,
amount to $358,140,277, an increase of $80,904,357. Gold hold-
ings have increased $54,775,318.33 ; but owing to the reduction
of the amount of currency certificates, the net increase in amount
of specie and other lawful money is but $31,839,827.34, the total
currency held amounting to $420,722,458.39. The banks' in-
dividual deposits have risen to $2,031,454,540.29, an increase
during the year of $178,105,411.79. The surplus and profit
accounts have increased $5,818,205.60. The reduction of 25
in the number of reporting banks is accompanied by a reduc-
tion of $9,970,200 in capital and $4,436,904.50 in circulation.
The number of banks and capital stock in each geographical
division, as shown by the reports on Sept. 20, are as follows :
Geographical Division
No. of Banks
Capital
New England States
Eastern States
Southern States
Middle States
Western States
Pacific States
Total
582
954
537
1,041
348
123
$154,781,620
192,396,875
64,592,200
158,138,100
31,544,100
20,066,000
3,585
.'§621,517,895
The aggregate resources of the 5145 banks and banking insti-
tutions incorporated under State authority, including those of
758 private banks and bankers, amount to $4,631,328,357 ; loans
and discounts, $2,480,874,360; and deposits, $3,664,797,296.
Combining these amounts with similar items in the national
clxxxii
UNITED STATES
bank statements, July 14, 1898, the following results are
shown : aggregate resources, $8,609,003,802 ; loans and dis-
counts, $4,632,632,015 ; and deposits, $5,741,023,872.
RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS OF PUBLIC MONEYS THROUGH
NATIONAL-BANK DEPOSITORIES, VARIOUS YEARS 1864 TO 1898
Fiscal Year
Receipts
Funds
Transferred
to Depository
Banks
Funds Trans-
ferred to Treas-
ury by Deposi-
tory Banks
Drafts Paid
by Depository
Banks
Balance
ISW
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
$1.5.3,-395,108.71
120,0^1,041.79
119,493,171.94
147,761,.566.81
147,326,916.13
169,440.435.46
181,705,917.74
149,306,(>49.29
207,178,119.61
$816,000.00
2,466,521.06
6.489.6:34.17
20,285,150.91
39,501,947.41
41,892.88.5.26
46,867,861.23
50,059,7.55.00
82,971,223.08
$85,-507.674.08
111,123.920 Is
109.641. 23-_'.(U
16;3,808.9.52.1:!
162, 102.390. 6()
187,592,511.38
205,465,259.58
179,269,.503.12
245,636,845.31
$28,726,695.88
11.81s.-22s.C,l
15..52a.0'_'3.U3
20,548,812.80
24,26.5,231.27
23,186,071.15
22,671,550.77
19,350,217.54
22,8:30,954.62
$39,976,738.75
8,48:3,549.79
7,999,953.86
26,994,464.70
10.638,528.99
11,19:3,267.18
11,630,235.80
12,376,919.4:3
34,058,462.19
Total
whole p
for
eriod
6,211,583,929.81
596,383,138.88
5,590,078,564.12
1,18:3,830,042.38
NATIONAL BANKS AND NATIONAL-BANK DEPOSITORIES AND BONDS
HELD FOR THEM AT THE CLOSE OF VARIOUS FISCAL YEARS, 1863 TO 1898
Fiscal Year
Banks
Deposi-
tories
Bonds Held
to Secure Circu-
lation
Bonds Held
to Secure
Public Funds
Total Bonds
Held
1863 .
1870 .
1880 .
1890 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1898 .
26
1,612
2,076
3,.508
3,797
3,767
3,7:37
;3,615
3,634
148
131
205
155
160
160
168
172
$1,185,750
842,278,.550
361,652.050
145,228,300
201,691,750
207,680,800
228,915,950
230,471,550
220,201,400
16.072..500
14.777,000
29,713,000
14,736,000
15,278.000
16,928,000
16,93O,.5O0
30,851,500
$1,185,7.50
3.58..351.0.50
376.429.050
174.941.300
216.427.750
222.958,800
245.843.950
247,402.050
251,052,900
The volume of circulation issued and redeemed annually and
the amount outstanding at the close of the years indicated
appear in the following table:
NATIONAL BANK CIRCULATION ISSUED AND REDEEMED ANNUALLY
AND AMOUNT OUTSTANDING AT THE CLOSE OF VARIOUS YEARS
FROM FIRST ISSUE DEC. 21, 1863, TO OCT. 81, 1897, AND TO OCT. 1, 1898
Year
Issued
Redeemed
Outstanding
18f4
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
$58,813,980
16,667,875
48,787,770
82,886,720
66,586,360
57,181,040
78,098,.580
82,626,890
70,126,960
$14,5.33,391
36,860,366
55,1S0.S51
68,147,445
50,829,997
57,152,1.55
86,948,237
fr4,81 6.991
$58,813,980
801,8.59,275
.342.(U8,322
179,449.958
207,140,104
21:3,491,147
2.34,437,572
2:30,016.225
2:35.326,194
Tota
Ifor
who
e pel
•iod
2,1:34,206,185
1,898,879,991
9,679,657,831
SAVINGS BANKS clxxxiii
Savings Banks
Reports relative to the condition of 979 savings banks, includ-
ing 45 commercial banks (in one State) having savings depart-
ments, have been received by the Treasury Department for the
year 1898. This is but one less than reported in 1897. The
principal investments, loans, and securities — corporate and
other — amount to 11,070,755,293 and $74,700,217, respec-
tively. In all States the character of loans is not shown, but
real estate appears as collateral to accommodations amounting
to $864,968,285. Government bonds are held to the amount of
$140,029,726; State, county, and municipal bonds, $497,416,-
292, and other bonds, stocks, and securities, $337,254,199.
The total assets are $2,241,344,991, the liabilities to depositors
are $2,066,601,864, and these banks have $187,475,971 in sur-
plus and undivided profits. The latter amount is equivalent
to nearly 8.4 of the total liabilities.
The depositors who are the exclusive participators in the
profits of the mutual savings banks, but who, in stock savings
institutions, are paid specific rates of interest, number 5,385,-
746, and their average deposit is $383.54. Compared with
1897 there is an increase of $83,188,300 in deposits and 184,614
in number of depositors. Mutual savings banks are confined
almost exclusively to the New England and Eastern States. Out-
side of the two sections named, but 11 banks of that character
have made reports, as follows : 1 in West Virginia, 4 in Ohio,
5 in Indiana, and 1 in Wisconsin. The aggregate assets of the
mutual savings banks, w^hich amount to about 90 per cent of
the assets of all savings institutions, are $2,005,950,646 ; loans
aggregate $920,477,133, over 81 per cent of which are secured
by real estate ; United States bonds, $139,561,601 ; State,
county, and municipal bonds, $495,726,686 ; other bonds, stock,
and securities, $294,706,936. Deposits amount to $1,824,963,-
410; number of depositors, 4,835,138, and the average deposit,
$377.44. This indicates an increase during the year of $87,-
864,040 in deposits, $7.32 in the average deposit, and 143,694
in number of depositors. The average rate of interest paid on
savings accounts is practically 4 per cent in all of the States
except Maine, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and
Maryland, in which the rate ranges from 3 to 3| per cent.
Information with respect to the classification of deposits is
confined to savings banks in Maine and Connecticut, and is as
follows :
clxxxiv
UNITED STATES
Classification of Deposits
Depositors
Deposits
Number
Per Cent
Amount
Per Cent
MAINE
$500 or less
Over $500 and less than $2000
Over $2000
Total . ■
CONNKCTICUT
$1000 or less
Over $1000 and less than $2000 .
Over $2000 and less than $10,000 .
$10,000 or over
Total
129,865
33,558
4,456
77.30
20.00
2.70
j $48,214,077
11.384.272
80.9
19.1
167,879
59.598.349
320,149
32,313
13,964
235
87.31
8.81
3.81
.07
63,195,480
42,505,536
46,869,038
3,399,744
40.52
27.25
30.05
2.18
366,661
155,969,798
The capital of the 275 reporting stock savings banks is $18,-
536,130 ; deposits, $203,244,999 ; number of savings depositors,
403,743, and the average savings deposit, $501 ; the total assets
are $235,394,345, of which $150,574,286 represent loans, and
$44,704,994 bonds, stocks, and other securities.
Loan and Trust Companies
Returns relative to the condition of 246 loan and trust com-
panies have been received. These corporations are capitalized
for $101,228,555, and have $97,643,666 surplus and profits, and
$662,138,397 deposits. Loans aggregate $539,317,059 ; United
States bonds, $34,186,440 ; other bonds, stocks, and securities,
$159,791,312 ; cash on hand and due from other corporations,
etc., $118,028,856. The average rate of dividends paid by all
these companies during the past year, as shown by reports
relative to that point, was 11.23 per cent.
Private Banks
The laws of but few of the States provide for reports from
unincorporated banks and private bankers, and, in view of the
disinclination of the representatives of most of such concerns
to submit statements of condition to this office as requested,
statistics relative thereto are meagre. The abstract of returns
from 758 banks show total resources of $91,436,387; capital,
$16,721,750; deposits, $62,085,084, and other liabilities, $12-,
629,553. Loans and discounts aggregate $58,174,248 ; bonds,
stocks, and other securities, $4,52(5, 565, and credits with other
banks and cash on hand, $16,161,020 and $5,857,132, respec-
tively.
TRUST COMPANIES — PRIVATE BANKS clxxxv
The principal items of resources and liabilities of each class
of banks hereinbefore referred to are shown herewith:
Items
8tate
Banks
Loan and
Trust Com-
panies
Savings
Banks
Private
Banks
Total
Loans ....
United States bonds .
Other bonds
(.'ash ....
Capital
Surplus and profits .
Deposits
Total resources .
$813,749,803
4,185,304
127,500,484
133,877,133
233,587,353
109,554.519
912,365,406
1,356,084,800
.$539,162,445
34.186,440
159,791,312
22,250,862
101,228,5.55
97,643,666
662,138,397
942,462,179
.$1,070,755,293
140,029,726
834,670,491
32,928,323
18,536,130
187,475,971
2,028,208,409
2,241,344,991
$57,206,819
927,473
3,599,092
5,857,132
16,721,75(1
5,092,341
62,0S5,0S4
91,436,387
$2,480,874,36(1
179,328,943
1,12.5,561,370
194,913,45(1
370,073,7s^
399,766,497
3,664,797,296
4,631,328,357
In the following table are exhibited in the most concise form
the main items of assets and liabilities of national banks on
July 14, 1898, and of other banks, banking institutions, and
private banks above referred to:
Items
3582 National
Banks
5903 other
Banks
9485 Total
Banks
Loans
United States bonds .
Other bonds
Cash . . . .
Cai)ital
Surplus and profits .
Deposits
Total resources .
$2,151,757,655
285.356,901)
250,689,375
492,882,724
622,016,745
332,971,643
2,076,226,576
3,977,675,445
^2,480,874,360
179,328,943
1,125,561,379
194,913,450
370,073,788
399,766,497
3,664,797,296
4,631,328,357
$4,6,32,632,015
464,685,843
1,376,250,754
687,796,174
992,090,533
732,738,140
5,741,023,872
8,609,003,802
The total banking funds — that is, capital, surplus, profits,
and individual deposits — of all banks reporting amount to
$7,416,355,568, and, by comparison with returns in 1897, an
increase of .f 594,028,698 is shown. The national bank average
is $39.93; State bank, $16.82; loan and trust company, $11.54;
savings bank, $29.93 ; private bank, $1.12 ; and total, $99.34.
The specie and other currency held by national banks on
July 14 and by other banks on the date of the latest reports
aggregate $687,796,173, an increase since 1897 of $59,595,644.
CLassified, the holdings are as follows: Gold, $341,108,985;
silver, $58,947,221; specie not shown in detail, $2,131,917;
legal tenders and other paper currency, $199,915,862; frac-
tional currency, $1,093,904; "cash," $84,598,284. The latter
amount undoubtedly includes a quantity of specie, but how
much cannot even be estimated. The reports from a number
of States show merely "cash on hand." It is interesting to
note the changes which have occurred since 1897 in the amount
of each kind of currency. Gold has increased $98,755,983;
clxxxvi UNITED STATES
silver, $5,255,491 ; fractional currency, $112,123 ; specie not
classified, $434,845; "cash," $2,069,835. Legal tenders and
other paper currency decreased $47,032,633.
In «Tuly, 1898, 3590 national banks, and, approximately, 9500
other banks, banking institutions, and private banks were in
operation in the United States. During the year ending Oct.
31, 1898, 7 national banks were found to be insolvent and placed
in charge of receivers. From reports made to the Bradstreet
Company, covering the year closed Aug. 31, 1898, it is seen that
the failures of banks other than national number 53, the assets
and liabilities at date of failure being $4,493,577 and $7,080,-
190 respectively. There were 33 private bank failures, 14 State,
4 savings bank, and 2 trust company.
Building and Loan Associations "*
Building and loan associations are organizations created for
the purpose of furnishing a safe means for the accumulations
o.f savings, and an opportunity to secure money at reasonable
rates to build homes. They are private corporations, and are
usually conducted by men not trained or versed in banking.
Every member of a building and loan association must be a
stockholder, but the difference between a stockholder in such
an association and one in an ordinary corporation for usual
business purposes lies in the fact that in the latter the member
or stockholder buys his stock and pays for it at once, and
usually is not called upon for any further payment. In the
building and loan association, on the contrary, the stockholder
or member pays a stipulated minimum sum, say $1, when he
takes a membership and buys a share of stock, continuing to
pay a like sum each month until the aggregate of sums paid,
augmented by the profits, amounts to the maturing value of
the stock (usually $200), at which time the stockholder is
entitled to the full maturing value of the share. It follows
then that the capital of a building and loan association consists
of the savings of its members paid to the association upon
shares of stock, increased by the interest and premium which
the association receives from loans made by it from the savings
of its members. The amount of capital of the association,
therefore, increases from month to month and from year to
year. (See Ninth Annual Report of United States Commis-
sioner of Labor.)
This class of associations has existed in the United States
since about 1840. There has been no general statement for the
whole country since 1893, although in some instances there
FAILURES
clxxxvii
have been statements for individual States, to be found in the
reports of State Bureaus of Statistics of Labor and of bank
commissioners. The general facts for the United States at
that time (1893) were as follows :
Number of associations
Male shareholders in associations reporting .
Female shareholders in associations reporting
Total shareholders in associations reporting .
Average shareholders per association reporting
Shareholders who are borrowers in associa-
tions rei)orting
Per cent of borrowers in associations reporting
Number of shares in associations reporting .
Total dues and profits
Average shares per shareholder in associations
i-eporting
Average dues and profits per shareholder in
associations reporting
Average value of shares in associations report-
ing
Total profits
Average size of loans in associations reporting
Homes acquired in associations reporting
Local
5,59S
a 710,156
a 263,388
b 1,359,366
b 244.5
c 402,212
c 29.83
d 10,381,031
$413,647,228
e7.6
e $303.11
e $39.75
$74,402,969
/■ $1,133
g 290,803
National
240
a 209,458
a 44,440
b 386,359
b 1,637.1
c 53.199
c 13.77
d 2,874,841
$37,020,366
«7.2
e $86.73
e $12.12
$6,261,147
f $920
{/■ 23,952
Total
5,838
a 919,614
a 307,828
b 1,745,725
b 301.2
c 455,411
c 26.25
d 13,255,872
$450,667,594
e7.5
e $257.26
6 $34.18
$80,664,116
/ $1,120
g 314,755
ri Associations not reporting, local, 1503; national, 66; total, 1569.
b Associations not reporting, local, 38 ; national, 4 ; total, 42.
c Associations not reporting, local, 69 ; national, 4 ; total, 73.
d Associations not reporting, local, 18 ; national, 4 ; total, 22.
e Based on 5535 local associations, 226 national associations ; total, 5761.
/ Based on 2128 local associations, 45 national associations ; total, 2173.
g Associations not reporting, local, 1326 ; national, 68 ; total, 1394.
From the above it is seen that the total dues paid in on
instalment shares in force plus the profits on the same of the
building and loan associations of the country amounted, in
1893, to f 450,667,594. An estimate derived from State reports
would indicate that the latter sum is now in the vicinity of
^600,000,000, which may be considered as representing the
financial transactions of the building and loan associations of
the country.
Failures
The following table (which, as well as the two following, is
printed by courtesy of the editor of " Bradstreet's ") shows the
bank failures for six years, with number suspending, indicated
total assets, and estimated liabilities :
Character of Bank
Number Suspending
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
National banks
State banks
Savings banks .
Private banks .
Loan and trust companies
Totals
IW
1-^
50
196
14
24
36
8
18
3
21
57
IS
37
2
42
65
20
62
8
21
24
17
41
2
4
12
5
28
2
598
89
135
197
105
51
clxxxviii
UNITED STATES
Character of Bauk
Indicated Total Assets
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
National banks
State banks
Savings banks .
Private banks .
Loan and trust companies
Totals
$S4,493,4:'.3
4;3,i(;>,97;i
18,763,93.^
23,497,104
14,357,500
184,281,014
$3,485,650
2.773.724
3,029,50^
1,186,750
510,000
10,985,()32
$3,172,894
3,891,852
10,161,(>49
1,510,000
155,000
$22,951,523
7,521,269
8,119,000
5,024,040
3,892,279
$0,721,000
2,401,150
3.867,098
2,369,714
375,000
$2,701,680
1,791,100
1,196,300
1,555,254
5,074,486
18,891,395
47,528,728
15,733,962
12,308,820
Character of Bank
Estimated Liabilities
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
National banks
State banks
Savings banks .
Private banks .
Loan and trust companies
Totals
$68,687,994
38,138,323
18,152,136
22,929,225
22,388,000
170,295,678
$4,315,900
3,484,600
3,445,000
1,712,450
1,012,000
13,969,950
$3,971,462
4,922,631
11,167,887
2,537,718
165,000
$27,544,250
9,933,742
8,457,000
6,654,670
4,089,372
$7,920,999
3,060,811
5,077,222
4,085,477
550,000
$2,962,863
2,479,000
1,331,627
2,822,890
6,401,412
22,764,038
56,679,370
20,094,509
15,997,792
The follo"v\dng table shows the total number of failures in
the United States, with actual assets and general liabilities,
from 1892 to 1898, inclusive :
District
Number of Failures
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Eastern States .
Middle States
Western States .
Xortlnvestern States .
Soutiiern States .
Pacific States
Territories .
Totals United States
1,659
2.515
2,035
983
1,915
991
172
2,139
3,415
4,371
1,030
2,419
1,202
384
1,784
3,018
2,885
1,247
2,202
1,182
403
1,086
3,0S2
3,218
1,324
2,185
1,180
338
i,a37
3,794
4,010
1,458
2,4T)0
1,298
253
2,082
3,0:34
3.393
1,055
2,009
1,251
275
2,204
3,224
2,702
700
1,602
971
235
10,270
15,560
12,721
13,013
15,112
13,099
11,638
District
Actual Assets
ls!)2
1893
1894
l,s95
WM
1897
189.S
Eastern States .
Middle States
Western States .
Northwestern States. .
Southern States .
Pacific States
Territories .
Totals United States
$6,057,75!)
12,710,210
14,934,9S7
5,6(»5,89!)
10,929,161
3,603,425
932,605
$23,867. S74
74,119,915
81,003,224
42,628,251
24,780,822
13,505,493
2,511,953
262,417,532
$7,820,381
20,421,055
18,132,474
8,824,874
11,023,102
5,719,930
1,207,245
79,755,007
$9,020,244
25,752,819
20,240,957
11,795,878
14,181,409
6,158,540
959,68;^
$10,874,820
37,9r>4,340
5:^,094.492
17,85:^450
22,347,500
4,8(M-,4;!2
1,308,150
$14,525,210
23,502,550
20,748,220
10,420,;U3
11,595,130
4,292,231
597,250
$15,45:3.8;« 1
30,912,829
13,599,207
2,701,600
7,133,749
2,039,071
523.281
54,774,100
88,115,530
148,297,250
85,680,946
72,964,176
FEDERAL BANKKUPTCY ACT
clxxxix
District
General Liabilities
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Eastern States .
Middle States
Western States .
Northwestern States .
Southern States .
Pacific States
Territories .
$16,278,733
29,8:36,707
26,048,290
l(t,013,973
18.167,705
6,858,457
1,:391,38:3
$45,465,110
124,331,173
109,485,.547
62,375,448
38,478,231
18,268,459
3,973.850
$18,790,018
51,493,7^7
30,138,654
15,201,215
21, 285,69s
10,608,257
2,077,805
149,595,4:34
$19,914,153
51.2:39,4:32
32,727, (W4
19,216,225
24,811,9:39
9,211,20.s
1,721,854
$24,855,138
74,;3:^.5,7ls
74,<)02,s73
25,93 1,:329
36,312,587
8,709,6:32
2,305,066
$30..592,691
46. SOS, 46s
:«.499,357
15,661,660
19,976,293
8,586,482
1,041,422
$:33.331.17S
(iu.(ir4,713
23.6:55,681
5,561.475
11,708,221
5,896,500
949,347
Totals United States
108,595,248
402,427,818
158,842,445
247,052,34;3
156,166,;378
141,137,115
What " Bradstreet's " calls the "annual death rate" in busi-
ness finds illustration in the following table, which gives the
number of concerns in business in 1898, the number failing,
and the percentage of the total number in business suspending
during the year.
ESTABLISHMENTS IN BUSINESS, AND NUMBER AND PER CENT FAIL-
ING, 1879 TO 1898
Year
Number
Number
Per Cent
Year
Number
Number
Per Cent
in Business
Failing
Failing
in Business
Failing
Failing
1879 . .
703,000
6,652
.94
1889 . .
978,000
11,719
1.20
1880 . .
733.000
4,350
.60
1890 . .
989,000
10.673
1.07
1881 . .
780,000
5,929
.76
1891 . .
1,010.000
12,394
1.22
1882 . .
820.000
7,635
.93
1892 . .
1,035.000
10,270
1.00
1883 . .
855.000
10.299
1.20
1893 . .
1,050.000
15,560
1.50
1884 . .
875,000
11,600
1.32
1894 . .
1,047,000
12,721
1.21
1885 . .
890,000
11,116
1.25
1895 . .
1,054,000
13,012
1.23
1886 . .
92(».000
10,568
1.15
1896 . .
1,080,000
15,112
1.40
1887 . .
933.000
9,740
1.04
1897 . .
1,086.000
13,099
1.20
1888 . .
955,000
10,587
1.10
1898 . .
1,093,000
11,638
1.06
FEDERAL BANKRUPTCY ACT
The States of the Union have insolvency law^s, under which
debtors conforming to the provisions of law can secure a
release from debts owed in the State. Only the Federal
Government can enact laws under which debtors can be dis-
charged from their debts wherever they are owed. Among
the duties of Congress is that of providing a uniform system
of bankruptcy. Under this power Congress has passed four
bankruptcy acts, the first in the year 1800, which law by its
own terms was limited to five years, but it was repealed, nev-
ertheless, in 1803. In 1841 the second bankruptcy act was
passed, and was repealed in March, 1843. The third bank^
ruptcy act was approved March 2, 1867, and repealed in 1878.
The fourth bankruptcy act was approved July 1, 1898, and, in
brief, this act constitutes the district courts of the United
CXC UNITED STATES
States in the several States, the Supreme Court of the District
of Columbia, the district courts of the several Territories, and
the United States courts in the Indian Territory and the dis-
trict of Alaska courts of bankruptcy. The law defines acts of
bankruptcy as follows :
Acts of bankruptcy by a person shall consist of his having (1) con-
veyed, transferred, concealed, or removed, or permitted to be concealed
or removed, any part of his property v^^ith intent to hinder, delay, or
defraud his creditors, or any of them ; or (2) transferred, while insolvent,
any portion of his property to one or more of his creditors with intent to
prefer such creditors over his other creditors ; or (3) suffered or permitted,
while insolvent, any creditor to obtain a preference through legal pro-
ceedings, and not having at least five days before a sale or final disposi-
tion of any property affected by such preference vacated or discharged
such preference ; or (4) made a general assignment for the benefit of his
creditors ; or (5) admitted in writing his inability to pay his debts and
his willingness to be adjudged a bankrupt on that ground.
The following-described persons may become bankrupts :
Any person who owes debts, except a corporation, shall be entitled to
the benefits of this Act as a voluntary bankrupt.
Any natural person, except a wage-earner or a person engaged chiefly
in farming or tlie tillage of the soil, any unincorporated company, and
any corporation engaged principally in manufacturing, trading, printing,
publishing, or mercantile pursuits, owing debts to the amount of one
thousand dollars or over, may be adjudged an involuntary bankrupt upon
default or an impartial trial, and shall be subject to the provisions and
entitled to the benefits of this Act. Private bankers, but not national
banks or banks incorporated under State or Territorial laws, may be
adjudged involuntary bankrupts.
The Act does not affect the allowance to bankrupts of the
exemptions which are prescribed by State laws in force at the
time of the filing of a petition in the State wherein they have
had their domicile for six months or the greater portion
thereof immediately preceding the filing of a petition.
The law creates two offices — referees and trustees.
The Act went into full force and effect upon its passage,
that is, July 1, 1898, but no petition for voluntary bankruptcy
could be filed within one month of that date, and no petition
for involuntary bankruptcy within four months thereof. Pro-
ceedings commenced under State insolvency laws before the
passage of the Act were not affected by it.
Fire Insurance
The latest facts relative to fire insurance are drawn from the
" Insurance Year Book " for 1898, and are shown in the follow-
ing table :
FAILURES
CXCl
Year
ending
Dec. 31
No. of
Com-
panies
Capital
Total Assets
not including
Premium
Notes
Not
Surplus
American stock companies :
Foreign stock companies :
Total stock companies :
Total mutual companies :
Agg-reg-ate stock and mutual
companies :
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
254
248
248
245
251
77
75
73
74
73
72,694,571
71,120,666
70,299,226
70,281,368
72,146,896
214,702,757
232,423,351
225,382,563
234,427,721
253,799,370
66,026,631
60,852,ls4
69,602,566
76,317,051
80,561,342
42,597,566
49.969,620
56,679,186
66,9^5,361
81,141,554
23,395,678
26,249,553
28,198,073
34,102,379
38,052,495
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
301
323
321
319
324
192
235
262
222
205
72,694,571
71,120,666
70,174,226
•70,281,368
72,146,896
280,729,388
299,275,535
294,985,129
308,199,6.58
334,360,712
50,862,134
51,475,366
52,691,160
51,852,969
53,279,768
65,993,244
76,179,173
84,s77,259
I00,:',s(i,.%;3
119,1'.)4,049
32,426,116
32,701,463
33,359,447
33,947,172
35.443.447
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
493
558
58:3
541
529
72,694,571
71,120,666
70,174,226
70,281,368
72,146,896
331,591.522
350,750,901
347,676,289
360,052,627
387,(>40,480
98,419,360
108,870,636
118,236,706
134.327,735
154,637,496
Year
ending
Dec. 31
No. of
Com-
panies
EXPEXDITURES
Total Dis-
bursements
Paid for
Losses
Paid for
Divi-
dends
Other
Disburse-
ments
American stock companies :
Foreign stock companies :
Total stock companies :
Total mutual companies :
Aggregate stock and mutual
companies :
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
254
248
243
245
251
77
75
73
74
73
67,058,619
58,525,858
54,4CO,052
49,705,637
47,359,926
33,057.524
28,364,172
27,657,092
26,921,332
25,377,767
6,584,697
6,546,408
6,962,781
7,061,449
7,448,554
36,051,616
34,168,552
34.969,192
35,235,098
36,735,004
15,161,860
14,613,474
15,197,084
15,375,511
16.295,429
«1 09, 687,934
a99,255,272
Z>96,41 1,025
692,066,358
91,543.484
48,219,384
42.977,646
42,854,176
42,296,843
41,673.196
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
1894
1895
1896
1S97
301
323
321
319
324
192
235
262
222
205
100,116,143
86,890,030
82,086,144
76,626,969
72,737,693
9,386,890
7,980,866
7,587.519
6,728,.569
6.192,16>^
6,584,697
6,546,408
6,962,781
7,061,449
7,448,554
c5,843.141
06,048,238
07,705,363
06,517,922
07,725.403
51,213,476
48,782,036
50,166,276
50.610,609
53,030,433
3,672,197
4,061,830
4,050,489
3,876,095
3.869.113
a 157,907.31 8
^> 142,232,918
6139,265.201
& 134,363.201
133,216,680
19.266.653
18.24.5.384
19.448.831
17,066,069
17.786,684
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
493
558
583
Ml
529
109.503.033
94.870,806
89,673,663
83.355,538
78,929,861
12,427,8:38
12,594,646
14,663,144
13,579,371
15,173,957
54,885.673
52,843,866
54,216,765
.54.486,704
56,899,546
177,173,971
160.478,302
158,714,032
151,429,270
151,003,364
a Not including small disbursements reported in amounts in columns showing expendi-
tures in dct.nil.
b Including small disbursements not reported in columns sliowing expenditures in detail.
c In mutual companies these disbursements are designated as amounts returned to policy
holders.
CXCII
UNITED STATES
There are some errors in the foregoing statement which can-
not be corrected ; they probably result from errors in original
returns, but they are not sufficient to vitiate the general state-
ment as to the magnitude of the fire-insurance business of the
country.
LOSSES BY FIRE
The losses by fire are taken from the fire tables of ''The
Chronicle."
ANNUAL PEOPERTY LOSSES IN THE UNITED STATES BY FIRES,
1S75 TO 1898
Years
Aggregate
Property
Loss
Aggregate
Insurance
Loss
Years
Aggregate
Property
Loss
Aggregate
Insurance
Loss
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
$78,102,285
64,630,000
CS,265,800
64,315,900
77,703,700
74,r>43,400
81,280,900
84,505.024
100,149,228
110,008,611
102,818,796
104,924,750
120,283,055
$39,325,400
34,374,500
37,398,900
36,575,900
44,464,700
42,525,000
44,641,900
48,875,131
54,808,604
60,679,818
57,480,789
60,500,567
69,659,508
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
1891 .
1892 .
1893 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1S98 .
Total 24
years .
$110,885,665
123,046,833
108,993,792
143,764,967
151,516,098
167,544,370
140,006,484
142,110,233
118,737,420
116,354.570
a 97,017,000
63,965,724
73,679,465
65,015,465
90,576,918
93,511,936
105.994,577
89,574,699
84,689,030
73,903,800
60,722,140
0 49,200,000
$2,551,609,481
$1,488,102,448
a Estimated.
Life Insurance
Life insurance in this country is sold by three classes of
organizations — regular level premium companies (so-called),
assessment companies, and fraternal orders. The number of
policies in force in the regular level premium or old line com-
panies Jan. 1, 1898, was 10,206,577, representing ^6,326,120,072
of insurance. In the assessment companies there were 4,039,062
members, with $7,799,428,000 of insurance in force. Thirty-
five companies reporting income and disbursements to the New
York Life Insurance Department showed total payments for
losses, endowments, and annuities in 1897 of $92,688,307,
which, with payments for lapsed, surrendered and purchased
policies, and dividends to policy holders, made a total of all
payments to policy holders in that year of $137,544,815.
These companies paid in taxes, commissions, and other ex-
penses $67,582,025, or an aggregate of $205,866,394 for all
disbursements.
The insurance business of the country is regulated and super-
vised by State officers — in some States by insurance commis-
sioners, and in others by officers designated by law, as follows :
STATE INSURANCE OFFICERS
CXClll
STATE OFFICIALS
HAVING AUTHORITY IN INSURANCE MATTERS
State
Title
Address
Alabama
Secretary of State
Montgomery
Arizona
Territorial Treasurer
Phoenix
Arkansas
And. of State and Ins. Com.
Little Rock
California
Insurance Commissioner
San Francisco
Colorado
Auditor of State
Denver
Connecticut
Insurance Commissioner
Hartford
Delaware
Insurance Commissioner
Laurel
Dist. of Columbia
Assessor
Washington
Florida
State Treasurer
Tallahassee
Georgia
Insurance Commissioner
Atlanta
Idaho
State Treasurer
Boise City
Illinois
Superintendent of Insurance
Springfield
Indiana
Auditor of State
Indianapolis
Iowa
Auditor of State
Des Moines
Kansas
Superintendent of Insurance
Topeka
Kentucky
Insurance Commissioner
Frankfort
Louisiana
Secretary of State
New Orleans
Maine
Insurance Commissioner
Augusta
Maryland
Insurance Commissioner
Baltimore
Massachusetts
Commissioner of Insurance
Boston
Michigan
Commissioner of Insurance
Lansing
Minnesota
Insurance Commissioner
St. Paul
Mississippi
And. Pub. Acc'ts and Ins. Com.
Jackson
Missouri
Superintendent of Insurance
Jefferson City
Montana
State Auditor
Helena
Nebraska
Auditor of Public Accounts
Lincoln
Nevada
State Comptroller
Carson City
New Hampshire
Insurance Commissioner
Concord
New Jersey
Insurance Commissioner
Trenton
New Mexico
Territorial Auditor
Santa ¥6
New York
Superintendent of Insurance
Albany
North Carolina
Secretary of State
Raleigh
North Dakota
Commissioner of Insurance
Bismarck
Ohio
Superintendent of Insurance
Columbus
Oklahoma
Insurance Commissioner
Guthrie
Oregon
Secretary of State
Salem
Pennsylvania
Insurance Commissioner
Harrisburg
Rhode Island
Insurance Commissioner
Providence
South Carolina
Comptroller General of State
Columbia
South Dakota
Insurance Commissioner
Pierre
Tennessee
Commissioner of Insurance
Nashville
Texas
Insurance Commissioner
Austin
Utah
Secretary of State
Salt Lake City
Vermont |
Secretary of State
Burlington
State Treasurer
Rutland
Virginia
Auditor of Public Accounts
Richmond
Washington
Sec. of State and Ins. Com.
Olympia
West Virginia
State Auditor
Cliarleston
Wisconsin
Commissioner of Insurance
Madison
Wyoming
State Auditor
Cheyenne
CXCIV
UNITED STATES
Pensions
The total number of pensioners classified and compared for
the years 1898 and 1897 are as follows :
1898
1897
Widows, llevolutionary soldiers ....
5
7
Daughters, Revolutionary soldiers
7
9
Survivors of War of 1812
3
7
Widows, War of 1812
2,407
2,810
Survivors, Indian wars, 1832-1842
2,019
2,373
Widows, Indian wars, 1832-1842 ....
4,067
4,288
Survivors, Mexican War .....
10,012
10,922
Widows, Mexican War
8,143
8,072
Under general laws :
Army invalids
327,080
336,299
Widows, army
92,545
94,602
Navy invalids
4,833
4,788
Widows, navy .......
2,300
2,375
Act of June 27, 1890 :
Army invalids .......
399,366
378,609
Army widows .......
119,785
110,593
Navy invalids
14,543
13,831
Navy widows .......
5,944
5,766
Army nurses
Total
655
663
993,714
970,014
DISBURSEMENTS FOR PENSIONS, FEES OF EXAMINING SURGEONS, COST
OF DISBURSExMENT, SALARIES, AND OTHER EXPENSES OF THE PEN-
SION BUREAU, AND NUMBER OF PENSIONERS ON ROLLS, VARIOUS
FISCAL YEARS, SINCE JULY 1, 1865
Disbursements for Pensions
Fees of Examining Surgeons
Army
Navy
Army
Navy
1866
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
$15,158,598.64
29,043,237.00
55,901,670.42
103,809,250.39
136,495,965.61
136,156,808.35
134,632,175.88
136.313,914.64
140.924.348,71
$291,951.24
308,251.78
787,558.66
2,285,000.00
3,490,760.56
3,650,980.43
3,582,999.10
3,635,802.71
3.727.5:^1.09
) Paid from
vNavy pen.sions
) rate account iv(
73,161.00
876,108.51
652,678.50
782,631.08
665,313.97
678,395.44
894.219.08
Army and
. No" sepa-
^pt.
2,386.00
19,569.11
20.000.00
25,136.25
7,273.50
(f>)
(h)
Total for whole period
2,203,888,611.90
47,667,309.89
14,466,516.86
309,278. 1 1
Fiscal Year
Cost of Disburse-
ment, Maintain-
ing Pension
Agencies, etc.
Pension Bureau
Number of
Pensioners
on Rolls
Salaries
Other E.\--
penscs
1866
1870
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
a $155,000.00
216,212.86
221,926.76
292,697.35
517,430.37
563,449.86
565,027.85
572.439.41
5:'.(;.6'29.S4
$237,165.00
,333,660.00
582,517.84
1.957,725.4:^
2,4()3.5'i2.75
2,461.s90.50
2,258,(159.35
2,262.597.70
2.2M.1SI.40
$15,000.00
51,125.00
35,035.68
580,281.73
370,344.69
504,912.52
494,800.94
474.350.52
429.031.14
126,722
198,686
250.802
537,944
969,r>4t
970,524
970,678
976,014
993,714
Total for \\
'hole
perio
(1
11,569,682.14
42,290,5:31.90
7,:t29.310.04
a Approximate.
b Now included in Army.
NUMBER OF PENSIONERS
CXCV
NUMBER OF PENSIONERS IN EACH STATE AND TERRITORY AND IN
EACH FOREIGN COUNTRY ON THE ROLLS JUNE 80, 1898, AND AMOUNT
PAID FOR PENSIONS DURING THE FISCAL YEAR 1898 IN EACH STATE
AND TEUKITOKY, AND EACH FOREIGN COUNTRY
UNITED STATES
Alabama . .
Alaska . . .
Arizona . .
Arkansas . .
California . .
Colorado .
Connecticut ,
Delaware . .
District of Coliiin
Florida . . ,
Georgia . ,
Idaho . . ,
Illinois . . ,
Indiana . ,
Indian Territory
Iowa ...
Kansas. . .
Kentucky . .
Louisiana . .
Maine . . .
Maryland . .
Massachusetts
Michigan . .
Minnesota
Mississippi .
Missouri . .
Montana . .
Nebraska . .
Nevada . .
New Hampshire
New Jersey .
New Mexico .
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio . . .
Oklahoma
Oregon . . .
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Te.xas . . .
Utah ....
Vermont . .
Virginia . ,
Washington .
"West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming . .
Total in States and
Territories . .
FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Austria-Hungary .
Algiers
Argentine Republic
Australia . .
Azores Islands
Bahamas . .
Belgium . .
Bermuda . .
Bolivia . . .
Num-
ber
Amount
3,780
65
619
10,949
16,981
7,307
12,015
2,740
8,6-29
3,121
3,770
1,24S
70,767
67,1.39
2,682
37,97
41,629
28,980
5,285
20,935
12,905
38,692
45,436
16,650
4,122
53,649
1,392
17,627
264
9,204
20,775
1,483
89,051
4,064
1,769
105.864
6,627
4,932
104,376
4,402
1,743
4,842
18,434
8,000
796
9,635
8,797
5,336
12,95:3
28,197
70S
989,343
$505,098.27
8,970.14
87,895.31
1,521,527.82
2,442,231.65
1,001,617.20
1,410,115.59
419,917.57
1,532,120.97
426,058.07
495,737.07
177,297.17
10,371,293.78
10,902,433.06
369,728.01
5,549,978.61
6,472,994.49
4,309,049.75
868,234.65
3,127,655.53
1,789.363.91
5,606,197.45
7,2(19,4^36.93
2,420,956.67
555,126.80
7,455,681.72
203,951.89
2,7W,084.78
37,292.73
1,392,039.09
2,555,095.89
219,114.38
12,619.366.22
561,292.50
232,030.93
16,166,264.16
933,787.91
712,008.86
13,164,211.79
519,129.51
227,332.94
6:38,856.04
2,732,349.25
1,042,628.40
115,171.58
1,504,170.78
1,352,384.3
780,977.54
2,058,753.48
4,308,186.05
104,818.03
143,982,017.24
4,090.15
540.0(1
4S7.20
5,908.85
lW.4(t
24lt.0()
2,272.50
1,0!)9.33
521.47
Num-
ber
FOREIGN COUNTRIES —
continued
Brazil . . .
British Guiana
Bulgaria . .
Canada . . .
Chile . . .
China . . .
Comora Islands
Costa Rica
Cuba . . .
Cyprus . . .
Danish West Indies
Denmark .
Dutch East Indies
Dutch West Indies
Ecuador .
England .
Egypt . .
Finland
France . .
Germany .
Greece . .
Guatemala
Hawaii . .
Honduras .
India . .
Ireland . .
Isle of Man
Italy . .
Japan . .
Korea . .
Liberia . .
Madeira
Malta . .
Mauritius .
Mexico . .
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Norway
Paraguay .
Peru . .
Portugal .
Russia . .
San Salvador
Scotland .
Seychelles Island
Siain . . -
South African Republic
Spain . .
St. Helena
Sweden
Switzerland
Tahiti . .
Turkey
United States of
Colombia
Uruguay .
Wales . .
West Indies
Total in Foreign
Countries
Grand Total
Amount
0
1
1
2,192
10
16
1
3
4
2
2
23
1
2
3
320
1
1
62
632
5
4
29
7
2
428
2
34
12
1
6
4
2
1
112
10
8
2
40
1
4.371
993,714
$1,341.73
6.00
30(1.0(1
332,088.47
966.5:3
3,13S.1I3
180.00
46.s.()0
405.00
165.87
480.00
3,484.50
330.00
338.00
48,479.25
120.00
180.00
9.392.75
95,748.45
732.00
540.00
4,393.50
763.00
372.00
64,842.75
276.00
5,151.00
2,19570
360.00
639.00
552.00
288.00
96.00
16.968.25
2,607.20
978.00
1,084.47
10,259.53
907.73
1.084.60
1,;362.00
690.75
552.00
12,726.00
324.00
468.00
576.00
1,069.50
144.00
6,817.50
11,211.00
232.50
1,007.00
144.00
546.00
1,834.20
2.130.00
669,S62.56
144,651,879.80
CXCVl
UNITED STATES
PENSION AGENTS
Whence
Date of Origi-
Date of Pres-
Com-
Name and Agency
ap-
nal Appoint-
ent Appoint-
pen-
pointed
ment
ment
sation
1 Connor, Selden, Augusta, Me.
Me.
Apr. 6, 1897
Apr. 6, 1897
$4,000
iHoitt, Augustus J., Boston,
Mass. . . . .
Mass.
Apr. 27, 1898
Apr. 27, 1898
4,000
lOrr, Charles A., Buffalo, N.Y.
N.Y.
Jan. 13, 1898
Jan. 13, 1898
4,000
iMerriam, Jonathan, Chicago,
111
111.
Jan. 13, 1898
Jan. 13, 1898
4,000
1 Jones, Joseph W., Columbus,
0
0.
July 8, 1898
July 8, 1898
4,000
1 Henry, Hugh, Concord, N.H.
Vt.
Apr. 12, 1898
Apr. 12, 1898
4,000
iSperry, Emery F., Des Moines,
Iowa
Iowa
July 21, 1898
July 21, 1898
4,000
1 Janes, Oscar A., Detroit, Mich,
Mich.
Mar. 8, 1897
Mar. 8, 1897
4,000
iLeighty, Jacob D., Indianap-
olis, Jnd
Ind.
Aug. 21, 1897
Jan. 13,1898
4,000
1 Wilder, John T., Knoxville,
Tenn
Tenn.
Nov. 8, 1897
Jan. 13,1898
4,000
Combs, Leslie, Louisville, Ky.
Ky.
May 3, 1898
May 3, 1898
4,000
iCoe, Edwin D., Milwaukee,
Wis
Wis.
Sept. 16, 1897
Jan. 13,1898
4,000
iRerwin, Michael, New York,
N.Y
N.Y.
Apr. 30, 1898
Apr. 30, 1898
4,000
iMulholland, St. Clair A. , Phila-
delphia, Ta.
Pa.
Mar. 9, 1894
Mar. 9, 1898
4,000
iNesbit, John W., Pittsburg, Pa.
Pa.
Dec. 18, 1897
Dec. 18, 1897
4,000
1 Fuller, Jesse B. , San Francisco,
Cal
Cal.
July 18, 1898
July 18, 1898
4,000
iLeland, Cyrus, jr., Topeka,
Kan
Kan.
July 20, 1897
July 20, 1897
4,000
1 Wilson, Sidney L., Washing-
ton, D.C
N.Y.
Jan. 22, 1885
Feb. 1, 1898
4,000
Note. — Employees at pension agencies were made subject to the civil-service rules for
appointment by the extension of the classification by the President's order of July 15, 1895.
'i'erm of oflice expires four years from " Date of present appointment."
1 Served in Union Army or Navy during the Civil War.
Patents
The United States Government issues patents, under the
authority and seal of the Patent Office, for any inventions or
discoveries of any new and useful art, machine, manufacture,
or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement
thereof. The grant gives to the patentee, his heirs or assigns,
a monopoly for 17 years ; that is, the exclusive right to make,
use, and vend the invention or discovery claimed and patented.
PATENTS — INSTRUCTION
CXCVll
Fees must be paid in advance, and are as follows : On filing each origi-
nal application for a patent, $15. On issuing each original patent, $20. In
design cases : For 3 years and 0 months, $10 ; for 7 years, $15 ; for 14
years, $;>0. On filing each caveat, ."^lO. On every application for the reissue
of a patent, $30. On filing each disclaimer, $10. For certified copies of
patents and other papers in manuscript, 10 cents per hundred words ; for
certified copies of printed patents, 80 cents. For uncertified printed
copies of specifications and drawings of patents, for single copies, or any
number of unclassified copies, 5 cents each ; for copies by subclasses,
3 cents each ; by classes, 2 cents each, and for the entire set of patents
issued, in one order, 1 cent each. For recording every assignment, agree-
ment, power of attorney, or other paper, of 300 words or under, $1 ; of
over 300 and under 1000 words, $2 ; of over 1000 words, $3. For copies
of drawings, the reasonable cost of making them. The Patent Office is
prepared to furnish positive blue-print photographic copies of any draw-
ing, foreign or domestic, in the possession of the ofiice, in sizes and at
rates as follows : Large size, 10 x 15 inches, 25 cents ; medium size,
7x11 inches, 15 cents ; small size, 5x8 inches, 5 cents. An order for
small-sized copies can be filled only when it relates to the drawings of an
application for patent.
The following is a statement of the number of patents, etc., issued
during various calendar years since 1852 :
Year
Patents and Certificates of Registration issued
Patents
Designs
Reis-
sues
Total
Patents
Trade-
marks
Labels
Total
Certifi-
cates
1852
1860
1S70
ISSO
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
890
4,363
12,157
12,986
25,322
22,328
22,661
22,768
19,875
20,883
21,867
22,098
20.404
109
183
737
515
886
836
817
902
928
1,115
1,445
1,631
1,803
20
282
439
506
84
80
81
99
&4
59
61
65
60
1,019
4,778
13,333
13,947
26,292
23,244
23,559
23,769
28,867
22,057
23,273
23,794
22,267
121
349
1,415
1,762
1,737
1.677
1,806
1,829
1,813
1,671
1,238
203
304
a 137
6
3
b\
cl4
d 200
121
552
1,719
1,899
1,743
1,677
1,806
1,832
1,846
1,701
1,473
a Reg-istration of labels practically ceased May 27, 1891, under decision of United States
Supreme Court in Higpins et al. v. Keutfel et al. (55 O.G., 1139).
6 32 Prints. c 16 Prints. </ 35 Prints.
Note. — The number of patents granted prior to the commencement of this series of
numbering (July 28, 1836) was 9957.
The whole number of original patents, including designs, issued up to
Dec. 31, 1898, was 646,785.
Instruction
[Tables are ft-om Reports of Commissioner of Education]
Each State of the Union has a system of free public schools
established by law. The work of these is largely supple-
CXCVIU
UNITED STATES
mented by private and parochial schools. Nevertheless, owing
partly to the former existence of slavery, and partly to the
constant influx of numbers of uneducated immigrants, there
exists a large mass still totally ignorant of the first elements
of education. According to the census of 1880, in the whole
country, out of a total population above ten years of age of
36,761,607, 4,923,451 (13.4 per cent) were returned as unable
to read, and 6,239,958 (17 per cent) as unable to write.
The figures of the eleventh census, taken in 1890, show that
the rate of illiteracy was reduced during the decade to 13.3 per
cent of the entire population ten years of age and over. The
following table gives the total population of the United
States, the number and per cent of each element going to
make up this population, the population of each ten years of
age and over, the number and per cent of illiterates to each :
Total
Population
Per Cent
of Total
Popula-
tion
Population 10 Years of Age
AND OVEK
Total
ILLITERATES
Number
Per Cent
Native whites .
Foreign whites .
Colored
45,862,023
9,121,867
7,638,360
73.2
14.6
12.2
33,144,187
8,786,887
5,482,485
2,065,003
1,147,571
3,112,128
6.2
13.1
56.8
Total
62,622,250
-
47,413,559
6,324,702
13.3
The United States Government makes no direct appropri-
ation of moneys for the support of the elementary public
schools, except in the District of Columbia, but has set aside
for that purpose in each of the newer States a certain portion
of the public domain, two "sections" (or square miles) in each
township six miles square, the proceeds from the sale of which
form the chief part of the permanent school funds of those
States, the income alone being used for the support of the
schools. This income is supplemented by State and local tax-
ation, so that it constitutes about five per cent of the total
school revenue of all the States. In 1896-97 the amount ex-
pended on public schools was f 187,320,602. The Universities
and colleges had an income of $18,972,414 from productive
funds, from fees, and from United States Government, State,
or municipal appropriations. The schools of technology had
an income of $3,500,190, and the colleges for women, $3,135,-
842.
STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS
CXCIX
TOTAL NUMBER OF PUPILS AND STUDENTS OF ALL GRADES IN BOTH
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 1896-97
[The classification of States made use of in the following table is the same as that adopted
by the United States census, and is as follows: Xorth Athuitic Divisioii : Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey, and Pennsylvania. South Atlantic Division : Delaware, Maryland, District
of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and
Florida. South Central Division: Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi,
Louisiana, Toxas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. Xot'th Central Division: Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, .Michigan, Wisconsin, .Mimiesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Nebraska, and Kansas. Western. Division: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New
Me.vico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California.]
Pui'iLS receiving Elemen-
tary Instruction (Primary
and Grammar Grades)
Pupils receiving Second-
ary Instruction (High-
school Grade) ^
Division
Public
Private
(largely
estimated)
Public 2
Private (in
Preparatory
Schools,
Academies,
Seminaries,
etc.)
1
2
3
4
5
The United States .
North Atlantic Division .
South Atlantic Division .
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division
14,24:3,059
1,209,367
420,459
164.445
3,418,765
2,049,766
2,695,294
5,376,918
702,316
503,b32
88,310
145,041
430,120
42,064
129,118
21,450
31,;385
214,291
24,215
49,.'5l7
24,487
81,805
49,852
8,484
Division
Students receiving Higher Instruction
IN universities and
COLLEGES S
IN SCHOOLS OF medi-
cine, LAW, AND
THEOLOGY 5
IN NORMAL SCHOOLS^
1
Pub-
lic*
Pri-
vate
Total
Pub-
lics
Pri-
vate
Total
Pub-
lic
Pri-
vate 8
Total
1
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
The United States
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division
27,654
69,480
97,134
7,706
45,54:3
53,249
43,199
24,181
967,380
4,781
3,489
2,652
13,099
3,633
25,498
9,872
11,234
20,158
2,718
30,279
13,361
13,886
33,257
6,351
233
687
946
5,107
733
17,367
5,911
• 4,546
16,420
1,299
17,600
6,598
5,492
21,527
2,032
17,651
3,743
3,016
15,818
2,971
2,247
1,817
4,500
14,817
800
19,898
5,560
7,516
30,635
3,771
Division
Summary ok
Higher (in-
cluding Nor-
mal) In-
struction
Summary of Pupils
BY Grade
Summary
according to
Control
Grand
Total
Pub-
lic
Pri-
vate
Elemen-
tary
Sec-
ondary
Higher
Public
Private
1
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
The United States
North Atlantic Division
South .\tlantic Division
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division
78,559
139,204
15,452,426
584,904
217,763
14,742,077
1,513,016
16,255,093
22,665
7.919
6,614
34,024
7.337
45,112
17,600
20,280
51,395
4,817
3,922,597
2,138,076
2,840,335
5,807.038
744,380
178.935
45.937
(W,190
2W,143
32,699
67,777
25,519
26,894
85,419
12,1M
3,570,MS
2,079,135
2,733,293
5,625,233
733,868
598.761
i;30,:397
197,126
531,367
55,365
4,169,309
2,209,5:32
2.9:30,419
6,156,600
789,283
Notes on next page.
cc
UNITED STATES
1 Including pupils in preparatory or academic departments of higher institutions, public
and private, and excluding elementary pupils, who are classed in columns 2 and 3.
2 This is made up from the returns of individual high schools, and is somewhat too
small, as there are many secondary pupils outside the completely organized high schools
whom there are no means of enumerating.
3 Including colleges for women, agricultural and mechanical (land-grant) colleges, and
scientific schools. Students in law, theological, and medical de])artments are excluded,
being tabulated in columns 9-11. Students in academic and jirejiaratory departments are
also excluded, being tabulated in columns 4 and 5.
* Mainly State universities and agricultural and mechanical colleges.
s Including schools of dentistry, pharmacy, and veterinary medicine.
6 Mainly in schools or departments of medicine and law attached to State universities.
■^ Non-professional pupils in normal schools are included in columns 4 and 5.
8 Private normal schools are, with few exceptions, scarcely superior to the ordinary sec-
ondary schools.
9 There are, in addition to this number, 22,554 students taking normal courses in univer-
sities, colleges, and public and private high schools.
POPULATION AND ENROLLMENT, AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, AND
NUMBER AND SEX OF TEACHERS IN COMMON SCHOOLS, 1896-97
State or Territory
Esti-
mated
Total
Popula-
Pupils
enrolled
in the
Common
Per Cent
of the
Popula-
tion
Average
Dailv
Attend-
Teachers
tion
in 1897
Schools
enrolled
ance
Male
Female
ToUil
United States ,
North Atlantic Division
71.874.142
14,652,492
20..58
10,089,620
131.386
271.947
403.883
19,947,80(1
8,545,164
17.77
2,529,086
18,731
79,503
98,234
South Atlantic Division
9,782,882
2,070,287
21.27
1,274,579
20,428
26,130
46,553
South Central Division •
12,844,600
2,724,946
21.22
1,840,001
32,011
28,464
60,475
North Central Division .
24,933,500
5,587,450
22.41
3,928,779
53,994
122,499
176,493
Western Division .
North Atlantic Division :
3,915,360
724,639
18.50
517,175
6,227
15,351
21,578
Maine ....
657,300
132,189
20.10
96,571
rtl,257
a5,470
6,727
New Hampshire
398,700
64,207
16.10
47,717
202
2,509
2,711
Vermont .
333,000
65,349
19.62
50,465
346
2,035
2.381
Massachusetts .
2,684,000
439,367
16.69
334,945
1,120
11,728
12,848
Rhode Island
395,700
62,337
15.75
49,224
198
1,619
l,bI7
Connecticut
840,100
143,921
17.14
101,068
aft442
aft3.630
a64,072
New York .
6,851,000
1,203,199
17.56
820,254
5,461
28,924
34,885
New Jersey
1,768,000
294,880
16.67
191,776
804
5,065
5,869
Pennsylvania
6,070,000
1,139,765
18.78
837,071
8,901
18,528
27,429
South Atlantic Division :
Delaware c •
173,200
88,174
19.16
rt22,698
a21S
a622
840
Maryland .
1,179,000
229,947
19.50
138,627
1,113
3,728
4,886
District of CoIuiiiImu .
277,782
42.995
15.50
38,818
147
924
1,071
Virginia
1,704,000
367,817
21.58
213,421
3,(»18
5,562
8,575
West Virginia h
849,300
215,665
25.40
141,081
3,^2s
2,626
6,454
North Carolina ft
1,768.000
370,920
21.04
281,725
4,294
3,591
7,885
South Carolina" .
1 ,274,000
258,188
20.26
182,559
2,245
2,728
4,973
Georgia
ft2,0 15,000
446,171
22.14
246,688
f<4,485
rt4,776
9,261
Florida
497,600
105,415
21.19
69,477
1,080
1,578
2,658
South Central Division :
Kentucky b
1,993,000
400,126
20.08
286,861
4,962
5,247
10,209
Tennessee ft
1,877,000
481,585
25.66
388,176
5,121
4,014
9,185
Alabama
1,741,000
319,526
18.36
f/218,000
rt4,536
o2,5S7
7,123
Mississippi (Z
1,431,000
350,615
24.62
202,688
3,647
4,208
7,855
Louisiana .
1,253,000
169.947
13.56
124,123
1,425
2,257
3,682
Texas ft . . .
2,979,000
616.568
20.70
440,249
6,815
6,402
13,217
Arkansas .
1,290,000
316,270
24.58
195,509
4,670
2,511
7,181
Oklahoma .
280,600
70,309
25.06
rt39,400
885
1,238
2,073
Indian Territory
a Approximately.
6 In 1895-96.
c In 1891-92.
d In 1894-95.
ENROLLMENT — ATTENDANCE
CCl
POPUEATIOX AND ENROLLMENT, AVERAGE D.MLY ATTENDANCE, AND
NUMHEll AND SEX OF TEACHERS IN COMMON SCHOOLS, Ib'JG-yT — Cont.
State or Territory
Esti-
mated
Total
Popula-
Pupils
enrolled
in tiie
Per Cent
of the
Popula-
Average
Daily
Attend-
Teachers
tion
in 181)7
Common
Schools
tion
enrollid
ance
Male
Female
Total
North Central Division :
Ohio . . . .
3,834,000
825,650
21.54
607,304
10,316
14,900
25,216
Indiana
2,244,000
551,073
24.58
402,747
7,115
7,937
15,052
Illinois
4,594,000
920,425
20.04
705,481
7,196
18,345
25,541
Michigan .
2,240,00(1
491,812
21.90
a347,219
3,563
12,038
15,601
Wisconsin .
2,072,(HMt
426,565
20.59
273,958
2,502
9,875
12,377
Minnesota .
l,700,0lt(t
371,889
21.88
235,497
2.445
8,793
11,238
Iowa ....
2,101,000
546,836
26.03
347,620
5,824
22,208
28,032
Missouri
3,086,000
673,152
22.17
490,431
5,972
8,966
14,938
North Dakota h .
303,600
57,088
18.80
38,478
1,043
1,9&4
3,027
South Dakota ^ .
342,900
89,001
2.5.96
a54,600
1,321
8,187
4,508
Nebraska •
1,131,000
266,275
23.54
171,442
2,514
6,833
9,347
Kansas
1,329,000
867,690
27.67
254,002
4,183
7,433
11,616
Western Division :
Montana
229,400
81,436
13.70
&21,200
216
804
1,020
W^yoming b
99,700
11,582
11.62
fl7,700
105
860
465
Colorado .
564,800
100,880
17.86
a69,600
a7S0
a2,340
3,120
New Me.xico
174,900
24,155
13.81
19,349
32s
277
605
Arizona
80,650
13,361
16.57
10,439
116
238
354
Utah ....
260,700
69,228
26.55
48,315
484
693
1,177
Nevada
41,610
6.860
16.49
4,145
39
265
304
Idaho ....
138,100
81,883
23.09
22,645
29s
495
793
Washington b .
479,700
90,113
18.79
63,212
1,184
2,061
3,245
Oregon b . . .
378,800
87,212
23.03
61,721
1,287
2,030
3,317
California .
1,467,000
257,929
17.59
188.849
1,390
5,788
7,178
AVERAGE NUMBER DAYS TAUGHT, SALARIES OF TEACHERS, VALUE SCHOOL
PROPERTY, STATE AND LOCAL TAXATION — COMMON SCHOOLS, 1896-97
State or Territory
A ver-
age
Days
the
Schools
were
kept
Average
Monthly
Salaries of
Teachers
Value of
Public
School
Property
Raised
from State
Taxes
Raised
from Local
Taxes
Raised
from Other
Sources,
State and
Local, etc.
Males
Fe-
males
United .states .
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division . .
140.4
$44.62
$38.38
$469,069,086
$35,062,.533
$127,960,761
$25,617,949
172.9
111.2
92.8
151.2
141.5
5.5.35
81.11
41.21
45.14
59.42
40.85
30.80
34.. 50
37.45
52.95
187.006,486
20,274,814
21,002,125
205,177,995
85.607,666
12,590,312
4,053,785
8,(>i6,229
7,272,916
3,099,291
49,878,330
5,816,827
4,015,751
59,871,812
8,378,041
11,500,8:35
1,875,059
1,389,748
9,710,527
1,641,780
EXPENDITURES FOR SITES, BUILDINGS. AND FURNITURE, FOR TEACHERS'
SAL.\RIES, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES — COMMON SCHOOLS, 1896-97
State or Territory
Expended
for Sites,
Buildings,
Furniture.
etc.
Expended
for
Teachers'
Salaries
Other Ex-
penditures
Total Ex-
penditures,
excluding
Payment of
Bonds
Expended
jier Capita
of Popu-
lation
Expended
per Pui)il
of Aver-
age At-
tendance
$18.. 56
United States .
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division . .
.$31,903,245
$119.303..542
$36,113,815
$187,320,602
$2.62
17.506,822
1,107,177
1,176,077
10,367,300
1,745,869
39.655,897
8,-^.');t.u70
10,iil7,2iC.
50,!528,35l
9,043,019
15,051.939
1,6.55. 9^6
1,04(1,013
15,498,968
2,866,909
72,214,6.58
11.622,233
13,133.295
76.694,619
13,6.55,797
3.62
1.19
1.02
3.08
3.49
28.56
9.12
7.14
19.52
26.40
ceil
UNITED STATES
ENROLLMENT, AVERAGE ATTENDANCE, LENGTH OF SCHOOL TERM, NUMBER
OF TEACHERS, AND EXPENDITURES FOR SCHOOLS IN CITIES OF 80t)0 IN-
HABITANTS AND OVER. 1S96-97 a
Cities of
United States . .
North Atlantic Division
South Atlantic Division
South Central Division
North Central Division
Western Division . .
North Atlantic Division
Maine
New Hampshire . .
Vermont ....
Massachusetts . .
Rhode Island . . .
Connecticut . . .
New Yoik ....
New Jersey . . .
Pennsylvania . . .
South Atlantic Division
Delaware ....
Maryland ....
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia . .
North Carolina . .
South Carolina . .
Georgia
Florida
South Central Division :
Kentucky ....
Tennessee ....
Alabama ....
Mississippi ....
Louisiana ....
Texas
Arkansas ....
Oklahoma ....
Indian Territory . .
North Central Division ;
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan ....
Wisconsin ....
Minnesota ....
Iowa
Missouri ....
North Dakota , .
South Dakota . . .
Nebraska ....
Kansas
Western Division :
Montana ....
Wyoming ....
Colorado ....
New Mexico . . .
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Idaho
Washington . . .
Oregon
California ....
City
School
Sys-
tems
601
233
43
52
237
86
10
6
2
51
9
19
61
22
53
1
4
2
10
3
6
4
9
4
11
6
6
5
3
16
4
1
0
46
30
39
30
21
10
22
15
0
1
10
13
3
1
9
0
0
2
0
0
4
3
14
Enroll-
ment in
Pubhc
Day
Schools
8,590,875
2,(j^7,75^
1,697,615
254,737
193.874
1,247,867
196,782
24,475
16,261
3,828
312,191
49,379
74,624
675,852
1^5,940
395,065
10,749
81,780
42,995
34.286
10,531
10,531
11,614
40,858
11,398
50,284
28,828
13,079
8,418
32.744
47,228
12,219
1,084
0
240,491
103,005
319,600
126,607
100,142
78,778
66,874
132,567
0
1,859
37,307
40,68
8,209
1,079
37,064
0
0
15,433
0
0
18,953
13,816
102,236
Average
Daily
Attend-
ance
1,259,044
184,829
142,592
953,142
148,151
18,406
11,347
2,882
248,223
32,324
54.760
495,254
101,550
294,298
8,104
55,497
38,288
25,921
7,579
7,433
9,605
30,075
7,332
37,633
20,950
10,646
5,725
23,756
34,832
8,215
835
0
193,318
69,490
250,840
94,811
73,253
61,418
52,095
96,119
0
1,425
28,190
32,1 as
5,974
a3o
26,942
0
0
12,668
0
0
13,961
10,855
76,926
Aver-
age
Length
of
School
Term
188.9
190.7
185.9
178.2
190.4
184.2
185.3
199.2
195.7
189.4
186.3
188.2
181.6
190.4
180.0
179.7
169.5
177.7
174.9
179.5
173.6
180.2
192.7
187.7
Teachers
AND
SuPERvisons
Male
9,632
4,18(1
759
646
8,879
668
81
50
18
894
177
211
1,565
25(i
938
8
169
190
103
25
38
86
123
72
156
113
51
41
49
190
39
7
0
721
400
798
298
291
210
181
275
0
5
78
122
29
3
11(1
0
0
68
0
0
54
46
858
Female
Expendi-
ture for
Super-
vision and
Teaching
68.844 $48,772,485 $<U.866,092
Kx])endi-
ture for All
Purposes
(Payment
of Loans
and Bonds
Excepted)
82,370
4,744
3,296
24,197
8,787
596
341
86
6,662
968
1,610
12.315
2,684
7,158
221
1,658
880
549
214
198
173
658
193
919
451
281
143
651
728
155
18
0
4,724
1,944
6,260
2,453
1,8;39
1,675
1,488
2,450
0
45
658
661
161
26
686
0
0
261
0
0
846
274
1,98^3
2M.274,b45
3,015,502
2,133,725
16,980,866
8,367.547
289.375
216,148
50,092
5,153,841
697,718
1.045,010
9,485,458
1,721,979
4,665,224
109.716
1,079,592
748.29.^
303,854
96,400
74,491
87,559
443,908
76,684
631,669
800,651
184, 168
70,536
336, 65(
585,755
115,547
8,749
0
3,381,938
1,264.621
5,167,999
1,407.837
1,212,058
1,222,044
888,622
1,078,851
0
27,070
435,990
394,336
187,602
21,136
586,412
0
0
190,435
0
0
286,961
217,024
1,977,977
a Statistics of this table also included in three preceding tables.
PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS cciii
GENERAL STATISTICS OF PROFESSIONAL AND ALLIED SCHOOLS FOE 1896-97
Class of Schools
Schools
Instructors
Students
Graduates
Tlieological
Law
Medical ......
Dental
I'lianiiaceutical ....
^'ete^iIla^y
Nurse training
Total
157
77
150
48
4;3
12
298
980
744
3,986
826
862
153
a S,173
6 10,449
24,377
6,460
3,426
364
7,26:3
1,672
3,016
5,564
1,640
1,005
i;30
2,498
765
7,051
60,512
15,525
a 193 of these were women.
b 131 of these were women.
SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF MEDICAL SCHOOLS, BY CLASSES,
FOR 1896-97
Class of Schools
Schools
Instructors
Students
Graduates
Regular
Homopopathic
Eclectic
Physiomedical
Total
lis
21
9
2
3,142
5S2
213
49
21,43S
2,038
789
112
4,779
517
238
85
150
3,986
24,377
5,564
Enrollment in Other Schools
City evening schools
Business schools
Indian schools .
Schools for defective classes
Reform schools
Benevolent institutions, chiefly
send to the public schools in
Miscellaneous ....
orphan asylums
their vicinities
Total
that do not
183,168
77,053
22,964
22,624
24,426
13,309
49,650
393,194
The miscellaneous in the above table includes such institutions as
schools of music, oratory, elocution, schools of various arts, such as
cooking, etc.
The statistics of Indian schools are shown in the following table, which
gives a statement of their number, the enrollment of pupils, and the at-
tendance during the past 22 years :
CCIV
UNITED STATES
NUMBER OF INDIAN SCHOOLS AND AVERAGE ATTENDANCE, 1877 TO 1898 »
Boarding Schools
Day S
OHOOLS*
Totals
Year
Number
Average
Attendance
Number
Average
Attendance
Number
Average
Attendance
1877 .
48
102
150
3,598
1878 .
49
119
168
4,142
1879 .
52
107
159
4,448
1880 .
60
109
169
4,651
1881 .
68
106
174
4,976
1882 .
71
3,077
76
1,637
147
4,714
1883 .
80
3,793
88
1,893
168
5,686
1884 .
87
4,723
98
2,237
185
6,960
1885 .
114
6,201
86
1,942
200
8,143
1886 .
115
7.260
99
2,370
214
9,630
1887 .
117
8,020
110
2,500
227
10,520
1888 .
126
8,705
107
2,715
233
11,420
1889 .
136
9,146
103
2,406
239
11,552
1890 .
140
9,865
106
2,367
246
12,232
1891 .
146
11,425
110
2,163
256
13,588
1892 .
149
12,422
126
2,745
275
15,167
1893 .
156
13,635
119
2,668
275
16,303
1894 .
157
14,457
115
2,639
272
17,220
1895 .
157
15,061
125
3,127
2S2
18,188
1896 .
156
15,683
140
3,579
296
19,262
1897 .
145
15,026
143
3,650
288
- 18,676
1898 .
148
16,112
147
3,536
295
19,&18
1 Some of the figures in this table as printed prior to 1896 were taken from reports of the
Superintendent of Indian Schools. As revised, they are all taken from the reports of the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Prior to 18S2 the figures include the New York schools.
2 Indian children attending public schools are included in the average attendance, but the
schools are not included in the number of schools.
Newspapers
The number of newspapers published in the United States and Canada
in 1898, as shown by the statistics in " RowelPs American Newspaper
Directory," was 21,o60, the Canadian publications numbering 899, The
classification, however, is not carried through the statements for the dif-
ferent publications. Thus for the United States and Canada there were
15,824 weeklies, 2734 monthlies, 2214 dailies, 324 semi-monthlies, 415
semi-weeklies, 156 quarterlies, 80 bi-weeklies, 57 bi-monthlies, and 43
tri-weeklies.
The total number of *publications for each State and Canada is as
follows :
70
850
1,053
703
318
181
165
208
616
786
601
211
1,034
93
Alabama .
219
Indian Territory
Alaska
5
Indiana
Arizona .
48
Iowa
Arkansas .
263
Kansas
California .
684
Kentucky .
Canada
899
Louisiana .
Colorado .
310
Maine
Connecticut
201
Maryland .
Delaware .
42
Mas.sachusetts .
District of Columbia
71
Michigan .
Florida
164
Minnesota
Georgia .
357
Mississippi
Idaho
74
Missouri .
Illinois
1,619
Montana .
NEWSPAPERS — RELIGION
CCV
599
South Carolina .
125
28
South Dakota .
261
103
Tennessee
295
391
Texas
753
57
Utah .
74
. 2,018
Vermont .
84
254
Virginia .
272
142
Washington
213
. 1,192
West Virginia
175
108
Wisconsin
619
204
Wyoming .
41
. 1,430
Total .
21,300
C9
5
Nebraska .
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina .
North Dakota .
Ohio ....
Oklahoma
( )regon
Pennsylvania .
Rhode Island . , .
Keligion
The Constitution of the United States guarantees the free
exercise of religious profession and worship, and this guaranty
is repeated in the Constitutions of the forty -five States. Nearly
all the sects and religious denominations existing in Europe
are represented in the United States. At the census of 1880
there were 86,132 Protestant and 5975 Roman Catholic
churches ; 70,864 Protestant ministers, and 6366 Koman
Catholic clergy. The Protestants returned 8,975,260 "mem-
bers," or communicants ; adding to this an estimate of the
families of members and of adherents, the total attached to
Protestantism would probably be about 30,000,000. In 1870
there were in all 63,082 churches, of which 3806 were Roman
Catholic ; and in the same year the number of '• sittings "
returned was 21,665,062, of which 1,990,514 were in Roman
Catholic churches. There were in all 45 separate religious
bodies returned in 1880.
For 1890 the church statistics were more complete. As
there has been no statement for the whole country since then,
they are here reproduced quite fully.
The term "organizations" includes churches or congregations, and
also missions and chapels, when they have a form of organization.
By "edifices" is meant all buildings owned and used for religious
worship. Two or more denominations are often joint owners of an edifice
and its belongings. The fractions do not appear in the tables.
"Sealing capacity" indicates the numlDer of persons a building will
seat at any one time. In cases of joint ownership and occupancy, the
seating capacity of an edifice is given in full in connection with each
denomination interested.
The "value" is the estimated worth of church buildings, their furni-
ture and bells, and the ground on which the buildings stand. No account
is taken of indebtedness. Parsonages are not included, nor is any other
class of church property.
The column of "communicants or members" includes all who are
permitted to partake of the Lord's Supper in denominations observing
that sacrament, and those having full privileges in denominations like the
Friends, the Unitarians, and the Jews.
CCVl
UNITED STATES
There are in all 143 denominations specified, and 231 independent
Lutheran congregations, and 156 miscellaneous independent congrega-
tions, with 111,080 ministers, 165,177 organizations, and 20,612,806
communicants or members.
NUMBEPw OF MINISTERS, ORGANIZATIONS, COMMUNICANTS OR MEMBERS, AND
CHURCH EDIFICES (WITH APPROXIMATE SEATING CAPACITY), AND VALUE
OF CHURCH PROPERTY. BY DENOMINATIONAL FAMILIES: 1S90
CuuRCii Edifices
Denominational Families
Num-
ber of
Min-
isters
Num-
ber of
Organi-
zations
Value of
Church
Property
Number
of
Communi-
cants or
Members
Num-
ber
{a)
Approxi-
mate Seat-
ing Capac-
ity {b)_
Total
Adventists (6 bodies)
111,086
165.177
142,521
('48,564.863
$679,630,189
20.612,!S06
l,8t>4
1,757
774
190,748
1,236,845
60,491
Baptists (18 bodies)
25,646
42,909
37,671
11,568,019
82,328,123
8,712,468
Brethren (River) (3 bodies) .
155
111
70
22,105
81,350
3,427
Brethren (Plymouth) (4 bodies) .
814
1,465
6.661
Catholics (7 bodies)
9,196
10,276
8,816
8,374,907
118,371,866
6,257,871
Catholic Apostolic ....
95
10
8
750
66,0.50
1,394
Chinese temples ....
47
47
62,000
Christadelphians . . . .
63
4
950
2,7(tO
1,277
Christians (2 bodies)
1,435
1,424
1,098
347,697
1,775,202
108,722
Christian Missionary Association .
10
13
11
3,300
3,900
754
Christian Scientists
26
221
7
1,500
40,666
8,724
Christian Union ....
183
294
184
68.000
284,450
18,214
Church of God (Winebrennerian) .
522
479
388
115,530
64;^,ks5
22,511
Church Triumphant(Schweinfurth)
12
15,000
884
Church of the New Jerusalem
119
154
88
20,810
1,386,455
7,095
Communistic societies (8 bodies) .
82
40
9,450
106,800
4,049
Congregationalists ....
5,058
4,868
4,786
1,558,080
43,385,4:37
512,771
Discii)les of Christ ....
3,773
7,246
5,324
1,609,452
12,206,038
641,051
Dunkards (4 bodies)
2,088
989
1,016
414,086
1,362,681
73,795
Evangelical Association .
1,235
2,310
1,899
479,835
4,785,6S0
138,313
Friends (4 bodies) . . . .
1,277
1,056
995
302,218
4,541,884
107,208
Friends of the Temple .
4
4
5
1,150
15,300
340
German Evangelical Protestant .
44
52
52
35,175
1,187,45U
36,156
German Evangelical Synod .
680
870
785
245,781
4,614,490
187,432
Jewish congregations (2 bodies) .
200
533
301
139,234
9,754,275
180,496
Latter-day Saints (2 bodies) .
2,04;3
856
388
122,892
1,051,791
166,125
Lutherans (16 bodies) and inde-
pendent congregations
4,591
8,595
6,701
2,205,635
35,060,8r>4
1,231,072
Mennonites (12 bodies) .
905
550
406
129,340
(m,800
41,541
Methodists (17 bodies) .
30,00(1
51,489
46,188
12,868,178
182.140,179
4,589,284
Moravians
114
94
114
31,615
681,250
11,781
Presbyterians (12 bodies)
10,448
18,476
12,469
4,038,650
94,869,097
1,278,382
Protestant Ei)iscopal (2 bodies) .
4,224
5,102
5,103
1,860,877
82,S85,41S
540,509
lieformed (8 bodies)
1,506
2,181
2,080
825,931
18,744,242
809,458
Salvation Army . . . .
329
27
12,055
88,150
8,742
Schwenkfeldians . . . .
3
4
6
1,925
12,200
306
Social Brethren . . . .
17
20
11
8,700
8,700
918
Society for Ethical Culture .
4
1,0()4
Spiritualists
334
30
20.450
578,6.50
45,030
Theoso|)hical Society
40
1
200
600
695
United Brethren (2 bodies) .
2,798
4,526
3,415
991,138
4,987,58;^
225,281
Unitarians
515
421
424
165,090
10,835, 10(t
67,749
Universalists
70S
956
m2
244,615
8,or4,83:5
49,194
Independent congregations .
54
156
112
39,345
1,4^.6,000
14,126
(I Not including 23,334 halls, schoolhouses, and private houses occupied as places of worship.
b Not including the apjiroxiinate seating capacitv (2,450,858) of halls and schoolhouses.
c Includes an approximate duplication of 2,800,000, because of the use of the same place of
worship by more than one congregation.
CRIME, PAUPERISM, BENEVOLENCE ccvii
Dependent and Defective Classes
The various States in the Union have reports showing indoor
paupers, criminals, and all the dependent and defective per-
sons, but with varied classifications. For the whole country,
therefore, dependence must be placed upon the statistics of the
Federal census. These, however, are not entirely satisfactory,
owing to the differences in classification, so far as paupers and
the dependent classes are concerned, and especially with refer-
ence to criminals, as the criminal codes of the different States
are not uniform, some crimes being punished in some States
by imprisonment in the penitentiaries and in others by fines.
Again, the administration of law is not uniform, the courts in
one State giving a person convicted of a certain crime the long-
est term possible under the law, while in some States or Terri-
tories, where the criminal laws are more lax, the courts give
shorter terms. Therefore, while the statistics are the best
available, they are more thoroughly indicative than conclusive
of conditions.
Crime, Pauperism, and Benevolence
Prisoner's. — The total number of prisoners in the United States on
June 1, 1890, was 82,329 : whites, 57,310 ; negroes, 24,277 ; Chinese, 407 ;
Japanese, 13 ; civilized Indians, 322. The number of male prisoners was
75,924, and of female prisoners, 6405. According to general nativity
and c51or, the sexes are divided as follows: native whites, 38,156 males
and 2315 females; foreign whites, 13,869 males and 2063 females;
negroes, 22,305 males and 1972 females ; Chinese, 406 males and 1
female ; Japanese, 12 males and 1 female ; civilized Indians, 307 males
and 15 females. Of the number reported as of unknown nativity, 869
were males and 38 were females.
The total number of prisoners reported in 1880 was 58,609.
Inmates of Juvenile lleformatories. — The total number of inmates of
juvenile reformatories in the United States on June 1, 1890, was 14,846:
whites, 12,903 ; negroes, 1930 ; Chinese, 1 ; civilized Indians, 12. The
number of male inmates was 11,535, and of female inmates, 3311. Ac-
cording to general nativity and color, the sexes are divided as follows :
native whites, 8635 males and 2443 females; foreign whites, 1129 males
and 276 females ; negroes, 1525 males and 405 females ; Chinese, 1 male ;
civilized Indians, 11 males and 1 female. Of the number reported as of
unknown nativity, 234 were males and 186 were females.
The total number of inmates of juvenile reformatories reported in 1880
was 11,468.
Almshouse Paupers. — The total number of almshouse paupers in the
United States on June 1, 1890, was 73,045: whites, 66,578; negroes,
6418 ; Chinese, 13 ; civilized Indians, 36. The number of male paupers
was 40.741, and of female paupers, .32,304. According to general nativity
and color, the sexes are divided as follows : native whites. 19,375 males
and 17,281 females; foreign whites, 16,938 males and 10,710 females;
cc\dii UNITED STATES
negroes, 3326 males and 3092 females ; Chinese, 12 males and 1 female ;
civilized Indians, 16 males and 20 females. Of the number reported as
of unknown nativity, 1074 were males and 1200 were females.
The total number of almshouse paupers reported in 1880 was 66,203.
Inmates of Benevolent Institutions. — The total number of imnates of
benevolent institutions in the United States on June 1, 1890, was 111.910 :
whites, 106,836 ; negroes, 4102 ; Chinese, 41 ; Japanese, 8 ; civilized
Indians, 923. The number of male inmates was 55,245, and of female
inmates, 56,665. According to general nativity and color, the sexes are
divided as follows : native whites, 37,314 males and 38,956 females ; for-
eign whites, 13,076 males and 13,246 females ; negroes, 2135 males and
1967 females ; Chinese, 33 males and 8 females ; Japanese, 8 males ;
civilized Indians, 512 males and 411 females. Of the number reported
as of unknown nativity, 2167 were males and 2077 were females.
In the census of 1880 attention was confined to homeless children in
institutions.
Insane, Feeble-Minded, Deaf and Dumb, and Blind
The Insane. — The total number of insane in the United States on
June 1, 1890, was 106,485: whites, 99,719; negroes, 6535; Chinese,
Japanese, and civilized Indians, 231. The number of insane males was
53,473, and of insane females, 53,012. According to general nativity and
color, the sexes are divided as follows : native whites, 32,946 males and
31,473 females ; foreign whites, 17,305 males and 17,995 females ; negroes,
3013 males and 3522 females ; Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians,
209 males and 22 females.
The total number of insane reported in 1880 was 91,959.
The number of insane in each 100,000 of population in 1890 was 387.0
for the foreign whites, 140.5 for the native whites, and 88.6 for the
colored. In 1880 the corresponding figures were 398.8, 161.9, and 91.2.
The proportion of insanity is much greater among the whitefe than
among the negroes, and very much greater among the foreign born than
among the native born.
The number of insane in asylums in 1890 was 74,028 : whites, 69,729 ;
negroes, 4299. The number of insane in asylums in each 1000 of insane
was : whites, 699 ; negroes, 658.
The number of insane admitted to public institutions from 1881 to
1889, inclusive, was 190,458 : males, 104,748 ; females, 84,485. The
number treated was 227,461. The total expenditures for the same time
were .$100,258,606 : current, $76,599,259; building, $18,520,547 ; unspeci-
fied, $5,138,800.
The number of insane admitted to private institutions from 1881 to
1889, inclusive, was 13,833 : males, 6894 ; females, 6939.
Of the 74,028 insane in institutions on June 1, 1890, the information
as to whether they could read or write was not given for 8963. Of the
remaining 65,065, 51,362, or 789 per 1000, could both read and write ;
1681, or 26 per 1000, could read but could not write, and 11,833, or 182
per 1000, could neither read nor write.
The Feeble-Minded. — The total number of feeble-minded in the United
States on June 1, 1890, was 95,609: whites, 84,997; negroes, 10,574;
Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 38. The number of feeble-
minded males was 52,962, and of feeble-minded females, 42,647. Accord-
ing to general nativity and color, the sexes are divided as follows : native
whites, 42,277 males and 33,633 females ; foreign whites, 4875 males and
DEPENDENT CLASSES — STRIKES Ccix
4212 females ; negroes, 5788 males and 4786 females ; Chinese, Japanese,
and civilized Indians, 22 males and 16 females.
The number of idiots reported in 1880 was 76,895, but of this number
over 29 per cent was obtained from special returns made by physicians.
In 1890 the physicians did not make any special reports for this class of
the population, so that the proportion of feeble-minded to total popula-
tion returned by the enumerators is greater than it was in 1880. In both
the Tenth and Eleventh censuses a certain number of persons were re-
ported as idiots or as feeble-minded who should properly be reported
among the insane, being cases of terminal or of senile dementia. It should
also be noted that in 1880 every case of insanity which was reported as
having commenced under the age of 12 years was reported as an idiot,
wliile in 1890 the age limit is lowered to 10.
The Deaf and Dumb. — The total number of deaf and dumb in the
United States on June 1, 1890, was 40,592 : whites, 37,447 ; negroes,
3115 ; Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 30. The number of deaf
and dumb males was 22,429, and of deaf and dumb females, 18,163.
According to general nativity and color, the sexes are divided as follows :
native whites, 18,281 males and 14,997 females; foreign whites, 2358
males and 1811 females ; negroes, 1772 males and 1343 females ; Chinese,
Japanese, and civilized Indians, 18 males and 12 females.
The total number of deaf and dumb reported in 1880 was 33,878.
In accordance with the recommendations of a special committee of
American instructors of the deaf, it was decided to collect information
for the Eleventh Census with regard to all persons in the United States,
excluding Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, reported as being so
deaf as to be unable to hear loud conversation, whether they were able to
speak or not. The number of such persons on June 1, 1890, was 121,178,
of whom 80,016 were able to speak but were so deaf as to be unable to
hear loud conversation: males, 49,278 ; females, 31,338; whites, 77,308;
negroes, 33080. Of the 8,616, 521 were from 5 to 10 years of age, 3142
were from 10 to 20 years of age, 28,008 were between 20 and 50 years of
age, and 48,227 were 50 years of age and over. Those not able to speak
numbered 40,562 : males, 22,411 ; females, 18,151 ; native wliites, 18,281
males and 14.997 females ; foreign whites, 2358 males and 1811 females ;
negroes, 1772 males and 1343 females.
77^6 Blind. — The total number of blind in the United States on June 1,
1890, was 50,568: whites, 43,351; negroes, 7060; Chinese, Japanese,
and civilized Indians, 157. The number of blind males was 28,080, and
of blind females, 22,488. According to general nativity and color, the
sexes are divided as follows : native whites, 18,803 males and 15,402
females; foreign whites, 5471 males and 3675 females ; negroes, 3709
males and 3351 females ; Chinese, Japanese, and civilized Indians, 97
males and 60 females.
The total number of blind reported in 1880 was 48,928.
The number of blind in one eye only, reported in 1890, was 93,988 :
males, 68,605 ; females, 25,383 ; native whites, 50,333 males and 18,284
females ; foreign whites, 12,004 males and 3757 females ; negroes, 6268
males and 3342 females.
Strikes and Lockouts
There has been no general collection of statistics relative to
strikes and lockouts since 1894, although a few State Bureaus
ccx
UNITED STATES
of Statistics of Labor have reported strikes up to a recent date.
For the whole of the United States there are very complete sta-
tistics covering the period from Jan. 1, 1881, to June 30, 1894.
These are taken from the Tenth Annual Report of the United
States Commissioner of Labor.
STRIKES BY YEARS, JAN. 1, 1881, TO JUNE 30, 1894
Year
strikes
Establish-
ments
Average
Establish-
ments to a
Strike
Employees
thrown out of
Employment
1881
471
2,928
6.2
129,521
1882 .
454
2,105
4.6
154,671
1883 .
478
2,759
5.8
149,763
isa4 .
443
2,367
5.3
147,054
1885 .
&45
2,284
3.5
242,705
1886 .
1,432
10,053
7.0
508,044
1887 .
1,436
6,5S9
4.6
379.726
1SS8 .
906
3,506
3.9
147,704
1889 .
1,075
3,786
3.5
249,559
1890 .
1,833
9,424
5.1
351,944
1891 .
\
1,718
8,117
4.7
299,0&4
1892 .
1,298
5,540
4.3
206,671
1893 .
1,305
4,555
3.5
265,914
1894 (6 months)
896
5,U'4
5.S
482.066
Total
14,390
69,167
4.8
3,714,406
RESULTS FOR ESTABLISHMENTS, JAN. 1, 1881, TO JUNE 30, 1894
Pkr Cent
OF ESTABLISH.MENTS
Per Cent of Estabmsii.ments
IN Strikes which —
in Lockouts which
Year
,
Succeeded
Succeeded
Partly
Failed
Succeeded
Succeeded
Partly
Failed
1881 .
61.37
7.00
31.63
88.89
11.11
1882
53.59
8.17
38.24
64.29
35.71
1883
58.17
16.09
25.74
56.41
43.59
1884
51.50
3.89
44.61
27.97
.28
71.75
1885
52.80
9.50
37.70
38.25
8.28
58.47
1886
a 34.45
a 18.82
a 46..58
h 19.48
h 12.06
6 60.44
1887
4564
7.19
47.17
34.19
1.25
64.56
1888
52.22
5.48
42.30
74.44
3.89
21.67
1889
46.49
18.91
34.60
40.91
25.76
83.33
1890
c 52.64
c 10.01
c 37.34
6574
5.56
28.70
1891
37.87
8.29
53.&4
63.92
14.29
21.79
1892
39.31
8.70
51.99
69.13
2528
5.59
1893
d 50.82
(I 10.32
d 38.79
e 39.02
e 17.05
e 87.05
1894 (6 months) .
23.83
1.5.66
60.51
21.95
1.36
76.69
Tota
1
/ 44.49
/ 11.25
./■ 44.23
g 40.33
g 9.58
g 47.75
a Not including 15 establishments in which strikes were pending Dec. 31, 1886.
b Not including 121 establlshinonts in which lockouts were pending Dec. 31, 1886.
r; Not including 1 cstabli.shiiu-nt not reporting.
d Not including 3 establishments in which strikes were still ponding June 30, 1894.
e. Not including 21 establishments in which lockouts were still pending June 30,1894.
f Not including 19 establishments for the reasons stated in notes rt, c, and d.
'g Not including 142 estabHshments for the reasons stated in notes b and e.
STRIKES —ARBITRATION
CCXl
WAGE LOSS OF EMPLOYEES, ASSISTANCE TO EMPLOYEES, AND LOSS
OF EMPLOYERS, JAN. 1, 1881, TO JUNE 30, 1894
Strikes
Lockouts
TO DATE
WHEN
TO DATE WHEN EM-
STRIKERS
WERE RE-
PLOYEES LOCKED OUT
EMPLOYED OR EMPI-OYKD
WERE REEMPLOYED OR
Year
ELSEWHERE
EMPLOYED ELSEWIlEItE
Loss of
Employers
Assistance
Assistance
Employers
Wafre Loss
to Em-
Wage Loss
to Em-
of Em-
ployees by
of Em-
ployees by
ployees
Labor Or-
ganizations
ployees
Labor Or-
ganizations
18S1
$3,372,578
$287,999
$1,919,483
$18,519
$3,150
$6,960
1882
9,864,228
734,339
4,269,094
466,345
47,668
112,382
1883
6,274,480
461,233
4,696,027
1,069,212
102,253
297,097
1884
7,666,717
407,871
3,393,073
1,421,410
314,027
640,847
1885
10,663,248
465,827
4,388,893
901,173
89,488
455,477
1886
14,992,453
1,122,130
12,357,808
4,281,058
549,452
1,949,498
1SS7
16,560,534
1,121,554
6,698,495
4,233,700
155,846
2,819.736
1883
6,377,749
1,752,668
6,509,017
1,100,057
85,931
1,217.199
1889
10,409,686
592,017
2,936,752
1,379,722
115,389
307,125
1890
13,875,338
910,285
5,135,404
957,966
77,210
486,258
1891
14.801,714
1,132,557
6,177,288
883,709
50,195
616,888
1892
10,772,622
833.874
5,145.691
2,856,013
537,684
1,695,080
1893
9.938,048
563,183
3,406,195
6,659,401
364,268
1,034.420
1894 (6 months)
28,238,471
528,869
15,557,166
457,231
31,737
596,484
Total
163,807,866
10,914,406
82,590,386
26,685,516
2,524,298
12,235,451
The causes of strikes are to be found in the demands for
increased wages, for reduction of hours of labor, or to prevent
a reduction of hours or an increase in working time. The
demands along these lines take various forms, but the causes
in nearly 90 per cent of all strikes are to be found in similar
demands.
The Federal Arbitration Law
An act concerning carriers engaged in interstate commerce
and their employees was approved June 1, 1898, and provides
for the adjustment or settlement of controversies concernin<^
wages, hours of labor, or conditions of employment which shall
arise between a carrier engaged in interstate commerce and
its employees when such controversies seriously interrupt
or threaten to interrupt the business of said carrier. The
law provides for two methods of dealing with such contro-
versies.
Fi)'sf. — That when a controversy arises, the Chairman of
the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Commissioner of
ccxii UNITED STATES
Labor shall, upon the request of either party to the contro-
versy, with all practicable expedition, put themselves in com-
munication with the parties to the controversy, and shall use
their best efforts, by mediation and conciliation, to amicably
settle the same.
Second. — If such efforts at mediation and conciliation shall
be unsuccessful, the officials named shall at once endeavor to
bring about an arbitration of the controversy in accordance
with the provisions of the act. The arbitrators shall consist
of one person named by the carrier or employer directly inter-
ested, and the other by the labor organization to which the
employees directly interested belong ; or if they belong to
more than one, by that one of them which specially represents
employees of the same grade and class and engaged in ser-
vices of the same nature as the employees directly interested.
The law makes provision in cases where the majority of the
employees are not members of any labor organization. The
two arbitrators thus chosen shall select a third, but in the event
of their failure to name such third arbitrator within five days
of their first meeting, he shall be named by the Chairman of
the Interstate Commerce Commission and the Commissioner
of Labor. A majority of the arbitrators — that is, two — shall
be competent to make a valid and binding award in accordance
with the provisions of the act.
The law practically provides for voluntary arbitration ; it is
not compulsory in any sense, except that if the parties agree
to the provisions of the law tliey are bound by the terms of the
award.
The act further provides that incorporated unions may
appear by designated representatives before the board of arbi-
tration created by it, or in any suits or proceedings for or
against such corporations or their members in any of the
Federal courts ; and that whenever receivers appointed by
Federal courts are in the possession and control of railroads,
the employees upon such railroads shall have the right to be
heard in such courts, through the officers and representatives
of their associations, whether incorporated or unincorporated,
upon all questions affecting the terms and conditions of their
employment.
The law also provides that in every incorporation of a labor
organization, in accordance with the United States Statutes of
1885 and 1886, it must be provided in the articles of such
incorporation, and in the constitution, rules, and by-laws, that
a member thereof shall cease to be such by participating in or
POLITICAL PARTIES CCxiii
by instigating force or violence against persons or property
during strikes, lockouts, or boycotts, or by seeking to prevent
others from working through violence, threats, or intimida-
tions; but the members of such incorporations shall not be
personally liable for the acts, debts, or obligations of the cor-
porations, nor shall such corporations be liable for the acts of
members or others in violation of law.
Political Parties
Democratic National Committee. — Appointed at the national conven-
tion held at Chicago, July, 1896. Chairman, James K. Jones, Washing-
ton, Ark. ; Secretary, C. A, Walsh, Ottumwa, la.
Republican National OomwijY^ee. — Appointed at the convention held
at St. Louis in June, 1890. Chairman, Mark A. Hanna, Cleveland, O. ;
Secretaries, Charles Dick, Chicago, 111., and S. A. Perkins, Washing-
ton, D.C.
National Democratic National Committee. — Appointed at the national
convention held at Indianapolis Sept. 2, 1896. Chairman, G. F. Pea-
body, New York, N.Y. ; Secretary, John P. Frenzel, Indianapolis, Ind.
Prohibition National Committee. — Chairman, Samuel Dickie, Albion,
Mich. ; Secretary, W. T. Ward well. New York, N.Y.
People's Party National Committee. — Chairman, Milton Park, Dallas,
Tex. ; Secretary, W. S. Morgan, Hardy, Ark.
Socialist Labor Party. — Corresponding Secretary, Henry Kuhn, New
York, N.Y.
Liberty Party National Central Committee. — Chairman, L. B. Logan,
Alliance, 0. ; Secretary, D. J. Thomas, Alliance, O.
Vote for President in 1896
The total vote cast at the presidential election of 1896 was 13,923,378.
William McKinley, Republican, received 7,104,779; William J. Bryan,
Democrat. 6,502,925. Mr. McKinley 's popular majority over Mr. Bryan
was 603,514, his majority over all opposing candidates being 280,728.
The electoral vote for Mr. McKinley was 271 ; for Mr. Bryan, 176, Mr.
McKinley's majority in the electoral college being 95. The Fusion vote
for Mr. Bryan was 6,257,198, the Populist vote for him being 245,728.
The following table, taken from political handbooks, gives the vote
by States :
CCXIV
UNITED STATES
POPULAR
AND ELECTORAL VOTE FOR PRESIDENT IN 1896
Popular Vote
Electoral
States and
Territories
V
OTE
Br3'an,
McKin-
Palmer,
Lever-
Bent-
Matchett,
Pluralities
Bryan,
McKin-
Dem.
ley, Kep.
N.Dem.
ing, Pro.
ley, Nat.
Soc. L.
Dem.
ley,Rep.
Alabama . .
180,307
54,737
6,462
2,147
75,570 B
11
Arkansas . .
110,103
37,512
839
893
72,591 B
8
California . .
143,373
146,170
2,006
2,573
1,047
1,611
2,797 McK
1
8
Colorado . .
161,15:3
26,271
1
1,717
386
159
134,882 B
4
Connecticut .
56,740
110,285
4,334
1,808
1,223
5;3,545 McK
—
6
Delaware . .
13,424
16,804
877
355
3.680 McK
, —
3
Florida . .
32,736
11,288
654
1,778
21,448 B
4
Georgia . .
94,232
60,091
2,708
5,613
34,141 B
13
Idaho . . .
23,192
6,824
179
16,868 B
3
Illinois. . .
464,632
607,13il
6,890
9,796
793
1,147
142,498 McK
—
24
Indiana , .
305,573
328,754
2,145
3,056
2,267
324
18,181 McK
—
15
Iowa . . .
223,741
289,298
4,516
3,192
352
453
65,552 McK
—
18
Kansas . .
171,810
159,541
1,209
1,921
630
12,269 B
10
—
Kentucky
217,890
218,171
5,114
4,781
^—
281 McK
1
12
Louisiana. .
77,175
22,037
1,834
55,138 B
8
Maine . . .
34,6SS
80,465
1,870
1,570
45,777 McK
—
6
Marj'land . .
104,735
186,959
2,507
5,918
136
587
32,224 McK
—
8
Massachusetts
105,711
278,976
11,749
2,998
2,114
173,265 McK
—
15
Michigan . .
236,714
293,582
6,879
5,025
1,995
297
56,868 McK
—
14
Minnesota .
139,620
193,501
3,202
4,843
867
53,875 McK
—
9
Mississippi .
68,859
5,130
1,071
485
58,729 B
9
—
Missouri . .
368,667
304,940
2,355
2,169
293
596
58,727 B
17
—
Montana . .
42,537
10,494
186
32,043 B
3
—
Nebraska . .
115,880
102,304
2,885
1,198
797
186
13,576 B
8
—
Nevada . .
8,377
1,938
6,439 B
3
—
N. Hampshire
21,650
57,444
3,520
779
49
228
85,794 McK
—
4
New Jersey .
133,675
221,867
6,873
5,614
8,985
87,692 McK
—
10
New York .
551,369
819,888
18,950
16,052
17,667
268,469 McK
—
36
North Carolina
174,488
155,222
578
675
■247
19,266 B
11
North Dakota
20,686
26,335
358
5,649 McK
—
8
Ohio . . .
477,494
525,991
1,857
5,068
2,716
1,167
47,497 McK
—
23
Oregon . .
46,662
48,779
977
919
2,117 McK
—
4
Pennsylvania
433,228
728,300
11,000
19,274
870
1,683
295,072 McK
—
32
Rhode Island
14,459
37,437
1,166
1,160
5
558
22,978 McK
—
4
South Carolina
58,798
9,281
828
49,517 B
9
—
South Dakota
41,225
41,042
685
183 B
4
—
Tennessee .
166,268
148,773
1,951
3,098
17,495 B
12
—
Texas . . .
370,484
167,520
5,046
1,786
202,914 B
15
—
Utah . . .
64,517
13,484
21
51,033 B
3
—
Vermont . .
10,687
51,127
1,331
733
40,490 McK
—
4
Virginia . .
154,709
135,868
2,129
2,350
108
19,341 B
12
—
Washington .
51,646
39,153
1,668
968
148
12,493 B
4
—
West Virginia
92,927
104,414
677
1,203
11,487 McK
—
6
Wisconsin
165,523
268,135
4,584
7,509
346
1,314
102,612 McK
—
12
Wyoming
Total . .
10,655
10,072
136
583 B
8
—
6,502,925
7,104,779
133,424
182,007
13,969
36,274
176
271
POPULIST VOTE FOR BRYAN AND WATSON
The Populist vote in 1896 was divided between the Bryan and Sewall
Democratic ticket and the Bryan and Watson Populist ticket. A major-
ity of the Populists voted for the former, and their votes are merged in
the aggregate. The following is a statement of the Populist popular vote
for Bryan and Watson :
Alabama .
. 24,059
California .
. 21,744
Colorado
. 2,389
Florida . .
. 2,053
Illinois . .
. 1,090
Kansas . . 46,194
Maine . . . 2,487
Massachu.setts 15,181
Mississippi . . 7,517
Nevada . . . 575
New Hampshire 379
Ohio. , . . 26,015
Pennsylvania 11,174
Tennessee . 4,525
Texas . . . 79,572
Vermont .
Wyoming
Total .
458
286
246,728
NATURALIZATION CCXV
The vote for Harrison in 1892 was 5,176,108 ; for Cleveland, 5,556,918,
Mr. Cleveland's plurality being 880,810. Mr. Weaver, Populi.st, received
1,041,028; Mr. Bidvvell, Prohibitionist, 264,183. The electoral vote was
277 for Cleveland, 145 for Harrison, and 22 for Weaver.
In 1888 the electoral vote was 288 for Harrison, and 108 for Cleveland ;
in 1884 it was 210 for Cleveland and 182 for Blaine ; in 1880 it was 214
for Garfield and 155 for Hancock ; in 1876 it was^l85 for Hayes and 184
for Tilden ; in 1872 it was 286 for Grant and 42 for Hendricks. Mr.
CJreeley, Democratic and Liberal Republican candidate, having died
before the electoral vote was cast, the Greeley electors voted for Thomas
A. Hendricks in hve States, giving him 42 electoral votes. In 1868 the
electoral vote was 214 for Grant and 80 for Seymour.
Naturalization Laws
The Kevised Statutes of the United States provide the man-
ner in which aliens may be admitted to citizenship. Two years
before their admission as citizens they must declare on oath
before a circuit or district court, or a court of record of a State,
their intention to become citizens of the United States. Accom-
panying this declaration the applicant must renounce all allegi-
ance to any foreign prince or po\ver, and he must take an oath
that he will support the Constitution of the United States. A
record is made of this declaration. If the court is satisfied that
the proper application has been made, in accordance with the
statute, and the applicant has lived continuously in the United
States for at least five years, and within the State or Territory
where the declaration of intention was made at least one year,
and " has behaved as a man of good, moral character, attached
to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and
w^ell disposed to the good order and happiness of the same," it
will admit him to citizenship, wdiich carries with it all the
privileges of a native-born citizen, except eligibility to the
Presidency. Should the applicant be the bearer of any heredi-
tary title or order of nobility, the same must be renounced at
the time of his application for citizenship.
When minors, that is, persons under twenty-one years of age,
liave resided in the United States three years preceding the age
of twenty-one, they may after that age, and after having lived
in the country five years, including the three years prior to
majority, be admitted to citizenship ; but they must make
application and declare intention to become citizens.
The children of naturalized citizens, if under age at the time
of the naturalization of the father, and if dwelling in the United
States, are to be considered as citizens ; so are the children of
citizens born abroad.
Chinamen cannot be naturalized.
The right to vote is one which is granted by the State itself,
ccxvi UNITED STATES
but naturalization comes under the Federal power, and not that
of the State. In many of the States, probably one-half of them,
aliens — that is, persons foreign born — who have declared their
intention to become citizens have the right to vote equally with
those native born, but in the remainder of the States only citi-
zens native born or naturalized may vote. The naturalization
laws of the Federal Government, of course, apply to all locali-
ties, and the naturalized citizen must conform to State laws,
notwithstanding his naturalization. Under the section on State
Governments the requirements or qualifications for voting will
be stated.
The War With Spain, 1898 ^
The conditions in Cuba resulting from the long-continued
civil strife of the Cubans against the Spanish government,
were accompanied with a great loss of life, disturbance to com-
mercial and industrial relations between Cuba and the United
States, and considerable expense on the part of the latter in
various directions. The President had called the attention of
Spain to these conditions, pointing out the great injury to
American trade and commerce and urging the relief of the
Cubans and the granting to them certain privileges which it
was thought might secure an improvement.
On the 15th of February, 1898, the United States battleship
Maine, while lying in the harbor ©f Havana on a mission of
international courtesy and good will, was destroyed.
At the suggestion of the Executive, Congress, by a unani-
mous vote, on the 9th of March, 1898, appropriated J^ 50,000,000
"for the national defence and for each and every purpose
connected therewith, to be expended at the discretion of the
President," who, nevertheless, made every exertion in his power
to secure, through diplomatic negotiations, the immediate con-
clusion of a six months' armistice in Cuba, with the ultimate
view of effecting the recognition of her people's right to
independence. Nothing came of these negotiations, and on
April 11, 1898, the President announced to Congress that he
had exhausted diplomatic effort, and that in the name of
humanity and in behalf of endangered American interests the
war in Cuba should be stopped.
After nine days of earnest deliberation, Congress, on the
19th of April, by a vote of 42 to 35 in the Senate and 311 to 6
in the House of Eepresentatives, passed a joint resolution
declaring
1 This statement relative to the war with Spain is in the main condensed from the
message of the President to the Congress, Dec. 5, 1898.
WAR WITH SPAIN CCXvii
That the people of the Island of Cuba are, and of right ought to be,
free and independent, demanding, that the Government of Spain at once
relinquish its authority and government in the Island of Cuba and with-
draw its land and naval forces from Cuba and Cuban waters, empower-
ing the President to use the entire land and naval forces of the United
States, and of the several States, to such extent as may be necessary to
carry the resolution into effect, and disclaiming any disposition or inten-
tion to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except
for the pacification thereof.
This resolution received Executive approval April 20, and a
copy was at once communicated to the Spanish Minister at
Washington, who asked for his passports, which request
was granted. Upon his w^ithdrawal he left the protection of
Spanish interests to the French Ambassador and the Austro-
Hungarian Minister. General Woodford, the American Min-
ister at Madrid, was informed of the text of the resolution,
and directed to communicate it to the Government of Spain,
giving Spain until noon of April 23 to reply.
This demand was not delivered to the Spanish Government
at Madrid. On the morning of April 21, before General Wood-
ford could present his instructions, the Spanish Minister of
State notified him that upon the President's approval of the
joint resolution, the Madrid Government had broken off diplo-
matic relations between the two countries. General Woodford
thereupon demanded his passports and left Madrid the same
day.
April 22 the President proclaimed a blockade of the north
coast of Cuba, and the port of Cienfuegos on the south coast
of Cuba, and on the next day, April 23, called for volunteers to
execute the purpose of the resolution. On the 2oth Congress
passed an act declaring the existence of war from and includ-
ing the 21st day of April, and May 25, a second call for 75,000
additional troops was made. The ranks of the regular army
were increased to the limits provided by the act of April 26.
1898.
The first encounter of the war in point of date took place
April 27, when a detachment of the blockading squadron made
a reconnaissance in force at Matanzas. The next engagement
was by the Pacific fleet, under Commodore George Dewey,
which had lain some weeks at Hongkong. At daybreak on
the 1st of May Dewey's forces entered INIanila Bay, and,
after a few hours' engagement, effected the total destruction
of the Spanish fleet, consisting of 10 warships and a transport,
besides capturing the naval station and forts at Cavite, and
securing complete control of the bay of Manila. Not a life
Ccxviii UNITED STATES
was lost on the American ships, the wounded numbered only 7,
and not a vessel was materially injured. Information of this
victory was received on the 7th day of May, and troops were
forwarded to support the navy, sailing May 25, and arriving
off Manila June 30. Other expeditions were despatched to the
Philippines, the total force consisting of 641 officers and 15,058
enlisted men.
May 11 the cruiser Wilmington and torpedo boat Winslow
were unsuccessful in an attempt to silence the batteries at
Cardenas. In this action Worth Bagley, an ensign, and 4 sea-
men were killed.
Meanwhile a powerful Spanish squadron under Admiral
Cervera, which had assembled at the Cape Verde Islands
before the outbreak of hostilities, crossed the ocean, and took
refuge in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba about May 19.
May 13 the North Atlantic Squadron shelled San Juan,
Porto Rico. On May 30 Commodore Schley's squadron bom-
barded the fort guarding the mouth of Santiago harbor.
These attacks had no material results. The next decisive
act in the war was the exploit of Lieutenant Hobson, who,
on the 3d of June, with the assistance of seven volunteers,
attempted to block the narrow outlet from Santiago harbor by
sinking the collier Merrimac in the channel.
On June 10, under a heavy protecting fire, the landing of
600 marines from the Oregon, Marblehead, and Yankee was
effected in Guantanamo Bay. Additional forces were landed
and strongly intrenched by June 16, and on the 22d the advance
army under Major-General Shafter landed at Daiquiri, about
15 miles east of Santiago, and the movement against Santiago
began on the 23d. On the 24th the first serious engagement
took place, in which the First and Tenth Cavalry and the First
United States Volunteer Cavalry, General Young's brigade of
General Wheeler's division, participated, losing heavily. By
nightfall, however, they were within five miles of Santiago.
July 1 a severe battle took place, and the American forces
gained the outworks of Santiago. On the 2d El Caney and
San Juan were taken after a desperate charge, thus completing
the investment of the city. The navy cooperated with the
army by shelling the town and the coast forts.
On the following day, July 3, the decisive naval combat of
the war occurred. The Spanish fleet attempted to leave the
harbor of Santiago, but was met by the American squadron,
which, in less than three hours, destroyed all the Sjianish
ships and sank three torpedo boats, driving the Maria Teresa,
Abnirante Oquendo, Vizcaya, and Cristobal Colon ashore. The
WAR WITH SPAIN CCxix
Spanish admiral and over 1300 men were taken prisoners,
while the Spanish loss of life was very large, some 600 perish-
ing. On the American side but one man was killed, on the
Brooklyn, and one man seriously wounded.
The capitulation of Santiago followed. Negotiations con-
tinued from July 3 to July 15, when the preliminaries of sur-
render were agreed upon, and on the 17th of July General
Shafter occupied the city. The capitulation embraced the
entire eastern end of Cuba. The Spanish surrendered 22,000
men.
With the fall of Santiago the occupation of Porto Kico was
begun, and General Miles, by previous assignment, organized
an expedition for that purpose. He was already at Santiago,
where he had arrived on the lltli of July with reenforcements
for General Shafter's army. With these troops, consisting of
3415 infantry and artillery, two companies of engineers, and one
company of the signal corps. General Miles left Guantanamo
on July 21. This expedition landed at Guanica July 25 with
but little opposition. General Miles was subsequently reen-
forced by General Schwan's brigade of the Third Army Corps,
by General Wilson with a part of his division, and also by
General Brooke with a part of his troops, the w^hole force
numbering 16,973 officers and men.
General Miles entered Ponce July 27 ; the camjoaign was
prosecuted with vigor, and on the 12th of August most of the
island was in his possession.
The last scene of the war w^as enacted at Manila. Aug. 15,
after a brief assault on the vv^orks by the land forces, in which
the squadron assisted, Manila was surrendered unconditionally,
the casualties being few. The total casualties in killed and
wounded in the armj^ and navy during the war with Spain have
been given under " Army " and " Navy."
On the 26th of July M. Cambon presented a communication
signed by the Duke of Almoddvar, the Spanish Minister of
State, inviting the United States to state the terms upon which
it would be willing to make peace. After various delays,
M. Cambon, Aug. 12, announced his receipt of full powers to
sign a protocol, and on the afternoon of the same day he, as
the plenipotentiary of Spain, with the Secretary of State as the
plenipotentiary of the United States, agreed to the protocol.
Immediately upon the conclusion of the protocol the Presi-
dent issued a proclamation suspending hostilities on the part
of the United States.
Pursuant to the 5th article of the protocol William K. Day,
late Secretary of State, Cushman K. Davis, W^illiam P. Frye,
ccxx UNITED STATES
and George Gray, Senators of the United States, and White-
law Keid, were appointed peace commissioners on the part of
the United States. On the 1st of October they met in Paris
five commissioners similarly appointed on the part of Spain.
Their negotiations resulted in the treaty of peace which was
signed at Paris on the 10th day of December, 1898, trans-
mitted to the Senate Jan. 4, 1899, and ratified by that body
Feb. 6, and by the Queen Eegent of Spain, Mar, 17, 1899.
II. STATES AND TERRITORIES
The Union comprises 13 original States, 7 States which were
admitted without having been organized as Territories dep^-
dent on the Union, and 25 States which had been Territories.
Each State has its own constitution, which must be republican
in form, and each constitution derives its authority, not from
Congress, but from the population of the State. In the case
of the original States the colonial charters were adopted, with
more or less modification, as State constitutions; the other
States, before entering the Union, had constitutions already
made. Admission of States into the Union is granted by
special Acts of Congress, either (1) in the form of " enabling
Acts," providing for the drafting and ratification of a State
constitution by the people, in which case the Territory becomes
a State as soon as the conditions are fulfilled, or (2) accepting
a constitution already framed and at once granting admission.
Each State is provided with a Legislature of two Houses, a
Governor, and other executive officials, and a judicial system.
Both Houses of the Legislature are elective, but the Senators
(having larger electoral districts) are less numerous than the
members of the House of Representatives, while in some States
their terms are longer and, in a few, the Senate is only par-
tially renewed at each election. Members of both Houses arc
paid at the same rate, which varies from ^150 to $1500
per session, or from $1 to $8 per day during session. The
duties of the two Houses are similar, but in many States money
bills must be introduced first in the House of Representatives.
The Senate has to sit as a court for the trial of officials im-
peached by the other House, and, besides, has often the power
to confirm or reject appointments made by the Governor. In
most of the States the sessions are biennial, the Governor
having power to summon in extraordinary session, but not to
dissolve or adjourn. State Legislatures are competent to deal
with all matters not reserved for the Federal Government by
the Federal Constitution, or falling within restrictions imposed
by the State constitutions. Among their powers are the deter-
STATES AND TERRITORIES CCXxi
niinations of the qualifications for the right of suffrage, and
the control of all elections to public office, including elections
of members of Congress and electors of President and Vice-
President ; the criminal law, both in its enactment and in its
execution, with unimportant exceptions, and the administra-
tion of prisons ; the civil law, including all matters pertaining
to the possession and transfer of, and succession to, property ;
marriage and divorce, and all other civil relations ; the char-
tering and control of all manufacturing, trading, transporta-
tion, and other corporations, subject only to the right of
Congress to regulate commerce passing from one State to
another ; the regulation of labor ; education ; charities ; licens-
ing, including regulation of the liquor traffic; fisheries, and
game laws. The revenues of the States are derived chiefly
from a direct tax upon property, in some cases both real and
personal, in others on land and buildings only. The prohibi-
tion upon Congress to levy direct taxes save in proportion to
population, contained in the National Constitution, leaves this
source of revenue to the States exclusively.
The Governor is chosen by direct vote of the people over the
whole State. His term of office varies from one year (in 2
States), to 4 years (in 19 States), and his salary from $1500
to $10,000. His duty is to see to the faithful administra-
tion of the law, and he has command of the military forces of
the State. His power of appointment to State offices is usu-
ally unimportant. He may recommend measures, but does not
present bills to the Legislature. In some States he presents
estimates. In all the States except Delaware, North Carolina,
Ohio, and Rhode Island, the Governor has the power to veto
bills, but where this power exists the Legislature, by a two-
thirds vote, may override the veto.
The officers by whom the administration of State affairs is
carried on — the Secretaries, Treasurers, and Auditors, and in
some of the States members of boards or commissions — are
usually chosen by the people ^t the general State elections for
terms similar to those for which Governors themselves hold
office. In some States commissioners are appointed by the
Governor.
Including Hawaii, there are now six Territories, and when
the status of Porto Rico is established there will probably be
seven Territories. Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma have
local Legislatures, the form of which has been prescribed by
the Federal Government ; they have powers similar to those of
the States, but any of their acts may be modified or annulled
by Federal statutes.
ccxxii UNITED STATES
The Governor of each of the Territories, except the Indian
Territory, is appointed for four years by the President, to
whom annual reports are submitted. These Governors have
the power of veto over the acts of Territorial Legislatures.
The President appoints the Territorial Secretaries and other
officials, together with Territorial judges.
Alaska and the Indian Territory have no power of self-
government, the former being governed like a British crown
colony, by a Governor who is not assisted by a Legislature. In
the Indian Territory the native tribes are under the direct
control of the Department of the Interior, but the civilized
tribes, with the support of the National Government, maintain
local governments of their own, with elective Legislatures and
executive officers, whose functions are strictly limited to the
persons and personal property of their own citizens ; that is,
the Indians.
The District of Columbia presents an anomalous status. It
is the seat of the Federal Government. It is coextensive with
and is practically the City of Washington, and embraces an
area of 69 J square miles. The District has no municipal legis-
lative body, and its citizens have no right to vote, either in
national or municipal affairs. Under an act of lS78 its mu-
nicipal government is administered by three connnissioners,
appointed by the President. They constitute a non-partisan
board, one being selected from each of the leading political
parties, and the third being assigned to duty as a commissioner
from the Engineer Corps of the army. All legislation relative
to the District of Columbia is by the Congress.
All the legislatures, State and Territorial, have biennial ses-
sions, except Georgia, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York,
Rhode Island, and South Carolina, which have annual sessions,
beginning in January of each year, with the exception of
Georgia, whose Legislature meets in October. Nearly all the
present biennial sessions began in January, 1890. The States
whose Legislatures meet in January, 1900, are Iowa, Kentucky,
Maryland, Mississippi, and Ohio. Alabama's next biennial
session begins in November, 1900, Louisiana's in May, 1900,
and Vermont's in October, 1900.
The following statement shows the names of the Governors,
with their salaries, length of term, and the date of expiration
thereof, and the names of the Secretaries of State :
[The letters after the names of the Governors indicate their politics — D. for Democrat-
R. for liepublican, S. for Silver, P. for Populist, F. for Fusion, and D.-P. for Demo,
cratic-Populist.]
STATE OFFICERS
CCXXlll
Governor
States and
Secretary
Territories
Name
Salary
Length,
Term,
Years
Term
Expires
of State
Alabama
Joseph F. Johnston (U)
^;3,000
•2
Doc. 1, 1!)00
R. P. McDavid
Alaska
John G. Bradv (K).
8, ()(»(>
4
J line 23, 1901
Arizona
N. (). Murphv (li) .
'2,(500
4
July 16, iy02
Charles II. Akers
Arkansas .
Danit'l W. Jones (D)
3,000
2
Jan., lyoi
Alex. C. Hull
California .
Henry T. Gage (U).
6,000
4
Jan., 1903
C. F. Curry
Colorada .
Charles S. Thomas (D) .
5,000
2
Jan., 1901
E. F. Beckwith
Connecticut
George E. Lounsburv (K)
4,000
2
.Jan., ]9(»1
Huber Clark
Delaware .
Ebe W. Tunnell (I))'
2,500
4
Jan., 1901
James H. Hughes
Florida
Wm. I). Hloxhain (D) .
3,500
4
Jan., 1901
J. L. Crawford
Georgia
Allen I). Candler (D)
2,000
2
Nov. 1, 1900
Philip Cook
Idaho
F. Steunenberg (D)
3.000
2
Jan., 1901
M. Patrie
Illinois
John li. Tanner (R)
6,000
4
Jan., 1901
James A. Rose
Indian Territory^
—
-
Indiana
James A. Mount (R)
5,000
4
Jan., 1901
U. B. Hunt
Iowa .
L. M. Shaw (R)
3,000
2
Jan., 1900
Geo. L. Dobson
Kansas
W. E. Stanley (R) .
3,000
2
Jan., 1901
G. H. Clark
Kentucky .
W. 0. Bradley (R) .
5,000
4
Dec. 10, 1899
Charles Finley
Louisiana .
Murphy J. Foster (D) .
4,000
4
April, 1900
John T. Michel
Maine
Llewell\-n Powers (R) .
2,000
2
Jan., 1901
Byron Boyd
Maryland .
Lloyd Lowndes (R)
4,500
4
Jan., 19(tO
Richard Dallam
Massachusetts .
Roger Wolcott (R) .
8,000
1
Jan. 3., 1900
W. M. Olin
Michigan .
Hazen S. Pingree (R)
4,000
2
Jan., 1901
Justice S. Stearns
Minnesota .
John Lind (D-P) .
5.000
2
Jan., 1901
Albert Berg
Mississippi
A. J. McLaurin (D)
3,500
4
Jan., 1900
J. L. Power
Missouri
Lon. V. Stei)hens (D) .
5,000
4
Jan., 1901
Ale.xander A. Lesueur
Montana .
Robert B. Smith (D-P) .
5,000
4
Jan., 1901
T. S. Hogan
Nebraska .
W. J. Poynter (P) .
2,500
2
Jan., 1901
W. F. Porter
Nevada
Reinhold Sadler (S)
4,000
4
Jan. 6, 1903
Eugene Howell
New Hampshire
Frank W. Rollins (R) .
2,000
2
Jan., 1901
Ezra S. Stearns
New Jersey
Foster M. Voorhees(R) .
10,000
3
Jan. 20, 1902
George Wurts
New Mexico
Miguel A. Otero (R)
2,600
4
June 7, 1901
George H. Wallace
New York .
Theodore Roosevelt (R) .
10,000
2
Jan. 1, 1901
John T. McDonough
North Carolina .
Daniel L. Russell (R) .
3,000
4
Jan. 1, 1901
Cyrus Thompson
North Dakota .
F. B. Fancher (R) .
3,000
2
Jan. 1, 1901
Fred. Falley
Ohio .
AsaS. Bushnell(R)
8,000
2
Jan. 8, 1900
Charles Kinney
Oklahoma .
Cassius M. Barnes (R) .
2,600
4
Mav 12, 1901
William M. Jenkins
Oregon
Theo. T. Geer (R) .
1,500
4
Jan., 1903
F. J. Dunbar
Pennsylvania
William A. Stone (R)
10,000
4
Jan., 1903
Wm. W. Griest
Rhode Island
Elisha Dver (R)
3,000
1
May 25, 1899
Charles P. Bennett
South Carolina .
W. H. Eilerbe (D) .
3,500
2
Dec, 1900
^L R. Cooper
South Dakota .
Andrew E. Lee (F)
2,500
2
Jan. 5, 1901
W. H. Roddle
Tennessee .
Benton McMillin (D)
4,000
2
Jan., 1901
William S. Morgan
Texas .
Joseph D. Savers (D)
4,000
2
Jan., 1901
D. H. Hardy
Utah .
Ileber M. Wells (R)
2,000
4
Jan., 1900
J. T. Hammond
Vermont
Edward C. Smith (R)
1,500
2
Oct. 7, 1900
Frederick A. Howland
Virginia
J. Hoge Tyler (D) .
5,00(»
4
Dec. 31, 1901
James T. Lawless
Washington
John R. Rogers (R)
4,000
4
Jan., 1901
W. D. Jenkins
West Virginia .
G. W. Atkinson (R)
2,000
4
March, 1901
W. M. 0. Dawson
Wisconsin .
Edward Scofield (R)
5,000
2
Jan., 1901
W. H. Froehlich
Wyoming .
De Forest Richards (R) .
2,500
4
Jan. 7, 1903
F. Chatterton
1 The various nations of the Indian Territory have elective tribal governments based on that of
the United States.
Qualifications for Voting
In nearly all the States the laws designate the qualifications for voting,
and as a rule persons convicted of treason or other felonies, and who are
idiots or are insane, are excluded from suffrage. There are many modifi-
cations and extensions of these qualifications. A few of the States ex-
clude from voting persons who are unable to read the Constitution in
English or to write their names. In all the States except Colorado, Idaho,
ccxxiv UNITED STATES
Utah, and Wyoming the right to vote at general elections is restricted to
males of 21 years of age and over.
"Women are entitled to suffrage in some form, mainly on questions of
taxation and the selection of school officers, in Arizona, Connecticut,
Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North
Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Wash-
ington, and Wisconsin, In Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming women
have full suffrage, and vote for all officers, including presidential electors.
In Utah women suffrage is a constitutional privilege.
The Australian ballot, or some modification of it, has been adopted in
all the States except North Carolina and South Carolina ; it is not used in
the Territories of Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma.
Voters must register in order to be able to cast their suffrage in nearly
all the States ; it is not required in Indiana and Oregon, and is prohibited
by the constitutions of Arkansas and West Virginia. In Vermont no
registration is required, but the citizen must take what is called the free-
men's oath before his first act of suffrage. In Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Maine, Missouri,
Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin registra-
tion is required in city but not State elections.
Labor Legislation
[From Second Special Report of U. S. Commissioner of Labor]
ANTI-BOYCOTTING AND ANTI-BLACKLISTING LAWS
The States having laws prohibiting boycotting in terms are Colorado,
Illinois, and AVisconsin.
The States having laws prohibiting blacklisting in terms are Alabama,
Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Utah,
Virginia, and Wisconsin.
The following States have laws which may be fairly construed as pro-
hibiting boycotting : Alabama, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Maine,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hamp-
shire, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas,
Utah, Vermont, and Wisconsin.
The following States have laws which may be fairly construed as pro-
hibiting blacklisting: Georgia, Michigan, New Hampshire, New York,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and South Dakota.
In the following States it is unlawful for any employer fco exact an
agreement, either written or verbal, from an employee not to join or be-
come a member of any labor organization, as a condition of employment :
California, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri,
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.
EIGHT-HOUR LAWS
California. — Eight hours of labor constitute a day's work, unless it is
otherwise expressly stipulated by the parties to a contract. A stipulation
that eight hours of labor constitute a day's work must be made a part of
all contracts to which the State or any municipal corporation therein is a
party. But in the case of drivers, conductors, and gripmen of street-cars
for the carriage of passengers, a day's work consists of twelve hours.
Employment of minor children for more than eight hours per day is abso-
LABOR LEGISLATION CCXXV
lately prohibited, except in vinicultural or horticultural pursuits, or in
domestic or household occupations.
Colorado. — Eight hours constitute a day's work for all workingmen
employed by the State, or any county, township, school district, munici-
pality, or incorporated town.
ConiiectiaU. — Eight hours of labor constitute a lawful day's work
unless otherwise agreed.
District of Columbia. — Eight hours constitute a day's work for all
laborers or mechanics employed by or on behalf of the District of
Cohimbia.
Idaho. — Eight hours' actual work constitute a lawful day's work on all
State and municipal works.
lllinoi.^. — Eight hours are a legal day's work in all mechanical em-
ployments, except on farms, and when otherwise agreed ; does not apply
to service by the day, week, or month, or prevent contracts for longer
hours,
Indiana. — Eight hours of labor constitute a legal day's work for all
classes of mechanics, workingmen, and laborers, excepting those engaged
in agricultural and domestic labor. Overwork by agreement and for extra
compensation is permitted. The employment of persons under fourteen
years of age for more than eight hours per day is absolutely prohibited.
Kansas. — Eight hours constitute a day's work for all laborers, me-
chanics, or other persons employed by or on behalf of the State or any
county, city, township, or other municipality.
Xebraska. — Eight hours constitute a legal day's work for all classes
of mechanics, servants, and laborers, except those engaged in farm or
domestic labor.
3Iissonri. — Eight hours constitute a legal day's work. The law does
not prevent an agreement to work for a longer or a shorter time, and does
not apply to laborers and farm hands in the service of farmers or others
engaged in agriculture.
Montana. — Eight hours constitute a legal day's work for persons
engaged to operate or handle any first-motion or direct-acting hoisting
engine, or any geared or indirect-acting hoisting engine at any mine em-
ploying fifteen or more men underground when the duties of fireman are
performed by the person so engaged ; also for any stationary engineer
operating a stationary engine developing fifty or more horse-power when
such engineer has charge or control of a boiler or boilers in addition to his
other duties. The law applies only to such steam plants as are in con-
tinuous operation or are operated twenty or more hours in each twenty-
four hours, and does not apply to persons running any engine more than
eight hours in each twenty-four for the purpose of relieving another
employee in case of sickness or other unforeseen cause.
New Jersey. — Eight hours constitute a day's labor on any day whereon
any general or municipal election shall be held.
New York. — Eight hours constitute a day's work for mechanics, work-
ingmen, and laborers, except in farm or domestic labor, but overwork for
extra pay is permitted. The law applies to those employed by the State
or municipality, or by persons contracting for State work.
0/iio. — Eight hours shall constitute a day's work in all engagements
to labor in any mechanical, manufacturing, or mining business, unless
otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. But in case of conductors,
engineers, firemen, or trainmen of railroads, a day's work consists of ten
hours.
ccxxvi UNITED STATES
Pennsylvania. — Eight hours of labor shall be deemed and held to be a
legal day's work in all cases of labor and service by the day where there
is no agreement or contract to the contrary. This does not apply to farm
or agricultural labor by the year, month, or week, to labor in factories,
laundries, and renovating establishments, or to labor on street railways.
Eight hours out of the twenty-four shall make and constitute a day's
labor in penitentiaries and reformatory institutions receiving support from
the State, also for all mechanics, workmen, and laborers in the employ of
the State, or of any municipal corporation therein, or otherwise engaged
on public works ; this shall be deemed to apply to mechanics, working-
men, or laborers in the employ of persons contracting with the State or
any municipal corporation therein for the performance of public work.
Utah. — Eight hours constitute a day's work upon all public works and
in all underground mines and workings, smelters, and all other institu-
tions for the reduction or refining of ores.
Wisconsin. — In all engagements to labor in any manufacturing or
mechanical business, where there is no express contract to the contrary,
a day's work shall consist of eight hours ; but the law does not apply to
contracts for labor by the week, month, or year. In all manufactories,
workshops, or other places used for mechanical or manufacturing pur-
poses, the time of labor of children under the age of eighteen, and of
women employed therein, shall not exceed eight hours in the day.
Wyoming. — Eight hours' actual work constitutes a legal day's work in
all mines and public works.
United States. — Eight hours shall constitute a day's work for all
laborers, workmen, and mechanics who may be employed by or on behalf
of the United States.
Boards of Arbitration
Boards of arbitration, to which controversies between employers and
employees may be submitted, generally on the petition of either or both
of the parties to the controversy, are authorized in the following-named
States :
California, Maryland, Ohio,
Colorado, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania,
Connecticut, Minnesota, Texas,
Idaho, Missouri, Utah,
Illinois, Montana, Wisconsin,
Indiana, New Jersey, Wyoming,i
Louisiana, New York, United States.
Little has been done in any of the foregoing States except New York,
New Jersey, and Massachusetts ; these States publish annually or bienni-
ally the results of the operations of their boards.
Boards of Factory Inspection
Boards of Factory Inspection, whose duties are to execute all laws
regulating factory or mercantile employment, have been established in
Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mis-
souri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island.
1 Constitutional provision that Legislature shall pass law providing for arbitration, but
no such law has jet been passed.
LABOR OFFICES — STATE FINANCES
CCXXVll
Bureaus of Labor and Labor Statistics
These offices, organized by law for the purpose of collecting, classifying,
and publishing data relative to social and industrial conditions, exist in
the following-named States :
California, Massachusetts, North Dakota,
Colorado, Michigan, Ohio,
Connecticut, Minnesota, Pennsylvania,
Illinois, Missouri, Rhode Island,
Indiana, Montana, Tennessee,
Iowa, Nebraska, Virginia,
Kansas, New Jersey, Washington,
Kentucky, New Hampshire, Wisconsin,
Maine, New York, West Virginia,
Maryland, North Carolina, United States.
The titles of the heads of the foregoing offices vary in form, but they
are usually known as commissioners or chiefs of bureaus. Any commu-
nication, however, addressed "Commissioner of Labor," at the capitals
of the States named, would reach the proper officer.
State Finances
The revenues required for the administration of the separate
States are derived from direct taxation, chiefly in the form of
a tax on property real and personal ; and the greater part of
such revenue is collected and expended by the local authorities,
county, township, or school district.
According to census returns of 1890 the total assessed value
of property taxed was $25,473,173,418, and the ad valorem taxa-
tion in 1890 amounted to $470,651,927, as follows :
For General Purposes :
State $48,556,597
County 94,629,410
Minor divisions 202,297,786
For Schools :
State 22,079,350
Counties and minor divisions .... 10:n088,784
Total $470,651, 927
The total State, county, municipal, and school district in-
debtedness, less the sinking fund in each case, in 1880 and
1890, were:
Year
State
Debt
County
Debt
Municipal
Debt
School
District
Debt
Total Debt
Debt
per Head
of Popula-
tion
1880 . . .
1890 . . .
Dollars
297,244,094
22S,997,3S5
Doll a r.1
124,105,027
145,19S,95r)
Doll am
684,848,843
724,4r>;3,583
Dot lavs
17.5s0.r,82
3r>,701,948
Dollars
1,123,278,646
1,135,351,871
Dollars
22.40
18.13
The annual interest charge on the State and local bonded
debt combined was, in 1890, $65,541,776; in 1880 it was
$68,935,807.
ccxxvm
UNITED STATES
[Kindly furnished for The Statesman's Year Book by Secretaries and Auditors of States.
For the States of Delaware, Mississippi, New York, and South Carolina, officers were
unable or neglected to furnish data.]
States and Territories
Estimated
Population
Jan. 1,1S99
Ordinary
Revenue, 1898
Ordinary
Expenditures,
1898
Eeceipts
from Bonded
Loans, 1898
Alabama
1,800,000
$2,200,000.00
$2,045,000.00
Arizona Territory
100,000
251,788.00
226,002.00
$217,000.00
Arkansas
1,500,000
680,000.00
630,000.00
California
1,500,000
7,736,886.57
8,123,503.75
Colorado
500,000
1,125,346.00
1,154,872.00
Connecticut
900,000
2,612,385.15
2,271,521.51
Florida
400,000
615,426.65
477,247.08
Georgia
2,000,0'00
3,W3,452.77
3,423,448.20
Idaho
160,000
359,496.00
223,882.00
Illinois
4,500,000
5,567,316.56
5,240,302.34
Indiana
2,700,000
5,294,310.00
5,140,258.17
Iowa
2,500,000
2,464,889.15
2,206,551.72
Kansas
1,400,000
2,677,907.44
2,641,940.48
44,263.68
Kentucky
2,132,605
4,441,243.17
4,196,283.04
539,071.47
Louisiana
1,250,000
3,257,263.00
3,244,490.00
Maine
672,000
1,704,304.66
1,651,931.15
Maryland
1,178,669
3,095,314.22
3,236,101.50
Massachusetts
2,799,798
8,471,213.67
8,776,248.89
8,227,500.00
Michigan
2,239,374
5,122,859.36
4,690,534.79
500,000.00
Minnesota
2,000,000
2,819,976.20
2,780,462.39
Missouri
3,270,000
4,133,916.61
3,885,813.32
Montana
200,000
520,497.46
474,658.40
Nebraska
1,225,000
2,471,420.44
1,875,000.00
346,720.00
Nevada
47,000
38(1,447.16
403,691.75
New Hampshire
403,000
701,768.29
401,658.45
New Jersey
1,950,000
6,275,152.00
6,183,513.00
New Mexico Territory
190,000
225,940.00
250,359.67
73,125.00
North Carolina
1,800,000
1,308,691.81
583,539.92
5,360.00
North Dakota
238,000
1,669,930.79
1,424,110.00
Ohio
4,000,000
5,173,146.87
5,009,311.02
Oklahoma Territory
380,000
223,000.00
270,000.00
Oregon
400,000
472,210.00
458,218.00
Pennsylvania
6,100,000
13,325,120.97
13,973,803.46
Ehode Island
420,000
1,501,721.82
1,498,692.84
817,760.00
South Dakota
330,000
450,000.00
352,000.00
Tennessee
2,000,000
1,700,000.00
1,700,000.00
Texas
3,000,000
2,959.830.35
2,153,766.43
Utah
240,000
862,319.00
786,657.80
Vermont
333,000
1,065,030.00
952,598.68
Virginia
1,780,000
3,065,697.00
2,343,862.60
Washington
400,000
1,200,000.00
650,000.00
41,315.00
West Virginia
1,780,000
1,749,556.88
1,492,018.09
27,467.19
Wisconsin
2,000,000
2,971,000.00
2,803,000.00
Wyoming
80,000
161,643.78
161,643.78
Hawaii ^
(hawaii-nei)
Constitution and Government
The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, discovered by Captain Cook in 1778,
formed during the greater part of the nineteenth century an independent
kingdom, whose integrity was recognized by Great Britain, France, the
* The statistics for Hawaii are compiled mainly from the *' Hawaiian Manual," published
by Thomas G. Thrum, Honolulu.
HAWAII
CCXXIX
[Kindly furnished for The Utatef^man'' 8 Year Book by Secretaries and Auditors of States.
For the States of Delaware, Mississippi, New York, and South Carolina, officers were
unable or neglected to furnish data.]
Expenditures
from Bonded
Loans, 1898
Net debt Jan. 1,
1898
Assessed Valuation
Jan. 1, 1899
States and Territories
$9,357,600.00
$256,256,205.52
Alabama
$&4,000.00
1,139,135.16
31,473,540.00
Arizona Territory
2,050,000.00
177,000,000.00
Arkansas
1,1.30,885,697.00
California
2,728,667.78
192,24:3,080.00
Colorado
3,240,100.00
534,465,257.00
Connecticut
1,157,500.00
93,900,823.75
Florida
8,031,600.00
411,818,911.00
Georgia
597,469.64
30,423,671.00
Idaho
778,474,910.00
Illinois
5,700,615.12
1,285,965,056.00
Indiana
218,214.23
^44,247,782.00
Iowa
40,805.19
6:32,000.00
825,889,747.00
Kansas
539,071.47
550,105.00
552,957,768.00
Kentucky
10,877,800.00
261,545,868.00
Louisiana
2,203,000.00
329,516,244.00
Maine
3,564,512.95
603,326,096.00
Maryland
11,154,820.30
13,59S,9W.24
2,764,242,7^4.00
Massachusetts
500,000.00
500,000.00
1,105,100,000.00
Michigan
1,300,000.00
599,358.546.00
Minnesota
7,964,797.00
1,106,066,6-_'5,00
Missouri
133,969,519.35
Montana
45,402.76
1,800,000.00
167,810,764.79
Nebraska
546,512.40
23,517,245.29
Nevada
1,367,657.61
276,118,255.00
New Hampshire
39,000,000.00
812,609,000.00
New Jersey
44,841.00
5,000,000.00
39,12-2,146.00
New Me.xico Territory
298,034.00
6,090,850.00
265,867,196.00
North Carolina
845,300.00
101,131,016.00
North Dakota
1,241,665.00
1,748,008,639.00
Ohio
2,890.00
348,501.04
40,623,816.00
Oklahoma Territory
133,533,577.00
Oregon
1,025,981.93
Pennsylvania
94.753.85
2,044,911.30
390,912,580.00
Rhode Island
399,900.00
738,300.00
120,000,000.00
South Dakota
550,000.00
17,000,000.00
355,000,000.00
Tennessee
3,992,030.00
854,619,365.00
Texas
703,508.30
100,241,331.00
Utah
515,500.00
157,265,133.00
Vermont
26,746,387.70
486,447,904.00
Virginia
34,720.00
1,700,000.00
226,996,294.00
Washington
222,195,486.10
West Virginia
2,251,000.00
600.000,000.00
Wisconsin
320,000.00
30,789,291.74
Wyoming
United States, and other governments. In 1893, however, the reigning
Queen, Liliuokalani, was deposed, and a provisional government formed ;
in 1894 a Republic was proclaimed, with a Legislature of two Houses and
a President ; and in accordance with a resolution of Congress of July 7,
1898, the islands were on Aug. 12, 1898, formally annexed to the United
States. Five commissioners were appointed to recommend such legisla-
tion concerning the Islands as they should deem nece.s.sary and proper,
and in the beginning of December the report of the Commission with
their legislative proposals was transmitted to Congress. The principal
Bill provides for the erection of the islands into a Territory, to be styled
the Territory of Hawaii. All whites, including Portuguese, all persons
of African descent, and all descendants of Hawaiian race, either on the
ccxxx
UNITED STATES
paternal or the maternal side, who were citizens of Hawaii immediately
prior to the transfer of the sovereignty to the United States, are declared
citizens of the United States. Prior to the transfer all Hawaiians of full
age who could speak, read, and write either Hawaiian or English had the
right to vote. The number of registered electors on Sept. 3, 1897, was
2687.
For military purposes the Islands have been attached to the Depart-
ment of California.
Area and Population
The total area of the islands is 6640 square miles : namely, Hawaii,
4210 ; Maui, 760 ; Oahu, 600 ; Kauai, 590 ; Molokai, 270 ; Lanai, 150 ;
Niihau, 97 ; Kahoolawe, 63 square miles. In 1896 the population num-
bered 109,020 (72,517 males and 36,503 females). Of the total, 31,019
were natives, 8485 half-castes, 21,616 Chinese, 24,407 Japanese, 15,191
Portuguese, 3086 Americans, 2250 British, 1432 Germans, 378 Nor-
wegians, 101 French, 455 Polynesians, and 600 other foreigners. The
population comprised 7570 persons engaged in agriculture, 2100 in fishing
and navigation, 2265 in the industries, 2031 in trade and transport, 2580
in liberal professions, 34,498 laborers, 4310 of various occupations, and
53,726 without regular occupation. The native population (closely allied
to the Maories of New Zealand) is rapidly decreasing, while the foreign
element is increasing.
COMPAKATIVE table of nationality or POPULATION OF HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS AT VARIOUS CENSUS PERIODS SINCE 1S53
Nationality
1853
18661
1872
1878
1884
1890
1896
Natives . . . .
70,08G
57,125
49,044
44,088
40,014
34,436
31,010
Part Hawaiians .
983
1,640
1,487
3,420
4,218
6,186
8,4S5
Chinese . . . .
364
1,206
1,938
5,916
17,937
15,301
19,382
Americans ....
692
SS9
1,276
2,006
1,928
2,266
Hawaiian-born foreigners .
809
849
947
2,040
7,495
13,733
British . . . .
435
619
883
1,282
1,344
1,538
Portuguese
86
395
436
9,377
8,602
8,232
(jrcnnans . . . .
81
-2,988
224
272
1,600
1,434
912
French . . . .
60
88
81
192
70
75
Japanese . . . .
116
12.360
22,329
Norwegian ....
8
362
227
216
Other foreigners
80
364
666
416
419
424
Polynesian ....
Totals . . . .
4
956
588
409
73,138
62,959
56,897
57,985
80,578
89,990
109,020
1 There was no complete division of nationalities noted in the census of 1866.
AREA AND POPULATION — HAWAII
CCXXXl
ESTIMATED POPULATION HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, JAN. 1, 1898
[Omitting reference to birth and death changes, owing to incomplete records]
Natives
Chinese
tlapa-
nese
Portu-
guese
All other
Foreigners
Total
Population as per census, Sept.
i!s;i«
PasscMiger arrivals — Excess over
departures, 4th (juarter, 1896 .
Passenger arrivals — Excess over
departures for the year 1897 .
Total
89,504
21,616
1,877
2,867
24,407
1,673
1,202
15,191
1108
8,302
339
109,020
3,389
4,872
39,504
25,860
27,282
15,299
9,330
117,281
^Less 3 excess of departures in 1896.
Schools are established all over the islands, the sum allotted for public
instruction in 1897 being 8144,389. In 1897 there were 192 schools,
with 507 teachers and 14,522 pupils ; of the pupils 5330 were Ilawaiians,
2479 half-castes, 3815 Portuguese, and 1638 Asiatics ; of the teachers,
253 were American, 119 Hawaiian or part Hawaiian, and 69 British.
ILLITERACY, BY NATIONALITY
[From Latest Census Reports, 1890]
Nationalities
Number over
6 Years
Per Cent Able to
Read and Write
Hawaiian
26,495
83.97
Part Hawaiian
5,895
91.21
Hawaiian-born foreigners
5,394
68.29
Americans .
2,060
82.02
British ....
1,516
95.44
Germans
899
80.31
French
75
92.00
Norwegians .
215
80.46
Portuguese .
8,089
27.84
Japanese
22,189
53.60
Chinese
19,317
48.47
S. S. Islanders
407
40.05
Other nationalities
423
75.41
IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION
The immigration and emigration for five years have been
1898
1894
1895
ls90
1S97
Immigration
Emigration .
5,672
3,926
8,114
5,477
8,090
4,636
13.984
6,857
11,-379
6,504
Most of the immigrants are Japanese. There are now restrictions on
Chinese immigration.
CCXXXll
UNITED STATES
RELIGIOUS BELIEF, BY NATIONALITY
[From Report of General Superintendent of Census]
Deducting the above number, 54,522, from the whole population of
109,020, we "find 54,498 who did not return themselves as of any religion.
The Chinese and Japanese number 46,023. Of these 1717 return them-
selves in the above divisions. This leaves 44,306 who must be Buddhists,
etc., and deducting this number from the total, or 54,498 who made no
returns, we have 10,192 of all other nationalities who either decline to
state their religious belief or profess no religion.
Finances of Hawaiian Islands
receipts, expenditures, and public debt of hawaii, for
various years from 1856 to 1897
[Com
piled from various
Finance Reports
to the Legislat
lire]
Periods ending
March up to 1894,
then Dec. 31
Revenue
Expenditures
Cash Balance,
in Treasury
Public Debt
1856
1860
1870
1880
1890
1892
1894
1895
1897
$419,228.16
571,041.71
834,112.65
1,703,736.88
3,632,196.85
3,916,880.72
3,587,204.08
3,506,183.96
6,042,504.94
$424,778.25
612,410.55
930,550.29
1,495,697.48
3,250,510.35
4,095,891.44
3,715,232.83
3,172,070.73
4,654,926.27
$28,096.84
13,127.52
61,580.20
338,880.44
491,152.10
312,141.38
18-1,113.53
69,225.76
456,804.43
$22,000.00
128,777.33
126,568.68
388,900.00
2,599,502.94
3,217,101.13
3,417,459.87
3,811,064.49
3,679,700.00
FINANCES — HAWAII
CCXXXlll
BONDED DEBT, ETC., HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, JAN. 1, 1898
Under Loan
Act of 1882 .
1880 .
1888 .
1890 .
1892 .
1893 .
1890 .
6%
C%
5%andeo/o
5% " 0%
6%
5%
Due Postal Savings Bank depositors
Total.
^4,200.00
2,000,000.00
190,000.00
124,100.00
119,400.00
050,000.00
5(52,000.00
§3,079,700.00
. 809,181.02
$4,488,881.02
Notice was gazetted Aug. 3, 1898, that after maturity interest would
cease on tlie bonds issued under the Loan Act of 1882 and a portion of the
Loan Act of 1890, and the principal, amounting in all to $03,300, would
be paid at the next due date of coupons. The interest on the loans varies
from 5 to 12 per cent.
ANNUAL INTERNAL TAXES, VARIOUS YEARS, FROM 1876 TO 1897
Year
Taxes Col-
lected
Tax per
Capita 1
Year
Taxes Col-
lected
Tax per
Capita 1
1870 .
1880 .
1885 .
1890 .
$102,880
317,872
432,050
500,757
$2.84
4.70
5.09
0.23
1895 .
1890 .
1897 .
8592,092
098,844
759,704
$5.02
0.32
0.54
Omitting fractions.
HAWAIIAN SILVER COIN
The following denominations of Hawaiian Silver were coined during
the reign of Kalakaua, at the San Francisco mint, and imported for the
circulating medium of the islands in 1883 and 1884. They are of the
same intrinsic value as the United States silver coins and were first intro-
duced into circulation Jan. 14, at the opening of the bank of Claus
Spreckles & Co. in Honolulu. The amount coined was $1,000,000, divided
as follows : •
Hawaiian dollars $500,000
" Half dollars 350,000
'* Quarter dollars 125,000
" Dimes 25,000
Total $1,000,000
CCXXXiv UNITED STATES
HAWAIIAN 8UGAK PLANTATION STATISTICS, VARIOUS YEARS, 1875 TO 1897
Year
Sugar
Molasses
Total Export
Value
Pounds
Value
Gallons
Value
1875 .
1880 .
1885 .
1890 .
1895 .
1S96 .
1897 .
25,080,182
63,584,871
171,350,314
259,789,402
294,784,819
443,509,282
520,158,232
$1,210,388.82
4,322,711.48
8,350,001.94
12,159,585.01
7,975,590.41
14,932,172.82
15,390,422.13
93,722
198,355
57,941
74,920
44,970
15,885
33,770
$12,183.86
29,75;3.52
7,050.00
7,603.29
3,037.8;3
1,209.72
2,892.72
$1,228,572.68
4,352,4(>4.73
8,363,111.94
12,167,188.30
7,978,628.24
14,933,382.54
15,393,314.85
PLAXTATION LABOR STATISTICS
NUMBER AND NATIONALITY OF SUGAR PLANTATION LABORERS
[Compiled from latest Report of Secretary Bureau of Immigration, Dec. 31, 1897]
Islands
Hawaiians
Portu-
guese
Japanese
Chinese
S. S.
Islanders
All
Others
Total
Hawaii .
Maui
Oahu
Kauai .
Total 1897
Total 1896
Decrease 1897
Increase 1897
425
534
242
296
952
496
211
559
5,021
2,031
1,691
3,325
2,995
1,529
1,687
1,903
20
36
2
23
267
156
31
221
9,6S0
4,782
3,864
6,327
1.4'.»7
2,218
12,068
8,114
81
675
24,65:3
1,015
2,268 •
r2,,s93
6,289
115
600
23,780
118
50
725
84
1,825
75 873
Notwithstanding the preference of planters for Hawaiian laborers it is
notable that their numbers are still diminishing. In this, as in all other
avenues of labor open to them, they look with apparent indifference to
the necessary employment of alien help to maintain the established in-
dustries of their country, and yet there are those who decry the gradual
crowding of Hawaiians to the wall.
Female help on the various plantations which in 1806 numbered 1024 —
a gain of 89 over the previous year — has dropped down to 802 in 1807.
Of tliis number 740 are Japanese, 108 Portuguese, and 35 Hawaiians ;
this latter nationality being confined to the Mormon community at Laie,.
Oahu. In all other parts of the islands they have ceased to be a factor.
The exports of sugar for the force of labor engaged in its cultivation
and manufacture the past three years shows the following gradually
increased result: 1805, nearly 7^ tons; 180(5, a little over 9^ tons, and in
1897 very nearly 10| tons per capita employed.
Commerce, Shipping, and Communications
The islands are to a great extent mountainous and volcanic, but the
soil is highly fertile and productive. Sugar and rice are the staple indus-
tries, while coffee, hides, bananas, and wool are also exported. The fol-
lowing table shows the commerce for 1897.
HAWAII — LABOR AND COMMERCE
CCXXXV
VALUE OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED AT ALL PORTS OF THE HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS, AND WHERE FROM, DURING THE YEAR 1897
[ From the annual report of the Collector-General of Customs to the Minister of Finance, 1897]
Countries from which
Imported
Goods paying
Duty
Spirits paying
Duty
Goods
Bonded
Spirits
Bonded
United States Pacific ports
Ignited States Atlantic ports
(Jreat Hritain
Germany ....
China
Japan
Australia and New Zealand
Canada
Islands of the Pacific .
France
Other countries .
Total
At Honolulu
At Hilo ....
At Kahului ....
At Mahukona
Total
Dollars
630,447.88
17,960.69
772,134.94
144,936.67
242,139.50
213,623.14
19,001.99
12,469.85
501.09
12,951.99
27,431.10
Dollars
77,454.33
2,341.28
4,589.63
338.19
. 54,196.70
86.90
98.75
1.581.77
Dollars
2,074.50
41.04
121.66
1.93
3,924.40
8,103.19
2.29
835.20
47,614.52
Dollars
86,645.58
14,101.43
8,797.51
13,368.64
1,410.45
206.97
1,848.90
5,122.48
M.28
2,093,.59S.S4
140,637.55
57,718.73
81, .556.24
2,010,296.44
43,196.12
30,077.74
10,028.54
140,637.55
57,007.13
711.60
81,556.24
2,093,598.84
140,637.55
57,71S.73
81,5.56.24
Countries from which
Imported
Goods Free
by Treaty
Goods Free
bv Civil
Code
Spirits
Free by
Civil Code
Total
Per
Cent
United States Pacific ports
United States Atlantic ports
Great Britain
Germany ....
China
Japan
Australia and New Zealand
Canada
Islands of the Pacific .
France
Other countries .
Total
At Honolulu ....
At Hilo ....
At Kahului . ^ .
At Mahukona
Total
Dollars
4,041,134.64
277,809.66
Dollars
1,648,247.23
1,2(>4.25
77,081.94
33,019.27
644.17
19,977.86
103,241.94
43,4&4.07
5,362.95
1,405.86
132,056.43
Dollars
66,932.54
16.00
1,587.18
2.50
5.00
11,418.24
Dollars
6,502,936.70
297,091.64
865,781.25
192,932.19
260,417.40
292,316.34
122,453.19
58,674.92
5,8(>i.04
30,997.32
208,738.10
73.58
8.36
9.80
2.18
2.94
3.31
1.39
.66
.07
.35
2.36
4,318,944.30
2,065,785.97
79,961.46
8,838,203.09
100
3,573,040.90
384,728.47
227,700.50
133,474.43
1,85.3,215.62
122,299.49
58,608.20
31,662.66
79,961.46
7,795,715.34
550,224.08
817,098.04
175,165.63
88.20
6.23
8.59
1.98
4,318,944.30
2,065,785.97
79,961.46
8,838,203.09
100
Nationality of Vessels carrying above Imports
Total
Per
Cent
American
Great Hritain
Germany
Hawaiian
All other
Dolla rs
6,134..340.83
1,216,830.86
275,456.89
1,141,726.48
69,848.03
69.41
13.77
8.11
12.92
.79
Total
•
8,838,203.09
100
CCXXXVl
UNITED STATES
HAWAII'S ANNUAL TRADE BALANCE, ETC., VARIOUS YEARS, FROM
1880 TO 1897
[Revised and
compared with recent official tables]
Year
Imports
Exports
Excess Export
Values
Custom House
Receipts
1880 . .
1885 . .
1890 . .
1895 . .
1896 . .
1897 . .
$3,673,268.41
3,830,544.58
6,962,201.13
5,339,755.04
6,063,652.41
7,682,628.09
$ 4,968,444.87
9,158,818.01
13,142.829.48
8,474,138.15
15,515,230.13
16,021,775.19
$1,295,176.46
5,328,273.43
6,180,628.35
3,134,353.11
9.451,577.72
8,339,147.10
$402,181.63
502,337.38
695,956.91
547,149.04
656,895.82
708,493.05
QUANTITY AND ^
^VLUE OF
DOMESTIC EXPORTS
1895 TO
1897
Articles
1895
1896
1897
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Puff.ar, lbs.
294,784,819
!f7,975,590.41
443.569,282
.$14,932,172.83
520,1.58,282
$15,890,422.13
Rice, lbs.
3,768,762
161,547.16
5,025,491
195,817.16
5,499,499
225,575.52
Hides, pes. .
19,180
47,234.14
25,079
60,311.29
25,140
87,545.48
Bananas, bnchs. .
105,055
102,599.25
126,413
125,089.30
75,835
75,412.50
Wool, lbs.
227,987
17,873.14
462,819
33,297.88
249,200
21,308.84
Molasses, galls.
4-1,970
8,037.83
15,885
1,290.72
9,000
2,892.72
Goat skins, pes.
6,46(1
2,638.20
12,617
4,447.00
6,085
2,055.00
Awa. lbs.
12,600
1,304.50
14,120
988.50
Betel leaves, bxs. .
119
640.00
125
612.50
145
509.00
Coffee, lbs. .
118,755
22,823.68
255,655
53,650.39
337,158
99,696.62
Tallow, lbs. .
83,770
225.00
Sheep skins, pes. .
6,504
798.90
7,886
1,053.81
9,907
2,711.95
Taro flour, lbs.
Guano, tons .
Pineapples, pes.
22.20
4,230
61.25
65,213
8,783.84
147,451
15,349.96
149,515
14,428.17
Sundrv fruits, bxs.
878.00
699.50
572.00
Canned fruits
972
972.82
(Doz.)l,13S
2,276.00
115
347.90
Sundries
Total value .
11,363.54
6,562.14
9,696.16
^8,3.58,106.79
$15,515,2.30.13
$15,933,398.99
Steamers connect the islands with the American continent, Australasia,
and China. In 1897 there were 62 registered vessels belonging to the
islands, of 34,066 tons ; of these, 21 of 28,510 tons were built in England.
There are about 100 nules of railway in the islands of Hawaii, ]\laui, and
Oahu. There are telegraphs in the islands of Maui, Hawaii, between
Hawaii and Oahu, and round the latter island ; total length, 250 miles;
nearly every family in Honolulu has its telephone. In 1897 the total
number of letters, etc., transmitted and received by the Tost Office was
5,079,872 ; there were 73 post-offices. Postal savings-banks, 1897 :
$953,981. Honolulu is lighted by electricity.
The various islands will shortly be connected
depositors, 10,620 ; amount,
and has lines of tramways,
by telegraphic cable.
Porto Eico
Area, Population, etc.
The island of Porto Rico (added to the United States by Spain in
accordance with the Treaty of Paris, signed Dec. 10, 1898, and ratified
PORTO RICO — rOPULATION AND COMMERCE ccxxxvii
by the Senate Feb. 0, 1899, and by the Queen Regent of Spain Mar. 17),
according to a recent report of the British consul (Foreign Office, Annual
Series, No. 1917, 1897), has an extent of about 3668 s<iuare miles— 35
miles broad and 95 miles long. The Statesman's Year Book, 1898, gives
the population (1887) at 8i3,937, of wliich over 300,000 are negroes.
There are 470 miles of telegraph and 137 miles of railway, besides 170
miles under construction. According to a report by United States Consul
Stewart of San Juan (printed in " Highways of Commerce"), there are
about 150 miles of good road on the island. Elsewhere transportation is
effected on horseback. The British report above referred to says that the
telephone systems of San Juan, Ponce, and Mayaguez have recently been
contracted for by local syndicates. In Ponce a United States company
obtained the contract for the material. There are 100 stations already
connected, and it is expected that 200 more will be in operation shortly.
Commerce
The Estadistica General del Comercio Exterior, Porto Rico, 1897,
gives the following figures (the latest published) in regard to the trade of
the island in 1895 :
IMPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES
Articles
Value 1
Articles
Value 1
Coal ....
Iron ....
Soap ....
Meat and lard .
Jerked beef
Fish ....
Rice ....
$119,403
224,206
238,525
1,223,104
133,616
1,591,418
2,180,004
Flour
Vegetables
Olive oil .
Wine
Cheese
Other provisions
Tobacco (man'f'd) .
$982,222
192,918
327,801
305,656
324,137
171,322
603,464
1 United States currency.
EXPORTS OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES
Articles
Value 1
Articles
Value!
Coffee
Tobacco .
$8,789,788
646,556
Sugar
Honey
$3,747,891
517,746
1 United States currency.
The value of the total imports was $16,155,056, against $18,316,971
for the preceding year. The exports were valued at $14,629,494, against
316,015,665 in 1894. The principal increases in imports, as compared
with the preceding year, were in meat, fish, olive oil, and tobacco.
Decreases were noted in flour, vegetables, and wine. The exportation of
coffee diminished, and that of sugar and honey increased.
The commerce of Spain with Porto Rico from 1893 to 1896 was :
Description
1S93,
lSi)4
ls05
1896
Imports from Porto Rico
Kxports to Porto Rico .
DollavH
4,r>.'>:-!.o-_>:^
DoUa rtt
4.1 (',4,9(54
Dolhtt'H
r).824,r)94
s,r)T2..'U9
Doll a rx
5.4'23,7fi(t
7,32S,S^0
CCXXXVlll
UNITED STATES
The figures for 1896 are from a British foreign office report (Annual
Series, No. 2065, 1898).
The trade of Porto Rico with other countries of importance in 1895
(according to the Estadistica General del Comercio Exterior) was :
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
Imports
Exports
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Cuba
808,283
3,610,936
Holland .
325,301
3,246
England .
1,765,574
1,144,555
Denmark .
26,565
236,418
France .
251,984
1,376,087
British West Indies
1,709,117
521,649
Germany
1,368,595
1,181,396
Danish West Indies
600
40,434
Italy
19,619
589,045
French West Indies
55
62,927
The British consul says that the principal exports in 1896 were :
Articles
Quantity
Articles
Quantity
Sugar . . . tons
Coffee . . . tons
Hides . . . tons
Cattle . . . head
54,205
26,655
169
3,178
Timber . . . tons
Molasses . . tons
Tobacco . . tons
30
14,740
1,039
Owing to the troubled state of affairs in Cuba, continues the report,
prices for tobacco have increased enormously in Porto Rico. A large
amount has been planted, and the crop promises well.
COMMEECE or THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SPANISH WEST INDIES,
BY PPJNCIPAL ARTICLES, 1893-1897
Exports to Porto Rico
1803
1894
1895
1896
1807
432,075
338,445
194,729
399,687
673,128
22,768
16,950
10.431
19,930
29,787
23,874
17,440
1.200
595
1,200
14,614
9,141
714
276
433
14,847
28,414
2,417
355
897
43,065
77.409
6,665
886
1,698
167,0.5;^
200,813
118,617
129,021
126,933
733,308
734,443
382,676
486,482
516,188
23,301
33.222
10.318
13,776
13,379
837,056
871,174
410.804
.521.350
561,485
5,873
5,008
2,712
3,512
4,123
2,953
2,167
2,488
8,929
2,. 505
518
-«4
204
423
266
8,050
16,500
600
129
208
6
443
949
229
424
955
300
579
1.56
267
4.54
5,697
2.204
1,510
2,548
461
2,763
1,114
.575
849
165
Articles
AGRIClFLTtTRAL AND OTHER PRODUCTS
Bread stuffs :
lit .
Bread and bisc
Corn
Corn meal
Wheat flour
All other
Total .
Fruits, including nuts .
Hops ....
Oil cake and oil-cake meal
Oils:
Animal — Animal and
other .
Vepetahle — Cotton and
linseed .
jibs.
/ dolls.
J bush.
I dolls.
j bbls.
) dolls.
J bbls.
I dolls,
dolls.
dolls.
dolls,
jibs.
I dolls,
jibs.
I dolls.
j palls.
I dolls,
j palls.
I dolls.
PORTO RICO — COMMERCE
CCXXXIX
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SPANISH WEST INDIES,
BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES — Continued
Exports to Porto Rico — Continued
Articles
lsf)3
1S94
lsf)5
1896
1897
A(.iucrLTrKAL — Continued
Provisions, comprising meat and dairy
products: J lbs.
Beef, canned . . . | dolls.
4,045
6,166
1,584
2,112
2,496
354
509
123
163
192
Beef, salted or pickled . \ ^^^^^^^
80,360
8,894
79,300
4,159
85,625
1,781
32,925
1,606
61,100
2,905
Tallow .... -j!i^;,-i3
11,100
3,305
3,990
7,591
4,565
778
171
234
411
256
Bacon and hams . . \ ^^^^^^
982,209
1,030,788
1,079,633
1,281,114
1,506,960
113,844
117,733
99,968
111,735
112,602
Pork, pickled ... -1 Ifclis.
8,318,600
4,480,400
3,285,200
4,495,550
3,450,200
282,980
360,684
221,848
24^3,311
152,411
T A 1 lbs.
Lai-d .... -j, lolls
3,239,094
3,979,784
3,414,79s
4,027,501
4,572,985
306,809
343,573
248,148
244,467
228,051
Oleomargarine — imita- ( U)**-
43,670
76,534
110,515
18,440
tion butter . . . ] dolls.
5,458
10,182
13,540
1,738
All other meat products dolls.
10,895
17,723
14,025
17,092
28,529
Dairy products : , ik „
1^""-^ • • • i dolls.
63,835
139,774
102,914
20,655
83,525
9,780
21,456
12,448
2,754
4,009
Cheese . . . \^^^^^
244,884
130,545
25,319
25,404
26,478
28,721
16,568
3,038
2,946
3,022
MUk .... dolls.
Total . . . dolls.
Vegetables : , , ,
Beans and peas . . -j ^^[jg-
544
605
667
737
729
764,057
893,363
608.820
626,96(»
527,706
16,691
30,976
5,289
36,522
44,849
23,685
44,105
7,338
44,244
57,550
r. ■ ( bush.
Onions .... -j, lolls.
40
127
880
44
130
369
Potatoes. . . .-15-5;
1,547
655
1,770
2,769
8,969
1,559
569
1,240
1,675
5,707
All other .... dolls.
Total .... dolls.
A 11 other agricultural products dolls.
Total agricultural products dolls.
Agricultural implements . dolls.
681
562
319
581
218
25.969
45.366
8,897
46.869
63,470
2.636
1,94:3
1,185
2,771
3,020
1,6.39,301
1,819,189
1,033.4.59
1,203,001
1,160,689
3,170
7,510
2,728
6,967
4,239
Cotton, manufactures of . dolls.
15,744
21,284
14,480
26,51:3
12,002
India rubber and gutta-percha,
manufactures of . . dolls.
2,241
2,530
2,629
3,060
3,149
Iron and steel, manufactures of:
Car wheels . . . dolls.
600
88
Cutlery .... dolls.
1,104
408
600
327
827
Firearms . . . dolls.
140
460
Machinery, n. e. s. . . dolls.
56,389
81,373
56,642
44,524
69,462
Nails and spikes . . -j JJjjUs
186,179
4,582
138,079
3,669
121,813
2,592
106,258
2,809
82,075
2,417
Railway bars . . . dolls.
1,795
1,394
Saws and tools . . dolls.
11,486
16,471
7,881
12,496
7,083
Stationary engines . . -j ^^^^^
6
4,291
7
4,046
3
3,000
2
1,265
4
2,141
^'« • ■ ■ ■ ] Jo'lK
1,073,142
1,401,182
677,000
1,077,900
813,485
28,891
81,607
13,476
21,251
15,719
Leather, and manufactures of dolls.
9.291
8,404
5,800
9,339
7,368
All other articles . . . dolls.
Total domestic exports . dolls.
726.158
758,546
675,161
747.424
680,166
2,502,788
2,705,646
1,820,203
2,080,400
1,9(>4,850
Total foreign exports . dolls.
Total exports of merchandise
Gold
7.819
14.sr.2
18,341
21,694
24,088
2.510,607
2,720.5(»8
1,8:«,544
2,102.094
1,988,888
5,000
1,400
Silver
2,7.54
ccxl
UNITED STATES
Imports from Porto Rico
Articles
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
FREE OF DUTY
Coffee
jibs.
• 1 dolls.
91,90(5
372.427
66,782
159,649
133.083
23,814
81,226
11,724
24,101
22,489
Fruits, including nuts .
. dolls.
2(5,628
15,177
397
63
61
Sugar and molasses :
j galls.
2,502,666
2,554,265
■ ( dolls.
708,905
630,370
Sugar
jibs.
99,578,182
75,484,143
16,065,702
(a)
(a)
• 1 dolls.
3,227,522
2,392,514
311,704
(a)
(«)
All other free articles .
Total free of duty
DUTIABLE
. dolls.
. dolls.
7,804
3,994,678
7.608
51 .539
24,444
79,161
3,126,895! y75.3t>4
48.608
101,711
Sugar and molasses :
j galls.
• 1 dolls.
(&)
(&)
2,038,121
2,256,078
2,639,134
(h)
(6)
418,645
520,275
470,532
Sugar
(lbs.
& 39,729
h 61,887
40,286,820
81,582,810
86,607,317
• 1 dolls.
61,411
61,537
682,369
1,708,318
1,577,911
All other, dutiable articles
Total dutiable .
Total imports
Gold ....
. dolls.
. dolls.
. dolls.
12.539
7,202
30,134
19.452
30,870
13,950
8,739
1,131,148
2.248,045
2.079.818
4,008,623
3,135,634
1,506,512
2,296.658
2.181,(124
6,625
11,855
6.905
24,154
Silver ....
11,743
165,531
53,484
18,004
6.959
a See " Du
tiable."
6 See "
Fr >e of Di
ity."
SHIPPING OF PORTO PtICO IN 18951
Country
Spain
England .
Germany .
France
Belgium .
Italy .
Cuba .
United States .
Denmark .
Austria
Dominican Republic
Colombia .
Venezuela
Haiti
Argentine Republic
Uruguay .
Brazil
West Indies:
British
Danish
Dutch .
French
Mexico
Total .
Entrances
Vessels
150
109
50
44
16
3
171
190
59
2
25
2
1
160
45
7
80
1,077
Tonnage
296,424
185,349
79,495
55,908
12,751
4,.537
180,772
182,165
20,103
1,341
36,089
2,454
286
4.893
2,789
49.997
11,140
279
2,264
1,079,286
Clearances
Vessels
121
3
25
48
8
262
284
11
5
60
1
151
47
9
34
1
1,070
Tonnage
126.662
i;5so
32,740
65.926
8,139
358,427
201,051
4,686
8,513
21,594
68
44,285
24,528
505
1,597
78
900,379
1 From the Estadistica General del Comercio E-xterior.
Banking and Currency, Weights and Measures
There is a bank at San Juan, the capital, with branches at the princi-
pal points in the island. The coin in use is the 5-peseta piece ($0,193).
Official statistics are computed in Mexican dollars.
t from Ureenwich /57
HAWAIIAIS"
ISLAISDS
SCALE OF MILES
Kaena Pt. "^""^
MAUI
Oaiiapuka oK
. . ! civ*
Mokuia
Keal«'
, . pt^-^KAHOOLAWE c^x*
.•i.aH*
lilv*'
Mahukoua Harbor
.l)Of
ypo/u Pfva^s^^^^t-^*''"*^*'^'^^
BCPMAY li CO.ENiR'S.N.Y.
PHILIPPINES — POPULATION AND FINANCES ccxli
The weights and measures in use in Porto Rico are : The quintal, of
4 arrobas ; tlie arroba (25.;>0 lbs.), of 25 libras ; the libra, of 16 onzas ;
the vara, of 3 pies (0.91407 foot) ; the pie, of 12 pulgadas ; the arroba
(liquid measure : 4.263 gallons) ; and fanega (dry measure : 1.599 bushels),
of 12 ahnudes. The cuerda (land measure) equals about two-tifths of an
acre.
Philippine Islands
[The data given herewith, relating to Jinancial and industrial conditions in the Philippines,
are from the report of Edward W. Harden, Special Commissioner of the United States,
and those relating to mineral resources are from a memorandum by George F. Becker,
in the Nineteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey.]
Area and Population
These islands, ceded by Spain to the United States by the treaty signed
by the Peace Commissioners, Dec. 10, 1898, and ratified by the Senate,
Feb. 6, 1899, and by the Queen Regent of Spain Mar. 17, extend almost
due north and south from Formosa to Borneo and the Moluccas, embrac-
ing an extent of 16° of latitude and 9"^ of longitude. They are about 2000
in number ; the two largest are Luzon (area 40,024 square miles) and
Mindanao ; and the total area, including the Sulu Islands, is about
115,300 square miles. The population is estimated at about 8,000,000.
The capital of the Philippines, Manila, has 154,062 inhabitants (1887);
other towns are Laoag, 30,642 ; Lipa, 43,408 ; Banang, 35,598 ; Batangas,
35,587. There are about 25,000 Europeans in the islands and about
100,000 Chinese, in whose hands are the principal industries. The native
inhabitants are mostly of the Malayan race, but there are some tribes of
Negritos. The group is divided into three governments : Luzon, the
Visayas, and INIindanao with the Sulu Islands ; but in many of the islands
the natives have hitherto been practically independent.
Financial and Industrial Conditions
Silver is the basis of the currency in the Philippine Islands. There is
no gold in general circulation, and has been none for more than twenty
years. The Mexican dollar of a date previous to 1877 is current in the
islands, and it is practically the only money in general circulation. The
Spanish Government, in the summer of 1897, coined $6,000,000 of silver in
a local currency, which was sent to the islands. These dollars are lighter
in weight than the Mexican dollar, but the scarcity of money in the Phil-
ippine Islands caused them to be quickly absorbed. There is a local note-
issuing bank, called the Banco Espanol Filipino, which has in circulation
notes based on silver, of which there was outstanding on Sept. 30, 1898,
approximately, .S2, 500,000.
It is estimated there is in circulation $10,000,000 of subsidiaiy coins,
the 10-cent, 20-cent, and 50-cent pieces, which have been recoined from
Mexican dollars by the Spanish Government. The estimate of the Mex-
ican dollars now in circulation, as given by one of the best-informed
bankers in the islands, is from $20,000,000 to $25,000,000. This, with
the $2,500,000 of notes of the Banco Espanol Filipino now in circulation,
constitutes the currencv of the islands. This would make a total of from
$40,000,000 to $45,000,000, speaking roughly, for the entire Islands, or,
approximately, $5 per capita for the total population of the islands. It
must not be overlooked that these figures are given on a silver basis, and
that, therefore, in figuring on our own standard all of these figures must
be cut in two. On a gold basis, the currency of the islands is, therefore,
ccxlii
UNITED STATES
from $20,000,000 to $22,500,000, or §2.50 per capita, figuring on the total
population of the islands.
Three banking institutions do the banking business of the Philippine
Islands aside from that done by the large commercial houses, which buy
and sell exchange, and to a limited extent carry on the business which
legitimately belongs to banking institutions. Of the three banks, the
two most important are branch concerns, the third being a local institu-
tion controlled by Spaniards and natives.
The Mexican dollar, in general circulation in the Philippine Islands,
contains 47 grams of silver, .900 fine. The value of the dollar has fluctu-
ated with the fluctuation in the price of silver. The purchasing power of
the dollar is the bullion value of the silver contained in it, and it increases
or decreases in value in accordance with the quotations for bar silver in
London, which are received every day by cable in Manila.
There is an issue of .S40,000,000 of bonds which was put out by the
Spanish Government in July, 1897, and which serves as a first lien upon
the customs receipts of the port of Manila. A royal decree was issued in
July, 1897, authorizing this loan and providing that customs receipts of
Manila should be made liable, not only for interest, but for principal, and
having also the guaranty of the Spanish Government, These bonds were
called " cedulas hypotecaries," payable in forty years, and bearing interest
at the rate of six per cent. The issue price was 92.
Official statistics give the following figures as the revenue for the
Philippine Islands for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1897 :
Income
Contribution direct $8,496,170.00
Customs receipts 6,200,550.00
Monopolies, opium, etc 1,222,000.00
Lotteries 1,000,000.00
Rent for government property 257,100.00
Miscellaneous 298,300.00
Total $17,474,120.00
Expenditures
Obligation general (bonds Spanish Government, etc.) . $1,507,900.46
Egtado (state) 74.000,00
Gracio y Justitia (charity and justice) .... 1,806,277.71
War (army) 6,042.449.43
Haciendo (interior) . . • 1,393,184.08
Navy 3,506,528.58
Gobernacion (government) 2,198,350.05
Fomento (school and education) 615,198.74
Total $17,293,889.65
Deductions 35,737.65
Net expenditures
Excess of income
$17,258,
215,
152.00
968.00
There is only one railroad in the islands, running from Manila to Dagu-
pan, 192 kilometres in length, equalling 119.3 miles. The telegraph sys-
tem is very incomplete, though there are cables running to Hongkong and
to Iloilo. According to figures publisht'd in 1894, the total length of the
telegraph and cable lines running from Manila to Hongkong, and connect-
ing with the southern islands, was 1592 miles. There are 76 offices, and
during the year the total number of despatches sent was 157,573. No sta-
PHILIPPINES — INDUSTRIES
ccxliii
tistics are available for the years following. The postal system is exceed-
ingly crude, and it is almost impossible to communicate with any inland
towns and villages. There is a fairly regular mail service between Manila
and Hongkong, and between Manila and the principal ports in the islands
to the southward.
The question of labor is a serious one. The natives are not to be de-
pended upon as laborers. They work only when they see fit, and their
work is far from being satisfactory. The best workers in the Philippine
Islands are the Chinese coolies, most of whom, however, are in and around
Manila. There is practically no labor-saving machinery in use in the
islands.
The four principal industries of the islands are hemp, sugar, copra, and
tobacco. Hemp leads the list in the aggregate value of exports, sugar
coming second. Copra is a comparatively new industry, but a very im-
portant one to the islands. The tobacco industry is an important one,
and there are large exports each year of tobacco leaf and manufactured
tobacco.
The following table gives the amount of hemp exported, in piculs, for
each year for the twenty years ending with 1897 :
Exporta-
Exporta-
Exporta-
Years
tion in
Years
tion in
Years
tion in
Piculs 1
Piculs
Piculs
IsTT
630,5:3r)
1884
815,618
1891
1,271,094
1>T8
6(57,;378
1885
834,260
1892
1,581,016
1^79
&47,959
1886
743,364
1893
1,282,942
18S0
S(X),936
1887
1,029,946
1894
1,591,962
1881
868,904
1888
1,322,858
1895
1,664,590
1882
707,:3-U
1889
1,137,142
1896
1,5:31,786
1883
746,870
1890
1,012,310
1897
1,804,576
1 A picul is equal to 140 pounds avoirdupois.
In the opinion of those who are largely interested in the hemp industry
there is a great future for this product.
There is practically no rope manufactured in the Philippine Islands.
During the year 1897 the total exports of hempen rope and cable amounted
to only 4029 piculs, as compared with exj)orts of 3-468 during the preceding
year.
The larger portion of the hemp grown in the Philippine Islands is ex-
ported from Manila. As shown in the table preceding, the exports for
1897 were 1,804,576 piculs. The exports to the several countries which
are large users of hemp were as follows :
Picu/a
United States (Atlantic coast) 733,004
United States (Pacific coast) 51,900
Great Britain 728,344
Europe (continent) 28,596
Australia 38,058
Singapore and India 12,468
Cliina and Japan 51,300
Sugar forms an important item in the export trade of the Philippine
Islands, standing second to hemp. For the year 1897 the total exports
of sugar from the various ports of the Philippine Islands amounted to
$13,000,000, silver, in round numbers.
ccxliv
UNITED STATES
The following table gives the exports of sugar in piculs, for the twenty
years ending with 1897. The prices quoted are all in silver.
Years
Exports in
Piculs
Years
Exports in
Piculs
Years
Exports in
IMculs
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1,965,888
1,890,259
2,145,423
2,904,317
3,362,572
2,451,951
3,403,499
18S4
1886
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1,966,799
3,255,850
2,972,789
2,866,38;3
2.969,920
8;502,S12
2,360,422
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,662,625
3,951,060
4,1&4,296
3,109,108
3,694,769
3,678,618
3,233,48;3
The United States gets only a small portion of the sugar produced in
the Philippine Islands. According to statistics kept by one of the export
houses in Manila, the shipments of sugar from Manila to the various coun-
tries were as follows :
Piculs
(140 lbs.)
United States 40,000
Great Britain 183,788
Europe (continent) 28,400
China and Japan 691,449
The sugar exported from Cebii went to Great Britain, China, and
Japan, there being no shipments from that port to the United States.
The exports were divided as follows :
Piculs
Great Britain 80,800
China and Japan 166,310
Sugar exported from Uoilo during 1897 went to the following countries :
Piculs
United States and Canada 375,616
Great Britain 488,000
China and Japan 1,205,087
Sugar cane is raised in all parts of the archipelago. While there has
been a big increase in the export of sugar during the last twenty years,
the quality of the product has not improved with the increase in quantity.
Exports of tobacco leaf during the year 1897 were considerably in
excess of those of 1896. The total exports for the year were 309,585
quintals of 46 kilogrammes, or 101.42 pounds to the quintal, as compared
with exports of 198,978 for 1896, or an increase of 110,607 quintals.
Principal shipments were as follows :
Quintals
Europe (continent) 245,436
Great Britain 51,635
Singapore and India 9,734
China and Japan 2,748
Australia '^2
Of the shipments to the continent of Europe, nine-tenths went to
Spain. Of the shipments of tobacco to Great Britain only one-fifth was
for consumption in that country, the remainder being manufactured and
resliippod to Portugal, Sweden, and other European countries.
Shipments of cigars during the year 1897 showed a falling off as com-
pared with the shipments for the preceding year, owing to the fact that
PHILIPPINES — INDUSTRIES AND FREIGHTS ccxlv
many of the operatives in Manila have joined the ranks of the insurgents.
The total shipments of cigars for the year 1897 were 109,405,000, as com-
pared with 194,loG,000 for 1890, a decrease of 24,071,000. Principal
shipments were as follows :
China and Japan
Singapore and India .
Europe (continent) .
Great Britain
Australia ....
United States and Canada (Atlantic)
United States (Pacific)
58,420,000
37,310,000
30,500,000
24,290,000
16,300,000
2,460,000
183,000
For the year 1897 the value of the coffee exported from the Philippine
Islands was only §96,100. When the industry was at its height, ship-
ments were made of more than $4,000,000 in a single year. The
shipments of coffee to the various countries were as follows
Europe (continent)
China and Japan
Australia .
Singapore and India
1,969
246
12
9
The prosperity of the Philippine Islands is dependent in a large
measure upon the shipping industry. The islands are cut off from the
markets of the world, and the entire trade, both export and import, is
dependent upon freight rates by steamer and sailing ship. The statistics
of freights are incomplete. The following table gives freight rates from
Manila to the United States and Great Britain for various years from
1880 to 1897 :
[Per English Ton of 2240 Pounds]
Yeaes
United States
Great Britain
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
1880 ....
1885 ....
1890 ....
1895 ....
18i)6 ....
1897 ....
$10.00
6.00
5.75
5.75
5.25
4.50
$5.00
4.00
5.50
4.00
3.25
3.00
£ H. d.
4 0 0
3 0 0
3 12 0
3 3 6
2 10 0
2 0 0
£ s. d.
3 2 6
2 0 0
2 12 6
1 17 6
12 6
2 0 0
Freight rates from the United States and Great Britain to Manila for
various years from 1880 to 1897 are shown in the following table :
[Per English Ton of 2240 Pounds]
Years
United States
Great Britain
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
1880 ....
1885 ....
1890 ....
1895 ....
180(j ....
1897 ....
$12.00
9.25
6.50
7.00
6.25
6.00
$8.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.25
£ «. d.
2 17 6
1 12 6
1 13 6
1 10 0
15 0
1 10 0
£ R. d.
1 17 0
10 0
0 15 0
12 6
1 3 9
10 0
ccxlvi
UNITED STATES
Mineral Resources
From various technical publications, such as those of Semper, Santos,
and others, and from data recorded in the Spanish Mining Bureau, it is
learned that only about a score of the islands are known to contain de-
posits of valuable minerals. These are arranged below in the order of
their latitude, to give an idea of their geographical distribution and to
facilitate finding the islands on the map. The latitude of the northern
end of each is taken as that of the island. The character of the valuable
minerals stated in the table will afford a general notion of the resources
of the islands.
MINEKAL-BEARING ISLANDS AND THEIR RESOURCES
Island
Latitude
(North End)
Character of Mineral Resources
Luzon .
18° 40'
Coal, gold, copper, lead, iron, sul-
phur, marble, kaolin
Catanduanes
14 8
Gold
Marinduque .
13 34
Lead, silver
Mindoro
13 32
Coal, gold, copper
Carraray
13 21
Coal
Batan .
13 19
Coal
Rapu-Rapu
13 15
Coal
Masbate
12 37
Coal, copper
Romblon
12 37
Marble
Samar .
12 36
Coal, gold
Sibuyan
12 30
Gold
Semirara
12 7
Coal
Panay .
11 56
Coal, oil, gas, gold, copper, iron,
mercury (?)
Biliran .
11 43
Sulphur
Leyte .
11 35
Coal, oil, mercury (?)
Cebii .
11 17
Coal, oil, gas, gold, lead, silver, iron
Negros .
11
Coal
Bohol .
10 10
Gold
Panaon
10 10
Gold
Mindanao
9 50
Coal, gold, copper, platinum
Sulu Archipelago .
6 30
Pearls
So far as is definitely known, the coal of the Philippine Islands is all
of Tertiary age, and might better be characterized as a highly carbonized
lignite.
Coal exists in various provinces of the island of Luzon (Abra, Cama-
rines, Bataan, Sorsogon). The finest beds thus far discovered appear to
be those in the small island of Batan, lying to the east of the southern
portion of Luzon, in latitude 13°]'.)'.
The coal field of southern Luzon is said to extend across the Strait of
San Bernardino into the northern portion of Samar.
In Mindoro there are large deposits of coal in the extreme southern
PHILIPPINES — MINER AL RESOURCES ccxlvii
portion (Bulacao) and on the small adjacent island of Semirara. This
fuel is said to be similar to that of Batan.
The islands of Masbate and Panay contain coal, the deposits of which
thus far discovered do not seem of much importance.
The first discovery of coal in the archipelago was made in the island of
Cebu in 1827. Since then lignitic beds have been found on the island at
a great variety of points.
At Uling, about 10 miles west of the capital, the seams reach a maxi-
mum thickness of 15|- feet. Ten analyses of Cebu coal indicate a fuel
with about two-thirds the calorific effect of Cardiff coal, and with only
about 4 per cent ash.
The island of Negros is nearly parallel with Cebu, and appears to be
of similar geological constitution, but it has been little explored, and little
of it seems to have been reduced to subjection by the Spaniards. There
are known to be deposits of coal at Calatrava, on the east coast of Negros,
and it is believed that they are of important extent. In the great island
of Mindanao coal is known to occur at eight different localities, but no
detailed examinations of any kind appear to have been made. Seven of
these localities are on the east coast of Mindanao and the adjacent small
islands. They indicate the presence of lignite from one end of the coast
to tlie other. The eighth locality is in the western province called Zam-
boanga. on the Gulf of Sibuguey.
In" the island of Cebu petroleum has been found associated with coal
at Toledo, on the west coast, where a concession has been granted. It is
also reported from Asturias, to the north of Toledo, on the same coast, •
and from Alegria, to the south. Natural gas is said to exist in the Cebii
coal fields. On Panay, too, oil is reported at Janinay, in the province
of Iloilo, and gas is reported from the same island. Petroleum highly
charged with paraffin is also found on Leyte, at a point about 4 miles
from Yillaba, a town on the w^est coast.
Gold is found at a large number of localities in the archipelago, from
northern Luzon to central Mindanao. In most cases the gold is detrital,
and is found either in existing watercourses or in stream deposits now
deserted by the current. There are no data at hand which indicate
decisively the value of any of the placers ; they are washed by natives,
largely w^ith cocoanut shells for pans, though the batea is also in use.
In the province of Abra, at the northern end of Luzon, there are
placers, and the gravel of the river Abra is auriferous. In Lepanto there
are gold-quartz veins as well as gravels. Gold is obtained in this province
close to the copper mines. In Benguet the gravels of the River Agno
carry gold. There i^ also gold in the province of Bontoc and in Nueva
Ecija.
Copper ores are reported from a great number of localities 'in the
Philippines. They are said to occur in the following islands : Luzon
(provinces of Lepanto, Benguet, and Camarines), Mindoro, Capul,i ]\ias-
bate, Panay (province of Antique), and Mindanao (province of Surigao).
Many of these occurrences are probably unimportant. The great island
of Mindanao, being practically unexplored, is full of possibilities, but as
yet no important copper deposit is known to exist there.
A lead mine has been partially developed near the town of Cebu, on
the island of the same name.
The most important deposit of argentiferous galena is said to be at
1 A very small island not on the maps.
ccxlviii
UNITED STATES
Torrijos, on the small island of Marinduque (latitude 13° 34'). A metric
ton, or 1000 kilogrammes, is said to contain 90 grammes of silver, C
grammes of gold, and 565.5 kilogrammes of lead.
In Camarines, a province of Luzon, lead ores occur, but are worked
only for the gold they contain.
There is iron ore in abundance in Luzon, Caraballo,i Cebii, Panay,
and doubtless in other islands. In Luzon it is found in the provinces
of Laguna, Pampanga, and Carmarines Norte, but principally iu Bulacan.
The finest deposits are in the last-named province, near a small settle-
ment named Camachin, which lies in latitude 15° 7' and longitude 12-4° 47'
east of Madrid. A small industry exists here, wrought iron being pro-
duced in a sort of bloomery and manufactured into ploughshares.
Humors of the occurrence of quicksilver in Panay and Leyte have failed
of verification. Accidental losses of this metal by prospectors or survey-
ors sometimes lead to reports of the discovery of deposits, and ochres
are not seldom mistaken for impure cinnabar.
Sulphur deposits abound about active and extinct volcanoes in the
Philippines. In Luzon the principal sulphur deposits are at Daclan, in
the province of Benguet, and at Colasi, in Camarines. The finest deposit
in the archipelago is said to be on the little island of Biliran, which lies
to the northwest of Leyte.
Marble of fine quality occurs on the small island of Romblon (latitude
12° 37'). It is much employed in churches in Manila for baptismal fonts
and other purposes. Marbles are also quarried at Montalban in the
province of Manila, and at Binangonan in the province of Marong.
There are concessions for mining kaolin at Los Bahos in Laguna
Province.
Pearl fisheries exist in the Sulii Archipelago, and are said to form
an important source of wealth.
Exports and Imports
Practically all the export and import trade of the islands is in the hands
of foreigners. There are a few Spaniards engaged in trading, but the bulk
of the b'usiness, in a commercial way, is done by British, German, Belgian,
and American citizens. These men do not meddle with the insurrection,
and they have been able to maintain friendly relations not only with tlie
Spanish Government officials, but with the natives as well.
The most reliable figures that can be obtained on exports from the
islands for the year 1897 give the following as the value at the point of
shipment of the various principal items :
Hemp .
Sugar .
Copra .
Tobacco leaf .
Cigars .
Various articles
Indigo .
$18,040,760
12,928,000
4,462,920
2,786,200
1,694,600
1,000,000
107,000
Coffee .
Rope
Sibucao, dyewood
Gums .
Skins for glue
Mother-of-pearl shells
Total .
96,100
63,400
49,100
47,500
38,900
27,800
41,342,280
1 Not found on the map.
PHILIPPINES — EXPORTS AND IMPORTS ccxlix
There are no official figures obtainable giving the imports for the
Philippine Islands. One of the larger importing houses, which keeps
statistics of imports and which has practically complete figures of all
goods shipped into Manila, has prepared the following table giving the
approximate value of imports during the year 1897, including goods
imported by shopkeepers and Chinese from Hongkong :
Woven fancy goods (ginghams, grandvills, muslins, regattas,
trouserings, etc.)
Printed gootls (prints, printed grenadines, etc.)
Yarns and sewing thread
Ironware, hollow ware, and fancy articles, known in China
trade as '• muck and truck"
Skirtings, gray cloths, drills (white and twills), crydons, etc
Imports from Hongkong
Total
Say, in Mexican money
£380,000
270,000
130,000
230,000
300,000
300,000
1,610,000
$16,100,000
Coal imports amounted to about 90,000 tons. Petroleum imports
amounted to about 114,330 cases.
The average value of coal in Manila is $10 a ton, which would make
this item $900,000. Petroleum is worth on an average $3 a case, or
$3-42,990. Adding these two items to the estimated table of imports
gives a total of $17,342,990. Taking these figures as being correct, there
is a trade balance in favor of the islands of $23,909,290, that being the
excess of exports over imports.
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS,
FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 80, 1895-1897
Imports
Quantities
Values
1895
1S96
1S97
1895
1896
1897
FREE OF DUTY
Dollar H
Dollar H
Dollars
Sugar : Cane and other, lbs.
a 3,904,000
(«)
(«)
a 67,200
(a)
(a)
Textile grasses, etc. :
Manila . . . tons
45,865
35,584
88,533
3,572,236
2,499,494
2,701,651
All other , . lbs.
1,106
872
5,450
11,851
68,838
884,155
Hides and skins, other than
fur skins :
Goat skins . . lbs.
8,826
26,182
1,148
9,226
Hide cuttings, raw, and all
other glue stock
5,400
6,(>18
All other free articles .
Total free of duty .
DUTIABLE
117
14,814
251
3,657.952
2.599,020
3,086,057
Sugar .... lbs.
04,865,892
145,075,344
72,46:3.577
1,043,806
2,270,902
1,199,202
Oils
6,237
1,820
Straw, manufactures of
26,148
81,352
72,137
All other dutiable articles .
Total dutiable
Total imports of mer-
chandise
3,460
25,346
24,524
1,(»73.414 2,3s;3,8:37
1.297.68;3
4,731,366
4,982,857
4,383,740
a Dutiable after Aug. 28, 1894.
ccl
UNITED STATES
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS,
FISCAL TEARS ENDING JUNE 30, 1895-1S97 — Cuntinued
Exports
DOMESTIC MERCHANDISE
Breadstuffs: Wheat flour
bbls
5,000
5,250
4,400
11,250
18,290
10,-O68
Carriages and street cars,
and parts of . . .
959
5,182
1,707
Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and
medicines
320
3,390
3,316
Cotton, manufactures of .
3,355
9,714
2,164
Iron and steel, manu-
factures of . . .
.
13,34:3
10,204
9,655
Oils, mineral, refined galls.
1,085,500
1,130,260
600,8:37
67,8:37
89,958
45,908
Varnish . . galls.
1,354
1,138
2,483
2,605
1,500
2,2:39
All other articles .
Total domestic mer-
19,586
24,103
19,540
chandise
119,255
162,341
94,597
Total foreign merclian-
dise ....
Total exports of mer-
105
chandise
119,255
162,446
94,597
Guam (Ladrones)
The Island of Guam or Guahan, the largest in the Marianne or Ladrone
Archipelago, was ceded by Spain to the United States in 1898, and will
probably be used as a coaling station for the United States navy. The
island is about 32 miles long and 100 miles in circumference, and has a
population of about 9000, of whom about 6000 are in Agana, the capital.
The inhabitants are mostly immigrants or the descendants of immigrants
from the Philippines, the original race of the Marianne Islands having
become extinct. The recognized language is Spanish, but English is also
spoken. On the island there are 18 schools, and nine-tenths of the
islanders can read and write. The island is thickly wooded, well watered,
and fertile, and possesses a roadstead.
Cuba
Government
Cuba, after having been continuously in the po.ssession of Spain from its
discovery, was by the peace preliminaries and by the definite treaty signed
by the l*eace Commissioners at Paris, Dec. 10. 18i)8. and ratified by the
Senate Feb. 6, 1899, and by the Queen Regent of Spain Mar. 17, 1899, re-
linquished by Spain, and thus has the position of an independent state.
The direct armed interposition of the United States in the struggle against
Spanish domination has, however, brought the island into close association
with the United States Government, and though Congress has affirmed
Cuban independence, the island is now held in military occupation by
United States forces. So long as the occupation lasts the United States
Government assumes and discliarges the resulting obligations with respect
to the protection of life and property, and a military Governor-General
has been appointed, who will control all branches of the administration,
civil and military ; while in Havana and each of the six provinces military
governors have been or are being appointed, who will receive instructions
from the Governor-General.
oau>r ic ca.,EN^<!'8,N.r.
CUBA — POPULATION, FINANCES, MINERALS ccli
Area and Population
The area of Cuba is about 45,872 square miles. Ten per cent of the
area is cultivated, 7 per cent is unreclaimed, and 4 per cent is under
forests. There are large tracts of country still unexplored. The popula-
lation of the island in 1894 was given as 1,631,090, of which 65 per cent
was white, the remainder being negro. The capital, Havana, has 200,000
inhabitants; Matanzas (1892), 27,000; Santiago de Cuba, 71,307; Cien-
fuegos (1892), 27,430; Puerto Principe, 46,641; Holguin, 34,767; Sancti
Spiritu, 32,608 ; Cardenas (1892), 23,680. Education was made obliga-
tory in 1880. There are 843 public schools in the Island, and Havana
has a university.
Consul Hyatt, of Santiago de Cuba, in a report dated Jan. 8, 1897,
and printed in Consular Reports No. 197 (February, 1897), p. 262, says
that the area of Cuba is about equal to that of the State of Pennsyl-
vania, the length being 775 miles and the width varying from 30 to 160
miles. The productive soil, mineral wealth, and climatic conditions of
the island entitle it to rank among the foremost communities of the world.
The soil is a marvel of richness, and fertilizers are seldom used, unless in
the case of tobacco, even though the same crops be grown on the same
land for a hundred years, as has happened in some of the old sugar-cane
fields. The mountains are of coral formation, while the lowlands of
eastern Cuba at least seem to be composed largely of fossils of sea-matter
from prehistoric times and are extremely rich in lime and phosphate,
which accounts for their apparent inexhaustibleness.
Although founded and settled more than fifty years before the United
States, Cuba has still 13,000,000 acres of primeval forests ; mahogany,
cedar, logwood, redwood, ebony, lignum-vitae, and caiguaran (which is
more durable in the ground than iron or steel) are among the woods.
If all the land suitable to the growth of sugarcane were devoted to
tliat industry, it is estimated that Cuba might supply the entire Western
Hemisphere with sugar. The island has already produced in a single
year for export 1,000,000 tons, and its capabilities have only been in the
experimental stage. The adaptability of the soil for tobacco culture has
long been known. Cuba takes gi'eat pride in the quality of her coffee,
and until the war the plantations were flourishing.
The land is not suitable to the cultivation of cereals, and probably no
flouring mill exists on the island.
Finances
The estimated revenue for 1897-98 was 24,755,760 pesos (a peso equals
$0,965), of which 11.890,000 was from cu.stoms ; ordinary expenditure,
26,119.124 pesos, of which 12,602,216 pesos was for the debt, 5,890,741
pesos for the Ministry of War, and 4,036,088 pesos for the Ministry of
the Interior. The extraordinary revenue was estimated at over 80,000,000
pesos. The debt was in 1896 put at about £70,220,000, of which
£10,000,000, was due to the Spanish treasury.
The interest on the debt is estimated to impose a burden of $9.75 per
inhabitant.
Minerals
According to Consul Hyatt, Cuba is capable of taking high rank in
mineral wealth. Gold and silver have not been found in paying quanti-
ties. Copper was mined at Cobre by the natives before Columbus dis-
covered the island, and there is strong proof that native copper was
cclii UNITED STATES
carried across to Florida and used by the Florida Indians hundreds of
years ago. From 1828 to 1840 an average of from $2,000,000 to
$3,000,000 worth of copper ore was shipped annually to the United
States from these mines.
The iron mhies of Cuba, all of which are located near Santiago, over-
shadow in importance all other industries on the eastern end of the island,
constituting the only industry that has made any pretence of withstand-
ing the shock of the present insurrection. The Juragua and Daiquiri
iron companies (American), with a combined capital of over §5.000,000,
now operate mines in this vicinity and employ from 800 to 1400 men,
shipping to the United States from 30,000 to 50,000 tons of iron ore per
month, the largest portion of which is used at Bethlehem, Steelton,
Sparrows Point, and Pittsburg. The ore of these mines is among the
richest in the world, yielding from 62 to 67 per cent of pure iron, and is
very free from sulphur and phosphorus. There are numerous undeveloped
mines of equal value in this region.
In the Sierra Maestra range, on the southern coast of Cuba, from
Santiago west to Manzanillo, within a distance of about 100 miles, are
found numerous deposits of manganese, an ore indispensable in the manu-
facture of steel. As nearly all the manganese used in the United States
comes from the Black Sea regions of Europe and a smaller quantity from
the northern part of South America, it is but reasonable to suppose that
the products of these near-by mines will be in great demand when the
conditions are such that they can be operated in safety.
In the district of Santiago de Cuba, at the end of 1891, the total num-
ber of mining titles issued was 296, with an extent of 13,727 hectares.
Of the mines reported and claimed, 138 were iron, 88 manganese, and 53
copper.
Commerce and Industry
Railroads and other highways, improved machinery, and more modern
methods of doing business are among the wants of Cuba ; and with the
onward march of civilization these will doubtless be hers in the near
future. Cuba, like other tropical and semi-tropical countries, is not given
to manufacturing ; her people would rather sell the products of the soil
and mines and buy manufactured goods. The possibilities of the island
are gi'eat, while the probabilities remain an unsolved problem.
The number of landed estates on the island in 1891 was estimated at
90,960 of the value of 220,000,000 pesos, and rental of 17,000,000 pesos.
The live stock consisted of 684,725 horses and nmles, 2,485, 76() cattle,
78,494 sheep, and 570,194 pigs. The chief produce is sugar and tobacco.
The quantity of sugar produced in the year 1894-95 was 1,004,264 tons ;
1895-96, 225,221 tons ; 1896-97, 212,051 tons. The insurrection and in-
cendiarism in the island ruined the prospects of sugar cultivation in 1896.
The tobacco crop on an average is estimated at 560,000 bales (1 bale =
110 lbs.), 338,000 bales being exported and the remainder used in cigar
and cigarette manufacture in Havana. In 1896 the cigars exported num-
bered 185,914,000. Tobacco leaf exported in 1895, 30,466,000 lbs. ; in
1896, 16,823,000 lbs. The decrease in cigar exports and decrease in leaf
exports is due to decree of May 12, 1896, forbidding tobacco-leaf exports
except to Spain. Cigarettes exported in 1895, 48,163,846 packets. Nearly
all the tobacco and nearly half of the cigars go to the United States.
About 80,000 of the inhabitants are ordinarily engaged in the cultivation
of tobacco. Mahogany and other timbers are exported, as are also honey,
CUBA — COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY
ccliii
wax, and fruits. The chief imports are rice, jerked beef, and flour. The
Spanish official returns state tlie value of the imports from Cuba into Spain
for 18'.»6 to be 21,8U8,215 Spanish pesetas (.s4,210,:J55.49), and the exports
from Spain to Cuba 134,461,075 pesetas (-$25,951, 00;].27).i In 1807 the
imports of the United States from Cuba amounted to $405,326,037, and
the exports from the United States to Cuba $100,450,712.
A British Foreign Office report from Madrid (Annual Series, No.
1851, 1897) gives the value of the imports of Cuba during the fiscal year
ending April, 1890, as 600,100,754, and of the exports as .^94,395,530.
The commerce of Spain with Cuba since 1892, the figures up to 1895
being taken from a compilation by the Department of Agriculture, and
those for 1890 from a British Foreign Office report (Annual Series, No.
2005, 1898), was:
Description
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Imports from Cuba . .
Exports to Cuba . . .
Dollars
9.570,399
28,046,636
Dollars
5,697,291
24,689,373
Dolla rs
7,265,120
22,592,943
Dollars
7,176,105
26,298,497
Dollars
4,257,360
26,145,81)0
The trade of Mexico with Cuba during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1897, was : Imports from Cuba, $303 ; exports to Cuba, $20,700. The
commerce of the island with the principal European countries cannot
be given with accuracy, as the various official statistics include Porto
Rico in the statements of trade — the figures for Germany comprising
other Spanish dependencies as well. The commerce of the United King-
dom, France, and Belgium with Cuba and Porto Rico in 1890 was as
follows, the figures for the United States and Spain for the same year
being repeated for comparative purposes :
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
Imports
Exports
United Kingdom .
Belgium ....
France
Dollars
174,187
208.304
3,3;38,900
Dollars
5,843,892
1,089,239
424.600
United States .
Spain ....
Dollars
40,017,730
4,257,360
Dollars
7,530.886
26,146,800
The British consul-general at Havana, Mr. Gollan (Foreign Office
Annual Series, No. 1880, 1897), gives the following table, showing the
chief articles of import into Cuba in 1890 :
Articles
From
Total
Value
Articles
From
Total
Value
Europe
America
Europe
America
Butter cases
Cheese do
Rice cwt.
Beer barrel -
Do cases
Salt fish drums
Flour bags
6,338
1,881
853,5:18
4.629
6,574
5,036
404.019
54
44.358
23,800
2,860
2,044
79,521
100,321
Dollars
319,700
323,673
2,807.481
82,379
43,090
686,0(Mt
4,285,522
Coal tons
Potatoes barrels
Maize bags
Laid cwt.
Total . . .
29,050
53.083
180,487
231,774
97.303
194.308
Dollars
2,085,370
996,702
467,049
2.078.811
14,175,777
^ A peseta equals $0,193.
ccliv
UNITED STATES
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SPANISH WEST INDIES,
BY PlilNCIPAL ARTICLES, 1S93-1897
Exports to Cuba
Articles
1S93
1S94
1895
1896
1897
AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER PRODUCTS
Animals
Breadstiiflfs :
Bread and biscuit .
dolls.
29,411
42,508
24.163
121,881
483,089
nhs.
468,613
582,232
266,868
182,358
184,400
/ dolls.
31,650
34,596
17.719
11,941
9,992
bush.
1,041,474
1,136,657
392,204
199,193
689,845
( dolls.
582,050
571,326
216,602
93,201
247,905
Corn meal . . .
\ bbls.
1,225
2,016
352
629
1,912
dolls.
4,001
6,293
1,074
1,748
3.741
Oats
( bush.
59,615
74,735
44,807
7,732
30,996
} dolls.
24,202
29,856
17,655
2,321
8,565
W^heat flour .
i bbls.
616,406
662,248
879,856
176,724
132,738
"1 dolls.
2,821,557
2,473,805
1,801,079
647,057
5(>4,638
All other ....
Total
Fruit :
Apples, dried .
dolls.
* dolls.
48,747
48,665
14,881
18,524
52,936
3,512,207
3,164,541
1,569,010
896,673
1,320,866
nbs.
; dolls.
150
9
Green or ripe
4 bbls.
1 dolls.
15,221
7.2SS
6,366
5,85:3
6.M1
45,229
25,819
18,186
15,315
12,121
Preserved
dolls.
53,210
59,126
40,335
23,574
19,392
All others, including nut
Total
Glue ....
s dolls.
nbs.
28.515
22,030
11,581
15,590
16,006
126,954
106,975
70,111
54,479
47,519
41,973
59,610
34,592
22,333
41,272
' dolls.
5.484
7,25S
4,146
2,864
4,905
Grease, etc. .
. dolls.
22,650
34,849
24,605
7,128
6,793
Hair and manufactures of
. dolls.
780
512
1,501
2,252
789
Hay ....
\ tons
• 1 dolls.
3,130
54,791
5,164
87,700
2,919
43,851
5,840
85,652
3,579
49,728
Hides, etc., other than furs
dolls.
549
711
40
Hops ....
Oils:
(lbs.
j dolls.
i galls.
5,890
3,927
6,219
2,645
2 242
1,387
855
920
295
247
9,871
12,310
11,721
3,239
580
} dolls.
6,398
6,081
4,955
1,317
232
Vegetable — cotton and
( galls.
72,184
55,039
15,080
714
1,672
linseed .
Provisions, comprising meat
"( dolls,
and dairy
22,937
20,569
5,563
385
578
products :
Meat products —
Beef, canned
(lbs.
1 dolls.
588,135
119,054
20,486
23,484
32,686
49,878
10,139
1,624
1,778
2,5(i>
Salted or jnckled, and
(lbs.
1 dolls.
64,036
84,938
21,400
26,150
91,000
other cured
3,259
4,948
1,141
1,277
4,141
Tallow .
(lbs.
1 dolls.
717,506
1,246,688
802,425
618,505
566,729
29,674
56,700
35,482
24,285
20,958
Hog products —
Bacon
(lbs.
■j dolls.
6,977,298
6,154,077
5,187,535
6,168,201
10,581,819
556,747
532,035
390,454
886,475
574,402
Hams
(lbs.
1 dolls.
5,834,286
5,272,640
3,929,994
3,408,718
4,012,433
761,082
668,959
420,215
848,065
374,185
( lbs.
\ dolls.
685,810
626,033
462,640
195,600
222,660
Pork, pickled .
59,276
52,333
82,586
10,286
10,005
Lard .
(lbs.
42,68;3,652
42,340.57s
30.672,512
26,218,302
25,717,489
■( dolls.
4,023,917
3,625,545
2,209,067
1,551,185
1,255,183
All other meat produc
ts dolls.
88,605
89,951
95,592
61,886
88,089
Dairv products —
Butter .
( lbs.
1 dolls.
284,156
121,179
53,305
49,982
58,120
49,257
27,038
11,598
10,080
10,475
Jibs.
( dolls.
225,421
215,021
52,680
42,896
64,869
Cheese .
32,494
30,835
8,36s
7,508
11,284
Milk .
Total .
Seeds ....
. dolls.
dolls.
. dolls.
46.347
41,732
39,777
3,245,854
63,852
70,485
5,700,536
5,140,215
2,466,677
2,421,715
3,810
4,196
3,957
3.311
3,458
U. S. EXPORTS TO CUBA
cclv
COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SPANISH WEST
INDIES, BY PRINCIPAL ARTICLES, 1898-1897 — Continued
Exports to Cuba — Continued
Articles
1893
1894
lsit5
1896
1897
AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER PRODUCTS
— Continued
Vegetables : , v,,s.j.
Beans and peas . . 1 ^^jj^'
183,977
120,738
101,8.33
107,405
312,381
392,962
268,265
203,979
148,.579
276,0:35
Onions i. ^"'^''•
8,348
1,657
25
9,556
l,9bO
unions . . . . -^ ^^,,j^
7,602
1,448
30
6,906
1,767
Potatoes . . . . -j S",f?-
j dolls.
666,648
573,069
355,526
398,491
580,923
5.U153
496,875
274,853
217,315
331,553
Other .... dolls.
Total
Wine dolls.
23..>44
30,876
22,S(»'2
13.9:32
16,999
978,261
797,4(y
501,664
386,792
626,954
1,018
864
507
221
289
All other products of agriculture dolls.
Total agricultural products dolls.
Agricultural implements . dolls.
25,179
25,66(1
30,721
18,64s
143,898
10,492,3.52
9,440.95:3
5..531,52S
8,926,694
4.(;-28,011
130,341
118,269
38,461
36,826
3,624
Cars, passenger and freight, j No.
for steam railroads . . j dolls.
640
696
962
74
271,571
197,563
273,100
28,5:33
9,202
Cotton, manufactures of:
Cloths, colored and un- ( yards
708,667
561,257
235,824
210,113
291,263
colored . . . } dolls.
75,359
57,422
24,394
23,552
25,008
All other .... dolls.
72,819
62,761
43,047
40,282
42,444
India rubber and gutta-
percha, manufactures of . dolls.
42,879
54,806
43,181
28,342
27,257
Iron and steel, manufactures of:
Car wheels . . . -j ?9i
dolls.
2,167
1,418
1,565
814
887
18,073
12,309
11,846
8,412
2,782
Cutlery .... dolls.
21,094
23,037
10,497
6,874
6,773
Firearms . . . dolls.
3,055
3,080
525
6,147
2,815
Machinery not elsewhere
specified . . . dolls.
2,792,050
1,587,706
1,286,473
286,854
55,069
Nails and splices : , ,,
Cut i ?®,-,
5,387,910
5,356,790
1,764,285
1,044,165
1,352,600
^^^ • • • • / dolls.
107,002
105,160
25,349
20,797
25,016
Wu-e, wrought, horse- ) ,,
shoe and all other >!, ,,
3:35,552
581,6.57
394,031
280,301
360,901
including tacks .' i^'^"«-
20,581
24,210
15,480
12,727
18,456
Kailwaj' bars of iron or j tons
steel" . . . . j dolls.
10,544
11,717
4,633
1,187
688
327.411
340,457
121,662
29,787
14,650
Saws and tools . . dolls.
243,544
192,578
97,369
34,919
34,686
Steam engines and parts of:
Stationary engines . -J , *?j
214
180,652
123
62,830
43
80,629
12
5,096
5
1,189
Wire i ^^^\
12,052,015
10,917,995
3,130,290
587,144
1,829,406
" "^^ • • • • / dolls.
321,120
248,027
65,992
11,542
35,905
Leather, and manufactures of:
Leather .... dolls.
10,082
7,993
7,539
5,651
1,217
Manufactures of: ,
Boots and shoes . . \ J*'!"^
j dolls.
93,750
66,732
47,040
25,498
11,885
114,94:3
82,.5M
53,606
84,992
15,195
Harness and saddles . dolls.
22,. 584
29,574
20,891
27,432
16,512
All other . . . dolls.
33.867
24,346
17,562
7,406
6,889
All other articles . . . dolls.
Total domestic exports dolls.
8..S52.715
7,179,602
4,814,179
2.734,483
2,627,607
23,6(14,094
19,855,237
12,533,260
7,312.348
7,599,757
Total foreign exports dolls.
Total exports of merchandise dolls.
Gold
55:3,604
270,084
274,401
218,532
660,019
24.157,6!ts
20.125.:321
12,807.661
7,5.30,880
8,2.59,776
6,403,264
12,351,317
8,186,805
2,319,341
SUver
19,598
37,510
12,986
5,577
900
cclvi
UNITED STATES
COMMEKCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH THE SPANISH WEST INDIES, BY
PEINCIPAL AKTICLES, FROM 1893-1897 — Continued
Imports from Cuba
Articles
1S93
1894
1895
1896
1897
FREE OF DUTY
Asphaltum . . . -j ^^^^^^
6,1&4,&40
4,307,520
1,594,880
952,000
499,520
25,992
10,724
15,440
7,628
4,180
Chemicals, drugs, and
dyes .... dolls.
377,269
135,920
81,424
32,312
5,273
Fruits, including nuts:
Bananas . . . dolls.
1,&41,3S7
1,277,406
826,615
929,865
147,133
Cocoanuts . . dolls.
147,394
91,459
a.2,428
(«)
(«)
All other . . . dolls.
559,019
533,571
35,009
11,568
7,289
Hides and skins, other
than fur skins . . dolls.
279,153
132,221
77,484
184,281
692,122
Sugar and molasses :
Molasses. . . {^^^
11,861,618
15,893,570
2,326,923
182,126
167
1,081,034
1,148,412
136,636
15,365
11
S"Sa' • ■ -jlfoV
1,843,651,095
2,127,497,454
563,170,762
(«)
(a)
60,637,631
63,147,485
15,572,450
(«)
(«)
Textile grasses : Sisal j tons
18
516
19
7
grass ( dolls.
2,314
48,535
2,260
442
Wood, unmanufactured dolls.
1,071,123
681,270
640,774
531,349
63,670
All other free articles . dolls.
Total free of duty . dolls.
DUTIABLE
227,053
211,286
294,245
361,953
350,381
66,049,369
67,418,289
17,684,765
2,074,763
1,270,059
Fruits, including nuts . dolls.
41,723
18,704
243,771
237,561
171,436
!-"«- • • •] dolls.
413,999
150,964
235,629
427,987
392,048
641,943
199,818
294,908
521,310
475,281
Spirits distilled . . -j ^^^f^^'
7,245
3,278
4,009
3,478
3,270
19,419
8,799
9,081
7,493
8,295
Sugar and molasses :
Molasses. . . ] 2;
(ft)
(ft)
610,029,816
1,528,035
79,054
(ft)
(ft)
?> 635,681
113,109
5,4^37
S"?- • • -U'olis.
(ft)
&4,S65
61,282,591,861
1,093,171,312
577,790,173
(ft)
&260
624,527,730
24,102,835
11,982,473
Tobacco :
i-f ■ • ■{%,.
21,694,881
14,578,248
20,175,620
26,771,317
4,410,073
8,940,058
5,828,964
7,271,794
10,613,468
2,306,067
Manufactures of . dolls.
2,787,030
2,052,504
2,040,186
2,093,884
1,971,214
Vegetables . . . dolls.
67,042
46,028
46,435
40,265
16,696
All other dutiable arti-
cles .... dolls.
Total dutiable . dolls.
Total imports . dolls.
Gold
159,922
104,895
116,908
213,042
199,857
12,657,137
8,259,972
35,l!>6,494
37,942,967
17,136,756
78,706.506
75,678,261
52.871,259
40,017.730
18,406,815
1,024,950
7,305,375
3,550,756
5,188,132
4,454,032
Silver
199,003
38,146
39,848
12,541
67,652
a See "Dutiable.'
b See " Free of Duty."
IMPORTS FROM CUBA — RAILWAYS
cclvii
SUGAR INDUSTRY
The British consul-general gives the following details in regard to the
sugar trade in 1895 and 18U0 :
Description
Exports
Stocks
Local consumption
Stock on Jan. 1 (previous crop)
Total production
Decrease in 1895-96
Equivalent to . . .
Quantity
1895
Tons
832,431
135,181
967,612
50,000
1,017,012
13,348
1,004,264
1896
TOHH
235,628
36,260
271,888
40,000
311,888
86,667
225,221
779,043
77.574 per cent
The exports of sugar to Spain during the three years ending in 1896 are
given as follows in a British Foreign Office report (Annual Series, No.
1851, 1897):
Tons
1894 24,240
1895 26,991
1896 14,642
It should be noted that during the same period the exports of sugar
from Porto Rico to Spain increased from 13,000 to 18,000 tons.
RAILWAYS
According to a report published in Special Consular Reports, "High-
ways of Commerce," there are ten railway companies in Cuba, the most
important being the Ferrocarriles Unidos ; upw^ard of 1000 miles of main
line belong to these companies, and there are, besides, private branch lines
to all the important sugar estates. The Ferrocarriles Unidos has four
lines, connecting Havana with Matanzas, Batabano, Union, and Guanajay.
The roads pass through the most populous part of the country and connect
Havana with other lines.
The Western Railway was begun some forty years ago, and in 1891,
w'hen it was acquired by an English company, had reached Puerto de
Golpe, 96 miles from Havana and 10 miles from Pinar del Rio, the capital
of the province of that name and the centre of the tobacco-gi'owing dis-
trict. The line has been completed to Pinar del Rio, and improvements
have been made in the old part, many of the bridges having been replaced
by new steel ones, the rails renewed, modern cars put on, etc.
The other companies are : Ferrocarriles Cardenas-Jacaro. the main line
of which joins the towns of Cardenas and Santa Clara ; Ferrocarril de
Matanzas, having lines between Matanzas and Murga, and also between
Matanzas and Guareiras ; Ferrocarril de Sagua la Grande, running be-
tween Concha and Cruces ; Ferrocarril Cienfuegos-Santa Clara, connect-
ing those towns ; Ferrocarriles Unidos de Caibarien, from Caibarien
eclviii UNITED STATES
to Placetas ; Ferrocarril de Puerto Principe-Nuevitas ; Ferrocarril de
Guantanaino.
The Maiianao Railway also belongs to an English company, with head-
quarters in London. The original line, belonging to Cubans, was opened
in 1863, but liquidated and was transferred to the present owners. The
line, only 8J miles in length, runs from Havana to Marianao, with a branch
line to a small village on the coast. During 1894, over 750,000 passengers
were carried, this being the chief source of revenue. The carriages are
of the American type, and are fitted, as well as the locomotives, with the
Westinghouse automatic brake ; the rails are of steel, weighing 60 pounds
per yard.
PORTS, INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION, ETC.
In 1895 the port of Havana was visited by 1179 vessels, of 1,681,325
tons; in 1897, 231 vessels, of 309,758 tons, visited Cienfuegos. There
are 54 ports in Cuba, of which 15 are open to commerce. There are 19
light-houses.
CABLES
There are four cable lines connected with Cuba. The International
Ocean Telegraph Company has a cable from Havana to Florida ; the
Cuban Submarine Company has a cable connecting Havana with Santiago
de Cuba and Cienfuegos ; the West India and Panama Company has a
cable connecting Havana with Santiago de Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Kico,
the Lesser Antilles, and the Isthmus of Panama ; the Compagnie Fran-
9aise de Cables Sous-Marins has a line connecting Havana with Santiago
de Cuba, Haiti, Santo Domingo, Venezuela, and Brazil.
The only three towns in Cuba having cable connections are Havana,
Cienfuegos, and Santiago de Cuba.
TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONES, ETC.
The telegraph and telephone systems in Cuba belong to the Govern-
ment, but the latter is farmed out for a limited number of years to a com-
pany called the Red Telefonica de la Habana. Nearly all the public and
private buildings in the city and suburbs are connected by telephone.
The Statesman'' s Year Book, 1898, says that there are 2300 miles of
telegraph line, with 153 offices ; messages in 1894, 357,914.
III. PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS
Government
The unit of local government in the North, especially in the
New England States, is the rural township, governed directly
by the voters, who assemble annually, or oftener if necessary,
and legislate in local affairs, levy taxes, make appropriations,
and appoint and instruct the local officials (selectmen, clerk,
school committee, etc.). Where cities exist the township gov-
ernment is superseded by the city government. Townships
are grouped to form counties, each with its commissioners and
other paid officials who have charge of public buildings, lay
out highw^ays, grant licenses, and estimate and apportion the
taxation necessary for county purposes. In the South the
CITIES AND TOWNS — POPULATION
cclix
counties are themselves the units, thouj^^h subdivided for
educational or other special purposes. Their officials have
in general additional functions, as the care of the poor and
the superintendence of schools. In the Middle and North-
western States the two systems of local government are
mixed. In the West all the public land is already divided
into townships six miles square.
Population
In 1880 there were 45, and in 1890, 74 cities with upwards
of 40,000 inhabitants. Of the entire population in 1890,
18,284,385, or 29.20 per cent (in 1880, 22.57 per cent) lived
in 448 towns (in 1880, 286 towns) of over 8000 inhabitants.
Of these towns, 283 had each from 8000 to 20,000 inhabitants ;
91 from 20,000 to 40,000 ; 35 from 40,000 to 75,000 ; 14 from
75,000 to 125,000 ; 14 from 125,000 to 250,000 ; 7 from 250,000
to 500,000 ; 1 from 500,000 to 1,000,000 ; and 3 over 1,000,000.
The following table shows the fifty principal cities of the
United States, giving the population in 1880 and 1890 :
Population
Population
PifirfiQ
Pi fine
\_/lLltro
ISSO
ISOO
^ILlCO
18S0
1890
New York . .
1,206,299
1,515,301
Denver . . .
35,629
106,713
Chicago . . .
503,185
1,099,850
Indianapolis .
75,056
105,436
Philadelphia .
847,170
1,046,964
Allegheny . .
78,682
105,287
Brooklyn .
566,063
806,343
Albany . . .
90,758
94,923
St. Louis . .
350,518
451,770
Columbus . .
51,647
88,150
Boston . . .
362,839
448,477
Syracuse . .
51,792
88,143
Baltimore .
332,313
434,439
Worcester .
58,291
84,6.55
San Francisco
2.33,959
298,997
Toledo . . .
50,137
81,434
Cincinnati . .
255,139
296,908
Richmond . .
63,600
81,388
Cleveland . .
160,146
261,. 353
New Haven
62,882
81,298
Buffalo . . .
155,134
255,664 '
Paterson . .
51,031
78,347
New Orleans .
216,090
242,039
Lowell . . .
59,475
77,696
Pittsburg . .
156,389
238,617
Nashville . .
43,350
76,168
Washington .
177,624
230,392
Scranton . .
45,850
75,215
Detroit . . .
116,340
205,876
Fall River . .
48,961
74,398
Milwaukee . .
115,587
204,468
Cambridge . .
52,669
70,028
Newark . . ,
136,508
181,830
Atlanta . . .
37,409
65,533
Minneapolis .
46,887
164,738
Memphis . .
33,592
64,495
Jersey City
120,722
163,003
Wilmington .
42,478
61,431
Louisville .
123,758
161,129
Dayton . . .
38,678
61,220
Omaha . . .
30,518
140,452
Troy ....
56,747
60,956
Rochester . .
89,366
133,896
Orand Rapids .
32,016
60,278
St. Paul . .
41,473
133,156
Reading . . .
43,278
58,661
Kansas City .
55,785
132,716
Camden . . .
41,659
58,313
Providence . .
104,857
132,146
Trenton . . .
29,910
57,458
cclx
UNITED STATES
Municipal Statistics
(The data for this table have been kindly furnished for the States-
maii^s Year Book by the mayors of the cities named. It is to be
regretted, however, that the table does not cover all places of 10,000
Estimated
Ordinary
Ordinary
Receipts
Expendi-
tures from
Bonded
Loans, 1898
Cities
Population
Revenue,
Expendi-
from Bonded
Jan. 1, 1899
1898
tures, 1898
Loans, 1898
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Adams, Mass.
11,000
106,500.00
107,000.00
Akron, 0.
45,000
417,206.31
449,052.31
Alameda, Cal.
16,250
161,000.00
160,000.00
31,922.89
Albany, N.Y.
100,000
2,680,507.73
2,685.370.00
536,699.00
536,699.00
Alexandria, Va.
113,350.00
119,414.00
Allegheny, Pa.
125,000
Allentown, Pa.
35,000
176,701.58
160,369.59
Alpena, Mich.
15,000
81,805.08
69,669.65
Alton, 111.
13,500
66,000.00
66.000.00
Amesbury, Mass.
10,000
8,654.94
88,888.15
Amsterdam, N.Y.
22,000
150,000.00
132,000.00
10,000.00
10,000.00
Anderson, Ind.
23,500
45,039.00
73,009.00
8,525.00
Ann Arbor, Mich.
15,000
39,000.00
40,000.00
30,139.53
30,139.53
Anniston, Ala.
12,000
39,500.00
39,500.00
Ansonia, Ct.
13,000
124,344,07
109.935.08
Appleton, Wis.
16,500
65,000.00
65,000.00
3,460.00
Asheville, N.C.
15,000
100,000.00
100,000.00
40,000.00
Ashland, Wis.
15,000
150,000.00
150,000.00
Atlanta, 6a.
118,000
1,218,874.00
1,220,176.40
Atlantic, N.J.
24,000
462,525.00
514,298.00
58,844.00
54,148.00
Auburn, Me.
12,000
200,000.00
190,000.00
Auburn, N.Y.
32,000
Aurora, 111.
27,000
160,000.00
158,000.00
8,450.00
Baltimore, Md.
500,000
12,528,385.90
12,035,259.95
1,410,000.00
6,692,370.00
Baton Rouge, La.
12,000
40,000.00
40,000.00
Battle Creek, Mich.
17,000
85,000.00
72,000.00
10,000.00
9,000.00
Bay City, Mich.
35,000
Bellaire, 0.
12,000
25,000.00
10,000.00
Belleville, 111.
20,000
Beverly. Mass.
13,000
315,538.76
321,572.63
8,000.00
4,302.02
Biddeford, Me.
16,000
198,176.42
142,484.30
Binghamton, N.Y.
45,000
35,000.00
320,000.00
Birmingham, Ala.
235,969.00
245,113.00
Bloomington, 111.
25,000
177,806.21
194,552.15
45,113.50
20,000.00
Boston, Mass.
530,000
20,539,765.48
17,428,280.71
9,485,780.00
7,226.3.53.84
Bradford, Pa.
185,000
49,000.00
49,000.00
20,000.00
Bridgeport, Ct.
75,000
840,000.00
840,000.00
Brockton, Mass.
36,000
694,799.48
807,022.47
10,000.00
18,000.00
Brookline, Mass.
18,500
1,665,545.14
1,607,671.98
Buffalo, N.Y.
400,000
Burlington, Vt.
19,000
246,373.00
240,621.64
132,000.00
59,310.74
Butte, Mont.
50,000
352,797.63
365,370.30
Cambridge, Mass.
89,276
2,071,130.74
2,068,067.31
771,900.00
671,621.00
Camden, N.J.
65,000
Cedar Rapids, la.
27,000
160,000.00
145,000.00
18,000.00
Central Falls, R.I.
18,000
173,277.28
173,088.13
89,960.00
Charleston, S.C.
65,000
629,159.56
619.951.85
100,000.00
Charlotte, N.O.
25,000
95,000.00
95,000.00
Chattanooga, Tenn.
40,000
260,000.00
260,000.00
■
Chelsea, Mass.
33,500
469,130.00
4&4,167.93
Chester, Pa.
35,000
Cheyenne, Wyo.
12,000
53,084.28
47,973.63
Chicago, 111.
1,950,000
628,785.763.77
M8,419.325.88
Chillicothe, 0.
16,000
53,000.00
62,500.00
21,500.00
4,825.00
Cincinnati, 0.
405.000
6,450,440.38
6,475,241.12
742,500.00
478,736.47
Cleveland, 0.
400,000
4,696,182.00
5,224,880.00
2,866,490.00
1,399,172.00
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS
cclxi
inhabitants and over, as intended. Where vacant lines or spaces appear,
it is because city officers have not been able, or have neglected, to furnish
the data. In many places the facts were not ready or could not be ascer-
tained in time for publication.)
Net Debt
Jan. 1, 1899
Dollars
81,400.00
355,900.00
]SO,0()0.00
l,()'23,0T5.tM)
784,000.00
4,959,498.00
384,400.00
60,500.00
707,846.11
158,500.00
73,064.46
288,500.00
331,500.00
32,000.00
780,000.00
400,000.0(1
2,927,500.01
351,4:39.00
205,000.00
168,000.00
20,338,433.94
6,500.00
180,000.00
550,000.00
50,000.00
124,450.00
722,865.41
372,161.24
634,500.00
1,610,000.00
134,732.00
54,505,814.71
60,000.00
1,300,000.00
1,653,620.00
1,394,951.00
14,050,969.00
572,427.12
408,591.11
5,935,741.51
2,226,800.00
812,000.00
417,560.68
8,798,200.00
175,000.00
830,000.00
51,000.00
691,000.00
252,500.00
17,018,450.00
137,000.00
25,169,5:32.16
8,139,004.00
Assessed
Valuation
Jan. 1, 1899
Dollars
4,612,182.00
17,000,000.00
12,390.557.00
66,684,940.00
80,842,650.00
20,069,221.00
2,424,605.00
1,900,000.00
12,975,000.00
7,401,125.00
7,136,620.00
2,777,000.00
8,050,482.00
4,265,210.00
4,723,200.00
50,000,
13,575,
6,350,
13,567!
3,600,
364,622,
2,250,
5,000.
10,341
5,000.
000.00
347.00
000.00
863.00
000.0(
738.00
000.00
000.00
000.00
000.00
15,299,775.00
6,869,095.00
20,888,300.00
3,251
1,036,063
3,000
59,000
26,085
66,527
245,674
12,730
15,000
89,551
23,731
13,557
8,238
17,361
6,000
13,500
,505.00
,094.00
,000.00
,000.00
,853.00
,000.00
,630.00
,157.00
,000.00
,090.00
,930.00
,805.00
,885.00
,411.00
,000.00
.000.00
14, 743,1 96. 0<t
2,906,362.00
232,026,660.00
5,210,000.00
201,500,000.00
142,290,775.00
Rate
of
Ta.xa-
tion
Doh.
1.95
0.90(7
1.05
2.06
1.90
1.40
0.38
1.93
5.11
1.46
1.29
1.16
1.46
1.60
0.90
3.49
1.20
3.50
1.25
2.50
2.25
2.22
6.80
2.15
2.85
3.22
2.85
6.00
1.50
2.70
1.52
3.20
1.36
1.55
1.20
2.00
1.18
.70
1.50
1.20
1.64
.66
1.00
1.50
2.50
1.00
2.55
1.74
1.00
.70
5.59
1.00
2.58
2.95
Mayor for 1899
George Shand a
William E. Young
Josej)h F. Forderer
T. J. Van Alstyne
George L. Simpson
Charles Geyer
F. W. Gilchrist
II. Brueggemann
George H. Swetta
Z. 8. Westbrook
M. M. Dunlap
Charles E. Hiscock
Frank M. Ilight
Franklin Burton
II. Erb, ir.
F. M. Miller
Thomas Bardon
J. G. Woodward
Joseph Thompson
Nathan W. Harris
Orlando Lewis
T. N. Holden
William T. Malster
Robert A. Hark
M. S. Curtis
Alex. McEwan
Isaac T. Freese
Benj. D. Webber
Jerome De Witt
Frank V. Evans
C. F. Koch
Josiah Quincy
George C. Fagnan
Thomas P. Taylor
p]mery M. Low
Horace James a
Conrad Diehl
E. M. Sutton
P. 8. Harrington
E. R. Champlin
Cooper B. Hatch
John M. Redmond
Henry G. Thresher
I. A. Smyth
E. B. Springs
Edmond Watkins
S. J. Littlefield
Crosby M. Black
W. R. Schnitger
C. H. Harrison
Gustav Tafel
R. E. McKisson
City Clerk for 1899
F. II. B. Munson
Charles H. I shell
Benj. F. Lamboru
Henry A. Maloy
R. J. Crable
F. A. Bierbaum
N. E. Collins
Thomas J. Hazlett
Frank G. Epply
Glen U. Mills
Geo. T. Anderson
A. P. Kirkham
M. K. Gochnauer
M. W. Robertson
Finley Wharton
W. D. Green
A. M. Heston n
George McCann
E. H. Herding
William Pfraugle
Geo. W. Johnson
M. Granary
Henry A. Whitney
F. A. Jackson
Luther S. Herrick
Selden D. Kane
A. J. Camp
R. N. Evans
J. Mitchell Galvin
James A. Lindsey
Fred C. Mulline
D. W. C. Packard
Edward W. Baker
Charles E. Allen
John G. Holland
E. J. Brandon
John D. Blain
C. Fred Crawford
W. W. Simons
Fred Nash
W. S. McCall
George B. Gurney
F. W. Harrison
E. A. Abry
Edwin Henderson
H. H. Burgess
Cities
Adams, Mass.
Akron, O.
Alameda, Cal.
Albany, N.Y.
Alexandria, Va.
Allegheny, Pa.
Allentown, Pa.
Alpena, Mich.
Alton, 111.
Anio.sbury, Mass.
Amsterdam, N.Y.
Anderson, Ind.
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Anniston, Ala.
Ansonia, Ct.
Appleton, Wis.
Asheville, N.C.
Ashland, Wis.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlantic, N.J.
Auburn, Me.
Auburn, N.Y.
Aurora, 111.
Baltimore, Md.
Baton Rouge, La.
Battle Creek, Mich.
Bay Citj', Mich.
Bellaire, 0.
Belleville, 111.
Beverly, Mass.
Biddeford, Me.
Binghamton, N.Y.
Birmingham, Ala.
Bloomington, 111.
Boston, Slass.
Bradford, Pa.
Bridgeport, Ct.
Brockton, Mass.
Brookline, Mass.
Buffalo, N.Y.
Burlington, Yt.
Butte, Mont.
Cambridge, Mass.
Camden, N.J.
Cedar Rapids, la.
Central Falls, R.I.
Charleston, S.C.
Charlotte, N.C.
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Chelsea, Mass.
Chester, Pa.
Cheyenne, Wyo.
Chicago, 111.
Chillicothe, O.
Cincinnati, O.
Cleveland, O,
cclxii
UNITED STATES
Cities
Estimated
Population
Ordinary
Kevenue,
Ordinary
Expendi-
Receipts
from Bonded
Expendi-
tures from
Bonded
Loans, 1898
Jan. 1, 1S99
1S9S
tures, 1898
Loans, 189b
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Cohoes, N.Y.
24,000
Colorado Springs, Col.
25,000
205,888.89
254,489.22
25,000.00
35,000.00
Columbia, Pa.
14,000
30,000.00
30,000.00
Columbus, Ga.
20,000
180,402.00
152,768.59
25,165.99
Columbus, 0.
135,000
Concord, N.H.
17,000
315,000.00
279,500.00
Council Bluffs, la.
30,000
Covington, Ky.
50,000
Dallas, Tex.
50,000
332,000.00
155,000.00
Danbury, Ct.
20,000
123,500.00
113,900.00
Danville, 111.
18,500
110,000.00
110,000.00
Davenport, la.
42,000
265,000.00
210,000.00
Dayton, 0.
S5,0(t0
405,319.62
215,000.00
213,540.00
187,000.00
Denison, Tex.
16,500
108,053.00
82,855.82
9,880.00
Denver, Col.
165,000
867,381.15
871,904.00
Des Moines, la.
70,000
351,131.00
351,131.00
60,000.00
Detroit, Mich.
350,000
4,870,733.93
4,809,178.37
20,243.69
District of Columbia
280,000
6,652,200.00
6,644,804.00
Dover, N.II.
13,500
170,218.69
170,218.69
Dubuque, la.
50,000
c517,515.84
e469,707.00
Duluth, Minn.
60,000
481.459.17
467,254.33
70,000.00
70,000.00
Dunkirk, N.Y.
13,000
44,500.00
40,000.00
East Liverpool, 0.
16,000
42,000.00
42,000.00
30,000.00
30,000.00
Easton, Pa.
30,000
114,000.00
105,000.00
Elgin, 111.
22,000
148,706.00
135,548.00
Elizabeth, N.J.
50,000
575,000.00
575,000.00
20,000.00
20,000.00
Elmira, N.Y.
42,000
424,470.00
405,359.00
29,000.00
29,000.00
Erie, Pa.
60,000
311,000.00
280,000.00
Evansvllle, Ind.
70,000
345,000.00
338,000,00
Fall River, Mass.
103,000
1,300,000.00
420,000.00
420,000.00
Fitchburg, Mass.
29,000
460,315.54
457,440.82
36,000.00
36,000.00
Flint, Mich.
12.000
79,440.00
79,440.00
28,280.00
6,345.00
Fon du Lac, Wis.
15; 000
94,626.84
134,000.00
Fort Scott, Kan.
12,000
25,000.00
25,000.00
Fort Smith, Ark.
20,000
37,000.00
42,000.00
Fort Wayne, Ind.
50,000
240,000.00
240,000.00
Framinghain, Mass.
11.000
175,000.00
133,000.00
■
Fresno, Cal.
15,000
75,000.00
75,000.00
Gelesburg, 111.
23,000
94,000.00
100,000.00
Galveston, Tex.
71,250
599,490.68
522,34s.s-J
8,000.00
Glens Falls, N.Y.
15.000
82,621.36
62,621.00
20.000.00
15,358.00
Gloucester, Mass.
2<.»,0(I0
395,980.00
430,001.07
112,000.00
112,000.00
Gloversville, N.Y.
18,000
201,710.00
180,000.00
2,600.00
Grand Kapids, Mich.
100,000
769,920.54
741, 046. ()4
200,000.00
106,297.74
Green Bay, Wis.
22,000
155,000.00
143,000.00
12,087.00
11,000.00
Greenwich, Ct.
15,000
19,000.00
21,500.00
Hagerstown, Md.
16,000
37,000.00
27,000.00
Harrisburg, Pa.
00,000
278,000.00
278,000.00
Hartford, Ct.
75,000
1,222,658.14
1,206,111.26
645,000.00
361.048.69
Hastings, Neb.
12,000
4;3,000.00
36,000. (»0
(),000.00
Haverhill, Mass.
35,000
796,702.82
780,97(t.32
109.500.00
I09,r>oo.oo
Hazelton, Pa.
20,000
37,168.16
79,613. .55
35,641.25
30,115.52
Helena, Mont.
14.000
125,000.00
125,000.00
Hoboken, N.J.
60. 000
Holyoke, Mass.
40,000
735,189.27
877,991.63
ll.^ 000.00
140,000.00
Hornellsville, N.Y.
13,500
5:^,450.00
79,000.00
10,500.00
10,500.00
Hudson, N.Y.
10, ()(»()
69.400.00
31,291.67
26,942.50
26,942.50
Huntington, W.Va.
1 (•),(»( 10
70.000.00
(W, 000. 00
Indianapolis, Ind.
200.750
00o,os4.44
944,(W5.66
110,000.00
123,100.00
Jackson, Mich.
25,000
iso.ooo.oo
200,000.00
34,000.00
22,000.00
Jackson, Tenn.
16,000
60,000.00
70,000.00
Jacksonville, Fla.
85,000
Jacksonville, 111.
15,000
49,752.56
74,569.20
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS
cclxiii
Net Debt
Jan. 1, 1899
Assessed
Valuation
Jan. 1, 1899
Kate
of
Ta.va-
tlon
Mayor for 1699
City Clerk for 1899
Cities
Dollars
Dollars
DoIh.
437,108.00
11,720,6;39.00
1.71
James II. Mitchell
echoes, N.Y.
1,049,669.02
6,356,745.01*
1.75
M. IJ. Irvine
I. S. Harris
Colorado Springs, Col.
170,000.00
6,000,000.00
2.00
John H. Hachman
C. W. Stephenson
Columbia, Pa.
4G3,500.0(»
9,655,000.00
1.10
L. II. C'happell
M. M. Moore
Columbus, Ga.
8,444,700.00
62,665,030.00
2.70
Samuel L. Black
Columbus, 0.
878,000.00
11,300,000.00
2.0(»
N. E. Martin
J. A. Cochran
Concord, N.II.
499,832.00
4,580,000.00
5.60
Victor Jennings
Council Bluffs, la.
2,242,500.00
22,766,075.00
1.75
Joseph L. Khinock
Covington, Ky.
1,905.000.00
22,22O,00O.0tt
1.50
John II. Traylor
I. A. Moore
Dallas; Tex.
768,400.00
13,000,000.00
.62
Charles Kerr
W. G. Olmstead
Danbury, Ct.
62,000.00
2,284,000.00
7.46
E. K. E.Kimbrough
Russ Lloyd
Danville, 111.
275,000.00
14,100,000.00
1.45
George T. IJaker
Albert J.' Smith
Davenport, la.
8,281,400.00
41,795,000.00
2.38
J. 11. Lindemuth
John A. Hahn
Dayton, 0.
212,000.00
4,500,000.00
1.50
Louis Lebrecht
W. J. Scott
Denison, Te.x.
1,922,800.00
61 ,44^3, 000. (»0
3.30
T. 8. McMurray
Frank Kratzer
Denver, Col.
710,000.011
16,500,000.00
2.30
John MacVicar
E. W. Woodruff
Des Moines, la.
8,CS0,M(».26
207,6;36,8(;0.00
1.59
Wm. C. Mavburv
John A. Schmid
Detroit, Mich.
15,693,920.00
196,567,646.00
1.50
John B. Wight/
J. T. Petty e
District of Columbia
364,500.00
8,720,650.00
1.95
C. A. Fairbanks
Fred E. Quimby
Dover, N.II.
1,000,000.00
23,968,066.00
1.10
C. H. Berg
Dubucjue, la.
2,055,250.00
26.200,000.00
2.81
Henry Truelsen
H. W. Chiedle
Duluth, Minn.
3,184,331.00
3.00
A. Williams, sr.
W. C. Baumgartner
Dunkirk, N.Y.
296,812.89
3,205,320.00
3.10
Charles F. Bough
J. Hanley
East Liverpool, 0.
304,000.00
12,689,000.00
1.25
H. A. Hartzell
John S. Noble
Easton, Pa.
110,000.00
3,050,864.00
7.20
Arwin E. Price
Wm. F. Sylla
Elgin, 111.
8,265,480.00
17,151,100.00
2.86
W. A. M. Mack
James J. Manning
Elizabeth, N.J.
1,020,000.00
17,189,389.00
2.54
Edgar Denton
ISI. H. Murphy
Ehnira, N.Y.
606,500.00
21,000,000.00
1.85
Kobt. J. Saltsman
T. Han Ion
Erie, Pa.
2,155,000.00
27,200,000.00
1.07
W. M. Akin, Jr.
Wm. Ilabbe
Evansville, Ind.
8,619,781.76
70,941,266.00
1.76
Amos M. Jackson
Arthur B. Brayton
Fall River, Mass.
22,418,118.00
1.86
Samuel Anderson
Walter A. Davis
Fitchburg, Mass.
83,140.00
5,060,276.00
2.00
G. W\ K. Gold
Fred P. Baker
Flint, Mich.
104,000.00
3,777,352.00
3.50
T. F. Mayham
F. A. B.irtlett
Fon (lu Lac, Wis.
190,000.00
2,000,000.00
5.00
P. C. Hesser
S. S. Davis
Fort Scott, Kan.
5,000.00
3,4(>n.iM 10.00
0.50
Tom. Ben. Garrett
D. B. Sparks
Fort Smith, Ark.
669,800.00
22,000,0(10.00
0.95
Henry P. Scherer
Henry B. Mouning
Fort Wayne, Ind.
240,000.00
8,000,000.00
1.50
Harry C. Rice a
Framingbam, Mass.
100,000.00
60,000.00
1.00
(;. J." Cray croft
J. W. Shanklin
Fresno, Cal.
170.000.00
3.000.000.00
6.44
Forrest F. Cooke
H. W. Trudson
Galesburg, 111.
2,807,342.00
2>. 000,000. 00
1.77
A. W\ Fly
G. Bowden Settle
Galveston, Tex.
335,000.00
5,826,396.00
1.06
Wm. M. Haskell
Wm. M. Cameron
Glens Falls, N.Y.
290,467.32
15,690.8:36.00
1.76
Wm. W. French
John J. Somes
Gloucester, Mass.
a49,S00.00
6.098.005.00
2.25
C. S. Cummings
M. V. B. Stetson
Gloversville, N.Y.
2,137,000.(M)
27,75s.'.'ol.oii ;i.io
George K. Perry
Frank D. W'arren
Grand Rapids, Mich.
152,000.00
4.750. udi). (Ill ;;.()()
F. B. Desnoyers
W. L. Kerr
Green Bay, Wis.
52,000.00
1 .(lUII.UIIU.IIII (1 MU
Greenwich, Ct.
80,000.1 »'
r,..'ii II I.I H H 1,1 II 1 II ,"i7
!•:. M. Schindcl
M. L. Bvers
Ilagerstown, Md.
935,700.nn
•_'."i. null. 11(111. nil 11. To
J no. D. Patterson
Chas. A.' Miller
Ilarrisburg, Pa.
2,s;n,i73.oo
61,331,24S.(R)
2.00
.Miles B. Preston
Henry F. Smith
Hartford, Ct.
255,000.00
682.076.00
4.00
Jacob Fisher
E. A. Francis
Hastings, Neb.
603,089.67
25,5(>2.4S;3.00
1.78
John C. Chase
Wm. W^ Roberts
Haverhill, Mass.
66,000.00
4,250,000.00
0.70
H. W. Meyers
J. W. Klinger
Hazclton, Pa.
860,0(t0.00
11.000,000.00
1.00
Frank J. Edwards
Edward llorsky
Helena, Mont.
1,265,000.00
27,449,020.00
2.48
Lawrence Fagan
Iloboken. N.J.
1,6(«,990.34
35.676.r>40.00
1.44
Arthur B. Chapin
Edward A. Kane
Ilolvoke, Mass.
166,874.00
4,404,103.00
0.91
Fay P. Pvathbun
Sidney Ossoski
IlornellsviUe. N. Y.
820.000.00
5,04O.422..'>0
2.01
R. A. M. Duley
W. S.' Hallenbeck
Hudson, N.Y.
1S2,000.(M)
5,110,952.00
1.15
Chas. Nash
C. T. Taylor
Huntington, W.Va.
2,017,400.(H)
121,00(1.470.00
0.70 c
Thomas Taggart
C. II. Stuckmover
Indianapolis. Ind.
322,000.00
7,ol4.os.5.O0
2.00
W. G. Loennecker
W. J. Caldwell
Jackson, Mich.
890,000.00
2,50O,0O0.0()
0.16
H. C. Anderson
M. B. Hunt
Jack.son, Tenn.
211,500.00
13,242,640.00
1.80
R. D. Knight
Jacksonville, Fla.
167,500.00
1,730,347.00
8.72
Theo. Tyrrell
Samuel B. Stewart
Jacksonville, 111.
cclxiv
UNITED STATES
Estimated
Ordinary
Ordinary
Receipts
Expendi-
tures from
Bonded
Loans, 1898
Cities
Population
Jan. 1, 1899
Revenue,
1898
Expendi-
tures, lb98
from Bonded
Loans, 1898
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Jamestown, N.Y.
26,000
184,666.00
175,000.00
20,000.00
26,000.00
Janesville, Wis.
13,000
100,000.00
100,000.00
.5,000.00
Jersey City, N.J.
200,000
3,160,425.19
3,429,858.37
309,942.01
94,353.60
Johnstown, Pa.
32,000
223,148.32
228,148.32
Kalamazoo, Mich.
25,000
131,200.00
101,200.00
Kankakee, 111.
15,000
77,000.00
77,000.00
Kansas City, Kan.
48,000
150,000.00
150,000.00
200,000.00
200,000.00
Kansas City, Mo.
200,000
950,000.00
980,000.00
Keokuk, la.
18,000
97,000.00
94,106.79
Kingston, N.Y.
26,000
279,040.80
277,289.01
La Crosse, Wis.
30,000
360,783.44
389,281.99
Lafayette, Ind.
27,000
148,702.17
138,482.03
13,500.00
Lancaster, Pa.
45,000
270,991.55
245,991.55
Lansing, Mich.
17,590
227,652.23
236,122.56
Lawrence, Mass.
58,000
1,177,777.00
1,025.162.75
252,467.85
216,070.15
Leadville, Col.
12,000
105,318.85
76,041.14
Lima, 0.
23,000
75,000.00
75,000.00
Little Rock, Ark.
45,000
138,359.70
120,158.52
Logansport, Ind.
18,000
142,000.00
122,000.00
4,700.00
Los Angeles, Cal.
115,000
750,000.00
750,000.00
343,000.00
Louisville, Ky.
225,000
2,307,000.00
2,307,000.00
Lowell, Mass.
87,000
2,316,632.46
2,262,370.91
409,300.00
274,600.00
Lynchburg, Va.
25,000
275,000.00
275,000.00
Lynn, Mass.
67,000
1,286.032.41
1,265,068.13
207,500.00
242,878.57
McKeesport, Pa.
35,000
197,850.82
198.985.55
Maiden, Mass.
32,000
874,544.55
866,084.25
47,000.00
4;3,986.26
Manchester, N.H.
60,000
910,845.00
927,690.00
Manistee, Mich.
16,000
55,000.00
40,000.00
12,000.00
Mansfield, 0.
20,000
60,473.32
61,848.27
8,600.00
Marinette, Wis.
16,000
110,440.00
100,000.00
Marlboro, Mass.
15,000
77,500.00
189,090.00
36,600.00
26,800.00
Marquette, Mich.
10,500
116,023.71
108,448.92
10,587.50
Massillon, 0.
13,500
62,538.79
49,829.51
9,671.47
19,664.00
Medford, Mass.
17,000
673,746.78
588.844.30
90,000.00
Memphis, Tenn.
110,000
784,556.00
780,501.00
Menominee, Mich.
14,000
51,000.00
50,000.00
17,150.00
Meriden, Ct.
30,000
442,397.62
479,287.56
Michigan City, Ind.
16,000
54,217.36
53,603.09
Middletown, Ct.
12,000
58,515.90
73,258.55
e'10,200.00
Millville, N.J.
11,000
78.000.00
78,000.00
1,000.00
Milwaukee, Wis.
280,000
64,420,861.00
64,420,861.00
Minneapolis, Minn.
200,000
2,885,000.00
2,450,000.00
100,000.00
Mobile, Ala.
40,000
175,000.00
156,000.00
Moline, 111.
20,000
87,075.52
87,675.52
Montgomery, Ala.
45,000
250,000.00
230,000.00
69,000.00
Mount Vernon, N.Y.
23,000
387,156.00
466,617.91
224,000.00
106,816.00
Muscatine, la.
15,000
108.000.00
81.000.00
Muskegon, Mich.
22,500
47,648.71
98,175.89
Nashua, N.H.
25,000
285,597.07
24:3,000.00
Nashville, Tenn.
100,000
989,152.18
953,884.44
150,000.00
150,100.00
New Albany, Ind.
23,000
95,000.00
94,500.00
Newark, N.J.
250,000
5,178,986.62
5,173,986.62
188,000.00
188,000.00
New Bedford, Mass.
59,000
1,451,829.16
1,519,609.97
189,000.00
194,498.50
New Britain, Ct.
28,000
111,780.00
111,780.00
50,000.00
10,000.00
New Brunswick, N.J.
20,000
385,794.67
323,298.48
301,621.46
364,000.00
Newburg, N.Y.
26,000
96,851.79
96,851.79
26,000.00
26,000.00
Newburyport, Mass.
14,500
280,249.37
224,r)>>6.23
Newcastle, Pa.
80,000
64,400.00
77,828.00
35,000.00
21,777.45
New Haven, Ct.
115,000
1.619,125.18
l,590,00(t.OO
New Orleans, La.
300,000
2,046,500.00
2,086,600.00
Newport, Ky.
6311,992.00
6318,785.00
Newport, R.I.
24,000
494,388.19
.522.824.87
120,000.00
1,363.20
Newton, Masa.
29,716
1,366,175.66
1,753,288.98
363,457.25
345,250.47
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS
cclxv
Net Debt
Jan. 1, 1899
Assessed
Valuation
Jan. 1, 1899
Kate
of
Taxa-
tion
Mayor for 1899
Dollars
Dollars
Dols.
476,800.00
10,787.799.00
1.57
Henry H. Cooper
48,500.00
4,480, ()40. 00
2.43
J. Thorouf^hgood
16,990,259.17
90,445,00(1.01
2.86
Edward IIoos
228,462.00
12,900,000. (U
1.20
G. W. Waj^oner
60,000.00
8,000,000.00
1.64
A. M. Stearns
26,000.00
1,000,000.00
1.10
II. A. Mapruder
1,100,000.00
7,800,000.00
5.00
K. L. Marshman
8,600,000.00
70,000,000.00
2.62
James M. Jones
261,600.00
4,574,243.00
1.65
J. L. Koot
1,094,200.00
13,280,030.00
1.60
Wm. D. Brinnier
401,028.00
12,151,326.00
2.25
James McCord
300,000.00
11,500,000.00
1.18
Noah Justice
619,500.00
15,55;i, 660.00
0.90
Simon Shirsler
472,000.00
7,46s.78(».00
2.37
C. J. Davis
1,460,626.42
37,576.798.00
1.56
James II. Eaton
228,276.41
1,652,678.00
7.50
C. E. Dickinson
697,100.00
7,500,000.00
0.98
H. S. Prophet
235,988.95
11,000,000.00
2.40
J. A. Woodson
845,000.00
7,800,000.00
1.17
Geo. P. McKee
1,650,000.00
60,000,000.00
1.25
Fi-ed. Eaton
8,24s.000.00
119.500.000.00
1.84
Charles P. Weaver
3,37:^.oso.(«
7l,980,(;95.00
1.80
Jeremiah Crowley
1,351».!)>1>.M
10.200.000.00
1.50
G. W. Smith
3,217,230.09
50,960,*34.00
1.76
William Shepherd
246,809.00
14.582,236.00
1,459.827.81
26,147,660.00
1.65
Charles L. Dean
1,945.000.00
30.988,488.00
1.95
William C. Clarke
76.500.00
2,762,&41.00
4.39
T. Sminthwaite
()9.OO0.00
6,719,260.00
2.93
J. P. Henry
1G>.()(IO.OO
3,681.354.00
3.00
Francis A. Brown
74^,sft3.00
8,975.248.00
1.90
E. J. Plunkett
264.000.00
2.411,920.^0
3.08
J. F. Neidhart
90,120.00
4,000,000.00
2.89
Jacob Wise
1,362,395.18
18,936,050.00
1.78
L. H. Lovering
2,994,000.00
25,714,a36.00
J. J. Williams
132,500.00
2.419,629.00
4.75
W. H. Holmes
941,862.79
26,047,093.00
2.10
Amos Ives
43.6;34.9.s
3,340,989.00
1.25
M. T. Krueger
A227,00O.OO
6,500,000.00
0.90
Henry E. Weeks
13,000.00
4,152.795.00
1.75
Georg-e W. Payne
6,728,000.00
144,684,425.00
2.31
David S. Kose
6,655,740.20
109,000,000.00
2.32
James Gray
16,500,000.00
0.60
J. C. Bush
90,000.00
1.949,405.00
8.00
Gustof Swensson
1,250.000.00
18,000,000.00
1.12
John H. Clisby
1,394,3.32.00
2:3,151,161.00
1.44
Edwin W. Fiske
800.000.00
3,105.000.00
6.40
E. B. Fuiliam
483,500.00
4,145,085.00
4.27
James Balbinnie
597,000.00
13,136,075.00
2.10
Jason E. Tolles
3,318,800.00
35,399,390.00
1..50
K. H. Dudley
388,976.08
10,500,000.00
1..S0
Edward Crnmbo
10,700,000.00
137,042,541.00
2.10
James M. Seymour
3,002,196.00
56,859,576.00
1.92
Charles S. Ashley
817,092.69
9,462,772.00
1.15
M. C. Webster
1.068,369.90
10,301,241.00
2.40
N. Williamson
728,269.67
10,908,280.00
1.76
Benjamin B. Odell
306,624.85
9,691.000.00
1.61
Thomas Hu.se
173.500.00
12,0110,01 III. on
1.40
Samuel W. Smith
3,124,645.11
62,1.'")'J.1I>^(I.(I(I
l.SO
F. B. Farnsworth
•20,855.489.72
139,199,913.00
2.75
W. C. Flower
1,085,100.00
Edward Biltz
744,000.00
37,517,500.00
1.00
Patrick J. Boyle
4,293,800.54
55,315,300.00
1.62
Edward B. Wilson
City Clerk for 1899
C. B. Jones
.Vrthur E. Badger
.M. J. O'Donnell
John W. Cramer
Samuel McKee
B. W. Alpiner
George E. Yeager
Charles Curry
W. L. Johnston
J. T. Cummings
John M. Vrchota
James K. Risk
Edw. E. Smeltz
John Bohnet
C. J. ('orcoran
O. E. Mallory
C. E. Lynch
W. K. Duley
Austin D. Fausler
C. H. Hance
Kobert W. Brown
G. C. Dadman
John M. Otey in
J. W. Attwill
L. D. Holden
Edward C. Smith
Martin .T. Bulchcr
Frank M. Kemv
J. Ward Follelt
Peter B. Murphy
George A. Meads
J. C. Haling
Allston P. Joyce
James H. Walton
Herman Hess
Edward J. Heise
James P. Stow
L. H. Hogate
L. A. Lydiard
R. B. Owen, Jr.
Charles G. Carlson
C. P. Hardaway
William N. Hoyt
Bert C. Benham
Porter P. Misner
A. A. Hall
J. P. Byrne
T. M. McCulloch
Lewis J. Wendell
Daniel B. Leonard
A. L. Thompson
John L. James
D. J. Coutant
George H. Stevens
Will E. Marshall
R. F. Lyon
W. S. Brashear
Frank H. Covalt
Wni. G. Stevens
L F. Kingsbury
Jamestown, N.Y.
Janesville, Wis.
Jersey City, N.J.
Johnstown, Pa.
Kalamazoo, Mich.
Kankakee, 111.
Kansas City, Kan.
Kan.sas City, Mo.
Keokuk, la.
Kingston, N.Y.
La Crosse, Wis.
Lafayette, Ind.
Lancaster, Pa.
Lansing, Mich.
Lawrence, Mass.
Leadville, Col.
Lima, O.
Little Rock, Ark.
Logansi)ort, Ind.
Los Angeles, Cal.
Louisville, Ky*
Lowell, Mass.
Lynchburg, Va.
Lj'nn, Mass.
McKeesport, Pa.
Maiden, Mass.
Manchester, N.H.
Manistee, Mich.
Manslield, O.
Marinette, Wis.
Marlboro, ^lass.
Marquette, Mich.
Massillon, O.
Medford, Mass.
Memphis, Tenn.
Menominee, Mich.
Merlden, Ct.
Michigan City, Ind.
Middietow^n, Ct.
Millvilie, N.J.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Minneapolis, Minn.
Mobile, Ala.
Mohne, 111.
Montgomery, Ala.
Mount Vernon, N.Y.
Muscatine, la.
Muskegon, Mich.
Nashua, N.H.
Nashville, Tenn.
New Albany, Ind.
Newark, N.J.
New Bedford, Mass.
New Britain, Ct.
New Brunswick, N..J,
Newburg, N.Y.
Newburyport, Mass.
Newcastle, Pa.
New Haven, Ct.
New Orleans, La.
Newport, Ky.
Newport, R.I.
Newton, Mass.
cclxvi
UNITED STATES
Estimated
Ordinary
Ordinary
Receipts
Expendi-
Cities
Population
Revenue,
Expendi-
from Bonded
Lit! Co li vJUl
Bonded
Jan. 1, 1899
1898
tures, 1898
Loans, 1898
Loans, 1898
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
New York, N.Y.
3,549,558
Norfolk, Va.
65,000
610,610.63
575,003.95
North Adams, Mass.
23,000
346,656.42
345,699.75
102,500.00
94.520.43
Northampton, Mass.
17,000
240,800.00
238,800.00
7,200.00
7,200.00
Ogdensburg, N.Y.
14,700
62,203.12
50,000.00
70,000.00
Oil City, Pa.
16,000
46,099.00
857.00
6,000.00
Oniaha, Neb.
160,000
1,320,377.03
1,296,268.61
332,801.08
331,777.18
Orange, N.J.
26,000
325,397.41
366,701.50
50,000.00
50,000.00
Oshkosh, Wis.
30,000
300,000.00
294,000.00
Oswego, N.Y.
25,000
277,389.00
293,230.00
41,553.23
41,553.23
Ottawa, 111.
12,000
50,000.00
50,000.00
11,784.00
Ottumwa, la.
20,000
120,100.00
170,486.69
3,000.00
Owensboro, Ky.
15,000
75,000.00
75,000.00
Paducah, Kv.
23,000
115,000.00
100,000.00
Pawtucket, "R.I.
cl,780,881.00
cl,758,914.00
Peekskill, N.Y.
10,500
32,900.00
32,900.00
190,000.00
Pensacola, Fla.
16,000
75,000.00
73,000.00
Peoria, 111.
70,000
Petersburg, Va.
25,000
251,425.18
237,286.75
Philadelphia, Pa.
1,350,000
Pine Bluff, Ark.
20,000
60,000.00
55,000.00
•
Pittsburg, Pa.
315,000
6,475,594.69
6,475.594.69
929,972.40
1,554,972.40
Pittston, Pa.
15,000
56,891.08
33,791.81
Plainfield, N.J.
15,000
252,481.00
252,308.00
Portland, Me.
45,000
1,500,000.00
1,500,000.00
2,000.00
Portland, Ore.
100,000
Portsmouth, Va.
20,000
146,715.69
145,477.64
Pottstown, Pa.
16,500
37,000.00
37,000.00
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
25,000
248,220.00
48,158.79
Providence, R.I.
167,000
3,700,623.50
3,871,571.57
215,220.00
200,000.00
Quincy, 111.
45,000
180,000.00
180,000.00
Quincy, Mass.
25,000
457,955.69
452,335.33
193,070.25
159,221.52
Racine, "Wis.
30,000
175.000.00
175,000.00
Reading, Pa.
90,797
350;000.00
350,000.00
112,000.00
105,000.00
Richmond, Ind.
23,000
135,000.00
125,000.00
Richmond, Va.
100,000
2,108,716.77
2,122,711.75
Roanoke, Va.
23,000
187,956.91
152,746.68
43,407.50
43,407.50
Rochester, N.Y.
177,000
Rockford, 111.
35,000
?>302,690.00
&295,999.92
Rock Island, 111.
25,000
145,841.07
144,823.73
Sacramento, Cal.
35,000
482,356.77
464,842.70
Saginaw, Mich.
60,000
c950,053.00
0880,957.00
St. Joseph, Mo.
70,000
469,919.45
469,919.45
St. Louis, Mo.
623,000
8,095,794.78
7,697,611.19
1,335,110.21
1,608,000.00
St. Paul, Minn.
175,000
2,431,314.74
2,295,847.93
Salem, Mass.
35,500
679,428.48
703,867.30
31,500.00
65,450.00
San Diego, Cal.
23,000
150.000.00
138,000.00
10,000.00
San Francisco, Cal.
350,000
6.363,333.00
6,055,555.00
San Jose, Cal.
25,000
225,000.00
225,000.00
25,000.00
50,000.00
SaratogaSprings,N.Y.
12,000
133,235.76
133,235.76
Savannah, Ga.
66,000
Schenectady, N.Y.
29,000
229,567.20
221,346.10
62,000.00
62,000.00
Scranton. Pa.
125,000
Seattle, Wash.
85.000
Sedalia, Mo.
20,000
65,000.00
55,000.00
30,916.00
30,916.00
Sheboygan, Wis.
23,000
221,822.21
207,903.80
25,570.00
19,515.87
Shreveport, La.
24,000
Sioux Citv, la.
42.500
265,000.00
202,000.00
Si()u.Y Falls, S.D.
12,000
42,600.00
Somerville, Mass.
60,000
1,196.547.25
1,181,547.25
185,262.60
176,000.00
South Bend, Ind.
35,000
2.-)it,731.71
233,176.09
121,500.00
175,598.26
South Bethlehem, Pa.
12,000
70,000.00
65,000.00
Spokane, Wash.
45,000
478,449.19
329,991.67
430,000.00
364,946.22
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS
cclxvii
Net Debt
Jan. 1, 1899
Assessed
Valuation
Jan. 1, 1899
Kate
of
Ta.\a-
tion
Mayor for 1899
City Clerk for 1899
Cities
Dollars
Dollars
DoU.
260,(HH),000.00
8,042,653,258.00
I
R. A. Van Wyck
New York, N.Y.
4,000,000.00
25.829,030.00
2.10
C. Brooks J ohuston
L. Royster
Norfolk, Va.
1,046,250.02
9,390,075.00
2.18
H. Torrey Cady
Charles S. Brooker
North Adams, Mass.
460,000.00
11,634.921.00
1.55
Jolin L. Mather
Egbert I. Clapp
Northami)ton, Mass.
248,200.00
4,150,625.00
1.41
Ed^'ar A. Newell
H. L. Jones
Ogdensburg, N.Y.
43,096.38
2,500.000.00
l.;30
J. .\. Fuwcett
S. W. Barn hart
Oil City, Pa.
8,361,100.00
84,907,399.00
2.40
Frank K. Moores
Beecher Iligby.
Omaha, Neb.
1,472,200.00
9,867,334.00
2.76
Henry Stetson
Daniel A. Dugan
Orange, N.J.
362,000.00
9,300,000.00
2.65
A. ]i. I(le.son
Daniel Weitzel
Oshkosh, Wis.
607,000.00
10,085,841.00
2.92
J. D. Iliggius
Fred. D. Wheeler
Oswego, N.Y.
148,100.00
1,000,000.00
8.00
Ottawa, 111.
170,668.42
8,933,733.00
5.50
T. J. Phillips
W. A. Stevens
Ottumwa, la.
65,000.00
5,000,000.00
1.65
W. P. Small
J. S. Sterman
Owensboro, Ky.
343,000.00
7,000,000.00
1.50
James M. Lang
Wm. H. Patterson
Paducah, Ky.
4,208,291.00
88,356,200.00
1.65
William J. Cronin
Pawtucket, R.I.
75,000.00
5,8:30,450.00
0.64
Geo. W. Robertson
Charles R. Swain
Peekskill, N.Y.
33,619.35
2,981,795.00
2.00
W. II. Northnp
F. Glackmeyer
Pen«acola, Fla.
219,500.00
9,000,000.00
9.02
John Warner
Peoria, 111.
1,261,000.00
10,077,275.00
1.60
Jno. M. Pleasants
G. B. Gill m
Petersburg, A"a.
89,174,853.00
864,510,035.00
1.85
Chas. F. Warwick
Philadeli)hia. Pa.
25,000.00
8,500,000.00
2.20
D. C. Bell
R. L. Johnson
Pine Blutf, Ark.
11,906,934.55
265,000,000.00
1.50
Henry P. Ford
E. J. Martin
Pittsburg, Pa.
56,600.00
1,400,000.00
2.00
Benjamin Harding
John T. Flannery
IMttston, Pa.
116,000.00
8,196,500.00
2.42
G. W. Rockfellow
J. T. Mac Murray
IMainficld, N.J.
1,256,437.35
40,000,000.00
2.10
Charles H. Randall
Edwin L. Dyer
Portland, Me.
4,775,000.00
45,000,000.00
2.80
W. S. Mason
Portland, Ore.
873,2S4.9S
6,631,218.00
2.15
J. T. Baird
E. Thompson, jr.
Portsmouth, Va.
5,600.00
5,800.000.00
0.60
R. R. Davidheiser
John B. Welsh
Pottstown, Pa.
1,701,000.00
12,290,020.00
1.91
I. W. Sherrill
C. 8. Howland
Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
13,94:^,799.06
181,558,120.00
1.65
William C. Baker
William E. Clarke
Providence, R.I.
1,234,400.00
4,200,000.00
7.00
J. A. Steinbach
Horace J. Farrer
Quincy, 111.
1,350,505.86
19,236,832.00
1.80
Harrison A. Keith
Quincy, Mass.
364.000.00
10,153,045.00
2.33
Frederick Graham
Henry J. Schroff
Racine, Wis.
1,352.500.00
42,117,4:33.00
0.60
Jacob Weidel
II. H. Haramen
Reading, Pa.
50,000.00
11,200,000.00
1.04
W. W. Zimmerman
G. J. Knollenberg
Richmond, Ind.
7,396.041.91
67.993,2a4.00
1.40
R. M. Taylor
B. T. August
Richmond, Va.
812.000.00
11.408,000.00
1.25
James P. Woods
W. E. Thomas
Roanoke, Va.
9,917.220.00
112,793,740.00
1.60
G. E. Warner
Rochester, N.Y.
296.800.00
5,629,737.00
3.26
E. W. Brown
II. C. Scovill
Rockford, 111.
190.000.00
1,913,058.00
9.40
T. J. Medill, jr.
A. D. Huesing
Rock Island. 111.
288,900.00
15,500,000.00
2.04
William Land
M. J. Desmond
Sacramento, Cal.
1,262,580.00
14,936,675.00
2.70
William B. Baum
Alfred Davies
Saginaw, Mich.
1,202,300.00
20,931,480.00
2.85
P. J. Kirschner
C. S. Shepherd
St. Joseph. Mo.
19,592,>78.50
353,988,510.00
2.05
H. Ziegenhein
Henry Besch/)
St. Louis, Mo.
7,642,(1^0.00
93,032,482.00
2.10
A. R. Kiefer
Matt Jensen
St. Paul, Minn.
S--I'' ','!i-J.'.'l
2^.;w-.-Jti.\50
1.68
James N. Turner
J. C. Entwisle
Salem, Mass.
• 21»T. .'Ni
1;;. t.iino.OO
1.00
D. C. Reed
G. D. Goldman
San Diego, Cal.
94 -t'.'l -T
-■"■■-'. :;4-1.0(;i. 00
1.80
James D. Phelan
John A. Russell
San Francisco, Cal.
31-.M •.'.-..""
ii;. Ill 10. (»)(). 00
1.28
C. J. Martin
J. W. Cook
San Jose, Cal.
So'J.ndii.iiii
• ;. f(i<;,4:57.00
2.08
Adelbert P. Knapp
J. D. McNulty
SaratogaSprings,N.Y.
8,322. iir)(l.i Id
;!:>.4!t'.»,2()0.00
1.45
P. W. Meld rim
Savannah, Ga.
702,11(10. nil
10, 07^.2:56.00
1.95
Chas. C. Duryee
Louis M. King
Schenectady, N.Y.
5;3.">.'.*(')i.i»i
31, (II III. (II III. (Ill
3.00
James G. Bailey
Scranton, Pa.
8,5"_'( ',di Ml. (II 1
;i(i.Ti4.i2';.o(i
2.45
Thos. J. Humes
Seattle, Wash.
2(i."i,.')(i().()(i
3,56;3,4no.0O
1.05
W. C. Overstreet
J. W. Hartshorn
Sedalia, Mo.
272,513.10
6.425.709.00
2.97
C. A. Born
Oscar F. Huhn
Sheboygan, Wis.
165,500.00
4,000,000.00
Shreveport, La.
1,257,600.00
5,820,893.00
5.20
J. H. Quick
F. J. Selzer
Sioux Citv, la.
851,000.0(1
2,292,000.00
2.00
B. H. Lien
L. .M. Estabrook m
Sioux Falls, S.D.
1,552,000.00
50,739,700.00
1.79
George 0. Proctor
George I. Vincent
Somerville, Mass.
26;^, 500.0(1
13,75s,.">40.00
1.23
Schuyler Colfa.x
Louis A. Hull
South Bend, Ind.
260,400.00
5,500,000.00
1.10
Chas. E. Webster
Thomas Ganey
South Bethlehem, Pa.
2,ai9,2S4.68
18,544,317.00
3.00
E. D. Olmstead
L. F. Boyd
Spokane, Wash.
cclxviii
UNITED STATES
Estimated
Ordinary
Ordinary
Eeceipts
Expendi-
tures from
Bonded
Loans, 1S98
Cities
Population
Kevenue,
Expendi-
from Bonded
Jan. 1, 1S99
1898
tures, 1898
Loans, 1898
Dollars
Dollar H
Dollars
Dollars
Springfield, 111.
33,000
100,000.00
190,000.00
Springfield, Mass.
57,676
2,139,889.48
1,872,524.36
243,526.60
147,000.00
Springfield, Mo.
30,000
88,487.71
86,515.48
Springfield, 0.
38,000
125,000.00
53,000.00
Stockton, Cal.
20,000
215.627.00
210,174.00
30,750.00
Streator, Hi.
17,000
46,000.00
46,000.00
Superior, Wis.
30,000
325,000.00
169,389.50
Syracuse, N.Y.
130,000
290,000.00
1,250,000.00
640,000.00
640,000.00
Tacoma, Wash.
52,000
515,720.00
500,650.00
Taunton, Mass.
30,000
765,072.09
756,417.36
58,500.00
46,769.00
Toledo, 0.
145,000
51,737,787.00
51,784,103.00
Topeka, Kan.
35,000
Troy, N.Y.
65,000
Utica, N.Y.
60,000
Vicksbiirg, Miss.
20,000
150,913.00
144,971.00
Waco, Tex.
35,000
218,000.00
225,000.00
Walthain, Mass.
22,200
4:39,053.34
427,885.19
70,112.40
55,485.83
W^arwick, K.I.
25,000
109,754.00
100,010.00
Washington, D.C.
See District
of Columbia
Waterbur3% Ct.
38,000
114,000.00
309,125.00
Watervliet, N.Y.
16,000
209,222.22
191,736.21
65,559.12
35,147.95
Wausau, Wis.
12,000
100,000.00
60,000.00
West Bay City, Mich.
14,000
35,200.00
44,500.00
12,000.00
Weymouth, Mass.
11,500
152,691.07
158,191.00
Wheeling, W.Va.
408,233.62
373,231.36
Wichita, Kan.
24,000
170,000.00
170,000.00
Wilkes Barre, Pa.
57,000
Willlamsport, Pa.
35,000
180,059.38
180,059.38
Wilmington, Del.
70,000
611,435.15
611,435.15
Wilmington, N.C.
27,000
153,000.00
135.146.92
Winona, Minn.
25,000
64,000.00
105,000.00
Woburn, Mass.
14,000
392,051.31
375,737.06
25,300.00
25,800.00
Woonsocket, E.I.
26,000
324,000.00
407,000.00
163,479.45
163,479.45
Worcester, Mass.
105,000
Yonkers, N.Y.
45,000
160,000.00
135,000.00
410.000.00
481,500.00
Youngstown, 0.
50,000
326,828.00
348,444.91
77,912.29
67,175.15
a Chairman Board of Selectmen.
h Total receipts and expenditures from all sources for 1897.
c Total receipts and expenditures from all sources for 1897.
d Exclusive of school tax.
e Citj'^ purposes only.
/ President of Board of Commissioners.
fl' Exclusive of water bonds.
h Exclusive of water debt.
MUNICIPAL STATISTICS
cclxix
Net Debt
Jan. 1, 1899
Assessed
V.iluation
Jan. 1, 1899
Rate
of
Taxa-
tion
Mayor for 1899
City Clerk for 1899
Cities
Dollars
Dollars
Dolft.
1,000,000.00
2.00
L. E. Wheeler
R. T. Hickman
Springfield, 111.
2,136,000.00
64,898.379.00
1.38
1). 0. Gilinore
Elijah A. Newell
Springfield, Mass.
157,800.00
7,524,000.00
0.85
W. A. Hall
Springfield, Mo.
787,699.41
17,000,000.00
2.27
John M. Good
Philip Huonker
vSpringfield, 0.
223,000.00
12,936,473. 00
1.67
WiHi.ani Inplis
I. II. Robinson
Stockton, Cal.
1,000,000.0(1
2.00
W. W. Bean
H. E. Mulford
Streator, 111.
1,619,483.60
9,996,183.24
4.50
II. W. Dietrich
F. J. Seguin
Superior, Wis.
5,8SG,4'.'2.10
78,.00O,000.O0
1.59
James K. McQuire
M. Z. Haven
Syracuse, N.Y.
2,730,000.00
23.436,447.00
1 .20
Johnson Nickens
Lester W. Roys
Tacoma, Wash.
1,158,634.69
20,308,410.00
1.86
N. J. W. Fish
Edwin A. Tetlow
Taunton, Mass.
5,982,518.00
58,473,880.00
3.32
Samuel M. Jones
Lem P. Harris
Toledo, 0.
3.S(),5()0.()0
8,855,794.00
4.32
Chas. A. Fellows
Topeka, Kan.
1,105,776.00
47,777,058.00
1.25
Francis J. MoUoy
Troy, N.Y.
519,592.00
37,694,144.00
1.96
T. E. Kinney
J. A. Cant well
Utica, N.Y.
480,600.00
5,822,646.00
2.00
W. L. Trowbridge
H. J. Trowbridge
Vicksburg, Miss.
627,000.00
1.95
C. C. McCuUoch
R.W.Jablonowski
Waco, Tex.
831,992.43
18,794,624.00
1.60
Geo. L. Mayberry
Lunian N. Hall
Waltham, Mass.
15,005,320.00
0.65
Webster Knight "«
J as. T. Lockwood
Warwick, R.I.
Washington, D.C.
804,545.68
11,000,000.00
1.90
Thos. D. Barlow
Richard F. Grady
Waterbury, Ct.
396,000.00
4,578,707.00
2.04
Michael J. Day
James M. Day
Watervliet, N.Y.
152,500.00
3.500,000.00
3.00
J. N. Manson
C. F. Beck
Wausau, Wis.
291,000.00
3,258,400.00
2.80
Peter Lind
George L. Lusk
West Bay City, Mich.
113,4432.00
6,800,000.00
1.87
Gordon Willis a
J. A. Ravmond
Wevmouth, Mass.
566,930. W
C. H. Watkins
Wheeling, W. Va.
500,000.00
4,500.000.00
2.50
Finlay Ross
H. T. Kramer
Wichita, Kan.
895.034.00
8,747,474.00
4.70
F. N. Nichols
Wilkes Barre, Pa.
636., 8:^6. 09
9,2432.402.00
1.48
James ^lansel
Williamsport, Pa.
2,036,050.00
39,237.385.00
1.40
Henry C. McLear
W. P. Morrison
Wilmington, Del.
759,400.00
6.803.907.00
1.75
A. M. Wad dell
Josh T. James
Wilmington, N.C.
^367,500.00
6.734,000.00
2.95
E. K. Tarbell
L. D. Frost
Winona, Minn.
382,700.00
9,945,762.00
1.S7
William Y. Davis
John II. Finn
Woburn, Mass.
1,7:33,329.51
15.0&4,585.00
1.50
George W. Greene
William C. Mason
Woonsocket, R.I.
^1,422.00
98,483,591.00
1.48
R. B. Dodge, jr.
Worcester, Mass.
2,725.624.09
35,439.320.00
2.22
Leslie Sutherland
John Pagan, jr.
Yonkers, N.Y.
523.138.00
13.238,610.00
3!27
Edmund H. Moore
F. C. Brown
Youngstown, 0.
i Includes accrued interest on premium bonds.
A; Exclusive of school bonds.
I Manhattan and Bronx $2.01.
w Auditor.
71 Comptroller.
0 Recorder.
p Register.
cclxx
UNITED STATES
STEEET RAILWAY MILEAGE, CARS, AND CAPITALIZATION, 1898
[From Street Railway Journal, by permission of the editors]
Electric Railways
Cable Railways
Horse
Railways
States
No. of
Roads
Track
Mile-
Motor
Cars
Trail
Cars
Track
Mile-
Grip
Cars
Trail
Cars
Track
Mile-
Ilorse
Cars
age
age
age
NEW ENGLAND STATES
Maine
22
230
290
80
8
4
New Hampshire
1
80
137
46
—
.
—
Vermont
9
77
72
4
—
—
—
—
—
Massachusetts
S4
1,632
5,156
147
_
12
361
Rhode Island
6
181
511
90
—
.
—
Connecticut
Total
EASTERN STATES
27
417
918
93
—
—
—
—
—
155
2,617
7,084
460
—
—
—
15
865
New York
102
1,862
6,684
607
54
1,118
200
197
1,758
New Jersey
34
686
1,581
160
—
—
—
18
38
Pennsylvania
89
1,679
5,152
346
—
—
—
2
20
Delaware
4
35
90
—
—
District of Columbia
12
159
583
378
6
42
15
81
Maryland
9
848
1,010
57
21
72
36
—
Virginia
18
211
342
71
—
1
1
West Virginia
Total
CENTRAL STATES
5
45
62
10
—
—
—
1
1
273
5,025
15,5(14
1.624
81
1.232
236
229
1,S94
Michigan
33
572
1,174
152
—
—
—
—
Ohio
68
1,374
2,888
581
20
221
IS
2
4
Indiana
26
395
556
240
—
10
17
Kentucky
11
188
334
216
—
.
20
125
Wisconsin
IS
318
562
87
—
4
2
Illinois
59
1,365
2,528
2,828
82
585
639
26
60
Minnesota
9
301
742
6
1
50
—
7
9
Iowa
27
290
354
154
—
9
14
Missouri
Total
SOUTHERN STATES
29
529
1,113
516
94
389
370
27
31
280
5,332
10,251
4,780
197
1,245
1.027
105
262
— ' —
North Carolina
8
87
66
8
2
3
South Carolina
5
50
62
19
__
.
4
12
Georgia ■
14
225
314
39
—
11
9
Florida
7
44
54
8
—
—
11
16
Alabama
16
120
131
96
—
_
—
14
14
Mississippi
4
6
4
8
—
—
—
6
8
Tennessee
17
237
385
85
1
5
5
Louisiana
11
190
488
55
.
13
29
Arkansas
Total
WESTERN STATES
7
34
61
85
—
—
—
27
55
89
943
1,515
853
1
—
—
93
151
South Dakota
4
8
8
3
.
15
13
Nebraska
10
152
220
152
—
—
22
24
Kansas
11
110
96
67
—
—
28
31
Texas
25
224
273
68
—
—
30
60
Colorado
11
215
283
201
30
62
80
7
5
Montana
5
65
61
81
Idaho
1
4
2
Utah
5
92
102
22
Washington
21
211
178
28
21
55
15
4
6
Oregon
12
117
142
22
8
16
1
7
8
California
Total
UNITED STATES
52
557
765
108
127
675
57
99
284
157
1,755
2.(t75
697
ISl
808
15;^
212
431
954
15,672
36,429
7,914
460
3,285
1,416
654
3,103
STREET RAILWAYS
cclxxi
STREET RAILWAY MILEAGE, CARS, AND CAPITALIZATION, 1898
[From Street Railway Journal, by permission of the editors]
Miscellaneous
TOTA LS
Capital
Funded
Capital
Railways
Stock
Debt
Liabilities
States
Track
Cars,
Track
Mile-
Knjifines,
Mile-
Cars
Total
Total
Total
ag-e
etc.
age
NEW ENGLAND STATIiS
—
—
233
374
$3,351,042
$3,558,000
$6,909,042
Maine
—
—
80
18;^
820,000
706,000
1,526,000
New Hampshire
—
—
77
70
880,800
650,000
1,537,400
Vermont
—
2
1,044
5,000
47,978,200
28,025,900
70,004,100
Ma.ssaclmsetts
—
—
LSI
001
8,010,200
8,844.200
17,454,400
Rhode Island
—
—
417
1,011
10,875,740
10,045,800
20,921,540
Connecticut
Total
EASTERN STATES
—
2
2,o;t.i
7.911
72,510,042
52,4;30,500
124,952,542
ISO
2,044
2,293
12,400
217.785,052
200,883,778
418.009,730
New York
—
—
099
1,779
o;>,(;i-j,4'_'o
42.722,785
7(i,;-.35,208
New Jersey-
12
—
1,093
5,518
109,420,;350
b5, 02 1,400
2:4,441,750
Pennsylvania
—
—
35
90
717,640
750,000
1,407,(>40
Delaware
—
—
181
1,079
15,965,300
8,535,091
24,500,991
District of Columbia
2
2
3T1
1,1TT
15,487,000
15,870,000
31,357,000
Maryland
4
7
210
421
7,075,005
6,732,000
13,807,065
Virginia
t
25
5;^
98
1,478,000
959,000
2,4:37,000
West Virginia
Total
CENTRAL STATES
2(»5
2. (ITS
5.541
22.50s
401,542,330
301.474,054
823,010,984
3
4
5T5
1,330
11,750,200
17,505,450
29,255,050
ISIichigan
—
—
1,390
3,T12
72,088,300
82,909,000
105,057,300
Ohio
—
—
405
813
10,906,550
10,408,000
21,374,550
Indiana
—
—
208
0T5
7,446,900
7,020,000
14,466,900
Kentucky
—
—
322
051
9,876,100
10,049,000
19,925,100
Wisconsin
11
5
1,484
6,645
104.888,185
74.897,000
179,785,185
Illinois
—
2
309
809
19.334.100
12,747,000
32,081.100
Minnesota
3
5
302
527
10,413.000
5.029,000
15,442.000
Iowa
—
—
650
2.419
3o.32s.Oi>(i
ol.s42.ooo
02.170,000
Missouri
Total
SOUTHERN STATES
IT
10
5.051
1T.5S1
2TT.031,335
202.520.450
4T9,55T,T85
2
—
41
77
786,000
510.000
1,296,000
North Carolina
—
—
54
98
1,297,000
1,340,000
2,637,000
South Carolina
5
6
241
368
4,048,400
5.523,000
9,571,400
Georgia
9
14
W
92
531,500
204.600
730,100
Florida
79
87
213
328
5,447,800
2,045,000
8,092,800
Alabama
2
28
14
48
154,000
08,000
222.000
Missi.ssi[)in
9
15
252
440
5,057,000
4,755,000
9,812,000
Tennessee
—
203
572
11,379,100
9,507,400
20,940,500
Louisiana
5
—
60
151
1,500,375
1,032,000
2.532.375
Arkan.sas
Total
■WESTERN STATES
111
150
1,14S
2,109
30,201.175
25,(>45.0O0
55,840.175
—
—
23
19
375,000
375,000
South Dakota
—
—
174
396
6,679,250
2,410,000
9,089,250
•Nebraska
—
—
138
194
2,705.000
2,368,000
5,073,000
Kan.sas
—
11
254
407
4,622,500
6,1,^,000
10,800,500
Texas
21
82
272
618
10,355,000
11,201,000
21,616,000
Colorado
—
—
65
92
1,620,000
1,340,500
2,966,500
Montana
—
—
4
2
54,000
54,000
Idaho
IS
7
110
131
1,756,000
1,000,000
2,750,000
rtah
—
—
236
282
8,271,300
5,759,228
14.030.528
Washington
21
29
148
218
2,520. sOO
2,335.000
4.855,800
Oregon
112
77
895
1.966
42.151.230
24.073.000
60.824.s30
California
Total
UNITED STATES
172
156
2.320
4.820
Sl.llO.OMI
5T.33T.32N
13s,447.40S
605
2,402
17,291
54,549
922,400,902
099,419,982
1,621,820,894
cclxxii UNITED STATES
IV. BOOKS OF REFERENCE CONCERNING THE
UNITED STATES
1. Official Publications
Agriculture, Reports of the Department of. Washington.
Appropriation, Letter from Secretary of Treasury with estimate of
Annual. Washington.
Army Register of the United States. Washington.
Census, Tenth. Vols. I.-XXI. 4. Washington, 1883-89. Census,
Eleventh. Washington, 1890-97.
Commerce of the United States, Reports on the Foreign, and of Bureau
of Foreign Commerce. Annual. Washington.
Congressional Directory. Annual. Washington.
Constitutions, Federal and State, compiled by B. P. Poore. 2 pts. 8.
Washington, 1877.
Debt of the United States, Statement of the Public. Annual. Wash-
ington.
Education, Annual Reports of Commissioner of. Washington. Edu-
cation Bureau, Circulars of. Washington.
Engineers, Reports of the Chief of U. S. Army. [Describes public
works on navigable rivers, etc.] Annual. Washington.
Ethnology Bureau, Reports of. Washington.
Foreign Office List. By Sir E. Herstlet. Annual. London.
Foreign Relations of the United States, Papers relating to, transmitted
to Congress. Annual. Washington.
Foreign Office Reports (British). Annual Series and Miscellaneous
Series. London.
Geological and Geographical Survey, Annual Reports of. Washington.
Immigration, Report of Commissioners. 8. Washington, 1892.
Interior, Report of Secretary on Operations of Department of the.
Annual. AYashington.
International Law of the United States, Digest of. 3 vols. Wash-
ington, 1886.
Land Office, Report of Commissioner. Annual. Washington.
Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage,
and Banking. Washington, 1886.
Loans and Currency, Acts of Congress relating to, 1846-85. 8. New
York, 1888.
Labor Laws of the United States. Washington, 1892. Report of
Connnissioner of Labor. Special. Washington.
Mineral Resources of the United States. By D. T. Day. Annual.
Washington.
Mint, Report of the Director of. Annual. Washington.
Navy Register of the United States. Washington.
Navy, Report of the Secretary of. Annual. Washington.
Official Register of the United States. Washington.
Prices, Wages, and Transportation, Report on, by Mr. Aldrich of the
Committee on Finance. 4 pts. 8. Washington, 1893.
Railways, Report on Statistics of, to Interstate Commerce Commission.
Annual. Washington.
Revenue, Report of Commissioner of Internal. Annual. Washington.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. Annual. Washington.
REFERENCE BOOKS cclxxiii
Statistics, Bureau of Monthly Reports of, on Imports, Exports, Immi-
gration, and Navigation of the United States. Washington.
Statutes at Large, and Treaties of the United States. Published annu-
ally. Washington.
Revised Statutes of the United States. Washington, 1878. Supple-
ments were published in 1801 and 1895, and will be continued annually.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, etc., Statement
of. Annual. Imp. 4. London.
Treasury, Report of the Secretary of, on Finances. Annual. Wash-
ington.
War, Report of Secretary on Operations of Department of. Annual.
Washington.
2. Non-Official Publications
Abbott (W. J.), Naval History of the United States. New York, 1897.
Adams (Henry), History of the United States of America. 9 vols.
New York and London, 1891.
America and the Americans from a French Point of View. London,
1897.
Appleton. General Guide to the United States and Canada. 8. New
York, 1892. Cyclopaedia of American Biography. 4. New York, 1887.
Baedeker'' s Handbook for the United States. By J. F. Muirhead. 8.
Leipsic, 1893.
Ballon (M. M.), The New Eldorado [Alaska]. London, 1897.
Bancroft (George), History of the Formation of the Constitution of
the United States of America. 2 vols. London, 1882.
Bancroft (George), History of the United States. New ed. 6 vols.
8. London, 1882.
Bolles (A. S.), Financial History of the United States. 3 vols. New
York, 1885.
Brockett (L. R.), Our Western Empire. Philadelphia, 1882.
Bnice (James), The American Commonwealth. 2 vols. 3d ed.
London, 1893-95.
Carson (H. L.), History of the Supreme Court of the United States.
8. Philadelphia, 1891.
Channimj (E.), The LTnited States of America, 1705-1865. London,
1896. Guide to the Study of American History. Boston, 1897.
Church (W. C), Ulysses S. Grant and the Maintenance of American
Nationality. London, 1897.
ColaiKje (E.), The National Gazetteer: a Geographical Dictionary of
the United States. 8. New York.
Coleman (L.), America. [In "International Churches" series.]
London, 1891.
Cooley (T. M.), Constitutional Law in the United States. Boston,
1880. The Constitutional Limitations on the Legislative Power of the
States of the American Union. 5th ed, 8. Boston, 1883.
Cooper (T. V.) and Fenton (H. T.), American Politics. New York,
1882.
Curtis (G. T.), History of the Constitution of the United States. New
York, 1854-58. 2 vols.
Ball (W. H.), Ala.ska and its Resources. 8. Boston, 1870.
Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain: a
Record of Travel in English-speaking Countries in 1866 and 1867. 4th
ed. 8. London, 1885.
Cclxxiv UNITED STATES
Donaldson (T.), The Public Domain: its History, with Statistics, etc.
8. "Washington.
£'Z^ (R. T.), Labor Movement in America. 8. London. Taxation in
American States and Cities. 8, New York, 1888.
Elliot (H. W.), An Arctic Province. London, 1886.
Fiske (John), American Political Ideas. 8. New York, 1885. The
Critical Period in American History, 1783-89. 8. London, 1888. Civil
Government in the United States. 8. Boston, 1890. The American
Revolution. 2 vols. London, 1897. Old Virginia and her Neighbors.
2 vols. London, 1897. All in Boston editions.
Foster (R. ), Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States,
Historical and Juridical. London, 1896. (In progress.)
Gannett (H.), North America. Vol. II. The United States. [Com-
pendium of Geography and Travel.] London and New York, 1898.
Godkin (E. L.), Problems of Modern Democracy. New York, 1897.
Harrison (B.), The Constitution and Administration of the United
States of America, London, 1897.
Hart (A. B.), American History told by Contemporaries. 2 vols.
New York, 1897-98.
Henderson (G. F. R.), Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War.
2 vols. New York and London, 1898.
Hildreth (Richard), History of the United States. 6 vols. New York,
1880, etc.
Hoist (A. von), Verfassung und Demokratie der Vereinigten Staaten
von America. 4 vols. Diisseldorf, 1873-91. English translation by
J. J. Lalor and A. B. Mason. 8. Chicago, 1876, etc.
Homans (B.), The Banker's Almanac and Register. 8. New York.
Johnston (Alex.), History of American Politics. New York, 1882.
Judson (H, P.), The Growth of the American Nation. London, 1897.
Kelley (J. D. J.), The American Navy. London, 1897.
Kent (J.), Commentaries on American Law (with Notes by O. W.
Holmes, jr.). 4 vols. 8. New York.
Kimj (Edward), The Southern States of America. 8. London, 1875.
Lalor (John J.) (Editor), Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political
Economy, and of the Political History of the United States. 3 vols.
New York, 1890.
Lanman (Charles), Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the
United States during its First Century. 8. London, 1876.
Lossuifj (B. J.), Cyclopaedia of United States History. New York,
1883. 2 vols.
3facConnell (S. D.), History of the American Episcopal Church, 7th
ed. London, 1898.
Maday (E. S.), History of the United States Navy, 1775-1898. New
York, 1898.
McMaster (J. B.), History of the People of the United States. New
York, 1883-91. (In progress.)
Macpherson (E.), The Political History of the United States of America
during the Great Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
Political Manual for 1866 and for 1868, and Handbook of Politics, pub-
lished in alternate years from 1872-92. [Now discontinued.] 8. Wash-
ington.
Macy (J.), Our Government. 8. Boston, 1886.
Mahan (A. T.), The Interest of America in Sea-Power, London,
1897.
REFERENCE BOOKS Cclxxv
3Iorris (C), The American Navy: Its Ships and their Achievements.
London, 18'.)8.
Nelson (II. L.), The Army of the United States. Fol. London, 1897.
Noyes (A. D.), Thirty -Years of American Finance. New York, 1898.
Oetken (F.), Die Landwirthschaft in den Vereinigten Staaten. Berlin,
1898.
Park-man (F.), France and England in America, consisting of the fol-
lowing works: Pioneers of France in the New World (1512-1035), 2.3d
ed. London, 1885. The Jesuits in North America (1034-75). 20tli ed.
London, 1885. La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (1043-89).
12th ed. London, 1885. The Old K^gime in Canada (1053-1703). 14th
ed. London, 1895. Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV.
(1020-1701). 14th ed. London, 1885. A Half Century of Conflict (1700-
48). 2 vols. London, 1892. Montcalm and Wolf (1710-03). 0th ed.
2 vols. London, 1885. The Conspiracy of Pontiac (1003-1709). 10th
ed. 2 vols. London, 1885. Also the Oregon Trail : Sketches of Prairie
and Rocky Mountain Life (1847). New ed. London, 1892. All in
Boston editions.
Mason (E. C), The Veto Power : its Origin, Development, and Func-
tion in the United States.
Moore (J. M.), The Monroe Doctrine. New York, 1895.
Paschal (George W.), The Constitution of the United States. 8.
Washington, 1808.
Patton (I. H.), Natural Resources of the United States. 8. New York.
Pomeroy (J. N.), Constitutional Law of the United States, Enlarged
by E. II. Bennett, Boston.
Pool (D. C), Among the Sioux of Dakota. 8. New York, 1881.
Poor (Henry V.), Manual of the Railroads of the United States. 8.
New York, 1890.
Porter (R. P.), Gannett (H.), and Jones (W. P.), The West, from the
Census of 1880. A History of the Industrial, Commercial, Social, and
Political Development of the States and Territories of the West, from
1800 to 1880. Chicago, 1882.
Beclns (Elis^e), Nouvelle G^ographie L^uiverselle. Vol. XVI. Paris,
1892.
Bhodes (J. F.), History of the United States (1850-80). 3 vols. 8.
London, 1893-95.
Bothwell (R. P.), The Mineral Industry, its Statistics, etc., in the
L'nited States and Other Countries. Annual volumes since 1892. New
York.
Sciidder (H. E.), American Commonwealths. [A series of histories
of separate States by various writers.] 8. Boston, 1884, etc.
Shaler (N. S.) (Editor), The United States of America. By various
writers. 2 vols. London, 1890.
Sherman (J.), Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate, and
Cabinet. [Financial History.] London, 1890.
Spears (J. R.), The History of our American Navy. 4 vols. New
York, 1897
Statistical Atlas of the United States. New York, 1884 and 1897.
Washington.
Stanford's Compendium. North America. Ed. Hayden and Selwyn.
8. London.
Stanwood (Edward), History of the Presidency. Bo.ston, 1898.
Stevens (C. E.), Sources of the Constitution of the United States. 8.
London, 1894.
cclxxvi UNITED STATES
Taussig (F. W.), Tariff History of the United States. 8. New York.
Thorpe (F, N.), Constitutional History of the American People,
1776-1850. 2 vols. New York, 1898.
Tocqueville (A. de), D^mocratie en Am^rique. English Translation
by H. Reeve. New ed. 8. London, 1889.
Tiller (C. T.), Literary History of the American Revolution. 2 vols.
London, 1897.
Wdllace (J.), History of Illinois and Louisiana under French Rule,
etc. Cincinnati, 1897.
Wenzel (J.), Comparative View of the Executive and Legislative De-
partments of the Governments of the United States, France, England,
and Germany. 8. Boston, 1891.
miarton (Francis), International Law of the United States. 3 vols.
Washington, 1887.
Whitney (J. D.), The United States. 8. New York, 1890.
Williams (G. W.), History of the Negro Race in America. 2 vols. 8.
New York, 1886.
Winsor (Justin), Vols. 6 and 7 of the Narrative and Critical History
of America.
Wright (Carroll D.), The Industrial Evolution of the United States.
New York and London, 1897.
Hawaii
The Hawaiian Annual. Honolulu, 1899.
United States President's Message relating to the Hawaiian Islands,
1893. Washington, 1893 and Dec, 1898.
Monthly Summary of Finance and Commerce of the United States.
Nos. 10, 11, and 12, 1807-98 (April, May, and June, 1898). Washington,
1898.
Alexander (W. D.), A Brief History of the Hawaiian People. 8.
New York, 1892.
Andri (A.), Les iles Hawaii. Gand, 1886.
Bastian (Adolf), Zur Kenntniss Hawaii's. Berlin, 1883.
Bird (Miss I.), The Hawaiian Archipelago. London, 1878.
Brassey (Lady), A Voyage in the Sunbeam. London, 1880.
Boioser (G.), Hawaiian Kingdom, Statistical Directory, etc. San
Francisco, 1880.
Carpenter (Edmund James), America in Hawaii. Boston, 1899.
Button (Capt. C, U.S.A.), Hawaiian Volcanoes. Washington, D.C.,
1885.
Bllis (W.), Tour through Hawaii. London, 1827.
Ellis (W.), Polynesian Researches. 4 vols. London, 1831.
Fornander (C), Origin of the Polynesian Nations. 3 vols. London,
1885.
Gordon Cumming (Miss C. F.), Fire Fountains: the Kingdom of
Hawaii. 2 vols. London, 1883.
Hopkins (Manley), History of Hawaii. 2d ed. London, 1866.
Jarvis (J. J.), History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, 1847.
Liliuokalani (Queen), Hawaii's Story. Boston, 1898.
Luther (H. Gulik, M.D.^, Climate, etc., of the Hawaiian Islands.
New York, 1855.
Marcuse (A.), Die hawaiisclien Inseln. Berlin, 1894.
Mine (Albert), L'archipel des iles Hawai ou Sandwich. Bordeaux, 1885.
REFERENCE BOOKS cclxxvii
Monnier (Marcel), Un priii temps sur le Pacifique. lies Hawaii. Paris,
1885.
Owen (Jean A.), The Story of Hawaii, New York, 1898.
Saucin (G.), Une Koyauine polyn^sien. Paris, 1893.
Shoemaker (M. M.), Islands of the Southern Seas. New York, 1898.
Stevens (J. L.) and Oleson (W. B.), Picturesque Hawaii. Honolulu,
1894.
Stoddard (C. W.), Hawaiian Life. Chicago, 1894.
Thrum (T. G.), Hawaiian Annual. Honolulu.
Varigny (C. de), Quatorze ans aux les Sandwich. Paris.
Whitney (H. M.), The Hawaiian Guide Book. Honolulu, 1890.
Cuba and Porto Kico
Reports of Bureau of American Republics.
Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on Affairs in Cuba,
United States Senate, No. 885. Fifty-fifth Congress. Washington.
United States Consular Reports for July, 1898. Washington.
Monthly Summary of Finance and Commerce of the United States for
June and July, 1898. Washington.
Davey (R.), Cuba in War Time. London, 1897. Cuba Past and Pres-
ent. London, 1898.
Ford (I. N.), Tropical America. London, 1893.
Gallenga (A.), The Pearl of the Antilles. London, 1873.
Hazard (S.), Cuba with Pen and Pencil. London, 1873.
Hill (R. T.), Cuba and Porto Rico. London and New York, 1898.
Piron (H.), LMsle de Cuba. Paris, 1876.
Porter (Robert P.), Report to the Secretary of the Treasury on the
Industrial and Commercial conditions of Cuba and Porto Rico.
Rowan (A. S.) and Bamsey (M. M.), The Island of Cuba. London,
1898.
Philippine and Ladrone Islands
United States Consular Reports for June, September, and October,
1898. Washington.
Monthly Summary of Finance and Commerce of the United States.
Nos. for April and July, 1898. 4. Washington.
British Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
Foreman (J.), The Philippine Islands. London, 189L
Jagor (F.), Reisen in den Philippinen. Berlin, 1873.
Monterey Vidal (Jos^), Historia General de Filipinas . . . hastanues-
tras dias. 8. Madrid, 1887.
Stevens (J. E.), Yesterdays in the Philippines. London, 1898.
Worcester (Dean C), The Philippine Islands and their People. Lon-
don and New York, 1898.
Ihanez y Garcia (L. de), Historia de las Islas Marianas. Granada,
1876.
Harden (Edward W.), Report on Philippine Islands, Washington,
1898.
Becker (Geo. F.), Memorandum on Mineral Resources of. (Geological
Survey.) Washington, 1898.
INDEX
Accidents on railways, cliv.
Agriculture, xcix.
Ajjriculture, Department of: —
Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Chief
Clerk. Disbursing Clerk, AVeather
Bureau, Divisions of Statistics,
Chemistry, Forestry, Botany, Agros-
tology. Pomology, Vegetable Physi-
ology, and Pathology, Soils, Seeds,
Bureau of Animal Industry, Biologi-
cal Survey, Oltice of Experiment
Stations, and duties, xiv.
American Republics, Bureau of, xvi.
Animal Industry, Bureau of, xiv.
Apportionment of Representatives,
Ixviii.
Arbitration, Federal law, ccxi; State
boards of, ccxxvi.
Architect, Supervising, Treasury De-
partment, vii.
Army, xlvii ; casualties in various
wars, xlix; departments of, liii ;
number of men iu various wars,
xlviii ; pay of enlisted men, li ; pay
of officers, 1.
Army and Navy, relative rank in, Ixvi.
Bankruptcy act, Federal, clxxxix.
Banks, national, clxxx; circulation
and redemption, clxxxii ; private,
clxxxiv ; receipts and disbursements
of, clxxxii ; resources and liabilities
of each class of, clxxxv ; savings,
clxxxiii.
Barley, ci.
Blacklisting, laws relating to, cexxiv.
Blind, ccviii.
Books of Reference, cclxxii.
Boycotting, laws relating to, cexxiv.
Buckwheat, ci.
Building and loan associations,clxxxvi.
"Cabinet," iv.
Canals, clvi.
Capitol, the, Ixxx,
Carrying trade, cxlvii.
Census Office, xiv.
Cereal crops, production, area, and
value of, c.
Churches, denominations, ministers,
ccvi.
Circuit courts of the United States
Ixxxiv.
Cities and towns, cclviii ; government,
cclviii ; of 10,000 inhabitants, sta-
tistics of, cclx.
Cities, Mayors of, cclxi ; population of
50 principal, cclix; street railways
in, cclxx.
Claims, U. S. Court of, Ixxxv.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, viii.
Coinage of the mints, clxix.
Coins, foreign, value of, clxxviii.
Colonial Commission, and duties of,
X.
Commerce, increase and decrease of
imports and exports, cxxix ; of the
United States, cxxiv ; principal fea-
tures of, cxxvii ; value of imports
and exports, cxxix ; with Spanish
West Indies, ccliv.
Congress, Library of, Ixxx ; powers of,
Ixix, Ixxi; salaries of members of,
Ixx ; terms of, Ixx.
i^^^onstitution and government of
United States, i.
Consular Bureau, v.
Consular officers of United States,
xxxi.
Corn, c.
Cotton, production, exports, imports,
and consumption of, cii.
Court of Appeals of District of Colum-
bia, Ixxxvi.
Crime, ccvii.
Cuba, area and population, ccli ;
cables, cclviii ; commerce, cclii ;
finances, ccli ; government, ccl; in-
dustry, cclii ; minerals, ccli; ports,
cclviii ; railway's, cclvii ; sugar in-
dustry, cclvii ; telegraphs and tele-
phones, cclviii.
Deaf and dumb, ccviii.
De])t, the public, clxvi.
Diplomatic Bureau, v.
District courts, Ixxxv.
District of Columbia, Court of Appeals,
Ixxxvi ; Supreme Court of, Ixxxvii.
Divorce, statistics of, xcviii.
Documents, how to obtain, xx.
i Domain, the public, xci.
cclxxix
cclxxx
INDEX
Education, Bureau of, xiii.
Eight-hour laws, ccxxiv.
Embassies and legations of the United
States, xxiv.
Engraving and Printing, Bureau of,
viii.
Ethnology, Bureau of American, xvii.
Executive Mansion, rules of, iv.
Executive, tlie, ii.
Expenditures and receipts, clxiv, clxv.
Expenditures and revenues, clxi, clxii ;
per capita, clxiii.
Experiment Station, office of, xiv.
Exported articles, prices of, cxxxix.
Exports, according to sources of pro-
duction, cxxxi ; by countries, cxxvii ;
by classes, cxxvi ; increase and de-
crease of, cxxix ; in order of magni-
tude, cxxxvii.
Factory Inspection, Boards of, ccxxvi.
Failures, clxxxvii.
Farms, number and size of, xcix.
Finances, of the States, ccxxvii ; of
United States, clix.
Fish and Fisheries, Commission of,
xvi.
Foreign Commerce, Bureau of, v.
Foreign embassies and legations of
the United States, xxvii.
Forestry, cvii.
Forests, public, xcii.
Geographic Names, Board of, xvi. ,
Geological Survey, xiv.
Gold, coinage value of ounce of,
clxxvii ; price of, in London, clxxvi.
Gold and silver, commercial value of,
clxxvi ; exports of, to various coun-
tries, cxlvi; from U. S. mines, cxii ;
production by States, cxii ; re-
ceived at the mints and assay
offices, clxviii ; used in manufac-
tures, cxiii.
Gold coin and bullion, value of, im-
ported and exported, cxliii.
Government of United States, i.
Governors, of States and Territories,
ccxxiii ; salaries and terras of,
ccxxiii.
Guam (Ladrones) , col.
Hawaii, ccxxviii ; area and population,
ccxxx ; balance of trade, ccxxxvi ;
commerce and shipping, ccxxxiv ;
debt and taxes, ccxxxiii ; finances,
ccxxxii ; illiteracy, ccxxxi ; immi-
gration and emigration, ccxxxi;
labor statistics, ccxxxiv ; religions,
ccxxxii ; silver coin, ccxxxiii ; sugar
plantation statistics, ccxxxiv.
Hawaiian Commission, xviii.
Hay, production and price, civ.
Idiots, ccviii.
Illiterates, cxcviii.
Immigrants in industries, xcviii.
Immigration, xciv; Bureau of, viii.
Imports, by countries, cxxvii; by
classes, cxxvi ; increase and decrease
of, cxxx; in order of magnitude,
cxxxvii.
Indian Affairs, Office of, xiii.
Industrial and Commercial Conditions
of Cuba, Commission on, xix.
Industrial Commission, xvii.
Insane, ccviii.
Instruction, schools, cxcvii.
Insurance, Commissioners of, cxciii ;
fire, cxc; life, cxcii.
Interior Department : —
Secretary, Assistant Secretaries,
Chief Clerk, Disbursing Clerk, Gen-
eral Land Office, Patent Office, Bu-
reaus of Pensions, Indian Affairs,
Education, Commissioner of Rail-
roads, Geological Survey, Census
Office, and duties, xiii, xiv.
Internal communications, cl.
Internal Revenue, Bureau of, vii.
International Exchanges, Bureau of,
xvii.
Interstate Commerce Commission, xv.
Iron manufactures, cxvii.
Joint High Commission, U. S. and
British, xviii.
Judicial System, Federal and State,
Ixxxi.
Judiciary, Ixxxi.
Justice, Department of : —
Attorney-General, Assistant Attor-
neys-General, Solicitor General, So-
licitors for Departments, Chief
Clerk, Disbursing Clerk, and duties,
X, xi.
Labor, Department of, xv.
Labor legislation, ccxxiv.
Labor statistics, offices of, ccxxvii.
Land Office, xiii.
Legations and embassies of the
United States, xxiv.
Legislative, Ixvii.
Librarian of Congress, Ixxx.
Library, Congressional, buildings and
grounds, Ixxxi.
Life-Saving Service, viii, cxlix.
Light-House Board, viii.
Liquors, c()nsunii)tion of, cxxii ; mate-
rials used in (iistilleries, cxxi ; pro-
duction of, cxx ; traffic, cxx.
INDEX
cclxxxi
Loan and trust companies, clxxxiv.
Lockouts and strikes, ccix.
Mail transportation, niilea}j:e, clix.
Manufactures, gxvi ; capital, number
of establishments, persons em-
ployed, wages, and value of products,
cxvi .
Marine Hospital Service, viii.
Merchandise imported, prices of, cxli.
Merchant marine, cxlvii.
INIetals, precious, imports and exports,
cxlii.
Mining, cviii ; machine (bituminous
coal), cxiv.
Mint, Director of the, vii.
Mints, Superintendents of, vii.
Molasses, production of, ciii.
Money, clxxx; in treasury and in
circulation, clxvi ; and credit, clxi;
orders, clviii.
Moneys, location of, clxvii.
Municipal statistics, cclx.
Nation, the, i.
National Museum, xvii.
Naturalization laws, ccxv.
Navigation, Commission of, viii.
Navy, forces and losses, various wars,
Ixi ; list of ships of, Iv ; number of
otiicers and men, Iv ; p.ay of officers,
Ixii ; pay of petty officers and en-
listed men, Ixiv; personnel of, liv;
the effective, and all vessels in, lix;
vessels under construction, Iviii.
Navy and Army, relative rank in, Ixvi.
Navy Department : —
Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Chief
Clerk, Disbursing Clerk, Bureaus of
Ordnance, Equipment, Navigation,
Yards and Docks, Supplies and Ac-
counts, Steam Engineering, Medi-
cine and Surgery, Construction and
Repairs, Judge Advocate-General,
Otttce of Nautical Almanac, Naval
War Records and Library, Board of
Inspection and Survey, Washington
Navy Yard and Station, Naval Ob-
servatory, Marine Cordis, and duties,
xi-xiii.
Newspapers, ceiv.
Nicaragua Canal Commission, xviii.
Oats, c.
Occupations of population of United
States, xc.
Officers and employees of Federal
(Tovernment. numi)er of, xxii.
Official correspondeiK'e, forms, xx.
Oleomargarine, production and rev-
enue from, cxix.
Paris Exposition, Commission to, xix.
Passengers and freight, clii.
Passports, rules of application for, xx.
Patent Otiice, xiii.
Patents, cxcvi.
Pauperism, ccvii.
Peace Commission, xix.
Pension agents, cxcvi.
Pension Bureau, xiii.
Pensioners, number of, in each State
and in foreign countries, cxcv.
Pensions, cxciv.
Petroleum, production of and exports,
cxv.
Philippine Commission, xix.
Philippine Islands, ccxli ; area and
population of, ccxli ; commerce of,
ccxlviii ; financial and industrial
condition of, ccxli ; freight rates to
and from U. S. and Great Britain,
ccxlv ; minerals of, ccxlvi.
Political parties, ccxiii.
Population, by color, xcvi; foreign,
1890, xciv ; movement of, xciii ;
progress and present condition,
Ixxxvii.
Population and area of U. S., Ixxxvii.
Porto Rico, ccxxxvi ; area and popu-
lation of, ccxxxvi ; commerce of,
ccxxxvii.
Postal Service, clviii.
Post Office Department : —
Postmaster-General, Assistant Post-
masters-General, Chief Clerk, Dis-
bursing Clerk, and duties, xi.
Post Offices, clix.
Potatoes, production and price of, civ.
President, iii ; vote for, ccxiii-ccxv.
Presidential succession, ii.
Presidents, list of, iii ; Vice, list of, iv.
Price of bullion, clxx.
Prices, of exported articles, cxxxix;
of merchandise imported, cxli.
Printing Office, Government, xvi.
Railroad commissions, clvi.
Railway Commission, Intercontinen-
tal, xvii.
Railways, cl, cli; accidents on, cliv;
capitalization and valuation of
proi)erty of, cliv ; earnings and ex-
penses of, cliv; employees on, cliii;
mileage of, civ ; public service of,
cliii ; street, cclxx.
Receipts and expenditures, clxiv,
clxv.
Reciprocity Commission, xviii.
Record and Pension Division, x.
Redemption, agency of, national bank,
ix.
cclxxxii
INDEX
Reference books, United States,
cclxxii ; Hawaii, cclxxvi; Cuba,
cclxxvii; Porto Rico, cclxxvii ; Pliil-
ippine Islands, cclxxvii ; official,
cclxxii; uou-oflicial, cclxxiii.
Religion, ccv.
Representatives, House of, Ixvii, Ixviii ;
names of members of, Ixxv.
Revenue, internal and customs, clxiv ;
expenses of collecting, clxiv.
Revenues and expenditures; clxi, clxii;
per capita, clxiii.
Rye, c.
Schools, days taught, salaries, prop-
erty, cci ; enrollment and attend-
ance, cc ; enrollment, attendance,
teachers, and expenditures, cities,
ccii; expenditures for buildings,
salaries, furniture, etc., cci ; Indian,
cciv ; professional, cciii ; pupils and
students, cxcix.
Secret Service, vii.
Senate, Ixvii, Ixxii.
Senators, names of, Ixxii.
Shipping, canals, etc., clvi.
Silver, average price of tine ounce of,
clxxiii ; bar, price in London, clxxv ;
coining value, clxviii, clxix ; exports
to various countries, cxlvi ; imports,
cxliii, cxliv; market for, clxxii;
production of States, cxii; pure,
bullion value of, clxxvii; used in
manufactures, cxiii.
Silver and gold, commercial value of,
clxxvi.
Silver dollar, value of, in market,
clxxiv.
Silver dollars, circulation of, clxxiv.
Smithsonian Institution, xvii.
Spain, Avar with, ls;»8, ccxvi.
State Department : —
Secretary, Assistant Secretaries,
Chief Clerk, Diplomatic Bureau,
Consular Bureau, Bureau of In-
dexes and Archives, Bureau of Ac-
counts, Bureau of Foreign Accounts,
Bureau of Rolls and Library, Bu-
reau of Appointments, and duties,
V.
States, Secretaries of, ccxxiii ; and
Territories, ccxx.
Statistics, Bureau of, Treasury Depart-
ment, viii.
Steamboat Inspection, viii.
vStrikes and lockouts, ccix.
Sugar, production and consumption
of, ciii.
Supreme Court of the United States,
Ixxxiii.
Telegraphs, clvii.
Telephones, clviii.
Tin, production and imports of, cxviii.
Tobacco, ci.
Tonnage, cleared from U. S. ports,
cxlix; entered to U. S. ports,
cxlviii ; northern lakes, clvii.
Treasury Department : —
Secretary, Assistant Secretaries,
Chief Clerk, Disbursing Clerk,
Comptroller of Treasury, Treasurer
of the United States, Assistant
Treasurer, Register of the Treasury,
Comptroller of the Currency, Di-
rector of the Mint and Superinten-
dents of Mints and Assay Offices,
Supervising Architect, Secret Ser-
vice, Internal Revenue Bureau,
Bureau of Navigation, Office of
Steamboat Inspection, Light-House
Board, Life-Saving Service, Marine
Hospital Service, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, Bureau of Immigration,
Bureau of Statistics, Bureau of En-
graving and Printing, National
Bank Redemption Agency, and
duties, v-viii.
Universities and colleges, cxcix.
Vessels built, cxlix.
Vice-President, iii.
Voting, qualifications for, ccxxiii.
War, Commission on Conductrof Span-
ish, xix.
War Department : —
Secretary, Assistant Secretary,
Chief Clerk, Disbursing Clerk,
Adjutant-General, Inspector-Gen-
eral, Judge-Advocate (general,
Quartermaster-General, Commis-
sary-General of Subsistence, Sur-
geon-General, Paymaster-General,
Chief of Engineers, Chief of Ord-
nance, Chief Signal Officer, Record
and Pension Division, Colonial Com-
mission, and duties, ix, x.
War Department, date of establish-
ment of, xlvii.
Wealth of United States, clvix.
AVeather Bureau, xiv.
Weights and measures, clxxx.
AVheat, c.
Wool, fleece, and pulled, etc., cvi ; pro-
duced, exported, imported, and
retained for consumption, evii;
product, cv.
Zoological Park, xvii.
PREFACE
The first duty of myself and my colleague, Mr. Renwick, is
to return our warmest thanks to those numerous friends in all
parts of the world who have co-operated with us again this year
in the preparation of the new edition of the Year -Book;
without such co-operation it would be impossible to produce
the work.
In the new edition there have necessarily been considerable
alterations as the result of the events of the past year — the
American war with Spain, the operations in the Sudan, the
action of the European Powers in China. It will be found
that the various changes necessitated by these transactions have
been duly recorded. In other respects various modifications
have been made, and the statistical and other information
brought up to date throughout the whole work. The maps this
year include a map of Africa, showing the railways, river routes,
and telegraphs in Africa, existing and projected ; a map of
Newfoundland illustrating the French shore question ; and a
map showing the addition on the Chinese mainland to the
colony of Hong Kong. There are preliminary tables showing the
Revenue, Expenditure, Debt, and Debt-charge of the principal
countries of the World, with the commerce of these countries, in
absolute figures and per head of population ; as also a table
showing the gold and silver j^i'oduction of the World. The
Index has been thoroughly revised and extended by Mr.
Ren wick. The Navies have been again revised by Mr. John
Leyland. Such are a few of the new features of the 1899 edition.
J. S. K.
Office of 'The Statesman's Yeau-Book,'
St. Martin's Street,
London, W.C,
March 8, 1899.
CONTENTS
INTKODUCTOKY TABLES.
J.— THE BRITISH EMPIRE, 1897-98.
II.— FINANCE AND COMMERCE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES.
III. -THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF GOLD AND SILVER.
LIST OF MAPS.
I. — Map of Hoxg Kong, showing Recent Additions on the
Mainland. /^^c^tvr .'- - i:2^o
II. — Map of Newfoundland, illustrating the French Shore
Question. * . i ■-
III.— Map of Africa, showing Railways Constructed and Pro-
jected, AND Navigable River Routes.
IV. —Map of Africa, showing Telegraphs Constructed and
Projected. L*. ■' . • 3 4--
CONTENTS
IX
Part the First.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
Reigning Queen and Empress
I. The United Kingdom of Giieat Britain and Ihelani> —
PAGE
PAGE
Constitution and Govern
-
Production and Industry .
67
ment
6
Commerce
79
Area and Population
14
Shipping and Navigation .
88
Religion ,
28
Internal Communications .
91
Instruction
33
Money and Credit
95
Justice and Crime
39
Money, Weights, and
Pauperism
42
Measures
98
Finance .
43
Books of Reference .
99
Defence ,
55
II. India, the Colonies, Protectorates, and Dependencies^
Hong Kong —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .120
Area and Population . 121
Instruction . . . 122
Justice and Crime . .122
Finance . . .122
Defence . . . .123
Commerce and Shipping . 123
Money and Credit . . 124
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .124
Books of Reference . .124
India and Dependencies —
Government and Constitu-
tion . . . .125
Area and Population . 128
Religion . . . .135
Instruction . . .137
Justice and Crime . .138
Finance . . . .139
Defence . . . .143
Production and Industry . 146
Commerce . . .151
Shipping and Navigation . 157
Internal Communications . 159
Europe-
Gibraltar ....
105
Malta ....
106
Asia —
Aden, Perim, Somaliland,
SOKOTRA ....
108
Bahrein Islands .
109
Borneo (British^
no
Ceylon —
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
112
Area and Population.
113
Religion and Instruction .
114
Justice, Crime and Pauper-
ism ....
115
Finance ....
115
Defence ....
115
Production and Industry .
116
Commerce
116
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
117
Money and Credit
117
Dependency
118
Books of Reference .
118
Cyprus ....
118
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
PACK
India and Dependencies —
Money and Credit . .162
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .163
Books of Reference . .164
Baluchistan . . ^.166
SiKKIM . . . *. 169
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands , . . 170
Laccadive Islands . 170
Kamaran Island . , 170
Labuan . . . .170
The Straits Settlements —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 171
Area and Population , .172
Instruction . . .173
Justice and Crime . . 174
Finance . . . .174
Defence, Production, In-
dustry .... 175
Commerce . . .175
Shipping and Navigation 177
Communications . . 177
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .177
Books of Reference . . 178
Wei-Hai-Wei . . .179
Africa —
Ascension Island . .180
Basutoland . . .180
Bechuanaland Protec-
torate .... 181
Cape of Good Hope —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .182
Area and Population . 183
Religion and Instruction . 185
Justice and Crime . .186
Pauperism . . .186
Finance . . . .186
Defence . . . .187
Production and Industry . 187
Commerce . . .188
Sliipping and Navigation . 190
Internal Communications . 190
Banks ... . .190
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .191
Books of Reference . . 191
Central Africa (British) 192
Central Africa Protec-
torate (British) . .193
East Africa (British) . 194
East Africa Protec-
torate . . . 195
Uganda Protectorate . 196
Zanzibar —
Sultan and Government 197
Area, Population, Religion 197
Justice . . . .197
Finance, Commerce . 198
Books of Reference . 199
Mauritius —
Constitution and Govern-
ment , . . .200
Area and Population. . 200
Finance, Defence, Com-
merce .... 201
Shipping and Communica-
tions ... 202
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 202
Dependencies . . . 202
Books of Reference . . 202
Natal-
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .203
Area and Population . 204
Instruction , . . 205
Finance . . . ' . 205
Defence . . . • . 205
Industry . . . .206
Commerce . . . 206
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 207
Books of Reference . . 207
Niger Coast Protectorate 208
Niger Territories . . 209
South Africa (British) . 212
St. Helena . . .214
Tristan da Cunha . . 215
West African Colonies —
The Gold Coast . . 215
Lagos .... 215
Gambia .... 216
Sierra Leone. . . 216
America —
Bermudas .
219
CONTENTS
XI
Canada —
Constitution and Govern-
ment
220
Area and Population
222
Religion .
224
Instruction
225
Justice and Crime .
225
Finance .
226
Defence .
228
Production and Industry
229
Commerce
230
Shipping and Navigation
234
Internal Communications
234
JMoney and Credit .
235
]\Ioney, Weights, am
I
Measures
236
Books of Reference .
236
Falkland Islands
238
Guiana, British
239
Honduhas, British
240
Newfoundland and Lab
RADOE .
241
West Indies
244
Bahamas .
244
Barbados
244
Jamaica .
245
Leeward Islands .
247
Trinidad
248
Windward Islands
249
Statistics of West Indies
250
Books of Reference o
f
West Indies .
. 252
Australasia and Oceania —
Fiji—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 253
Area and Population . 253
Religion .... 254
Instruction . . . 254
Finance .... 254
Production and Industry . 254
Commerce . . . 255
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .256
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .256
Books of Reference . . 256
PAGE
New Guinea, British . 256
Books of Reference . . 258
New South Wales —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 258
Area and Population . 259
Religion . . . .261
Instruction . . . 262
Justice and Crime . . 262
Finance . . . .263
Defence . . . .264
Production and Industry . 265
Commerce . . 268
Shipping and Navigation . 270
Internal Communications . 270
Money and Credit . .271
Books of Reference . , 272
New Zealand —
Government and Consti-
tution . . . .273
Area and Population . 275
Religion .... 277
Instruction . . . 277
Justice and Crime . .278
Pauperism . . . 279
Finance . . . 279
Defence .... 281
Production and Industiy . 281
Commerce . . . 283
Shipping and Navigation . 285
Internal Communications . 286
Money and Credit , . 287
Books of Reference . . 287
Queensland —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 288
Area and Population . . 289
Religion . . . .290
Instruction . . . 291
Justice and Crime . . 291
Pauperism . . . 291
Finance .... 291
Defence . . . .292
Production and Industry . 292
Commerce . . . 293
Shii»ping and Navigation . 294
Internal Communications . 295
Banks .... 295
Books of Reference . . 295
xu
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
South Australia —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 296
Area and Population . 297
Religion and Instruction . 298
Justice and Crime . . 298
Defence . . . .298
Finance . . . .298
Production and Industry . 299
Commerce . . .299
Shipping and Navigation . 301
Communications . . 301
Banks . . .301
Books of Reference . . 302
Tasmania —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .302
Area and Population . 303
Religion . . . .304
Instruction . . .304
Justice and Crime . . 305
Pauperism . . .305
Revenue and Expenditure . 305
Defence . . . .306
Production and Industry . 306
Commerce . . . 307
Shipping and Navigation . 308
Internal Communications . 308
Books of Reference . . 309
Victoria —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 309
PAGE
Victoria —
Area and Population . .310
Religion . . . .312
Instruction . . .312
Justice and Crime . . 313
Finance . . . .314
Defence . , . .315
Production and Industry . 315
Commerce . . ,316
Shipping and Navigation . 319
Internal Communications . 319
Money and Credit . . 320
Books of Reference . . 320
Western Australia—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 321
Area and Population . . 322
Religion . . . .322
Instruction . . , 323
Justice and Crime . . 323
Pauperism . . . 323
Finance .... 324
Defence . . . .324
Production and Industry . 324
Commerce . . 325
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .326
Money and Credit . . 326
Books of Reference . .327
Australian Defence . . 327
Australasian Federation . 328
Books of Reference . . 330
Pacific Islands . . . 332
CONTENTS
Xlll
Part the Sfx'ond.
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
PAGE
ABYSSINIA . . . .336
AFGHANISTAN . . .338
Trade . . . .340
Books of Reference . .341
AFRICA, CENTRAL . . 341
Central Sudan Stater —
BoRNU .... 342
Wadai— Kanem . . 342
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC—
Constitution and Govera-
ment .... 344
Area and Population . 345
Religion and Instruction . 346
Justice .... 347
Finance .... 347
Defence .... 348
Production and Industry . 350
Commerce . . . 350
Shipping and Navigation . 352
Internal Communications . 353
Money and Credit . . 353
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .354
Diplomatic Representatives 354
Books of Reference . . 354
Austria —
Religion ....
373
Instniction
374
Justice and Crime
376
Pauperism
377
Finance ....
378
Production and Industry .
379
Shipping and Navigation .
383
Internal Communications
383
Money and Credit
385
Liechtenstein .
386
HUNGARY—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
387
Area and Population
389
Religion ....
391
Instruction
392
Justice and Crime
394
Pauperism
394
Finance ....
394
Production and Industry .
396
Commerce
399
Shipping and Navigation .
399
Internal Communications
400
Money and Credit .
401
Austria-Hungary —
Diplomatic Representatives 402
Bosnia and Herzegovina . 403
Books of Reference . . 404
USTRIA-HUNGARY—
Reigning Sovereign .
356
BELGIUM—
Political Relation between
Reigning King .
408
Austria and Hungary .
358
Constitution and Govern
Common Finance
359
ment
409
Defence ....
361
Area and Population .
412
Commerce of the Common
Religion .
414
Customs Territory.
365
Instmction
414
Money and Credit .
367
Justice and Crime
416
Money, Weights, and
Pauperism
416
Measures
367
State Finance .
417
Local Finance .
418
AUSTRIA—
Defence
418
Constitution and Govern-
Production and Industry
419
ment ...
368
Commerce
421
Area and Population .
371
Shipping^and Navigation
424
XIV
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
Belgitjm —
Internal Communications . 425
Money and Credit . . 425
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 426
Diplomatic Representatives 426
Books of Reference . . 426
BHUTAN ....
BOLIVIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population .
Religion, Instruction, and
Justice .
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Indusstry
Commerce
Communications
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Consular Representative
Books of Reference .
BRAZIL—
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Area and Population
Religion .
Instniction
Justice and Crime
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Commimications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference
CHILE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Finance .
427
429
429
430
430
430
431
431
431
432
432
433
434
436
437
437
438
438
439
440
441
442
442
442
443
443
444
445
446
447
447
448
448
Chile —
Defence .... 449
Industr}^ .... 450
Commerce . . . 451
Shipping and Navigation . 453
Communications . . 453
Money and Credit . . 453
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 454
Diplomatic and Considar
Representatives . . 454
Books of Reference . .454
CHINA—
Reigning Emperor . . 456
Government . . . 456
Area and Population . .457
Religion .... 459
Instruction . . 459
Finance .... 460
Defence . . . .462
Production and Industry . 463
Commerce . . . 463
Shipping and Navigation . 466
Internal Communications . 466
Money, Weights, and
Measures , . .467
Diplomatic Representatives 468
Books of Reference . . 469
COLOMBIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 471
Area and Population . . 471
Religion and Education . 472
Finance .... 472
Defence .... 473
Production . . . 473
Commerce . . . 474
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 474
Money and Credit . . 475
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 475
Diplomatic and Commer-
cial Representatives . 476
Books of Reference . . 476
CONGO INDEPENDENT
STATE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 478
Area and Population . 479
CONTENTS
XV
Congo Independent State—
Finance, Defence . .479
Production, Commerce,
Shipping . . .479
Internal Communications. 480
Books of Reference . .481
COSTA RICA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 482
Area and Population . . 482
Religion and Instruction . 482
Justice . . .483
Finance . 483
Defence .... 483
Industry and Commerce . 483
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .484
Money, Weights, and
Measures . - . 484
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 485
Books of Reference . . 485
DENMARK—
Reigning King . . 486
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 487
Area and Popidation . 489
Religion . . . .490
Instruction . . . 490
Justice and Crime . . 491
Finance .... 491
Defence . . . .493
Production and Industry . 494
Commerce . . . 494
Shipping and Navigation . 496
Internal Communications 496
Money and Credit . . 496
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 497
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 497
Colonies .... 497
Books of Reference . .498
ECUADOR—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .499
Area and Population . 499
Religion and Instruction . 500
Justice and Crime . . 500
Finance ... 500
Defence .... 501
Commerce . . . 501
Ecuador —
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
FRANCE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
^Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
Andorra ....
Colonies and Depend-
encies
Asia —
French India .
French Indo-China
Annam
Cambodia .
Cochin-China .
Tonkin
Books of Reference
Africa —
Algeria —
Government
Area and Population
Religion and Instruction
Crime
Finance .
Defence .
Industry .
Commerce
502
502
503
503
504
504
505
509
514
515
517
518
518
522
530
534
537
539
540
541
542
542
545
545
547
547
548
548
548
549
550
550
551
551
551
552
552
552
553
XVI
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
Algeria —
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
554
Money, Weights, and
Measures
555
Books of Reference .
555
French Congo and Gabun
556
Madagascar —
Government
556
Area and Population
557
Religion, Education, Justice
558
Finance ....
558
Defence . .
558
Production and Industry .
559
Commerce
559
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
559
Money and Banks .
560
Considar and other Re-
presentatives
560
Books of Reference .
560
DllfeGO-SUAREZ — NoSSI-B6 —
Ste. Marie . . .561
Mayotte and the Comoro
Islands . . . 561
Reunion .... 561
Obock and Somali Coast . 562
Senegal, French Sudan,
French Guinea, Ivory
Coast and Dahomey . 562
Books of Reference . . 564
Tunis —
Bey . . . .564
Government . . . 565
Area and Population . .565
Finance ' . . . .566
Industry . , . .566
Commerce . . . 567
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .567
Books of Reference . . 568
America —
Guadeloupe and Depend-
encies .... 568
Guiana . . . .569
Martinique . . . 569
St. Pierre and Miquelon 569
Books of Reference . . 570
PAGE
Australasia and Oceania —
New Caledonia and De-
pendencies . . , 570
Society Islands and
Neighbouring Groups . 571
Books of Reference . .571
GERMAN EMPIRE—
Reigning Emperor and
King . . .572
Constitution and Govern-
ment' .... 573
Area and Population . 576
Religion .... 580
Instruction . . .581
Justice and Crime . . 583
Pauperism . , . 584
Finance .... 585
Defence .... 587
Production and Industry . 594
Commerce . . . 598
Shipping and Navigation . 602
Internal Communications 604
Money and Credit . . 607
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 607
Diplomatic Representatives 608
Books of Reference . . 608
Foreign Dependencies . . 610
togoland .... 610
Kamerun . . , .611
German South - West
Africa . . . 612
German East Africa . 613
Kiau-Chau . , . 614
In the Western Pacific . 614
Books of Reference . .615
States of Germany —
Alsace-Lorraine —
Constitution . . .616
Area and Population . 617
Religion, Instruction, Jus-
tice and Crime . .617
Finance . . . .618
Production and Industry . 618
Books of Reference . . 618
Anhalt —
Reigning Duke . .618
Constitution . .619
Area and Population . 619
Finance .... 620
CONTENTS
XVll
States of Germany —
Baden —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 620
Constitution . . . 621
Area and Population . 621
Religion and Instruction . 622
Finance . . . .623
Production and Industry . 623
Communications . . 624
Books of Reference . . 624
Bavaria —
Reigning King . . 624
Regent . . ,624
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 625
Area and Population . . 626
Religion . . . .628
Instnictiou . . .628
Justice, Crime, and Pauper-
ism .... 628
Finance . . . 629
Army . . . .629
Production and Industry , 630
Books of Rufercuce . , 630
BllIiMEN —
Constitution . . . 631
Area and Population . . 631
Religion, Justice, and
Crime . . . .631
Finance . . . .632
Commerce and Shipping . 632
Books of Reference . . 632
Brunswick —
Regent .... 632
Constitution . . .633
Area and Population . 633
Finance . . . .634
Production and Industry . 634
Books of Reference . . 634
Hamburg —
Constitution . . . 634
Area and Population . . 635
Religion, Justice, Crime,
and Agricidture . . 636
Finance .... 636
Commerce and Shifiping . 636
Books of Reference . . 638
Hesse —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 638
Constitution . . . 639
Area and Population . . 639
Religion and Instruction . 640
HE.SSE —
Finance .... 640
Production and Industry , 641
Books of Reference . . 641
LirPE —
Reigning Prince . . 642
Constitution . . . 642
Area and Population . . 642
Finance and Industry . 643
LUBECK —
Constitution . , 643
Area and Po}»ulation . 643
Religion, Instmction, Jus*
tice, and Pauperism . 644
Finance .... 644
Commerce and Shipping . 644
Books of Reference . , 645
Mecklenburg-Schwekin —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 645
Constitution . . . 645
Area and Population . . 646
Religion and Instruction . 646
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism .... 646
Finance .... 647
Production . . . 647
Mecklenburg-Strelitz—
Reigning Grand-Duke . 647
Constitution and Finance . 648
Area, Population, &c. . 648
Oldenburg —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 649
Constitution and Revenue . 650
Area and Population . . 650
Religion, Instruction, and
Justice . . .651
Production . . . 651
Books of Reference . . 651
Prussia —
Reigning King . . . 652
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .654
Area and Population . . 658
Religion .... 661
Instmction . . .661
Justice, Crime . . . 663
Finance .... 663
Army .... 665
Production and Industry . 666
Commerce . . ,667
Internal Communications . 667
Books of Reference . . 667
XVI 11
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
Reuss, Elder Branch
Reuss, Younger Branch
Saxe-Altenbueg
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Saxe-Meiningen
Saxe-Weimar —
Reigning Grand-Dnke
Constitution and Revenue
Area and Population .
Religion, Instruction, Jus
tice, and Crime
Production
Saxony —
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern
ment
Area and Population .
Religion .
Instiiiction
Justice, Crime, and Pau
perism .
Finance .
Production and Industry
Communications
Books of Reference .
Schaumburg-Lippe —
Reigning Prince
Constitution and Finance ,
Area and Population .
SCHWARZBURG * RUDOL •
STADT . . . .
SCHWARZBURG - SoNDERS
HAUSEN . . . .
Waldeck .
WiJRTTEM BEP.G —
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern
ment
Area and Population .
Religion .
Instniction
Crime and l\aui)erism
Finance .
Army
Industry .
Books of Reference .
PAGE
668
668
670
671
673
674
675
675
676
676
676
677
678
679
680
680
(380
680
682
682
682
682
682
683
684
685
686
686
687
688
688
689
689
690
690
690
GREFiCE —
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern
ment
Area and Population .
Religion .
Instiiiction
Finance ,
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Navigation and Shipping
Internal Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, an(
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
GUATEMALA—
Constitution and Govern
ment ...
Area and Population .
Religion .
Instruction
Crime
Finance ...
Defence ...
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Communica
tions ...
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
PAGE
691
692
693
694
694
695
697
698
699
701
701
701
702
702
702
704
704
704
704
704
705
705
705
706
706
707
707
707
HAITI—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
708
Area and Population .
708
Religion and Instniction .
709
Finance ....
709
Defence .
709
Commerce and Communica-
tions ....
709
^loncy, Weiglits, and
Measures
710
Di]>lomatic and Consular
Representatives
710
Books of Reference .
711
CONTENTS
XIX
HONDURAS—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .712
Area and Population . 712
Instruction . . . 712
Finance . . . .712
Production and Commerce 713
Communications . .713
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .713
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 714
Books of Reference . .714
ITALY—
Reigning King . .715
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .716
Area and Population . 719
Religion . . . .726
Insti-uction . . . 733
Justice and Crime . . 735
Pauperism . . .736
Finance .... 737
Defence . . . -742
Production and Industry . 748
Commerce . . .751
Navigation and Shipping . 753
Internal Communications . 754
Money and Credit . . 755
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 756
Diplomatic Representatives 756
Foreign DErENDENciES . 757
Books of Reference
JAPAN—
Reigning Sovereign .
761
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
761
Local Government .
763
Area and Popvdation .
763
Religion ....
765
Instmction
765
Justice and Crime
765
Pauperism
766
Finance ....
760
Defence ....
768
Production and Industry .
770
Commerce
771
758
Japan —
Shipping and Navigation . 772
Internal Communications . 773
Money and Credit . . 773
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . • 774
Diplomatic Representatives 775
Books of Reference . .775
KOREA—
Government . . . 777
Area and Population . ' 1],^
Religion and Instruction . 778
Finance . . . .778
Defence . . . .778
Production and Commerce 778
Money .... 780
Books of Reference . .780
LIBERIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 780
Area and Population . .781
Finance . . . .781
Commerce . . .781
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .782
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .782
Books of Reference . . 782
LUXEMBURG . . .783
MEXICO—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 784
Area and Population. . 785
Religion, Instruction,
Justice .... 786
State Finance . . . 787
Local Finance . . . 788
Defence . . . .788
Production and Industry . 789
Commerce . . .790
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 791
Money and Credit . .791
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .792
h 2
XX
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
Mexico —
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .792
Books of Reference . , 793
MONACO . . . .794
MONTENEGRO—
Reigning Prince . . 795
Government . . .795
Area and Population . 796
Religion . . . .796
Instniction . , .796
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism , . . .797
Finance, Defence . . 797
Production and Industry . 797
Commerce . . .798
Communications . . 798
Money . . . .798
Books of Reference . . 798
MOROCCO—
Reigning Sultan . . 799
Government . . . 799
Area and Population . 799
Defence . . . .800
Commerce . . .800
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .801
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 802
Books of Reference . . 802
NEPAL ....
803
NETHERLANDS (THE)—
Reigning Sovereign .
Government and Constitu
805
tion
806
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
809
811
811
Justice and Crime .
813
Pauperism
Finance .
813
814
Defence .
816
Production and Industry
818
Commerce
820
Netherlands (The) —
Shipping and Navigation . 823
Internal Communications . 824
Money and Credit . . 826
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 827
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 828
Colonies . . . 828
Dutch East Indies —
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 828
Area and Population . 829
Religion . . . .831
Instruction . . .831
Justice and Crime . 832
Finance .... 832
Defence . . . .833
Production and Industry . 834
Commerce . . . 835
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 836
Money and Credit . . 837
Money, Weights, and
Measures . , . 837
Consular Representatives . 837
Dutch West Indies —
Dutch Guiana, or Su-
rinam .... 837
Curacao .... 839
Books of Reference . . 840
NICARAGUA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .843
Area and Population . . 843
Instruction . . . 843
Finance .... 844
Industry and Commerce . 844
Shipping and Commimica-
tions .... 845
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .845
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 846
Books of Reference . .846
CONTENTS
XXI
PAGE
PAGE
OMAN ....
847
PERU—
Constitution and Govern-
ORANGE FREE STATE—
ment ....
868
Area and Population .
868
Constitution and Govern
-
Religion ....
869
ment
848
Instruction
869
Area and Popnlation .
848
Finance ....
.870
Religion .
849
Defence ....
871
Instrnction
849
Industry ....
871
Justice and Crime
. 849
Commerce
872
Finance
849
Shipping and Navigation .
873
Defence .
850
Internal Communications .
873
Production and Industry
850
Money, Weights, and
Commerce
850
Measures
874
Communications
851
Diplomatic Representatives
875
Books of Reference .
851
Books of Reference .
875
PARAGUAY—
PORTUGAL—
Constitution and Govern
ment
852
Reigning King .
877
Area and Population
852
Con.stitution and Govern-
Religion, Instruction, anf
I
ment ....
878
Justice ....
853
Area and Population.
879
Finance ....
85S
Religion ....
881
Defence .
854
Instruction
882
Production and Industry
854
Justice and Crime
882
Commerce
854
Finance ....
883
Communications
855
Defence ....
884
Money and Credit
855
Production and Industry .
885
Money, Weights, and
Commerce
886
Measures
855
Shipping and Navigation .
888
Diplomatic and Consular
Internal Communications .
889
Representatives
855
Money and Credit
889
Books of Reference .
855
Money, Weights, and
Measures
889
PERSIA—
Diplomatic Representatives
890
Reigning Shah .
857
Dependencies .
Books of Reference .
890
893
Government
858
Area and Pojtulation
859
Religion .
Instruction
859
860
RUMANIA—
Justice
860
Reigning King .
895
Finance .
860
Constitution and Govern-
Defence .
861
ment ....
895
Production and Industry
861
Area and Population .
896
Commerce
862
Religion and Instruction .
897
Money and Credit
864
Finance ....
897
Communications
864
Defence ....
898
Money, "Weights, ant
I
Production and Industry .
899
Measures
865
Commerce
900
Diplomatic Representativej
5 866
Shipping and Communi-
Books of Reference .
867
cations
901
XXII
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
Rumania —
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .901
Diplomatic and Consular
Kepresentatives . . 901
Books of Reference . . 902
RUSSIA—
Reigning Emperor .
. 903
Constitution and Govern
-
ment
. 905
Area and Population .
. 910
Religion .
. 916
Instruction
918
Justice and Crime
921
Finance .
923
Defence .
935
Production and Industr}-
946
Commerce
952
Sliipping and Navigation
959
Internal Communications
. 961
Money and Credit
965
Money, Weights, anc
I
Measures
967
Diplomatic and Consula
I'
Representatives
967
Finland —
Population
968
Instruction
969
Pauperism and Crime
969
Finance .
969
Industry .
969
Commerce
970
Shipping and Navigation
971
Internal Communications .
971
Money, Weiglits, &c.
972
Dependencies in Asia —
Bokhara
972
Khiva . . . .
973
Port Arthur and Ta
lien-Wan .
974
Books of Reference .
975
SALVADOR—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .
979
Area and Population
979
Instruction and Justice
979
Finance ...
980
Salvador —
PAOE
Pi'oduction and Commerce 980
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .981
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 981
Diplomatic Representatives 981
Books of Reference . . 981
SAMOA
SANTO DOMINGO—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction .
Justice ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communi-
cations ....
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
SERVIA—
and
Reigning Sovereign
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice, Crime, Pauper-
ism ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Imlustry .
Commerce
Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures .
Dijilomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
982
983
984
984
984
984
985
985
985
985
986
986
986
987
987
988
989
989
990
990
991
992
992
994
994
994
994
995
CONTENTS
xxin
SIAM-
Reigning King.
996
Oovevnnient
996
Area and r(>[)ulatit)n
997
Keligion ami Instruotion .
998
Finance ....
998
Del'euoe ....
998
Production and Indu.stry .
999
Coninicrce
999
Slii[)iiing and L'onnnuuica-
tions ....
1000
Money, Weights, and
Mea.sures
1001
Dijiloniatic and Cou.sular
Representatives
1001
Books of Reference .
1001
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC-
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
1003
Area and Pojmlation .
1004
Religion
1004
Instruction
1004
Finance .
1005
Defence .
1005
Production and Industry
1005
Commerce
1006
Communications
1006
Swaziland.
1006
liooks of Reference .
1007
SPAIN—
Reigning Sovereign .
1008
(^ueen Regent .
1008
Government and Constitu
-
tion
1009
Area and Population .
1012
Religion .
1013
Instruction
1014
Finance .
1014
Defence .
1016
Production and Industry
1018
Commerce
1019
Sliipping and Navigation
1021
Intrrnal Coniniunications
1021
Money and ('r">dit
1022
Spain—
Money, Weights, and
Measures '. . .1022
I)il)lomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1022
Colonies. . . . 1023
I'ooks of Reference . . 1023
SWEDEN AND NORWAY-
Reiguing King .
Sweden —
Constitution and Govern
ment
Area and Population.
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Communications
ISIoney and Credit
1025
1026
1028
1031
1031
1031
1031
1032
1033
1035
1036
1038
1038
1039
NOIIWAY —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .1040
Area and Population . . 1042
Religion .... 1044
Instruction . . . 1044
Justice and Crime . . 1045
Pauper i.sm . . .1045
Finance . . .1046
Defence . . .1047
Production and Industry . 1049
Commerce . . . 1050
Shii)ping and Navigation . 1052
Internal Communications . 1053
Money and Credit . . 1054
I>Ioney, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1055
Diplomatic Re])re.sentatives 1055
Books of Reference . . 105<)
XXIV
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
SWITZERLAND—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1057
Area and Population . . 1060
Religion . . . .1062
Instruction . . . 1062
Justice and Crime . . 1063
Finance .... 1064
Defence . . . .1066
Production and Industry , 1068
Commerce . . , 1069
Internal Communications . 1070
Money and Credit . .1071
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1071
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .1071
Books of Reference . .1072
TONGA 1073
TURKEY—
Reigning Sultan . . 1074
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1076
Area and Population . . 1078
Religion and Education . 1080
Finance . . . .1082
Defence .... 1085
Production and Industry , 1088
Commerce . . . 1090
Shipping and Navigation . 1092
Internal Communications . 1092
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1093
Tributary States —
Bulgaria . . . .1094
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1095
Area and Population . . 1096
Religion and Instruction . 1096
Finance .... 1097
Defence .... 1097
Production and Industry . 1098
Commerce . . . 1098
Shii>piiig and Communica-
tions^ . . . .1099
Money and Credit . .1099
Books of Reference . . 1100
Crete .
Samos
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
Egypt —
PAOK
1100
1101
1101
1102
Reigning Khedive
1104
Government and Constitu-
tion ....
1105
Area and Population
Religion and Instruction .
1106
1108
Justice and Crime
1110
Finance ....
1110
Defence ....
1111
Production and Industry .
1114
Commerce.
1116
Shipping and Navigation .
Suez Canal
1119
1119
Internal Communications .
1121
Money, Weights, and
Measures
1122
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
1122
Egyptian Sudan
1123
Books of Reference .
1123
URUGUAY—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .1126
Area and Population . . 1126
Religion . . . .1128
Instruction . . .1128
Finance .... 1128
Defence . . . .1129
Production and Industry . 1129
Commerce . . .1130
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 1131
Money and Credit . .1132
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .1132
Diplomatic ' and Consular
Representatives . .1133
Books of Reference . .1133
CONTENTS
XXV
VENEZUELA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Area and I'opulation .
Kelij^ion and Instruction
Justice and Crime
Finance ,
Defence .
Production and Industry
Venezuela —
.
Commerce
1138
. 1134
Shipping and Communica-
. 1134
tions ....
1138
. 1135
JVIoney, AVeights. and
. 1136
Measures
1139
. 1136
Diidomatic and Consular
. 1137
Representatives
1139
. 1137
Books of Reference .
1139
INDEX
1141
XXVI
INTRODUCTORY
I. THE BRITISH
Area.
Sq. miles
1
Population
Revenue
1
Expenditure
United Kingdom 2 .
120,979
40,188,927
106,614,004
£
102,935,99}
India : — Bril ish India ^
1,068,314
221,172,952
94,129,741
95,834,763
Feudatory States
Total India .
731,944
66,050,479
287,223,431
—
1 —
1,800,258
94,129,741
95,834,763
Colonies—
. Europe : —Gibraltar -i
0
26,203
66,110
61,270
1 Malta and Gozo ^ .
Total Europe
117
177,745
323,787
324,673
119
203,948
389,897
385,943
Asia : — Aden and Perim •''
80
41,910
—
—
Ceylon •'....
25,333
3,391,443
1,512,410
1,362,970
Hong Kong 7 , , .
30
248,710
698,300
523,602
Labuan" ....
30
5,853
5,570
4,912
Straits Settlements ^ .
1.472
512,342
432,020
442,970
Total Asia .
26,945
4,200,258
2,648,300
2,334,454
Africa : — Ascension
35
430
—
—
Basutoland ....
10,293
250,000
46,555
44,797
Cape Colony
276,800
1,766,100
7,389,966
8,637,854
^lauritius-' ....
705
377.856
799,670
862,680
Natal and Zululand .
34,700
828,500
2,280,732
1,693,516
St. Helena ....
47
4,116
8,803
13,004
Gambia ....
2,700
50,000
.39,415
27,059
Gold Coast ....
40,000
1,473.882
237,857
406,370
Lagos
1,500
100,000
177,421
182,669
Sierra Leone
30,000
250,000
5,100,884
106,008
111,667
Total Africa
396,780
11,086,427
11,979,616
America : — Bermudas .
20
16,098
35,965
35,704
Canada 10 ....
3,653,946
5,185,990
7,791,097
7,897,943
Falkland Islands and South Geo
rgia .
7,500
2,050
12,969
13,636
British Guiana .
109,000
285,315
505,369
562,598
British Honduras 11
7,562
.34,277
64,613
66,459
Newfoundland and Labrador l"
162,200
208,000
330,V"S4
370,859
West Indies : — Bahamas
4,466
52,316
62,754
63,405
Jamaica and Turks Islands
4,424
721,072
686,541
774,918
Barbados ....
166
190,000
184,606
172,551
Leeward Islands
701
127,800
124,767
140,944.
Windward Islands
784
155,000
143,008
141,812
Trinidad and Tobago .
i Total America
1,868
268,957
7,246,875
575,265
10,517,938
587,414
3,952,637
10,828,243
Australasia : — Fiji .
8,045
121,798
74,492
72,232
New Guinea ....
88,460
350,000
10,300
15,000
New SoTith Wales
1 310,700
1,335,800
9,287,000
9,320,129
New Zealand
1 104,471
743,214
5,079,230
4,602,372
Queensland
668.497
493,704
3,613,150
3,604,264
South Australia .
903,690
358,224
2,682,676
2,735,962
Tasmania ....
; 26,385
171,719
845,020
785,026
Victoria
1 87,884
1,169,434
6,630,217
6,568,932
Western Australia
975,020
161,924
2,843,775
3,236,044
Total Australasia
3,174,052
4,905,817 j
31.065,860
30,939,961
Total Colonies .
7,550,533
21,657,782 i
55,708,422
.56,468,217
Total U. K., India, and Colonies.
9,471,770
.349,070,140
256,452,167
255,238,974
Protectorates and Sphehks of
Infi.ukncr—
Asia
120,400
1,200,000 1
—
—
Africa
2,120,000
35,000,000 1
—
—
Pacific
Total Protectorates .
—
10,000
30,210,000 !
~
—
2,240,400
Total British Empire .
11,712,170
385,280,140
—
*""
1 Including bullion and specie. - The statistics of population are for 1898 ; of finance, for
1897-98 ; of commerce, for 1897 ; of sliipping, for 1897. ^ In the area of British India
Upper Burmah is included. Tlie financial statistics are for 1896-97, in tons of rujieos ;
the commercial, for 1.S97-9S, rupee at Is. :'4d. ; only the sea-borne trade is given and only
merchandise in the trade with U.K. ; the shipping is for 1897-98. •» For Gibraltar and
TABLES.
EMPIRE, 1897—98.
XXVU
Debt
I'olal
1 Imports 1
1 £"
Total
Exports 1
£"
Imports
ft-omU.K.i
£
Exports
to U.K.1
Registered
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered and
cleared
llailway
open.
Miles
£
£
C3S,2G0,4S2
520,003,45 7
285,604,403
—
—
8,953,171
90,198,^3
21.433
237,325,160
50,323,010
59,323,910
66,013,820
66,013,820
20,363,250
20,363,250
18,303,610
49,231
49,231
7,784,630
21,157
237,325,160
18,303,610
7,784,630
21,157
—
—
—
—
4,805
8,720,169
79.168
-
—
- - ~ -
- ~ —
10,408
15,213
7,244,468
15,964,637
8
70,168
—
8
—
2,776,220
2,361,270
—
—
4,246,000
3,701,460
6,175,730
5,361,280
1,635,310
3,100,280
14,087
6,704,747
297
341,800
—
—
—
24,228
1 2,124,-500
I
—
88,483
65,365
—
—
—
257,746
—
—
21,991,030
31,031,463
19,313,640
27,101,555
2,847,650
4,482,060
2,593,620
5,783,900
51,619
11,147,662
34,480,754
297
4,043,260
89,934
100,280
132,030
__
. ,
1
27,282,405
17,907,780
21,660,210
12,004,946
21,239,560
3,640
5,404,165
2,260
1,109,140
1,103,740
1,776,140
236,300
28,513
7,290
667,391
105
8,010,143
6,001,960
1,570,538
4,184,467
1,114,608
3,653
2,488,463
476
—
83,242
4,093
—
—
—
81,948
—
—
176,327
165,804
97,181
35,235
\
/ 258,398
—
—
010,540
857,793
610,967
581,004
2,350
1 1,158,027
—
—
770,511
810,975
574,938
400,114
j 718,303
—
25,000
457,380
27,641,787
400.748
27,397,321
377,508
18,986,307
188,045
23,588,069
16,933
I 1,084,745
—
36,525,707
11,861,440
2,841
46,100
323,148
127,703
95,424
3,519
6,120
346,538
—
68,328,100
24,406,074
28,345,942
6,013,600
15,868,665
708,154
12,010,080
16,687
—
63,286
125,123
54,225
123,186
182
107,942
—
040,402
1,282,076
1,783,764
740,878
940,015
6,303
621,198
40
34,736
202,613
288,069
100,095
158,409
5,654
300,123
—
3,410,167
1,120,206
1,012,148
402,945
277,248
106,118
717,703
633
110,026
186,010
140,085
46,228
13,651
\
i' 518,217
—
2,136,627
1,603,006
1,491,746
780,367
319,683
j 1,889,318
) 1,335,962
185
409,159
1,008,609
736.163
474,622
33,972
1 62,725
24
335,621
325,753
339,018
133,497
49,582
] 1.585,297
—
.S38,850
480,433
377,641
226,606
197,130
2,473,345
—
925.043
2,172,fc86
33,446,800
1,990,607
36,777,800
865,517
9,964,004
715,200
18,709,260
885,256
> 1,340,996
23,337,619
61
77,042,740
17,630
213,257
253,800
431,860
—
—
492
248,015
—
—
46,071
49,859
—
—
—
41,062
—
58,591,014
21,744,350
23,751,072
7,557,009
8,728,828
121,421
6,744,431
2,724
44,963,424
8,055,223
10,016,993
5,302,738
8,168,123
87,837
1,362,232
2,222
3.3,498,414
5,420,101
0,001,557
2,-501,052
3,322,703
22,758
1,128,900
2,609
23,008,000
7,277.086
7,070,750
2,0.S8,616
2,202,440
51,764
.3,747,685
1,890
7,781,570
1,367,608
1,744,461
307,510
274,497
14,376
1,084,168
496
4 '5, 020, 3 21
15,454,482
16,730,670
6,004,708
9,559,240
96,374
4,865,372
3,129
6,818,405
6,331,266
3,040,008
2,586,081
1,736,205
8,113
2.377,832
1,361
222,704,305 65.050,977
72,836,320
26,528,764
33,002,054
403,135
21,-599,697
14,431
340,305,360 158,080,117
164,112,005
50,062,035
82,074,183
1,410,471
107,244,147
35,207
1,215,987,002
746,407,484
515,730,318
80,325,285
100,467,703
10,412,873
205,227,640
77,797
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
^~
~
~_ J
Malta there are no complete trade returns. 5 Trade of 1897-98, rupee at 1«. 3|d. « Trade
of 1807, rupee at l«.3Hd. 7 Hong Kont; dollar at 4<i. 2r/.; LaltnaTidnllarat 2.'<. 8 Dollar at 2«.
^ Finance .stated in tens ot rupees ; for trade the rui)Of taken at Is. '.ii^il. >" For Canada and
Newfoundland the dollar is at 4«. l.\fZ. The Canadian ro;,'istered shipping includes that for
inland uavii,'ation. The area of Newfoundlan<l alone is 42,000 .square miles. H Gold dollar
at4«. md.
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XXX
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1S99
III. — The World's Phoduction of Gold and Silver.
According to statistics pulilislierl liy the Director of the United States
Mint, the vahie of the gokl output (the dollar taken at 50 pence) and the
weight of the output of silver in the various countries of the world in 1897
were as follows : —
Countries.
Gold.
Silver.
£
Ounces.
United States ....
11,948,700
53,800,000
Australia
11,599,000
15,951,546
Mexico
1,965,600
53,903,180
Russia .
4,841,900
284,625
Germany
•286,200
5,498,135
Austria- Hungary .
465,700
1,970,332
Sweden
17,500
20,728
Norway
—
162,198
Italy .
40,500
737.163
Spain .
—
5,779,357
Greece .
—
1,028,609
Turkey
1,500
225,225
France .
—
525,628
Great Jjritaiu
7,300
232,108
Canada
1,255,400
5,558,446
Argentina
28.700
383,470
Colombia
624,900
1,687,950
Bolivia
156,200
15,000,000
Ecuador
27,700
7,734
Chile .
193,400
6,440,569
Brazil .
250,800
—
Venezuela
197,200
—
British Guiana
478,000
—
Dutch Guiana
102,500
—
French Guiana
320,300
—
Peru .
130,800
9,784,680
Central America
98,000
1,564,875
Japan .
148,600
2,507,532
China .
460,200
—
Africa .
12,145,300
—
British India
1,509,700
—
Korea .
152,700
—
Other countries
17,900
41,990
Total
49,472,200
183,096,080
In 1897 the highest ]»rice of fine silver in London was 291|d. i)cr ounce ;
the lowest was 23^d. ; the average was 27^%d. The value of the world's
production of silver in that year would thus be about 21.027,440Z.
XXXI
ADDITIONS AND CORKECTIONS.
BRITISH EMPIRE.
RoYAi. Family. — Prince Alfred, only son of the Duke of Ediiiliurgh (Duke of Saxc-
Coburg ami Gotha), died Fclmiaiy .">, 1890.
Thk Navy.— On March 0, the Navy Estimates for the year 1890-1900 were laid before
Parliament. Tlie total amount required for the year is •20,594,000?. ; the amount to be
expended under the liead of construction is 12,817,000?. ; the ships it is proposed to lay
down arc two ir<niclad.s, two armoured cruisers of 9,800 tons displacement, three smaller
cruisers, aiul two sloops.
Cape Colony. —The imports during the year 1S9S amounted to the value of 16,682,4.38?.,
and the exports to tlic value of 25,318,701?. In the exports, gold is included to the value
of over 15,000,000?. and diamonds about 5,000,000/.
Queensland.— Imports in 1898, 5,880,000?. ; exports, 10,079,000?.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC AND CHILE.
On February 1(5, 1890, it was announced that the differences which liave arisen with
regard to the frontier line between the Argentine Republic and Chile liaving been referred to
the arbitration of Her Majesty's Government, the Right Hoil Lord Macuaghten, one of the
Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, Jlajor-Gcneral Sir J. C. Ardagh, K.C.I.E., C.B., Director of
Military Intelligence, and Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.I.E., C.B., have been appointed
members of a Tribunal to examine and consider the question.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
In 1808 the imports amounted to the value of 830,900,000 florins, and the exports to the
value of 808,800,000 florins.
HUNGARY.
A new Hungarian Ministry took office on February 27, 1899, the new ministers being :
The President of the Council. — M. de Syell.
Minister of Commerce. — M. Alexander Hegedues.
Mi7iister of Justice.— Dr Alexander Plosz.
For the other departments the ministers named on p. 368 continue in office.
BRAZIL.
On March S, 1S99, it was announced that the Brazilian Government had accepted the
British proposal to submit the Guiana Boundary Question to arbitration.
DENMARK.
Royal Family.— On March 11, 1899, a son was born to Prince Christian, eldest son of
the Crown Prince.
FRANCE.
For the year 1898 the s]iecial trade of France, according to tbe provisional results,
amounted for imports to 4,376,105.000 francs, and for exports to 3,503,107,000 frajics. Of
the imports, the value of ■184,709,000 francs was from the United Kingdom ; and of the
exports, the value of 1,038,591,000 francs was to the United Kingdom.
In the year 1897-98 there were 344 sugar factories at work, employing 42,855 men,
3,848 women, and 2,518 children; the output (expressed as refined sugar), amounted to
730,0(17 tons.
The railway receipts for 1898 amounted to 1,343,484,300 francs.
The nominal value of the Ficncli money coined at the Paris mint in 1898 was as
follows :— Gold (20 franc j-ieces), 177,320,540 francs; silver (2, 1, and A-franc pieces)
40,000,000 francs ; bronze, 1,000,000 francs— total, 218,320,540 francs. '
(juceii Ranavalona of Madagascar was in March, 1899, transferred to Algiers where it
is stated, she will be in greater .safety than in the Island of Reunion. ' '
XXXll
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
BELGIUM.
The following table gives the details of the proposed budget for the year 1899 : —
Ordinary Revenue
Francs
Ordinary Expenditure
Francs
Taxes, direct : —
Property taxes
25,615,000
Interest on public
Personal taxes
20,708,000
debt and sinking
Trade licences
7,800,000
fund
126,667,356
Mines .
600,000
Civil list and dota- :
Taxes, indirect : —
tions
4,953,900
Customs
38,746,429
Ministry of Justice . ■
22,305,810
Excise ,
58,708,000 !
Foreign
Succession duties .
19,360,000
Affairs .
2,823,228
Registration duties
20,000,000
Ministry of Interior
Stamps
6,800,000
and Public Instruc-
Various
5,866,000 ,
tion
27,150,186
Tolls :—
1
Ministry of Agricul-
Rivers, Canals, &c.
1,595,000 '
ture & Public Works
23,990,269
Railways
129,500,000 ;
Ministry of Railways,
Telegraphs .
7,000,000 '
Posts, Telegraphs,
Post Office .
13,361,300 1
and Telephones .
132,367,015
Pilotage dues, &c.
1,230,000
Ministry of War
51,780,100
Capitals & revenues: —
,, Finance .
19,900,365
Domains, forests, &c.
1 3,240,500
Gendarmerie
5,075,300
Unused amortisation
'
Repayments, &c.
1,876,000
fund, securities.
Ministry of Industry
national bank, &c.
9,889,400
and Labour
3,169,960
Repayments
' 4,207,149
Total ordinary
Total ordinary ex-
1
revenue .
i 424,428,778
penditure
[422,059,739
The imports for 1898 amounted to 1,927,592,000 francs, and the exports to 1,652,611,000
francs.
GERMANY.
Naval Administration. — By an Imperial order published March 14, 1S99, the office
of Commander-in-Chief lapses, and the Emperor holds the supreme command of the navy
as he does of the army.
JAPAN.
In the Japanese budget prepared for 1809 the revenue was estimated at 230,019,893
yen, incUidiiig 117,584,473 yen under the head of temporary revenue; and the expenditure
was put at 234,506,984 yen, including 110,828,104 you for temporary expenditure.
The Japanese public ilebt is stated as follows : — Home debt at 5 per cent., 303,970,020
yen ; without interest, 27,264,908 yen— total, 421,245,928 yen ; paper currency,
6,905,374 yen.
OMAN.
Official statements made in the House of Commons, March 7 and 9, 1890, shew that
while the yultan of Oman, by treaty of 1862 and by engagements with the British Govern-
ment, is precluded from granting to France any concession or lease of any portion of his
territory, he may allow to the French Government the use of a shed for the storage of coal
at or near Muscat, and it is understood that France will accept this modified concession.
PART THE FIRST
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
a^ii i
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
The British Empire consists of : —
I. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
II. India, the Colonies, Protectorates, and Dependencies.
Eeig^ning Queen and Empress.
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress
of India, born May 24, 1819, the daughter of Edward, Duke of
Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria of
Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich Karl of Leiningen.
Ascended the throne at the death of her uncle, King William IV.,
June 20, 1837; crowned at Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1838.
Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ;
widow, Dec. 14, 1861.
Children of the Queens
I. Princess Fic^oHa (Empress Frederick), born Nov. '2 1,1 840 j
married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (Friedrich I.
of Germany), eldest son of Wilhelm I., German Emperor and
King of Prussia ; widow, June 15, 1888.
II. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married
March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of King
Christian IX. of Denmark. Offspring : — (1) George, Duke of
York, born June 3, 1865, married July 6, 1893, to Victoria
Mary, daughter of the Duke of Teck, — offspring, Edward Albert,
born June 23, 1894; Albert Frederick Arthur George, born
December 14, 1895 ; Victoria Alexandra, born April 25, 1897 ;
(2) Louise, born Feb. 20, 1867, married to the Duke of Fife,
July 27, 1889, — offspring, Alexandra Victoria, born May 17,
1891 ; Maud Alexandra, born April 3, 1893 ; (3) Victoria, born
July 6, 1868; (4) Maud, born Nov. 26, 1869, married July
22, 1896, to Prince Karl of Denmark.
III. Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (Duke of Saxe-
Cobui'g-Gotha, Aug. 22, 1893), born Aug. 6, 1844; married,
Jan. 23, 1874, to Grand Duchess Marie of Kussia, only
daughter of Emperor Alexander II. Offspring: — (1) Marie,
born Oct. 29, 1875; married Jan. 10, 1893, to Prince
B 2
4 THE BRITISH EMPinE : — rNlTEt) KINGt)OM
Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Crown Prince of
Roumania ; (2) Victoria, born Nov. 25, 1876; married April
19, 1894, to Ernst Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse ; (3)
Alexandra, born Sept. 1, 1878; married, April 20, 1896, to
Prince Ernst, Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ;
(4) Beatrice, born April 20, 1884.
IV. Princess Helena, born May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5,
1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Offspring : —
(1) Christian, born April 14, 1867 ; (2) Albert John, born Feb. 26,
1869 ; (3) Victoria, born May 3, 1870 ; (4) Louise, born Aug. 12,
1872; married to Prince Aribert of Anhalt, July 6, 1891.
V. Princess Louise, horn March 18, 1848 ; married March 21,
1871, to John, Marquis of Lome, eldest son of the Duke of
Argyll.
VI. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born May 1, 1850;
married, March 13, 1879, to Princess Louise of Prussia, born
July 25, 1860. Offspring: — (1) Margaret Victoria, born Jan.
15, 1882; (2) Arthur, born Jan. 13, 1883; (3) Victoria, born
March 17, 1886.
Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, born 1853 ; married, 1882, to Princess
Helena of Waldeck ; died, 1884 ; lelt two children, Alice, born February 25,
1883 ; and Charles Edward, Duke of Albany, born July 19, 1884.
VII. Princess Beatrice, born April 14, 1857 ; married, July
23, 1885, to Prince Henry (died January 20, 1896), third son of
Prince Alexander of Hesse. Offspring : — (1) Alexander Albert,
born Nov. 23, 1886; (2) Victoria Eugenie, born Oct. 24, 1887 ;
(3) Leopold Arthur Louis, born May 21, 1889 ; (4) Maurice
Victor Donald, born October 3, 1891.
Cousins of the Queen.
I. Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumberland, born Sept. 21, 1845, the
grandson of Duke Ernest August of Cumberland, fifth son of King George III. ;
married, December 21, 1878, to Princess Thyra of Denmark, born September 29,
1853. Six children.
II. Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26, 1819, the son of
Duke Adolph of Cambridge, sixth son of King George III. ; field-marshal
in the British army (commander-in-chief till 1895).
III. Princess Augusta, sister of the preceding, born July 19, 1822 ;
married June 28, 1843, to Grand Duke FriedrichWilhelm of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
The Queen reigns in her own right, holding the Crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the Crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of
Hanover and the ' heirs of her body, being Protestants.'
The civil list of the Queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
THE UOYAL FAMILY 5
grant, and amounts to much less than the incomes of previous
sovereigns. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to
1,000,000/. sterling, but in 1777 the civil list of the King was
fixed at 900,000/., and the income over and above that sum
from the hereditary possessions of the Crown passed to the
Treasury. Under William lY. the civil list was relieved of
many burthens, and fixed at 510,000/.
It is established by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 2, that during her Majesty's
reign all the revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Con-
solidated Fund, but that a civil list shall be assigned to the Queen.
In virtue of this Act, the Queen has granted to her an annual
allowance of 385,000/. of which the Lords of the Treasury are
directed to pay yearly 60,000/., into her Majesty's Privy Purse ;
to set aside 231,260/. for the salaries of the royal household;
44,240/. for retiring allowances and pensions to servants ; and
13, 200/. for royal bounty, alms, and special services. This leaves
an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/., which may be applied in
aid of the general expenditure of her Majesty's Court. The
Queen has also paid to her the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster,
which in the year 1897 amounted to 83,532/., and the payment
made to her Majesty for the year was 60,000/.
On the Consolidated Fund are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family : — 10,000/. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh (reduced from £25,000 on the
Duke's accession to the Dukedom of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
in 1893); 25,000/. to the Duke of Connaught; 8,000/.
to the Empress Victoria of Germany ; 6,000/. to Princess
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ; 6,000/. to Princess Louise,
Marchioness of Lome ; 6,000/. to Princess Henry (Beatrice) of
Battenberg ; 3,000/. to the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Stre-
litz ; 12,000/. to George, Duke of Cambridge; and 6,000/. to
Princess Helena of Waldeck, Duchess of Albany.
The heir-apparent to the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/., and by an Act passed in 1889
receives 37,000/. annually in addition for the support and main-
tenance of his children. The Prince of "Wales has besides as in-
come the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall, which in the year
1897 were 97,425/., the sum paid to the Prince being 58,118/.
The Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict, cap, 1, the
annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case of
widowhood.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers
of Great Britain, with date of their accession, from the union of
the crowns of KInglaiid and -Scotland :— ■
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
House of Stuart.
House of Stuart- Orange.
James I. ...
. 1603
William and Mary
. 1689
Charles I.
. 1625
William III. .
House of Stuart.
. 1694
:^'vTi Commonicealth.
Anne ....
. 1702
Parliamentaiy Executive
. 1649
House of Hanover.
Protectorate .
. 1653
George I. .
. 1714
George II. ...
. 1727
George III.
. 1760
House of Stuart.
George IV.
. 1820
Charles II.
. 1660
William IV. .
. 1830
James XL ...
. 1685
Victoria
. 1837
1. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND IRELAND.
Constitution and Grovernment.
I. Imperial and Central.
The supreme legislative power of the British Empire is by its
Constitution given to Parliament. Parliament is summoned by
the writ of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by advice of the
Privy Council, at least thirty-five days previous to its assembling.
On a vacancy occurring in the House of Commons whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in
annual session extending from the middle of February to about
the end of August. Every session must end with a prorogation,
and by it all Bills which have not been passed during the session
fall to the ground. The royal proclamation which summons
Parliament in order to proceed to business must be issued fourteen
days before the time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death
of Parliament ; it may occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as
is most usual, during the recess, by proclamation, or finally by
lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration of the existence
of any Parliament being seven years. Formerly, on the demise
of the sovereign Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof ;
but this was altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of
postponing the dissolution till six months after the accession of
the new sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the
Parliament ' in being at any future demise of the Crown shall
not be determined by such demise.'
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT '7
of Legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the middle
of the fourteenth century.
The House of Lords consists of peers who hold their seats —
(1) by hereditary right; (2) by creation of the sovereign ;
(3) by virtue of office — English bishops ; (4) by election for
life — Irish peers ; (5) by election for duration of Parlianiient —
Scottish peers.
The number of names on the 'Roll ' was 401 in 1830 ; 457 in
1840 ; 448 in 1850 ; 458 in 1860 ; 503 in 1877 ; and 586 in 1898.
About two-thirds of the hereditary peerages were created in the
present century. Excluding the royal and ecclesiastical peerages,
the 4 oldest existing peerages in the House of Lords date from
the latter part of the thirteenth century, while 5 go back to the
fourteenth and 7 to the fifteenth century. There are besides 8
peeresses of the United Kingdom in their own right, and 2 Scotch
peeresses, and 18 Scotch and 62 Irish peers who are not peers of
Parliament.
The House of Commons has consisted, since 49 Hen.
III., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties ; of
citizens, or representatives of cities ; and of burgesses or repre-
sentatives of boroughs, all of whom vote together. To the House
of Commons, in the reign of Edw^ard L, 37 counties and 166
boroughs each returned two representatives ; but at the accession
of Henry VIII. the total number of constituencies was only 147.
The additions from Edward YI. to Charles II. were almost
entirely of borough members. In the fourth Parliament of
Charles L, the number of places in England and Wales for which
returns were made, exclusive of counties, amounted to 210 ; and
in the time of the Stuarts, the total number of members of the
House of Commons was about 500. At the union of the
English and Scottish Parliaments in 1707, 45 representatives of
Scotland were added ; and at the union of the British and Irish
Parliaments in 1801, 100 representatives of Ireland. The
average number of members was then about 650.
By the Reform Bill of 1832, the number of English county
constituencies was increased from 52 to 82 ; 56 boroughs, con-
taining a population of less than 2,000 each, were totally
disfranchised, and 31 other boroughs, of less than 4,000 each,
were required to send one representative instead of two. On the
other hand, 22 new boroughs acquired the right to return two
members, and 24 to return one member. In Scotland the town
members were increased from 15 to 23 — making 53 in all; while
the Irish representatives were increased from 100 to 103.
The next great change in the constituency of the House of
8
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Commons, was made by the Reform Bill of 1867-68. By this
Act England and Wales were allotted 493 members and Scotland
60, while the number for Ireland remained unaltered, and house-
hold suffrage was conferred on boroughs in England and
Scotland. A still greater reform was effected by the Repre-
sentation of the People Act 1884, and the Redistribution of Seats
Act, 1885. The former introduced a ' service franchise,' extend-
ing to householders and lodgers in counties the suffrages which in
1867 had been conferred upon householders and lodgers in
boroughs, and placed the three Kingdoms on a footing of equality
as regards electoral qualifications ; while the latter made a new
division of the United Kingdom into county and borough con-
stituencies, and raised the total number of members to 670,
England receiving 6 new members, and Scotland 12.
The number of members and of registered electors for
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland respectively, in 1898
was as follows : —
—
Counties.
Boroughs.
Universities.
Total.
Members
Electors
Menibei-s Electors
Members
Electors
Members
Electors
1
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
253
39
85
2,905,968
363,954
603,494
237 2,221,132
31 281,464
16 112,284
5
2
2
17,122
18,677
4,534
495
72
103
5,144,222
664,095
720,312
377 !8,873,416
284 2,614,880
9
40,833
670
6,528,629
Thus about one-sixth of the population are electors.
The number of those voting as ' Illiterates,' and the total
votes recorded in 18.95, were as follows : —
—
England
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom
Illiterates .
Total votes polled being
28,521
3,190,826
4,062
447,591
40,357
220,506
72,940
3,858,923
All elections for members of Parliament must be by secret
vote by ballot, an Act being passed annually to this effect.
No one under twenty-one years of age can be a member of
Parliament. All clergymen of the Churcli of England, ministers
of the Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic clergymen are
disqualified from sitting as members ; all Government contractors,
and all sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which
they act, are disqualified both from voting and from sitting as
members. No English or Scotti.sh peer can be elected to the
House of Commons, but uon-iepr(?seutHtive Irish peers are eligible,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
9
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom during the reign of Queen Victoria : —
Reign
Parliament
When met
When dissolved
Existed
Victoria
1st
11 Sept. 1837
23 June 1841
Y. M. D.
3 9 12
2ml
19 Aiig. 1841
23 July 1847
5 11 4
31(1
21 Sept. 1847
1 July 1852
4 9 10
4th
20 Aug. 1852
21 Mar. 1857
4 7 1
5th
30 April 1857
23 April 1859
1 11 23
6th
31 May 1859
6 July 1865
6 1 6
7th
15 Aug. 1865
11 Nov. 1868
3 2 27
8th
10 Dec. 1868
26 Jan. 1874
5 1 16
9th
5 Mar. 1874
24 Mar. 1880
6 0 19
10th
29 April 1880
18 Nov. 1885
5 6 20
11th
12 Jan. 1886
26 June 1886
0 5 14
12th
5 Aug. 1886
28 June 1892
5 10 23
13th
4 Aug. 1892
24 July 1895
2 11 20
14th
12 Aug. 1895
The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is
v^ested nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of
Ministers, commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence is de-
pendent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons.
The member of the Cabinet who fills the position of First Lord
of the Treasury is, as a rule, the chief of the Ministry. It is on
the Premier's recommendation that his colleagues are appointed ;
and he dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown.
The present Cabinet consists of the following members :
1. Prime Minister and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. — Right
Hon. the Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., born 1830, younger son of the second
Marquis ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P. for Stamford,
1853-68; succeeded to the title, 1868; Secretary of State for India, July,
1866, to March, 1867, and again, 1874-1878 ; Secretary of State for Foreign
Att'airs, 1878-1880 ; Prime Minister and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
June, 1885, to Febniary,il886 ; Prime Minister and First Lord of the Trea-
sury, August 3, 1886, to January 14, 1887; Prime Minister and Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs till August, 1892. Present appointment, June 25, 1895.
2. Lord President of the Council. — Right Hon. the Duke of Devonshire,
born 1833 ; succeeded to the title, 1891 ; educated at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge ; M.P. for North Lancashire, 1857 ; a Lord of the Admiralty, 1863 ;
Postmaster-General, 1868 ; M.P. for Radnor, 1869 ; Chief Secretarv for Ire-
land, 1871; M.P. for North-East Lancashire, 1880; Secretary of Stite for
India, 1880 ; Secretary of State for War, 1882 ; M.P. for the Rossendale
division of Lancashire, 1885. Present appointment, June 25, 1895.
3. Lord High Chancellor. — Right Hon. the Earl of Halshury (formerly Sir
Hardinge S. Giffard), born 1825 ; educated at Merton College, Oxford ; called
to the Bar (Inner Temple), 1850 ; Solicitor-General, 1875 ; M.P. for Laun-
ceston, 1877 ; Lord Chancellor, November, 1885, to February, 1886, an<l
again, August, 1886, to Augi;st, 1892. Present appointment, June 25, 1895.
10 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
•
4. Lord Privy Seal. — Right Hon. Viscount Cross (formerly Sir Richard
Cross), G.C.B., born 1823 ; educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge ; called to the Bar (Inner Temple), 1849 ; M.P. for Preston, 1857 ; for
South-West Lancashire, 1868 ; for Newton division, 1885 ; Secretary of State
for Home Department, 1885 ; created Viscount, 1886 ; Secretary of State for
India, 1886 to 1892. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
5. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. — Right Hon. Lord James of
.Hereford (formerly Sir Henry James), born 1828 ; educated at Cheltenham
College ; called to the Bar, 1852 ; M.P. for Taunton, 1869 ; Solicitor-General,
September to November, 1873 ; Attorney-General, 1873-1874, and 1880-
1885 ; raised to Peerage, June, 1895. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
6. First Lord of the Treasury. — Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, born
1848 ; educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge ; Private Secretary
to Marquis of Salisbury, 1878-80, at Berlin Congress; M.P. for Hertford,
1879 ; for Manchester East, 1885 ; President of Local Government Board,
1885 ; Secretary for Scotland, 1886 ; admitted to Cabinet, November, 1886 ;
Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1887-1891 ; First Lord of the Treasury, No-
vember, 1891, to August, 1892. Present appointment, June 25, 1895.
7. Secretary of State for the Home Department, — Right Hon. Sir M. White
Ridley, Bart., born 1842 ; educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford ;
M.P. for North Northumberland, 1868 ; Under-Secretary of State for Home
Department, 1878-1880; Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1885 ; M.P. for
Blackpool division of Lancashire, 1886. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
8. Chancellor of the Exchequer. — Right Hon. Sir Michael E. Hicks-Beach,
Bart., bom 1837 ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; M.P. for
East Gloucestershire, 1864 ; Parliamentary Secretary to the Poor Law Board,
February to December, 1868 ; Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1874 ; Secretary of
State for the Colonies, 1878 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1885 ; Chief Sec-
retary for Ireland, August 3, 1886 ; resigned, March 5, 1887, but retained
seat in Cabinet ; President of the Board of Trade, 1888-1892. Present
appointment, June 25, 1895.
9. Secretary of State for the Colonies. — Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain,
born 1836 ; educated at University College School, London ; Mayor of Bir-
mingham, 1873-1876 ; Chairman of the Birmingham School Board, 1874-
1876 ; M.P. for Birmingham, 1876 ; for "West Birmingham, 1885 ; President
of the Board of Trade, 1880-1885 ; President of the Local Government Board,
February to April, 1886 ; one of the Commissioners to Washington on North
American Fisheries, 1887. Present appointment, June 25, 1895.
10. Secretary of State for War. — Right Hon. the Marquis of Lansdowne,
born 1845 ; succeeded to title, 1866 ; educated at Eton and Balliol College,
Oxford ; a Lord of the Admiralty, 1868 ; Under-Secretary for War, 1872 ;
Under-Secretary for India, May to July, 1880 ; Governor-General of Canada,
1883-1888 ; Governor-General of India, 1888-1893. Present appointment,
June 28, 1895.
11. Secretary of State for India. — Right Hon. Lord George Hamilton,
born 1845 ; educated at Harrow ; M.P. for Middlesex, 1868 ; for Ealing, 1885 ;
First Lord of the Admiralty, 1885-86 ; and again, 1886-1892. Present ap-
pointment, June 28, 1895.
12. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Right Hon. G. J. Goschen, born 1831 ;
educated at Rugby and Oriel College, Oxford; M.P. for City of London,
1863 ; Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 1865 ; Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster, 1866 ; President of the Poor Law Board, 1868 ; First Lord of
the Admiralty, 1871 ; M.P. for Ripon, 1880 ; Special Envoy to Constantinoijle,
1880; M.P. for East Edinburgh, 1885; for St. George's, Hanover-square,
London, 1887 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer, 1887-1892. Present appoint-
ment, Juno 25, 1895.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
11
13. President of the Local Government Board. — Right Hon. Henry
Chaplin, born 1840 ; educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P.
for Mid Lincoln, 1868 ; for Sleaford division, 1885 ; Chancellor of the Duchy
of Lancaster, 1885 ; President of the Board of Agriculture, 1889. Present
appointment, June 27, 1895.
14. President of the Board of Trade. — Right Hon. C. T. Ritchie, born
1838 ; M.P. for the Tower Hamlets, 1874 ; for the St. George's division of
the Tower Hamlets, 1885 ; Secretary to the Admiralty, 1885 ; President of
the Local Government Board, 1886. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
15. Lord-TAeutcnant of Ireland. — Right Hon. Earl Cadogan, born 1840 ;
succeeded to title, 1873 ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P.
for Bath, 1873 ; Under-Secretary for the Colonies, 1878 ; Lord Privy Seal,
1886. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
16. Lord Chancellor of Ireland. — Right Hon. Lord Ashbourne (formerly
Mr. Edward Gibson); born 1837; educated at Trinity College, Dublin;
called to the Irish Bar, 1860 ; M.P. for Dublin University, 1875 ; Attorney-
General for Ireland, 1877 ; Lord Chancellor of Ireland, June, 1885, to
Feliruary, 1886, and again, August, 1886, to August, 1892. Present appoint-
ment, June 28, 1895.
17. Secretary for Scotland. — Right Hon. Lord Balfour of Burleigh, born
1849 ; assumed restored title, 1869 ; educated at Eton and Oriel College,
Oxford ; is a Representative Peer for Scotland ; Parliamentary Secretary to
the Board of Trade, 1888. Present appointment, June 28, 1895.
18. First Commissioner of IVorTcs. — Right Hon. A. Akers-Douglas, born,
1851 ; educated at Eton and University College, Oxford ; called to the Bar
(Inner Temple), 1874; M.P. for East Kent, 1880 to 1885; and for the
St. Augustine's division of Kent since 1885 ; Patronage Secretary to the
Treasury, 1885-1886, and again, 1886-1892. Present appointment, July 2,
1895.
19. President of the Board of Agriculture. — Right Hon. W. H. Long,
born 1854 ; educated at HaiTow and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P. for North
Wilts, 1880 ; and for the Devizes division, 1885 ; Parliamentary Secretary to
the Local Government Board, 1886-1892 ; M.P. for West Derby division of
Liverpool, 1893. Present appointment, July 2, 1895.
The following is a list of the heads of the Administrations of Great Britain
during the reign of Queen Victoria : —
Heads of Dates of
Administrations. Appointment
Viscount Melbourne April 18, 1835
Sir Robert Peel . Aug. 30, 1841
Lord John Russell . July 6, 1846
Eari of Derby . Feb. 26, 1852
Heads of Dates ot
Administrations. Appointment
Benjamin Disraeli . Feb. 28, 1868
W. E. Gladstone . Dec. 9, 1868
Benjamin Disraeli. Feb. 21, 1874
W. E. Gladstone . April 28, 1880
Earl of Aberdeen . Dec. 27, 1852 ; Marquis of Salisbuiy June 24, 1885
Viscount Palmerston Feb. 8, 1855 ' W. E. Gladstone . Feb. 6, 1886
Earl of Derby , Feb. 22, 1858 Marquis of Salisbuiy August 3, 1886
Viscount Palmerston June 17, 1859 W. E. Gladstone . August 15, 1892 '
Earl Russell . . Oct. , 1865 ! Eari of Rosebery . March 5, 1894
Earl of Derby . July 6, 1866 ' Marquis of Salisbury June 25, 1895
II. Local Government,
England and Wales. — In each county the Crown is represented by a
Lord-Lieutenant, who is generally also custos rotulorum, or keeper of the
records. He usually noniinates persojis whom he considers fit and ])ro])vr
12 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
persons to he justices of the peace for his county, to be appointed by the
Lord Chancellor. His duties however are almost nominal. There is also a
sheriff, who represents the executive of the Crown, an under-sheriff, a clerk
of the peace, coroners, who are appointed and paid by the County Councils,
and other officers. The licensing of persons to sell intoxicating liquors, and
the administration of the criminal law — except that which deals with some
of the graver offences — is in the hands of the magistrates. For the purposes
of local government England and Wales are divided into sixty-one admini-
strative counties, including the county of London, which differ slightly in
area from the geographical counties.
For each administrative county there is a popularly-elected Council,
called a County Council, who co-opt a prescribed number of aldermen, either
from their own body or from outside it. Aldermen are elected for six years,
half of them retiring every third j^ear. A councillor is elected for three
years. The jurisdiction of the County Councils extend to (1) making of
county and police rates ; (2) borrowing of money ; (3) supervision of county
treasurer ; (4) management of county halls and other buildings ; (5) licensing
of houses for music and dancing, and of racecourses ; (6) maintenance and
management of pauper lunatic asylums ; (7) maintenance of reformatory and
industrial schools ; (8) management of bridges and main roads ; (9) regu-
lation of fees of inspectors, analysts, and other officers ; (10) control of officers
paid out of the county rate ; (11) coroner's salary, fees, and district ; (12)
Parliamentary polling districts and registration ; (13) contagious diseases of
animals, and various other matters. The control of the county police is
vested in a standing joint committee composed of an equal number of magis-
trates and members of the County Council. The London police are however
under the control of the Home Secretaiy.
The administrative counties, with the exception of the County of London,
are subdivided into ' County Districts ' which are either ' Urban ' or Rural,
as the case may be. Generally speaking, an urban district comprises a town
or a small area more or less closely populated, and a rural district takes in
several country parishes. Women may be elected to District Councils, but
may not sit on County Councils ; and the chairman of a District Council is,
unless a woman, a magistrate for the county by virtue of his office. The
District Councils administer the Public Health and Highway Acts, and also
exercise some powers formerly exercised by the justices out of session.
In every civil parish in a ' rural district ' there is a Parish Meeting,
at which every parochial elector may attend and vote. In such parishes
of over 300 inhabitants there is in addition a Parish Council. To these
latter bodies dias been transferred all the civil powers of the old Vestries,
including the election of overseers, and in addition very considerable
powers over charities, allotments, and other public matters. Where there is
no Parish Council some of these powers, including the lappointment of the
overseers, are exercised by the Parish Meeting. Urban District Councils can,
by petitioning the Local Government Board — which is the supreme Local
Government authority — obtain part or all of the powers of a Parish Council.
Only Parish Meetings may have power to adopt the Public Libraries Acts,
the Baths and Washhouses Acts, the Lighting and Watching Acts, the Burials
Acts, and the Public Improvements Acts.
In the County of London local government is carried on under the County
Council by the Vestries, formed under the Metropolis Management Acts,
and exercise powers similar but somewhat wider than urban district councils.
These Vestries are elected on the same wide suffrage as district councillors.
Married women, properly qualided, have votes, and may now sit on them,
as well as single women. [See Local Government Acts, 1888 and 1394.]
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 13
In all the great towns, including 'county boroughs,' local business is
administered by a municipal Corporation, which derives its authority I'roni a
charter granted by the Crown. In 1835 the municipalities of the country
were completely reorganised. A municipal Corporation consists of tlie mayor,
aldermen, and burgesses, and acts through a Council elected by the burgesses
— practically by the ratepayers. The councillors serve for three years, one-
third retiring annually ; the aldermen are elected by the Council, and the
mayor, who serves for one year, also Ijy the Council. A municipal Cori»oration
has practically all the powers of an unljan district council, in addition to the
privilege of electing a mayor and corporation, and in some cases municipal
boroughs have a separate commission of the peace and maintain their own
police force. As to Poor Law and School Board administration, see ' Pauperism '
and 'Instniction.'
Scotland. — By the Local Government (Scotland) Act, 1894, a Local Govern-
ment Board for Scotland was constituted, its President being the Secretary for
Scotland. The Local Government Act which was passed for Scotland in 1889
followed in its main outlines the English Act of the previous year. The
powers of local administration in counties formerly exercised by the Com-
missioners of Supply and Road Trustees were either wholly or in part trans-
ferred to the new Councils, which took over their duties and responsibilities in
1890. The Act of 1894 provided that a Parish Council should be
established in every parish to take the place of the Parochial Boards
and to exercise powers similar to those of the Parish Councils in
England. Municipal bodies exist in the towns of Scotland, as in those of
England, but instead of ' aldermen ' there are ' bailies, ' and instead of a
' mayor ' there is a 'provost.' There are in Scotland five kinds of burghs —
(1) Burghs of barony ; (2) Burghs of regality (no practical distinction between
these two) ; (3) Royal Burghs, representatives of which meet together
annually in Edinburgh, as the 'Convention of Royal Burghs,' for the trans-
action of business ; (4) Parliamentary Burghs which by an Act passed in 1879
are enabled to send representatives to the convention ; (5) Police Burghs, in
which the local authority are the Police Commissioners.
Ireland. — The principal county authority for local government has hither-
to been the grand jury, appointed under the Act 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 116 ; but,
by the Local Government (Ireland) Act, 1898, provision was made for the esta-
blishment of popularly elected councils for counties and districts. The
councillors will be elected for three years, and the first council in each
county and district may choose additional members to hold office till the next
triennial election. The councils will take over the administrative business
forme i-ly managed by the grand juries and presentment sessions, especially
the business relating to poor rates, roads, asylums, hospitals, and public
health, while the appointment of coroners is also made over to them. The
cities of Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry, and Waterford,
which already possess representative councils, are made county boroughs, and
are exempt from some of the special provisions of the Act. Urban sanitary
authorities become urban district councils, and for rural polling districts
district councils will be created, the councillors, urban and rural, being the
guardians in their districts. The towns are partly corporate and partly
governed by Commissioners, Certain boroughs have a mayor, aldennen, and
councillors, whose powers are regulated by 3 & 4 Vict, c, 108, The ordinary
affairs of the borough, such as lighting, watching, and cleansing, are adminis-
tered by the Council, which has power to levy rates for these purposes. In
such towns as have no charter of incorporation, the local affairs are adminis-
tered by a body of Commissioners, who have powers generally to discharge
the usual municipal functions, and are empowered to levy rates to defi-ay the
14
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
cost of administration , Such towns, having over 1,500 inhabitants, maybe
constituted urban sanitary districts.
The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not bound by Acts of the
Imperial Parliament unless specially mentioned. The Isle of Man is
administered in accordance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald, con-
sisting of the Governor, appointed by the Crown ; the Council for Public
Affairs, composed chiefly of ecclesiastical and judicial dignitaries appointed
by the Crown ; and the House of Keys, a representative assembly of 24
members chosen on a property qualification for 7 years by the 6 * sheadings '
or local subdivisions, and the 4 municipalities. The Channel Islands are
administered according to their own laws and customs, each by a Lieut. -
Governor, with judicial and other functionaries ; and a ' States ' Assembly,
partly elective. Jersey has a separate legal existence. Guernsey, Alderney,
and Sark have a Lieut. -Governor in common, but otherwise their governments
are separate.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The population was thus distributed at the census, taken
April 5, 1891 :—
Divisions
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
Population on
April 5, 1891
England
Wales . , . .
Scotland
Ireland ....
Isle of Man .
Channel Islands
Army, Navy, and Mer-\
chant Seamen abroad/
Total
50,867
7,442
29,785
32,583
227
75
13,291,402
761,499
1,942,717
2,318,953
26,329
43,226
224,211
14,192,088
757,536
2,082,930
2,385,797
29,279
49,008
27,483,490
1,519,035
4,025,647
4,704,750
55,608
92,234
224,211
120,979
18,608,337
19,496,638
38,104,975
The following table gives the population of those divisions at
each of the four decennial censuses previous to 1891 : —
Divisions
1851
1861
1871
1881
England ....
16,921,888 'l8,954,444
21,495,131
24,613,926
Wales ....
1,005,721
1,111,780
1,217,135
1,360,513
Scotland ....
2,888,742
3,062,294
3,360,018
3,735,573
Ireland ....
6,574,271
5,798,967
5,412,377
5,174,836
Isle of Man
52,387
52,469
54,042
53,558
Channel Islands
90,739
90,978
90,596
87,702
Army, Navy, and Mer-"\
chant Seamen abroad/
Total, United Kingdom
212,194
250,356
216,080
215,374
27,745,942 29,321,288
31,845,379
35,241,482
AREA AND POPULATION
15
The decennial rate of increase or decrease ( - ) per cent, at
each of the last five censuses has been as follows : —
—
1851
18C1
1871
1881
1891
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
The Islands .
12-65
10-25
-19-85
11-93
6-01
-11-50
0-22
13-20
9-72
-6-65
0-83
14-36
11-18
-4-40
-2-34
11-65
7-76
-9-1
4-7
2-5
5-7
8-6
10-75
8-17
If Ireland be excluded from the calculation, it will be found
that the rate of increase for the remainder of the United Kingdom
was very nearly uniform.
The proportion per cent, of the population living in the various
divisions of the United Kingdom was as follows at each of the
six decennial censuses from 1841 to 1891 : —
Divisions
1841
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
, England ....
55-4
61-0
64-6
67-5
69-8
72-2
Wales
3-4
3-6
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-8
Scotland ....
9-7
10-4
10-4
10-6
10 6
10-7
Ireland .....
30-2
23-7
19-8
17-0
14-6
12-5
Isle of Man ....
2
•2
•2
•2
•2
•1
Channel Islands .
•3
•3
-3
•3
•3
•2
Army, Navy, and Merchant \
Seamen abroad . /
•8
•8
•9
•6
•7
•5
In 1891, in Wales and Monmouthshire 508,036 persons or
28*6 per cent, of the population were returned as able to speak
Welsh only, and 402,253, or 22*6 per cent., as able to speak
Welsh and English. Thus 910,289, or 51-2 per cent., persons
could speak Welsh. In 1881 the number returned was
950,000, or about 70 per cent. In 1891, in Scotland, 43,738, or 1*09
per cent., of the population of Scotland could speak Gaelic only,
and 210,677, or 5*23 per cent., could speak Gaelic and English.
Thus 254,415, or 6*32 percent., could speak Gaelic. In 1881 the
number was 231,594, or 6 20 per cent. In 1891, in Ireland,
38,121, or '81 per cent, of the population of Ireland, could speak
Irish only, and 642,053, or 13-65 per cent., could speak Irish and
English. Thus 680,174, or 14*46 per cent., could speak Irish.
In 1881 the number was 949,932, or 18-20 per cent.
The population of the United Kingdom and its divisions
(exclusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad) at the
end of June, in each of the last ten years, was estimated as
follows : —
16
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TTNITEP KINGDOiM
Year
Total of
United Kingdom
England
and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1
1889
37,178,929
28,448,239
3,973,305
4,757,385
1890
37,484,764
28,763,673
4,003,132
4,717,959
1891
37,796,390
29,081,962
4,033,180
4,681,248
1892
38,103,519
29,401,898
4,063,452
4,638,169 <
1893
38,434,629
29,725,358
4,093,959
4,615,312
1894
38,777,687
30,052,397
4,124,691
4,600,599
1895
39,113,465
30,383,047
4,155,654
4,574,764
1896
39,464,582
30,717,355
4,186,849
4,560,378
1897
39,825,371
31,055,355
4,218,279
4,551,737 i
1898
40,188,927
31,397,078
4,249,946
4,541,903
1. England and Wales.
The population of England and Wales was as follows at the teji enumera-
tions, 1801 to 1891 :—
Date of
Enumeration
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile [
153
175
207
139
274
Date of
Enumeration
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile
1801 .
1811 .
1821 .
1831 .
1841 .
8,892,536
10,164,256
12,000,236
13,896,797
15,914,148
1851 .
1861 .
1871 .
1881 .
1891 .
17,927,609
20,066,224
22,712,266
25,974,439
29,002,525
308
345
390
446
498
The following table shows the area in square miles, the total population,
and the population per square mile in 1891, of the administrative counties of
England and Wales : —
Population, 1891.
Administrative Counties
Area.
sq. miles
466
Males
Females
Total
Per sq. mile
Bedford .
75,477
85,227
160,704
344-9
Berks
712
86,647
89,462
176,109
247-3
Buckingham
743
91,195
94,089
185,284
249-3
Cambridge
485
59,397
62,564
121,961
251-5
Isle of Ely
374
31,563
32,298
63,861
170-8
Chester
1,009
260,387
276,257
536,644
531-8
Cornwall .
1,357
149,259
173,312
322,571
237-7
Cumberland
1 1,516
132,080
134,469
266,549
175-8
Derby
i 1,022
216,269
210,499
426,768
417 6
Devon
2,597
213,390
241,963
455,353
175-3
Dorset
988
94,735
99,782
194,517
196-9
Durham .
999
371,137
350,324
721,461
722-2
Essex
1,533
287,608
291,747
579,355
377-9
Gloucester
1,236
182,985
201,567
384,552
311-1
Hereford .
840
56,090
59,859
115,949
138-0
Hertford .
1 636
108,471
116,079
224,550
353 1
Huntingdon
366
27,061
27,908
54,969
150-2
Kent
1,519
383,849
401,825
785,674
517-2
Lancaster
1,757
848,459
919,814
1,768,273
1,006-4 1
AREA AND POPULATION
17
Administi-ative Counties
Area
Population, 1891
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
Per
sq. mile
246-6
Leicester .
813
98,268
102,200
200,468
Lincoln —
Parts of Holland .
399
36,749
38,728
75,522
189-3
,, Kesteven .
737
52,410
53,500
105,910
143-7
, , Lindsey .
1,502
98,746
100,309
199,055
132-5
London
118
1,999,435
2,232,683
4,232,118^
35,865-4
Middlesex
233
260,920
299,092
560,012
2,403-5
Monmouth
535
106,018
97,329
203,347
380-1
Norfolk .
2,037
156,535
161,448
317,983
156-1
Northampton .
914
101,711
101,536
203,247
222-3
Soke of Peterborough
84
17,213
18,036
35,249
419-6
Northumberland
2,007
160,435
159,295
319,730
159-3
Nottingham
826
115,469
116,477
231,946
280-8
Oxford
750
71,865
73,584
145,449
193-9
Rutland .
152
10,323
10,336
20,659
135-9
Salop
1,343
116,736
119,603
236,339
175-9
Somerset .
1,624
182,370
204,496
386,866
238-2
Southampton .
1,466
193,601
193,248
386,849
263-9
Isle of Wight
146
36,482
42,190
78,672
538-8
Statford .
1,142
408,573
409,717
818,290
716-5
Suffolk (East) .
859
89,994
93,484
183,478
213-5
„ (West) .
609
59,611
61,341
120,952
198-6
Surrey
707
196,613
222,243
418,856
592-4
Sussex (East) .
822
112,897
127,367
240,264
292-3
„ (West) . .
629
68,369
72,250
140,619
223-5
Warwick .
879
146,937
160,256
307,193
349-5
Westmorland .
783
32,326
33,772
66,098
84-4
Wilts
1,375
130,662
134,335
264,997
192-7
Worcester .
740
142,012
154,649
296,661
400-9
York (East Ridiiigj .
1,159
70,057
71,459
141,516
122-1
,, (North Riding).
2,122
140,771
144,066
284,837
134-2
,, (West Riding) .
Total of England
2,658
666,419
685,151
1,351,570
508-5
50,325
9,756,631
10,363,225
20,119,856
399-8
Anglesey .
275
23,941
26,157
50,098
182-1
Brecknock
734
25,633
25,760
51,393
70 0
Cardigan .
692
27,731
35,736
63,467
91-7
Carmarthen
918
62,316
68,250
130,566
142-2
Carnarvon
563
56,047
61,186
117,233
208-2
Denbigh .
663
60,018
58,825
118,843
179-2 1
Flint
256
38,242
39,035
77,277
301-9 j
Glamorgan
790
249,567
218,387
467,954
592-3 1
Merioneth
668
24,035
25,177
49,212
736 1
Montgomery
797
28,222
29,781
58,003
72-8
Pembroke
614
41,319
46,977
88,296
143-8
Radnor
471
10,869
10,922
21,791
46-3
Total of Wales
7,441
647,940
646,193
1,294,133
173-9
Total of Englan.
and Wales
1 ■
57,766
10,404,571
11,009,418
1
21,413,989
i
370-7
1 4,433,018 at Census of March 29, 18%.
18
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the area and the population of the 64 county
boroughs of England and Wales in 1891, together with the Registrar-General's
estimate of the population of 32 large towns in the middle of 1898 : —
* '
Ai-ea
sq. miles
Estimated
pop. of
Population, 1^91
County Boroughs
municipal
boroughs,
1898
Males
Females
Total
Per sq.
mile
Barrow-in-Furness .
17-2
27,273
24,439
51,712
3,006-5
Bath.
5-3
—
21,125
30,719
51,844
9,781-9
Birkenhead
60
113,189
48,354
51,503
99,857
16,642-8
Birmingham
19-8
510,343
231,361
246,752
478,113
24,1471
Blackburn
10-9
133,228
56,114
63,950
120,064
11,0150
Bolton
3-7
122,495
54,401
60,601
115,002
31.081-6
Bootle
2-5
—
24,750
24,467
49,217
19,686-8
Bradford .
16-9
233,737
100,445
115,916
216,361
12,802-4
Brighton .
4-0
122,310
50,726
65,147
115,873
28,968-2
Bristol
7-0
316,900
101,288
120,290
221,578
31,654-0
Burnley .
6-1
109,546
41,307
45,709
87,016
14,265-0
Bury.
9-4
—
26,851
30,361
57,212
6,086-4
Canterbury
6-2
—
11,439
11,623
23,062
3,719-7
Cardiff .
9-5
177,770
65,745
63,170
128,915
13,570-0
Chester
4-6
—
17,570
19,535
37,105
8,066-3
Coventry .
4-8
—
25,629
27,095
52,724
10,984-2
Croydon .
14-1
124,421
45,453
57,242
102,695
7.283-3
Derby
5-4
104,834
46,260
47,886
94,146
17,434-4
Devonport
2-S
—
28,595
26,208
54,803
19,572-5
Dudley
5-6
—
22,432
23,308
45,740
8,167-9
Exeter
2-9
—
16,563
20,841
37,404
12,897-9
Gateshead
4-9
103,775
43,239
42,453
85,692
17,488-2
Gloucester
2-2
—
18,998
20,446
39,444
17,929-1
Grimsby .
4-4
—
25,839
26,095
51,934
11,803-2
Halifax .
13-3
96,729
41,921
47,911
89,832
6,754-3
Hanley
2-8
—
27,337
27,609
54,946
19,623-6
Hastings .
2-S
—
20,945
31,278
52,223
18,651-1
Huddersfield .
18-5
102,454
44,558
50,862
95,420
5,157-8
Ipswich .
12-7
—
26,658
30,702
57,360
4,516-5
Kingston-upon-Hull.
12-9
229,887
97,884
102,160
200,044
15,507-3
Leeds
38-7
416,618
117,027
190,478
367,505
10,905-2
Leicester .
13-4
208,662
82,441
92,183
174,624
13,031-6
Lincoln .
5-9
—
20,247
21,244
41,491
7,032-4
Liverpool
10-2
633,645
252,436
265,544
517,980
50,782-3
Manchester
20-2
539,079
243,879
261,489
505,368
25,018-2
Middlesbrough
4-4
—
39,385
36,147
75,532
17,166-4
Newcastle-on-Tyne .
8-4
223,021
91,848
94,452
186,300
22,178-6
Newport (Mon.)
7-0
—
27,615
27,092
54,707
7,815-3
Northampton .
2-0
—
29,620
31,392
61,012
30,506-0
Norwich .
11-8
111,699
46,623
54,347
100,970
8,556-8
Nottingham
17-1
236,137
98,730
115,147
213,877
12,507-4
Oldham .
7-4
148,288
62,862
68,601
131,463
17,765-3
Oxford
7 4
—
20,501
25,241
45,742
6,181-4
riyniouth .
2-4
99,136
39,350
44,898
84,248
35,103-3
rortsraouth
6-8
186,618
76,537
82,714
159,251
23,419-3
Breston .
G-4
116,356
49,305
58,268
107,573
16,808-3
Reading .
9-2
—
29,315
30,739
60,054
6,527-6
Rochdale .
6-5
—
33,193
38,208
71,401
10,984-8
St. Helens
10-3
—
37,203
34,085
71,288
6,921-2
Salford .
8-1
215,702
95,597
102,542
198,139
24,461-6
Sheffield .
30-7
856,478
160,304
163,939
324,243
10,561-7
Southampton .
3-1
—
30,926
34,399
65,325
21,072-6
South Shields .
2-9
—
39,381
39,010
78, .391
27,031-4
Stockport .
3-4
—
32,789
37,474
70,263
20,665-6
Sunderland
4-5
143,849
64,185
66,830
131,015
29,114-4
Swansea
8-0
102,001
44,938
45,411
90,349
11,293-6
AREA AND POPULATION
19
Estimated
Population, 1891
County Boroughs
Area
sq. miles
pop. of
municipal
boroughs,
1898
Males
Females
Total
Per sq.
mile
Walsall .
11-7
35,783
36,006
71,789
6,135-8
West Bromwich
9-1
—
30,026
29,448
59,474
6,535-6
West Ham
7-3
286,654
102,341
102,562
204,903
28,068-9
Wigan
3-4
—
27,085
27,928
55,013
16,180-3
Wolverhampton
5-5
88,051
41,017
41,645
82,662
15,029-4
Worcester
5-0
—
19,736
23,172
42,908
8,581-6
Yarmouth, Great
5-6
—
22,494
26,840
49,334
8,809-6
York.
Total County
5-6
—
32,551
34,453
67,004
11,965-0
Boroughs
543-6
—
3,648,330
3,940,206
7,588,536
13,959-8
Total Counties
and County
Boroughs
58,310
—
14,062,901
14,949,624
29,002,525
497-4
The number of inhabited houses in England and Wales in 1891 was
5,451,497; uninhabited, 372,184; building, 38,387; against 4,831,519
inhabited ; 386,676 uninhabited ; and 46,414 building in 1881.
Assuming that the population of urban sanitary districts is urban, and the
population outside such districts rural, the following table shows, according to
the figures of the preliminary census report, the distribution of the urban and
rural population of England and Wales in 1891, and their percentage of
increase during the decennium 1881-1891 : —
Population of Districts
No. of
Districts
Aggregate pop.
of districts, 1891
Percentage of
entire pop.
1891
Percentage
of increase,
1881-1891
250,000 and upwards .
100,000—250,000
50,000—100,000
20,000— 50,000
10,000— 20,000
3,000— 10,000
Under 3,000
Total Urban .
Rural
Total Population
6
18
38
120
176
453
195
6,375,645
2,793,625
2,610,976
3,655,025
2,391,076
2,609,141
367,282
22-0
9-6
9-0
12-6
8-3
8-9
1-3
9-1
19-1
22-9
22-5
18-9
9-6
2-6
1,006
20,802,770
8,198,248
71-7
28-3
15-3
3-4
—
29,001,018
100 0
11-65
From these figures it appears that 22 per cent, of the population of
England and Wales live in six towns of upwards of 250,000 inhabitants ; 31-6
per cent, (in 1881, 29*6 per cent.) in 24 (in 1881, 20) towns of over 100,000
inhabitants ; 40*6 per cent, in 62 towns of over 50,000 inhabitants ; 53*2 per
cent, in 182 towns of over 20,000 inhabitants ; and 17,826,347, or 61 '5 per
cent, in 358 towns of over 10, 000 inhabitants. In 1881, 14,626,131, or 56 '3 per
cent, of the whole population, lived in 303 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants.
c 2
20
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
More than one-fourth of the total urban population, and nearly one-
seventh of the total population of England and Wales are concentrated in the
metropolis. The limits of the metropolis were defined by the Registrar-
Genei-al, in the census returns of 1891, as consisting of an ' Inner Ring * and
an 'Outer Riu^,' the former subdivided into a 'Central Area' and 'Rest of
Inner Ring.' The following table gives the results of the censuses in 1881
and 1891 :—
Divisious of the Metropolis
Population
Rates of Increase ( + )
or Decrease (-) per cent.
1881
1891
1871-81
1881-91
Central Area .
Rest of ' Inner Ring '
Inneror Registration London
' Outer Ring ' .
' Greater London ' .
1,101,994
2,713,550
1,022,529
3,188,527
- 4-6
-f29-3
- 7-2
+ 17-5
3,815,544
951,117
4,211,056
1,422,276
+ 17-3
4-50-5
-f 10-4
-f49-5
4,766,661
5,633,332
-f227
+ 18-2
The population of registration London in the middle of 1897, was 4,463,169 ;
in the middle of 1898, as estimated by the Registrar-General, it was 4,504,766 ;
of the ' outer ring,' 1,903,555 ; total (or ' gi-eater London '), 6,408,321.
The night population of the City of London in 1891 was 37,694 (50,652 in
1881) ; the day population in 1891 was 301,384 ; in 1881 it was 261,061.
The following is the division of the population aged 10 years and upwards
in England and Wales according to occupation in 1891 : —
—
Males
Females
328,393
1,759,555
35,358
52,026
1,840,898
7,445,660
11,461,890
Total
Professional class
Domestic ,,
Commercial ,,
Agricultural and fishing class .
Industrial class
Unoccupied class
Total .
597,739
140,773
1,364,377
1,284,919
5,495,446
1,708,713
10,591,967
926,132
1,900,328
1,399.735
1,336,945
7,336,344
9,154,373
22,053,857
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 29,785 square miles, including its islands, 186 in
number, with a population (including military in barracks and seamen on
board vessels in tne harbours), according to the census of 1891, of 4,025,647
souls, giving 135 inhabitants to the square mile.
The following table exhibits the numbers of the population of Scotland at
the dates of the sevfya^ censuses, together with tl^e deijsity per squfti'^
mile ;^
AREA AND POPULATION
21
Dato of
Eiiumeratiou
Population
Density per
sq. mile
i
Date of
Enumeration
Poiiulation
Density per
sq. mile
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
1,608,420
1,805,864
2,091,521
2,364,386
2,620,184
54
60
70
79
88
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
2,888,742
8,062,294
3,360,018
8,735,573
4,025,647
97
100
113
125
135
The country is divided into 33 civil counties, grouped under eight geo-
gra))hieal divisions. The following table gives the results of the census,
excluding the military in ])arracks and the seamen on board vessels in the
harbours, on April 5, 1891 : —
Divisions and Civil
Counties
Area in
sq. miles
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile
Males
Females
Total
1. Northern.
Shetland .
Orkney
Caithness .
Sutherland
551
376
686
2,028
12,190
14,298
17,472
10,395
16,521
16,155
19,705
11,501
28,711
30,453
37,177
21,896
52-1
80-9
54-2
10-8
2. North- Western.
Ross and Cromarty
Inverness .
3,078
4,088
37,279
43,585
41,448
46,536
78,727
90,121
25-5
22 0
3. North- Eastern.
Nairn
Elgin
Banff
Aberdeen .
Kincardine
195
476
641
1,955
383
4,284
20,368
29,547
135,185
17,524
4,871
23,103
32,137
148,851
17,968
9,155
43,471
61,684
284,036
35,492
46-9
91-3
96-7
145-3
92-7
4. East-Midland.
Forfar
Perth
Fife .
Kinross
Clackmannan
875
2,528
492
73
48
125,414
57,826
90,527
3,160
15,834
152,321
64,359
99,838
3,513
17,306
277,735
122,185
190,365
6,673
33,140
317-4
47-5
386-9
91-4
690-4 i
5. West- Midland.
Stirling
Dumbarton
Argyll
Bute .
447
241
3,213
218
59,478
48,683
36,292
8,211
58,543
49,331
37,793
10,193
118,021
98,014
74,085
18,404
264 0
406-7 1
23 0
84-4
6. South- Western.
Renfrew
Ayr .
Lanark
245
1,128
882
110,520
111,037
550,847
120,292
115,349
1 555,052
230,812
226,386
1,105,899
942-0
200-7
1 253-8
22
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Divisions and Civil
Area in
Population
Pop. per
Counties
sq. miles
sq. mile
Males
Females
Total
7. South- Eastern.
Linlithgow
120
27,946
24,862
52,808
440-1
Edinburgh .
362
205,765
228,511
434,276
1,199-7
Haddington
271
18,169
19,208
37,377
137-9
Berwick
461
15,383
16,967
32,290
70-0
Peebles
355
6,912
7,838
14,750
41-6
Selkirk .
257
12,909
14,803
27,712
107 8
8. Southern.
Roxburgh .
665
25,901
28,599
53,500
80-4
Dumfries .
1,063
34,898
39,347
74,245
69-8
Kirkcudbright .
898
18,902
21,083
39,985
44-5
Wigtown .
Total Scotland .
486
16,976
19,086
36,062
74-2
29,785
1,942,717
2,082,930
4,025,347
1351
The number of inhabited houses in Scotland in 1891 was 817,568 ; un-
inhabited, 51,460; building, 5,618.
According to parliamentary or police burghs, the population of the larger
towns in 1891 was distributed as follows : —
In Towns of
No. of
Towns
Inhabitants
Per cent, of Total
Population
Over 100,000 ....
Between 50,000 and 100,000 .
20,000 and 50,000 .
10,000 and 20,000 .
Total ....
4
3
9
18
1,200,374
198,555
245,724
278,002
29-8
4-9
6-1
6-9
34
1,922,655
47-7
According to registration districts, the population of the principal towns
of Scotland was as follows at the Census of 1891 and in the middlw of 1898, as
estimated in the Registrar-General's Report : —
Towns Population
lowns jggj
Population
1898
Towns
Population
1891
Population
1898
Glasgow
Edinburgh .
Dundee
Aberdeen
Leith .
618,052
264,796
155,675
123,327
69,885
724,349
295,628
164,575
140,381
76,277
Paisley .
Greenock
Perth ,
Kilmarnock .
69,295
63,512
30,768
27,968
75,533
61,170
30,623
At the Census of 1891 the population of Glasgow, parliamentary and
suburban, was 658,198, and the increase (1881-1891) 13-9 per cent.
The total population of these nine towns represented nearly two-fifths of the
population of Scotland. In 1881 the total town population was 2,306,852 ; in
AHEA AND POPULATION
23
the village population, 447,884 ; and the rural, 980,837. In 1891 the town
population was 2,631,291, showing an increase of 14-06 per cent. ; the village
population was 465,836, the increase being 4-01 per cent; and the rural
928,513, there being a decrease of 5 '33 per cent.
The occupations of the people, according to the census of 1891, were as
follows : —
—
Males
Females
Total
Professional class .
75,532
35,787
111,319
Domestic ,,
13,102
190,051
203,153
Commercial ,,
170,676
10,276
180,952
Agricultural ,,
219,042
30,082
249,124
Industrial ,,
742,036
290,368
1,032,404
Unoccupied and non-produc-
tive class ....
Total ....
722,329
1,526,363
2,248,695
1,942,717
2,082,930
4,025,647
3. Ireland.
Ireland has an area of 32,531 square miles, or 20,819,982 acres, inhabited,
in 1891, by 4,704,750 souls. The following table gives the population of
Ireland at different census periods, with the density per square mile : —
Year of
Census
PoP^l^Hon i D-tT^
Tear of
Census
Population
Density per
sq. mile
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
5,395,456
5,937,856
6,801,827
7,767,401
8,175,124
166
186
209
239
251
1 1851
' 1861
1871
1881
; 1891
6,552,385 201
5,798,564 178
5,412,377 167
5,174,836 i 159
4,704,750 j 144
The subjoined tables give the results of the enumerations in the four
provinces of April 3, 1881, and of April 5, 1891, together with the decrease,
in numbers and rate per cent., between 1881 and 1891 : —
Provinces
1881
1891
Decrease between 1881
and 1891
Number
Rate per
cent.
Leinster
Munster .
Ulster
Connaught
Total of Ireland
1,278,989
1,331,115
1,743,075
821,657
1,187,760
1,172,402
1,619,814
724,774
91,229
158,713
123,261
96,883
7*13
11-92
•07
11-79
5,174,836
4,704,750
470,086
9-08
The area and the population of the counties of the four provinces of
Ireland at he census of April 5, 1891, are given in the following tabic : —
24
THK BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Population
/Pop. per
Provinces
and Counties
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
sq. mile
Province of Lcinster.
Carlow County
349
20,552
20,384
40,936
117-3
Dublin , ,
354
197,409
221,807
419,216
1,184-2
Kildare
654
38,407
31,799
70,206
107-3
Kilkenny
796
43,468
43,793
87,261
109-6
King's-
772
33,777
31,786
65,563
84-9
Longford
421
26,681
25,966
52,647
125-0
Louth
316
35,242
37,796
71,038
224-8
Meath
906
39,224
37,763
76,987
84-9
Queen's
664
33,171
31,712
64,883
97-7
Westmeatli
708
33,927
31,182
65,109
91-9
Wexford
901
54,935
56,843
111,778
124-0
Wicklow
781
31,054
31,082
62,136
79-5
Total of Leinster .
Province of Munster.
7,622
587,847
599,913
1,187,760
155-8
Clare County
1,294
63,138
61,345
124,483
96-2
Cork ,,
2,890
219,988
218,444
438,432
151-7
Kerry ,,
1,853
91,017
88,119
179,136
96-6
Limerick County
1,064
78,607
80,305
158,912
149-3
Tipperary ,, .
1,659
86,807
86,381
173,188
104-4
Waterford ,, .
Total of Munster .
Province of Ulster.
721
48,054
50,197
98,251
136-2
9,481
587,611
584,791
1,172,402
123-6
Antrim County .
1,237
220,514
227,614
428,128
346-1
Armagh ,,
512
68,370
74,919
143,289
279-8
Cavan ,,
746
56,772
55,145
111,917
150-0
Donegal ,,
1,870
91,478
94,157
185,635
99-2
Down ,,
957
126,268
140,791
267,059
279-1
Fermanagh, ,
715
37,344
36,826
74,170
103-7
Londonderry County .
816
73,260
78,749
152,009
186-2
Monaghan , ,
500
42,727
43,479
86,206
172-4
Tyrone ,,
Total of Ulster .
Province of Connaught.
1,260
84.596
86,805
171,401
136-0
8,613
781,329
838,485
1,619,814
188-1
Galway County .
2,452
108,283
106,429
214,712
87-5
Leitrim ,,
619
39,715
38,903
78,618
127 0
Mayo „ .
2,126
107,498
! 111,536
219,034
103-1
Roscommon County .
949
58,000
56,397
114,397
120-5
Sligo
Total of Connaught
721
48,670
49,343
98,013
135-9
6,867
362,166
362,608
724,774
105-5
Total of I
reland .
32,583
2,318,953
1 2,385,797
4,704,750
144-4
AREA AND rOPTTI.ATION
25
The number of inhabited houses at the census of 1891 was 870,578, a^^ainst
914,108 in 1881, ami 961,380 in 1871. The decrease in tlie decennial period
1881-1891 amounted to 4 7 per cent.
Of uninhabited houses, there were 58,257 at the census of 1881, and
69,320 in 1891, representing an increase of 18 9 per cent, in uninhabited
liouses ; in 1881 there were 1,710 houses building ; in 1891 there were
2,602.
The i»opulation in 1891 was distributed as follows among the larger
towns : —
In Towns of
Over 100,000 .
Between 50,000 and 100,000
,, 20,000 and 50,000
,, 10,000 and 20,000
Total
No. of
Towns
2
1
5
10
18
Iulial>itants
500,951
75,345
143,272
124,983
Per cent. ofTotal
I Population
844,551
10-7
1-6
3-0
2-6
17-9
In Ireland, in 1891, there were only three cities with over 50,000 in-
habitants—viz. , Dublin, with 245, 001, but 361, 891 within the metropolitan police
district (349,688 in 1881); Belfast, 255,950; Cork, 75,345; Limerick had
37,155 inhabitants ; Londonderry, 33,200 ; Waterford, 20,852.
The population was divided as follows according to occupation in 1891 : —
—
Males 1 Females Total
Professional class
Domestic ,, .
Commercial ,,
Agricultural ,,
Industrial ,,
Indefinite and non-productive .
Total
138,971
34,490
81,012
845,691
404,155
814,634
75,272
220,654
2,161
91,068
252,255
1,744,387
214,243
255,144
83,173
936,759
656,410
2,559,021
2,318,953
2,385,797
4,704,750 i
4. Islands in the British Seas.
The population of the Lslands in the British Seas was found to be as
follows at the census of April 5, 1891 : —
Islands
Area
square miles
Isle of Man
Channellslands
Jersey .
Guernsey, &c.
Total
220
Acres
28,717
12,605
182,122
'^ ^i.
IT
Population
1881
53,558
52,445
141,260
1891
55,608
54,518
37,716
lM84
Population
per sq. mile
1891
252-7
BR
Increa^
per cent.
3-8
4-0
7-0
lfNlVFR<;iTY nir Mia
26
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following were the numbers of the population of the Islands at each
of the four censuses of 1861, 1871, 1881, and 1891 :—
Islands
1861
1871
1S81
1891
Isle of Man
Jersey ....
Guernsey, Herm, andJethou
Alderney ....
Sark and Brechou .
Total .
52,469
55,613
29,850
4,932
583
54,042
56,627
30,685
2,738
546
53,558
52,445
32,638
2,048
571
55,608
54,518
35,287
1,857
572
143,447
144,638
141,260
147,842
II. Movement of the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
England and Wales.
Year
Estimated
Population
Total Birthf;
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
29,725,358
30,052,397
30,383,047
30,717,355
31,055,355
914,542
889,242
922,291
917,201
921,254
38,858
38,343
38,836
38,729
38,409
569,958
498,515
568,997
527,929
541,428
218,689
226,109
228,204
242,445
248,843
The Registrar-General's estimate of the population in the middle of each
year is based on the assumption that the rate of increase which prevailed in
the intercensal period immediately preceding, has since been maintained.
Thus it is assumed that the rate of increase in London was constant between
1891 and 1897, and that the rate of increase iu the remainder of the country
was constant between 1881 and 1897.
The proportion of illegitimate births to tlie total births in
1897 was 4*2 per cent., having gradually diminished from 7 per
cent, in 1845. The minimum rate in 1896 was 2*9 per cent,
in Essex, and the maximum 7 "5 in Herefordshire. The per-
centage for London was 3 '7. The births and deaths are exclusive
of still-born.
The proportion of male to female children born in England
during 1896 was as 1,036 to 1,000. But as the former suffer
from a higher rate of mortality than the latter, the equi-
librium between the sexes is restored about the tenth year of
life, and is finally changed to the proportion of 1,000 females, of
all ages, to 949 males in England.
POPULATION
Scotland.
Z7
Year
Estimated
Population
Total Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Man-iages
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
4,093,959
4,142,691
4,155,654
4,186,849
4,218,279
127,110
124,337
126,454
129,153
128,823
9,400
9,058
9,146
9,287
8,984
79,641
71,112
81,864
70,634
79,061
27,145
27,561
28,380
30,256
30,966
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1897 was 7'0
per cent., the rate varying from 3-5 percent, in Dumbartonshire,
3-8 in Shetland, 4*1 in Ross and Cromarty, to 13-1 in Dumfries-
shire, 13-5 in Caithness and Elgin, and 14-1 in Wigtownshire.
The proportion of male to female births in Scotland in 1897 was
1,044 to 1,000.
Ireland.
Year
Estimated
Population
Total Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
4,615,312
4,600,599
4,574,764
4,560,378
4,551,723
106,082
105,354
106,113
107,641
106,664
2,756
2,884
2,871
2,819
2,802
82,821
83,528
84,395
75,700
83,839
21,714
21,602
23,120
22,856
22,891
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1897 was 2*6
per cent., the rate varying from 0*7 in Connaught to 3*6 in
Ulster. The proportion of male to female births in Ireland in
1897 was 1,052 to 1,000.
2. Emigration and Immigration.
There was very little emigration from the United Kingdom
previous to 1815, in which year the number of emigrants was no
more than 2,081. It rose gradually from 12,510 in 1816, to
34,987 in 1819. In the five years 1820-24 there emigrated
95,030 individuals; in the next five years, 1825-29, the number
was 121,084; in 1830-34 it rose to 381,956; but sank again to
287,358 in 1835-39, Between 1815 and 1852 the total number
of emigrants was 3,463,592 ; between 1853 and 1860 it was
1,582,475, of whom 1,312,683 were of British or Irish origin;
between 1861 and 1870 it was 1,967,570, of whom 1,571,829 were
of British or Irish origin ; 1871-80, 2,228,396, of whom 1,678,919
were British or Irish ; 1881-1890, 3,555,655, of whom, 2,558,535
were British or Irish; 1891-1897, 1,917,404 of whom 1,286,959
were British or Irish; and the total from 1815 to 1897 was
14,715,092. The total emigration of persons of British or Irish
origin only, 1853-1897, was 8,408,925 ; 5,609,678, went to the
28
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED RIKGDOM
United States, 868,099 to British North America, 1,399,375 to
Australasia, and 531,773 to other places.
The following table exhibits the number of persons, natives and foreigners,
emigrating from the United Kingdom to British North America, the United
States, and Australasia, and the total number — the latter tigui'e including the
comparatively small number going to other than these three destinations
(46,167 in 1897) — in each of the last live years : —
Year
To British
North America
To the United
States
To Australasia
Total
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
23,633
22,357
22,590
22,669
27,553
159,431
195,632
154,496
132,048
123,543
11,151
10,809
10,710
12,396
11,020
226,827
271,772
241,952
213,280
205,073
Of the total in 1897, 122,317 were males, and 90,963 females.
The following shows the number of British and Irish emigrants to places
out of Europe in the last two years with the increase or decrease ( - ) : —
Year
1897
1898
Increase or Decrease - 3, 994
English
94,658
90,664
Scotch
16,124
15,575
549
Irish
35,678
34,391
1,287
Total
United Kingdom
146,460
140,630
- 5,830
In the year 1897 there were 155,114 immigrants, British and foreign,
which, deducted from the total of 213,280 emigrants, left an excess of 58,166
emigrants. The number of immigrants of British or Irish origin in 1897 was
95,221, which, deducted from the total of 146,460 emigrants of British or
Irish origin, left an excess of 51,239 emigrants.
The number of Irish who emigrated from Ireland in 1896 was 38,995 ;
in 1897, 32,535 ; the total number from May 1, 1851, to December 31, 1897,
was 3,722,658.
Religion. — I. England and Wales.
The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal.
Its fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-
nine Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised
and finally settled in 1571. But though the Protestant Episcopal
is the State religion, all others are fully tolerated, and civil dis-
abilities do not attach to any class of British subjects.
The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church,
possessing the right, regulated by the statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20,
to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the form
being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the royal
licence, or conge d'elire, to proceed to the election, accompanied by
RELIGION 29
the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and afterwards
the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is signified
under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the sees of
old foundation ; the bishoprics of Manchester, St. Albans,
Liverpool, Truro, Newcastle, and Southwell are conferred direct
by letters patent from the Crown. The Queen, and the First
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries,
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown.
There are 2 archbishops and 33 bishops in England and Wales.
The former are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and
have also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise
episcopal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, juris-
diction. Under the bishops are 29 deans, 90 archdeacons, and
810 rural deans. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs,
the provinces have each a council, or Convocation, consisting of
the bishops, archdeacons, and deans, in person, and of a certain
luimber of proctors, as the representatives of the inferior clergy.
These councils are summoned by the respective archbishops, in
pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled, they must
also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate ; as well
as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they are
binding on the clergy ; so that their real power is extremely limited.
The number of civil parishes (districts for which a separate
poor rate is or can be made) at the census of 1891 was 14,684.
These, however, in most cases, do not coincide with ecclesiastical
parishes, which, during the present century, have lost their old
importance, the ancient parishes having been cut up in many
cases into districts, each of which is virtually an independent
parish ecclesiastically. Of such parishes there were (1891) 13,780,
exclusive of those of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
According to a return of 1882 the Church of England possessed
14,573 registered churches and chapels, in which marriages could
be solemnised. Since 1818 the Church Building and the Ecclesi-
astical Commissioners have formed upwards of 3,000 new ecclesi-
astical districts. Each parish has its church, presided over by an
incumbent or minister, who must be in priest's orders, and who
is known as rector, vicar, or perpetual curate, according to his
relation to the temporalities of his parish. Private persons
possess the right of presentation to about 8,500 benefices ; the
patronage of the others belongs mainly to the Queen, the
bishops and cathedrals, the Lord Chancellor, and the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge. The total number of Church of
England clergymen on the active list in 1897 was put at 28,117.
Uf these, 290 wen^ bii>bops, deans, and other cathedral officers ;
30 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
13,867 were beneficed in the United Kingdom ; 7,459 were
curates, bishops' chaplains, &c. ; 1,010 were engaged in educa-
tional work ; 459 were chaplains, &c., of hospitals, workhouses,
cemetaries, &c. ; 173 were chaplains in the army and navy ; 194
were secretaries, &c., of missionary and other societies ; and 4,659
were in the colonies, India, and foreign countries. The non-active
list comprised 3,716 clergymen. The gross income from ancient
endowments is returned at 5,469,17U., and from benefactions since
1703, at 284,386^. Of the income from ancient endowments,
1,247,827^. is from property vested in the Ecclesiastical Com-
missioners. The total annual income of the Church is estimated
at about 7,250,000Z. The number of clergy of all grades (includ-
ing assistant curates) belonging to the Church of England ac-
tually doing duty in churches is returned in the census of 1891
at 24,232, and if those who fill other functions be added, the total
number is probably about 27,000. Of the marriages celebrated
in 1896, 68'7 per cent, were according to the rites of the
Established Church, 4*1 per cent, according to the rites of the
Roman Catholic Church, 12-0 per cent, in registered places of
other bodies, -52 percent, were Jewish marriages, and 14*6 per
cent, were civil marriages in Registrar's Office.
There are many Protestant Dissenting religious bodies, the
most prominent being Methodists of various sects, the Independ-
ents or Congregationalists, the Baptists, the English Presby-
terians, and the Salvation Army. The Methodist body, sub-
divided into members of the Old and New Connexion, Primitive
and Free Church Methodists, Bible Christians, and various other
sects, possess over 15,200 chapels and 801,000 members; the
Independents or Congregationalists 4,618 churches and stations,
2,881 ministers, and over 360,000 members ; the Baptists 3,842
chapels, 2,006 ministers, and 365,000 members, besides in each
case the families of members and other adherents. The total
number of registered chapels in 1897 was 23,388. According
to the census of 1891 there were 10,057 Protestant Dissenting
ministers in England and Wales.
The number of Roman Catholics in England and Wales (1891)
is estimated at 1,500,000. There are fifteen dignitaries of the
Roman Catholic Church in England — namely, one archbishop and
fourteen bishops (besides a coadjutor bishop), as many dioceses,
united in the ' Province of Westminster.' In Wales there is a
bishop, vicar-apostolic. In December 1898 there were 1,509
Roman Catholic chapels and stations. The number of officiating
Roman Catholic clergy at the same date was 2,769 (1,620 in 1871).
The number of Jews in Great Britain and Ireland (exclusive of
KELIGION 31
London) was estimated in 1890 at 25,700, of those in London
in 1891 at 67,500.
II. Scotland.
The Church of Scotland (established in 1560 and confirmed in
1688) is organised on the presbyterian system of government, in
which the clergy are all equal, none of them having pre-eminence
of any kind over another. There is in each parish a parochial
tribunal, called a kirk session, consisting of the minister or clergy-
man, who acts as president or moderator, and of a number of laymen
called ruling elders. There are in all 84 presbyteries, meeting
frequently throughout the year, and these again are grouped in
1 6 synods, which meet half-yearly and can be appealed to against
the decisions of the presbyteries. The supreme court of the
Scottish Church is the General Assembly, which consists of over
700 members, partly clerical and partly lay, chosen by the different
presbyteries, boroughs, and universities. It meets annually in
May (under the presidency of a moderator appointed by the
Assembly, the Sovereign being represented by a nobleman known
as Lord High Commissioner), sitting for ten days, the matters
not decided during this period being left to a Commission.
The number of parishes, old and new (1898), is 1,371, and the
number of churches, chapels, and stations 1,767. The parishioners
are allowed, under certain regulations enacted by the General
Assembly, to choose their own ministers. The entire endowments
of the Church from all sources, including the annual value of the
manses and glebes, amount to probably not more than 350,000Z,
per annum. Since 1845 members of the Church have erected
and endowed churches for 397 new parishes, the value, with
endowments, being considerably over 2,500,000^. In 1897
voluntary gifts (independently of over 200,000Z. derived from
the interest of invested contributions, grants from two trusts,
and pew rents levied in about 450 churches) amounted to 417,151/.
Exclusive of 'adherents,' the Established Church in 1878 had
515,786 members or communicants, according to a Eeturn made
to Parliament in 1879. In 1897 the number was 641,803.
The Presbyterians not members of the Established Church of
Scotland have the same ecclesiastical organisation as that Church.
Of these, the largest body is the Free Church of Scotland, formed
from the ' Disruption ' in 1843, with 1,280 ministers and mission-
aries, 1,060 churches, 290,789 members, and 111,346 adherents, and
claiming as population connected with the Free Church, 1,430,000
in 1898. Its income in 1897-98 from all sources at home was
666,400/. The aggregate funds raised for all purposes during
the fifty-five years from the Disruption amount to 25,325,094/.
32 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Next is the United Presbyterian Church, formed from the
amalgamation of several bodies of seceders, one dating as far
back as 1733, with 620 ministers, 583 churches, 39 home mission
stations, 195,631 members (besides adherents), and an income in
1897 of 398,314/. There are also Baptists, Independents,
Methodists, and Unitarians. The Episcopal Church in Scotland,
which includes a large portion of the nobility and gentry, has
7 bishops, 331 churches and missions, and 337 clergy, and claims
the adherence of 111,958 of the population.
The Roman Catholics have increased largely of late years,
chiefly from the influx of Irish population. The Roman Catholic
Church had two archbishops, three bishops (one see being
vacant), and a bishop-auxiliary in Scotland in 1898, 443 priests,
and 345 churches, chapels, and stations. The number of Roman
Catholics is estimated at 365,000.
III. Ireland.
The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland is under four arch-
bishops, of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three
bishops, besides a bishop-auxiliary. On the death of a bishop,
the clergy of the diocese nominate a successor to the vacancy,
in whose favour they postulate or petition the Pope. The bishops
of the province also present the names of two or three eligible
persons to the Pope. The new bishop is generally chosen from
among this latter number ; but the appointment virtually rests
with the cardinals. The emoluments of a bishop arise from his
parish, which is generally the best in the diocese, from licences
of marriage, &c., and from the cathedraticum, a small contribu-
tion paid by incumbents of parishes. The incomes of all classes
of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland arise partly from fees,
but principally from Christmas and Easter dues, and other
voluntary offerings. In 1891 the Roman Catholic population
was returned at 3,547,307, being 10*4 per cent, under the
number returned in 1881.
The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal), formerly
(1801-1870) in union with the Church of England, ceased to be
' established by law ' by Act of Parliament (1869)32&33 Vict,
cap. 42. It has now (1898) two archbishops, eleven bishops, and
1,600 clergy. It possesses 1,450 churches, with a membership
representing 600,000 of population, and it received in 1896 volun-
tary contributions amounting to 174,312/. Previous to dises-
tablishment its income was 600,000/., and its entire capital
was estimated at 14,000,000/. By the Disestablishment Act
7,500,000/. were allotted to it by way of commutation (charged
INSTllUCTlOxN
33
with the payment of annuities amounting to 596,000/.), and
500,000/. in lieu of private endowments. The Church is governed
by a General Synod — bishops, clergy, and laity having the right
to vote separately. There are also 23 diocesan synods.
There were in Ireland, at the census of 1891, 444,974 Presby-
terians, 55,500 Methodists, 17,017 Independents, 5,111 Baptists,
3,032 Quakers, 1,798 Jews.
Instruction.
The following table proves progress in the diluision of
elementary education, by indicating the percentage of persons
in England and Wales who signed by mark in the marriage
register during each year specified : —
Year
1843
Males
Females |
Year
Males
Females
32-7
49-0
1893
5-0
5-7
1863
23-8
33 1
1894
4-6
5-4
1873
18-8
25-4 ;
1895
4-0
4-8
1883
12-6
15 "5
1
1896
3-7
4-3
In London the proportion of men who signed with marks in 1896 was 2 "5
percent., and of women 3 '2. Over most of the South-eastern, South Mid-
land, Eastern, South-western, ^Vest Midland and North ]\Iidland counties the
proportion of males who signed with marks was greater than females. In the
Northern counties and in Wales the preponderance is much in favour of the
males. The most illiterate counties for men in 1896 were Monmoutlishire
7-1, North Wales 6-4, Cambridge 6-3, Suffolk 6-3, Cornwall 6-1, Herefordshire
5-9 ; and for women, Monmouth 7-8, South Wales 7*5, North Wales 7*0,
Staffordshire 6 '1, Durham 6 0, Lancashire 5 '9 per cent. In Scotland the propor-
tion in 1896 was 2 '26 per cent, of men and 3-78 of women. In 1857 the proportion
was 12-11 per cent, males to 24-66 females. In 1896 in Kinross and Berwick all
the males and all the females signed their names. Tn Kincardine all the males
and 99-56 per cent, of the females, in Orkney all the males and 99-27 per
cent, of the females, in Peebles all the males and 96-88 per cent, of the females
signed their names. The counties where the proportion signing by mark was
greatest were Inverness 11-42 per cent, of males and 17 58 of females, and
Sutherland 10' 96 per cent, of males and 1233 of females. In Ireland the
proportion unable to sign the marriage register in 1897 was 15-1 men and
13*2 women. In 1874 the proportion was 30 1 men and 36-4 women. The
proportions in 1897 varied in the various provinces from 13 "0 per cent, of
the men and 107 per cent, of the women in Leinster to 21 5 per cent, of the
men and 16 5 per cent, of the women in Connaught.
The highest education is provided for in Great Britain and Ireland by a
number of universities and detached colleges. With the exception of Oxford,
Cambridge, Durham, Owens College, the Scotch Universities, and Tiinity
and Queen's Colleges, Ireland, most of the other institutions have been
founded within the last ten j-ears. The following table gives the statistics
iji most cases for the last term of 1898 : —
D
34
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
No. of
Teach-
No. of
Teach-
Col-
ing
students
—
Col-
ing
Students
leges
Staff
leges
Staff
England and
j Scotland.
Wales.
.
' Universities : —
Universities .-^ —
Oxford^ .
Cambridge^
Durham .
23
19
1
91
122
18
5,412
3,019
171
Aberdeen
Edinburgh
Glasgow
St. Andrews
1
1
1
2
58
100
102
31
749 ':
2,813 i
1,918
254
Colleges : —
Aberystwith .
Bangor .
Manchester^ .
32
34
97
407
315
1,008
1 Colleges : —
Glasgow^2 _
Dundee!^ .
1
1
20
32
260
100
Newcastle^
2
69
880
Nottingham^ .
80
1,857
Ireland.
Sheffield'5 . .
57
291
Birmingham^ .
64
615
; University : —
BristoP .
77
305
Dublin .
1
66
1,084
'Cardiff^ .
33
1,730
Colleges : —
Lampeter
9
109
Queen's, Belfast
1
23
343
Leeds^
94
714
,, Cork.
1
23
187
LiverpooP
63
480
,, Galway
1
37
91
London : —
University^".
47
1,100
Total United
King's^^
117
322
Kingdom .
69
1,596
24,534
1 Owens College, Manchester, University College, Liverpool, and Yorkshire College,
Leeds, are associated together as the Victoria University ; and the Welsh colleges at
Aberystwith, Bangor, and Cardiff, as the University of Wales. 2 Undergraduates. At Oxford
in 1897 there were 852 matriculations ; at Cambridge, in 1898, 931. •* Besides 156 evening
students. 4 The College of Science has 47 teachers, 463 day students, and 1,042 evening
students ; the College of Medicine has 22 teachers and 217 students. 5 Including evening
students. 6 Besides 810 evening students. 7 Besides 352 evening students 8 Besides 278
evening st' dents. 9 Besides 325 evening students. ^'^ Exclusive of school ; ttie figures
are for 1896. n Exclusive of school ; tliere were, besides, 88 lecturers, <fec., in the ladies'
and Civil Service departments, and 3,655 non-matriculated day and evening students.
J2 Besides 44 j^rofessors, (fee, and 3,442 .students at evening classes, i^ Besides 83 evening
students.
London University is only an examining body, with power to grant degrees
to all candidates who pass its examinations : in 1898 it had 79 examiners,
and in 1897, 6,294 candidates underwent its various examinations. The Royal
University of Ireland holds a similar position in Ireland : in 1898 it had 48
examiners ; in 1898, out of 2,808 Avho entered its various examinations,
1,797 passed. The Catholic University of Ireland includes, besides University
College, Dublin, seven other Catholic colleges. It grants degrees in theology
and philo-sophy, and sends up its students for other degrees to the examinations
of the Royal University.
For medical education, besides the faculties attached to some of the
universities and colleges, there are medical schools attached to the hospitals of
most of the large towns in England. In a few of the colleges female students
are admitted. There are, besides, several university colleges for ladies: —
Newnham College, Cambridge, a staff of 17, and 171 students in 1898 ; Girton
College, Cambridge, with 6 resident and 31 outside lecturers, and 115 students ;
and Lady Margaret and Somerville Halls, Oxford, the former with 48 students
INSTRUCTION
35
and the latter with 72 students. There is a similar College (Bedford) for ladies
in London with 25 lecturers and 223 students, and another in Edinburgh.
The Royal HoUoway College (for ladies) at Egham, Surrey, has 20 professors
and lecturers, 5 teachers, and 110 students in residence.
The City and Guilds of London Technical Institute has a Central College
with 23 professors, teachers, &c,, and 239 day-students in 1899 ; an Interme-
diate College with 29 professors, &c., and 945 students (760 evening).
There is also a School of Technical Art with 6 teachers and 131 students,
and a Leather Trades School with 13 teachers and 200 students.
Middle-class education in England is entirely unorganised, but in May,
1897, the Committee of Council on Education resolved to ascertain as far as
possible the number of pupils receiving secondary instruction in all types of
schools, whether public, endowed, proprietary, or private. For this purpose
an exhaustive inquiry was carried out, but from its scope grant-earning pupils
were excluded, also pupils at evening schools and students at colleges and
technical institutes, as well as the whole of the county of Monmouth, which
is under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889. In the arrangement
of the information collected no attempt was made towards classification of the
schools, according to grade or efficiency, but they have been grouped accord-
ing to the constitution of their controlling authorities. These authorities are
of five kinds : 1. Private individuals (the owners) ; 2. Committees represent-
ing subscribers (religious communities, City companies, &c.), not registered
under the Companies' Acts ; 3. Limited liability companies ; 4. Royal
Charters, Acts of Parliament, Scheme of Court of Chancery, &c. ; 5. Local
authorities.
The following table shows the total number of schools in the return and
of pupils in them, as distributed amongst these five categories of control : —
Form of Control
Schools for Boys
Schools for Girls Jlixed Schools 1 Total i
il 1
Schools Boys
Scohols Girls
Schools Pupils 'Schools] Pupils
Private Enterprise
Subscribers'
Companies' .
Endowed, Ac.
Local Authority .
1,311 46,617
70 8,719
48 5,188
502 1 59,517
27 2,272
2,886 ' 80,286
99 6,321
99 13,238
86 1 14,119
3 i 275
970 1 26,027
28 i 3,626
3 1 308
31 1 3,035
46 i 6,996
5,167 152,930
197 1 18,666
1 150 18,734
619 ! 76,671
76 9,543
1,958 ' 122,3131 3,173 114,2391 1,078 39,992
6,209 276,5441
1 To these numbers have to be added 14,937 boys in girls' schools, and 63 girls in boya
schools, bringing the total up to 291,544.
The following table gives the number and proportion of boarders and day
pupils in the schools on the return : —
-
Boarders
Day Pupils
Total
Boarders are 1
per cent. 1
of whole i
Number.
Boys' Schools
Girls' Schools
Mixed Schools
r Boys
I Giris
43,692
20,670
2,771
1,652
78,621
93,669
18,481
17,088
122,313
114,239
21,252
18,740
35-7
18-
13-
9"
Total .
68,785
207,759
276,544
24-8
D 2
36
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the numbers of graduates and of non-graduates
on the staffs of the various schools, inclusive of the head-master or head-
mistress : —
,
Men Teachers
Women Teachers
Attached
Visiting
Attached
Visiting
Gradu-
ates
Non-
Gradu-
ates
Gradu-
ates
Non-
Gradu-
ates
Gradu-
ates
Non-
Gradu-
ates
Gradu-
ates
Non-
Gradu-
ates
Boys' Schools .
Girls' Schools .
Mixed.Schools .
4,165
35
205
3,285
85
587
545
829
42
2,410
2,590
358
117
1,534
150
925
10,472
1,782
107
401
14
471
3,885
326
Total .
4,405
3,957
1,416
5,358
1,801
13,179 522
4,682
For inspection and examination of secondary schools in "Wales and
Monmouthshire there is under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act of 1889,
an Intermediate Education Board of 80 members, appointed by the Councils
of the Counties and County- Boroughs, the school governing bodies, and
other bodies interested. The number of schools examined in 1897 was 80,
bein<y 19 for boys, 19 for girls, 36 dual, and 6 mixed. The number of pupils
exarnined was 6,427, of whom 3,007 were girls. By virtue of the Act of 1889
rates are levied, the proceeds of which are available for the endowment
of Intermediate Schools, and the Treasury is empowered to pay to each of
the counties and county-boroughs a sum equal to the amount provided by
the rates within their respective areas. The Exchequer contributions under
the Local Government (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890 have also in Wales
been almost entirely applied to Intermediate Education.
In Scotland, the burgh schools of various names, grammar schools, high
schools, &c. , are administered by the school boards. There are also endowed
schools and schools under private management which give secondary educa-
tion. In 1898 83 schools were under inspection, 31 of them being under school
boards, 25 endowed schools, and the remainder under private management.
There 'were 16,262 candidates for leaving certificates, .5,022 being from 76
higher class schools, and the remainder from higher departments of state-aided
schools. The total receipts of the 29 higher class public schools in the year ended
15 May, 1897, amounted to 99,942Z. ; this included income from endowments,
school fees (32,792Z.), loans (19,711Z.) and contributions from burgh or other
funds.
For Ireland there is an Intermediate Education Board, with a yearly
income of 38,982Z. in 1897, besides local taxation revenues, amounting to
50 842 Z. Its functions are to examine all candidates who present themselves.
In' 1897 9,605 students (7,182 boys and 2,423 girls) presented themselves for
examination, as compared with 8,711 in the previous year, and 6,952 in
1881. In 1897 results fees, amounting to 48,870Z., were paid to the managers
of 367 schools.
In connection with the Government Science and Art Department there were
in 1897, in addition to classes in ordinary schools for science and art education,
2,424 science schools, with 197,796 pupils. The number of art schools and
classes was 1,849, and the number of students 146,720. The Parliamentary
INSTRUCTION
37
Vote to the Science and Art Department for 1898-99 was 600, 78U., including
270,800Z. for schools of science and art, grants in aid, &c.
The Elementary Education Act of 1870 and subsequent amending Acts
now regulate elementary education in England and Wales. The central
administrative authority resides in the Education Department or Committee
of Council on Education, consisting of Lords of the Privy Council with the
President of the Privy Council as President, and a member of the Privy
Council as Vice-President who represents the department in the House of
Commons. Sufficient school accommodation must be provided in every
district for all the resident children between the ages of 5 and 14. The
boroughs and parishes are, unless the educational requirements are otherwise
supplied, formed or grouped into school districts each with its elected school
board which may compel parents to send their children to school. In boroughs
and parishes where school boards are not required school attendance committees
are appointed. On January 1, 1898, there were in England and Wales 2,502
school boards embracing a population of 19,918,110, and 785 school attend-
ance committees embracing a population of 9,084,415. In board schools
unsectarian religious instruction is given ; in voluntary schools sectarian doc-
trines may be inculcated. There are 7 standards and each pupil should pass
one standard every year. The minimum age for exemption from school
attendance is 11. A "code" providing in detail for the regulation of
schools is annually prepared by the department and submitted to Parliament.
In 1891, by a fee grant of ten shillings for each child between 3 and
15 years of age in average attendance, education was rendered practically free
in England and Wales. By the Voluntary Schools Act, 1897, an annual grant
of five shillings per pupil in average attendance is available for necessitous
voluntary schools, and provision is made for associations of such schools, the
governing bodies of which will (subject to the approval of the Education
Department) distribute this grant to the associated schools. An amending
Elementary Education Act of the same year increases the amount of grant
payable to school boards.
The following table includes the total number of Voluntary and Board
day-schools under inspection during the last 5 years ; —
Years ended
August 31
Schools
Inspected
Accommodation
Average
Attendance
Children on
School
Registers
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
19,577
19,709
19,739
19,848
19,958
5,762,617
5,832,944
5,937,288
6,072,374
6,215,199
4,100,030
4,225,834
4,325,030
4,422,911
4,488,543
5,126,373
5,198,741
5,299,469
5,422,989
5,507,039
On August 31, 1897, there were in England and Wales 5,539 Board
Schools with average attendance of 2,023,850 pupils ; 11,831 National Society
Schools with 1,869,393 pupils; 456 Wesleyan with 124,485 pupils; 1,018
Roman Catholic with 240,197 pupils; 1,131 British, Undenominational, and
others with 231,118 pupils. In the same year there were 58,814 certificated
teachers, 25,206 assistant teachers, 32,598 pupil teachers, and 14,155 addi-
tional women teachers. In 1897 there were 44 residential training colleges
with 3,629 students, and 14 day training colleges with 1,061 students. The
School Inspectors are appointed by the Crown on the recommendation of the
Education Department.
38
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
By the Elementary Education Act of 1872, the Scotch Education Depart-
ment was instituted, and each burgh and parish or group of parishes was re-
quired to have a school board to administer both elementary and middle-class
schools, and to enforce the attendance of children from 5 to 14 years of age.
In 1889, by a capitation grant, education was made free for the compulsory
standards ; in 1891 an age limit, 5 to 14, was introduced. In 1897 provi-
sion was made for grants in aid of voluntary schools. The following table
includes the total number of day schools inspected in Scotland during the
last 5 years : —
Years ended
30 Septembet
Schools
Inspected
Accommodation
Average
Attendance
Children on
School
Registers
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
3,004
3,054
3,034
3,083
3,086
737,797
770,244
789,126
824,448
843,769
542,851
567,442
575,305
592,934
605,389
664,838
686,335
692,202
709,478
716,893
In 1897 there were, in all, 3,086 schools, of which 2,705 were public
schools with an average attendance of 523,744 pupils ; 34 Church of Scotland
with 4,963 pupils ; 9 Free Church with 3,355 pupils ; 69 Episcopal with
11,119 pupils ; 182 Roman Catholic with 51,115 pupils, and 87 Undenomi-
national with 10,613 pupils. In the same year there were 9,893 certificated
teachers, 2,033 as.sistant teachers, and 4,170 pupil teachers. In 1898 there
were 8 training colleges with 984 students.
Elementary education in Ireland, since 1845, is under the superintendence
of a body of ' Commissioners of National Education in Ireland. ' The follow-
ing table gives statistics of elementaiy schools for five years : —
Year ended
Dec. 31
Schools in
Operation
Average on
Rolls
Average
Attendance
Pupils
Examined
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
8,459
8,505
8,557
8,606
8,631
832,545
832,821
826,046
815,248
816,001
527,060
525,547
519,515
534,957
521,141
555,268
567,477
561,247
578,012
560,187
Of 8,581 schools, 3,292 were mixed Roman Catholic and Protestant;
3,887 were Romab Catholic ; and 1,404 were Protestant. On December 31,
1897, there were 8,392 teachers and 3,604 assistants, with 799 students in the
5 training colleges.
The sums expended in Great Britain from Parliamentary grants for primary
schools, and in Ireland from Parliamentary grants and rates, amoutited in
five years to : —
JUSTICE AND CRIMK
39
—
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
England
Scotland .
Gt. Britain (var.)
Ireland
United Kingdom
£
5,989,658
886,710
491,678
1,194,129
£
6,226,805
948,405
515,047
1,220,656
£
6,514,955
1,004,113
506.033
1,275,985
£
6,820,062
1,042,690
544,245
1,331,426
£
7,565,359
1,072,195
565,280
1,311,670
8,562,175
8,910,913
9,301,086
9,738,423
10,514,504
In addition to the grant these schools derive an income from endowments,*
school fees, local rates, voluntary subscriptions, and other sources. The
total receipts of the school boards in England and Wales in 1897 was
10,072,5182. ; in Scotland (including higher class schools), 2,413, 379Z. ; and in
Ireland that of the schools under the Commissioners of National Education
was 1,386,615^.
Justice and Crime.
England and Wales.
The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional
courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and
gaol delivery, more popularly known as 'assizes,' and the Central Criminal
Court. Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty sessional court
house, the Lord Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metro-
politan or l)orough police magistrate or other stipendiary magistrate sitting in
a court house, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter sessions
are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can
be held at other times, and are then called 'general sessions.' Two justices
constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Certain boroughs have
a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in
quarter sessions assemljled, in which the recorder of the borough is the judge.
The assize courts are held four times a year in various towns throughout the
country by ' commissioners ' nominated by the Crown. These commissioners
are generally judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice,
but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good standing are appointed. The trial
takes place before a single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is the
court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the City of London and a large
surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve times
a year, and more often if necessaiy. The Recorder and the Common Serjeant,
and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessaiy, the judge of the City of
London Court, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by the
judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases are
reserved. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor offences.
Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional
court before lieing tried at the sessions or the assizes. To eveiy sessions,
assize, and to every sitting of the Central Crimiiml Court the .sheriif cites 24
of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more
than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand jury examines the
bill of indictment against the accused person, heai-s tlie evidence of witnesses
-lU THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — U2<ITED KIKGDOxM
for tlie prosecution, andii they think a prh7ia facie case for trial is made out
they endorse tlie bill ' a tnie bill.' All criminal trials, except those which
come before a court of summaiy jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a
petty jury of twelve men. Except on some highly technical point of procedure
there is no appeal in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the same
crime after a petty jury has found him ' not guilty. ' On a conviction the judge
can, if he think tit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court for
Crown Cases Reserved. This Court is formed by five or more judges of the
High Court, and can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other
method of securing the revision of a sentence is by the royal prerogative,
exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be
modified or annulled. Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen,
but in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a Cabinet minister, ex-officio president
of theHouse of Lords, and goes out with the ministiy) and the Lord Chief Justice
are appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other
judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.
Scotland.
The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland.
It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less fre-
quently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the
circuit towns. One judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more
preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competent court in
cases of treason, murder, robbeiy, rape, fire-raising, deforcement ot messengers,
and generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is
by statute directed to be inflicted ; and it has moreover an inherent jurisdic-
tion to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law
or statute, and such as have never previously come before the courts and are
not within any statute.
The sheriif of each county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes
occumng within the county which infer only an arbitraiy punishment, and if
the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the
merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused is, under the
Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the
sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly or in part
disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the peace have jurisdic-
tion in petty cases occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number of
minor offences under various statutes.
Ireland.
In Ireland persons charged with crime are first brought before the petty
sessions court, which must consist of at least two ordinary justices of the peace,
one of whom rnay be a stipendiary — commonly called a resident magistrate.
Then if the charge be trifling it may be disposed of, the prisoner, if convicted,
having a right of appeal to the quarter sessions or recorder's court (according
as it is in a borough or in the county), provided he is fined more than twenty
shillings or sentenced to a longer imprisonment than one month (Petty Sessions
Act, sec. 24). If the charge be of a more serious character it must either be
dismissed or sent for trial to the quarter sessions or recorder's court, or to the
assizes, as in England. There is this diflerence, however, between quarter
sessions in Ireland and in England : in England they are presided over by an
unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer and who is elected by his fellow
JUSTICE AND CRIME
41
justices of the peace for the county ; while in Ireland they are presided over
hy a paid official, who must be a barrister, whose decision on points of law binds
the court, who is appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil
bill court of the county, which corresponds to the English county court. The
assizes are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court
of Justice. In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes the trial is by
jury in all cases save appeals from petty sessions. Under the Crimes Act
witnesses and persons suspected of crime may be interrogated before a secret
court of inquiry ; but admissions then made are not evidence against the
persons making them. Prisoners may be convicted before two resident magis-
trates specially appointed to hear cases under the Crimes Act, and in cases
where the sentence exceeds a month, convicted persons have a right of appeal
to the county chairman at quarter sessions.
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial and convicted, in
each of the three kingdoms, was as follows in five years : —
England and Wales.
Tear
Committed for Trial
Convicted
Males
Females
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
10,648
10,519
10,018
9,833
9,931
1,646
1,636
1,602
1,379
1,411
12,296
12,155
11,621
11,214
11,342
9,797
9,634
9,169
8,856
8,991
Scotland.
Year
Committed for Trial
Convicted
Males
Females
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,010
1,984
1,711
1,781
1,865
384
387
316
339
337
2,394
2,371
2,027
2,120
2,202
1,903
1,937
1,652
1,704
1,796
Ireland.
Year
Committed for Trial
Convicted
Males
Females
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,994
2,026
1,535
1,754
1,609
245
382
240
301
276
2,239
2,408
1,755
2,055
1,885
1,378
1,469
1,096
1,310
1,242
42
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the strength of the police force in England and
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland : —
Year
England
and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Year
England
and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1880
1890
1894
31,488
39,221
40,609
3,484
4,103
4,525
12,579
13,921
13,331
1895
1896
1897
40,966
41,560
42,140
4,583
4,598
4,707
13,187
13,141
12,900
Pauperism.
There is a Poor Law, under a variety of statutes, applicable to the Three
Kingdoms, by which paupers, under certain conditions, are to be relieved in
their own houses or lodged in workhouses or poor-houses built for the purpose.
The law is administered by the Local Government Board, through Boards of
Guardians elected for the purpose. England and AVales, including the Me-
tropolis and the municipal boroughs, are divided into 650 poor law unions, for
each of which there is elected a Board of Guardians. In some cases the union
consists of only one parish ; in others several are included according to popula-
tion. In urban districts and in the Metropolis guardians are separately elected,
but in rural districts the rural district councillors act as guardians for the
parishes they represent on the district council. Guardians are elected on the
same popular franchise as district councillors. In every civil parish overseers
are appointed whose duty it is to make and collect the poor rate. In urban
districts, which include boroughs, the local authority raise and collect rates
for local government purposes, but in rural districts and rural parishes the
funds for this purpose are, as a general rule, taken from the poor-rate.
The following table shows the total amount expended in relief of the poor
for the last five years (ended March 25 for England and Ireland, and May 14
for Scotland). For Scotland, the amount includes expenditure on buildings,
but not from loans : —
Year
England & Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Total U.K.
£
£
£
£
1893
9,217,514
926,544
1,037,993
11,182,051
1894
9,673,505
956,815
1,044,927
11,675,247
1895
9,866,605
994,014
1,049,724
11,910,343
1896
10,215,974
1,037,931
1,056,276
12,310,180
1897
10,432,189
1,058,214
1,049,842
12,540,245
The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and 'casual poor' in receipt
of relief in the several unions and parishes of England and Wales was as
follows on January 1 of the last five years : —
FINANCE
43
January 1
Number
of Unions
and
Parishes
Adult
Able-bodied
Paupers
All other
Paupers
Total
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
649
649
649
650
647
116,478
114,415
112,379
108,827
107,071
695,963
703,016
714,838
715,535
716,279
812,441
817,431
827,217
824,362
823,350
1
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive of casual
poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland on January 14 of
the last five years, is shown in the subjoined table : —
Tear
Number of
Parishes
Paupers
Dependents
Total
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
886
886
886
886
886
61,869
63,307
64,673
65,918
66,519
33,199
33,611
34,847
34,996
34,889
95,068
96,918
99,520
100,914
101,408
The subjoined table gives the number of indoor and outdoor paupers, and
the total — including others in blind and deaf and dumb asylums — in receipt
of relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week in January in each
of the last five years : —
Year
(January)
Indoor Paupers
Outdoor Paupera
Total
including Asylums
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
43,685
42,899
42,195
42,670
43,556
59,170
57,005
55,019
54,767
55,368
104,031
101,071
98,627
98,882
100,346
Finance.
I. Revenue and Expenditure.
The following tables show the total amounts of the estimated
and actual Imperial revenue and expenditure of the United
44
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Kingdom for the years ended March 31, 1880, 1890, and the
four years ended March 31, 1898 : —
Year ended
March 31
IlEVENUE
Estimated
Actual Receipts
More ( + )
in the
into the
or less ( - )
Budgets
Exchequer
than Estimates
£
£
£
1880
81,161,000
79,344,098
-1,816,902
1890
86,150,000
89,304,316
+ 3,154,316
1895
94,175,000
94,683,762
+ 508,762
1896
96,162,000
101,973,829
+ 5,811,829
1897
100,480,000
103,949,885
+ 3,469,885
1898
103,044,000
106,614,004
+ 3,570,004
Expenditure
- Year ended
March 31
Budget and
Actual Pay-
More ( + )
Supplementary
ments out of
or less ( - )
Estimates
the Exchequer
than Estimates
£
£
£
1880
84,105,871
82,184,797
-1,921,074
1890
86,723,168
86,083,314
- 639,854
1895
94,537,685
93,918,421
- 619,264
1896
98,498,496
97,764,357
- 734,139
1897
102,324,921
101,476,669
- 848,252
1898
104,892,900
102,935,994
-1,956,906
The following table (derived from the two preceding) shows
the differences (surplus or deficit) between revenue and expendi-
ture in 1880, 1890, and the last four years : —
Year
Ended March 31
Surplus ( + )
or Deficit ( - )
Year
Ended March 31
Surplus { + )
or Deficit ( - )
1880
1890
1895
£
-2,840,699
+ 3,221,002
+ 765,341
1896
1897
1898
£
+ 4,209,472
+ 2,473,216
+ 3,678,010
The Imperial revenue is derived mainly from taxation (under
the first seven heads of the following table), which in 1897-98
produced 88, 548,000^., or»83 per cent, of the whole. The re-
mainder is subdivided into five heads as below (viii. — xii.).
FINANCE
45
1 Year ending March 31, 1898
Budget
Estimate
Sources of Revenue
1
Net Receipts
Excnequeri
Receipts
1898-99
i. Customs —
£
£
£
£
Tobacco .
11,433,909
Tea .
3,868,207
Rum
2,072,658
Brandy .
1,329,638
Other spirits
897,664
Wine
1,325,373
Currants .
104,281
Coffee
170,049
Raisins
212,913
Other articles
377,558
ii. Excise —
21,792,250
21,798,000
21,080,0002
Spirits
16,396,726
Beer
11,388,126
Licence duties .
243,216
Railways .
287,924
Other sources .
7,150
iii. Estate, &c., duties—
28,323,142
28,300,000
28,950.000
Estate duty
7,705,8553
Temporary estate duty
57,692*
Probate duty .
57,414'*
Legacy duty
! 2,595,690
Succession duty
727,624
Corporation duty
41,723
iv. Stamps (excluding Fee
11,185,998
11 inn nnn in ATn nnns
i I , iUU, \J\J\J
'•">"* ", vwv
Stamps, &c.; —
Deeds
: 4,121,891
Receipts .
: 1,350,691
Bills of exchange
660,818
Patent medicines
260,852
Licences, &c.
166,998
Companies' capital duty
353,959
Bonds to bearer
175,482
Insurances
216,666
Other sources .
290,888
7,598,245
7,650,000 7,600,000
V. Land Tax .
922,860
940,000 925,000«
vi. House Duty .
—
1,566,758
1,510,000 ; 1,570,000
vii. Income and Property
1
Tax ....
Total Produce of Taxes .
17,171,377
17,250,000 17,700,000^
89,560,630 .
88,548,000 88,495,000
1 That is, revenue actually paid into the Exchequer between April 1, 1896, and March 31.
1897. 2 Allowing 1,120,000/. for reduction of tobacco dutj*.
' On property of persons dying after August 1, 1894.
* On property of persons dying before August 2, 1894.
5 Allowing reduction of 280,000J, for revision of legacy and sncpcssion duties.
6 Allowing reduction of 5,0001. for extended exemption.
7 Allowing reduction of 100,000/. for extended abatements
46
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Sources of Revenue
Year ending March 31, 1898
Budget
Estimate
1898-99
Net Receipts
Exchequeri
Receipts
viii. Post Office .
ix. Telegraph service
X. Crown Lands
xi. Interest on Suez Canal
Shares
xii. Miscellaneous —
Fee Stamps
Mint
Bank of England
Various ,
Total non-tax Revenue .
Total Revenue
£
£
12,206,694
3,030,352
443,160
733,898
1,715,986
£
12,170,000
3,010,000
415,000
733,898
948,390
421,000
175,562
192,154
£
12,600,000
3,140,000
430,000
716,000
1,730,000
1,737,106
—
17,130,090
18,066,044
18,615,000
106,690,720
106,614,004
107,110,000
1 That is, revenue actually paid into the Exchequer between April 1, 1896, and March 31,
18<)7.
The national expenditure falls under three categories : (1) the
Consolidated Fund Charges, 26,885,994^., mainly bestowed on the
National Debt; (2) the Army and Navy Supply Services,
40,180,000^. ; and (3) the Civil and Miscellaneous Services,
including expense of collection of the revenue, 35,870,000/., for
1897-98.
Branches of Expenditure
Year ending March 31, 1898
Budget Esti-
mate 1698-99
i. National Debt Services : —
Interest of Funded Debt .
Terminable Annuities
Interest of Unfunded Debt
Management of Debt
New Sinking Fund .
ii. Other Consolidated Fund
Services : —
Civil List
Annuities and Pensions .
£
16,063,925
7,261,159
139,300
174,309
1,361,307
£
25,000,000
£
25,000,000
408,289
291,109
FINANCE
47
Branches of Expenditure
Year ending March 31, 1898
Budget Esti-
mate 1898-99
£
£
£
Salaries, &c.
Courts of Justice
Miscellaneous
Coinage (Acts of 1891 and
1893) , . . .
Total Consolidated Fund
Services .
iii. Army ....
79,560
512,483
344,553
250,000
1,885,994
2,010,000
19,329,000
26,885,994
27,010,000
Ordnance Factories .
iv. Na^'y ....
100
19.330,000
20,850,000
19,221,000
23,778,000
—
V. Civil Services .
—
21,560,000
21,793,000
vi. Customs and Inland Revenue
—
2,745,000
2,836,000
vii. Post Office
—
7,592,000
8,002,000
viii. Telegraph Service
3,226,000
3,365,000
ix. Packet Service ,
Total Supply Services .
Total Expenditure
Sui-plus Income .
747,000
824,000
76,050,000
79,819,000
102,935,994
106,829,000
3,678,010
281,000
The exchequer issues for 1897-98 shown above are those with which the various depart-
ments were supplied to meet all requirements, whether original or supplementary ; the
estimates for 1898-99, shown in the table and in the details given below, are the original
(exclusive of supplementary) estimates.
Further Details of the Budget,
Army. — The net cost of the British army, according to the original estimates
for 1898-99, is 19,220,500Z. Including appropriations in aid, amounting to
3,139,099/., the gross estimate was 22,359,599/. The following table shows
the net estimates for 1898-99, as compared with those for 1897-98 : —
Army Estimates.
I. Effective Services : —
Regular forces and army reserve :
General staff and regimental pay, &c.
Chaplains' department .
Staff of military prisons, &c.
Army reserve ....
Medical Establishments
1897-98
£
5,144,000
60,800
30,000
713,000
295,800
1898-99
£
5,385,150
61,750
30,500
789,000
295,800
48
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Auxiliary forces :
Militia
Yeomanry cavalry ....
Volunteer corps
Commissariat :
Transport and remounts
Provisions, forage, &c
Clothing
Warlike and other stores
Works, buildings, &c., with superintending
Various :
Military education ....
Miscellaneous services ....
War Office
Total effective services
II. Non-Effective Services :—
Officers, <fcc. ;
Rewards for distinguished services
Half pay ....
Retired pay and gratuities
Widows' pensions and allowances
Pensions for wounds
Retired allowances, auxiliary forces
^on-commissioned officers and men, d;c. :
In-pensions ....
Out-pensions.
Rewards for distinguished services
Widows' pensions, &c. .
Superanmiation allowances, dbc.
1897-98
£
553,000
76,000
627,200
744,000
2,627,400
897,000
2,075,200
1,018,400
118,600
54,800
248,600
15,283,800
9,050
72,950
1,272,790
134,685
10,654
28,671
32,880
1,310,420
5,050
4,250
175,300
Total non-effective services
Total effective and non-effective services 18, 840, 500
Net Increase, 1898-99
880,000
1898-99
£
553,000
75,000
614,200
710,400
3,352,600
862,000
1,972,000
1,020,700
118,200
54,300
245,200
16,139,800
9,170
72,202
1,313,265
135,990
9,849
27,324
33,060
1,292,876
4,976
4,688
177,300
3,056,700 3,080,700
19,220,500
Navy. — The net cost of the Navy, according to the original estimates for
1898-99 is 23,778,400Z. Including appropriations in aid, amounting to
955,422i., the gross estimate was 24,733,822^. The following table show^
the net estimates for 1898-99, as compared with those for 1897-98 ;—
FINANCE
49
1897-98
1898-99
I. Effective Services.
£
£
Wages of Officers and Seamen and Koyal
Marines 4,696,000
4,988,000
Victualling and Clothing .
1,384,600
1,491,700
Medical Establishments
161,400
167,000
llartial Law .
10,600
11,400
Educational Services
85,600
86,600
Scientific Services .
66,700
67,200
Royal Naval Reserves
249,900
257,000
Shipbuilding, Repairs, &t'
9,630,000
10,801,000
Naval Armaments .
2,775,000
2,549,200
Works, Buildings, &c.
648,800
650,100
Miscellaneous Services
195,400
232,900
Admiralty Office
243,600
247,700
Total effective services .
II. Non-Effective Servi
20,147,600
21,549,800
CES.
Half-pay, Reserved, and Retired Pay
749,500
752,500
Naval Pensions, &c. ....
1,053,200
1,082,900
Civil Pensions, &c. .....
Total non-eff'ective services .
III. Extra Colonial Estij
327,400
332,900
2,130,100
2,168,300
lATE.
Additional Annuity, for service in Australasian
waters
Grand total
60,300
60,300
. 22,338,000
23,778,400
1,440,400
Net Increase, 1898
-99 .
•
•
Civil Services. — The following is an abstract of the original Civil Service
estimates (net) for 1898-99, showing the more important items of ex-
penditure : —
£
I. Public Works and Build-
ings .... 1,910,431
II. Salaries, d-c, Civil De-
partments :
U. K. and England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
Total
1,853,730
64,130
262,756
2,180,616
III. Law and Justice :
U. K. and England : —
Sup. Court of Judicature 326,251
County Courts . . 38,810
Police . . 55,107
Prisons, Eng. and Col. 604,696
Reformatories, Great Brit.
£
262,698
Other expenses
168,316
Scotland : —
Courts of Justice, &c.
92,046
Prisons ....
79,889
Other expenses
47,201
Ireland : —
Supreme Court of Judicature
107,929
Land Commission .
119,341
County Court Officers, &c.
113,151
Police and Constabulary . 1
,449,010
Prisons ....
114,096
Reformatories, &c. .
109,936
Other expenses
69,115
Total
3,757,592
BO THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
V. Foreign and Colonial
Services : £
Diplomatic and Consular 491,600
Colonial, inch S, Africa 353,681
Cyprus, Uganda, &c. . 300,463
Other services . . 76,212
Total . . 1,221,956
VI. Non-Effective and
Charitable Services . 711,539
VII. Miscellaneous. . 44,716
IV. Education f Science and
Art:
U. K. and England :—
£
Public Education
8,520,175
Science and Art Dept.
. 600,781
British Museum
. 162,280
National Galleries .
. 28,226
Colleges, &c., Grt. Brit,
and Int. Ed, Wales
, 104,522
Scientific Investigation
. 28,452
Scotland : —
Public Education
, 1,281,867
National Galleiy
4,400
Ireland : —
Public Education ,
1,226,734
National Gallery
2,504
Queen's Colleges, &c.
5,855
Total .
11,965,796
Grand Total 1898-99 . 21,792,646^
Grand Total 1897-98 . 21,091,681
Net increase 1898-99 . 700,965
1 But unappropriated receipts are estimated at 1,290,931Z., reducing the net expenditure
for 1898-99 to 20,501,7151,
In addition to the ordinary expenditure above given, there were issues to
meet expenditure under the Barracks Act, 1890, 300, OOOZ. ; Telegraph Acts, 1892
and 1896, 160,000^.; Uganda Railway Act, 1896, 595, 000^.; Public Offices Site
Acts, 1895 and 1897, 350,000Z. Under the Naval Works Act, there were issues
amounting to 596,000/. out of the sui'plus of 1895-96, by Act retained in
the Exchequer, and made applicable to naval works ; and, under the Mili-
tary Works Act, 1897, there were issues out of the surplus revenue of 1896-97,
to the amount of 750,000Z. Besides these items, there were a few minor re»
ceipts into and issues from the Exchequer account ; which is also swollen by
cross entries in respect of sums borrowed and paid otf during the year. The
balance in the Exchequer on April 1,1897, was 9,867, 134Z,; the gi'oss receipts
into the Exchequer in the year 1897-98 amounted to 116,551,282Z. ; the
gross issues out of the Exchequer in the year 1897-98 amounted to
115,499,994/., leaving a balance on March 31, 1898, of 10,918,422/.
II. Taxation.
The revenue derived from the most important of direct taxes, that upon
incomes, was as follows in the last ten years : —
Year ending
Tax
Annual Ex-
Year ending
Tax
Annual Ex-
March 31
per £
chequer Receipt
March 31
per £
chequer Receipt
1889
U.
£
12,700,000
1894
7rf.
£
15,200,000
1890
U.
12,770,000
1895
8d.
15,600,000
1891
U.
13,250,000
1896
8d.
16,100,000
1892
Qd.
13,810,000
1897
8d.
16,650,000
1893
dd.
13,470,000
«
1898
8d.
17,250,000
Taxation
61
l^he gross amount of the annual value of property and profits assessed to
the income tax in the year ended April 5, 1897, in the United Kingdom,
was 700,447,064/. ; in 1871 it was 465.594,366/. Of theamount for 1897
the share of England was 603,495,266/. ; of Scotland, 64,762,653/. ; of
Ireland, 32,189,145/.
The real property so assessed in the last four years was distributed as
follows : —
Assessed to Income Tax 1894
1895
£
39,680,346
6,193,310
9,895,405
1896
189T
1 ^
^ f England . 40,065,831
« -{ Scotland . ! 6,251,898
^ (Ireland . j 9,895,005
£
39,365,825
6,147,882
9,894,358
£
38,806,310
6,100,326
9,894,266
54,800,902
139,670,210
14,999,118
4,000,577
158,669,905
Total
1 r England
g - Scotland
^ (Ireland
Total
56,212,734
131,860,499
14,008,173
3,757,312
149,625,984
55,769,061
133,511, 8'JO
14,302,580
■3, 831, 176
151,645,646
55,408,065
135,929,399
14,594,540
3,911,764
154,435,703
The annual Value of the railways in the United Kingdom assessed to
income tax in 1896 was 37,541,260/.; mines and quarries, 11,709,803/.; gas-
works, 5,529,456/.; waterworks, 4,015,316/.; canals, inland navigations, &c. ,
8,433,931/.; other public concerns, including ironworks, 89,411,184/.
In accordance with Acts passed in the years 1888-94, various duties are
collected for local authorities by Imperial officers. These are : (1) the duties
on local taxation licences ; (2) half the probate duty paid on the property
of persons who died before August 2, 1894, and also a share of the estate duty
paid on the personal property of persons who died after August 1, 1894, such
share being equivalent to l| per cent, on the net value of the property on
which the duty was leviable ; (3) the additional duties of 6d. per gallon on
spirits, and Sd. per 36 gallons on beer. The net receipts of these duties and
the payments made to local taxation accounts in the year ended March 31,
1898, were as follows : —
—
Additional Beer
to Spirit Duty
Licences
Sliare of Pro-
bate and
Estate Duties
Total
Net receipts
Payments :
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total payments
£
1,468,611
£
3,694,365
£
4,263,192
£
9,426,168
1,181,709
158,264
134,665
3,342,535
357,255
3,386,798
464,810
376,274
7,911,042
980,329 !
510,939 !
1,474,638
3,699,790
4,227,882
9,-102,000
The following statement (from a Return of July 22, 1898, on revenue and
expenditure — England, Scotland, and Ireland— ) shows for the year ended
March 31, 1898, the amount contributed by each of the three divisions of
the United Kingdom to the revenue collected by Imperial officers, and the
K 2
52
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
expenditure on English, Scottish, and Irish services met out of such
revenue :
Excliequer Revenue :—
Customs
Exiise
Ksiate, &c. duties
.Stamps
Land tax and house duty
Income tax
Total from taxes
Post office
Telegraphs
Crown lands
Interest, &c.
Miscellaneous
Total non-tax revenue
Total
Local taxation revenue : —
Customs
Excise
Estate, &c. duties
Total
Grand total
Expenditure : —
From Exchequer revenue
Debt, Army, Navy.
Civil government .
Collection of taxes .
Post Office
Coinage .
Total .
From local taxation rev.
Grand total
Imperial
140,000
33,000
784,000
718,500
1,452,500
1,863,500
r2,000
r2,000
1,935,500
65,395,000
3,458,000
597,000
250,000
69,700,000
69,700,000
England Scotland
£
17,289,000
21,437,000
0,818,000
6,658,000
2,355,000
14,532,000
'2,089,000
10,360,000
2,563,000
387,000
805,000
14,115,000
86,204,000 10,923,500
£
2,146,000
3,882,000
852,000
602,000
135,000
1,714,000
9,331,000
1,187,000
303,000
21,000
81,500
1,592,500
Ireland
£
2,357,000
3,004,000
376,000
305,000
687,000
6,729,000
660,000
164,000
35,000
111,500
171,000
4,283,000
3,533,000
7,987,000
94,191,000
12,928,500
2,137,C00
8,945,000
24,010,500
7,911,000
20,000
540,000
391,000
951,000
11,874,500
2,078,000
367,000
1,157,000
3,602,000
980,000
31,921,500
4,582,000
970,500
,699,500
17,000
132,000
266,000
415,000
8,114,500
4,516,500
241,000
866,000
5,623,500
511,000
Total
£
21,792,000
28,323,000
11,186,000
7,598,000
2,490,000
17,171,000
88,560,000
12,207,000
3,030,000
443,000
734,000
1,716,500
18,120,500
106,690,500
208,000
4,955,000
4,262,000
9,425,000
116,115,500
65,395,000
22,981,000
2,745,000
11,565,000
250,000
6,134,500
102,936,000
9,402,000
112,338,000
III. National Debt.
The expenditure on account of National Debt is now nearly six times the
amount paid in 1775, at the beginning of the War of Independence of the
United States. The total charge for interest and management was then only
a little over 4^ millions sterling ; but at the end of the war it had risen to
9^ millions. The twenty-two years' warfare with France, from 1793 to 1815,
added 23 millions sterling to the annual charge of the debt, making it over
32i millions, decreased by slightly more than a million in 1817, in the year of
consolidation of the English and Irish exchequer. Since this date, the capital
of the debt has on the wliole been steadily decreasing, excepting for the years
of the Russian war. The annual charge, after increasing to nearly 30 millions
in 1883, is now less than in 1857, at the close of that war, by 3,550,039Z.
Moreover, the present figure (25,000,000/.) includes a large provision for re-
payment of the capital of the debt, amounting in 1897-98 to 7.360,292Z.
The following table exhibits the ^growth of the debt from its origin to the
year 1897. Before 1835, however, there was no calculation of the capital
NATIONAL DEBT
53
value of terminable annuities ; strict comparison of debt prior to that year
is therefore mialeadinic : —
Periods
National Debt at the Revolution in 1688
Increase during William III. 's reign .
Debt at the Accession of Queen Anne, in 1702
Increase during the War of the Spanish
Succession ......
At the accession of George I., 1714
Increase during his reign ....
At the accession of George II., 1727
Decrease during 12 years' peace, ending 1739
At the commencement of the Spanish War,
1739 . . . .
Increase during the war ....
At the end of the Spanish War, 1748 .
Decrease during 8 years* peace
At the commencement of the Seven Years'
War, 1756
Increase during the war ....
At the Peace of Paris, 1763 .
Decrease during 12 years' peace .
At the commencement of the American War,
1775
Increase during the war
At the end of the American War, 1784
Decrease during the peace .
At the commencement of the French War
1792
Increase during the war
At the Peace of Amien.s, 1802
Increase during war with Napcdeon
At the Peace of Paris, 1815 .
Decrease during 40 years
At commencement of Crimean War, 1854
Increase during the war
Principal
664,263
12,102,962
12,767,225
23,408,235
36,175,460
16,675,337
52,850,797
6,236,914
46,613,883
29,198,249
75,812,132
1,237,107
74,575,025
58,141,024
132,716,049
5,873,238
126,842,811
116,220,334
243,063,145
3,399,724
239,663,421
297,989,587
Annual Charge
£
39,855
1,175 469
1,215,324
1,847,811
3,063.135
(-) 323,507
2,739,628
708,744
2,030,884
1,134,881
3,165,765
412,199
2,753,566
2,279,167
537,653,008
323,386,041
861,039,049
56,812,695
804,226,354
32,918,243
5,032,733
329,214
4,703,519
4,837,737
9,541,256
109,077
9,432,179
10,836,372
20,268,551
12,377,067
32,645,618
4,489,609
28,156,009
742,642
54
THE BltlTISH EMfIRE: — UNITEP KINGDOM
Periods
Principal
Annual Charge
1 Debt in 1857
Decrease since the Crimean War .
' Pebt oil March 31, 1898 , ,
£
837,144,597
202,708,893
£
28,898,651
3,898,651
634,435,704
25,000,000
The following statement shows the total amount of the Gross Liabilities
and the Assets of the State on March 31, 1898.
Liabilities :
Funded Debt _ .
Estimated Capital of Tenuinable Annuities
Unfunded Debt . . , . ,
Other Capital Liabilities :
Russian Dutch Loan Aot, 1891
Iroperial Defence Act, 1888 .
Barracks Act, 1890
Telegraph Act, 1892
XJganda Railway Act, 1896
Total Gfoss Liabilities
Assets :
Suez Canal Shares, market value
Qthpr Assets
585,787,624
40,515,080
8,133,000
346,554
277,756
2,134,385
926,206
145,877
24,435,000
806,799
634,435,704
Exchequer Balances at the Banks of England and
Iceland ........
3,830,778
638,266,482
25,241,799
10,9J8,422
The whole of the debt is about 62,000,000/. less than the
gross annual value of property and profits assessed to income tax,
and 107,000,000/. less than the total value of British imports and
pxports for 1897. It is about 15/. 17s. 6d. per head of the present
pqpulation, and the annual charge is 125. 5d. per head. The
national wealth, public and private, of the United Kingdom was
pst-i^nated by Sir R. Giffen in 1885 at 10,037,436,000/.
IV. Local Taxation.
The total amount raised for local expenditure was as follows in the
three divisions of the United Kingdom in 1895-96, the last year for which
accounts are published :—
DEFENCE
55
-
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
£
£
£
Rates .....
35,898,774
3,658,063
1 3,040,558
"Water, Gas, and Electric light
7,952,980
1,897,281
Repayments ....
1,017,043
—
—
Tolls, Dues, &c. .
5,302,839
1,199,418
476,427
Rents, interest &o.
2,108,749
629,005
113,228
Sales
527,635
38,768
—
Government contributions
9,409,561
1,648,340
406,668
Loans
11,053,931
1,897,144
709,376
Miscellaneous
Total receipts
2,206,527
321,548
267,829
75,474,039
11,289,547
5,014,088
The chief branches of local expenditure were
—
Eng.& Wales
Scotland
Ireland
By Town and Municipal Authorities for
Police, Sanitary Works, &c. .
By Unions and Parishes for Poor Relief
By School Boards ....
By County, Rural Sanitary, and Road
Authorities
By Harbour Authorities
Total (including other expenditure)
£
40.019,001
10,215,974
9,426,472
8,339,436
3,454,089
£
5,522,779
1,013,376"
2,153,439
1,349,847
1,200,035
£
1,527,211
1,053,391
1,472,282
482,807
76,104,066
11,516,118
5,093,658
The estimated expenditure of the London County Council for the year
ending March 31, 1899, was: maintenance, 3,719, 998Z. (including 89, 332Z. on
tramways, working-class dwellings, &c. , out of rents) ; capital, 6,009,375Z.
(including 2,352,500^. loans to local authorities). The amount of the con-
solidated stock of the Council March 31, 1898, was returned at 38,011,638Z.
Defence.
I. Army.
Tlie maintenance or a standing army in time of peace, without the consent
of Parliament, is prohil)ited by the Bill of Rights of 1689. From that time
to the present, the luimber of troops as well as the cost of the diflferont branches
of the service in detail, lias been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House
of Commons. Parliament exercises another important means of control over
the army — viz., by passing at the commencement of every session an Act called
the * Army (Annual) Bill,' investing the Crown with large powers to make
regulations for the good government of the army, and to frame the Articles of
War, which form the military code.
The Secretary of State for War, who is assisted by Under-Secretaries of
State, exercises administrative control over all army services, and the heads of
the principal departments, both military and civil, are responsible to him for
the discharge of their duties. The principal military departments are those of
the Commander-in-Chief, the Adjutant-General, the Quarter-Master-General,
56
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
the Inspector-General of Fortifications, and the Inspector-General of Ordnance.
The heads of these departments form a Board under the presidency of the
Commander-in-Chief, to report on proposals for the estimates which the
Secretary of State lays before Parliament, on promotions or appointments and
other matters. With the Secretary of State as President, and with such
additional military otficers as may be summoned, they constitute the War
Office Consultative Council.
According to the army estimates for 1898-99, the regular army of the
United Kingdom— exclusive of India — during thej^ear ending March 31, 1899,
is to consist of 8,109 commissioned officers, 1,087 warrant officers, 17,100
sergeants, 3,941 drummers, trumpeters, &c., and 150,267 rank and file, a total
of 180,513 men of all ranks, being a total increase of 16,944 over the previous
year. This force is to be composed of the following staff, regiments, and
miscellaneous establishments : —
Branches of the Military Service.
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned Officers,
Drummers, &c.
Rank and
File
General and Departmental Staff.
General staff ......
Army accountants . . , . .
Chaplains' department ....
Medical department .....
Veterinary department ....
Total staff
Regiments.
Cavalry, including Life and Horse Guards .
Royal Artillery ......
Royal Engineers
Infantry, including Foot Guards
Colonial Corps ......
Departmental Corps .....
Army Service Corps .....
Total regiments
Staff of Yeomanry, Militia, and Volunteers
Miscellaneous Establishments.
Instruction in gunnery and musketry
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich .
Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Other colleges and schools ....
Regimental schools .....
Other establishments .....
■ Total miscellaneous
Total regular army
342
209
87
597
65
1,300
131
1
6
6
1
138
7
555
1,140
601
3,075
208
195
245
1,315
2,552
1,312
7,439
469
1,426
751
12,083
26,761
5,834
93,572
5,888
3,166
2,807
6,019
15,264
150,111
597
6,164
22
36
18
29
37
15
58
103
23
22
50
190
174
107
5
19
1
4
193
562
136
8,109
22,128
150,276
DEFENCE
57
The total number of horses provided for this establishment
was 17,915.
For total cost of the British army, with details of the expen-
diture, see under Finance.
The following table exhibits, after official returns, the number
of officers, rank and file, maintained for service in the United
Kingdom at decennial periods since the year 1820 up to 1890,
and during the last three years, on the 1st of January in every
year :—
Year
Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
Infantry and
Special Corps
Total
1820
9,900
4,046
371
46,799
61,116
1830
8,036
4,037
682
35,339
48,094
1840
7,190
4,118
544
38,624
50,476
1850
8,108
7,353
1,201
50,415
67,077
1860
11,389
14,045
1,707
62,366
89,507
1870
10,910
14,469
2,890
56,092
84,361
1890
12,470
17,584
5,370
68,682
104,116
1896
12,085
17,568
5,457
70,990
106,100
1897
11,897
16,223
5,555
66,966
100,641
1898
11,251
16,989
5,368
65,650
99,258
The following is the official return of the number and distri-
bution of the effectives of the British army (including drafts on
passage out), on January 1, 1898 : —
—
Officers
and Men
Horses
and
Mules
—
Officers
and Men
Horses
and
Mules
England .
Scotland .
Ireland
Total home
72,348
3,947
22,963
10,063
350
2,784
Egypt
The Colonies
India
Crete
Total abroad .
5,553
40,669
74,623
900
686
2,405
12,300
99,258
13,197
121,745
15,391
General total .
221,003 28,588
There are, besides, four classes of reserve, or auxiliary forces —
namely, the Militia, the Yeomanry Cavalry, the Volunteer corps,
and the Army Reserve force. The following is the official return
of the number of men in the regimental establishments of the
various forces, with tihe effectives, for 1898-99 : —
58
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
—
Establishments
9,11 Ranks, 1898-99
Eflfectives by
latest Returns
Regular Forces, Home and \
Colonial . . . /
Army Reserve, 1st Class .
2nd ,,
Militia
Yeomanry . , . , .
Volunteers , . . ,
Total Home and Colonial .
Regular Forces on Indian EJstab-\
lisliments . . . /
Total .
171,394
83,000
50
138,961
11,891
263,963
146,864
82,005
58
118,221
10,191
232,711
669,259
73,162
589,566
74,623
742,421
664,189
The following table shows the number of men in the British
Army serving in India during the years noted, according to Bud'
get estimates : —
Years
Soldiers in India
Years
Soldiers in India
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
72,858
73,125
73,168
1896-97
1897-98
1898-99
73,168
73,217
73,162
The number of men enrolled in the Volunteer corps of Great
Britain has increased from 119,146 in 1860, to 193,893 in 1870,
206,537 in 1880, 221,048 in 1890, and 231,798 in 1897. The
number efficient in 1897 was 225,206.
Under various laws of army organisation. Great Britain and Ireland are
pjU'titioned into 14 military districts. For the infantry there are 102 sub- or
regimental districts, commanded by line colonels ; for the artillery there are
12 sub-districts, commanded by artillery colonels ; and for the cavalry there
9,re two districts, couimanded by cavalry colonels. The brigade of an
infantry sub-district, consists, as a rule, of two line battalions, two militia
battalions, the brigade depot, rifle volunteer corps, and infantry of tl^e army
reserve. Of the two line battalions one is generally abro3,d and the second at
one of the home stations. An artillery sub-district contains, in addition to
the royal artillery, the militia artillery and that of the volunteers and of the
army reserve ; and a cavalry colonel similarly has command, not merely over
the cavalry regiments within his district, but over the yeomanry, volunteers,
and reserve cavalry.
The General Annual Return gives as follows the numbers of non-
commissioned officers and men, natives of each of the three divisions of
the United Kingdom, composing the army on January 1, 1898 : — English,
158,566 ; Scotch, 16,485 ; Irish, 26,374; born in In^ia and the colonies,
8,275 ; foreigners, 143 ; and 2,551 not reported.
DEFENCK 59
The establishments for military educational purposes comprise the
Council of Military Education, Royal Military Academy at Woolwich,
Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst, Royal Military Asylum
and Normal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Military School at
Dublin, Department for Instruction of Artillery Officers, Military Medical
School, and a varying number of Garrison Schools and Libraries. In the
army estimates for 1898-99, the sum provided for military education is 182,300Z,
(including the appropriation in aid). The two principal educational estab-
lishments for officers are the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and the
Royal Military and Staff Colleges at Sq,ndhurst. In the army estimates of
1898-99 the cost of the Woolwich Academy was set down at 36,200Z., and of the
Sandhurst College at 44,800^,
II. Navy.
The British Navy is a permanent establishment, governed by statutes and
orders fixed with much precision })y the Legislature. Its administration was
formerly in the hands of a Lord High Admiral, but by the Act 2 Will and
Mary, c. 2, this office was vested in a Commission. With the exception of
various periods in which the office has been revived — in the person of the
Earl of Pembroke in the reign of William III., of Prince George of Denmark
(1702-8), and of the Duke of Clarence (May, 1827— August, 1828)— it has
continued to be held in commission by the Board of Admiralty. The Board
now consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty, Avho is always a member
of the Cabinet, and five other oommissioners,
- » The First Lord is responsible for the general direction and super\'ision of
all naval business, and deals with promotions, appointments, nominations to
cadetships, and other matters. The First Naval Lord advises upon questions
of maritime defence, strategy, and naval policy, and is charged with business
relating to ships in commission, the distribution and organisation of the
Fleet, the supervision of the Intelligence and Hydrographic Departments,
ships' complements, discipline, courts martial, signals, collisions, gunnery,
torpedoes, &c. The Second Naval Lord is responsible for the manning and
officering of the Fleet, and for mobilization, naval education and training, the
Royal Naval Reserve, and many other matters concerning the personnel. The
special work of the Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy is chiefly
in relation to maUrial. He has charge of the dockyards, the steam reserves,
shipbuilding and repairs, machinery, the purchase, disposal and loan of ships,
questions relating to inventions and discoveries, naval ordnance and stores,
and the dockyard personnd. Tlie Junior Naval Lord is concerned with the
transport, medical and victualling services, and with liospitaLs, the coaling of
the fleet, questions of pay, allowances, prize money, uniform, pensions, and
other like matters. The Civil Lord is responsible for the Works Department,
and for buildings and establishments, questions concerning Greenwich
Hospital, dockyard schools, and other business. The Admiralty Board is
assisted by a Parliamentaiy and Financial Secretary, who has charge of all
matters of account and of questions involving reference to the Treasury
financially ; and by a Permanent Secretaiy, who is responsible for the dis-
cipline of the Admiralty departments, and appointments in the office, and
has charge of correspondence and maritime papers. The administration of
the Navy is thus conducted under the direction and sujtervision of the Board
through a number of independent departments.
For the details of Naval expenditure see under Finance. The number of
officers, seamen and marines provided for in the estimates for 1898-99, and
also for the previous year, was as follows ; —
00
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
-UNITED KINGDOM
Available for Sea Service —
For the Fleet (including Indian troop ships)
Officers and seamen . . . .
Boys
Coast Guard ......
Marines afloat and ashore . . . .
Other Services (training and various) —
Officers and seamen . . . . .
Boys .......
Royal Marines ......
Total of all ranks
1897-98
1898-99
67,072
72,009
3,400
3,700
4,200
4,200
16,841
17,807
2,373
2,476
6,000
6,000
164
198
100,050
106,390
The increase of 6,340 sanctioned includes 200 officers, 2,400
seamen, 284 engine-room artificers, 1,700 stokers, 1,000
marines, 456 miscellaneous ratings, and 300 boys under
training.
The Naval Defence Act of 1889 provided for the construction
of 70 vessels at a cost originally estimated at £21,500,000. The
fleet resulting comprises 10 first-class battleships (the Royal
Sovereign, Empress of India, Ramillies, Repulse, Resolution,
Revenge, Royal Oak, Hood, Centurion, and Barjleur), 9 first-class
cruisers, 29 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, and 18
torpedo-gunboats. All of these have been completed, and are in
commission or in the reserve.
After these come the battleships of the Spencer programme,
the Majestic, Magnificent, Victorious, and Prince George, of
14,900 tons, with their later sisters, the Mars, Jupiter^
Illustrious, Ilannihal, and Goesar, of which the last three were
delayed by the engineering dispute. The Renown is of a smaller
type (12,350 tons), and six other vessels of somewhat greater
displacement, 12,900 tons, are the Ganopus, Ocean, Goliath, Albion,
Glory, and Vengeance. There was delay, through the engineer-
ing dispute, in the advancement of the later ships of the Ganopus
class, and their successors of the Formidable class, provided for
in the estimates of 1897-98, were not laid down so soon as was
expected. They are the Formidable at Portsmouth (launched
November 17th, 1898), the Irresistible at Chatham, launched
December 1898, and the Implacable at Devonport, and are
improved Majesties of 14,700 tons. The estimates of 1898-99
provide for the laying down of three other battleships of the
Formidable class — the London, Bulwark, and Ve7ierable — and
the supplemental programme of July 1898 includes four other
battleships of modified type (14,000 tons) now ordered.
DEFENCE
Gl
An account of the ships of the new programme follows the
tabular matter. In regard to cruisers, the Powerful and Terrihh
(14,200 tons) have proved very successful, and the former is in
commission in China. Four first-class cruisers of the Diadem
class (11,000 tons) were laid down in 1895, and four others, the
Spartiate, Argonaut, Amphitrite, and Ariadne are well advanced.
Four armoured cruisers of a new class (programme of 1897-98),
the Cressy, Bogue, Aboukir, and Sutlej (12,000 tons) were
delayed, but are in hand. Four others are in the programme of
1898-99, two (the Euryalus and Bacchante) being of the Cressy
class and two of a superior type. The supplemental programme
of July 1898 includes four other like cruisers. Of second-class
cruisers, the Arrogant class includes four (one completed and
the others well advanced), and the modified Talbot class three
cruisers, which have been delayed. In all ninety-six destroyers
were to have been completed, or ordered in 1897-98, but there
has been some delay. The supplementary programme includes
twelve others.
The following table shows the effective fighting strength
of the British Navy, ships in course of construction or planned
being given in separate columns. No uniform classification of
the vessels of various navies exists, but the table given is
based upon a useful system adopted in the Naval Annual. It
should be observed that seven first-class battleships (the
* Admirals ') will soon drop into the second class. In the third
class are included the old battleships which have latterly been
counted unsatisfactorily as first-class armoured cruisers. Ineffec-
tive vessels we excluded from the table.
Launched
Building
Jan. 1899
or jirojected
Battleships, 1st Class
35
10
,, 2nd Class .
7
—
3rd Class .
18
—
Coast defence ships
14
—
Cruisers, Armoured
9
12
,, 1st Class
30
.
,, 2nd Class
53
3rd Class
42
2
Torpedo gimboats
34
—
Torpedo-craft, 1st Class ^
153
23
,, 2nd and 3rd Class
.
24
—
1 Including 108 "Destroyers."
During the year 1898-99, the vessels under construction or
62
Th£ BRITISH Empire: — united kingdom
completing are : 12 battleships, 16 first-class cruisers, 6 second-
class cruisers, 10 third-class cruisers, 6 sloops, 4 twin-screw
gunboats, 41 torpedo-boa.t destroyers, and a royal yacht.
There are 1 1 vessels which are subsidized by the Admiralty
as ' E-eserved Merchant Cruisers,' in addition to many others
which are held at disposition, and marked for preferential
employment, without subvention. The subsidized vessels are
the Cam2Mnia and Lucania (Cunard Company), Himalaya,
AiLstralia, Victoria, and Arcadia (P. & 0. Company), Majestic
and Teutonic (White Star Line), and Ernp^ess of India, Empress
of China, and Empress of Japan (Canadian Pacific Railway
Company).
In January, 1899, there were 164 ships in commission,
exclusive of gunboats, small craft, the coastguard and portguard
ships, and a number of vessels engaged in the training service
and as harbour and depot ships. The various stations of the
squadrons are the Mediterranean, Channel, North America and
West Indies, South-East Coast of America, Pacific, Cape and
West Coast of Africa, East Indies, China, and Australia.
The vessels were thus distributed in January 1899
Mediterranean and Red Sea . 38
Channel Squadron . . . 14
North America and West Indies 12
East Indies .... 9
China 28
Cape of Good Hope and West
Africa . . . . 16
Pacific ..... 7
Australia
South-east coast of America
Particular Service
Surveying Service
Training Squadron . ■.
Total
12
4
11
9
4
. 164
The following tabulated list of battleships, coast and port defence vessels,
and principal cruisers of the British Navy, built, building and projected,
requires a few words of explanation. The order of ships is chronological. In
the first list, the ships of which the names are in italics are coast defence or
floating battery ships. The numbers following the names of the others
indicate the classes to which they have been assigned in the foregoing table.
The letters in the first column signify the character of the ships -.—h. broad-
side ; c.h. central battery ; L turret'; har, barbette. In the particulars of
guns, ''Q.F." means quick-firing. Machine-guns are not given. The cruisers
tabulated are of the first-class, and the more important and recent vessels of
the second class.
defence:
6S
a
P<
1
4)
Q
Name
1
i
Displace-
ment, Tons
Extreme
Armouring,
Inchea
Armament
O CO
Indicated
Horse-
power
.5 *>
as,
120
b
Minotaur . 3
1863
10,690
5i
1? 12-ton ; 4 4-7-in., and S 3-pr. Q.F.
2
5,000
b
Achilles . 3
18(33
9,820
^
14 12-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 8 3-pr. Q. F.
2
5,000
12-7
b
Agincoiirt . 3
1805
10,690
5i
17 12-ton; 2-20.pr. ; 10 S-pr. Q.F.
2
5,000
120
eb
Bellerophou . 3
1865
7,550
6
10 8-in., 4 6-in., 6 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
4
4,000
12-4
b
Nortlmmberland 3
1866
10,780
5^
7 12-ton ; 20 9-ton ; 12 smaller
2
6,560
12-0
t
Monarch . 3
1868
8,320
10
/4 25-ton; 2 12-ton ; 1 6 J- ton ; 4 12-pr.\^
\ and 12 3-pt. Q.F- /
2
8}000
14-0
eb
Hercules . 3
1868
8,680
9
r 8 18-ton ; 2 12i-ton ; 4 6i-ton ; 28 Q.F.)
I guns' i
4
8,500
14-6
cb
Audacious . 3
1869
6,010
8
10 12-ton; 8 4-in. ; 4 6-pr., & 6 3-pr. Q.F.
4
4,830
11-6
e b j Invincible . 3
1869
6,010
8
10 12- ton ; 6 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
4
4,830
12-5
c h 1 Iron Duke . 3
1870
6,010
8
10 12-ton ; 4 5-in. ; 4 20-pr. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
4
3,520
12-4
( 1 Hotspur —
1870
4,010
11
2 25-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
2
3,060
12-8
c 6 ' Swiftsure . 3
1870
6,910
8
10 12-ton ; 8 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 4 3-pr. Q.F.
4
4,910
12-6
c b 1 Triumph . 3
1870
6,640
8
10 12-ton ; 4 5-in. ; 8 6-pr. & 8 3-pr. Q.F.
4
5,110
12-6
c & Sultan . . 3
1870
9,290
9
818-ton ; 412Hon ; 7 20 pr., 4 6-pr. Q.F.
4
8,000
13-7
t
Devastation 2
1871
9,330
14
4 29-ton ; 6 6-pr. & 8 3-pr. Q.F.
4
7,000
140
t
Cyclops . —
1871
3,560
10
4 18-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
—
1,660
9-9
t
Glatton. . —
1871
4,910
14
2 25-ton ; 3 6-pr. Q.F.
2
2,870
110
t
Gorgon . . —
1871
3,560
10
4 18-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
—
1,670
9-9
t
Hecate . . —
1871
3,560
10
4 18-tou ; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
—
1,750
9-9
t
Hydra . . —
1871
3,560
10
4 18-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
—
1,470
9-9
t
Thunderer 2
1872
9,330
14
4 29-ton ; 6 6-pr. <b 8 3-pr. Q.F.
2
7,000
13-4
t
Rupert . . —
1872
5,440
14
2 22-ton ; 2 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 6 3-pr. Q.F.
4
6,000
14-0
t
Neptune . 3
1874
9,310
13
4 38-ton ; 2 12-ton ; 6 6-pr. & 8 3-pr. Q.F.
2
8,000
14-2
eb
Superb . . 3
1875
9,170
12
1618-ton; 6 4-in. ; 6 6-pr. & 10 3-pr. Q.F.
4
6,000
15 0
eb
Alexandra . 2
1875
9,490
12
/8 18-ton ; 4 22-ton ; 6 4-in, ; 4 6-pr. & 6\
[ 3-pr. Q.F. /
4
8,610
14-3
t
Dreadnought 2
1875
10,820
14
4 38-ton ; 6 6-pr. & 2 3-pr. Q.F.
2
8,210
13-7
t Inflexible . 2
1876
11,880
24
4 80-ton ; 8 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 2 3-pr. Q.F.
4
8,010
12-8
bar Temeraire 3
1876
8,540
11
/4 25-ton ; 4 18-t-on ; 6 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. <fe 2\
\ 3-pr. Q.F. /
2
7,000
13-8
e b Belleisle , —
1876
4,870
12
4 25-ton; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
2
8,200
11-9
c b . Orion . . —
1879
4,870
12
4 25-ton; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
4
3,900
11-9
t ' Agamemnon . —
1879
8,660
18
4 38-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 6 6.pr. & 8 3-pr. Q.F.
2
6,360
12-1
t
Jjax . . —
1880
8,660
18
4 38-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
2
6,000
121
t
Conqueror . 3
1881
6,200
12
2 45-ton ; 4 5-ton ; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
6
6,000
16-5
t
Edinburgh . 2
1882
9,420
18
4 45'ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6'pr. & 10 3-pr. Q.F.
2
7,500
15-5
t
Colossus . 2
1882
9,420
18
4 45-ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. & 10 3-pr. Q.F.
2
7,500
15-5
bar
Collingwood . 1
1882
9,500
18
4 45-ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. & 10 3-pr. Q.F.
2
9,500
16-5
bar
Rodney . 1
1884
10,300
18
i\ 69-ton ; 3 67-ton ; 6 5-ton ; 12 6-pr. &\
\ 2 3.pr. Q.F. /
2 45-ton ; 4 5-ton ; 7 6-pr. & 5 3-pr. Q.F.
4
11,500
16-7
t
Hero . . 3
1885
6,200
12
6
6,000
15-5
bar ' Benbow . 1
1885
10,600
18
2 111-ton ; 105-ton ; 8 6-pr. & 7 3-pr. Q.F.
5
11,500
16-7
bar I Camperdown 1
1885
10,600
18
4 67-ton ; 6 5-ton ; 12 6-pr. & 7 3-pr. Q.F.
5
11,500
16-7
bar
Howe . . 1
1885
10,300
18
4 67-ton ; 6 5-ton ; 12 6-pr. & 7 3-pr. Q.F.
5
11,500
16-7
bar
Anson . 1
1886
10,600
18
4 67-ton ; 6 6-in. ; 12 6-pr. & 7 3-pr. Q.F.
5
11,500 16'7|
t
Sans Parell . 1
1887
10,470
18
/2 111-ton ; 1 29-ton ; 12 5-ton ; 12 6-pr.\
\ <fe 9 3-pr. Q.F. /
6
14,000
16'7
i
Trafalgar . 1
1887
11,940
20
/4 67-ton; 6 6-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. & 9\
\ 3-pr. Q.F. /
6
12,000
16-7
t
Nile . . 1
1888
11,940
20
/4 67-ton; 6 G-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. & 9\
\ 3-pr. Q.F. /
4
12,000
16-7
t
Hood . . 1
1891
14,150
18
/ 4 67-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 10 O-pr. & 12 \
\ 3-pr. Q.F. 1
7
13,000
17-6
bar
Royal Sovereign 1
1891
14,150
18
/ 4 67-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 16 6-pr. & 12 \
1 3-pr. Q.F. /
7
13,312
17-5
bar
Empress of India 1
1891
14,150
18
Do. Do.
7
18,000
17-6
bar
Repulse . 1
1892
14,150
18
Do. Do.
7
13,000
17-5
bar
Royal Oak . 1
1892
14,150
18
Do. Do.
7
13,000
17-5
bar
Ramillies . 1
1892
14,150
18
Do. Do.
7
13,000
17-5
bar
Resolution . 1
1892
14,150
18
Do. Do.
7
13,000
17-5
64
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
1
.&
o
bar
Name
-d
•§
a
Displace-
ment, Tons
Extreme
Armouring,
Inches
Armament
o <»
o *
Indicated
Horse-
power
.5 aj
Revenge
1892
14,150
18
/ 4 67-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 16 6-pir. & 12\
1 3-pr. Q.F. f
7
13,000
17-5
bar
Centurion
1892
10,500
12
j 4 29-ton ; 10 4-7-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. & 12\
\ 3-pr. Q.F. /
7
13,000
180
bar
Barfleur
1892
10,500
12
Do. Do.
IT
f
13,000
180
bar
Renown
1895
12,350
10
/ 4 29-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 14 12-pr., & \
I 12 3-pr. Q.F. /
5
10,000
180
bar
Magnificent
1894
14,900
14
4 12-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 30 smaller Q.F.-
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Majestic
1
1895
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Prince Georg
e 1
1895
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Victorious
1895
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Jupiter
1895
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Caesar .
1896
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Hannibal
1896
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Illustrious
1896
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Mars .
1896
14,900
14
Do. Do.
5
12,000
17-5
bar
Canopus
1897
12,950
12
4 12-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 18 smaller
Q.F., &c.
5
13,500 :l8-75
bar
Ocean .
1898
12,950
12
Do. Do.
5
13,500 18-75
bar
Goliath
1898
12,950
12
Do. Do.
5
13,500
18-75
bar
Albion
1898
12,950
12
Do. Do.
5
13,500
18-75
bar
Formidable
1898
14,700
—
4 12-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 30 smaller Q.F.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
Irresistible
1898
14,700
—
Do. Do.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
Glory .
—
12,950
12
Do. Do.
5
13,500
18-75
bar
Vengeance
—
12,950
12
Do. Do.
5
13,500
18-75
bar
Implacable
—
14,700
—
Do. Do.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
Loudon .
—
14,700
—
Do. Do.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
Venerable
—
14,700
—
Do. Do.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
Bulwark
—
14,700
—
Do. Do.
—
15,000
18-0
bar
4 Unnamed
—
14,000
—
Ordered.
—
—"
—
Also the port-defence vessels Magdala (3,340 tons), Abyssinia
(2,910 tons), and Cerberus (3,480 tons), on Indian and Colonial
stations.
First Class and other Cruisers.
Name
Imperieuse
Warspitc .
Undaunted
Australia .
Narcis.sus .
Orlando
Aurora
Galatea
Immortalitc
Blake
Blenheim .
a
Displace-
ment, Tons
1883
8,400
1884
8,400
1886
5,600
1886
1886
1886
5,600
5,600
5,600
1887
5,600
1887
5,600
1887
5,600
1889
9,000
1890
9,000 1
1
Armament
f 4 24-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 4 3-pr. \
I Q.F. ;
( 4 22-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 4 3-pr. \
\ Q.F. i
/ 2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 6 6-pr. & 10 \
1 3-pr. Q.F. J
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
2 22 ton ; 10 6-in. ; 16 3-pr. Q.F
Do.
^ R
P«u
O tj p
i^
;l«^
IS O o
t— 1
6
10,000
^6-7
6
10,000
16-7
4
8,500
18-5
Do.
8,500
18-5
Do.
8,500
18-5
Do.
8,500
18-5
Do.
8,500
18-5
Do. ! 8,500
18-5
Do. 1 8,600
18-5
4
20,000
22-0
Do,
20,000
22-0
DEFENCE
65
Name
Edgar
Endymion .
Hawke
Royal Arthur
Crescent
St. George
Gibraltar
Grafton
Theseus
Eclipse
Minerva
Talbot
Diana
Juno .
Venus
Powerful
Terrible
Dido .
Doris .
Isis .
Furious
Gladiator
Vindictive
Arrogant
Hermes
Hyacinth
Highflier
Diadem
Andromeda
Niobe
Europa
Spartiate
Argonaut
Amphitrite
Ariadne
Cressy
Hogue
Aboukir
Sutlej
Euryalus
Bacchante
2 Unnamed
4 Unnamed
1890
1891
1891
1891
1891
1892
1892
1892
1892
1894
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1896
1896
1896
1896
1896
1896
1896
1896
1897
1897
1897
1898
1898
1898
GO
2 o
7,350
7,350
7,350
7,700
7,700
7,700
7,700
7,350
7,350
5,600
5,600
5,600
5,600
5,600
5,600
14,200
14,200
5,600
5,600
5,600
5,750
5,750
5 750
5,750
5,600
5,600
5,600
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
12,000
14,100
Armament
12 6-pr. <fe )
12 6-pr. (fc 1
f 2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 6-pr. &
\ 5 3-pr. Q.F.
Do.
Do.
f 1 22-ton ; 12 6-in. Q.F.
1 5 3-pr. Q.F.
Do.
/ 2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F.
I 5 3-pr. Q.F
Do.
Do.
Do.
5 6.in. Q.F. ; 6 4-7-in. ; and smaller Q.F.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
f 2 9'2-in. ; 12 6.in. Q.F. ; 18 12-pr. & \
1 12 3-pr. Q.F. /
Do.
5 6-in. Q.F. ; 6 47-in. and smaller Q.F.
Do.
Do.
r 4 0-in. Q.F. ; 6 4-7-in. Q.F. ; 9 12-pr. \
\ Q.F. ; 8 small Q.F. J
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
16 6-in. Q. F. ; 14 12-pr. Q.F. ; 20 small Q.F.
Do.
Do.
Do.
4S-in., 12 6in., 14 12-pr. & 20 small all Q.F.
Do.
Do.
Do.
2 9-2-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 14 12-pr. Q.F.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
2 9-2-in. ; 16 6-in. Q.F. ; 14 12-pr. Q.F.
Design not settled.
lo «
Indicated
Horse-
power
2t)
.3 «
19-7
4
12,000
Do.
Do.
12,000
12,000-
19-7
19-7
4
12,000
19-5
Do.
12,000
19-5 1
Do.
12,000
19-5
Do.
Do.
12,000
12,000
19-5 :
19-7
Do.
3
12,000
9,600
19-7
19-5
3
3
3
3
3
9,600
9,600
9,600
9,600
9,600
19-5
19-5
19-5
19-5
19-5
4
25,000
22-0
4
25,000
22-0
4
4
4
9,600
9,600
9,600
19-5
19-5
195
2
10,000
190
2
2
10,100
10,000
19 0
19-5
2
3
3
3
10,000
9,600
9,600
9,600
19-5
19-5
19-5
19-5
3
3
3
3
16,500
16,500
16,500
16,500
20-5 t
20-5 j
20-5 1
20-5 ,
3
3
3
16,500
16,500
16,500
20-5 1
20-5 1
20-5 !
3
16,000
21,000
21,000
21,000
21,000
21,000
20-5
21-0
21-0
210
21 0
21-0
—
21,000
21 0
—
30,000
23-0
— ' —
—
Of the ten battleships built under the Naval Defence Act, seven are of the
Royal Sovereign type, which is a much improved development of the
* Admiral ' class, with better protection, higher freeboard, and more powerful
armament. The Hood is the only one of these new battleships which carries
her heavy guns in closed turrets. The Barjleur and Centurion are examples
of the tendency to combine the chief qualities of the largest ironclads in a
rather smaller and less expensive compass. In them the protection and
arrangement of the quick-firing armament have been even more highly
elaborated than in the Eoijal Sovereign class, and their speed is at least equal.
F
66 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Their heavy armament, however, is less powerful, and their armour is reduced
in thickness.
The Renown, built at Pembroke, as part of the programme of 1892-93,
is of another type. She is described as an improved Centurion, and has a
greater displacement (12,350 tons) than that type. She is armed with four-
10-in. breechloading guns, carried in two barbettes and mounted similarly
to those in the Centurion. Her secondary armament is extremely powerful,
including ten 6 -in. quick-firing guns, eight 12-pounder quick-firers, and a
considerable number of smaller quick-firing guns. In the protection of this
secondary armament the arrangements in the Renown are more efficient than
those in any preceding battleship. The hull armour is arranged on an
entirely different principle from that which has been adopted in the Centurion,
and associated with a different arrangement of the protective deck.
'iThe nine battleships of the Majestic type are the largest war- vessels
yet afloat with the exception of the Italia and Lepanto. The following
are their characteristics : length 390 feet, extreme beam 78 feet,
mean draught 28 feet, displacement 14,900 tons. With natural draught
on the eight hours' contractor's trial, there is a mean speed of 16 J knots ;
and with moderate forced draught a maximiom speed of 174 to 17^ knots.
The armament includes four 12-inch B.L. guns of new type mounted in pairs ;
twelve 6-inch Q.F. ; sixteen 12:pounders Q.F. new type; and twelve
3-pounders Q.F. There are also five torpedo discharges for 18-inch torpedoes,
four of these being submerged. In the general disposition of the armament
the arrangement of the Royal Sovereign class has been followed. There are,
however, certain important differences. The 12-inch guns mounted in
strongly armoured barbettes have their mountings so arranged that they can
be loaded in any position by manual power, while the proved advantages
obtainable with hydraulic power and fixed loading stations are retained.
Strong armoured shields are fitted to the turntables and revolve with the
guns. The protection of the 6-inch Q.F. guns is carried out more thoroughly
than in the Royal Sovereign class, involving considerable additional weight.
The ships of the Canopus class are smaller, displacing only 12,900 tons,
but they carry four 12-inch guns, and twelve 6-inch, and eighteen smaller
quick-firers, and are intended for a speed of 18*75 knots. In all there are
six of them built and building.
The later battleships, of the Formidable class, are improvements upon
the colossal Majesties. The speed of 18 knots is half a knot greater, and
though the armament is the same in character it is more powerful, the new
6 -inch Vickers gun being used. The protection of Harveyed steel is very
sufficient. The Formidahle has Belleville water-tube boilers. The four
battleships of the supplemented progi'amme will have greater speed, less
draught of water (being calculated specially for passing through the Suez
Canal), and slightly thinner armouring.
The six armoured cruisers of the Cressy class building and planned, will
be exceedingly swift and powerful vessels of the class. They will displace
12,000 tons, with a length of 440 feet, beam 69 feet 6 inches, draught
26 feet 3 inches, and will have a natural draught speed of 21 knots with
21,000 1 H.P. Their guns will be of the new class and of great range and
penetration. Four other armoured cruisers, since ordered, will even surpass
them in size, speed and power, and the supplementary programme includes
two more, of which the design is not yet complete. They will practically be
armoured Poioerfuls.
The Powerful and Terrible are formidable protected cruisers of
about 14,000 tons. They are fitted with water-tube Belleville boilers.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
67
and great interest attended the trials. During thirty hours, with
5,000 horse-power, they steamed respectively at 14 "33 and 13*43 knots,
and with 18,000 horse-power at 20*6 and 20 "96 knots, while during four
hours, with 25,000 horse-power, the speeds were 21 '8 and 22*41 knots,
a strong wind blowing at the time. The characteristics of the other
lirst-class, and of the more important second-class cruisers, will be gleaned
from the preceding table. Their armament is very strong and care-
fully protected, and they have high freeboard, the bow and stern chasers being
well above the water. Their vital parts are beneath a 4-in. curved steel deck,
associated with many watertight compartments. Their coal-bunker capacity
is 3,000 tons.
The new second-class cruisers of the Arrogant class have armoured bows and
great manceuvring power, but they have been criticised on the ground of
defective speed and armament. Of the new destroyers three are experimental
boats of 32 and 33 knots, while a fourth is fitted with the new steam turbine.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In 1876 the number of owners of less than an acre of land in
the United Kingdom, exclusive of the metropolis, was officially
returned at 852,408 ; of owners of more than an acre at
321,386 ; total number of owners, 1,173,794. The whole extent
of land accounted for in the returns was, however, five-and-a-
half millions of acres less than the area of the United Kingdom,
all common and waste lands, as well as the metropolis and the
lands of owners of less than an acre, having been excluded
from the survey.
The following table shows the distribution of the surface in
each section of Great Britain in percentages of the total acreage of
each section : —
— , England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Average
Cultivable and pasture area
"Woods, coppice, &c.
Mountain, heath, water,
&c
77
4*8
18*2
60
3*5
36*5
25
4*5
70*5
72
1*6
26*4
58-5
3*6
37*9
100*0
32,527
100-0
100*0
100*0
100*0
Total area (in 1,000 acres)
4,712
19,085
20,820
77,144
The following table shows the distribution of the cultivable
area ; -
F 2
68
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
—
1S74
1895
1896
1897
1898
Great Britain :
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Corn crops
9,431,490
7,400,227
7,416,690
7,457,061
7,400,335
Green crops
3,581,276
3,225,762
3,258,591
3,189,508
3,133,521
Flax
9,394
2,023
1,796
1,419
902
Hops
65,805
58,940
54,249
50,863
49,735
Small fruit
—
74,547
76,245
69,792
69,753
Bare fallow, &c.
660,206
475,650
432,375
384,757
352,094
Clover and ma-
ture grasses .
4,340,742
4,729,801
4,595,937
4,853,808
4,911,189
Permanent pas-
ture
13,178,412
16,610,563
16,726,476
16,512,868
16,559,502
Live stock : —
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Horses .
1,311,739
1,545,228
1,552,507
1,526,424
1,517,160
Cattle .
6,125,491
6,354,336
6,493,582
6,500,497
6,622,364
Sheep .
30,313,941
25,792,195
26,705,329
26,340,440
26,743,194
Pigs
2,422,832
2,884,431
2,878,801
2,342,302
2,451,595
Ireland :
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Corn crops
1,901,508
1,439,053
1,420,721
1,407,845
1,390,941
Green crops
1,353,362
1,151,582
1,147,717
1,115,409
1,105,026
Flax
106,886
95,202
72,301
45,576
34,489
Bare fallow, &c.
12,187
18,506
18,280
20,150
16,857
Clover, &mature|
grasses . . 1
1,285,357
1,319,660
1,251,490
1,252,889
Permanent i
12,378,244
pasture J
11,189,018
11,215,439
11,384,279
11,390,950
Live stock : —
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
1 Horses .
468,089
557,139
553,320
534,133
513,788
Cattle .
4,118,113
4,358,041
4,407,741
4,463,935
4,486,242
Sheep .
4,437,613
3,914,855
4,080,694
4,157,581
4,287,274
Pigs . .
1,096,494
1,338,454
1,405,508
1,327,226
1,253,682
The following table shows the area (in acres) under each of the
heavy corn and green crops in the years named : —
Year
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Beans
Peas
Potatoes
Turnips
Great Britain
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
1874
3,630,300
2,287,987
2,596,384
559,044
310,547
520,430
2,133,336
1894
1,927,962
2,095,771
3,253,401
244,180
243,043
504,454
1,956,573
1895
1,417.641
2,166,279
3,295,905
242,665
209,024
641,217
1,915,902
1896
1,693,957
2,104,764
3,095,488
251,076
196,561
563,741
1,883,118
1897
1,889,161
2,035,790
3,036,«56
228,912
190,656
504,914
1,833,145
1898
2,102,220
1,903,652
2,917,760
232,007
175,901
524,691
1,772,406
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
69
Year
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Beans
Peas
Potatoes
Turnips
Ireland :
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
1874
188,711
212,230
1,480,186
9,646
1,756
892,421
333,487
1894
49,3412
164,780
1,254,813
2,784
401
717,120
311,294
1895
36,532
171,650
1,216,401
2,354
498
710,486
313,281
1896
37,919
173,014
1,193,604
1,177
318
705,652
308,494
1897
46,880
170,634
1,175,467
1,377
440
677,765
308,942
1898
52,862
158,151
1,165,295
1,712
537
664,912
306,936
The following table shows the total produce of each of the
principal crops in Great Britain and Ireland ia thousands of
bushels and tons for the years named : —
Great Britain
; Ireland
Description
of Crops
1
1895
1896
1,000
1897
1898
1894
1895
1896
1,000
1897
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
j 1,000
1,000
Bushls.
Bushls.
BusUs.
Bushls.
iBushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Wheat .
.
37,176
57,053
54,940
73,029
1 1,532
1,109
1,194
1,355
Barley and Bere .
68,651
70,775
66,814
68,052
; 6,306
6,378
7,050
5,799
Oats
122,149
114,016
116,847
118,921
55,400
52,328
48,844
46,709
Beans
.
5,555
6,437
6,603
—
112
71
54
47
Peas
•
4,720
4,970
6,239
—
10
12
8
10
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Potatoes
3,593
3,562
2,608
1,873
3,472
2,701
1,498
Turnips and Swedes
24,730
23,254
25,652
4,279
4,491
4,783
4,134
The following table shows the estimated average yield per acre
of the principal crops : —
Great Britain
Ireland
Description of Crops
1895
1896
1897
1898
1894
1895
1896
1897
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Wheat ....
26-23
33-68
29-08
34-74
i 31-04
30-35
31-41
28-69
Barley and Bere .
31-69
33-63
32-82
35-75
38-27
37-12
40-65
33-98
Oats ....
37-06
36-83
38-49
40-76
44-15
43-02
40-92
39-75
Beans ....
22-91
25-66
28-88
—
40-28
30-34
30-43
34-49
Peas ....
22-61
25-35
27-56
—
25-54
24-39
25-40
23-72
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Potatoes
6-64
6-32
5-17
—
2-61
4-89
3-83
2-21
Turnips and Swedes
12-91
12-35
13-99
~
13-75
14-33
15-50
13-38
For the quantities of cereals and live stock imported, see under
Commerce.
The following table shows the number of holdings or farms of various sizes
above one acre in Great Britain in June 1895 : —
70
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Number of Agricultural Holdings in each Class
Percentage of Holdings
! Classification of
Holdings
Eng-
land
Wales
Scot-
land
Great
Britain
Eng-
land
Wales
Scot-
land
Great
Britain
No.
No.
No.
No.
7o
7o
%
7o
Above 1 ac. not above 5 ac.
87,055
10,763
20,150
117,968
22-90
17-85 i
25-30
22-68
„ 5 „ 20 „ 108,145
18,569
23,104
149,818
28-45
30-80
29-01
28-80
, 20 „ 50 ,, 62,446
12.400
10,817
85,663
16-42
20-57
13-58
16-47
, 50 „ 100 „ 46,574
10,217
9,834
66,625
12-25
16-95
12-35
I'^-Sl
, 100 „ 300 „ 60,381
7,896
12,968
81,245
15-88
13-10
16-28
15-62
, 300 „ 500 ,, 11,112
386
2,070
13.568
2-92
0-64
2-60
2-61
, 500 ,, 1,000 „ ;, 3,942
54
620
4,616
1-04
0-09
0-78
0-89
, 1,000
524
3
76
603
0-14
0-00
0-10
0-12
Total .
380,179
60,288
79,639
520,106
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
The acreage of Agricultural Holdings in each class, and percentage of
acreage of Holdings were : —
Acreage of Agricultural Holdings in each Class
Percentage of Acreage
Classification of
Holdings
England
Wales
Scot-
land
Great
Britain
Eng-
land
Wales
Scot-
land
Great
Britn.
1
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
7n
7o
7o
7.
lAbove lac.
not above 5 ac.
265,268
35,633
65,891
366,792
1-07
1-25
1-35
1-13
.1 5
20 „
1,210,716
211,267
245,664
1,667,647
4-87
7-44
5-02
5-12
„ 20
50 „
2,077,953
423,757
363,266
2,864,976
8-36
14-93
7-42
8-79
„ 50
100 „
3,403,761
749,465
731,977
.4,885,203
13-70
26-40
14-96
15-00
„ 100
,, 300 „
10,434,138
1,238,569
2,203,207
13,875,914
4200
43-64
45-01 1 42-59|
,, 300
500 „
4,188,651
142,925
782,369
5,113,945
16-86
5-04
15-98
15-701
„ 500
„ 1,000 „
2,570,684
32,818
397,682
3,001,184
10-35
1-16
8-13
9-21
„ 1,000
Total .
693,517
3,925
104,410
801,852
2-79
0-14
2-13
2-46
24,844,688
2,838,359
4,894,466
32,577,513
100-00 100-00
10000
100 00
Of the 520,106 holdings over one acre in size, 439,405 were rented by the
occupiers ; 61,014 were owned by the occupiers ; 19,687 were partly rented
and partly owned. The acreage rented and the acreage owned by occupiers
were as follows : —
Classification of Holdings
Rented by
Occupiers
Owned by
Occupiers
Total
]
Percentage
Acres
Acres
Acres
7o
7c
7o
Above 1 ac. not above 5ac.
313,003
53,789
366,792
1-12
116
1-13
>, 5 „ 20 „
1,438,697
228,950
1,667,647
5.15
4-93
5 12
„ 20 „ 50 „
2,513,977
350,999
2,864,976
900
7-57
8-79
„ 50 „ 100,,
4,350,476
534,727
4,885,203
15-57
11-52
15-00
,,100 „ 300,,
12,290,515
1,585,399
13,875,914
43-99
34-17
42-59
,,300 „ 500,,
4,295,163
818,782
5,113,945
15-38
17-65
15-70
,,500 „ 1,000,,
2,251,355
749,829
3,001,184
8-06
16-16
9-21
„ 1,000
Total .
484,284
317,568
801,852
1-73
6-84
2-46
27,937,470
4,640,043
32,577,513
100-00
100-00
100-00
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
71
The changes in the number and acreage of holdings between 1885 and 1895
are shown in five categories, thus : —
Holdings in Great Britain
1885
1895
5 to 50 Acres
50 „ 100 „
j 100 „ 300 ,,
300 ,, 500 ,,
; Over 500 ,,
Total .
No.
232,955
64,715
79,573
13,875
5,489
Acreage
4,481,354
4,746,520
13,658,495
5,241,168
4,029,843
32,157,380
No.
235,481
66,625
81,245
13,568
5,219
Acreage
4,532,623
4,885,203
13,875,914
5,113,945
3,803,036
396,607
402,138
32,210,721
Of holdings of one to five acres (both included) there were in Great
Britain in 1885, 135,736 with an acreage of 389,677 acres ; in 1895, 134,677
with a total of 383,501 acres.
The total number of holdings of one acre and under (stated to be only
approximate) is put at 579,133 (37,143 acre plots, and 541,990 of smaller
size). Of these there are returned as allotments detached from cottages
20,434 acre plots, and 488,550 smaller holdings (455,005 in 1890, and
357,795 in 1886).
The gross estimated rental of the agricultural land of England and Wales
is 26,881,783Z., and the rateable value 24,565,075Z., while of buildings, &c.,
not agricultural, the gross estimated rental is 172,347,123Z., and the rateable
value 140,847,206Z.
The following table shows the number of holdings, by classes, for each
province of Ireland, in 1896 and 1897, and the increase or decrease in the
latter year : —
Provinces
Number and Classification of Holdings
Not
exceeding
1 acre
Above 1
and not
exceeding
5 acres
Above 5
and not
exceeding
15 acres
Above 15
and not
exceeding
30 acres
Above 30
and not
exceeding
50 acres
T . . /1896
Leinster . j^gg^
TUT ^. /1896
Munster . j^gg^
Ulster . . {llf^
Connaught . [\lf^
Total of Ireland |}^^^
Increase or decrease /
in 1897 . . \
19,815
21,015
17,435
17,412
17,067
17,446
6,490
6,316
17,744
17,638
11,121
11,249
20,804
20,604
12,552
12,539
25,501
25,411
18,975
19,132
64,381
63,884
46,476
46,637
21,931
21,996
24,170
24,059
53,505
53,567
33,605
33,686
15,237
15,152
22,143
22,198
24,910
25,093
11,715
11,638
60,807
62,189
62,221
62,030
155,333
155,064
133,211
133,308
74,005
74,081
Increase
1,382
Decrease
191
Decrease
. 269
Increase
97
Increase
76
72
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Provinces
Above 50 Above 100 JAbove 200
and not and not and not
exceeding exceeding exceeding
100 acres 200 acres 500 acres
Above 500
acres
Total
r . ^ ri896
Lemster j^g^^
TVT 4. n896
Munster . -J ,Qgy
Ulster -^^^^^
Ulster . . ^jgg^
^ 0,4. n896
Connaught . n 897
Total of Ireland < , gg«
Increase or decrease /
in 1897 . . \
14,031
14,010
22,449
22,526
14,356
14,416
6,407
6,502
6,892
6,894
9,180
9,266
3,717
3,699
3,208
3,182
2,821
2,814
2,741
2,704
1,031
1,032
1,704
1,695
412
415
374
384
272
268
492
496
124,384
125,345
128,588
128,930
200,043
200,009
122,649
122,691
57,243
57,454
22,997
23,041
8,297
8,245
1,550
1,563
575,664
576,975
Increase
211
Increase
44
Decrease
52
Increase
13
Increase
1,311
In 1890 the total number of occupiers was 524,210 ; in 1896, 533,043 ; in
1897, 533,514.
II. Fisheries.
The quantity and value of the fish landed on the coasts of the
United Kingdom in five years have been : —
—
1894
Tons
351,198
309,438
41,796
1895
1896
Tons
377,534
306,907
42.103
1897
1898
England and Wales .
Scotland
Ireland
U.K. (excluding shell-fish) .
England and Wales .
Scotland
Ireland. ...
U.K. (excluding shell-fish) .
U.K. (including shell-fish
Tons
363,179
305,353
34,900
Tons
397,305
250,087
40,941
Tons
404,002
327,261
46,653
702,432
703,432
726,544
688,333
777,916
£
5,756,205
1,876,495
303,317
£
4,981,960
1,565,821
267,894
£
5,129,089
1,763,991
274,945
£
5,166,780
1,569,138
265,950
£
5,568,978
1,627,622
283,944
6,815,675
7,260,588
7,168,025
7,600,096
7,001,868
7,436,518
7,480,544
7,910,761
7,936,017
8,493,498
1
This statement does not include salmon. Of the fish landed in England,
about 79 per cent, in weight and 78 per cent, in value are landed on the east
coast.
The number of men employed in the British fisheries (1896), including the
Isle of Man and Channel Islands, was approximately (in 1895, 114,320 ;
of these 41,022 were English, 40,793 Scotch, and 26,407 Irish. There
were 26,649 (in 1895, 26,923) registered boats.
MINING AND METALS
73
The following table shows the quantity of fish (in tons) conveyed inland by
railway from the ports of the United Kingdom in each of the last five years.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
355,116
107,202
11,088
1897
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Total
328,801
101,737
9,290
332,619
99,763
10,213
333,298
101,646
10,223
352,235
105,001
10,894
439,828
442,595
445,167
473,406
468,130
The net imports (exclusive of re-exports), and the exports of fish, fresh
and cured, from the United Kingdom have been : —
—
1894
1895
1896
1897
Net imports . . Tons
Exports . £
,, herrings only £
112,116
2,171,060
2,053,179
1,456,246
101,535
2,453,676
2,282,406
1,626,889
113,769
2,636,511
2,007,505
1,328,662
103,071
2,808,381
2,037,794
1,364,374
III. Mining and Metals.
The following tables give a general summary of the mineral
produce of the United Kingdom for 1897. The first table relates
to the metallic minerals and their products : —
Metallic Minerals
Minerals
raised
Values
Metals con-
tained in the
Ores.
Values of
Metals
Tons
£
Tons
£
Iron ore .
13,787,878
3,217,795
4,736,667
11,394,779
Iron pyrites
10,583
4,525
—
—
Lead ore
35,338
275,409
26,562
332,578
Tin ore . . .
7,120
254,218
4,453
291,336
Copper ore .
7,132
18,706
518
27,096
Zinc ore
19,278
69,154
7,049
126,823
Bog iron ore
7,124
1,781
—
—
Copper precipitate
220
2,320
—
—
Alum, clay, and shale.
13,938
2,899
310
45,880
Sodium
—
—
85
12,750
Nickel ore .
300
300
7
Ounces
1,050
Silver.
—
—
249,156
28,614
Gold ore ,
4,517
6,282
2,032
7,185
Value of chief metal
Total value of metal
lie minerals .
3 from British
3,853,389 1
ores
(
12,268,091
The following table relates to the non-metallic minerals : —
74
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Minerals
Tons
Value
Minerals
Tons
Value
Coal .
202,129,931
£
59,740,009
Gravel, sand
1,356,787
£
111,332
Clays
12,705,106
1,453,128
G5rpsum .
181,385
66,978
Sandstone .
4,964,109
1,524,700
Arsenic and
Slates, slabs
609,194
1,649,576
ars. pyrites
17,302
85,529
Limestone .
11,003,524
1,155,993
Barytes .
22,723
24,117
Salt .
1,903,493
620,898
Ochre, &c.
14,422
12,997
Oil shale .
2,223,745
555,936
Others
119,307
33,629
Granite
1,847,323
552,604
Basalt, &c.
2,355,554
441,391
Total non-metallic .
68,190,412
Chal k . .
3,858,448
163,595
Total minerals (1897)
„ (1896)
72,043,801
69,088,366
This shows an increase of 2,955,435Z. on 1896 in the value of the total
mineral produce, and an increase of 41,179?. in that of metals produced. Of
the total mineral produce in 1897, the value of 50,285, 601Z. was raised in
England, 11,778,614?. in Wales, 9,727,402?. in Scotland, 199,068?. in Ireland,
and 53,116?. in the Isle of Man.
The total number of persons employed in and about all mines in the
United Kingdom in 1S97 was 728,713?. ; of this number, 558,305 were em-
ployed underground.
The quantity and value of coal raised in the United Kingd •)m in five years,
and the quantity and value of coal, coke, and patent fuel exported have been : —
Year
Coal raised
Coal exported
Tons
Value
Tons
Value
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
164,325,795
188,277,525
189,661,362
195,361,260
202,129,931
£
55,809,808
62,730.179
57,231,213
57,190,147
59,740,009
29,031,955
33,073,698
33,101,452
34,262,056
37,096,918
14,375,476
17,371,331
15,433,803
15,156,313
16,654,955
The coal production of the various districts of the United Kingdom in
1897 was :—
District
Tons of Coal
District
Tons of Coal
England : —
Durham
Yorkshire
Lancashire .
Staffordshire .
Derbyshire .
Northumberland .
Monmouthshire
Nottinghamshire .
33,819,068
24,055,380
22,812,572
13,449,635
12,648,419
9,768,459
9,307,304
6,970,424
England (contd. ) : —
Other districts
Wales : —
Glamorgan .
Other districts
Scotland : —
Lanarkshire .
Other districts
Ireland
10,656,601
25,112,551
4,311,497
15,822,297
13,260,699
135,025
Total, United Kingdom .... 202,129,931
The exports of coal, coke, and patent fuel in 1897 were chiefly to the
following Countries : —
MINING AND MKTALS
75
Countries
Weight
Value ||
Countries
Weight
1
Value
Tons
• £
Tons
£
France
5,697,292
2,363,721
Denmark .
1,879,182
773,725
Italy.
4,834,054
2,045,723
Holland .
947,235
411,222
Germany .
5,042,781
2,021,444
Argentina .
865,345
490,339
Spain
2,257,306
1,080,604
Norway
1,174,416
497,994
Sweden
2,286,558
1,014,056 I
Brazil
1,046,075
582,315
Russia
2,015,525
921,719
British India
208,432
104,609
Egypt
1,860,723
899,005
Portugal
683,002
308,680
From the principal ports the export of coal, coke, and fuel in 1897 was as
follows : —
Ports
Tons
Value
£
6,039,240
Ports
Tons
Value. 1
Cardiff . .
12,443,438
Kirkcaldy .
1,818,026
£
669,901
Newcastle .
2,977,512
1,160,379 '
Hull . . .
1,252,696
608,093 i
Newport
2,903,167
1,356,897
Grangemouth
1,193,743
546,299 ';
S. Shields .
2,793,652
1,117,521
Grimsby
837,869
422,701 .
N. Shields .
1,468,595
587,708
Glasgow . .
855,049
320,380 1
; Sunderland
1,898,979
779,336
Goole .
635,130
278,670
Swansea . .
1,665,337
792,993
Leith .
469,655
238,118
The quantity and value of iron ore produced in the United Kingdom, and
the quantity and value, exclusive of "purple ore" (467,318 tons in 1897),
imported in five years have been : —
Year
Iron ore produced
Iron ore imported
Weight
Value
Weight
Tons
4,065,864
4,413,652
4,450,311
5,438,307
5,968,680
Value
1893
I 1894
1895
1896
1897
Tons
11,203,476
12,367,308
12,615,414
13.700,764
13,787,878
£
2,827,947
3,190,647
2,865,709
3,150,424
3,217,795
£
2,792,028
2,978,597
2,977,952
3,778,789
4,436,004
The exports of iron ore are insignificant, and 3,497 tons in 1896, and
2,588 tons in 1897. Of the ore imported in 1897, 5,067,148 tons, valued at
3,621,835Z. came from Spain. The net quantity of iron ore available for the
furnaces of Great Britain in 1897 was 20,221,288 tons.
The number of blast furnaces in operation, and the quantities of iron ore
smelted and of pig-iron produced in five years, with the quantities of pig
and puddled iron imported and of pig-iron exported, have been :-
Year
Blast
Furnaces
Ore Smelted
Pig-iron made
Pig and
Puddled-iron
Imported
Pig-iron j
Exported
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1
327
325
344
373
380
Tons
16,620,653
17,803,998
18,629,337
21,204,284
21,327,013
Tons
6,976,990
7,427,342
7,703,459
8,659,681
8,796,465
Tons
35,357
61,975
93,119
106,449
158,003
Tons
840,294
830,985
866,568
1,060,165
1,201,104
76
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The quantities of iron and steel of various descriptions exported in four
years were as follows : —
Description
1894
1895
1896
1897
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Iron, pig and puddled.
830,985
866,568
1,060,165
1,201,104
! Iron, bar, angle, &c. .
129,132
143,990
178,123
167,688
Railroad
425,242
457,552
747,662
782,045
Wire (not telegraph) ,
44,675
42,220
56,110
51,472
Plates for tinning
—
34,368
48,405
58,648
Tin plates .
353,928
366,120
266,963
271,230
Cast and wrought iron
265,883
288,864
366,230
374,982
Hoops and plates
296,735
307,132
365,165
345,947
Old iron
83,256
97,100
127,424
86,833
Steel unwrought
211,495
208,283
297,439
299,719
Steel and iron
Total .
18,667
23,344
36,712
46,438
2,649,998
2,835,541
3,550,398
3,686,106
The following table shows the quantities of the leading unmanufactured
metals and minerals imported, in tons : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Copper ore and
regulus
199,608
161,650
191,024
178,134
171,186
Copper un-
manufactured
43,945
60,296
45,761
65,359
64,360
Lead .
188,249
161,861
162,924
167,799
167,441
Tin
33,553
39,147
41,601
38,375
26,786
Zinc
56,926
52,897
62,525
76,635
69,884
IV. Textile Industry.
The quantit}' of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom has been
as follows : —
In
1820 .
. 152,000,000 lbs.
In 1880 .
. 1,628,664,576 lbs
> »
1840 .
. 592,000,000 ,,
„ 1890 .
. 1,793,495,200 ,,
> )
1850 .
. 663,577,000 ,,
,, 1895 .
. 1,757,042,672 „
J >
1860 .
1,390,939,000 ,,
,, 1896 .
. 1,754,890,256 „
>»
1870 .
1,338,306,000 ,,
„ 1897 .
. 1,724,160,368 ,,
The subjoined table gives the total cotton imports, exports, and the home
consumption in the last five years : —
Year
Total Imports of
Total Exports of
Retained for Home
Cotton
Cotton
Consumption
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
1893
1,416,780,064
224,621,488
1,192,158,576
1894
1,788,116,512
239,894,704
1,548,221,808
1895
1,757,042,672
203,284,592
1,553,758,080
1896
1,754,890,256
183,823,808
1,571,066,448
1897
1,724,160,368
225,070,272
1,499,090,096
TEXTILE INDUSTRY
77
The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool — slieep, lamb, and
alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for home consumption in 1874 and
during the last five years : —
V^lQV
Total Imports of
Total Exports of
Retained for Home
Wool
Wool
Consumption
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
1874
344,470,897
144,294,663
335,789,414
1893
677,947,464
346,369,110
331,578,354
1894
705,467,947
345,927,043
359,540,904
1895
775,379,063
404,935,226
370,443,837
1896
718,537,253
334,691,803
383,845,450
1897
740,748,963
371,502,812
369,246,151
Of the total quantity imported in 1897, 491,310,839 lbs. came
from Australasia.
The following tabular statement gives a summary of the
statistics of textile factories in ea,ch of the three divisions of the
United Kingdom in 1890 :—
03
•c
fit
O
U
«M
O
u
^ "
s a
S
o
H
t4
o
S o
Children
working
Half Time
Males under 18 Years
working Full Time
Females above 13
Years working Full
Time.
Males above 18 Years
Total Number
Employed
m
1
a
f^
03
m
3
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Total of the United
Kingdom .
6,180
747
263
50,211,216
2,413,735
1,016,111
722,406
71,471
28,612
35,166
2,915
2,477
40,558
38,653
3,862
3,426
72,517
10,532
5,647
461,751
104,343
44,514
250,165
32,939
15,724
357,848
46,386
23,848
500,404
108,205
47,940
858,25;i
154,591
71,788
7,190
53,641,062
822,489
45,941
86,968
610,608
298,828
428,082
656,549
1,084,631
With regard to the material manufactured, the factories were
distributed as follows: — cotton 2,538, wool 1,793, shoddy 125,
worsted 753, flax 375, hemp 105, jute 116, hair 42, cocoanut fibre
24, silk 623, lace 403, hosiery 257, elastic 54.
Of the spindles, 48,409,733 were spinning or throwing spindles
and 5,321,329 doubling spindles.
Of the total number of persons employed there were 40,558 male,
45,941 female children, working half time. There were 88,696
males between thirteen and eighteen years of age, and 610,608
females over thirteen.
Comparing the return of 1890 with that of 1885, we find a
decrease in the number of factories of 275, but an increase in the
number of spindles of 560,950, and an increase of power-looms of
78
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
48,785. There is an increase in the whole number of persons
employed of 49,720.
The following information is furnished by Mr. Thomas Ellison,
of Liverpool : —
A century ago tlie value of cotton, woollen, and linen yarns and piece-
goods produced in Great Britain and Ireland was about 22, 000, OOOZ. — say,
woollen 17,000,000Z., linen 4,000,000^., and cotton 1,000,000Z. Of recent
years the value has been about 170,000,000Z. — say, cotton 100,000,000Z.,
woollen 50,000,OOOZ., and hnen 20,000,000Z. The total amount of capital
employed is about 200,000,000Z., and at least 5,000,000 people — men, women,
and children — are dependent upon these industries for their livelihood.
Moreover, one-half of the value of British and Irish products exported con-
sists of textiles. The progress made by each branch is shown in the sub-
joined statement of the weight of raw material used and the value of yarns
and goods exported : —
"Weight consumed in Millions
Value of Products exported in
Average Periods
of lbs.
Thousands of £'s
of Three Years
1
Cotton
Wool
Flax
Total
Cotton
Woollen
Linen
Total
1798-1800
41-8
109-6
108-6
260-0
5-088
6-846
1-010
12-944
1829-1831
243-2
149-4
193-8
586-4
18-077
4-967
2-138
25-182
1859-1861
1,022-5
260-4
212-0
1,494-9
49-000
15-041
6119
70-060
1889-1891
1,618-0
564-0
220-0
2,402-0
72-114
24-176
6-377
102-667
1893-1895
1,576-0
602-0
213-0
2,391-0
64-697
21-597
5-848
92-142
1896-1898
1,668-0
624-0
236-0
2,628-0
66-094
22-885
5-697
94-676
The following table gives the principal variations in the movements since
1860. Figures in millions of lbs., yards, and pounds sterling.
1860
1877
1883
mil.
lbs.
1,734
249
1888
1895
1898
Cotton.
Imported ....
Exported ....
Retained for consumption .
Actual consumption .
Wool.
Sheep, lamb, &c., imported.
From sheepskins imported .
Produced at home
Goats' hair imported ,
Woollen rags imported
' Total
mil.
lbs.
1,391
250
mil.
lbs.
1,355
169
mil.
lbs.
1,732
271
mil.
lbs.
1,756
203
1,553
1,632
mil
lbs.
2,128
203
1,141
1,083
1,186
1,237
1,485
1,498
1,461
1,529
1,925
1,735
mil.
lbs.
148
3
145
3
13
312
mil.
lbs.
410
15
152
8
75
mil.
lbs.
495
14
129
13
81
mil.
lbs.
639
18
134
22
71
mil.
lbs.
775
30
135
26
84
mil.
lbs.
694
26
139
24
68
660
732
884
1,050
951
COMMERCE
79
—
I860
1877
1883
1888
1895
1898
Foreign wool exported .
Domestic wool exported
Total
Retained for consumption .
Flax and Tow.
Imported .
Produced at home
Total
Exported ....
Retained for consumption .
Piccc-Goods Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
Total
Yarn Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
Total .
Value all Kinds Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
Total .
31
11
187
10
197
277
19
339
24
404
22
283
12
42
296
363
426
295
270
463
436
521
624
656
mil.
lbs.
164
53
mil.
lbs.
259
49
mil.
lbs.
185
47
mil.
lbs.
205
46
mil.
lbs.
230
27
mil.
lbs.
218
22
217
6
308
3
232
7
251
9
247
15
240
13
211
305
225
mil. <
yds.
4,539
256
162
242
232
227
mil.
yds.
2,776
191
144
mil.
yds.
3,838
261
178
mil.
yds.
5,038
271
177
mil.
yds.
5,033
242
203
mil.
yds.
5,216
160
148
3,111
4,277
4,957
5,486
5,478
5,524
mil.
lbs.
197
26
31
mil.
lbs.
228
27
19
mil.
lbs.
265
33
18
316
mil.
lbs.
256
43
15
mil.
lbs.
252
61
17
mil.
lbs.
247
59
17
254
274
314
330
mil.
£
63-7
27 0
6-3
97-0
323
mil.
£
52-0
15-7
6-6
74-3
mil.
£
69-2
21-0
7-1
97-3
mil.
£
76-4
21-6
6-5
mil.
£
72-0
24-0
6-4
102-4
mil.
£
64-9
20-1
5-3
104-5
90-3
Commerce.
The United Kingdom is a free trading country, the only imports on whicli
customs duties are le\aed being chicory, cocoa, coffee, dried fruits, spirits, tea
tobacco, and wine — spirits, tobacco, tea and wine yielding the bulk of the
entire levies. In 1897 the imports free of duty (exclusive of bullion and
specie and diamonds) amounted to 420,116,20U., and those subject to duty to
30,912,759Z., duty-free articles forming about 93-1 per cent, and articles sub-
ject to duty about 6*9 per cent, of the total imports.
80
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The declared value ^ of the imports and exports of merchandise of the
United Kingdom was as follows during ten years : —
Total
Exports of
Exports of
Total Imports
Imports
British Produce
Colonial Produce
and Exports
£
£
£
£
1889
427,637,595
248,935,195
66,657,484
743,230,274
1890
420,691,997
263,530,585
64,721,533
748,944,115
1891
435,441,264
247,235,150
61,878,568
744,554,982
1892
423,793,882
227,216,399
64,423,767
715,434,048
1893
404,688,178
218,259,718
58,878,552
681,826,448
1894
408,344,810
216,005,637
57,780,230
682,130,677
1895
416,689,658
226,128,246
59,704,161
702,522,065
1896
441.808,904
240,145,551
56,233,663
738,118,118
1897
451,028,960
234,219,708
59,954,410
745,203,078
1898
1
470,604,198
233,390,792
60,619,199
764,614,189
The following table exhibits the average share, per head of population of
the United Kingdom, in the imports, the exports of British produce, and the
total, during ten years : —
Year
Imports
Exports of British
Produce
Total Imports and
Exports
£ s. d.
£ 8. d.
£ «. d.
1888
10 10 3
6 7 2
18 12 2
1889
11 10 1
6 13 11
19 19 10
1890
11 4 6
7 0 7
19 19 7
1891
11 10 5
6 10 10
19 14 0
1892
11 2 5
5 19 3
18 15 6
1893
10 10 7
5 13 7
17 14 10
1894
10 10 7
5 11 5
17 11 10
1895
10 13 1
5 15 8
17 19 3
1896
11 3 11
6 18
18 14 1
1897
11 6 6
5 17 7
18 14 3
1 In the United Kingdom the valuation of both imports and exports is made according to
the bills of entry and the shipping bills, false declarations being punishable by fine. In case
of imi)orts, the control of the Customs administration, at least in so far as regards those
articles which are subject to duty, is a guarantee of accuracy in the returns, but, as
regards the exports, merchants are only required to furnish their declarations
within a period of six days after the sailing of the vessel, and the only proof of their accuc
racy, if proof be needed, lies in an inspection of the bills of lading, the production of which
the authorities have the right to demand. The valuation of imports and exports is checked
in the Statistical Office of the Customs (to which a copy of the entry is sent), where the
officials possess a knowledge of current values and where market reports and lists of prices
current are readily available to detect any departures from substantial accuracy. It should
be noted that the important difference between the system of the United Kingdom
and other sy.stems is that the former shows the values at the time of import and export,
whilst in most other countries the values are computed at the prices of a year or more
before. For goods imported the practice adopted is generally to take the value at the port
of entry, including all incidental expenses up to the landing on the quay. For goods con-
signed to the English market for sale, the market value in England is required and
recorded in the returns. This is ascertained from the declaration made by the importers,
and is checked by the expert knowledge available in the Statistical Office, and by the price-
lists and market reports of the day. For exports the value at the port of shipment is
taken. Imports are generally entered as from the country whence the goods were last
shipjjed. Thus, countries with no seaboard (Switzerland, Bolivia, S.A. Republic, and
COMMERCE
81
Tbe share of each division of the United Kingdom in the trade of the
country is shown in the following table in thousands of pounds (sterling) :-
England and/ ^"^P°^*« .
Wales 1 Exports A
Total
C Imports .
Scotland -! ,:, . f
\ Exports .-!
Total
Ireland
Imports
Exports
Total
1893
£1,000
363,470
194,6431
57,958'^
616,071
32,279
22,247^
901^
55,427
^,939
3271
202
9,386
1894
£1,000
366,441
194,630
56,8962
617,967
33,042
19,9411
877^
53,860
^,862
3251
72
9,194
1895
1896
£1,000
375,201
204,3011
58,9302
£1,000
398,157
217,3781
55,4662
638,432
671,001
32,731
21,524'
7652
34,285
22,5321
6862
55,020
8,758
3021
82
57,503
9,366
2351
812
9,068
9,682
1897
£1,000
406,157
211,316'
58,903-
676,376
34,420
22,6181
7732
57,811
10,452
286"
2782
11,016
1 British.
2 Foreign and Colonial.
Thus of the total trade, 90-8 per cent, falls to England and Wales; 7*8
per cent, to Scotland ; 1 "4 per cent, to Ireland.
The following table gives the total value of the imports of foreign and
colonial merchandise, and of the exports of British produce and manufactures
fiom and to foreign countries and British possessions in the years 1896 and
1897 :—
Countries
Imports of Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
1896
1897
1896
1897
British Possessions :
India
Australasia
British North
America
South and East Africa
£
25,285,467
29,402,549
16,444,259
5,418,014
£
24,813,099
29,362,129
19,538,998
5,131,196
£
30,097,768
21,915,655
5,755,726
14,066,459
£
27,382,091
21,310,884
5,476,191
13,665,561
Orange Free State) do not appear in the returns, and much of the imported produce of
Central Europe is entered as from Holland an<l Belgium. But imports from the Ea.st
which have been transhipped at Colombo or at Marseilles, and those from Chile and Peru,
which have l)een transhippe<l at Colon, are, as far as possible, credited to the true country
of origin. Imports from Canada vid U.S. ports, and from the United States vid Canadian
ports are, as far as possible, assigned to their proper origin ; but the distinction cannot
always be ^made, and, especially in winter, an uncertain amount of imported tCanadian
produce is credited to the United States.
Exports are, as a rule, credited to the country of ultimate destination as declared by
the exi)orters, but those to countries without a seaboard are credited to the country of the
port of ilischargc.
82
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Countries
Imports of Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
1896
1897
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
Straits Settlements .
4,309,847
3,643,224
2,019,874
2,496,895
Hong Kong
797,158
606,314
1,822,037
1,975,374
British West Indies .
1,790,451
1,453,089
2,122,189
1,784,185
Ceylon
4,723,547
4,688,278
1,005,828
1,031,481
British Guiana .
694,729
523,596
584,417
530,700
Channel Islands
1,335,763
1,327,111
997,486
1,092,216
West Africa
2,223,925
2,153,412
1,828,395
1,763,461
Malta
68,819
74,903
650,520
743,707
Mauritius .
67,502
94,548
306,031
284,862
All other Possessions.
Total British Posses-
645,999
609,036
964,652
1,137,455
sions
93,208,029
94,018,933
84,136,937
80,675,063
Foreign Countries :
United States .
106,347,349
113,041,627
20,424,225
20,994,631
France
50,104,971
53,346,883
14,151,512
13,818,812
Germany .
27,585,236
26,189,469
22,244,405
21,602,426
Holland .
29,261,023
28,971,316
8,333,935
8,854,696
Belgium .
19,221,408
20,885,812
7,816,152
8,231,686
Russia
22,677,443
22,284,365
7,185,185
7,513,165
Spain
Egypt
China
11,997,919
13,125,660
3,455,660
3,330,747
9,659,376
9,294,240
3,777,966
4,435,101
2,973,887
2,684,722
6^717,353
5.142,342
Brazil
4,053,663
3,736,419
6,664,004
5,431,234
Italy
Sweden
3,192,856
3,317,292
5,357,250
5,596,900
9,524,137
9,839,146
3,206,033
3,565,422
Turkey . . •
Argentine Republic .
Denmark .
5,230,075
6,150,163
4,983,910
6,456,397
8,974,164
5,753,916
6,620,993
4,801,125
10,640,598
10,968,397
2,865,635
3,085.195
Portugal .
2,616,662
2,652,713
1,535,908
1,416,887
Rumania .
3,204,114
2,258,503
1,286,582
1,340,231
Chile
3,606,357
3,191,683
2,553,267
2,226,478
Japan
Norway
Java
1,241,433
1,283,165
6,033,342
5,807,822
4,312,106
4,995,461
1,988,554
2,250,734
746,233
318,052
1,891,543
1,803,416
Greece
1,246,574
1,638,995
842,412
833,228
Foreign West Africa .
Austria
320,818
502,837
878,264
878,403
1,232,678
1,276,585
1,508,304
1,553,384
Peru
1,288,383
1,453,627
902,086
728,211
Central America
948,954
1,013,523
1,266,713
845,106
UiTiguay .
Spanish West Indies .
316,109
339,904
1,434,956
795,616
35,841
42,913
722,550
598,637
COMMERCE
83
Imports of Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
1896
1897
1896
1897
£
£
£
£ ""
Mexico
593,002
593,894
1,520,387
1,602,818
Philippine Islands
1,536,533
1,278,830
507,601
400,264
Colombia .
569,232
556,560
1,344,841
1,191,023
Venezuela .
57,426
63,382
789,767
564,697
Algeria
531,523
671,014
257,501
273,304
Morocco .
218,309
211,928
489,864
412,753
Ecuador .
153,812
92,412
372,167
418,049
Hayti, St. Domingo .
92,940
74,034
288,394
296,964
Tunis and Tripoli
400,590
326,871
■ 287,748
265,743
Foreign East Africa .
107,482
126,161
992,628
1,298,501
Persia
147,129
197,778
273,786
427,150
Siam
110,264
246,940
136,487
150,380
Bulgaria .
Madagascar
368,732
396,832
273,409
385,901
92,535
67,859
146,966
158,610
Cochin China and
Tonquin
16,975
360,229
109,223
73,325
All other Countries .
Total Foreign Coun-
1,044,024
1,187,915
1,569,146
1,687,131
tries
Grand Total
348,600,875
357,010,027
156,008,614
153,544,645
441,808,904
451,028,960
240,145,551
234,219,708
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports
of gold and silver bullion and specie in five years : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
£
27,572,347
36,005,999
24,468,337
30,808,858
43,721,460
£
15,647,551
21,369,323
30,123,925
30,808,571
36,590,050
£
11,005,417
10,669,662
14,329,116
18,032,090
14,677,799
£
12,165,049
10,357,436
15,048,134
18,780,988
15,623,651
The following is a summary of the imports and exports of the
Clnited Kingdom for the years ended December 31, 1897 and
1898. The figures for 1898 are those of the preliminary report : —
o 1
84
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Imports
1897
1898
Exports
1897
1898
£
£
British Produce
£
£
1. Animals, liv-
1. Animals, liv-
ing (for food)
11,380,092
10,385,676
ing
1,131,952
1,105,170
2. (a) Articles of
2. Articles of
food and drink
food and drink
12,129,644
12,106,962
duty free
151,543,901
166,894,715
3. Raw materials
20,133,679
21,084,326
(6) Articles of
4. Articles manu-
food and drink
factured and
dutiable
26,697,681
27,028,560
partly manu-
Tobacco, duti-
factured, viz. :
able
4,066,354
3,877,038
(tt) Yarns and
3. Metals .
21,277,294
21,850,656
textile fabrics
96,578,102
94,512,109
4. Chemicals,
(ft) Metals and
dye-stuffs and
articles manu-
tanning sub-
factured
stances .
5,998,549
5,483,230
therefrom
5. Oils
7,624,915
8,357,177
(except ma-
6. Raw materials
chinery)
34,472,077
32,791,044
for textile
(c) Machinery
manufactures
70,065,745
71,268,397
and mill work
16,255,602
18,380,076
7. Raw materials
(d) Apparel
for sundry in-
and articles of
dustries and
personal use .
9,874,585
9,573,380
manufactures
52,094,641
52,228,035
(e) Chemicals,
8. Manufactured
and chemical
articles .
85,134,440
87,119,504
and medicinal
9. (a) Miscella-
preparations.
8,698,688
8,373,099
neous articles
14,140,398
14,797,902
(/) All other
(b) Parcel post
1,004,950
1,313,308
articles, either
manufactured
or partly
Total imports
451,028,960
470,604,198
manufactured
(g) Parcel post
Total British pro-
32,888,193
2,057,186
33,324,966
2,139,660
duce
234,219,708
233,390,792
Foreign and Co-
lonial produce
Total exports
59,954,410
60,619,199
294,174,118
294,009,991
The imports of wheat (excluding flour), in quarters (1
quarter = 4*28 cwt.) have been as follows in the years indi-
cated : —
Year
Quarters
Year
Quarters
Year
Quarters
1870
1880
7,131,100
12,752,800
1890
1896
14,063,760
16,361,600
1897
1898
14,659,600
15,240,000
The following exhibits the quantities of the leading food im-
ports enumerated in the years noted : —
COMMERCE
85
Articles
1896
190,226,829
1897
1898
Cereals and flour .
Cwts.
177,703,740
190,365,323
Potatoes
)>
2,244,627
3,921,205
6,752,728
Rice
4,531,518
5,178,859
4,546,423
Bacon and hams .
6,008,938
6,730,790
7,683,374
Fish .
2,621,532
2,449,730
2,979,824
Refined sugar
> >
14,776,929
15,830,759
16,419,397
Raw sugar
15,743,676
13,553,527
14,692,906
Tea (for consumption)
. Lbs.
227,785,500
231,399,774
235,414,105
Butter .
Cwts.
3,037,718
3,217,802
3,209,093
Margarine
925,934
936,543
899,875
Cheese .
>>
2,244,525
2,603,178
2,339,452
Beef .
2,907,236
3,185,323
3,309,166
Preserved meat
701,750
669,684
573,947
Fresh mutton
2,895,158
3,193,276
3,314,003
Sheep and lambs . (n
umber)
769,592
611,504
663,749
Cattle .
j>
562,553
618,321
569,066
Eggs . .(great hui
ridreds)
13,245,011
14,031,754
14,424,582
Spirits (for consumpt. ) ]
'rf. Gal.
8,174,289
8,300,990
7,964,952
Wine (for consumption)
Gal.
15,861,284
15,853,051
16,616,645
In 1898 the United Kingdom imported 14,761,550 cwt. of
wheat from her own possessions, and 50,466,780 cwt. from foreign
countries. The great wheat sources in 1898 were : —
United States
. 37,804,300 cwt.
Australasia
211,620 (
;wt
Russia
6,232,500 ,,
Canada
5,012,030
y
Argentina .
4,034,700 ,,
Chile
807,300
»i
India ,
9,537,900 ,,
Roumania
183,700
J)
Germany
711,390 ,.
Turkey
271,560
)>
The quantity of flour imported in 1898 was 21,017,109 ewt.,
of which 17,445,890 cwt. came from the United States.
The following table shows the quantities of tea imported into
the United Kingdom from different countries in thousands of
pounds : —
Proportion from each
Country
1878
1895
1896
1897=.-
Country
1878
1895
1896
per
1897
per
per
per
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
Holland
3,145
3,416
4,616
3,497
1-54
1-34
1-74
1-31
China, Hong Kong
165,656
39,616
34,803
28,371
80-85
15-52
13-11
10-63
India ....
35,423
123,362
127,720
134,716
17-29
48-31
48-13
50-49
Ceylon ....
1
83,448
94,860
96,326
—
32-67
35-74
36-11
Other countries .
Total .
647
5,519
3,395
3.890
•32
2-16
1-28
1-46
204.872
255,361
265,394
1266,800
100-00
100-00
100-00
100 00
86
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The subjoined tables exhibit the vahie of the great articles of
commerce imported for consumption and home produce exported
in each of the last three years : —
The Principal Articles of Import.
Principal Articles Imported
1S96
1897
1898
Grain and flour
52,800,083
£
53,579,745
£
62,899,258
Cotton, raw
36,272,039
32,195,172
34,125,551
Wool, sheep and lambs
24,958,346
24,436,871
23,437,309
Dead meat
24,752,070
27,369,151
29,979,119
Sugar, raw and refined
18,369,628
15,950,944
17,209,761
Butter and margarine
17,842,792
18,402,287
18,344,345
Wood and timber
20,403,465
23,648,330
21,285,808
Silk manufactures .
16,698,872
16,912,048
16,623,241
Flax, hemp, and jute
9,236,814
8,909,196
9,042,686
Tea
10,562,773
10,405,084
10,367,672
Woollen manuf. & yarn
11,749,068
11,812,474
10,839,452
Animals (for food) .
10,438,699
11,380,092
10,385,676
Oils.^ ....
8,459,394
7,624,915
8,357,177
Chemicals, dye stuffs, &c.
6,776,920
5,998,549
5,483,230
Seeds ...
6,736,250
5,751,341
6,012,507
Fruits and hops
6,131,633
7,570,444
8,200,163
Currants and raisins
1,614,484
2,075,696
1,991,474
Leather, dressed hides, &c.
7,594,592
7,647,457
7,778,397
Wine ....
5,946,296
6,433,934
6,579,181
Cheese ....
4,900,342
5,885,521
4,970,247
Metals —
Copper, ore, &c. .
2,862,300
2,752,406
2,614,188
,, part wrought, &c.
2,882,253
3,040,158
3,597,665
Iron ore
3,778,789
4,436,004
4,034,642
,, in bars .
570,412
539,669
556,549
, , manufactures
4,878,423
6,063,363
7,321,725
Lead ....
1,855,743
2,033,300
2,521,356
Tin . .
2,289,688
1,623,798
1,389,601
Zinc and its manufactures
1,664,450
1,629,243
1,920,357
Eggs ....
4,184,656
4,356,807
4,456,123
Coffee ....
3,559,454
3,585,674
3,744,454
Tobacco ....
4,352,031
4,066,354
3,877,038
The Principal Articles of Export (Home Produce).
Principal Articles Exported
1896
1897
1898
Cotton manufactures .
Cotton yarn ....
Total of cotton
£,
59,309,842
10,044,676
£
54,043,633
9,929,768
£
55,986,598
8,921,427
69,344,518
63,973,401
64,908,025
COMMERCE
87
Principal Articles Exported
1896
1897
1898
"Woollen manufactures .
18,269,122
£
15,975,566
£
13,702,307
WooUen and worsted yarn
Total of woollen and worsted .
Linen manufactures
5,654,839
4,839,987
4,625,898
23,923,961
20,815,553
18,328,205
5,030,966
4,770,706
4,388,178
M yarn
1,040,939
976,042
885,965
Jute manufactures ....
2,344,282
2,167,109
1,853,744
,, yarn
378,356
525,981
468,372
Apparel and haberdashery
Metals :
6,746,569
6,465,203
6,197,946
Iron, pig
2,533,883
2,889,440
2,736,804
,, bar, angle, bolt, and rod .
1,194,289
1,087,044
995,625
, , railroad, of all sorts .
3,560,410
3,857,579
3,016,258
,, wire .....
903,995
867,640
772,844
,, tin plates ....
3,036,015
3,038,569
2,753,708
,, hoops, sheets, and plates .
3,688,850
3,474,104
3,313,937
,, cast and wrought, of all sorts
4,719,727
4,875,700
4,726,013
,, old, for re-manufacture
338,907
236,142
240,210
Steel and manuf. partly iron
Total of iron and steel .
Hardwares and cutlery .
3,925,624
4,315,298
4,084,693
23,801,700
24,641,516
22,640,092
2,122,404
2,104,009
1,989,001
Copper ......
2,543,837
2,528,101
2,798,746
Machinery .....
17,014,250
16,255,602
18,380,076
Coals, cinders, fuel, &c.
15,156,313
16,654,955
18,134,690
Chemicals j
8,242,936
8,698,688
8,373,099
The following table shows the quantity of the principal food
imports and tobacco retained for home consumption per head of
population in each of the last five years :-
Article
1803
1894
1895
1896
1897
Bacon and hams
. lbs.
11-73
13-29
14-63
15-90
17-95
Butter .
})
6-59
7-27
7-92
8-46
8-85
Cheese .
)>
5-87
6-38
5-93
6-22
7-17
Eggs .
no.
34-39
36-68
38-97
40-25
42-23
Wheat and flour
lbs.
247-65
25619
285-09
257-30
227 84
Sugar .
>>
78-85
80-06
88-13
85-29
80-89
Tea
5-41
5-52
5-67
5-77
5-81
Rice
8-54
7-26
8-00
6-49
8-62
Tobacco
> »
1-63
1-66
1-67
1 73
1-75
The total value of goods transhipped for transit was in
1893, 11,546,204/. ; 1894, 9,649,367/. ; 1895, 11,054,99U. ; 1896,
10,266,379/. ; 1897, 10,752,108/.
88
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Shipping and Navigation.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing and steam (ex-
clusive of river steamers) vessels of the United Kingdom engaged
in the home trade — the expression ' home trade ' signifying the
coasts of the United Kingdom, or * ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest ' — with the men (exclusive of masters)
employed thereon was as follows in five years : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons
Men
Number
Tons
Men
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
8,211
7,920
7,495
7,086
6,871
518,264
503,727
479,764
449,192
434,125
34,659
33,480
31,757
30,148
28,866
2,446
2,597
2,633
2,752
2,906
372,527
404,684
406,477
421,404
432,839
27,809
29,727
30,424
31,800
33,759
The number and tonnage of those engaged partly in the home
and partly in the foreign trade was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons
Men
Number
Tons
Men
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
263
246
222
220
180
32,345
31,669
26,721
24,640
22,645
1,467
1,422
1,210
1,156
1,022
345
338
329
294
313
224,562
222,462
238,633
232,297
256,223
6,438
6,135
6,441
6,003
6,584
The number and tonnage of those engaged in the foreign trade
alone was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
1,994
1,845
1,765
1,686
1,534
Tons
Men
Number
3,569
3,601
3,661
3,701
3,619
Tons
Men
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,348,584
2,286.829
2,230,285
2,144,235
2,016,247
42,180 -
39,949
38,639
36,903
34,027
5,045,106
5,266,914
5,479,968
5,661,572
5,763,734
128,421
129,745
132,012
136,029
136,673
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
89
A summary of the total shipping of the United Kingdom, sail-
ing and steam, engaged in the home and foreign trade, during
ten years is given in the following table : —
Year
Number of
Vessels
Tons
Men
Year
Number of
Vessels
Tons
Men
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
17,584
17,554
17,425
17,243
17,020
7,351,888
7,641,154
7,915,336
8,164,541
8,449,512
223,673
230,263
236,108
240,480
241,735
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
16,828
16,547
16,105
15,739
15,423
8,541,388
8,716,285
8,861,848
8,933,340
8,925,813
240,974
240,458
240,486
242,039
240,931
The following table shows the total number and net tonnage
of vessels registered as belonging to the United Kingdom (with
the Isle of Man and Channel Islands) at the end of each year : —
—
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
13,239
12,943
12,617
12,274
11,911
3,038,260
2,987,161
2,866,895
2,735,976
2,589,570
8,088
8,263
8,386
8,522
8,590
5,740,243
5,969,020
6,121,555
6,284,306
6,363,601
21,327
21,206
21,003
20,796
20,601
8,778,503
8,956,181
8,988,450
9,020,282
8,953,171
Of the men employed (1897) 33,898 were foreigners. The total
number of vessels belonging to the British Empire in 1897 was
34,962 of 10,416,442 tons net.
The number and net tonnage of vessels built in the United
Kingdom (exclusive of vessels built for foreigners) in five years
was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
St€amers
Total
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
333
363
319
389
518
114,895
89,156
54,155
57,467
66,729
448
524
541
542
536
380,393
485,460
465,467
462,503
415,538
781
887
860
931
1,054
495,288
574,616
519,622
519,970
482,267
In 1897 214 merchant vessels of 152,943 tons net wore
built for foreigners (72 sailing of 22,916 tons, and 142 steam of
130,027 tons).
90
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following is the tonnage of sailing and steam vessels
(foreign trade) that entered the ports of the United Kingdom in
five years : —
Year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Entered
Cleared
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
l.OOOtns.
26,919
29,033
29,175
30,290
32,191
l,000tns.
10,223
10,785
10,826
12,188
12,732
l.OOOtns.
37,142
39,818
40,001
42,477
44,923
l,000tns.
27,229
29.649
29,516
31,182
32,235
l,000tns.
10,262
11,070
11,021
11,803
13,040
l,000tns.
37,491
40,718
40,537
42,985
45,276
l,000tns.
54,148
58,682
58,691
61,472
64,426
l,000tns.
20,485
21,855
21,847
23,991
25,772
l.OOOtns.
74,633
80,536
80,538
85,462
90,199
The total number of vessels that entered in the foreign trade
in 1897 was 64,647 (25,375 foreign), and cleared, 64,778 (25,724
foreign).
The following is the tonnage of vessels with cargoes only
that entered from and cleared for foreign countries and British
possessions : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
l.OOOtns.
20,962
22,727
22,992
24,630
25,340
l,000tns.
7,834
8,414
8,366
8,850
9,206
l,000tns.
28,796
31,141
31,358
33,480
34,636
l,000tns.
24,496
26,683
26,933
27,726
28,101
l,000tns.
8,457
9,095
9,330
9,977
11,207
l,000tns.
32,953
35,778
36,272
37,703
39,308
l.OOOtns.
45,458
49,410
49,925
52,356
53,441
l.OOOtns.
16,291
17,509
17,705
18,827
20,503
l.OOOtns.
61,749
66,919
67,630
71,183
73,944
Of the foreign tonnage for 1897 entered and cleared (with
cargoes and in ballast) at British ports (total 25,772,318)
Norway had 6,362,542
Germany ,, 4,046,221
Denmark ,, 2,579,530
Sweden ,, ' 2,531,342
Holland
France
Spain
Belgium
had
2,522,509
2,112,648
1,471,597
1,352 450
U.S. (Am.)lia(l 710,950
Russia ,, 688,678
Italy ,, 501,526
Austria ,, 273,942
The total tonnage entered and cleared, excluding those coast-
wise, was as follows at the ports named in 1897 : —
London
15,197,659
Newport
2,618,710
Kirkcaldy .
1,570,203
Cardiff .
11,990,609
N.&S. Shields 2,172,313
Grangemouth
1,483,116
Liverpool
11,261,051
Middlesbro'
1,996,083
Bristol . .
1,091,316
Newcastle
5,210,424
Sunderland
1,943,967
Manchester .
870,921
Hull .
4,140,982
Lei til
1,831,245
Hartlepool .
852,558
Glasgow
3,421,386
Grimsby .
1,723,666
Belfast
685,400
Southampt
on 3,008,209
Swansea .
1,600,869
Dundee
383,995
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
91
The total number of vessels that entered coastwise in 1897 was
329,817, of 56,518,753 tons; and cleared, 294,662 vessels, of
49,417,222 tons. The total number of vessels that entered the
ports of the Kingdom in 1897 was 394,464, of 101,442,082 tons;
and cleared, 359,440 of 94,692,756 tons.
Internal Communications.
I. Railways.
The following table shows the total length of the railways of
the United Kingdom open at the end of the years given, and
the average yearly increase in miles : —
Year
Line Open
Av. Yearly
Increase
Year
Line Open
Av. Yearly
Increase
1850
1860
1870
Miles
6,621
10,433
15,537
Miles
265
381
510
1880
1890
1897
Miles
17,933
20,073
21,433
Miles
240
214
194
Of the total length of lines open January 1, 1898, there
belonged to England and Wales 14,818 miles, to Scotland 3,447
miles, and to Ireland 3,168 miles.
The following table gives the length of lines open, the capital
paid up, the number of passengers conveyed, and the traffic
receipts of all the railways of the United Kingdom in 1878, and
each of the last five years : —
I Length
of lines
Year ^P^" *^
^®*^l the end I
of each
year
Total Capital
paid up
(shares and
loans) at the
end of each
year
Miles
1878 17,333 I 698,545,154
1893120,646 971,323,353
1894 20,908 1 985,387,355
1895 21,174 |],001, 110,221
Number of
Passengers
conveyed (ex-
clusive of
season-ticket
holders)
No.
565,024,455
873,177,052
Receipts
From
Passengers
911,412,926 36,495,488
929,770,909 37,361,162
980,339,433 39,120,865
1897 21,43311,089,765,095,1,030,420,201 40,518,064
1896 21,277 !l,029,475,335i
£
26,889,614
35,849,449
From (Joods
Traffic
33,564,761
|40,994,637
'43,379,078
44,034,885
;46,175,335
47,857,172
Total, includ-
ing Miscella-
neous
62,862,674
80,631,892
84,310,831
85,922,702
90,119,122
93,737,054
Of the total capital at the end of 1897 the English railways
had 896,411,043^., Scottish 153,887,595/., and Irish 39,466,457/.
In the division of tlie receipts of 1897, England and Wales took
79,759,776/., Scotland 10,438,957/., and Ireland 3,538,321/. The
92
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
working expenditure amounted to 53,083,804^. on all the railways,
being 57 per cent, of the total receipts.
On June 30, 1897, there were in the United Kingdom 1,031
miles of street and road tramways open, from which, during
the year 1896-97, 4,235,533^. had been received, and upon which
3,198,444?. had been expended. This left a balance of receipts of
1,037,149?. Total paid up capital 14,782,700?. The total number
of passengers who travelled during the year on the tramways
was 788,569,669.
II. Canals and Navigations.
The following table shows, for 1888 (the latest date available),
the length, traffic, revenue, and expenditure of the canals and
navigations in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, which
do not, and of those which do, belong to railway companies : —
—
Length
Traffic
Revenue
Expenditure
Canals not belonging
to railways : —
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
United Kingdom .
Canals belonging to
railways : —
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
United Kingdom .
Total .
Miles
2,026
69
513
Tons
27,715,875
69,744
489,194
£
1,439,343
12,011
89,369
£
861,068
16,086
71,541
2,608
28,274,813
1,540,723
948,695
1,024
84
96
6,609,304
1,386,617
30,386
437,080
57,178
6,495
335,503
26,599
4,456
1,204
8,026,307
500,753
366,558
3,813
36,301,120
2,041,476
1,315,253
The paid-up capital (from all sources) of the canals, <fec., not
belonging to railway companies was, in 1888 : — in England and
Wales 20,959,820?.; in Scotland 1,254,047?.; in Ireland 2,071,308?.;
total 24,285,175?.
The Manchester Ship Canal, opened in 1894, is 35^ miles in length, 26 ft.
in depth, and (except for 2^ miles near Latchford) not less than 120 ft. in
bottom width. The minimum width of the locks is 65 ft. The large docks
at Manchester are 26 ft. deep, and the smaller 20 ft. The canal is in direct
communication with all the large canals of the district. The capital of the
Company is 15,412,000Z.
POST AND TELEGRAPHS
93
III. Post and Telegraphs.
The number of post-offices in the United Kingdom at the end
of March, 1898, was 21,197 ; there were besides 30,303 road and
pillar letter-boxes. There were then 150,110 persons employed
by the department. Of these 84,309 (including 13,069 females),
were officers on the permanent establishment, and 65,801
(including 17,465 females) were non-established officers.
The following tabular statement gives the number of letters,
in millions, delivered in each of the three divisions of the United
Kingdom, and the average number for each individual of the
population, in 1879 and the last five years : —
Number of Letters delivered
Number of Letters per head of |
Year
ending
(in Millions)
the Population
CO
13
Total
CO
13
a
o3
Total
March 31
-^
+3
a
U.K.
U^
4^
<o
U.K.
«3
CD
l-H
Millions
Millions
Millions
Millions
1879
922
99
76
1,097
37
27
14
32
1894
1,549^
154 108^
1,812
52
37
24
47
1895
1,502
156 113
1,771
50
38
24
46
1896
1,559
163 112i
1,834
51
39
25
47
1897
1,606-5
168-5 118
1,893
52
40
26
48
1898
1,711-2
177-4 123-7
2,012-3
55
42
27
50
The following are the statistics of post-cards, book-packets,
newspapers, and parcels delivered in 1897-98, showing increase
per cent, on the previous year : —
—
England
& Wales
as O
Scotland
Increase
per cent.
Ireland
is
United
Kingdom
«4J
p
t-t p.
Millions
Millions
Millions
Millions
Post-cards .
308-9
0-7
36-4
5-8
15-1
0-7
360-4
7-1
Book-packets
612-9
5-1
76-9
2-0
37-5
4-3
727-3
4-2
Newspapers .
116-8
0-3
17-2
0-6
16-9
0-6
150-9
0-2
Parcels
66-2
6-5
7-3
6-3
4-4
6-0
67-8
6-4
The number and value of money orders issued by the Post
Office in 1890 (ending March 31) and during the last five years were
as follows : —
94
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
luland Orders
Total 1
—
Number
Amount
Number
Amount
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
9,027,750
9,027,934
9,190,304
9,334,299
9,314,022
9,429,609
£
23,333,417
24,575,036
24,953,532
25,582,236
25,919,853
27,494,145
10,374,144
10,524,774
10,685,206
10,900,963
10,921,617
11,128,258
£
27,165,905
28,720,829
28,923,127
29,726,817
30,249,087
32,114,579
1 Including colonial and foreign orders.
The inland orders in 1897-98 were as follows : —
—
Number
Value
Number per cent, of
Population
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total, U.K.
7,914,255
967,740
547,614
£
23,211,225
2,772,746
1,510,174
25-2
22-7
12'0
9,429,609
27,494,145
23-5
The number and value of ' postal orders ' were as follows : —
Year ending March 31
Niunber
Amount
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
44,712,548
57,232,939
60,681,078
64,076,377
67,182,998
71,380,975
£
17,737,802
21,768,793
22,759,282
23,896,594
24,826,874
26,014,583
The telegraphs were transferred to the State on February 5,
1870; on March 31, 1898, the British Postal Telegraphs had
41,516 miles of telegraph line, and 280,578 miles of wire.
The following table gives the number of telegraphic messages
forwarded from postal telegraph stations in 1879 and in each of
the last five years : —
MONEY AND CREDIT
95
Year
ending March 31
1879
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom
20,422,918
59,631,752
60,216,708
66,436,549
66,950,409
69,961,350
2,477,003
7,279,894
7,334,094
8,095,581
8,094,360
8,463,393
1,559,854
3,987,852
4,038,262
4,307,480
4,378,787
4,605,256
24,459,775
70,899,498
71,589,064
78,839,610
79,423,556
83,029,999
The total number of telegraph offices at post offices was
(March 31, 1898), 8,172, at railway stations, 2,311 ; total, 10,483.
The telegraph department has 44 telephone exchanges, of
which 40 afford connection with the trunk wires. In 1897-98
there were open for telephone business 264 post offices, served
by 53,526 miles of trunk wire ; 5,898,247 trunk conversations
were held. There are now 58 miles of pneumatic tubes in
London, connecting the Central Office with others.
The revenue and expenditure of the Post Office in respect of the postal
and telegraph departments respectively, have been as follows in five years,
ending March 31 : —
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Postal receipts . . .
Total receipts . . .
Expenditure . . .
Net postal rev. . . .
Telegraph receipts . .
Total receipts . . .
I.Jpenditure ....
Net telegr. rev. . . .
Net post & telegr. rev.
£
10,472,876
10,734,885
7,759,712
£
10,748,074
11,025,460
7,955,344
£
11.465,370
11,759,945
8,086,272
£
11,876,656
12,146,935
8,246,356
£
12,206,694
12,420,376
8,689,713
2,975,173
2,534,264
2.579,206
2,757,645
3,070,116
2,598,985
2,646,414
2,788,052
3,673,673
2,835,749
2,879,794
2,920,341
3,900,579
2,922,449
2,967,353
3,111,810
3,730,663
3,030,352
3,071,723
3,381,261
- 178,439
2,796,734
-141,638
2,928,478
-40,547
3,633,026
-144,456
3,756,123
-309,538
.3,421,125
In the total receipts is included the estimated value of services to othe
departments (postal, 213,682^., and telegraph 41, 371 Z. in 1897-98), and in
the expenditure the cost of sites and buildings (postal, 187, 951Z., and tele-
^apli, 90,054Z. in 1897-98). Not included in the telegraph expenditure is
the sum of 298,888Z. interest paid on stock created for tlie purchase of the
telegraphs.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the value of the money issued from the Royal
Mint in the years named, and of the imports and exports of British gold and
silver coin : —
96
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Gold
Money
issued
Silver
Money
issued
Bronze
Money
issued
British Gold Coin
British Silver Coin
Imported
Exported
Imported Exported
1878
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
2,265,100
9,266,251
5,678,100
3,810,636
4,808,860
1,778,437
£
567,328
1,008,971
942,856
1,196,168
1,235,161
982,001
£
39,205
46,664
33,485
40,995
122,860
107,230
£
6,566,001
9,405,544
8,259,775
8,936,391
6,867,592
13,708,376
£
3,544,882
7,168,665
2,715,468
12,778,259
4,921,816
7,356,901
£ £
151,139 184,494
173,916 354,889
200,944 277,850
165,216 408,231
119,6491 412,624
136,722 283,651
There is no State bank in the United Kingdom, but the Bank of England,
the Bank of Scotland, and the Bank of Ireland have royal charters, and the
first and the last lend money to the Government. The following are some
statistics of the Bank of England for December of the years stated :—
Year
Issue Department
Banking Department
1
Capital
Deposits
Notes in Coin in
Securities Bullion
and
and
Securities
the ' Re- the ' Re-
' Best '
Post Bills
serve'
serve '
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
1844
28,152
14,000
14,152
17,664
16,391
24,304
8,960
791
1864
28,036
14,650
13,386
17,910
22,078
30,611
8,663
714
1874
35,784
15,000
20,784
17,646
26,761
34,056
9,642
709
1884
35,562
15,750
19,812
17,669
34,206
40,467
10,525
883
1894
47,065
16,800
30,265
17,720
37,223
31,272
21,389
2,282
1896
48,935
16,800
32,135
17,745
54,866
48,316
22,271^
2,024
1897
45,462
16,800
28,662
17,709
46,623
44,296
17,914
2,122
1898
44,225
16,800
27,425 1
17,690 43,502
42,361
16,919
1,913
The following are some statistics of the joint-stock banks (including the
national banks) of England, Scotland, and Ireland for June 30 of the y^'^rs
stated : —
—
1894
1895
£1,000
485,277
144,163
1896
1897
1898
England and "Wales : —
Deposits
Cash in hand and at call
Reserve Notes in Bank
£1,000
445,158
132,999
£1,000
564,538
173,892
£1,000
565,006
160,881
£1,000
596,794
170,082
of England
Scotland : —
28,220
25,983
36,552
23,037
24,695
Deposits
Notes
Cash and at call ,
Ireland : —
92,091
6,553
21,005
93,489
6,733
22,165
94,338
7,275
21,938
95,882
7,370
22,452
96,617
7,486
22,448
Deposits
Notes ....
Cash and at call .
41,670
5,812
10,051
43,613
5,830
10,642
45,566
5,907
10,214
45,580
5,795
8,921
46,083
5,657
8,571
MONEY AND CREDIT
97
There were in June, 1898, 90 joint-stock banks, making returns in
England and Wales, with 3,546 branches; 3 in the Isle of Man with 17
branches; 11 in Scotland, 1,154 branches ; and 9 in Ireland, 580 branches.
There were 29 offices in London of colonial joint-stock banks, vvith 1,653
branches ; and 23 of foreign banks, with 192 branches. Of 23 private banks,
wliich made returns in England and Wales, the deposits amounted to
39,984,188^., cash in hand and at call, 10,640,252/., partners' capital and
reserve, 7,017,632/.
The following are some statistics of the ioint-stock banks for June,
1898 :—
—
English
Scotch
Irish
Colonial
Foreign
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
Subscribed capital .
214,930
29,152
25,549
48,387
35,477
Paid-up do.
60,386
9,311
7,125
36,229
25,194
Market value of do.
190,009
30,578
22,046
—
38,786
Reserve fund, dividend.
&c
34,203
7,210
3,851
9,563
10,589
Notes in circulation
29,226
7,486
5,657
7,870
3,006
Deposit and current ac-
counts
596,794
96,617
46,083
148,658
78,251
Total liabilities ^
742,224
125,849
63,470
229,643
159,703
Cash in hand and at call .
170,082
22,448
8,571
47,574
26,351
Investments
154,095
31,612
17,627
14,837
13,592
Discounts, advances, &c. .
392,406
64,615
36,049
156,806
113,587
Total assets ^ .
742,234
125,849
63,470
229,643
159,703
1 Including other items besides those preceding.
The following are statistics lof the Post-office savings-banks for five
years : —
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingilom i
( Received
1893 -] Paid .
t Capital
( Received
1894 \ Paid .
t Capital
( Received
1895 4 Paid.
V Capital
C Received
1896-^ Paid .
t Capital
( Received
1897 J Paid,
t Capital
£
24,352,782
19,949,093
74,277,260
29,602,953
21,919,841
81,960,372
31,071,405
23,611,750
89,420,027
35,177,703
26,066,652
98,531,078
34,772,070
28,047,895
105,255,253
£
741.479
530,120
1,980,225
988,234
638,445
2,330,014
1,236,372
721,680
2,844,706
1,420,754
851,675
3,413,785
1,477,123
954,982
3,935,926
£
1,414,867
1,285,353
4,340,156
1,864,165
1,228,641
4,975,680
1,993,428
1,364,866
5,604,242
2,120,537
1,571,001
6,153,778
2,173,947
1,622,118
6,705,607
£
26,509,128
21,764,566
80,579,641
32,455,352
23,786,927
89,266,066
34,301,205
25,698,296
97,868,975
38,718,994
29,419,328
108,098,641
38,423,140
30,624,995
115,896,786
^ Including Islands in the British Seas.
98 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following are statistics of trustees' savings-banks : —
—
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingdom l
^Received ,
loqojlnt. cred.
^^^^iPaid.
1, Capital
£
5,677,539
730,752
6,819,089
29,136,482
91,639
19,100
203,111
741,630
£
2,973,494
249,086
2,761,860
10,478,773
£
355,457
45,703
500,552
1,886,722
£
9,098,129
1,044,641
10,284,612
42,243,607
^Received .
ifiQ.Jint. cred.
^^^^IPaid. .
!, Capital
6,351,965
726,731
6,827,435
29,387,736
87,895
17,160
147,503
699,182
3,473,213
263,469
2,824,964
11,390,491
441,376
46,534
377,137
1,997,495
10,354,449
1,053,894
10,177,039
43,474,904
rReceived .
iQQ^-Jlnt. cred.
^^^Mpaid. .
V Capital
6,531,154
735,808
6,676,659
29,978,039
77,249
15,858
145,214
647,075
4,016,439
294,548
3,101,308
12,600,170
457,748
48,619
416,465
2,087,397
11,082,590
1,094,833
10,339,646
45,312,681
r Received .
. QQ^ Int. cred.
^^^^]Paid. .
(.Capital
6,848,889
736,656
7,640,072
29,923,512
83,546
15,718
97,577
648,762
4,623,017
324,025
3,601,013
13 946,199
468,677
50,657
425,517
2,181,214
12,024,129
1,127,056
11,764,179
46,699,687"
[■Received ,
, Qf.M Int. cred.
'^^MPaid. .
(.Capital
6,862,737
748,778
6,840,228
30,694,799
81,984
15,840
93,957
652,629
4,608,836
347,452
4,037,215
14,865,272
461,999
52,640
443,756
2,252,097
12,015,556
1,164,710
11,415,156
48,464,797
1 Including Channel Islands.
The payments include purchases of Government Stock for depositors, and the capital is
exclusive of Government Stock held for depositors.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The sovereign weighs 123 '274 grains, or 7 "9881 grammes, "916 (or eleven-
twelfths) fine, and consequently it contains 113 '001 grains or 7 '3224 grammes
of fine gold.
The shilling weighs 87 "27 grains or 5 "6552 grammes, "925 (or thirty-seven-
fortieths) fine, and thus contains 80*727 grains or 5*231 grammes of fine silver.
Bronze coins consist of a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The penny
weighs 145 "83 grains, or 9*45 grammes.
The standard of value is gold. Silver is legal tender up to 40 shillings ;
bronze up to 12d., but farthings only up to 6d. Bank of England notes are
legal tender.
Standard units are : of length the standard yard, of weight the standard
pound of 7,000 grains (the pound troy having 5,760 grains), of capacity the
standard gallon containing 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at 62° F.,
the barometer at 30 inches. On these units all other legal weights and
measures are based.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 99
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.
1. Official Publications.
Agricultural Returns of Great Britain. Annual. 8. London. Royal Commission on
Agriculture, First and Second Reports, Minutes of Evidence (4 vols.), and Reports of
Assistant Commissioners on various Counties of Englandand Scotland (20 vols.). London,
lS9t3. Final Report of Royal Commission on Land in Wales and Monmouthshire, with
Evidence and Appendices (6 vols.), 1896. Returns as to Number and Size of Agriciiltural
Holdings in Great Britain in 1895. London, 1896.
Agricultural Statistics, Ireland. Annual. 8. Dublin. Land Commission (Ireland)
Reports. Annual. Dublin.
Army Estimates, Annual. Army Accounts, Annual. Army List, Quarterly. Army :
General Annual Return. London.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England and Wales ; in Scotland ; in Ireland. Annual
Reports by the respective Registrars-General.
Canals and Navigations : Returns made to the Board of Trade for 1888. Fol. London, 1890.
Census of England and Wales, 1891. Preliminary Report. London, 1891. General
Report and Detailed Returns. 4 vols. London, 1893. Of Scotland, 1891. Report, with
Supplement. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1893. Of Ireland, 1891. Report. Dublin, 1892.
Consolidated Fund : Abstract Account. Annual. London.
Customs : Report of the Commissioners of H.M.'s. Customs. Annual. 8. London.
Duchy of Cornwall : Annual Accounts. Duchy of Lancaster : Annual Accounts.
- Education : Elementary Schools in England and Scotland. Annual Return showing
Education Expenditure upon Grants, and Results of Inspection and Examination. 8.
London. Anniial Reports of Committee of Council on Education in England and Wales ; in
Scotland. Annual Report of the Science and Art Department. Annual Report of the
Intermediate Education Board for Ireland. Annual Report of the Commissioners of
National Education in Ireland. Report of Royal Commission on Secondary Education in
England. 9 vols. London, 1895. Annual Reports from University Colleges participating
in Grant of 15,000!. Charity Commissioners' Annual Report on Intermediate Education in
Wales.
Electoral Statistics, Annual Return of, in County and Borough Constituencies in
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Annual Return of the number of Electors on
the° Register of each County in England and Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. London.
Emigration : Annual Statistical Tables relating to Emigration and Immigration.
Annual Emigration Statistics of Ireland.
Factories and Workshops Act : Return of the Number of Factories Authorised to be
Inspected, Persons Employed, (fee, for 1890. London, 1891. Report of Chief Inspector.
Annual. London.
Finance Accounts (Annual) of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ,
Annual Financial Statement. Financial Estimates. Return showing Revenue and Expen-
diture (England, Scotland, and Ireland) for 1896-97. London, 1897. First Report of Royal
Commission on Financial Relations between Great Britain and Ireland ; Evidence (2 vols.);
Final Report ; London, 1896. National Debt Accounts (Annual). National Debt during
60 vears. Annual Return.
Fish Conveyed Inland by Railway : Annual Return. London. Reports of Inspectors of
Sea Fisheries, and of Salmon Fisheries. Annual. London.
Income Tax Assessments : Annual Returns.
Geological Survey, Annual Report. By Sir A. Geikie. London.
Inland Revenue: Report of the Commissioners on the Duties under their Management for
the years 1856 to 1869, with some Retrospective History and complete Tables of Accounts
of the Duties from their first Imposition. 2 vols. Fol. pp. 168 and 219. London, 1870.
Inland Revenue : Report of the Commissioners. Annual. 8. London.
Judicial Statistics of England and Wales ; of Scotland ; of Ireland. Annual.
Labour Department of Board of Trade ; Annual Report. Annual Report on Trades
Unions. Reports on Strikes and Lock-outs ; on Changes in Wages, &c. ; on Co-operative
Contracts. Registrar's Reports on Friendly Societies ; on Industrial and Provident
Societies ; on Trades Unions. The Actuary's Report on Sickness, Ac, in Registered
Friendly Societies (2 Parts, 1880 and 1896).
Local Government : England and Wales ; Scotland ; Ireland ; Annual Reports.
Local Taxation Returns : England ; Scotland ; Ireland.
Merchant Shipping : Tables showing the Progress of Briti.sh Merchant Shipping. Annual.
Navigation and Shipping. Annual Statement. London.
Militia: Return showing Establishment of each Regiment. Annual. London.
H 2
100 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Mineral Statistics (Annual) of Great Britain and Ireland, 3 parts. Part I., District
Statistics; Part II., Labour; Part III., Labour.— Inspectors' Annual Eeports, 13 parts.—
List (Annual) of Mines worked.
Mint Report. Ajinual. London.
Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom, Annual Statement of. Imp, 4. London.
Navy : Return. Sea-going war-ships, &c. London, 1896. Navy : Statistical Report on
the Health of the Navy. Annual. Navy List. Quarterly.
Police : Reports of Inspectors of Constabulary for England and Wales, and for Scotland.
Annual. London. Dublin Police Statistics. Annual. Dublin.
Poor Law, England : Annual Report of Local Government Board. 8. London. Poor
Rates and Pauperism, Annual Returns Relating to. London. Poor Relief, Scotland :
Annual Report of Commissioners. 8. Edinburgh. Ireland : Report of Local Govern-
ment Board for Ireland. Annual. 8. Dublin.
Post Office : Report of the Postmaster-General. Annual. 8. London.
Prisons, Reports on, for England and Wales, for Scotland, for Ireland. Annual. London.
Railway Companies of the United Kingdom, Annual Report. Railway and Canal Com-
mission, Annual Report.
Railway Returns for England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Annual. Fol. London.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools of Great ^Britain ; of Ireland ; Annual Reports of
Inspectors.
Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal. Annual. London.
Savings Banks, Annual Returns. Trustee Savings Banks, Annual Report on Transac-
tions of each Bank.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom. Annual. 8. London.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, Annual
Statement of. Statistical Tables (Annual) showing Progress of British Trade and Pro-
duction. Trade of British Empire and Foreign Competition. Despatch to Governors of
Colonies, and Replies. London, 1897.
Volunteer Corps : Annual Retui-ns. London.
Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues : Annual Report of the Commissioners. Fol.
London.
Yeomanry Cavalry Training Retui'n. Annual. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ackland (A. H. Dyke), Handbook in Outline of the Political History of England.
London, 1895.
Acworth (W. M.), The Railways of England, 1889. The Railways of Scotland. 8.
London, 1890.
Annual Register. A Review of Public Events. London.
Anson (Sir W. R.), Law and Custom of the Constitution. 2nd Ed. 8. London, 1896.
Army Book for the British Empire. London, 1893.
Baedeker (K.), Great Britain. 4th ed. London, 1897.
JBoernrettfter (I. M.), English Associations of Working Men. Eng. Trans. 8. London,
1889.
Bagehot (W.), The English Constitution. 2nd Ed. 8. London, 1872. Lombard Street :
a Description of the Money Market. 10th Ed. 8. London, 1892.
Balfour (G.), The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1898.
Bedford (Duke of). The Story of a Great Agricultural Estate. London, 1897.
Bell(iiirJ.), Glasgow: Its Municipal Organisation, &c. Glasgow, 1896.
Bevan (C. P.), Editor, British Manufacturing Industries. A series by various writers.
8. London.
Birkbeck (W. L. C), Historical Sketch of the 'Distribution of Land in England. 8.
London, 1886.
Black's Guide to Scotland. 13th ed. London, 1898.
Booth (C), Life and Labour of the People of London. 9 vols. London, 1889-97. Tlie
Aged Poor in England and Wales. 8. London, 1894.
Boyd (R. N.), Coal Pits and Pitmen. 2nd ed. London, 1895.
Brabner (J. H. F.), Gazetteer of England and Wales. Vols. I. -VI. London, 1895.
Brassey (Lord), The British Navy. 5 vols. London, 1882-83.
Bransey (T. A.), Tlie Naval Annual. Portsmouth. — The Royal Naval Reserve, the Mer-
cantile Marine, and the Colonies. London, 1898.
Briggs (Sir J. H.), Naval Administration, 1827-92. London, 1897.
Bund (J. W. W.), The Celtic Church of Wales. London, 1897.
iinrrfeit (H. C). Hospitals and Charities, 1898. Annual. London.
Burke (Sir B.), Peerage and Baronetage. 61st ed. London, 1898.
BuirowB (M.), History of the Foreign Policy of Great Britain. 2nd ed. London, 1897.
Burton (J. H.), History of Scotland. New ed. Edinburgh, 1897.
Cannan (E.), History of Local Rates in England. (Lectures.) London, 1896.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 101
Canning (A. S. G.), British Rule and Modern Politics. London, 1898.
Catholic Directory. Annual. London.
Channing (F. A.), The Truth about Agricultural Depression. London, 1897.
CIarfce(Major G. S.), Fortiflcation. 8. London, 1890.
Clarke (Sir G. S.), Imperial Defence. London, 1897.
Clode (Charles M.), History of the Administration and Government of the British
Army, from the Revolution of 1G88. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869-70.
Clowes (W. L.), Markham (Sir C), Mahan (A. T.), and others, History of the Royal
Navy. 5 vols. London. [In progress.]
Colomb (Admiral P. H.), Naval Warfare. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1895.
Conant (C. A.), History of Modern Banks of Issue. London, 1896.
Creasy (Sir Edward), The Imperial and Colonial Constitutions of the Britannic Empire,
including Indian Institutions. S. London, 1872.
Cunningham (W.), The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early and
Middle Ages, and in Modern Times. 2 vols. 8. London, 1890-92.
Dicey (A. V.), Introduction to the Study of the Law .of the Constitution. 4th Ed.
London, 1893.
Dickinson (G. L.), The Development of Parliament during the Nineteenth Century.
London, 1895.
Dilke (Sir Charles), Greater Britain. 2 vols. London, 1869.— Problems of Greater
Britain. London, 1890.
Dilke (Sir Cliarles) and Wilkinson (H. S.) Imperial Defence. 8. London, 1892.
Ditchfield (P. H.), Story of our English Towns. London, 1897.
Donald (R.), Ihe Municipal Year Book. Annual. London. The London Manual.
London, 1897.
X)oi»c»(Stei)hen), A History of Taxation, and Taxes in England. 4 vols. London, 1888.
Duffy (Sir C. Gavan), Young Ireland: A Fragment of Irish History (1840-45). Final
revision. London, 1896.
Dumville (H. R.), Low's Handbook of the Charities of London. Annual. London.
Eardley-W' ilmot (Captain S.), The Development of Navies. 8. London, 1892.
Economist, The, Banking Supplements, published May and October annually. London.
Egerton (H. E.), A Short History of British Colonial Policy. London, 1897.
Ellis's Irish Education Directory for 1895. Dublin, 1894.
Escott (T. H. S.), Social Transformations of the Victorian Age. London, 1897.
Findlay (Sir G.), Working and Management of an English Railway. 5th ed. 8. London, 1894.
Fortescue (J. W.), History of the British Army. Vol. I. London, 1898.
Fowle (J. W.), The Poor Law. London, 1881.
Freeman (E. A.), The Growth of the English Constitution from the Earliest Times. New
Ed. 8. London, 187.3.
Gamier (R. .M.), History of the English Landed Interest. 2 vols. 8. London, 1893.
Annals of tlie British Peasantry. London, 1895.
Gastrell (W. S. H.), Our Trade in the World in Relation to Foreign Competition, 1885-
95. London, 1897.
Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland. 5 vols. London, 1S97. [In progress.]
Gibbins (H. de B.), Industry in England. 8. London, ISOG.
Giffen (R.), Essays in Finance. 2 series. London, 1880 and 1686.
Gnet** (Rudolph), Das Englische Verwaltungsrecht der Gegenwart, in Vergleichung mit
dem Deutschen Verwaltungssystem. 2 vols. Berlin, 1884.
Gneist (R. von), Englische Verfassungsgeschichte. 8. Berlin, 1882. [English Trans.
London, 1891.] Das Englische Parlament in tausendjiihrigen Wandelungen. 8. Berlin,
1886. [English Trans., London, 1891.]
Good«nouj;;i (Lieut. -Col. W. H.) and Dalton (Lieut.-Col. J. C), The Army Book of the
British Empire. 8. London, 1893.
Gr<ren (J. R.), History of the English People. 4 vols. London, 1877-80. The Making of
England. New ed. London, 1897.
Grinling (C. H.), History of the Great Northern Railway. London, 1897.
GroM (C.), The Gild Merchant: a Contribution to British Municipal History. 2 vols.
8. London, 1890.
Hall (W. E.), A Treatise on the Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown.
S. Oxford, 1894.
Hamilton (Sir R. V.), Naval Administration. London, 1896.
Hannay (D ), Short History of the Royal Navy. Vol. 1. London, 1897.
Hashach(V{ .), Die englischen Landarbeiter in dem letztenhundert Jahren Leipzic, 1894.
Heath (R.), The English Peasant. London, 1893.
Hertflet (Sir E.), Treaties of Commerce and Navigation, &c., between Great Britain and
Foreign Countries. London.
Holdsworth (E. W. H.), The Sea Fisheries of Great Britain and Ireland. 8. London, 1883.
Hull (E.), OurCoal Resen'es at the close of the 19th Century. London, 1897.
Hunt (Robert), British Mining. London, 1884.
James (W.), The Naval History of Great Britain. 6 vols. London, 1886,
102 THE BKITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Jewish Historical Society, Transactions of. London, 1895, <fec. Russo-Jewish Com-
mittee, Statistics of Jewish Population in London, 1873-93. London, 1894.
Jones (R J, C), The British Merchant Service [History]. London, 1898.
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society of London. Quarterly. London.
Joyce (H.), History of the Post Office down to 1836. London, 1893.
Kerr (A. W.) Scottish Banking, 1865-96. London, 1897.
King (C), The Story of the British Army. London, 1897.
Lean's Royal Navy List. Quarterly, London.
Lecky (W. E. H.), History of England in the 18th Century. 8 vols. London, 1887-1895.
History of Ireland in the ISth Century. New edition. 5 vols. London, 1892.
Lloyd's Register, Particulars of the Warships of the World. London, 1894.
Lloyd and Hadeoek, Artillery : its Progress and Present Position. 8. 1893.
Loch (C. S.), The Annual Charities Register and Digest. London.
Lough {T.), England's Wealth, L'eland's Poverty. 2nd. ed. London, 1897.
Luckock (H. M.), The Church in Scotland. London, 1891.
MacCarthy (J.), History of our own Times, 1873-97. 5 vols. London, 1879-97.
MacDonagh (M.), The Book of Parliament. London, 1897.
Mackay (iEneas), (Editor), County Histories of Scotland. Edinburgh. [In progress.]
Macy (J.), The English Constitution. London, 1897.
Mahan (Capt. A. T.), The Influence of Sea-Power upon History, London, 1890. The
Influence of Sea-Power upon the French Revolution and Empire. 2 vols. 8. London.
1892. The Life of Nelson. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Maitland (F. W.), Justice and Police. 8. London, 1885.
Maltbie (M. R.), English Local Government of To-day. New York, 1897.
Maxivell (Sir H.), Sixty Years a Queen. London, 1897.
May (Thomas Erskine), Constitutional History of England. 2 vols. 8. London, 1861-63.
Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament. 10th Edition, 8.
London, 1893.
ilfoie8j<;or<A(Rev.W.N.), History of England, 1830-74. 5th Edition. 3 vols. 8.London,1874.
Morris (M. O'C), Hibernia Hodierna, London, 1898.— Ireland, 1798-1898. London, 1898,
Murray's Handbooks for England and Wales, and for separate Districts (22 vols.) ; for
Scotland ; 7th ed. 1898 ; for Ireland. 5th ed. London, 1897.
Navigation, Report of Proceedings of Conference on Ireland, at Birmingham, February
12, 1895, Newcastle, 1895.
Navy Records Society, Publications of. [In progress.]
^«c;ioZis(SirG.), History of the English Poor Law. New Edition. 2 vols, 8, London,
O'Brien (R. B.), The Life of Charles Stewart Parnell, 1846-1891. 2 vols. London, 1898
0 Brien (W. P.), Local Government in Ireland. 8. London. The Great Famine in
Ireland and a Retrospect, 1845-95. London, 1896.
Olden (r.), TJie Church in Ireland, 8. London, 1892.
O'Meara (J. J.), Municipal Taxation at Home and Abroad. 8. London, 1894,
Oppenheim (M. ), History of the Administration of the Royal Navy. Vol. 1, 1509-1660
London, 1897.
Overton (J. H.), The Church in England. 2 vols. liondon, 1897,
Parmentier (J.), Histoire de I'Education en Angleterre, Paris, 1896.
Pascoe (C. E.), London To-Day. London, 1897.
Pattinson (J. P.), British Railways. London, 1893.
Pendleton (J .), Our Railways : their Origin, Development, Incident and Romance. 2 vols.
London, 1896.
Pike (L. O.), A Constitutional History of the House of Lords. 8. London, 1894.
Rankin (J.), Handbook of the Church of Scotland. 4th ed. London, 1888.
Reid (S. J.), (Editor), The Queen's Prime Ministers : A series of Biogi-aphies, 9 vols.
London.
Robinson (Commander C. N.), The British Fleet. 8. London, 1894.
Rogers (J. E. Thorold), Industrial and Commercial History of England. 8. London, 1892.
Six Centuries of Work and Wages. London, 1890. History of Agriculture and Prices.
Vols. VII. and VIII. Oxford, 1897.
Ross's Parliamentary Record. Annual. London.
Roimer (P. de), T)ie Labour Question in Great Britain. [Translation.] 8. London, 1896.
Salis (H. R. de), A Chronology of Inland Navigation in Great Britain, «fec. London, 1897.
Sanderson (E.), The British Empire in the 19th Century. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Schulze-Oaevernitz (G. von). The Cotton Trade in England and on the Continent.
English Tr. by O. S. Hall. 8. London, 1895.
Scientific Societies of Great Britain, Year-Book of. Annual. London.
Seeley (Sir J. R.), The Expansion of England. London, 1883. The Growth of British
Policy. 2 vols. London, 1895.
Shaw-Lefevre (G. J.), Agrarian Tenures. 8. London, 1893. English Commons and
Forests. 8. London, 1893.
Sherard (R.), The White Slaves of England. 2nd ed. London, 1898.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 103
Simon (Sir J.)) English Sanitary Institutions. '2nd ed. London, 1897.
Spence (H. D. M.), The Church'of England. 4 vols. London, 1897. [In progress.]
Stenzel (Captain), The British Navy. London, 1898.
Stephen (h.), a.nd Lee (S.), (Editors), Dictionary of National Biography. London. [In
progress.]
Stephen (Sir J. F.), History of the Criminal Law of England. 3 vols. London, 1883.
StepheTis (T. A.), Contribution to Bibliogi-aphy of the Bank of England. London, 1897.
Stubbs (Professor), A Constitutional History of England, in its Origin and Development.
2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
The English Citizen, his Rights and Responsibilities. 13 vols. London, 1881-85.
Thursfield (J. H.), and Clarke (Sir G. S.), The Navy and the Nation. London, 1897.
Todd (Al), On Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. 8. London, 1887-89,
rorrert»(W. M.), History of Cabinets. 2 vols. 8. London, 1894
Traill (H. D.), Social England. 6 vols. London, 1893-1896.
Turner {B. B.), Chronicles of the Bank of England. London, 1897.
Webb{S. and B.), History of Trade Unionism. [Contains Bibliography.] 8. London, 1894
Industrial Democracy. London, 1897.
Wells (L.E.),Map of the Canals and Navigable Rivers in England and Wales. London, 1894.
Also a Paper on the Canals, (fee, of England in Journal of the Manchester Geographical
Society for 1896, p. 157. Manchester.
Whelen (F.), London Government. London, 1898.
Williame (F. H.), Our Iron Roads. 7th ed. London, 1897.
Williams (H.), A Short Hi.story of the Growth of the British Navy, from the Earliest
Times to Trafalgar. London, 1894-98.
Wilson (H. W.), Ironclads in Action (1855-1895). 2 vols. London, 1896.
White (W.), Inner Life of The House of Commons, 1860-70. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Wolseley (V\sco\\nt), The Standing Army of Great Britain. In "Armies of To-Day"
Series. London, 1893.
Wright (A.), History of Education and of the old Parish Schools of Scotland. Edinburgh,
1898.
Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
Ansted (D. T.) and Latham (R. G.), The Channel Islands. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1893.
Black's Guide to the Isle of Man. London, 1896.
Broion's Guide to the Isle of Man. 14th ed. 8. Douglas, 1894.
Caine (T. H. Hall), The Little Manx Nation. 8. London, 1891.
Mahe de la Bourdonnais (Count A.), Voyage dans I'lsle de Man. Paris, 1894,
Moore (A, W.), Sodor and Man. [Diocesan History.] 8. London, 1893,
Walpole (Spencer), The Land of Home Rule. 8. London, 1893,
104 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA
II. INDIA, THE COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, AND
DEPENDENCIES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
In the following pages the various sections of the British Em-
pire outside the United Kingdom are arranged in alphabetical
order under the divisions of the world to which they belong : —
1. Europe; 2. Asia; 3. Africa; 4. America; 5. Australasia and
Oceania.
The Colonies proper form three classes: — (1) The Co'own
Colonies, which are entirely controlled by the home government ;
(2) those possessing Rejyresentative Institutions, in which the
Crown has no more than a veto on legislation, but the home
government retains the control of public officers; and (3) those
possessing Responsible Government, in which the home government
has no control over any public officer, though the Crown appoints
the Governor and still retains a veto on legislation.
The total expenditure of the Mother Country in connection
with the Colonies (exclusive of India) amounts to about 2
millions sterling annually, mainly for military and naval pur-
poses.
According to the Army Estimates for the year 1898-99, the
total effective strength of the British forces in the colonies, ex-
clusive of India, was 43,751 of all ranks. The distribution of
regimental establishments, including colonial corps (here stated
in parentheses), was as follows : — Malta, 10,602 (725) men ; Gib-
raltar, 5,382 ; Cape of Good Hope and Natal, 8,662 ; Ceylon, 1,757
(265); Bermuda, 1,950; Jamaica, 1,720 (1,018); Barbados and
St. Lucia, 1,527 (612); Canada (Halifax), 1,784; Hong Kong,
3,428 (1,530); Straits Settlements, 1,643 (172); Mauritius, 2,733
(200); West Coast of Africa, 1,661 (1,527); Cyprus, 133; St.
Helena, 748 (517) ; besides 73,162 in India and 4,309 in Egypt.
The contributions from colonial revenues in aid of military
expenditure were estimated as follows for the year 1898-99 : —
Ceylon, 111,300^.; Mauritius, 22,900^. ; Hong Hong, 39,000^.;
Straits Settlements, 75,500^.; Malta, 5,000/.; Natal, 4,000/.;
total, 257,800/. India contributes (1898-99) 541,000/. for home
effective charges for forces serving in India, and 180,000/. for
deferred pay for service on Indian establishment,
105
EUROPE.
GIBRALTAR.
Governor. — General Sir Robert Biddulph, R.A., G.C.M.G., K.C.B,, salary,
4,166Z. 135. ^d. sterling. Colonial Secretary. — H. M. Jackson, C.M.G.
The Rock of Gibraltar is a Crown colony, situated in 36" 6' N. latitude
and 5° 21' W. longitude, in the Province of Andalusia, in Spain, commanding
the entrance to the Mediterranean. The Governor, who is also Commander-
in-Chief, exercises all the functions of government and legislation. Area,
It^s square mile ; greatest elevation, 1,439 feet. Population (1897), 26,203
(estimated), including garrison of 5,505 men. Settled population mostly
descendants of Genoese settlers. Average births per 1,000 of civil population,
24*42. Deaths per 1,000 of civil population, 20 '64. Religion of fixed population
mostly Roman Catholic ; one Protestant cathedral and three Roman Catho-
lic churches ; annual subsidy to each communion, 420Z. Qs. ^d. Several
private English schools ; Government aided elementary schools, 11 (8 Roman
Catholic). Pupils, 1,867 in 1897-98. Government grant, 1,143Z. 105. ^d.
One magistrate's court and a supreme court.
Chief sources of revenue : — Port dues, rent of Crown estate, excise, post-
office, &c. Branches of expenditure : — Government civil establishments,
administration of justice, public works, &c. Contribution by Home Govern-
ment, nil. Industries unimportant.
—
18P3
1894
1895
1896
1897
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
60,919
58,405
£
63,216
60,655
£
61,928
55,411
Pesetas
1,581,785
1,508,705
Pesetas.
1,652,781
1,531,784
Military expenditure by Imi)erial Government (1897), 275,016?.
Government savings-bank, with 4,422 depositors and 5,024,722 pesetas
deposits (1897).
Gibraltar is a naval base and position of great strategic importance, which
is now being largely increased in strength and stability by extending and
completing the existing mole, and building a detached mole. A deep harbour
of 260 acres is being formed, and for the new dockyard some 50 acres of
foreshore and water area have been reclaimed. A torpedo-boat comber is in-
cluded in the scheme, and the harbour will be made secure against torj)edo
attack. The length of the three new docks is as follows : 850 feet (double),
550 feet, and 450 feet. Tliere will be additional coal stores at the Admiralty
mole. In 1897 the total tonnage of vessels entered was 4,371,126, of which
3,331,477 was British. Three miles of internal telegraph under military, and
about one mile under colonial, management. Postal communication daily
with England. Branch post-offices at Tangier, Laraiche, Rabat, Casablanca,
Mazagan, Mogador, Saffi, Fez, and Tetuan. There is cable communication
with the Contincmt, the Mediterranean. Eastern ports, and England, vid Post
Office and Eastern Telegraph Company's lines.
The legal currency is that of Spain, the peseta = 1 franc ; 25 pesetas
nominally = \l., but exchange is generally over 30 pesetas to the £.
106
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MALTA
Books of Reference.
Colonial Report. Annual. London.
Drinkioater (J.), The Siege of Gibraltar. 4. London, 1785.
Field {B..l!,l.) Gibraltar. 8. London. 1889.
Gilbard (G. J.), Popular History of Gibraltar. 8. Gibraltar, 1881.
Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. L
Stoddard (C. A.), Spanish Cities. 8. London, 1892.
MALTA.
Oxford, 1888.
Governor.— Lieut -General Sir Francis Wallace Grenfell, G. C. B. , G. C. M. G.
(salary 5,000^.).
Chief Secretary to Government.— Sir Gersild Strickland, K.C.M.G,, Count
della Catena.
An island in the Mediterranean, 58 miles from Sicily, with an excellent
harbour. It is one of the most important posts of call in the world, and is
the base and resort for repair and refitment of our fleet in the Mediterranean.
Malta is 17 miles long ; area, 95 miles ; and the neighbouring island,
Gozo, 20 miles ; total area (with Comino), 117 square miles. Population
for 1897, 177,745. Local military, viz. : Royal Malta Artillery, 694, Royal
Malta Militia, 1,596, and Malta Militia Division, Royal Engineers, 53.
Chief town and port, Valletta. Education— 119 public schools, with 14,836
pupils in 1897 ; Government grant, 21,232Z. There are a university, 1 lyceum,
and 2 secondary schools. In addition to the above there are 116 private schools
attended by 3,679 pupils in Malta and Gozo not receiving any aid from Colonial
Funds. In 1897, 5,967 persons were committed to prison.
The government is to some extent representative. The Governor is
assisted by an executive council and a council of government, according to
the Constitution of 1887, of 6 official and 14 elected.
—
1893 .
1894
1895
1896 1897
Revenue .
Expenditure .
£
291,158
304,993
£
301,859
291,682
£
305,440
301,550
£ £
313,680 323,787
308,902 324,673
Chief sources of revenue, 1897 : Customs, 172,707?.; land, 12,834?.; rents,
27,257/.; postage, 16,218?.; interest, 27,507?.; licences, 4,330?. Branches
of expenditure : Establishments, 127,840?. ; other services, 196,833?. Contri-
bution from Home Government, nil. Public debt, 79,168?. Savings-bank
with, for 1897, 6,614 depositors, deposits, 514,878?.
Chief products : cotton, potatoes, oranges, figs, honey, and corn. Manu-
factures : cotton, filigree, lucifer-matches. Chief industry, farming ; (in
1897) horses, mules and asses, 7,941 ; horned cattle, 7,905 ; sheep, 15,961 ;
goats, 14,197.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports ,
£
13,732,030
12,275,141
£
13,773,783
13,086,747
£
13,099,978
13,231,813
£
10,472,139
11,886,149
£
10,895,639
10,088,760
The trade is mainly transit — of the total imports in 1897 the value actually
landed was 905,006?., and of the exports the value shipped from articles
actually landed was 80,567?., so that the value of imports for local consump-
MALTA 107
tion was 824,439Z. Of the total imports in 1897 the value of 150,473Z. was
from the United Kingdom ; 92,429^. from British possessions: 10,652,379^.
from foreign countries. Of the total exports the value of 1,784,834^. was to
the United Kingdom; 1,891, 114Z. to British possessions; 6,403,709Z. to
foreign countries. In the general trade the most important article is wheat,
7,094,280^, in 1897.
Vessels entered (1897), 4,111, of 3,637,426 tons; cleared, 4,079, of
3,607,042 tons. Of the total entered 1,789 vessels of 2,631,293 tons, and
cleared 1,785 of 2,626,679 tons were British.
Railway, 8 miles ; telegraph, 65 miles ; telephones, 350 miles. The Post-
office traffic in 1897 was : Inland letters and postcards received and despatched,
1,641,255; newspapers, 669,107; in foreign correspondence, received and
despatched, letters, 1,975,870 ; postcards, 118,576 ; newspapers, 1,022,437.
Books of Reference.
Colonial Report. Annual. London.
Ballon (M. M.), The Story of Malta. 8. Boston, 1893.
Lwca* (C. P.), Historical Geography of the Briti.sh Colonie.s. Vol.1. 8. Loudon, ISSS
Paf^e (G. A.), Guide to the Laws and Regulations of Malta. 8. Malta, 1892.
108 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ASIA
ASIA,
ADEN, PERIM, SOMALI! AND AND SOKOTRA.
Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the Arabian coast, about 100 miles east of
Bab-el-Mandeb. It forms an important coaling-station on the highway to the
East, and is strongly fortified. The settlement includes Little Aden, a
peninsula very similar to Aden itself, and the settlement and town of Shaikh
Othman on the mainland with the villages of Imad, Hiswa, and Bir Jabir.
It also includes the island of Perim at the entrance to the Red Sea, and is
subject to the Bombay Government. The Government is administei'ed by a
Political Resident, who is also commander of the troops. The only Govern-
ment revenue is from duty on liquor, opium, and salt ; local taxes go to the
Municipality, There is a Port Trust ; the harbour is being dredged.
Area 75 square miles, of Perim 5 square miles. Population, in 1891, 41,910
against 34,860 in 1881. Imports (1897-98), by sea, 36,347,980 rupees; by
land, 3,310,478 rupees; treasure, 4,408,407 rupees. Exports, by sea,
31,329,756 rupees; by land, 1,272,430 rupees; treasure, 4,878,196 rupees.
In 1897-98, 1,079 merchant vessels of 2,123,339 tons entered the portof Aden,
besides 1,407 local craft of 48,138 tons. At Perim 513 merchant vessels
entered, most of them to coal.
Chief exports : Coffee, gums, hides and skins, piece goods, tobacco. Chief
imports : Cotton twist, piece goods, grain, hides and skins, tobacco. Aden
itself is non-productive, and the trade is a purely transhipment one, except
that from the interior of Arabia. According to the Board of Trade returns the
total imports from Aden and Dependencies into the United Kingdom amounted
in 1896 to 190,294^., in 1897 to 173,319Z. ; and the exports thereto from the
United Kingdom in 1896 to 240,581?., in 1897 to 165,981Z.
The Somali Coast ^ from Lahadu, west of Zaila, to Bandar Ziyada, 49° E.
long,, became a British Protectorate in 1884, and is administered by a Political
Agent and Consul. The area is about 68,000 square miles; no trustworthy
estimate can be formed of the population, which is Mohammedan and mostly
nomadic. By an arrangement with Italy in 1894, the limits of the British
Protectorate were definitely defined ; but in 1897, by arrangement with
Abyssinia, the area was reduced from 75,000 to 68,000 square miles. The chief
town. Berbera, has about 30,000 inhabitants in the trading season ; Zaila,
6,000 ; Bulbar, 5,000. At these three ports there are British officers and
Indian troops. Revenue (1897-98), Berljera, Bulbar, and Karam, 194,307
rupees ; Zaila, 117,966 rupees ; expenditure, civil, Berbera, Biilhar, and
Karam, 111,187 rupees ; Zaila, 41,676 rupees ; military, public Avorks, &c.,
for the Coast, 55,554 rupees. Imports (1897-98), Berbera, Bulbar, and
Karam, 2,795,750 rupees ; Zaila, 2,426,700 rupees ; exports, Berbera, Bulbar,
and Karam, 2,447,765 rupees; Zaila, 2,807,644 rupees. These amounts do
not include treasure. Ad valorem duties are levied of 5 per cent, on imports,
and 1 per cent, on exports ; specie, sheep, goats, cattle, gold, ivory, and
civet, being free. The imports are chiefly rice, piece-goods, shirtings, and
dates ; the exports, skins and hides, ostrich feathers, cattle, sheep, and gum.
Transport is by camels and donkeys ; there are no porters.
J Sonialiland was in 1898 placed under the Foreign Otflce, and is no longer dependent
on Aden,
BAHREIN ISLANDS
109
The island of Sokotra off the coast of Africa is under British protection, and
the Euria Muria islands off the coast of Arabia, are attached to Aden. Area
of former, 1,382 square miles. Population about 12,000, mostly pastoral and
migratory inland, fishing on the coast. Religion, at one time Christian, Moham-
medan since the end of the 17th century. The island came under British pro-
tection in 1876, by treaty with the Sultan. Chief products, dates and various
gums ; sheep, cattle, and goats are plentiful ; butter is exported. The Kuria
Muria Islands, five in number, were ceded by the Sultan of Muscat for the
purpose of landing the Red Sea cable. The group is leased for the purpose of
guano collection.
References. — Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
Bent (J. Th.), Sokotra. In ' XIX Century' Magazine for June, 1897. London.
Ghika (Prince Nicolas de), Cinq Mois au Pays des Somalis. Geneva, 1898.
Pearce (F. B.), Rambles in Lion Land : Three Months in Somaliland. London, 1898.
Swayne (H. G. C), Seventeen Trips through Somaliland. London, 1895.
BAHREIN ISLANDS.
Group of islands in the Persian Gulf, 20 miles off the coast of El Hasa, in
Arabia. Bahrein, the largest, is 27 miles long by 10 wide. Moharek, on
the north of Bahrein, 4 miles long, ^ mile wide. There are about half-a-
dozen others, mere rocks, Manameh, the commercial capital, extends 10 miles
along the shore ; 25,000 inhabitants. The population is Mohammedan of the
Sunni and Shiite sects. The seat of government is Moharek on the island of that
name ; population about 22,000. There are about 50 villages in the islands.
The chief belongs to the ruling family of Al Kalifah ; the present chief of
Bahrein is Sheikh Esau, who owes the possession of his throne entirely to British
protection, which was instituted in 1867. Sheikh Easu was again formally
placed under British protection in 1870, when his rivals were deported to India.
The great industry is pearl fishery, in which 400 boats, of from 8 to 20
men each, are engaged. In 1897 the value and distribution of the trade, and
the nationality of the shipping entered and cleared were as follows : —
Tonnage |
Imports from
Exports to
£
Entered
Cleared
£
United Kingdom
23,313
—
58,337
60,478
India , . . .
289,529
248,981
—
—
Turkey
112,418
170,156
10,895
9,879
Persian Ports
49,967
26,814
4,008
3,542
Arab coast .
14,130
14,541
8,534
11,515
Muskat
11,702
6,301
561
484
Zanzibar
1,895
581
—
—
Other countries ,
Total, 1897
—
—
427
427
502,954
467. 374
82,762
86,325
„ 1896
479,106
485,329
114,505
117,425
Of the imports in 1897, the chief were: pearls, 72,812Z. ; rice, 87,344;
rifles, 25,116Z. ; coffee, 16,341Z.; cottons, 40,114^.; dates, 17,275/. ; cattle,
5,322/, ; specie, 128,407/, Of the exports the chief were :— Pearls, 244,436/. ;
110
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — BRITISH BORNEO
rice,^37,031Z,j rifles, 18, 488Z. ; cottons, 23,255Z.; dates, 10,551Z. ; cattle,
10,179Z. ; specie, 73,436Z, The prohibition against the increasing trade in
rifles and ammunition which was carried on with Persia has now been en-
forced by the Persian Government.
Political Resident. — Col. F. A. AVilson.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual series. No. 2,186. London, 1898.
Bent (J. Th.), The Bahrein Islands in the Persian Gulf. Proc. R. G. Soc. (N. S.
xii. 1. 8. London, 1890.
BORNEO (BRITISH).
British North Borneo. — Governor. — Leicester Paul Beaufort ; salary,
9,850 dollars. Richard B. Martin, M.P., is Chairman of the Court of Directors
in London.
The territory of British North Borneo is a territory occupying the northern
part of the island of Borneo, and situated nearly midway between Hong Kong
and Port Darwin in Australia, The interior is mountainous, one point being
13,700 feet high, but most of the surface is jungle.
Area, 31,106 square miles, with a coast-line of over 900 miles. Popula-
tion, 175,000, consisting mainly of Mohammedan settlers on the coast and
aboriginal tribes inland, with some Chinese traders and artisans. Chief
town, Sandakan, on the east coast.
The territory is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo
Company, being held under grants from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu.
The cession was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1881, and the territory is
administered by a Governor in Borneo and a Court of Directors in London,
appointed under the Charter. On May 12, 1888, the British Government pro-
claimed a formal protectorate over the State of North Borneo. The appointment
of the Governor is subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. For
administrative purposes the whole district is divided into nine provinces.
In 1889 the colony of Labuan was placed under the government of the
British North Borneo Company.
About 1,000,000 acres have been alienated by the Government on leases
of 999 years for tobacco planting, pepper, coff'ee, and other jungle products.
There are 13 estates planting tobacco, 27 planting coff'ee and coco-nuts,
1 planting india-rubber, and two ramie.
The laws are based on the Indian penal, criminal, and civil procedure
codes, and local proclamations and ordinances. There is an Imaum's Court
for Mohammedan law.
—
1893
1894
1895
189G
1897
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Revenue proper .
289,220
315,591
348,947
407,207
436,062
Land sales .
818
478
466
4,492
964
Expenditure
280,050
287,494
313,097
300,559
341,124
Exports
1,780,593
1,698,543
2,130,600
2,420,234
2,942,293
Imports
1,116,714
1,329,067
1,663,906
1,882,188
1,887,498
The expenditure in salaries in the colony is over 100,000 dollars. Sources
of revenue : Opium, spirit farms, birds'-nests, court fees, stamp duty, licences,
import duties, royalties, land sales, &c. No public debt.
BORNEO 111
Most of tlie trade is carried on through Singapore with Great Britain
and the colonies. The chief products are timber, sago, rice, gums, coffee,
pepper, gambier, gutta-percha, tapioca, sweet potatoes, and tobacco, which
IS being planted on a large scale. Coal and gold have been found. The
exports comprise mostly jungle and sea produce, wax, birds'-nests (edible),
coco-nuts, gutta-percha, sago, tobacco, rattans, india-rubber, seed pearls,
beche-de-mer, &c. A flourishing timber trade is stated to have been opened
with China. Exports of leaf tobacco, 1896, 1,372,277 dollars ; 1897, 1,686,173
dollars. Shipping entered, 1897, 95,300 tons; cleared, 94,168 tons, nearly
all British.
The Government issues its own copper coinage (cents and half-cents) ;
also notes of one, five, ten, and twenty-five dollars to the extent of 100,000
dollars, and have also arranged to issue notes of the value of 10, 25, and
50 cents. Accounts are kept in dollar currency.
Borneo is now connected by cable with the outer world by a branch of the
cable between Labuan and Singapore. A telegraph line has been constructed
from Menumbok, where the cable reaches land, to Sandakan. A railway is in
course of construction from Bninei Bay into the interior.
Native military force of 350 men under European oflicers, with one machine
and two mountain guns. There are two Missions, one Protestant and the other
Roman Catholic ; and the Protestant community has a church and school at
Sandakan, with a branch at Kudat.
Brunei and Sarawak. — In 1888 the neighbouring territories on the
north-west coast of Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak, were placed under British
protection. The area of Brunei, which is under a Sultan, is about 3,000
square miles, and its products are of the same character as those of British
North Borneo.
Sarawak has an area of about 50,000 square miles, with a coast line of
^bout 400 miles. The government of part of the present territory was
obtained in 1842 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Various
accessions were made between 1861 and 1885, and the Limbang River district
was annexed in 1890. The Rajah, H.H. Sir Charles Johnson Brooke,
nephew of the late Rajah, born June 3, 1829, succeeded in 1868. The popu-
lation is about 300,000, consisting of native races, Malays, Dyaks, Kayans,
and Muruts, with Chinese and other settlers. The chief towns are the capital,
Kuching, about 23 miles inland, on the Sarawak River, and Sibu, 90 miles up
the Rejang River, which is navigable by large steamers. Timber trade is
carried on from the river mouth with Hong Kong. Brooketon is a settle-
ment in the coal district opposite Labuan. At Kuching are Church of
England and Catholic missions with schools. The revenue for 1896 was
508,771 dollars, and expenditure 565,796 dollars. The revenue is derived
chiefly from the opium, gambling, arrack and pawn farms, exemption tax
payable by Malays, and Irom Dyak revenue. There are import duties on
tobacco, salt, kerosine oil, wines (duty imposed July 1894), and spirits ;
export duties on sago, gambier, pepper, all jungle produce, dried fish, kc.
The produce in general resembles that of North Borneo. Coal exists in large
quantities, as well as gold, silver, diamonds, antimony, and quicksilver. Coal
exported in 1896, 22,870 tons, valued at 114,347 dollars. In 1896 the im-
ports amounted to 3,701,394 dollars (including 1,427,235 dollars, coasting
trade) ; and the exports, 3,557,868 dollars (including 1,132,303 dollars, coast-
ing trade). There are military and police forces, the former with 250
men.
British Consul at Bntnci. — A. L. Keyser.
112 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
Books of Reference concerning Borneo.
Handbook to British North Borneo. London, 1890.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Boyle (Frederick), Adventures among the Dyaks of Borneo. 8. London, 1865.
Clutterbuck (W. J.), About Ceylon and Borneo. 8. London, 1891.
Codrington (B. H.), The Melanesians, their Anthropology and Folklore. London, 1890.
Guillemard (F. H. H.), Australasia. Vol. II. 8. London, 1894.
Haf^on (Frank), North Borneo. 8. London, 1880.
Hatton (Joseph), The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North Borneo. 8. London, 1886.
Jacob (Gertrude), The Rajah of Sarawak. London, 1870.
Low (Sir H.), Residence in Sarawak. London.
Posewitz {Th.),Bomeo: Its Geologj^ and Mineral Resources. [Translation.] 8. London, 1892.
Pryer (Mrs. W. B.), A Decade in Borneo. 8. London. 1894.
Roth (H. Ling), The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo. 2 vols. London, 1896.
Sf. Joftn (Sir S.), Life in the Forests of the Far East. 2 vols. London, 1862: Life of
Sir Charles Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak. 8. London, 1879.
Wallace (A. R), The Malay Archipelago. London, 1809.
Whitehead (J.), Exploration of Mount Kina Balu, North Borneo. London, 1893.
CEYLON.
Constitution and Government.
The island of Ceylon was first settled in 1505 by the Portuguese,
who established colonies in the west and south, which were taken
from them about the middle of the next century by the Dutch.
In 1795-96 the British Government took possession of the
foreign settlements in the island, which were annexed to the
Presidency of Madras; but in 1798 Ceylon was erected into
a separate colony. In 1815 war was declared against the native
Government of the interior, and the whole island fell under
British rule.
The present form of government (representative) of Ceylon
was established by Letters Patent of April 1831, and supple-
mentary orders of March 1833. According to the terms of this
Constitution, the administration is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council of five members — viz. the Lieut.-
Governor and Colonial Secretary, the Officer commanding the
Troops, the Attorney-General, the Auditor-General, and the
Treasurer ; and a Legislative Council of 1 7 members, including
the members of the Executive Council, four other oflice-holders,
and eight unofficial members, representative of different races
and classes in the community.
Governor. — Right Hon. Sir Joseph West Ridgeway, K.CB., K. C.S.I. ;
born 1844 ; entered Indian Army, 1861 ; Under Foreign Secretary to Govern-
ment of India, 1880-84 ; Assistant Commissioner for N. W. Afghan boundary
demarcation, 1884, and Commissioner for Afghan frontier delimitation, 1885 ;
Colonel, Indian Army, 1885 ; Under-Secretary at Dublin Castle, 1887 ;
Minister and Envoy to Sultan of Morocco, 1892 ; Lieutenant-Governor of the
Isle of Man, 1893. Appointed Governor of Ceylon, September 9, 1895,
The Governor has a salary of 80,000 rupees, and the Colonial
Secretary, 24,000 rupees.
AREA AND POPULATION
113
For purposes of general administration, the island is divided into nine
provinces, presided over by Government Agents, who, with their assistants
and subordinate headmen, are the channel of communication between the
Government and the natives. There are three municipalities and fourteen
local boards mainly for sanitary purposes.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population (including the military)
of the provinces of Ceylon, according to the census of 1891 : —
1
Provinces
Area:
English
sqr. miles
Population, 1891 1
Area :
Provinces English
sqr. miles
1
Population, 1S91
Total
Per sq.
mile
533
206
95
228
37
Total
320,070
75,333
159,201
258,626
Persq.
mile
107
19
50
136
Western
Central
Northern
Southern
Eastern
1,432
2,300
3,363
2,146
4,037
763,658
474,670
319,296
489,811
148,796
North- Western 2,997
North Central 4,002
Uva .... 3,155
Sabaragamuwa 1,901
Total . . 25,333
3,009,461
119
The total population (including military) enumerated at the census of
1891 as 3,009,461, was estimated by the Registrar-General at the middle
of 1897 to be 3,391,443, of which the race distribution was as follows : —
—
1891
1897
Europeans ......
Burghers or European descendants
Sinhalese ......
Tamils including South Indian Immi-
grants ......
Malays .......
" Moors " (non-Malay Mohammedans) .
Veddahs (aboriginal wild tribes)
Others
6,348
21,231
2,041,158
723,853
10,133
197,166
1,229
8,343
6,545
23,663
2,174,200
960,745
10,980
205,588
860
8,862
3,009,461
3,391,443
The census returns showed 70 per cent, of the population to be engaged
in agi-iculture, 16 per cent, to be industrial, 5 per cent, commercial.
The Registrar-General gives for 1897 the number of births as 36-9 per
1,000, and of deaths as 23-2. The highest death-rate (1892) was in the
North -Centi-al Province, being 56-3 per 1,000 per annum. The lowest death-
rate was registered in the Western Province, viz. 19-2 per 1,000.
The immigration returns, dealing almost entirely with agricultural labourers
employed on the tea and coffee plantations, and not including the very large
nurnber of traders and domestic servants, give, in 1897, 153,075 arrivals as
against 109,213 departures. These are Tamil immigrants from South India
and are the mainstay of the tea industry as they were of the coffee industry.
114
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
The principal towns, with population according to the census of 1891
are :— Colombo, 127,836 ; Kandy, 20,558 ; Galle, 33,590; Trincomalee, 11,948 ;
Jaflfna, 43,179.
Religion and Instruction.
The principal religious creeds were returned as follows at the census of
1891 :— Buddhists, 1,877,043; Hindoos, 615,932 ; Mohammedans, 211,995;
Christians, 302,127.
The religion of the great majority of the inhabitants is Buddhism, which
was introduced in the third century before Christ by Mahinda, a Buddhist
missionary of royal parentage, and soon became the established religion of the
Island, replacing the Brahminical religion introduced by earlier streams of
Indian colonists. The Buddhism prevalent in Ceylon (unlike the Northern
Buddhism of Tibet, China and Japan) is, in its philosophy, materialistic and
atheistic, and in popular usage has a large admixture of the doctrines and
practices of popular Hinduism (due no doubt to the influence of the reigning
dynasty which for many centuries was South Indian), and of the aboriginal
wild tribes.
Education has made considerable strides in Ceylon since it was or-
ganised under a separate Government department with a director of public
instruction and a staff of inspectors, as will be seen from the following
table : —
—
Expenditure by
Government
Government
Schools
Grant in Aid
Schools
Unaided Schools
No. of
Schools
Scholars
No. of
Schools
Scholars
No. of
Schools
Scholars
1895
1896
1897
Rs. 632,819
Rs. 668,274
Rs. 716,767
477
474
474
44,252
44,538
45,113
1,096
1 130
1,172
90,229
94,400
102,485
2,242
2,268
2,331
35,353
36,720
36,908
There were thus in 1897, 184,506 scholars receiving regular instruction,
or a proportion of a little more than 1 in 16 of the population according to
the census of 1891. The Government expenditure is now chiefly devoted
towards vernacular education, which is unable to support itself, while English
education has obtained such a hold upon the people that it is becoming
gradually jijlf-supporting. The only Government high English school is now
the Royal College ; but other high English schools receive grants in aid. The
Government also gives a scholarship of 150/. a year for four years to enable
promising Ltudents to proceed to an English university. The Cambridge
local examinations, and the examinations of the London University are
held annually in Ceylon by arrangement. The technical college, established
in 1893, was re-organised in 1897, and is prosperous. The branches taught
include civil engineering, telegraphy and electrical engineering, surveying and
levelling, and mechanical engineering ; there are over 100 students. There is an
agi-icultural school, a school of forestiy, recently established, and a Govern-
ment dairy farm, originally intended for the supply of milk to hospitals and
prisons, and now (1898) possessing over 160 head of cattle bred from Sindh
stock ]uocured through the Bombay Government. There are also twenty-five
industrial schools and orphanages.
JUSTICE AND CRIME — DEFENCE
115
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
The basis of the law is the Roman-Dutch law, modified by colonial
ordinances. The criminal law has been codified on the principle of the
Indian Penal Code. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, the
police courts and courts of requests, and the district courts, intermediate
between the latter and the Supreme Court. There are also village councils
which deal with petty offences. The number of summary convictions in
1897 in the Police Courts was 17,025, convictions in the District Courts 866,
and in the Supreme Court 494.
The number of paupers is not known, as there is no poor law, though a
few old persons receive a charitable allowance from the Government vary-
ing from Rs. 1 to Rs. 12 '50 each per mensem.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of
the last five years, were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Rupees
Rupees
1893
18,051,950
18,276,108
1894
19,485,310
20,342,899
1895
20,982,809
20,899,714
1896
21,974,573
21,237,860
1897
24,006,522
21,634,378
The principal sources of revenue are (1897) ; the customs, 5,973,785 Rs. ;
land sales, 498,970 Rs. ; licences, which in efi'ect means the revenue from
spirituous liquor, 2,812,324 Rs, ; stamps, 2,075,876 Rs. ; the proceeds of the
sale of Government timber and Government salt, 1,553,110 Rs. ; and port
and harbour dues, 971,429 Rs. ; Government railways, 1897, 7,318,683 Rs.
The principal items of expenditure are (1897) : establishments,
5,696,234 Rs. ; contribution towards military expenditure (including cost of
volunteer force) 1,824,602 Rs. (of this 1,702,165 Rs. is paid to the Imperial
Government) ; pensions and retired allowances, 1,013,966 Rs. ; interest on
loans, &c., 2,860,295 Rs. ; on public works, 2,872,921 Rs.
On December 31, 1897, the public debt of the colony amounted to
3,494,905/. and 3,278,672 Rs. ; it has been incurred entirely for public works,
including 297 miles of railway, the Colombo breakwater, and the Colombo
waterworks.
In 1896 the total local revenue amounted to 2,231,274 Rs.
Defence.
The harbour of Trincomalee on the east coast of Ceylon is a naval
and victualling yard, and is the headquarters of the British fleet in East
Indian waters. It is fortified, and the fortifications have been strengthened,
at the cost of the Imperial Government. The harbour of Colombo on the
I 2
116
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— CEYLON
west coast is also protected, the colony having paid the cost of the erection
of earthworks, the Imperial Government supplying the armament. Ceylon
has no naval forces of its own.
The British troops in Ceylon are under the command ot a major-general,
and comprise a regiment of British infantry, artillery, and engineers, the
total strength being 1,663 ; there is a volunteer force numbering 1,074 of all
ranks. The colony pays 1,702,165 Rs. per annum to the Imperial Govern-
ment as the cost of the garrison. The cost of the Local Volunteer Corps was
122,437 Rs. in 1897.
Production and Industry.
The estimated area of the colony is 16,233,000 acres, 2,159,698 acres
being under cultivation, and 763,850 acres pasture land. Of this, 728,112
acres were (1897) under rice and other grains, 19,477 under coffee, 404,574
under tea, 891 under cinchona, 878,909 under coco nuts, 42,289 under
cinnamon, 10,122 under tobacco, and 32,354 under cocoa. The live stock of
the island in 1897 consisted of 4,007 horses, 1,289,536 horned cattle, 86,627
sheep, and 155,495 goats. Plumbago is a valuable mining product, and in
1897 there were 584 plumbago mines. The produce of the pearl fishery
in 1890 was valued at 310,000 Rs. ; in 1891 at 960,000 Rs. None since.
Commerce.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony, includ-
ing bullion and specie, was as follows in each of the last five years : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Rs.
Rs.
1893
72,340,662
74,195,368
1894
78,113,072
79,723,791
1895
84,556,309
77,495,557
1896
87,788,085
87,841,357
1897
98,027,474
85,099,603
The values of imports and exports are declared, and represent tlie wholesale values at
the place of import or export. Declarations are subject to scrutiny and penalty. The
Chamber of Commerce, as representing the trade of the island, assists by supplying the
value on which a rated duty is levied. Quantities of imports are ascertained from invoices
or by actual examination ; of exports, from declarations and by examination of the shipping
documents, shippers being liable to penalties for misstatement. The origin and destination
of goods are also obtained from the sliipping documents. In some cases, however, goods
intended for transhipment abroad are so entered, e.g. to New York, via London. The
transit trade includes all goods transliipped direct in i^ort, as well as goods landed into
transhipment warehouses. The transit trade of Colombo has largely increased of late years,
"but, as no bills of entry are required in respect of transhiinnent goods, the returns as to
quantity are only approximately correct, and no returns as to value can be prepared.
Value of dutiable imports (1897), 65,288,950 Rs. ; duty free
32,738,524 Rs.
The principal articles of export from Ceylon in 1897 were — coffee, valued
at 1,472,346 Rs. ; cinchona, 32,512 Rs. ; 'tea, 46,931,190 Rs. ; plumbago,
3,670,846 Rs.; cocoa-nut products, 13,142,622 Rs. ; arecanuts, 1,316,595 Rs.
The principal articles of import were — cotton goods valued at 7,866,100 Rs. ;
salt-fish, 1,512,659 Rs. ; rice and other grain, 32,802,996 Rs. ; coal and coke
S 519, 319 Rs. ; spirits, &c., 1,144,784 Rs. ; wines, 396,023 Rs.
COMMERCE — MONEY AND CREDIT
117
Disease has in recent years greatly reduced the produce of coffee. The
quantity exported fell from 824,509 cwt. in 1879 to 299,395 cwt. in 1884,
to 31,987 cwt. in 1894, to 18,605 cwt. in 1897. The exports of tea, which in
1884 amounted only to 2,392,975 lb., reached 85,376,322 lb. in 1894,
98,581,060 lb. in 1895, 110,095,193 lb. in 1896, and 114,466,318^ lb. in
1897.
The exi)ort of cacao was, in 1885, 7,466 cwt. ; 1894, 22,792 cwt. ; in
1895, 27,522 cwt. ; in 1896, 33,890 cwt. ; and in 1897, 35,121 cwt.
According to Ceylon returns the total imports from the United Kingdom
in 1897 amounted to 25,957,311 Rs. and exports to 51,274,208 Rs. ; imports
from India 62,473,892 Rs. ; exports to India 10,246,'716 Rs. The amount of
trade with the United Kingdom is shown in the following table, according
to the Board of Trade returns in each of the last five years.
— !
1893
1894
1895
1896
,1897
\
£
£
£
£
£
Imports from
Ceylon into
U.K. .
4,252,794
4,101,275
4,524,843
4,723,547
4,688,278
Exports of
British pro-
duce to Cey-
lon
902,477
947,858
983,733
1,005,828
1,031,481
The import of coffee from Ceylon into the United Kingdom was of the
declared value of 3,001, 075Z. in 1879, 235,684?. in 1895, 68,967?. in 1896,
62,780/. in 1897. Other imports are —cinchona, 21,952?. in 1896, 12,380?. in
1897 ; coco-nut oil, 117,565?. in 1896, 105,622?. in 1897 ; cinnamon, 41,567?.
in 1896, 52,869?. in 1897 ; plumbago, 90,821?. in 1896, 113,507?. in 1897 ; tea,
120?. in 1878, 1,244,724?. in 1888, 3,404,696?. in 1895, 3,799,713 in 1896,
3,728,166?. in 1897 ; cordage and twine, 57,332?. in 1896, 54,650?. in 1897.
Manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 219,550?. ; iron, wrought and
unwrought, 92,527?.; coals, 140,380?., machinery, 87,541?., formed the
staple articles of British exports to Ceylon in 1897.
Shipping and Communications.
The total tonnage entering and clearing at Ceylon ports in 1897 was
6,704,747. In 1898, 187 sailing vessels of 13,458 tons, and 4 steamers of 629
tons, total 191 vessels of 14,087 tons, were registered as belonging to Ceylon.
Ceylon had 297 miles of railway ojien for traffic in 1897, and 215 miles
have been surveyed and projected.
In 1897 there were 364 offices opened for post and telegraph business.
There were 1,733 miles of telegraph wire.
Money and Credit.
The estimated amount of paper money in circulation on the 31st of
T)ec.^ 1896, was 11,468,700 Rs. Five banks have establishments in Ceylon :
the Mercantile Bank, the Bank of Madras, the National Bank, the Hong Kong
and Shanghai Bank, and the Chartered Bank of India, London and China. The
Ceylon Savings Bank in 1895 had deposits amounting to 3,320,663 Rs. ; and
the Post Offfce Savings Bank (1895) to 848,274 Rs.
118 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CYPRUS
The weights and measures of Ceylon are the same as those of the United
Kingdom. The money of the country is the rupee of British India with cents
in place of annas and pice ; thus Ceylon has a decimal coinage.
Dependency.
The Maldive Islands, 500 miles west of Ceylon, are governed by an
hereditary Sultan, who resides in the island of Mali, and pays a yearly tribute
to the Ceylon Government. Next to the Sultan is the Fandiari, the head
priest or judge, and besides him 6 Wazirs or Ministers of State. The Maldives
are a group of 17 coral islets (atolls), richly clothed with cocoa-nut palms, and
yielding millet fruit, and edible nuts.
Population estimated at about 30,000 Mohammedans. The people are
civilised, and are great navigators and traders.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.
Blue Book of Ceylon. Annual Report on Ceylon.
Census of Ceylon, 1891. Colombo, 1892.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Statistics of Ceylon ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom.' Annual. London.
Annual Statementof the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Baker (Sir S. W.), Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.
Carpenter (E.), From Adam's Peak to Blephanta. 8. London, 1892.
Cave (H. W.), The Ruined Cities of Ceylon. London, 1897.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Clutterbuck (W. J.), Aboi;t Ceylon. London, 1891.
Dechamps (E.), Carnet d'un Voyageur. Paris, 1892.
Delmas (E.), Java, Ceylon, les Indes. Paris, 1897.
Ferguson (J.), The Ceylon Handbook and Directory. 8. Colombo and London, 1893.
i^erpuson (J.), Ceylon in 1893. Illustrated. 4th Edition. London, 1893.
Oeiger (W.), Tagebuchblatter und Reiseerinnerungen. Wiesbaden, 1897.
Gordon- Cumming (Miss E.), Ceylon. London, 1891.— Two Happy Years in Ceylon.
2 vols. Edinburgh, 1892.
Haeckel (E. H. P. A.), A Visit to Ceylon. 8. London, 1883.
Murray's Handbook for India, Ceylon, &c. 2nd edition. London, 1894.
Noblemaire (G.), En Conge. Paris, 1897.
Schmidt (E.), Ceylon, Berlin, 1897.
Tennent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical
and Topographical. 5th edition. London. 1860.
Christmas Island. See Straits Settlements.
CYPRUS.
ffigh Commissioner. — Sir William F. Haynes Smith. K.C.M.G., appointed
1898 ; salary, 3,000Z.
The island is the third largest in the Mediterranean, 60 miles from the
coast of Asia Minor and 41 from the coast of Syria. It is administered by
Great Britain, under a convention concluded between the representatives of
Her Majesty and the Sultan of Turkey at Constantinople, June 4, 1878. The
British High Commissioner is vested with the usual powers of a colonial
governor. He is assisted by an Executive Council, consisting of the Chief
Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General. The Legislature con-
sists of a Council of eighteen members, six being office holders — the Chief
Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General, the Chief Medical
Officer, the Registrar- General and the Director of Agriculture — and twelve
elected (for five years), three by Mohammedan and nine by non-Mohammedan
voters. The voters are all male Ottomans, or British subjects, or foreigners,
CYPRUS
119
years of age, who have resided five years, and are payers of any
s known as 'Verghis.' Municipal councils exist in the principal
twenty-one
of the taxes
towns, elected practically by all resident householders and ratepayers. Those
eligible to the council must be voters rated upon property of the annual value
of from lOl. to 20Z., according to population.
Area 3,584 square miles. Population, 1891 :— 106,838 males, 102,448
females ; total, 209,286, exclusive of the military ; per square mile, 58 "39.
Mohammedans, 47,926; others, principally Greek Church, 161,360. The
birth-rate was computed in 1890 at 33-4 per 1,000, and the death-rate at 24
per 1,000.
The principal towns are Nicosia (the capital and seat of government),
12,515 ; Larnaca, 7,593 ; Limasol, 7,388 (two chief ports) ; Famagusta (with
Varoshia), 2,251 ; Papho (including Ktima), 2,801 ; Kyrenia, 1,322 in 1891.
The island is divided into six administrative districts called respectively by
the names of these six towns.
Excepting a gymnasium and three 'high schools ' for Greek- Christians, and
a Rushdie or ' high school ' for Moslems, the schools of the island are of an
elementary character. There is a Government inspector, and the Government
contributes 4,021^. per annum to education. In 1898 there were 220 elemen-
tary Greek-Christian schools with about 12,500 scholars ; 80 Moslem schools,
with about 3,500 scholars, 3 Armenian schools, and 1 Maronite. Total
cost (exclusive of Government grant), about 6,0001. — fees, voluntary con-
tributions, and endowments. There are 8 weekly newspapers in Greek, and
3 in Turkish.
The law courts (reformed in 1883) consist of (1) a supreme court of civil
and criminal appeal ; (2) six assize courts, having unlimited criminal jurisdic-
tion ; (3) six district courts, having limited criminal jurisdiction and unlimited
civil jurisdiction ; (4) six magisterial courts with summaiy jurisdiction ; (5)
ten village judges' courts. In all, except supreme court, native (Christian and
Mohammedan) judges take part. Serious crime, which was large in pro-
portion to the population, is decreasing ; the people are prone to litigation.
The police force when at full strength consists of about 700 men.
The revenue and exi)enditure for five years, ended March 31, were : —
—
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
177,054
117,654
£
167,093
114,756
£
167,777
113,851
£
188,658
129,494
£
190,525
132,130
Revenue is derived chiefly from tithes (in kind) on the principal products
of the island, taxes on immovable property and trade profits, military exemp-
tion tax, sheep, goat, and pig tax, customs duties, excise, stamps, and court
fees, and a salt monopoly. Customs revenue (1897-98), 26, 851Z.
No Public Debt. A sum of 92, 8001. is payable annually to the Sublime Porte
under the convention of 1878. Annual grant from imperial funds to revenue,
1895-96, 35,000Z. ; 1896-97, 46,0001. ; 1897-98, 33,000^.
Cj'XJi'US is essentially agricultural. Chief products — coni, cotton, carobs,
linseed, olives, silk, raisins, fruit, vegetables, silk, animals, cheese, wool,
hides, and wine. One-third of cultivable land under cultivation. Gypsum and
terra umbra are found in abundance. Sponge fishery yields sponges valued at
between 20,000/. and 30,000/. per annum, but the coasts are not fished by
nitives of the island.
120
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONG KONG
The commerce, exclusive of specie, and the shipping for five calendar
years were : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Shipping entered
and cleared (tons)
£
316,872
316,543
549,332
255,439
256,902
463,474
£
276,318
308,716
598,295
£
240,051
297,142
887,997
£
263,346
264,802
702,510
The import value is that at the port of arrival, and includes cost, freight, and other
charges ; the export value is that at the port of shipment when the goods are ready for
exportation. Quantities and values are ascertained from declarations by importers and
exporters, verified in the case of dutiable imports.by actual weighing and measuring. The
countries of origin and of destination of goods are also obtained from declarations checked
by invoices or bills of lading when necessary.
Imports from United Kingdom, in 1897, 77,394Z. ; exports to United
Kingdom, 49,720Z. ; imports subject to duty, 221,679^. ; imports dutyfree,
41,667Z. (not including specie.)
Chief exports — Wheat, barley, carobs, wine, cotton, raisins, silk cocoons,
hides and skins, wool, cheese, vetches, animals, fruit and vegetables. The prin-
cipal imports are — Cotton and woollen manufactures, tobacco, groceries, rice,
iron, leather, petroleum, timber, sugar, soap, and copper manufactures.
Coins current — English, Turkish, and French gold ; English silver to the
amount of 3?, ; Cyprus piastres, half piastre and quarter piastre pieces (9
piastres = one shilling). The Imperial Ottoman Bank has establishments in
the island. Turkish weights and measures current.
About 460 miles of good carriage road, 240 miles of telegraph lines ; cable
connects with Alexandria and Syria. Total number of letters (including
postcards, newspapers, and book-packets) delivered in Cyprus, 1897-98 : local
343,658 ; received from abroad, 235,416 ; posted for foreign countries, 149,921.
Books of Reference concerning Cyprus.
Annual Report of H.M.'s High Commissioner.
Lang (R. H.), Cyprus, its History, Resources, and Future Prospects. S. London, 1S7S.
Mallock (W. H.), In an Enchanted Island. 8. London, 1889.
Mariti (G.), Travels in Cyprus. [Translated from the Italian.] Nicosia, 1896.
Palma di Cesnola (Luigi), Cyprus : its Ancient Cities, <fec. 8. London, 1877.
Robinson (Phil), Cyprus : its Physical, Commercial, Economical, and Social Aspects. 8.
London, 1878.
Stevenson (Mrs. Scott), Our Home in Cyprus. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1880.
HONG KONG.
Constitution and Government.
The Crown colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was confirmed by the
treaty of Nanking, in August 1842 ; and the charter bears date April 5,
1843. Hong Kong is the great centre for British commerce with China and
Japan, and a military and naval station of first-class importance.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary and Registrar-
General (one office), the Officer Commanding the Troops, the Attorney-
StatesmaiLS "Yeaj?-Bool5: 1899
HONG-KONG, KAU-LUNG. A
O 1 2 3 4
> ADJACENT TERRITORIES
Plate 1
15'
le convention of 1860
w convention of 1898
C^ lairlana Bend
7a>k ^(Cd-Apmlar)
__^7 LTffhffwuse
"U.
loi
N. LAT.
]5'
Eles 69-16 -1'
6 7
S 9 lO
AREA AND POPULATION
121
Geiicial, the Treasurer, the Harbour Master, aiul the Director of Public Works,
(special appointment), and two unolhcial members. There is also a Legislative
Council, presided over by the Governor, and composed of the Officer Command-
ing the Troops, the Colonial Secretary and Registrar-General, the Attorney-
General, the Treasurer, the Director of Public Works, the Harbour Master, the
Captain-Superintendent of Police, and six unofficial members — viz. four nomi-
nated by the Crown (two of whom are Chinese), one nominated by the
Chamber of Commerce, and one by the Justices of the Peace.
Governor of Hong Kong.— Sir Henry A. Blake, G.C.M.G. ; formerly
Governor of Jamaica. Appointed Governor of Hong Kong, 1897.
The Governor has a salary of 32,000 dollars per annum.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is situated olf the south-eastern coast of China, at the mouth
of the Canton River, about 40 miles east of Macao, and 90 miles south of
Canton. The whole of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge,
stretching nearly east and west about 11 miles, its breadth from 2 to 5 miles,
and its area rather more than 29 square miles. It is separated from the main-
land of China by a narrow strait, known as the Li-il-Mun Pass, which does
not exceed half a mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Kaulung, forming
part of the mainland of China, was ceded to Great Britain by treaty in 1861,
and now forms part of Hong Kong. The city of Victoria extends for up-
wards of four miles along the southern shore of the beautiful harbour. In
view of re(piirements for the defence of Hong Kong a convention was signed
at Pekiu on June 9, 1898, leasing to Great Britain for 99 years from July 1,
a jiortion of Chinese territory including the port of Kauluiig, and land further
inland, together with the waters of Mirs Bay and Deep Bay and the island of
Lan-tao. The whole area leased is nearly 400 s([uare miles, containing
numerous villages with a population of about 100,000. This territory is now
under British rule, except that in the city of Kaulung Chinese officials have
such jurisdiction as is not inconsistent with the purpose of the lease, and the
port and waters are still free to Chinese war and trading vessels.
The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval establish-
ments, was as follows at the census, taken in 1891 : —
—
Male
Female
Total
8,545
212,896
White
Coloured .....
Total ....
6,463
151,122
2,082
61,774
157,585
63,856
221,441
The total population in 1881 was 160,402 ; thus the increase in ten years
was 61,039. The total white population in 1881 was 7,990, showing an
increase during the ten years of 555. Of the coloured population in 1891,
1,901 were Indians, and 210,995 Chinese, one-third of the latter being
British subjects by birth. Of the resident white population, exclusive of the
military, police, naval establishment, &c., almost one-half are Portuguese by
origin, and only one-third English. Next follow natives of Germany, the
United States, France, Spain, Italy, and Turkey, the remainder being divided
among about ten nationalities. A considerable proportion of the Indian
population are included in the military and police. The estimated population
on June 30, 1898, was 248,710, 13,700 being British and foreign.
122 tJlE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONG KOKCl
The births and deaths for the last five years were as follows : —
Year
Births
Deaths
Births
per 1,000
Deaths
per 1,000
1893 .
1894 .
1895 .
1896 .
1897 .
1,801
1,455
1,427
1,233
1,368
5,422
7,407
5,400
5,860
4,688
7-54
5-91
5-63
5-15
5-50
22-71
30-11 j
21-31 1
24 48 i
18-85
There is a constant flow of emigration and immigration from and to China
passing through Hong Kong. In 1896 the number of Chinese emigrants was
66,822, and of immigrants 119,468 ; and in 1897, 62,831 and 115,207
respectively.
Instruction.
In 1897 there were 109 schools subject to Government supervision, as com-
pared with 111 in 1896. Attending these schools in 1897 were 6,787 pupils, as
compared with 6,313 in 1896 ; the total expenditure in 1897 being 66,214
dollars, as compared with 68,108 dollars in 1896. There are also many private
schools, with over 2,000 pupils, a police school (with nearly 400 scholars) and a
reformatory industrial school (with about 100 scholars).
Justice and Crime.
There is a supreme court, a police magistrate's court, and a marine
magistrate's court. The number of criminal convictions before the supreme
court in 1894 was 21 ; 1895, 21 ; 1896, 27 ; 1897, 39 ; before the police
magistrate's court, 1894, 10,477 ; 1895, 17,016 ; 1896, 17,707 ; 1897, 11,185.
The total number of prisoners in gaol at the end of 1896 was 425, of whom
37 were Europeans. There is a police force in the colony numbering 661
men, of whom 122 are British, 210 Sikhs, and the remainder Chinese.
Finance.
The colony has paid its local establishments since 1855, since which year
it has held generally a surplus of revenue over and above its fixed expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony were as follows in each
of the last five years : —
Tear
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Revenue
Ordinary
Dollars
1,940,260
2,138,228
2,275,577
2,250,179
3,352,366
Premiums from
Land and Water
Account
Dollars
137,874
148,974
210,650
359,698
334 548
Expenditure
Ordinary
Dollars
1,903,695
2,286,592
2,134,530
2,405,399
2,513,693
Extraordinary, in-
cluding Defensive
Works and Water
Account
Dollars
355,144
350,818
1,024,812
300,130
127,716
BEFENCE — COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
123
The public revenue of the colony is derived chiefly from land, taxes, and
licences, and an opium monopoly, which together more than cover the expenses
of administration. A large portion of the expenditure has to be devoted to
the maintenance of a strong police force. On defensive works alone (apart
from military expenditure) 647,300 dollars was spent in the six years, 1886-91.
Expenditure on establishments in 1897, 1,212,847 dollars.
Hong Kong has a public debt, amounting to 341,800Z. which was raised
in 1887 and 1893 for waterworks, fortifications, and sanitation, and other
public works. On December 31, 1897, the liabilities of the colony ex-
ceeded its assets by 255 dollars.
Defence.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 2,800 men. There is also a
Volunteer Artillery Corps of 176 effective members. In 1897 the Colonial
contribution to Military and Volunteers was 476,869 dollars. Hong Kong is
an important naval station, and the headquarters of the China Squadron.
There are usually several war-vessels present. The dockyard is being ex-
tended and improved. The China Squadron consists of 34 vessels in all.
Commerce and Shipping^.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part of the com-
merce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, India, Australia, the United
States, and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total
imports and exports. There being no custom house, there are no official
returns of the value of the imports and exports of the colony from and to all
countries, Init only mercantile estimates, according to which the former
average four, and the latter two millions sterling. Hong Kong is the centre
of trade in many kinds of goods. Among the principal are opium, sugar an,d
flour, salt, earthenware, oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal wood,
ivory, betel, vegetables, live stock, granite, &c. The Chinese tea and silk
trade is largely in the hands of Hong Kong firms.
The amount of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong and the
United Kingdom (Board of Trade returns) is shown in the following table for
five years : —
—
1803
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into Gt. Britain
from Hong Kong . .
Exports of British Pro-
duce to Hong Kong .
£
885,634
1,830,277
£
630,818
1,809,194
£
759,441
1,908,818
£
797,158
1,822,037
£
606,314
1,975,374
The principal imports into Great Britain from Hong Kong and exports from
Great Britain to Hong Kong have been as follows in five years : —
124
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — HONG KONG
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into Gt.
Britain :
£
£
£
£
£
Tea
208,807
188,780
165,632
107,353
92,243
Silk, all sorts .
309,324
110,908
141,536
223,510
157,694
Hemp .
103,346
51,054
105,790
197,588
47,201
Preserved fruits
41,946
37,361
52,683
53,833
59,556
Exports from Gt.
Britain ;
Cottons, yarns.
944,690
1,034,105
1,183,371
1,028,527
1,142,903
Woollens
301,902
189,924
192,241
216,006
189,634
Iron
122,075
106,191
98,694
122,816
181,038
Machinery
89,404
67,277
21,585
27,211
24,838
Copper .
50,032
61,068
37,308
61,191
35,801
The registered shipping (Dec, 1897) consists of 25 sailing vessels of
6,441 tons and 38 steamers of 20,705 tons ; total tonnage, 24,228. In 1897,
4,974 vessels of 6,063,640 tons entered at ports in Hong Kong, being a
decrease on 1896 of 105,112 tons. Besides these, 28,989 junks of 1,718,739
tons arrived. The number of native vessels in Hong Kong — independent
of several thousand smaller boats that visit Hong Kong annually — is about
52,000, with a tonnage of nearly 1,300,000.
Money and Credit.
The value of Bank notes in circulation in 1897 was 9,394,444 dollars, as
compared with 4,114,787 dollars in 1884 ; specie in reserve in 1897, 4,205,000
dollars, as compared with 1,810,033 dollars in 1884. The approximate
amount of coin in circulation up to December 31, 1894, was: — Hong Kong
dollars and half-dollars struck at Hong Kong Mint, 1,421,487 dollars ; Hong
Kong silver and copper subsidiary coins, 18,435,125 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in use at Hong Kong, and the British
equivalents, are : —
The Mexican JDoUar = 100 Ce^it = Exchange (end of 1897) Is. ll^rf.
,, British ,, = ,, ,,
,, Chinese Tael = 10 Mace
100 Candareens = 1,000 Cash = about 36-. 4rf.
Hong Kong 50, 20, 10, and 5 cent, pieces, imported from England. One
cent, pieces (copper).
The Tael .
,, Picul .
Cathj .
Cheic .
Cheung
n
oz. avoirdupois.
133 lbs.
-•■4 >» >»
14| inches.
12/^ feet.
Besides the above weights and measures of China, those of Great Britain
are in general use in the colony.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.
1. Official Publications,
Annual Report on the Blue Book of Hong Kong. Hong Kong.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES 125
Convention between the United Kingdom and China respecting Extension of Hong
Kong Territory. Treaty Series, No. 10. 1898. London, 1898.
Government Gazette. Published weekly.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom. Annual. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Chalmern (II.), A History of Currency in the British Colonics. London, 1893.
Dennys(^. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan : a Complete Guide to the Open
Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong, and Macao. 8. Lon-
don, 18(57.
Eitel (E. J.), Europe in China. [A History of Hong Kong.] London, 1895.
Legge (W.). Guide to Hong Kong. Hong Kong, 1893.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degi'ees of Longitude and Latitude.
8. Hong Kong, 1864.
INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
India, as defined by Parliament (52 and 53 Vict. c. 63, s. 18),
comprises all that part of the great Indian peninsula which is
directly or indirectly under British rule. In a popular sense it
includes also certain countries such as Nepal, which are beyond
that area, but which are under the control or protection of the
Governor-General. These countries will be found included in the
second part of the Year-Book among Foreign Countries. The
term British India includes only the districts under direct British
administration, and does not include native States. The term is
so used, unless otherwise stated, in the tables, &c., that follow.
The symbol Rx. stands for ten rupees. Rx. 1 = Rs. 1 0.
Government and Constitution.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is
established by the Government of India Act, 1858 (21 &, 22 Vict.
cap. 106), which received the Royal assent on August 2, 1858. By
this Act, all the territories theretofore under the government of
the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty, and all its
powers are exercised in her name ; all territorial and other
revenues, and all tributes and other payments, are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone.
The Secretary of State for India is invested with all the
powers formerly exercised by the Company or by the Board of
Control. Under the Royal Titles Act, 1876 (39 & 40 Vict. cap.
10), the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland assumed the addi-
tional title of Empress of India. The title was proclaimed at
Delhi, before the princes and high dignitaries of India, January
1, 1877.
126 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The administration of the Indian Empire in England is
entrusted to a Secretary of State for India, assisted by a Council
of not less than ten members, vacancies in which are filled by the
Secretary of State for India. At least nine members of the
Council must be persons who have served or resided ten years
in India, and have not left India more than ten years previous
to the date of their appointment. The office is held for a term
of ten years ; but a member may be removed upon an address
from both Houses of Parliament, and the Secretary of State for
India may for special reasons reappoint a member of the Council
for a further term of five years. No member can sit in
Parliament.
The duties of the Council, which has no initiative authority,
are, under the direction of the Secretary of State for India, to
conduct the business transacted in the "United Kingdom in rela-
tion to the government of India. Moreover, by the Act of 1858,
the expenditure of the revenues of India, both in India and else-
where, is subject to the control of the Secretary of State in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of such
revenues can be made without the concurrence of a majority of
votes at a meeting of the Council. In dealing, however, with
questions affecting the relations of the Government with foreign
powers, in making peace and war, in prescribing the policy of the
Government towards native States, and generally in matters
where secrecy is necessary, the Secretary of State acts on his own
authority. The Secretary has to divide the Council into com-
mittees, and to regulate the transaction of business. At least
one meeting must be held every week, at which not less than
five members shall be present.
The supreme executive authority in India is vested in the
Governor-General in Council, often styled the Government of
India. The Governor-General, who since 1858 has also been
Viceroy, is appointed by the Crown, and usually holds office for
five years.
Governor-General of India. — The Eight Hon. George
Nathaniel Curzon, Baron Curzon of Kedleston, eldest son of
Lord Scarsdale ; born January 11, 1859 ; educated at Eton and
Oxford ; M.P. for the Southport Division of Lancashire,
1886-98 ; Under-Secretary of State for India, 1891-92 ; Under-
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1895-98 ; Privy Coun-
cillor, 1895 ; raised to Peerage, October, 1898. Appointed
Governor-General in succession to the Earl of Elgin, September,
1898.
The salary of the Governor-General is Px. 25,080 a year.
Warren Hastings
1774
Sir John Macpherson
1785
Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis .
1786
Sir John Shore (Lord Teign.
mouth)
1793
Marquis Wellesley
1798
Marquis Cornwallis .
1805
Sir Geo. H. Barlow .
1805
Earl of Minto . . . .
1807
Earl of Moira (Marquis of Has-
tings)
1813
Earl of Amherst
1823
Lord W. C. Bentinck
1828
Lord Auckland
1836
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 127
The following is a list of the Governors-General of India, with
the dates of their assumption of office : —
Lord Ellenborough . . . 1842
Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge . . 1844
Earl (Marquis) of Dalhousie . 1848
Lord Canning .... 1856
Earl of Elgin . . .1862
Sir John (Lord) Lawrence . 1864
Earl of Mayo . . . .1869
Lord (Earl of) Northl»rook . 1872
Lord (Earl) Lytton . . .1876
Marquis of Ripon . . .1880
Earl (Marquis) of Dufferiu . 1884
Marquis of Lansdowue . . 1888
Earl of Elgin .... 1894
Lord Curzon of Kedleston . 1898
Until 1834 these were Governors-General of Fort William in Bengal, not
of India.
The Council of the Governor-General consists at present of five ordinary
members, besides the Commander-in-Chief who may be, and in practice always
is, appointed an extraordinary member. The ordinary members are appointed
by the Crown, and usually hold office for five years. The work of the
Governor-General in Council is distributed among seven departments — Home,
Foreign, Finance, Military, Public Works, Revenue and Agriculture,
Legislative. At the head of each is one of the secretaries to the Govern-
ment of India, and each, except the Foreign Department, which is under the
immediate superintendence of the Governor-General, is assigned to the special
care of one of the members of the Council.
For legislative purposes the Governor-General's Council is expanded into a
legislative council by the addition of sixteen additional members who are
nominated by the Viceroy in accordance with the recent regulations under
the Indian Councils Act, 1892. The Lieutenant-Governor is also an additional
member when the Council sits within his province. This Council has power,
subject to certain restrictions, to make laws for all persons within British
India, for all British subjects within the Native States, and for all native
Indian subjects of the Queen in any part of the world. The proceedings in
the Legislative Council are public.
For purposes of administration India is divided into eight great provinces,
with the addition of a few minor charges.
The eight gi-eat provinces are the old presidencies of Madras (Fort St.
George) and Bombay, the four Lieutenant-Governorships of Bengal, the North
Western Provinces (with which the Chief Commissionership of Oudh is now
combined), the Punjab and Burma ; and the two Chief Conimissionerships of
Assam and the Central Provinces.
The minor charges are Coorg, Ajmere-Menvara, British Baluchistan, and
the Andaman Islands, each under a Chief Commissioner.
The Governors of Madras and Bombay are appointed by the Crown, and
each of them has an executive council, consisting of two members of the
Indian Civil Service, appointed by the Crown.
The Lieutenant-Governors are appointed by the Governor-General, with the
approval of the Crown,
The Chief Commissioners are appointed by the Governor-General in Council.
128 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The Governors of Madras and Bombay and the four Lieutenant-Governors
each have legislative councils of their own, councils having been constituted
for the Punjab and Burma in 1898.
Although all the provinces are under the control of the Government ot
India, they enjoy much administrative independence varying with their
importance. Each province is usually broken into divisions under
Commissioners, and then divided into districts, which form the units of
administration. At the head of each district is an executive officer (collector-
magistrate, or deputy-commissioner), who has entire control of the district,
and is responsible to the governor of the province. Subordinate to the magis-
trate (in most districts) there are a joint magistrate, an assistant-magistrate,
and one or more deputy-collectors and other officials. In some cases the
magistrate -collector is also judge, while in others the two functions are
separate. There are about 245 of such districts in British India. In the
accompanying census tables, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Rangoon, and Aden,
have each been reckoned as a District ; bringing the total to 250.
India, in its widest sense, includes British India and the Native
States ; the former is under the direct control in all respects of British
officials. The control which the Supreme Government exercises over the
Native States varies in degree ; but they are all governed by the native
princes, ministers or councils with the help and under the advice of a resi-
dent, or agent, in political charge either of a single State or a group of States.
The chiefs have no right to make war or peace, or to send ambassadors to each
other or to external States ; they are not permitted to maintain a military
force above a certain specified limit ; no European is allowed to reside at any
of their courts without special sanction ; and the Supreme Government can
exercise the right of dethronement in case of misgovernment. Within these
limits the more important chiefs possess sovereign authority in their own
territories. Some of them are required to pay an annual tribute ; with others
this is nominal, or not demanded.
Local Government.
There were, in March 1897, 754 municipal towns, with a population of
15,729,458. The municipal bodies have the care of the roads, water supply,
drains, markets, and sanitation ; tbey impose taxes, enact bye-laws, make im-
provements, and spend money, but the sanction of the Provincial Government
is necessary in each case before new taxes can be levied or new bye-laws can
be brought into force. By the Local Self-Government Acts of 1882-84, the
elective principle has been extended, in a large or small measure, all over
India. In all larger towns, and in many of the smaller towns, the majority
of members of committees are elected by the ratepayers, everywhere the
majority of town committees consists of natives, and in many committees all
the members are natives. For raral tracts, except in Burma and Coorg, there
are district and local boards, which are in charge of roads, district schools, and
hospitals.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Position of the Population.
The following synoptical table gives the estimated population
and area in square miles for six successive decennial periods.
The population is in millions and two decimals.
AliEA AND PortJLATION
)2D
British T'erritory.
Year
Area
'Population
Year
Area
Population
1841
1851
1861
626,000
776,000
856,000
158-58
178-50
196-03
1871
! 1881
1891
860,000
875,186
964,993
195-84
198-86
221-17
The subjoined tables embody the leading details of the census taken
February 26, 1891, and the population obtained at the previous census : —
British Provinces
Area in
square
miles
No. of
Dis-
tricts
2
13
26
12
4
5
Population
in 1881
Population
in 1891
1
1
Increase
Pop. pei
sq. mile
1891
Ajmere
Assam
Bengal : —
Bengal
Behar
Orissa
Chota Nagpur .
Total Bengal .
Berars
Bombay Presidency :—
Bombay .
Sind ....
Aden
Total Bombay .
Burma:—
Upper
Lower
Total Burma
Central Provinces
Coorg
Madras
N.-W. Provinces and
Oudh : — •
N.-W. Provinces
Oudh.
Total United Pro-
vinces
Punjab
Quetta, &c.
Andamans
Total British Pro-
vinces.
2,711
49,004
460,722
4,881,426
542,358
5,476,833
81,636
595,407
2,669,711
1,266,400
257,553
402,803
200
112
70,538
44,186
9,853
26,966
35,607,628
23,127,104
3,789,799
4,225,989
38,277,339
24,393,504
4,047,352
4,628,792
543
552
411
172
151,543
47
6
66,750,520
71,346,987
4,596,467
471
164
17,718
77,275
47,789
80
2,672,673
2,897,491
15,985,270
2,871,774
44,079
224,818
19
5
1
25
17
19
36
18
1
21
37
12
14,057,284
2,413,823
34,860
1,927,986
457,951
9,219
i
207
60
125,144
83,473
87,957
16,505,967
3,736,771
18,901,123
2,94^,933
4,658,627
7,605,560
10,784,294
173,055
35,630,440
34,254,254
12,650,831
2,395,156
2f?46,933
921,856
151
35
53
44
125
109
252
411
522
171,430
86,501
1,583
141,189
83,286
24,217
9,838,791
178,302
30,827,113
945,503
— 5,247
4,803,327
32,762,766
11,387,741
44,150,507
18,843,186
14,628
1,491,488
1,263,090
107,503
110,067
964,993
49
32
46,905,085
20,866,847
27,270
15,609
2,754,578
2,023,661
27,270
981
436
189
250
1
198,860,606
1
221,172,952
22,312,346
229
The totals for population shown in column 4, include 43,634 for the north
Lushai country (under A.ssam), 2,946,933 for Upper Burma, and 27,270 for
130 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Quetta, &c. Excluding the population of these tracts, not enumerated in
1881, the net increase of the population of British territory in the decade was
19,294,509. The total population of British India is about 15 ])er cent, of the
estimated population of the globe.
The Berars are only provisionally under British administration. Mysore
was restored to the Native Government in March 1881.
Besides the provinces of India under direct British administration,
there are, more or less under the control of the
number of feudatory or Native States, covering
English square miles, with 65,950,398 inhabitants,
the census of 1891 : —
Indian Government, a
an extent of 595,167
They are, according to
States
or Agency
Area in
square miles
Population
1S81
Population
1891
Increase
Density
per sq.
mile
140
Haidarabad
82,698
9,845,594
11,537,040
1,691,446
Baroda
8,569
2,185,005
2,415,396
230,391
294
IMysore
27,936V
4,186,188
4,843,523
657,335
173
Kashmir ,
80,000
—
2,5J^S,952
2,543,952
31
Rajputana
130,268
9,959,012
12,016,102
2,057,090
92
Central India .
77,808
9,387.119
10,318,812
931,693
133
Bombay States.
69,045
6,926,464
8,059,298
1,132,834
117
Madras States .
9,609
3,344,849
3,700,622
355,773
385
Central Provinces
States .
29,435
1,709,720
2,160,511
450,791
73
Bengal States .
35,834
2,786,4^6
3,296,379
509,933
92
N.W.P. States
5,109 i
■ 741,750
792,491
50,741
155
Punjab States .
38,299
3,860,761
4,263,280
402,519
111
Shan outposts ,
Total States .
Total India
— '
—
2,992
2,992
—
594,610 1
54,932,908
65,950,398
11,017,490
Ill
1,559,603
253,793,514
287,123,350
33,329,836
184
The totals for population in column 3 include 43,716 under Rdjputana,
2,543,952 for Kashmir, and 2,992 for Shan States (outposts only), not enu-
merated in 1881, Excluding the population of tracts not enumerated in
1881, the net addition to the population of Native States comes to 8,426,830.
Similarly, the net addition to the total population of all India comes to
27,721,339.
Besides the population shown in the above tables, as enumerated in 1891,
other tracts were roughly enumerated by means of family or tribal registration.
Other tracts, again, were duly enumerated, but the detailed returns were lost
during frontier disturbances. The rough totals which have been preserved are
as follows : —
British Tracts. Approximate population.
Upper Burma frontier (in Bluimo and Katha) . . . 42,217
Uritisli Jialuchistan,
Burma frontier
excluding Quetta, &c.
Total British
Sikkim .
Shan States
Rajputana (Bhils, &c.)
Total native territory
145,417
74,276
261,910
30,500
372,969
204,241
607,710
AREA AND POPULATION 131
The following are further details concerning the larger Native States i —
I Area i»
States square
! miles
I
Haidarabad . ' 82,698
Baroda . . 8,569
Mysore . 27,936
Kashmir . . -. 80,000
Sikkini
Shan States
I
Raj putivna states '
Udaipur . . i 12,753
Jodhi.ur . . \ 34,963
Bikaner . . 23,173
Jai]nir (includiii",'
t't'iidiitories) , ; 15,579
niiartpur . . [ 1,982
Dholimr . . 1,154
Ahvar . . ! 3,144
Jhalawar . . I 3,043
Tonk. . . I 2,722
Kotah . . ! 3,784
Central India States :
Indore . . 8,400
Rewa. . . 13,000
Bhojial . . 6,784
Gwalior . . 29,047
Bombay States
Ciitch . . 6,500
Kolhapur (includ-
ing dependent
cliiefs) . . 2,855
Khairpur (Sind) . 6,109
Madras States :
Travancore . 6,730
Cochin . . 1,362
Central Prov. States ;
Bastar . . 13,062
Bengal States :
Kuch Behar . 1,307
Hill Tipperah . 4,086
Population
1891
11,537,040
2,415,396
4,843,523
2,543,952
30,500
372,969
1,844,360^
2,519,868
831,955
2,832,276
640,303
279,890
767,786
343,601
379,944
526,267
1,141,184
1,509,454
963,610
3,513,703-
558,415
913,131
131,957
2,555,074
722,906
310,884
578,054
137,442
Estimated
Gross
Revenue
Rx.
Reigning Family
8,819,440
i 1,530,000
1,676,100
i 526,200
i 7,400
1
Turk, M.
Manitha
Hindu
Dogra Sikh
Buddhist
200,000
467,800
200,000
Sesodia Rajput
Riihtor Rajput
Rulitor Rajput
041,840
234,137
99,890
1 279,806
150,000
150,000
240,000
Kachhwaha Rajput
Jat
J at
Namka Rajput
Jhala Rajput
Boner (Pathan),3/.
Hara Rajput
' 730,000
160,000
400,000
1,352,175
Mahratha
Mahratha
Afghan, M.
Mahratha
320,000
1
Rajput
396,189
75,000
Mahratha
Baluch, Af,
j 863,801
197,781
Hindu
Hindu
194,330
Gond. Hindu
211,994
50,489
Hindu
Hindu
Af = Muhammadan.
* Excludes certain areas belonging to Central India chiefs.
^ Includes certain areas in Rajputana.
K 2
132 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Estimated
;
States
Area in
square
toiles
Population
1S91
Gross
Revenue
Rx.
Reigning Family
N.W.P. States:
Rampur
945
551,249
317,388
/Roliilla Afghan,
Garhwal (Tehri)
4,164
241,242
25,045
Hindu
Punjab Statefj :
Patiala
5,951
1,583,521
619,748
Jat Sikh
Bahawulpur
17,285
650,042
160,000
Daudputra, M.
Jind .
1,268
284,560
63,213
Jat Sikh
Nabha
936
282,756
70,000
Jat Sikh
Kapurthala
598
299,690
200,000
Sikh
Mandi
1,131
166,923
38,396
Rajput
Sirmur (Nalian) ,
1,108
124,134
51,200
Rajput
Maler Kotla
162
75,755
36,632
Afghan, M.
Faridkot .
643
115,040
35,625
Jat Sikh
Chamba
3,126
124,032
35,200
Rajput
Suket
404
52,403
10,392
Rajput
Kalsia
149
68,633
18,867
Jat Sikh
M = Muhammadan.
The following table shows, in millions, the civil condition of the population.
India, British territory and native States, so far as Avas ascertained by the
census : —
Unmarried.
Man-ied,
Widowed.
Not thus
enumerated.
Total.
Males . .
Females .
65-1
43-6
621
62-4
6-4
22-7
13-1
11 -8
146-7
140-5
Tnfal Pnnnlafirm Tnflin.
287-2
-'"""•^ * v^^v..
Of the population on British territory in 1891, 112,542,739 were males,
and 108,630,213 were females. Of the population of the Native States
34,184,557 were males, and 31,865,922 were females.
AREA AND rOPULATlON
133
II. Population according to Kace.
Ill the census lesults the total population of India is divided into 118
groups on the basis of language. But even the different native languages do
not denote separate ethnical groups, many of them being only dialects, and
nearly all of them capable of classilication into a few groups. There were,
however, 334 males and 29 females who spoke an unrecognisable language.
The following table shows the chief linguistic groups, with the population (in
millions and two decimals) assigned thereto : —
Aryo-Indic .
195-46
Mon-Annam .
•23
Dravidiaii
52 96
Shan ....
•18
Kolarian
2-96
Sinitic
•71
Gyi)sy ....
•40
Aryo-Iranic
1-33
Kliasi ....
•18
Semitic
•05
Tibeto-Burman
7-29 1
1
Aryo-Europcaii
•25
The following table gives all the languages or dialects which are more pre-
valent than English, with the population (in millions and two decimals) of
those who speak them as parent tongues : —
i Languages
Pop.
Languages
Pop.
5-43
Languages
Pop.
1-08
Hindi.
85-68 i
Malayalum .
1
! Pushtu.
Bengali
41 -34 1
Urdui .
3-67
Karen .
•67
Telugu .
19^89
Sindhi .
2 59 1
K61 .
•65
Mahratlii
18-89
Santali .
1-71 '
Tulu .
•49
Punjabi
17-72
W. Pahari .
1-52 ,
Kachhi .
•44
Tamil .
15-23 !
Assamese
1-44 '
Gypsy .
•40
CJujarati
10^62
Gondi .
1^38
Oraon .
•37
Kanarese
9-75
Central Paluii i
1-15
Arrakanese .
•37
Uriya .
9-01
Mcirwadi
1-15
Kond .
•32
Burmese
5-56
1 Returned as a separate dialect only in Sontliern, Western, and Central India,
The English language is next in order with a population of 238,499.
The British-born population in India amounted, according to the census of
1871, to 64,061 persons, in 1881 to 89,798, and in 1891 to 100,551. In 1891,
the total number of persons not born in India, including the French and
Portuguese possessions, was 661,637. Of these, 478,656 returned as their
birth-place countries contiguous to India ; 60,519 countries in Asia remote
from India, including China ; 100,551 the United Kingdom ; 10,095 other
European, American and Australasian countries ; while 11,816 were born in
Afiica, &e., or at sea.
134 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
III. Occupations of the Population.
The following table shows, in thousands, for 1891, the distribution of the
total population, male and female, according to the occupations by which
they live, whether as workers or dependents : —
State and Local Admini-
Glass, pottery and stone
strations
5,600
ware . . . ,
2,361
Defence
664
Wood, cane, and matting .
4,293
Service of Foreign States .
500
Drugs, dyes, gums, &c. .
392
Provision and care of cattle
3,646
Leather, horns, boxes, &c.
3,285
Agriculture
171,735
Commerce
4,686
Personal, household, and
Transport and storage
3,953
sanitary services .
11,220
Learned and artistic pro-
Food, drink, and stimulants
14,576
fessions
5,672
Light, firing, and forage .
3,522
Sport and amusements
141
Buildings
1,438
Earth work and general
Vehicles and vessels.
147
labour.
25,468
Articles of supplementaiy
Undefined and disreputable
1,563
requirement
1,155
Independent means .
4,774
Textile fabrics and dress .
Metals and precious stones
12,611
3,821
Total ....
287,223
IV. Movement of the Population.
The registration of vital statistics among the general population is still
very imperfect. The following table shows for 1896 the mean ratio of
births and deaths per thousand of the population for the provinces of British
India as officially recorded. It is admitted by the local authorities that the
returns for more than one are defective : —
—
Births
Deaths
Bengal
38-03
34-17
N. W. Provinces and Oudh
35-4
33-32
Punjab ......
43-
31-5
Central Provinces ....
31-72
49-31
Lower Burma
32-27
23-63
Assam . . .
33'69
36-33
Madras
29-9
20-6
Bombay ......
36-76
31-69
The number of coolie emigrants from India in 1S89 was 15,706 ; in
1890, 18,298 ; in 1891, 17,185 ; in 1892, 13,751 ; in 1893, 12,636 ; in 1894,
17,932 ; ill 1895, 13,103 ; and in 1896, 12,390. The bulk of these emigrants
go to British Colonics, mainly to Demerara, Trinidad, and MaurjtiiTS.
AREA AND POPULATION — RKIJGION
l.So
V. Principal Towns.
There are in India 75 towns with over 50,000 inhabitants, as iollows, ac-
cordinff to the results of the census of 1891 : —
Towns
roiiulation
Towns
Poiinlation
Calcutta (with
Howrah .
116,606
suburbs) ^ .
861,764
Baroda .
116,420
Bombay .
821,764
Surat .
109,229
IMadras .
452,518
Karachi .
105,199
Tlaidarabad
Owalior .
104,083
(witli suburl)s
) 415,039
Indore .
92,329
Lui'know
273,028
Tri(,'liinopoli
90,609
IWnares .
219,467
jNIadura .
87,428
Dcllii .
192,579
Jalialpur
84,481
Maudalay
188,815
Peshiiwur
84,191
Cawupur
188,712
Mirziipur
84,130
Bangalore
180,366
Dacca
82,321
Rangoon
180,324
Gayii
80,383
Lahore .
176,854
Ambala .
79,294
Allahabdd
175,246
Faizabad
78,921
Agra
168,662
Shahjahanpur
78,522
Patna
165,192
Farukluibad
78,032
Poona (with
Kanijmr .
76,733
sul>url is)
161,390
Multan .
74,562
Jaipur .
158,905
Mysore .
74,048
Ahniaddlxld .
148,412
Rawal Pindi
73,795
Amritsar
136,766
Darbhangali
73,561
Bareilly .
121,039
]\Ioradabad
72,921
Meenit .
119,390
Bhopal .
70,338
Sriuagar .
118,960
Bhagalpur
69,106
Nagpur .
117,014
Ajniere .
68,843
Towns
Bliartpur
Salem
Jalandhar
Calicut .
Goraklipnr
Saharanpur
Shola[)ur
Jodhi)ur .
Aligarh .
Muttra .
Bellary .
Negapatam
Haidaraliad
Bhaunagar
Chapra .
Monghyr
Bikanir .
Patiala .
]\Iaulmain
Sialkot .
Tan] ore .
Combaconu
Jhansi .
Hubli .
Alwar
Firozpur
roi)ula<ion
68,033
67,710
66,202
66,078
63,620
63,194
61,915
61,849
61,485
61,195
59,467
59,221
(Sind) 58,048
57,653
57,352
57,077
56,252
55,856
55,785
55,087
54,390
54,307
53,779
52,595
52,398
50,437
m
1 ExcludiiiK Howrah.
After these towns there are 40 of between 35,000 and 50,000 inhabitants,
and 109 between 20,000 and 35,000. Of the so-called villages, as many as
343,052 in 1891, contained less than 200 inlial)itants each ; and 222,996 con-
tained a population varj'-ing between 200 and 500.
Religjon.
The mo.st prevalent religion in India is that of the Hindus, their number
being nearly three-fourths of the total population ; together with the Muham-
madans, who number 57,321,161, they comprise over 92 per cent, of the whole
community. The liiiddbists are mostly in Burma, as will be seen from the
following table, which also shows that the number of Christians is a little
over 2,250,000 :—
136 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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INSTIIUCTION
137
Of the Chiistians enumerated above (2,284,380) the following are the
chief sub-divisions as given in the official returns : —
Sect
Population j
Sect
Populatioii
Roman Catholics .
Church of England
Presbyterians
Dissenters .
1,315,263 ;
295,016
40,407
296,938
Other Protestants .
Syrians, Armenians, and
Greeks
63,967
201,684
Instruction.
The following statistics are those of the census of 1891 :-
—
Under Instruction
Not under Instruc-
tion, and able to
read and write
Not under Instruc-
tion and unable to
read and write
118,819,408
127,726,768
246,546,176
Not returned.
13,356,295
12,028,210
25,384,505
Males .
Females
2,997,558
197,662
11,554,035
543,495
3,195,220
12,097,530
In 1896-97 the total expenditure on public instruction in India was
Rx. 3,524,490, against Rx. 67,100 in 1865, and Rx. 39,400 in 1858. Of the
sum spent in 1896-97, Rx. 574,715 came from local rates and cesses ;
Rx, 149,672 from municipal funds ; Rx. 786,711 from subscriptions, endow-
ments, &c. ; Rx, 1,061,093 from fees ; and Rx. 952,299 from provincial revenues.
The following was the educational expenditure (in tons of rupees) for
five vears: —
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
Rx.
3,167,282
Rx.
3,227,970
Ry.
3,308,843
Rx.
3,506,530
Rx.
3,524,490
At the head of the national system of education in India there arc the five
Universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad, and the Punjal), which,
though merely examining liodies, have numerous affiliated colleges in which a
prescribed higher education is given than at the schools, Normal schools
have been established in every i)rovince for training teachers ; and a staff of
inspecting officers visit all schools on the de})artniental lists. Medical colleges
furnish a limited number of graduates and a larger numlier of certificated
practitioners who do duty at hospitals and dispensaries, or serve in the military
medical department. Engineering and other technical schools have also
increased, and there are a few art schools.
The following table shows the number of students who matriculated at the
five Universities for the years quoted
Universities
1892
1893
1894
1895
2,293
1896
1897
Calcntta .
1,695
3.156
1,946
2,308
2,899
l^Iadras
2,381
520
776
918
1,690
1,642
Bombay .
016
1,054
640
934
944
1,232
Punjab
(519
787
854
779
1,139
837
Allahabiid
747
749
688
832
693
859 j
138 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The following table embraces the principal statistics compiled up to 31st
March, 1897, as to the number of the various classes of schools and the
pupils : —
—
Institutions for
Scholars
Males
Females
Males
18,653
Females
Colleges ....
155
5
130
General education :
Secondary .
4,827
440
495,132
40,023
Primary
97,881
6,039
2,892,264
317,561
Special education :
Training and other
special schools .
473
66
22,327
2,292
Private institutions :
Total.
Grnnd total
40,680
1,459
526,336
42,152
144,016
8,009
3,954,712
402,158
152,
025
4,356,870
Of the total number of educational institutions in India (viz., 152,025),
22,286 are public, 63,955 are aided, and' 65, 784 are private and unaided.
Since the appointment of a commission, in 1883, to investigate the whole
system of education in India, the results have been to place public instruction
on a broader and more popular basis, to encourage private enterprise in teach-
ing, to give a more adecpiate recognition to indigenous schools, and to provide
that the education of the people shall advance at a more equal pace along with
the instruction of the higher classes. Female education and the instruction of
certain backward classes of the community, such as Muhammadans, received
special attention. Notwithstanding the progress of education, the proportion
of the total population al)le to read and write is still very small. It is esti-
mated that in British India only 22 '29 per cent, of the boys of a school-going
age attend school ; the ]iercentage in the case of girls being 2 '34,
In 1896 there were 598 vernacular newspapers published regularly in 17
different languages. Only one daily vernacular newspa]ier circulates as many
as 5,000 copies, only one weekly as many as 20,000. During the year, 7,185
books and magazines ap])eared, about seventeen -twentieths being in native
languages.
Justice and Crime.
The Presidencies of Madras and Romliay, and the Lieutenant-Governorshi])s
of Bengal and the N. W. Provinces have each a high court, supreme both in
civil and criminal Imsiness, Init with an ultimate appeal to the Judicial Com-
mittee of the Privy Council in England. Of the minor provinces, the Punjab
has a chief court, with five judges; the Central Provinces, Oudh and Siiid,
have each one judicial commissioner. Burma has a judicial commissioner and
a recorder. For Assam, the high court at Calcutta is the highest judicial
authority, except in the three hill districts, where the chief commissioner of
Assam is judge without appeal in civil and criminal cases. In each district
the ' collector-magistrate ' is judge both of first instance and appeal.
about
Appellate and original jurisdiction is exercised in the superior courts by
ut 450 judges. During 1890, about 5,600 magistrates, of whom one -half
JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE
130
were honorary, exercised jurisdiction. There were 1,720 civil judges under
the sujierior courts. Nearly all the civil judges, and the great majority of the
magistrates, in the courts of original jurisdiction are natives of India ; while
in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, the proportion of natives sitting in the appel-
late courts is considerable.
The following table gives (in thousands) the number of persons under trial
and of those convicted in criminal cases for the years quoted : —
Persons
Tried .
Convicted .
Of whom, lined
1891
1892
1893
1894
1,694
815
622
1895
1,740
845
640
1896
1,525
749
572
1,641
795
601
1,671
793
596
1,786
840
625
i
In 1896, 440 persons were sentenced to death, 1,554 to transportation, and
165,080 to imprisonment. There were 1,004 convictions for the crime of
murder, 9,539 for cattle-theft, 52,604 for ordinary theft, and 24,365 for lurk-
ing house trespass and housebreaking.
The total police of that year were 142,600 in number. Out of this number
53,207 were armed with firearms and 45,862 with swords.
In 1896 there were 40 central gaols, 191 district gaols, and 495 .subordinate
gaols and lock-ups. The following table gives the number of prisoners in gaol
at the end of the years quoted :-
Prisoners
1891
92,947
3,147
1892
92,139
3,029
1893
92,190
2,862
95,052
1894
93,299
3,012
1895
97,993
3,189
101,182
1890
106,552
3,382
Male .
Female
Total .
95,644
95,168
96,311
109,934
Of the total number of convicts (181,984), admitted into gaol during 1896,
16,435 had been previously convicted once, 4,927 twice, and 3,956 more than
twice.
Finance.
The subjoined table gives, in tens of rupees (Ex.), the total
gross amount of the actual revenue and expenditure of India,
excluding capital expenditure on public works, and distinguishing
Indian and home expenditure, in each of the financial years
ending March 31, 1887, and 1892-97.
Years
ended
March 31
llcvcnue
Expenditure
1
In India
In Great Britain
including cxcliange
Total Expenditure
1
1
1887
1892
1893
1894
1895
1 1896
1 1897
1
Rx.
77,337,134
89,143,283
90,172,438
90,565,214
95,187,429
98,370,167
94,129,741
Rx.
57,329,672
65,763,836
64,844,035
66,000,101
65,718,671
69,377,831
69,600,508
1
Rx.
19,829,035
22,911,912
26,161,815
26,112,111
28,775,648
27,458,338
26,234,255
Rx.
77,158,707
88,675,748
91,005,850
92,112,212
• 94,494,219
96,836,169
95,834,763
140 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
For many years the equivalent in sterling money of the rupee
was approximately 25., but since 1873 the equivalent has fallen
considerably lower, and has been subject to continual variations.
In December, 1896, the sterling value of the rupee was under
Is. id. In the budget estimate for 1898-99 the rate of
exchange is taken at Is. oSid.
The following table shows the items of revenue and expen-
diture for 1897-98 (revised ~ estimate) and 1898-99 (budget
estimate) : —
Revenue
Heads of Revenue 1897-98
Land revenue .
Opium .
Salt
Stamps .
Excise .
Provincial )
rates . . /
Customs
Assessed taxes
Forests .
Registration .
Tribute .
Interest .
Post Office, ^
Telegraph, |-
and Mint J
Civil depart- \
ments . )
Miscellaneous
Railways
Irrigation
Buildings )
and roads j
Military dc-"\
partments . /
Rx.
25,932,300
5,242,300
8,625,000
4,806,200
5,507,300
1898-09
Rx.
27,568,200
5,329,800
8,728,000
4,855,900
5,717,300
Expenditure
Heads of
Expenditure
3,677,300 3,860,000
4,577,400
1,889,300
1,788,200
482,400
897,900
868,900!
4,590,5001
1,892,900
1,735,600
462,200l
919,400[
929,800
3,348,300 3,203,900
l,703,100j l,733,000i
899,500' 918,600
22,167,300 21,823,600
3,591,100 3,228,100
660,500; 678,700
897,200 909,900;
Interest
Refunds,
compensa-
tions, &c.
Charges of \
collection ./
Post Office,
Telegraph,
and Mint .
Civil salaries&c
Miscell. Civil)
charges . j
Famine re-
lief and in-
surance
Railway con-\
struction . /
Railway Rcve-)
nue account /
Irrigation
Buildings \
and roads j
Army
Defence works
Total .
Expenditure ■\
from Piovin- J
cial balances J
1897-98
1898-99
Rx. Rx.
3,499,200; 3,378,600
1,851,500 1,880,100
8,991,000 9,330,800j
2,878,000
15,721,300
5,724,500
5,414,200
4,700
22,801,300
3,138,200
5,464,000
2,932,000;
15,694,800
5,777,600
1,099,200
I
5,800;
23,921, 400!
3,213,100|
6,021,500
27,027,000 25,055,9001
35,400! —
102,550,300|98,310,800
-705,700] -116,800
! Total ('X)i('iidii,uiv1
lotal revenue 96,561,500 99,085,400 char-o.i a-aiust
I I revenue . . /
101,844,600 98,194,000
The large deficit (Rx. .0.283,100) in 1897-98 i.s due to widespread famine and scarcity, and
to military operations on the N.AV. frontier. Tlie annMint spent on famine relief in lSOG-07
and IH'JT-OS was Rx. 7,470,000, the uumher of units relieved being Sau millions. (A unit is
one person relieved for one day.) Including Rx. 7,470,000 spent directly on famine relief,
the cost of the famine \n actual outlay and loss of revenue was about Rx. 14,240,000, and, in
FiNANCli:
141
addition, reVcmie amoiiuting to Rx. 1,S.JO,000 was susiicndod, find about Rx. 1,. ^70,600 wa.^
lent to cultivator.s for tlio imrchasu of seed, &c. The 13ud;,'et istiniates for 18'JS-l)'J provide
for the full amount Hx. l.r.OO.OOO of Hie fHiuine tyrant, namely Rx. l,(i'.i't,20(), under the liea<l
• Fauiine Relief and Insurance," antl Rx. 4O0.8UO under ' ;JS State railways,' chargeable to
tliat grant, as representing the net charge on account of the liengal-Nagpur and tliu India i
Midland Railways.
Ill addition to the expenditure shown in the above table, a capital expen-
diture not charged against revenue on railway and irrigation works is set down
for 1897-98 at Kx. 4,604,600, and for 1898-99 at Kx. 5,749,300.
The following table exhibits the growth of the three most important ."sources
of the public revenue of India, namely land, opium, and .salt, in the rinancial
years 1888 and 1893-98 :—
Ifear ended March 31
Landi
Opium
Salt
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1888
23,189,292
8,515,462
6,670,728
1893
24,905,328
7,993,180
8,556,104
1894
25,589,609
6,627,571
8,288,876
1895
25,408,272
7,323,757
8,665,749
1896
26,200,955
7,123,922
8,861,845
1897
23,974,489
6,409,238
8,421,705
189S
25,732,000
5,179,700
8,592,400
(Approximate.)
1 Exclusive of Portion of Land Revenue due to IrriKation.
The most important source of public income is the land. The land revenue
is levied according to an assessment on estates or holdings. In the greater
])art of Bengal, about one-fourth of Madras and some districts of the North-
West Provinces, the assessment was fixed permanently one hundred years ago ;
while it is fixed periodically at intervals of from twelve to thirty years over
the rest of India. In the permanently settled tracts the land revenue falls at
a rate of about two-thirds of a rupee per acre of cultivated land, and represents
on an average about one-fifth of the rental, or about one twenty-fourth of the
gross value of the produce. In the temporarily settled tracts the land revenue
averages about U rupee per acre of cultivated land, represents something
less than one-half of the actual or estimated rental, and is probably about one-
tenth or one-twelfth of the gross value of the produce. For details as to the
nature of the dilferent tenures of land that prevail in India ,vec the Ykau-
BooK for 1886, p. 799. Sec also under Agriculture.
The land revenue w'as contributed in 1896-97 as follows : —
Administrations Rx.
India .... 147,471
Central Provinces . 660,493
Burma . , . 2,396,961
Assam . . ' . 606,231
Bengal ... 3,876,838
Nortli-West Provinces
and Oudh . . 4,986,876
Administrations
Punjab
Madras
Bombay
Total
Rx
2,276,630
4,646,065
4,376,924
23,974,489
In British territory the cultivation of the poppy is only permitted in
142 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
parts of the provinces of Bengal, the North-West Provinces and Oudh. A few
thousand acres of opium are grown in the Punjab for local consumption. In
the monopoly districts, the cultivator receives advances from Government to
enable him to prepare the land for the crop, and he is bound to sell the whole
of the produce at a fixed price to Government agents, by whom it is de-
spatched to the Government factories at Patna and Ghazipur to be prepared for
the market. The chests of manufactured opium are sold by auction in
Calcutta at monthly sales for export to China. A reserve is kept in hand to
supply the deficiencies of bad seasons, and a small quantity is used by the
Indian excise departments. Opium is also grown in many of the Native
States of Rajputana and Central India. These Native States have agreed to
conform to the British system. They levy heavy duties on opium exported
from their territories for the China market, and such opium pays the Indian
Treasury a duty which has been recently fixed at Rx. 52*5 per chest when the
pass is granted at Ajmere and at Rx. 50, when it is grauted elsewhere. The
gross annual revenue derived from opium averaged during each of the ten
years 1888 to 1899 the sum of Rx. 7,703,007, and the average net receipts
during the same period, Rx. 5,670,903. In 1855-58 the net opium revenue
averaged only Rx. 4,580,000,
The largest branch of expenditure is that for the army, which cost
Rx. 13,000,000 in the year before the great mutiny ; and 28,086,495 (in-
cluding Rx. 11,368,489 for Afghanistan) in 1880-81. For recent years
the army expenditure is shown in the following table ; —
Year ended March 31
—
Year ended March 31
—
1893
1894
1895
Rx.
23,419,111
23,253,597
24,096,091
1896
1897
1898
Rx.
25,398,157
24,255,338
27,073,100
The Budget estimate for 1898-99 is Rx. 25,055,900.
The following table shows the amount (in tens of rupees) of the debt of
British India, both bearing and not bearing interest, distinguishing the debt
in India and in Great Britain, in each of the financial years 1888 and 1891-97 :
Year ended
Periiiaiient Debt
reniianent Debt
Unfunded Debt
Total
March 31
in India
in England
in India
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1888
98,089,862
84,140,148
9,715,834
191,945,844
1891
102,746,555
104,408,208
11,271,306
218,426,069
1892
102,692,317
107,404,143
12,170,666
222,267,126
1893
102,937,552
106,683,767
13,134,568
222,755,887
1894
105,546,078
108,113,792
13,694,528
227,354,398
1895
104,373,740
114,005,826
13,907,320
232,286,886
1896
103,788,928
113,903,732
14,646,368
232,339,028
1897
109,115,053
113,883,233
14,326,874
237,325,160
FINANCE — DEFENCE
143
The following table shows the revenues and expenditures of each of the
Governments for the year ending March 31, 1897 : —
India
Central Provinces
Assam
Bengal
N.W. Provinces and Oudh
Punjab .
Madras .
Bombay .
In England
Exchange
Total .
Revemu-
Rx.
17,131,376
2,178,831
5,883,624
1,322,549
20,957,055
10,165,235
8,042,650
13,563,169
14,341,982
327,107
216,163
94,129,741
Expenditure
Rx.
22,241,456
1,768,753
4,222,271
899,538
9,794,785
6,281,637
4,874,948
9,549,378
9,967,742
15,795,836
10,438,419
95,834,763
The municipal revenues in India are derived mainly from octroi, taxes
on houses, lands, vehicles, and animals, tolls, and assessed taxes. The amount
of income for 1896-97 for all Indian municipalities, which bank with Govern-
ment treasuries, was Rx. 3,771,840, and the expenditure was Rx. 4,166,081.
The following table shows the amount for the chief administrations (in
thousands of rupees) : —
Municipalities
I"-ne ^rr^-
Municipalities
Income.
4,132
4,153
11,237
Expendi-
ture
Bengal
Burma
N. W. Provinces
and Oudh
1
8,183 8,927 '
4,157 3,853
3,986 4,836 '
Punjab
Madras .
Bombay .
4,449
4,341
13,151
Defence.
The following table gives the established strength of the
European and Native army in British India — exclusive of native
artificers and followers : —
144 thk niitTisH empire i—iJs^Di a and DEI^ENDEKCIES
1
Colj)S
(1897-9.^.)
NumbevB
European
Officers
Non-Oonimissioncd
Officers and Privates
Total
European Army.
Royal Artillery ....
Cavalry
Royal Engineers ....
Infantry ....
Invalid and Veteran Establishment
Staff Corps
General List, Cavalry .
General List, Infantry .
General Officers unemployed .
Total European Army
Native Armv.
Artillery .....
Cavalry
Sappers and Miners
Infantry
Total Native Army .
Total European and Native Army
491
261
347
1,508
5
914
9
52
29
12,916
5,409
158
52,180
9
13,407
5,670
505
53,688
14
914
9
52
29
3,616
70,672
74,288
European
Officers
Native
Officers
Non-Com.
Officers &
Privates
Total
33
358
65
1,122
54
619
488
2,048
2,001
21,955
3,142
108,755
2,088
22,932
3,695
111,925
1,578
3,209
135,853
140,640
5,194
3,209
206,525
214,928
The Act of Parliament (56 and 57 Vict., cap. 62), passed in 1893 for the
abolition of the Indian Presidency commands, came into force on April 1,
1895. On that date the military control hitherto exercised by the governors
in council of Madras and Bombay ceased, and the following arrangements
came into operation. The army in India now consists of the Punjab, Bengal,
Madras, and Bombay commands, each under a lieutenant-general, who is
under the direct command of the commander-in-chief in India, and under the
control of the government of India.
Since 1856, Avhen the Indian army consisted of 40,000 European soldiers
and 215,000 natives, the numbers have changed to 74,000 European and
140,000 native soldiers ; and the concentration or mobilisation of troops has
been greatly facilitated within the empire or on its frontier. A regular trans-
port service now exists, and a method has been organised for the supply of
animal carriage, hospital servants, and other field establishments sufficient to
place a large army promptly in the field.
The expenditure on special defences, amounting to upwards of Rx. 4,500,000,
is now practically completed. Efficient coast defences, armed with modern
breech-loading guns, have been provided for Aden, Kaiachi, Bombay, the
Hugli, and Rangoon ; as well as seven first-class tori>edo boats, a new arma-
ment for two torpedo gunboats, and a number of armed gunboats. Inland, a
large sum has been spent on defences and militaiy establishments at Quetta
DEFENCE
145
inchuling an advanced position covering the place ; on strategic roads ; and
on defences for various bridges, tunnels, &c,, on the Sind-Pishin Railway.
The Indus crossings at Attokand Sukkur have been defended ; an entrenched
position has been formed at Rawal Pindi and a defensible post at Multan ; an
arsenal has been established at Ferozepore ; and a variety of minor works, such
as defences for railway bridges, have been carried out.
The health of the Indian troops has been so im})roved by better barracks,
by quartering a larger proportion of the European soldiers at hill stations, and
by attention to sanitary conditions that the death-rate, which before the
Mutiny was 6 9 per cent, for Europeans, and 2 for natives, has been reduced
to 1 '6 and 1 '0 per cent, respectively. The number of volunteers in India on
April 1, 1898, was as follows : —
—
Enrolled.
Efficient.
Punjab . . .
Bengal . . .
Madras . , .
Bombay . . .
2,412
14,006
8,522
4,630
2,308
13,425
8,086
4,414
28,233
Total . .
29,570
According to the estimates for 1898-99 the strength of the entire
British army in India for the year (excluding the veteran and invalid
establishment) is as follows : —
—
Artillery Cavalry i Engineers
Infantry
Miscell.
Officers
Total
Bengal
Punjab
Bombay
Madras
Total .
4,862 8,365
6,120 11,893
3,980 5,458
2,934 3,259
1,577
69
1,092
1,724
41,765
50,504
36,360
38,619
320
220
132
116
56,889
68,806
47,022
46,652
17,896 1 28,975
4,462
167,248
788
219,369
Returns published in 1884 showed that the various feudatory
and dependent States of India had armies numbering 349,835 men,
and 4,237 guns. A large proportion of these forces were little
better than a badly-equipped, undisciplined rabble ; but in 1888,
after the native chiefs had loyally offered large sums of money
towards the cost of imperial defence, the Indian Government elabor-
ated a scheme for the training and equipment of picked contingents
of troops in certain States, with a view to enabling the chiefs to
bear a direct share in the defence of the Empire. ^Measures are now
in progress which will enable the chiefs to furnish contingents of
troops lit to take their place in line with the regiments of the Indian
l-iG THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
army. The special contingents, known as Imperial Service
Troops, now number about 16,618 men, organised and under
instruction. Eighteen British Inspecting Officers have been ap-
pointed. The following table shows the States and contingents
with which they have to deal : —
^
>.
^
>>
>i
u
u
i^
-a
<I>
ci
+3
S
c$
state
eS
>
a
1
'"?
+3
o
State
c3
>
S3
'■§
O
O
•^
^
O ^
-a
Kashmir .
150
2,706
311
3.167
Bhartpur .
471
634
—
1,105
Patiala .
588
1,190
—
1,778
Jaipur
—
649
—
649
Jind .
150
600
—
750
Gwalior .
1,086
—
—
1,006
Nabha
147
549
—
696
Mysore .
579
—
—
579
Kapurthala
145
558
— .
703
Haidaraltad
762
—
—
762
Bahawalpur
149
423
—
572
Bhopal .
1 364
—
—
364
Faridkot .
49
149
—
198
Indore
419
—
419
Sirmur
—
164
—
164
Rampur .
305
—
— ■
305
Maler Kotla .
—
159
—
159
KathiawarStates
476
—
8
476
Alwar
Jodhpur .
599
973
1,572
1,194
1,194
Total .
7,553
8,754
311
16,618
At Sirmur and Maler Kotla the contingent consists of sappers ; at Bikaner, of camel
corps ; at Jaipur, of transport corps ; at Gwalior there is a transport corps of 820 in addition
to the cavalry.
The following war-vessels belong to the Indian marine : —
coast-defence turret ironclads : Magdala, station ship (3,340 tons),
four 8-in. 14-ton guns ; and Abyssinia (2,900 tons), with the
same chief armament ; also the despatch-vessel Lawrence (1,154
tons), and the sister first-class torpedo gun-boats Assai/e and
Plassey (735 tons), besides seven 90-ton torpedo boats built in
1889, a submarine mining flotilla consisting of eight vessels, and
a number of troop-vessels, surveying-ships, inland steamers, &c.
Production and Industry.
The chief industry of India has always been agriculture, but
it was not until about the year 1870 that the Indian Government
directed systematic attention to fostering and improving Indian
agriculture. Since that time there has been established in every
province of India a public department, which collects and distri-
butes early information concerning the crops, controls or advises
upon model and experimental farms, introduces new agricultural
appliances, tries new staples, and is organizing schools for teaching
the chemistry and science of agriculture. By these departments
Indian students of good education have been sent to Europe to
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
147
study at agricultural colleges. It is chiefly in respect of the use of
manures, of rotation of crops, of fodder raising and storing, of new
staples, and of such appliances as improved sugar-mills, that the
example or teaching of the agricultural departments and their
agents is likely to have useful effect. Something has also been
done towards introducing better breeds of cattle into some pro-
vinces, and great attention has been paid to the improvement of
the local breeds of horses, ponies, and mules.
In provinces where the zamlnddri tenure prevails (i.e. where single pro-
prietors or proprietary brotherhoods possess large estates of several hundreds
or thousands of acres), the State revenue is assessed at an ali(]^uot part (usually
al)out one half) of the ascertained or assumed rental. The revenue is payable
on each estate as a whole ; the assessment remaining unchanged for the period
of settlement. In provinces where the rdyaticdri tenure prevails (i.e. where
each petty proprietor holds directly from the State, as a rule cultivates his own
land, and has no landlord between himself and the Government), the revenue
is separately assessed on each petty holding, and land revenue becomes pay-
able at once (or after a short term of grace in the case of uncleared lands) on all
extensions of cultivation. The rdyativdri proprietor may throw up his holding,
or any portion of it, at the beginning of any year after reasonable notice
whereas the zaminddr or large proprietor engages to pay the revenue assessed
upon him throughout the term of the settlement.
The following table shows, so far as returns are available, the class of tenure
in each province during 1896-97 : —
Zainindari and Village
Communities
Raiyatwarf , &c.
1 _
Area
Population
Revenue
Rtt I
Area.
Poi)ulation
T^PVPTIIIP
Surveyed.
of Surveyed
Surveyed
ofSurveyed
Rx.
Uiiper Burma .
Acres
•2,82.3
Area
XlfA.. 1
j Acres
49,411,624
Area
3,167,791
(a)
(a)
655,097
Lower Burma .
159,859
(a)
(a)
53,316,621
14,603,103
1,179,558
Assam
5,08-2,937
(a)
72,981 1
i 21,400,689
5,1,33,668
523,781
Bengal
98,015,273
70,414,425
3,919,799
1 —
—
—
N.-W. Provinces
52,597,361
33,801,894
4,532,188
—
—
—
Gudh
15,337,846
12,650,8.31
1,539,254
—
—
—
A,jmere
1,693,728
542,358
44,217
—
—
Manpur
—
—
—
38,871
5,343
1,240
Punjab
70,718,720
20,861,060
2,707,530
—
—
—
Sind .
—
—
—
29,934,983
2,871,774
779,760
Bombay
3,954,611
(a)
(a)
44,861,329
ir,, 135, 725
3,018,607
Central' Pi'ovinoes
42,811,276
10,784,294
642,624 j
12,540,0961
(b)
(b)
1 Bcrar
—
—
—
11,332,580
2,897,040
710,975
1 Madras
29,529,005
10,352,624
696,820 1
60,876,887
25,277,816
4,552,749
' Coorg
—
—
— '
1,012,260
173,055
r 35, 280
(a) included under Ruyatwarf, &c,
(b) iniluded under Zamindari.
1 includns 11,324,675 acre.s of Government Forest.
L 2
148 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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^iiObtCTION AND INDUSTRY
149
The area actually cropped in 1896-97 was 177,456,929 acres, representing
in the various administrations the following,' proportions of the net area sur-
veyed, lor wliicii returns are available (,537,346,026 acres) : —
Bengal . . 9'64 per cent.
N.-W. Provinces 4*23 ,,
Oudh . . .1-5
Punjab . .3-01 ,,
Central Provinces 2*81 ,,
Upper Burma .0*4 ,,
Lower Burma .112
. 0'41 per cent.
. 1-16
Assam
Berar
Coorg
Madras
Bombay
Sind .
Ajmere
The following table shows, according to provinces, the total acreage oVer
which were grown the chief crops of British India in 1896-97 : —
0-04
4-39
3-58
0-6
•07
Administra-
Other
Food
Sugar
Oil
To-
tions
Upper Burma
Rice
Wheat
Grains
Cane
1,910
Tea
Cotton
Seeds
Indigo
bacco.
1,148.348
13,947
738,089
1,208
100,882
383,580
620
23,663
Lower Burnja
6,451,451
14
45,445
12,368; —
30,675
24,702
4
31,598
Assam .
1,583,043
84
78,702
20,5681291,899
2,139
203,112
1,02C
Beiigil .
36,541,500
1,374,800
10,675,800
839,800!l05,700
146,300
3,512,800
562,500
641,500
N.-W. Provs.
3,954,500
3,763,085
14,285,918
967,699
7,919
1,116,267
405,261
413,724
46,791
Oudh .
2,693,181
1,196,023
6,618,064
246,460
—
34,649
168,769
22,877
. 16,786
Ajmere .
607
24,573
294,130
498
—
61,781
44,329
70
21
Parganii
Manpur
90
1,894
3,594
49
—
589
__
- ,
Punjab .
551,504
6,044,432
8,298,779
398,202
9,905
994,368
672,904
123,753
64,427
Sind
734,539
388,920
l,6ii0,761
3,180 —
121,794
346,950
11,802
11,026
Bombay .
1,665,713
1,032,728
13,017.080
66,1781 1
2,414,505
1,177,614
3,411
71,807
Central Provs
5,162,008
1,932,842
5,770,626
34,760 —
737,104
1,522,542
245
9,735
Berar . . 1
40,283
390,368
3,058,163
2,133i —
2,304,237
380,632
54
12,280
Madras .
Coorg .
Total
6,612,567
95,151
20,282
14,593,050
18,743
57,916
2,651,721
7,300
1,394,134
1,688,020
60
454,748
86,650
20
66,234,4851
16,183,987'
78,237,544
423,932
9,458,842
10,531,864
1,683,808 1,000,230
Besides cotton, other fibres occupied 2,817,101 acres, 2,215,105 of which
grew jute. Coffee plantations occupy 147,158 acres, of which 60,773 acres
were in Madras, and 84,820 acres in Coorg. Food crops, other than cereals
and pulses, cover 6,017,127 acres. In 1896-97 22,904,618 acres were cropped
more than once, giving a total area under crops of 199,862,373 acres.
Reckoning twice over the land irrigated for both harvests, 29,365,493 acres
were under irrigation by canals, tanks, wells, and otherwise. The following
table shows the area irrigated by, and the gross revenue derived from, major
and minor irrigation works during the last five years ending March 31 : —
Major works
Minor works
Total
Area
irrigated
Gross revenue
realized
Area
irrigated
Gross
reveuue
realized
ftx
607,549
636,372
613,861
497,899
1,786,658
Area
irrigated
Gross
revenue
realized
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Acres
7,043,286
6,949,381
6,259,870
7,955,529
10,172,493
Rx.
2,552,415
2,417,757
2,602,731
2,541,947
3,386,183
Acres
2,272,091
2,116,964
2,194,441
2,043,790
6,706,531
Acres
9,315,377
9,066,345
8,454,311
9,999,319
16,879,024
Rx.
3,159,964
3,054,129
3,216,592
3,039,860
5,172,841
150 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Irrigation works, for which ca^iital accounts are kept, paid 6 '4 per cent.
in 1896-97 on their capital outlay.
The estimated value of the crops irrigated in 1896-97 was 46 crores of
rupees.
The Ganges Canal, which w^as completed in 1854, and has cost
Rx. 2,985,081, comprises 440 miles of main canal, and 2,643 miles of dis-
tributaries. During the year it supplied water to 1,083,234 acres. The
Sirhind Canal, in the Punjab, has cost upwards of Rx. 3,793,578, and con-
sists of 542 miles of main canal, and 4,655 miles of distributaries. In Madras
the Godavari, Kistna, and Cauvery irrigation systems together irrigate
upwards of 2,151,604 acres.
In 1895-96 there M-ere nearly 76,500 square miles of forest demarcated and
reserved by the State. The work of demarcating and reserving forest tracts
has been pushed on with great vigour in recent years, and especially since
1877. In that year the demarcated area was only 17,705 square miles ; in
the following year it was raised by operations in the Central Provinces to
40,425 square miles.
The following table shows the extent of reserved forests in 1896-97 in
square miles : —
Sq. miles i Sq. miles
Central Provinces 19,258 i Bengal . . 5,876
Bombay . . 12,986 j Madras . . 13,138
Burma . . 14,058 | N.W.P.and Oudh 3,822
There were 154 cotton mills at work in India in 1896-97, containing
37,303 looms and 3,975,719 spindles, employing a daily average number of
148,997 persons. The whole capital invested in this industry is
Rx. 13,679,277 and Fr. 5,000,000.
There were 31 jute mills and one hemp mill in 1896-97, employing a
daily average number of 91,389 persons, with 12,784. looms and 258,154
spindles. The capital invested in the joint stock mills is estimated at
Rx. 4,395,825.
There were five woollen mills at work at the close of 1897, with 548 looms
and 19,856 spindles.
There are eight paper mills, having an aggregate nominal capital of
Rx. 627,200, the number of persons ein])loyed being 3,532. The total
quantity of paper made in 1897 was about 38^ million lbs., vahu'(l at over
Rx. 568,000.
The quantity of beer brewed during 1897 amounted to 5,428,383 gallons.
In March, 1897, there were 1,596 joint stock companies in India registered
under the Indian Com])anies' Act and in operation. They possessed a total
nominal capital aggregating Rx. 49,562,286, and an actual capital (paid up)
of Rx. 31,156,559.
The following table shows the division of the aggregate capital among
the principal classes of joint stock companies in March, 1897 : —
Sq. miles
Assam
. 3,681
Punjab
. 1,681
Berars
. 4,179
COMMERCE
151
Companies working
•
Number
Paid up capital
Rx.
Banking and Insurance ....
726
4,270,759
Trading ....
230
4,539,406
Mills and Presses .
352
14,879,688
Planting
171
3,740,839
Mining and quarrying
64
1,857,162
Ice making .
10
162,224
Sugar manufacture .
8
230,236
Breweries
3
170,000
Miscellaneous
32
1,306,245
Total working
1,596
31,156,559
There were 145 collieries worked in India in 1897. The annual output has
been as follows : —
Tons
Tons
Tons
1891 .
2,328,577
1894
2,820,652
1896
3,848,013
1892
2,537,696
1895
3,537,820
1897
4,063,127
1893
2,562,001
The total value of the output in 1897 may be estimated at Rx. 1,246,659. The
total imports of coal, coke, and patent fuel in 1897-98 amounted to 262,844
tons. The total number of persons employed at the mines is given as 59,859.
Commerce.
The value of the sea-borne external trade of India has risen in the 64
years, 1834-35 to 1897-98, from Rx. 14,342,290 to Rx. 198,972,505, the
increase being nearly fourtcenfold, making on the average a rate of 20*11 per
cent, annually. * The av^erage rate of increase during the last thirty-seven years
is shown below, the period being divided into five terms of seven years each
anil two separate years :
1
Increase
Increase
Average
Average
orDecrease
or Decrease
Years
Annual
Imports
Annual
Exports
percent.of
Imports
per cent, of
Exports
Rx.
Rx.
1801-62 to 1867-68
46,564,217
55,247,350
—
—
1868-69 to 1874-75
43,144,965
57,379,^11
-7-34
3-86
1875-76 to 1881-82
53,158,379
69,432,191
23-21
21 00
1882-83 to 1888-89
72.768,240
89,300,256
36-89
28-62
1889-90 to 1895-96
87,556,372
111,295,697
20-32
24-63
1896 97
89,188,511
108,921,591
3-34^
-8-161
1897-98
94,191,077
104,781,428
5-6P
-3-802
1 Compared with 189.5-96 ; the decline is due to famine and plagne.
2 Coinpare.l with 1890-07.
152 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
In the year ending March 31, 1898, the sea-borne external trade of India
(private and Government) was as follows, in tens of rupees : —
—
Imports
Exports
Merchandise .
Treasure
Total
Rx.
73,660,460
20,530;617
Rx.
97,632,781 i
7,148,647 i
94,191,077
104,781,428 1
The following shows (in tens of rupees) the total imports and exports of
India, divided into merchandise and ' treasure ' (bullion specie), excluding
Government stores and Government treasure, in the fiscal years fending
March 31, 1885, and the last five years : —
Imports
Years ended
March 31
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1885
53,149,311
13,878,847
67,028,158
1894
73,956,957
18,425,256
92,382,213
1895
70,167,438
9,559,007
79,726,445
1896
69,316.395
13,358,985
82,675,380
1897
71,914,697
13,075,353
84,990,050
1898
69,420,120
20,476,286
89,896,406
Years ended
March 31
Exports and Re-Exports *
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
1885
1S94
1895
1896
1897
1898
Rx.
83,200,528
100,447,590
108,814,999
114,203,140
103,914,297
97,537,273
Rx.
1,887,330
4,024,737
8,158,017
4,232,301
4,925,891
7,134,109
Rx.
85,087,858
110,472,327 1
110,973,010 1
118,495,441
108,840,188
104,071,442
* The returns of quantities and vaUu-s of inii)orts and of oxiutrts are based on the bills of
entry and shipping bills respectively, but the declarations conlained in these documents are
subject to scrutiny in all cases, and penalties may be intiicted where they are found to be
false. The value is the wholesale value at the place of imjKn-t or export, less trade dis-
count, duty not being included in the value of dutiable goods. The returns show, not the
prime origin of imports and ultimate destination of exports, but only the countries whence
the goods were shipped to India and to which they are sliipi)ed from India, as disclosed by
the shipping documents. No distinction is maintained between general, special, and transit
trade ; but goods of foreign origin, when re-exported, are shown in detail separately from
those of Indian origin. Apart from the comparatively insigniticant imports and exports by
parcel post, of which only the total values are known, there are no special circumstances
which afifect the value of the statistical results.
COMMERCE
15S
Of the exports of nieicliandisc in 1897-98, Rx. 93,786,101 represented the
[troducts of the country. Rx. 3,751,172 were re-exports of foreign imports.
The imports and exports, including private treasure, but excluding
Government stores and treasure, were distributed as follows between the five
great commercial divisions of India in 1885 and the last five years : —
Years ended
March 31
Imports : —
Bengal
Burma
Madras
Bombay
Sind
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
188')
24.138,000
3,733,395
6,140,723
32,217,550
1,791,824
1894
31,030,11'2
5,279,809
0,235,847
45,010,214
4,814,231
189')
27,730,091
3,523,178
0,840,884
30,798,299
4,833,993
189G
28,550,884
4,882,471
6,875,007
39,430,494
3,985,925
1897
32,057,822
4,072,557
0,207,073
37,345,729
4,700,809
1898
31,301,745
5,800,397
0,745,010
40,972,117
5,011,137
Exports : —
1885
33,133,200
5,287,039
8,700,057
33,983,379
3,976,917
1894
42,201,858
7,319,083
11,775,300
42,203,528
0,852,492
1895
40,859,800
9,820,234
12,012,401
41,508,852
0,171,723
1890
40,791,400
10,508,231
13,235,320
41,482,5.59
0,417,925
1897
45,888,157
9,408,034
11,879,107
37,017,087
4,047,143
1S9S
40,312,032
9,000,980
11,408,901
33,202,251
4,021,218
The amount of bullion and specie, private and Government, imported and
exported, will be seen from the following table for the years 1885 and
the last five years : —
Tears ended
Imports of
Imports of
Exports of
Exports of
March 31
Gold
Silver
Gold
Silver
Rx.
RX.
Rx.
Rx.
1885
4,778,172
9,110,025
100,236
1,804,394
1894
3,140,-530
15,314,720
2,505,284
1,594,908
1895
1,750,280
7,824,927
0,730,374
1,495,098
1896
5,029,209
8,338,710
2,503,317
1,750,494
1897
4,491,179
8,593,384
2,200,140
2,737,355
1898
7,281,222
13,249,395
2,372,733
4,77.5,914
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the respective shares which
tlie leading countries with which India deals had in the exports and imports
(merchandise alone) of India in the years ending March 31, 1897 and 1898 : —
Countries
Imports into
India from
Exports of Indian Produce
1897
1898
1897
1898
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
United Kingdom
50,417,501
46,608,323
31,646,304
29,196,201
China
2,149,089 ;
1,691,012
13,681,925
12,082,642
France .
920,096
882,796
6,355,496
5,627,199
Italy
464,717
499,163
3,027,963
2,674,166
Straits Settlements .
1,842,122 ,
2,409,828
5,007,998
4,313,238
United States .
1,466,949 1
1,431,075
4,813,706
5,855,069
Egypt .
199,723 \
190,828
4,853,561
3,947,339
Belgium .
2,403,703
2,284,839
3,052,888
3,027,958
Austria- Hungary
1,487,788 '
1
2,146,793
2.496,685
1 2,101.259
154 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Countries
Imports into India from
Exports of Indian Produce
1897
IS'.tS
1897
1898
Rx.
Rx.
Rx. 1
Rx.
Ceylon ,
682,643
Ij07l,142
3,109,983 '
3,997,789
Australia
452,676
334,430
1,178,876
1,235,866
Japan
547,356
534,519
4,075,886 :
4,157,981
Germany
2,307,821
2,434,519
7,535,579
7,181,595
Mauritins
1,807,631
1,683,071
1,125,926
1,124,202
Arabia .
494,690
499,471
783,931
864,313
Holland .
240,105
289,088
597,885
298,934
East Coast Africa .
239,452
199,903
807,014 [
755,290
Persia
685,983
691,912
417,117
541,956
Spain
12,167
14,020
188,353
250,908
Russia
2,019,594
2,080,756
256,671
109,057
South America
126
554
1,436,142
1,712,047
The following table gives a summary of the value of the different classes
of imports and of exports of Indian produce (private merchandise only) in
the years 1897 and 1898 (ending March 31) in tens of ru])ees : —
—
Imports
Exports
1897
1898
Rx.
1897
Rx.
1898
Rx.
Rx.
Animals, living
367,458
227,6^1
177,967
141,422
Articles of food and drink
8,848,889
10,740,81')
25,338,844
25,068,456
Metals & manufactures of:
Hardware and cutlery .
1,557,742
1,477,811
22,919
18,070
Metals
5,462,773
6,189,912
118,903
120,595
Machinery .
3,510,190
2,861,108
1,027
119
Railway plant and stock
2,661,717
2,876,451
4,793
4,561
Chemicals, drugs, &c.
1,890,124
2,060,544
13,907,521
10,366,802
Oils
3,439,150
4,148,566
608,789
651,675
Raw materials
3,610,617
2,828,688
39,495,063
37,101,481
Articles manufactured or
partly so —
Yarns and textile fabrics
33,042,980
28.950,314
14,073,606
14,433,400
Apparel
1,516,423
1,226,629
190,790
164,136
Other articles
6,006,634
5,833,650
5,940,438
5,715,384
93,786,101
Total .
71,914,697
69,420,120
99,880,660
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the value ot the leading
articles of private merchandise imported and exported (the produce of India
only — that is, not including re-exports of foreign goods) in the year ending
March 31, 1898:—
COMMlCRCE.
155
Imports
Value
Exports
Value
1 1
Rx.
Rx.
Cotton manufactures
26,395,008
Rice ....
11,705,842
Metals, hardware 1
and cutlery . j
7,667,722 1
Wheat
1,341,151
Cotton (raw)
8,871,313
Silk (raw and manuf.)
1,819,032
, , (manufactured)
8,151,338
Sugar (refined and)
unrefined) . J
4,784,479 1
Opium
Seeds (oil seeds mainly)
6,097,563
8,594,100
Woollen goods .
1,148,427
Hides and skins .
8,317,534
Liquors
1,588,494 ,
Jute (raw) .
10,129,992
Railway plant and ^
2,876,451 [
,, (manufactured) .
5,930,856
rolling-stock , j
Tea ....
8,058,623
Oils .
4,146,566
Indigo
3,057,402
Machinery & I^Iill worl
: 2,861,108
Other dyes and tans .
482,047
Coal .
537,352 i
Coffee
1,519,130
Provisions .
1,705,721
Wool (raw)
1,356,537
Ap]\arel (excluding "\
1,226,629
Spices
471,628
hosiery) , . j
Lac (excluding lac dye)
1,070,920
Salt .
868,718
Sugar (refined and )
292,453
Spices
744,773 !
unrefined) . . \
Glass ,
1 576,671 !
Silk (raw and cocoons).
514,850
Chemicals^ Drugs, &c
1,292,938 !
, , (manufactured) .
126,041
Pa]ier .
332,047
Oils ....
651,675
Unil)iellas .
335,374
Wood.
1,079,061
Grain and Pulse .
610,792
Wool (manufactured)
223,899
Dyeing and tanning)^
materials . j
767,606
Provisions .
Saltpetre .
531,667
398,745
The share of each province in some of the most important exjtorts is
shown in the following table for the year ending March 31, 1898 : —
—
Bengal
Bombay
Siiul
Madras
Burma
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rice .
3,001,664
410,242
65,815
1,277,260
6,950,861
Wheat
37,151
212,409
1,091,284
298
9
Opium
3,893,956
2,203,607
—
—
—
Indigo
1,755,104
184,797
51,056
1,066,445
—
Cotton
658,112
6,321,196
95.5,641
852,399
83,965
Seeds
2,964,179
4,671,395
595,684
360,706
2,136
The gross amount of import duty collected in 1897-98 was Rx. 6,302,983,
and export duty Rx. 723,731. The largest import duty is derived from
salt, Rx. 2,556,073 in 1897-98 ; the export duty is entirely on rice.
The extent of the commercial intercourse between India and the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in tlie .subjoined
table : —
156 THE HRlTrSS EMPIRE:— IN'DIA AND ftEt^ENllENcltiS
1893
1894
£
27,648,857
29,339,781
1895
£
26,431,315
24,753,008
1896
1897
Imports into U.K. from India
Exports of British produce
to India .
£
26,233,949
28,814,880
£
25,265,467
30,097,768
j6
24,813,09&
27,382,091
The following table shows the staple articles of import from India into
the United Kingdom in five years : —
Year
Cotton
Wheat
Jute
Seeds
Tea
Rice
I
Indigo 1
1
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
1,111,080
1,297,542
759,080
1,039,646
635,341
£
1,951,816
1,429,433
2,342,132
625,092
241,447
£
3,615,327
4,597,898
4,330,519
4,154,083
3,922,806
£
2,678,640
2,996,803
1,252,099
1,364,017
1,261,541
£
4,735,767
4,874,471
5,096,450
5,240,818
5,450,329
£
1,529,938
1,327,838
1,853,461
1,198,561
1,056,352
£
1,265,549
1,042,739
1,281,735
1,434,358
1,372,603
Other articles are: leather, of the value of 2,295,433Z. ; untanned hide.?,
623,231^.; coffee, 522,034Z.; wool, 1,038,534Z. in 1897.
The chief articles of British produce imported into India are as follows : — •
Year
Cotton Manu-
factures
Cotton Yarn
Iron
Copper
Machinery
"Woollens
1
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
16,091,501
18,242,305
12,874,145
16,372,918
13,738,522
£
1,773,047
1,643,254
1,627,360
2,061,031
1,957,628
£
2,065,553
1,773,782
2,011,867
2,985,738
3,188,493
£
788,317
638,950
699,504
486,152
550,945
£
2,056,027
1,744,087
1,978,481
2,365,006
2,174,032
£
614,289
419,087
417,215
556,009
401,634
The imports from India into Great Britain, and exports of domestic
produce and manufactures from Great Britain to India were as follows in
1897 :—
Bombay and Sind
Madras
Bengal
Burma
Imports from
3,473,438
3,462,374
15,999,536
1,877,751
24,813,099
Exports tx)
£
9,404.197
2,822,190
12,813,303
2,342,401
27,382,091
The following figures show the actual extent of the foreign trade of the
six largest ports' in merchandise only, imimrts and exports (including re-
exports), during the last five years, in tens of rupees : —
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
157
—
1893-94
Rx.
1894-95
1895-96 1896-97
1897-98
Rx.
Rx. Rx.
Rx.
Calcutta
69,927,146
71,319,266
72,316,661 74,760,757
71,994,608
Bombay
67,999,093
63,158,708
65,799,726 60,017,367
52,063,062
Rangoon
10,799,556
10,430,908
12,303,406 11,259,087
12,346,725
Madras .
10,303,973
10,985,753
10,735,151 10,261,385
10,161,018
Karachi .
11,040,337
10,641,250
10,170,371 8,372,182
9,228,432
Tuticorin
1,755,548
2,213,631
2,084,555 1,892,875
2,185,426
Of the total imports of merchandise Rx. 57,820,879 in value came
through the Suez Canal, and of the exports Rx. 57,186,788 in value went
through the Suez Canal.
In addition to the sea-borne trade as above, there is a considerable trans-
frontier land-trade. The following table shows the value, in tens of rupees,
of the land-trade (excluding treasure, the figures for which are untrustworthy),
during three years ending March 31, 1898 : —
—
Rx. Imports
Rx. Exports
Rx. Total
1896
1897
1898
4,577,300
4,794,500
5,022,500
3,769,100
4,309.800
4,078,900
8,346,400
9,104,300
9,101,400
The following table shows the value of the trade (excluding treasure), in
tens of rupees, with the leading trans-frontier countries in the last three years
ending March 31 : —
—
Imports from
Exports to
1
1896
1897
1898
1896
1897
Rx.
1898
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Lus Bela
66,800
71,300
96,700
23,300
28,600
41,200
Khelat
75,800
67,100
87,100
42,700
40,800
41,400
Kandahar .
410,500
418,400
309,300
257,000
227,400
163,800
Sewestan
68,100
67,800
27,600
81,900
85,500
31,600
Kabul ....
165,000
151,500
101,500
306,200
290,200
243,000
Bajaur ....
132,900
382,900
247,900
221,200
461,500
323,000
Kashmir
636,400
722,300
769,700
640,600
635,400
560,100
Ladakh
42,200
57,200
52,700
39,400
5S,100
40,700
Tibet ....
127,200
140,500
123,100
68.300
55,400
92,600
Nepal .
1,765,300
1,489,500
1,914,200
1,272,100
1,404,700
1,401,400
Karenni
206,700
192,600
153,500
28,800
16,100
18,500
Shan States .
349,400
507,200
598,000
424,600
541,200
574,800
Zimme ....
183,000
180,800
235,600
25,600
56,900
63,100
Siam ....
81,500
39,900
86,900
31,400
.33,200
56,900
W. China .
86,900
99,600
64,400
138,100
230,200
203,500
The total value of the coasting trade in 1897-98 was Rx. 75,859,238
in imports and exports, apart from Government stores and Government
treasure.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following table shows for five years the number and tonnage of vessels
engaged in th© foreign trade which entered and cleared at ports in British
158 THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
150
The following gives the number and tonnage of steam vessels which entered
and cleared Indian ports vid the Suez Canal during the years indicated : —
—
Entered
Cleared
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
1,640
1,714
1,618
1,430
1,336
Tons
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
712
811
725
643
578
1,575,836
1,834,009
1,698,707
1,554,653
1,454,321
928
903
893
787
758
1,987,474
1,980,900
2,025,408
1,823,784
1,790,223
3,563,310
3,814,909
3,724,115
3,378,437
3,244,544
The number of vessels which entered with cargoes in the interportal trade
in 1896-97 was 94,806 of 11,046,072 tons; and in 1897-98, 91,522 of
10,479,527 tons; and cleared in 1896-97, 89,349 of 11,092,238 tons ; and
in 1897-98, 86,660 of 10,523,910 tons.
For the year 1897-98, 163 vessels of 2,033 tonnage were built at Indian
ports ; 22 of the vessels in I'^ombay, and 20 in Madras. The following table
compares the number and tonnage of all the vessels built and of those first
registered at Indian ports for six years : —
Built .
Registered
1892-93
1893-94 1894-95 1895-96 189(5-97
No.! Ton- 1 No.
nage
72 2,141
118 6,102 i 129
Ton-
nage
No.
3.280
8,994
107
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
1897-98
No.
Ton-
nage
2,8111 90
4,477 i 149
2,212
8,573
81 2,975'
86 I 5,112
2,033
6,717
Internal Communications.
I. Roads and Canals.
The following table shows approximately the length in miles of roads
maintained b} public authorities throughout the country : —
—
Metalled Miles
Unmetalled Miles
Total Miles
Bengal .
(1896)
4,212
32,662
36,874
N. W. P. and Oudh ,,
5,2653
23,714
28,980
Punjab
(1897)
2,327
23,729i
26,056i
Lower Burma
993i
],762i
2,756
, Upper Burma
335^
2,8841
3,2201:
Central Provinces
(1896)
1,382
5,620i
7,0024
Assam .
(1897)
137i
5,65Ui
5,789i
Madras .
12,469i
10, 299. i
22,769i
Bombay
2,892
4,608
7,500
Haidariibad .
236
800
1,036
Coorg .
J 1
122
175^
297*
Mvsore
(1896)
1,769
—
1,769
Raj put an a
) }
—
—
—
Central India
(1897)
l,419i.
5,360i
6,780
Baluchistan .
(1896)
66U
770f
l,432y
Military works
j>
1,393
437
1,830
1 Exclusive of bridle paths.
160 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Irawadi, with some of
their branches, are largely used for inland traffic. In Southern India,
especially, canals are an important means of communication. Railways, how-
ever, are now rapidly spreading all over the Peninsula.
II. Railways.
The rate of progress in each of the last sixteen years in opening out
railway communications in India will be apparent from the following
figures : —
Miles oiten
1882 10,145
1883-84 10,828
1884-85 12,000
1885-86 12,375
Miles open
1886-87 13,386
1887-88 14,377
1888-89 15,242
1889-90 16,097
Miles open
1890-91 16,977
1891-92 17,571
1892-93 18,048
1893-94 18,500
Miles open
1894-95 18,855
1895-96 19,678
1896-97 20,390
1897-98 21,157
The total length of railway open on March 31, 1898, was as follows : —
State lines worked by Companies
,, ,, the State ......
Lines worked by Guaranteed Companies ....
,, ,, Assisted Companies .....
Lines owned by Native States and worked l)y Companies
Lines owned b}^ Native States and worked by State Railway Agency
Lines owned and worked by Native States ....
Foreign Lines .........
Total
Miles.
10,422
5,16U
2,588i
8941
9191
146
952a
7H
21,157
The total capital expenditure on Indian Railways up to the end of 1897,
including lines under construction and survey, &c., amounted to
Rx. 285,211,784 allocated as follows :—
to
Rx.
170,421,746
38,224,662
50,709,764
10,921,414
12,385,252
Foreign lines
Surveys .
Collieries
Total
Rx
. 1,750,179
. 491,196
. 307,571
Rx. 285,211,784
State Railways .
State lines leased
Companies
Guaranteed Railways
Assisted Companies
Native States
Up to the end of 1897 the total amount of cajtital raised by the various
Guaranteed Railway Companies was 46,512,239?., and for State lines leased to
companies 28,741,207/., or a total amount of 75,253,446/., as shown below.
State Lilies Leased to Cuinpanics
£
25,732,515 Bengal Central . . . 1,000,000
Bengal Nagpur . . .8,175,128
9,516,768 Indian Midland . . 7,342,275
11,262,956 Lucknow Bareilly . . 147,000
- Southern Mahratta . . 6,703,207
46,512,239 Mysore .... 1,224,000
' Assam-Bengal . . . 2,313,135
Burma .... 1,836,462
Guaranteed Railways
Great India Peninsula
Bombay, Baroda, & Cen-
tral India .
Madras ....
Total .
Total
28,741,207
POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS
161
The gross earnings on all railways during 1897 amounted to Rx. 25,595,169,
against Rx. 25,366,043 during 1896. During 1897 the number of passengers
carried was 151,263,816, the coaching earnings being Rx. 8,858,875, and the
passenger mileage 5,930,946,676 ; while during 1896, 160,817,267 passengers
were carried, the coaching earnings being Rx. 9,202,289, and passenger mileage
6,427,608,140 miles.
The aggregate tonnage of goods, material, and live stock carried during
1897 was 33,698,617 tons, which earned Rx. 15,875,883, the ton-mileage
being 4,813,836,667. In 1896 the corresponding totals were 32,471,335 tons,
with an earning of Rx. 15,415,151, and a ton-mileage of 4,588,716,024.
The total working expenses amounted in 1897 to Rx. 12,511,163, or 48*88
percent, of the gross earnings; as compared with Rx. 12,197,688, or 48*09
per cent., in 1896.
The net earnings realised were Rx. 13,084,006 against Rx. 13,168,355 in
1896, giving an average return on the capital expenditure on open lines, includ-
ing steamboat services and suspense account, of 5 "04 per cent, against 5 "20 per
cent, in the previous year.
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
In 1897 there were 26,900 post-oflBces and boxes, against 753 in 1856.
In the fiscal year ended March 31, 1897, the number of letters, postcards,
and money-orders which passed through the post-offices of British India was
397,897,840 ; of newspapers 29,778,291 ; of parcels 2,708,769 ; and of packets
19,341,398 ; being a total of 449,726,298. The following table gives the num-
ber of letters, newspapers, &c., carried, and the number of offices and receiving
houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure (in tens of rupees) of
the Post Office in each of the five fiscal years 1893 to 1897 : —
Tear ended
Number of Letters.
Post Offices
and Letter
Boxes
Total
Total
March 31
Newspapers, &c.
Revenue
Expenditure
Number
Rx
Rx.
1893
360,209,076
22,124
1,488,863
1,518,555
1894
379,022,905
22,853
1,557,597
1,558,281
1895
403,525,902
24,245
1,631,746
1,606,033
1896
423,92.0.276
25,515
1,712,961
1,643,316
1897
449,7-2(),298
26,900
1.783,473
1,698,156
In the fiscal year ending March 1870, the mails travelled over ^50,281
miles, of which total 40,580 miles was done by boats and 'runners,' 5,460
miles by carts and on horseback, and 4,235 miles by railways. In the fiscal
year ending March 31, 1897, the mails travelled over 86,019 miles, of which
total 61,195 miles was done by steamers, boats and 'runners,' 5,414 miles
by carts and on horseback, and 19,410 miles by railways.
The following table shows the mileage of Government telegraph lines in
India, and the number of messages sent, together with the charges on and
receipts from all paid messages (including those sent by the Indo-E\iropean
Telegraph and Pinsian Gulf Section) : —
IG2 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Vear ended
Numbei'of
Number of
Revenue
Revenue
Nuinliei of
March .SI
Miles of Wire
Miles of Line
Receipts
Charges
raid Messages
Rx.
Rx.
1893
126,251
41,030
937,743
875,073
3,98], 411
1894
134,255
42,707
959,096
902,133
4,184,790
1895
138,256
44,648
978,697
807,948
4,391,226
1896
142,926
46.375
1,085,940
897,853
4,736,734
1897
148,136
48,584
1,071,524
946,759
5,077,584
There were 1,563 telegraph offices in India on March 31, 1897.
Money and Credit.
The total value of the silver and copper coined in British India from 1863-
64 to 1897-98 inclusive has been Rx. 228,637,721 ; the heaviest coinage in
any one year being Rx. 16,328,917, during 1877-78. The standard of the
currency since 1835 has been silver. Gold is coined in small quantities,
but it is not current as money, and is not legal tender. In the five financial
years from 1893-94 to 1897-98, the value (in tens of rupees) of the money
coined at the two Indian mints (Calcutta and Bombay) was as follows : —
Year ended
March 31
Gold
Silver
Copper
Total
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Rx.
Rx.
4,812,500
94,594
1,045,158 '
1,965,582 1
5,815,774 1
Rx.
129,508
120,095
82,062
176,901
187,638
Rx.
4,942,008
214,689
1,127,220
2,142,483
6,003,412
1 Includes Rx. 752,445 Rx. 1,392.230 and Rx. 4,830,083 on account of the manufacture of
British dollars in the Bombay Mint in pursuance of the terms of an agreement niixde on the
14th December, 1894, between the Secretary of State for India and the Hong Kong and
Shanghai Banking Corporation and the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China.
The Dollars were struck for use in Ilong Kong and the Straits Settlements.
In 1892-93, the exchange value of silver fell considerably below Is. Sd. ;
and in view of the increasing embarrassment of the finances, and the in-
convenience and impediments to trade, caused by the fluctuations in the gold
value of silver, a Committee, under the presidency of the Lord Chancellor,
was appointed to consider what remedial measures should be adopted.
In accordance with the recommendation of this Committee a Bill
providing for the closing of the Indian Mints to the unrestricted
coinage of silver for the public was introduced in the Legislative
Council of the Governor General on June 26, 1893, and passed into law on the
same day, as Act VIII. of 1893. Notifications were issued simultaneously
providing (1) for the receipt of gold coin and gold bullion at the Mints in
exchnngo for rupees at a ratio of Is. id. per rupee ; (2) for the receipt of
sovereigns and half-sovereigns of current weight at treasuries in payment of
MONEY, WEK^IinS, AND MEASURES
1G3
Crovcrnnient duos at the rate of fifteen rupees for a sovereign and seven and a
half rupees for a half-sovereign, and (3) for the issue of currency notes in
Calcutta and Bombay in exchange for gold coin or gold bullion at the rate of
one Government rupee for Iv. 'id.
Proposals were made by the Government of India in March, 1898, for
steps towards a gold standard for India on the basis of 16d. the rupee, and
these projwsals have been referred by the Secretary of State for India to a
committee in London.
On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of India pro-
viding for the issne of a paper currency through a Government department of
Public Issue, by means of promissory notes. Circles of issue were established
from time to time, as found necessary, and the notes were made legal tender
within the circle for which they were issued, and rendered paya])le at the
pK'K^e of issue, and also at the capital city of the Presidency. There are now
eight circles of issue, each of which gives in exchange for money notes ranging
from 5 rupees to 10,000 rupees in value.
In the year ending March 31, 1863, the total value of notes in circulation
was 49,260,000 rupees. The following were the total values of notes in
circulation (in tens of rupees) on INIarch 31 in each year, from 1893 to 1898 : —
1893
1894
1895
Rx.
26,401,820
30,411,631
30,700,010
1896
1897
1898
Rx.
25,940,699
23,753,307
24,760,049
Nearly two-thirds of the total note circulation is in the currency circles
of Calcutta and Bombay.
The following are the statistics of the various Government Savings banks in
India for five years. These banks were divided into Railway banks (12),
Forest Officers' Provident Fund ^3), Post Office banks (6,420), and Military
banks (161) in 1896-97 :—
Banks
Native Depositors
European or Eurasian
Depositors
Total
No. of
accounts
Balance at
end of Year
No. of
accounts
Balance at
end of Year
Depositors
Balance at
end of Year
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
6,594
6,544
6,564
6,520
6.596
507,510
558,528
594,914
629,625
663,157
Rx.
7,854,424
8,330,484
8,473,417
8,718,286
8,979,862
80,841
86,130
88,295
86,029
79,078
Rx.
1,920,231
1,991,976
2,061,600
2,402,9(56
1,906,929
588,351
644,658
683,209
716,554
742,215
Rx.
9,774,(555
10,322,460
10,535,017
11,121,252
10,886,971
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the Ih'itish ecpiivah^nts,
are nominally : —
Tlie Pic .
3 „ . . .
4 Pier, or 12 Pie
16 Annas
15 Rupees
= 1 Pice
= 1 Anna
= 1 Jtupee .
= 1 Gold Mohur .
= h Farthing
= 1^ Farthings
— 1 \ Pence.
= 2 Shillings.
= 1^. 12s.
M 2
104 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The rupee Weighs 1^^ of a tola (a tola = 180 grains) -916 fine. It is
now worth about 16c?. The anna is worth Id. at present.
The sum of 100,000 rupees is called a 'lac,' and of 10,000,000 a *crore,'
of rupees.
The Maund of Bengal of 40 seers . = 82f lbs. avoirdupois.
,, ,, Bombay . . . = 28 lbs. nearly.
,, ,, Madras . . . = 25 lbs. nearly.
,, Candy, oi 20 onaunds . , . = 24 "3 bushels.
,, Tola =r 180gr.
,, G^?i2 of Bengal . . . . = 36 inches.
An Act to provide for the ultimate adoption of a uniform system of
■weights and measures of capacity throughout British India was passed
by the Governor-General of India in Council in 1871. The Act orders :
Art 2. * The primary standard of weight shall be called a ser, and shall be
a weight of metal in the possession of the Government of India, equal, when
weighed in a vacuum, to the weight known in France as the kilogramme,
= 2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.' Art. 3. 'The units of weight and measures of
capacity shall be, for weights, the said ser ; for measures of capacity, a mea-
sure containing one such ser of water at its maximum density, weighed in a
vacuum.' 'Unless it be otherwise ordered, the subdivisions of all such
weights and measures of capacity shall be expressed in decimal parts.' This
Act, however, has never been brought into operation.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.
1. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to the Trade and Navigation of British-India. Annual. Calcutta.
Administration Report on the Railways in India. Annual. Calcutta.
Administration Reports of the various Provinces. Annual.
Aitchison (Sir Charles U.), A Collection of Treaties, &c., relating to India and neighbour-
ing Countries. 3rd edit. 7 vols. Calcutta, 1893.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British India with Foreign Countries,
and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies, with Appendices. Imp. 4.
Calcutta.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886. Special Catalogue of Exhibits. London, 18SC.
East India : (1) Finance and Revenue Accounts, 1895-96, and Estimate for 1896-97; (2)
Financial Statement, 1896-07, 1897-98; (3) Home Accounts ; (4) Net Revenue and Expendi-
ture ; (5) Public Works Expenditure ; (6) Loans raised in India. London, 1897.
Famine Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 188.'j.
Finance Commission, Re])Ortof. Calcutta, 1887.
Financial and Commercial Statistics for British India. Annual. Calcutta.
Gazetteers, Provincial and District.
HM«/fr(SirW. W.), Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols. London, 1877. Statistical
Account of Assam. 2 vols. London, 1879.
Hunter (Sir W. W.), The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 2nd edit. 14 vols. 1886-87.
Indian Army Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1879.
Indian Army and Civil Service List. Issued by permis.sion of the Secretary of State for
India in Council. 8. London, 1896.
Indian Expenditure Commission, First Report of. London, 1896.
Mackenzie (Sir A.), The North-Eastern Frontier. Calcutta, 1884.
Paoet (Gen.) and Mason (Captain), Record of Exjieditions against the Tribes of the North-
West Frontier. London, 1885.
Public Service Commission of 1886, Report and Proceedings. Calcutta, 1888.
Report of the Census of British India taken on February 17, 1891. London, 1893.
Reports of the Trigonometrical Surveys of India up to 1897.
Report of the Indian Education Commission. Calcutta, 1883.
Returr.-: of the Agricultural Statistics of I3riti.sh India. Annual. Calcutta.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 165
Review of the Accounts of the sea-borne Foreign Trade of British India. Annual. Simla.
Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India during the
year 1894-95. Fol. London, 189(3.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United King-
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Statistical Abstract relating to British India. Annual. London.
Statistical Atlas of India. Calcutta, 1895.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Watt (Dr. a.), Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Calcutta, 1885-92.
A Classified List of Reports, &c., in the Record Branch of the India Office. London, 1894.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adye (Sir J .), Indian Frontier Policy. Historical Sketch. London, 1S97.
^adeu-PowcWCB. H.), Land Systems of British India. ;J vols. Oxford, 1892. A Short
Account of the Land Revenue and its Administration in British India. 8. Oxford, 1894.—
The Indian Village Community. London, 1890.
Balfour (Edward), The Cyclopoidia of India. 3 vols. London, 1885.
Bird (G. W.), Wanderings in Burma. Loudon, 1897.
Birdwood (Sir G.) .The Industrial Arts of India. London, 1887.
Black (C E. D.), Memoir on the Indian Surveys, 1875-1890. London, 1891.
Bose (P. N.), History of Hindu Civilisation during British Rule. 4 vols. London.
1890. [In Progress.]
Braddon (Sir E. N. C), Thirty Years of Shikar. London, 1895.
Chesney (General Sir G.), Indian Polity : a View of the System of Administration in
India. 3rd ed. London, 1894.
Chevrillon (A.), Romantic India. [Eng. Trans.] London, 1897.
Crawford (A.), Our Troubles in Poona and the Deccan. London, 1897.
Crooke (W.), The Tribes and Castes of the North-West Provinces and Oudh. 4 vols.
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London, 1897.
Cumming (E. D.), With the Jungle Folk. Burmese Village Life. London, 1897.
Cunningham (Sir H. S.), British India and its Rulers. 8. London, 1S81.
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Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain : a Record of Travel in
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Du/f (Grant), The History of the Mahrattas. London, 1820.
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Johnston (Sir J.), My Experiences in Manipur and the Naga Hills. London, 1896.
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166 THE iBRITiSII EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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Saunders (Trelaunay), Atlas of India. London, 1889.
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Thornton (T. H.), General Sir Richard Meade and the Feudatory States of Central and
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Todd (L<>\. J.), The Antiquities of Rajastlian. London, 1823.
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Serampoi-e and Calcutta.
Trotter (Cai)t. L. J.), History of India under Victoria. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Tupper(C L.), Our Indian Empire. 8. London, 1893.
Wallace (Pi-of. U.), India in 1887. Edinburgh, 1888.
Watso7i (J. Forbes), and Kaye (Jn. Wm.), The People of Inilia : a Scries of Pho(ot;raiihic
Illustrations, with descrii)tive letterpress, of the Races and Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols.
Imp. 4. Londoji, 1800-70.
Wheeler (J. Talbovs), The History of India from the Earliest Ages. 4 vols. 8. London,
1874-70. A Short History of India. London, 1880.
Williams (Sir Monier), Modern India and the Indians. 8. London, 1879.
Williams (Sir Monier), Religious Thought and Life in India. London, 1883.
Yoe (Shway), The Burman, his Life and Notions. 2nd ed. London, 1896.
DEPENDENT STATES.
Dependent on, or feudatory to, India, are the two border
States of Baluchistan and Sikkim.
BALUCHISTAN
A country in Southern Central A.sia, lying approximately between lat. 25"
and 32° N., and between long. 61" and 70"^ E. ; extreme length from E. to W.
about 5.50 miles ; breadth about 450. Bounded on the N. by Afghanistan,
balijchistAn 1C7
on the E. by Bl'ltisli India, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, on the V\. by
Persia. Includes (1) Independent Bah'ichistan ; (2) Quetta and the Bolan,
administered on the Khan's liehalf liy tlie British Government ; (3) British
Baluchistan ; (4) certain Afghan and Baluch tri])cs on the Indian frontier.
The leading chief of independent Baluchistan is Mir Mahnuid Khan,
Khiin of Khelat, who succeeded on the abdication of his father, Mir Khudadiid
Khun in August, 1893.
KhAns of Khelat since 1700.
Abdulhi Kluln.
Muhabbat Khan.
Nasir Khan I., 1755-1795.
Mahmiid Khan.
Melmib Khan, 1819-184(3;
Shah Nawaz Khan, abdicated.
Nasir Khiin II., 1840-1857.
Khudadad Khan, 1857-1893.
Mir Mahmiid Khan, reigning.
The power of the Brahul Khans of Khelat was founded towards the end
of the seventeenth century by a hill chief named Kumbar. Called in to
protect the Hindu Raja of Khelat against marauders from the east, Kumbar
tirst expelled these invaders, and then overthrew the Hindu dynasty. His
successors gradually made themselves supreme from Khelat to the Arabian
Sea, and about 1740 Abdulla Khan, the fourth Brahul Khan of Khelat, was
acknowledged as chief of Baluchistan by Nadir Shah. The districts of
Quetta and Mastang were granted to Abdulla's son, Nasir Khan I., by
Ahmad Shah, the Duranl King of Afghanistan. Nasir Khan's grandson,
Mehrab Khan, was killed in the storming of Khelat by a British force in
1839. His son, Nasir Khan II., was acknowledged by the British Govern-
ment in 1841 ; and in 1854 a treaty was executed with him, under the
terms of which he received a yearly sub.sidy of 50,000 nipees. Nasir Khan
was succeeded by his brother, Khudadad Khan, with whom a fresh treaty
was concluded in December, 1876, by which the subsidy was raised to
100,000 rupees a year. Khudadad Khan also made over the district of
Quetta to be administered by British officers, at first receiving the surplus
revenue, but since 1882 an annual quit-rent of 25,000 rupees. He also
received 30,000 rupees per annum as compensation for his right to levy transit
dues on merchandi.se in the Bolan Pass. In 1893, Khudadad Khan was found
guilty of murdering his Minister and other subjects, and was permitted to
abdicate. His son, Jklir Muhammad Khan, has succeeded to all his rights and
privileges.
The Khan of Khelat is at the head of a confederacy of chiefs, but his
))owers cannot be precisely defined. In all important matters he is amenable
to the advice of the Agent to the Governor-General in Baluchistan, who also
arbitrates in disputes between the Khan and minor chiefs.
The area of Baluchi.stan is al)0ut 130,000 scpiare miles. This includes
(1) the greater part of Baluchistan ruled Ity a confedeiation of chiefs under
the suzerainty of the Khan of Khelat ; (2) the districts of Quetta and the
Bolan administered on the Khan's behalf by British officials ; (3) the As'
.ligned Districts of Pishin, Shorarud, Kachh, Pvawas, Harnai, Sibi, and Thai
Chotiali, which formerly belonged to Afghanistan, and are now directly
under British rule ; (4) the Afghan tribes between the Amir's territory and
India ; and (5) the Baluch tribes, known as Marris and Bugtis. Total popu-
lation of Baluchistan (British and Independent), about 500,000. The nomad
Baluchis are the most widely spread race, the Brahuls of the eastern plateau
being the dominant race.
During the year 1888-89 the district of Khetran was brought under
168 THE BRITISH EMPIRE .'—INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
British control ; and more recently British authority has been established in
the country between the Zhob Valley and the Gumal Pass.
The principal towns are Ivhelat (the capital), Quetta, which is already
much larger than Khelat, Mastang, Kozdar, Bela, Kej, Bagh, Gandava,
Dadar, Sonmiani. The religion is Muhammadan. The only Hindus are
shopkeepers and those who have come to Quetta for trade, labour, &c.
There is no standing army, with the exception of about 1,200 men kept
up by the Khan ; His Highness could perhaps assemble, at an emergency,
10,000 irregular tribal levies, indifferently armed. The fortifications recently
erected by the Indian Government lie within the territory under British
administration. The numerous forts scattered about independent Baluchis-
tan could offer no resistance against artillery.
The Khan of Khelat's revenue consists of his subsidy from the Indian
Government of 100,000 rupees a year, his quit-rent of 25,000 rupees for the
Quetta district, and a share in the agricultural produce taken from the
inferior cultivators in Independent Baluchistan. The last source of revenue
varies considerably. In a good year it might be worth 500,000 rupees.
The agricultural produce of Baluchistan is limited, owing to the scanty
and uncertain rainfall ; but most of the crops grown in India may be found
in the country. Coal has also been found in several places. At Khost, on
the Sind-Pishin Railway, it has been successfully worked for some years
past. Baluchistan is an immense camel-grazing country. Steps have been
taken to improve the breed of horses in Baluchistan by the importation of
thoroughbreds, Norfolk trotters, and Arab stallions. Local manufactures
are unimportant, being confined to a few matchlocks and other weapons.
The nomad tribes make for themselves rough blankets and rugs. The chief
exports are wood, hides, madder, dried fruit, bdellium, tobacco, and dates.
The following table shows, as nearly as can be estimated, the imports and
exports of British India from and to Baluchistan for the past three years. The
trade over the Sind-Pishin Railway, very little of which goes beyond British
territory, is excluded : —
Lu3 Bela
Khelat .
Imports
Exports
1896
1897
1898
1896
1897
1898
Rx.
66,848
75,800
Rx.
71,259
67,084
Rx.
96,713
87,076 )
Rx.
23,310
42,680
Rx.
28,603
40,789
Rx.
41,241
41,424
1
The country through which the Bolan and Sind-Pishin Railways run is
under British administration. Elsewhere camels serve as the chief means of
transport. Surveys have recently been made for a line of railway from
Karachi to Quetta vid Las Bela, Kharan, and Khelat. There is a line of
telegraph to Khelat, and the submarine cable from Karachi to the Persian
Gulf touches at Gwadar.
The Aflininistration Report of the Baluchistan Agency for 1894-95. Calcutta, 1895.
Floyer (E. A.), Unexplored Baluchi.stan. London, 1882.
Huyhis{A. W.), The Country of Baluchistan. London, 1S77.
Mac Grfj/or (Sir C), Wanderin;,'S in Baluchi.stan. London, 1882.
MacJUahonlA. H.) and ifoIdtcA (T. H.), Papers on the North- Western Bordtrlands-of
Baluchistan in ' Geographical Journal. Vol. ix. pp. 392-416. London, 18t'7.
SIKKIM
169
Oliver (E. E.), Across tlie Border, or Pathan and Baluch. London, 1891.
Thornton (T, H.), Life of Colonel Sir R. Sandenian. 8. Lnndon, 1895.
SIKKIM.
An Indian feudatory State in the Himalayas, bounded on the N. by
Tibet proper, on the E. by the Tibetan district of Chumbi, on the S. by the
British district of Darjiling, and on the W. by Nepal. Extreme length
from N. to S., 70 miles ; extreme breadth, 50 miles.
In March 1889 a treaty was signed by the Viceroy of India and the Chinese
representative, by which the British protectorate over Sikkim is recognised by
China. The treaty (ratified by Queen Victoria on August 17, 1890) also
declares that the British Government has direct and exclusive control over the
internal administration and foreign relations of Sikkim. A British officer
has been appointed to advise the Maharaja and his council, and to re-
organise the administration. The Maharaja, after having declined to
comply with the conditions prescribed by the Indian government, was
compelled to live for some time under surveillance in British India, and
in 1895 was allowed to return to Sikkim. The members of the council carry
on the administration, with the assistance of the Political Agent.
Estimated area, 2,818 square miles. Population, according to a census
taken in 1891, 30,458. The people are known to their Gurkha neighbours as
Lepchas, but call themselves Rong. Princi[»al towns, Tumlong and Gamtak,
The religion is Lamaism.
The revenues of the Maharaja were formerly said to amount to Rx. 84
yearly over and above his subsidy. Since British intervention, there has
been a considerable improvement, due chiefly to the increased assessment in
tracts where surveys have been made. In the year 1893-94, the revenue of
the State increased to Rx. 7,600 ; the expenditure to Rx. 6,026. The land
revenue, amounting to Rx. 3,658, is assessed and collected by twelve Kazis
and other subordinate officials. The Kazis exercise a limited civil and criminal
jurisdiction within their districts ; important cases being referred to the council.
The lamas pay no dues to the State.
Sikkim produces rice, Indian corn, millet, oranges, tea, and two or three
kinds of cloth. There are valuable forests in the State and wide tracts of
unoccupied waste. A few copper mines are worked. The principal trade
route from Bengal to Tibet passes through Sikkim ; but the through trade
is, for the time being, practically extinguished, owing to the complications
on the Tibetan frontier. The following table gives the value of imports into
Bengal from, and exports from Bengal to Sikkim, according to Indian
returns : —
Imports .
Exports .
1894
1895
Rx.
41,888
30,600
1896
Rx.
50,368
43,385
1897
Rx.
75,590
41,790
1898
Rx.
28,311
20,708
Rx.
49,404
36,406
The chiefs imports were cotton piece goods, tobacco, and rice ; the chief
exports food grains and vegetables.
See 'Report on a Visit to Sikkim in 1873,' by Sir John Edgar, Calcutta,
1874; 'Report on Explorations in Sikkim, &c.,' by Lieut -Col. Strahan,
Dehra Dun 1889, ; Gazetteer of Sikkim, Calcutta, 1894; 'At the Gates of
Tibet,' by J. 0. H. Louis London.
170 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— INDIA AKD DEPENDE^X'IES
Also attached to British India are the following island groups :
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.
The Andamaus are a group consisting of the Great and Little Andamans
on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 600 miles from the Hngli mouth of
the Ganges. The Great Andamans comprise three large islands, the North,
Middle, and South, with several smaller ones ; the group is about 156 miles
long and 20 miles wide ; area, 1,760 square miles. The most considerable of
the Little Andamans are Interview, Outram, Henry Lawrence, and Rutland
Islands. The aboriginal population, of diminutive size and low type, is
variously estimated at from 2,000 to 10,000. The islands are mainly used as
a convict settlement for India, At the end of 1893-94 the convict population
was 10,589, of whom some 2,513 held tickets as self-supporters. There is a
police force of 645 men. Port Blair, the principal harbour, is on the South
Island of the Great Andamans. The population of Port Blair (1891) is
15,670. Other ports are Port Campbell on the west of South Andaman, and
Port Cornwallis on the east coast of North Andaman. About 21,663 acres
have been cleared for cultivation by the convicts, the produce mainly for local
use. The whole group was formally annexed in 1858, and is placed under a
'Chief Commissioner and Superintendent of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands,' appointed by the Indian Government.
The Nicobar Islands are a group to the south of the Andamans, 634 square
miles. There are 8 large and 12 small islands. Great Nicobar is 30 miles
long, 12 to 15 miles wide. There used to be a convict station at Nancowry or
Camorta Island, but in 1888 the place was abandoned as a penal settlement.
The number of aboriginal inhabitants is 6,915. The islands are said to yield
annually 15,000,000 coco-nuts — one half exported ; edible birds' nests, tortoise-
shell, ambergris, trepang are also shipped.
Reports on Forests in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands by Chief Commissioner.
London, 1897.
LACOADIVE ISLANDS.
A group of 14 islands (9 inhabited), about 200 miles otf the west or Malabar
coast of the Madras Presidency. The northern portion is attached to the
collectorate of South Kanara, the remainder to the administrative district of
Malabar. Population (1891), 14,440, all Muhammadans. The staple product
is the fibre known as coir.
KAMARAN ISLAND.
Small island in the Red Sea, on the west coast of Arabia, 20 miles SSW.
of Sohera, 15 miles long, 5 miles wide. There are 7 small villages occupied
by fishermen. Allbrds good sheltered anchorage.
Keeling Islands. See Straits Settlement?.
Kuria Muria Island. See Aden.
LABUAN.
Governor. — L. P. Beaufort.
Resident. — K. M. Little.
Crown colony, placed^ in 1890, under the government of the British
North Borneo Company.
THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
171
All island about 6 miles from the north-west coast of Borneo, in the
Malayan Archipelago. Area, 30^ square miles. Population (1891), 5,853
estimated, mostly Malays from Borneo, with some Oliinese traders ; 30
Europeans in 1891. Capital, Victoria, 1,500 inhabitants.
—
1893
1S94
£
4,004
4,559
1895
1896
1897 1
£
5,570
4,912
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
6,291
5,720
39,588
82,082
109,142
£
4,791
7,032
£
5,508
5,402
Exports 2
Imports
52,301
92,395
56,662
68,589
59,393
70,774
65,365
88,483
Tonnage, entered
and cleared
114,036
141,411
257,746
—
1 Dollar at 2s.
Exclusive of those in native vessels.
Sago, gutta-percha, india-rubber, wax, &c., are imported from Borneo and
other islands and exported to Singapore. In 1895, 44,443 tons of coal were
exported. There is no trade with the United Kingdom.
Chief sources of revenue : Retail licences, also customs on spirits, wines,
tobacco, &c. There is no public debt. Cables have been laid down between
Hong Kong and Singapore, and one connecting the mainland. There is a
telegraph line to Sandakan.
Reference : Colonial Report. Annual. London. (See also British Bornko.)
THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Constitution and Government.
The Straits Settlements, a Crown colony, which comprises Singapore,
i'enang (including Province Wellesley and the Bindings), and Malacca, were
transferred from the control of the Indian Government to that of the Secretary
of State for the Colonies on Ai)ril 1, 1867, by an Order in Council issued under
the authority of an Act of the Imperial Parliament, 29 and 30 Vict. c. 115.
The Cocos Islands wore placed under the Straits Settlements by letters
patent dated February 1, 1886, and Christmas Island l)y letters patent dated
January 8, 1889.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the general oflicer commanding the
troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Resident Councillors of Penang and
Malacca, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor-General, and the
Colonial Engineer. There is also a Legislative Council,, presided over by the
Governor, and composed of ten otlicial and seven unothcial members, five
nominated by the Crown and two nominated by the Chambers of Commerce
of Singapore and Penang, but confirmed ]»y the crown.
Governor.— lAe\xt.-Co\. Sir C, B. H. Mitchell, G. CM. G., appointed, 1893.
He is also Hiqh Commissioner for the Federated States of Perak, Selangor,
Negri Sembilan, and Pahang ; ap})ointed, 1896.
Resident-General for the Fediration of Protected States. — Sir F. Ai
Swuttenluini, K.C. M.G., api»ointed, 1896.
172 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
There are municipal bodies in each settlement, the members of which are
partly elected by the ratepayers, and partly appointed by the Governor.
Area and Population.
Singapore is an island about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen
wide, with an area of 206 square miles, situated at the southern extremity
of the Malay Peninsula, from which it is sejjarated by a narrow strait about
three-quarters of a mile in width. There are a number of small islands
adjacent to it, which form part of tlife settlement. The seat of government
is the town of Singapore, at the south-eastern point of the island. Penang
is an island of 107 square miles, situated off the west coast of the Malayan
Peninsula, and at the northern extremity or entrance of the Straits of
Malacca. On the opposite shore of the mainland, from which the island
is separated by a strait from two to ten miles broad, is Province Wellesley,
a strip of territory forming part of the Settlement of Penang, averaging
eight miles in width, and extending forty-five miles along the coast, in-
cluding ten miles of territory to the south of the Krian, the whole con-
taining an area of 270 square miles. The chief town of Penang is George
Town. Off the coast of Perak is the small island of Pangkor, which,
together with a small strip of the opposite mainland, has been acquired as
British territory, the whole being knoAvn as the Bindings. Malacca is
situated on the western coast of the peninsula between Singapore and
Penang^about 110 miles from the former and 240 from the latter — and
consists of a strip of territory about forty-two miles in length, and from
eight to twenty-four and a half miles in breadth.
In addition, the Native States of Perak, Selangor, Sungei Ujong, Negri
Sembilan, and Paliang, which occupy a large portion of the peninsula, are
under British protection.
In Perak, Selangor, and Sungei- Ujong, Residents were appointed in 1874,
who are assisted by a staff of European officers ; and it is their duty to
aid the native rulers by advice, and to carry out executive functions. The
supreme authority in each State is vested in the State Council, consisting
of the highest native authorities and the principal British officials. The
Residents are under the Resident General and High Commissioner for the
Federated Malay States.
In 1883 the relations of the colony were consolidated with the small
Native States on the frontier of Malacca. These States were confederated
in 1889, under the name of Negri Sembilan. A State Council has been
formed, and a Resident has been appointed. In January, 1895, Sungei
Ujong (including Jelebu, which had been administered by a Collector and
Magistrate under the Resident of Sungei Ujong since 1888) and Negri Sem-
bilan Averc placed under one Resident ; and in July, 1895, a treaty Avas
signed by which the administrations were amalgamated. The new federation,
which retains the ancient name of Negri Sembilan {i.e. Nine States) comprises
the states of Sungei Ujong, Sri Menanti, Johol, Jelebu, Rembau and Tampin.
In 1887, byagreenient with the Raja of Pahang, the control of his foreign re-
lations, &c., was surrendered to the British Government. This was followed
by a further agreement in 1888 with the Raja (now .styled Sultan), under
w.hich Pahang was taken under British protection, on the same terms as the
Protected Native States on the west coast of the peninsula. Pahang is situate
on the east coast, within 200 miles by sea from Singapore. The Sultan of
Johor in 1887 placed, in the spirit of former treaties, his foreign relations in
the hands of this country, and agreed to receive a British Agent. In July,
189G, the treaty between the four Protected Native States, Perak, Selangor,
AREA AND POPULATION
173
Pahang, and Negri Sembilan, and the British Government came into force
by which the administrative federation of these States under a Resident General
is provided for, and the States agree to furnish a contingent of troops for
service in the Colony should Her Majesty's Government be at war with
any foreign nation.
The areas of these States, in square miles, are :— Perak, 10,000 ; Selangor,
3,500 ; Sungei Ujong (with Jelebu) 1,200; Negri Sembilan, 1,800; Johor,
9,000 ; Pahang, 10,000.
The following figures give the numbers in the several Settlements, inclusive
of the military, at the census, 1891, and the general results of the census of
1881. Under Penang are included Province Wellesley and the Bindings :~
Europeans and "»
Americans . J
Eurasians . .
Asiatics . . .
Totals (1891)
Totals (1881)
Singapore
Penang
Malacca
Totals
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
Males
Females
4,312
1,764
135,254
942
1,825
40,457
893
824
151,167
308
888
81,538
85
821
49,431
49
935
40,849
5,290
3,409
335,852
1,299
3,648
162,844
141,330
43,224
152,884
82,734
50,337
41,833
344,551
^1 .._ . _
167,791
184,554
139,208
235
190
,618
,597
92,170
93,579
512,342
423,384
In 1891 there were in the Settlements 213,073 Malays, 227,989 Chinese,
and 53,927 natives of India.
A census of the population of the native States was also taken in 1891,
the totals being as follows : Perak, 214,254 ; Selangor, 81,592 ; Sungei Ujong,
23,002 ; Pahang, 57,462 ; Negri Sembilan, 41,617.
Th.^ births and deaths in 1897 were as follows : —
—
Singapore
Bindings
Penang
Province
Wellesley
Malacca
Births .
Deaths .
3,647
8,718
115
92
2,127
5,427
3,099
3,629
3,102
3,561
In 1897, 129,896 Chinese immigrants landed in the colonj^ as against
199,282 in 1896. The total number of Indian immigrants in 1897 was
20,599, against 20,150 in 1896, and 17,202 in 1887. Of the total 2,599 were
under indenture. The number returned to India in 1897 was 14,280.
Instruction.
Instruction, which is not compulsory in the colony, is partly supported
by the Government.
The number of schools and pupils was as follows in 1897
—
No. of Schools
7
33
160
Attendance
Government English schools ....
Grant-in-aid English schools ....
Government vernacular boys' & girls' schools .
767
5,193
5,443
1 TotAl ....
200
11,403
174
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
Justice and Crime.
The law in force is contained in local ordinances and in such English and
Indian Acts and Orders in Council as are applicable to the colony. The
Indian Penal Code, with slight alterations, has been adopted, and there is
a Civil Procedure Code based on the English Judicature Acts. There is a
Supreme Court which holds assizes at Singapore and Penang every two
months, and quarterly at Malacca, and which holds civil sittings monthly at
Singapore and Penang, and once or twice a quarter at ]\lalacca.
There are, besides, police and marine magistrates' courts. The total
convictions before the Superior Courts in 1897 was 692 ; before the other
courts 34,367. The police force numbered 1,843 of all ranks in 1897, of
whom 58 were Europeans. The number of criminal prisoners admitted
to the gaols in 1897 was 8,291.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony for each of the last
five years were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure*
Dollars
Dollars
1893
3,706,308
3,915,482
1894
3,904,774
3,714,620
1895
4,048,360
3,782,456
1896
4,266,064
3,957,090
1897
4,320,207
4,429,693 '
The estimated revenue for 1898 was 4,753,650 dollars. The leading items
of revenue in 1897 were — stamps, 300,895 dollars ; licences, 2,597,050 dollars ;
land revenue, 259,600 dollars ; port and harbour dues, 167,769 dollars ;
postage, 211,825 dollars ; and of expenditure — salaries, 1,552,717 dollars ;
public works, 494,363 dollars ; education, 92,346 dollars ; police, 88,666
dollars ; marine department, 63,752 dollars ; transport, 12,259 dollars ; military
expenditure, 1,027,164 dollars.
The revenue in 1897 was derived as follows: — Singapore, 2,536,429 dol-
lars ; Penang, 1,425,421 dollars; Malacca, 358,358 dollars.
The total as.sets of the colony, January 1, 1898, amounted to
3,325,018 dollars, and liabilities 1,183^643 dollars.
The revenue and expenditure of the protected native States were as
follows for 1897 :—
-
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollar.s
4,178,238
3,567,845
607,313
266,491
Perak ......
Selangor ......
Negri Sembilaii^
1 Pahang ......
1
Dollars
3,837,558
3,688,390
572,546
198,193
Debt of Negri Sembilan, 503,119 dollars ; of Pahang, 2,103,739 dollars.
1 Sungei Ujong now included in Negri Sembilan.
COMMERCE
175
Defence, Production, and Industry.
The new harbour of Singapore, ooini»ri.siiig the coal stores, wharves, and
(locks, is defended by several forts armed with annour-piercing and medium
guns, and by a system of sul)marine mines. The initial cost of the forts
amounted to nearly 100, 000^, and was defrayed out of the revenues of the
colony, the Imperial Government supplying the guns and ammunition only.
The garrison comprises one battalion of infantry at war strength, two l)atteries
of European artillery, half a company of fortress engineers, and a company
of Malay submarine miners. A further augmentation of the garrison is under
contemplation.
The colony also maintains an armed police force consisting of 32 officers
and 1,811 men, and a l)attery of volunteer artillery consisting of 105 officers
and men. The latter during time of war would be placed under the orders
of the officer commanding the troops and act as auxiliaries to the European
artillery.
Articles produced in the Straits territory are gambier in Singapore ; pepper
in Singapore and Province Wellesley ; tapioca and rice in Malacca and Pro-
vince Wellesley ; sugar in Province Wellesley. Liberian coffee is successfully
cultivated in Perak, Selangor, Sungei Ujong, Negri Sembilan, and Johor.
Coffee, pepper, sugar and rice are exported from Perak ; gambier and pepper
are grown in Sungei Ujong, Negri Sembilan, Selangor, and Johor ; tapioca in
Sungei Ujong and Negri Sembilan. The duty on the export of tin forms the
largest item of the revenue of the States on the West Coast. In 1897 the ex-
poit from Perak amounted to 20,702 tons, from Selangor 20,606 tons, and
from Sungei Ujong and Jelebu about 3,522 tons. Tin is also successfully
worked in the Kuantan District of Pahang. Gold is found in and exported
from Pahang, Negri Sembilan, and Perak, and other metals are known to exist
in various parts of the Peninsula. In 1897, 26,420 ounces of gold was ex-
ported from Pahang,
Commerce.
The Straits ports are wholly free from duties on imports and exports, and
tlieir trade, centred at Singapore, is to a large extent a transit trade. The
ports of the Protected Malay States are also free except as to opium and
spirits. The chief exports comprise tin, sugar, pepper, nutmegs, mace, sago,
tapioca, nee, buffalo hides and horns, rattans, gutta percha, india-rubber,
gambier, gum, copra, coffee, dyestuffs, tobacco, &c.
The following table shows the value of imports and exports (exclusive of
inter-Settlement trade, but inclusive of treasure) for live years : —
Years
Imports
Exports
From
U.K.
From
Colonies
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
1893 22,126,7.38 42,041,115 95,981,107)160,148,960
1894 27,852,362 47,051,162 134,450 699i209,.354,223
1895 :21, 599,976 51,414,927 125,203,403,198,218,306
1896 121,680,591 56,804,570 122,858,539 201,343,700
1897 .28,476,448 67,09.3,079 124,340,774 219,910,296
From
Elsewhere
Total
To U.K.
Dollars
To
Colonies
Dollars
To
Elsewhere
Dollars
Total
Dollars
30,294,499 20,243,5911 94,219,.354:i44,7.57,394
21,800,010 120,340,8is!l73,900,316
31,759,488
30,062,072 21^766,794
20,012,414 22,468,804
25,936,224 29,576,077
i
121,146,0871172,974,953
12.% 239,596173,720,814
137,624,076193,136,377
The exports do not include coal supplied to ships' bunkers, ships' stores, telegraph
cables. Ac, materials for building and repairing vessels, nor ojiium sent to Johor for con-
sumption there.
17G THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
The tables of the values of the imports into, and exports from, the three
Settlements during two years (inclusive of inter-colonial trade and treasure),
give the following results : —
Imports
Exports
1896
1897
1896
1897
Singapore .
Penang
Malacca
Dollars
156,946,621
52,586,009
1,945,617
Dollars
179,217,164
50,650,792
2,064,007
Dollars
133,485,209
48,378,344
2,434,027
Dollars
154,942,803
48,403,837
2,415,702
The trade of the Native States (including inter-State trade) was as follows
in 1897 :—
—
Perak
Selangor
Negri
Serabilan
Paliang
Imports
Exports
Dollars
10,075,969
14,442,428
Dollars
11,407,017
12,246,039
Dollars
2,291,637
2,806,667
Dollars
1,226,059
1,652,607
The following table shows the value of the most important imports and
exports of the Straits Settlements in 1897, exclusive of inter-settlement trade : —
—
Imports
—
Exports
Dollars
Dollars
Rice.
27,802,723
Tin .
27,524,804
Cotton Piece Goods .
11,164,940
Spices
9,206,289
Opium
8,823,462
Gambier .
6,711,822
Fish.
5,285,271
Gums
8,139,283
Coal.
5,584,694
Tapioca and Sago
4,816,486
Tobacco .
4,126,741
Rattans .
4,337,770
Petroleum
1,763,413
Copra
3,616,721
Among the leading imports are cotton goods, opium, rice, tea, coffee,
tobacco, hardware, copper, copra, gambier, pepper, gum, rattans, sago, cigars,
tin, tapioca ; many of these, however, being largely re-exported.
The values are determined by the market prices at the time, and declarations are made
both as to quantity and value by importers and exporters. Imports are credited to the
country of the Qrst port of shipment, and exports to the country where the final port of
destination is, as far as can be ascertained ; thus, e.g., Switzerland is never inserted in the
returns. The information is supplied by traders on declaration forms. There may be said
to be three classes of trade— pas/»i;i(7, transit, actual ; passing trade being goods in vessels
merely passing through Singapore for China, Ac; transit trade, goods changing bottom at
Singapore, or landed and stored awaiting re-shipment. These two classes of trade are not
included in the import and export statistics. Actual trade may be defined as goods
brought for sale into Singapore and purchased there, either for consumption or for sale to
other places whither they are said to be exported. The trade is a transit trade in the sense
only that what is imported is exported without undergoing any process of manufacture.
Exchange fluctuations affect the value of the statistical results. In times of low exchange
the dollar value of goods having their origin in gold countries is enhanced, and the samp
probaT>ly holds good, to a k-ss extent, in tlie case of j>roduce exported.
SltlPPlNO AND NAVIGATION— MONEY, c^^C.
177
The following table shows, according to the Board of Trade Returns, the
Value of the trade between the Straits Settlements and Great Britain for five
years. The imports, however, include produce from Borneo, Sarawak, and
other eastern places, transliipped at Singapore Avhich is thus entered as the
place of export : —
—
1893
lt>94
I89a
1896
1897
Imports into U.K.
from the Straits.
Exports of British
produce to tlie
Sti-aits
£
4,518,387
1,780,799
£
4,584,783
2,352,259
£
4,045,446
1,995,906
£
4,309,847
2,019,874
£
3,643,224
2,496,895
The principal imports into the United Kingdom are (1897) tin, 1,217, 178Z. ;
spices, 421,707/. ; cutch and gambler, 292,879/. ; gutta percha, 269,462/. ;
caoutchouc, 126,177/.; raw hides, 153,123/.; leather, 118,059/.; sago and
sago flour, 155,376/. ; the principal exports from the United Kingdom,
cottons, 1,120,002/. ; iron, 328,349/. ; machinery, 87,314/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The total number of vessels entered at the ports of the colony during 1897,
exclusive of native craft, was 8,872, with a tonnage of 6,148,194 tons. The
number of native craft was 15,857, with a tonnage of 588,459 tons. The
number of vessels cleared at the ports of the colony was 8,932, with a tonnage
of 6,058,588 tons, and the total number of native craft was 15,964, with a
tonnage of 594,811 tons.
Communications.
There are no railways within the colony itself, but in Penang there are
over 4 miles of tramway open, constructed and worked by a private firm.
The motive power is steam. In Perak there is a railway from Port Weld to
Taiping, 8 miles in length, from Taiping to Ulu Sapetang, 9 miles, from Teluk
Anson via Tapah and Kampar to Enggor on the Perak River, 79 miles. In
Selangor a railway, 22 miles long, connects the capital, Kwala Lumpor, with
the port of Klang. Kwala Lumpor is also connected with Serendah and
Kwala Kubu, important mining centres, by a line 38^ miles long, and with
Pudoh and Sungei Besi mining centres, by a line 10;} miles long. In
Sungei Ujong a railway of 23 miles has been constructed by a private
company from Port Dickson on the coast to the capital, Seremban. The
following lines are under construction : in Perak from Enggor to Taiping
about 24 miles, and from Ulu Sapetang to Kuala Prai in Province Wellesley 50
miles (23 miles of this line runs through British territory, but the Federated
Malay States are constructing it at tlieir own cost) ; in Selangor from Sungei
Besi to Kajang, 8^ miles, and from Klang to Tanjong Kubu, 5^ miles.
In 1897, 2,990,720 letters and articles of all kinds were received at the
Post Office, and 3,040,416 despatched.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
There are three banks with establishments in the colony. The amount
of deposits in the Government Savings Bank on December 31, 1897, was
363,544 dollars.
By an Order of the Queen in Council dated Febmary 2, 1895, the silver
Mexican dollar, weighing 417 74 grains (or 27-070 grammes), '9027 fine, is
the standard coin. The British dollar, the Hong Kong dollar, and the
N
178 THE BHITISH EMPIRE :^ — THE STRAITS SETTLEMEKTS
Japanese yen, each weighing 416 grains (or 26*957 grammes), "900 fine, are
also legal tender, the least currency weight being in each case 411 grains (or
26 '633 grammes). Subsidiary silver coins are 50, 20, 10, and 5 cent pieces,
which are legal tender for sums not exceeding two dollars ; copper coins are
cents, half-cents, and quarter-cents, legal tender for any sum not exceeding
one dollar.
The measures of length in use in the Settlements is the English yard,
with its divisions and multiples, and land is measured by the English acre.
The native terms are, however, still in use. Commercial weights are : —
1 Kati = 16 Tahil= Ig lb. avoirdupois.
1 Picul =100 Kati = 133Ubs, „
1 Koyan= 40 Picul = 5, 333^ „ „
The kati of Ig lb. is known as the Chinese kati. Another weight, known
as the Malay kati, and still in partial use in Penang, is equal to the weight of
24 Spanish dollars, or 9 984 grains. This gives 142*628 lbs. as the weight
of the picul, and 5,705143 lbs. as the weight of the koyan. The measures
of capacity throughout the colony are the gantang or gallon, and chupak or
quart.
The State of Johore (area 9,000 square miles, estimated population
200,000), at the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, is, in its foreign
relations, controlled by Great Britain, in virtue of a treaty of 1885. The
Sultan is H.H. Ibrahim, under whom the country is administered by district
headmen. The revenue is chiefly from import and export duties. Imports
are opium, spirits, tobacco, rice, hardware, Manchester goods, &c. Exports
are gambler, pepper, sago, tea, coffee, gutta percha, &c. The population is
chiefly Malay and Chinese. Chief Town, Johore Bahru, 15 miles N. of
Singapore.
KeeUng or Cocos Islands, group of about 20 small coral islands, about 700
miles S.W. of Sumatra, and 1,200 miles S.W. of Singapore. Population
(1891), 554. The islands were formally annexed to England in 1857, and
placed under the Governor of the Straits Settlements by Letters Patent in
1886. Large quantities of copra, coco-nuts, and oil are exported.
Christmas Island is 200 miles S.W. of Java, and 700 miles E. of Keeling
Islands. It is 9 miles long and about the same wide. It was added to the
colony by Letters Patent in January 1889, and a settlement from the Cocos
Islands has since been made on it.
Books of Reference concerning the Straits Settlements.
Colonial Otnco List. Annual. London.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom
Annual. London.
Blue Book for the Straits Settlements. Annual. Singapore.
Annual Reports on the Protected Malay States. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Coiintrii-s and
British Possessions. London.
Perak Handbook and Civil List. Singapore, lb07.
Precis of Information concerning the Straits Settlements and Malay Peninsula. Pre-
pared in the Intelligence Division, War Office. 8. London, 1892.
Papers relating to the Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Islands. London, 1897.
Andrews (C. W.), A Description of Cluistmas Island (Indian Ocean). In Geographical
JournalWol. XIII., 1. (January, 1898). London.
Bird (Isabella L.), The Golden Chersonese. London, 1883.
Boulger (D. C.) Life of Sir Stamford Raffles. London, 1897.
wki»ha1-wei. J 79
Clifford (A.), In Com'tand Kampoiig: Native Life in Malaya. London, 1897. AJonrnfiy
througli the States of Tieng-ganii and Kelantan. Geog. Journal, Vol. IX. (January, 1897).
London, 1S97. Studies in Brown Humanity. London, liJ'.'S.
Denny s (N. B.), A Descriptive Dictionary of British Malaya. 8. London, 1894.
Innes (Mrs.), The Clicrsonese with the gilding ofTi London, 1884.
Jagor(V. S.), Reiseskizzen. Berlin, ISOO.
Journal of the Straits Branch of tiie Royal Asiatic Society. Singapofe.
Keane (A. H.), An Eastern Geography, -ind ed. London, 1892.
Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. I. Oxford, 1894i
McNair (F.), Perak and tlie Malays. Sarong and Kris. 8. London, 1878.
Perak Museum Notes. Vols. L and IL Toping, 1898.
Rathbone (A. B.), Camping and Tramping in Malaya. London, 1898.
Swettenham (F. A.), Malay Sketches. London, 1895.
Wallace (A. R.), Malay Archipelago. London^ 1809.
WEI-HAI-WEI.
Wei-Hai-Wei, in the Chinese province of Shantting, and the adjacent
waters was by a Convention with the Chinese Government, dated July 1,
1898, leased to Great Britain for so long a period as Russia sliall remain in posses-
sion of Port Arthur. The territory leased comprises, besides tlie port and bay,
the island of Liu Kung, all the islands in the bay, and a belt of land 10
English miles wide along the entire coast-line of the bay. AVithin the limits
of this territory Great Britain has sole jurisdiction, except that within the
walled city Chineseofficialsmay exercise such jurisdiction as is not inconsistent
with the defence of the territory. In addition within a zone extending east
from the meridan 121" 40' east of Greenwich, Great Britain has the right to
erect fortitications or take any measures necessary for the defence of the terri*
tory, and to acquire sites necessary for water supply, communications and
hospitals. There Cliinese administiati >n is not to be interfered with, but only
Chinese or British troops shall be allowed. Chinese war vessels retain the
right to use the waters, and within the territory such lands as may be required
by Great Britain for public purposes shall be bought at a fair price. The
British Government has decided to purchase (from the private owners) the
western portion of the island of Liu Kung for the protection of the harliour.
A colonial regiment to consist of 1,000 Chinese soldiers with British
officers is being formed to garrison Wei-Hai-Wei and other ports in the East.
Officers and drill instructors have been sent out.
N 2
180 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— AFRICA
AFRICA.
ASCENSION ISLAND.
Ascension is a small island of volcanic origin, of 35 square miles, in the
South Atlantic, 700 miles N.W. of St. Helena. It is entirely under the
control and jurisdiction of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and
is used as a coaling, victualling, and store depot for Her Majesty's ships on
the West Coast of Africa station. It has recently been strongly fortified and
the discipline of a man-of-war is maintained in the island. There is an excel-
lent sanitarium up Green Mountain (2,820 ft.) for crews of ships visiting the
island, whose health is impaired from service on the coast. There are 16
acres under cultivation, producing vegetables and fruit for the garrison. The
population, which consists entirely of officers, seamen and marines, with their
wives and families, and about 177 Kroomen, numbers in all about 430.
Garrison station, Georgetown, on northeast coast.
The island is the resort of the sea turtle, which come in thousands to
lay their eggs in the sand. In 1898, 155 were taken, from 308 to 728 lbs.
in weight ; they are stored in ponds, and eventually killed and distributed
among the people, a few being sent to the Lords Commissioners of the Ad-
miralty. Rabbits, wild goats, partridges, pheasants and guinea-fowl are more
or less numerous on the island, which is, besides, the breeding ground of
myriads of sea-birds. Imports from the United Kingdom (1897), 6,651Z,,
mostly stores. The island is included in the Postal Union. Captain in Charge,
Captain J. E. Blaxland, R.N.
Reference.
Gill (Mrs. D.), Six Months in Ascension. 8. London, 1878.
Johnston (Sir Harryj, The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1809.
BASUTOLAND.
Basutoland forms an irregular oval on the north-east of the Cape
Colony, The Orange Free State, Natal, and the Cape Colony form its
boundaries. Its area is estimated at 10,293 square miles. The territory,
which is well watered and has a fine climate, is stated to be the best grain-
producing country in South Africa, and the abundant grass enables the Basutos
to rear immense herds of cattle. The country is really one continuous elevated
plateau, though broken and rugged.
Basutoland was annexed to the Cape in August 1871 ; but it was placed
directly under the authority of the Crown from March 13, 1884. The terri-
tory is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the direction of the
High Commissioner for South Africa, the latter jjossessing the jegislative
authority, which is exercised by proclamation. For fiscal and other purposes
the country is divided into seven districts, namely : Maseru, Leribe, Cornet
Spruit, Berea, Mafeking, Quthing, and ' Quacha's Nek.' Each of the dis-
tricts is subdivided into wards, presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to
the Moshesh family.
According to the census taken in 1891 the population consisted of 578
Europeans and 218,324 natives; population in 1895 estimated at 250,000.
As European settlement is prohibited, the white population will remain
more or less limited to the few engaged in trade, government, and missionary
work. Maseru, the capital and largest town, has a population of 862, of
whom 99 are Europeans.
The productions are wool, wheat, mealies, and Kaffir corn. There are
indications of iron and copper, and coal has been found and is used in some
BECHUANALAND
181
parts, two mines being actively worked for local supply. Stock, &c. (1891) :
81,194 horses, cattle 320,934, ploughs 10,434, waggons 808. Probably more
than three-fourths of the cattle died of rinderpest during the year 1897.
There are 144 schools (mostly missionary), with 7,543 pupils ; grant in aid,
3,799/. There are two small Government schools and some industrial schools.
The police force numbers 247 men (23 Europeans). Total convictions
(1897 -98), 308. Prisoners in gaol (June 30, 1898), 92.
The imports consist chiefly of blankets, ploughs, saddlery, clothing,
iron and tin ware, and groceries. Imports in 1897-98, 100,280Z. The total
exports in 1897-98 were 138,500/. The exports consist chiefly of grain, cattle,
and wool. The conuneicial intercourse is almost exclusively with the Cape
Colony and Orange Free State, and on July 1, 1891, Basutoland was admitted
into Customs Union with these States.
The currency is exclusively British, but exchange is still largely conducted
by barter. The revenue arises from the Cape contribution (18,000/.), the
Post Office, native hut tax (at the rate of 10*. per annum), and the sale of
licences.
Revenue .
Expenditure
1892-93
1893-94
1891-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
41,045
39,838
£
43,667
41,301
£
44,627
43,064
£
45,653
42,970
£
45,867
45,768
£
46,555
44,797
There is no public debt.
There are no navigable waterways, the rivers being low in winter and
generally flooded in summer. The roads in the country are now in good
condition for any kind of transport. The line of postal communication is
through the Cape Colony and Orange Free State. There are telegraph offices
at Maseru and Mafeteng in communication with the Cape Colony telegraph
system ; and there is also telegraphic communication between Maseru and
Ladybrand, the Orange Free State bearing part of the cost.
Resident Commissioner. — Sir G. Y. Lagden, K.C.M.G.
Government Secretary. — H. C. Sloley.
References. — Colonial Report. Annual. London.
BarW.v (Mrs.), Among Boers and Basutos. 2d. ed. 8. London. 1894.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
iVohif (J.), Illustrated Official Handbook of tlie Cape and South Africa. 8. London. 1893
Widdicombe (J.), Fourteen Years in Basutoland. London, 1892.
BECHUANALAND PROTECTORATE.
The Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between the
Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending
from the boundaries of the South African Republic and Matabeleland on
the east to the confines of German South- West Africa (5'. t'.). The total
area is about 213,000 square miles, with a population estimated at
200,000. The most important tribes within the territory are the Bamang-
wato, under the chief Khama, ^Yhose capital is the town of Palachwe
(population 25,000) in the Choping Hills ; the Bakhatla under Lenchwe ; the
Bakwena under Sebele ; the Bangwaketse under Bathoen ; and the Bamaliti
under Ikaneng. In November, 1895, on the annexation of the Crown Colony
to Cape Colony, new arrangements w^ere made for the administration of the
protectorate, and special agreements were made in view of the extension of
the railway northwards from Mafeking. The boundaries of the three tribes
affected by these agreements were fixed anew, and the mode of administra-
tion of the protectorate was settled. Each of the chiefs, Khama, Sebele, and
182 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Bathoeii, rules his own people as formerly, under the protection of tlie Queen,
who is represented by a Resident Commissioner with assistants, acting
under the High Commissioner. The natives pay a hut tax, collected, for
the present at least, by the chiefs. No licences for the sale of spirits
are granted or renewed. There is a force of mounted police for the main-
tenance of order. Outside the boundaries laid down, the chiefs, under cer-
tain regulations, continue to have the hunting rights they formerly possessed.
The natives in the territory are peaceable, cattle-rearing and agriculture
being the chief industries. In the year 1896-7 the Protectorate suffered
severely from rinderpest, drought, scarcity, and sickness. In 1897 the
mounted police numbered 127 men, including 12 officers. The native police
numbered 60. For the year 1896-97 the revenue amounted to 47,511/., the
amount from customs being 8, 693Z. ; the expenditure reached 88,448/., the
cost of the police being 40,102/., while 24,152/, was expended for native
relief, and 4,707/. for extra police and for burning or l)urying the carcases of
cattle which had died of rinderpest.
The telegraph line from the Cape to Mafeking has been extended to Fort
Salisbury in Mashonaland, and the railway is now open for traffic to Buluwayo.
High Commissioner, Sir Alfred Milner, K.C. B.
Resident Commissioner, Major H. J. Goold Adams, C.B.
Annual Report on the Protectorate. London.
Bechuanaland. Commission and Instructions to Major-General Sir Charles Warren,
K.C.M.G., as Special Commissioner to Bechuanaland. London, 1884, and subsequent
Blue Books.
Hepburn (J. D,), Twenty Years in Khama's Country. London, 1895.
Johnston (Sir Harrv), The Colonisation of Africa, Cambridge, 1899.
Lloyd (E.), Three African Chiefs. London, 1895.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
(Cape Colony.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was originally established by Order in Council of the 11th
of March, 1853. By Act 28 Vict. c. 5, and Colonial Act III.
of 1865, which provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria
with the colony, various changes were made, and further changes
of an important nature by the ' Constitution Ordinance Amend-
ment Act,' passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, providing
for ' the introduction of the system of executive administration
commonly called Responsible Government.' The Constitution
formed under these various Acts vests the executive in the
Governor and an Executive Council, composed of certain office
holders appointed by the Crown. The legislative power rests
with a Legislative Council of 23 members elected for seven years,
presided over ex officio by the Chief Justice ; and a House of As-
sembly of 79 members, elected for five years, representing the
country districts and towns of the colony. The colony is divided
into seven electorate provinces each electing 3 members to the
Legislative Council, there being an additional one for Griqualand
West, and one for British Bechuanaland, A redistribution
CONSTITUTION — AREA AND POPULATION 183
bill is under consideration of Parliament. By a law passed in
1882, speeches may be made both in Englisli and in Dutch in the
Cape Parliament. The qualification for members of the Council
is possession of immovable property of 2,000^., or movable property
worth 4,000/. Members of both Houses are elected by the same
voters, who are now qualified by occupation of house property
of the value of 75/., or receipt of a salary of 50/. Electors, to
be registered, must be able to sign their names and state in writing
their occupations and addresses. The number of registered
electors in 1898 was 109,888, under the registration provisions
of Act No. 9 of 1892, which provides, inter alia, for elections by
ballot after July 1, 1894. All members of Parliament are entitled
to one guinea a day for their services, and those residing more
than 15 miles from Cape Town to an additional 15^. a day for
a period not exceeding 90 days.
Governor.— ^\v Alfred Milner, K.C.B., G.C.M.G.
The Governor is by virtue of his office commander-in-chief of
the forces within the colony. He has a salary of 5,000/. as
Governor, besides 3,000/. as ' Her Majesty's High Commissioner.'
The administration is carried on, under the Governor, by a
Ministry constituted as follows : —
Prime Minister and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. W. P. Schveiner, Q.C.,
C.M.G., M.L.A.
Treasurer. — Hon. J. X, Merriman, M.L.A.
Attorney-General. — Hon. R. Solomon, Q.C.
Commissioner of Public JForks. — Hon. J. W. Sauev, M.L.A.
Secretary for Agriculture. — Hon. A. J. Hevholdt, M.L.C.
Minister II- ithout Portfolio. — Dr. Te Water, M.L.A.
Each of the Ministers receives a salary of 1,500/. a year, and
the Prime Minister an additional allowance of 250/. a year.
The Colony is divided into 77 divisions, and its dependencies into 29 dis-
tricts. In each division there is a Civil Commissioner, who is also generally
Resident Magistrate. There is for each of the divisions, except 3, a Council
of at least 6 members (14 in the Cape Division) elected triennially by the
registered Parliamentary voters. These Councils look after roads, boundaries,
and beacons ; return 3 members to the Licensing Court, and perform other
local duties. There are 81 magisterial districts and 77 fiscal divisions in
the Colony proper. There are 92 Municipalities, each governed by a Mayor
or Chairman and Councillors, a certain number of whom are elected annually
by the ratepayers. There are also 80 Village Management Boards, excluding
4 newly establislied.
Area and Population.
The Cape Colony was originally founded by the Dutch, under
Van Riebeek, about the year 1652. When it was taken by the
English, in 1796, the colony had extended east to the Great Fish
River. In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the
Netherlands, but was again occupied by British troops in 1806,
184
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
In August, 1814, this colony and the Netherlands colonies in
South America were formally ceded to Great Britain, the sum of
6,000,000Z. being paid by the British to the Netherlands Govern-
ment. Since that time the boundary has been gradually enlarged
by the annexation of adjoining districts.
At the census of 1875 the colony, as then constituted, had an
area of 191,416 square miles and a population of 720,984
(236,783 Europeans). According to the report of the census
of April 5, 1891, the population on the same area is 956,485
(336,938 Europeans), showing an increase of 32*66 per cent,
during the 16 years, or an annual increase of 2*04 per cent, of
the whole population, and an increase in the European popula-
tion of 42*30 per cent, in the 16 years, or an annual increase of
2*64 per cent.
The following table gives the area and population of the colony and
de])endencies according to the census of 1891 : —
—
Area, Square
Miles
Population in 1891
i
Per 1
Squa e i
Mile
Eurojiean
or White
Coloured
Total
Colony proper
Griqualand West '
East Griqualand .
Tembuland
Transkei .
Wallish Bay
Total
191,416
15,197
7,594
4,122
2,552
430
336,938
29,670
4,150
5,179
1,019
31
619,547
53,705
148,468
175,236
152,544
737
1,150,237
956,485
83,375
152,618
180,415
153,563
768
5-00
5-49
20-10
43-77
60-16
1-79
6-90
221,311
376,987
1,527,224
1 Griqualand West is now incorporated in the Cave and constitutes 4 of the 77 divisions.
Pondoland, annexed to Cape Colon)' September 25, 1894, had an estimated
area of 4,040 square miles, and population of 166,080. In November, 1895,
the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland was incorporated with Cape
Colony. The area annexed is 51,424 square miles, and the population
(1891) was 72,736, of whom 5,211 were whites. The country is well adapted
for cattle and for maize ; gold, lead, silver, and iron have been found.
Of the white population of Cape Colony, 27,667 were born in England,
6,646 in Scotland, and 4,184 in Ireland, while 6,540 were German. Of the
coloured population, 13,907 arc Malays, and 247,806 a mixture of various
races ; the rest are Hottentots, Fingoes, Kafirs, and Becliuanas. Of tlie white
195,956 are males, and 181,031 females ; and of the total population 767,327
are males and 759,897 females.
The Transkeian territories are grouped under two chief magistrates, and
are subject to the 'Native Territories Penal Code.'
The chief towns with their population in 1891 were : — The capital, Cai>e
Town, 51,251 (with suburbs, 83,718); Kimberley, 28,718; Port Elizal)eth,
23,266; Graham's Town, 10,498; Beaconsfield, 10,478; Paarl, 7,668; King
William's Town, 7,226 ; East London, 6,924 ; Graaf-Reinot, 5,946 ; Worcester,
5,404 ; Uitenhage, 5,331 ; Cradock, 4,389.
RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION
185
Oi' the European popiilatiou in 1891, 14,253 were of professional occupation,
77,118 domestic, 17,922 commercial, 74,095 agricultural, 31,177 industrial,
155,333 were dependants, nnd 7,089 indefinite or unspecified. Of the coloured
population the great majority are engaged in agricultural or domestic employ-
ments.
The births and deaths registered in the whole colony in 1895 and 1896,
and the marriages solemnised in 1895, 1896, and 1897, were as follows : —
Years
Marriages
Birtl^
Deaths
1895
1896
1897
7,360
7,860
8,443
Europeans
14,763
14,733
Others
31,432
35,696
Europeans
6,660
7,070
Others
24,919
25,871
The European birth-rate is about 33*40 per thousand and death-rate 16 "46.
Government immigration was stopped in 1886. The number of adult arrivals
by sea in 1893 was 15,617, and" departures 7,922; in 1894, 18,133 and
10,288 ; in 1895, 27,047 and 11,637 ; in 1896, 38,669 and 17,695 ; and in
1897, 30,203 and 20,531.
Eeligion and Instruction.
According to the census of 1891, there were in the Colony 732,047 Protestants,
comprising 306,320 of the Dutch Reformed Church, 139,058 of the Church of
England, 37,102 Presbj'terians, 69,692 Independents, 106,132 "Wesleyans and
5,390 other Methodists, 20,278 Lutherans, 16,297 Moravians, 14,271 Rhenish
Mission, 6,954 Baptists. The Catholics numbered 17,275 ; Mohammedans
15,099; Jews 3,009, The number described as ' of no religion ' Avas 753,824,
of whom 528,338 were Kafirs and Bechuanas, 165,389 Fingos, 22,545 Hottentot,
and 36,998 of mixed race. There were in all 1,882 places of worship. There is
no State Church, but a certain sum is appropriated annually for ' religious wor-
ship'(6, 055Z. in 1898-1899) to the Dutch Reformed, Episcopalian, Presbyte-
rian, and Roman Catholic churches ; in 1875 an Act was passed for the
gradual withdrawal of this grant.
Education is not compulsory. Of the European population in 1891, 28 "82
per cent, of the males and 28 '02 per cent, of the females could neither read nor
write. In 1891, according to the census results, there were in the colony
99,280 European children between the ages of 5 and 14. Of these 22,080 were
taught in the government-aided schools, 17,697 in private schools, and 20,223
at home or in Sunday schools only. Between the same ages there were 316,152
native or non-European children of whom 34,133 were taught in government-
aided schools, 4,561 in private schools, and 5,021 at home or in Sunday
schools only. In tlie 2,315 aided schools on December 31, 1897, the enrolment
was 120,019, with a daily attendance averaging 91,018.
Cape Colony has a University, incorporated 1873, and granted a royal
charter in 1877. It is an examining body, empowered to grant degrees, but
with no attached teaching institutions. There are 5 colleges aided by
Government grants, each witli full staff" of professors and lecturers in the
tlepartnients of classics, mathematics, and jdiysical sciences. Number of
students in 1896-97, 505.
Government expenditure on education for 1896-97, 194,742?.
There were 107 public libraries in the colony in 1897, with an aggiegate of
357,199 volumes. There are about 90 newspapers and periodicals published
in the colony.
186
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Justice and Crime.
The highest Court of Judicature in the colony is the Supreme Court,
which consists of a Chief Justice and eight puisne judges. The judges of
the Supreme Court hold sessions in Cape Town, and Circuit Courts in the
Western Districts ; the judges assigned to the Eastern Districts Court hold
sessions in Grahamstown, and Circuit Courts in the Eastern and Northern
Districts and the Transkeian Territories ; and the judges assigned to the High
Courts hold sessions at Kimberley and Northern Districts. The Supreme
Court has been constituted a Court of Appeal. Jurors in criminal cases maybe
paid. There are numerous seats of magistracy and further periodical courts
held by magistrates at outlying villages, as well as courts of special justices of
the peace. Under certain conditions appeal may be made to the Queen in
Council. The Roman-Dutch law forms the great bulk of the law of the
colony, modified by colonial statute law.
In 1897 there were convicted before the special J. P. Courts, 1,598
prisoners ; before Magistrates' Courts, 54,734 ; before the Superior Courts,
796. The prisoners in gaol, December 31, 1897, were 2,704 males and 374
females. On December 31, 1897, the Cape Police Force numbered 1,911, the
]\Iunicipal and ordinary Police Force, 1,282 ; and the Gaol Establishment, 627.
Pauperism.
In the various charitable institutions in the colony at the end of 1897
there were 4,194 inmates. In 1897, 1,354 persons received indoor relief in
the Colony proper, and an average of 721 monthly received outdoor relief. The
number of non-paying in-patients of hospitals and asylums was 8,820 in 1897.
Finance.
The income and expenditure of the colony, the former including loans,
the latter including expenditure under Act of Parliament, were as follows
during each of the last five years (ending June 30) : —
Revenue.
Year ended
June 30.
Taxation
Services
rendered
Colonial
Estate
Fines,
Stores
issued, &c.
Loans
Total
j
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
1,836,098
1,951,652
1,902,860
2,418,024
2,936,426
£
2,731,873
2,894,577
3,069,567
3,927,267
4,023,772
£
350,588
353,772
337,272
375,145
306,046
£
52,655
121,351
80,472
83,306
123,721
£
1,474,935
300,000
26,441
1
£' 1
6,446,149
5.621,352
5,416,612
6,803,802
7,389,960
Expenditure.
Year
ended
June 30.
1893
1894
1895
1 896
1897
Public
Debt
£
1,213,204
1,551,932
1,244,740
1,213,803
1,255,231
Railways
£
1,474,163
i,5(;..,2(ii
l,55-_',4 45
1,780,176
1,9-10,570
Defence
£
149,287
161,281
158,584
190,135
375,588
Police Civil Esta-
and Gaols
£
266,748
290,819
317,013
350,l(t;t
432,278
blishnient
£
132,347
135,557
140,448
14 9, 798
166,060
Under
Loan Acts
£
1,066,627
526,465
236,423
709,079
1,785,468
Total,
including
otlier heads
£
5,734,503
5,823,449
5,388,157
6,360,404
8,6.37,^54
The estimated expenditure (under votes) for 1898-99 is put down at
6,6S2,088(!,
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 187
The colony had apul)lic deht of 27,282,405Z, on January 1, 1898, includgiii
2,666,617/. raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, but guaranteed in
the general revenue. Nearly the whole of the loans have ])een spent in public
works — eighteen millions sterling on railways alone. The total value of as-
sessed property in the colony, excluding the ' Transkeian Territories,' in
1897 was returned at 43,981,419/., excluding Government property.
The total revenue of the Divisional Councils iu 1897 was 180,749/., and
expenditure 169,066/. The total Municipal revenue in 1897 was 662,788/.,
and expenditure, 659,733/. The total debt of the Divisional Councils,
Detwnber 31, 1897, was 43,571/., and of the Municipalities 1,624,010/.
Defence,
The whole of the Cape Peninsula, in which is the great naval station of
Simon's Bay, is fortifted against foreign attack by a series of forts and
batteries. Here is maintained a contingent of the imperial army, the im-
perial military expenditure in 1897 amounting to 275,474/.
For the defence of the colony a military force is maintained — the Capo
Mounted Riflemen, 1,015 officers and men. By a law passed in 1878, every
able-bodied man in the colony between 18 and 50 is sulgect to military
service beyond as well as within the colonial limits. There was besides
a body of 7,007 volunteers in 1897. Probable expenditure in 1898-99 on
colonial defence, 254,846/. The Cape Police, which consists of 68 officers
and 1,843 men, with 1,683 horses, is available for defence purposes in case of
emergency. On the Cape and West African station, a squadron of 16 of her
Majesty's ships is maintained.
Production and Industry.
In 1897, 3,588 titles were issued, alienating 1,382,880 acres of land. Up
to Dec. 31, 1897, the total area disposed of was 127,550,480 acres, the quantity
undisposed of being 49, 453, 840 acres. There are 537 square miles under forest.
Regarding the area under cultivation there are no recent statistics. In 1875
the total was 580,000 acres of which 18,000 acres were under vines.
In the year ending May 31, 1898, the chief agricultural jjroduce of
the Colony and native territories was : — wheat, 1,950,831 bushels ; oats,
1,447,353 bushels; barley, 907,920 bushels ; mealies, 2,060,742 bushels;
Kafir corn, 1,140,615 bushels; rye, 287,679 bushels; oat-hay, 48,850,184
bundles of about 5^ lbs ; tobacco, 3,934,277 lbs. There were 83,759,031
vine-stocks, yielding 4,861,056 gallons of wine, 1,387,392 gallons of brandy,
and 2,577,909 lbs. of raisins. There were also fruit trees (peach, apricot,
apple, pear, plum, fig, orange, lemon, and naartje) to the number of
4,195,624. The chief pastoral products were: — wool, 39,141,445 lbs. ; mo-
hair, 8,115,370 lbs. ; ostrich feathers, 294,733 lbs. ; butter, 2,623,329 lbs. ;
cheese, 36,729 lbs. In 1898 there were 1,201,522 head of cattle, 382,610
horses, 85,060 mules and asses, 12,616,883 sheep, 5,316,767 Angora and
other goats, 239,451 pigs, 267,693 ostriches.
The sheep-farms of the colony are often of very great extent, from
3,000 to 15,000 acres and upwards: those in tillage are comparatively
small. The graziers are, for the most part, proprietors of the farms whicn
they o<M'upy. In 1875 the total numl»er of hohlings was 16,166, comprising
83,900,000 acres ; of these 10,766, comprising upwards of 60 million acres,
were held on <{uit-rent.
At the census of 1891 there were 2,230 industrial establishments employing
altogether 32,735 persons, having machinery and plant valued at 1,564,897/.
188
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
and annually producing articles worth 9,238,870^ Among these establish-
ments were flour mills, breweries, tobacco factories, tanneries, and diamond,
gold, copper, and coal mines.
Commerce.
Of the total imports in 1897, the value of 4,569, OOOZ. (gross (including
65,911/., specie) was duty-free, while the value of 13,429,000Z.^(gross) was
subject to duty. The customs duties amounted to 2,189, 580Z. or slightly over
16 per cent, of the imports subject to duty.
The values ^ of the total imports and exports, including specie, of Cape
Colony and dependencies, in the last five years were as follows : —
Year
Imports
Imported
Merchandise
Exports
Exports of Colonial
Produce
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
11,539,987
11,588,096
19,094,880
18,771,371
17,997,789
£
10,760,556
10,887,787
13,285,005
16,942,865
16,490,739
£
13,156,589
13,812,062
16,904,756
16,970,168
21,660,210
£
12,765,770
13,503,044
16,577,157
16,700,102
19,176,061
1 All import values are determined from importers' declarations, checked by invoices and
bills of charges and by examination of the goods, if necessary. They represent current
values at the places of export, including packing and transport charges to the ports of ship-
ment, plus 5 per cent. Export values are determined from exporters' declarations on their
bills of entry, subject to such check as may be necessary. Theyrepresent the market values
at the ports of shipment, including charges for packing. Quantities both of imports and
exports are ascertained from bills of entry, subject to such checks as comparison with invoices,
(fee, and examination of the goods. The origin of imports and destination of exports are
shown by the bills of lading, and are respectively the country where the goods were placed
on board ship for export to the colony, and the country to which shipment is made. There
is no distinction between general, special, and transit trade. All goods entered inwards at
the customs are treated as imports into the colony, and all goods shipped from any port in
the colony to any country are treated as exports to that country.
The South Africa Customs Union comprises Cape Colony, the Orange Free State, the
Bechuanaland, and Basutoland Protectorates, and (under the Convention of September,
1898), the Colony of Natal.
The following table shows the value of the leading exports of Colonial
produce in the last five years according to the official Cape Returns : —
—
1893
1894
£
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
Wool .
1,855,076
1,599,632
1,695,920
1,874,555
1,496,779
Ostrich feathers
461,552
477,414
527,742
519,539
605,058
Hides (ox and
cow) & skins
(sheep & goat)
497,109
419,211
475,398
396,216
514,167
Copper ore
202,316
284,800
246,597
218,422
300,772
Hair (Angora) .
527,619
421,248
710,867
572,230
676,644
Wine
18,964
18,908
20,289
21,412
17,715
Grain and meal
7,313
6,154
6,565
11,244
13,027
Diamonds
3,821,443
3,013,578
4,775,016
4,646,487
4,454,376
Gold (raw) .
5,259,120
7,147,308
7,975,637
8,252,543
10,991,926
The total value (partly estimated^ of diamonds exported from 1867 to 1897
was 83,311,087/. The gold given among exports is really iniported from the
Transvaal, though not included among imports.
COMMERCE
189
The principal imports are textile fabrics, dress, &c,, 4,598,682/. ; and food,
drinks, &c., 3,817,828/. in 1897.
The trade of the Cape (excluding specie) was distributed as follows during
the last four years : —
—
1894
1895
1896
1897
United King- / Imports from
dom \ Exports to .
British Pos- / Imports from
sessions \ Exports to .
Foreign i Imports from
Countries \ Exports to .
£
8,877,632
13,352,658
605,674
56,110
1,815,339
287,770
£
10,427,201
16,316,001
736,584
68,011
2,448,620
414,125
£
12,807,332
16,404,464
811,171
86,636
4,316,536
460,738
£
12,839,271
19,019,161
883,233
83,844
4,209,374
333,799
The value of the imports (of merchandise) and exports (colonial), ex-
cluding diamonds sent through by post office, at the leading ports has been
as follows : —
—
Cape Town
Port
Nollotli
Port Eliza-
beth
East London
Mossel Bay
,j,Q7 \ Imports .
^^^' } Exports .
£
3,343,105
8,304,897
4,457,126
8,672,837
5,149,824
11,319,159
£
21,847
246,723
36,007
218,463
24,342
300,783
£
6,790,963
2,020,467
8,677,780
1,921,394
7,877,481
1,949,878
£
2,890,021
755,399
3,456,569
851,436
3,121,270
817,368
£
162,712
145,258
203,075
181,133
220,430
146,702
The value of the trade (excluding diamonds, bullion, and specie) with the
United Kingdom, during five years is returned by the Board of Trade as
follows : —
—
1893
1894
1895 1896
1897
Imports into U. K,
from Colony
Exports of British
produce to Colony
£
4,799,748
7,249,530
£
4,301,521
6,978,128
£
4,709,259
9,016,997
£
4,460,317
10,687,173
£
4,195,741
9,976,849
In the last five years the imports of wool — sheep and goats' — into the
United Kingdom from Cape Colony were as follows : —
—
1893
1894
lt95
1896
1897
Quantities
Value
lbs.
74,858,363
£
3,105,517
lbs.
64,290,619
£
2,613,438
lbs.
70,494,420
£
2,915,041
lbs.
79,716,185
£
2,824,243
lbs.
69,921,750
£
2,484,313
Among the minor imports into Great Britain from the colony in 1897
were copper ore, of the value of 314,418/. ; feathers, chiefly ostrich, of the
Value of 569,538/. ; and skins and hides, of the value of 743,790/. The
190
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OE GOOD HOPE
exports of British produce to the colony comprised mainly apparel and
haberdashery, of the value of 1,579,349^. ; cotton manufactures, of the value
of 797,925/. ; iron, wrought and uuwrought, of the value of 1,262,727/. ;
leather and saddlery, 630,490/. ; machinery and mill work, 808,099/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of A'^essels which entered inwards in 1897 was 1,093, of
2,694,370 tons (743, of 2,350,064 tons British), and coastwise 1,278) of
3,725,831 tons; the number cleared outwards was 1,089, of 2,709,795 tons
(761 of 2,390,798 tons British), and coastwise 1,278, of 3,723,409 tons.
Total registered shipping of colony, January 1, 1898 : — Steamers, 24, of
3,112 tons ; sailing, 7, of 528 tons ; total, 31^ of 3,640 tons.
Internal Communications*
There are over 8,000 miles of road in the colony proper. There were lines
of Government railway of a total length of 1,901 miles in the colony in
Dec. 1897, and 89 under construction. There are also 359^ miles of private
railwa}'^ in the colony, and considerable lengths of private electric tram-
ways in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and Kimberley. From Kimberleythe
railway is carried northward to Mafeking, and thence to liuluwayo by a
private company. The line from Vryburg to Mafeking (96 miles) was
constructed by the British South Africa Company, and is worked by
the Government of the Colony at the cost of the Company. Several
extensions have been contracted for, and others are under survey. The
capital expended on Government railways to the end of 1897 has been
19,323,155/., showing a cost per mile of 10,165/. The gross earnings in
1897 were 3,070,897/., and expenses 1,898,316/. The number of passengers
conveyed in 1897 was 9,223,676, and tonnage of goods, 1,340,414 (of
2,000 lbs.).
The number of post offices in the colony at the end of 1897 was 934 ;
the revenue in 1897 amounting to 481,117/., and the expenditure on whole
postal telegraph service to 429,844/. The total number of letters posted
in 1897 was 19,484,524, newspapers 9,168,960, post cards 633,796, books
and sample packets 1,991,520, parcels 513,720.
The telegraphs in the colony comprised 6,609 miles of line, with 426
offices, at the end of 1897. The number of messages sent was 2,392,503 in
1897. The telegraphs were constructed at the expense of the Government,
781 miles of line having been taken over from the company in 1873. The
revenue in 1897 was 148,558/. (exclusive of 137,565/., the value of Govern-
ment messages), and expenditure 132,586/.
Banks.
The following are the statistics of the banks under trust laws in the colony :
.31st Dec.
Including Head Offices
Circulation.
Assets and
Liabilities.
Colony only
£
9,668,086
9,521,464
11,864,152
11,749,451
12,635,866
Capital
Paid-up
Reserve
£
770,000
815,000
1,008,837
1,090,700
1,178,300
Colony only
^ £
615,320
585, 44 2 i
612,266
762,409
834,500
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
5,362,090
5,362,090
7,189,090
7,289,090
7,393,800
£
1,555,953
1,55.5,953
2,382,003
2,582,953
2,935,308
JlTAflSflCAL AND OTiIlilR HOOKS OF UEf'ERENCK lOt
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The coins in circulation within the colony arc exclusively British. All
accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence;
The standard weights and measures are British, but the following old
Dutch measures are still used : — Liqiiid Measure : Leaguer = about 128
inii>oriaI gallons; half aum = 15^ imperial gallons; anker = 7^ imperial
gallons. Capacity : Muid = 3 bushels.
The general surface measure is the old Amsterdam Morgen, reckoned
equal to 2 "11 654 acres ; 1,000 Cape lineal feet are equal to 1,033 British
imperial feet.
A gent -General of Cape Colony in Great Britain. — The Hon. Sir David
Tennant, K.C.M.G.
Secretary. — Spenser Brydges Todd, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Cape Colony.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom witli Foreign Counlries and
Uritish Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Uhif-l.iiok on Native Art'airs. Annual. Cape Town.
Tlie various Blue-books and Correspondence relating to tlie Cape and 8oulh Afiica
{generally, published at intervals by the Home Government.
Cape ol Good Hope Statistical Register. Annual. Cajie Town.
The Cape of Good Hope Civil Service List, edited by E. P. Kilpin. Annual. Cape Town.
Ke.sults of Census of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 1891. Report of Director
Caj.e Town, 1892.
Colonial Otfice List. Annual. London.
Financial Statement for 1898-99. Cape Town, 1898.
Illustrated Official Handbook. History, Productions, and Resources of the Cape ot
Good Hope and South Africa. By J. Noble. London and Cape Town, 1893.
Precis of the Archives of the Cape of Good Hope: Journal, 1699-1732* Edited by
H C. V. Luibbrandt. Cape Town, 1897.
Rejiorts of the various Government Departments for 1897. Cape Town, 1898.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonies and other Possessions of the United King-
dom. Anni'al. London.
2. Non-Official Publioationb.
Argus Annual and South African Directory for 1896. Cape Town, 1895.
Brown (A. S. and G. G.), Guide to South Africa. London, 1897.
Bryci' {.}.), Impressions of South Africa. London, 1897.
Brydeh (H. A.), The Victorian Era in South Africa. London, 1897.
Campbell {C. T.j, British South Africa : A History of the Colony of the Cape of Good
Hope, 17"Jo-l82o. London, 1897.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Ferryman (A. F. Mockler), Imperial Africa. Vol. III. British South Africa. London,
1898.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust), Die Eingeborenen Siid-Afrika's ethnogmphisch und anatomiscli
beschrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.
Froude (J. A.), Oceana. London, 1886.
Oreswell (W.), Our South African Empire. 2 vols. London, 1885.
Holub (Dr. Emil), Seven Years in South Africa. London, 1881.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keane (A. H.), Africa, Vol. II. South Africa. London, 1895.
Kinsky (Count C), The Diplomatist's Handbook for Africa. London, 1898.
MacNab (F.), On \Wt and Farm in Cape .Colony, Bechuanaland, Natal and the Trans-
vaal. London, 1897.
Mackenzie (Joim), Austral Africa ; Losing it or Ruling it. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Mar tineau (John), Life of Sir Bartle Frere. 2 vols. London, 1895
Xichohon (G.), Fifty Years in South Africa. London, 1898.
Noble (John), The Cape and South Africa. Cape Town, 1878.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concervant L'Afriipie. Brussels. 1898.
Rees (W. L.), Life of Sir George Grey, K.C.B. 2 vol.s. 8. London, 1893.
Beunert (Th.), Diamonds and Gold in South Africa. 8. London, 1893.
102 TtlE BKITISH EMHRE .—BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, the
Diamond Fields, &c. S. London, 1880.
Stathain (F. R.). Blacks, Boers, and British. London, 1881.
Theal (G. M.). History of South Africa 1486-1872. 5 vols. S. London, 1888-93.
T/oiJope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Wallace (U.), Farming Industries of Cape Colony. 8. London, 1896.
Wilmot (A ). The Story of the Expansion of South Aft-icn. 2nd edition. London,
1897.— Book of South African Industries. Cape Town, 1802.— History of our own Times in
South Africa. 2 vols. London, 1S9S.
Worsfold (W. B.), The Story of South Africa. London, 1S9S.
roitn(7/i«s6a/i(i (F.), South Africa of To-day. London, 1898.
CENTRAL AFRICA (BRITISH).
(Northern Rhodesia.)
British Central Africa eonipriscs the territory north of the Zambezi,
bounded on the east and west by the Portuguese po.ssessions, and on the north
by German East Africa and the Congo Independent State. The Avhole of this
tract of country, with the exception of the Central Afiica Protectorate to the
soutli and west of Lake Nyasa, is (under the name of Northern Rhodesia) in-
chided in the field of operations of the British Soutli Africa Company. [For
boundaries see Statesman's Year-Book for 1898.] Its area is about
251,000 square miles with a population of about 650,000. There are about
350 Europeans, nearly all being British subjects. The region lying between
the Lakes Nyasa, Tanganyika, Mweru, and Bangweolo, is divided into five dis-
tricts : Chambezi, Tanganyika, Mweru, Luapula, and Loangwa. The adminis-
trative headquarters have hitherto been at Blantyre, in the Protectorate, but
are about to be transferred to a central position on the Tanganyika plateau
The most important centres are Fife, the station of the African Lakes Cor-
poration, and Abercorn, both on the Stevenson road ; but each of the districts
contains one or more stations for collectors and police, where arms and am-
munition are kept. By an arrangement with the Imperial Government,
police work in Northern J^hodesia will be undertaken by the armed forces of
the British Central Africa Protectorate.
The northern plateau is stated to be healthy. It is open and well-
watered and suitable for cattle. Wheat and European fruits are grown, and
the fibre plants which abound in the region provide material for a new in-
dustry which promises satisfactory results. Land has been taken up for ex-
periments in colfee growing, and success, as in the Protectorate, is confidently
expected. Gold has been found in the south of this region, and coal on the
shore of Lake Nyasa on land belonging to the Company, though beyond its
sphere of administration.
The Stevenson road for a distance of 140 miles between Lakes Nyasa and
Tanganyika has recently been re-made. External communication is mainly
by steamers on Lake Nyasa, and the telegraph line which has been continued
from Zomba in the Protectorate to the north end of the Lake whence it is
l)eing carried to Lake Tanganyika, along the western shore of which it will be
continued.
On the west side of British Central Africa on the Upper Zambezi is Barot-
seland, a populous, well-watered region, adapted for pasture, or for the culti-
vation of rice, wheat, oats, cofiee, or rubber. At Lialui, the king's kraal, the
Company has a Resident-Commissioner (Major R. T. Coryndon), and a
monthly postal service by foot-runners between Lialui and Bulawayo has been
organised. There are five French Protestant Mission stations in Barotseland,
the liquor traffic is interdicted, and the slave trade has been suppressed.
Representative of the British South Africa Company in the eastern part of
Northern Rhodes^ia. — Robert E. Codrington.
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA 193
CENTRAL AFRICA PROTECTORATE (BRITISH).
The British Central Africa Protectorate, constituted as such on May 14,
1891, lies along the southern and western shores of Lake Nyasa, and extends
towards the Zambezi. It is administered under the Foregn Office by H.M.
Commissioner, the cost of administration being met by a grant in aid from
the Imperial Government supplemented by the local revenue. The area of
the Protectorate is 42,217 square miles, divided into twelve districts,
in each of which are two or more administrative officials. In 1897 the popula-
tion consisted of 300 Europeans (260 British), 263 Indians, and 844,995
natives, the native population being estimated from the number of huts
according to the collectors* returns, three persons being counted to each hut.
The chief town is Blantyre, in the Shire Highlands, with a population of
about 100 Europeans and 6,000 natives. In the same region, or on the Shire
river, are Zomba (the seat of the Administration), Chiromo, Port Herald,
Chikwawa, Katunga, Fort Anderson, Fort Lister, Mpimbi, Liwonde, Fort
Sharpe, and other settlements ; on Lake Nyasa are Fort Johnston, Fort
Maguire, Livingstonia, Rifu, Kotakota, Bandawe, Nkata, Likoma, Deep Bay,
and Karonga. The Shire ])rovince contains most of the European population
of the Protectorate. Good roads are being made in all directions, and life
and property are safe. Six missionary societies are at work. The climate,
though not salubrious for European settlers in general, is healthier than the
greater part of tropical Africa. Within the Shire province coffee planting has
been greatly extended within the last few years, about 2,000 acres having
been cleared and planted in the year 1896-97. The crop for 1897 is estimated
at over 400 tons. Rice is grown to perfection, and the cultivation of wheat,
recently introduced, promises to be successful. Oats and barley thrive on the
uplands, where Merino sheep and Natal ponies seem also likely to prosper.
The trade ports are Port Herald and Chiromo (Lower Shire), and Kotakota
(Lake Nyasa). The trade for the year ended March 31, 1897, was : Imports,
78,655Z. ; exports, 23,299Z. ; 1898, imports, 86,428Z. ; exports, 27,437^. The
chief imports were cotton goods, machinery, provisions, hardware, and agri-
cultural implements ; the chief exports, ivory and coffee (22,402Z.). The
revenue for 1897-98 amounted to 24,538Z. (8,966Z. from customs); the
expenditure to 65,715Z.
The armed force necessary to maintain order and to check the slave trade
consists of a corps of 185 Sikhs from the Indian Army, and 800 native trained
troops. There are also 200 district police. This force has English officers
and Sikh and native non-commissioned officers. An armament of artillery,
with mountain guns, has been supplied by the Imperial Government. There-
is also a naval force on the rivers Zambezi and Shire and on Lake Nyasa,
consisting of the five gunboats with English officers and seamen. There are
five naval posts at intervals from Chinde at the mouth of the Zambezi, tc
Deep Bay on the northwest coast of Lake Nyasa.
Communication with the coast is by H.M. gunboats and by the river
steamers of the African Lakes Company, Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company,
and the African International Flotilla Company. These vessels meet at Chinde-
the ocean-going steamers of various British, 'German, and Portuguese Com-
panies. Chinde is situated on the only navigable mouth of the Zambezi, and
at this port the Portuguese Government has granted a small piece of land,
called the ' British Concession,' where goods in transit for British Central-
Africa may be landed and re-shipped free of customs duty, and in addition a
large area for residential purposes styled 'the Extra Concession.'
A joint Anglo-German Delimitation Commission assembled on Lake-
Nyasa in June, 1898, and proceeded to definitely mark out the boundary
o
194 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
between the British and German spheres from the mouth of the Songwe on
Lake Nyasa to the entrance of the River Kilambo on Tanganyika.
There are 20 post offices. A telegraph line through the Protectorate to
Tanganyika is being constructed by the African Trans-Continental Telegraph
Company. The line opened connects Fort Johnston, Zomba and Blantyre
with Tete, Salisbury, and Cape Town. There is a system of telephones con-
necting the Residency with the headquarters camp, and also connecting
Zomba, Blantyre, and Liwonde by means of the Telegraph Company's wire.
H.M. Commissioner and Consiil- General. — Alfred Sharpe, C.B.
References.
Foreign Office Reports on British Central Africa (including Report for 1897), and Annual
Report of the British South Africa Company.
British South Africa Company's Report for 1896-97. London, 1898.
Bertrand (A.), Au Pays des Ba-rotsi. Paris, 1898.
Bryden (H. A.), Gun and Camera in Southern Africa. 8. London, 1893.
Buchanan (J.), The Industrial Development of Nyasaland. Qeographical Journal,
Vol, L, 1893
Coillard (F.), Sur le Haut Zanibeze. Paris, 1897. [Eng. Trans. On the Threshold of
Central Africa. Missionary Work. London, 1897.]
Decle (L.), Three Years in Savage Africa. London, 1897.
Foa (E.), Du Cap au Lac Nyasse. Paris, 1897.
Fotheringham (L. M.), Adventures in Nyassaland. 8. London, 1891.
Gibbons (A. St. H.), A Journey in the Marotse and Mashikolumbwe Countries. — Beid
(P. C), A Journey up the MachiU.— Bertrand (A.), From the Machilito Lialui. Three papers
in the Oeograghical Journal, Vol. IX., No. 2 (February, 1897). London.
//ore (E. C), Tanganyika: Eleven Years in Central Africa. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1892.
Johnston (Sir H. H.), British Central Africa. 4. London, 1897.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keltic (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd edition. London, 1895.
Money (R. I.) and Smith (S. K.), Explorations in the Country West of Lake Nyasa.
Geographical Journal, Vol. X. (August, 1897). London.
Moore (J. E. S.), The Physiographical -Aspects of the Nyasa and Tanganyika Districts.
Geographical Journal, Vol. X. (September, 1S97.) London.
brtroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concernant I'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Bankin (D. J.), The Zambezi Basin and Nyasaland. 8. London, 1893.
Sclater (Lieut. B. L.), Routes in Nyasaland. Geographical Journal, Vol. II., 1893.
Schiveinfurih (G. ), Three Years' Travel and Adventure in the Unexplored Regions of
Central Africa, 1868-71. [Englisli Translation by Miss E. E. Frewer.] London, 1873.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
EAST AFRICA (BRITISH).
British East Africa consists of a large area on the mainland (including
the East Africa Protectorate and the Uganda Protectorate), under the
immediate control of the Foreign Office, together with the Islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba, still governed through their Arab Sultan.
By the Anglo-German Agreements of November 1, 1886, and July 1,
1890, the southern boundary of the territory extends in a north-west
direction from the north bank of the mouth of the River Umba, going round
by the north of Kilimanjaro, to where the 1st parallel of S. latitude cuts
Lake Victoria. Thence across the lake and westwards on the same parallel to the
boundary of the Congo Free State. To the north and east, the British sphere
(which merges indehnitely with the old Sudan Provinces of Egypt) is bounded,
according to the Anglo- Italian agreement of 1891, by the Juba river up to
6° N. latitude ; by that parallel as far as 35° E. longitude ; and by that
meridian northwards as far as the Blue Nile. It is conterminous with the
Italian sphere of influence and with Abyssinia as far as the confines of Egypt.
To the west it is bounded by the Congo Free State, the line of partition being
30° E. longitude, northwards to the Nile Congo watershed, which then be-
comes the frontier as far as the northernmost point of that State (the source of
EAST AFRICA ■ 195
the Mbomu). North of this tlie British sphere has at present no western delimi-
tatiou and debouches on the independent Mohammedan states of that region.
The total area thus embraced probably extends to over 1,000,000 square miles.
Treaties have been made with almost all the native chiefs between the
coast and the Albert Nyanza, and with the Somali tribes occupying the
interior between the Juba and Tana, whereby commercial access to the Galla
country is now opened.
In 1886 the dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar were delimited, and were
recognised as including a continuous strip of coast, ten miles in depth, reaching
from Cape Delgado to Kipini on the Ozi River. Outside this tract, it was
agreed that Germany should have as a sphere of influence the country stretching
inland from the river Rovuma northwards to the Umba River ; England's sphere
of intluence extending northward from the Umba. Northwards of Kipini the
Sultan of Zanzibar retained several stations where he had hitherto kept garri-
sons, viz., Lamu, Kismayu, Brava, Merka, Mogadischo, Warsheikh. Of
these, however, the last four were ceded to Italy on August 26, 1892, and the
Italian Government took over their administration on September 26, 1893.
The German East African Association, in virtue of a concession signed in May
1888, acquired the right to administer the Mrima or mainland (including the
customs of the Sultan's ports) from the Rovuma to the Umba River on the
north, the Sultan of Zanzibar being subsequently paid the sum of 4,000,000
marks in return for the cession by him of all his rights to and on the coast-line
which thus became an integral part of the German sphere or, as it is now called,
German East Africa. The Imperial British East Africa Company acquired the
right to administer the coast from the Umba to Kipini for fifty years, on con-
dition of an annual payment to the Sultan ; and in 1889 further acquired the
ports and islands (including Lamu, Manda, and Patta) to the north of the
Tana. A further settlement of territorial questions in 1890 conferred on England
the protectorate of Zanzibar, including the island of Pemba, and left to British
influence the territory from the Umba north to the Juba River, including the
territory of Witu, which was for a time placed under the control of the British
East Africa Company.
By the end of 1892 the Company had occupied the country as far as
Uganda, and between that and Lake Albert Edward and the River Semliki.
By arrangement with the Government the Company retired from Uganda at
the end of March 1893, and on June 19, 1894, a British Protectorate was
declared over Uganda proper. On July 31, 1893, the Company withdrew
from the administration of Witu, which was temporarily placed under the
administration of the Sultan, On June 15, 1895, a British Protectorate was
proclaimed over the territories lying between and not hitherto included within
the Protectorates of Zanzibar, Witu and Uganda proper, and the whole of this
region has since been divided, for administrative purposes, into two districts
called respectively, the East Africa Protectorate, and the Uganda Protectorate.
The former extends, roughly speaking, some 400 miles inland, and the latter
from that frontier to the interior limits of the British sphere. On June 30 the
Company evacuated the teiTitory leased from the Sultan, the administration
being taken over by her Majesty's Government.
THE EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE.
The East Afiica Protectorate, which extends from the Umba to the Juba
river, and inland as far as the borders of Uganda, is placed under the control
of a Commissioner and Consul-General, who is also British agent and Consul-
Genei-al at Zanzibar. It is divided for purposes of administration into four
provinces, each under a sub-commissioner : (1) the Coast Province (Seyyidieh),
0 2
196 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
capital Mombasa ; (2) Ukamba, capital Machakos ; (3) Tana -land, including
Witu, capital Laniu ; (4) Juba-land, capital Kismayu A large portion of
the Protectorate is, however, still unorganised. The total population is
estimated at 2,500,000, including 13,500 Asiatics and 390 Europeans and
Eurasians. Mombasa (24,700) is the capital of the -whole Protectorate and
has a fine harbour which has been much improved by the construction of
jetties and other works. It is connected with Zanzibar by a submarine cable,
and with Lamu by a telegraph line via Golbanti (Tana River) ; the length of
line within the Protectorate was, in 1897, 140 miles. The principal other
ports are Lamu and Kismayu towards the north, and Vanga and Takaungu
towards the south. A railway is in course of construction towards Lake
Victoria, Uganda, and a telegraph line along the railway. In February, 1899,
about 260 miles of railway were completed.
The revenue for the year 1896-97 amounted to 39,186Z., and for 1897-98
to 43,841?. The imports for the year 1896-97 were valued at 3,925,597
rupees, and for 1897-98 at 4,464,827 rupees ; exports in 1896-97 at 1,172,026
rupees, and for 1897-98 at 1,087,266 rupees. Shipping entered, 1897-98,
196,630 tons. On June 30, 1892, the Sultan of Zanzibar withdrew his
reserves under the Berlin Act, thereby placing all his dominions within the
Free Zone. At the mainland ports 5 per cent, import duty is levied under
the Brussels Act. The principal exports are ivory, india-rubber, cattle and
goats, grain, copra, gum-copal, hides and horns, &c. The imports are Man-
chester goods, Bombay cloth, brass, wire, beads, provisions, &c. Mangiove-
logs (borities) for building purposes are imported at Mombasa from other parts
of the coast. Trade is at present principally in the hands of East Indian
merchants (Banians).
The Masai, who have given some trouble to caravans in the interior, seem
likely, in future, to respect the British authority. The higher plateaux are
largely covered with rich giass, and are considered particularly favourable
for ranching operations.
Commissioner and Consul- General. — Sir Arthur H. Hardinge, K.C.M.G.,
C.B.
Suh-Commissioner at Mombasa. — C. H. Craufurd.
THE UGANDA PROTECTORATE.
In July, 1896, this Protectorate was extended so as to include in addition
to Uganda proper, Unyoro, and other countries to the west as far as the
boundary of the British sphere {see above), as well as Usoga to the east. The
Protectorate is administered by a Commissioner, but the infant son of King
Mwanga nominally reigns in Uganda proper. Order is maintained by means of
a trained force of Sudanese. Regular criminal courts have been established,
and there is a kind of native parliament. Roads have been made since
the British occupation, but outside trade will be impossible until the com-
pletion of the railway, the construction of which from the coast was begun in
the latter part of 1895. The soil is exceedingly fertile and coffee is thought
likely to succeed. The natives show much skill in iron-working, i)ottery,
&c. The capital is Mengo, close to which is the British fort Kampala. The
Commissioner resides at Port Alice on the Victoria Nyanza. Ugove Bay,
on the east shore of the lake, is to be the terminus of the railway. Forts
have been established in Unyoro and other districts on the borders of
Uganda.
Both Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries have made many
converts. For the last two years Uganda lias been in a state of disorganisa-
tion.
GOVERNMENT — JUSTICE 197
The imports (exclusive of Government imports) in 1895 amounted to
222,006 rupees, and the exports to 244,728 rupees.
Covimissioncr and Consul-General. — E. J. L. Berkeley, C.B.
ZANZIBAR PROTECTORATE.
Sultan and Government.
The Sultan, or more correctly, the Seyyid, Hanioud bin Mahomed bin
Said, about 44 years of age, nephew of the late Sultans Ali, Khalifa and
Burghash, succeeded to the Sultanate on the death of Seyyid Hamed bin
Thwain on August 27, 1896. He was one of two claimants, and was
selected by the British Government as being the most fitting.
Zanzibar dominions were gradually acquired by the Imams of Muscat at
various dates between the years 1698 and 1807, partly by conquest from the
Portuguese and partly from native chiefs. They were held as an api)anage of
Muscat until the death of Seyyid Said, when, on a dispute as to the succession
arising between Seyyid Thwain, of Muscat, uncle of the present Sultan of Zan-
zibar, and Seyyid Majid, of Zanzibar (both being sons of Seyyid Said), the domin-
ions in Africa were made independent of the present State, and confirmed under
Majid by an arbitration of Lord Canning (dated 1861), then Governor-General
of India. Besides the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, and smaller islands, the
Sultan's authority nominally extended along the coasts and indefinitely inland,
from Warsheikh, in 3° N. lat, to Tunghi Bay, in 10° 42' S. lat, his influ-
ence, however, being exercised but a little way from the coast, except along
a few trade routes. As mentioned above, the Sultan's dominions were
gradually restricted in area between the years 1886 and 1890, until they
finally included only the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.
In October 1891, a regular Government was formed for Zanzibar, of which
Sir L. Mathews is Prime Minister. All accounts are now kept in English
and Arabic, and are always open to the inspection of the British Consul-
General, and no new undertakings or additional expenditure can be incurred
without his consent. On February 1, 1892, Zanzibar was declared a free port,
but the importation of spirits, arms, powder, and mineral oils remains subject
to regulation.
Area, Population, Religion.
The island of Zanzibar has an area of 640 square miles, and Pemba 380
square miles. The population of the island is estimated at 150,000, and that
of the island of Pemba at 50,000. There is a considerable foreign population,
mostly engaged in trading. There are about 50 Englishmen, 50 Germans,
a few Americans, Frenchmen, Italians, Greeks, and Roumanians, the two
latter nationalities being under British protection. There are also about 7,000
British Indian subjects, through whose hands almost the whole trade of
Zanzibar and of East Africa passes, directly or indirectly. The town of
Zanzibar has a population estimated at 30,000.
Mohammedanism is the religion of the country, most of the natives of the
coast and islands being Sunnis of the Sliafi school, though many are heathen ;
while the Sultan and his relatives are schismatics of the I bad hi sect.
There are Christian missions (Church of England, Wesleyan, Independent
and Roman Catholic) on the island and far into the mainland.
There is a French hospital at Zanzibar, attended by French sisters of
mercy, and a hospital at the Universities Mission. Sir Tharia Topan's
hospital for Indians is now completed, but is not yet in use.
Justice.
Justice among the Sultan's subjects is administered by various 'Kazis,'
with an appeal to H. H, ; among Europeans by their consuls in all cases in
198
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
which they are the accused or defendants. By a declaration signed December 16,
1892, the Sultan has delegated to the British Agent and Consul-General his
right to try all cases in which a British subject is plaintiff or accuser, and the
defendant or accused is a Zanzibar subject or the subject of a non-Christian
state without a treaty. The British Court has also jurisdiction over all slaves
originally freed by her Majesty's Agent and Consul General, but as the legal
status of slavery was abolished on the 6th April, 1897, the relations between
master and slave are no longer recognised by the Tribunals. Most of the civil
cases are brought into the British Court, from which there is an appeal to
the Bombay High Court. To it also pertains admiralty jurisdiction with
reference to the slave trade, and it is a naval prize court, by virtue of
the Zanzibar (Prize) Order in Council, 1888.
Finance and Commerce.
The revenue of the Sultan was mainly derived from customs dues and taxes
on produce, chiefly cloves. Under the new arrangement with England the
Sultan's privy purse, which will be kept separate from the general revenue
of the country, has been fixed at about 120,000 rupees annually, and the
remainder of the revenue will be devoted to the charges for police, harbour
improvements, and public works. All the public expenditure must receive
the sanction of the Sultan and the British Agent and Consul-General.
There is a regular army of about 900 men, including police, under the
command of General Raikes.
In 1896 the imports amounted to 1,275,470Z., and in 1897 to 1,399,078Z. ;
in 1896 the exports amounted to 1,158,806^., and in 1897 to 1,189,668Z.
The figures include the trade between the port of Zanzibar and other ports in
the Sultan's dominions. The chief imports and exports and distribution of
trade were as follows in the last two years : —
Imports
Imports
Exports
Exports
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
£
£
£,
£
Cloves ....
85,695
91,942
102,045
92,416
Rice
85,293
103,410
59,738
62,098
I'iece goods
349,484
346,451
336,299
322,741
Ivory
126,429
108,592
127,109
134,007
Coal
53,167
70,428
—
—
Copra, &c.
37,734
42,933
64,802
65,814
Groceries
54,961
64,353
—
—
Rubber
16,609
31,028
17,569
29,470
From or to —
United Kingdom
118,022
159,894
129,199
162,422
British India .
385,537
401,263
118,739
97,803
British East Africa .
45,016
43,548
111,946
106,267
Germany ....
64,597
91,726
41,647
34,591
German East Africa .
202,813
227,029
413,492
412,209
France ....
17,566
25,341
78,256
76,341
Zanzibar and Pemba
134,331
143,687
67,424
81,161
In the year 1897, 150 vessels of 245,368 tons (other than coasting vessels)
entered the port, including 48 vessels of 75,039 tons British,
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 190
There is a special coinage issued under the Sultan's authority, of which the
Maria Theresa dollar is the unit ; but the British Indian rupee is the coin
now universally current, though in all business transactions the dollar is the
standard of value. The dollar has a fixed value of 2 rupees 2 annas, and the
rupee is worth 47 cents.
British Agent and Consul- General. — SirArthurH. Hardinge,K.C.M.G., C.B.
Consul. — Basil Cave, C.B.
Judge. — Walter B. Cracknall, C.M.G. Assistant Judge. — F.J. CoUinson.
Viee-Comuls. — V. K. Kestell-Cornish, D. MacLennan, H. C. C. Dundas.
Vice-Consul at Pemha. — D, R. O'Sullivan.
Books of Reference concerning British East Africa.
Correspondence and Farther Correspondence rehiting to Zanziljar. London, 1886-90.
Correspondence concerning the Abolition of the Legal Status of Slavery in Zanzibar and
Peniba. London, 1897. Anti-Slavery Decree by Sultan of Zanzibar. Africa, No. 1 of
1890-91. Reports on the Slave Trade of the East Coast of Africa (Africa, No. 7), 1887-88,
and Africa, No. 6 of 1890-91.
Report on the East Africa Protectorate by Sir A. Hardinge. London, 1897.
Foreign Office Rejiorts. Annual Series. London.
Handbook of E. Africa. Intelligence Department, War Office, 1894.
Hertslefs Treaties and the Map of Africa, by Treaty. 2nd ed, Vol. IL London, 1897.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. London.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom,
London.
Ashe (Rev. R. P.), Two Kings of Uganda. 2nd ed. London, 1897.
Baumann (Oscar), Durch Masailand zur Nilquelle. 8. Berlin, 1^94. Die Insel Sansibar,
Published by the Verein fiir Erdkunde. Leipzic, 1897.
Bottego (V.), Viaggi di Scoperto nel Cuore dell' Africa. II Giuba Esplorato. Rome, 1895.
C7ian/er(W. A.), Through Jungle and Desert. 8. London. 1896.
ColviUe (Sir H.), The Land of the Nile Springs. London, 1895.
Decle (L.), Three Years in Savage Africa. London, 1897.
FitzOerald (W. W. A.), Travels in the Coastlands of British East Africa. London, 1898,
Gregory (J. W.), The Great Rift Valley. 8. London, 1896.
Ho tinel {Lieut, von), Discovery of Lakes Rudolf, &c. 2 vols. London, 1893.
Johnston (H. H.), Kilimanjaro. London, 1885.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cainbri<lge, 1899.
Junker (W.), Travels in Africa, 1875-78. London, 1890. Travels in Africa, 1882-86.
London, 1892.
Reltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd ed. London, 1895.
Lu.aa rrf (Capt. F. D.), The Rise of our East African Empire. 2 vols. London, 1893,
British East Africa and Uganda. London, 1892.
McDermott (P. L.), British East Africa. London, 1895.
MacDonald (J. R. L.), Soldiering and Surveying in British East Africa. London, 1897.
Meyer (Hans), Across East African Glaciers. [Translation contains Bibliography on this
subject.] 8. London, 1891.
Newman (H. S.), Banani : The Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Zanzibar and
Pemba. London, 1898.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concernant I'Afrique. Brus.sels, 1898.
Peters (Dr.), New Light on Dark Africa. [Narrative of the German Emin Pasha Expedi-
tion.] 8. London, 1891.
Portal (Sir G.), Mission to Uganda. London, 1894.
Reclus{E.), Geographic Universelle. Vol. XIII. Paris, 1888. (English Edition, vols. x.
and xii.)
Seott-Elliot (G. F.), A Naturalist in Mid-Africa. London, 1896.
Smith (A. Donaldson), Through Unknown African Countries. London, 1897.
Stanley (H. M.), Through the Dark Continent. 2 vols. London, 1878.
Thomson (Joseph), To the Central African Lakes and Back. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Thomson {J ofieyh), Through Masai Land. London, 1885.
Vandeleur (C. F. S.), Two Years' Travel in Uganda, .be, and on the Upper Nile.
Qeographical Journal, Vol. IX. (Ai>ril, 1897). London, l.s97.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
WiUon (Rev. C. T.) and Felkin (R. W.), Uganda-and the Egyptian Soudan. 2 vols.
London, 1882.
Tiavels of Burton, Spcke, Grant, Baker, and Junker.
Gambia, Gold Coast, Lagos. See West African Colonies.
Mashonaland, Matabeleland. Sec South Africa (British).
200
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
MAURITIUS.
Constitution and Government.
The governmeut of the British Colony of Mauritius, with its dependencies,
Rodrigues, Diego Garcia, and the Seychelles Islands, is vested in a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council, of which the officer in command of Her
Majesty's troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Procureur-General, the Receiver-
General, and the Auditor-General, and two elected members of the Council of
Government are ex-officio members. There is also a Council of Government,
consisting of the Governor and twentj^-seven members, ten being elected, eight
ex-officio, and nine nominated by the Governor. The official councillors
comprise the five Executive members, the Collector of Customs, the Protector
of Immigrants, and the Surveyor-General. The constitution was altered by
letters patent dated September 16, 1885, which introduced an elective element
into the Legislature. Under a moderate franchise ten members are now
elected, one for each of the following districts : — Moka, Plaines Wilhems,
Grand Port, Flacq, Savanne, Riviere Noire, Pamplemousses, Riviere du
Rempart ; and two for Port Louis.
Governor of Mauritius. — Sir Charles Bruce, K.C.M.G. The Governor has
a salary of 5,000^., and the Colonial Secretary 13,500 rupees per annum.
Area and Population.
The island of Mauritius, lying in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of
Madagascar, comprises an area of 705 English square miles. The following
were the numbers of the population, according to the census taken in 1891 : —
Male
Female
Total 1
Total of resident population
Military in Port Louis and elsewhere .
Crews of mercantile shipping
Total of population
206,038
721
344
164,550
2
164,552
370,588
721
346
207,103
371,655
The estimated population at the end of 1897, was : — General population,
117,314 ; Indian, 260,542; total, 377,856. Two-thirds of the population
consists of natives of African race, Chinese, mixed races, and whites. The
number of Chinese was estimated at 3,389 on January 1, 1898. The birth-
rate of 1897 was 35*5 per 1,000, and death-rate 29*5. Immigrants in 1897,
426 ; departures, 917. The capital of the colony, Port Louis, had, with
its suburbs, an estimated population of 55,645 in 1897.
According to the census of 1891 there were 209,079 Hindoos, 115,438 Roman
Catholics, 34,763 Mahometans, and 7,307 Protestants, State aid is granted to
both Churches, the Roman Catholics receiving 102,520 rupees in 1897, and
the Protestants 41,116 rupees ; the Indians are mostly Hindoos,
Primary education is conducted partly in government, and partly in State-
aided schools, 180 in 1897. The total government expenditure on education
in 1897, including the Royal College, was 473,365 rupees. In 1897 the
average number of pupils on the roll in primary schools was 19,287, and the
average attendance 12,204. At the Royal College \\\ 1897 the attendance was
207, and at the Royal College schools, 222,
The total number of convictions at the inferior courts in 1897 was 24,599,
and at the Supreme Court, 48,
FINANCE, DEFENCE, COMMERCE
201
Finance, Defence, Commerce.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony for five years were
Revenue .
Expenditure
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Rupees
8,103,922
7,872,096
Rupees
8,534,427
8,587,039
Rupees
8,273,622
8,488,736
Rupees
8,849,181
8,544,736
Rupees
7,996,705
8,626,798
The principal sources of revenue in 1897 were: customs dues, 2,769,889
rupees; licences and permits, 2,377,961 rupees; railway traffic, 1,712,322
rupees.
The whole debenture debt of the colony on December 31, 1897, was : —
Government Debenture Inscribed Stock Debt, 1,236,489Z. Poor Law Com-
mission, 1,000/.
The municipal dcl)t of Port Louis was 132,300^. sterling and 277,049
rupees.
The harbour of Port Louis is defended by Fort Adelaide and Fort George.
The troops in the colony at the beginning of 1898 numl)ered 1,078. The total
military expenditure for 1897 was 78,558/., of which 22,805/. was paid by
the colony.
The declared value ^ of the total imports and exports of the colony (ex -
elusive of specie and bullion) was as follows in each of the last five years : —
Year
Total Imports
Total Exports
Rupees
Rupees
1893
18,899,939
22,176,486
1894
21,096,011
31,228,619
1895
20,125,402
27,247,635
1896
22,980,586
33,544,174
1897
18,948,233
28,192,675
1 The values of imports and exports are declared by importers and exporters, both being
exclusive of charges and of exchange. They are given in rupees at the value of 2». per
rupee. The countries where the goods are shipped are taken as the countries of origin, un-
less the goods themselves or the bills of lading and invoices show a ditferent origin, in
which case the country so disclosed is declared in the V)ill of entry.
Imports from United Kingdom, 3,750,780 rupees ; exports to United
Kingdom, 452,595 rupees.
The exports from the colony comprise, as staple article, unrefined sugar,
22,327,650 rupees in 1897 ; rum, 67,370 rupees; vanilla, 136,620 rupees;
aloe fibre, 242,507 rupees ; oil, coco-nut, 33,760 rupees. A large portion of
the trade is with the British colonies of South Africa, Australia, and India.
The commercial intercourse of Mauritius with the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined table, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
for each of the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Mauritius into U. K.
Exjtorts of British Produce to
Mauritius
£
250,497
305,610
£
224,:i50
273,603
£
97,795
235,835
£
67,502
306,031
£
94,548
284,862
202 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
The chief articles of import from Mauritius into the United Kingdom are
unrefined sugar, the value being 154,568Z. in 1894 ; 16,731Z. in 1896; 20,90Ql.
in 1897 ; drugs, 30,589Z. in 1896 ; 50,730Z, in 1897 ; hemp and other fibres,
21,767^. in 1895; 15,107/. in 1896 ; 12,607/. in 1897. The British exports
to Mauritius in 1897 consisted principally of cotton goods, value 69,823/. ;
coal, 23,647/.; machinery, 16,648/.; iron, 24,015/.; manure, 25,865/.;
apparel and haberdashery, 13,874/.; beer and ale, 8,809/.
Shipping and Communications.
The registered shipping in 1897 consisted of 64 sailing vessels of 7,159
tons (net), and 4 steamers of 131 tons ; total, 68 vessels of 7,290 tons.
The number of vessels entered in 1897 was 332 of 328,708 tons, and
cleared 342 of 338,683 tons.
The colony has two lines of railways with two branches, of a total length
of 105 miles, the revenue from which in 1897 was 1,712,322 rui)ees, and
expenditure 1,166,439 rupees.
There exists a complete system of telegraphs throughout the island of
Mauritius, and a telegraph cable from Zanzibar to the Seychelles and thence
to Mauritius. The number of letters, postcards, and newsjmpers which
passed through the post office in 1897 was 2,698,175.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The standard coin of Mauritius is the Indian rupee, with its subdivisions.
All accounts are kept in rupees.
The metric system is in force.
Dependencies.
Seychelles. — Population, according to census of 1891, 16,440 (8,302
males, 8,138 females). Revenue 1897, 296,171 rupees ; expenditure, 259,056
rupees; imports, 1,122,411 rupees; exports, 1,503,701 rupees. Principal
exports : coco-nut oil, soap, vanilla, tortoiseshell, coff'ee, and cacao. Ships
entered 1897, 61, including 10 men-of-war. There are 28 schools, with 2,332
pupils. Grants in aid 8,000 rupees. Administrator: H. Cockburn
Stewart, C.M.G.
RoDRiGUES (under a Magistrate). — 18 miles long, 7 broad. Population
(census 1891) 2,068 (1,154 males, 914 females) ; estimated population in 1897,
2,772 ; revenue, 1897, 8,007 rupees ; expenditure, 23,502 rupees ; imports
(1897), 96,263 rupees; exports, 127,687 rupees.
Other dependencies are the St. Brandon or Cargados Islands, between
16° 50' and 16° 20' S. lat., and 56° 26' and 59° 41' E. long., mostly sand-
banks ; the Oil Islands, including the Chagos Islands, the Trois Freres, or
Eagle Islands, and the Cosmoledo Islands, between 6° 40' and 9° 40' S. lat.,
and 72° 22' and 47° 48' E. long. There are besides the detached islands of
Assumption, and Aldabra, none of them permanently uninhabited.
Diego Garcia, the largest of the Chagos group, in 7° S. lat., 72°-73° E.
long., is 12^ miles long, 6^ miles wide, with 700 inhabitants, a large pro-
portion negro labourers from Mauritius. 4,813 hectolitres of coco-nut oil
exported annually.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mauritius.
Annual Statement of tlio Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Lundon.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Reports on Mauritius, and on Seychelles, Rodrigues, and Aldabra, in Colonial Reports
Annual. Loudon.
NATAL 203
Statistical Abstract for the several colonial and other possessions of the United Kingdom ,
Annual. London.
Mauritius Blue Book. Annual.
Barkly (F. A.), From the Tropics to the Xorth Sea. [Treats of the Seychelles.] London,
1807.
Chalmers {B..), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Decotter (N.) Geographic de Maurice et de ses D«';pcndances. Mauritius, 1891.
Epinay (Adricn d'), Renscigiienients pour servir i\ I'liistoirc de I'lle de France Jnsqu'a
I'annee ISIO inclusivcnient. Mauritius, 1890.
Flemyng (M.), Mauritius, or the Isle of France. S. London, 1862.
Martin {\l. Montgomery), The British Possessions in Africa. Vol. iv. History of the
British Colonies. 8. London, 1834.
The Mauritius Almanac. Annual. Mauritius.
The Mauritius Civil List. I'wice Yearly. Mauritius.
Unienville{h(i Baron d'), Statistiquede I'lle Maurice et ses dependances. Mauritius, 1886.
NATAL.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Cape of
Good Hope settlement, was erected in 1856 into a separate colony
under the British Crown, represented first by a Lieutenant-
Governor, and since 1882 by a Governor. A charter of consti-
tution was granted in 1856, and modified in 1875 and 1879 ; the
charter now in force was granted in 1893.
By the Constitution Act (Law No. 14, 1893), which came into force
July 20, 1893, the legislative authority resides in the Queen, a Legislative
Council, and a Legislative Assembly. Her Majesty is represented by the
Governor, whose assent (revocable within two years, in manner prescribed) is
required to all bills before they become law. The Governor appoints the
ministers, and with their advice, the members of the Legislative Council.^
He issues writs for general election of members of the Legislative
Assembly, fixes the place and time of the sessions of the legislative
bodies, and may prorogue or dissolve tlie Assembly. He may also, by message,
transmit the draft of any bill to be introduced in either house. The Legis-
lative Council consists of eleven members, each of whom must be at least
thirty years of age, must have resided ten years in the colony, and must be
registered proprietor of real property of the net value of 500Z. Members hold
their seats for ten years, provision being made for the withdrawal of five at
the end of the first five years. The President is appointed by the Governor.
The Legislative Assembly consists of thirty-seven members chosen by the
electors. Each Legislative Assembly continues for four years, unlcs.s sooner
dissolved. It meets annually or oftener, appoints its Speaker, and adopts
(with the approval of the Governor) its own standing rules and orders. Money
bills must originate in the Assembly, and the Legislative Council may accept
or reject but not alter them. No money bill, however, for any purjiose not
1 The first Legislative Council was nominated solely by the Governor.
204
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NATAL
first recommended to the Assembly by message of the Governor can be passed
in the session in which it is proposed. No person can be a member of the
Assembly who is not a duly qualified and registered elector. Members receive
an allowance of 11. a. day during the session.
Electors are qualified by the possession of immovable property of the value
of 50Z,, by payment of rent for such property of the annual value of 101. , or
(having resided three years in the colony) by having an income of 961. per
annum, inclusive of allowances. Electors (1896), 9,208.
The executive authority resides in a body of not more than six ministers,
each of whom must be, or must within four months become, a member of one
of the legislative bodies. Each may sit or speak in either house, but may
vote only in that of which he is a member.
Governor of Natal. — The Hon. Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinsou,
G.C.M.G. ; Private Secretary to Sir H. Robinson in Fiji, 1874; Private
Secretary for New South Wales affairs, 1875 ; Colonial Secretary of Barbados,
1877 ; Secretary to the Government of Malta, 1883 ; Lieut. -Governor, 1884 ;
Governor of Windward Islands, 1889. Appointed to Natal, 1893.
The Governor has a salary of 5,000Z. per annum.
The Ministry, as constituted October 4, 1897, is as follows : — ■
Premier and Colonial Secretary. — Sir Henry Binns, K.C.M.G.
Attorney -General and Minister of Education. — Mr. Bale, Q.C.
Minister of Public Works. — Lt.-Col. Hime, C.M.G.
Minister of Native Affairs. — Mr. Hulett.
Treasurer. — Mr. Arbuckle.
Minister of Agriculture. — Mr. Johnstone.
Area and Population.
The colony (including the Province of Zululand) has an estimated area
of about 35,000 square miles, with a seaboard of about 400 miles. But the
extent of some of the districts is all but unknown. The colony is divided
into 38 Magisterial Districts.
The European population has more than doubled since 1879. The returns
of the total population (1879, 1891 and 1898) were : —
—
1879
1891
1898.
Europeans .
Indians
Kaffirs
Grand total
22,654
16,999
319,934
46,788
41,142
455,983
61,000
53,370
714,635
361,587
543,913
829,005
Population of the borough of Durban, July 31, 1891, 25,512 (1898,
39,245) ; and of Pietermaritzburg, July 31, 1891, 17,500 (1898, 24,595).
In December, 1897, Zululand, including British Amatongaland, was
incorporated with the colony of Natal. It has an area of about 14,238
square miles with a population in 1897 of about 196,511 natives and 1,131
whites. Agriculture is carried on by the natives. Gold, silver, lead, copper,
tin, iron, asbestos, and coal are found. Several gold mining companies have
been at work, but the result has not been encouraging. There is a main
road through the territory with branch roads ; also about 87 miles of telegraph
line, and 110 miles of telephone. The ])rovince of Zululand is divided into
twelve Magisterial Districts. Zululand may send one Member to the legisla-
tive Council, and two Members to the Legislative Assembly of the Colony.
INSTRUCTIOK — DEFENCE
205
Instruction.
There are 2 Government high schools, 4 Government model schools, 2
Government art schools, 14 Government primary schools, 43 Government-
aided schools, 252 Government-aided farmhouse schools, and a considerable
number of private schools in the colony. Four of the aided schools are
secondary schools fur girls, and one is a home for deaf and dumb children.
The aggregate number of pupils in regular attendance at the Government and
inspected schools was 7,685 (1897) ; the average daily attendance 87 per
cent, of the number on the registers. At the high schools there is an average
daily attendance of 268 pupils. About 1,600 children attend private unaided
schools, and it is estimated that only 200 white children are receiving no
education. About 96 per cent, of the whole number of white children in
the colony are being educated, the number of those receiving gratuitous edu-
cation (1897) being 773, The direct Government expenditure on schools for
1896-97 is 45,4557, Fees paid by pupils in Government schools for 1896-97,
7,6531. Thirty bursaries of the annual value of 20^, each, tenable for three
years, are established by the Government, and one exhibition of the annual
value of 1501., tenable for 4 years, at a University of the United Kingdom.
There are 159 schools for natives, with a total attendance of 8,542, which
received in 1896-97 grants in aid to the amount of 5.528Z. ; and 30 schools
for the children of Indians, with a total attendance of 1,961 in 1897, and
for which a grant of 1,9221. was voted.
Finance.
The general revenue and expenditure of the colony, exclusive of loan funds,
in the last five years ended June 30, were as follows : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1892-93
1,069,678
1,099,858
1893-94
1,011,017
1,082,373
1894-95
1,169,780
1,148,093
1895-96
1,457,338
1,282,484
1896-97
2,213,074
1,624,998
The revenue of the Province of Zululand in 1897 was 67,658/., and
expenditure 68,518Z.
The following are the principal items of ordinary revenue for the year
ended June 30, 1897 :— Railways, 1,285,249Z. ; customs, 413,390/.; excise,
20,216/.; land sales, 44,112/. ; mails, 56,822/. ; telegraphs, 22,924/. ; stamps
and licences, 31,408/.; native hut tax, 94,038/.
The principal items of expenditure for the year ended June 30, 1897,
were: Railways, 560,455/.; public works, 90,419/.; defence, 156,021/. Total
loan expenditure, 649,587/.
The Public Debt on Juno 30, 1897, was 8,019,143/.
Defence.
There is a body of mounted police numbering 490 Europeans, and of
volunteers 1,391, including a volunteer naval defence corps of 90 men. The
cost of the mounted police force for the year ended June 30, 1896 was 57,766/.,
and the colony contributed 39,629/. to the expense of the volunteers during
the same period.
206
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NATAL
Industry.
Of the total area of the colony 2,250,000 acres have been set apart for
Native occupationj 7,598,837 acres have been acquired by grant from the
Crown by Europeans, 1,604,528 acres have been sold on deferred payments,
and about 650,655 acres remain unalienated from the Crown. Of the total
area in 1897 247,160 acres were under cultivation by Europeans, the leading
crop for export being sugar (produce, 1897, 365,368 cwt. ), though large quan-
tities of maize, wheat, oats, and other cereal and green crops are grown.
Tea-planting has been recently introduced, 2,664 acres being under tea in
1897, the yield for the year being about 848,930 lbs. Estimated total num-
ber of acres under cultivation by Natives, 598,790.
Of live stock owned by Europeans in 1897 there were 125,992 horned
cattle, 54,795 angora goats, 649,475 sheep, and 26,921 horses ; and in pos-
session of the Native population in 1897, there were 114,829 horned cattle,
252,183 goats, 21,487 sheep, and 21,760 horses. A large decrease has been
caused by rinderpest.
The coal-fields of the Colony, which are of large extent, are now in direct
communication with the seaport of Durban. The output for the year 1897
was 243,960 tons, which is likely to be considerably exceeded in future. An
export trade is being established. Some attempts have been made to utilise
the rich beds of iron ore which have been found in many parts of the Colony.
Commerce.
The total value of imports and exports by sea has been as follows : —
Year
Imports
Exports
£
£
1890
4,417,085
1,379,657
1893
2,236,738
1,242,169
1894
2,316,596
1,197,611
1895
2,469,303
1,318,502
1896
5,437,863
1,785,375
1897
5,983,589
1,621,923
About 70 per cent, of the imports are from, and 36 per cent, of the
exports to. Great Britain.
The values of the principal imports and exports in 1896 and 1897 were : —
Imports
1896
£
1897
Exports
1896
1897
£
£
£
Apparel and slops
353,514
414,269
Angora hair
24,925
34,892
Haberdashery .
413,716
480,208
Hides and skins
42,730
51,220
Flour, grain
527,204
338,277
Sugar. . . .
22,376
12,011
Leather goods, &c.
273,988
263,708
Coal ....
88,334
89,863 I
Iron and goods .
570,218
612,864
Wool ....
590,605
474,681
Cottons . . .
132,412
75,638
Gold, bar, &c. .
102,624
18,223
Woollens . .
101,859
74,311
Bark ....
16,450
17,659
1 Machinery . .
367,870
397,528
Spirits (rum) .
18
5
1 Wines, spirits, ales
165,856
142,904
The following is the value of the imports into Great Britain from Natal,
SHIPPING — BOOKS OF llEFERENCE
207
and the exports from Great Britain of domestic produce and manufactures to
Natal for six years, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
—
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Natal
Exports of British
produce to Natal
£
867,954
1,913,028
£
750,405
1,352,047
£
688,055
1,420,972
£
716,745
1,604,209
£
793,557
3,134,184
£
752,254
3,407,088
The wool imports into Great Britain from Natal amounted in 1897 to the
value of 527,315Z.; hides, 51,991Z. ; coffee, 32,044Z.-; bark, 33,239^. ; skins
and furs, 15,785/. Much of the wool and other articles are from the neighbour-
ing Dutch Republics, which also take one -third of the merchandise imported
into Natal.
The chief articles exported from Great Britain to Natal in 1897 were apparel
and haberdashery, 597, 137^. ; cottons, 187,978/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
485,271/.; leather, 225,610/.; machinery, 241,094/.; woollens, 122,308/.;
hardware and cutlery, 71,213/.; spirits, 56,888/.; beer and ale, 31,941/. ;
carriages, &c., 129,485/. ; cycles, 53,121/. ; furniture, 78,517/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1897 the registered shipping of the colony consisted of 14 sailing vessels
of 699 tons, and 15 steamers of 2,954 tons ; total, 29 vessels of 3,653 tons.
In 1897, 780 vessels of 1,246,390 tons entered, and 789 vessels of 1,248,073
tons cleared. Of the former 86 of 92,998 tons were from the United Kingdom
direct ; 290 of 614,035 tons from Cape Colony, including 191 of 485,674 tons
from the United Kingdom. Of the vessels cleared, 58 of 80,947 tons cleared
for the United Kingdom direct, and 198 of 450,933 tons for Cape Colony.
There are 487 miles of railway oj^en, all constructed and worked by the
Government. The main line extends from the Port of Durban to Pieter-
maritzburg, and from thence to the border of the South African Republic,
307 miles distant from the Port, with an extension, now open, from the
border to Johannesburg and Pretoria, the total distance by rail from Durban
to Johannesburg being 483 miles, and from Durban to Pretoria 511 miles.
There are branch lines as follows : — one extending northwards from Durban
to the Tugela River, 69 miles ; another from South Coast Junction to Park
Rynie 36 miles ; and the last but longest from the main line to Harrismith
(Orange Free State) with a mileage of 59i miles, 2dh of which run through
the Orange Free State. The total cost of construction of the railways up
to the end of the year 1897 was 6,588,507/. The revenue for 1897 was
1,051,359/. ; expenditure, 583,088/. The net receipts for the year were equal
to 71. 2s. l^d. per cent, upon capital.
Agent-General in London. — Sir Walter Peace, K.C.M.G.
Secretary. — R. Russell.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kiiigduiii with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Im}!. 4. London.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. Edited by J. Noble.
London, 1893.
Offieial Illustrated Handbook and Railway Guide of the Colony of Natal, by J. Forsyth
Ingram. London, 1895.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keane (A. H.). Africa, Vol. II. South Africa. Loudon, 1895.
208 THE BRITISH EMPIHE :— NIGER PROTECTORATE
Natal Almanack, Directory and Yearly Register. Annual. Fietermaritzburg.
Natal Blue-book. Annual. Fietermaritzburg.
Frecis of Information concerning Zululand, iirepared in the Intelligence Division of the
War Office. Loudon, 1S95.
Report on the Mining Industry of Zululand for the year 1896. By J. J. Garrard.
Fietermaritzburg, 1897.
Statistical Abstract for the several colonial and other possessions of the United Kingdom.
Annual. S. London.
Bird (John), The Annals of Natal, 1495-1845. 8. Fietermaritzburg, 1888.
Brooks (Henry), Natal : a History and Descri])tion of the Colony. 8. London, 1887.
Culling worth's Natal Almanac. Annual. Durban.
Ingram (J. F.), Natalia: History of Natal and Zululand. London, 1897.
Noble (J.), Illustrated Handbook for the Cape and South Africa. 8. London, 1893.
Peace (Walter), Our Colony of Natal. Fublislied by permission of the Natal Govern-
ment. London, 1884. Notes on Natal. London, 1S9.'3.'
Russell (li.). Natal, the Land and its Story. 5th ed. 8. Fietermaritzburg, 1897.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Afi-ica, including the Cape Colony, Natal, the Diamond
Fields, &c. 8. London, 1891.
Statham (F. R.), Blacks, Boers, and British. London, 1882.
TroiZope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 9. Loudon, 1878.
Ti/ier (J.), Forty Years in Zululand. (Mis.sionary work.) S. Boston, 1891.
NIGER COAST PROTECTORATE.
This important region, whicli by treaties was placed under British pro-
tectorate in 1884, occupies the whole of the coast line between Lagos
and Kamerun, excepting that between the Forcados and Brass Rivers, which
falls within the Niger Territories. On the N.W. the boundary between the
Protectorate and Lagos Colony follows a line commencing on the sea-shore ten
miles to the N. W. of the Benin River, and runs parallel to that river until
it reaches the Lagos Creek, Thence it follows the boundary of the Benin
country, which is included within the Protectorate. The boundary on the
west between the Protectorate and that part of the Niger Territories admin-
istered by the Royal Niger Company follows the Forcados River up to Gana-
gana, then proceeds N.E. for 10 miles and N. for 50 miles. On the east the
boundary starts midway between the Nun and Brass mouths of the Niger,
and proceeds to Idu on the Oratshi or Engenni River. These boundaries
are subject to modification according to local requirements. The boundary
between the German Kamerun and the Niger Coast Protectorate proceetls
from the head of the Rio del Rey Estuary to the rapids of the Cross River in
9° 8', and thence to a point to the east of Yola on the Benue River. In
February, 1897, the Benin country, formerly governed by the Kings of Benin
or Addo, was included within the Protectorate, and at the town of Benin
there is a British Resident. The whole territory is now between 3,000 and
4,000 square miles in extent, and contains about 400 towns and villages ;
but no trustworthy estimate of the population can be formed. In 189 8
the European inhabitants num])ered 206. In 1891 the government was
intrusted to an Imperial Commissioner and Consul-General, with ad-
ministrative and judicial powers, and the power of imposing taxation.
Since then consular administration has been established and consular courts
constituted. There arc two military posts, and another two are about to be
established in the interior. In each of the 11 districts there is a Native
Council consisting of the leading chiefs who .sit at regular intervals and try
cases brought before them according to the custom of the country ; there are
also about 15 nunor native courts. By this system the authority of the
chiefs is recognised and upheld with excellent results. Three missionary
societies are at work within the Protectorate, and have established training,
industrial, and other schools which, in 1897, received Government grants-
NIGER TERRITORIES 209
amounting to 700?. ; but the educational establishments are stated to be still
insuflicient for the needs of the Protectorate.
Total revenue, 1897-98, 153,181/.; customs revenue, 145,440?. ; expendi-
ture, 121,900?. ; balance, 47,900? , several departmental orders being un-
executed at the end of the year.
Fully nineteen-twentieths of the extensive trade is in the hands of British
merchants. Imports 1896-97, 655,977?.; 1897-98, 639,698?.; exports,
1896-97, 785,605?. ; 1897-98, 750,223?. Of the imports in 1897-98,
504,802?. in value came from the United Kingdom ; of the exports, the
value of 497,589?. went to the United Kingdom. The chief products exported
are palm oil, palm kernels, india-rubber, ivory, ebony, camwood, indigo,
gums, barwood, hides, and a little cacao ; and the imports consist of cloth,
calico, hardware, spirits, tobacco, gunpowder, guns, rice, bread, salt, pickled
meat, matchets, soap, pottery, and fancy articles. The leading trade stations
in the Oil Rivers District are Old Calabar (Duke Town and Creek Town),
Qua Eboe, Opobo (town) and Azumini, Ohumbela, Ogogo, Essene, &c.
(interior Opobo) ; New Calabar — including Degama, Bakana, Buguma,
Okrika, &c. — Bonny, Brass, Warri, Benin, Sapele. At the ports of the
Protectorate in the year 1897-98 there entered 342 vessels of 488,952 tons,
and cleared 340 of 485,890 tons.
There is as yet no uniform currency within the Protectorate, barter, brass
rods and copper wires, cowries, an imported Manila currency, and a small
cash currency being employed by different classes or in different districts ;
and a uniform system of weights and measures does not exist.
The majority of the merchants trading in the Protectorate amalgamated in
1889 into the African Association, Limited, of Liverpool, with a nominal
capital of 2,000,000?., with power to increase as far as 5,000,000?. The
subscribed caj)ital is stated as 425,000?.
Imperial Commissioner and Consiil-General, SirR. D. R. Moor, K. C. M.G
Deputy Gommissioiur^ dbc — Major H. L. Gallwey, C.M.G., D.S.O.
NIGER TERRITORIES.!
These are governed by the Royal Niger Company, under a charter issued
on July 10, 1886. Its capital of a little over 1,000,000?. is fully subscribed, and
it has powers to increase indefinitely. Its foundation dates from 1882, when
it was formed under the name of The National African Company, Limited,
with the object of obtaining these regions for Great Britain. This was eff"ected
in 1884-86 by means of about 300 treaties with native States and tribes,
including the territories of Sokoto and Borgu. Since then 200 further
treaties have been made, completely filling up the gaps.
According to the Anglo-French Agreement of August 5, 1890, the limit
between the British and French spheres on the Niger is a line from Say, on
1 Arrangements are in progress for the transference of the Niger Territories from the
Royal Niger Company to the Government, to be administered under the Colonial Office.
There will be a new delimitation between the Territories and the Protectorate. The name
will be changed probably to that of the " British 8udan." The first administrator under
the Colonial Office will probably be Colonel F. D. Lugard, C.B., D.S.O., who is at present
organising a West African Military Force which will be entirely under the regulation of the
Government of the Territory. When the new agreement with France is ratified, it will
deprive the Niger Territories of about l.'>0,000 square miles of their area, which will be
reduced to 350,000 square Juiles. It is expected that the transft'r^lice will ha completetl
|)efQr§ the ^\y\ of the present Sesfiion of Parliaw^pt,
210 THE BRITISH EMPIRK : — NIGER TERRITORIES
the Niger, to Barrawa on Lake Chad, ' drawn in such a manner as to comprise
in the sphere of the Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the Kingdom of
Sokoto, thei line to be determined by Commissioners to be appointed.' In
accordance with the Anglo-German agreements of July and August, 1886,
and November 15, 1893, the limit between the British and German spheres
of influence is a line drawn from the point on the Cross River, " about 9° 8'
of longitude east of Greenwich, marked ' Rapids ' on the English admiralty
chart," to a point on the river Benue three miles below the centre of the main
mouth of the river Faro — or about 30 miles east of Yola — and thence to a point
on the southern shore of Lake Chad, " situated 35 minutes east of the meridan
of the centre of the town of Kuka," the capital of Bornu. This Anglo-German
agreement and the Anglo-French agreement of 1890 thus secure to British in-
fluence the large Western portion of the important kingdom of Bornu. A re-
adjustment of the Company's frontier on the west and north was made by an
agreement between Great Britain and France dated 14 June, 1898, but this
treaty has not yet been ratified. The term for ratification has by mutual
consent been extended until the 14th June, 1899. Total area of Niger Ter-
ritories and the regions secured to the Company's influence by the above in-
ternational agreements is estimated at 500,000 square miles; population
variously estimated from 20,000,000 to 35,000,000.
The Fulah empire of Sokoto is the most populous and extensive in the
whole of the Sudan. The king of Gando, in the middle Niger Valley, as well
as all the other Fulah chiefs, recognise the suzerainty of the Sultan, who
has conferred on the Royal Niger Company sovereign power throughout a
large part of his dominions, and jurisdiction, civil, criminal, and fiscal, over
non-natives throughout the remainder. Sokoto and Gando together cover
an area of 219,500 square miles, with a population of 15,000,000. The
empire, which is conterminous on the east with Bornu, on the west with the
Borgu and Mossi countries, and stretches from the Sahara southwards to the
unexplored regions beyond Adamawa, is rich in agricultural resources.
Cotton is largely grown and manufactured, and leather ware is exported in
xchange for salt from the Sahara and European goods.
The Sultan of Sokoto exercises direct jurisdiction over only a comparatively
mall portion of his dominions, most of which are ruled by tributary vassal
kings and chiefs. The Niger Company has forestalled any questions as to title
or sovereignty by making alternative treaties with these vassal kings. Wurno
is the present capital of the empire, on the river Gandi, population 15,000.
There are a great many other large centres of population and busy market
towns, such as Gando, capital of the Kingdom of Gando ; Yola, capital of
Adamawa, population 12,000 ; Kano, 35,000 ; Bida, 90,000 ; Gerki, 15,000 ;
Kebbi, 22,000 ; Yakoba, 50,000 ; Tessawa, 12,000 ; Katsena, 7,500 ; Gurin,
12,000 ; Duku, 15,000 ; Illorin, 50,000. Islam is the religion of the domi'
nant class, but paganism still prevails largely throughout the empire.
BoRGU, which is attached to the Company by treaty similar to that with
Sokoto, occupies a considerable portion of the right bank of the middle Niger
to the south of Gandu and north of Illorin, two of the provinces of the Sokoto
empire. Borgu, which is also known under the name of Bussang, extends
westward to the meridian of Greenwich, and thus forms the northern boundary
of Dahomey. Its military power must be considerable, as it has throughout
tliis century successfully resisted the attacks of the Fulah empire. No
trustworthy statistics of this countiy are available. Both its government and
people are Pagan. The Company maintains two military posts in Borgu —
one being at Leaba, about 30 miles south of Boussa, the other at Fort Goldie,
30 miles south of Leaba.
NIGER TERRITORIES 211
In consequence of the international complications in 1897 an Imperial
force, known as the West African Frontier Force was raised early in 1898 under
the command of Colonel Lugard, C.B., D.S.O. This force consists at present
of two battalions of 1,200 men each, with artillery, engineer, telegraph ser-
vice, medical staff, &c., complete. It occupies at present British Borgu.
The present capital of the Niger Territories is at Asaba, where the chief
justice of the supreme court resides, and where are also the central prison, civil
and military hospitals, and other public buildings. The headquarters of the
company's military force are at Lokoja. The other principal settlements
are at Akassa (port of entry), Abo, Abutshi, Atani, Bakundi, Donga, Egga,
Ganagana (port of entry), Ibi, Idah, Leaba, Loko, Odeni, and Yola, the
last being only about 200 miles from Lake Chad. The trade in these inland
territories is as yet in its infancy, as the Company has been almost entirely
absorbed in the preliminary work of establishing order and putting down
slave-raiding. For this purpose it maintains a force of about 1,000 black
troops — chiefly Ilausas — commanded by British officers lent by the War
Office, and provided with ample artillery. The principal exports are gums,
hides, indiarubber, ivory, kernels, palm oil, and vegetable butter, but a
great variety of minor products are also exported. Considerable plantations
of coffee and cocoa have been started, and a botanic garden created. The
chief imports are cottons, silks, woollens, earthenware, hardware, beads,
tobacco, and salt. Heavy duties have been imposed by the Company on
spirits and gunpowder. The importation of spirits into regions north of
latitude 7° N. (stated to form nineteen-twentieths of the Territories) is now
prohibited. Tobacco and salt are also taxed. All other imports are free.
The revenue is principally raised by export duties.
The government is conducted by the Council in London, of which the
president is Sir George Taubman Goldie, K.C.M.G., the vice-president, the
Earl of Scarbrough.
Books of Reference on Niger Coast Protectorate and Niger
Territories.
Annual Reports of the Royal Niger Company.
Papers Relating to the Massacre of British Officials near Benin. London, 1897.
Travels of Clapperton, R. Lander. Richardson, Barth, Rohlfs.
Bacon (R. IL), The City of Blood.' [Benin]. London, 1807.
£ind?o«8 (H.), In the Niger Country. London, 1899.
Boisragon (Captain), The Massacre in Benin. London, 1897.
Goldie (Hugh), Old Calabar and its Mission, 1890.
Harford-Battersby (C. F.), Niger and Yoruba Routes. 2 vols. London, 1895-96.
Hulchmson, Narrative of the Niger, Tshadda, and Binne Exploration.
Hodges (F. E.), Consular Jurisdiction in the Niger Coast. London, 1805.
Hoilr»t (Lieut.), Sur le Niger et au Pays des Touaregs. Paris, 1898. — The Exploration
of the Niger, 1895-96. [Eng. Trans.] London, 1898.
Johnston (Sir Harrj'), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd. ed. London, 1895.
Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. III. Oxford, 1894.
MacDonaW (Sir C. M.), Paper in Proceedings R. G. S., 1891.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concernant rAfriquo. Brussels, 1898.
Robinson (C. H.), Hausaland : Fifteen Hundred Miles through the Central Soudan. 8.
London, 189(3.
MockUr -Ferryman (A. F.), Up the Niger. London, 1892. Imperial Africa. Vol. I.
London, 1808.
r/io/n.<:on(J.), 'Mungo Park,' and Proc. R. Geographical Soc. (1886).
Trotter (Colonel J. K.), The Niger Sources. London, 1897.
Vandeleur (S.), Campaigning on the Upper Nile and Niger. London, 1898.
Nyasaland. See Central Africa (British).
Pondoland. See Cape of Good Hope.
p 2
212 THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH)
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH).
Under the title of Rhodesia is included the whole of the region lying
between the north and west of the South African Republic and the 22nd
degree of south latitude and the southern boundaries of the Congo Free
State, and having as its eastern and western boundaries the Portuguese
and German spheres (see Year Book for 1898). The River Zambezi divides
it into two portions, called Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia.
In 1888 the portion of the Southern region which includes Matabeleland
and Mashonaland was declared to be within the British sphere of influence,
and on the 29th of October, 1889, a Royal Charter was granted to the British
South Africa Company, conferring upon it large powers of administration to
carry out the objects for which it was formed, the principal being to extend
northwards the railway and telegraph systems of the Cape Colony and
Bechuanaland, to encourage emigration and colonization, to promote trade
and commerce, and to develop and work mineral and other concessions. The
administrative system of the Company in Southern Rhodesia was prescribed
by the Orders in Council of May 9, 1891, and July 18, 1894, and a new
scheme was promulgated by an Order in Council, November 25, 1898. This
Order (describing the limits within which it applies) invests the High Com-
missioner at Capetown with more direct authority than he formerly possessed,
but leaves the general administration to the Company in accordance with the
charter. A Resident Commissioner has been appointed by the Secretary of
State. To assist the Company's Administrator there will be an Executive
Council consisting of the Resident Commissioner, the Administrators (except
the senior Administrator), antl not less than four members appointed by the
Company with the approval of the Secretary of State. A Legislative Council
will be created, of which the members will be the Administrator (president),
the Resident Commissioner, five nominees of the Company approved by the
Secretary of State, and four members elected by the registered voters. The
duration of each Legislative Council will be three years, unless it be sooner
dissolved. Ordinances passed by the Administrator and Legislative Council,
when assented to by the High Commissioner and published, shall take effect,
but, within a year, may be disallowed by the Secretary of State. To this
Council the Administrator shall submit estimates of revenue and expenditure
for each financial year, and the Ordinance providing for the service of the
year must be approved by the High Commissioner. For the administration
of justice there will be a High Court with civil and criminal jurisdiction, the
judges to be appointed by the Secretary of State on the nomination of the
Company. In the districts there will be Magistrates' Courts. A Secretary
for Native Affairs will be appointed, with subordinate Native Commissioners,
and, except with respect to arms, ammunition, and liquor, natives and non^
natives shall be under the same conditions. For tribal settlements land shaH
from time to time be assigned, the mineral rights being reserved to the
Company ; but, if the native occupation is disturbed, new land must be
assigned, disputes being ultimately referable to the High Commissioner.
The military police is placed under the direct control of the High
Commissioner.
Southern Rhodesia has an area of 174,728 square miles, the most
important parts being Matabeleland with an area of 60,728 square miles, and
a population estimated at 240,000, and Mashonaland, with an area of 114,000,
square miles and estimated population of 210,000, both tracts of country being
rich in gold reefs and other minerals, the Mashona plateaus being well adapted
^or culture and European settlement.
The British South Africa Company has extended the Cape Government rail-
SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH) 2l3
way system from Kimberley to Vryburg, a distance of 126 miles, and this section
has been taken over by the Cape Government. The line has been continued
northwards by the Bechuanaland Railway Company and the section com-
pleting the extension to Bulawayo is open for traffic. It is proposed to
extend the railway from Bulawayo to the Zambezi, and eventually to Tan-
ganyika. The lieira Railway Company was formed to construct the railway
between Beira and Mashonaland, and it was completed to New Umtali early in
1898. Thence the Mashonaland Railway Company is carrying the line to
Salisbury, which will be reached, it is expected, in the spring of 1899. The
Company has extended the telegraph system from Mafeking to Salisbury in
Mashonaland, over 800 miles from Palapye to Bulawayo and Salisbury, and
from Salisbury vid Umtali to Chimoio. On September 30, 1898, the
Rhodesia and African Transcontinental Telegraph Co.'s systems consisted of
2,635§ miles of line and 3,613 miles of wire. The telephone is in operation,
and telephonic comnmnicatiou has been completed between Gwelo, Ingwenia,
Queque, Sebakwe ; Figtree, Inugo ; Bulawayo, Fort Usher ; Fort Usher,
Umchabez ; Bulawayo, Mansinyama, Geelong ; Umlugulu, Filabun,
Belingwe. The extension of the African Transcontinental Telegraph Com-
pany's system from Salisbury to Zoniba, in Nyasaland, and thence to Uganda,
is in progress. The line is now completed to, and a telegraph station opened
at, Karonga, on the western side of Lake Nyasa, and will ultimately be con-
nected with the telegraph from Cairo to Khartum.
In Rhodesia distinct gold-fields have been discovered, their united
area being estimated at 5,250 square miles. Other minerals have been dis-
covered, silver, copper, blende, tin, antimony, arsenic, lead, and coal.
There are townships at Salisbury (the capital of Rhodesia), Victoria,
Umtali, Bulawayo, Gwelo, Enkeldoorn, and Melsetter, and the demand for
building sites is increasing. In Mashonaland by March, 1895, about 5,000
square miles had been surveyed : and in Matabeleland 1,070 farms, aggre-
gating 6,400,000 acres, had been pegged out and registered.
At Salisbury, Bulawayo, and Umtali, there are Government offices,
banks, chui'ches, hotels, schools, public libraries, and hospitals ; there is
also an hospital at Gwelo. Sanitary boards have been established, and good
government throughout the country provided for. Several newspapers are
published at Salisbury and Bulawayo. By the new postal route vid
Bulawayo, London and Salisbury are brought within 24 days of each other.
The capital of the Company was originally 1,000,000^. ; in 1893 it was
increased to 2,000,000Z. ; in 1895, to 2,500,000?. ; in 1896, to 3,500,000Z. ;
and on April 21, 1898, it w-as authorised to be increased to 5,000,000/. The
amount of capital issued is 4,375,000Z. ; debentures, 1,250,000Z. Revenue
now accrues from mining, trading, and professional licenses, stand holdings,
and postal and telegra])h services.
Administrator of Ma^hoiudand and Senior Adminidrator of Southern
Rhodesia. — W. H. Milton.
Administrator of Matabeleland. — Captain the Hon. A. Lawley.
References.
Reports of the Select Committee on the Incursion into the Soiitli African Republic, <fec.,
with Evidence. London, 1897. — Rejiort of Select Committee of tlie Cape of Good Hope
House of Assembly on the Jameson Raid. London, 18l»7. — Cliarter of the British South
Africa Company, October 29, 1889, with Orders in Council of 1S91 and 1894. London, 1898.
—Order in Council published in the Gazette of November 25, 1898.
Annual Reports of the British South Africa Company. — Report on the Native Disturb-
ances in Rhodesia, 1896-97. London, 1898.
Papers respecting the Treaty between Great Britain and Portugal, signed June 11, 1891.
[Manica Arbitration.] London, 1897.
Alderson {^E, A. H.), With the Mounted Infantry in Mashonaland, London, 1898.
Bent (J. Th.), The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland. 8. London, 1893.
214
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ST. HELENA
Broivn (A. S. and G. G.), Guide to South Africa. London, 1897.
Bryce (J.), Impressions of South Africa. London, 1897.
Decle (L.), Three Years in Savage Africa. London, 1897.
Foa (E.), Du Cap au Lac Nyasse. Paris, 1897.
Qreswell (W. P.), Geogi-aphy of Africa South of the Zambezi. 8. London, 1893.
Hertslet (Sir E.), The Map of Africa by Treaty, 2 Ed. London, 1897.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keane{A. H.), Africa. Vol. II., South Africa. London, 1895.
Keltic (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2 Ed. [Contains Bibliographical Appendix of
works on Africa.] London, 1895.
.ffm^;U(E. F.), Khodesia of To-day. London. 1893.
Lai7ig (D. T.), The Matabele Rebellion, 1896. London, 1897.
Lenard (A. G.), How we made Rhodesia. London, 1896.
Lucas (C. K.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies, Vol. IV. Oxford, 1897.
Mathers {E. P.), Zambesia. London, 1891.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concernant I'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Plumer (H..), An Irregular Corps in Matabeleland. London, 1897.
Powell (R. S. S. Baden), The Matabele Campaign, 1896. London, 1897.
Purvis (W. F.), and Biggs (L. V.), South Africa, its People, Progress, and Problems.
London, 1896.
Schulz (Aurel) and Hammar (August), The New Africa. London, 1897.
Selous (F. C), Travel and Adventure in South-East Africa. London, 1893. Sunshine
and Storm in Rhodesia. London, 1896.
Statham (F. R ), South Afi'ica as it is. London, 1897.
Sykcs (F. W.), With Plumer in Matabeleland. London, 1897.
Tangye (H. L.), In New South Africa. London, 1896.
Theal (G. MacCall), South Africa. 4 Ed. London, 1897.
Thomson (H. C), Rhodesia and its Government. London, 1898.
Toit (S. J. du), Rhodesia Past and Present. London, 1897.
Willoughby (Sir J. C), A Narrative of Further Excavations at Zimbabye(Mashonaland.)
8. London, 1894.
Wilinot (Hon. A.), Monomotapa : its Monuments and History. London, 1896. — Story of
the Expansion of South Africa. London, 1894.
Worsfold(W. B.), South Africa: a Study in Colonial Administration. 2 Ed. London, 1897.
Younghusband (F. E.), South Africa of To-day. London, 1897.
ST. HELENA.
Governor. — R. A. Sterndale (500Z.), assisted by a council of five.
St. Helena, of volcanic origin, is about 800 miles from Ascension Island,
the nearest land, and 1,200 from the west coast of Africa. Its importance
as a port of call was greatly lessened by the opening of the overland route to
India, and also by the Suez Canal. Area, 47 square miles. Population in
1891, 4,116, inclusive of 179 garrison and 60 shipping. Births, 1894, 102 ;
deaths, 73 ; luarriages, 21. Emigrants about 200 annually to the Cape and
United States. Four Episcopal, 3 Baptist, 1 Roman Catholic chapels. Educa-
tion, 12 schools, with 750 pupils ; 4 of the schools receiving a Government
grant of 428Z. in 1896.
The following tables give statistics for St. Helena : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
8,457
7,637
£
11,066
9,778
£
9,762
8,063
£
9,161
8,872
£
8,803
13,004
Exports ^
Imports .
4,976
39,193
5,052
31,777
4,314
33,744
4,739
29,553
4,993
33,242
1 Including specie: 4,0551. in 1893; 3,8751. in 1894; 3,980i. in 1895; 3,9931. in 1896;
3,666i. in lb97.
Savings-bank deposits 16,410Z. in 1896. Total estimated value of island
wealth, 200,000Z, No public debt. The imports into Great Britain from
TRISTAN DA CUNHA — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES 215
St. Helena in 1897 (Board of Trade Returns) amounted to 746Z. ; exports to
St Helena, 14,900Z. The total and British tonnage entered and cleared :—
Tonnage
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Total .
British .
81,161
73,418
87,346
86,262
73,888
71,549
89,137
87,023
81,948
81,156
The Post OtUce traflic Irom St. Helena in 1896 : 20,052 letters, 2,526
books, papers, parcels, and 480 post cards. There are 13 miles of telegraph
wire.
St. Helena is an Admiralty coaling station, and is largely resorted to by
the Cape of Good Hope and West African Squadron. Battery of Royal
Artillery, 1 company of infantry ; 4 heavy guns on height over port.
Colonial Report. Annual. Loudon.
Brooke's History of St. Helena.
Ellis (A. B.), West African Islands. 8. London, 1885.
Morris (D.), Agricultural Resources of St. Helena.
Melliss's Physical and Topographical Description of St. ••Helena.
Sierra Leone. See West African Colonies.
Sokotra. Somali Coast. See Aden.
TRISTAN DA CUNHA.
A small group of islands in the Atlantic, half-way between the Cape and
S. America, in 37° 6' S. lat. 12° 1' W. Ion. Until the death of Napoleon I.
they were occupied by a garrison. Besides Tristan da Cunha and Gough's
Island, there are Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands, the former two and
the latter one mile long, and a number of rocks. The population consists
mainly of the families of shipwrecked sailors and wives from St. Helena, and
numbered about 64 in December, 1897. There are about 800 head of cattle and
about 500 sheep on the island, and both beef and mutton are excellent. Pigs
and geese are plentiful. Beans, potatoes, and apples are grown. The only
dwellings are a few cottages on one side of the mountain. An annual visit
is jiaid to the island by one of Her Majesty's ships.
References. — Correspondence and Further Correspondence Relating to the Island of
Tristan da Cunha. London, 1887 and 1897.
WEST AFRICAN COLONIES.
These are four in number, all Crown colonies : Gold Coast, Lagos,
Gambia, and Sierra Leone.
The Gold Coast stretches for 350 miles along the Gulf of Guinea, between
5° W. long., and 2^ E. long. Goveriwr, F. M. Hodgson, CM. G. (3,500Z.).
There are an Executive and Legislative Council, both nominated, with three
unofficial members in latter. Area estimated at 15,000 square miles, including
protectorate, 46,600. Estimated population, 1,473,882; of whom about 500
are Europeans. Chief towns : Accra, 16,267 ; Elmina, 10,530 ; Cape Coast
Castle, 11,614 ; Kwitta, Saltpond, and Winneba. Government elementary
schools at Accra and Cape Coast, but education mainly in the hands of the
various religious bodies, Wesleyan, Roman Catholic, and Gqrman Missions ;
an attendance, 1897, 8,499 scholars ; Government contributed in 1896-97,
JCdfOSl 7s. 5d. Staple products and exports, palm oil, palm kernels, and
21G THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
imlia-rubber ; the export of valuable native woods is increasing. Gold found
in many parts and now being worked. Telegra])hs 626 miles, including three
miles of cable. In 1895-6 a military expedition proceeded from the Gold
Coast to Kumasi, the capital of Ashanti, the king of which made his sub-
mission to her Majesty's representative, and is now, with his principal chiefs,
a prisoner at Sierra Leone. The country has been definitely placed under
British protection and there is a Biitish Resident at Kumasi.
Lagos, an island on the Slave Coast to the east of the Gold Coast, the pro-
tectorate extending along the coast between 2° and 6° E. long. , and for some
distance inland. Governor, Sir William MacGregor, M.D., K.C.M.G., C. B.
(3,500Z.). Executive and Legislative Councils, nominated. Area, including pro-
tectorate, 1,500 square miles ; estimated population, 100,000, including about
200 whites. Including Yoniba, area 20, 070 square miles ; population, 3, 000, 000 ;
Christians, 6,000 ; Mohammedans, 12,000 ; the rest Pagans. 31 schools ;
3,371 pupils; exclusive of Mohammedan schools. Principal products and
exports : palm oil and kernels, ivory, gum copal, cotton, rubber, cocoa, and
cotfee. Cattle in 1897, 948; sheep, 1,693; pigs, 2,680, Chief imports:
spirits, tobacco, cotton goods, hardware. Trade mainly with Great Britain,
Brazil, and Germany.
Gambia, at the mouth of the river Gambia, formerly formed part of the
West African Settlements, but in December 1888 was erected into an inde-
pendent colony. Administrator, Sir R. B. Llewelyn, K.C.M.G. vl,200^., and
allowances 420Z.). Executive and Legislative Council nominated. 2,700
square miles, population, 50,000. Area of settlement proper, 69 square miles ;
population (1894), 14,978, including 62 whites, 5,300 Mohammedans, 2,385
Christians (Protestants and Roman Catholics) ; 5 schools, with 861 pupils
enrolled ; Government grant, proportionate to results (1897, 377Z.). In 1897,
112 prisoners were tried, and 84 convicted. Chief town, Bathurst, on the
island of St. Mary, 6,000 inhabitants. Chief products and exports : ground
nuts, hides, bees-wax, rice, cotton, corn, india-rubber.
Sierra Leone includes the island of Sherbro, and much adjoining territory.
Governor, Colonel Sir Frederic Cardew, K.C.M.G. (2,500/.) ; assisted by
Executive and Legislative Councils, nominated. It extends from the Scarcies
River to the north, to the border of Lil)eria in the south, 180 miles. Area,
30,000 square miles; population, over 250,000. Sierra Leone proper 4,000
square miles ; population (census, 1891), 74,835, of whom 224 are whites.
Protestants, 40,790; Catholics, 571 ; Mohammedans, 7,396 ; the rest Pagans.
In 1897, 72 schools were visited and inspected ; their average attendance was
5,883 (3,163 boys and 2,720 girls), and the number on the roll was 8,416 ;
Government grant in aid, 1,445/. Fourah Bay College is affiliated to the
University of Durham. Chief town, Freetown, 30,033 inhabitants — head-
quarters of H.M.'s forces in West Africa, 800 men of the West India Regi-
ment, besides engineers and artillery. Armed constabulary force of 570 men
chiefly for frontier defence. Freetown, the greatest seaport in West Airica,
is a second-class Imperial coaling station, with an excellent harl)our fortified
with several batteries of heavy guns. There is a supreme court, and police
and petty debt courts in each district ; in 1897, 538 persons were summarily
convicted, and 67 referred to the Supreme Court for trial. Chief products
and exports : palm oil and kernels, benni seed, ground nuts, kola nuts, india-
rubber, copal, hides. Many skilled workers in gold and silver. Government
savings banks with 40,418/. deposited in 1897. There are good roads, and
much traffic on the many lagoons and canals.
The following are the statistics of the four colonies : —
WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
217
Revenue
1893
1894
1895
£
142,049
230,076
97,851
20,561
1896
£
179,745
237,460
96,109
26,172
1897
Lagos ....
Gold Coast .
Sierra Leone .
Gambia ....
£
115,317
201,783
92,769
31,899
£
137,017
218,261
98,838
23,798
£
177,421
237,857
106,008
39,415
Total .
441,768
477,914
491,537 j 539,486 1 560,701
Leading item of revenue (1897) : Customs, Lagos, 159,819Z. ; Gold Coast,
199,807Z. ; Sierra Leone, 87,093Z. ; Gambia, 31,463Z.
The luiblic debt of Sierra Leone (1897), consists of a loan originally of
50,000Z., of which 25,000Z. is outstanding. The others have no public debt.
Imports
1893
1894 1895
1806
1897
£
770,511
910,540
457,389
176,328
Lagos
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
Total .
£
749,027
718,353
417,466
166,509
£
744,561
812,830
478,025
130,349
£
815,815
931,537
427,337
97,399
£
901,475
910,211
^.94,688
110,324
2,051,355
2,165,765 |2, 272, 088 ,2,416,698
2,314,768
The chief imports (1897) of Lagos were : cotton goods, 302,477/. ; spirits,
63,870Z.; tobacco, 17,356/. Gold Coast : cottons, 237,766/. ; spirits, 87,657/. ;
tobacco, 16,870/. Sierra Leone : cottons, 147,950/. ; spirits, 16,985/. ; tobacco,
21,350/. Gambia: cotton goods, 56,983/.; spirits, 2,344/.; tobacco,
hardware. According to the Board of Trade returns, the total imports into the
United Kingdom in 1897 from the West African colonies amounted to
1,801,795/. ; and the exports of British produce and manufactures to these
colonies amounted to 1,258,299/.
Exports
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Lagos
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
Total .
£
836,295
722,107
398,664
204,721
£
821,682
850,343
426,499
149,143
£
985,595
877,804
452,604
93,537
£
975,263
792,111
449,033
116,981
£
810,975
857,793
400,748
165,894
2,161,787 2,247,667 |2, 409,540
2,333,388
2,235,410
Chief exports (1897) from Lagos: palm kernels, 306,834/.; palm-oil,
97,591/.; rubber, 283,184/. Gold Coast : rubber, 419,813/.; palm-oil,
218 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
107,737/.; palm kernels, 69,818?.; gold dust, 84,797Z. Sierra Leone:
palm kernels, 129,910/. ; rubber, 79,787/.; kola nuts, 46,552/. ; ginger,
13,506/. Gambia: ground nuts, 126,605/. ; rubber, 23,457/.
The recorded values and quantities are, in general, those disclosed by invoices and
declarations, but .spirits are gauged and measured. At Gambia the cost of freight, in-
surance, and packages is added to the invoice value of imports, and the cost of packages is
added to the declared value of exports. The countries of origin and destination are those
shown by the shipping documents.
Tonnage of all the vessels entered and cleared at the West African
Colonies, and of British vessels entered and cleared, for five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
§3 f Lagos
5 J Gold Coast
p 1 Sierra Leone .
^ L Gambia .
H Total
694,840
830,766
746,512
228,706
2,500,824
685,573
1,006,053
962,046
229,702
795,052
1,053,366
1,021,870
188,196
721,508
1,103,836
1,076,260
231,625
718,303
1,158,027
1,084,745
258,398
3,219,473
2,983,374
3,058,484
3,133,229
|) f Lagos
1 J Gold Coast
^ 1 Sierra Leone .
.£5 t Gambia .
+3
jg Total .
526,032
564,652
574,581
162,401
1,827,666
500,196
695,309
828,712
183,317
570,083
744,615
780,697
150,871
569,272
729,096
805,684
151,987
533,883
7]4,814
835,538
164,939
2,207,534
2,246,266
2,256,039
2,249,174
The Cape of Good Hope and West Coast of Africa squadron usually con-
sists of about sixteen vessels under a rear-admiral.
The currency, weights, and measures are the same as those used in Great
Britain.
Books of Reference.
The Annual Blue Books of the various Colonies, and Reports thereon.
The Colonial Office List. Aimual.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonies. Annual.
Banbury (G. A. L.), Sierra Leone ; or, The White Man's Grave. 8. London, 1888.
Blyden (E. W.), Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. 8. London, 1869.
Boyle (F.), Tlirough Fanteeland and Coomassie. 8. London, 1874.
Ellis (A. B.), West African Sketches. S. London, ISSl. History of the Gold Coast of
West Africa. 8. London, 1893. The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast. 8.
London, 1894. The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast. 8. London, 1890. The
Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast. 8. London, 1887. West African Islands. 8.
London. 1885.
Ferryman (A. F. Mockler), Imperial Africa. Vol. I. London, 1S9S.
Freeman (H. A.), Travel and Life in Ashanti and Janian. London, 1898.
Ingham (Bishop E. G.), Sierra Leone alter a Hundred Years. 8. London, 1894.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Kemp (D.), Nine Years on the Gold Coast. London, 1808.
Kingsley (Miss M.), West African Sketches. London, 1897. — West African Studies.
London, 1899.
Lucas (C. P.), Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. III. 8. Loudon, 1896.
MacDonald (G.), The Gold Coast Past and Present. London, 1898.
Musgrave (G. C), To Kumassi with Scott. London, 1890.
Orlroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Cuncernant I'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Pierson (A. T.), Seven Years in Siena Leone. London, 1897.
Poole (T. E.), Life, Scenery and Customs in Sierra Leone and the Gambia. 2 vols. 12.
London, 1850.
Powell (li. S. Baden), The Downfall of Prempeh. London, 1896.
Eeindor/(C. C), History of the Gold Coast and Ashante. Basel, 1895.
Sibthorpe (A. B. C), History of Sierra Leone. 12. London, 1881.— Geography of Sierra
Leone. 12. London, 1881.
Zululand. See Natal.
BERMUDAS
219
AMERICA.
Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados. See West Indies.
BERMUDAS.
Governor.— Lient-Gon. G. Digby Barker, C.B. (2,946Z.), assisted by
an Executive Council of 6 members appointed by the Crown, a Legis-
lative Council of 9 members, also appointed by the Crown, and a repre-
sentative House of Assembly of 36 members ; 1,111 electors.
A Colony, with representative government, consisting of a group of 360
small islands (18 to 20 inhabited), 580 miles east of North Carolina, and
677 miles from New York, noted for their climate and scenery ; favourite
winter resort for Americans.
Area, 20 square miles (12,000 acres, 4,000 under cultivation). Popula-
tion in 1897, 16,098 (including 6,184 whites) ; 10,627 belong to Church of
England (census 1891). In 1897 572 births (93 illegitimate), 124 marriages,
385 deaths. Education : 57;:.schools, with 1,404 pupils, 24 of the schools
receiving Government grants, 1,224?. annually. In 1897 185 persons
summarily convicted, and 17 sentenced by superior court. Chief town
Hamilton, 1,296 population. Average strength of Imperial forces, 3,178.
Bermuda is an important naval base on the North America and West India
Station, with dockyard, victualling establishment, &c.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
34,893
33,713
£
32,475
34,216
£
37,830
33,006
£
34,256
34,717
35,965
35,704
for 1898-99 the estimated revenue is 34,603?., and expenditure 38,722Z.
Chief source of revenue: customs, 28,117?. in 1897-98. Chief items of
expenditure : salaries, public works, ecclesiastical, education. Contribution
by Home Government, 2,200?. Public debt (1897), 46,100?.
Savings bank deposits, 20,781?.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Exports .
Imports .
£
129,069
327,580
£
98,377
286,047
£
115,913
305,514
£
108,613
304,970
£
127,703
323,148
Imports subject to duty, 318,556?. ; duty free, 4,592?. Imports from
Great Britain, according to the Colonial Blue Book, in 1897, 95,424?., and
exports to the same, 3,519?.
Food supplies are mostly imported from the United States and Canada,
and nearly all the export produce of Bermuda goes to those two countries. In
1897 onions exported, 81,463?. ; lily bulbs, 8,080?. ; potatoes, 18,052?.
The registered shipping consisted (1898) of 2 steam vessels of 651 tons
net, and 23 sailing vessels of 5,469 tons net ; total net tonnage, 6,120.
In 1897 the total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared was 346,538, of
220 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— CANADA
which 300,954 were British. There are 36 miles of telegraph wire, and 15 of
cable. There is also a private telephone company, which has about 240 sub-
scribers and upwards ol 700 miles of wire in line. A telegraph cable connect-
ing the islands with Halifax, Nova Scotia, was successfully laid in July 1890.
The currency, weights, and measures are British.
Rkferences : Beniinda in Colonial Reports. Annual. London.
Heilf.riii (A.), Bernuula Islands. 8. Philadelphia, 1889.
Newton (Margaret), Glinijises of Life in Bernuida and the Tropics. London, 1897.
CANADA.
(Dominion of Canada.)
Constitution and Government.
As originally constituted the Dominion of Canada was com-
posed of the Provinces of Canada — Upper and Lower — Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick. They were united under the pro-
visions of an Act of the Imperial Parliament passed in March
1867, known as 'The British North America Act 1867,' which
came into operation on the 1st July, 1867, by royal proclamation.
The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be
' similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom ; ' that the
executive authority shall be .vested in the Sovereign of Great
Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a Governor-
General and Privy Council ; and that the legislative power shall
be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the ' Senate '
and the ' House of Commons.' Provision was made in the Act
for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island,
the North- West Territories, and Newfoundland into the Do-
minion ; Newfoundland alone has not availed itself of such
provision. In 1869 the extensive region known as the North-
West Territories was added to the Dominion by purchase from
the Hudson's Bay Company ; the province of Manitoba was
set apart out of a portion of it, and admitted into the con-
federation of 15th July, 1870. On 20th July, 1871, the pro-
vince of British Columbia, and on the 1st July, 1873, the province
of Prince Edward Island, respectively entered the confederation.
The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Do-
minion are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor-
General under the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of the
Constitution, there are now 81 senators — namely, 24 from the
Province of Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10
from Now Brunswick, 4 from Manitoba, 3 from British Columbia,
LEGISLATURE 221
4 from Princo Edward Island, and 2 from the Territories. Each
senator must be 30 years of age, a born or naturalised subject, and
reside in, and be possessed of property, real or personal, of the value
of 4,000 dollars, within the province for which he is appointed. The
House of Commons of the Dominion is elected by the people, for
five yearns, unless sooner dissolved, at the rate at present of one
representative for every 22,688, the arrangement being that the
province of Quebec shall always have 65 members, and the
other provinces proportionally, according to their populations at
each decennial census. On the basis of the census of the
Dominion taken in April 1891, and in accordance with a
redistribution bill passed in 1892, the House of Commons
consists of 213 members — 92 for Ontario, 65 for Quebec, 20 for
Nova Scotia, 14 for New Brunswick, 7 for Manitoba, 6 for
British Columbia, 5 for Prince Edward Island, and 4 for the
North-West Territories.
The members of the House of Commons are elected by con-
stituencies, the electors of which are supplied by franchises under
the control of the several provincial assemblies, an Act having
been passed to that effect in the session of 1898. The qualifica-
tions for voting at provincial elections vary in the several
provinces. Voting is by ballot.
The Speaker of the House of Commons has a salary of 4,000
dollars per annum, and each member an allowance of 10 dollars
per diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a session lasting
longer than this period the sum of 1,000 dollars, with, in every
case, 10 cents per mile for travelling expenses. The sum of
8 dollars per diem is deducted for every day's absence of a mem-
ber, unless the same is caused by illness. There is the same
allowance for the members of the Senate of the Dominion.
Governor-General. — The Right Honourable Gilbert John Elliot
Earl of Minto, born July 9, 1845 ; succeeded to the peerage
March 17, 1891; Military Secretary to the Marquis of Lans-
downe, Governor-General of Canada, 1883-85 ; Chief of Staff
to General Middleton in the Canadian North-West, 1885 ;
assumed office, November, 1898.
The Governor-General has a salary of 10,000/. per annum. He is assisted
in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867, by a Council, com-
posed of 13 heads of departments.
Queen's Privy Council. — The present Council consists of the following
members : —
1. Premier and President of the Council— Rt. Hon. Sir Wilfrid Laurier,
G.C.M.G., Q.C., born in L'Assomption County, Province of Quebec, 1841 ;
entered Parliament 1874 ; Minister of Inland Heveuue 1877 ; Premier July
13, 1896.
222
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
2. Secretary of State. — Hon. R. W. Scott, Senator.
3. Minister of Trade and Commerce. — Hon. Sir R. J. Cartwright, G.C.M.G.
4. Minister of Justice and Attorney-General. — Hon. Da,vid Mills.
5. Minister of Marine and Fisheries. — Hon. Sir L. H. Davies, K.C.M.G.
6. Minister of Railways and Canals. — Hon. A. G. Blair.
7. Minister of Militia and Defence. — Hon. F. W. Borden.
8. Minister of Finance. — Hon. W. S. Fielding.
9. Postmaster-General. — Hon. W. Mulock.
10. Minister of Agriculture. — Hon. Sydney A. i^is^en
11. Minister of Public Works. — Hon. Joseph I. Tarte.
12. Minister of Interior. — Hon. Clifford Si/ton.
13. Minister of Customs. — Hon. Wm. Paterson.
14. Minister of Inland Revenue. — Hon. Sir Henri Joly de Lotbini^rc,
K.C.M.G.
15. —Without Portfolio.— Hon. R. R. Dobell ; Hon. C. A. Geoffrion.
16. — "With Portfolio, but not of the Cabinet, Hon. Charles Fiizpatrick,
Q.C., Solicitor-General.
Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of 7,000 dollars, or
1,400^. a year, with the exception of the recognised Prime Minister, who has
8,000 dollars, or 1,600Z. and the Ministers of Customs and Inland Revenue,
who have each 5,000 dollars a year. The body of ministers is officially known
as the * Queen's Privy Council of Canada. '
Provincial Government.
The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate jmrlia-
ment and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor at the head of the
executive. They have full powers to regulate their own local affairs and
dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere Avith the action
and policy of the central administration. The Lieutenant-Governors are
appointed by the Governor-General. Quebec and Nova Scotia have each two
Chambers (a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly) and a responsi-
ble IMinistry. In New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba, British Columbia, and
Prince Edward Island there is only one Chamber (the Legislative Assembly)
and a responsible Ministry. The members of the Legislative Council of Nova
Scotia number 21, and Quebec 24. The membersliip of the Legislative
Assemblies are — Prince Edward Island 30, Nova Scotia 38, New Brunswick
41, Quebec 73, Ontario 94, Manitoba 40, British Columbia, 33 ; and the
North-West Territories, 26, The North- West Territories are presided over
by a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislative Assembly. The Executive
Council consists (since October 1, 1897) of the Lieutenant-Governor and 5
members elected, as such, by the people.
Area and Population.
The population of Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at 240,000 ; it
has increased as follows : —
Year
1825
1851
1861
Population
Year
Population
581,920
1,842,265
3,090,561
1871
1881
1891
3,635,024
4,324,810
4,833,239
AREA AND POPULATION
223
In 1897 the estimated population was 5,185,990. The following are the
areas of the provinces in 1897 with the population at the censuses of 1881 and
1891 :—
Square
Miles
Total 1 Total
Density
Increase
Increase
Province
Popula- 1 Poiuila-
per sq.
mile
1891
54-5
per cent.
per cent.
tion, 1881
tion, 1891
1871-81
1881-91
Pi-ince Edward Island .
2,000
108,891
109,078
15-8
0-17
Nova Scotia .
20,600
440,572
450,396
21-9
13-6
2-23
New Brunswick
28,200
321,233
321,263
iri
12-4
0-00
Quebec ....
347,350
1,359,027 1,488,535
4-3
140
9-53
Ontario ....
222,000
1,926,922 ! 2,114,321
9-6
18-6
9-73
Manitoba
73,956
62,260
152,506
2-4
247-2
144-95
British Columbia .
383,300
49,459
98,173
0-3
36-4
98-49
Territories and Arctic
Islands
Total .
2,572,540
56,446
98,967
0-04
—
75-33
3,653,946
4,324,810
4,833,239
1-5
18-97
11-76
The above area includes Hudson Bay and the lakes and rivers of Canada.
In 1891 there were 2,460,471 males and 2,372,768 females.
A portion of the North- Western Territories was in 1895 divided into four
districts — Assiniboia, 90,340 square miles ; Saskatchewan, 114,000 sq. m. ;
Alberta, 100,000 sq. m. ; and Athabasca, 251,300 sq. m. By the census of the
first three districts taken in 1891, there was found to be a total population
of 66,799. The district of Keewatin, stretching along the west shore of
Hudson Bay, and including the greater part of the Bay added in 1897, was
created in 1876 out of the Territories, and erected into a separate govern-
ment under the Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba, and it has now an area
of about 756,000 square miles. By Order in Council of October 2, 1895, the
remaining portions of the N.AV. Territories were divided into the districts of
Ungava, Franklin, Mackenzie, and Yukon ; and by Act of Parliament, 1898,
the latter was erected into the Judicial District of Yukon.
Eighty-six per cent, of the population of the Dominion consisted, at the
census of 1891, of natives of British North America. These numbered 4,185,877,
of whom 1,708,702 were natives of Ontario ; 1,406,514 of Quebec ; 423,890
of Nova Scotia; 299,154 of New Brunswick ; 108,017 of Manitoba; 56,851
of British Columbia ; 102,652 natives of Prince Edward Island ; and 80,097
of the Territories. Of those born out of the country, the most numerous, at
the census of 1891, were 475,456 natives of the United Kingdom ; 13,776 were
born in other parts of the Empire, making 490,232 British born — 80,915 were
born in the United States, 27,752 in Germany, 9,222 in Russia, 7,827 in
Scandinavia, 5,381 in France, 2,964 in Italy, Spain, and Portugal, 9,129 in
China, and 13,940 in other countries. English-speaking persons numbered
3,428,265, and French-speaking, 1,404,974. According to an official report
for 1895, there were 102,275 Indians in Canada at that date.
The census population of the principal cities of the Dominion was as
follows in 1891 :—
Ontario
1
Toronto 181,220
Hamilton 48,980
Ottawa 44,154
London 31,977
British Columbia
Quebec .
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick
Manitoba
( Victoria
J Montreal
\ Quebec
Halifax
St. John
Winnipeg
16,841
216,650
63,090
38,556
39,179
25,642
\ Vancouver 13,685
224
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : —CANADA
There are no vital statistics collected for the Dominion ; it is therefore
impossible to say what is the rate of natural increase of the population.
The death rate per 1,000 was as follows in 1891 in the towns named: —
Montreal, 28-11; Toronto, 15-61; Quebec, 41*11; Hamilton, 16*23;
Halifax, 20-51 ; Ottawa, 21-35 ; St. John, KB., 19-75 ; Winnipeg, 14-66;
Victoria, B.C., 19-35.
As it has been found impossible to collect trustworthy figures, no returns
concerning emigration and immigration are now published. A tax of 50
dollars a head is levied on all Chinamen landing at Vancouver, but the number
of Chinese immigrants is largely on the increase.
Religion.
There is no State Church in the whole of British North America. The
Church of England is governed by twenty bishops, with about 1,000 clergy ;
the Roman Catholic Church by one cardinal, seven archbishops, twenty-three
bishops, and about 1,500 clergy ; and the Presbyterian Church in Canada,
with about 1,000 ministers — formed in 1875 by the union of two formerly dis-
tinct bodies — by presbyteries, synods, and an annual assembly as in the Scotch
Church, with 2,358 churches and stations. The Methodists have 1,700 and
the Baptists about 500 ministers. All these bodies have one or more divinity
schools. The number of members of each religious creed in the Dominion was
as follows at the census of April 6, 1891 : —
Roman Catholics
Presbyterians
Anglicans
Methodists .
Baptists
Lutherans
1,992,017
755,326
646,059
847,765
303,839
63,982
Congregationalists ,
Miscellaneous creeds.
No creed stated
Total
28,157
106,739
189,355
4,833,239
Including Pagans.
The following shows the numbers of the leading denominations in the
several provinces according to the census of 1891 : —
Province
Roman
Catholic
358,300
Church of
England
385,999
Presby-
terian
Methodist
Baptist
106,047
Ontario
453,147 654,033
Quebec
1,291,709
75,472
52,673
39,544
7,991
Nova Scotia
122,452
64,410
108,952
54,195
83,122
New Brunswick .
115,961
43,095
40,639
35,504
79,649
Manitoba .
20,571
30,852
39,.001
28,437
16,112
British Columbia
20,843
23,619
15,284
14,298
3,098
Prince Edward Island .
47,837
6,646
33,072
13,596
6,265
The Territories .
14,344
15,966
12,558
8,158
1,555
INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
225
Instruction.
All the provinces of the Dominion have one or more universities, and
several colleges which prepare for university degrees. There are in all about
16 degree-granting bodies in the Dominion, with about 24 colleges, including
denominational, medical, and other special institutions. From special official
statistics of these institutions it may be estimated that they are attended
by about 13,000 students, and their total annual expenditure is upwards of
700,000 dollars, while the estimated value of their endowments, buildings,
land, &c., is over 16,000,000 dollars.
The following table gives some information respecting the public, high,
and superior schools in the Dominion, the pupils attending them and the
amount expended for education : —
Provinces
Year Ended
Schools
Teachers
Pupils
Expendi-
ture
Ontario ....
Quebec ....
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick .
Manitoba ....
British Columbia
P. E. Island
The Territories .
Dec. 31, 1896
June 30, 1897
Oct. 31, 1897
Dec. 31, 1897
Dec. 31, 1897
June 30, 1897
June 30, 1897
June 30, 1897
6,200
5,807
2,367
1,752
1.072
244
467
394
9,610
10,433
2,552
1,922
1,210
394
579
433
509,585
328,640
102,809
62,897
40,885
15,798
21,845
13,535
Dollars
4,149,207
1,701,136
810,676
473,994
805,417
236,681
161,444
274,648
Total
—
18,303
27,133
1,095,994
8,613,203
The number of public schools included in the table was 17,363, with
27,123 teachers and 1,067,035 pupils, their average attendance being 633,000
If the number of those attending the universities and private schools
were added to the above figures, the total number of pupils would be con-
siderably over one million. The expenditure for the year on public and
high schools, including Government grants, was over 10,000,000 dollars. The
supervision of education is under the control of the Governments of the
several provinces, and the systems in use vary somewhat, but are all based on
the principle of free education, the funds being .supplied in nearly all the
provinces by Government grants and local taxation. In British Columbia
and the North-West Territories the schools are .supported wholly by Govern-
ment. Education is more or le.ss compulsory in all the provinces, but the law
^s not very strictly enforced. In Ontario, Quebec, and the North- West
Territories there are separate schools for Roman Catholics; in the other
-provinces the schools are unsectarian. Separate schools in Manitoba were
abolished by a Provincial Act passed in 1890.
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, liaving appellate, civil and criminal
jurisdiction in and throughout Canada. Theje is also an exchequer couit,
Q
226
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — CANADA
which is also a colonial court of admiralty, with powers as provided in the
Imperial "Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act, 1890." There is a Superior
Court in each province ; county courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most of
the provinces ; all the judges in these courts being appointed by the Governor-
General. Police magistrates and justices of the peace are appointed by the
Provincial Governments.
In 1897, 8,027 persons were charged with indictable offences ; of these
5,721 were convicted, 4 being sentenced to death, 609 sent to the peniten-
tiary, and the rest sentenced to various terms of imprisonment ; and 32,257
were summarily convicted, 27,147 of these with the option of a fine.
Finance.
The financial accounts of the Dominion of Canada are made up under
three different headings — namely, first, ' Consolidated Fund,' comprising
the general sources of revenue and branches of expenditure ; secondly,
* Loans ' in revenue, and 'Redemption' with 'Premiums and Discounts 'in
expenditure; and thirdly, 'Open accounts.' The headings 'Loans' and
' Redemption ' include the deposits in and withdrawals from the Post Office
and Government Savings Banks, the amount on deposit forming part of the
floating or unfunded debt ot the country. Under the head of 'Open
Accounts ' are included investments, trust funds. Province accounts, and
expenditure on capital account on public works.
The revenue and expenditure, Consolidated Fund, for five fiscal years
ending June 30, have been : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
1894
36,374,693
37,585,026
1895
33,978,129
38,132,005
1896
36,618,591
36,949,142
1897
37,829,778
38,349,760
1898
40,555,238
38,832,526
The total actual receipts and expenditure, under these three divisions,
were as follows in the financial year ending June 30, 1898 : —
Receipts.
Consolidated Fund
Loans .
Open Accounts .
Dollars
40,555,238
10,920,677
88,219,940
139,695,855
Expenditure.
Consolidated Fund
Redemption
Open Accounts .
Dollars
38,832,526
5,111,970
95,751,359
139,695,855
The actual sources of revenue and branches of expenditure comprised
under the division called Consolidated Fund were as follows iu the financial
year, ending June 30, 1898 : —
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Dollars
Dollars
Customs .
21,704,893
Interest on Public Debt
10.516,758
Excise
7,871,563
Charges for debt .
152,880
Lands
975,792
Sinking Fund
2,359,968
Public Works . . \
7,401,274
Subsidies to Provinces .
4,237,372
Post Office . . j
Legislation and Civil
Fees, Fines, and Forfei-
Government .
2,129,251
tures (including Sei-
Public Works .
1,701,313
zures) .
163,393
Penitentiaries . ,
386,395
Militia, including Mili-
Administration of Justice
7(55,608
tary College .
36,916
Geological Survey, &c.
57,000
Weights and Measures
44,014
Arts, Agriculture, and
Premium, Discount, and
Statistics .
245,231
Exchange
191,560
Ocean and River Steam
Interest on Investments
1,513,454
Service & Mail Subsidies
730,326
Fisheries .
106,179
Militia and Defence
1,514,472
Penitentiaries .
76,588
Mounted Police N.W.T.
865,416
Superannuation
45,643
Pensions, &c.
96,187
Dominion Steamers and
Lighthouses, &c.
474,217
Lighthouse and Coast
Fisheries .
441,725
Service
11,630
Indians (Leg. Grants) .
952,584
Mariners' Fund
54,553
Immigration. &c.
261,195
Steamboat Inspection
31,525
Charges on Revenue, &c.
10,407,834
Various .
326,661
Gov. of N. W. Ter. .
347,687
40,555,238
Miscellaneous
Total
189,107
Total .
38,832,526
The public debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefly on account of public
works, and the interest of which forms the largest branch of the expenditure,
was as follows on July 1, 1898 : —
Dollars
Without Interest 22,921,520
At 2^ per cent. ,, ...... 9,733,333
„3' ,, „ 106,085,014
„ 34 „ „ : 27,897,548
,, 4 ,, , 143,709,497
,,5- ,, ,, 26,804,687
„6 „ „ 1,224,384
Total Debt
338,375,984
There arc assets which make the net debt 263,956,399 dollars,
following shows the gross and net debts in five years : —
The
Gross
Net
Dollars.
Dollars
1894
308,348,024
246,183.029
1895
318,048,755
253,074,927
1896
325,717,537
258,497,433
1897
332,530,131
261,538,596
1898
338,375,984
263,956,399
Q 2
228
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
The total burden of the debt, after deducting assets, is lOZ. 9.?. 6d. per
head, and of the annual charge for interest and management 8s. 6^d. The
expenditure on canals and railways alone by the Government amounted to
over 34 millions sterling up to 1897. At the census of 1891 it was found
that the value of the capital invested in manufacturing industries of various
kinds was 72 millions sterling, and the annual value of the products 97
millions.
Provincial Revenues, Expenditures, and Debts, 1897.
Province
Revenue
Expenditure
Net Debt
Ontario
Quebec
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick .
Manitoba .
British Columbia
Prince Edward Island
Dollars
4,139,848
3,877,466
832,240
745,203
683,706
1,383,048
272,550
Dollars
3,767,676
4,892,282
853,699
727,187
780,109
1,569,071
310,752
Dollars
21,718,476
2,303,928
2,488,578
4,284,015
168,264
Total .
11,934,061
12,900,776
30,963,261
Defence.
The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence form a barrier between Central
Canada and the United States, but the eastern provinces and Western Canada
have neither natural barriers nor fortifications. With the exceptions of
Halifax, a small fort at St. John, New Brunswick, and the fortifications
at Esquimalt on the Pacific coast, there are practically no fortifications in
Canada. Esquimalt is used as a victualling yard.
In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Government — the
strength of which was reduced, in the year 1871, to 2,000 men, forming
the garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an * Imperial Station ' —
Canada has a large militia force. By the terms of the Act passed in March
1868 the militia consists of all male British subjects between 18 and 60,
who may be called out to serve in four classes, according to age and
condition, married or single. The militia is divided into an active and a
reserve force. The active includes the land and marine militia, and consists
of those who voluntarily enlist, or of men balloted, or in part of both. The
active militia serve for three years. The reserve militia consists of the whole
of the men between the ages of 18 and 60 not serving in the active militia of
the time being, with certain exemptions. The number of men to be drilled
annually is limited to 45,000 and the period of drill to 16 days every year.
The establishment of the active militia, June 30. 1897, amounted to
36,204 officers and men, comprising 9 regiments, 1 squadron, 3 troops of
cavalry ; 1 brigade, 15 batteries of field artillery ; 5 battalions, 9 companies of
garrison artillery ; 2 companies of engineers ; and 91 battalions, 6 companies
of infantry. The permanent corps, coml)ined with which are schools of in-
struction, consist of the Royal Canadian Dragoons (2 troops), Royal Canadian
Artillery (3 batteries), and the Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry (4 com-
panies). The establishment is 868 of all rapk*. There is also a Royal
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 229
Military College at Kingston, founded in 1875. The Dominion is divided
into twelve military districts, each district being commanded by a Deputy
Adjutant-General, whose appointment is permanent. A small-arm.s ammuni-
tion factory is in operation in Quebec. There is at present no active marine
militia, the naval defences of the country being the care of the Imperial
authorities. According to the Navy List thirteen ships are on the North
America and West India Stations, besides seven others on the Pacific Station.
Production and Industry.
Agriculture— Of the total area of Canada in 1891, there were 28,537,242
acres of improved land out of 60,287,730 acres of occupied land. Of the
improved lands, 19,904,826 acres were under crop, being 4,792,542 acres
more than were under crop in 1881. The acreage under pasture in 1891 was
15,284,788 acres, an increase of 8,899,226 acres since 1881. The acreage under
wheat in 1891 was 2,723,861 acres, an increase of 381,506 acres in ten years.
The average yield of 1891 per acre was 15-4 bushels, an increase of IQ
bushels per acre over the yield of 1881. There is a central experimental
farm near Ottawa, and others in several of the provinces. In 1895 there were
195 ranches in the N.-W. Territories covering an area of 904,187 acres.
Forestry. — The timber wealth of Canada is very large, and timbering one
of its most important industries. The forest area is estimated at 1,248,798
square miles. The forest products of 1891 were valued at 80,071,415 dollars,
of which 27,207,547 dollars were exported. The census returns show an
aggregate of 2,045,073,072 cubic feet as the total cut of the year. The forest
products exported to the United Kingdom in 1897 amounted in value to
14,973,292 dollars out of a total of 32,937,976 dollars. The recently intro-
duced wood pulp industry is increasing rapidly, the exportable surplus being
741,960 dollars in 1897, chiefly going to Great Britain and the United
States. The Crown forests belong to the Provincial Governments, excej)t
in Manitoba, the N. W. Territories, and the Railway Belt (forty miles wide),
in British Columbia, where they belong to the Dominion.
Fishericn. — The total value of the produce of the fisheries of Canada in
1896 was 20,407,424 dollars; in 1895, 20,185,298 dollars. The values of
the principal catches in 1896 were: cod, 3,610,979 dollars; salmon,
4,009,679 dollars ; herring, 2,909,744 dollars ; lobsters, 2,205,762 dollars,
and mackerel, 727,743 dollars. In 1896, according to provinces, the values
were: Nova Scotia, 6,070,895 dollars; British Columbia, 4,183,999 ; New
Brunswick, 4,799,433; Quebec, 2,025,754; Ontario, 1,605,674; Prince
Edward Island, 976,126 ; Manitoba and N.W. Territories, 745,543.
Mining. — Nova Scotia, British Columbia, Quebec, N. and W. Ontario,
and part of the N.-W. Territories, are the chief mining districts of Canada.
The total value of the mineral produce of Canada was in 1897, 28,779,173
dollars ; in 1896, 22,609,825 dollars. The principal product is coal, of which
in 1896, 3,745,716 tons were raised, valued at 7,226,462 dollars ; in 1897,
3,876,201 tons valued at 7,442,204 dollars. Among the other minerals
produced in 1897 were gold, 6,190,000 dollars; nickel, 1,400,000 dollars:
asbestos, 324,700 dollars; petroleum, 1,011,546 dollars ; copper, 1,501,660
dollars; silver, 3,322,000 dollars ; lead, 1,396,850 dollars; iron ore, 178,719
dollars. It is estimated that the coal-bearing area of the N.-W. Territories
extends over 65,000 square miles.
230
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Commerce.
The following statement gives the total value ^ of exports and of imports,
and the total value of imports entered for home consumption in the Dominion,
in each of the years named : —
Year ended
June 30
Total Exports
Total Imports
Imports for
Home Consumption
1879
1889
1894
1895
1896
1897
Dollars
71,491,225
89,189,167
117,524,949
113,638,803
121,013,852
137,950,253
Dollars
81,964,427
115,224,931
123,474,940
110,781,682
118,011,508
119,218,609
I
Dollars
80,341,608
109,673,447
113,093,983
105,252,511
110,587,480
111,294,021
The following table shows the share of the leading countries in the com-
merce of Canada in the last two years in thousands of dollars : —
Exports to
Great Britain ,
United States ,
West Indies
Newfoundland ,
South America
Germany
1896
1897
1,000 Dols.
1,000 Dols.
66,690
77,227
36,421
41,934
2,880
2,643
1,782
1,693
1,694
1,536
—
1,045
No other country over a million
Imports entered for
Consumption.
1S96
1897
1,000 Dols,
58,574
32,980
5,931
2,811
United States .
Great Britain .
Germany .
France
China
Japan
West Indies
Spain and Boss.
(Not in W.I.)
Belgium . . | —
Other countries each under
2,671
1,896
1,226
1,000 Dol.s.
61,649
29,412
i 6,494
I 2,601
2,397
1,679
1,226
1,164
a million
1 The returns of A'alues of imports and exports are those supplied in entries at the
Customs, where imports must be entered for dnty at their fair market value as for home
consiunption in the country of purcliase. Quantities are ascertained from invoices and by
examination, wines are gauged and spirits tested. Tlie country of origin of imi)orts is the
country of purchase or whence shipment was made to Canada ; the country of destination
is that to which shipment is made. Tlius, Canadian wheat, purcliased by New York dealers,
shipped to and entered in bond at New York, and thence exported to Great Brilian, would
appear only as exported from Canada to the United States. The only Canadian port where
transit trade is recorded is Montreal, sucli trade comprising chiefly goods received from the
United States and transhipi)ed to other countries by the St. Lawrence route. Transit trade
is not included in the general trade, which comin'ises all other imports into and exports
from Canada. The term " special trade," in Canada, is applied to imports from Newfound-
laud which are exempt from duties leviable on similar goods from other countries.
Tlie accuracy of the statistical results may at times be att'ected by fraudulent misde-
scription or undervaluation by importers, and by the adoption of " sight entries" which,
under the Customs Act, may be passed when importers declare on oath that, for want of
full information, they cannot make a perfect entry. In sucli circumstances the goods may
be landed, examined, and (a sum being deposited sufllcient, in the collector's opinion, to pay
the duty) delivered to the imi)orter. A lime is fixed within which a perfect entry should
be made, but when tliis time lias elapsed the deposit is held as payment of the dnty, and
the provisional valuation, which may be only approximate, is not corrected. Statistics of
exports may be affected in two ways : large quantities of goods are shijiped at remote points
where no officer is stationed, and the prescribed^entry outwards is not unfrequently neg-
lected, while, on the other hand, it may happen, by tlie mistake of oflicers or of carriers'
agents, that exports already entered outwards at tlie inland port of shipment are recorded
also at the point of exit from Canada.
COMMERCE
231
The following talilc shows the value of the leading imports and exports
in 1897 :—
Imports, 1807,
Exports of Canadian
Dollars
for Home Consumption
produce, 1897.
"Wool, manufactures of
7,125,748
Cheese
14,676,239
Iron, steel, and manu-
Horned Cattle .
7,132,807
factures of
10,613,630
Horses
1,710,922
Coal and coke .
9,276,534
Sheep
1,002,011
Breadstufts
1,136,263
Eggs
978,479
Cotton manufactures .
4,269,620
Other animal products
13,744,794
Tea and coflee ,
4,034,208
Wood pulp
741,959
Sugar of all kinds
8,560,790
Wood k other manu-
Cotton wool and
factures of
32,169,087
waste .
3,290,240
Wheat and wheat flour
7,085,048
Silk and manufac-
Peas....
2,352,891
tures of
1,988,305
Apples
2,682,472
Provisions
655,316
Hay.
999,238
Wool, raw
878,339
Other agric. products
4,862,997
Wood, and manufac-
Codfish .
2,706,827
tures of
861,728
Fish of other kinds .
7,607,496
Animals, living
397,902
Coal ....
3,330,017
Flax, hemp, jute, and
Gold-bearing quartz
manufactures of .
1,362,853
and nuggets, &c. .
2,804,101
Spirits and wines
1,379,436
Other minerals .
5,164,797
Coin and bullion
4,676,194
Iron and steel and
All other articles
50,786,915
manufactures
522,988
Leather and manufac.
1,541,732
Coin and Bullion
327,298
All other articles
9,815,638
Foreign produce
13,990,415
Total
111,294,021
Total
137,950,253
More than half the revenue of Canada is derived from Customs duties.
The following statement shows, for 1897, the amount of imports dutiable and
duty-free, and the average rate per cent, of duty on dutiable imports : —
Duties
Av. rate
Nature of Imports
Dutiable
Free
collected
of duty
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Food and animals .
13,655,482
5,137,678
3,243,522
23-75
Raw materials for Domestic
indnstrj' ....
4,042,226
19,806,964
1,033,557
25-57
■Wholly or partially manufac-
tured materials for marm-
factures and mechanical arts
10,420,183
8,125,421
2,542,724
24-40
Manufactured articles ready
for consumption .
30,284,115
6,854,958
8,536,340
28 19
Luxuries, <tc
7,S18,759
472,031
4,535,854
58 -tl
Totals ....
66,220,765
40,397,062
19,891,997
30-02
1 Including flsh-oils, furs and skins of flsh, and other products of the fisheries.
232
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
The following table shows the progress of the leading classes of domestic
exports, in thousands of dollars : —
1880
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
Produce of the Mines .
2,877
4,855
5,800
6,982
8,060
11,299
,, ,, Fisheries
6,579
8,462
11,100
10,692
11,078
10,314
,, ,, Forest .
3,945
6,380
6,834
5,517
6,068
3,067
Animals & their produce
17,607
25,107
31,882
34,388
36,508
39,245
Agricultural produce .
22,294
11,908
17,678
15,719
14.084
17,983
Manufactures
16,197
25,541
27,216
26,144
30,477
34,715
Miscellaneous
640
82
75
86
^109
327
The share of the leading ports in the trade of 1897 was as follows in
dollars : —
Montreal
Toronto Halifax
Quebec
St. John,
N.B.
Ottawa
Victoria
B.C.
Imports
Exports .
44,498,213
48,079,462
18,626,007 5,777,260
5,603,137 6,435,718
4,712,094
4,901,394
3,354,067
5,730,585
1,792,993
4,169,595
2,787,785
2,610,794
The following figures give the value of exports of Canadian jiroduce to
Great Britain, according to Canadian returns, in 1879 and in the last five years
ended 30th June. (Conversions made at 4 '861.)
1879
1893
1894
£6,039,744
12,003,620
12,510,440
1895
1896
1897
£11,897,993
12,887,933
14,287,780
Canadian returns of imports from Great Britain do not distinguish
between British and foreign produce. The chief exports of domestic produce
from Canada to Great Britain in the last four years were : —
Articles
1894
1895
1S96
1897
£
£
£
£
Wheat ....
1,245,490
1,097,072
1,166,750
1,125,456
Wheat Flour .
166,930
86,503
71,450
166,322
Pease ....
337,250
243,469
165,160
373,305
Wood, and Manufactures
of ... .
2,358,250
1,825,371
2,675,260
3,073,567
Cheese ....
3,172,750
2,922,022
2,861,520
3,009,423
Cattle ....
1,298,010
1,396,770
1,400,350
1,326,229
Sheep ....
33,510
257,548
353,720
74,322
Fish ....
942,570
851,505
916,940
897,093
Apples, green or ripe
116,960
340,981
269,180
495,162
I'acon and Hams .
598,980
780,481
898,110
1,198,278
Skins and Furs
258,478
239,666
287,040
264,689
Leather, and manufac-
tures of .
296,149
228,783
350,980
260,676
COMMERCE
The chief imports into Canada from Great Britain were :-
233
Articles
1894
1895
1896
£
1897
£
£
£
Iron and Steel, and
manufactures of .
1,405,320
951,354
877,960
717,565
Woollens
1,651,830
1,355,108
1,424,168
1,146,349
Cottons ....
607,790
635,770
689,870
559,568
Silk, and manufactures of
407,559
355,471
• 389,751
286,852
Wearing apparel, all
kinds ....
—
—
—
—
Fancy goods .
219,860
193,704
186,890
179,421
Flax, hemp, and jute,
and manufactures of .
273,680
253,004
269,378
217,563
The following table exhibits the commercial intercourse of the Dominion
of Canada with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
in 1879, and in each of the last five years.
1879
1893
1894
1895
£
12,798,469
5,285,271
1896
1897
Imports into U. K.
from Canada .
Exports of British
produce to Canada .
£
9,834,236
5,926,908
£
12,945,605
6,658,492
£
12,506,642
5,531,513
£
16,047,263
5,352,029
£
19,217,918
5,171,850
The chief imports into Great Britain from Canada were : —
Articles
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
Wheat .
1,023,905
773,952
556,920
1,092,372
1,875,058
,, flour
508,130
481,005
1,003,779
816,487
803,389
Maize
786,614
166,682
263,651
539,205
740,609
Pease
280,513
199,076
134,763
304,049
287,496
Wood & timber
3,185,626
3,492,032
3,179,678
4,206,094
5,546,073
Cheese
2,575,893
2,688,946
2,335,548
2,589,301
3.349,501
Cattle .
1,465,005
1,346,360
1,593,304
1,607,899
2,045,209
Fish
349,390
632,684
566,203
650,409
734,866
Apples
153,604
317,154
278,158
646,262
278,939
Bacon k Hams
667,314
652,709
686,016
1,061,065
783,467
Skins & Furs .
403,262
412,509
407,168
373,291
261,570
The chief exports of British produce and
were : —
manufactures to Canada
234
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Articles
1893
£
1,234,305
1,413,965
753,517
512,635
1894
£
759,365
1,040,063
642,449
381,424
1895
1896
1897
Iron, Avroiight
& unwrought
Woollens
Cottons .
Apparel, &c. .
£
674,485
1,104,444
700,977
452,066
£
626,976
1,071,298
710,256
411,718
£
541,660
1,083,918
727,170
360,228
Shipping and Navigation.
On December 31, 1896, tlie registered shipping of Canada, including
vessels for inland navigation, comprised (according to Board of Trade
statistics) 1,755 steamers of 145,900 tons net, and 4,824 sailing vessels of
562,254 tons net; total 6,579 vessels of 708,154 tons net. The tonnage
that entered and cleared during the year 1897 at Canadian ports was as
follows : —
"Vessels.
Entered.
Cleared.
Sea-going :
Canadian ....
British ....
Foreign ....
Total ....
Inland Lake :
Canadian ....
United States .
Total ....
Coasting :
British and Canadian
Foreign ....
Total.
Grand Total
i Tons.
. \ 914,319
2,807,340
2,369,774
Tons.
973,853
2,586,095
2,359,599
. , 6,091,433
. I 2,606,741
2,110,104
5,919,547
2,306,402
4,339,706
4,716,845
14,357,723
82,013
6,646,108
12,759,398
68,845
. ; 14,439,736
12,828,243
25,248,014
25,393,898
Internal Communications.
Canada has a system of canal, river, and lake navigation over 2,700 miles
in length, and vessels from the lake ports reach the Atlantic Avithout breaking
bulk. Up to 1897, 71,750,000 dollars had been spent on canals for construction
alone. In 1896, 25,622 vessels, of 4,677,826 tons, passed through the Cana-
dian canals, carrying 151,342 passengers and 3,413,674 tons of freight, chiefly
grain, timber, and coal.
The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways of a total length of
16,687 miles completed at the end of June 1897, being an increase of 300 miles
over that of 1896. The number of miles in o})eration was 16,550. The Cana-
dian Pacific Railway main line from Montreal to Vancouver is 2,906 miles in
length. By means of this railway and a line of Paciiic steamers subsidised by
the Imperial and Dominion Governments, Montreal and Yokohama have been
brought within 14 days of one another. There is a monthly steam service
between Australia and British Columbia, for which the Dominion Government
gives 25,000/. a year and the Australian 12,000Z. a year.
MONEY AND CREDIT
235
The traffic on Canadian railways in the last two years was : —
Vrs. I Miles
1896[ 16,387
1897. 16,687
Passengers
No.
14,810,407
16,171,338
Freight
Tons
Receipts
Dollars
24,266,825
25,300,331
50,545,569
52,354,277
Working
Expenses
Dollars
35,042,055
35,168,616
Net profits
Dollars
15,502,904
17,185,611
Capital
]iaid up
Dollars
899,817,900
921,858,232
In 1897, of the capital paid up, 149,939,386 dollars represented Federal
Government aid, and 46,782,254 dollars aid from Provincial Governments and
Municipalities.
The number of electric railways in Canada in 1897 was 35, witli a mileage
of 535 ; the number of passengers carried during the year was 83,811,306 ;
the total paid up capital was 18,727,355 dollars, and the bonded debt,
9,894,452 dollars.
On June 30, 1897, there were 9,191 post offices in the Dominion. During
the year ended on the foregoing date the number of letters sent through the
post-office was 123,830,000, of postcards 26,140,000, of newspapers, books,
&c., 26,640,000, and of parcels 369,570. Newspapers sent from the office
of publication are carried free. Their number in 1897 was estimated at
upwards of 74,319,976. The letters and postcards posted amounted to 28*88
per head, and the other articles to 19'54 per head. Revenue, 4,311,243
dollars ; expenditure, 4,897,783 dollars. A uniform rate of postage of three
cents has been established over the whole Dominion. The number of money
order offices in Canada in 1897 was 1,349 and of orders issued 1,162,209, their
value having been 13,081,860 dollars.
There were 29,318 miles (2,786 being Government) of telegraph lines in
Canada in 1897 and 70,761 miles of wire, with 2,572 offices, and the number
of messages sent, as nearly as could be ascertained, 4,313,925. There were in
1894, 44,000 miles of telephone wire, and 33,500 sets of instruments ;
72,500,000 messages were sent. The returns for 1897 do not vary greatly
from those of 1894.
Money and Credit.
The Bank Acts of Canada impose stringent conditions as to capital, notes
in circulation, limit of dividend, returns to the Domiuion Government, and
other points in all chartered and incorporated banks. In making payments
every bank is compelled if required to pay a certain proportion in Domiuion
Government notes, and must hold not less than 40 per cent, of its cash reserve
in Dominion Government notes. In 1897 there were 37 incorporated banks
making returns to the Government, with 575 branches all over the Dominion.
The following are some particulars of the banks : —
Year
ended
June 30
Cai)ital
Paid up
Notes in
Circulation
^°e%'5? t-™""-
1
Assets
Percentage
of Liabili-
ties to
Assets.
1888
' 1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Dollars
60,168,010
61,954,314
62,063,371
61,800,700
62,043,175
62,027,703
Dollars
30,444,643
33,483,413
31,166,003
30,807,041
31,456,297
34,350,118
Dollars Dollars
128,725,529 166,344,852
174,320,991 219,666,666
181,743,890 1 221,066,724
190,916,939 ; 229,794,322
193,616,049 232,338,086
211,788,096 252,660,708
Dollars
244,975,223
304,363,580
307,520,020
316,536,527
320,937,643
341,163,505
67-90
72-17
71-87
72-50
72-39
74-06
286
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Post-office savings-banks under charge of the Government have been in
operation in Canada since 1868 ; there are also Government savings-banks,
under the management of the Finance Department, in the Maritime Provinces,
Manitoba, and British Columbia. In 1897 there were 779 offices of the former
and 28 of the latter. In 1897 the post-office savings-banks had 135,737
depositors and 32,380,829 dollars on deposit. The following is a statement
of the transactions of the post-office and Government savings-banks for two
years in dollars : —
Year
Balances, July 1
Casli Deposited
(Incl. inteiest)
Withdrawals
■ ■ ■ - 1
Balances, June 30
1895-1896
1896-1897
44,450,499
46,799,319
13,425,276
14,888,147
11,076,457
12,752,490
46,799,318
48,934,976
The deposits in special savings-banks amounted in 1896 to 14,459,833
dollars, and in 1897 to 15,025,564 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Dollar of 100 cents. The value of the money of the United King-
dom is fixed by law as follows: — The sovereign, 4 "86 dollars; the crown
piece, 1 "2 dollars ; and the half-crown, the florin, the shilling, and the six-
pence at proportionate values. Canada has no gold coinage of its own, but
the English sovereign and the United States gold eagle of 10 dollars, with
its multiples and halves, are legal. Notes are issued exclusively by the
Government for 4, 2, and 1 dollar, and 25 cents ; no bank being allowed
to issue notes for a less sum than 5 dollars.
The legal weights and measures are the Imperial yard, Imperial pound
avoirdupois, Imperial gallon, and the Imperial bushel. By Act 42 Vict. cap.
16, the hundredweight was declared to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000
pounds avoirdupois, as in the United States.
High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada in Great Britain. —
Rt. Hon. Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, G.C.M.G.
Secretary. — Joseph G. Colmer, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Canada
and British North America.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Reports of the various Government Departments, Ottawa.
Census of Canada, 1891. Ottawa.
Kstimates of Canada for the fiscal year ending June 30. Annual. Ottawa.
Fisheries Statements. Annual. Ottawa.
General Report of the Minister of Public Works from June 30, 1SG7, to July 1, 1885.
With Maps. Ottawa, 1887.
Public Accounts of Canada, for the fiscal year ended June 30. Annual. Ottawa.
Report of the Department of the Interior. Annual. Ottawa.
Rei)orts on Canadian Archives, by Douglas Brymnor, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Report of the Auditor-General on Appropriation Accounts for the year ending June 30.
Annual. Ottawa.
Report on the State of the Militia. Annual. Ottawa.
Reports (Annual) of the Geological Survey of Canada. Ottawa.
Report on the Forest Wealth of Canada, by George Jolinson, F.8.S. (hon.) Ottawa,
1895.
BOOKS OF llEFERENCE 237
Report, Returns, and Statistics of the Inland Revenues of the Dominion ot Canada, for
the fiscal year ending June 30. Annual. Ottawa.
Statistical Year Book of Canada, prepared by George Johnson, F.S.S. (hon), Govern-
ment Statistician. Ottawa, 1808.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom. Annual. London.
Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion of Canada, for the fiscal year
ending June 30. Animal. Ottawa.
Annual Statement of tlie Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions, Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adam (G. M. The Canadian North-West: its History and its Troubles, with tlie
Narrative of Three Insurrections. Toronto, 1885.
Baedeker's Handbook for Canada. 8. Leipzig, 1894.
Bourinot (J. G.), Manual of the Constitutional History of Canada. 8. Montreal, IS88.
How Canada is governed. 8. London, 1895. Historical and Descriptive Accovmt of Cape
Breton. 4. Montreal, 1892. Canada. [In ' Story of the Nations' Series]. 8. London, 1896.
Bryce (G.), Manitoba: its Infancy, Growth, and Present Position. London, 1882.
Canadian Almanack for 1898. 8.' Toronto, 1897.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Chapais{J. C), Guide lilustre du Sylviculture Canadien. Montreal, 1883.
Chapleau (Hon. J. A.), Report on the Constitution of the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa,
1891. — Constitution and Government of Canada. 16. Montreal, 1894.
Calmer (J. G.), Recent Develoiiments in Canada. London, 1887.
Cumberland (Stuart), The Queen's Highway. 2nd ed., London, 1888.
Dawson {S. E.), North America. Vol. I. [In Stanford's Compendium of Geography and
Travel.] London, 1897.
Dilke (Sir Charles), Problems of Greater Britain. London, 1890.
- Edgar (J. D.), Canada and its Capital. London, lb98.
FatZiton (Abbe), Histoire dc la Coloniefran^aise en Canada. 2 vols. Fol. Montreal, 1865.
Oagnon (P.), Es.sai de Bibliographic canadienne. Quebec, 1895.
Garland (N. S.), Banks, Bankers, and Banking, and Financial Directory of Canada.
2nd ed., Ottawa, 1895.
Qarneau (F. X.), Histoire du Canada depuis sa decouverte jusqu'a nos jours. Montreal,
1882.
Oemmel (J. A.), The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1898.
Olossop (Lady Howard of), Journal of a Tour in Canada, the United States and Mexico.
London. 1897.
Gosnell (R. E.), Year Book of British Columbia. London, 1898.
Gront (Very Rev. Principal), Picturesque Canada. 2 vols. Toronto, 1884.
Greswell (W. P.), History of the Dominion of Canada. Loudon.— Geography of the
Dominion of Canada. London, 1891.
Hopkins (J. C), Canada : an Encyclopajdia, 1897.
Johnson (G.), Alphabet of First Things : a Ready Reference Book of Canadian Events.
Ottawa, 1897.
Kings ford (W.), History of Canada. 10 vols. London, 1887-98.
Langtry (J.) History of the Church of England in Eastern Canada. London. 1892.
Legge (A. 0.), Sunnv Manitoba, its Peoples and its Industries. London, 1893.
Leonard (J. W.), Thi; Gold Fitdds of Klondyke. London, 1897.
Alaclenjian (W.), Montreal and some of the Makers thereof. Montreal, 1893.
Macphrrson (Lieut.-Col. J. P.), Life of Sir John A. Macdonald, G.C.B. Toronto, 1892.
Mockridge (Canon), The Bishops of the Church of England in Canada and Newfound-
land. Toronto, 1897.
Morgan (H. J.), Bibliotheca Canadensis. Ottawa, 1898.— Canadian Men and Women of
the Time. Ottawa, 1S98,
Munro (J. E. C), The Constitution of Canada. 8. Cambridge, 1889.
Newton (W.), Twentv Years on the Saskatchewan. Noith-west Canada. London, 1897.
Parkin (G. R.), The Great Dominion. London, 1895.
Parkman (F.) Pioneers of France in the New World, 1512-1635. 23rd ed. London, 1885.
—The Old R<igime in Canada, 1653-1763. 14th ed. London, 1885.— Montcalm and Wolfe,
1710-1763. 6th ed. 2 vols. London, 1885.— The Jesuits in North America in the 17th
Century. 20th ed. London, 1885.— Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV.
London, 1885.
Pike (Warburton), The Barren Grounds of Northern Canada. 8. London, 1896.—
— Through the Sub-Arv-tic Forest. [Hritisli (^olumbia and Alaska.] London, 1896.
Pope (J.), Memoirs of the lit. Hon. Sir J A. .Macdonald. 2 vols. London, 1894.
Rae (W. Eraser), Columbia and Canada. 8, London, 1878. Newfoundland to Matii-
toba. London, 1S81.
2.38
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — FALKLAND ISLANDS
Roberts (C. D. G.), The Canadian Guide-Book. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892.— History of
Canada. Boston, 1897.
Royal Society of Canada. 1.5 vols. 1883-1897.
ii!/ej-so?i (Rev. E., D.D., LL.D.), The Loyalists of America and their Times. 2 vols.
Toronto, 1880.
Selwy}i(A. R. C), and Dawson (G. M.), Descriptive Sketch of the Physical Geography
and Geology of the Dominion of Canada. Montreal, 1884.
Short (A. ), Early History of Canadian Banking.
Silver ^ Go.'s Handbook to Canada. London.
Somerset (H. S.), The Land of the Muskeg. [British Columbia.] London, 1895.
Todd (Dr. Alphcus, C.M.G.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies.
Boston, 1880.
Tuttle (C. R.), Our North Land ; being a full account of the Canadian North-West and
Hudson's Bay Route. Toronto, 1885.
Tiirrell (J. W. ), Across the Sub- Arctics of Canada. London, 1898.
Wheeler (G. J.). Confederation Law of Canada. London, 1896.
Willmott (A. B.), Mineral Wealth of Canada. London, 1898.
Winsor (J.), The Struggle in America between England and France, 1697-1763.
London, 1S95.
FALKLAND ISLANDS.
Governor. — Wm. Grey Wilson, C.M.G. Salary 1,200Z. per annum.
Crown colony situated in South Atlantic, 300 miles E. of Magellan Straits
East Falkland, 3,000 square miles ; West Falkland, 2,300 square miles ; about
100 small islands, 1,200 square miles: total 6,500 square miles; besides
South Georgia, 1,000 square miles. Population : (census 1891) 1,789 ; male
1,086, females 703, foreigners 123. Total in 1897, 2,050. The population
is about "3 per square mile ; birth-rate 28, and the death-rate 7 '31 per 1,000.
No religious census taken. Chief town, Stanley, 694 inhabitants.
Education : 2 Government schools, with 111 on the roll, in 1897 ; 1 Roman
Catholic school, with 59 on the roll ; 1 Baptist school with 36 on the roll ;
the Darwin school has 25 pupils. There are, besides, 2 travelling school-
masters in the West Falklands.
The government is administered by the Governor, assisted by an Execu-
tive Council and a Legislative Council.
No naval or military forces, except a volunteer corps with 44 efficients, 39
non-efficients ; total 83 in 1897.
1S93
1894
1895
1896
1897 j
Revenue .
Expenditure .
Imports .
Exports .
£
11,450
11,388
71,126
134,872
&
11,958
12,395
62,270
131,801
£
12,518
13,159
71,826
122,988
£
12,358
13,569
69,985
132,194
£
12,970
13,636 '
63,286
125,123 1
Chief sources of revenue (1897): Customs, 3,638Z., and rents of crown
lands, 4,936Z. Chief branches of expenditure : Mails, 2,872Z. ; public works,
2,266/.
Leading exports : Wool, hides and skins, and tallow.
Provision.s, wearing apparel, timber and ])uil
ironmongery.
Imports from United Kingdom (1897) 54,225/. ; from other countries,
9,061/. Exports to United Kingdom 123,186/. ; to other countries 1,937Z.
Chief imjiorts :
ling materials, machinery and
GUIANA, BRITISH
239
Chief industry, sheep-farming ; 2,325,154 acres pasturage. Horses 2,758,
cattle 7,343, sheep 732,010, pigs about 200. In 1897 42 vessels of 54,144
tons arrived in the colony. Up to September 30, 1897, 38,270Z. had been
deposited in the Savings Bank by 327 depositors. About 15,000 letters and
postcards pass through Post Office yearly ; 1,200 lbs. of newspapers monthly,
Monerj, JFcights, and Measures. — Same as in great Britain.
References : Annual Report for the Colony.
Danoi/i (C. R.), Journal of Researches, &c., during a Voyage Round the World. 8.
London, 1S45.
Falkner (Tliomas), Description of Patagonia and atljoining parts of South America. 4.
Hereford, 1774.
Murdoch (W. G. B.), From Edinburgh to the Antarctic (1892-93). 8. London, 1894.
GUIANA, BRITISH.
Oovcrnor— Sir Walter J. Sendall, K. C. M.G. (5, 000?. ).
Includes the settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, named
from the three rivers. Extends from 8° 40' N. latitude to 6° 45' N. latitude,
and from 56" 15' to 61° 50' W. longitude. For legislative purposes the
Governor is assisted by a Court of Policy of seven official and eight elective
members (the latter elected by the registered voters) and a Combined Court,
containing, in addition to the above, six financial representatives elected by
the registered voters. The functions of the Combined Court are to consider
the Estimate of Expenditure, and to raise the Ways and Means to meet it,
and this Court alone can levy taxes. Executive and administrative functions
are exercised by the Governor and an Executive Council. There are 2,416
registered electors. The Roman-Dutch Law is in force in civil cases, modified
by orders in Council ; the criminal law is based on that of Great Britain.
Area, 109,000 square miles. This includes the area claimed by Venezuela
up to the Schomburgk line. Population (1896-7), 285,315. At the census of
1891 the population was 278,328, of whom were 2, 533 born in Europe ; 99,615
Africans ; 105,465 East Indians, mainly coolies ; 3,714 Chinese. Births (1896)
9,276 ; deaths 7,513. Capital, Georgetown, 53,176 (1891). Living on sugar
estates 90,492 ; in villages and settlements 125,757. Of the total in 1891,
125,757 were agricultural labourers. Immigrants from India (1896-97),
2,380; return emigrants, 2,059. 209 schools received Government grant
(£20,883 65. 5K in 1896-97), with about 28,268 pupils.
Paupers (1896-97) receiving out-door relief, 3,051. In 1895-6 there were
11,686 summary convictions ; 214 before the superior courts for serious
ofi'ences.
—
1892-3 ! 1893-4
1894-5
1895-6
1896-7
1897-8
Revenue .
Expenditure
£ i £
566,422 ; 593,285
542,470 1 566,833
£
579,158
586,482
£
558,090
596,493
£
545,171
590,616
£
505,369
562,598
Chief items of revenue (1896-97) : customs, 294,671^.; licences, 108,859/.;
rum duty, 49,780Z. ; royalty on gold, 23,902/. Expenditure on civil establish-
ment, 156,718.; ecclesiastical, 22,586/.; judicial, 37,854/.; education
31,431/. ; public works, 23,800/. Public debt (1897-98) 949,402/. Two bank.s
with note circulation of 109,232/. on 31st Alarch 1897. Savings banks 20 305
depositors (Dec. 31, 1896), credited with 264,873/. ' '
Under cultivation (1891), 79,278 acres; sugar, 69,814 acres; 74 sugar
240
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONDURAS, BRITISH
estates. British Guiana is rich in gold. Mining commenced in 1886, and
in the 10 years 1886-1896 the returns amounted to 2,796, 300Z. ; the returns
for 1895 were 122,936 oz. ; 1896, 123,759 oz. ; 1897, 126,702 oz. ; 1898,
125,080 oz.
—
1893-4
1894-5
1895-6
1896-7
1897-8
Imports
Exports ,
£
1,920,710
2,358,918
£
1,668,750
2,039,901
£
1,443,553
1,769,500
£
1,341,710
1,899,457
£
1,282,976
1,783,764
Value of imports subject to duty (1896-7), 1,067,220Z. ; duty free, 274,490Z.
Chief imports (1897-98): Flour, 139,107/.; tissues, 156,120Z. ; rice,
95,933Z. ; machinery, 73,381Z. ; manures, 72,597Z. ; fish, 45,859Z. ; coal,
36, 451 Z. ; hardware, 28,336Z. Chief exports : Sugar, 1,023,523Z. ; molasses
9,821/. ; rum, 132,586Z. ; balata, 30,957Z. ; rice, 21,385Z. ; gold, 456,436Z. for
125,080 oz.
The value of imports and exports are in general determined by declarations subject to
scrutiny, but for exports of sugar, rum, and molasses the average prices for the year are
taken- as obtained from the secretary of the Planters' Association in the Colony. The values
are accurate so far as they relate to imports subject to ad valorem duty ; in other cases they
are not so reliable. Quantities are ascertained by the Customs officers. The countries re-
corded as those of origin or destination are those disclosed by declarations or shipping
documents, and may not be the prime origin of imports or ultimate destination of exports.
Imports from Great Britain (1897-98), 740,878Z. ; from British possessions,
145,506Z. Exports to Great Britain, 949,015Z. ; to British possessions,
42,062Z.
In 1897-98 the total tonnage entered and cleared was 621,198. The
registered vessels belonging to British Guiana in 1898 were 16 steamers of
1,238 tons, and 116 sailing vessels of 5,065 tons ; total 132 vessels of 6,303
tons.
Railways, 39f miles ; 450 miles river navigation ; good roads. There
are 70 post-offices, of which 42 are telegraph offices, 36 money order offices,
and 22 savings banks. There are about 546 miles of post-office telegraphs
and cables, and a telephone exchange in George Town and New Amsterdam
of 610 miles, with 514 subscribers.
Currency : British gold and silver coin with a small circulation of
'guilders,' 'half-guilders,' and 'bits,' local coins.
References : Blue Book of the Colony, and Colonial Report. Annual.
Report of tlie Council of the Institute of Mines and Forests on the Gold and Forest
Industries of British Guiana. Georgetown, 1S98.
British Guiana and its Resources. fAuthor not naincd.] 8. London, 1895.
Bronkhxirst (H. V, P.), Descriptive and Historical Geography of British Guiana and
West India Islands. 8. Demerara, 1890.
Crookall (Ij.)j British Guiana : Work among Creoles, Coolies, &c. London, 1898.
Im Thurn (E. F.), Among the Indians of Guiana. 8. London, 1883.
Kirke (H.), Twenty-five Years in British Guiana. London, 1898.
Rodway (J.), History of British Guiana. 4. Georgetown, 1893.— Handbook of Britisli
Guiana. Georgetown, 1893.— In the Guiana Forest. London, 1894.— Guide-Book for
British Guiana. Boston, 1S9S.
See also under Venezuela.
HONDURAS, BRITISH.
Governor. — Colonel David M^ilsoii, C.M.O. (8,748 dollars), assiste<l
by an Executive Council of four official and three unofficial members, and a
Legislative Council consisting of three official and five unofficial members.
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
241
A Crown colony on the Caribbean Sea, south of Yucatan, and 660 miles
West from Jamaica, noted for its production of mahogany and logwood. Area,
7,562 square miles. Population in 1891 31,471 ; estimated in 1897 at 34,277
(white 462, coloured 33,815). Births (1897) 1,410 ; deaths, 1,013 ; marriages,
309. Schools (1897), 46 ; children enrolled, 3,693 ; Government grant, 14,162
dollars.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Revenue
Expenditure
Exports.
Imports
Dollars
301,922
365,519
2,135,117
1,460,941
Dollars
185,719^
218,989^
2,549,583
1,558,457
Dollars
238,483
274,767
1,284,000
1,453,640
Dollars
302,686
269,877
1,378,601
1,462,637
Dollars
314,017
322,990
1,404,387
1,422,097
1 Gold.
Chief sources of revenue : Customs duties (166,618 dollars in 1897) ; excise,
licenses, land-tax, &c. ; also sale and letting of Crown lands. Expenditure
mainly administrative and the various services. Debt 168,815 dollars in 1896.
Value of imports subject to duty (1896), 1,060,065 dollars; duty free,
362,032 dollars. Chief exports, mahogany (6,777,382 superficial feet in 1897),
logwood, fruit (chiefly to New Orleans), sugar. The transit trade somewhat
increases the traffic of the ports, especially in india-rubber, sarsaparilla,
cotfee, &c. Besides the staple products, mahogany and logwood, there are
coffee, bananas, plantains, coco-nuts, &c. The higher parts afford good
pasturage for cattle. Exports to United Kingdom in 1897, 769,867 dollars ;
imports from the United Kingdom, 486,463 dollars.
In 1897 641 vessels of 194,144 tons entered, and 633 of 196,189 tons cleared.
British vessels, 249 of 79,802 tons entered, and 249 of 80,231 tons cleared.
The registered shipping of the colony in 1898 consisted of 220 sailing vessels
of 4,906 tons and 5 steamers of 748 tons ; total tonnage, 5,654.
Savings banks at Belize with five branches — deposits, 23,464 dollars,
December 31, 1897. United States gold was adopted as the standard of
currency on October 15, 1894. There is (1896) a paper currency of 118,973
dollars in Government notes and a subsidiary silver coinage of 200,000 dollars
in circulation.
References : Colonial Reports. Annual. London.
Bristowe (L. W.) and Wright (P. B.), Handbook of British Honduras. 8. Annual.
Edinburgh.
Bellamy (J.), Expedition to the Cockscomb Mountains, British Honduras. In Proc.
R G. Soc. (N.S.) XI. 542. 8. London, 1889.
Gibha (A. R.), History of British Honduras. London, 1883.
Morris (D.), The Colony of British Honduras. 16. London, 1883.
Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Montserrat, Nevis.
Indies.
See West
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR.
-Sir Henry Edward iMcCallum, R.E., K.C.M.G.
appointed
Governor.
1898 ; salary 7,000 dollars.
Newfoundland is an island at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
between 46° 37' and 51° 39' N., 52° 35' and 59° 25' W. ; and Labrador, its
dependency, is the most easterly part of the continent of North America.
242
THE BRITISH EMPIRE; — NEWFOUNDLAND
The coast of Newfoundland is rugged, 'especially on the south-west, where
the coast range reaches an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet. The hills attain
their summit within a few miles of the salt water, and then spread out into
an undulating country, consisting largely of barrens and marshes, and inter-
sected by numerous rivers and lakes. On the borders of the lakes and water-
courses good land is generally found, and in some cases, as about the Exploits,
the Gander and the Humber, it is heavily timbered. Area, 42,200 square
miles. Population in 1891 : island, including Labrador, 202,040, of whom
195,472 were natives of Newfoundland and 143 Indians. Of the total popu-
lation 54,755 were engaged in the fisheries, 1,547 were farmers, 2,682
mechanics, 1,258 miners. Capital, St. John's, with suburbs, 29,007 in-
habitants; other towns being Harbour Grace, 6,466; Carbonear, 4,127;
Twniingate, 3,585 ; Bonavista, 3,551. The birth rate in 1891 was 33, and
the death rate 22 per 1,000.
The government is administered by a Governor, assisted by an Executive
Council (not exceeding 7 members), a Legislative Council (not exceeding 15
members), and a House of Assembly consisting of 36 representatives. Mem-
bers of the Legislative Council receive 120 dollars per session ; members of the
Legislative Assembly receive 200 or 300 dollars per session, according as they
are resident or not in St. John's. For electoral purposes the whole colony
is divided into 18 districts or constituencies, 7 of which elect 3 members, 4
return 2 members, and 7 return 1 each. Of the population, 69,824 belong
to the Church of England, 72,696 are Roman Catholics, 53,276 Methodists,
1,449 Presbyterians, 4,795 other denominations. The total number of
aided schools in 1894 was 605, with 35,501 pupils; total expenditure,
including Government grant, fees, &c., 147,544 dollars.
By the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, the French retain some rights enabling
fishermen to land and dry fish on the northern and western shores. The
existence of these rights, their extent having long been matter of dispute,
has interfered with the development of the island, and it is understood that
an effort towards a better understanding regarding them is now being made
by the British and French Governments.
The revenue and expenditure in five years (1 dollar = 45. li^d.) have
been : —
-
1893
1894
l!^95
1896
1897
Revenue
Expenditure.
• £
3G5,384
f37C,479
£
341,882
402,126
£
325,721
281,809
£
330,689
283,439
£
332,225
385,029
Of the Revenue for 1897, no less than 303,861^. is from Customs.
Public debt (1897) 3,431, 988Z.
The total imports and exports of Newfoundland for five years are as
follows : —
—
1893
£
1,577,619
1,308,523
1S94
1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports .
£
1,492,654
1,210,660
£
1,233,233
1,278,080
£
1,250,725
1,364,011
£
1,211,905
1,005,263
fe ax- -Bo OK 1899
Plate 2,
NEWFOUNDLANl)
243
The chief imports and exports in 1897 were : —
Iiuports.
£
Exports.
£
Flour
294,206
Dried cod
580,326
Textiles, apparel. .
255,509
Cod oil .
50,417
Salt pork
68,847
Seal skins
24,083
Molasses
37,951
Seal oil .
50,602
Hardware
56,998
Lobsters (tinned)
108,894
Tea ...
28,122
Herring (pickled) .
20,995
Butter .
21,187
Copper and ore
84,442
Leather
46,159
Iron ore and Pyrites
41,104
Of the imports the value of 402,946?. came from Great Britain ; 327, 521 Z.
from Canada ; 438,562Z. from the United States. Of the exports the value
of 277,248/. went to Great Britain; 98,242?. to Canada; 176,328?. to
Portugal ; 172,067?. to Brazil ; 109,628?. to United States. Total tonnage of
vessels entered and cleared in 1897, 717,703, of which 691,817 was British.
The total number of vessels registered in the colony on December 31, 1897,
was 2,333 sailing vessels of 99,199 tons, and 35 steam vessels of 6,919
tons; total 2,363 vessels of 106,118 tons. Fishing is the principal occupa-
tion of the population, the value of the fish caught being over one million
sterling annually.
In 1891 there were 64,494 acres of- cultivated land. The chief products
are potatoes, turnips, and other root crops, hay, barley, oats. In 1891
there were in Newfoundland 6,138 horses, 23,822 cattle, 60,840 sheep,
and 32,011 swine. Some fine pine forests exist to the north, and large
saw mills have been established. The mineral resources of Newfoundland
are considerable. Large beds of iron ore have been found and are
being worked on Bell Island in Conception Bay, on the east coast, and
other rich deposits have been discovered on the west coast. Coal of
excellent quality is found near St. George's Bay on the west coast, and
in the Grand Lake district. In the eastern part of the island gold-bearing
quartz rock, and extensive deposits of silver and lead ore have been found.
Railways open in 1897 : 633 miles. The transinsular railway has been
completed, with branch lines to important towns and settlements. Connec-
tion between Port aux Basques, the western terminus, and Cape Breton on the
mainland, is made by a first-class well-equipped steamer, which crosses the
strait in six hours. Express trains run tri-weekly, making close connection
with the railway system of Canada. Telegraph line open (1897) 1,314 miles.
A contractor has agreed with the Government to take over and work
the railways, telegraphs, steam communication, coal mines, and other
undertakings.
References.
Report on the Mineral Resources of Newfoundland. London, 1890.
Correspondence concerning the Contract for the Sale of tiie Government Railway and
for other Purposes. February to June, 1898. London, 1898.
Bcedeker's Canada and Newfoundland. 8. Leipzig, 1894.
Cartwright (George), Journal of Sixteen Years' Residence on the Coast of Labrador. S
vols. 4. Newark, 1792.
Chalmer$ (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Colonial Reports. Annual Series, No. 7, (1896) of Miscellaneous Series, on the
Mineral Resources of the Colony. London, 1896.
Gr«n/di(W.T.), Vikings of To-day. [Labrador.] 8. London, 1895.
Harvey (M.), Newfoundland, England's Oldest Colony. London, 1897. Newfoundland
In 1897. London, 1897.
B 2
244 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
Hatton(J.) and Harvey (M.), Newfoundland: Its History and Present Condition, Ac.
8. London, 1883.
Hind, Explorations on the Coast of Labrador. 2 vols. 8. London, 1863.
Pedley (Charles), History of Newfoundland. 8. London, 1863.
Prowse (D. W.), A History of Newfoundland. 2d. ed. London, 1897.
Roberts (C. G. D), The Canadian Guide Book. Pt. I. Eastern Canada and Newfound-
land. 8. London, 1892.
Willson (W. B.), The Tenth Island. London, 1897.
St. Christopher, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Sombrero, Tobago,
Trinidad, Virgin Islands. See West Indies.
WEST INDIES.
The British West Indian possessions fall into six groups,
which are noticed separately, while the statistical results are ex-
hibited in general tables for convenience of comparison. The
groups are — (1) Bahamas, (2) Barbados, (3) Jamaica with Turks
Islands, (4) Leeward Islands, (5) Trinidad with Tobago, (6) Wind-
ward Islands.
BAHAMAS.
Governor.— Sir Gilbert T. Carter, K.C.M.G. (2,000Z.), assisted by an
Executive Council of 9, a Legislative Council of 9, and a representative Assembly
of 29 members, electors requiring to have a small property qualification.
A group of twenty inhabited and many uninhabited islands and rocks off
the S.E. coast of Florida.
Area, 5,450 square miles. Principal islands — New Providence (containing
capital Nassau), Abaco, Harbour Island, Great Bahama, St. Salvador, Long
Island, Mayaguana, Eleuthera, Exuma, Watling's Island, Acklin's Island,
Crooked Island, Great Inagua, Andros Island. Total population (1881),
43,521 (11,000 whites); in 1891, 47,565. Births (1897), 2,141 ; deaths,
1,178. Population of New Providence, 11,000. There are (1897) 43 Govern-
ment schools with 5,777 pupils on the rolls, and average attendance of 3, 894'1,
and 11 aided schools with attendance of 958 pupils ; Government grant,
4,500Z. ; 31 Church of England schools with 1,766 enrolled pupils ; 28
private schools with 706 enrolled pupils. In 1897, 1,771 persons were con-
victed summarily, and 12 in superior courts. Sponge-fishing produced 90,111?.
in 1897 ; shells, pearls, and amljergris were also obtained. Fruit culture is on
the increase ; in 1897 pineapples were exported, valued at 24,58H., including
preserved pineapples. The orange crop (1897) was valued at S,S98l. Fibre
cultivation is rai)idly spreading. In January 1893, over 20,000 acres had been
planted out with sisal plants. In 1897, 4,371 lbs. of cotton were exported,
valued at 761. The total land granted in the colony amounts to 347, 976^ acres.
A joint stock bank came into operation on June 1, 1889. The Post Office
Savings Bank receipts in 1897 amounted to i,157l. Ss. lid.; and in that year,
173,068 letters, 3,483 post-cards, and 113,456 papers passed through the Post
Office.
BARBADOS.
Lies on the E. of the Windward Islands.
Governor.— Sir James Shaw Hay, K.C.M.G. (3,000Z. and 6001. table
allowance), with Executive Council, Executive Committee, Legislative
JAMAICA 245
Council of 9 Members, and House of Assembly of 24 members, elected
annually by the people ; in 1897, there were 2,208 registered electors.
Area, 166 square miles ; population (1891), 182,306|; (1897), about 190,000,
Capital, Bridgetown, the principal town ; po^julation, 21,000 ; Speightstown,
1,500. Births (1897), 7,197 ; deaths (1897), 4,963. Church of England,
156,539; Wesleyans, 14,485; Moravians, 6,801; Roman Catholics, 816;
Jews, 21, according to the census of 1891. The legislature grants to the Church
of England, 10,070Z. ; Wesleyan, 700^. ; Moravians, 400/. ; Roman Catholic
501. — per annum, 11,220/. Education is under the care of the Government.
In 1897, there were 179 primary schools, and 15,556 pupils in average attend-
ance ; Government grant 11,490/.; 5 second-grade schools, 235 pupils ; 2 first-
grade schools for boys, with an attendance of 168 and 44 respectively, and 1
first-grade school for girls with 119 pupils ; Codrington College, affiliated to
Durham University, 13 students. Two monthly, two bi-weekly, two weekly,
and three daily newspapers.
There is a Supreme Court ; Grand Sessions once in every 4 months ; 7
l)olice magistrates. In 1897, 9,027 summary convictions.. 76 in superior courts ;
287 (daily average) prisoners in gaol. In 1896, 29,240/. was spent in poor-
relief, &c. Police, 315 officers and men. Harbour Police, 40 officers and men.
Barbados is the headquarters for European troops in the West Indies. The
garrison consists of 32 officers and 815 non-commissioned officers and men.
The area of the colony in acres is about 106,470, of which about 100,000 are
under cidtivation. The staple produce of the island is sugar. About 30,000
acres are annually planted with the sugar-cane, which yielded in 1893, 67,157
hhds; 1894, 66,262 hhds. ; 1895, 36,451 hhds. ; 1896, 49,399 hhds. ; 1897,
58,600 hhds. There are 441 sugar works and 9 rum distilleries. Of " man-
jalc" or "glance pitch," a bituminous petroleum for fuel, 1,880 tons (3,760/.)
were exported in 1897. In the fishing industry, 370 boats are employed, and
about 900 persons. Value of fish caught annually, about 17,000/.
The Colonial Bank has a paid-up capital of 600,000/. On January 1, 1897,
its liabilities were: Circulation, 1,985,097 dollars; various, 12,268,505
dollars ; total, 14,253,603 dollars. Its assets were : Specie, 1,892,753 dollars ;
various, 16,100,890 dollars ; total, 17,993,644 dollars. Government Savings
Bank (December 31, 1897), 12, 278 depositors, and deposits 213,984/.
In 1897 the registered shipping consisted of 48 sailing vessels and 2
steamers of a total tonnage of 7,105 tons net. There are 470 miles of roads in
the island ; railway 24 miles. The colony pays an annual subsidy to the
Railway company of 6,000/. Owing to the failure of the Company to com-
ply with the provisions of Act (1896-51) only 83/. was paid out of this
subsidy in 1897. Telegraph line, 24 miles. Revenue (1897), 5,502/.
(exclusive of Government subsidy) ; expenditure, exclusive of charge for
interest, 5,952/. There are 35 miles of line for telephonic communication
in the island to the several jjolice stations. Private Telephone Co. 466
services 600 miles of line.
Grenada. See Windward Lslands.
JAMAICA.
Largest of the British West India Islands, 100 miles west of Hayti and 90
miles south of Cuba.
Governor. — Sir Augustus Hemming, K.C.M.G. (5,000/.), assisted by a Privy
Council and a Legislative Assembly, partly elected and partly nominated.
There are boards elected in each parish (14) for administration of local affairs.
Attached to it are Turks and Caicos Islands, Cayman Islands, Morant
Cays, and Pedro Cays. Area of Jamaica, 4,200 square miles ; Turks and
Caicos Islands, &c., 224 square miles. Total, 4,424 square miles. Population
246 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
(Census, 1891) : Jamaica, 639,491 (males, 305,948 ; females, 333,543) ; white,
14,692; coloured or half-breed, 121,955; black, 488,624; East Indian,
10,116 ; Chinese, 481 ; not stated, 3,623. Capital, Kingston, 46,542. Other
towns— Spanish Town, 5,019 ; Montego Bay, 4,803; Savanna-la-Mar, 2,952;
Falmouth, 2,517. The estimated population of Jamaica on March 31, 1897,
is 706,394. Births (1896-97), 27,064; deaths, 15,535 ; marriages, 3,242.
Total East India immigrants in colony in 1896, 14,118, of whom 1,562
were under indentures. Immigration suspended in 1886 and resumed in 1891.
There is no Established Church. Belonging to Church of England (1897),
41,872 ; Church of Scotland, 2,400 members ; Roman Catholics, 9, 300 members ;
Methodists, 24,429 members ; Baptists, 35,033 members ; Presbyterian Church,
11,370 members ; members of other Christian Churches, 25,000, besides their
families and adherents.
In 1897-8 there were 913 Government schools, 98,205 children enrolled ;
the average attendance was 57,983. Government grant, including building
cjrants, 53,605Z. There is a Government training college for female teachers
in which there are 30 females ; and 60 male students are also being trained at
a local Educational Institution in Kingston at Government expense. High
school near to Kingston with 37 pupils in 1897. There are besides a number
of free schools, denominational high schools and industrial schools.
There is a high court of justice, circuit courts, and a resident magistrate in
each parish. Total summary convictions (1897-98), 9,902; before superior
courts, 5,346. Prisoners in gaol, March 31, 1898, 1,049. There are 833 police
officers and men, including water policemen, and 1,526 members of rural police.
Total number of acres under cultivation and care in 1897, 663,560, of which
164,644 under tillage, and 498,916 under pasture. Under sugar-cane,
28,764 acres ; coffee, 22,387 ; bananas, 19,760 ; cocoanuts, 10,799 ; corn, 245 ;
cacao, 1,611 ; ground provisions, 80,656; Guinea grass, 124,672; common
pasture, 314,149 ; common pasture and pimento, 59,133 ; pimento, 962.
The holdings are classified as follows : — Not exceeding 5 acres 58,789 ;
10, 8,021 ; 20, 4,347 ; 50, 2,536 ; 100, 848 ; 200, 569 ; 500, 578 ; 800, 285 ;
1,000, 149 ; 1,500, 214 ; exceeding 1,500, 249.
On December 31, 1897, the Colonial Bank had a circulation of $1,985,097 ;
other liabilities, $12, 268, 505. Total liabilities, $14, 253, 603; assets, $17, 993, 644.
On March 31, 1898, there were 30,660 depositors in the Government
Savings Bank, the deposits amounting to £468,199 17s. The legal coinage is
that of Great Britain ; but various American coins are also current. Notes of
the Colonial Bank are current ; its average total circulation in 1896 was
173,650Z.
The strength of the West India Regiments in Jamaica on December 31,
1897, was 1,790 officers and men ; there is besides a Volunteer Militia, number-
ing 392 on December 31, 1897. There are fortifications and batteries at Port
Royal, Rocky Point, Apostles' Battery, Fort Clarence, Fort Augusta, Rock
Fort, Salt Pond's Hill. There are 13 ships of the Royal Navy on the North
American and West India station. Jamaica has a naval dockyard, coaling
station, and victualling yard.
In 1896-97 the registered shipping of Jamaica consisted of 124 sailing
vessels of 6, 694 tons and 1 steamerof 459 tons ; total, 125 vessels of 7,153 tons.
Jamaica has 185 miles, 9 chains of railway open (receipts, in year ended
March 3], 1898, 102,170^. ; expenses, 74,592/. ; passengers carried, 356,949);
937 miles of telegraph and 831 of telephone ; telegraph messages (to March 31,
1898), 87,545; receipts, 5,08GZ. ; expenses, 7,686/. Letters and post-cards
passed through the Post Office in the year 1896-97, 4,955,712.
TuiiKS AND Caicos ISLANDS, undcr the government of Jamaica, are
geographically a portion of the Bahamas, of which they form the two south-
LEEWARD ISLANDS
247
eastern groups. The government is administered by a Commissioner, assisted
by a Legislative Board of five members appointed by the Crown. The Governor of
Jamaica has a supervising power over the local government. There are upwards
of thirty small cays ; area 169 miles. Only six inhabited ; the largest. Grand
Caicos, 20 miles long by 6 broad. Seat of government at Grand Turk, 7 miles
long by 2 broad, the town having 1,883 inhabitants. Population, 1891, 4,745
(males, 2,211 ; females, 2,534).
Education free : Government grant 563Z. ; 8 elementary schools, attend-
ance, in 1897, of 728. Public library and reading-room at Grand Turk ; a
weekly newspaper.
Only important industry, salt raking. About two million bushels are
raked annually and exported to the United States, (!anada, and to Newfound-
land. There is also a small sponge fishery. 46 vessels registered, of 6, 080 tons.
Covimissioner. — E. J. Cameron (salary 600i!.) ; residence. Grand Turk.
Cayman Lslands, attached to Jamaica, consist of Grand Cayman, Little
Cayman, and Cayman Brae. Grand Cayman, 17 miles long, 4 to 7 broad ;
total population 4,322 (males, 1,904 ; females, 2,418). Good pasturage.
Coco-nuts and turtle exported. The government is administered by a
Commissioner. Tliere are also magistrates appointed by the Governor of
Jamaica.
Commissioner. — F. S. Sanguinetti (500Z. salary). Residence : Grand
Cayman.
The Morant Cays and Pedro Cays are also attached to Jamaica.
LEEWARD ISLANDS
Comprise Antigua (with Barbuda and Redonda), St. Kitts-Nevis (with
Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat, and the Virgin Islands, and lie to the
north of the Windward group, and south-east of Porto Rico.
Governor and Commander-in-Chief. — Sir Francis Fleming, K.C.M.G.
(2, 600^. ). Colonial Secretary. —George Melville, C. M. G. (800Z. )
The group is divided into 5 Presidencies, viz., Antigua (with Barbuda and
Redonda) St. Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat, and
the Virgin Islands. There is one Federal Executive Council nominated by
the Crown, and one Federal Legislative Council, 10 nominated and 10
elective members. Of latter, 4 chosen by the elective members of the
Local Legislative Council of Antigua, 2 by those of Dominica, and 4 by the
non-official members of the Local Legislative Council of St. Kitts-Nevis.
In Antigua and Dominica the representative element in the Legislature was
suppressed in 1 898. The Federal Legislative Council meets once a year.
The following table shows the area and population of the Leeward Islands : —
,
Area:
Square miles
Population
1881
Population
1891
Antigua . )
Barbuda and Redonda j
Virgin Islands
Dominica
St. Kitts \ .
Nevis Y .
Anguilla J .
Montserrat .
108
62
58
291
65
50
35
32
1 34,964
5,287
28,211
( 29,137
\ 11,864
i 3,219
10,083
36,819
4,639
26,841
30,876 ^
13,087 Y
3,699 j
11,762
Total .
•
701
122,765
127,723
248 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
In 1891, 5,070 white, 23,320 coloured, and 99,333 black. In 1881
33,000 were Anglicans, 29,000 Roman Catholics, 30,000 Wesleyans, and 17,000
Moravians. Education is denominational. In 1896, 132 aided schools, with
25,439 pupils ; Government grant, 7,240Z. Also private schools. Grants
of 2001. per annum are made to two schools in Antigua, and grammar
schools in St. Kitts and in Dominica have recently been established. Tech-
nical schools have been opened in Antigua and St. Kitts. Sugar and molasses
are the staple products in most of the islands. Fruit-growing is increasing
in some of the islands.
Antigua. Islands of Barbuda and Redonda are dependencies, with an
area of 62 square miles, situated 61° 45' W. long., 17° 6' N. lat., 54 miles
in circumference, with an area of 108 square miles. Antigua is the seat
of government of the Colony. Chief town, St. John, 9,738. Chief products
sugar and pineapples. In Government savings banks 1,833 depositors,
41,952Z, deposits. There is steam communication direct with the United
Kingdom, New York, and Canada, and the island is connected with the
West India and Panama Telegraph Company's cable.
MoNTSERRAT. Nominated Legislative Council. Chief town, Plymouth,
1,400. Chief products sugar, coffee, cocoa, arrowroot, and lime juice from
fruit of lime trees ; 1,000 acres under lime trees.
St. Christopher and Nevis have one Executive Council nominated,
and a Legislative Council of 10 official and 10 nominated unofficial members.
Capital of St. Kitts, Basseterre, 9,097 ; of Nevis, Charlestown, 838. Chief
produce sugar and rum. Produce of Anguilla, garden stock, and salt.
Virgin Islands consist of all the group not occupied by Denmark,
except Crab Island, which is Spanish. Nominated Executive and Legislative
Councils. Chief town, Roadtown in Tortola Island, 400. Mostly peasant
proprietors ; sugar and cotton cultivated in small patches.
Dominica. Nominated Executive Council, and Legislative Council of 7
nominated members. Chief products, coffee (Liberian), fruit, cocoa, limes,
and some sugar.
Sombrero is a small island in the Virgin group, but unattached adminis-
tratively to any group. Phosphate of lime is shipped, and there is a Board
of Trade lighthouse.
TRINIDAD.
Immediately north of the mouth of the Orinoco, includes Tobago adminis-
tratively.
Governor.— Sir H. E. H. Jerningham, K.C.M.G. (5,000^.), with Executive
Council of 7 official members and a Legislative Council of 9 official and 11
unofficial members, all nominated. Tobago has a subordinate commissioner,
with a Financial Board of not less than 3 nominated members.
Area : Trinidad, 1,754 square miles ; Tobago 114. Population : Trinidad
(estimated 1897) 254,518; Tobago (1897) 20,785. Capital, Trinidad, Port
of Spain, 34,037. Births (1897), 7,923, deaths, 7,091, marriages, 965.
Education : 196 schools, 23,951 inipils, Government grant, 33,896Z. There are
many private schools, and a Queen's Royal College, with 95 students, and an
attached Roman Catholic College with 195 students. Of the total area 1,120,000
acres, about 442,924 acres have been alienated. Under sugar-cane, 57,000
WINDWARD ISLANDS 240
acres ; cacao and coflTce, 99,500; ground provisions, 13,500 ; coco-nuts, 14,000 ;
pasture, 10,000. There is a large pitch lake in the island, which is leased
to an English Company, and from which 124,672A tons of asphalt were ex-
ported in 1897. Railway 84 miles. 690 miles of telegraph. There is a
Colonial Bank with note circulation of 150. OOOZ. Government savings-bank,
depositors (1897), 10,936 ; deposits (Dec. 31), 232,650^. Volunteer corps,
800. Police force, 500.
Tobago was annexed to Trinidad, Jan. 1, 1889. The culture of cotton
and tobacco has been introduced. The cocoa industry is receiving increasing
attention.
Virgin Islands. See Lkeward Islands.
WINDWAKD ISLANDS
Consist of Grenada, St. Vincent, the Grenadines (half under St. Vincent,
half under Grenada), and St. Lucia, and form the eastern l)arrier to the
Caribbean Sea between Martinique and Trinidad.
Governor and Commander-in-Chief. — Sir Alfred Moloney, K.C.M.G.
(2,500^ — resident at St. George's, Grenada). Each island has its own
institutions ; there is no common legislature, laws, revenue, or tarift' ;
there is a Common Court of Appeal, and the colonies unite for other com-
mon purposes. Legal currency, British sterling, doubloons, and United
States gold coins. The Colonial Bank issues 5 -dollar notes to the extent
of 9,800Z. in St. Lucia, 11,700^. in Grenada, 8,000Z. in St. Vincent.
Grenada. There is a Legislative Council of the Governor, 6 official
members nominated by the Governor, and 7 unofficial members nominated
by the Crown. Each town has a Board for local affairs, semi-elective for the
chief town and wholly elective for the others, and each parish a nominated
Board for roads and sanitation. Area 133 square miles; ]>o])ulation (1897)
61,229 ; the birth rate was 38-1, and the death rate 2278 per 1,000. There
are (1897) 36 Government and Government aided elementary schools, with
7,585 pupils ; Government grant (1897) 4,861Z. ; and a grammar school Avith
38 pupils ; Government grant, 41 5Z. In 1897 there were 1,239 summary con-
victions, and 36 in superior courts. There were (1892) 20,418 acres returned
as being under cultivation : sugar-cane, 911 acres ; cocoa, 11,115 acres ; cotton,
1,812 acres ; spices, 1,343 acres ; coffee, 58 acres ; but the accuracy of these
figures is not guaranteed. Culture of sugar-cane is decreasing, of cocoa and
spices increasing. In 1897, 968 depositors in savings-banks ; balance (Dec. 31)
7,371Z.
The largest of the Grewidines attached to Grenada is Carriacou ; area,
6,913 acres ; population, 6,000.
St. Vincent. Administrator and Colonial Seeretary, Harry L. Thompson,
C.M.G., with Legislative Council of 4 official and 4 nominated unoffi-
cial members. Area, 132 square miles ; population (1891), 41,054 ; white,
2,445; coloured, 554; black, 31,005. Capital, Kingstown, 4,547 popula-
tion. Education: 44 schools; Government grant, 2,019?. Sugar, rum,
cocoa, spices, and arrowroot are produced ; good timber from the forests.
Most of the cultivated land belongs to three firms. About 13,000 acres (one-
sixth of area) under cultivation.
St. Lucia. Administrator and Colonial Secretary, C. A. King-Harinan,
C.M.G., with a nominated Executive and Legislative Council. Area, 233
square miles ; population (1897), 47,332. Chief town, Castries, 7,000. Births
250
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
(1897), 1,824 ; deaths, 1,163. Education (1897) : 34 schools (10 Protestant,
24 Roman Catholic), 4,447 pupils; Government grant, £2,844 3s. S^d. In
1897 there were 1,013 summary convictions, and 12 convictions in superior
courts. Sugar, cocoa, rum, and logwood are chief products. Savings banks
(end of 1897), 1,294 depositors, 8,498Z. deposits. Letters and postcards
despatched, 72,718 ; books and papers, 6,324; parcels, 459.
Statistics of West Indies.
—
Revenue
Expenditure
1895
1896
1897
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
£
Bahamas .
55,643
65,126
62,754
55,758
60,134
63,405
Barbados .
146,215
176,932
184,606
152,039
184,020
172,551
Jamaica 1
818,687
754,086
677,064
783,231
807,975
766,534
Turks Island
7,312
9,707
9,477
7,547
7,383
8,384
Windward Islands : —
St. Lucia .
48,558
55,331
60,639
57,578
56,060
56,743
St. Vincent
26,037
26,990
25,396
27,901
26,588
26,520
Grenada .
58,695
56,275
56,973
65,343
60,523
58,549
Leeward Islands :—
Virgin Islands .
1,534
1,469
1,675
1,954
1,670
1,776
^St. Christopher
)
< Nevis
43,215
49,561
V 45,247
55,395
56,501
51,795
(Anguilla .
)
Antigua .
44,348
54,951
46,329
70,221
57,345
53,417
Montserrat
7,126
7,775
7,906
10,703
8,732
9,895
Dominica
22,860
24,905
23,610
27,102
25,189
24,061
Trinidad . . . i
552,275
577,141
567,158
549,771
558,699
579,027
Tobago .
Total .
8,591
9,321
8,107
8,218
9,269
8,387
1,841,096
1,869,570
1,776,941
1,872,761
1,920,088
1,881,044
1 For years ended March 31.
Customs revenue (1897): — Bahamas, 53,456^.; Barbados, 106,880Z. ;
Jamaica, 283,042Z. ; St. Lucia, 29,844Z. ; St. Vincent, 10, 961 Z. ; Grenada,
26,292^.; Virgin Islands, 720^.; St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla, 24,720Z. ;
Antigua, 23,800Z. ; Montserrat, 3,684Z. ; Dominica, 10,652Z. ; Trinidad,
244,685Z. ; Tobago, 2,687Z.
The chief branches of expenditure (1897) were : — Jamaica : charges of
debt, 112,651Z. ; police, 62,410Z. ; public works, 40,982/'. ; Bahamas : public
works, 7,219Z. ; debt charges, 8,385^. ; salaries, 18,218iJ. ; police, 5,5491. ;
Barbados: salaries, 78,406Z. ; debt charges, 1,561Z. ; police, 23,370Z. ; St.
Vincent: public works, 2,769Z. ; St, Lucia: public works, 6,292/.;
salaries, 17,734/. ; Grenada : public works, 9,615/. ; Trinidad : public works,
97,540/.; police, 44,044/. ; debt charges, 37,046/. ; salaries, 214,594/.
In 1897 the Public Debt of Jamaica was 1,994,184/. ; of Bahamas, 119,026/. ;
of Barbados, 409,150/.; of Trinidad, 516,518/.; of St. Vincent, 19,100/. ; of
Grenada, 127,770/. ; of Tobago, 9,500/. ; of Montserrat, 24,600/. ; of St. Kitts,
Nevis, and Anguilla, 89,450/.; St. Lucia, 191,980/.; Antigua, 150,671/.;
Dominica, 70,900/.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
2ol
—
Imports 1
Exports 1
1895
1896
1897
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
£
Bahamas
172,581
194,774
186,010
124,011
138,972
149,085
Barbados .
956,921
1,048,887
1,008,699
587,298
758,228
736,163
Jamaica - .
2,288,946
1,856,378
1,660,667
1,873,105
1,470,241
1,448,443
Turks Islands .
26,735
30,245
33,239
21,688
31,498
43,303
Windward Islands : —
St. Lucia
154,945
190,534
245,253
137,869
93,720
154,267
St. Vincent
64,842
71,490
70,824
68,690
67,392
68,935
Grenada .
175,712
154,405
164,356
174,497
183,883
154,439
Leeward Islands : —
Virgin Islands
4,576
4,478
3.301
3,818
3,710
4,033
rSt. Christopher
1 Nevis
172,281
185,214
135,921
140,542
119,361
1 149,204
Antigua .
144,864
1.^5,627
110,188
87,125
131,113
117,202
Montserrat
24,480
26,497
22,269
17,189
25,912
22,063
Dominica
69,789
64,477
54,074
39,471
51,438
47,416
Trinidad .
2,276,864
2,463,525
2,161,231
2,065,104
2,165,820
1,994,926
Tobago .
Total value
13,643
13,932
11,655
10,517
10,765
4,681
6,545,426
6,440,463
5,867,687
5,351,124
5,252,053
5,094,160
1 Including bullion and specie.
For year ended March 31.
Trinidad alone, in 1897, exported sugar valued at 537,107Z. ; cocoa,
605,690^.; molasses, 16,991Z. Jamaica exported sugar, 120,959Z. ; rum,
92,053^.; coffee, 165,494Z. Barbados : sugar, 447,430^.; molasses, 86,094^.
St. Vincent: sugar, 25,592Z, ; arrowroot, 21,859Z. Grenada: cocoa,
132,642Z.; spice, 13,503Z. St. Lucia: sugar, 59,398^.; cocoa, 17,158Z.
Leeward Islands: sugar, 236, 209Z.
In 1897, Jamaica imported cotton goods worth 208, 318Z. ; fisli, 116,240Z. ;
flour, 162,378^.; rice, 40,432^. Trinidad imported flour, 1 27, 383^. ; textiles,
309,611?.; rice, 148,777?.; Bahamas: cottons, 39,436?.; flour, 25,417?.
Barbados : cottons, 131,562?. ; flour, 57,843?. ; rice, 50,664?. ; fish, 82,457?. ;
St. Lucia: cottons, 23,308?. ; flour, 17,756?. St. Vincent: flour, 8,610?. ;
Leeward Islands : cottons, 42,828?. ; flour, 47,000?.; Grenada, flour, 23,158?.
Total imports into Great Britain from the British West Indies in 1897,
according to Board of Trade returns, 1,453,089?. (sugar, 560,288?. in 1896;
338,789?. in 1897 ; rum, 159,155?. ; cocoa, 418,996?.; and dye-woods, 58,194?.
Exports from Great Britain to West Indies in 1897, 1,784,185?. (cottons,
442,531?.; apparel, 197,033?. ; leather and saddlery, 92,487?. ; iron, 132,504?.;
manure, 56,257?.; machinery, 48,785?.).
The total tonnage entered and cleared (foreign trade) in 1897 was as
follows : —
Grenada . 443,808 Dominica . 407,460
Virgin Islands 11,545 Trinidad . 1,296,902
St. Kitts and \ Tobago . 44,094
Nevis . 491,629 '
Antigua . 445,948
Montserrat. 228,715
Bahamas . 518,217
Barbados . 1,335,962
Jamaica . 1,560,944
Turks Islands 328,374
St. Lucia . 1,780,560
St. Vincent . 248,877
Total (1897) 9,143,035
Total (1896) 8,234,484
Of the total tonnage returned iu 1897, 7,246,859 ; in 1896, 6,517,418 was
British-
252 BRITISH EMPIRE : — WEST INDIES
Currency, weights and measures throughout the islands are those of Great
Britain, though in several of them various American coins are current.
The Royal Commission appointed in January to inquire into the condition
of the West Indian sugar-growing colonies, presented its report in August,
1897. The general conclusions are that the sugar industry in the West
Indies is in danger of great reduction, in some cases of extinction, not on
account of mismanagement, but from the competition of sugar-growing
countries assisted by bounties ; that in several of the islands there is no
other industry which could profitably take its place, and that the total or
partial extinction of this industry would seriously affect the condition of the
labouring classes, and so reduce the revenues of the colonies, that in many
cases they would be insufficient to meet the cost of administration. Measures
of relief have been adopted.
Books of Reference on the West Indies.
Tlic Jamaica Gazette. Weekly. Kingston, Jamaica.
The Official Gazette. Twice a week. Bridgeton, Barbados.
Report of the West India Royal Commission, 1897, with Apjicndices. 4 vols. London,
1S97. Correspondence relating to the Sugar Industry in the West Indies. London, 1897.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonies, &c. Annual. London.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Blue Books of the respective Colonies.
Bates (H. W.), Central America, the West Indies, and South America. 2nd ed. S.
London, 1882.
Bulkelcy (0. T.), The Lesser Antilles. 8. London, 1889.
Caldecot (A.), The Church in the West Indies. London, 1898.
Drayton (E.), The Grenada Handbook. London, 1898.
.Bws (C. W.), The West Indies. 4th ed. 8. London, 1897.
JPrascr (S. J.), Barbados Directory. Barbados, 1898.
Froucle (J. A.), The English in tlie West Indies. 8. London, 1888.
Jamaica in 1S96. A Handbook of Information. Institute of Jamaica. Kingston, 1896.
Kingsley (Charles), At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies. 2 vols. 8. London, 1871.
Musson (S. P.) and Roxburgh (T. L.), The Handbook of Jamaica. 8. London, 1896.
Oliver (Y. L.), History of Antigua— Fol. London, 1894.
Poivles (L. D.), The Land of the Pink Pearl. 8. London, 1888.
i?(?cJ«s (E.), Nouvelle Geographic Universelle. Vol. XVII. 8. London, 1888.
Rodway (J.), The West Indies and The Spanish Main. 8. London, 1896.
Schoniburgk (fiir R. H.), History of Barbados. 8. London, 1848.
Stark (J. II), Guides to the West Indies. 6 vols. London, 1898.
258
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
FIJI.
Constitution and Government.
Fur was ceded to the Queen by the chiefs and people of Fiji, and the British
flag hoisted by Sir Hercules Robinson, on October 10, 1874. The government
is administered by a Governor appointed by the Crown, assisted by an Execu-
tive Council consisting of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the
Receiver-General, and the Native Commissioner. Laws are passed by a Legis-
lative Council, of which the Governor is president. It comprises six official
members, and six unofficial members nominated by the Crown. The official
members are the Chief Justice, the Attorney-General, the Receiver-General, the
Commissioner of Lands, and the chief medical officer.
Govdiior of Fiji and High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. — Sir G.
T. M. O'Brien, K.C.M.G.
The Governor also exercises the functions of Her Majesty's High Com-
missioner and Consul-General for the Western Pacitic. He has a salary of
2,200Z. per annum, paid from colonial funds, and 300Z. from Imperial fund.s.
There is no military establishment in the colony, but there is a forc3 of
armed native constabulary numbering 100.
For the purposes of native government the colony is divided into 16
provinces, in 12 of which a superior native chief exercises, under the title of
Roko Tui of his province, a form of rule which recognises to a large degree the
customs and the system of administration by which the people governed them-
selves prior to the establishment amongst them of a European form of govern-
ment. In three of the provinces there are resident European officers as com-
missioners. About 170 native chiefs of inferior degree are employed by the
Crown in subordinate administrative capacities, and receive salaries from the
Government. There are also 34 native stipendiary magistrates associated with
13 European magistrates in the administration of justice. A European
commissioner resides in Rotumah
Area and Population.
Fiji comprises a group of islands lying between 15° and 20° south latitude,
and 177° east and 178° west longitude. The islands exceed 200 in number,
about SO of which are inhabited. The largest is Viti Levu, with an area of
about 4,250 square miles (about the same size as Jamaica) ; the next largest
is Yanua Levu, with an area of about 2,600 square miles. The island of
Rotumah, lying between 12° and 15° of south latitude, and 175° and 177°
of east longitude, was added to the colony of Fiji by authority of Letters
Patent in December 1880. Including Rotumah, the total area of the group
is 8,045 square miles.
At the census of April 5, 1891, the population of the colony numbered
121,180. The estimated population on December 31, 1897, was 121,798
(67,410 males, and 54,388 females). The Europeans numbered 3,401 (2,116
males, and 1,285 females) ; Indians, 12,025 (8,143 males, and 3,882 females);
Fijians, 99,773 (53,208 males, and 46,565 females); Polynesians, Kotumans,
half-castes, and others, 6,599 (3,943 males, and 2,656 females).
Among Europeans in 1897 the births were 51 and deaths 30 ; Fijians in 1897,
births 3,451, deaths 3,999 ; indentured Indians in 1897, births 424, deaths
254 (registered). Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Viti Levu ;
European population, (estimated) 850.
254
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — FIJI
Religion.
The number of persons attending worship in the native churches of the
Wesleyan Mission in 1897 was 95,056 ; attending the churches of the Roman
Catholic Mission, 9,325. The Wesleyan Mission establishment comprises 11
European missionaries, 70 native ministers, 63 catechists, 1,077 teachers, and
2,042 local preachers, 4,684 class leaders, with 972 churches, and 339 other
preaching places. The Roman Catholic Mission has 28 European ministers
and 180 native teachers, 24 European sisters, 64 churches and chapels, and 3
European and 3 native training institutions.
Instruction.
Two public schools receive State aid to the extent of about 750Z. a year,
one in Suva and one in Levuka. The number of scholars attending these two
schools in 1897 was 171. The education of the native Fijians is almost entirely
conducted by the Wesleyan Mission, in whose 1,978 schools 34,043 children
were taught in 1897. 136 schools are also conducted by the Roman Catholic
Mission, the number of day-scholars being 1.705 in 1897. The Roman Catholic
Mission also maintain 3 schools for Europeans, at which 138 children received
instruction during 1897. These mission schools receive no State aid, but an
industrial and technical school is carried on by the Government, in which 73
native youths are being trained in elementary branches of reading, writing,
and arithmetic, in boat-building, house-building, and cattle-tending.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure (exclusive of
that on account of Polynesian and Indian immigration) for 1875 and for the
last five years : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1875
1893
' 1894
£
16,433
76,774
80,054
£
41,522
85,981 1
72,204 j
1895
1896
1897
£
78,240
73,869
74,492
£
76,204
73,099
73,232
The principal sources of revenue in 1897 were: — Customs, 32,994/.,
wharfage and shipping dues, 4,254Z. ; general licenses and internal revenue,
7,298Z. ; native taxes (this is paid in native produce prepared by the natives,
and sold by the Government on their behalf by annual contract), 19,217/.; fees
of court, &c., 6,847/.; postal dues and stamps, 2,686/. The expenditure on
personal emoluments was 37,726/. ; on other charges, 35,506/. ; total, 73,232/.
The jjublic debt of the colony consists of a loan amounting to 115,700/. ;
and advances from the Imperial Government making a total indebtedness
of 213,256/.
Production and Industry.
There are 5 sugar mills in the Colony, with an aggregate nominal daily
output of 155 tons of dried sugar, 1 tea factory, with an aggregate nominal
daily output of 400 pounds of dried tea, 13 boat-building yards, and 1 tobacco
factory.
In 1897 there was under cultivation by European settlers : — Bananas, 1,253
acres; cocoanuts, 19,912 acres ; maize, 407 acres; sugar-cane, 23,118 acres ;
1 Including 11, 4382. expended 1883-86, and now brought to account.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — FIJI
256
yams, kc, 159 acres ; tobacco, 75 acres ; peanuts, 267 acres ; tea, 210 acres ;
rice, 432 acres ; pine-apples, 45 acres.
There were in the colony, at the end of 1897, 1,832 horses and mules ;
15,136 cattle ; 4,716 sheep j and 4,049 Angora goats.
Commerce.
The value of the total foreign trade during five years was as follows : —
Year
Total Foreign Trade
Imports
Exports
£
£
£
£
1893
632,030
276,398
355,632
1894
867,633
285,981
581,652
1895
573,968
241,759
332,209
1896
677,834
242,492
435,342
1897
680,608
248,748
431,860
In 1897 the imports subject to duty amounted to 158,654^., and imports
duty-free to 90,094^.
The total amount of imports from and exports to British possessions and
other countries respectively, for each year, has been : —
Year
From British
From other
To British
To other i
Possessions
Countries
Possessions
Countries
£
£
£
^ 1
1893
270,957
5,441
327,821
27,810
1894
274,575
11,406
528,336
53,316
1895
222,503
19,256
259,280
72,929
1896
233,805
8,487
401,505
33,837
1897
242,106
6,642
415,836
16,024
Quantities and the values of imports are ascertained by invoice and declaration, or by
examination by Customs officers. In the case of exports, the values are determined accord-
ing to the average price of each article in the local market. The countries recorded as the
origin and destination of goods are those disclosed by the shipping documents. Copra is
usually exported in vessels which sail to Lisbon, Marseilles, Hamburg, Ac, 'for orders,'
and the ultimate destination is unknown. Almost all English goods imported into Fiji
appear as imports from Australia.
The principal imports during 1897 were — hardware, 12,807Z. ; drapery,
49,254Z. ; meats, 9,234Z. ; rice, 11,205Z. ; breadstuffs and biscuits, 23,085Z. ;
bags and sugar mats, 6, 862Z. ; coal, 14,274Z. ; timber, 4,280^; galvanised iron
goods, 3,039Z. ; live stock, 4,457Z. ; machinery, 12,036Z. ; oils, 6,227Z. ;
produce, 8,541^. Of these items, meats, breadstuffs, coal, manure, live stock
and machinery were free of import duties in 1897, but owing to revision of
tariff, meat and bread stuffs are now dutiable.
The principal exports in 1897 were — sugar, 26,991 tons, valued at 323,830Z. ;
copra, 7,757 tons, valued at 70,1822. ; green fruit (consisting chiefly of
bananas), 16,5142. ; Colonial distilled spirit, 15,041 gallons, valued at 1,8802.;
pea-nuts, 185 tons, valued at 2,6362. ; tobacco 9 tons valued at 2,0522. ; and
cotton, 34 tons, valued at 1,6152.
The direct trade between Great Britain and Fiji is small. According to
the Board of Trade returns the imports into the United Kingdom from Fiji in
1897 amounted to 9,0672. (24,9602. in 1895); and the exports of horae'produce
to Fiji to 26,6122. (34,3342. in 1895). In 1897, the exports thereto included
cotton manufactures, 12,0492. ; apparel, 3,5392.
256
NEW GUINEA
Shipping and Communications.
During the year 1897 the total number of merchant vessels entered at the
ports of entry as arriving in the colony was 103 steamers of 113,830 tons, and
26 sailing vessels of 10,298 tons. Of these vessels 119 were British, 3 Ameri-
can, 5 Norwegian, 1 Tongan, and 1 French, Total tonnage entered and
cleared in 1897, 248,015 tons.
Fiji is in regular steam communication with New Zealand, New South
Wales, Tonga and Samoa, via Vancouver, the Islands are within 30 days of
London.
The registered shipping in 1898 consisted of 8 sailing vessels and 2
steamers of, in all, 492 tons. At the end of 1897 there were 189 local
vessels holding sea-going certificates from the Marine Board, with a total
tonnage of 2,076 ; 73 of these vessels were owned by Europeans (tonnage 1,072)
and 116 by natives (tonnage 1,004). There is also a subsidised inter-island
steamer trading regularly in the Group. Steam launches run daily from
Suva to Rewa and Navua (where there are sugar mills) and bi-weekly to
Levuka.
In 1897 there passed through the post-ofFice in local correspondence 257,020
letters, 172,576 papers, and 29,084 book-packets; and in foreign correspond-
ence 139,173 letters, 147,587 papers, 25,795 book-packets, and 1,047 parcels. A
Money Order system has been established with the United Kingdom, Canada,
and the Australian Colonies.
Moneys, weights, and measures are the same as in the United Kingdom.
Books of Reference.
Annual Blue Book and Colonial Office Report.
Allen (W.), Rotunia. [In Report of Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science, January, 1895]. Sydney.
Calvert and Williams, Fiji and the Fijians.
Colonial Government Handbook to Fiji. Suva, 1892.
Cooper {B.. Stonehewer), Coral Islands of the Pacific. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Gumming (Miss Gordon), At Home in Fiji. London, 1SS2.
£r«/d7ie (Capt. J. E.), Tlie Western Pacific. London, 1853. *
Gordon and Ootch, Australian Handbook for 1897. Melbourne, 1897.
Home (John), A Year in Fiji : Botanical, Agricultural, and Economical Resources o
the Colony. 8. London, 1881.
PritcharcHyf . T.), Polynesian Reminiscences. London, 18G6.
Reed (W.), Recent Wanderings in Fiji. London, 1888.
Seeman (Berthold), Government Mission to the Fijian Islands. London, 1862.
Thomson (Basil), Fiji for Tourists. [Canadian-Australian Steamship Line]. London, 1897.
Waterhouae, Fiji : its King and People.
NEW GUINEA, BRITISH.
This possession is the south-eastern part of the island of New Guinea
with the islands 'of the D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade groups, and all
islands between 8° and 12° S. latitude, and 141° and 155 E. longitude.
It is bounded on the west by the Dutch and on the north by the German
possessions. The total area is 90,540 square miles, and the population about
350,000, of whom 250 are Europeans.
The government of British New Guinea is founded on the British New
Guinea Act of November, 1887, and on Letters Patent issued June 8, 1888.
NEW GUINEA 257
The cost of the admiuistration, estimated at 15,000Z. a year, is guaranteed,
primarily by the Government of Queensland, for ten years, but this sum is
contributed in equal proportions by the Governments of New South Wales,
Victoria, and Queensland, and these Colonies have a voice in the general
administration of the affairs of the country.
Lieut. -Governor. — George Ruthven Le Hunte, C.M.G.
Many large districts have been reduced to order and the tribes have in
large areas settled down to peaceful habits. Four missionary bodies are at
work — the Loudon Missionary Society on the South Coast, the Sacred Heart
Society in the Mekeo district, the Wesleyans in the Islands, the Anglican
Mission on the North-East Coast — and many thousands of natives are
being taught. At the same time trading relations with Europeans are being
established, and the groves of cocoa-nut trees are being extended. Land is
offered to settlers at 2s. Qd. an aci'e. Considerable areas, comprising varieties
of soil and climate are available for systematic planting by Europeans. Local
labour is obtainable. The climate is very fairly good for its latitude. There
is little disease save fever, and it is rarely of a malignant type. The country
seems to offer very favourable conditions for the planting of tobacco, rice
sugar, tea, coffee, and other tropical products, more especially rubber produc-
ing trees.
With a view to the development of the Territory by the exploration and
opening up of Crown lands, the cultivation of the rubber plant and other
tropical produce, the discovery of mineral deposits, and the working of
mines, an Ordinance was enacted by the Administrator and Legislative
Council, March, 1898, to enable a company called the British New Guinea
Syndicate to acquire and occupy Crown lands not exceeding 250,000 acres in
area. The laud is to be granted as it becomes available, the purchase money
to be at the rate of 2s. per acre, one-fourth to be paid on application for
available lands, and the remainder in eight annual instalments ; and the
company must within eight years from the date of each grant expend 2s. per
acre on improvements. The company is to have the sole proi)erty in the
products of the lands granted, and the exclusive right to the mineral
deposits therein, but must pay to the Crown a royalty of 2-^- per cent, on the
net value of all gold and metals of the platinum group taken from the lands.
The Territory is divided into 4 magisterial districts. There is a Central
Court at Port Moresby, but it holds sittings wherever necessary. For native
government some simple laws have been passed in the form of regulations,
and a commencement has been made in the training of native magistrates.
There are noAv many village policemen, and a trained force of constabulary
of about 124 men, almost exclusively natives, now exists. Revenue from
the colony in 1897, 10,600/. ; in 1898, 10,300Z., mostly from customs dues.
The possession is believed to contain valuable timbers, the coco and sago
palm are plentiful, sandal-wood, ebony, gums, rattans, and other products
are found. Gold is found in the Louisiade Islands, on the mainland, and
on Woodlark Island. There are about three hundred miners engaged in it,
and many natives. The trade of the possession is confined to Queensland
and New South Wales. Imports for 1897-8, 46,971Z. ; exports, 49,859/.
including gold and pearls. The chief imports are food stuffs, tobacco,
drapery and hardware ; exports, trepang, copra, pearl shell, gold, pearls,
sandal -wood.
In 1897-98, 397 vessels of 20,702 tons entered, and 302 of 20,360 tons
cleared. There is good water communication to some parts of the interior.
s
258 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— NEW SOUTH WALES
British New Guinea is treated as a postal district of Queensland, its mails
passing through that colony. In 1897-98 the postal movement was : letters,
19,807 ; newspapers, 10,826 ; packets, 746.
Books of Reference.
Annual Report of Adininistrator.
British New Guinea (Queensland) Act of 1887. Brisbane, 1888.
New Guinea, Further Correspondence respecting. London, 1883 and 1890.
Correspondence relating to an Agreement between the Government of British New
Guinea and the British New Guinea Syndicate. London, 1898.
Albertis (Jj. M. d'), New Guinea. Tr. from the Italian. 2 vols. London, 1880. Journal
of the Expedition on the Fly River. 8. Sydney, 1887.
Bevan (Th. F.), Toil, Travel, and Discovery in British New Guinea. 8. London, 1890.
Chalmers (J.), Pioneer Life and Work in New Guinea, 1877-1894. London, 1896.
Macgregor (Sir W.), Report of Journey across New Guinea. Loudon, 1896.— British
New Guinea. London, 1897.
Moresby (Capt. J.), New Guinea and Polynesia. 8. London, 1876.
Nisbet (H.), A Colonial Tramp : Travels in Australia and New Guinea. New edition,
London, 1896.
Romilly (H. H.), The Western Pacific and New Guinea. London, 1886.
Romilly (H. H.), From my Verandah in New Guinea. London, 1889.
Webster (H. Cayley), Through New Guinea and other Cannibal Inlands. London, 1S9S.
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of New South Wales, the oldest of the
Australasian colonies, is embodied in the Act 18 & 19 Vict,
cap. 54, proclaimed in 1855, which established a 'responsible
government.' The constitution vests the legislative power in a
Parliament of two Houses, the first called the Legislative Council,
and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council
consists of not less than twenty-one members (58 in August,
1898), appointed by the Crown for life, and the Assembly at
present has 125 members. An Act, assented to June 13, 1893,
provides for the division of the colony into 125 electorates, each
with only one member, and abolishes the property qualification
and plural voting. Every male subject 21 years of age, having
resided one year in the colony and three months in his electoral
district, is qualified as an elector. The elections must all take
place on one and the same day. The first general election under
this act took place on July 17, 1894; the second on July 24,
1895 ; and the third on July 27, 1898. The duration of a parlia-
ment is not more than three years. Members of the Legislative
Assembly are paid 300^. per annum, in addition to which they
are allowed to travel free on government railways and tramways.
In July 1898 there were 324,338 electors enrolled, or 24*28 per
cent, of the population. At the general election of 1898, 178,717
NEW SOUTH WALES 259
electors out 316,819 of enrolled in contested districts, or 56'41
per cent, of the electors on the roll voted. The executive is in
the hands of a Governor, appointed by the Imperial Government.
Governor. — The Right Hon. William Lygon, Earl Beauchamp,
born 1872. Appointed January, 1899.
The Governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-
in-chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of
7,000^. ; private secretary and orderlies paid for by the State.
In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of ten
ministers, consisting of the following members : —
Premier, Treasurer, and Minister for Railways. — Rt. Hon. George
Houstoun Reid,
Chief Secretary. — Hon. James Nixon Brunker.
Attorney-General. — Hon. John Henry Want, Q.C, , M.L.C.
Secretary for Lands. — Hon. Joseph Hector Carruthers.
Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. James Henry Young.
Minister of Public Instruction tO Industry and Labour. — Hon. James
Alexander Hogue.
Minister of Justice. — Hon. Charles Alfred Lee.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. Varney Parkes.
Secretary for Mines and Agriculture. — Hon. Joseph Cook.
Vice-President of the Executive Council and Ecpresentative of the Govern-
ment in the Legislative Coimcil (without portfolio). — (Vacant. )
The Colonial Secretary and Attorney-General have salaries of 1, 820Z. , and the
other ministers, except the Vice-President of the Executive Council, of 1,370Z.
Local Government.
Under the * Municipalities Act of 1867 ' local government is extended to
182 districts, 75 being designated 'boroughs' and 107 ' municipal districts,'
in addition to the City of Sydney. A borough must contain a minimum
population of 1,000, within an area not larger than 9 square miles ; a municipal
district a population of 500, and an area not larger than 50 square miles.
The portion of the colony incorporated is small, covering only 2,761 square
miles, or the one hundred and thirteenth part of its area. The population
residing within the municipal area is estimated at 758,195.
The State grants an endowment to every municipality for a period of 15
years after its incorporation as follows : For each of the first 5 years a sum
equal to the local revenue raised during the past year, in each of the next
5 years one moiety, and in each of the next 5 years a fourth of the amount
raised by rates and subscriptions. All persons holding household, leasehold,
or freehold estate in any municipality, and paying rates, are entitled to
from 1 to 4 votes for the election of aldermen and auditors, according to annual
value of property. There were 178,943 municipal voters in February, 1897.
Area and Population.
The area of the colony is estimated at 310,700 square miles.
The colony is divided into various districts for departmental pur-
poses, the most important division being that into 141 counties.
s 2
26(1
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
The estimated popultion on June 30, 1898, was 1,335,800
(715,835 males, and 619,965 females). The population at four
successive census periods was : —
Year
Males
Females
Total
Pop. per
square mile
Average in-
crease percent,
per annum.
1861
1871
1881
1891
198,488
275,551
411,149
612,562
152,372
228,430
340,319
519,672
350,860
503,981
751,468
1,132,234
1-13
1-62
2-42
3-65
4-3
4-9
5-1
According to the race or origin, percentages were as follows at the census of
1891 : — New South Wales, 64-03 ; other Australasian colonies, 7 '50 ;
Aborigines, 073 ; English, 13*18 ; Irish, 6*63 ; Scotch, 3*25 ; Welsh, 0-44 ;
other British subjects, 0"44 ; total British subjects, 96 "20. Chinese, 1'16 ;
German, 0*85 ; other foreigners, 1'50 ; total foreigners, 3*51. Born at sea,
0"17 ; unspecified, 0"12.
At the census of 1891 there Avas in the colony a population of aborigines,
comprising : —
—
Male
Female
Total
Full Blacks ....
Half-Castes ....
2,896
1,663
2,201
1,520
5,097
3,183
Total ....
4,559
3,721
8,280
included in total census population given above.
According to occupation the number of actual workers was distributed
thus at the census of 1891 : —
Professional 31,491
Domestic ....
Commerce and Trade
Industries ....
Agricultural, Pastoral, and Mineral
Indefinite ....
Total workers
55,867
86,629
140,451
147,026
10,423
471,887
The number of persons classed as 'dependents' was 649,203, of whom
12,551 were dependent on public or private charity. There were besides 2, 864
persons whose occupations were not stated. The aborigines are not included
in this tabulation.
The estimated population of Sydney (1897), including suburbs, is 417,250.
Of the country towns Newcastle has 15,150 ; Bathurst, 9,300 ; Goulburn,
10,700 ; Parramatta, 13,500 ; Broken Hill, 20,790 ; Maitland, 10,600 ; Alburj^
5,700 ; Tamworth, 5,500 ; and Wickham, 5,900.
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
2G1
The following table shows the bivths, deaths, and marriages for five
years : —
Year
Marriages
Total
Births
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Excess of
Births
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
7,749
7,666
8,030
8,495
8,813
40,342
38,951
38,775
36,506
37,247
2,510
2,437
2,524
2,445
2,452
16,022
15,170
14,914
15,839
14,264
24,320
23,781
23,861
20,667
22,983
The increase in population during the ten years ended 1897 was 290,220,
Towards this the excess of births over deaths contributed over 81 per cent.
The following are the statistics of the arrivals and departures by sea as
recorded for five vears : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Immigrants
Emigrants
Excess of immigrants
66,909
58,850
75,588
65,976
76,051
66,334
62,633
62,516
67,016
60,410
8,059
9,612
9,717
117
6,606
Assisted immigration, which became the policy of New South Wales in
1832, practically ceased in 1887. The total number of assisted immigrants
from 1832 to the end of 1897 was 211,958. Of these, 209,426 persons were
British-born, 96,395 being from England and Wales, 88,822 from Ireland, and
24,209 from Scotland. The number of assisted immigrants during 1897 was
only 35. In 1881 a poll-tax of 101. was imposed on Chinese immigrants
other than British subjects or those who have been naturalised in Xew South
AVales. The tax was increased to 100?. in 1888. The amvals and depai-tures
of all Chinese have been as follow in six years : —
—
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Arrivals
Departures
21
755
34
558
76
627
94
413
99
450
34
428
Religion.
An Act abolishing State aid to religion was passed in 1862. The clergy
who received State aid when the Act was passed, and now survive, still re-
ceive that aid.
The Church of England in the colony is governed by a Metropolitan who
is Archbishoj» of Sydney and Primate of Australia and Tasmania. He is
nominated by the Bishops in Australia and consecrated by the Archbishop of
Canterbuiy. There were in 1897 six dioceses (including the Bishop- Auxiliary
of Sydney). The affairs of the Church of Rome are administered by the
Bishops of seven dioceses under the Cardinal Archbishop of Sydney, who is
also Primate of Australasia.
The following are statistics of different religions obtained at the census of
1891 :—
262
THE BHITISH empire: — NEW SOtJTH WALES
Denomination
Clergy
Adherents
Denomination
Clergy
Adherents
Church of England .
Roman Catliolic
Presbyterian
Wesleyan
Other Methodist
Congregational .
Baptist .
333
295
156
133
34
65
32
502,980
286,911
109,390
87,516
22,596
24,112
I3,ll2
Lutherans .
Unitarians
Hebrew .
Others
Total .
5
1
3
33
7,950
1,329
5,484
62,574
1,090
1,123,9541
1 Aborigines not included.
Instruction.
Education is Under State control, and instmction is compulsory between
the ages of 6 and 14 years ; the children of the poor are educated free.
There were in 1897, 2,577 State schools, divided into 2,790 departments,
and classified as follow^s : — High schools 5 ; superior public schools 248 ;
primary public schools 1,720; provisional schools 294; half-time schools
457 ; house-to-house schools 41 ; evening schools 25 ; total 2,790.
During 1896 there were 226,157 children enrolled, and an average at-
tendance of 148,381, with 4,626 teachers.
In 1897 the expenditure on State schools was : — State expenditure
618,711Z. ; school fees 73,684?.; total expenditure 692,395?. Besides the
State schools, the Sydney Grammar School (532 pupils), four Industrial and
Reformatory Schools (534 pupils), and one school for the deaf and dumb, and
the blind (114 pupils), receive sulisidies from Government.
Of private schools there were 948, with 56,143 pupils and 3,162 teachers, of
which 296 schools, 1,481 teachers, and 36,675 pupils were Roman Catholic.
The University of Sydney, opened in 1852, receives from Government a
yearly subsidy, amounting, with special aid, to 11,000?. in 1897. The total
revenue for 1897 was 32,024?. There were 455 students and 48 professors,
lecturers, &c. There are 3 theological colleges and a college for women, im-
sectarian. The technical college, with branch schools, comprising classes in
agriculture, physics, applied mechanics, &c., had a total enrolment of 7,658
in 1897.
The free public library at Sydney had 119,782 volumes in 1897. Most of
the country towns have art schools and libraries. The Australian Museum,
founded in 1836, is endowed by the State. There is a National Art Gallery
at Sydney.
Justice and Crime.
There are Courts of Magistrates, of Quarter Sessions, and the Supreme
Court, with a chief justice and six puisne judges. All prisoners charged with
olfences bearing sentences of more than six months' imprisonment are tried by
a jury of twelve persons, either at Quarter Sessions, or before the Supreme
Court. Prisoners charged with capital crimes must be tried before the Supreme
Court.
Circuit courts are held at the principal towns in the colony twice a year.
In the metropolitan district police courts are presided over by stipendiary
magistrates ; in the country districts, police magistrates and justices of the
peace adjudicate. The licensing of houses for the sale of spirituous and
fermented liquors is transacted by magistrates specially appointed for that
purpose.
t'lNANCfi
!2f)J^
til 1897 tlieie were 44,695 convictions before magistrates; and 891 at
Quarter Sessions and at Central Criminal and Circuit Courts ; total con-
victions 45,586.
The police force of the colony is 1,897 strong.
There are in all 59 gaols. On December 31, 1897, there were 2,257 prisoners
in confinement.
Finance.
The following are statistics of net revenue (gi*oss revenue for 1897-98) ;— ^
Year
B*roni Taxation
Land Revenue
From Services
From Mis-
cellaneous
Sources
Total
Net Revenue
1894
18951
1895-96
1896-9?
1897-98-
£
2,688,693
1,288,781
2,493,622
2,396,412
2,570,489
£
2,078,751
1,037,683
1,976,240
1,898,835
2,023,071
£
4,236,631
1,989,248
4,299,219
4,558,626
4,633,196
£
296,668
162,803
305,697
253,623
255,379
£
9,300,743
4,478,515
9,074,778
9,107,496
9,482,135
1 Six months January to June.
- Year ended June 30. Tlie figures for the financial year represent the gross receipts.
Tiie total refunds for the year amounted to 178,3101. so tliat the total net revenue was
9,303,S25L ; but the latter amount cannot be distributed under the different headings
shown in the table.
Under the heading * Services ' is included revenue from railways, train -
ways, post, and telegraphs, &c.
The bulk of taxation is obtained indirectly through the Customs HouSe*
as may be seen from the accompanying summary for the year ending June
30, 1898 :—
Customs, 1,256,097/. ; Excise, 291,343Z. ; Stamp Duties, 348,558Z. j
Land Tax, 371, 870/. ; Income Tax, 180,103/. } Licenses, 122,518/. ; totalj
2,570,489/.
The following table shows the net expenditure (gross expenditure fof
1897-98), exclusive of expenditure from loans : —
Year
Railways
and
Tramways
Post and
Tele-
graphs
Interest on
Public t)ebt
(Funded
and
Unfunded)
Immi-
gration
Instruc-
tion
Other
Public
Works
and
Services
Total
Net
Expendi-
ture
£
9,178,706
4,844,299
9,523,057
9,140,625
9,391,012
1894
18951
! 1895-96
1 1896-97
' isgt-gsa
£
1,712,515
864,013
, 1,848,749
; 1,800,027
1,855,387
£
733,042
385,156
726,557
700,905
702,361
£
2,255,255
1,13.S,566
2,262,997
2.267,861
2,271,833
£
2,109
695
r I**
£
738,410
391,339
758,190
707,111
722,308
£
3,?37,.375
2,069,630
3,026,008
3,604,721
3,8.39,123
1 January to June.
'- Year ended June 30. The expenditure shown for the year 1897-8 is the gross amount,
but deducting the n-funds shown above, the net expenditure was 9,212,702/. ; the latt*!-
amount, however, cannot be distributed under the headings shown in the table.
The amount of the Public Delit on June 30, 1897, was 61,074,498/., AVitli
mean rate of interest 371 per cent. Of this amount fully 81 percent, has been
264
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
spent on the construction of railways, tramways, telegi-aphs and water supply,
and sewerage controlled by Boards. The net return from these services was equal
to 3 '68 per cent, of the cost of construction ; or 3*00 per cent, of the existing
Public Debt, exclusive of treasury bills. In June, 1897, the amount still
to be raised on which the authority had not been withdrawn was 13,462,067/.
The expenditure of loans, exclusive of redemptions, up to June 30, 1897,
has been : Railways and tramways, 40,273,799Z. ; telegraphs and telephones,
935, 396/. ; harbours and river navigation, 2,260,220/. ; wharfs, 1,479,766/. ;
docks, 319,951/. ; roads and bridges, 989,573/. ; immigration, 194,430/.; water
supply and sewerage, 7,786,584/. ; fortifications and war-like stores, 1,242,006/. ;
public buildings, 2,609,774/. ; public school buildings, 403,820/. ; works in
Queensland prior to separation, 49,855/.; total, 58,545,174/.
The financial statistics of the incorporated boroughs and municipal dis-
tricts are as follows for the municipal year 1897-98: —
—
Fair Averaj>e
AnnualRentalof
all Property in
Municipalities
Estimated
Capital Value of
all Property in
Municipalities
Revenue
exclusive
of Loans
Expendi-
ture
Loans Out-
standing
City of Sydney .
Suburbs .
Metropolis
Country .
Total .
£
2,081,880
2,533,100
£
43,465,200
44,925,600
£
179,252
239,215
£
280,237
248,442
1,335,000 i
717,440
4,614,980
2,229,540
88,390,800
34,322,600
418,467
287,822
528,679
288,745
2,052,440
565,601
6,844,520
122,713,400
706,289
817,424
2,618,041
The estimated wealth of the colony at the census of 1891, and at the close
of the year 1892, when the latest estimate was made, was as follows : —
At census of
At close of
i
1891
1892.
£
£
Revenue-yielding railways, waterworks, «&c. .
Works and buildings not directly revenue yielding
Amount due to lands purchased from the State
Public lands leased but not sold . ...
Municipal property
Total public wealth
44,958,000
20,313,000
13,224,000
94,400,000
46,752,900
23,493,400
13,671,200
98,008,000
181,925,500
7,213,000
172,895,000
6,400,000
179,295,000
189,138,500
Land
Houses and improvements
Other forms of wealth
173,352,000
129,800,000
104,253,000
179,043,000
126,896,000
96,209,000
Total private wealth
407,405,000
404,148,000
Total wealth
586,700,000
593,286,500
Defence.
In 1897 the military force of the colony comprised 7,186 men, of whom
591 formed the regular force, and 6,595 volunteers, the great majority of whom
are partially paid. There were also in the colony civilian rifle clubs, with
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 265
membership of 1,751 men, who were formed into a reserve corps. The naval
force is composed of 579 men, making the total defence force 9,516. These
forces were divided as follows : —
Headquarters and General, Permanent, Honorary, and Naval Defence
Force Staff, 135 ; Lancers, 385 ; Mounted Rifles, 373 ; Artillery, 1,065 ;
Field Engineers, 118 ; Submarine Miners, 102 ; Electricians, 75 ; Infantry,
6,493 (including Reserves) ; Medical Staff Corps, 123 ; Army Service Corps,
68 ; Naval Defence Force Staff, 4 ; Naval Brigade, 328 ; Naval Artillery,
242; torpedo boats, 5 ; total, 9,516. A naval establishment, the main works
of which are at Garden Island, Sydney, has been completed, and, in addition
to shore works, torpedo and other boats have been provided. Sydney is
the headquarters of the s(iuadron in Australian waters, and has a dockyard,
naval coaling station, and victualling and other stores. The cost of the
defence of the colony during the year 1897-98 was 264,427/., inclusive of
31,183Z. from loans.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In 1897-8 there were 1,821,829 acres, or about 09 per cent, of the area of
the colony, under crop. About one fourth of the total area of the colony is
under forest. The cultivated land is principally to be found in small hold-
ings of less than 500 acres. The colony is divided legally, in accordance with
i1fs natural apportionment, into three parts, viz., the Eastern, Central, and
Western divisions, and land is obtainable under the following conditions : —
1st, as a "conditional purchase," by free selection before survey in the two
first- mentioned divisions, at the rate of 11. per acre, payable under a system
of deferred payments. A "conditional lease" may l)e taken in conjunction
with a " conditional purchase," and with it is carried the right of conversion
into a " conditional purchase," at any time after confirmation of the applica-
tion. In the Eastern division the minimum area to be conditionally purchased
is 40 acres, and the maxinmm 640 acres ; a similar maximum limiting the aiea
which may be conditionally leased; in the Central the maximum is 2,560
acres, which may be taken up either as a conditional purchase, or as a partly-
purchased and partly-leased area. 2nd, by additional purchases of the same
areas and under like conditions after the completion of the condition of resi-
dence upon the original selection. 3rd. In the Central division the Land Act
of 1895 provides for the acquisition of land on easy terms, but with stringent
residential conditions attached, either as "'homestead selections " or as " settle-
ment leases," the maximum area of the former being 1,280 acres, and of
the latter a similar extent of agricultural land, or 10,240 acres of grazing
land. The obligations attached to a homestead selection are the payment of
an annual rental based on the capital value and perpetual residence. The
term of a settlement lease is twenty-eight years, with continuous residence
during that period. 4th, by purchasing at 21. per acre, without the condition
of residence, the maximum area being 320 acres. 5th, Government land is
also sold at auction, the upset prices being 81. for town, 21. 10s. for suburban,
and 1/. OS. per acre for country lots. The area sold is not to exceed 200,000
acres annually, and the maximum area for purchasers is 640 acres in one
block. In the Western division the land is leased by the State to pastoral
tenants under various forms. Land of more than ordinary value in each of
the three divisions may be declared to be a " special area," the price per acre
not being less than 30^., and the maximum area that may be selected 320
acres in the Eastern division, and 640 in the Central and Western divisions.
^66
TSE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
The total land alienated or in process of alienation at the end of 1897
was 45,738,687 acres. The total land occupied under leases of various kinds
was 124,184,284 acres. The following table gives the statistics of holdings
of 1 acre and lipwards for the past ten years ending March 31: —
Acreage
1889
1890
1891
1892
1S93
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1 to 15 acres .
6,889
7,290
8,804
9,201
10,164
10,892
12,301
13,101
14,082
15,179
16 to 200
21,503
22,048
22,153
22,815
23,790
24,062
25,707
26,529
27,627
28,404
201 to 400 .
6,612
6,774
7,059
7,392
7,796
7,821
8,299
8,315
8,579
8,fi79
401 to 1,000 .
6,750
6,849
6,906
75158
7,453
7,313
7,569
7,423
7,517
7,623
1,001 to 2,000
2,089
2,191
2,388
2,402
•2,547
2,508
2,475
2,436
2,557
2,631
2.001 to 10,000 .
1.774
1,810
1,994
1,905
2,006
2,012
2,013
2,046
2,109
2,108
10,001 and upwards
Total
580
658
656
677
672
643
656
679
672
674
46,197
47,620
49,960
51,550
54,428
55,251
59,020
60,529
63,143
65,298
The area Under cultivation
and the crops produced were as
in New South Wales during the last four years
follow : —
Year ending
31 March
1895
1896 1897
1898
Area under
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Cultivation
1,325,964
1,348,600
1,659,717
1,821,829 •
Principal Crops
Area
Prtxiuce
Area
Produce
Area
Produce
Area
Produce
Acres
Bish.
Acres
Bush.
Acres
Bush.
Acres
Bush.
i^Grain .
Wheat {
647,483
7,041,378
Tons
596,684
5,195,312
Tons
866,112
8,853,445
Tons.
993,350
10,560,111
Tons
iHay .
125,797
136,837
Bush.
172,614
99,679
Bush.
161,136
118,337
Bush.
213,720
181,646
Bush.
Maize
/■Grain,
Barley {
208,308
10,396
5,625,533
179,348
Tons
211,104
7,590
5,687,030
96,119
Tons
211,382
6,453
5,754,21?
110,340
Tons.
209,588
5,151
6,713,060
99,509
Tons
iHay .
953
1,285 1,744
Bush.
1,398
Bush.
1,615
2,231
Bush.
1,509
2,008
Bush.
( Grain .
Oats {
30,636
562,725 23,750
Tons
374,196
Tons
39,530
834,633
Tohs
29,605
543,946
Tons
I Hay .
Potatoes .
Lucerne and
96,856
30,089
95,517 120,857
86,170 24,722
79,635
56,179
133,946
31,170
142,957
84,214
152,598
23,816
138,546
55,332
sown grasses
(Hay)
21,637
48,234 24,081
Cwts. 1
48,959
Cwts.
30,512
71,467
Cwts.
S3, 246
83,154
Cwts.
Tobacco .
716
8,132| 1,231
11,142
2,744
27,468
2,181
19,718
-
Sugar-cane
Vines
Year
ending
31 March
Total
Area
32,909
32,927
31,053
25,865
Tons
Total
Area
Wines
Brandy
Table Ffuit
1895
1896
1897
1898
264,254
207,771
320,276
269,068
7,577
7,519
8,061
8,083
Gallons
731,683
885,673
794,256
864,514
Gallons
6,356
7,149
7,134
10,790
Tons
4,617
4,017
2,885
4,230
The principal fmit-culture of the colony is that of the orange. There
were in March, 1898, 13,943 acres under oranges, with an estimated produc-
tion of 527,508 cases, or 6,330,096 dozen.
MINE?? ANt> MINERALS
snT
On December 31, 1897, the colony had 43,952,897 sheep, 2,085,096 horned
cattle, 498,034 horses, 207,738 pigs.
There were 120,014 persons engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits
during the year 1897-98.
In 1887 a Forest Conservation Department was created and attached to one
of the principal State departments. The timber reserves, in which State
forests are included, number 1,084, and cover an area of 5,488,808 acres. The
following are the general statistics for five years : —
Year
1
Timber cut in
Reserves subject
to Roj'alty
Revenue from
Royalties,
Licences, &c.
Quantity of
Timber Sawn
Value of
Timber Sawn
Sup. ft.
£
Sup. ft., lin. tliidk
£
1893
10,506,472
9,600
196,114,000
988,870
1894
5,158,759
■ 6,557
173,088,000
750,580
1895
—
6,232
180,000,000
—
1896
—
7,788
169,600,000
—
1897
— '
8,713
175,168,000
II. Mines and Minerals.
Gold is found in all parts of the teiiitory. The total value raised to the
close of the year 1897 wa.9 44,488,371?. The following table shoAVS the
quantity and value of the gold won in New South Wales since its discovery
in 1851 :—
■^eriods
Weight
Value
1851-90
1891-95
1896
1897
1 Total .
Oz.
10,247,098
1,174,446
296,072
292,217
12,009,833
£
38,075,182
4,251,416
1,073,360
1,088,413
44,488,371
Most of the gold won in the colony is received at the Mint for coinage. The
value of silver and silver-lead and ore obtained to the end of 1896 was
24,108,285Z. In 1897, 150,005 ounces of silver were raised, valued at 16,711/.,
and 289,018 tons of silver-lead ore and metal, altogether valued at 1,681,528?.
The value of copper raised in 1897 was 283, 174/. The estimated value of copper
raised from its cliscovery in 1858 until the end of 1897 amounted to 4,351,343Z.
The total value of the output of tin since the mines were opened in 1872 has
been 6,246,418/. In 1897 there were 92 coal mines, employing 9,979 men ;
the quantity of coal raised in 1897 was 4,383,591 tons, valued at 1,230,041/.
The estimated value of coal raised to the close ;of 1897 amounted to
33,049,372/. There are 28 smelting furnaces giving employment to 3,012
hands, principally for the smelting of silver, tin, and copper ores. It is
estimated that there were 44,220 persons employed in mining and smelting
during 1897.
268
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
III. Manufactures.
The following classification of manufactories, number of hands employed,
and capital invested is compiled from the returns of 1897, as far as the number
of establishments and hands employed is concerned, and from the Census
returns of 1891 for the capital invested : —
Classiflcation
No. of
Works 1
Hands
Capital
Invested
Treating raw pastoral products
Preparation of foods and drinks
Clothing and textile fabrics
Building materials .
;Metal works, machineiy, &c.
Docks, slips, ship-building, &c.
Furniture, bedding, &c.
Paper, printing, binding, &c.
Vehicles, harness, saddlery
Light and heat .
Other works
Total .
213
723
372
569
286
32
85
■ 273
182
63
205
3,213
9,055
9,409
5,652
10,418
1,387
1,309
4,901
1,706
938
2,835
£
729,908
4.899,007
1,550,415
2,007,716
2,893,429
262,475
298,684
1,089,319
545,598
569,132
804,021
15,649,704
3,003
50,883
1 Exclusive of small establishments emplojing less than 4 hands, in which no steani
or other power is used.
Commerce.
The following table gives the values of the total imports, the
total exports, and the exports of home and of foreign produce for
the last five years : —
Year
Total
Imports
Home Produce
Exported
Foreign Produce
Exported
Total Exports
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
18,107,035
15,801,941
15,992,415
20,561,510
21,744,350
£
17,094,213
15,904,961
16,436,210
16,742,691
17,057,543
£
5,827,010
4,672,712
5,498,575
6,267,658
6,693,529
£
22,921,223
20,577,673
21,934,785
23,010,349
23,751,072
The total revenue from import duties in 1897 amounted to
1,250,176^., or 5*77 per cent, of the total value of the imports.
Wool is the staple export of the colony. The following is a
table of the total quantities and values of wool exported in the
last ten years : —
Year
Weight
Value
Year
Weight
Value
Lbs.
£
Lbs.
£
1888
243,256,253
9,358,515
1893
344,982,876
10,449,911
1889
266,229,029
10,785,070
1894
354,165,446
9,628,123
1890
243,738,266
9,232,672 !
1895
329,992,675
9,976,044
1891
340,691,382
11,312,980 1
1896
306,824,358
9,897,332
1892
323,052,014
10,540,147 !
1897
285,797,725
8,920,285
COMMERCE
•269
Values of imports are furnished by importers or their agents. In the case of articles free
or subject to specific duties, the values given are understood to represent the values at
the port of shipment, with the freight, insurance, packing and porterage added, and are
in every instance exclusive of duty. In the case of goods free of duty, importers'
valuations are taken, checked, and, if necessary, corrected by Customs officials.
Values of exports are supjiosed to be values at port of shipment. Bills of entry have
to be furnished by exporters,, and are checked by (Justoms officials as far as possible.
Quantities of both imports and exj^orts are taken from merchants' invoices, checked
by Customs officials. As all possible care is taken by the Customs officials to obtain
correct values, it may l>e assumed that the values as piiblished, are sufficiently accurate for
statistical purposes. Properly so called there is very little transit trade tl)rough New South
Wales, nevertheless Sydney is the distributing centre for large quantities of British and
other Eurojiean goods chiefly for Queensland, New Zealand, and the South Seas. Goods
transhipped are not included with imports or exports.
Exports ill 1897, besides wool, were : — Tallow, 504,227/. ; coal,
952,054^. ; hides and skins, 772,584/. ; leather, 304,179/. ; meat, preserved
and frozen, 545,133/. ; gold coin, 4,346,647/.
The following table shows the direction of the total trade of New South
Wales in 1897 :—
—
Imports from
Exports to
United Kingdom
Australasian colonies .
Other British possessions .
United States .
Other foreign countries
Total
&
7,557,069
9,602,277
856,576
1,887,877
1,840,551
&
8,728,828
8,174,666
602,449
2,462,319
3,782,810
21,744,350
23,751,072
The overland trade was as follows for the last five years :-
Year
Imports
Exports
Total
&
£
£
1893
2,698,011
6,706,936
9,404,947
1894
1,788,654
5,222,089
7,010,743
1895
1,783,368
4,748,129
6,531,497
1896
3,125,671
4,769,738
7,895,409
1897
3,931,292
4,498,619
8,429,911
The direct commercial intercourse (exclusive of gold) of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement, according
to the Board of Trade Returns, for six years : —
—
1892 1893
1894
1895
1896
1
1897 i
1
Imports into U. K.
from N. S. W. .
Exports of British pro-
duce to N. S. W. .
£ £
9,932,716 9,248,659
6,568,540 4,834,512
£
10,759,868
5,016,030
£
11,310,785
5,466,099
£
9,678,532
6,363,976
£
9,262,226
6,167,459
270
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
The staple article of import from New South Wales into the United
Kingdom is wool, the quantities and values of which were as follows in each
of the last five years : —
Year
Quantity
Value
Lbs.
£
1893
150,096,324
5,367,474
1894
173,227,826
6,058,637
1895
186,086,926
6,068,350
1896
163,717,080
5,743,230
1897
165,843,338
5,588,413
Other important articles of import into Great Britain from New South
Wales are tallow (1897), 661,202Z. ; fresh beef, 88,145^. ; fresh mutton,
786,140Z. ; preserved meat, 314,467^. ; silver ore, 79,006Z. ; gold ore,
43,192Z. ; copper, 267,103Z. ; copper ore, 16,708^. ; lead, 70,238^. ; lead ore,
46,587^. ; tin, 90,307Z. ; hides, 101,349Z. ; skins and furs, 150,769^. ; leather,
337,313?. ; butter, 112,218Z.; oil nuts, 90,274Z, The chief exports from Great
Britain to New South Wales in 1897 were apparel, 742,854Z.; iron, 702,820Z. ;
cottons, 850,285Z. ; woollens, 639,400Z. ; linens, 127,187Z. ; hats, 115,465Z. ;
machinery, 196,276Z. ; cycles, 48,584Z. ; leather, 181,629/. ; paper, 165,136Z. ;
spirits, 182,280Z. ; beer and ale, 167,362Z.
Shipping and Navigation.
The shipping on the registers of the colony at the close of 1897 consisted
of 475 sailing vessels of 54,671 tons, and 496 steamers of 66,750 tons ; total
971 vessels of 121, 421 tons, while the shipping registered during the year
consisted of 29 sailing vessels of 6,378 tons, and 20 steamers of 8,220 tons ;
total 49 vessels of 14,598 tons.
The number and tonnage of British and foreign vessels entered and cleared,
with cargoes and in ballast, during three years were : —
Year
British
Foreign
Total
Vessels
2,900
2,881
2,960
2,944
2,996
2,775
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage
2,929,758
2,930,280 :
3,080,751 1
3,109,009 '
3,331,877
3,412,554
,qqk/ Entered .
^^^H Cleared .
TCQ^/ Entered .
l^^nCleared .
1007/ Entered .
^^^'^l Cleared .
2,604,664
2,610,510
2,701,247
2,731,645
2,837,143
2,913,314
221
209
264
264
349
345
325,094
319,770
379,504
377,364
494,734
499,240
3,121
3,090
3,224
3,208
3,345
3,120
Of the total cleared in 1897, 1,425 of 1,916,075 tons were from Sydney,
and 1,025 of 1,243,591 tons were from Newcastle.
Internal Communications.
In 1898 there were 10,110 miles of roads metalled, gravelled, ballasted, or
corduroyed ; 6,822 formed ; 7,127 cleared and drained ; 8,231 cleared only ;
14,578 of bush roads ; and 1,916 miles not described. The total mileage of
roads was 48,784, including 7,988 miles of roads in municipalities.
The following are particulars of the Government railways in the colony on
June 30, 1898 :— Lines open for traffic, 2,691^ miles. The total amount of
MONEY AND CREDIT
271
money expeiuUul on railway construction and equipment to June 30, 1898, was
37,719,402/. The gross earnings for 1897-98 amounted to 3,026,748?.,
working expenses 1,614,605/., and percentage of working expenses to the
gross earnings, 53-34. There were also, at the close of 1897,84 m. 34 ch.
of private railways, which had a capital expenditure of 561,961/.
The tramways are the property of the Government. There were, on June
30, 1898, 65 miles open for traffic, the capital cost being 1,478,251/. The
gross earnings for 1897-98 were 313,871/. ; the working expenses, 259,141/. ;
and the percentage of working expenses to revenue 82 "56.
In 1897 there were 1,536 post-offices and 510 receiving-offices ; number of
letters carried, 72,939,084 ; post-cards, 1,085,770 ; newspapers. 42,426,394 ;
packets and book-parcels, 12,742,704 ; parcels, 539,503 ; money orders issued,
403,779 for 1,421,524/. ; postal notes paid, 377,282/.
At the end of December 1897 there were in operation 12,778 miles of
telegraph posts, with 33,073 miles of wire; cost of construction, 932,412/. ;
stations, 886; number of telegrams, 2,728,360; receipts, 427,440/. ; and
the net revenue, 155,162/.
Money and Credit.
The value of gold, silver, and bronze coin issued at the Royal Branch
Mint, Sydney, during five years, was : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
£
£
£
£
1893
2,969,000
10,025
840
2,979,905
1894
3,067,000
6,300
505
3,073,805
1896
2,758,000
4,750
1,260
2,764,010
1896
2,544,000
10,800
2,880
2,557,680
1897
2,532,000
17,250
1,890
2,551,140
The assets of the banks (13 in 1897) trading in New South Wales, accord-
ing to returns relating to operations within the Colony for the last quarter of
each of the last five years, were : —
Notes and
Notes and
Balances
Year
1
Coin
Bullion
Landed
Bills dis-
Bills of
due from
Total
Property
counted.
other
other
Assets 1
&c.
Banks
Banks
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
1S93
5,877,891
95,386
1,918,196
40,024,354
578,0872
300,122
48,794,036
1894
7,330,005
100,525
1,936,321
37,378,947
214,503
232,913
47,195,214
189.0
7,364,059
151,619
1,919,017
35,701,125
22S.7592
257,150
45,622,329
1896
6,760,851
187,845
1,914,483
35,116,696
223,4872
324,466
44,527,828
1897
5,766,554
.175,037
1,816,691
35,697,494
227,4272
297,519
43,980,722
2 Inclusive of Legal Tender and Treasury Notes.
The liabilities of the banks (exclusive of those to shareholders) were : —
272
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1S97
Notes in
Bills in
Circula-
Circula-
tion
tion
£
£
1,804,531
75,086
1,235,989
146,911
1,223,864
117,327
1,237,971
lll,8b9
1,227,964
112,113
Deposits
not
bearing
Interest
Deposits
bearing In-
terest
£
8,557,840
9,412,761
10,222,437
10,707,611
10,582,621
£
23,584,119
20,380,032
20,406,822
19,128,305
19,024,114
j Balances
Total due to
Deposits I other
Banks
£
32,141,959
29,792,793
30,629,259
29,835,916
29,606,785
£
80,596
87,427
66,602
69,000
79,711
Total
Liabilities
£
34,102,172
31,263,120
32,037,052
31,254,773
31,026,523
Of the Savings Bank of New South Wales, established in 1832, the
Governor is president, and the management is vested in nine trustees. Besides
the head office and a branch in Sydney there are 12 branches in the country
districts. There are also post-office savings-banks. Statistics of both are
given below : —
Year
Number of Depositors
Amount on Dec. 31
Average per Depositor
£
£ 8. d.
1893
179,727
6,535,758
36 7 4
1894
190,307
7,217,000
37 18 5
1895
202,802
8,073,574
39 16 2
1896
213,608
8,522,623
39 17 11
1897
227,629
9,136,793
40 2 10
There are also banks in connection with Land, Building, and Investment
companies. The amount of deposits in these institutions in March, 1898,
was 759,361Z. (exclusive of deposits in Benefit, Building, and Investment
Societies amounting to 319,335/.).
Agent-General in London. — Sir Julian Salomans, Q.C.
Secretary, Samuel Yardley, C.M.G.
Under the supervision of the Governor of New South Wales are Norfolk Islakp, 29*
S. latitude, 163° E. longitude, area 10 square miles, population about 750, administered
since November 14, 1896, bj' a Resident Magistrate and an elective council of 12 members
who, with a grand jury, deal wiih all criminal offences not capital; Pitcairn Island. 25*
S., 130° W., area 3 square miles, population 120 ; Lord Howe Island, 31" 30' S., 159° E.,
population 55, is administered by the Government of New South "Wales.
Books of Reference.
The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales. By T. A. Coghlan, Government Statis-
tician. Published annually since 1887. Sydney.
A Statistical Account of the Seven Colonies of Australasia. By T. A. Coglilan, Govern-
ment statistician. Published annually. Sydney.
Historical Records of New South Wales. 4 vols. Sydney, 1896.
New South Wales Statistical Register. Published annually since 1858. Sydnej'.
Report on the Eleventh Census (1891). By T. A. Coghlan, Government Statistician,
Sydney, 1894. , „ o ^
Railways of New South Wales. Beportof Commissioners. Published annually. Sydney.
Report of Mining Depaitment. Published annually. Sydney.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Annual. London.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. Loudon, 1893.
Fergusi^on (D.), Vicissitudes of Bush Life in Au.stralia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1891.
Griffin (G. W.), New South Wales, Her Commerce and Resources. 8 Sydney, 1888.
Hntehinson (F.), New South Wales : the Mother Colony of the Australias. Sydney, 1896.
Lang (John Dunmore, D.D.), Historical and Statistical Account of New South Wales.
4th edit. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
Liver»idge{A., M.A., F.R.S.), Minerals of New South Wales, Ac. London, 1888.
Lyne (C. E.), Life of Sir H. Parkes. London. 1897.
Parfce* (SirH.), Fifty Yearsin the MakingofAustralianHistory. 2vols. 8. London, 1892
— Au Emigrant's Home Letters (1838-44). New ed. London, 1897.
Iloijdhouse (T. R.), The Labour Party in New Soutli Wales. S. London, 1892.
NEW ZEALAND 273
NEW ZEALAND.
Crovernment and Constitution.
Tlie present form of government for New Zealand was estab-
lished by statute 15 & 16 Vict., cap. 72, passed in 1852. By
this Act the colony was divided into six provinces, afterwards
increased to nine, each governed by a Superintendent and
Provincial Council, elected by the inhabitants according to a
franchise practically amounting to household suffrage. By a sub-
sequent Act of the Colonial Legislature, 39 Vict., No. xxi., passed
in 1875, the provincial system of government was abolished, and
the powers previously exercised by superintendents and provincial
officers were ordered to be exercised by the Governor or by local
boards. By the terms of this and other amending statutes, the
legislative power is vested in the Governor and a * General
Assembly' consisting of two Chambers — the first called the
Legislative Council, and the second the House of Representatives .
The Governor has the power of assenting to or withholding con-
sent from bills, or he may reserve them for Her Majesty's pleasure.
He summons, prorogues, and dissolves the Parliament. He can
send drafts of bills to either House for consideration, but in case
of appropriations of public money must first recommend the House
of Representatives to make provision accordingly before any appro-
priations can become law. He can return bills for amendment to
either House.
The Legislative Council consists at present of forty-eight mem-
bers, who are paid at the rate of 150^. per annum. Those ap-
pointed before September 17, 1891, are life members, but those
appointed subsequently to that date hold their seats for seven
years only, though they are eligible for reappointment. By an
Act passed in 1887, the number of members of the House of
Representatives was reduced to seventy-four, including four
Maoris, elected by the people for three years. They are paid at
the rate 'of 240/. per annum. Every man registered as an
elector, and not coming within the meaning of section 8 of *' The
Electoral Act, 1893 " (alien, felon, public defaulter, &c.), is
qualified to be elected a member of the House of Representatives
for any Electoral District. Women cannot be members of either
branch of the Legislature. For European representation every
adult person (of either sex), if resident one year in the colony and
three months in one electoral district, can be registered an elector.
The property qualification, except in case of existing registra-
tions, was abolished by the Amendment Act (Electoral) of 1896.
No person may be registered on more than one electoral roll.
For Maori representation every adult Maori resident in any
274 titE BRI'TlSH EMPIRfi: — NEW ZEALAND
Maori electoral district — of which there are four only in the
colony — can vote, provided he (or she) be not registered on any
European roll. Registration is not required in Native districts.
At the general election in 1896 there were 339,230 (196,925
men and 142,305 women) electors on the rolls for the electoral
districts, which returned 70 European members to the House of
Representatives ; and at the election of the four Maori members
for the districts under the Maori Representation Act, 13,008
votes of natives were recorded.
The proportion of representation to population was in 1896
one European member in the House of Representatives to every
10,186 persons, and one Maori member to every 9,964 natives.
The proportion of electors to population in the year 1896 was
one to every 2*1 persons.
Governor. — The Right Honourable the Earl of Ranfurly,
K.C.M.G., appointed Governor of New Zealand, 10th August, 1897.
The Governor, who is by virtue of his office Commander-in-
Ohief of the forces, has a salary of 5,000^., which is to cover all
expenses of his establishment and for travelling.
The general administration rests with a responsible Ministry
consisting of about seven members.
The following is the list of the present Ministry : —
Premier, Colonial Treasurer, Commissioner of Trade and Customs, Post-
master-General, Electric Telegraph Commissioner, Minister of Labour, and
Minister of Native Affairs. — Right Hon. R. J. Seddon.
Minister of Lands^ Minister of Agriculture, Commissioner of Forests^ and
Minister in Charge of Advances to Settlers Office. — Hon. J. McKenzie.
Minister for Railways and Minister of Mines. — Hon. A. J. Cadman.
Commissioner of Stamp Duties, Acting Colonial Secretary, and Member of
Executive Council representing the Native Race. — Hon. J. Carroll.
Minister of Immigration, Alinister of Education, and^Minister in Charge
of Bospitals and Charitable Aid. — Hon. W. C. "Walker.
Minister for Public JVorks, Minister of Marine, and Minister in Chclrge
of Printing Office. — Hon. W. Hall- Jones.
Minister of Justice, Minister of Defence ^ and. Minister of Industries and
Commerce. — Hon. T. Thompson.
Speaker of the House of Representatives. — Hon. Sir George Maurice
0*Rorke, Kt.
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of dealing with
questions of native government, were transferred in 1863 from the Imperial
to the Colonial Government. In 1864 the seat of the general Government
was removed from Auckland to Wellington on account of the central position
of the latter city.
Local Government.
I'or purposes of local government New Zealand is divided into counties
and boroughs. The counties are subdivided into ridings. County councils are
empowered to constitute road districts on petition being made. Besides the
AHEA AT«JD POPULATION
276
road districts, which are very numerous, there are town districts and river
and harbour boards.
The ratepayers in the road districts of a county are qualified as electors fof
the purposes of the county council, and the inembers of each road board are
elected by the ratepayers of the district.
Area and Population.
There ai'e two principal islands, known as the North and
Middle Islands, besides the South or Stewart Island, and small
outlying islands. The group is nearly 1,000 miles long, and 200
miles aci*oss at the broadest part. Its coast line extends ovet
3,000 miles. New Zealand is situated 1,200 miles to the east of
the Australian continent. It was fir'st visited by Tasman in
1642, afterwards by Captain Cook in 1769.
The area of New Zealand is estimated at 104,471 square
miles. The North Island is estimated to embrace an area of
44,468 square miles, the Middle Island 58,525, while Stewart's
Island has an area of 665 square miles. New Zealand was
officially established as a colony in 1840. The total acreage of the
colony is 66,710,320, and up to the end of March 1898, 21,908,264
acres had been alienated from the Crown. The following table
gives the population of New Zealand, exclusive of aborigines, at
Various dates, according to census returns : —
Years
Males
Females
65,578
Total
i
Increase pel- cent. 1
per annum
1864
106,580
172,158
19
1871
1,^0.267
105,993
256,260
6-3
1878
230,998
183,414
414,412
8
1881
269,605
220,328
489,933
6
1886
312,221
266,261
578,482
3-6
1891
332,877
293,781
626,658
1-7
1896
371,415
331,945
703,360
2-3
The population of each provincial district and its area, with the popu-
lation per square mile, is shown in the succeeding table as at last census
(1896) :—
Provincial District
Auckland
Taranaki
Wellington
Hawke's Bay
Marlborough
Nelson .
Westland
Canterbury
Otaffo
Square Miles
25,746
3,308
11,003
4,410
4,753
10,269
4,641
14,040
25,487
Population
Persons to a
square mile
153,564
31,175
121,854
34,038
12,483
35,734
14,469
135,858
163,944
5
9
11
7
2
3
3
9
6
•96
•42
•08
•72
•63
•48
•12
•68
•43
T 2
276
THE BRITISH EMPIllE : — NEW ZEALAND
In April 1896 the population of the North Island was 340,631 ; of the
Middle Island, 362,236; of Stewart Island, 252; of Chatham Islands 234,
and of Kermadec Islands 7. In 1876, New Zealand, previously divided into
ten provinces, was divided into counties and boroughs. The total population
including Maoris was on April 12th, 1896, 743,214. This included 3,711
Chinese, of whom only 26 were females.
Of the Maoris, 21,673 were males, and 18,181 females. The total num-
ber includes 3,503 half-castes, living as members of Maori tribes, and 229
Maori wives of European husbands. In 1857 the number of Maoris was
stated to be 56,049, but this estimate is not considered trustworthy.
Of the total population, excluding Maoris, in 1896, 690,003 persons, or
98-10 per cent., were British-born subjects. Of these, 441,661, or 62-85 per
cent., were born in New Zealand, and 215,161, or 30-62 per cent., born in the
United Kingdom (116,541 in England, 2,148 in Wales, 50,435 in Scotland,
and 46,037 in Ireland).
The foreign subjects numbered 19,080, or 2-71 per cent, of the population.
Excluding the Chinese, 67-05 per cent, of the population were found to
be unmarried ; 29 -46 per cent, married ; and 3 -49 widowers or widows.
Of the population, enumerated in April 1896, 391,735 lived in the rural dis-
tricts ; 307,294 or 43*68 per cent., lived in boroughs; 950 lived on adja-
cent islands, and 3,381 were on board ship.
Of the total population in 1896, 58-25 per cent, were returned as depen-
dents ; 15-13 per cent, as agricultural, pastoral, mineral, and other primary
producers; 11-66 per cent, industrial; 7-18 per cent, commercial ; 4 '11 per
cent, domestic; 2-74 per cent, professional; and 8-93 per cent, indefinite
occupation.
At the census of 1896 there were four towns with over 10,000 inhabit-
ants in New Zealand— namely, Auckland, 31,424, or with suburbs, 57,616 ;
Wellington (the seat of Government), 37,441, or with suburbs, 41,758 ;
Christchurch, 16,964, or with suburbs, 51,330 ; and Dunedin, 22,815, or with
suburbs, 47,280 inhabitants.
Movement of the Population.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Years
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Total
Births
18,187
18,528
18,546
18,612
18,737
Illegitimate
Births
Deaths
Man-iages
Excess of
Births over
Deaths
673
704
835
834
826
6,767
6,918
6,863
6,432
6,595
4,115
4,178
4,110
4,843
4,928
11,420
11,610
11,683
12,180
12,142 i
The birth Bate for the year 1897 was 25-96 per 1,000 persons living ; the
death rate was 9-14 per 1,000 ; and the marriage rate, 6-83.
Immigration and Emigration.
Years
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Immigrants
_, . . Excess of luiiuigration
Emigrants | ^^^^ Emigration
26,135
25,237
21,862
17,236
18,592
15,723
22,984
20,967
15,764
15,840
10,412
2,253
895
1,472
2,752
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
277
Religion.
There is no State Church, and no State aid is (jiven to any fonn of
religion. When the settlements of Canterbury and Otago were originally
founded, bodies in communion with the Church of England and the Free
Church of Scotland respectively obtained endowments which they still retain
from the Societies by which the settlements were organised. For purposes
of the Church of England the colony is divided into six dioceses — Auckland,
Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Roman
Catholic Church is under the government of an Archbishop residing at Wel-
lington, and three suffragan bishops. The list of officiating clergy under
the Marriage Act shows the numbers given below. The churches and
chapels are given from the census of 1896 : —
Number
1
Number
Number
of
1
Number
of
Denomination
of
clergy
churches
and
Denomination
of
clergy
churches
and
(1S98)
chapels,
&c.
(1S98)
chapels,
&c.
Church of England
290
414
Baptist .
23
34
Presbyterian
198
301
Other Christian
Roman Catholic .
148
212
bodies .
43
148
Methodist bodies .
181
296
Hebrew .
5
5
Congregational .
15
20 i
Confucian
1
According to the census of 1896, 40 "27 per cent, of the population (ex-
clusive of Maoris) belonged to the Church of England, 2278 were Presby-
terians, 10 '45 percent. Methodists, other Protestant sects represented being
Baptists, Independents, Lutherans, Friends, and Unitarians. The total
Protestants numbered 545,176, and Roman Catholics and Catholics unde-
fined, 98,804, or 14'07 per cent, of the population. There were 1,549 Jews,
3,391 Pagans, and 15,967 who objected to state their religion.
Instruction.
The University. of New Zealand is solely an examining body, and grants
degrees by virtue of a royal charter. It receives an annual grant of 3,000?.
It awards scholarships to be held by students at affiliated colleges. The number
of graduates admitted after examination is now 603. There are three affiliated
colleges — the Otago University at Dunedin, with 9 professors ; the Canterbury
College at Christchurch, with 8 professors ; and the Auckland University
College, with 5 professors ; besides lecturers at each. They are all endowed
with lands. Total students (1896) 677, of whom 430 have matriculated.
At the end of 1897 there were in operation 24 incorporated or endowed
secondary schools, with 184 teachers and an average attendance of
2,575 pupils. Four endowed schools were not in operation. The income
of all the schools for 1897 was about 68,391Z., of which 37,317/. was
from enclowments, and 27,652^ from fees, not including boarding fees,
278
THE BIIITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
The colonial primary school system is administered by an Education Depart-
ment, under a Minister, 13 Education Boards, and 1,290 School Committees.
There are 1,585 public primary schools, with 3,628 teachers, and 132,197 scholars
on the rolls ; average attendance, 110,523. School age is from 5 to 15.
Education is compulsoiy between the ages of 7 and 13 in those districts in
which the school committees bring the compulsory clauses of the Act into
operation. The instruction given at the public schools is secular only, and for
the ordinary standard course entirely free. Where there are no secondary
schools classes may be formed in the public school for extra subjects, for which
fees are charged. The system is maintained by a statutory allowance of
3^. 156'. per annum to the boards for each average attendance ; by special
votes of about 12,000Z. per annum for inspection and scholarships; and by
further special votes for school buildings, of which the amounts vary according
to circumstances.
There are 278 private schools, with 765 teachers, and 14,447 pupils ; a
medical school, and a school of mines ; a school of agriculture, a school of
engineering, 2 normal schools, 4 schools of art ; 6 industrial schools, with
1,588 children or young persons ; a school for deaf mutes, with 47 pupils : a
school for the blind, with 28 inmates.
There are 74 Native village schools, with 148 teachers, 2,864 scholars on the
rolls, and average attendance of 2,291 ; and 4 boarding schools for native
children, at which 73 Government scholars are under instruction. Total net
expenditure by Government ou native schools in 1897 was 20,743Z.
Total Government expei;diture in 1897-98 upon education of all kinds
491, 706^., including 12,303^. for industrial schools, 3,122Z. for the school for
cleaf mutes, 4511. (by way of subsidy) for the school for the blind, and 1,697/,
for technical instruction.
In 1896 there were 304 public libraries, mechanics' institutes, and other
literary and scientific institutions, with 17,638 members, 409,604 volumes.
There are now (1897) 50 daily papers, 28 published three times a week, 30
twice g, week, 63 once a week, 3 fortnightly, and 26 monthly.
Justice and Crime,
The administration of justice is in the hands of five supreme court judges,
four judges of district courts, and thirty stipendiary magistrates. Magis-
trates courts are held daily in the principal centres and at convenient times
in the smaller towns. There are numerous justices of the peace.
The convictions for the last five years in the superior and inferior courts
were : —
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Europeans summarily con-
victed ....
Europeans convicted be-
fore supreme or district
courts ....
13,454
260
12,613
300
13,067
344
14,149
291
15,185
303
There are 10 principal gaols and 24 minor gaols. At the end of 1897
these gaols contained 674 prisoners. The police force consists of 530 officers
and men.
PAUPERISM — FINANCE
279
Pauperism,
The Governniciit does not deal directly with pauperism. The colony is
divided into hospital and charitable aid districts. The boards rate the local
bodies within their boundaries, and receive Government subsidy equal to
what is raised. There are, besides, what are called * separate institutions,' or
* incoi-porated hospitals and benevolent societies,' which receive from Governr
ment 24s. a pound on private subscriptions. The total sum paid to the
Charitable Aid Boards during the year ended 31st March, 1898, out of the
Consolidated Fund was 44,575Z.
During the year 1897 the various benevolent asylums in the colony accom-r
modated 1,870 inmates, 813 of whom were over 65 years of age.
1,588 children (882 boys and 706 girls) were wholly or in part maintained
by the Government in industrial schools and other institutions, or were
boarded out.
Finance,
The chief sources of revenue and the total ordinary revenue (exclusive of
receipts from sales and rents of land) have been as follows in five years ended
March 31 :—
Year ended
March 31
Customs
Stamps, in-
cluding Post
and Teleg.
Railways
Land Tax
Income
Tax
Total
(including
others)
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
£
1,665,503
1,569,784
1,649,310
1,818,972
1,935,252
£
674.647
677,225
707,188
730,237
780,232
£
1,175,548
1,152,748
1,182,280
1,287,140
1,370,572
£
285,327
280,188
271,399
272,309
267,286
£
75,238
89,891
92,778
105,504
115,210
£
4,055,679
3,965,829
4,107,078
4,798,708
5,079,230
The receipts from sales of land have been, for years ended 31st
March, 1898, 92,578Z. ; 1894, 128,670Z. ; 1895, 121,467Z. ; 1896, 126,571Z. ;
1897, 109,521Z. The revenue results for the ten months ended January,
1899, showed an increase of 157,000 over the corresponding period of 1897-98.
The chief branches of expenditure and the total ordinary expenditure
(exclusive of sums paid to the Public "Works Fund) have been as follows in
live years ended March 31 : —
Year ended
March 31
Public
Debt
Charges
Railways
Education
Post, and
Telegraph
Constabulary
and Defence
£
171,073
177,188
196,999
189,143
105,602
Total
(including
others)
1894
1895
1896
1807
1808
£
1,885,697
1,716,880
1,683,775
1,709,469
1,741,413
£
731,844
727,656
744,200
776,748
849,928
£
388,652
403,234
453,156
461,582
466,925
£
292,433
206,766
338,836
352,886
862,993
£
4,386,359
4,266,712
4,370,481
4.509,981
4,602,372
The total expenditure out of the Public Works Fund from 1870 to March
31, 1898, was 31,070,014/., including charges and expenses for raising loans.
In 1891 a land and income assessment act was passed repealing the pro-
perty tax formerly existing, and providing for an ordinary land tax on the
actual value of land, exemptions or deductions being granted on account of
improvements and mortgages and an income tax. Mortgages are subject to
^he land tax. The rate for 1896-97 was Id. in the pound, yielding a revenue
280
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
of about 270,000Z. In addition to the ordinary land-tax there is a graduated
tax on land, rising from one-eighth of a penny in the pound on values from
5,000Z. to 10,000Z., up to twopence in the pound on values of 210,000/.
and upwards. The income tax rate is 6d. in the pound on the first taxable
1,000Z. {i.e. after deducting the 300/. exemption), and Is. in the pound on
taxable incomes over 1,000/. The indirect taxation is by way of customs duty
and excise duty on beer made in the colony. The average per head of
taxation in 1896-97 was 3/. lis. Od., excluding Maoris.
The public debt for five years ending March 31 is shown in the following
table : —
Years
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Debentures
Sinking
and Stock
Fund
£
£
39,826,415
951,924
40,386,964
751,932
43,050,780
778,891
44,366.618
814,294
44,963,424
881,903
Net debt
£
38,874,491
39,635,032
42,271,889
43,552,324
44,081,521
Net debt
per head.
57
60
60
60
8. d.
8 10
9 9
2 4
13 9
4 11
Interest
£
1,761,993
1,658,910
1,642,592
1,73^,622
1,750,659
Sinkinc
Fund
£
123,703
57,979
41.183
42,710
44,852
Total
Charge
£
1,885,690
1,716,889
1,683,775
1,781,332
1,795,011
By the provisions of * The Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,' the Government
is empowered to issue debentures in every year equivalent to the annual
increase of the sinking fund, the proceeds to be paid to the consolidated
revenue. By the conversion of some of the loans into consolidated stock,
the sinking funds relating to such converted loans have been set free.
Local Finance.
For the purposes ot local government the colony is divided into 97
boroughs and 81 counties, the latter being subdivided into 243 road districts
and 40 town districts.
The following table shows receipts from rates and from Government and all
other sources (including loans), and the expenditure and outstanding loans,
of the local governing bodies (counties, boroughs, town, road, river, drainage,
and harbour boards), for five years ended March 31 : —
Year
Receipts
Expenditure
Outstanding
Loans
From Rates
From other Sources
£
£
£
£
1893
508,157
1,050,214
1,482,548
6,203,869
1894
551,412
1,304,869
1,589,124
6,614,824
1895
581,868
1,012,655
1,584,518
6,685,510
1896
592,903
1,007,291
1,627,079
6,737,578
1897
598,526
1,011,966
1,636,716
6,793,398
The aggregate value of real property in the colony (as returned by local
bodies) on March 31, 1897, was : boroughs, rateable ])roperty, 40,085,665/. ;
counties, rateable property, 74,528,519/. ; not rateable (unoccupied crown
and native lands) 7,396,844/. ; rateable and other property not distinguished,
1,231,413/. ; total of counties, 83,156,776/. ; total of real proj^erty,
123,242,441/.
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
281
Defence.
The first consideration has been to ])rovide sufficient means of protection
for the principal ports of the colony. The approaches thereto are defended
by batteries of heavy ordnance, supplemented by torpedo-boats and submarine
mines.
The Volunteer force has a strength of 7,694 of all ranks. There is be-
sides a permanent militia, consisting of an artillery branch of 195 officers and
men. Torpedo branch 73. The colony has 4 small torpedo boats. The
police force numbers 530, It was found by the census that in April 1896
the total number of males liable to be called out for service in the militia
was in round numl)ers 130,000, consisting of all males between seventeen and
forty years, with the unmarried between forty and tifty-tive years, less
exemptions, numbering about 18,000.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
It is estimated that two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable
for agriculture and grazing. Of the total area, sixty-seven millions of acres,
about 20,000,000 acres are still under forest, and nine millions are barren
mountain tops, lakes, and worthless country. The total area under crop
including 9,866,549 acres in sown grasses and 60,792 acres })roken up but
not under crop) in 1898 was 11,444,563 acres. Of thirty-four millions oi
acres of Crown lands remaining for disposal, about! fifteen millions are open
grass or fern country and ten millions forest.
The rural lands of the colony can be bought from the Crown for cash.
They can also be held on ' lease ' in perpetuity (999 years), ' occupation
with right of purchase ' (with restriction of area) or in some parts on pastoral
leases. The largest freehold estates are held in the Middle Island. The total
extent of occupied holdings over one acre in 1898 was returned by the
Department of Agi'iculture at 33,980,479 acres, in holdings of various sizes,
as shown in the following table, which deals with all the occupied land, in-
cluding Crown pastoral leases : —
Sizes of Holdiugs
Number
of
Holdings
Acres
Over 1 acre to 10 acres inclusive
10 ,. 50 „
50 „ 100
100 „ 200
„ 200 ,, 320 „
,, 320 „ 640 ,,
„ 640 ,, 1,000 ,,
„ 1,000 „ 5,000
„ 5,000 ,, 10,000
„ 10,000 „ 20,000
„ 20,000 „ 50,000
Ujiwards of 50,000 acres
Total
17,133
11,182
7,068
9,192
5,481
5,436
1,956
2,454
345
246
164
102
68,929
317,821
5.58,798
1,396,699
1,431,406
2,492,275
1,611,267
5,165,119
2,416,149
3,501,576
5,251,819
9,769,121
60,759
33,980,479
282
THE BEITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
If the area of Crown lands under pastoral leases be deducted, tho area of
occupied land in 1898 Avas 24,523,194 acres; in 1891, 19,951,925 acres; in
1886, 17,077,074 acres. The average annual increase of land occuj)ied by
settlement in the seven years 1891-98 was about 653,000 acres, as compared
with 574,900 for the preceding five years, but the figures for 1898 include the
area of certain Maori holdings formerly left out.
At the census of 1896 there were in New Zealand 83,300 persons engaged
in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, of whom 31,204 were farmers, 16,473
relatives assisting on farms, 20,236 farm labourers, 1,638 runholders, and 6,742
station hands.
The acreage and produce for each of the principal crops are given as
follows : —
Wheat
Oats
Barley
Hay
u
c3
<o
!h
1894
1895
1896
1897
O M
> <D
20-15
24-32
27-88
17-95!
1
to
S
•<
to
0.£3
O CO
1
1
03
O CD
> s
<*»
i
25-11
27-40
29-30
23-72 1
CO
s
<
o
242,737
148,575
•245,441
315,801
4,892
3,613
6,844
5,670
376,646
351,852
304,788
354,819
12,153
10,221
12,264
9,738
32-27
29-05
33-62
27 '44
28,857
36,519
35,356
29,920
725
1,001
1,036
710
60,740
56,614
96,818
67,865
86,198
78,489
140,837
1-42
1-39
1'50
The live stock of the colony consisted in 1898 of 252,834 horses, 1,209,165
cattle, 19,687,954 sheep (in 1858, 1,523,324 ; 1864, 4,937,273 ; 1874,
11,704,853 ; 1886, 16,580,388) ; and 180,027 pigs.
The following table shows the statistics of the leading manufactories and
works (excluding mines and quarries) in the colony : —
Years
Number of
manufactories
and works
Hands employed
Estimated Capital
Estimated Produce
1895
1890
1885
2,459
2,254
1,946
27,389
25,633
22,095
£
5,796,017
5,261,826
5,096,930
£
9,549,360
8,773,837
6,711,379
The largest items in the estimated value of manufactures and produce in
1895 were : meat freezing and preserving, 1,615,219^.; tanning, wool scour-
ing, &c., 1,237,252Z. ; saw mills, 898,807/.; grain mills, 874,656/.; clothing
and boot factories, 616,158/.; butter and cheese factories, 501,274/. ; iyon and
brass works, 302,815/.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
II. Mines and Minerals.
283
The following table shows the quantity and value of minerals
produced for years ending December 31 : —
1
Silver
Antimony
Ore
Manganese
Ore
Coal
Kauri Gum
Gokl
«*)
«4j
«<?
e«
•^
«4j
!>^
CO
a
03
d
CO
c
CO
a
CO
a
.s
.2
1
o
a>
o
H
o
"3
O
"3
§
1>
3
13
o
3
1S88
>
376
>
>
>
8,482
>
>
403
71
6,246
1,085
2,404
613,895
306,947
389,933
201,219
801,066
1889
24,105
4,043
493
. 5,319
1,080
2,569
586,445
293,222
7,ai9
329,590
203,211
808,549
1890
32,637
6,162
515
11,121
482
1,004
637,397
349,936
7,438
378,563
193,193
773,438
1S91
28,023
5,151
413
4,950
1,153
2,634
668,794
379,738
8,388
437,056
251,996
1,007,488
1892
22,053
3,996
364
4,900
521
1,239
673,315
377,427
8,705
517,678
238.079
954,744
1893
63,076
9,743
331
3,497
319
943
691,548
383,905
8.317
510,775
226,811
913,138
1894
54.177
6,697
44
761
534
1,156
719,653
395,869
8,338
404,507
221,615
887,839
1895
85,024
10679
54
1,486
210
525
726,654
403,676
7,425
418,766
293,491
1,162,164
1896
94,307
10589
21
450
65
025
792,851
428 648
7,126
431,323
263,694
1,041,428
1897
183892
20872
10
157
180
541
840,713
420,357
6,641
398,010
251,645
980,204
1898
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
280,176
1,080,691
Commerce.
In 1897 the imports duty-free (excluding 61,022^. specie)
amounted to 2,675,93H. ; subject to duty, 5,318,270^. The
ad valorem duties vary from 5 to 40 per cent.
The value of the trade is shown in the accompanying table : —
Years
Total Imports
Exports of Colonial
Produce
Exports of other
Produce
Total Exports
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
£
6,943,056
6,788,020
6,400,129
7,137,320
8,055,223
8,230,529
£
8,557,443
9,085,148
8,390,153
9,177,336
9,596,267
£
427,921
145,899
160,071
143,769
420,726
£
8,985,364
9,231,047
8,550,224
9,321,105
10,016,993
10,523,290
The quantities and values of imports are obtained from Customs entries verified by
invoices and where necessary, as with goods subject to an ad valorem duty, by examination.
For exports the ' free-on-board in New Zealand ' value is given ; but, as regards the main
items, the Collector of Customs examines carefully the amounts stated, and compares them
with current price lists, to prevent any over-estimate. Goods trans-shii)ped at a foreign
port, are regarded as imported from the country where they were originally
shipped, and exports as destined for the country where it is intended to land them. The
countries named, however, may not be those of origin or destination, as no attempt is
made to trace the goods beyond the ports disclosed by the documents presented to the
Customs. Very little cargo t;» transitu passes through New Zealand.
The values of the principal imports and exports in 1897 are shown in
following table • —
the
284
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
Ai'ticles of Import
Value
Articles of Export
Value
Clothing, and materials for.
1
£
1,982,896
Colonial produce :
£ '
Iron and steel goods, ma-
Wool ....
4,443,144
chinery, <fec.
1,406.111
Gold
980,204
Sugar
373,407
Grain, pulse, flour .
339,643
Tea
178,350
Frozen meat .
1,56»>,286
Spirits, wines, and beer '
268,160
Kauri gum
398,010 1
Tobacco and cigars
164,889
Tallow ....
259,964 i
Paper, printed books, and
Hides, skins, leather
343,769
stationery
337,336
Live stock
11,974 1
Coal
98,139
Butter and cheese .
553,122 i
Bags and sacks .
104,401
Bacon and hams
13,560 1
Fruit
183,133
Preserved meats
78,235 j
Oils
163,793
; Grass seed
46,947 !
Fancy goods
100,824
i Phormium (N.Z. Hemp) .
30,674
Other imports, excluding
Other articles .
530,735
specie ....
2,686,762
British and foreign produce
144,955
Specie
Total .
61,022
1 Specie
1
Total.
275,771
8,055,228
10,016,993
The expansion of the export trade in wool, frozen meat, kauri gum, butter,
and cheese, for four decennial periods, is shown in the following table :-
Years
Wool
Frozen Meat
Kauri
Gum
Butter
Cheese
1867
1877
1887
1897
Lbs.
27,152,966
64,481,324
88,824,382
135,835,117
Cwts.
402,107
1,407,921
Tons
2,685
3,632
6,790
6,641
Cwts.
38
5,206
17,018
99,002
Cwts.
90
4,999
23,913
77,683
In 1857 the export of gold was 10,436 oz., value 40,442Z. ; in 1863,
628,450 oz., value 2,431,723/. ; in 1882 230,893 oz., value 921,664Z. ; in
1892 237,393 oz., value 951,963/. ; in 1894 221,614 ounces, value 887,865/. ;
in 1895 293,493 ounces, value 1,162,181/. ; in 1896, 263,694 ounces, value
1,041,428/. ; in 1897, 251,645 ounces, value 980,204/. ; in 1898, 280,176
ounces, value 1,080,691/. The total value of gold entered for export from
the colon\^ to December 31, 1898, was 54,453,325/. Most of the mining
is done on Government land.
The following table shows the value ot trade with different countries
for four years : —
Imports from
Exports to
1894
1895
1896
1897
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
United Kingdom
3,049,770
3,992,.359
4,714,476
5,392,738
7,903,493
7,045,646
7,541,981
8,168,123
Australian
Colonies
1,740,965
1,261,125
1,090,374
1,001,003
870,400
1,035,753
1,287,001
1,823,784
Pacific Islands .
275,415
282,571
301,159
283,593
150,740
125,643
126,859
117,365
India and Ceylon
19.3,.S81
233,135
221,459
803,624
2,337
2,137
2,681
2,810
China ....
26,422
38,664
39,427
43,390
3,838
4,680
8,268
6,773
Mauritius . .
31,431
12,474
21,219
25,564
542
261
64
3,258
United States .
394,691
394,223
492,840
628,044
287,196
316,639
326,589
875,096
Other places
175,945
185,578
256,366
377,267
12,501
19,465
27,662
19, 84
Totals
6,788,020
6,400,129
7,137,320
8,055,223
9,231,047
8,550,224
9,821,105
10,016993
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
285
The value of the total trade (imports and exports) for five years at each of
the principal ports is given as follows : — •
Years
Aiicklaiul
Wellington
Lyttelton
Dunedin
£
£
£
£
1893
2,744,277
2,815,758
3,135,973
2,721,577
1894
2,737,354
2,770,954
2,956,618
2,316,322
1895
2,894,633
2,721,156
2,691,050
2,391,268 1
1896
3,236,605
3,079,112
2,967,761
2,508,405
1897
3,497,517
3,427,833
3,433,968
2,717,331
The commercial intercourse, exclusive of gold, between New Zealand and
the United Kingdom is shown in the following table, according to the Board
of Trade Returns, for five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into
' £
£
£
£
£
U. K. from
N. Z. .
8,054,673
8,285,662
8,383,058
8,060,360
8,606,745
Imports of
British pro-
duce to N. Z.
3,277,897
3,031,623
3,103,091
3,995,092
4,027,652
The principal imports into the United Kingdom from New Zealand in
1897 were : wool 4,572,873^. (127,672,688 lbs.) ; fresh mutton, 2,077,448^. ;
fresh beef, 117,679Z. ; butter, 366,956^. ; cheese, 160,767Z, ; Kauri gum,
198,737/.; skins and furs, 273,338/.; tallow, 285,683/. The chief exports
from the United Kingdom to New Zealand were apparel, 406,047/. ; cottons,
488,123/. ; linens, 67,917/. ; woollens, 332,835/. ; leather, 136,120/. ; ma-
chinery, 199,822/. ; iron, 586,965/. ; paper, 90,293/. ; spirits, 128,286/. ;
beer and ale, 28,116/.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1897 the registered vessels of the colony engaged in both foreign
and coasting trade were 318 sailing vessels of 40,733 tons (gross), and 188
steamers of 78,980 tuns ; total 506;vessels of 119,713 tons (gross).
The following statistics show the shipping inwards and outwards for five
years : —
Years
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwards
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast ,
1
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
No.
559
571
579
550
563
Tons
559,903
592,019
636,722
587,049
648,171
No.
617
609
611
589
600
Tons
615,604 i
631,100
672,951
614,097
686,899
No.
580
561
554
561
548
Tons
606,671
600,971
622,311
601,727
647,121
No.
635
614
597
592
587
Tons
642,466
631,250
648,946
627,659
675,333
Of the vessels entered inwards in 1897, 133 of 276,020 tons were British ;
395 of 340,793 tons colonial ; and 72 of 70,086 tons foreign. Of vessels out-
286
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — KEW ZEALAND
wards, 140 of 280,229 tons were British ; 378 of 327,068 tons colonial, and
69 of 68,036 tons foreign.
For the year 1897, the shipping at five principal ports was as under : —
Port
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwards
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
Auckland .
220
249,610
190
188,778
Wellington
131
210,842
96
184,175
Lyttelton .
49
47,426
47
84,920
Dunedin * .
46
55,757
29
42,997
Bluff Harbour . *
66
80,770
66
94,963
Internal Communications.
Railways.
On March 31, 1898, there were 806 miles of Government railways open
for traffic in the North Island, and 1,249 in the South Island, besides 167
miles of private lines — 2,222 miles in all. For that year the revenue from
Government railways was 1,376,008?., and the expenditure 857,191Z., surplus
518,817Z., the expenditure being 62'30 per cent, of revenue. The total ex-
penditure on construction of all the Government lines open, and unopen,
to March 31, 1898, had amounted to 16,872,045?. In 1897-98 the ton-
nageof goods carried Avas 2,628,746, and the passengers numbered 4,672,264.
The private line of the Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company is
84 miles long. The capital cost of construction and equipment to February
1898 was 769,165?. The gross earnings from traffic for the last financial year
were 92,793?., and the working expenses 44,094?.
Of the Midland Railway, 79 miles of line are open for traffic. The total
expenditure on this line has been about 1,300,000?. The revenue from the
year ended March 31, 1898, was 19,382?., and the expenditure during the
same period 14,188?., or 73 '20 per cent, of revenue.
All the chief towns of the colony are provided with tramway systems
worked by horses, steam-motors, or cables.
Post and Telegraph.
In the last five years the Post Office received and despatched the following
correspondence : —
Letters
Letter
Post Books and
News-
Money Orders
Years
Cards
Cards Parcels j
papers
Nos.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Issued
Paid
1893
27,447,550
1,392,250
8,225,641
12,167,688
210,957
165,503
1894
27,640,011
—
1,253,840
9,588,315
12,333,708
222,678
174,810
189.0
28,949,936
6.37,013
1,201,633
11,023,330
12,675,973
243,497
183,996
1896
29,787,763
054,290
1,231,835
12.833,882
13,216,521
269,566
203,084
1897
32,272,923
757,172
1,341,821
14,825,386
14,261,345
293,659
215,240
The receipts of the Post and Telegraph Department, including commission
on money orders for the year ended March 31, 1898, amounted to
371,962?., the working expenses for the same jieriod being 364,403?.
The officials numbered 2,963 on March 31, 1898.
MONEY AND CREDIT — BODIES OF REFERENCE
28?
The telegraph system is entirely in the hands of the Government, On
March 31, 1898, the colony had 6,484 miles of line and 18,024 of
wire. In the year 1866 there were 699 miles of line and 1,390 of wire.
The number of telegrams despatched during the year ended March 31,
1898, was 2,696,233, of which 2,469,415 were private and Press messages.
The telephone is very generally used, and is also in the hands of the
Government. On March 31, 1898, there were 5,787 connections. The
capital expended on the several telephone exchanges up to ^larch 31, 1898,
was 142,219?. The telegraph and telephone revenue for the year 1897-98 was
136,221/.
Money and Credits
There were, in December, 1897, live banks of issue doing business in l^eW
Zealand. Two of. these were wholly New Zealand institutions, having a
paid-up capital amounting to 1,250,000?., besides which the Bank of New
Zealand has 2,000,000?. of 4 per cent, guaranteed stock* The total average
liabilities of all live banks for the last quarter of the year in respect of New
Zealand transactions were 14,934,211?., and the average assets 17,222,415?.
The average amount on deposit was 13,828,432?, The value of the notes in
circulation of these banks was 1,015,040?,
The post-office and private savings-bank business has been progressive
during the last five years : —
Years
No. of
Savings
Banks
346
355
364
378
395
No. of
Depositors
Amounts
Deposited
Amounts
Withdrawn
AmountB on
Deposit at End
of Year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
147,199
154,405
163,513
175,173
187,954
£
2,842,352
2,661,547
3,238,781
3,354,790
3,672,405
£
2,601,529
2,706,3,58
2,841,140
3,060,651
3,378,912
£
3,966,849
4,066,594
4,620,696
5,065,864
5,520,080
Agent-General in London. — Hon. "W. P. Reeves; Secretary ^ Walter
Kennaway, C.M.G.
Attached to New Zealand are the following islands :
Chatham Islands, 43° 50' S., 177° W., 536 miles E. of New Zealand. Are
375 square miles ; population (1896) 433 (234 Europeans and 199 Maoris and
Morioris) ; 66,000 sheep, 450 cattle,
Auckland Islands, 50° 31' S., 166° 19' E., 200 miles S, of Stewart Island.
Area of largest about 330 square miles. Uninhabited. The New Zealand
Government maintains a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of
shipwrecked mariners on the largest island of the group.
Kermadec Islands, 36° S., 178° 30' W., 600 miles NNE. of New Zealand.
Area 15 square miles. Population (1896) 7 persons.
Small uninhabited islands are : The Campbell Islands, the Antipodes
Islands, and the Bounty Islands.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register, Blue Book. Annual Reports on Mining. Annual Official
Year-Book.
Census of New Zealand, taken on the 12th of April, 1896. Fol. Wellington, 1897.
Report on the Results of Census, 1896. 4. Wellington, 1897.
New Zealand Official Year-book, 1898. 8. Wellington, 1898. Report of the Depart-
ment of Lauds and Survey. Annual. Wellington.
288 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
Bradshaw (John), New Zealand of To-day. London, 1888.
Bramall (H.), The Mineral Resources of New Zealand. London, 1883.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1898.
FitzOerald (E. A.), Cliniba in the New Zealand Alps. 8. London, 1896.
Qisborne (W.), The Colony of New Zealand. S. London, 1891.— New Zealand Rulers and
Statesmen (1844-97). London, 1897.
Grey (Sir G.), Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends. 1885.
Harper (A. P.), Pioneer Work in the Alps of New Zealand. London, 1896.
Hay (W. D.), Brighter Britain ; or, Settler and Maori in Northern New Zealand. 2 vols.
London, 1882.
Hocken (T. M.), Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand (Otago). London,
1898.
Larnach (W. J.), Handbook of New Zealand Mines. 1887.
Mannering (G. E.), With Axe and Rope in the New Zealand Alps. 8. London, 1891.
Nichols (J. Ken-y), The King Country : Explorations in New Zealand. London, 1884.
Payton (E. W.), Round and About New Zealand. 8. London, 1888.
Ptnnefather (F. W.), Handbook (Murray's) for New Zealand. 8. London.
iJees(W. L.), The Life and Times of Sir George Grey, K.C.B. 2nd ed. 2 vols. S. London,
1892.
Reeves (Hon. William Peiuber), The Long White Cloud ; Ao Tea Roa, Horace Marshall
and Son, London, 1898. — New Zealand (Story of the Empire series), London, 189S.— Fortun-
ate Isles (Picturesque New Zealand), Paper read at Royal Colonial Institute, May, 1896.
Rusden (G. W.), The History of New Zealand. New ed. 3 vols. Melbourne, 1896.
PTfei^e (John), Ancient History of the Maori. 4 vols. 8. London, 1889.
Wilson (Mrs. R.), In the Land of Tui. 8. London, 1894.
[Official and many other books and newspapers may be seen at the office of the Agent
General in London.]
QUEENSLAND.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland was
established December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South
Wales. The power of making laws and imposing taxes is vested
in a Parliament of two Houses — the Legislative Council and the
Legislative Assembly. The former consists of 41 members,
nominated by the Crown for life. The Legislative Assembly com-
prises 72 members, returned from 61 electoral districts for three
years, elected by ballot, a six months' residence qualifying every
adult male for the franchise. Members of the Assembly are
entitled to payment of £300 per annum, with travelling ex-
penses. Owners of freehold estate of the clear value of 100/.,
or of house property of 10/. annual value, or leasehold of 10/.
annual rent, or holders of pastoral lease or license from the Crown,
have the right of a vote in any district in which such property
may be situated. At the end of 1897 there were 81,892
registered electors.
Governor of Queenslmid. — The Right Hon. Lord Lamington,
K.C.M.G. ; appointed Governor of Queensland, 1895.
The Governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also
bears the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 5,000/. per
annum. In the exercise of the executive authority he is assisted
by an Executive Council of ministers, consisting of the following
members : —
Premier and Chief Secretary. — Hon. James Robert Dickson, C.M.G.
AUEA AND POPULATION
289
John
Secretary for AgricicUure and Minis/cr for Public Lands, — Hon. J. Y,
Chataway.
Home Secretary. — Hon. J. F. C. Foxton.
Postmaster-General and Minister for Just ice. — Hon. W. H. Wilson.
Treasurer and Secretary for Mines. — Hon. Robt. Philp.
Secretary for Public Instruction. — Hon. D. H. Dalvymple.
Secretary for Railways and Secretary for Public Works. — Hon.
Murray.
IVithout Portfolio.— The Hon. A. H. Barlow and Hon. George Wilki*;
Gray.
Each of the ministers who liolds a portfolio has a salary of 1,000Z. pei
annum. The Vice-President of the Executive Council receives 300/. per an-
num in addition. They are jointly and individually responsible for their acts.
Provision is made for Local Government by the subdivision of the Colony
into areas denominated respectively municipal boroughs, municipal shires,
and divisions. These are under tlie management of aldermen, councillors,
and members, who are elected by the ratepayers and are charged with the
control of all matters of a parochial nature, more especially the construction
and maintenance of roads and bridges within their allotted areas.
The principal towns of the Colony are formed into boroughs. Shires
mostly comprise adjoining suburban areas, whilst the divisions for the most
part consist of purely rural districts.
The number and area of these subdivisions, together with the receipts and
expenditure for the year 1897, were : —
No.
30
6
117
153
Area square mile.
Receipts
Expenditure
—
Boroughs
Shires .
Divisions
Totals
374A
57i
667,8201^
£
225,896
19,191
179,171
205,511
17,722
175,749
668,252
424,258
398,982
The revenue is mainly derived from rates supplemented by a pro rata
endowment paid by the central government from the consolidated revenue.
The rates are levied on the assessed value of the land only exclusive of
improvements.
Area and Population.
Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern portion of the Australian
continent, including the adjacent islands in the Pacitic Ocean and in the Gulf
of Carpentaria. The territory is of an estimated area of 668,497 English
square miles, with a seaboard of 2,250 miles. In 1825 a branch penal settle-
ment was made at Moreton Bay ; in 1842 free settlers were admitted to the
country and during the next twenty years great progress was apparent.
The increase in the population at different periods since 1846 has been as
follows : —
Tears
Population
Increase per | years
cent, per annum
Population
Increase per
cent, per annum
1846
1856
1861
1871
2,257
18,544
34,367
125,146
.— 1 1881
72-16 1886
17'06 1891
26-41 1 1898
213,525
322,853
393,718
493,704
7-06
10-23
4-39
290
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
On December 31, 1897, the estimated population was 484,700.
The census of April 5, 1891, showed that the population then consisted
of 223,779 males, 169,939 females. The total numbers included 8,574 Chinese
(of whom only 47 were females), principally engaged in the gold mines ; and
9,428 'Polynesians,' 826 of whom were females ; and 1,844 persons of other
alien races. No return is made of the aborigines, but police reports estimate
their number at about 12,000.
The census population was distributed as follows : — Northern District,
78,077 ; Central District, 46,857 ; Southern District, 268,784.
As to occupation the population was classified as follows : — Professional
class, 10,448; domestics, 20,403; commercial, 31,138; industrial, 47,173;
agricultural, pastoral, manual, &c., 68,285 ; indefinite, 2,535 ; dependent class
(wives, children, scholars, students, dependent relatives, &c. ), 213,736.
Of the total population as ascertained by the census of 1891, 176,971 persons
were born in the Colony ; 77,187 in England ; 43,036 in Ireland ; 22,400 in
Scotland; 17,023 in N. S. Wales; 7,462 in Victoria; 3,851 in the other
Australian Colonies ; 14,910 in Germany.
The following tajjle shows the births, deaths, and marriages for five years : —
Years
Total Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages
Excess of Births
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
14,394
13,977
14,874
14,017
14,313
715
632
733
732
862
5,695
5,298
5,152
5,645
5,423
2,524
2,502
2,821
2,823
2,894
8,637
8,679
9,722
8,372
8,890
The immigration and emigration have been as follows : —
Years
Immigration
Emigration
Total
Chinese
Polynesian
Total
Chinese
Polynesian
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
22,007
25,247
30,066
27,723
29,110
548
429
561
395
455
1,212
1,869
1,312
788
935
19,704
21,070
24,393
24,466
25,479
534
467
505
397
398
1,343
837
773
657
924
Brisbane, the capital of the colony, is divided into two municipalities —
Brisbane and South Brisbane, with, respectively, on April 5, 1891, a
population of 25,889 and 22,849. At the same date, within a five-mile
radius, which embraces both municipalities, there was a population of 93,657,
and within a ten-mile radius a population of 101,554, and the num ber atthe
close of 1897 within the five-mile radius, was estimated at 105,734. The next
largest towns are Rockhampton, 11,629 ; Townsville, 8,564 ; Maryborough,
8,700 ; Gympie, 8,449 ; Ipswich, 7,625.
Religion
There is no State Church. Previous to 1861 valuable grants of land had
been made to the piincipal religious denominations, which they still retain.
The following are the numbers belonging to the various religious denomina-
tions at the census taken in 1891 : — Church of England, 142,555 ; Church
of Rome, 92,765; Presbyterians, 45,639; Weslcyan, 20 917; Lutheran,
INSTRUCTIOK — FINANCE
291
23,383 ; Baptist, 10,256 ; other Christian sects, 28,841 : Jews, 809 ; Moham-
medan and Pagans, 17,434 ; no religion, 5,329 ; other religion, unspecified,
&c., 5,890.
Instruction.
Primary secular education is provided free by the State, and statutoty
provision is made for compulsory education, but has not yet been given effect
to. According to the marriage statistics for 1897, about 98 per cent, of the
adult population, exclusive of coloured aliens, are able to read and write.
The Public Expenditure on account of education for the year 1897 was
228,797Z. At the end of 1897 there were 797 public elementary schools in
operation, with 1,825 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 59,748 pupils.
Secondary education is provided for by 10 grammar schools^ with, in 1897, 67
teachers and an average attendance of /53 pupils. There were also 173
private schools, with 537 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 10,698
pupils. The Government grants annually a considerable number of scholar-
ships, tenable for three years, to the various grammar schools of the Colony,
and private schools under Government inspection. Technical instruction is
given in institutions connected with schools of art, where training in special
subjects can be obtained at small cost, and generally outside usual working
hours.
Justice and Grime.
Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, district Courts, and Courts ot
Petty Sessions. In these last Justices of the Peace sit, presided over in the more
important centres by stipendiary magistrates. The Supreme Court consists of a
Chief Justice and four Puisn(5 Judges. The total number of persons convicted of
serious offences by the Superior Courts in 1897 was 188, and the summary con^
victions at petty sessions numbered 15,820. Including penal establishments,
there were at the end of 1897, 18 prisons, with 471 male and 61 female prisoners.
The total police force, including native troopers, averages about 900 men.
Pauperism.
Charitable institutions are maintained by public subscription, sUpple*
mented by State endowment. At 56 hospitals during 1897, 18,236 patients
received attention at a cost of 98,926^. Refuges and homes helped 623
persons at an outlay of 7,348Z., whilst persons suffering from temporary
want were relieved by the State at an expenditure of 3,884?. Orphans and
other homeless and unprotected children are provided for by the Government.
They are for the most part dealt with on the boarding-out system.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of Queensland
during each of the last five years ending June 30 : —
—
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896^97
189?-98
£
Revenue . . 3,343,069
Expenditure . 3,351,536
£
3,413,172
3,308,434
£
3,641,583
3,567,947
£
3,613,150
3,604,264
£
3,768,152
3,747,428
The following were the chief sources from which revenue was received
during 1897-98 :— Customs, 1,207,849?. ; excise and export, 123,396?. ; stamp
duty, 110,207?. ; licenses, 56,598?. ; dividend duty, 61,596?. From land-
Rent, pastoral occupations, 346,249?. ; other rents and sale of land, 214,427?,
From railways, 1,158,657?. From postij and telegraphs, 258,940?.
u 2
292 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
The chief items ot expenditure during 1897-98 were as under : — Interest
on public debt, 1,324,333^. ; endowments to municipalities and divisional
boards, 63,0101. ; public instruction, 247,473Z. ; colonial treasurer's depart-
ment, 167,385^. ; secretary of public lands department, 84,014Z. ; department
of agriculture, 37,280Z. ; cost of working railways, 684,566Z. ; posts and tele-
graphs department, 313,610Z. The total expenditure from loans mostly on
public works was 937,066^., of which the following are the principal items : —
On railways, 626,974Z. ; electric telegraphs, 36,101Z. ; on harbours and rivers,
11,717^ ; defence, 3,875Z. ; water supply, 7,598Z. ; loans to local bodies,
116,877Z. ; public works' building, 12,274Z. ; advances under Sugar Works
Guarantee Act, 70,016Z.
The estimated revenue for 1898-99 was 3,882,360Z., and the estimated expen-
diture 3,866,507Z. The estimated value of the landed property of the colony
in 1896, as taken for purposes of assessment under the several Acts for
providing Local Government, was 41,733,530Z. This includes lands leased
from the Crown for pastoral purposes, the lessees' interest in which has been
capitalised for assessment purposes at 6,727,653Z., but is exclusive of unoccu-
pied Crown lands, lands the property of local bodies, reserves for public pur-
poses, and lands upon which are erected buildings for public worship.
The public debt of the colony amounted, on December 31, 1897, to the
sum of 33,498,414?.
Defence.
The defence of the colony was provided for by an Act passed in 1884, by
which, in addition to fully paid militia and volunteer corps to be maintained
and assisted by the Government, every man (with a very few exceptions)
between the ages of 18 and 60 is liable for military service under this Act.
The Government have organised a drilled force of 2,800 men, about 130 of
whom are fully paid regulars ; some 2,000 militia, paid for each day's drill ;
the rest volunteers, assisted with uniform, &c. Naval defences are pro-
vided for by two gunboats, two torpedo boats, and a picket-boat and five naval
brigades. In addition, some of the tugs built for the harbour service are fitted
with a bow gun for service if required. Queensland contributes to the pay-
ment made by the Australian colonies to the Imperial Goveniment for the
maintenance of the auxiliary cruisers and gunboats. {See post under 'Australian
Defence.') The Queensland Government gun-vessels are the Gayundah and
Paluma (450 tons), sister vessels, launched in 1884, and the Otter, Bonito and
Stingaree, ranging between 290 and 450 tons.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of the colony, 12,959,694 acres have been alienated : in
process of alienation, under deferred payment system, are 1,854,399, leaving
413,023,987 acres still the property of the Crown, or about 97 per cent, of the
total area of the colony. The receipts from the sale of land up to the end of
1897 amounted to 7,757,207Z. Under a Land Act passed in 1887, pro-
vision is made for both conditional and unconditional selection ; under the
latter land can be purchased at prices from 13s. id. per acre, payable by
tweuty annual instalments. Conditional selection is the more general ;
homestead farms, agricultural farms, grazing farms, and grazing homesteads
can be selected. Homestead farms up to 160 acres, if occupied by selector
personally for five years, may be secured in freehold at 2s. 6d. per acre, payable
in ten annual instalments ; but, if conditions have been performed, the pur-
chase may be completed and a title obtained at the end of five years. Agri-
cultural farms can be acquired by a 20 years' lease with right of purchase ;
maximum area, 1,280 acres; annual rent one-fortieth of the purchase price
COMMERCE
293
which becomes part of the purchase money. Grazing farms can be secured
on a 14, 21, or 28 years' lease ; maximnm area, 20,000 acres ; annual rental
varying acconling to quality ; minimum ^d. per acre, subject to reassessment
at end of first 7 years and each subsequent 5 years. Grazing homesteads
may be leased on similar conditions. Scrub selections are lands extensively
overgrown by scrub. Margin area, 10,000 acres ; term, 30 years ; annual rent,
id. to Id. per a.'^ve, no rent is chargeable for periods ranging from 5 to 20
years, but the selector must clear the scrub and fence. In the letting of agri-
cultural and grazing farms and homesteads conditions as to residence are
imposed.
About one half the area of the colony is natural forest, though little has
been done hitherto to develop the forestry of the colony. A large proportion
of the area is leased in squatting runs for pastoral purposes, amounting to
245,917,387 acres in 1897 ; the number of runs was 2,918, besides 13,758,903
acres in grazing farms and homesteads. The live stock in 1897 numbered
479,280 horses, 6,089,013 cattle, 17,797,883 sheep, and 110,855 pigs. The
total area under cultivation in 1897 was 386,259 acres, and of this 371,857
acres were under crop, besides which 15,643 acres are laid down with
permanent artificial pasture. The leading grain crop is maize, of which
109,721 acres yielded 2,803,172 bushels in 1897 ; 59,875 acres were under
wheat, yielding 1,009,293 bushels. The growth of sugar-cane has in recent
years been successful, though the want of labour hinders its development : in
1897 there were 98,641 acres under this crop ; of this the produce of 65,432
acres yielded 97,916 tons of sugar.
There are several coal mines in the colony, the produce of which amounted
to 358,407 tons in 1897, valued at 139,889Z. Gold-fields were discovered in
1858 ; the production for the year 1897 amounted to 807,928 ounces; and
from the commencement of gold mining to the end of 1897, to 12,006,918
ounces, of the value of 41,749,606Z. The quantity and value of other minerals
raised in the year 1896 were —
385 tons 4,117Z.
— 10,250Z
Tin . . 1,203 tons 37,509Z. Lead . .
Copper . 288 ,, 12,645/. Opal .
Silver . . 234,065 oz. 25,118Z.
Bismuth, wolfram and manganese are also worked.
Water is comparatively easily found by sinking artesian bores. Of these
there are 344, aggregating 4 17, 04 6 feet deep, and yielding 182,255,937 gallons of
water a day. The greatest depth is 4,010 feet at Winton, and the greatest
yields are Boatman No. 1, 4,000,000 gallons, and Charleville 3,000,000 gallons,
iDut many others yield large quantities. There are 44 bores in progress,
which have been sunk to an aggregate depth of 87,594 feet.
Commerce.
A very large number of articles are subject to tariffs ; the total customs
duties collected in 1897 amounted to 1,267,288Z., being over 23 per cent, of
the total value of imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the last five
years, is given in the following table : —
Years
Imports
Exports
1
Tears
Imports
Exports
1893
1894
1895
£ 1 £ 1
4,352,783 9,632,662 1896
4,337,400 8,795,559 1897
5,349,007 , 8,982,600
£
5,433,271
5,429,191
£
9,163,726
9,091,557
294 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
The trade of Queensland was distributed as follows in 1897 : —
From or to
Imports
Exports
United Kingdom .
Australasian Colonies .
Other British Possessions
United States
Other Foreign Countries
£
2,501,952
2,323,035
157,342
265,766
181,096
£
3,322,703
5,645,626
79,615
1,765
41,848
The leading exports were gold, 2,568,702Z. ; copper, 21,388Z. ; wool,
2,509,342Z. ; sugar, 681,038Z. ; hides and skins, 437,658^. ; tin, 36,670^. ;
silver, 62,801Z. ; tallow, 272,528Z. ; pearl shell, 126,492Z. ; meat, preserved and
salted, 274,698Z. ; meat, frozen, 662,994?. ; meat extract, 92,255?., and green
fruit, 87,450?. in 1897. The chief imports were textiles and apparel,
1,030,296?. ; metals and metal goods, 680,606?. in 1897.
For imports duty-free and for those subject to fixed duty, the declared landed values
are recorded. For imports subject to ad valorem duty the invoice value is furnished by
importers and a percentage added by Customs Department to cover charges. For exports
the values at the port of shipment are declared by exporters. Quantities are ascertained
from invoices or, if necessary, by actual weighing, &o., by Customs officers. The country
of origin and that of destination are obtained respectively from invoices and export
entries. The transit trade is unimportant.
The following table gives, according to the Board of Trade returns, the
value of the imports (exclusive of gold) into Great Britain from Queensland,
and of the exports of domestic produce and manufactures from Great Britain
to Queensland, for five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from
Queensland .
Exports of Brit-
ish produce .
£
3,300,858
1,333,842
£
2,734,240
1,091,288
£
3,178,796
1,931,796
£
3,158,173
2,002,027
£
3,320,418
1,964,411
The principal ai-ticles of import into the United Kingdom from Queensland
are wool, the value of which was 1,734,171?. in 1895 ; 1,702,396?. in 1896 ;
1 963 193?. in 1897; preserved meat of the value of 238,419?. in 1896;
232,164?. in 1897 ; salted beef, 619,820?. in 1896 ; 725,365?. in 1897 ; shell,
111^400?. ; tin, 14,671?. ; tallow, 136,917?. in 1897. Among the exports of
British produce to Queensland in the year 1897, the chief were apparel and
haberdashery, of the value of 155,839?. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
of the value of 338,062?. ; cottons, of the value of 279,186?. ; and woollens,
of the value of 142,681?.
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1897 consisted of 138 sailing vessels of 9,874
tons, and (including river steamers) 90 steamers of 12,884 tons; total, 228
vessels of 22,758 tons. In 1897, 642 vessels of 569,610 tons entered, and
654 of 559,290 tons cleared the ports of the colony ; of the former, 59 of
92,448 tons were from, and of the latter, 45 of 89,408 tons, were to the United
Kingdom. In 1897 445 vessels of 369,791 tons entered from, and 461 of
378,234 tons cleared for other Australian colonies. Vessels entering and
clearing more than one port on the same voyage are only counted at one port
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS — BOOKS OF REFERENCE 295
of arrival and departure. In the coasting trade 6,646 vessels of 3,579,255
tons entered, and 6,552 of 3,583,524 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1897 there were 2,609 miles of railway open for traffic in the
colony. The railways are all in the hands of the Government, and the cost
of construction up to December 31, 1897, was 18,016,150, including that
on lines not yet open, amounting to 98 miles. The revenue from railways
during 1897 was 1,122,637^., and the expenditure in working them 688,033^.
The total expenditure to December 31, 1897, including apportionment of cost
of floating loans, losses on sales of stock, &c,, has been 19, 587,368Z.
The Post Office of the colony in the year 1897 carried 18,370,937 letters,
11,496,656 newspapers, 4,767,783 packets, and 202,248 parcels. There were
1,126 post and receiving offices in the colony at the close of 1897. The post-
office revenue was 167, 998^.
At the end of 1897 there were in the colony 10,090 miles of telegraph lines,
and 18,472 miles of wire, with 367 stations. The number of messages sent
was 934,326 in the year 1897, and 121,239 received from places outside the
colony, besides 109,569 official messages. The receipts of the Department
during that year were 83,846^., and the working expenses of the joint
department of Post and Telegraph was 313,944Z.
Banks.
There are eleven banks established in Queensland, of which the following are
the statistics for the end of 1897 : — Notes in circulation, 392,423Z., of which
388,833^. are Treasury notes issued by the Government through the banks ;
deposits, 11,869,982^. ; total liabilities, 12,370, 467^. ; coin and bullion,
2,095,598?. ; advances, 13,282,501Z. ; landed property, 721, 833?. ; total assets,
16,842,439Z. There is a Government savings bank with 140 branches ; on
January 1, 1898, there were 63,310 depositors, with 2,568,477?. to their credit.
Agent-General for Q%Leensland in Great Britain. — Sir Horace Tozer,
K.C.M.G.
Secretary. — Charles Shortt Dicken, CM. G.
Books of Reference.
statistical Register of Queensland, Annual. Brisbane,
Queensland, Past and Present. Annual. Brisbane.
Census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 3rd April, 1891. Fol, Brisbane, 1882.
Annual Report from the Registrar-General on Vital Statistics. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Agriculture. Annual. Brisbane.
Report on Agricultural and Live Stock Returns. Annual. Brisbane,
Report of Commissioner for Railways. Annual. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Mines. Annual. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Public Lands. Annual. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Public Instruction. Annual. Brisbane.
Year-Book of Queensland. Annual. Brisbane.
Bicknell (A. C), Travel and Adventure in Northern Queensland. London, 1895,
Pugh'8 Queensland Almanac. Court Guide, Gazetteer, die. Annual. Brisbane.
Rowaii (Mrs.), Australian Sketches. [Queensland and New Zealand,] London, 1887
iju««eli (H. S.), The Genesis of Queensland. 8. Sydney. 1888,
Sernon (R.), Im australischen Busch und am den Kiisten des Korallenmeeres.
Leipzig, 189(5.
Weedon (T.), Queensland Past and Present. Brisbane, 1896.
296 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government
Founded in 1836 (Act 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 95) the present Constitution of
South Australia bears date October 24, 1856. It vests the legislative power
in a Parliament elected by the peoplB. The Parliament consists of a Legis-
lative Council and a House of Assembly. The former is composed of twenty-
four members. Every three years the eight members whose names are first on
the roll retire, and their places are supplied by two new members elected from
each of the four districts into which the colony is divided for this purpose. The
executive has no power to dissolve this body The qualifications of an elector
to the Legislative Council are to be twenty-one years of age, a natural born or
naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the electoral roll six
months, besides having a freehold of 50i. Talue, or a leasehold of 20Z. annual
value, or occupying a clwelling-hoase of 25Z. annual value. By the Constitu-
tion Amendment Act, 1894, the franchise was extended to women. The
qualification for a member of Council is merely that he be thirty years of age,
a natural born or naturalised subject, and a resident in the province for three
years. The Prcsidejit of tlie Council is elected by the members. Each
member of the Council, and also of the House of Assembly, receives 200^. per
annum and a free pass over government railways.
The House of Assembly consists of fifty-four members, elected for three
years, representing twenty-seven electoral districts. The qualifications for an
elector are that of having been on the electoral roll for six months, and of
having arrived at twenty-one years of age ; and the qualifications for a
member are the same. There were 134,886 registered electors in 1897.
Judges and ministers of religion are ineligible for election as members. The
election of members of both houses takes place by ballot.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown and an
Executive Council, consisting of six responsible ministers.
Governor of South Australia. — The Right Hon. Lord Tennyson; born
August 11, 1852. Appointed Governor of South Australia, February 2, 1899.
The Chief Justice, being also Lieutenant-Governor, acts pending a new
appointment, or during the absence of the Governor.
The Governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of the forces,
marine and military, has a salary of 4,000Z. per annum. The ministry is
divided into six departments, presided over by the following members : —
Chief Secretary.— Row. J. V. O'Loghlin, M.L.C.
Premier and Attorney -General. — Right Hon. C. C. Kingston, Q.O., M.P.
Treasurer and Minister Controlling Northern Territory. — Hon. F. W
Holder, M.P.
Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. L. O'Loughlin, M.P.
Commissioner of Public Works. — Hon. J. G. Jenkins, M.P.
Minister of Education and Agriculture. — Hon. Richard Butler, M.P.
The Ministers have a salary of 1,000Z. per annum each. They are jointly
md individually responsible to the Legi.slature for all their official acts, as in
he United Kingdom.
The settled part of the colony is divided into counties, hundreds, muni-
ipalitics, and district councils, the last l)eing the most general, as they
ovei- most of the settled districts. The ratepayers have the power of levying
rates, &c., and applying the funds for road-making purposes. There are 44
•ounties, blocks of country thrown open for agricultural purposes, There ave
AREA AND POPULATION
297
3 extensive pastoral districts — the western, northern, and north-eastern.
There are 33 municipalities and 141 district councils. The Northern Territory
is presided over by a Resident, assisted by a small staft'.
Area and Population.
The original boundaries of the province, according to the statute of 4 & 5 Will.
IV. cap. 95, were fixed between 132° and 141° E. long, for the eastern and
western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for the northern limit, and for the South
the Southern Ocean. The boundaries were subsequently extended, under
the statute of 24 and 25 Victoria, cap. 44. By Royal Letters Patent, dated
July 6, 1863, all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 13Sth degrees of East longitude, and now known as
the Northern Territory, was added. The total area of the colony is calculated
to amount to 903,690 English square miles.
South Australia was lirst colonised in 1836 by emigrants sent out by the South
Australian Colonisation Association. The conditions were that the land should
not be sold at less than II. per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of
such lands should be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers,
and the construction of roads, bridges, and other public works (which
provisions have been strictly observed) ; that the control of the colony's
affairs should be vested in a body of commissioners approved by the Secretary
of State for the Colonies, and the Governor be nominated by the Crown.
The population at various censuses has been : —
—
Population
Yearly
Increase
per cent.
—
Population
Yearly
Increase
per cent.
1844
1855
1866
17,366
85,821
163,452
22-5
7-0
1871
1881
1 1891
185,626
279,865
320,431
2-7
4-4
1-4
Of the total population in 1891, 4,895 belonged to the northern territory,
principally Chinese coolies.
There were December 31, 1897, 183,920 males, 174,304 females. There is
only one person to about 3 square miles. The population of Adelaide, the
capital of the colony, and suburbs is about 146,125 ; of the Northern Terri-
tory, 4,820, of whom 402 are females.
The enumerations here given, except the three last, did not include the
aboriginal population. The number of aborigines living in settled districts
was found to be 3,369, namely, 1,833 males and 1,536 females, at the census
of March 26, 1876. In 1891 the number of aborigines was stated to be 3,134 ;
1,661 males and 1,473 females. Of the population in 1891, 3,848 were Chinese
(adult males).
The following arc the statistics of births, deaths, and marriages for five years :
Excess of
Births
—
Births
Marriages
Deaths
1893
1894
1 895
1896
1897
10,683
10,476
10,537
10,012
9,535
2,110
2,094
2,048
2,183
1,949
4,520
4,001
3,921
4,038
3,973
6,163
6,475
6,616
5,974
5,562
298 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
The following are statistics of immigrants and emigrants by sea : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Immigrants
Emigrants
18,658
18,884
34,468
38,904
36,762
40,489
66,410
59,448
57,932
58,748
Religion and Instruction.
The aggregate number of churches and chapels in the colony in 1896 was
963. At the census of 1891 the number belonging to the leading denomina-
tions were as follows : — Church of England, 89,271 ; Roman Catholic, 47,179 ;
Wesleyans, 49,159 ; Lutherans, 23,328 ; Presbyterians, 18,206 ; Baptists,
17,547 ; Methodists, 11,654 ; Bible Christians, 15,762 ; Congregationalists,
11,882 ; Jews, 840. No aid from the State is given for religious purposes.
Public instruction is under charge of the Educational Department.
Teachers are paid from the general revenue, public lands being set apart for
educational purposes. Education is secular, free, and compulsory. Govern-
ment grants exhibitions and scholarships, carrying the holders to higher
schools and universities. In 1897 there were 278 public schools and 377 pro-
visional schools ; the number of children under instruction during 1897 being
61,643. There is a training college for teachers. The University of Adelaide,
incorporated in 1874, is authorised to grant degrees in arts, law, music,
medicine, and science. Its endowment amounts to 65,000Z. and 50,000 acres
of land. There are several denominational secondary schools. There were 233
private schools, with 11,572 pupils, in 1897.
Justice and Crime.
There is one supreme court, a court of vice-admiralty, a court of insolvency,
79 local courts and police magistrates' courts. There are circuit courts held at
several places. There were 90 convictions for felonies and misdemeanours
in 1892, 118 in 1893, 131 in 1894, 130 in 1895, 131 in 1896, 134 in 1897. The
total number of white persons in gaols at the end of 1897 was 130 males and
20 females, and in the labour prison 122 males.
Defence.
The colony possesses an efficient militia and volunteer force, the former
consisting of 1,136 men of all ranks, and the latter of 301, or a total
military force, including the headquarter staff and a permanent force of
artillery 31 strong — of 1,437 men. For the purposes of local defence a small
cruiser, the Protector (920 tons), launched in 1884, is stationed off the chief
port of the colony, which is defended by two well-armed forts. South Australia
is a contributor to the maintenance of the Australian Auxiliary Squadron.
(See^os^ under 'Australian Defence.')
Finance.
The total annual revenue and the total annual expenditure of the colony
of South Australia for each of the last five years ending June 39 were as
foUowti :—
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
299
Years
ending June 30
Revenue
Expenditure
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
&
2,526,705
2,433,689
2,521,409
2,628,049
2,566,611
£
2,525,606
2,533,245
2,509,468
2,635,860
2,598,939
The revenue for 1898-99 is estimated at 2,649,899^., and expenditure
2,619,220/. ; customs revenue, 1898-99, 584,386/.
The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from customs
duties, inland revenue, posts and telegraphs, railways, and territorial receipts,
while the main portion of the expenditure is on account of public works,
railways, and interest on public debt. The total revenue averages 11. 7s. M.
per head, of which customs'and other sources of taxation contribute 21. lis. 0|rf.
About one third of the expenditure is for administrative charges, compris-
ing salaries of judges, &c., civil establishments, defences, police, gaols, and
prisons.
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1852, amounted, on Decem-
ber 31, 1897, to 24,408,000/. Three fourths of the public debt has been
spent on railways, water-works, and telegraphs. The railways show a profit
over working expenses of 3/. 10s. per cent, per annum.
The real property of the colony in 1897 was valued at 49,919,900/., and
personal property is estimated at 28,056,294/.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area including Northern Territory (578,361,600 acres),
7,694,347 acres were alienated at the end of 1897. The area under forest
is 12,428 acres. The freehold andleasehold land amounts to 34,655,774 acres,
of which 2,604,122 acres were under cultivation in 1896-97. Of this 1,522,668
acres were under wheat, 449,167 under hay, 13,054 under orchards, 18,761
vineyards, and 507,484 fallow. The gross produce of wheat in 1893-94
was 13,618,062 bushels ; in 1897, 4,014,852 bushels. In 1896-97, 1,473,216
gallonsof wine were made, and 391,238 exported ; and in 1897-98, 1,283,094
gallons were made, and 515,714 gallons exported. The live stock in 1897
numbered— horses, 164.820 ; cattle, 274,255 ; sheep, 5,032,541 ; and in the
Northern Territory— horses, 14,972 ; cattle, 265,894 ; sheep, 59,537. In
1897, of the total area 156,763 square miles were hold under pastoral leases,
and the number of leases was 788.
The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in copper and silver.
The value of the copper ore produced and exported in 1897 was 4,640/.,
and of copper, 238,277/.; and the total value of all minerals produced and
exported including Northern Territory was 366,975/.
In 1897 there were 738 factories in the colony, employing 12,685 people.
There were 28 iron and brass furnaces, employing 1,543 people, and 18 manu-
facturers of agricultural implements, &c., to 184 people.
Commerce.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, inclusive of
bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in each of the last six
years, was as follows ;—
300
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Years
Imports
Exports
Years
Imports
Exports
1892
1893
1894
£
7,395,178
7,934,200
6,226,690
£
7,819,539
8,463,936
7,301,774
1895
! 1896
1897
£
5,585,601
7,160,770
7,126,385
£
7,177,038
7,594,054
6,928,415
Imports subject to duty (1896), 2,891, 998^. : imports duty-free, 4,234,387/.
The imports into the colony consist of articles of general consumption,
textile manufactures, and British colonial produce. Imports are 20/. 35. 2\d.
per head, and exports 19/. lis. ll^d. per head of mean population.
The principal exports have been as follows for five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Wool
Wheat .
,, flour
Copper .
£
1,381,766
732,218
331,542
208,967
£
1,275,611
741,912
327,638
208,639
£
1,438,776
445,461
392,974
226,494
£
1,228,991
89,515
523,541
219,052
1
£ !
995,393
2,473
225,387
238,277
1
18,119 tons of bread stuff were exported in 1897.
The distribution of the trade of South Australia in 1896 and 1897 was as
follows :
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
(1896)
(1697)
£
(1896)
(1897)
£
£
£
United Kingdom . .
2,220,611
2,054,267
2,286,740
2,182,946
Australian Colonies . .
3,944,037
3,846,508
3,558,085
2,961,212
Other British Possessions.
249,277
240,513
923.359
909,553
United States . . .
253,266
304,666
1 11,319
1,900
Other Foreign Countries .
493,579
677,431
1 814,551
872,804
Recorded values and quantities are ascertained from invoices produced to the customs,
10 percent, being added to the invoice value. In the absence of invoices customs officers
value the goods. The countries of origin and destination are those obtained from warrants
passed by importers and exporters respectively.
The subjoined table shows the imports from South Australia (exclusive of
gold) into the United Kingdom, and the exports of British produce and
manufactures to South Australia, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
for the last five years : —
—
189.3
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from S. Aus-
tralia into U. K.
Exports to S. Au.<!-
tralia
£
2,646,398
1,405,134
£
2,827,601
1,598,073
£
2,618,389
1,544,800
£
2,293,303
1,962,584
£
1,922,272
1,741,125
The following were the values of the principal imports into and exports from
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION— COMMUNICATIONS 301
the United Kingdom, from and to South Australia in the last five years, the
values being shown from the Board of Trade returns : —
_
1893
1894
189^3
1896
1897
Imports into U. K.
from S. Australia :
£
£
£
£
£ !
Wool .
1,340,492
1,417,933
1,472,145
1,454,188
1,060,475
Wheat & flour.
240,015
567,506
453,144
Nil
Nil
Copper and
copper ore .
160,207
119,973
35,739
60,029
33,028 '
1
Exports from U. K.
to S. Australia :
Iron
201,154
206,481
197,917
293,479
304,026
Apparel, &c. .
173,465
195,041
187,325
225,395
194,299
Cottons .
184,420
241,416
243,303
292,780
224,037
Woollens
141,137
182,341
154,003
193,550
153,689
Machinery
41,124
32,723
38,479
46,795
66,255
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1897 consisted of 109 sailing vessels of 30,641
tons, and 217 steamers of 22,229 tons ; total, 326 vessels of 52,870 tons.
In 1897, 1,178 vessels of 1,774,476 tons entered, and 1,191 vessels of
1,785,673 tons cleared the ports of the colony.
Communications.
The colony possesses 5,014 miles of made roads. It had 1,870 miles of rail
way open for traffic in December 1897 (1,724 miles in South Australia and 146
in the Northern territory). The railways pay about 3 per cent, profit to the
Government.
There were 5,862 miles of telegraph and telephone in operation at the end
of 1897, with 14,447 miles of wire. Inclusive of the total is an overland
line running from Adelaide to Port Darwin, a distance of 2,000 miles in
connection with the British Australian cable. The receipts exceed the cost
of the department after paying interest on moneys borrowed for construction.
Attached to the telegraph department are a number of telephone exchanges.
In 1897 there were 681 post offices in the colony ; and during 1897 there
passed through them 19,128,982 letters, 2,039,686 packets, and 9,421,986
newspapers.
Banks.
There are 8 banking associations. In 1897 their total liabilities were
6,919,882^., and assets 7,473,670^. The average note circulation was 380,802/.
and deposits 6,466,994/.
The Savings Bank is managed by a board of trustees appointed by the
Government, and has 132 branches. On June 30, 1898, there were 96,401
depositors, with a total balance of 3,069,762/.
Agent'Oencralof South Australia in London. — Hon. J. A. Cockburn, M. D
Secretary and Registrar of Stocks. — T. F. Wicksteed.
302 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning^
South Australia.
Annual Statistical Register.
Census of South Australia, taken on the 5th April, 1891. Parts I. to IX. Fol. Ade-
laide, 1891-94.
Blackmore (E. G.), The Law of the Constitution of South Australia. Adelaide, 1894.
Broione (H. Y. L.), A Record of the Mines of South Australia. Adelaide, 1890.
Conigrave (J. F.), South Australia : a Slcetch of its History and Resources. A Handbook
compiled for the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London, 1886. Adelaide, 1886.
Finniss (B. T.), The Constitutional History of South Australia (1836-1857). London,
1886
Ootiger (R.), The Founding of South Australia. Edited by E. Hodder. London, 1898.
Harcus (William), South Australia : its History, Resources, Productions, and Statistics.
Hodder (Edwin), The History of South Australia. With Maps. 2 vols. 8 London, 1893.
Newland (S.), The Far North Country. Adelaide, 1887.
B(»C8(W. L.), Sir George Grey, K.C.B. : His Life and Times. 2nd edition. 2 vols. 8.
Woods (.1. D.), The Province of South Australia, With a Sketch of the Northern Territory
by H. D. Wilson. Adelaide, 1894.
TASMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Tasmania was established by Act 18 Yict.
Kg. 17, supplemented by Act 49 Yict. No. 8, passed in 1886. By
these Acts a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly are
constituted, called the Parliament of Tasmania. The Legislative
Council is composed of eighteen members, elected by all natural-
born or naturalised subjects of the Crown who possess either a free-
hold worth 151. a year, or a leasehold of 50^., or are barristers
or solicitors on roll of Supreme Court, medical practitioners duly
qualified, and all subjects holding a commission or possessing a
degree. Each member is elected for six years. Members of the
Legislative Council, and also of the House of Assembly, are paid
100^. per annum, and have the right to free railway passes, and
of franking through the post-office and telegraph department.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty-seven members, elected
by all whose names appear on valuation rolls as owners or occupiers
of property, or who are in receipt of income of 40^. per annum (of
which 201. must have been received during last six months before
claim to vote is sent in), and who have continuously resided in
Tasmania for over 1 2 months. The Assembly is elected for three
years. The number of electors for the Legislative Council at date
1898 was 9,359 or 5*45 of the total population, and for the
House of Assembly 31,613 or 18*41 of the total population. The
legislative authority vests in both Houses, while the executive
is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown.
AREA AND POPULATION
303
Governor. — The Right Hon. Yiscount Gormanston, K.C.M.G.
Assumed office August 1893.
The Governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of the troops
in the colony ; he has a salary of 3, 500Z. per annum. He is aided in the
exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible ministers, consisting of
six members, as follows : —
Premier and Treasurer. — Right Hon. Sir E. N. C. Braddon, K.C.M.G.
Chief Secretary. — Hon. W. Moore.
Attorney-Oeneral. — Hon. D. C. Urquhart.
Minister without Portfolio. — Hon. Thos. Reibey.
Minister of Lands and Works. — Hon. A. T. Pillinger.
Each of the ministers, with the exception of the Premier, has a salary ot
750^. per annum. The ministers must have a seat in either of the two Houses.
Area and Population.
The first penal settlement was formed in Tasmania in
1804 ; and till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from
Great Britain and from New South Wales, of which colony it
was a dependency until 1825. Transportation ceased in 1853.
The area of the colony, with Macquarie (170 square miles), is
estimated at 26,385 square miles or about 16,886,000 acres, of
which 15,571,500 acres form the area of Tasmania Proper, the
rest constituting that of a number of small islands, in two main
groups, the north-east and north-west. The colony is divided into
eighteen counties.
According to Census Returns the population has increased as
follows :—
—
Population.
Increase per Ct.
per Annum.
1
___ Population.
Increase per Ct.
per Annum.
1841
1851
1861
50,216
70,130
89,977
3 96
2-83 1
1871 99,328
1881 I 115,705
1891 146,667
1-15
1-43
3-84
At the census of 1891 there were 77,560 males and 69,107 females. On
the basis of this population, the average density is 5 "6 persons to a square
mile. Of the total population in 1891, 107,901 were natives of Tasmania,
26,975 natives of the United Kingdom, 7,328 natives of other Australasian
colonies, 943 Chinese, 918 German. In 1891 there were 22,313 males and
21,399 females married, 52,195 males and 43,736 females unmarried, 2,423
males and 3,945 females widowed, 25 males and 6 females divorced, and 604
males and 21 females unspecified. The aborigines of Tasmania are entirely
extinct.
Of the population in 1891, 3,918 were returned as professional ; 7,180
domestic; 9,593 commercial; 16,016 industrial; 23,568 primary producers ;
1,136 indefinite ; 85,256 dependants
304
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — TASMANIA
The births, deaths, and marriages for five years have been as follows :-
—
Births.
Marriages.
Deaths. i Excess of Births.
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
5,216
4,852
4,790
4,603
4,654
848
847
847
964
1,052
2,071
1,938
1,811
1,901
1,947
8,145
2,914
2,979
2,702
2,737
Of the total births in 1897, 269, or 574 per cent., were illegitimate.
The number of immigrants and emigrants was as follows in each of the
last six years : —
—
1892
1S93
1894
1895 1896
1897 1
Immigrants
Emigrants,^
23,744
24,407
18,089
18,649
17,009
15,786
18,767 i 19,076
17,168 1 15,419
20,735
16,697
1 It is estimated that the departures are understated by about 7 per cent.
The direct movement of population is mainly between the Australian
colonies (chiefly Victoria) and Tasmania.
The population of the capital, Hobart, on 6th April, 1891, was 24,905, and
of Launceston 17,108.
Eeligion.
The Government contributes 175Z. annually for various religious pur-
poses. On 5th April, 1891, the census showed belonging to the Church of
England 76,082 of the population; Roman Catholics, 25,805; Wesleyan
Methodists, 17,150; Presbyterians, 9,756; Independents, 4,501; Jews, 84;
Baptists, 3,285; Friends, 176; other sects, 9,828.
Instruction.
There are 13 superior schools or colleges in the colony, with (1897) an
average attendance of 1,540 ; 282 public elementary schools, with 21,759
scholars on roll ; and 173 private schools, with 7,083 scholars. Education is
compulsory. There were also about 549 children attending ragged schools.
There are also two technical schools at Hol)art and Launceston. The higher
education is under a university, who hold examinations and grant degrees.
Elementary education is under the control of a director working under a
ministerial head. There are several valuable scholarships from the lower to
the higher schools. At the census of 1891 the number of persons returned as
unable to read and write was 37,034, or 25 '38 per cent, of the population.
The total cost to Government of education in 1897, including grants to
university (2,500Z. ), and technical education (852Z.), was 39,006Z. There
are 40 public libraries and mechanics' institutes, with about 78,000 volumes.
There are 5 daily, 5 weekly 2 tri-weekly, 1 bi-weekly, and 6 monthly journals.
JUSTICE AND CRIME — REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE 305
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court, courts ot" }»etty, general, and quarter sessions,
the latter presided over by a stipendiary magistrate, assisted by justices of
the peace. The total number of prisoners that came before all the criminal
courts in 1897 was 3,939 males and 533 females; of these 3,040 males and
399 females were summarily convicted, mostly for fraud ; and 63 males and
18 females committed for trial. Before the Supreme Courts and sessions
courts 36 persons were convicted in 1897. The total police force is 270. There
were 2 gaols, with 108 male and 9 female inmates, at the end of 1897.
Pauperism.
Besides hospitals and benevolent institutions, there are two establish-
ments for paupers, with 434 male and 221 female inmates at the end of the
year 1897, the daily average number of persons maintained during the year
being 632 males and 263 females. The total expenditure during the year
was 7.476Z., mainly contributed by the colonial Government. During the
year 1897 outdoor relief was administered to 785 people ; 7,113 persons
were relieved by Benevolent Societies in 1897.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Of the total yearly revenue about 59 per cent, is derived
from taxation, chiefly customs ; 31 per cent, from railways, postal,
telegraph, and other public services ; and the remainder principally
from the rental and sale of Crown lands. Of the expenditure
34 per cent, is for special public works, 41 per cent, for
interest, 8 per cent, for general purposes, 5 per cent, for
religion, science, and education, 5 per cent, for hospitals and
charities, 7 per cent, for law and protection. In 1897 10,047Z.
was spent in defence. The subjoined statement shows the
total general revenue and expenditure during each of the last
live years : —
—
1893 1894
1895
1896
&
797,976
750,244
1897
Revenue . .
Expenditure .
£ £
706,972 696,795
836,417 789,805
£
761,971
748,946
£
845,019
785,026
In 1897 the customs revenue amounted to 351,848Z.
Included in the receipts and disbursements for 1897 are
certain sums raised and expended for 'redemption of loans,' under
the name of ' Territorial Kevenue.'
The revenue for 1898 is estimated at 913,275^., and
expenditure 803,527/.
The public debt of Tasmania amounted Decem])er 31, 1897, to 8,390,026^ :
the debt, except 3,649,723/. at 3^ per cent., consists principally of 4 percent
debentures, redeemable from 1896 to 1940, and the whole was raised for the
construction of public works. The interest on the amount realised on the
last 3i per cent, loan floated was equivalent to 3-621 per cent, at par. The
X
306
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
folloAving is an abstract of loans expenditure up to December 31, 1897 : —
Public works: railways, 3, 696,1 04^., or 48 "24 percent. ; telegraphs, 120,719?.,
or 1-59 per cent. ; roads, bridges, jetties, &c., 2,208,587Z., or 28-82 per
cent. ; public buildings, 695,880Z., or 9*08 per cent. ; defences, 121,423?., or
1-58 per cent. ; other public works, 139,377?., or 1*80 per cent. ; loans to local
bodies, 102,800?., or 1-34 per cent.; miscellaneous, 58,846?., or 77 per cent. —
total public works, 7,143,736?., or 93-22 per cent. ; other public services,
519,591?., or 6-78 per cent.— total, 7,663,327?., or 100 percent. ; balance of
loans, raised chiefly for Temporary Treasury Bills, 815,887?.
The total local revenue, exclusive of all grants from the Government, for
1896 was 172,257?., and the expenditure 164,677?. Local debt, 1897, 590,452?.
Defence.
The volunteer defence force of the colony numbers some 1,779 ofiicers and
men, and is composed of two rifle regiments, engineers, artillery, cadets
corps, and auxiliary force, all under jurisdiction of commandants stationed
at Hobart and Launceston, Included in the above is a small permanent
force, stationed at Hobart, of 13 men for the purpose of keeping barracks and
batteries in order, and to form the nucleus of a larger force.
There are four batteries on the river Derwent, and one on the Tamar ; and
the Colony possesses one torpedo boat and some small craft.
Production and Industry.
The total area of the colony is 16,778,000 acres, including 1,206,500
acres islands and lakes, unalienated land, principally heavily timbered or
mineral-bearing, 10,860,426 acres. In 1891 19,408 persons were directly
engaged in agriculture. In 1897 there were 242,241 acres under crop, and
226,095 acres under permanent artificially sown grasses. Of the total area,
4,768,901 acres have been sold or granted to settlers by the Crown up to the
end of 1897 ; while 833,575 acres have been leased as sheep runs. The total
area under crops in 1897-98 was 242,241 acres ; under grasses, 242,241 acres ;
fallow, 31,199 ; 11,695 acres were devoted to horticulture. The following
table shows the acreage and produce of the chief crops for five years : —
'
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Wheat, acres
55,312
52,028
64,652
74,516
85,905
,, bushels .
833,771
872,000
1,164,855
1,286,330
1,668,341
,, bushels per acre
15-07
16-76
18-01
17-34
19.42
Oats, acres .
33,755
34,385
32,699
44,768
38,166
,, bushels
37,720
927,875
906,934
971,996
1,102,285
,, bushels per acre .
24-81
26-98
27-74
21-79
28-88
Potatoes, acres
19,068
23,415
19,247
21,651
22,357
,, tons
76,769
90,810
81,423
72,241
49,124
,, tons pel acie.
4-02
3-87
4-23
3-33
2-19
Hay, acres .
47,500
61,373
54,748
47,798
57,828
,, tons .
54,889
90,810
62,345
44,344
78,849
,, tons per acre
1-15
3-87
1-14
-92
1-36
Under the head of horticulture 542 acres were sown with hops in 1897,
yielding 774,514 lbs. of hops. The yield of apples was slightly below the
average. Fruit culture is of great importance ; large quantities of fruit are
exported.
COMMERCE
307
There were in the colony 29,898 horses, 157,486 head of cattle, 1,588,611
sheep and lambs, and 43,520 pigs, on March 1, 1898.
The soil of the colony is rich in iron ore, tin, copper, and galena, and there
are large beds of coal. The total number of gold-mining leases in force at
the end of 1897 was 486 ; of tin-mining leases, 205 ; coal, 22 ; silver, 441,
copper, 54. Gold to the value of 230, 282^. was exported in 1897, and silver to
the value of 216,893^. Owing to cessation of alluvial working, the total
luimber of persons employed in gold-mining has decreased from 2,060 in
1879 to 1,461 in 1896. The total number of men employed in silver mining
in 1897 was 903, output 17,527 tons, valued at 197,225/. The total value of
tin exports in 1897 was 150,586/. The total value of the tin exported up
to the end of 1897 was 6,538,140/. The total number of men employed in
coal-mining in 1897 was 133, output 42,530 tons, valued at 16,928/. Copper
ore and pyrites to the value of 317,437/. was exported in 1897.
Commerce.
There are heavy customs duties, those levied in 1897 amount-
ing to 351,849/., or 25-64 per cent, of the total value of imports.
The total imports and exports of Tasmania, including bullion
and specie, were as follows in each of the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896 1897
Total imports
Total exports
&
1,057,683
1,352,184
£
979,676
1,489,041
£
1,094,457
1,373,063
£ £
1,192,410 1,367,608
1,473,429 1,744,461
In 1897 the imports subject to duty amounted to 1,154,734Z., and the
imports duty-free to 213,875/.
The exports are chiefly wool, gold, silver, tin, timber, fruit
and jam, hops, grain, hides and skins, bark. The following are
the values of the more important of these for five years: —
Year
Wool
Gold
Silver
and
Silver Ore
Tin
Timber and
Bark
Hops
Fruit,
Green and
Preserved
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
296,442
263,422
202,341
290,971
264,630
£
131,104
212,929
218,308
232,180
230,282
£
153,852
217.844
227,916
222,948
216,893
£
266,156
202,454
167,754
169,038
150,586
£
57,256
52,386
65,125
61,426
62,085
£
13,948
22,215
18,210
21,665
18,373
£
122,183
202,455
161,464
169,705
195 073
The chief imports in 1897 were textile fabrics and dress, 410,768/. ;
art and mechanical productions, 334,539/. ; food and drinks, 282,782/.
Of the total imports those at the port of Launceston in 1897 were valued
at 583,238/., and Hobart, 555,949/. ; sub-ports, 228,421/. Exports from
Launceston, 602,654/. ; from Hobart, 624,957/. ; sub-ports, 516,850/.
The following gives, according to Tasmanian returns, a synopsis of the
general direction of trade during three vears : —
308
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
Country
Imports from
Exports to
1S95
1896
1897
1895
1896
1897
£,
&
&
&
&
&
United Kingdom .
315,172
379,930
397,510
202,870
173,867
274,497
Victoria
586,943
572,811
612,980
620,416
671,816
807,433
New South Wales
173,315
187,738
197,667
506,472
598,949
583,273
Other British colonies .
11,279
38,646
125,522
41,517
48,271
68,331
Foreign countries
Total .
7,748
13,285
33,929
1,788
3,673
10,927
1,094,457
1,192,410
1,367,608
1,373,063
1,496,576
1,744,461
The recorded values are determined by the invoices and declarations ; the quantities are
ascertained rom invoices, weights heins checked by the customs officials. It is diffi-
cult to arrive at t'le value of t'le import trade in respect of any particular country, the
ci'stom beinij to refer all imports, whether transhipments or re-exports, to the last port of
clearance. Owing to the incre.'ising facilities offered by steam communication, direct trade
with Tasmaniais falling off in favour of Indirect trade principally through Victoria, which
from its geographical position is the nearest port of junction with the great oceanic lines of
steamers with Euro])e. It is estimated that the true extent of inter-colonial trade in itself
does not greatly exceed 25 per cent, of the whole, the balance being principally trade with
England.
The total value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Tasmania
and of the exports of British produce to Tasmania direct, for six years, was
as follows, accordinfir to the Board of Trade returns : —
—
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Tasmania .
Exports of British pro-
duce ....
395,356
478,069
253,099
328,312
346,776
305,529
274,441
338,489
315,978
423,784
289,369
412,234
The staple article of import into the United Kingdom from Tasmania is
wool. The value was 135,909Z. in 1893, 194,170Z. in 1894, 168,336Z. in 1895,
215,462Z. in 1896, 181,134Z. in 1897. In 1897 fruit was imported to the value
of 74,917Z. The principal exports from Great Britain to Tasmania are apparel
and haberdashery, of the value of 71,374/. in 1897 ; iron, wrought and un-
wrought, 37,562^; cottons, 65,065?.; woollens, 40,863/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1897 consisted of 155 sailing vessels of 8,340
tons, and 44 steamers of 6,036 tons ; total, 199 ves.sels of 14,376 tons. In
1897 699 vessels of 542,049 tons entered (38 of 116,719 tons belonging to
the United Kingdom), and 717 of 542,119 tons (36 of 115,190 tons belong,
ing to the United Kingdom) cleared Tasmanian ports. Of the former 250 of
322,046 tons entered, and of the latter 285 of 826,277 tons cleared Hobart ;
the remainder falling to Launceston and sub-ports.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1897 there were open for traffic 495 miles of railway com-
pleted, consisting of a main line connecting the two principal ports, Hobart
and Launceston, and a line connecting Launceston and Ulverstone, and other
inland branch lines.
Tasmania has a telegraph system, belonging to the Government, througl^
all the settled parts of the colony. At the end of 1897 the number of miles
of line in operation was 1,884, and 3,313 and 427 cable miles of wire; the
number of stations 225, The number of telegraphic messages sent was
VlCToRiie*^ 30
2-29,710 111 the year 1897. The submarine cable to the Australian continent
carried 1 15, 270 messages in 1897. There are also 570 miles of telephone wire,
with exchanges at New Norfolk, Hohart, Launccstnn, and Zeelian. The revenue
uf the Government telegraph and telephone system was 19,308/. in 1897.
The number of letters carried by the Post Office in the year 1897 was
7,906,506 ; of i)ackets, 2,278,082 ; of newspapers, 5,095,792 ; and post-cards,
257,878. The Post Office revenue in 1897 was 58,099/., ami the expenditure
of Post and Telegraph Departments was in 1896, 65,268/. There were 336
post-offices in 1897, 709 officers, 2,718 miles of post roads, and 1,272,545
miles travelled.
Agent'Gencralin London. — Hon. Sir P. 0 Fysh, K.C\ M.G.
C'hirf C/^r^t-.— Herbert W. Ely.
Books of Reference.
Annual SUitistical Ro^tistcr and Blue Book.
Census of Tasmania, ISJl. llobart, 1892.
Crown Lands Guide.
Fenton (James), History of Tasmania. Hobart, 1884.
Johnston {B,. M.), Handbook of Tasmania. Annual. Hobart.
Just (T. C), Tasmaniana: a Description of the Island and its Resources. Launceston,
1879.
Lloyd (Geo. Thomas), Thirty-three Years in Tasmania and Victoria. 8. London, 1862.
RuadeniG. W.), The History of Australia. 3 vols. London, 1883.
Tasmania and its A[ineral Wealth. Melbourne, 1898.
Progress of tlie Mineral Industry of Tasmania.
VICTORIA.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Victoria was established by an Act passed
by the Legislature of the colony in 1854, to which the assent of
the Crown was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the Act
of the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 55. The legislative
authority is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers : the Legisla-
tive Council, composed of forty-eight members, and the Legislative
Assembly, composed of ninety-live members. Members of
the former must be in possession of an estate of the annual value
of 100/. ; and electors must be in the possession or occupancy of
property of the rateable value of 10/. per annum if derived from
freehold, or of 25/. if derived from leasehold or the occupation of
rented property. No electoral property qualification is required
for graduates of British universities, matriculated students of the
Melbourne University, ministers of religion of any denomination,
certiticate4 schoolmasters, la wyers,medical practitioners, and officers
of the army and navy not in active service. About one-third of the
members of the Legislative Council must retire every two years. The
members of the Legislative Assembly require no property qualifi-
cation, and are elected by universal manhood suffrage, for the
term of three years. Clergymen of any religious denomination
are not allowed to hold seats in either the Legislative Council or
the Legislative Assembly.
310 THE BHITIS'EP EMl»IilE: — ViCTOtllA
Members of the Legislative Assembly are entitled to reitn^
bursement for expenses at the rate of 300^. per annum, and
members of both Houses have free passes over all the railways.
In 1898 the number of electors on the roll of the Legisla-
tive Council was 130,545 ; the number of electors on the roll of
the Legislative Assembly was 252,560. Of the former all but
1,020, and of the latter all but 46,672, are ratepayers.
Governor. — Kight Hon. Lord Brassey, K.C.B. Appointed 1895.
The Governor's Salary is 7,000^. per annum.
The Governor is likewise commander-in-chief of the colonial troops. In
the exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of responsible ministers,
composed as follows : —
Premier and Treasurer. — The Eight Hon. Sir George Turner, K.C.M.G.,
M.L.A.
Chief Secretary and Minister of Public Instruction. — Hon. A. J. Peacock,
M.L.A.
Attorney-General. — Hon. Isaac /saacs, M.L.A.
Solicitor-General. — Hon. Sir Henry CiUhhert, K.C.M.G., M.L.C.
Covimissioner of Trade and Customs, President of the Board of Land and
IVorks and Commissioner of Croivn Lands and Survey. — Hon, R. W. Best
M.L.A.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. J. G. Duffy, M.L.A.
Minister of Defence. — Hon. W. McCulloch, M.L.A.
Minister of Mines and Water Supply. — Hon. H. Foster, M.L.A.
Minister of Agriculture and. Commissioner of Public Works. — Hon. J. W.
Taverner, M.L.A.
Minister of Bailivays and Minister of Health. — Hon. H. R. Williams^
M.L A.
Portfolio without Q^cc— Hon. S. Williamson, M.L.C.
Under the Constitution Act 15,500^. was set apart for salaries of ministers,
but owing to retrenchment the amount has been reduced to 10,400Z. — the
Premier receiving 1,400Z. and the other ministers 1,000^. each. At least four
of the ministers must be members of either the Legislative Council or the
Assembly, but not more than eight may at any one time be members of
the Assembly.
Local Government.
For purposes of local administration the colony is divided into urban and
rural municipalities. The former, called cities, towns, and boroughs, ought
not to be of a greater area than nine square miles, and in being constituted
must contain at least 300 householders. The latter, called shires, are portions
of country, of undelined extent, containing rateable property capable of
yielding a revenue of 500^. In 1896 there were 58 urban and 150 rural muni-
cipalities, all but a very small portion of the whole area of the colony being
included within their limits. Every ratepayer has one or more votes,
according to the amount of his rates.
Area and Population.
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion
of New South Wales, bearing the name of the Port Phillip dis-
trict. It was erected in 1851 — by Imperial Act of Parliament,
AREA AND POPULATION
311
13 ik l4 Vict. cap. 69 — into a separate colony, and called Victoria.
The colony has an area of 87,884 square miles, or 56,245,760
acres, about -J^ part of the whole area of Australia. The colony
is divided into 37 counties, varying in area from 920 to 5,933
square miles.
The growth of the population, as shown by the censuses of
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table : —
Annual rate
Date of Enumeration
Males
Females
Total
of Increase
per cent.
November 8, 1836 .
186
38
224
—
March 2, 1846.
20,184
12,695
32,879
1457-81
March 29, 1857
264,334
146,432
410,766
104-50
April 7, 1861 .
328,651
211,671
540,322
7-88
April 2, 1871 .
401,050
330,478
731,528
3-54
April 3, 1881 .
452,083
410,263
862,346
1-79
April 5, 1891 .
598,414
541,991
1,140,405
3-22
The average density of the population is about 13 persons to the square
mile, or one person to every 50 acres.
The following table gives a summary of the population of Victoria,
according to the census taken on April 5, 1891 : —
—
Males
Females
Total
Population, exclusive of Chinese and
aborigines .....
Chinese
Aborigines . ....
Total ....
589,317
8,772
325
541,146
605
240
1,130,463
9,377
565
598,414
541,991
1,140,405
The estimated population on June 30. 1898, was 1,169,434.
During the decade ended with 1891 there was a large decrease in the
number ol the Chinese and aborigines.
At the date of the census of 1891, 97 per cent, of the population were
British subjects by birth ; native Victorians numbered 713,585, or 63 percent,
of the population ; natives of the other Australasian colonies, 79,719 ; of
England and Wales, 162,907 ; of Ireland, 85,307 ; of Scotland, 50,667.
Of the total population (exclusive of Chinese and aborigines) in 1891,
there were 493,977 bread-winners and 629,800 dependants, while 6,686 were
not accounted for. Of the bread-winners there were — professional, 29,631 ;
domestic, 56,980; commercial, 98,472; industrial, 167,127; primary pro-
ducers, 123,996 (including agricultural, 82,482; pastoral, 15,296; mining,
22,464); indefinite, 17,771.
About live-ninths of the total population of Victoria live in towns. At
the end of 1897 it was estimated that the town population numbered
655,780, out of a total population of 1,176,248,
Inclusive of the suburbs the estimated populations in 1897 of the principal
towns were as follow : — Melbourne, 458,610, or nearly two-fifths of the popula-
312
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
tionof the colony ; Ballarat, 46,137 ; Bendigo (Sandhurst), 43,075 ; Geelong,
24,807 ; AVarmambool, 6,600 ; Castlemaine, 6,932, and Stawell, 5,556.
The following are the births, deaths, and marriages in the colony for five
years : — i
Year
Total
Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages
7,004
7,033
7,146
7,625
7,568
Surplus of
Births
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
36,552
34,258
33,706
32,178
31,310
1,997
1,886
1,795
1,812
1,696
16,508
15,430
15,636
15,174
15,126
20,044
18,828
18,070
17,004
16,184
In the 37 years from 1838 to the end of 1874, more than 167,000 immi-
grants received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage to
the colony ; but since 1874 State-assisted immigration has ceased. No account
is taken of migration overland across the borders, but the recorded immigration
into and emigration from the colony of Victoria by sea were as follow in each
of the last five years :-
Year
Immigration (by sea)
Emigration (by sea)
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
74,047
84,261
81,199
84,872
90,847
80,460
90,110
88,886
99,419
97,301
Of the immigrants in 1897, 63,123 were males and 27,724 were females ;
and of the emigrants 64,706 were males and 32,595 females. In the last
five years there was an excess of emigrants over immigrants, amounting to
6,413 in 1893, 5,849 in 1894, 7,687 in 1895, 14,547 in 1896, and 6,454 in 1897,
chieHy in consequence of departures to the gold fields of Western Australia.
Religion.
There is no State Church in Victoria, and no State assistance has been
given to religion since 1875, Prior to that period a sum of 50,000^. had been
set apart annually out of the general revenue for the advancement of the
Christian religion in Victoria, and this amount had been distributed propor-
tionately amongst the various denominations. At the date of the census of
1891 about 75 per cent, of the population were Protestants, 22 per cent, were
Roman Catholics, and a half per cent, were Jews. The following were the
enumerated numbers of each of the principal divisions in 1891 : — Episcopalians,
417,182 ; Presbyterians, 167,027 ; Methodists, 158,040 ; other Protestants,
94,608 ; Roman Catholics, 248,591 ; Jews, 6,459 ; Buddhists, Confucians, &c.,
6,746; others (including unspecified), 41,752
Instruction.
Educational establishments in Victoria are of four kinds, viz., the
University with its three affiliated colleges, State schools (primary), technical
schools or colleges, and private schools. The IVIelbourne University was
established under a special Act of the Victorian Legislature, and the build-
ing was op3ned on October 3, 1855. The Institution at present receives, by
way ofeudo'.v merit, 12 250^. out of the general revenue. It is both an ex-
amining and a teaching body, and in 1859 received a royal charter empowering
it to grant decrees in all Faculties except Divinity.
JUSTICE AND CRIME
:U3
Affiliated to tlie University are three colleges — Trinity, Orniond, and
Queen's — in connection with the Church of England, Presbyterian, and
Wesleyan Churches respectively. The School of Mines at Ballarat is also
affiliated to the University. From the opening of the University
to the end of 1896, 4,040 .students niatiiculated, and 2,066 direct degrees
were conferred. In 1896 the students who matriculated numbered 129,
the direct graduates numbered 122, an<l there were 668 students attending
lectures.
Public instruction is strictly secular ; it is compidsory for children
between the ages of 6 and 13, and free for the subjects comprised in the
ordinary course of instruction. In 1897 there were 1,877 State schools,
with 4,617 teachers, a total enrolment of 238,308 scholars, and average
attendance 140,593, or about 59 per cent, of the numbers on the roll.
Practically all the children of school age living in the colony are being edu
cated, and about 85 per cent, of them at State schools. Amongst persons aged
15 years and upwards at the census of 1891, 95^ per cent, were able to read
and write, and only 23 per cent, were entirely illiterate. In 1896-97 the total
cost of public (primary) instruction, exclusive of expenditure on buildings,
was 581,816^.— all paid by the State. Although the education given
by the State is strictly primary, 8 exhiliitions and 127 scholarships,
were awarded by the leading private colleges to the ablest scholars to
enable them to complete their education at the University, and at
the private grammar schools, respectively. Secondary education is entirely
nnder the control either of private persons or proprietary bodies, usually
connected with some religious denomination. There were in 1896-97
930 private schools in Victoria, with 2,357 teachers, and attended by
42,044 scholars, The.se numbers include 220 schools, 786 teachers, and
23,562 scholars in connection with the Roman Catholic denomination, the
members of which do not as a rule avail themselves of the free education
afforded by the State.
The other educational establi.shments embrace 18 technical schools under
the control of the Education Department, viz., 3 working men's colleges, 5
schools of arts, and 10 schools of mines. There were also an agricultural
and a horticultural college, whilst a viticultural college will be opened
soon. In 1896 there were 107 teachers attached to the technical schools,
irrespective of agricultural colleges, and the gross enrolment of pupils was
3,049.
The public library of Melbourne has about 446,578 volumes, pamphlets,
and parts. The leading towns have either a public library or a mechanics'
institute. On Jan. 1, 1897, they numbered 434. The total number of
volumes in the libraries, exclusive of ^lelbourne, was about 638,292.
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and five puisne judges.
There are cdurts of general and i)etty sessions, county coui-ts, courts of insol-
vency, courts of mines, and courts of licensing. The following are the criminal
statistics for tive yeai-s : —
1893
1894
24,846
16,440
656
435
1895
1896
1897
Taken into custody .
Summarily convicted
Committed for trial .
Sentenced
28,623
18,408
850
537
23,139
15,133
675
403
22,787
14,759
675
424
20,111
13,078
510
332
S14
THE BRITISH EMPItlE: — VICTORIA
There are 10 prisons in Victoria, besides police gaols. At the end of 1896
there were confined in these prisons 1,052 males and 172 females.
Finance.
The actual revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of
the last five years ended June 30 were— the figures for the last
year being only approximate: —
Year ended June 30 —
Revenue
Expenditure
£,
£
1894
6,716,814
7,310,246
1895
6,712,152
6,760,439
1896
6,458,682
6,540,182
1897
6,630,217
6,568,932
1898
6,886,664
6,701,100
The following table shows the actual amounts of revenue and
expenditure under the principal heads during 1896-97 : —
Heads of Revenue
Amount
Heads of Expenditure
Amount
Taxation : —
Customs, duties, &c. .
Excise
Land tax .
Duties on estates of
deceased persons
Duty on bank notes .
Stamp duty
Business licences
Tonnage, dues, &c.
Income Tax
Total taxation .
Railways .
Post and telegraphs .
Crown lands
Other sources
£
1,759,380
294,746
11.5,524
86,906
19,128
• 153,500
17,099
19,603
179,301
Interest and expenses
of debt .
Railways (working ex-
penses) .
Other public works
Post and telegraphs .
Crown lands, &c.
Public instruction,
science, &c.
Charitable institutions,
&c
Judicial and legal
Police and gaols .
Customs, harbours, kc.
Mining
Defences
Other expenditure
£
1,892,092
1,476,696
251,552
580,507
135,928
568,357
263,723
156,137
299,235
93,211
53,316
181,649
616,529
2,645,187
2,597,255
522,741
413,551
451,483
Total .
6,630,217
Total.
6,568,932
The estimated revenue for 1898-99 w^as 6,907,439^., and expenditure
6,873,529Z.
The amount raised by taxation, as shown in the last table, viz. 2,645,187^.
was equivalent to a proportion of 21. 5s. Od. per head of population.
Victoria has a debt, incurred in the construction of public works, which
amounted, on June 30, 1898, to 47,058,088^. (exclusive of short dated Treasury
Bonds 500, 000^.) On June 30, 1897, it was 46,929,321^. (exclusive of tem-
porary treasury bills). Of this sum, 36,700,944/. was borrowed for the
construction of railways, 7,321,850/. for waterworks, 1,105,557/. for State
DEFENCE — l»ROt>lTCTlON AND INDUSTRY
B16
school buildings, and 1,800,970/, for other public works. The uoniiual rate
of interest on the public debt varies from 3:} to 4^ per cent., and averages
3*88 per cent.
The net local ordinary revenue and expenditure (Municipalities, Harbour
Trust, Metropolitan Board of Works, and Fire Brigade Boards) for 1896 were
respectively 1,485,455/. and 1,507,991/. The net local debt (exclusive of
amounts borrowed first by Government) amounted to about 8,761,499/.
The estimated total value of the rateable proi)erty of the colony in 1896
amounted to about 168,427,700/., and the annual value was 10,393,000/.
Defence.
The land forces of Victoria at the end of 1897 comprised an establishment
of 4,969 men of all arms, of whom 379 were permanent, and 2,940 formed
the militia, the remainder being volunteers. The naval force consists of a
permanent force of 158, and the Naval Brigade, of 152 officers and men.
The Naval flotilla of the colony consists of the coast-defence ironclad
Cerberus, and two tirst-class and three second-class torpedo boats. Victoria
is a considerable contributor to the support of the Australian auxiliary ships.
(See post under "Australian Defence.")
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
Of the total area of Victoria about 23,090,664 acres are either alienated or
in process of alienation. Of the remainder about 8,300,000 acres are at
present suitable for agriculture ; 15,700,000 acres for pastoral purposes ; State
forests, timber and water reserves, over 4,800,000 acres ; auriferous land,
1,051,246 acres ; and roads, 1,524,248.
The total number of cultivated holdings in 1897-98 was 34,990.
The following table shows the areas under the principal crops and the
produce of each for five years : —
Total
Tears
Area Cul-
tivated
Wheat
Oata
Barley
Potatoes
Hay
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Acres
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Tons
Acres
Tons
1894
3,019
1,469
16,256
.219
4,951
49
1,034
41
145
412
603
1895
2,980
1,374
11,446
266
5,033
97
1,596
56
197
493
622
1896
2,885
1,413
6,669
256
2,880
78
716
44
117
464
391
1897
3,008
1,581
7,091
419
6.817
62
8l6
44
146
417
449
1898
3,260
1,657
10,580
294
4,809
37
758
44
67
580
660
The produce per acre
of the principal crops has been
:—
Year
Wheat
Oats
Barley
Potatoes
1
Hay
Malting
Other
Bushels
Bushels
Bushels
Bushels
Tons
Tons
1894
10-38
22-62
20-08
24-84
3-54
1-22
1895
8-33
21-14
15-65
21-82
3-49
1-26
1896
401
11-28
8-76
13-70
2-67
•84
1897
4-49
16-25
1201
19-45
3-37
1-08
1898 .
6-38
16-35
1
19-24
23 09
1-52
1-14
1
316
TrtE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
In addition to these, green forage and permanent artificial grasses covered
about 138,425 acres, vines covered about 27,700 acres, and gardens and orchards
occujHcd an extent of about 44,800 acres in 1897-98.
At the census of 1891, there were in the colony 436,469 horses, 1.782,881
head of cattle (including 395,192 milch cows), 12,692,843 sheep, and' 282,457
pigs. In 1896-97, the milch cows numbered 457,924.
II. Mining.
■The subjoined statement gives, from official returns, the estimated quantities
of gold, with value, obtained in Victoria in each of the last five years : —
Years
1893
1894
1895
Number of
Ounces
Ap]iroxiinate
Value
V „ Number of
^^^'' Ounces
Approximate
Value
671,126
716,954
740,086
£
2,684,504
2,867,816
2,960,344
1
1 1896
1897
805,087
812,766
^ i
3,220,348
3,251,064
The total quantity of gold raised from 1851 to 1897 is estimated at
61,847,448 oz., of an aggregate value of 247,389,792?. The estimated number
of miners at work on the gold-fields at the end of 1897 was 32,820.
III. Manufactures.
The total number of manufactories, works, &c. in March 1897, was 2,855, of
which about 1,743 used steam or gas engines, with an aggregate horse-power of
38,755 ; the number of hands employed was 50,754 ; and the lands, buildings,
machinery, and plant were valued at 12,337,400?. The manufactures are
almost entirely for home consumption.
Commerce.
There is a heavy tariff on most of the important articles of
import, the total customs duties collected in 1897 amounting to
1,875,169/. equal to about 12 per cent, of the total value of
imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, includ-
ing bullion and specie, in each of the last five years, was : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
Years
Total Imports
1
Total Exi»orts
1893
1894
1895
£
13,283,814
12,470,599
12,472,344
£
13,308,551
14,026,546
14,547,732
1 1896
1897
1
1
£
14,554,837
15,454,482
14,198,518
16,739,670
The value of the trade during 1896 and 1897 between Victoria and the
principal British and foreign countries is shown in the following table,
according to Victorian returns : —
COMMERCE
317
18%
1 1897
Country
Imports Exports
Imports
Exports
therefrom thereto
therefi'om
thereto
British Countries : —
1
£ 1 £
£
£
United Kingdom
5,923,417 6,704,104
6,004,798
9,559,249
Australian colonies .
6,265,987 5,356,036
6,813,772
4,969,120
India ....
220,253 175,751
282,090
325,261
Ceylon ....
127,232 44,147
143,030
59,812
Canada ....
19,523 ) —
11,682
424
Other British possessions .
Total .
291,639 115,832
335,341
162,583
12,848,051 12,395,870
13,590,713
15,076,449
Foreign Countries : —
Belgium ....
136,492 272,780
142,915
198,525
France ....
166,032 732,154
142,924
740,638
Germany . . . . j
469,797 439,516
546,589
480,840
Sweden and I^orway .
95,831 399
104,761
2.136
Java and Philippine Islands
154,164 18,423
157,615
12,949
China . . . . |
83,547 78
48,446
314
United States . . . |
516,863 , 283,754
590,744
185,344
Others . . . . '
Total .
All countries .
84,060 1 55,544
129,775
42,475
1,706,786 1,802,648
14,554,837 14,198,518
1,863,769
1,663,221
16,739,670
15,454,482
The following are the values ^ of the principal articles imported
and exported in 1897 : —
Imports
Exports
Articles
Value
Articles
Value
Wool
£
1,964,731
Gold (inclusive of specie)
6,472,318
Woollen and woollen
Wool ....
3,999,813
piece goods
604,895
Live stock .
329,860
Cottons
919,661
Leather, leatherware,
Sugar
785,717
and leathern cloth .
370,495
Tea .
273,338
Breadstuff's
277,466
Live stock .
528,787
Tea (re-export) .
155,896
Timber
251,451 !
Sugar (chiefly refined in
Iron and steel (exclu-
Victoria).
160,554
sive of railway rails,
1
Apparel and slops
164,285
telegraph wire, &c. ).
535,666
Tallow
162,585
Coal
228,647 1
All other articles.
4,646,398
All other articles
9,361,589 ;
Total .
Total .
15,454,482 ■
16,739,670
^ In the case of (Uiti;i1»ln imports the rticoixJed value is the value in tlie prinfipal markets
of the country of cxjiort as established by declaration and the jirodiiction of original in-
voices, witli 10 per cent, added. The value of goods free from duty, of which the prjncijml
are wool, skins, and tAllow. is the value at the place of import as d^rlarfd bv importers
318
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
The values of the principal articles of import and export have
been as follow in the last five years : —
—
1893
£
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports
£
£
£
£
Coal
418,484
195,415
201,047
194,035
228,647
Cottons .
698,957
879,803
927,269
1,009,150
919,661
Iron and steel .
265,749^
282,063^
346,824^
453,990^
535,666
Live stock
478,422
432,580
361,569
462,554
528,787
Sugar and molasses .
619,830
744,246
647,982
787,309
785,717
Timber .
154,061
149,817
174,146
233,525
251,451
Wool .
2,552,933
2,517,437
2,367,915
2,270,496
1,964,731
Woollens
445,652
456,286
496,920
612,874
604,895
Exports
Gold, mostly specie .
2,851,179
3,718,675
3,750,737
3,298,912
6,472,318
Wheat .
717,087
660,718
403,780
91,605
225,957
Live stock
272,221
282,045
294,886
337,541
329,860
Wool .
5,103,907
4,742,522
5,151,153
4,959,404
3,999,813
1 Exclusive of rails, wire, &o.
The quantity of wool exported in 1897 amounted to 123,572,693
lbs., valued at 3,999,813^., of which, however, little more than half
was the produce of Victoria.
Of the total imports those arriving at the port of Melbourne were valued
at 13,098,633Z., and of the exports those shipped from Melbourne were
valued at 15,539,177^. in 1897.
The commercial intercourse of Victoria \vith the United Kingdom (ex-
clusive of gold) is shown in the subjoined table, according to the ' Board of
Trade Returns,' for each of the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into
U.K. from
Victori'a
Exports of Brit.
produce to
Victoria
£
6,078,997
3,354,015
£
6,559,144
3,775,111
£
7,236,248
3,939,070
£
5,429,189
4,833,265
£
5,590,662
4,622,544
The value of goods for export is the vahie at the port of shipment, as declared by exporters.
The recorded quantities are those declared bj^ importers and exporters. Those of imports
are nearly all checked and corrected by Custom House officers. The country of origin, or
production, of imports is ascertained from the declarations of importers. It is supposed
to be that of prime origin, but the " country whence the goods are imported " is that where
they are put on board the importing ship. The country of destination of exports is that of
the ultimate destination which they will reach by the vessel in which they are exported. It
must be admitted, however, that in both cases the information supplied is to a great extent
not. to be depended upon. There is no distinction in the Victorian returns between
"general" and "special" trade ; but entries equivalent to these appear in part "Inter-
change" of the Statistical Register of Victoria" — viz. "Imports on which duty was paid "
= Special Imports, and " Exports of Home Products " = Special Exports. The transit
trade embraces goods removed from ship to ship, or from ship to railway, without being
landed for a longer period than is necessary for such removal. Such goods are excluded
from the returns of general exports and imports. The value of the statistical results is
somewhat impaired by the unreliability of the declarations of importers and exporters,
upon which they are based. The imports are under a closer supervision by the Customs
Department than the exports, and are therefore less liable to error.
INTEKNAL COMMUNICATION
311)
The staple articles of import into the United Kingdom from Victoria are
wool and gold. The imports ot wool into Great Britain were as follows in
each of the last five years : —
Teais
Quantities
Value
£
3,885,171
2,803,192
4,145,940 1
Years
Quantities
Value
1893
1894
1895
Lbs.
93,429,673
95,539,914
111,193,444
1896
1897
Lbs.
82,370,220
84,456,615
£
3,277,464
3,154,930
Among the minor articles of merchandise imported into the United King-
dom from Victoria in 1897 were tallow, 223,987^. ; leather, 329,004^. ; pre-
served and frozen meat, 82,200Z. ; fresh mutton, 138,090Z. ; butter, 816,399^.;
sheep skins and furs, 145,735Z, ; tin, 91,3761.
The British exports to Victoria embrace nearly all articles of home
manufacture, chief among them iron, wrought and unwrought, 586,808Z. ;
carriages, cycles, &c., 157,438/.; hardware and cutlery, 73,130/. ; woollen goods,
521,880/. ; apparel and haberdashery, 297,622/. ; cotton goods, 869,505/. ;
machinery, 104,831/.; paper, 181,252/.; spirits, 139,828/.; beer and ale,
60,048/., in 1897.
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1897 consisted of 259 sailing vessels of 40,637
tons, and 149 steamers of 55,737 tons, total 408 vessels of 96,374 tons.
The shipping inwards and outwards has been as follows for five years : —
Years
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,889
2,083
1,948
1,882
1,888
2,009,187
2,163,716
2,181,539
2,276,478
2,437,190
1,887
2,045
1,889
1,900
1,882
2,020,551
2,127,743
2,167,147
2,289,752
2,428,182
Of the vessels entered in 1897, 359 of 846,250 tons, and of those cleared
357 of 848,547 tons were Britisti ; 1,371 of 1,242,918 tons entered, and 1,370
of 1,249,306 tons cleared, were colonial. Of the total entered 1,668 of 2,342,447
tons, and cleared 1,612 of 2,256,068 tons, were at the port, Melbourne.
Internal Communication.
The railways in Victoria all belong to the State. There were 3,130 miles
of railway completed at the end of 1896-97.
The total cost of the lines open to June 30, 1897, was 38,325,517/.— of
which 2,800,000/. was provided out of the general revenue and the remainder
from loans — being about an average of 12,315/. per mile for the lines open.
The gross receipts in the year 1896-97 amounted to 2,615,935/. ; and the ex-
penditure to 1,563,805/., or 60 per cent, of the receipts. The profit on
working was thus 1,052,130/. being equivalent to 275 per cent, of the mean
capital cost, or 2 "97 of the borrowed capital, which l)cars interest at the average
rate of 3 '9 per cent. Besides the sum of £2,800,000 paid towards construction
(before mentioned) certain other sums amounting in the aggregate to close
320 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
on niue millions has been paid from time to time out of the consolidated
revenue towards meeting deficiencies in the working of the railways (after
payment of interest). The number of passengers conveyed in the year
1896-97 was 42,263,638, and the weight of goods and live stock carried was
2,383,445 tons. The train mileage in 1896-97 was 9,228,687 miles. The
proportions of receipts from passengers and goods traffic to the total receipts
were 51 and 49 per cent, respectively.
There were 1,572 post-offices on December 31, 1897. The total postal
revenue, including the receipts from telegraphs, telephones, kc, was ap-
proximately 529,754Z. in the year 1897, and the expenditure was 494,257Z.
There were about 6,947 miles of telegraph lines (including railway tele-
graphs), comprising 14,374 miles of wire, open at the end of 1897. The
number of telegrams despatched in the yea.T 1897 was about 1,821,634. The
revenue from telegraphs was 99,194Z. in the year 1897. At the end of the
year 1897 there were 778 telegraph stations.
The telephone system (exclusive of railway telephones) included 617 miles
of poles, 165 miles of aerial cable, and 10 miles of underground cable, the
whole containing 10,541 miles of wire ; whilst the number of subscribers at
the end of 1897 was 3,088.
Money and Credit.
A branch of the Royal Mint was onened at Melbourne on June 12, 1872.
Up to Dec. 31, 1897, 19,378,380 oz. 'of gold, valued at 77,062,880?., was
received at the mint, and gold coin and bullion issued of the value of
77,054,796/. No silver or bronze coin is strack at the Melbourne Mint.
In 1897 the Savings Bank of Victoria (with which have recently been
amalgamated the Post Office Savings Banks) had over 400 branches in the
colony. At the end of the year there were 331,602 depositors, with a total
balance of 7,944,793?. By recent legislation, a special branch of the Savings'
Bank, called the "Advances Department," has been created for the purpose
of makinsj advances to farmers at a low rate (4^ percent.) of interest, re-
payable by instalments extending over a term not exceeding 31^ years. The
requisite funds are raised by the issue of bonds, taken up either by the
Commissioners of Savings Banks or by the general public, and repayable by
half-yearly drawings. The amount advanced during 1897 was 365,000Z.
During the last quarter of 1897 Victoria had 11 banks of issue, with about
420 branches and agencies, with notes in circulation, 956,665?., deposits
29,165,313?., the total liabilities being 31,650,631?. ; gold and silver, coined
and in bars, 7,358,753?. ; landed property, 1,985,150?. ; advances, &c.,
35,576,947?. ; total assets, 45,560,431?. Total paid-up capital, 17,404,523?.
Agent- General for Victoria in Great Britain. — Lieut. -General the Hon.
Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E., G.C.M.G., C.B., CLE.
Secretary (Acting). — S. B. H. Rodgerson.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register aiul Blue Book.
Report on Census of Victoria, 1891. By II. II Ilayter, C.M.G. Fol. Melbourne, 1893.
Handbook to the Colony of Victoria. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. (pamphlet). Fresh
editions issued from time to time.
Mineral Statistics of Victoria. Annual. Fol. Melbourne.
Report on the Vital Statistics of Melbourne and Subuibs. Annual. Melbourne.
Statistics of Friendly Societies in Victoria. Annual. Melbourne.
Statistics of Trades Unions in Victoria. Annual. Melbcnn-ne.
Victorian Year Book. By .lauifs J. Fisiiton. Annual. Melbourne.
Baiuww (W.), The < lolony of Victoria. London, 1S07.
Blair (David), CycloiiijeJia of Australasia. Melbourne, 1881.
Finn (Kdmuiid). Chronicles of Early Melbourne. 2 vols, illustrated. Melbourne, 1889
WESTERN AUSTRALIA '^21
./^;i/.»(F,.), Tlu: Gowiniiuiitof Viftoiia. S. Loudon, 1S1>1. ^
Labilliere (Francis Potoi), Eailv History of th." Colony of Victoiia, from its Discovery to
its Establishment as a Solf-yoverning I'rovincr of the British l-Jniiiirc. 2 vols. 8. London.
IS7S.
Mackay (G.), History of Bendigo. Melbourne, 1S91.
McTinell (Pliilip), The Dictionary of Australasian Biograpliy. Melbourne, 1892.
Murray (A. S ), Twelve Hiui<lred Miles on the Hiv. r Murray. London, 1898.
Rusd^.H (G. W.), The Discovery, Survey, and Hettlenient of Port Phillip. 8. London, 18, -.
&'»nt7;i (U. B.), The Aborigines of Victoria. 2 vols. 8. London.
WeatgtirthiWm.), The Colony of Victin-ja : its History, Conuuerce, and Oold-niining ; its
Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 18(34.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
Western Australia was the last of the colonies on the continent to obtain
responsible government. In 1890 the administration, which had before been
vested in the Governor, assisted l)y a Legislative Council, partly nominated
and partly elective, was vested in the Governor, a Legislative Council, and a
Legislative Ass.'mljly. The Legislative Council was, in the first instance,
nominated by the Governor, but it was provided that in the event of the popu-
lation of the'Colony reaching 60,000, it should be elective. On July 18, 1893,
this limit of population was reached, and the Colonial Parliament soon after-
wards passed an Act (57 Vict. No. 14) amending the constitution.
The Legislative Council now consists of 24 members representing 8 electoral
provinces and holding their seats for six years. Members must be 30 years
of age, resident in the Colony for two years, and either a natural-born subject
of the Queen or naturalized for 5 years aiul resident in the Colony for 5 years.
Every elector must have possessed for at least a year liefore being registered
and within the province, freehold estate of the clear value of £100, or be a
householder occupving a dwelling house of the clear annual value of £25, or
holder of a lease, with 18 months to run, of the value of £25 per annum, or the
holder of a lease or license from the Crown of the annual rental of £10, or
have his name on the electoral list of a municipality or Roads Board in respect
of property in the province of the annual rateable value of £25. The Legis-
lative A.s.sembly consists of 44 members, each representing one electorate, and
elected for 4 years. Members must be either natural-born subjects of the
Queen or naturalized for 5 years and resident in the Colony for 2 years.
Electors must be natural-born or naturalized subjects of the Queen and must
have been resident in the district for 6 months, or have held freehold estate in
the district of the clear value of £50 for 6 months, or be householders occupy-
ing a dwelling house of the annual value of £10, or holders of a lease with 18
months to run, or have hekl a lease for the preceding 18 months, of the annual
value of £10, or have held for the jtreceding (5 months a lease or license of
Crown lands at an annual rental of £5, or have their names on the electoral
list of a municipality or Roads lioard in respect of ]»roperty within the district.
Members of the Legislature are not paid, but travel free on all Government
railways, and by courtesy are allowed the same privilege on private lines.
The entire management and control of the wastelands of the Crown in Western
Australia is vested in the Legislature of the colony. Power is reserved to the
Crown to divide the colony as may from time to time be thought fit.
(?orer?io/-.— Colonel Sir Gerard Snjith, K.C.M.G. ; appointed October, 1895.
The Governor has a salary of 4,000/. i)er annum. He is assisted in his
functions by a cabinet of responsible ministers, as follows : —
Premier, and Colonial Treamrcr.— Right Hon. Sir John Forrest, P.C.,
K.C.M.G.
T
322
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Commissioner for Railioays and Director of Public Works. — Hon. F. H.
Piesse.
Commissioner of Lands. — Hon. George Throssell.
Minister of Mines. — Hon. H. B. Lefroy,
Attorney 'General. — Hon. Ricliard William Pennefathen
Colonial Secretary. — Hon. George Randell.
Area and Population.
As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes all that por-
tion of the continent situated to the westward of 129° E, longitude. The
greatest length of this territory from Cape Londonderry in the north to Peak
Head (south of King George's Sound) in the south is 1,480 miles, and its
breadth from Steep Point near Dirk Hartog's Island, on the west, to the 129th
meridian, on the east, about 1,000 miles. According to the latest computa-
tions, the total estimated area of the colony is 975,920 English square miles,
or, 624,588,800 acres. It is divided into 33 magisterial districts.
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years the
population was small. In 1850 the colony had not more than 6,000 in-
habitants, but at the census of December 1859 the population had risen to
14,837 — namely, 9,522 males and 5,315 females. On December 31, 1867,
the population numbered 21,713, comprising 13,934 males and 7,779 females.
At the census taken on March 31, 1870, the total population was 24,785, of
whom 15,375 were males and 9,410 females. Included in these numbers
were 1,790 male prisoners, either in prisons or at working depots in various
parts of the colony.
At the census of 1881 the population of the colony was 29,708 ; and the
results of the census of April 5, 1891, gave a total population of 49,782 —
29,807 males and 19,975 females. This shows an increase since 1881 of
20,074, or 67-57 per cent. These figures do not include the aborigines, of
whose numbers it is difficult to give even an approximate estimate, scattered
as they are over an extensive territory, much of which is yet entirely un*
known. There were 5,670 civilised aborigines in the colony in 1891. Of the
total population in 1891, 27,825 were returned as being natives of Western
Australia, and 34,271 as being unmarried. Of the unmarried population,
21,577 were males and 12,694 females, while of the unmarried population
over 21 years of age, 10,126 were males and 1,990 M^ere females. Perth,
the capital, had a population of 37,929, in October, 1897, according to a
census taken by the Public Works Department ; Fremantle, about 17,000,
including North Fremantle. In 1897 there were 4,021 births and 2,643
deaths, giving a surplus of 1,378 ; there were 49,387 arrivals and 26,787
departures — excess of arrivals over departures 22,600. The total estimated
population on December 31, 1897, was 161,924 — 110,359 males and 51,565
females. During 1897 there were 1,659 marriages in the colony.
Religion.
The religious division of the population was as follows at the census of 1891 :—
Heligious Divisions
Number
Per cent.
Religious Divisions
Number
Per cent,
3-16
4-01
8-89
Church of Eng-
land
Roman Catholics
Wesleyans
24,769
12,464
4,556
49-75
25-04
9-15 1
Independents .
Presbyterians .
Other religions
not specified .
1,573
1,996
4,424
tiiStRtrCTION — PAUPiCRISM
328
Instruction.
Of the total white population above 15 years in 1891 13*20 per cent, could
neither read nor write. Education is compulsory.
The following table shows the average cost per head and attendance in
Government schools and in assisted schools in 1880, 1890, and 1897 : —
No.of Schools
No. of Scholars
Av. Atteudance
Cost per Head
Government Schools
£ s. d.
1880
67
2,719
2,102
3 7 \l\
1890
82
3,352
2,535
3 7 11
1897
167
12,257
8,970
3 10 6
Assisted Schools
1880
19
1,327
1,006
1 11 7
1890
19
1,662
^ 1,283
1 7 n
1897
581
4,5461
3,612
—
1 Private ychools, including those formerly assisted. Of the pupils, 1,885 were males
and 2,661 females.
The grants to private schools ceased from 1895, but compensation was
made to the schools that had so far received subsidy, the sum of £15,000 being
divided amongst them in proportion to the i^rants received by them during
1895.
The total sum paid in salaries to teachers in 1897 was 28,774'Z.
Justice and Crime.
The following table gives the number of offences, apprehensions, and
convictions for four years : —
—
1894
1895
1896
1897
Offences reported to police .
Apprehended by police or sUm-
moned
Summary convictions .
Convictions in superior courts
8,761
7,152
4,403
84
9,070
8,377
5,309
59
14,377
13,318
8,426
177
17,344
15,433
9,584
194
On December 31, 1897, there were 125 convicts in the colony, 70 employed
on the public works, 28 ticket-of-leave hoklers in private service, 23
conditional release holders, 2 invalid in hospital, and 2 ticket-of-leave holders
out of employment. The total number of persons committed to prison in
1897 was 2,575 — viz., ordinary prisoners : male adults, 2,184, adult females,
189, juvenile males, 4 ; aboriginals : male adults, 165, adult females, 29,
juvenile males, 4.
Pauperism.
There are two charitable institutions — both situated in Perth — supported
by public funds, with 288 inmates on December 31, 1897. Twenty-five
hospitals and one lunatic asylum are supported by public funds, and there
are also numerous private hospitals, whilst two Protestant and two Roman
Catholic ori^hanages are partly supported by private subscriptions and partly
Y 2
32tfc THE BRITISH EMPIUE : — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
out of public money. There are also two native and half-caste institutions
2 Industrial Schools and 1 Reformatory, supported in a similar manner.
There is a daily average (1897) of 352 persons in the colony receiving
assistance from charitable institutions.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony in the last five years were as
follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1893
570,651
640,801
1894
863,679
755,564
1895
1,438,717
1,212,314
1896
•2,440,390
2,362,003
1897
2,843,775
3,236,044
About 38 per cent, of the public income is derived from customs duties
(1,076,330Z. in 1897), and the rest mainly from railways, the Post Office and
leases of Crown lands. Western Australia had a public del)t of 7,608,480/. at
the end of 1897. The annual charge for the debt in 1897 was 303,153/. The
sinking fund on June 30, 1897, amounted to 205,637/.
Defence.
The volunteer infantry comprises one regiment, composed of six companies,
two country companies of rifles, and one of infantry, armed with the
Martini-Metford rifles. There are also two batteries of artillery. One com-
pany of permanent artillery is established at the Albany forts. The annual
expenditure on these fortifications is divided between the Australian colonies
in proportion to the respective populations. The total number of officers is
40, that of warrant officers 5, and of men 720. The total expenditure for
defences for 1897 was 18,497/.
Production and Industry.
The agricultural prosperity of the colony has greatly increased in recent
years ; there were 133,182 acres of land under crop during 1897, out of
a total of 624,588,800 acres. The live stock consisted, at the end of
1897, of 62,222 horses, 244,971 cattle, and 2,210,742 sheep. At the census of
1891, 8,746 persons w^ere returned as directly engaged in agricultural pursuits —
exclusive of their families ; 6,380 persons were engaged in industrial pursuits.
At the close of 1897, of the cultivated area, 38,705 acres were under wheat,
1,694 under barley, 1,678 under oats, and 80,938 under hay. The total
area alienated, or in process of alienation, in the colony up to the end of
1897 was 8,847,044 acres, of which 31,450 acres were alienated during 1897,
and 491,813 acres taken up under conditional purchase. The average
produce per acre was — wheat 10-56 bushels, barley 13*83 bushels, oats 17*44
bushels, maize (only 243 acres) 19*84 bushels, and hay 0 93 ton to the acre.
There were in 1897 2,654 acres under vines, 1,252 acres being used for wine
making, 533 acres aie used for table purposes, and 869 acres not yet bearing.
There were in the colony in 1897, 4,001 leases of gold mines ; men employed
in the mines, 17,903 ; output of gold, 674,994 oz., value 2,564,977/.; five
leases of silver mines ; forty leases of copper mines ; output of copper,
86 tons, value 1,033/.; two leases of tin mines, output of tin 96 tons, value
COMMERCE
825
o,27ol.; twenty-one leases of lead mines ; and fifty-three of coal mines. Gold
exported during 1895, 231,513 oz., valued at 879,748^. ; in 1896, 281,265
oz., value 1,068,808/.; in 1897, 674,994 oz., value 2,564,977Z.
Along the river-courses of the north and north-east of the colony are
about 20,000,000 acres of lairly well-watered country, affording good
pasturage.
Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and specie, of
Western Australia, in the last six years is shown in the subjoined
statement : —
—
1892
1893 I 1894 ; 1895
1S96
1897
£
6,418,565
3,940,098
Imports.
Exports.
£
1,391,109
882,148
£ 1 £ £
1,494,438 .2,114,414 3,774,951
918,147 1,251,406 1,332,554
£
6,493,557
1,650,226
In 1897, of the total imports the value of 4,097, 702Z. was subject to duty,
and 2,320,863/. duty free. The total imports from the United Kingdom
amounted to 2, 62^1,086/., and exports to the United Kingdom 1,736,205X
The values and quantities are furnished in the entries by importers and exi)orters, sup-
jiorted by invoices and declarations. The values are scrutinised by the statistical branch of
the Customs at Fremanlle, and corrected when evidently inconsistent with current rates
The countries (if origin of imports and of destination of exports are those disclosed in the
entries and in the corresjionding invoices or shipping bills. The trade returns include all
goods entered from and cleared to foreign countries or places outside the Colony. Of transit
trade, however, no record has been instituted. The statistical results, though accurate as
regards the traile of the C'olony considered by itself, are not easily comparable with those of
other Australian colonies. The prevailing diversity of system, and the want of a General
Statistical Board provided with expert knowledge for the determination of values, render it
impossible to reconcile with nicety the returns of one Colony with those of another.
The chief exports are :— Gold, value in 1894, 787,099/.; in 1895, 879,748/.;
in 1896, 1,068,808/. ; in 1897, 2,564.977/. ; pearls, value in 1895, 20,000/. ;
in 1896, 20,000/. ; in 1897, 20,000/. (estimated) ; pearl-shell, value in 1895,
27,298/. ; in 1896, 30,213/. ; in 1897, 40,253/. ; .sandalwood, value in 1895,
30,863/.; in 1896, 65,800/.; in 1897, 49,480/. ; timber, value in 1894,
74,804/. ; in 1895, 88,146/. ; in 1896, 116,420/. ; in 1897. 192,451/. ; wool,
value in 1893, 244,972/. ; in 1894. 232,201/. ; in 1895, 183,510/. ; in
1896, 267,506/. ; in 1897, 295,646/.; skins, value in 1895, 18,588/. ; in
1896, 18,111/. ; in 1897, 28,021/.
The distribution of the trade in 1897 was : —
I ID ports from
Exi)orts to
United Kingdom .
Australasian Colonies
Other British Possessions
United States
Other Foreign Countries
Total .
£
2,624,086
3,277,300
210,100
160,055
147,024
6,418,565
£
1.736,20.".
1,980,218
158,457
120
65,098
3,940,098
The value of the imports into the United Kingdom from "Western Australia
and of the exports of domestic produce and nianufactuios from tlie United
Kingdom to Western Australia, according to the Uoard of Trnilo ndurns. in
pach of the last live years was ;— -
326
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
—
1893
1894
1895 1896
1
1897
Imports from Wes-
tern Australia
Exports of British
produce to W. A. .
£
263,489
525,131
£
318,739
589,754
£ : £
336,120 466,895
1
987,004 2,307,614
£
361,370
2,348,847
The imports into Great Britain from the colony consist mostly of wool,
pearl shells, and timber. The value of the wool imports was 146,202Z, in 1878,
265,180/. in 1888, 251,765Z. in 1895, 339,705/. in 1896. 265,083/. in 1897.
The quantity of wool imported into Great Britain in 1897 was 9,486,272 lbs.
The chief exports from Great Britain to the colony in 1897 were iron, value
472,542/.; apparel, 200,538/.; beer and ale, 87,833/.; cottons, 95,050/.;
machineiy, 289,294/. ; leather, 75,008/.
Shipping and Communications.
There were on the West Australian register on December 31, 1897, 17
steamers of 3,898 tons, and 135 sailing vessels of 5,812 tons; total, 152
vessels ot 9,710 tons. In 1897, 721 vessels of 1,196,760 tons entered, and
707 of 1,181,072 tons cleared, the ports of the colony.
There were 1,456 miles of railway open for traffic on 30th June, 1898
including 464 miles of private line), and 360 miles under construction.
On 31st December, 1897, there were 5,958 miles of telegraph poles within
the colony, 8,111 miles of wire, and 965 miles under constniction. Two
wires, one from Albany and a second vid Coolgardie, extend to South
Australia, and Roebuck Bay is connected with Banjowangie b}' the alter,
native cable of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Cable Company. The
number of stations on 31st December, 1897, Avas 142. The number of
messages sent was 1,306,003, the expenditure amounted to 261,328/., which
includes the Post Office expenditure ; and the net revenue from telegraphs
alone to 98,696/.
In 1897 there passed through the Post Office 12,898,552 letters and post-
cards, inclusive of registered letters, 6,744,536 newspapers, and 3,952,025
packets, each counted once onl3^
Money and Credit.
Thei^ are six banks in Western Australia besides the Post Office Savings
Bank. The following statement relates to the quarter ended March 31, 1898 : —
BankB
Western Aus-
tralian Bank .
National Bank
of Australasia
Union Bank of
Australia . .
Bank of New
South Wales .
Commercial
Bank of Aus-
tralia, Ltd. .
Bank of Aus-
tralasia. . .
£ £
100,000 1132,985
1,973,678 I 47,259
1,500,000 74,171
1,950,000 19,550
Deposits
Total
Average
Liabilities
2,990,869
1,600,000
7,784
54,862
£ £ £
1,458,00511,686,843 2,039,701
Total
Average
Assets
Reserved
Profits
293,0221 348,357
996,538
336,454
100,757
396,925
1,075,048
358,835
108,887
456,479
Total of average 10,114,547 336,611 3,581,701 4,034,449 5,598,850 3,087,059
1,097.011
1,031,625
£
182,862
34,197
812,003
716,676|l,200,000
334,679
379,158 857,997
AUSTRALASIAN DEFENCE 327
Government Savings Bank. — During the year ended 30tli June, 1897,
deposits of the value of 1,068,322Z. were made, and interest 17,334Z. was
allowed. The amount withdrawn during that year was 690,183/,, leaving a
balance of 856,081/. on deposit on 30th June, 1897. During the year ended
30th June, 1897, deposits of the value of 1,068,322/. were made, and interest
17,334Z. was allowed. The amount withdrawn during the year was 690,183/.,
leaving a balance of 856,084/. on deposit on 30th June, 1897,
Agent- Gcncralin London. — The Hon. E. H. Wittenoom.
Secretary. — R. C. Hare,
Books of Reference.
StAtistical Register, 1896.
Census of the Colony of Wcsloni Australia, taken on the 5th April, 1891. Fol. Perth.
Department of Lauds and Hurvcys. Roportfor 1897. Perth, 180s.
Geological Survey. Bulletins. Perth, 1808.
Calvert (A. F.), Western Australia": its History and Progress. 8. London, 1894.
Western Australia and its Gold Fields, 8, London, 1893, My Fourth Tour in Western
Australia London, 1807.
Carneqie (Ron. D. W.), Spinifex and ?and, London, 1898.
Chamhcru (T.), Land of Promise. Perth,
Coicen (L. L.), Settler's Guide. Perth.
Favenc (Ernest), Western Australia : its Past History, Present Trade and Resources,
nnd its Future Position in the Australian Groujt. Sydney, 1887,
Hart (F.), Western Australia in 1893, 8, London, 1894.
Mennell (P.), The Coming Colony. 2nd. ed. 8. Loudon, 1894.
Price (J. M.), The Land of Gold.' 8. London, 1896.
Tiele (C. P.), Western Australia according to the most recent discoveries. An addrcs^H
[Translation]. 8. London, 1894.
Government Year-Book, Western Australia, Perth,
Australian Defence.
Sydney is a first-class naval station, the head-quarters of the
British f3eet in Australasia. In 1898 there were 11 imperial war
vessels on the station. By the ''Australasian Naval Force Act,"
which was assented to on December 20, 1887, a fleet of five fast
cruisers, each of 2,575 tons displacement and 7,500 horse-power,
and two torpedo gunboats on the most improved modern build, each
of 735 tons and 4,500 horse-power, have been equipped for the
Australian seas. An agreement which has been entered into for
a period of ten years, afterwards terminable by two years' notice,
provides that the vessels shall be built by the British Govern-
ment, and that those of the Australian colonies who are parties
to the agreement shall pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent, on
the original cost, and the cost of maintenance which is not to
exceed 91,000A In 1897 the total subsidy, amounting to
126,000^, was distributed thus: New South Wales, 37,820^,;
Victoria, 34,244Z. ; Queensland, 13,762^. ; South Australia,
10,499/. ; Western Australia, 4,020/. ; Tasmania, 4,84H. ; New
Zealand, 20,814/. Upon the termination of the agreement
the vessels will remain the property of the British Govern-
ment. These vessels — the cruisers Katoomha, Tauranya, Ringa-
rpovia, Mildura, and WalluToo, and the torpedo-gunboats
328 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION
Boomerang and Karakatta — are attached to the Australian
Squadron. Under the agreement with the colonies they are
not to be removed from the station in case of war. The
imperial expenditure upon additional naval force for service in
Australasian waters is 95,300?., the appropriations in aid are
35,000/., so that the charge upon the imperial exchequer
amounts to 60,300Z. (Naval Estimates, 1898-99.)
The princi{)al ports of the seven colonies are protected by fortiti cations,
and forts have been erected at King George's Sound and Thursday Island,
the cost being shared by the different colonies.
Australasian Federation.
The question of the Federation of the AustraUan Colonies is by no means
new. About the year 1852, a proposal was made for the establishment of a
General Assembly to make laws in relation to intercolonial cpicstions. The
proposition, however, sank out of sight, until, as the result of an Intercolonial
Conference, the matter came before the Imperial Parliament, and a measure
was passed permitting the formation of a Federal Council, to which any
Colony could send delegates. The first meeting of the Federal Council
was held at Hobart, in January, 1886. The Colonies represented were
Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia, and Fiji. South
Australia sent representatives to a subsequent meeting. The Federal Council,
liowever, being purely a deliberative body, failed to satisfy the advocates of
Federation as an active political principle. In February, 1890, a Conference,
consisting of representatives of each of the seven Colonies of Australasia, was
held in Melbourne, and it was resolved that steps should be taken towards the
appointment of delegates from each of the Colonies to a National Australasian
Convention, empowered to consider and report upon an adequate scheme
for a Federal Constitution. On Iklarch 2, 1891, the Convention met at
Sydney. Resolutions approving of a Federal Constitution were passed, and a
draft Bill to constitute the Commonwealth of Australia was adopted, but
it failed to satisfy the several Colonies.
In January, 1895, the Premiers of five of the Colonies held a Conference
at Hobart, and, as a result of their action, a Convention of representatives
of all the Colonies, except Queensland, met at Adelaide in March, at Sydney
in September, 1897, and at Melbourne in Feliruary, 1898. In March a Draft
Bill was finall}' adopted for submission to the Colonics.
This Draft Bill provides ibr the federation of the colonies under the
Crown, with the designation of the Commonwealth of Australia. The
executive power is vested in a Governor-General— to be appointed by the
Queen — assisted by a Federal Executive Council ; and it is provided that the
seat of government shall be established in federal territory. The parliament
is to consist of two houses — the Senate and the House of Representatives —
both to be elected by the people on the franchise existing in the various
states for the popular l»ody at the time of union — the Senate for a period of
six years, and the House of Representatives for a ])eriod of three years.
Every state joining the Federation at its inception is entitled to an equal
representation of six members in the Senate ; and it is provided that half the
number of senators shall retire every three years, but shall be e]igil)le for
re-election. The number of members of the House of Representatives is to
be, as near as poesible, twice the number of senators, the states to be
represented in proportion to population, and it is provided that no statf
AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION 329
entering the Feilciation at the time of its establishment shall have a smaller
representation than five members. Although the Federal Parliament will
have power to alter the franchise on which its members will be elected, yet it
can only do so in the direction of the extension of the voting powers of the
people, so that in Xew Zealand and South Australia tlie right of women to
vote cannot be witlidrawn by the central authority so long as adult suffrage
prevails in those states. JJoth senators and Representatives are to receive an
annual payment of 400^. each.
It is proposed that immediately on the establishment of the Common-
wealth the Federal Government shall assume the administration of the
departments of customs and excise, and, on dates to be afterwards pro-
claimed, shall also take over from the states, posts and telegraphs, naval and
military defence, light-houses, lightships, beacons and buoys, and quaran-
tine ; and shall have exclusive powers of dealing with these services. Power
is also given to the federal authority to deal with a large number of other
matters of government, but only the services specified are to be transferred
without further legislation. In the event of the federal law conflicting with
an existing state law, the federal law shall prevail. Within two years of the
establishment of the Commonwealth a uniform customs and excise tariff is to
be imposed bj- the Federal Government, and inter- colonial trade will then
become absolutely free ; but "Western Australia, in consideration of its special
circumstances, will be allowed to retain inter-colonial duties in diminishing
proportion for five years. The Federal Government is re(|uired to raise from
customs and excise, though other sources of taxation are left open, four times
the amount required for its own purposes, and to return the excess to the
local treasuries. This repayment Avill for the first five years be in proportion
to the contributions of the colonies, and afterwards as the Federal Parliament
may decide. With the consent of the states, the central government may
take over the state railways, and also the state debts, paying interest out of
the surplus customs and excise revenue. For the administration of the laws
relating to inter-state trade an inter-.state commission is to be established.
Preferential railway tariffs may be forbidden, due regard being paid to the
financial obligations of the states by which the railways were constructed.
The people of each colony Mill have the right to reasonable use of the rivers
for conservation or irrigation.
The Senate and House of Representatives, equally, may originate bills,
except that only the House of Representatives may originate bills appro-
priating or imposing taxation. The Senate will not have power to amend
these money bills, but may return them to the other House with suggestions
of omissions or of amendments, and with such suggestions tlie House of
Representatives may deal as it pleases. If bills, other than money bills,
have twice been passed by the House of Representatives and twice been
rejected or shelved by the Senate, the two houses may be simultaneously
dissolved, and if, after the new election, they still disagree, the bill in dispute
must be submitted to the members of the two Houses in joint sitting, and
can only become law if passed by a majority of three-fifths of the members
present and voting.
The bill provides also for a High Court of Justice for Australia, which
may hear appeals from all Federal courts, from the supreme courts of the
states, and from the inter-state commission. Appeals to the Privy Council
in constitutional matters are forbidden, and the Federal Parliament may
limit the right of a]>peal to the Piivy Council in other matters. The Federal
Constitution can only l»e amended by an absolute majority of the members of
each House ; and the ainendnient shjill become law if, having been submitted
330 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION
by way of referendum, it is accepted by a majority of the people of the
Commomvealth and by a majority of the states.
In the month of June, 1898, the Constitution Bill was submitted by
means of the referendum to the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South
Australia, and Tasmania. The Enabling Acts provided that in the case of
New South Wales the minimum affirmative vote should be 80,000 ; in the
case of Victoria, 50,000 ; and in the case of Tasmania, 6,000 ; while in
South Australia a bare majority of votes was sufficient to secure the
acceptance of the Bill. In Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania the Bill
was adopted by large majorities ; while in the case of New South Wales
there was a majority of 5,367 for the Bill, but as the affirmative vote only
reached 71,595, the Bill was regarded as rejected. The results of the voting
were as follow : —
Colony.
I'^or the Bill.
'^^'^Bm.^''^ I Total Votes
New South Wales
Victoria
South Australia
Tasmania
71,595
100,520
3.5,803
11,706
66,228
22,099
17,320
2,716
137,823
122,619
53,123
14,422
The Bill was not submitted to the popular vote in Western Australia, as
the Enabling Act of that colony provided that Western Australia should
only join a federation of which New South Wales formed a part. The other
colonies also, although legally empowered to federate without New South
Wales, tacitly admit that the adhesion of the mother colony must be
secured before the final steps are taken. In New South Wales, politicians
of all shades of thought are united in their desire for federation, only
differing upon the question of the extent to which concessions shall be made
for the purpose of securing the desired union, and it is confidently anticipated
that within a very short time the Commonwealth of Australia will be called
into existence.
At a conference of Premiers held at Melbourne in January, 1899, an
agi-eement was come to on all disputed matters. In case of differences
between the two Houses of the Legislature, an absolute majority of both will
decide. The clause providing for proportionate distribution of surplus
revenue among separate States will continue in force for ten years, and may
then be repealed. Parliament having in the meantime power to deal with
exceptional financial circumstances arising in any of the States. The Federal
capital will be within New South Wales, but at least 100 miles from Sydney,
and must lie Federal territory. Queensland will be allowed to elect Senators
by voting in divisions instead of in one electorate. A majority of electors
will suffice to secure the bill.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Australasia generally.
1. Official Publications.
Each of the colonies publishes an Annual Blue Book and Statistical Register, containing
Annual Reports of the various administrative, industrial, criminal, educational, and other
departments.
Australasia : Despatch on the subject of a Draft Bill to con.stitute a Federal Council of
Australasia. London, 1884.
Australasian Statistics, published annually, with Report, by J. J. Fenton, Assjstant
Government Statist of Victoria. Melbourne,
AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION 831
Australasian Statistics, published annually, by T. A. Coghlan, A.M.Inst.C.E., Govern,
nient Statistician of New South Wales. Sydney.
Colonial Ofhce List. Published annually. London.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom .
Annual. London.
Official Record of the Proceedings and Debates of the National Australasian Convention
held In the Parliament House, Sydney, New South Wales, March and April, 1891. London,
1801.
The Seven Colonies of Australasia, by T. A. Coghlan, Government Statistician of New
South Wales. Published annually .since 18.86. Sydney.
The Year-Book of Australia. Edited by the Hon. Edward Greville. Published
annually. London. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., Limited.
Report on the work of the Horn Scicntilic Expedition to Central Australia. In four
parts— Narrative, Zoology, Geology and Botany, Anthropology. Melbourne, 1897.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries and British Possssions.. Imp. 4. Annual. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.) and Eden (C. H.), Colonel Warburton's Journey across Australia. 8.
London, 1875.
Calvert (A. J.), The Discovery of Australia. London, 189.3. The Exploration of
Australia. London, 1895.
Chalmerg {R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Collingridge (G.), The Discovery of Australia. Sydney, 1895.
Cotton (J. S.) and Payne (E. J.), Colonies and Dependencies, in ' English Citizen ' Series.
London, 1883.
Craui (G. C), The Federal Defence of Australasia, London, 1897.
Davitt (M.), Life and Progress in Australia, London, 1898.
Demarr (J.), Adventures in Australia Fiftv Years Ago (1839-44). 8. London, 1893.
Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in
English-Speaking Countries in 1866 and 1867. New edit. 8. London, 1885.
Dilke (Sir C. W.). Problems of Greater Britain. 2 vols. London, 1890.
Epps (W.), The Land Systems of Australia. 8. London, 1894.
Favenc (Ernest), The History of Australian Exploration. Sydney, 1888.
Ftnch-Hatton (Hon. H.), Advance, Australia : an Account of Eight Years' Work, Wandci -
ing, and Amusement in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. London, 1885.
FnrreHiSohw), Explorations in Australia. 8. London, 1875.
Frou(ie(J. A.), Oceana; or, England and her Colonies. London, 1886.
Garran (R. R.), The Coming Commonwealth, a Handbook of Federal Government.
Sydney, 1807.— Australasia Illustrated. Vol. I. London, 1898.
Oiies (E.), Australia Twice Traversed. 2 vols. London, 1890.
Gordon and Gotch, Australian Handbook. Annual. London.
Hardman (Wni.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in Australia from
1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.
Inf^Zts (James), Our Au.stralian Cousins. 8. London, 1880.
Jenks (E.). The Australasian Colonies, from their Foundation to the year 1893. London,
1895.
Kent (W. Saville), The Great Barrier Reef of Australia. 4. London, 1893.— The Natu-
ralist in Australia. London, 1807.
I.atig (G. S.), The .\bori"iries of Australia. Melbourne, 186.'>.
Laurie (J. S.), The Story of Australasia. 8. London, 1896.
ilfoore (H.), The Commonwealth of Au.stralia. [Four lectures on the proposed Federal
Constitution.] Melbourne, 1807.
P«'theT»Vfc(E. A.), .Australia in "1897, London, 1897.
JR«cI««(E.), Geographic UniverscUe. Vol. XIV. Paris, 1889.
RuHden (G. W.), The History of Australia. 3 vols. London, 1883.
Schvieisser (R.), Australasian Goldfields. [Eng. Trans.] London, 1898.
Semon (R.), In the Australian Bush and on the Coast of the Coral Sea. Experiences
&c. of a Naturalist. London, 1890.
Shaw (Flora L.), Tho Story of Australia. London, 1807.
.Silver (8. W.), Han<ll)ook"for Australia and New Zealand. 5th edit. London, 1888.
Spencer (B), and Gillen (F. J.), The Native Tribes of Central Australia. London, 1899.
Todd (A.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies. 8. London, 1880.
Tregarthen (G.), Australian Commonwealth. [In 'Story of the Nations' Series.] 8.
London, 1893.
Trr/Hope (Anthony), Australasia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1673. New edit. 187."'.
Walker (H. de R,), Australasian Democracy. London, 1897.
Tt'a»ac« (A. R.), Australia. 6th edit. 8. London, 1893.
Wallace (R.), The Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and New Zealand. S.
London, ISOl.
Westgarth (William), Half a Century of Australian Progress. London, 1889,
332 THE BKiTlSH EMPIRE: — PACIFIC ISLANDS
PACIFIC ISLANDS.
Lying all round Australia and New Zealand are many small island
groups, islets, and reefs which may be regarded as integral parts of these
colonies. Others at a considerable distance to the south are unattached
and mostly uninhabited. Among them, south from Australia and New
Zealand, are Royal Company Island, Macquarie Island, Emerald Island,
Campbell Island, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands.
Scattered over the Pacific are many small groups and isolated islets,
many of which have been annexed to Great Britain or placed under British
protection. The principal of them are the following, beginning at the east,
south of the equator : —
Cook's, or Hervey Islands, between 18° and 22° S. lat., 157° and 163*
W. long. There are six islands and about nine islets and reefs. The largest,
Raratonga, is 53 miles in circumference, with a population of 3,000.
Mangaia has 2,000 inhabitants ; Yatui, or Atui, 20 miles in circumference,
1,200 inhabitants ; Hervey Islands, three small islets. Aitutaki, 18 miles in
circumference, 2,000 inhabitants. Palmerston Islands, group of islets. Other
islets are Takutea, Mitiero, and Mauki. Total area of group, 142 sq. m.,
pop. 8,400. Laws for the group have been made since 1890 by a general
Legislature and are administered by an Executive Council of which the
Arikis, or native Kings and Queens, are members. At Raratonga there is a
British Resident whose approval is required for all enactments. Ducie
Island, 24° 40' S. lat., 124° 48' W. long. Pitcatrn Island 25" 5' S.,
130" 5' W. ; area 2 sq. m., pop. 126 Manihiki Group, including Reirson
or Rakoango, Manihiki or Humphry, Penrhyn or Tongarewa, Caroline,
Vostok and Flint Islands, lying around 10° S. lat. and between 150° and 160°
W. long. ; area of group, 12 sq. m., pop. 1,000. Suvarof Islands, 13° 14'
S. lat., 163° W. long. Dudoza Island, 7° 40' S. lat, 161° W. long. ; area
2 sq. m. Victoria Island, area 2 sq. m., uninhabited. Union, or
ToKELAU Group, between 8° 30' and 11° S. lat., and 171° and 172° W.
long. Five clusters of islets, the principal of which are Fakaafo or Bow-
ditch, Nukunono or Duke of Clarence, Oatafu or Duke of York, Nassau,
Danger ; area of gi'oup, 7 sq. m., pop. 1,050. Phcenix Group, between
2° 30' and 4° 30' S. lat., and 171° and 174° 30' AY. long. Eight islands :
Mary, Enderbury, Phcenix, Birney, Gardner, McKean, Hall, Sydney : area
of group, 16 sq. m., pop. 59. Lagoon, or Ellice Islands, between 5° 30'
and 11° 20' S. lat,, and 176° and 180° E. long. Nine islands and islet
groups. The principal arc Sophia or Rocky Island, Nukulaelae or Mitchell
Group, Ellice, Nukufetau, A^aitupu, Netherland, Lynx ; area of group, 14
sq. ra., pop. 2,400. Gilbert Islands, on the equator, between 172 and
177° E. long. Consist of 16 atolls. Area 166 sq. m. , pop. 35,200.
British Solomon Islands, a group about 8° S. and 160° W., consisting of
Guadalcanar, Malaita, and otliei islands ; area 8,357 sq. ni. Copra, turtle
shell, ivory nuts, &c., are exported. Coffee plantation is being tried. There
is a Resident Commissioner. Santa Cruz Islands, seven large islands, the
largest about 15 miles long. Duff or Wilson Islands, eleven islands, the
largest about 6 miles in circumference. Starbuck Island, 5° 30' S. lat.,
155° W. long. ; area 1 sq. m., uninhabited. Malden Island, 4° S. lat.,
155° W. long. ; area 35 sq. m., pop. 168. .Tarvis Island, on the equator,
159° \Y., area U sq. in., pop. 30. Christmas Island, 1° 57' N., 157° 27'
W. ; area 234 sq. m., pop. 100. Fanning Island, 3° 50' N., 159° W. ;
area 15 sq. m., pop. 150, Washington Island, 4" 40' N., 160° 20' W.,
avea 6 sq. m, Palmyra, 6° N., 162° 30' W., area 1^ sq. ni,
PACIFIC ISLANDS 333
Tliese islands are mostly of coial foiinatioii ; juost of theiu glow cocoa-nut
trees in large quantities, and some of them are valuable for their guano.
The High Commissioner of the Western Pacific, assisted by deputies,
has jurisdiction, in accordance with an Order in Council of 1893, for the
purpose of carrying out the provisions of the Pacific Islanders' Protection Acts
of 1872 and 1875, and to settle disputes between British sul»jects living in
these islands. The jurisdiction of the High Commissioner extends over all the
Western Pacific not within the limits of Fiji, Queensland, or New South Wales,
or the jurisdiction of any civilised Power, and includes the Southern Solomon
Islands, New Hebrides, Samoa Islands, Tonga Islands, and the various small
groups in Melanesia.
High Commissioner. — Sir G. T. M. O'Brien.
Annual Rei)ort.s on tlie Briti.sli Solomon Islands,
Cooper (H. S.), Tlie Islands of the Paciric. 8. London, 1888.
Coote (W.), Western Paeiflc Islands. 8. London, 1883.
£Jii»(W.), Polynesian Researches. 4 vols. 12. London, 18/J 3.
Fornander (A.), An Aceount of the Polynesian Race. 3 vols. 8, London, 1878.
Ouppy (H. B.), The Solomon Lslands, their Geologj', (fcc. S. London, 1887. The
Solomon Islands and their Natives. 8, London, 1887.
Montgomery (H. H.), The Light of Melanesia, [Mission work.] London, 1897.
Moss (F. J.), Through Atolls and Islands. 8. London, 1889.
Penny (A.), Ten Years in Melanesia. 12. London, 1887.
Powell (B. F. S. B.), In Savage Isles and Settled Lands. 8. London, 1892,
Rambles in Polynesia. By Sundowner. London, 1897.
i?«c/us (E.), Nouvelle Geographie Universelle. Vol. xiv. 8. Paris, 1889.
Beeves (E.), Brown Men and Women, or the South Sea Islands in 1895-90. London,
1898.
Romilly (H. H.), The Western Pacific and New Guinea. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1887.
67. JoAft«ton( A.), Camping among Cannibals. 8. London, 1893.
Shoemaker (M. M.), Islands of the Southern Seas. New York, 1898.
r;io»n»on(B.), South Sea Yarns. 8. London, 1894.
Wallace (A. R), Australasia. 8. London.
Wawn(W. T.). The South Sea Islanders and the Queensland Labour Trade. 8. London, 1889.
Woodford (C. M.), A Naturalist among the Headhunters (Solomon Islands). 8.
London, 1890.
PART THE SECOND
FOREIGN COUNTRIES
386
ABYSSINIA.
The ancient empire of Abyssinia, or 'Ethiopia,' includes tte Kingdoms of
Tigre, with Lasta, in the north-east ; Amhara, with Gojam, in the west and
centre ; Shoa in the south ; besides outlying territories and dependencies of
ill-defined boundaries, as far as Kafa in the south and Harar in the south-east,
with considerable portions of the Galla and Somali Lands. The whole area
is about 150,000 sq. miles, with an estimated population of 3,500,000
By a treaty between Abyssinia and Great Britain in 1898, the latter ceded
to the former about 8,000 miles of British Sonialiland. Abyssinia who
claims the whole of non-British Sonialiland on the North of British East
Africa, except the strip of 180 miles broad on the coast, reserved to Italy by
the treaty of Adis Abeba, This amounts to about 100,000 square miles.
After the overthrow of Theodore, King of Amhara, by the English in 1868,
the suzerain power passed to Prince Kassai of Tigi-e, who assumed the old title
of Negus Negust ('King of Kings"), and was crowned in 1872 as Johannes II.,
Emperor of Ethiopia. After the death of this potentate in 1889, Menelek II.,
King of Shoa (born 1842), became the supreme ruler of Abyssinia. The
political institutions are essentially of a feudal character, analogous to those
of mediaeval Europe. The i-egular army consisting of contingents from the
various provinces, numbers about 150,000 men, and is supplemented by
irregulars and a territorial army.
By the treaty of Uchali, May 2, 1889, as interpreted by the Italians,
Abyssinia became an Italian ' protectorate,' But King Menelek denounced
this treaty in 1893, and by the convention of Adis Abeba, October 26, 1896,
the independence of Abyssinia is unreservedly recognised.
Towns are numerous, but are all of small size, scarcely any with a population
of over 5, 000. The most important, politically and commercially, are : Gondar,
capital of Amhara, 5,000; Adua, capital of Tigre, 3,000; Aksum, ancient
capital of the Ethiopian Empire, 5,000 ; Antalo, former capital of Tigre, 1,000 ;
Ankober, former capital of Shoa, 7,000 ; Adis Abeba, present capital of Shoa,
3,000 ; Debra-Tabor, Magdala, and Makalle, occasional royal residences ; Besso
and Sokoto, 1,500, important trading centres; Amba-Mariam, 4,000 ; Mah-
dera-Mariam, 4,000.
Since the conversion of the Abyssinians in the fourth century they have re-
mained members of the Alexandrian Church. The Abuna, or head of the Church,
is always a Copt, appointed and consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria,
but his infhience is controlled by the Echegheh, a native ecclesiastical dignitary,
who presides over the religious orders, numbering about 12,000 monks. The
Falashas ajjpear to have been converted at a very early date by Jewish
missionaries, and still practise many Jewish rites.
Education is restricted to the teaching of the secular and regular clergy,
who instruct a limited number of children in grammar, choral sinking, poetry,
and the recitation of Bible texts. Justice being entirely administered by
the provincial governors, landed proprietors, and shum, or petty chiefs.
Besides the chiefs and their retainers summoned in time of war, the king
maintains a permanent army of Wottoadcr ox 'mercenaries,' most of whom
are now armed with rifles instead of the national weapons, shield and lance.
There is comparatively little land under tillage, pasturage being the chief
pursuit of the people, who raise large herds of cattle, as well as sheep and
goats. Cotion, the sugar-cane, date-palm, and vine thrive well in many
districts, but are nowhere extensively cultivated. Besides hides and skins
the native produce includes eggs, barley, millet (dhurra) wheat, hops (gesho),
but not in sufficient quantities for export. The forests abound in valuable
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 337
trees. Civet, coftee, and wax are exported in considerable quantities ; gold
(found in the Wallega and Beni Shangul districts) and ivory (obtained in
the Wallega and Galla country) are also exported, but the trade in these
articles is controlled by the king, who receives trilnite in these materials. The
gold is shipped to India, and the ivory to India, P>gypt and Europe. The
imports consist chiefly of English, American, ami Indian cottons ; wool and
woollen goods ; Turkey red ; French mirrors, razors, and cutlery ; Italian and
Swedish matches. The exports from Great Biitain to Abyssinia in 1895
amounted to 10,416^. ; in 1896, 10,798Z ; in 1897, 16,583/.
A railway from the port of Jiboutil in French Soraaliland to Harrar in
the south-east of Abyssinia, a distance of about 186 miles, is projected.
About 70 miles of the route have been surveyed, and 12 miles of the line
laid down. There is a telegraph line lietween Adis Abeba and Harrar.
The current coin of Abyssinia is the Maria Theresa dollar, but a new
coinage has been resolved on, with the Menelik dollar for the standard coin.
This new coin, by law equal to the Maria Theresa dollar, is said to have
actually only four-fifths of its value.
The Abyssinian ounce weighs about 430 grains (tlie weight of the Maria
Theresa dollar) ; a pound of ivory contains 12 ounces ; oi coffee, 18 ounces ;
the Abj'ssinian/cra.?/« oontains 40 pounds (ivory). Grain measures are the
kuniui, I bushel ; and the daula, 2i bushels. The metre is largely used at
Harrar ; native measures are the sinze, about 8 inches, and the kend, 18 inches.
British Agent. — Lieut, J. J, Harrington,
Books of Reference concerning Abyssinia.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, Nos. 1924 and 1978. London, 1897.
Bent (Theodore), The Sacred City of the Ethiopians ; a visit to Aksum in Abyssinia in
1893. 8. London, 1893.
Blanford (W. T.), The Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia. 8. London, 1870.
Borelli (J.), Ethiopie Meridioiiale (1885-88). Fol. Paris, 1890.
Bruce (James), Travels to discover the Sources of the Nile, 1768-73. 5 vols. 4. Edin-
burgh, 1790.
Combes (P.), L'Abyssinie en 1896. Paris, 1896.
D'Abbadie (Antoine), Geodesic d'Ethiopie. Paris, 1860-73.— Geogra nine de rEthionic
Paris, 1890. ^ *
Dufton(U.), A Journey through Abyssinia (1862-63). London, 1867.
Fumafialli (G.), Bibliografia Etiopica. Milan, 1893.
Gleichen (Count), With the Mission to Menelik. London, 1898.
Harrt« (Sir W. Corn wallis), The Highlands of Ethiopia. 3 vols. 8. London, 1844.
H«r<«/ct (Sir E.), The Maj) of Africa by Treaty. 2nd ed. Vol.1. London, 1896.
Johnston (Sir Harry), History of the Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge i899
KeltieiJ. S.), The Partition of Africa. London, 1895.
LanribariP. de), Douze Ans cti Abyssinic. Paris, 189S.
Lefebvre (Thco).liikO, Voyage en Abyssinic 1839-43. 6 vols. Paris, 1845-54.
.\[as8aja(G.), 1 luiei Trcutacinquc anni di Missiouc nell' Alta Etioria. 7 vols Fol
Rome, 188.1-89.
Orleans (Prince. H. d'), Une Visite a Menelick. Paris, 1898.
Ortroz (F. Van). Conventions Internationales Concernant I'Afrique. BrUo.sel.->, 1898
Por^oZ (Sir G. H.), My Mission to Abyssinia. 8. London, 1892.
Raffray (Achille), Afriqne Orientale, Abyssinic. 12. Paris, 1876.
R««»om(Hormiiz<l), NaiTative of the British Mission to Abj'ssinia. 2 vols S. r>ondon
1 869. '
Rcclus, Universal Geography. Vol. X.
Iiohlf»(G.), Meiue Mission nach Abessinien, &c., 1880-81. S Leipzig, 1883.
Jiiippelli'W. P. E. S.), Reise in Aby.ssinien. 2 vols. Frankfurt-am-Main, 183''-40
Stanley (H. M.), Magdala : Story of the Campaign, 1866-67. Xew ed. London 1896
St'rn (Henry A.), Wanderings among the Falashas of Abyssinia. 8. London, 1862
Vnnderheym (J. G.), Une Expedition avec le Negons Menelik. Paris, 1896.
Vicineragi^.), Une Mission Franf^aisr on Abyssiuie. Pari.s, 1897.
IFe/fcfn«(H. St. Clair), Reconnoitring in Abyssinia. 8. London, 1870.
338
AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanistan is a country of Asia lying between parallels 30° and 38° 20'
of north latitude, and 60° 30' and 74° 30' of east longitude. On the north-
east, the boundaiy follows a line running generally westward from a fixed
point near one of the peaks of the Sarikol Range to Lake Victoria, thence
along the line of that branch of the Oxus which issues from the lake, and so
to Khamiab. From Khamiab, the line runs in a south-westerly direction to
Zulfikar, on the river Hari-Rud, and thence south to Kuh Malik-i-Siyah, a
conspicuous peak south-west of the Helmand river. Here the boundary turns
round and runs generally eastwardly to the Kwaja Amran range. The eastern
and southern boundaries of Afghanistan long remained uncertain, but the
basis of a delimitation was settled, in 1893, at a conference between the
Amir, Abdur Rahman, and Sir Mortimer Durand, and the boundary agreed
upon, with the exception of the Khaibar-Asmar section, has since been demar-
cated. The Amir agreed that Chitral, Bajaur, Swat and Chilas should be
included within the British sphere of political influence, while he himself was
to retain Asmar and the Kunar valley above it, as far as Chanak, and the
tract of Birmal, In the subsequent demarcation, Kafivistan was included
within the countries under Afghan control, and has since been garrisoned
by the Amir's troops. The Amir has withdrawn his pretensions over
Waziristan. The extreme breadth of Afghanistan from north to south is
about 500 miles ; its length from the Herat frontier to the Khaibar Pass,
about 600 miles ; the area is about 215,400 square miles. The surrounding
countries are, on the north, the Central Asian States, under the influence
of Russia ; on the west, Persia ; on the south, the British Political Agency
of Baluchistan ; and on the east, the mountain tribes scattered along the
north-western frontier of India, and included within the sphere of British
influence,
Abdur Rahman Khan, G.CB., G.C.S.I., the reigning Amir, is son of
Afzul Khan, and grandson of Dost Muhammad Khan, He was recognized as
Amir by the British Government in July 1880, after the events following on
the massacre of Sir L. Cavagnari.
The origin of the Afghans is involved in obscurity. The Patluin
dynasties of Delhi form part of Indian history. The whole of Afghanistan
was conquered by Timi'uv Kabul remaining in the hands of his descendants,
and Kandahar l)eing added to it by Sultan Babar in 1522. For the next
two centuries Kabul was held by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, and
Herat by Persia, while Kandahar repeatedly changed hands between the
two. Nadir Shah, the Persian, held the Afghan provinces till his assassina-
tion in 1747, after which the diff'erent provinces were formed into a single
empire under Ahmad Shah, Durani, including the Punjab and Kashmir on
the east, and extending to the Oxus on the north. The restoration of Shah
Shuja by the British forces under Sir John Keane in 1838 led to continued
insurrections against the new ruler, culminating in the terrible revolt
of 1841. In 1878 war was declared by England, and her troops eventually
captured Kalnil. Slier All fled and died in Afghan Turkistan, his son
Yakub Khan being acknowledged as Amir, while a British envoy and
escort was installed in the citadel of Kabul. On September 3, 1879, a
serious riot developed into a massacre of the envoy and his followers, and
a fresh invasion of the country took place. In 1880 the British forces were
withdrawn from the Khaibar and the Kuram, and from Kandahar to Quetta,
Abdur Rahman has since successfully maintained his position.
The government of Afghanistan is monarchical under one hereditary
prince, whose power varies with his own character and fortune. The domi-
TRADE 339
nioiis are politically divided into the four provinces of Kabnl, Turkistan, Herat,
and Kandahar, to whicli may be added the district of Badakshan with its
dependencies. Each province is inider a hakim or governor (called Naih
in Slier All's time), nnder whom nobles dispense jnstice after a feudal fashion.
Spoliation, exaction, and emliez/lement arc almost universal.
The Amir's subjects number about four millions, the most numerous tribe
being the Ohilzais, who must amount to at least a million ; then follow the
Tajiks, Duniuis, Hazaras, and Ainuiks, and Uzbegs. The Tajiks, who are
found scattered all over the country, are ]n"esuraably of Arab or Irani descent,
and though they are found intermingled with Afghans, they are more settled,
and prefer agricultural or industrial occupations. The Ghilzais occupy the
country south-east of Kabul, while the Duranis inhabit the country north and
south of the road between Herat and Kandahar ; north of these lie the
Paropamisus Mountains, inhabited by the Ainniks and Hazaras, who are said
to be the descendants of Tartar colonics left l)y Ghinghis Khan, and who have
undoubted Tartar lineaments. With the exception of the Kizilbashis and
most of the Hazaras, who are mainly Shids, the inhabitants are Muhammadans
of the Suni sect. In 1896, the Amir Alxlur Rahman formally assumed the
title of Zia-ul-Mitatiwadin, " Light of Union and Religion."
Justice in ordinary cases is supposed to be administered by a kazi, or chief
magistrate, assisted by muftis, or mutaassibs (the latter a species of detective
officers), and regulated by laws, which, if rightly acted on, would be tolerably
equitable.
The revenue of Afghanistan is subject to considerable fluctuations. One of
the late Amir Sher All's ministers estimated the average annual revenue of the
five years 1872-76 at 712,968^., but subsequent events have made it im-
possible to estimate the present revenues. The Government share of the
produce recoveralde is said to vary from one-third to one-tenth, according to
the advantages of irrigation. The Amir receives a subsidy from the Indian
Government, originally fixed at Rx. 120,000, and in 1893 increased to Rx.
180,000 a year.
Abdur Rahman has re-introduced the regular army, which was originally
founded on a European model by Sher Ali on his return from India
in 1869. In addition to his regular army the Amir's military forces are
largely supplemented by local levies of horse and foot. The mounted levies
are simply the retainers of great chiefs, or of the latter's wealthier vassals.
The foot levies are now, under Abdur Rahman, permanently embodied, and as
irregulars form a valuable auxiliary to the regular infantry. The mountain
batteries are believed to be servicealde. There are no engineers, but a few
regiments have a company equipped with spades and axes. No tmst-
worthy statistics regarding the strength of the Afghan army are available.
It was said in 1896 to number 50,000 men on a war footing. In July 1890,
there were 20,000 troops in and about Kabul, including six mule batteries
of artillery, two field batteries, an elephant battery, 40 scpiadrons of cavalry,
and 8,000 infantry. Regular troops are now stationed at Herat, Mazar-i-
Sharif, Kandahar and Jelalabad. In 1896, the Amir ordered a conscription
of one man in every seven, but the project met with much opposition and
does not seem to have been carried out. Cannon, rifles, and ammunition are
manufactured at the Kabul arsenal, under the superintendence of English-
men in the Amir's service. The factories, with the machinery imported
from England, are cajiable of turning out 10,000 Martini cartridges, 10,000
Snider cartridges and 15 rifles daily ; and two field guns weekly. There are
enough breech-loading rifles to equip 50,000 infantry, but it is uncertain
how many of these weapons have been issued, or to what extent the troops
are trained iu their use. The ammunition issued for practice is limited to
z 2
340
AFGHANISTAN
four or five rounds, j^early, to each man. Few, if any, of the regiiueutal
officers can be considered competent either to instruct or lead the troops.
There are five classes of cultivators — 1st, proprietors, who cultivate their
own land ; 2nd, tenants, who hire it for a rent in money or for a fixed
proportion of the ]n'oduee ; 3rd, bitzgitrs, who are the same as the metayers in
France ; 4th, hired labourers ; and, oth, villeins, who cultivate their lord's
land without wages — i.e. slaves. There are two harvests in the year
in most parts of Afghanistan. One of these is sown in the end of autumn
and reaped in summer, and consists of wheat, barley, Ercum Lciis, and
Gicer arietinum, with some peas and beans. The other harvest is sown in the
end of spring and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, millet, arzun
(Panicum italicum), Indian corn, kc The castor-oil plant, madder, and the
assafcetida plant abound. Vast quantities of assafcetida are exported to
India. The fruits, viz. the apple, pear, almond, peach, quince, apricot, ''plum,
cherry, pomegranate, grape, fig, mulberry, are produced in profuse abundance.
They form the principal food of a large class of the people throughout the
year, both in the fresh and preserved state, and in the latter condition are
exported in great quantities.
Northern Afghanistan is rejmted to be tolerably rich in copper, and
lead is found in many parts. Iron of excellent quality comes from Bajaur
and the Farmuli district, and gold in small quantities is brought from Kanda-
har, the Laghman Hills, and Kunar. Badakshan was famous for its precious
stones.
The production of silks and the manufacture of felts, posthis, carpets, and
rosaries are some of the principal industries. Silk is largely produced at
Kandahar, as well as felts, which are distributed throughout the country, and
exported to the Punjab and Persia. The sheepskin postin manufacture is one
of the most important industries.
The trade routes of Afghanistan are as follows : — From Persia by Mashad
to Herat ; from Bokhara l^y Merv to Herat ; from Bokhara by Karchi, Balkh,
and Khulm to Kabul ; from East Turkistan by Chitral to Jalalabad ; from
India by the Khaibar and Abkhana roads to Kabul ; from India by the Gumal
Pass to Ghazni ; from India by the Bolan Pass and Sind-Pishin Railway to
Kandahar.
Trade.
No accurate registration of the trade between Afghanistan and India has
yet been obtained. The trade between Northern Afghanistan (Kabul) and India,
during the past five years ending March 31, has been registered as follows : —
1894. Rx.
1895. Rx.
1896. Rx.
1897. Rx.
1898. Rx.
Ex}>orts from India to Kabul
Imports into India from ,,
405,200
188,800
270,575
152,791
306,230
165,000
300,162
151,538
243,000
101,463
Of the above imports, the chief items are cotton goods, indigo, sugar, and
tea, mostly the China leaf. The exports iiiclude horses, spices, assafcetida,
fruits, and nuts. The heavy transit duties levied by the Amir prohibit
transit trade between India and the country north of the Oxus. A duty of
106 rupees is levied on every camel load (about 45011)S.) of Indian tea passing
through Kabul to Bokhara.
The trade between Kandahar and British India amounted in 1897-98 to
Rx. 163,78.5 imports into, and Rx. 309,300 exports from British India. Three
fifths ot th^ import-s consist ot c;otton piece ^oods, foreign and Indian. The
State smazLS Year -JBooi 1899
RAILWAYS. NAVIGABLE WATE
;. AND DISTANCE FROM COAST
Plate 3.
,..Uii/aa
TtU»a)i&
'Sehaho ^^
^\S E B T "T'-^fH'
\.|.^.
iOliKl"
— 4-
(VdJ)onp«i
WlFath-\
Sualc
A
fepbfi
f Dar B^da /pi j
^' 3^^ A,„^ BRITISH f-'^-i ^^'^
Hill
uA U U N D A ' /
it tf-
_,, Ojn/.?/...-.,/,, Jt
,|. K.,l„k"tn
o/ / c j5; ^ iv
5>-
r
'<f
'. COUNT]
lotave
IT^
dhoek
^^
Kep
Tropic o|^»'68jgricora.
Mmf'r
CAPE
ii» n.
'kY'KlZA
y 'igllMK Milet
40 Longitude, £curt 50 /Kim. CTvowui.
J G.BaxtLolomew:
AFRICA : CENTRAL AND INDEPENDENT STATER. 341
imports of foreign are double the imports of Iiuliiin piece goods. Half tho
exports consist of raw wool, the other half being mainly fruit and nuts.
The im]»()rts fi-om Hokh;ira are stated to amount to nearly '1, 000, 000
roubles, and the ex[)orts to Bokhara to as much.
The rupee apjtears to be the usual currency, though Government demands
are often paid in kind.
The Ameer's mint at Kabul is now under the supervision of an English-
man. According to olficial reports, the stnallcst silver coin yet struck has
))een the " kran," of the value of half the " Kalml " rupee, but in future then'
will be a smaller coin, e([uivalent to the threepence. In addition to these
pieces, there will be a gold piece of the same value as the sovereign, and new
silver pieces equal to the crown and half-crown respectively. Resides the
small copper " pice " at present coined, of which 72 are reckoned as equal to
one " Kabuli " rupee, a large bronze coin will be struck of the size of a crown,
and of the nominal value of about 5d.
The Khaibar antl Bolan roads are excellent, and fit for wheeled traffic as
far as Kabul and Kandahar respectively. There is, however, no wheeled
carriage^ except artiller}', proper to the country, and merchandise is transported
on camel or pony back. There are practically no navigable rivers in Afghan-
istan, and timber is the only article of commerce conveyed by water, floated
down stream in rafts.
Books of Reference.
Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans, London, 1879 ; and The Races of Afghanistan, 18R0
Burnes, Cabool. 1843.
Curzon (Hon. G. N.). Russia in Central Asia. [Contains bibliography]. London, 1880.
Forhe» (A.), Tlie Afghan Wars, 18;W-l-2 and 1878-80. London, 181>2,
Gore (F. St. G.), Lights and Sliades of Hill Life in the Afghan and Hindu Highlands of
the Punjab. London, 18! '(J.
Oray (T.), At the Court of the Ameer. Loudon, 1895.
Hemman, The Afghan War of 1879-80. London, 1881.
Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan. 4th edition. 1878.
MacFall (C.),' Witli the Zhob Field Force, 1890. London, 1895.
MacMahon (A. H.), The Southern Borderlands of Afghanistan. London, 1897.
Mole (A.), Seenes tlirough the Battle Smoke. London, 1891.
Malleson, History of Afghanistan. 2nd edition. 1879.
Slutchmore {S. A.), Moghul, Mongol, Mikado, and Missionary 2 vols. New York, 1891.
Oliver (E. E.), Across the Border, or Pathan and Biluch. London, 1890.
ito6<'r(« (Field-Marshal Lord), Forty-nine Years in India. London, 1897.
Robertson (Sir G. S.), Tlie Kafirs of the Hindoo Knsh. London, 1890.
Thorhurn (S.). Asiatic Neighbours. London, 1895.
Wfir (T. S.), From India to the Caspian. Bombay, 189.'?.
Wheeler (S. E.), The Ameer Abdur Rahman. London, 1>^95.
Yate (Major C. E.). Northern Afglianistan. London, 1888.
Parliamentary Papers, Afghanistan, 1873-1897.
AFRICA, CENTRAL.
TiiEiiK still remain certain independent and quasi-independent States in
Central Africa about which it may be useful to give here such information ns
is obtainable with respect to their political, religious, industrial and commer-
cial condition. These are Ahyssinia, which is noticed in its alphabetical
place, and the Crntkal Sud.vn St.vtks — Boiiiu and Wadai (on which Kanem
and 13agirmi are dependent) ; although as a matter of fact Bornu may lie
regarded as partly within the Ihitish and partly within the German .spheres.
The region lying between the eastern boundary of the French sphere in the
.Sahara, the western limits of Eg}-pt, the country of Fezzan in the north, and
the Central Sudan in the south, is still unannexed. It contains the moun-
tainous inhabited region of Tibesti.
342 AFRICA: CENTRAL SUDAN STATES
CENTRAL SUDAN STATES.^
BORNU.
Bornu, that is, Bar-noa, or ' Land of Noah, ' if not the largest, is the most
populous Mohammedan State in Central Sudan. It occupies the western and
southern sides of Lake Chad, being conterminous on the south-east with
Bagirmi, from which it is separated by the Shari River, and stretching thence
westwards to the Empire of Sokoto. Approximate area, 50,000 square miles ;
population estimated at over 5,000,000. The bulk of the inhabitants, who
call themselves Iva-nuri, that is, ' People of Light, ' are of mixed Negro and
Dasa (southern Tibu) descent, and speak a Tibu dialect that has been reduced
to written form by the Protestant missionaries. The other chief elements of
the population are the Tuareg Berbers in the north ; the Arabs mainly in the
south-east ; the JSIakari and Marghi Negroes in the south ; the Wanga, Bedde,
and other pagan tribes in the east ; and in the centre the Magomi, who claim
kinship with the royal dynasty which for many centuries ruled over the
united Bornu and Kanem States. These and the Kanuri are regarded as the
most cultured people in Central Africa, and their woven fabrics, pottery, and
metal ware are highly prized throughout the Sudan.
The Sultan, whose otiicial title is Mai, but who is more commonly spoken
of as the Sheikh, is in principle an absolute monarch. He is assisted in the
administration by a Council comprising the Kokenawa, or military chiefs, the
official delegates of the various subject races, and several members of the
reigning family. The standing army of about 30,000 men is partly armed
with rities, and the cavalry still wear armour, either imported from Eastern
Sudan or manufactured in the country. There is also some artillery, and a
few companies even wear European uniforms. In lieu of pay the men receive
allotments of land.
Kuka (Kukawa), capital of Bornu, lies on the west side of Lake Chad.
It has a population of from 50,000 to 60,000, and is one of the great centres
of trade in the Sudan. Wares of all kinds reach this mart from Europe,
Egypt, and Turkey, chieliy by the caravan route from Tripoli and Fezzan,
the shortest crossing the Sahara. By the same route are sent northwards con*
voys of 1,000, 2,000, and even 4,000 slaves, besides ivory, ostrich feathers,
and other local produce. The legal currency are the Maria Theresa crown, the
Spanish tlouro, and cowries, at the rate of 4,000 to the crown.
Besides Kuka, there are several other towns with over 10,000 inhabitants,
such as Birni, Bundi, Gummel, Mashena, Borsari, Surrikolo, Logon- Karnah,
capital of the Logon territory, and Doloo, capital of the tributary Mandara
State. The coast lands continue to be exposed to the incursions of tlie Kuri
and Yedina pirates, wlio inhabit the archipelagoes in Lake Chad.
WAD AI— KANEM.
The Sultanate of Wadai, at present the most powerful State in Central
Sudan, occupies with the tributary States the whole region between Dar-Fur
and Lake Chad, and extends from the southern verge of the Sahara southwards
nearly to the divide between the Chad and Congo basins. Total area, in-
cluding Wadai and Bagirmi, nearly 172,000 square miles; population
estimated by Nachtigal at 2,600,000. The Arabs, here collectively called
Aramka, have been settled in the country for over 500 years. Their traders
(Jellaba) send caravans south to Dar-Banda and Bagirmi, and west to Bornu,
For Sokoto, .see Niger Tbrbitories, under the British Empire.
State sman's Year-Bools: 1899
TELEGRAPHS AND PC
SPAIN
20
30 -
Telegraphsj;^5^^^^^_7:777_ Cables
REFERENCE TO POLITICAL COLOURING
Possessions, Protectorates, Spheres of influence,
or occupation of countries
Q _ JiBrituh [~ 31 Spaniah
\irZ]French [ H Turkuh
j \ Italian ___ i Congo Free State
nZZHGerman I | Transvaal
[_ ^Portuguese [Orange Free State
Independent or unoccupied States are uncolotired
The EiiiKirtffa Geotfrupkical Tn
ITICAL DIVISIONS, 1899
Plate 4.
r^j^uOu, °^-Bluaj><,th
CENTRAL SUDAN STATES 343
bartering salt and manufactured goods for ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers, and
copper. But the political power belongs to the Mohammedan Mabas, a Negro
people who occupy the north-eastern parts of Wadai proper, and whose
language forms the chief medium of intercourse throughout the State. Like
the Arabs, the Mabas, who have lately joined the Senusiya 'revivalists,' are
fanatical followers of the Prophet.
Abu Said, who was proclaimed Sultan m January, 1899, has absolute power,
limited by custom and the precepts of the Koran, But he rules directly only
over the north-east of Wadai proper, which is divided into provinces named from
the cardinal points and administered by Kamakels (viceroys), who have the
power of life and death. The Sultan himself is assisted by a Fasher or
Council, while the law, that is, the Koran, is interpreted by the College of
Fakihs or Ulemas. The army, about 7,000 strong, is chiefly employed in
levying tribute in kind (slaves, horses, cattle, honey, corn) from the provinces
and vassal States.
The capital of the Sultanate is Abeshr (Abesheh).
Of the vassal States, the most important is Kanem, between Wadai and
Lake Chad. Kanem, which is about 30,000 square miles in extent, occu-
pies the eastern and northern shores of Lake Chad, and stretches north to
the verge of the Sahara, Bopulation about 100,000, chiefly Kanem-bu — that
is, people of Kanem, akin to the Dasas (southern Tibus), and held in sulijec-
tion by the Aulad-Sliman Arabs, Although they can now muster no more
than 1,000 armed men, the Aulad-Slimau are perhaps the fiercest marauders
in the whole of North Africa, Mao, residence of the political agent of Wadai,
lies in the centre of Kanem, about a day's march south-east of Njimi the
cajtital of the State.
References.
Barth (H.), Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, In " Minerva Library."
S. Loudon, 1S90.
Johnston (Sir Harry), History of the Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1S99.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd ed. London, 189iJ,
Nachtigal (Gustav), Sahara and Sudan. Vol. IL 2 vols, 8. Berlin, 1879-81.
Heclus, Universal Geography. Vol. XIL
White (A, Silva), The Development of Africa, London, 1890.
344
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
(Republica Argentina.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Argentine Republic, formerly known
by the name of ' Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,' bears
date May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1860, when Buenos
Ayres joined the confederacy. By its provisions, the executive
power is left to a President, elected for six years by representa-
tives of the fourteen provinces, equal to double the number of
senators and deputies combined ; while the legislative authority
is vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a
House of Deputies, the former numbering 30, two from, the
capital and from each province, elected by a special body of
electors in the capital, and by the legislatures in the provinces ;
and the latter 133 members elected by the people. By the Con-
stitution as revised in 1898, there should be one deputy for every
33,000 inhabitants. A deputy must be 25 years of age, and have
been a citizen for four years. The deputies are elected for four
years, but one-half of the House must retire every two years.
Senators must be 30 years of age, have been citizens for six years,
and have an annual income of 12,000 dollars. One-third of the
Senate is renewed every three years. The two chambers meet
annually from May 1 to September 30. The members of both
the Senate and the House of Deputies are paid for their services,
each receiving 12,000 pesos per annum. A Vice-President, elected
in the same manner and at the same time as the President, fills
the office of Chairman of the Senate, but has otherwise no
political power. The President is commander-in-chief of the
troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices, and
has the right of presentation to bishoprics ; he is responsible with
the Ministry for the acts of the executive ; both President and
Vice-President must be Roman Catholics, Argentine by birth, and
cannot be re-elected.
President of the Repuhlic. — General Julio A. Roca ; assumed office October
12, 1898.
Vice-President. — Norberto Quirno Costa.
The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the President,
consists ot eight Secretaries of State — namely, of the Interior, Foreign Affairs,
Finance, War, Justice, Agriculture, Marine, and Public Works.
The President has a salary of 36,000 dollars, the Vice-President of 18,000
dollars, and each of the five ministers of 16,800 dollars per annum.
Local Government.
The Constitution, with certain small exceptions, is identical with that of
the United States. Such matters as affect the Republic as a whole are under
AREA AND POPULATION
345
the superintendence of the Central Government. The govevnors of the
various provinces are invested with very extensive powers, and in their con-
stitutional functions are independent of the central executive. They are nut
appointed by the President of the Republic, but elected by the people of each
province for a term of three years and four years. The provinces elect their
own legislatures, and have complete control over their own affairs ; they
can contract loans (internal and external) under their sole and exclusive
responsibility.
Area and Population.
At the census of 1869 the population of the provinces
amounted to 1,736,922.
The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces
and nine territories actually composing the Argentine Republic,
their estimated area, and the number of inhabitants according to
the census of May 10, 1895 : —
I^TAVITll^PQ
Area :
Population
Population
XivVlllV^CS
Engl. sq. miles
1895.
Iter sq. mile
Littoral : Buenos Ayres (city) .
115
663,854
5,784-7
Buenos AjTes(province)
63,000
921,168
14-6
Santa Fe .
18,000
397,188
22 0
Entre Rios
45,000 ' :
292,019
6-5
Corrientes . * .
54;ooo '
239,618
4-4
Andes : Rioja
31,500
69,502
2-2
Catamarca .
31,. 500
90,161
2-8
San Juan .
29,700
84,251
2-8
Mendoza .
54,000
116,136
2-2
Central : Cordova
54,000
351,223
6-5
San Luis .
18,000
81,450
4-5
Santiago del Estero .
31,500
161,. 502
5-1
Northern : Tucuman .
13,500
215,742
16-0
Salta
45,000
118,015
2-6
Jujuy
Total Provinces .
27,000
515,815
49,713
1-8
7-4
3,851,542
Territories
Misiones
23,932
33,163
1-3
Formosa
73,000
4,829
' 0 06
Chaco
85,000
10,422
1-2
Pam]>a
91,000
25,914
2-8
Rio Negro
124,000
9,241
0-07
Neuquen ,
57,000
14,517
0-2
Chultut
154,000
3,748
; 0-02
Santa Cruz
182,500
1,058
■ 0-005
Tierra del Fuego
Total
13,000
477
3,954,911
0 03
1,778,195
2-2
The total in 1895 consisted of 2,088,919 males and 1,865,992 females.
The Indian population is put at 30,000 ; the number of persons of whom
Immigrants
Emigrants
52,067
26,055
54,720
20,586
61,226
20,398
102,673
20,415
72,978
31,192
346 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
no census was taken, 60,000 ; of Argentines abroad, 50,000 ; grand total,
4,094,911. The increase of population 1869-95 has been at the rate of 4"6
per cent, per annunj.
By a treaty concluded between the Argentine Republic and Chile in 1881
the latter recognises the right of the former to all the country east of the crest
of the eastern ridge of the Andes, including all Patagonia and the eastern part
of Tierra del Fuego. Commissioners are now at work delineating the
boundary. Disputes have arisen and the Government of Queen Victoria has
agreed to act as arbitrator, but the Commissioners have not yet been able to
agree as to the question to be submitted to arbitration. Commissioners are
also at work on the boundary along the Bolivian frontier.
The capital of the Republic, Buenos Ayres, had a population of 753,000
in August, 1898. Other towns, with populations for 1895, are Cordoba,
47,609; Rosario, 94,025 ; Tucuman, 34,300; Mendoza, 28,709; Parana,
24,261; Salta, 16,600; Comentes, 16,129 inhabitants ; La Plata, the new
capital of the province of Buenos Ayres (founded 1884), 45,410; Santa
Fe, 24,755 ; San Luis, 9,826 ; San Juan, 10,410.
The immigration and emigration by sea have been as follows in five
years : —
Years
1893
1894
1895
1896 ,
1897 . ,
In 1897 the immigrants comprised 38,745 Italians, 13,059 Spaniards, 7,813
French, and 1,876 Germans. Of the total, 21,431 were females.
In the twenty-live years 1873-1897, the total arrivals of immigrants
numbered 2,063,232.
In 1895 the number of foreigners in the Republic was 886,895, of whom
492,636 were Italians, 198,685 Spaniards, 94,098 French, 21,788 English,
14,789 Swiss, 17,143 Germans, 2,269 Portuguese, 12,803 Austrians, and
32,184 of various nationalities. By the Constitution of the Republic, all
children of foreigners born in the country are Argentine.
Eeligion and Instruction.
Although the Constitution recognises the Roman Catholic religion as that
of the State, all other creeds are tolerated. There are 1 archbishop and 5
suti'ragan bishops. For the instruction of the clergy there are 5 seminaries.
In 1888 civil marriage was established in the Republic.
Primary education is free, secular and compulsory for children from 6 to 14
years of age. In the capital and the 9 tenitories it is under the charge of a
national council of education, assisted by local school councils ; and in the
14 provinces under their resjtective governments. The elementary schools
are supported in the capital anil each province by the taxes established in their
Education Acts, aided by large subsidies from the general Government.
The sums contributed by the general Government and the 14 provinces to the
support of the elementary education in the Republic amount to over
10,000,000 dollars. In 1896 there were 2,681 public, 1,034 private, and 34
national primary schools, with, in all, 8,557 teachers and 264,294 pupils.
Secondary or preparatory education is controlled by the general Government,
which maintains 16 lyceums (one in each province and the capital)^ with 450
JUSTICE — FINANCE
347
professors and 3,710 pupils. There are also 35 normal schools with 10,949
pupils. There are 3 universities, at Cordova, Buenos Ayres, and La Plata,
comprising faculties of law, medicine, and engineering, with a total of 2,500
students; a school of mines (39 students), 2 colleges of agriculture/ a naval
and a military school. There is a well-equii)ped national observatory at
Cordoba, and another at La Plata, museums at Buenos Ayres and La Plata,
and a meteorological bureau.
Justice.
Justice is exercised by a Supreme Court of five jutlges and an attorney-
general, which is also a court of appeal, and by a numljcr of inferior and local
courts, trial by jury being established by the Constitution for criminal cases.
Each State has its own judicial system.
In 1895 in Buenos Ayres, 4,553 criminal cases were tried. Of those tried
on criminal charges 1,227 were Italians, 628 Spaniards, 1,453 Argentines,
29 English. Of the trials 75 were for murder. There were, besides, 14,626
breaches of the peace. The number of prisoners in the national penitentiary
at the end of 1896 was 343 (145 Argentine citizens and 198 foreigners).
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the Republic are stated as follows : —
Revenue
Expenditure
lears
Dollars Gold
Dollars Paper
21,746,790
21,142,921
28,958,460
29,468,174
61,035,853
Dollars Gold
Dollars Paper
62,411,384
72,015,214
83,933,386
92,122,343
93,427,502
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
31,864,096
28,255,719
29,805,651
32,052,951
30,466,322
18,698,911
19,950,193
24,165,239
46,891,221
29,214,763
The estimated revenue for 1898 Avas 34,759,146 dollars gold, and
52,918,000 dollars paper, and the expenditure 22,100,182 dollars gold,
and 97,881,111 dollars paper. For 1899 the Government estimates of
revenue and exijenditure were : —
t
Revenue
Dollars Gold
Revenue
Dollars Paper
Customs duties .
28,099,800
Alcohol ,
18,000,000
Port dues, Storage, &c.
2,522,900
Tobacco .
8,849,400
Stamps .
232,300
Other taxes
13,868,400
Prov. of Buenos Aires,
Sanitary works
5,900,000
service of foreign debt
1,360,000
Land tax
2,000,000
National Bank .
208,500
Stamps & licenses
7,314,600
Posts and telegraphs .
4,543,900
Laud sales, leases, &c. .
4,120,000
Bank profits
2,000,000
32,423,500
Various ,
Total
944,000
67,540,600
Total
?>48 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
Expendilrne Dollars Gol<l Dollars Paper
Interior and Congress . . . j — 17,299,711
Foreign atfairs . . . . 237,441 i 249,792
Finance — , 6,872,114
Debt 22,746,732 \ 11,249,408
Justice, Instruction . . i —
War j _
Navy ....,,! —
Public Works 6,086,000
New Ministries .... —
Total . . . ; 29,070,173
10,331,466
14,027,582
11,2.56,614
4,400,000
96,000
75,782,687
In July, 1898, the National External Debt amounted to 61,900,352'.,
and the issue of bonds to the amount of 9,944,098^. was expected. Of these
new bonds the amount of 1,819,100/. was for railway guarantees recission ;
6,746,030/. for the conversion of the Buenos Aires Provincial Debt, and
1,378,968 for the conversion of Buenos Aires Citv Debt. The total National
External Debt thus rises to 71,844,450/.
On December 31, 1896, the Internal Debt amounted to 189,162,500 pesos
gold and 45,838,067 pesos jtaper. In 1898 an Internal "Popular" loan to
the amount of 39,000,000 i)esos was raised for the purpose of complementing
the naval and military power of the country, and the issue of Internal bonds
to the amount of 6,000,000 pesos was authorised for the discharge of the debt
of the Department of Education. According to the President's message of
May, 1898, the floating debt on December 31, 1897, after deducting realisable
assets, amounted to about 39,000,000 pesos paper, while on December 31,
1896, it had been 52,237,318 pesos paper.
Each province and municipality has, besides, its own budget, the total
national and provincial expenditure amounting to about 3/. per head. For
1896 the revenue of the province of Buenos Ayres was 13,502,580, and ex-
I)enditure 8,844,190 dollars currency. The estimated expenditure of the 14
provinces for 1894 was 30,312,519 dollars. In 1895 the Provincial debts,
including arrears of interest, amounted to 137,261,866 dollars gold, or
34,589,900/. The Municipal debts amount to 24,596,422 dollars gold.
In 1896 a Bill was approved for the unification of the National and
Provincial foreign debts, and under this law the issue of 4 per cent, bonds for
34,000,000 pesos lias been authorised for the conversion of the External debt
of the province of Buenos Aires. A Bill for the settlement of the railway
guarantees was also approved, and only one company is now left to arrange
the question, all the others having agreed to the terms and accepted the
bonds created in lieu of all further claim.
Defence.
The army comprises 94 superior officers and 851 subaltern officers, while
the rank and file numbers 12,073 men. The total effective army, according
to a statement presented to Congress in 1897, should be 29,513 officers and
men. The numl)er of men in the national guard is put at 480,000, the
majority of whom now receive military training, those 20 years of age being
mobilised every year and given two months drill in camp. The other guards
are drilled every Sunday during two months.
There is a military school, with 125 cadets, and a school for non-com-
DEFENCE
S49
missioned officers. The uaval school has 60 cadets, and the school ol
gunners 80.
The Argentine navy consists of 4 coast defence armourclads (of which the
Andes and Plata are ofd), 6 armoured cruisers, 3 second-class cruisers of high
.s})eed built at Elswick, and 7 modern smaller cruisers and gunboats, with a
number older, as well as 3 destroyers and 12 first class and 10 second class
torpedo boats. The following are the modern armoured ships. Abbrevia-
tions :—c.b., central battery; c.d., coast defence; a.c, armoured cruisers;
q.f., ipiick tircr.
a. e.
c. d.
e. d.
a. c.
a. c.
a. e.
a. e.
a. c.
Name.
Alinirante Brown
Libertad . . .
Iiidepetidencia .
Garibaldi * . ,
San Martin *
Pneyrredon * .
Gen. Beigraiio *
Rivadaria t . .
u
ri
c
<u
a
1
3)
1 M
" 5
U X
"o
3
S c
g —
)-;
»
is
Q
1880
4,267
9
11890
2,330
8\
8||
1891
2,330
1895
0,840
0 '
189§
0,882
0^
0
1897
0,882
1897
6 882
0| 1
—
6,882
Arniamcnt.
(A
u
r>
u
■*->
T3 «
9i >
«j
•5?
o
•r)
o.
HH O
^
K
H
10.5-9-in.Q.F.,0 4-7-in.Q.F. 2
2 10-in., 10 C-in. Q.F., 6 I
4-7-in. Q.F \2
(2 10-in., 10 0-in. Q.F., 6 i
\ 4-7-in. Q.F \i
8-in. Q.F., 10 0-in. Q.F., '
0 4-7-in. Q.F 4
13,384
'A
4,. 500 I 13-7
3,000 14-4
19-9
13,000; 20-0
Built for Italy.
t Built for Spain.
Of the armoured cruisers five have lately been bought in Italy, under the
sanction of the Italian and Spanish Governments, for which they were built.
They vary in some particulars, but all displace about 6,800 tons, and are very
fine vessels of their class. They are 328 feet long, with 61 beam and 24 feet
draught. They are protected by complete armour belts with a maximum
thickness of 6-in., and above this amidships is 4-in. plating, forming a kind of
redoubt. The armament is given in the table. It is well-protected. Engines
of 13,000 horse-power arc calculated for a speed of 20 knots. The ships are
replete with every modern appliance.
The Almirante Brown was built at Poplar in 1880, is of 4,200 tons
displacement, 5,380 horse-power, with 14 knots nominal speed, and is protected
by 9-inch steel-faced armour. She has received a new armament. The
steel cruiser-rams Libertad and Independcncia, launched by ]\Ies.srs.
Laird Bros, at Birkenhead, respectively in 1890 and 1891, are verv
remarkable vessels. They have a small displacement (2,500 tons), but are
powerfully armed, well protected, and handy ships. They carry 2 9^-in.
Krupp guns en barbette, and have a secondary armament of 4 4-7-in.
Armstrong quick-firers, 2 sponsoned out on each broadside, and 8 smaller
pieces. These were the first vessels to be i»rovided with heavy guns
mounted for high-angle (40°) fire. Tlie side and barbette protection is
8-in. compound armouring. The protected cruiser Awerg cZgi/jtZzo, 3,575 tons
has a displacement of 14,500 indicated horse-power, and nominal speed 22*5
knots. With natural draught (13,000 horse-power) this vessel obtained the
high speed of 21 "9 knots. She earlier. 4 6-in. and 8 4 7-in. Q.F. guns, and 24
Hotchki5.> 3 pr. and 1 pr. guns. The Buenos Aires, the new second-class
350 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
cruiser built by Messrs. Armstrong, is one of the fastest sea-going vessels
afloat, with the exception of torpedo-boats and destroyers. The mean speed
during a six hours' trial at natural draught was 23 '202 knots. Her water-
line length is 396 feet, and her extreme breadth 47 feet 2 inches. The
displacement is 4,500 tons, and the indicated horse-power 14,000. She is
armed with 2 8-in., 4 6-in. and 6 47-in. Q.F. guns, and 16 3-pr. and 8 1-pr.
guns. The protective deck is 1^ in. on the flat, 3 in. on the slope, and 5 in.
over the machinery space.
Messrs. Yarrow have built four protected destroyers, the Santa Fe,
Corientes, Missonies, and Entre Rios, with a contract speed of 26 knots,
greatly exceeded at the trials ; but the Santa Fe has since been lost. Five
steamships have been bought from Italian and Spanish companies (3,403 to
4,218 tons), for conversion into cruisers.
The personnel of the navy includes 309 executive and 181 engineers
and officers, and 34 torpedo, electrical, and other officers ; with 4,128 sea-
men, and a battalion of marine infantry, and a battery which is being in-
creased to a battalion with 4 batteries.
Production and Industry.
The area of land under cultivation in 1895, in the 14 provinces and 9
national teri'itories, was 15,000,000 acres, or about 6 "2 per cent, of the total
area available for cultivation, which is put at 240,000,000 acres.
In 1895 the area under vines was 71,135 acres. The production of wine
in 1895 was 42,267,200 gallons ; of raisins, 10,582 tons ; of alcohol, 478,800
gallons. About 82,000 acres are under sugar cane, and there are 48 sugar
works in operation ; the Tucuman sugar crop was estimated in 1896 at
119,000 tons ; in 1897, 93,000 tons ; 1898, 60,000 tons.
The chief agricultural products are: wheat, 5,500,000 acres yielding
1,500,000 tons (1897); maize, flax, 400,000 tons (1897). In 1895 there
were in the Republic 21,702,000 cattle, 74,380,000 sheep, 4,447,000 horses,
and 3,885,000 goats and other animals. In 1897 there were slaughtered
340,100 head of cattle. In the saladeros of Argentina, Uruguay
and Rio Grande do Sul, there were 1,353,100 cattle slaughtered in
1897 ; in 1896, 1,204,288. According to the census report for 1895, the
number of industrial establishments in the Republic is : flour mills, 532 ;
wine factories, 852 ; distilleries, 108 ; breweries, 44 ; sugar plantations,
2,749 ; sugar mills, 48 ; vineyards, 6,514. In the provinces of Buenos
Ayres, Santa Fe, and Entre Rios agricultural lands to the extent of 318,000
acres have been acquired by the Jewish Colonisation Association. On this
land 14 Jewish colonies, with in January, 1898, a population of 7,015, have
been settled ; 11 of the colonies are in Entre Rios. In the Chubut valley
in eastern Patagonia there is an agricultural colony with a population of
3,800, of whom 1,142 are Welsh-speaking British subjects, with 2 Church of
England clergymen, 1 Roman Catholic priest, and 7 Welsh ministers.
Coal (lignite) is found in several provincosj but not worked satisfactorily.
Petroleum is worked in Mendoza.
Commerce.
The following table shows the oflficial values in thousands of
pesos gold of the imports and exports (exclusive of coin and
bullion) for five years, including re-exports : —
COMMERCE
351
'.t:-v '^,vu.:.-,
1893
1894
1895 -
' ' 1896
112,164
116,802
1897
Imports
Exports .
96,224
94,090
92,724
101,249
94,856
118,937
98,289
101,169 1
Of the total imports in 1897 the value of 84,195,455 dollars
(85 per cent.), and of the exports 61,487,591 dollars (67 per
cent.), passed through the port of Buenos Ayres.
The following are the principal articles of import and export
with their value, for two years : —
Imports
1896
1
1897
Exports
1896
1897 1
i
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Animal substances
2,836,096
2,425,759
Animals & their
1
Vegetable ,,
14,107,942
12,806,503
products .
70,534,044
74,044,525 i
Beverages
8,542,844
7,728,705
Agricultural
Textiles and apparel
38,413,839
30,449,912
products
43,132,585
23,336,369
Oils, minerals, (fee.
3,437,587
3,215,057
Forest products
1,268,663
1,918,241
Chemicals
2,692,886
2,985,231 ,
Mineral „
352,840
164,989
Colours and dyes .
824,848
626.000
Products of the
1
Timber & woodwork
7,013,645
4,985,698
chase .
205,025
587,863 1
Paper <fe manuf.
2,952,248
2,642,984
Various pro-
,
Hides and manuf. .
930,362
904,638
ducts .
1,308,863
1,117,312
Iron (fc manuf.
17,753,662
16,986,023
Other metals and
manuf.
2,.332,548
2,508,530
1
i
Pottery, glass, &c.
8,569,431
8,011,029
1 Various .
Total .
1,756,013
112,163,951
1,922,879
98,288,948
116,802,020
Total .
101,169,299
Of the imports in 1897 the value of 85,699,700 pesos was .subject to duty ;
and 12,589,200 pesos duty free. Of the exports the vahie of 61,855,000
pesos was subiect to duty, and 39,314,300 pesos duty-free. In 1897 the duties
collected amounted to 26,384,142 pesos.
Among the more important exports were the following : —
- _ [ Wool
Sheep Skins
Wheat
Maize
Beef and [
mutton
Tons
1895 . 201,353
1896 . 187,619
1897 . 205,571
Tons
33,664
36,919
37,077
Tons
1,010,269
532,001
101,845
Tons
772,318
1,570,517
374,942
Tons
99,757
95,009
91,374
In 1896 the imports of gold and silver coin and bullion amounted to
6,063,345 pesos, and the exports to 2,178,891 pesos ; in 1897 tlu; imports
amounted to 663,378 pesos, and the exports to 4,936,088 pesos.
152
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
The foreign trade in the Argentine Republic was mainly with
the following countries, to the following values in gold dollars : —
Imports from
Exports to
1896
1897
1890
1897
Pesos
•
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Great Britain
44,729,966
36,392,057
14,388,761
12,984,690
France
12,028,514
11,019,576
23,654,976
22,999,019
Germany .
13,895,065
11,114,102
13,332,785
14,047,135
i Belgium
8,453,200
8,046,254
12,062,348
8,934,829
United States
11,210,475
10,101,714
1,401,362
8,321,611
Italy .
11,394,910
10,943,038
3,897,059
3,964,616
Brazil
5,152,621
4,761,505
9,841,460
8,685,187
The commercial intercouise between the Argentine Republic
and the United Kingdom for five years, according to the Board
of Trade returns, was : —
1893
1894
1895
189G
1897
Imports intoU. K.
from Argentina
Exports of British
produce to Ar-
gentina .
£
4,836,682
5,535,754
£
6,168,624
4,514,563
£
9,084,497
5,349,091
£
8,974,164
6,620,993
£
5,753,916
4,801,125
The staple Argentine imports into the United Kingdom are as follows : —
Tallow and stearine, 140,589^. in 1896; 106,527/. in 1897 ; fresh mutton,
1,071,891/. in 1896 ; 1,175,129/. in 1897 ; skins, mainly sheep, 102,034/.
in 1896 ; 194,424/. in 1897 ; bones, 48,621/. in ]896 ; 30,829/. in 1897 ;
hides, 66,498/. in 1896 ; 87,731/. in 1897 ; wool, 216,578/. in 1896 ;
355,018/. in 1897; wheat, 2,432,674/. in 1893; 3,400,954/. in 1894;
3,142,378/. in 1895 ; 1,440,320/. in 1896 ; 318,871/. in 1897 ; other sorts
in 1895 ; 2,796,372/. in 1896; 589,194/. in 1897;
1896 ; 1,153,507/. in 1897 ; sheep, 501,712/. in 1896 ;
528,607/. in 1897: linseed, 1.167,925/. in 1896; 644,378/. in 1897.' The
exports of British produce to the Argentine Republic consist chiefly of
cottons, 1,145,487/ ; jute manufactures. 133,870/. ; woollens, 454,975/. ;
iron, 851,354/. ; and machinery, ol4,908t. ; railway carriages, 101,488/. ;
coal, 490,339/, in 1897.
of grain, 1,562,597/.
cattle, 923,625/. in
Shipping and Navigation.
The vessels entered in the foreign trade at the ports of the Republic in
three years were : —
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS — MONEY AND CREDIT 353
Tear
Steamers
Sailiny Vessels
Total
Number
6,496
7,791
6,827
Tons
Number
Tons
Number
9,878
11,830
10,363
Tons
1895
1896
1897
5,461,468
6,331,879
5,522,973
3,382
4,039
3,536
785,633
783,588
541,091
6,247,101
7,115,467
6,064,064
In 1895, of the vessels entered from abroad, 1,211 of 1,634,504 tons
were British, In 1898 the merchant shipping of the Republic comprised 86
steamers of 31,976 tons net, 157 sailing vessels of 39,695 tons net.
Internal Communications.
The length of railway open for traffic in 1897 was 9,270 miles, which
connect the principal cities of the Republic with the capital. In 1896
the capital was 510,643,296 dollars gold ; gross receipts 31,238,326
dollars gold, and expenses 15,934,466 dollars gold. Of the capital invested,
56,331,063 dollars corresponded to lines the property of the nation,
113,311,995 dollars gold to guaranteed lines, 257,141,178 dollars gold to
private lines, and 83,859,062 dollars gold to provincial lines. The Trans-
Audine line from Mendoza to Santa Rosa has a length of 158 miles. The
total cost of construction of the lines open for traffic at the end of 1894 was
483,508,766 dollars. In 1897 the number of passengers carried was
16,044,389 ; and the weight of goods, 9,001,559 tons. There were in 1891
173 miles of tramway.
In 1896 there were in the Republic 25,345 miles of telegraph lines
with 59,060 miles of wire. The national lines had a length of 11,023
miles with 23,572 miles of wire; the railway telegraph lines, 7,070 miles
with 18,717 miles of wire ; the telegraph companies' lines, 4,428 miles with
7,462 miles of wire ; and other undertakings, 2,824 miles of line with 9,309
miles of wire. The number of telegraphic despatches (1896) was 4,953,887.
There were 1,237 offices.
The Post Office in the year 1896 carried 177,641,000 letters and
packets, of which 24,947,340 were international. There are 1,660 offices
(post and telegi-aph). The receipts in 1896 from the postal and telegraph
service were 30,069,799 pesos, and the expenditure 27,169,020 pesos.
Money and Credit.
By law of October 16, 1891, the old National Bank was placed in liquida-
tion, and a new bank, called -Banco de la Nacion Argentina,' with a capital
of hfty million dollars was opened on December 1, 1891. There are 14 State
banks (exclusive of the old National Bank) and many private banks.
The total coinage of the Argentine mint has been to the nominal amount
of: gold, 31,716,545 pesos ; silver, 2,805,840 pesos.
The paper currency in August, 1897, amounted to 285,115,964 pesos. Of
this amount, 75,488,542 pesos had been issued by the nation and the
Treasury; 193,218,285 pesos by various banks (including 120,103,907 pesos
by the National Bank) ; and 16,409,137, pesos by guaranteed banks.
In 1878 the Provincial Government of Buenos Ayres founded the
Municipal loan and savings bank, which in 1888 became the property of the
Municipality. Its capital is 300,000 dollars.
A A
854 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The silver Peso fucrle^ or dollar of 100 centavos is of the value of 4s. at
par.
The 5-aoIlar gold piece weighs 8 "0645 grammes "900 fine and therefore
contains 7 '25805 grammes of fine gold.
The silver dollar (like the French 5-franc piece) weighs 25 grammes '900
fine and thus contains 22 "5 grammes of fine silver. There are 50, 20, and
10-centavo silver coins, and both nickel and copper fractional money.
Professedly the standard of value is gold. The money in circulation is
chiefly inconvertible paper currency.
The Quintal = 101 '40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Arroha = 25-35 ,, ,,
,, Fanega = 1^ imperial bushel.
Since January 1, 1887, the use of the French metric system is compulsory.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the Argentine Republic in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Florencio L.
Dominguez.
Secretary. —
There are Consular representatives at Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham
Cardiff, Dublin, Dundee, Edinburgh, Falmouth, Glasgow (C.G.), Hull,
Leeds, Leith, London (C.G.), Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Newport,
Southampton.
2. Of Great Britain in the Argentine Republic.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. W. A. C. Barrington. Appointed February,
1896.
Secretary. — F. S. Clarke.
Consul. — Alfred Grenfell.
There are Vice-Consuls at Buenos Ayres, Bahia Blanca, Concordia, Cor-
doba, La Plata, Parana, Rosario, and Santa Fe.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Republic.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Anuario de la Direccion General de Estadistica. 2 vols. Buenos Aires.
Boletin niensual de estadistica municipal de la ciudad de Buenos Aires.
Censo de la provincia de Santa Fe. 1887.
Censo municipal de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. 2 v. 1887.
Census Committee. Preliminary Reports for Census of 1895. Buenos Aires. 1896.
Datos trimestrales del comercio exterior de la Republica Argentina. Buenos Aires.
Estadistica general del comercio exterior de la Republica Argentina. Annual. Bu nos
Aires.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 355
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
HaiKlbook of the Argentine Republic, Bulletin No. 07 of the Bureau of the American
Rei)Ublic.s. Washington, 1S02.
Higiene Publica, Anales de. Monthly. Buenos Aires.
Informe prcsentado a la Oficina do Estadistica de Buenos Aires. Annual. Buenos Aires.
Infonnes del Delegado Argentina. 2 vols. Paris, 1890.
Informe sobre el estado de la educacion coniun, durante el Afio de 1891. By Dr. Benjamin
Zorrilla. Buenos Aires, 1893.
Informe sobre deuda publica, bancos, <fec., por P. Agote. Ano vii. Buenos Aires, 1896.
Instituto Gcographico Argentino, Boletin del. Buenos Aires.
L' Agriculture TEievage, I'lndnstrie, et le Commerce dans la Province de Buenos Aires
in 1895. Buenos Aires, 1897.
La Republica Arj,'entina en la Exposicion Universal de Paris, 1889.
Ligeros apuntes sobre el clima de la Re]n'iblica Argentina, por el Director de la oflcina
meteorologicaGualterio G. Davis. Buenos Aires, 1889.
Los presupuestos, los rectirsos y las leyes de impuestos de la nacion, las 14 provincias
y las principales municipalidades. Ano de 1894. Buenos Aires, 1895.
Map of tlie Argentino Republic. With a short description of the country. Published by
the Argentine Government Information Ofllco.
Memoria del Ministerio del Interior de la Republica Argentina, presentada al Congreso
nacional de 1806. 4. Buenos Aires, 1896.
Memoria presont^ida por el Ministrode Estado en el departamento de Hacienda al Congreso
nacional de 1896. 4. Buenos Aires, 1896.
Message of the President of the Republic in opening the Session of the Argentine
Congress, May, 189s. Buenos Ayres, 1898.
Registro ostadistico de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Fol. Buenos Aires, 1898.
2. Non.Qfficial Publications,
Akerg (C.E.), Argentine, Patagonian and Chilian Sketches. 8. London, 1893.
Aurignac (Romain d'). Amerique du Sud. Trois ans chez les Argentins. 4. Paris.
1890.
Bates (H. W.), South America. London, 1882.
Child (Theodore), The Spanish American Republics. London, 1891.
Crawford (A.), Across the Pampas and the Andes. London, 1884.
Dinreaux (Emile), Buenos Aires, la Pampa et la Patagonie. Pai-is, 1S7S.
Doddi (J.), Records of the Scottish Settlers on the River Plate. Buenos Ajrres, 1897,
Dominguez (L. L.), Historia Ai-gentina. 4th edit. Buenos Ayres, 1870.
Gibson (H.), History and Present State of the Sheep-Breeding Industry in the Argentine
Republic. London, 1893.
Goodwin (W.), Wheat Growing in the Argentine Republic. Liverpool, 1895.
Hudson (W. H.), Idle Days in Patagonia. London.
Konig (A.), A traves de la Republica Argentina. Santiago, 1890.
Martinez (Alberto B.), El Presupuosto Nacional, Buenos Aires, 1890.
Mitre (Bartolome), Historia de San Martin. 4 vols. 8. Paris and Buenos Aires, 1890.
Mitre (B.), The Emancipation of South America. A Condensed Translation, by V
Pilling, of The Historv of San Martin. London, 1893.
Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. London, 1893.
Mulhall (Mrs. M. G.), Between the Amazon and the Andes. London, 1884.
Paz (Ez. N.), and Mendonc^a (Manuel), Compte-Rendu de rExi)Osition continentale de la
Republique Argentine. Buenos Ayres, 1882.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Geografia Argentina. Buenos Ayres, 1885,
Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders. Appendix fo r 1897
London, 1808.
Review of the River Plate. Weekly. Buenos Aires.
Rumbold (Sir H.), The Great Silver River. London, 1888.
Saldiaii (Adolfo), Rozas y su E]>oca. 2nd ed, 5 vols. 8. Buenos Aires, 1892.
Sarmiento (Domingo Faustino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the
Tyrants. Translated by :^Irs. II. Mann. 8. London, 1868.
Turner (T. A.), Argentina and the Argentines. London, 1892.
Vincent (F.), Round and About South America. New York, 1890.
A A 2
356
AUSTRIA HUNGARY.
(Oesterreichisch-XJngarische Monarchie.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Franz Josef I. (Ferenez Joisef^), Emperor of Austria, and
King of Hungary ; born August 18, 1830 ; the son of Archduke
Franz Karl, second son of the late Emperor Franz I. of Austria,
and of Archduchess Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Proclaimed
Emperor of Austria after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand
I., and the renunciation of the crown by his father, December 2,
1848 ; crowned King of Hungary, and took the oath on the
Hungarian Constitution, June 8, 18G7. Married April 24,
1854, to to the late Empress Elisabeth (Erzsebet), born De-
cember 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria;
died at Geneva, September 10, 1898.
Heir Presumptive. — Archduke Franrj (Ferenez) Ferdinand,
son of the late Archduke Karl Ludwig and Princess Annun-
ciata, daughter of the late King Ferdinando II. of Naples.
Children of the Emjjeror-King.
I. Archduchess Gisela, born June 12, 1856 ; married April
20, 1873, to Prince Leopold, second son of Prince Luitpold of
Bavaria, born February 9, 1846.
II. Archduchess Maria Valeria, born April 22, 1868 ; married,
July 31, 1890, to Franz Salvator, Archduke of Austria-Tuscany.
Grandchild of the Emperor- King.
Archduchess Elisabeth (Erzsebet), born September 2, 1883,
only child of the late Archduke Rudolf Crown Prince, and
Princess Stephanie, second daughter of King Leopold II. of
Belgium
Brother of the Emperor-King.
Archduke Ludwig (Lajos) Victor, field-marshal-lieutenant in
the imperial and royal army; born May 15, 1842.
Children of the Emperor- King's late Brother, the Archduke
Karl Ludwig.
I. Franz (Ferenez) Ferdinand, born December 1 8, 1863. II.
Otto, born April 21, 1865 ; married October 2, 1886, to Princess
Maria Josepha, born May 31, 1867, the daughter of the Prince
Georg of Saxony; offspring, Karl, born August 17, 1887 ; Maxi-
milian, born April 13, 1895. III. Ferdinand Karl Ludwig, born
December 27, 1868. IV. Margaret, born May 13, 1870; mar-
1 The HuKgavian funn.s of names are inserted in parentheses.
REIGNING SOVEREIGNS
357
ried January 24, 1893, to Albert, Diike of Wiirthemberg.
V. Maria, born July 31, 1876; installed abbess at Prague,
October 19, 1895. VI. Elisabeth, born July 7, 1878.
The imperial and royal family descend from Rudolf von Ha})sburg, a
German count, liorn 1218, who -was elected King of Germany in 1273. The
male line died out in 1740 witli Emperor Karl VI., whose only daughter,
Maria Theresa, gave her hand (1736) to Duke Franz of Lorraine and Tus(tany,
afterwards Kaiser Franz I. of Germany, of the House of Lorraine, who
thereby became the founder of the new line of Halislnng-Lorraine. Maria
Theresa was succeeded, in 1780, by her son Joseph II., who, dying in
1790, left the crown to his brother Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his
son Franz I. ascended the throne, who reigned till 1835, and, having been
marrieil four times, left a large family, the members of which and their
descendants form the present Imperial House. Franz was the first sovereign
who assumed the title of Emperor, or ' Kaiser,' of Austria, after having l>een
compelled by Napoleon to renounce the imperial crown of Germany, for more
than five centuries in the Habsburg family. The assumption of the title of
Emperor of Austria took place on August 1, 1804, Franz I. was succeeded
by his son, the Emperor Ferdinand I. (V. as King of Hungary), on whose
abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the crown fell to his nei)hew, the present Emperor-
King Franz Josef I.
The present Emperor- King has a civil list of 9,300,000 florins : one moiety
of this sum, 4,650,000 florins, is paid to him as Emperor of Austria, out of
the revenues of Austria, and tlie other moiety as King of Hungary, out of the
revenues of Hungary.
The following is a list (for the first centuries not complete) of the sove-
reigns of Austria (Dukes and Archdukes of Austria, from 1526 also Kings of
Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria), from the date of the
feotlinent of Dukes Albert I. and his brother Rudolf II. with the Duchy
of Austria by his father. Emperor of Germany, Rudolf of Habsburg, founder
of the dynasty : —
Rouse of Ilahshurg.
Albert I
•Rudolf II
♦Rudolf III
Friedrich (III. of Germany) .
* Leopold I. .
♦Albert II
♦Rudolf IV
♦Albert III
♦Albert IV
Albert V. (Albert II. of Ger-
many, King of Hungary and
of Bohemia)
♦Ladislaus (King of Hungary
and of Bohemia)
Friedrich V. (Friedrich IV.
of Germany)
Maximilian I. . . .
Karl I. (Karl V. of Germany)
Ferdinand I. . . .
All except those marked with an asterisk likewise filled the throne of the
Holy Roman Em])iie
1282
Maximilian II. . . . 1564
1282
Rudolf V. (Rudolf II. of Ger-
1293
many) .... 1576
1307
]\latthias . . . .1611
1314
Ferdinand II. . . . 1619
1314
Ferdinand III. . . . 1637
1358
Leopold I. . . . 1657
1365
Joseph 1 1705
1395
Kari II. (VI. of Germany) . 1711
♦Maria Theresa . . . 1740
1404
House of Hahshiu'fj- Lorraine.
1439
Jo.seph II 1780
Leopold II 1790
1457
Franz I. (Franz II. of Ger-
1493
many) .... 1792
1519
♦Ferdinand I. . .1835
1520
♦Franz Josef I. . . . 1848
^o8 AtrStklA- FT ANGARY
Political Relation between Austria and Hungary.
Austria and Hungary or, as in international relations they
are officially called, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, consists of
two States, the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom.
The relation between the two States in its present form was fully
regulated by the so-called Compromise of 1867. According to
this agreement the two States are perfectly independent of each
other, possessing each its own constitution, its legislative power
and its executive departments for most branches of State aifairs.
There is, however, a close political connection between them
through the identity of the Sovereign and the community of cer-
tain departments of State affairs.
The common head of the monarchy is the Emperor (Kaiser)
of Austria and King (Kiraly) of Hungary. The crown is here-
ditary in the Habsburg-Lothringen dynasty, passing by right of
primogeniture and lineal succession to males and (on failure of
males) to females. The monarch must be a member of the
Roman Catholic Church. He is styled ' His Imperial and Royal
Apostolic Majesty,' being ' Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia,
&c., and Apostolic King of Hungary.'
Affairs common to the two States are : — (1) Foreign affairs ;
(2) military and naval affairs, but excluding legislation con-
cerning the army ; (3) finance relating to common affairs; but
each State provides separately for the assessment, collection, and
transmission of its contribution. The two States, moreover,
form one commercial territory, having the same system of
coinage and of weights and measures, a joint Bank of issue, and
the same commercial (as well as political) representation abroad,
while the monopolies and taxes connected with industrial pro-
duction (salt, tobacco, spirits, beer, sugar, and mineral oil) are
the same in both. This commercial union, unlike the political
connection, which has a permanent character, depends on a
Compromise renewable every ten years.
Legislative power relating to common affairs is exercised by
the Parliaments of both States, but the voting of money to be
applied to common purposes, and the control of the official action
of the common ministries, belong to the so-called Delegations.
Of these there are two, each consisting of 60 members,
of whom 20 are chosen from each of the Upper Houses (the
Austrian Herrenhaus and the Hungarian Forendihdz), and
40 from each of the Lower Houses (the Austrian Abgeord-
netenhaus and the Hungarian Kepviselohdr). The mem-
bers are appointed for one year. The Delegations are
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — FINANCE 359
summoned annually by the Emperor, alternately at Vienna
and Budapest. They deliberate independently of each other,
their decisions being communicated reciprocally in writing ; and
if, after three such interchanges, they do not agree, then all
the delegates (or an equal number of members from each Dele-
gation) meet together, and, without discussion, settle the matter
by vote. The three ministries or executive departments for
common affairs are : —
1. The Common Ministry of Foreign Affairs and of the Imperial House.
— Count Agcnor Maria Adam Goluchowski, Privy Councillor ; born March 25,
1849.
2. The Common Ministry of War. — General Edmund Edl. v. Kriegham-
mer, General of the Cavalry, Privy Councillor, Minister of War for the
Whole Monarchy.
3. The Common Ministry of Finance. — 'QeniQ.v^.mdeKdllay, Privy Coiiti-
cillor, born December 22, 1839. Appointed Minister of Finance for the
Whole Monarchy June 4, 1882.
To these departments must Ije added : —
The Common Court of Public Accounts. — Dr. Ernest w?i PZertcr, Privy
Councillor, Appointed July 10, 1895.
The Ministers arc responsible for the discharge of their official functions
to the Delegations.
Common rinance*
The cost of the administration of common affairs is
borne by both States in a proportion agreed on by the Reichs-
rath and Parliament (Orsraggyiiles), and sanctioned by the
Emperor-King. The agreement (Ausgleich, Kiegyez^s), which
requires to be renewed every ten years, expired in 1897
without a fresh understanding having been reached. By
the old arrangement which, in the meantime, continues in
force, the net proceeds of the common customs are deducted
from the amount required ; then 2 per cent, of the remainder
is debited to Hungary ; and, lastly, of the remainder 70 per
cent, is paid by Austria, and 30 per cent, by Hungary.
A common loan may be taken, and the Heating debt, consisting
of bills, is guaranteed jointly by both. The other dobts are not
regarded as common ; but Hungary pays, on account of ordinary
debt contracted before 1868, a yearly sum of 30,312,920 florins.
The following table shows the expenditure, and the sources
from which the revenue was obtained, in thousands of florins,
for the years indicated, those for 1897 and 1898 being the
sanctioned estimates ; —
300
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
1880
1890
1893
149,432
1894
1895
1896
1897
161,336
1898
Expenditure
115,760
140,910
153,548
153,509
156,100
162,625
Kevenue from cus-
toms ,
4,908
41,?) 27
54,956
54,695
53,711
53,537
50,573
46,073
Proportional con-
tribution of both
parts of the mon-
archy : —
Contribution of
Austria
76,044
68,177
64,810 67,813
68,461
70,358
75,984
79,543
Hungary .
34,808
31,206
29,666 31,040
31,337
32,205
34,779
36,409
The budget estimates for the 'common affairs of the
monarchy' were as follows for the year 1899 : —
Sources of Revenue
Florins
Foreign Affairs .
132,000
War and Marine .
. 2,660,389
Finance
4,864
Board of Control
305
Sources of Revenue Florins
Surplus from customs and
matricular contribu-
tions . . . 164,378,382
Total . 167,175,940
Branches of Expenditure
Ordinaiy
Extraordinary
Total
Ministry ot Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War {^™y; ■
Ministry of Finance .
Board of Control
Total
1 1
Florins
4,194,100
132,468,237
11,195,260
2,126,404
138,045
Florins
80,100
11,217,014
5,746,000
10,780
17,053,894
Florins
4,274,200
143,685,251
16,941,260
2,137,184
138,045
150,122,046
167,175,940
For the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 1 898
the expenditure is estimated at 19,185,820 florins, and revenue
19,244,250 florins.
By law of December 24, 1867, no loans are contracted jointly
by Austria and Hungary. The general debt incurred before that
date amounted in July, 1898, to 2,757,449,395 florins, and the
charge for interest and amortisation was 126,284,691 florins, the
shares of Austria and Hungary in the charge being respectively
95,973,852 florins and 30,310,839 florins. The common floating
debt at the end of June, 1898, amounted to 182,672,730 florins,
including paper-money, 120,892,780 florins.
DEFENCE Sfil
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Austria-Hungary lies in the heart of Europe. The total
length of frontier is 5,396 miles. In the S. the frontier line
towards the Adriatic Sea is 1,050 miles. The land frontier
is formed in the W. by Bavaria, the canton of St. Gallen,
Lichtenstein, the Canton Graubiinden, and Italy ; in the S. by
Italy, Montenegro, Herzegovina, and Bosnia, Servia, and
Roumania ; in the E. by Roumania ; in the N.E. and N. by
Russia ; in the N. by Prussia, and in the N.W. by Saxony.
Natural frontiers are the Fichtel Mountains, the Bohmerwald,
the Inn, and the Salzach towards Bavaria ; the Saale, the Alps,
and the Rhine towards St. Gall ; the High Alps towards
Graubiinden and Italy ; the Lago di Garda and Carnic Alps also
towards Italy ; towards Herzegovina and Bosnia, the Dinoric
Alps, the Unna and Save ; towards Servia, Save and Danube ;
towards Roumania, the South-East, and East Carpathians ;
towards Russia, the Dniester and Vistula ; towards Prussia,
the Riesen and Iser Gebirge ; towards Saxony, the Erz-Gebirge.
The following are the chief territorial defences : — In Bohemia :
Josephstadt and Theresienstadt, fortified towns ; in Galicia :
Cracow, fortified and entrenched camp at Przemysl. Hungary :
on the left of the Tisza (Theiss), Gyulafehervar, Arad, and
Temesvar ; on the Danube, Komarom, Petervarad, and
Orsova. Croatia : on the Drave, Eszek ; Brod, Gradiska,
K^rolyvdros on the right of the Save. In Dalmatia are
the coast fortifications of Zara, Ragusa, Cattaro, Sebenico,
Budua, and Lissa island ; in Istria, Pola, fortified naval harbour.
The Alpine frontiers in Tyrol have numerous defences on all
the routes, and also between Tyrol and the Adriatic. In Bosnia
and Herzegovina are numerous old fortifications. The Austrian
capital, Vienna, and Budapest are undefended. Pola, the chief
naval port, is strongly fortified, both towards sea and land, and has
been recently enlarged, so as to be able to accommodate the entire
fleet. The arsenal of the imperial navy is also in Pola ; Trieste
is the great storehouse, and there is also an arsenal of the
imperial navy.
II. Army.
The system of defence is, in Austria and Hungary alike,
founded on the principle of universal military service (Austr.
Statute 11 Ap. 1889, and Hung. art. vi. 1889). The armed force
is organised into the common Army, Navy, the special armies
^62 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
(i.e. the A.ustrian Landwehr and the Hungarian Honv^dseg), and
the Levy-in-mass (or Landsturm, Nepfolkeles) of each State.
The army common and special armies have each, as an
essential part, an Ersatz- (or supplementary) Reserve (Pot-
harlalek). Military service begins at the age of 21, but
for the Levy-in-mass, at 19. The duty of service continues; — ■-
(1) In the common army : Three years in the line and 7 years
in the reserve ; 10 years for those enrolled at once in the supple^
mentary Reserve. (2) In the navy : Four years in the marines, 5
years in the reserve, and 3 years in the Seewehr. (3) In the
Austrian Landwehr and Hungarian Honvedseg, respectively, in
their supplementary Reserves : Two years for those who have been
transferred to the Landwehr or to the Honvedseg from the com-
mon army, and 12 years for those at once enrolled. Then follow
10 years in the Levy-in-mass. The marines and the Seewehr
can (apart from periodical drill) only be called out by command
of the Emperor-King.
The common army consists of 15 army corps, most of which are organised in
2 divisions of infantry of 2 brigades ; 1 brigade of cavalry and 1 brigade of
artillery with a train section. There are, in all, 31 divisions of infantry
troops, comprising 63 brigades of infantry and 6 brigades mounted ; 4 divisions
of cavalry troops, 18 brigades of cavalry, and 14 brigades of artillery. Chas-
seurs and pioneers are attached to the infantry as required.
The Landwehr and the Honvedseg are special national institutions. In
peace they are called out only for instruction and drill. The command of the
Emperor is required for their mobilisation. From the aupplementaiy Reserve
men are drafted into the army and Landwehr or Honvedseg in time of war.
It includes many who are exempt from other compulsory service. Only one
year's service in the conmion army or in the special armies is required of
those who have reached a certain standard in certain schools. The
Levy-in-Mass is organised by statutes of 6 June, 1886, and Hung. art. xx.
1886. All citizens from the beginning of their 19tli to the end of their 42nd
year, who do not serve in the common army, navy, supplementary Reserve, or
special armies, belong to the Levy-in-Mass, as well as those transferred from the
special armies. The Levy*in-Mass may be used for filling up gaps in the common
army and special armies, and is called out by command of the Emperor, and
can be ordered beyond its own territory only in pursuance of a statute ; Tyrol
and Vorarlberg have in this respect special regiilations. With certain modi-
fications the Austrian military organisation has been applied to Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
The Austrian Landwehr consists of 23 regiments of infantry and 3 regi-
ments of Tyrolean sharpshooters ; 6 regiments of Uhlans ; 1 section of mounted
rifles in Dalmatia, and 2 squadrons of rifles in Tyrol. The Hungarian
Honvedseg consists of 28 regiments of infantry and 10 regiments of cavalry
with pioneer and other troops.
The whole monarchy is divided into 108 recruiting districts, 102
corresponding to the 102 regiments of infantry, three districts (Tyrol and
Vorarlberg) for the Tyrolean Chasseurs, and 3 in the Adriatic littoral for
Navy
363
the marine. There are besides 4 recruiting districts in Bosnia and Herze-
govina.
The yearly contingent of recruits for the common array amounts to 103,100 ;
from Austria 59,211 ; from Hungary 43,899; besides these is a yearly con-
tingent, 22,500, for the Landwehr or Honvedseg, the Austrian Landwehr
contingent being 10,000, the Honvedseg 12,500 (yeal'ly) (Wehtgesetz, Vedfe-
rotorveuy) Bill of Army of 1889).
The following table shows the actual strength (officers, men, and horses)
of the Austro-Hungarian army on peace footing in 1898 : —
—
Officers
Men
Total
Horses
j Common Army —
1 Staff ....
3,738
3,843
7,581
14
j Establishments
1,536
7,680
9,216
494
] Infantry
9,454
177,109
186,563
704
Cavalry
1,874
45,506
47,380
38,144 1
Artillery —
Field
1,636
28,152
29,788
1,248
Fortress .
412
7,760
8,172
134
Pioneers, &c.
575
9,918
10,483
19
Sanitary troops .
79
2,854
2,933
—
Train ....
393
3,253
3,646
1,849
Austrian Landwehr —
Infantry
2,168
20,657
22,825
118
Cavalry
196
1,899
1,095
1,401
Hungarian Honvedseg —
Infantry
2,132
20,797
22,929
122 !
Cavalry
Total
390
4,200
4,590
3,510 1
24,583
333,628
358,211
47,757
On war footing the nuniVters are put at 45,238 officers, 1,826,940 men, and
281,886 horses, Avhile the number of men who would be obliged to serve in the
Levy-in-ilass is over 4,000,000. In peace the number of guns, exclusive of
fortress artillery, is 1,048, in war 1,864. The infantry is armed with the
Mannlicher rifle.
III. Navy.
The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defensive force, maintained
in a state of high efficiency, and including a flotilla of monitors for the
Danube. It is administered by the Naval Department of the Ministry of
War. The new ships are to replace others growing obsolete, and the pro-
gramme provides for a fleet of 15 armourclads between 6,000 and 9,000 tons,
7 second-class ciliisers (4,000 to 7,000 tons), 7 third-class cniisers (1,500 to
2,500 tons), 15 torpedo gunboats, and 90 various torpedo boats, exclusive of
the Danube flotillas. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola, an<l there are
other establishments upon the Dalmatian coast. Rating the old ships among
S64
AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
the port-defeuc9 vessels, and including the ships actually in hand, the
Austro- Hungarian fleet is thus constituted : —
—
Launched
Dec. 1S97
Building
Battleships, 2nd class
1
1
3rd ,,
.
i
1
Port-Defence Ships (including the Danube
Monitors) .
8
—
Cruisers 1st Class .
1
—
,, 2nd ,,
3
—
,. 3rd „ .
8
2
Gun Boats, &e.
12
—
Torpedo Boats, 1st Class
32
—
2nd „ .
31
■ —
3rd ,, .
8
~
The following table shows the armour-clad ships of the Anstro-Hungarian
navy in similar arrangement to that adopted for the British navy. The ships
in italics are coast defence vessels. The numbers following the names of the
others indicate the classes to which they have been assigned in the foregoing
table. Abbreviations: — c. b. central battery; bar. barbette; Q.F. quick-
firing.
-^
IQ
1
3
o
a
1
•3?
|(2
0.
a:
5
P
Name
a
us
s
ll
Principal Armament
o
o
•r- aj
1— 1 o
.s
s
o
c. b.
Kaiser .
1871
5,810
6
10 9-in., 6 3j.in., 2 2.f-in..
3
3,200
12-0
c. b.
Custoza
3
1872
7,060
9
810-in., 6 3|-in., 2 2|-in,.
4
4,400
14-0
c.b.
Erzherzog Albrecht
3
1872
5,940
9
8 9i-in., 6 3i-in., 2 2Hn-.
4
3,600
13 0
c. b.
Kaiser Max .
1875
3,550
8
S8i-in., 4 3|-in., 2 2|-in..
4
2,700
12-5
c.b.
Don Juan de Austria
1875
3,550
8
8 8i-in., 4 3Mn., 2 2|-iii..
4
2,700
12 5
c. b.
Prim Eugen
,
1877
3,550
8
8 84-in., 4 si in., 2 23-in..
4
2,700
12-5
c. b.
Tegetthotr .
.S
1878
7,390
14
6 11-in., 6 3|-in., 2 2^iIl..
2
5,000
14-0
bar.
Erzherzog Rudolf
2
1887
6,870
12
312-in., 6 4J-in., 2 2J-iu..
4
7,500
16-0
bar.
Erzherzogin Stefanie
3
1887
5,o60
9
2r2-in., 6 6-in., 2 2|-in..
4
8,300
17-0
bar.
Monarch
3
1895
5,550
io-i>
4 'J^-in., 6 .5-9 Q.F,
14 47-inmQ.F. .
4
8,500
170
bar.
Wien ,
3
1805
5.550
lO-O
Ditto . . . .
4 8,500
170
bar.
Budapest .
3
180C
5,550
10-6
Ditto . . . .
4 8,500
17-0
I
3
—
7,800
—
—
—
11. . . .
Q
—
8,000
—
—
—
River Monitors—
Leitha .
1871
310
If
2 6-in.
—
200
8-0
Mar OH .
,
1871
310
If
2 6-in.
—
200
8-0
Kiiriis .
1892
448
2 43-in., 2 Q.F.
1,250
100
Szamos
1892
448
—
2 4]-in., 2 Q.F.
—
1,250
10-0
ram.
Cruisers —
Maria Theresia .
1893
5,250
4
29i-in., 6 6-in., 11 Q.F,,
4
9,800
190
Kaiser Karl VI. .
1898
6,250
10-6
2'.f4-in., 8 5-9-in. Q.F.
18 Q.F.
'_
12,300
20-0
The most important armourclad vessels completed are the Mortarch, Wien,
and Bvdapest, which (lis]tlacc .^>,.5.50 ton.s, and are about 30.^) ft. long, with
COMiMERCE
365
Harvey steel armouring and protection for their guns. These are lour 9 4 in.
]»ieces, coupled in turrets fore and aft, besides a quick-firing armament. Two
larger ironclads are in hand, as well as two torpedo-cruisers. The cruiser
Kii.rl VI. is of the Maria Theresia class improved. A torpedo-cruiser, the
Zenta, has lately been launched.
The .sister second-class "ram" cruisers Kaiser Franz Josef and Kaiserin
Elizabeth (about 4,050 tons) closely resemble the Kaiserin und Konigin Maria
Theresia.
Commerce of the Common Customs Territory.
The special commerce of the common customs territory,
including Bosnia and Herzegovina, comprising imports and
exports of merchandise, but not bullion, was as follows, in
millions of florins, in the years indicated : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Years
Imports
1
Exports ,
1890
1891
1892
1893
1,000,000 florins
510-7
613-7
622-6
670-7
1,000,000 florins
771-4
786-7
722-7
805-6
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,000,000 florins
700 0
722-5
705-8
755-3
1,000,000 florins
795-5
741-8
7740
766-2 1
The chief imports and exports (special trade) in two years
were as follows (in thousands of florins) : —
Imports
1 1896
1
1897 1
Exports
1896
1897
1,000
1,000 '
1,000
1,000
florins
florins
florins
florins
C'fl'ec . . . .
31,886
26,238 :
Sugar ....
75,137
61,382
Tokrco ....
1 27,611
25,971 '
Grain
41,977
39,975
Grain ....
1 11,684
40,186
Malt
20,510
24,453 :
Cattle ....
9,4S7
11,240 ,
Cattle
22,997
20,335 i
Eg«s ....
13,027
13.359
Horses
23,841
25,174
Hides and skins
18,3-25
22,110
Eggs
39,902
43,921 '
Wine
11,763
17,978
Hides and skins
14,830
17,033 '
Coal and feul .
31,391
31,382
Feathers
10,296
9,463
Cotton ....
57,389
50,769
1 Beer
7,981
7,296
Cotton yarn
10,732
10,317
Wine
4.757
4,436
Wool ....
40,847
38,.503
Timber .
21 .006
27,289
Woollen yarn .
23,612
18,932
! Cask-staves .
11,402
9,787
Woollen goods
11,303
11,292
Sawn wooii
:>1,.515
37,770
Silk goods
14,403
14,218
Lignite .
24,321
26,857
Leather ....
18,983
•21,427
Woollen goods
18..599
18,464 1
Useful metals (excl. ut
Leather Shoes .
10,020
8,334 1
pig iron)
17.087
19,374
Leather Gloves
22,791
16,20S 1
Machinery
21,342
19,662
i
Glass-ware
24,294
22,428
For the common cnstoms territory the values are fixed annually by a permanent com-
mission, comprising official and representatives of agriculture, sylviculture, trade and in-
dustry. In general, net value are taken for imports and gross values for exports, and they
must be determined at the crossing of the frontier. The commission has to fix them
according to the countries of origin or uf destination, and only employ averages excep-
366
A UrSTRIA-HUNGARY
tionally. Quantities are declared, but the administration may, and in the case of imports
always does, check the declarations. The weight declared is either net or gross, according
to the tariff regulations. The recorded country of origin is that of production, and the
country of destination is that where the goods are to be consumed. When the prime
origin and ultimate destination are unknown, the most distant points of transit are re-
corded.
In 1896 and 1897 j_the trade of Austria- Hungary was distributed as
follows : —
Country.
Imports from.
Imports from.
Exports to.
Exports to.
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
Germany .
257,446
270,389
402,361
399,023
Great Britain
73,492
69,168
73,617
70,522
Italy
47,178
55,040
60,116
59,441
Russia
44,124
56,029
27,633
25,893
Switzerland
22,125
22,775
35,047
31,943
Turkey
16,166
17,837
24,845
26,275
Roumania .
10,570
18,680
26,270
26,363
Servia
15,349
18,296
10,094
12,030
France
24,671
24,103
29,589
27,530
Netherlands
10,200
9,598
9,657
11,461
Belgium .
12,815
13,486
7,915
6,611
Egypt
5,803
6,516
9,485
10,029
British India
42,732
41,596
6,901
12,049
United States .
42,403
55,755
17,292
16,804
Brazil
27,851
20,665
2,585
1,822
Greece
9,242
9,153
4,148
5,414
The value of gold, silver, and bullion exported in 1896 was
42,534,439 florins ; imports 68,806,845 florins; in 1897, exports
51,651,584 florins; imports 99,867,928 florins.
From the Board of Trade returns the direct trade of Austria- Hungary
with the United Kingdom is shown in the following table : —
1893
1894
1895
1896
£
1897
£
&
£
1,627,036
1,385,762
1,221,783
1,232,678
1,276,585
1,095,150
1,427,428
1,715,605
1,508,304
1,553,384
Imports into U. K.
from Austria-Hun-
gary ....
Exports of British pro-
duce to Austria-
Hungary .
The staple articles imported into tlie United Kingdom from Austria are
wheat flour, the total value of which in the year 1897 amounted to
739,514?. ; dye stuff's, &c., 77,586Z. ; and wood 73,205Z. The principal
exports of British produce to Austria are cotton manufactures (including
yarn), 543,628Z. ; iron, 86,275Z. ; machinery, 195,351Z. ; coals, 126,291Z. ;
woollen goods, 74,694?. ; copper, 28,849?. ; leather, 23,319?. ; hardware,
16,883?., in 1897.
MONKY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
8(r
Money and Credit.
The only State liaiik isthc Austro-Hunifavian, fonneily the National Bank
(Xemzetibank). To secure a free loan, originally of eighty million florins, to
the State, the bank, during the continuance of its privilege, has the exclusive
right to issue hank-notes. The charter of the bank, which expired at the
end of 1897, has been renewed and extended to the year 1910. Of the sum
total of bank-notes in circulation, at least two-fifths must be covered by
the supply of metal, silver or gold, coined or in bullion. The vState, under
certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits of the l)ank. From
these profits, first 5 per cent, on the share capital is paid to the shareholders,
of the remainder 8 per cent, is transferred to the reserve fund, and 2 per cent,
to the pension fund, and the dividend to the shareholders may be made up to
7 per cent. Whatever still remains is divided into two portions, one of which
goes to the shareholders and the other to the State, 70 per cent, to
Austria and 30 per cent, to Hungary. These last sums, however, are only
applied to the reduction of the debt of eighty millions mentioned above.
The following are the statistics of the Austro- Hungarian Bank for five
years, in thousands of florins: —
—
Liabilities Assets
Capital
Reserve
Fund
Note
Circula-
tion
Mort-
gages
' 1 1
Total in-: ! Dis-
cluding Cash counted
others Bills, A'c.
!
State
Loan
Loans
on real
pi-operty
Totalin-
cluding
others
1 1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
90,000
90,000
90,000
90,000
90,000
32,472
32,521
32,458
32,499
32,578
486,624
507,808
619,854
659,726
699,907
121,276
128,611
128,541
133,483
134,678
1
762,814 , 278,235 171,699
791,559 307,005 180,254
915,462 377,251 219,474
964,862 448,277 217,592
1,012,348 505,998 206,937
76,987
76,858
76,322
76,093
76,093
125,262
131,505
134,290
136,798
138,43
762,814
791,559
915,462
964,86V
1,012,.'^48
Money, Weights, and Measures.
By law of August 2, 1892, the monetaiy system of Austria- Hungary was
reformed on a gold basis, though the standard coin, the crown (krone, korona),
is not coined in gold.
The new coins with English equivalents are —
Gold :—
The twenty-crown piece (weighing 6775067 grammes '900 fine, and thus
containing 6 09756 grammes of fine gold) = 16s. 8d.
The ten-crown piece = 85 4c?.
The single ducat = 9 crowns 60 heller (filler) = 8."?.
Silver : —
The single crown (weighing 5 grammes "835 fine, and thus containing
4 "175 grammes of fine silver) = 100 heller = half-a-gulden (forint) of
the old coinage = lOd.
Nickel : —
The twenty -heller (20-filler) piece = 10 kreuzer (krajczar) of the old
coinage = 2d.
808 AUSTRIA
The teii-lieller (10-filler) piece = 5 kreuzer (krajezar) of the old coinage =
\d.
Bronze : —
The two-heller (2-filler) piece = 1 kreuzer (krajezar) = ^d.
The single heller (filler) piece = ^ kreuzer (krajezar) = -^d.
Silver gulden or florins continue to be legal tender to any amount. Silver
crown-pieces are accepted to any amount at Government offices, but in general
circulation they are legal tender only up to 50 crowns. The notes of the
State Bank are legal tender.
The metrical system of weights and measures is now legal and obligatory
in Austria-Hungary. The old weights and measures are : —
The Centner {m6,zsa) =100 Pfund = bQ-Q6 kg. =123^ lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Eimer{ak6) . . =56 "50 litre = 14 94 wine gallons.
,, Joch {hold) , . =5, 754 "64 square metre = 1 '43 acre.
,, Metzen (mero) . =61 '49 litre = 1*7 imperial bushel.
(The Klafter of wood = S'A1 cubic metre = 120 cubic feet.)
„ Meile (mertfold) =1 _7 Kor.fi ^npfvp^ - r8,897 yards, or about 4
24,000 Austrian feet/ - ^^»o *> i»eties _ -^ ^^^^^
AUSTRIA.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The political representation is twofold — (1) for all the Austrian provinces
(Reichsrath) ; (2) for each separate province (Landtage).
The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Monarchy,
consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House (Herrenhaus)
is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family who are of age, 19 in
number in 1898 ; 2nd, of a number of nobles — 66 in the present Reichsrath
— possessing large landed property, in whose families by nomination of the
Emperor the dignity is hereditary; 3rd, archbishops, nine in number,
and bishops, eight in number, who are of princely title inherent to
their episcopal seat ; and 4th, of any other life-members nominated
by the Emperor, on account of being distinguished in art or science, or who
have rendered signal services to Church or State — 153 in 1898. The Lower
House (Abgeordnetenhaus) up to 1896 consisted of 353 members, elected,
partly directly and partly indirectly, by the vote of all citizens who are 24
years of age and possessed of a small property or particular individual
qualification ; of these, 85 representing the landed proprietors, 118 the
towns, 21 the chambers of trade and commerce, 129 the rural distiicts.
The constituencies were divided into four classes : first, the rural districts,
where the peasantry and small landholders are the electors ; thoy choose a
voter for every 500 inhabitants, these voters electing the representatives ;
secondly, the towns ; thirdly, the chambers of commerce in the cities and
large towns ; and fourthly, the large landed proprietors, payers of from
50 to 250 florins taxes, according to the provinces in which their estates
are situated. In this last class females in possession of their own
property are entitled to vote. Under a law passed in 1882, the franchise
was extended to all male persons in towns and rural districts paying
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — AUSTllIA 860
direct taxes to the aiuouut oi" 5 Uorius (reduced to 4 by tlm law of
December, 1896) per annum ; but there are voters who pay less taxes
and some who pay none ; in the latter case they mUst have a particular
individual qualification. Further, by the law of June 14, 1896, 72 members
are chosen by the whole body of electors, that is, all male citizens over 24
years of age not disqualified by any special cause. The total number of
members is thus increased to 425, distributed as follows : Lower Austria 46,
or 1 for every 61,519 inhabitants; Upper Austria 20, or 1 for 40,242;
Salzburg 6, or 1 for 29,694 ; Styria 27, or 1 for 48,749 ; Cai-inthia 10, or 1
for 36,458; Carniola 11, or 1 for 45,815; Trieste 5, or 1 for 32,290 ; Gorz
and Gradisca 5, or 1 for 44,542 ; Istria 5, or 1 for 64,692 ; Tyrol 21, or 1 for
38,557 ; Vorarlberg 4, or 1 for 30,191 ; Bohemia 110, or 1 for 54,441 ;
Moravia 43, or 1 for 54, 364 ; Silesia 12, or 1 for 52,625 ; Galicia 78, or 1 for
89,188 ; Bukowiua 11, or 1 for 62,239 ; Dalmatia 11, or 1 for 50,474 ; Total
425, or 1 for 58,094. The duration of the Lower House of the Reichsrath is
for the term of six years. Members of the Lower House receive 10 florins
(16.S'. 8d.) for each day's attendance, with an indemnity for travelling
expenses. In case of dissolution new elections must take place within
six months. The Emperor nominates the president and vice-president
of the Upper House of the Reichsrath, while those of the Lower House
are elected by the members. It is incumbent upon the head of the
State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The rights which, in consequence
of the diploma of Oct. 20,1860, and the 'Patent' of Feb. 26, 1861, liave been
conferred upon the Reichsrath, are as follows : — 1st, Consent to all laws
relating to military duty ; 2nd, Co-omration in the legislation on trade and
commerce, customs, banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters ; 3i-d,
Examhmtion of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; of
the bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds ; and general
control of the public debt. At present the rights of the Reichsrath are fixed
by the law of December 21, 1867. To give validity to bills passed by the
Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as the sanction
of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper and the Lower
House have the right to propose new laws on subjects within the competence
of the Reichsrath.
The Ministry for Austria Proper, as constituted March 7, 1898, is as
follows : —
1. President and Minister of the Interior. — Count Tlmn-Eohenstein.
2. Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Count
Bylandt'Reydt.
3. Minister of Finance. — Dr. Kaizl.
4. Minister of Agriculture. — Baron Kast.
5. Minister of Commerce and National Economy. — Baron Di-Pauli.
6. Minister of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung). — Field -marshal
Count Zeno von JVclscrsheimh.
7. Minister of Justice. — Dr. Edler von ^wJcr.
8. Minister for Railway.s. — Dr. Ritter roTi WitteJ:. Without Portfolio.—
Herr Jedrzejowicz.
The responsibility of Ministers for acts committed in the discharge of
their official functions was established by a bill which received the sanction of
the Emperor on July 25, 1867.
b B
370
AUSTRIA
ll. Provincial Government.
The Provincial Diets are competent to legislate in all matters not expressly
reserved for the Reichsrath. They have control over local representative
bodies, and the regulation of local affairs affecting taxation, the cultivation of
the son, educational, ecclesiastical, and charitable institutions and public works.
In Tyrol and Yorarlberg they have the regulation of the defence of the
province, and consent to the employment of the local militia (Landeschiitzen)
in another province of the Monarchy. Each Provincial Diet consists of one
assembly, composed (1) of the archbishop and bishops of the Roman Catholic
and Oriental Greek Churches ; (2) the rectors of Universities ; (3) the representa^
tives of great estates, elected by all landowners paying land taxes of not less than
50, 100, 200, or 250 florins, according to the provinces in which their estates
are situated ; (4) the representatives of towns, elected by those citizens who
possess municipal rights or pay a certain amount of direct taxation ; (5) the
representatives of boards of commerce or trade guilds, chosen by the respective
members ; (6) representatives of the rural communes, elected by deputies
called ' Wahlmanner, ' returned by all inhabitants who pay a small amount
(four florins) of direct taxation.
The strength of the seventeen separate Diets is shown in the following
table : —
No. of
No. of
Members
Members
LoWer Austria
. 78
Tyrol .
. 68
Upper Austria
. 50
Vorarlberg .
. 21
Salzburg
. 26
Bohemia .
. 242
Steiermark (Styria)
63
Moravia
. 100
Carinthia
. 37
Silesia
. 31
Catniola
. 37
Galicia
. 154
Trieste and district
. 54
Bukowina .
. 31
Gorz and Gradiska
. 22
Dalmatia .
. 43
Istria ....
. 33
The deputies to the Provincial Diets are elected for six years. The Diets
are summoned annually.
The Provincial Council is an executive body composed of the president of
the Diet (Landniarschall) and other members elected.
III. Local Government.
Each commune has a council to deliberate and decide, and a committee to
administer all its affairs. The members of the council are elected for three
(in Galicia for six) years. All who have a vote are eligible if of age. In the
towns with special statutes a corporation takes the place of the communal
committee.
District representative bodies are, in Styria (Steiermark), Bohemia, and
Galicia, interposed between the communal bodies and Provincial Diets. They
deliberate and decide on all affairs affecting the interests of the district
(Bezirk). They consist of the representatives (1) of great estates, (2) of the
most highly taxed industries and trades, (3) of the towns and markets, (4)
of the rural communes (Landgemeinden). Members are elected for three years,
in Galicia for six. A committee of this body (called the Bezirksausschuss,
in Galicia Bezirksrath) administers the affairs of the district.
Ak£A AND POt>ULATION
3?i
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
Austria — exclusive of the Tiu-kish provinces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, which have been under the administration of
Austria-Hungary since 1878, but have not as yet been formally
incorporated with it — has an area of 115,903 English square
miles, with a population at the census of December 31, 1890, of
23,895,413 or 206 per square mile.
The following is the civil population of Austria at the three last cens^sus -.^^
^
Population Absolute increase
Yearly increase
per cent.
\ 1869
' 1880
1890
20,217,531
21,981,821
23,707,906
1,993,031
1,764,290
1,726,085
0-87
0-76
0-76
The following table gives the area, and total number of inhabitants (civil
and military), of the various provinces of Austi'ia, after the returns of the
censuses of December 31, 1880 and 1890 : —
Area :
Population, t)ec. 31, 1890
Popula-
Provinces
English
square
Dec. 31,
1880
tion per
sq. uiile,
miles
Male
Female
Total
1890
1 Lower Austl-i:t .
7,654
2,3;i0.621
1,307,913
1,353,886
2,661,799
347
Upper Austria .
4,631
7;VJ,620
388,762
397,069
785,831
169
1 Salzburg ,
2,767
163,570
85,948
87,562
173,510
02 •
1 Styria.
8,670
l,213,.^.y7
635,967
646,741
1,282,708
148
Carintliia .
4,005
348.730
176,473
184,535
361,008
91
Carnlola
3,856
481, 1M3
238,011
260,947
498,958
129
Coast land .
3,084
647,934
351,844
343,540
695,384
228
Tvrol and Vorarlberg
11,324
912,549
454,769
474,000
928,769
82
Bohemia
20,060
5,560,819
2,821,989
3,021,105
5,843,094
291
Moravia
8,583
2,153,407
1,087,340
1,189,530
2,276,870
264
Silesia
1,987
565,475
288,908
316,741
605,649
306
Galicia
30,307
5,958,907
3,260,433
3,347,383
6,607,816
218
Bukowina .
4,035
571,671
324,469
322,122
646,591
160
Dalmatia .
Total
1
4,940
476,101
22,144,244
266,303
261,123
527,426
100
115,903
11,689,129
12,206,284
23,895,413
206
The ethnical elements of the population on the basis of language were as
follows in 1890 :—
B B 2
372
AUSTRIA
1 1 1
— 1S9.0 —
ISOO
German .
Bohemian, Moravian,
and Slovak .
Polish .
Ruthenian
8,461,580 '
5,472,871
3,719,232
3,105,221
Slovene .
[ Servian and Croatian
Italian and Ladin ,
Roumanian
Magyar .
1,176,672
644,926
675,305
209,110
8,139
1
There were 193,710 foreign residents in Austria at the end
of 1890, of whom 103,433 were Germans, 46,312 Italians,
18,149 Russians, 2,384 Turks, 6,777 Swiss, 2,261 British, 2,726
French, 1,729 Americans. These are exclusive of Hungarians,
of whom there were 228,647.
In Austria, in 1890, the population, according to occupations,
was as follows : —
Nature of Occupation
Masters, (fee.
Employed
Members of
families, &c.
Total
Agriculture, forestry, (fee.
2,006,764
6,462,459
4,882,156
13,351,379
Mining, smelting, &c.
65,422
457,181
718,094
1,240,697
Machine making
20,938
58,802
112,612
190,352
Building ....
35.926
257,653
445,533
739,112
Textile industries
43,001
405,201
362,868
811,070
Foods and drinks
132,212
325,499
550,132
1,007,843
Clothing ....
I 218,706
385,111
551,166
1,154,983
Other industries
! 81,642
395,603
534,208
1,011,453
Banking, insurance, <fec. .
2,372
13,573
31,713
47,678
Trade ....
292,285
340,874
849,395
1,482,454
Transport ....
19,920
143,509
389,212
685,181
Active army
—
187,507
24,126
211,633
State officials .
1 40,615
222,929
433,019
696,563
Other occupations .
1 20,841
27,644
60,312
108,717
Rentiers, (fee. .
! [>bl,lb9
12,562
325,680
889,381
In institutions, (fee .
241,084
—
—
241,084
Without occupation .
Total .
69,773
—
53,980
125,753
3,842,640
9,726,647
10,326,126
23,897,413
II. Movement of Population.
The following table exhibits, for the civil population, the
number of births, deaths, and marriages, with the surplus of births,
in Austria for a quinquennial period, according to the latest
official returns : —
Year
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegiti-
mate
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus of
Living Births
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
951,015
928,739
968,560
974,903
968,280
27,595
27,341
27,376
27,686
26,708
138,280
138,573
141,551
145,500
193,235
194,233
199,761
198,554
202,936
660,081
582,805
681,899
657,153
646,620
263,339
218,593
259,285 I
290,064
294,952
RELIGION
373
The rate of illegitimacy varies from 42 per cent, in Carinthia,
28 in Salzburg, 27 in Lower Austria, 24 in Styria, 19 in Upper
Austria, to 3*2 per cent, in Dalmatia.
The following are the emigration statistics of A ustria-Hungary
for five years : —
Year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Total Emigrants
65,544
25,566
66,101
67,456
37,215
To N. America To Argentine
To Brazil
65,878
22,965
50,951
45,327
685
440
549
220
2,737
754
10,511
11,389 !
According to United States statistics : the immigrants into
the United States comprised in 1896, 34,196 Austrians and
30,898 Hungarians; in 1897, 18,006 Austrians and 15,025 Hun-
garians; in 1898, 23,118 Austrians and 16,662 Hungarians.
III. Pkincipal Towns.
The following were the populations of the principal towns on
December 31, 1890:—
USTHIA :—
Krakau
76,025
Laibach . 30,691
Vienna
1,364,548
Czernowitz
57,403
Koloniea . 30,160
Prague
184,109
Pilsen
50,693
Budweis . 28,730
Trieste
158,344
Linz .
47,560
Salzburg . 27,741
Lemberg
128,419
Pola .
39,273
Tarnopol . 26,097
Gratz
113,540
Przemysl .
35,619
Wiener-Neustadt25, 324
Briinn
95,342
Reichenberg
31,033
Aussig . 24,083
Religion.
In Austria the relation of the State to the religious bodies is
regulated by the statutes of December 21, 1867, and of May 25,
1868. In these the leading principle is religious liberty, the
independence of the Church as regards the State, saving the rights
of the sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity. Full liberty
of faith and conscience is secured, and the enjoyment of civil
and political rights is independent of religious profession. Every
religious body legally recognised has the right of ordinary public
worship, the management of its own affairs, and the undisturbed
possession of its premises, endowments, and funds for the purposes
of worship, instruction, or charity. Recognised religious bodies
in Austria are : — The Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, Greek-
Oriental, Evangelical (Augsburg or Lutheran, and Helvetian or
Reformed), the Evangelical Brotherhood, the Gregorian-Armenian,
374
AUSTRIA
and the Jewish. The Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs will
grant legal recognition to any religious bodies if their doctrine,
worship, constitution, and designation contain nothing illegal or
immoral (Statute of May 20, 1874).
The following figi^es relate to 1890 :—
Priests, secular : —
Roman Catholic Church
Greek Catholic Church
Greek Oriental Church
The following table gives the division of the population
according to religion on the basis of the census of 1890 for
Austria.
Members of orders : —
16,468
Male .
7,770
2,582
Female
13,554
564
Protestant clergy .
267
Jewish clergy
—
1
1
i
Roman Catholics
Greek Catholics
Armenian Catholics.
Old Catholics
Greek Oriental
Armenian Oriental .
In
1,000's
per
cent.
of pop,
79-2
U-8
2-4
In
1,000's
per
cent,
of pop.
1-8
4-8
100-0
18,934
2,814
3
8
545
1
Evangelical
Other Christian sects
Jews
Others .
Total .
436
6
1,143
5
23,895
Instruction.
The educational organisation of Austria comprises : —
(1) Elementary schools; (2) Gymnasia and Realschulen; (3)
Universities and colleges ; (4) Technical high schools ; and
(5) Schools for special subjects.
The progress of elementary education in Austria between
the census of 1880 and that of 1890 is shown in the following
statement : —
Pojmlation
Austria
1880
1890
Read and write
Read only
Neither read nor write ......
10,930,099
1,345,781
9,858,364
13,258,452
1,031,624'
9,60.5,337
23,895,413'
1
22,134,244
INSTRUCTION
376
The erection of elementary schools is incumbent on the school
districts. Compulsory attendance begins with the completion
of the sixth year, and continues in Austria generally, till the
completion of the fourteenth ; but in Istria, Galicia, and
Da.lmatia till the completion of the twelfth (Bukowina, thirteenth)
year. Of these schools there are two grades.
In the elementary schools the subjects taught are religion, read-
ing, writing, language (Unterriclits-Sprache), arithmetic with elementary
geometry, some branches of natural history and physics, geography, history,
drawing, singing, gymnastics ; to girls, domestic duties. The cost of erecting
and maintaining elementary and burgh schools, and the payment of the
teaching staff, are defrayed in different ways in different places ; but the
expense always falls ultimately on the communes or the land. In only a few
special cases are elementary schools supported by the State.
The following figiu'es show the latest statistics of school attendance, and
the number of training colleges :^-
—
Elemen-
tary
Schools
Teachers
Pupils
Children of
School Age
Training
Colleges
1895
1896
•
19,277
19,440
69,778
71,601
3,378,832
3,430,456
3,872,695
.3,919,750
87
87
The C4ymnasia and Realschulen are schools whose practical purpose consists
especially in the preparation they supply for the universities and technical high
schools. The curriculum of the former extends over eight years ; of the latter,
over seven. They are, so far as they are public, maintained by the State, by
separate provinces, by the larger communes, or (in the case of confessional
schools) by ecclesiastical foundations, &c. , eventually with a subvention from
the State. Private middle schools are included in the following table ; these
are under the same regulations as public schools : —
—
Gymnasia
No.
Realschulen
1 No.
1
1 Teachers
Pupils
Teachers | Pupils
1895.
1896.
. : 181
. : 186
3,746 1 56,152
3,787 1 57,408
80
86
1,610 23,600 1
1,728 ; 24,933 j
In Austria there are right universities maintained by the State, each
comprising four faculties — viz. theologj', law, medicine, philosophy. In
one (Czernswitz), however, the faculty of medicine, is absent. The following
statistics arc for the year 1 896 ; —
376
AUSTRIA
Universities i ^"""^f-
jsors, &c.
1
Students |
5,796
1,232 1
1
2,470
Universities
Profes-
sors, (fee.
Students
Vienna
f German
Prague J Bohe-
[ mian
Graz
444
166
168
140
Cracow
Lemberg .
Innsbruck
Czernowitz
153
84
111
40
1,201
1,640
938
369
1,421 ;
i
Total
1,306 < 14,887 j
In addition to the universities there are in Austria 48 theological colleges
— viz. : 44 Roman Catholic, 1 Greek Catholic, 1 Armenian Catholic, 1 Greek
Oriental, and 1 Protestant, with a total of 2,068 students.
There are six Government technical high schools for various branches of
engineering and technical chemistry, and a high school for agriculture in
Vienna. In 1896 the numbers were : —
1
Teachers
Students
Teachers
52
58
44
48
Students
214
309
261
267
Vienna
Prague|g^"^^l^ •
° (^ Bohemian
106
49
75
1,258
347
664
Graz
Lemberg
Briinn .
Vienna .
There are besides 3,199 special technical institutes in Austria, training in
agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music, mining, commerce, &c., with
208,606 students.
Included in these (1896) were 180 commercial schools, 937 industrial,
127 agricultural and forestry, 6 lower schools of mining, 3 nautical schools,
S veterinary schools, and 535 music schools.
In 7,524 of the public elementary schools in Austria (1896) the language used
was German ; in 4,778 Czech (mainly in Bohemia and Moravia) ; and in 4,855,
other Slav dialects ; 797 Italian, 108 Roumanian, 3 Magyar ; and in 284 more
than one language. According to official statistics, 87 '5 per cent, of the chil-
dren of school age were attending school in Austria in 1896.
In 1897, 2,523 periodicals of various kinds were published in Austria,
111 being daily papers. Of the whole, 1,610 were in German, 491 in Cecil,
the rest being in Polnish, Slovenian, Ruthenian, Italian, Hebrew, &c.
Justice and Crime.
In Austria the ordinary judicial authorities are : —
(1) The Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassation (Oberste
Gerichts-und Kassationshof) in Vienna; (2) The 9 higher provincial courts
(Oberlandesgerichte). (3) The 71 jtrovincial and district courts (Landes- und
Kreisgerichte), and, in connection with these, the jury courts (Geschwo-
renengerichte). (4) The 937 county courts (Bezirksgerichte), Qi these, tUe
paupp:rism o//
third and fourth groups are courts of first instance ; the second group consists
of courts of second instance. Courts o( first instance act as courts of inquiry
and have summary jurisdiction. Courts of second instance are courts of
appeal from the lower courts, and have the su[>ervision of the criminal courts
in their jurisdiction. The jury courts try certain cases where severe penalties
are involved, political ollences, and press offences. The county courts exercise
jurisdiction in cases of misdemeanour in the counties, and co-operate in pre-
liminary proceedings regarding crime.
There are in all for Austria 71 provincial and 937 county or district courts.
There exist also special courts for commercial, revenue, military, and other
matters.
In case of conflict lietween different authorities the Imperial Court
(Reichsgericht) in Vienna has power to decide.
■
Convictions.
1893
1894
1895
Of crimes. ....
28,498
30,133
28,709
Of less serious oflfences
5,562
6,985
7,596
Of misdemeanours .
526,433
525,782
521,756
Number of prisoners in penal es-
tablishments (Strafanstalten )
at end of year : . .
Males ....
9,073
8,994
8,549
' Females ....
1,258
1,276
1,278
There are 16 penal establishments in Austria for males, and 6 for females.
Pauperism.
The right to poor relief is defined by an imperial statute, but the regula-
tions for the apportionment of the cost are made by the separate provinces,
and are consequently very various. The funds first available are those of the
public institutions for the poor (Armeninstitutionen), derived from endow-
ments, voluntary contributions, the poors' third of the property left by in-
testate secular priests, and certain percentages on the proceeds of voluntary
sales. In some provinces the poors' funds are augmented from other sources,
e.g. theatre money (Spectakelgelder), hunting licences, dog certificates, and in
some large towns percentages on legacies over a fixed amount. When, in any
given case, these funds are exhausted, the commune of origin (Heimatsgemeinde)
must make provision. Those who are wholly or ]jartially unfit for work may
be j)rovided for in such manner as the commune judges propose. Besides
poors' houses and money relief, there exists in many provinces, by custom or
by constitutional rule, the practice of assigning the poor — in respect of board
and lodging — to each of the resident householders in fixed succession.
In some ]»rovinces unions (Verbiinde) have been formed by statute to
undertake certain burdens as to poor relief. By the erection of houses for
forwarding vagrants to their proper communes (Schubstationen) a great step
was taken towards the suiq"»ression of begging and vagrancy.
The following table shows the number of olfices for the poor (Armeiiiu-
378
AUSTRIA
stitute) in Austria during five years, the number of persons relieved by
them, and the amount distributed : —
Year
Institutes
Persons relieved
Distributed
Florijis
1891
11,35
810,645
4,984,938
1892
11,878
321,594
5,062,415
1 1893
11,949
251,145
5,550,560
1894
12,962
259,929
5,312,151
1895
11,235
316,392
6,694,970
Besides these there were, in 1895, 1,155 creches, Kindergartens, &c. , with
125,877 children, 202 orphanages, &c., with 14,153 children, and 1,486 poor-
houses ( Versorgungs-Anstalten), with 43,055 inmates. The expenditure for
the poor-houses alone was 3,320,511 florins, or 0'40 florin per head, per day.
Finance,
The following table shows the expenditure and revenue of
Austria in thousands of florins ; —
1880
1890
1893
1894
1895
1896
Expenditure : —
Total in cash ,
,, in bills ,
Total .
Jtevenue : —
Total in cash .
,, in bills .
Total
432,075
41,303
473,378
445,935
37,428
559,598
88,457
629,813
420,210
691,932
27,651
743,670
65,715
809,385
728,506
8,881
648,055
1,050,023
659,163
399,181
719,583
737,387
582,163
88,457
688,050
24,684
759,544
67,850
1
731,283
10,159
483,363
670,620
1,058,344
712,734
827,394
741,442
The revenue and expenditure were given as follows in the
sanctioned estimates for the year 1899 as compared with those
for 1898 :—
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
870
Sources of Revemtc
Reichsvath and Council of Ministers
Ministry of Interior
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Worship and Instruction
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Commerce .
Ministry of Railways .
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Justice
Pensions, subventions, &c. .
State debt
Various . . . .
Total .
Branches of Expenditure :
Imperial household
Imperial Cabinet Chancery .
Reichsrath and Council of Ministers
Supreme Court ....
Contriljution to common expenditure
Ministry of Interior
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of "Worship and Instruction
Ministr^^ of Finance
Ministry of Commerce .
Ministr}'- of Railways .
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Justice
Board of Control ....
Pensions, subventions, &c. .
State debt
Management of debt .
Total
1898
Gulden
794,300
1,379,996
408,679
6,971,733
518,699,842
52,452,150
120,923,600
15,422,495
1,117,231
1,475,597
1,059,136
2,520,000
1809
Gulden
767,600
1,412,109
398,362
7,136,242
549,664,788
52,721,270
129,828,620
1.^293,050
1,135,111
489,602
1,057,080
851,000
723,221,759 [ 760,754,884
4,650,000
76,864
2,627,583
23,300
121,464,529
27,432,488
24,072,681
30,997,160
113,764,340
49,586,799
98,637,200
19,764,628
29,066,254
176,600
29,728,305
170,153,910
650,190
4,650.000
78,307
2,568,231
23,300
126,162,876
28,142,972
25,196,170
31,473,776
131,681,228
49,783,310
107,526,190
19,357,914
29,210,791
175,500
31,693,465
171,929,683
633,080
722,872,831 ' 760,286,793
The special debt of Austria in July, 1898, con.sisted of con-
solidated debt, 1,466,528,424 florins; floating, 4,260,455 florins;
total, 1,470,788,879 florins. The charge for interest and amor-
tisation was 74,580,058 florins. (See also common debt above.)
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture and Forestry.
The interests of agriculture fall to the care of the ministry of
that department,
380
AUSTRIA
The cultivation of the soil is an important industry, furnishing
employment to nearly half the population. The proportion of
productive land is greatest in Dal matia, Silesia, Moravia, Buko-
wina, Bohemia, and Galicia ; least in Salzburg and Tyrol.
As to tlie distribution of the soil in Austria, we have the following results
taken from the latest official figures : —
Percentage of
total area
Arable and garden land . . . . . .367
Vineyard O'S
Pastures and meadows. . . . . . . 23*8
Woodlands 32-6
Lakes and fishponds . . . . . . 0'4
Total area subject to taxation
Exempt from taxes
Total
94-3
57
. 100-0
In 1897 the total area cultivated was 28,176,532 hectares, while
9777,414 hectares were under woods and forests. The following table shows
tiie area in thousands of hectares (2 47 acres) of the leading crops, the total
produce in thousands of hectolitres (275 Ijushels dry, 22 gallons liquid
measure) or of quintals, and also the produce per hectare in hectolitres
or quintals.
1897
3a in
000
tares
duce
1,000
olitres
Produce
jjer
hectare
in hectol.
1897
- 0=1
Produce
in 1,000
Produce
per hectare
<^M
hectolitres
in hectolitres
quintals
quintals
Wheat .
1,058
12,637
11-9
Potatoes .
1,160
80,011
69
Barley
1,17:^
17,534
15-0
Sugar beet
211
49,206
233 1
Oats
1,911
33,888
17-7
Beet(other)
154
24,336
161-8
Rye
1,839
23,197
12 6
hectolitres
hectolitres
Pulse
278
3,009
10-8
Vineyards.
253
2,775
10-9
Buckwheat .
155
1,856
12-0
quintals
quintals
Maize .
336
4,977
14-8
ToV)acco .
4-1
63
15-3
Other cereahs.
89
1,318
14-8
Hops
17
84
3-7
Hemp
35
184
5-3
Flax. . 83
400
4-8
The following show the average produce of the leading crops in quintals
per hectare for the ten years 1886-95: — Wheat, 10 '8; rye, 111; barley,
9 '9 ; oats, 8 "9 ; maize, 12*4 ; potatoes, 791 ; wine, 16 "0 hectolitres ; sugar
beet, 208 '0 metre-centners.
Barley and wine are most largely exported, though in some years con-
siderable quantities of wheat are also exported.
In Austria in 1891 there were 1,548,197 horses, 8,643,936 cattle, 3,186,787
sheep, 3,549,700 pigs, and 1,035,832 goats.
The total value of the Austrian live stock was estimated at 487 million
florins. The export of horses, cattle, and sheep far exceeds the imports.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — MINING
381
Silk-culture, by the law of 1885, is exclusively in the hamls oi" the
Government. The produce of cocoons in Austria in 1895 was 1,968,562
kilogrammes.
There are 127 agricultural institutions in Austria, with 4,282 pupils
in 1895-96.
The administration of the forests and domains belonging to the State is
in the hands of {a) the Administrators of Forests and Domains (the heads of
husbandry) ; {b) the Direction of Forests and Domains ; (c) the Ministry of
Agriculture. Under the Administration of Domains and Forests is an
extensive association of forestry officials, and schools of various grades for
Dractical training in forestry.
The total area under forest in Austria (1895) is 9,709,620 hectares, and of this
6,828,415 hectares are under pines, and 1,425,353 hectares under other trees.
II. Mining.
Mines are worked for common coal chiefly in Bohemia, Silesia, ^Moravia,
and Galicia ; for brown coal in Bohemia, Styria, Upper Austria, Carniola,
and Moravia. Iron ore is worked in Styria, Bohemia, Carinthia, Moravia,
and Galicia ; silver ore in Bohemia ; quicksilver in Carniola ; copper ore
in Salzburg ; lead ore in Styria, Galicia, Bohemia ; zinc in Galicia,
Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg ; sulphur in Bohemia, Tyrol, and Vorarl-
berg ; manganese in Styria and Carniola ; alum in Bohemia ; graphite
in Bohemia ; petroleum and ozokerit in Galicia ; while the largest production
of salt is from Galicia, Upper Austria, and the Coast Land.
In mining there were employed in Austria in 1896, 119,797 men, 6,561
women, 5,814 juveniles, and 10 children ; total 132,182 persons. In smelting
there were employed 11,841 men, 1,143 women, 678 juveniles, 284 children ;
total 13,946 persons.
The following table shows the value of the chief mineral and furnace
products in thousands of florins : —
Common
Coal
Brown
Coal
Raw
Iron
Lead
Quick-
silver
Zinc
Silver
Copper
1880 .
19,336
15,375
15,253
1,739
775
713
2,696
382
1890 .
30,401
27,639
27,311
1,399
1,596
1,467
3,197
602
1893 .
33,550
34,040
24,186
1,104
1,068
1,213
3,330
568
1894 .
33,183
32,290
26,750
1,113
1,057
1,269
3,032
745
1895 .
34,104
34,923
27,771
1,205
1,169
1,096
2,525
461
1896
35,255
36,228
28,781
1,527
1,150
1,284
2,141
553
The total value of mining and furnace products in five years was as
follows in Austria in florins : —
— 1892
1893 1894
1895
1896 1
1
Mining products 70,438,556
, Furnace. . , 32,903,184
76,750,410 79,671,551
32,690,524 35,126,161
84,181,329
35,262,727
87,857,943
36,470,997
382
AtJSTillA
The following table shows the fxuantities and values, respectively, of the
leading minerals and furnace products of Austria in 1896 : —
Minerals
Metre-
centners
Florins
Products
Metrfe-
centners
Florins
Salt of all kinds
Black coal
Brown coal
Silver ore .
Iron ore
Lead ore .
Gold ore
3,089,332
98,995,216
188,825,365
187,010
14,486,148
173,629
4,160
22,985,353
35,254,925
36,227,608
1,921,533
3,446,479
1,058,564
48,412
Pig iron
Silver
Lead .
Zinc .
Quicksilver
Copper
Gold .
8,169,669
39^904
97,695
68,883
56,428
10,013
698
1
28,780,876 1
2,140,9i3
1,527,216
1,285,391
1,149,695
552,957
98,913
III. Sea ^C'ls^ERlEs.
rears
No. of Boats
Value daught in florins
No. of Fishel-s
Summer
Wlntet
Summer Winter
Summer
Winter
1896-97
1895-96
1894-95
1893-94
1892-93
3,642
3,531
3,404
3,437
3,342
3,218
3,073
3,101
3,079
3,147
1,638,217 [1,122,547
1,746,777 :1,084,922
1,615,469 ,1,054,146
1,799,531 |1,028,049
1,499,127 |1,039,504
14,220
13,799
14,385
13,176
12,518
12,528
11,623
11,816
11,712
11,731
IV. ManufactuIies.
In Austria, in the year 1890, there were employed in the various maiiU*
facturing industries 2,880,897 persons, of whom 2,144,606 were workmen
and 99,128 labourers. Including families and domestic servants the total
number of those dependent on the industries Was 6,155,510. For the pre-
paration of metals and the manufacture of metal wares there Were 971
establishments with 99,353 work-people ; for machinery 506 with 57,129 Work-
people ; in the stoneware and glass industries there were 1,173 establishments
with 72,547 work-people, 38,131 of whom were in Bohemia. The number of
textile factories was 2,287 with 296,481 work-people, of whom 155,098 Were
in Bohemia. There were 3,047 factories for alimentary substances with
149,195 work-people, and 592 chemical factories with 33,264 work-people.
In the various textile industries there were employed 1,970 steam engines
with a total of 113,281 horse-power. For cotton-spinning there were 153
establishments with 2,392,356 spindles, employing 33,815 work-people. For
cotton-weaving there were 194 establishments with 47.902 power-looms, em-
ploying 48,384 work-people.
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION — COMMUNICATIONS
388
In 1895 there were 1,598 breweries, producing in the year 1894-95
17,275,348 hectolitres of beer, and 37,429 distilleries which produced in
1894-95 1,368,494 hectolitres of alcohol. In the same year there were
210 sugar factories with 68,836 work-people, and 28 tobacco factories with
33,001 work-people, the output for i-he year being 331,145 metric centners of
raw tobacco.
Shipping and Ifavigation^
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the commetcial
marine of Austria on January 1, 1897 : —
—
Number
of vessels
^Tonnage
174,507
22,345
18,406
Crews
3,736
4,204
24,470
Sea-going Vessels . ; . * .
Coasting vessels .....
Fishing vessels, &c. .....
Total
253
1,526
10,336
12,115 ' 215j258
32,410
Of the total number of vessels 181 of 145,154 tons were steamers, and
11,934 of 70,104 tons were sailing vessels.
The progress of navigation la ah own as follows for Austria alone : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No.
t'onnage
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
77,635
82,295
87,503
92,637
100,873
9,094,863
9,517,265
9,494,229
10,695,978
11,771,345
77,457
82,146
87,421
92,566
100,856
9,082,491
9,514,087
9,472,485
10,692,058
11,774,758
Of the vessels entered, an average of 88 per cent, and 90 per cent, of
the tonnage, and of the vessels cleared 88 per cent, and 90 per cent, of the
tonnage were Austrian, Italy coming next, and Greece third.
At the port of Trieste" alone in rl897, 9,592 vessels of 1,934,384 tons,
entered, and 9,515 vessels of 1,928,488 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
In 1896 the total length of navigable rivers and canals in Austria was :
for-rafts only, 2,381 miles; for vessels and rafts, 1,704 miles; total, 4,085
miles, of which 8i8 miles were navigable for steamers.
38 1 AUSTKI A
The river traffic ol" the monarchy during live years was as follows : -=
Year
Danube Steam Navigation Company
Austr. North-West Steam
Navigation Company (Elbe)
Number of
Passen-
gers
(including
military)
3,271,352
3,151,414
3,168,008
2,812,318
3,256,450
Goods
and
Luggage
shipped,
in metre-
centners
Head
of
Living
Animals
shipped
Number of
Goods
carried,
in metre-
centners
Steam-
boats
Tow-
boats
Steam-
boats
Tow-
boats
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
189
187
183
186
179
766
770
787
827
854
18,303,740
21,785,290
20,301,750
19.631,340
22,405,190
41
42
44
45
46
160
157
155
151
148
5,882,172
5,462,964
7,268,500
6,403,829
8,837,390
The following are railway statistics of Austria in 1897 : State lines,
4,594 miles ; companies' lines worked by the State, 933 miles ; companies'
lines worked by companies, 5,844 miles ; total, 10,438 miles.
The following table shows the length in miles and the total cost of
construction in thousands of pounds sterling of the Austrian and mixed (partly
Hungarian) railways : —
— 1890
1893
1894
10,097
217,069
1895
1896 1
1
^^"S^" (Mixed . . 3,420
r'«c+ /Austrian. . 135,757
' "^^ IMixed . . j 113,0;0
8,773
1,648
171,791
76,117
10,244
219.029
10,438 1
221,893 '
The following table shows the traffic on the Austrian railways : —
1
— 1 1894 1895
1896 '
Passengers (in 1,000's) . 102,898 106,443
Goods carried (in 1,000 tons) 92,865 93,879
Receipts (in 1,000 florins) . 243,208 247,633
Working expenses (1,000 fls.)' 136,227 1 145,842
105,201
100,000
263,955
153,896
There were, in 1897, 5,754 post offices in Austria.
The work of the Post Office in 1896 and 1897 was as follows : —
1897
Number
809,770,210
113,036,520
Letters and post-cards
Samples and printed packets
Newspapers
Receipts (posts and telegraphs)
Expenses ....
1896
Number
740,904,060
104,816,660
87,592,600
Florins
44,373,724
41,742,829
95,533,400
Florins
44,650,851
40,705,717
MONEV AND CREDIT
385
111 Austria in 1897 there were 4,942 telegraph offices, 31,484 miles oi
telegraph line with 92,052 miles of wire, and the number of messages was
13,771,084.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the issues from the Austrian mint and the
value of notes now in circulation : —
—
1893
lfl94
1895
1896
1897
Florins
Florins
Florins
Florins 1
Florins
, Four-ducat
1 Single-ducat .
1 2,834,445
784,497
1,584,608
910,809
2,015,062
1,313,650 '
2,229,397
|. 3,196,289
Gold Franz- Josefs .
_
^^
—
—
—
Twenty & ten-
crown . .
135,042,480
97,323,530
72,011,700
80,116,220
79,825,805
Levantine
\ 2,607,600
\ 2,301,100
\ 6,455,600
5,440,700
tnaiers .
3,470,100
(pieces)
1 (pieces)
j (pieces)
1 (pieces)
(pieces)
Two-gulden .
Silver / Sinele-sulden .
■
Single-crown .
37,255,001
20,030,895
16,829,983
4,022,871
1,071,000
Twenty - kreu-
1 zer
^Ten-kreuzer .
—
—
—
—
—
Nickel /Twenty & ten-
^^^^^'^ \ heller . .
9,827,259
11,874,404
8,078,777
—
—
^Four-kreuzer .
Copper sOne-krcuzer .
iHalf-kreuzer .
—
—
—
—
—
"'""-ftaC'""^'!-
772,704
1,365,672
1,199,447
1,072,942
1,441,626
State notes in circulation
372,098,255
303,305,896
193,539,593
138,949,109
119,315,410
Austro-Hungarian bank-
notes in circulation .
486,623,620
507,808,160
619,854,140
659,726,360
699,907,100
The following are statistics for December 31, 1895 and 1896, of the
56 Austrian joint-stock and private banks, in thousands of florins : —
Liabilities.
—
Nominal
Capital
Paid-up
Reserve
Bills, (fee,
in cir-
culation
227,582
212,856
Credit
Accounts
current
Mort-
gages
Total, in-
cluding
others
1895 .
1896 .
1
233,278
241,420
217,315
71,795
81^00
534,871
511,421
666,876
734,883
1,790,432
1,642,479
Assets.
Bank
and Credit
Notes
Mortgage
LoauK
670,352
736,824
Debit
Accounts
current
Cash in hand
Total,
including
others^
1895 .
1896 .
237,421
238,593
•
597,800
578,056
43,661
36,875
1,790,482
1,842,479
c c
886
AUSTRIA
There are, besides (1894), 2,342 alliance banks in Austria.
The following are the savings-bank statistics of Austria : —
— 1893 ' 1894
1896
No. of banks ....
Depositors at end of year .
Amount deposited at end of year
- (1,000 florins)
460
2,687,805
1,461,630
472
2,786,448
1,530,713
502
2,949,082
1,659,872
The following are the statistics of the Austrian post-office savings-banks : —
1895
1896
1897
No. of banks .
Depositors at end of year
Value of deposits at end
end of year, in florins .
5,417
1,138,454
100,799,777
5,592
1,174,902
113,846,985
5,663
1,241,567
143,694,644
LIECHTENSTEIN.
The Principality of Liechtenstein, lying between the Austrian province of
Tyrol and the Rhine, though not incorporated with Austria by any treaty,
practically forms a part of the Empire. Reigning Prince, John II. , born
October 5, 1840 ; succeeded his father, November 12, 1858. The reigning
jamily originated in the twelfth century, and traces its descent through free
baroijs who in 1608 became princes of Liechtenstein, From time to time
various small domains were added to, or separated from, the territory, and in
1719 the principality as it now exists was constituted. The monarchy is
hereditary in the male line. Tlie constitution of 1862, modified in 1878 and
1895, provides for a Diet of 15 members appointed for four years (3 by the
Prince, and 12 by indirect vote). The capital is Vaduz, but the chief direc-
tion of afi'airs is at Vienna by a Court of Chancellory. The Supreme Court of
Appeal is at Innsbrucic.
The area is about 65 square miles ; population in 1891, 9,434 (4,757
males and 4,677 females) ; iiopulation per square mile, 152. The population
is of German origin, and nearly all Catholic. In 1896 the revenue amounted
to 215,896 florins ; expenditure, 199,538 florins. The principality forms part
of the Austrian Customs Union, and receives at least 20,000 florins annually
as its share of the Customs dues. There is no public debt. The Prince
has estates in Austria and elsewhere yielding about 140,000^. sterling
per annum. The inhabitants of Liechtenstein pay no direct taxes, nor are
they liable to military service. The population is agricultural, the chief
products of the country being corn, wine, flax, fruit, and* timber.
HUNGARY — CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 387
HUNGARY.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central and Provincial Government.
The Constitution of the eastern part of the monarchy, or the kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper and Croatia-Slavonia, dates from
the foundation of the kingdom, about 891. The first charter or con-
stitutional code is the 'Bulla Aurea ' of King Andrew II., granted in
1222, which defined the form of government as an aristocratic monarchy.
The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly suspended and partially
disregarded, until, at the end of the armed struggle of 1849, it was decreed to
be forfeited by the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860 ; and the present
sovereign, on June 8, 1867, swore to maintain the Constitution, and was
crowned King of Hungary.
The Hungarian Parliament (Orszaggy Tides) has legislative authority for
Hungary, and for Croatia and Slavonia in matters which concern these provinces
in common with Hungary. It consists of an Upper House (Forendihaz)
and a Lower House (Kepviselohaz).
The House of Magnates, reformed by an Act passed in 1885, now includes
the archdukes who have attained their majority, hereditary peers (the
members of 213 noble families) paying at least 3,000 fi. a year land
tax ; those Hungarian princes, counts and barons, if of age, whose families
obtained the right of hereditary jjcerage from the King, or, if not Hungarian
subjects, from the legislature ; 44 archbishops, bishops, and other digni-
taries of the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches ; 12 ecclesiastical and
lay representatives of the Protestant Confessions ; life peers appointed by
the Crown not exceeding 50 in number ; life peers elected by the Upper
House ; 17 members ex officio, being State dignitaries and high judges ;
and lastly, 3 delegates of Croatia-Slavonia. In the session of 1898 the
number of archdukes was 18, and there were 228 hereditary peers holding
the property qualification ; and 79 life peers appointed l)y the Crown or
chosen by the House of Magnates.
The Lower House or House of Representatives of Hungary is composed of
representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all male citizens, of 20
years of age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, or on an
income varying with occupation ; but in all cases low. Certain large
classes — professional, scientific, learned, and others — are entitled to vote with-
out other qualifications. The number of the electorate, according to the last
returns, was 891,732, or 1 in 18 of the population. New elections must take
place every five years. By the electoral law now in force, the House of Repre-
sentatives consists of 453 members, of whom 413 are deputies of Hungarian
towns and districts, and 40 delegates of Croatia and Slavonia.
Members of the Lower House receive 2,400 florins (200/.) a year, with an
allowance of 800 florins (66Z. 13^.) for house rent.
The Parliament is summoned annually by the King at Budapest. The
language of the Parliament is Hungarian ; but the representatives of Croatia
ami Slavonia may speak their own language.
The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry, consisting
(January 1898) of a president and nine departments, namely : —
The Presidency of the Council. — Baron Desiderius Bdnffy ; appointed
January 15, 1895.
c c 2
388 HUNGARY
1. The Ministry of Finance. — Dr. Ladislaus de LuMcs ; appointed January
15, 1895.
2. The Ministry of National Defence (Honvedelem). — Baron Geza
Fejervdry ; appointed October 28, 1884.
3. The Ministry near the King's person {ad latus). — Baron Desiderius
Bdnffy {ad interim).
4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Desiderius de Perczel ; appointed
January 15, 1895.
5. The Ministry of Education and of Public Worship. — Dr. Julius de
JVlassics ; appointed January 15, 1895.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Alexander Erdely ; appointed January
15, 1895.
7. The Ministry of Industry and Commerce. — Baron Ernest de Daniel ;
appointed January 15, 1895.
8. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Dr. Ignatius de Dardnyi ; appointed
November 2, 1895.
9. The Minister for Croatia and Slavonia, — Emerich de Josipovich ; ap-
pointed August 23, 1889.
The Croatian-Slavonian Provincial Diet meeting annually at Zagrab
(Agram), consists" of 90 members, elected for five years, representing
21 town districts and 69 rural districts, and of personal voters (not more than
half). The electors must have a low property qualification, be of
certain professions, or pay a small tax. Personal voters are certain eccle-
siastical and political dignitaries, and the members of certain noble families
(Magnates) possessing the right by inheritance or by royal nomination. They
must pay at least 1,000 fl. of land tax.
IT. Local Government.
In Hungary a distinction is observed between communes which are
large or small, or may be townships with regular magistrates, and
municipalities, which are regarded as communes of a higher order. The
communal electoral right is possessed by every inhabitant over twenty
years of age who for two years has paid the State tax. The representative
body is composed half of members elected for six years, and half of persons
who pay the highest taxes. The committee consists of members appointed, in
the towns for six years, in the rural communes for three years, with ofiicials
appointed for life. The counties and towns invested with similar rights are
independent municipalities. Each has its council constituted similarly to the
representative body of the communes ; but members are elected for ten years
All electors for the Parliament are qualified to vote. In Budapest they must
be able to read and write. The executive is in the hands of the oflicial body
of the municipality, who sit and vote with the council.
In Croatia and Slavonia each county has an assembly (Skuptschina)
similar to the Hungarian local representative bodies. The electoral qualifica-
tion is the same as for the Diet. The municipalities within the county
(except Zagrab and Eszek) send delegates, and the higher county officials
also sit and vote. In the rural communes the representative body is the
council, elected for three years ; in the towns for four years. In the
former the executive is in the hands of the magistrates ; in the latter, of the
municipal council.
AREA AND POPULATION
380
Area and Population.
I. — PkOGRKSS and PuKSKNT C )NDITI0N.
Tlie Hungarian dominions, including Croatia and Slavonia, have an area
of 322,310 square kilometres, or 125,039 English s(juare miles, with a popula-
tion at the census of December 31, 1890 of 17,463,791, or 140 per square
mile.
At the last throe census enumerations the civil population was as
follows : —
Year
Population Absolute increase
Yearly increase
per cent.
1869
1880
1890
15,417,327 1,648,814
15,642,102 224,775.
17,349,398 1,707,196
!
0-91
013
1-09
The following table gives the area and total number of inhabitants, civil
and military, of Hungary, after the census returns of December 31, 1880 and
1.S90 :—
Provinces
Area :
English
square
miles
Dec. 31,
1880
13,728,622
20,981
1,892,499
Pop'ilation, Dec. 31, l.>-90
Popula-
fion ))ev
sq. mile,
1890
Male
Female.
Total
Hungary Proper
Town of Fiunie .
Croatia and Slavonia .
Hungary .
Pop. in active military
service .
Total.
108,258
8
16,773
7,449,979
14,048
1,089,755
7,683,515
15,446
1.096,6.55
15,1.33,494
29,494
2,186,410
140
3,687
130
125,039
12.'.,039
15,642,102
97,273
15,739,375
8,553,782
114,393
8,668,175
8,795,616
17,349,398
114;393
130
140
8.795,616
17,463,79.1
The ethnical elements of the civil population on the basis of language was
as follows in 1880 and 1890 :—
— 1 1880
1890 II — 1880
1890
Hungarian (Magyar) .
German
1 Slovak ....
Roumanian
6,445,487
1,953,911
1,864,529
2,405,085
7,426,730 Ruthonian , • \ 356,062
2,107,577 Croatian . . • ) « qt;o «qo
1,910,279 Servian . . . / -.•^^-'^•^•'
2,591,905 Otliers. . . . 264,689
383,392
1,554,000
1,057,264
31S,251
There were 179,809 foreign residents in Hungaiy at the end of 1890, of
whom 159,637 were Austrian, 6,597 Germans, 5,886 Italians, 1,516 from
390
HUNGARY
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 575 French, 455 Russians, 1,168 Swiss, 381 British,
308 Tui'ks, and 16,886 others.
In Hungary, in 1890, the population according to occupations was as
follows : —
Nature of occupation
Intellectual professions ....
Servants employed in intellectual professions
Agriculture, forestry, &o.
Mining .
Industry.
Commerce
Credit ....
Traffic
Living on tlieir revenues or pensions
Day labourers
Soldiers, gendarmex'ib
Other occupations .
Unknown occupations .
Supported by State or Society
Total
Earning
128,663
36,426
4,474,653
48,412
913,010
182,264
66,787
129,362
1,242,284
114,393
44,331
9,829
Supported
Family Domestic
members! servants
215,312
67,903
6,308,804
85,678
1,184,907
235,498
118,801
92,987
1,191,413
12.508
50,633
65,099
68,069
7,389,91 I 9,697,607
76,164
2,603
121,987
1,996
59,363
52,889
10,589
21,347
4,742
4,697
1,628
16,819
1446
376,270
Total
420,139
106,932
10,905,444
136,086
2,157,280
470,646
196,177
243,666
2,438,439
131,598
96,592
91,247
69,515
17,468,791
In Hungary in 1890 there were 1,891,072 proprietors of farms,
10,139 tenant farmers, 580,217 farm ' servants, 334,846 day
labourers, 1,619,128 assistant members of households, while
11,686 were employed in other ways in agricultural operations.
The total civil population of Hungary in 1890 consisted of:
males, supporting, 5,354,341 ; supported, 3,199,441 ; females, sup-
porting, 1,921,180 ; supported, 6,879,436. The town civil popu-
lation of Hungary in 1890 numbered 2,627,060.
II. — Movement of Population.
The following table exhibits the number of births, deaths and marriages,
with the surphis of births, in the lands of the Hungarian Crown, from 1892,
according to the latest official returns : —
Year
Total
Births
StiUborn
Illegiti-
mate
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus of
Births over
Deaths
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
774,328
761,607
774,439
760,860
765,436
16,307
16,827
17,736
17,924
17,339
64,979
65,756
65,980
65,412
69,451
166,483
166,033
153,900
147,477
151,176
570,781
563,558
538,768
530,368
529,020
203,547
198,049
218,935
212,568
219,077
RELIGION
891
The percentage of stillborn to total births in Hungary is 2*3
in 1897. The rate of illegitimacy is 9"1 per cent, of the whole.
The following are the emigration statistics of Hungary for five years : —
Year
Through Hamburg and
Bremen
Accorfling to United States
statistics
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
13,566
5,427
17,536
14,808
9,676
26,219
9,000
23,684
25,879
13,791
III. — -Principal Towns.
The following were the civil and military populations of the principal
towns on December 31, 1890 : —
Budapest
505,763
Pecs (Fiinfkirchen)
35,449
Szeged
87,410
Kolozsvar (Klausenburg) 34,858
Szabadka
73,526
Mako .
32,669
Debreczen .
58,952
Brasso (Kronstadt)
32,549
Pozsony (Pressburg)
56,048
j\Iiskolcz
32,288
Hod-Mezo-Yasarhely
55,626
Bekes-Csaba.
32,244
Kecskemet .
49,600
Kassa
32,165
Arad .
43,682
Szentes
30,797
Temesvar
43,438
Felegyhaza .
30,444
Nagyvarad (Grosswarde
in) 40,750
Fiume ,
30,337
Zagrab (Agram) . ,
40,268
Religion.
In Hungary there is perfect equality among all legally recog-
nised religions. These are : — The Roman and Greek Catholic,
the Evangelical (Augsburg and Helvetian), the Greek-Oriental,
the Gregorian- Armenian, the Unitarian, and the Jewish. Each
has the independent administration of its own affairs.
The following figures relate to 1897 for Hungary Proper : —
'riests secular : —
Memljers of orders : —
Roman Catholic Church
. 5,276
Male
. 2,323
Greek Catholic Church
. 2,251
Female .
. 3,165
Greek Oriental Church
. 2,236
Protestant clergy
. 3,569
Jewish clergy
. 1,601
302
HUNGARY
Tlie following table gives the division of the civil population according to
eligion on the basis of the census of 1890 : —
1
Religion
XuniLer
per cent, of
pop.
Roman Catholics ....
Greek Catholics ....
Greek Oriental .....
Evangelical Augs. ....
, Evangelical Helv
8,820,770
1,670,682
2,632,332
1,204,040
2,225,126
50-85
9-64 1
15-17 i
6-94
12-82
1 Unitarians .....
61,645
0-35 1
Jews ......
Others
Total . . . . ;
1
725,222
9,581
4-18
0-05
17,349,398
100-00
Instruction.
Public education in Hungary comjaises the following grades: — (1)
Infant schools ; (2) elementary schools ; (3) middle or secondary schools,
gymnasia and realschools (in Croatia and Slavonia, realgymnasia) ; (4) pre-
])aratory and training institutions for infant-school nurses and male and female
reachers ; (5) academies (high schools) of law ; (6) institutions for religious
education ; (7) universities ; (8) polytechnicum (technical high school). The
schools for special subjects, such as agi'icultural, industrial, commercial,
mining, and military schools, are for the greater part administered by the
competent ministries, while the philanthro])ic and artistic schools are placed
under the authority of the Ministry of Puldic Instruction.
The progi'ess of elementary education in Hungary between the census of
1869 and that of 1880 and 1890 is shown in the following statement : —
Population
1809
1880
1890
Read and write
Read only ....
Neither read nor write .
Total .
3,990,519
1,344,292
10,082,516
5,389,190
911,557
9,341,355
7,326,372
557,854
9,465,172
15,117,327
15,642,102
17,349,398
Compulsory school attendance was established by law in 1868, for children
of six to twelve years, and repetition courses for children of twelve to fifteen
years ; the industrial law of 1872 re(|uires special courses for apprentices ; and
by the law of 1891, children from three to six years of age may be sent to
infant schools, unless otherwise ])rovided for.
Every parish or commune is bound to maintain an infant school.
Primary education is of three grades : — (1) Elementary schools connected
with a repetition school ; (2) high primary schools for boys and girls separately,
INSTRUCTION 393
with a thive years' course for ecouoiuiL' or industrial education ; (3) the so-called
Buryh-schooh (Polgari iskolak) for l>oys and girla separately, with a four years'
course. There are also high schools for girls, mostly supported by the State.
In the elonicntary schools the sul)jects taught are religion, reading,
writing, llungaiian and the mother tongne, arithmetic, some branches of
natural history and ])hysics, geography, liistory, drawing, singing, gymnastics,
elements of hygiene and horticulture ; to girls, domestic duties.
Every parish or commune is l)Ound to have a school if tlic nmnher of
children of school age is thirty. The nnnd)er of State and State-aided ele-
mentary schools is rapidly increasing. For the support of the elementary
schools every commune can levy an additional tax of 5 per cent, on the direct
State taxes. There were in 1897, 18,321 elementary schools with 29,677
teachers, and 2,437,330 pupils. The numlter of the children of school age
was 3,270,755, and the number of training colleges 81. There were besides
2,327 institutions for the care of young children, 128 'humanistic' schools,
and 43 prison schools with a total attendance of 201,557.
The gymnasia and reals(rhools (in Croatia and Slavonia, the realgymnasia)
supply preparation for the universities and for the technical high school. The
curriculum of these extends over eight years. They are maintained by the State,
b}' the laiger communes, or (in the case of the confessional schools) by ecclesias-
tical foundations, eventually with a subvention from the State. Thei-e were in
1896-97, 168 gymnasia, with 2,955 teachers and 47,047 pupils : 42 realschools,
with 878 teachers and 11,676 jaijiils. The number of iniddle schools sup-
ported l)y private persons is insignificant. The middle school teachers obtain
their diploma in training schools connected with the universities.
In Hungary there are three universities maintained by the State, eacli
comprising four faculties, viz. , theology, law, medicine, philosophy ; the uni-
versity of Budapest, with 240 professors, &c., and 4,741 pupils ; the university
of Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), with 90 professors and 795 pupils ; the university
of Zagrab (Agram), with 53 ])rofessors and 484 pupils.
There are also 55 theological colleges, viz., 40 Catholic, 4 Greek Oriental,
10 Protestant, and 1 Jewish, with a total of 1,558 students ; and 10 law
schools with 1,263 students.
The technical high school (polytechnicum) in Budapest with 101 professors
and 1,299 students, comprises four faculties, viz., universal technics and
chemistry, architectonics, machine-building, and engineering.
There are besides 812 special technical institutes, 55 training in agiicul-
ture, 227 in industries of all kinds, 39 in art and music, 6 in mining, 146 in
commerce, &c., with 130,073 students.
There were in 1896-97, 403 schools for apprentices, with 2,470 teachers and
79,661 impils.
Of 3,270,755 children of school age, 2,437,330 attended school ; the num-
ber at elementary schools was 1,880,310 ; at repetition schools, 511,989 ; at
higher city schools, 45,031. Of the school children (in proper Hungaiy)
l,i267, 410 were Magyar (Hungarian). Of the 18,321 schools, 9,968 were
Magyar ; 3,339 Magyar with another language ; 441 German ; 605 Slavonian :
2,284 Rumanian ; 1,460 Croatian ; other languages, 224. The number oif
teachers was 29,677.
In 1897, 1,203 periodicals of various kinds were published in Hungary,
215 being political papers. Of the whole, 903 were in Hungarian (75 '0 per
cent.), 146 in German (12 per cent.), the rest being in Slovenian, Croatian,
Ruthenian, &c.
394
HUNGARY
Justice and Crime.
In Hungary the ordinary judicial authorities are : —
The Royal Court (kir. kuria) in Budapest and the Supreme Court of Justice
(Table of Septemvirs) in Zagrab (Agram), of the highest instance in all civil
and criminal matters ; 12 Royal Tables (kiralyi tablak) of second instance.
As courts of first instance, 76 courts (torvenyszekek) with collegiaate judge-
ships ; 456 county courts (jarasbirosagok) with single judges ; 15 jury courts
(sajtobirosagok) for press offences, besides an army special court.
Convictions
1894
1895
1896
1897
Of crimes ....
13,148
13,072
13,283
13,128
Of less serious offences
76,048
75,750
78,963
82,532
Of misdemeanours .
336,389
344,376
378,542
385,194
Numljer of prisoners in penal es-
tablishments at end of year :
Males ....
5,097
5,005
4,863
4,780
Females ....
426
475
456
458
There are 10 penal establishments in Hungary for males, and 1 for females.
Pauperism.
In Hungary poor relief is attached to the Ministry of the Interior, but in
the main is left to communal administration. In the smaller communes
orphans and the indigent are cared for by official almoners, Avhile in the larger
there are poor-houses, the funds being mostly derived from fines and taxes.
The Church and-- charitable societies also render assistance, and several
millions of florins are annually bestowed in legacies and gifts towards beuevo-
lent purposes.
Finance.
The following table shows the expenditure and revenue of
Hungary in thousands of florins : —
1880
272,981
7,551
6,508
2,609
289,649
1890
189-4
1895
1896
1897
Expenditure : —
Ordinary
Transitory
Investments .
Extraordinary
expenditure
Total .
323,796
39,789
18,629
4,688
435,867
547,0791
36,141
6,543
929,092
37,694
31,109
6,623
445,967
15,795
47,261
6,920
455,492
13,228
70,019
9,392
386,902 1,025,630
504,513
515,943
548,131
j Revenue: —
Ordinary
Transitory
Extraordinary
214,822
17,529
84
262,435
373,223
\ 43,950
1
420,173
475,235
558,951^
477,408
53,702
531,110
500,514 511,082
17,939 45,882
i
Total .
1,034,186
518,453 556,964 '
I Increase due to special financial operations.
FINANCE
80i
The budget estimates for the year 1899 give the soUrces of
revenue and branches of expenditure as follows : —
Revenue.
Ordinary reveniio : Florins
State debts . . 1,502,2-11
'MinistYy ad latits . 1,000
,, of the Interior 3,641,888
,, Finance . 329,717,648
,, Commerce 126,342,382
„ ,, Agriculture 18,091,211
,, ,, Instruction
and Public Worship 1,820,667
Ministry of Justice . 991,956
Ministry of National
Defence .
Florins
355,044
Total of ordinary
revenue . . 482,464,037
Transitory revenue . 20,839,566
Grand total .[503,303,603
Expenditure.
!
i
Ordinary expenditure : Florins
Florins j
Civil list. . . 4,650,000
Minister-Presidency .
482,815 1
1 Cabinet chancery . 78,307
Ministry ad lattos
74,236 !
Diet . . . 1,783,966
,, for Croatia .
44,530 !
Quota of common ex-
,, of the Interior
19,600,367 i
penditure . . 28,318,076
,, of Finance .
88,487,768 1
Pensions chargeable on
,, of Commerce
86,860,961
the common exchequer 23, 203
, , of Agriculture
19,769,585
Pensions (Hungary) . 9,044,927
,, of Instruction
National debt . . 128,913,726
and Public Worship
13,111,264
Debts of guaranteed
Ministry of Justice .
16,694,141
railways now taken
,, of National
1
over by the State . 13,671,340
Defence .
16,450,404
Guaranteed railway
interests . . 293,028
Total of ordinary
Other debts . . 2,947,313
expenses .
460,005,399
1 Administration ofCroatia8,291,790
Transitory expenditure
15,869,462
Accountant-General's
Investments, total of .
27,389,585
office . . . 153,135
Administration of Courts 260,517
.
Total .
503,264,446
This shows a surplus of 39,157 florins. The estimates of the previous year
were: — Revenue, 498,775,291 florins; expenditure, 498,726,570 florins;
surplus, 48,721 florins.
The following table shows the growth of the del)t of Hungary in thousands
of florins : —
1890 1893
1894 1895
1896
1897
Consolidated debt
Annuities .
Treasury bonds .
Debts of various Min-
istries .
Arrears outstanding .
Total
841,359
928.041
13,387
24,084
123,244
854,906
1,196,180
13,039
26,202
205,601
1,061.583
1,049,695
12,061
33,508
175,142
1,061,583
1,068,265
11,413
37,650
214,911
1,061,583
1,063,742
17,200
52,360
244,785
1,089,033
1,058,740
14,891
65,214
250,067
1,030,115
2,295,928
2,331,989
2,393,822
' 2,439,670
2,477,045
89G
HUNGARY
Production and Industry.
I.— AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.
The cultivation of the soil is the head of the industries of Hungary, since
(if we inchide the forests) it furnishes employment to 60 '55 per cent, of the
])opulation ; and if family and house servants he included, the proportion rises
to 62 '45 per cent.
According to an official statement of 1893, the ownership of land in
Hungary Proper was as follows : —
Ownership
Acres
Per-
centage of
total area
Ownership
Acres
Per- 1
centage of
total area
State .
Foundation .
Railways
Fideicoinmiss
Parishes
Joint properties (be-
longing to several
owners)
3,96-2,673
353,926
59,695
3,331 843
7,949,974
4,006,413
5-67
0-51
0-09
4-76
11-37
6-59
Companies .
Church
Educational .
Private .
Total .
617,501
3,228,737
189,126
45,631,540
69,931,428
0-87
4-62
0-27
65-25
100 00
According to a statement of 1888 the size of properties in
Hungary and the number of proprietors was : —
Total Area (approxi-
—
Number
iiiatel}' calculated).
Acres
21,489,900
Under 43 acres
2.348,107
43 — 286 ,,
118,981
9 639,600
286 — 1,430 „
13,757
20,363,200
1,430 — 14,300 ,,
4,695
9,523,800
Over 14,300 ,,
231
5,619,900
According to the agricultural census of 1895, the numherof properties was
3,411,686 ; the area ot pro])erties managed by the owners, 28,008,676 hectares ;
the area of usufruct ])ro]»erties, 921,025; of rented properties, 3,403,519;
total area of the properties, 32,333,220 hectares.
Distribution of properties as to the different branches of culture in 1895: —
Branch of culture
Arable land .
Gardens
Meadows and pasturi
Vineyards
Woodlands .
Reed -bank
Infertile area .
Hectares
Percentage of
total area
Totals
13,394,705
1 41-43
430,934
1-33
7,564,185
23-40
331,751
1 03
8,987,243
27-80
84,051
0-25
1,540,351
4-76
32,333,220
100-00
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTllY^ — AGRICULTURE
397
The following tahles show the area in thousands of hectares (2-47 acres) of
the leading crops, the total produce in thousands of hectolitres (275 bushels
dry, 22 gallons liquiil measure) or of metre-centners (1-96, or nearly 2 cwts.),
and also the produce per hectare in hectolitres or metre-centners.
1S06
1
1897
Area in
Produce in
Produce
Area in
Produce in
Prodi.ce
1,000
1.000
per hectare
1.000
1,000
per hectare
luctares
hectolitres
in
liectolitres
16-72
hectares
3,013
hectolitres
in
hectolitres
Wheat .
3,363
56,232
31,669
10-51
Barley
1,079
21,448
19-88
1,015
15,306
1508
Oats
1,031
26,342
25-56
992
19,974
20-14
Rye .
1,136
18,130
15-96
1,089
13,277
12-19
Pulse
44
527
12 05
43
445
10-35
Buckwheat
13
138
10-80
12
121
10-08
Maize
2,448
51,621
21-09
2,344
41,019
17-50
Other cereals .
Total cereals .
Potatoes .
265
4,046
15-27
255
2,814
ir04
9,379
178,484
19 03
8,763
124,625
14-22
504
54,376
107-97
303
46,534
• 92-51
Sugar beet
76
15,175^
199-92
72
14,302'
198-64
Beet other
146
38,239'
26216
141
34,055'
241-52
Vineyards
248
1,572
6-36
247
1,308
5 -30
Tol)acco .
33
457'
13 -73
35
519'
15-11
Hemp
64
705
10-97
63
539
8-56
Rape
54
689
12-80
47
497
10-58
1 Metre-centners.
In Hungary (with Croatia) there were (in 1895) 2,308,457 horses, 1,911
mules, 23,855 asses, 6,738,365 cattle, 8,122,682 sheep, 7,330,343 pigs, 308,810
goats, 32,767,085 fowls, and 769,074 beehives. The export of horses, cattle,
and sheep far exceeds the imports.
In silk culture 107,454 families were engaged in 1897, compared with
1,059 in 1879. Tlie produce of cocoons was 1,330,884 kilogrammes, the
value being 1,043,911 florins.
The inhal)itants of 11,819 communes were engaged in rearing bees, whuli
produced 32,432 metric centners of honey, and 2, 235 metric centners of wax,
of the value of 1,196,347 florins.
There are 55 agricultural institutions in Hungary with 2,289 pupils.
The administration of the forests belonging to the State is in the hands of
the Ministry of Agriculture. The total area under forest was in Hungary
Proper (1897), 7,522,462 hectares; of which 2,085,488 hectares are under
oak, 3,72-2,868 hectares under beech, and 1,714,106 hectares under pine.
Of the total, 1,139,782 hectares belonged to the State ; 1,484,0^85 to muni-
cipalities and parishes ; 491,305 to ecclesiastical i)crsons ; 70,575 to pultli(!
and private foundations; 572,439 to tideicommissa; 964,783 were joint pro-
perty (belonging to several owners) ; and 144,530 belonged to joint-stock
companies. The total area under forest in Croatia and Slavonia was (1894)
1,530,442 hectaies.
398
HUNGARY
The forests are mostly situated in the Carpathians. In 1896 the Hun-
garian exports of timber and forest products amounted to 7,961,777 metric
centners, vahied at 33,534,424 florins, and the imports to 3,636,633 metric
centners, valued at 19,138,534 florins.
II.— MIXING.
In Hungary Avere employed in mining and smelting works (1897) 54,748
men, 2,373 women, and 4,961 children, total, 62,082 persons ; in saltworks,
2,042 men, and 165 children, total, 2,208 persons.
The following table shows the value of the mineral and furnace products in
florins : —
Mining products
1896
1897
Furnace products
1896
1897
j
; Gold & silver ores
Gold, silver, lead
and copper con-
taining ores .
Copper ore
Lead ore .
1 Iron ore .
Coal .
Lignite
Manganese ore .
Various ores
Total
713,064
1,049,685
182
298,986
3,023,945
5,845,791
12,573,124
2,087
20,179
760,471
1,163,215
4,395
330,214
3,778,287
6,034,445
12,541,026
9,958
28,117
Gold .
Silver
Pig iron
Copper
Lead .
Briqnettes".
Antimony ore .
Antimony crude
and antimony
regulus .
Iron pyrites
Various
5,261,300
1,178,900
15,337,100
77,300
265,800
247,300
55,700
146,400
226,400
465,100
5,030,168
1,536,608
16,020,882
113,749
368,466
216,203
85,299
156,368
176,457
561,992
24,266,192
23,527,043
^24,650,128
Total
23,261,300
III.— MANUFACTURES.
In Hungary (including Croatia and Slavonia) in 1890, there were em-
ployed in the various manufacturing industries 913,010 persons ; or 5 '26 per
cent of the population. Of these the most numerous were those working in
clothing, 185,148 ; in building, 94,212 ; in wood and timber, 93,625 ; in iron
and metals, 89,385; in food stuff's, 81,277 ; in animal products, 31,786 ; in
textile industries, 31,349 ; in leather and skins, 26,080 ; in machinery, 13,507 ;
in earthenware and glass, 12,196; in coach-building, 10,493; in chemical
products, 8,315; in printing, 8,996. Including families and domestic ser-
vants the total numl)er of those dependent on the industries was 2,157,280 ;
or 12 '43 per cent of the population.
In 1897 there were 101 breweries which brewed 1,597,086 hectolitres of
beer; 75,020 distilleries, which produced 1,026,593 hectolitres of alcohol ; 20
active sugar factories employing 10,985 workpeople, and yielding 1,688,521
metre-centners of sugar. The number of tobacco manufactories (tobacco
manufacturing being a State monopoly) was 19, occupying 19,493 work-
people and producing 5987 million cigars and 794*3 million cigarettes. The
number of mills (without Croatia and Slavonia) was 20,005, of which 1,723
were steam-nulls, 15,417 water-mills, 712 wind-mills,, and 2,033 hoise-mills.
Much industrial work is carried on in the homes of the people.
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
399
Commerce.
The special commerce of Hungary for live years was as follows (iu thousands
of florins) : —
Imports .
Exi)orts .
1893
1,000 florins
513,696
524,543
1894
1895
1,000 florins | 1,000 florins 1,000 florins
1896
546,278
562,564
543,977 548,975
504,812
544,704
1897
1,000 florins
554,814
540,980
In 1896 and 1897 the chief imports and exports were (in thousands
of florins) :—
Imports
189C
1897
Cotton goods
Woollen goods
Silk goods
Clothing . .
Refined sugar
Wine in casks
Coffee . .
06,307
44,317
13,273
19,001
10,655
14,543
9,797
62,170
38,797
12,295
16,901
10,742
15,219
9,632
Exports
Flour
Wlieat, barley, maize
Oxen, pigs, horses .
Wine in casks . .
Cask staves . . .
W^ool
Eggs
1896
81,596
99,647
69,902
19,588
10,312
8,604
9,431
1897
84,007
84,379
70,403
17,040
10,456
7,150
8,125
In Hungary the values are fixed annually by a permanent commission, comprising
merchants and a few representatives of industry and agriculture, with the approval of the
Ministries of Finance, Commerce, Agriculture, and other authorities. In general, gross
values are taken, and they are determined according to the value the goods represent at
crossing of the frontier.
Of the imports in 1897, 24 '14 per cent, in value were raw material and
75 '86 percent, were manufactured; of the exports 59 "64 per cent, in value
were raw material and 40 '36 per cent, manufactured. The imports
into Hungary from Austria were 428,756,000 florins, or 77 '28 per cent. ;
the exports to Austria were 412,113,000 florins or 76*18 per cent, of
the whole. The imports from Germany were 27,565,000 florins; and the
exports to Germany were 50,956,000 florins. The imports from Great Britain
(^mostly cotton goods and tobacco) were 5,025,000 florins ; and the exports
to Great Britain (mostly flour and barley) were 11,115,000 florins. Other
countries having considerable trade with Hungary are Servia, France,
Switzerland, Italy.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the commercial
marine of Hungary, on January 1, 1898 : —
' —
Number of
vessels
Tonnage
62,224
5,228
427
Crews
Sea-going vessels
Coasting-vessels
Fishing vessels, &c. .
, Total.
76
153
273
1,181
527
714
502
67,879
2,422 '
400
HUNGARY
Of the total number of vessels 70 of 45,630 tons were steamers, and 43^ of
22,249 tons were sailing vessels.
The progi-ess of navigation is shown as follows : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
15,371
16,118
15,545
15,398
18,700
1,317,764
1,480,552
1,489,795
1,592,985
1,844,385
15,361
16,129
15,502
15,335
18,679
1,312,595
1,481,734
1,485,673
1,586,107
1,848,586
1
Of the vessels entered in 1897, 84 per cent, and 64 per cent, of the tonnage,
and of the vessels cleared 84 per cent, and 64 per cent, of the tonnage were
Hungarian, Austria and Italy coming next, and Great Britain fourth.
At the port of Fiume alone in 1897, 10,270 vessels of 1,348,004 tons
entered, and 10,231 vessels of 1,352,616 tons cleared.
Internal Oommunications.
In 1897 the total length of navigable rivers and canals in Hungary was
4,971 kilometres, of which 3,095 kilometres were navigable for steamers.
The river traffic of Hungary during five years was afe follows : —
Year
Number of
steamboats i
Nt;mber of
passengers carried'-
Goods carried
in tons -
1893
1894
1885
1896
1897
112
113
116
120
128
2,503,523
2,429,509
2,164,373
2,966,202
2,461,002
3,071,590
2,906,251
2,520.504
3,842,679
3,265,758
1 Exclusive the Danube Steam Navigation Company.
2 Inclusive the Hungarian traffic of the Danube Steam Navigation Company,
In 1897 the Ferencz canal, connecting the Danube and the Tisza ^Theiss),
was frequented l»y 2,153 steamers and 910 rafts, the goods carried amounting,
to 2,502,002 metric centners.
The following are railway statistics for live years : —
MONEY AND CREDIT
401
—
1893
1894
1895
4,676
2,472
1,500
8,648
91, .594
53,181
31,894
9,410
5,105
1896
1897
Length of lines on 31st Dec. :—
State lines (miles)
Comiianies' lines worked by the
1 State . . . .
I Companies' lines worked by coui-
panies
Total length (miles)
. Capital expenditure (1,000/.)
Passengers carried (1,000's).
Goods carried (1,000 tons) .
Receipts (1,000/.)
Working expenses (1,000?.) .
4,621
1,754
1,435
7,810
82,469
45,582
35,014
8,549
4,475
4,670
2,024
1,407
8,161
86,488
49,578
40,758
8,956
4,703
4,680
2,892
1,667
4,753 '
3,268
1,763
9,239
95,163
57,542
34,991
10,304
5,438
9,784
103,492
56,98-'
35,724
10,103
5,505
The following are statistics of the Hungarian post-office for three years :■
—
1895
4,558
1896
4,607
1897
4,681
Number of offices ....
Letters and post-cards (1,000's) ,
198,048
222,295
236,825
Newspapers (1,000's) '.
89,081
93,943
92,635
Samples and printed packets (1,000's).
31,283
34,706
43,253
Money and postal orders (1.000's)
16,216
17,136
18,015
value (1,000Z.).
39,583
41,575
41,892
Parcels and money letters (1,000's)
1
15,689
16,320
18,114
In 1897 there were in Hungary 2,899 telegraph offices and 13,375 mile^ of
telegraph line with 64,515 miles of wire. The number of messages v.as
13,396,578.
The united postal and telegr;4)h i-eeeipts amounted to 1,589,500^. sterlil!^^
and the expenses to 1,162,300Z.
Money and Credit.
The coinage of the Hungarian mint in live years was as follows (In
thousands of florins) : —
i
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
1,000 florins
1,000 flori's
Gold:
4-ducat .
—
—
—
—
_—
1 -ducat .
—
—
—
—
20-crowii .
50,888
25,257
19,353
10,227
36,373
lO-crowii .
5,434
4,928
—
159
2,589
Silver :
Florin
—
—
—
—
—
Crown
12,193
6,039
9,272
2,489
—
Copper
—
—
—
_
Nickel
3,506
4,585
840
—
Bronze
213
435
694
564
798
D D
402
HUNGARY
During the period 1867-97 the total gohl coinage amounted to 235, 814, 000
florins ; the silver coinage to 130,300,000 florins ; and the fractional coinage
(small silver, copper, nickel, and bronze) to 24,564,000 florins.
On December 31, 1897, there were in Hungary 307 joint-stock and private
banks with a total nominal capital of 185,642,000 florins ; 666 savings-banks
with nominal capital of 77,541,000 florins ; and 1,158 co-operative (alliance)
banks. The liabilities and assets of all the banks were as follows (in
thousands of florins) : —
LIABILITIES.
—
Paid-up
Eeserve
Bills, &c.
in circu-
lation
Credit
accounts
current
Deposit
Mort-
gages
1,000 fls
370,469
131,015
501,434
Total,
including
others
1,000 fls.
1,195,931
1,026,188
109,588 !
Joint-stock and
private
Savings-bank.s
Co-operative
(alliance) .
Total .
■
1,000 fls.
139,784
70,501
51,377
261,756
1,000 fls.
58,451
59,707
3,736
1,000 fls.
18,438
1,555
1,000 fls.
154,418
32,448
186,869
1,000 fls.
178,194
619,942
39,162
837,298
121,894
19,993
2,331,707
ASSETS.
—
Bank and
credit
notes
Mortgage
loans
Debit
accounts
current
Advances
on stocks
and mort-
gages
Bond-
loans
' Total,
Stocks including
otliers
Joint-stock and
private
Savings-banks
Co-operative
(alliance) .
Total .
1,000 fls.
190,443
312,457
35,427
1,000 fls.
374,733
356,763
15,545
1,000 fls.
200,073
102,541
96
1,000 fls.
20,026
13,996
5,361
1,000 fls.
9,190
19,086
41,381
1,000 fls.
87,196
93,680
2,048
1,000 fls.
1.195,931
1,026,188
109,588
538,327 747,041
302,710
39,383
69,657
182,924
2,-331,707
The following are statistics of the post-office savings-banks :-
—
1894
1895
3,983
276,565
10,858,000
1896
1897
No. of banks .
Depositors at end of year .
Value of deposits at end of
year, in florins
3,942
257,303
10,232,000
4,019
295,597
11,701,000
4,125
314,047 i
12,185,000 ;
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Austria-Hungary in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Francis Deyra, accredited November 26, 1888.
Councillor. — Count Albert Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein.
Secretary. — Count Nicolas Revertera.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA iOS
Attachd. — Herr H. L. "Wagner.
Military AttadU. — rrincc Alois Eszterhazy, F.M.
Naval Attachd. — Commander L. Sztranyavszky.
ChaiKcllor. — E. K, Rilti.
Co7isiil-Gc7ieral. — 'Bavon A. cle RotlischiUl.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford,
Bristol, Cardiff, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool (C.G.), Man-
chester, Plymouth, Sheffield, etc.
2. Of Great Britain in Austria-Hungary.
Ambassador.— Ut Hon. Sir H. Rumbold, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.; appointed
Ambassador to Austria- Hungary, October, 1896.
Secretary — Ralph Mill)anke, C. B.
Military Attache. — Col. F. AI. Wardrop, C.B.
Comvicrcial Attachd. — A. A. Bennett.
There are Consular representatives at Vienna (C.G.), Buda-Pcst (C.G.),
Fiume, Trieste, Prague, Lissa.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA.
The Ottoman Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were, by the Treaty
of Berlin (July 13, 1878), handed over to the Austro-Hungarian Govern-
ment for administration and military occupation. The direction of the
administration of the two occupied provinces is exercised by the Bosnian
Bureau, entrusted to the Imperial Finance Minister in Vienna in the name
of the Emperor-King. The chief authority in the province itself, with its
seat in Sarajevo, is the provincial government (Landesregierung), in three
departments, for internal affairs, finance, and justice. For administration
purposes there are 6 district (Kreis) and 48 county (Bezirk) authorities.
The provincial government is provided with an advising body, composed
of the ecclesiastical dignitaries of Sarajevo and 12 representatives of the
populace. Similar councils are also provided for the district and county
authorities. For the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1897 the
expenditure was estimated at 18,165,680 florins, and the revenue at 18,087,103
florins. There was, for 1898, an extraordinary estimate of 3,489,000 florins
for the army.
Bosnia and Herzegovina contain six districts (Kreise), with an area_ of
23,262 square miles. The Sanjak of Novi-Bazar is occupied by an Austrian
military force, though administered civilly by Turkey. In 1895 the popu-
lation numbered 1,568,092 (828,190 males and 739,902 females). Moham-
medans, 548,632; Oriental Orthodox. 673,246; Roman Catholic, 334,142;
Evangelical, 3,596 ; other Christians, 251 ; Jews, 8,213 ; other religions, 12.
The nationality is Servian, only in the southern districts are Arnauts, and
here and there gipsies. The most populous towns are the capital, Sarajevo,
with 38,083 ; Mostar, 14,370 ; Banjaluka, 13,666 ; and Dolnia Tuzla, 10,227.
There is 1 higher gymnasium, 2 gymnasia, 4 commercial schools, 943
elementary schools, with 1 Greek-Oriental, and 1 Roman Catholic seminary
for priests, and 1 training college for teachers. In the village schools the
teaching of practical agriculture has been introduced.
There is an upper court of justice in Sarajevo, the 6 district (Kreis)
courts and the county (Bezirk) authorities as courts of first instance.
The agricultural population in 1895 numbered 1,385,291 or 88 per cent, of
the whole, but agriculture is in a very low state of development, though the
soil is very fertile. Tobacco, the most important crop, is a Government mo-
nopoly from which, in 1897, the gross receipts amounted to 4,500,000 florins.
Maize, wheat, barley, oats, rye, millet and buckwheat, potatoes, flax,
and hemp, are cultivated. Both provinces have superabundance of fruit,
D D 2
404 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The vine is grown in Herzegovina, but the wine produced is insufficient
for the local supply. Dried plums are an important article of export ; sugar-
beet is cultivated, and there is a government sugar factory at Usora, near Dohoj.
Silk-culture has been introduced. Cattle-grazing is important. Forest land
occupies 45 per cent, of the whole area. In Bosnia and Herzegovina in
1895 there were 233,322 horses, 1,416,394 cattle, 1,447,049 goats, 3,230,720
sheep, and 662,242 swine.
Minerals are abundant ; mining is now carried on (mainlj'' by the
Government) for iron and copper, manganese, chromium, quicksilver, and
coal. In 1896 the output of coal was 219,206 tons, of iron ore 22,846 tons, of
copper orp 3,946 tons, of manganese 6,713 tons. The miners employed
numbered 3,300. There are salt-pits at Dolnia Tuzla and an ammoniac soda
factory with an annual output of 11,810 tons. In 1892 there were 24 mines,
6 foundries, and 2 salt works.
Bosnia and Herzegovina belong to the Aiistro-Hungarian customs territory,
and their trade statistics are inculuded in those of Austria-Hungary.
There are 481 miles of railway, which, in 1897, carried 1,214,938 passen-
gers and 555,958 tons of goods, the total receipts being 2,465,294 florins.
There are 1,767 miles of telegraph lines.
In 1896 there were transmitted 7,742,154 letters and postcards, and
2,773,617 packets of printed matter, samples, and newspapers.
Military service is compulsory over 20 years of age. The native troops
comprise 12 infantry battalions (each of 4 companies), with a total of 5,185 men,
on peace footing. The Austro-Hungarian troops of occupation have at
present a strength of 18", 881 men.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Austria-Hungary. — Official Publications.
Army. Militai-Statistiehes Jahrbuch. Vienna.— Handbook of the Military Forces of
Austria-Hungary, Prepared in the Intelligence division of the War Office. London, 1891.
Commerce &c. Statistik des auswiirtigen Handels des osterr.-ungar. Zollgehiets.
Annual. Vienna. — Statistische Uebersichten betreffend dem auswartigen Handel des
(isterr.-ungar. ZoUgebiets. Monthly. Vienna.— Annual Statement of the Trade of the
Qnited Kingdom with Foreign Countries, &c., London.— Foreign Office Reports. Annual
Series and Miscellaneous Series. London.
Foreign Office List. By Sir Edward Hertslet. Annual. London.
Money, Credit, &c. Tabellcn zur Wiihrungs-Statistik. Vienna, 180(5.
Pauperism, Health, &c. Statistik der SanitJitsverhaltnisse der Mannscliaft des K. unci
. Heeres. Annual. Vienna.
Navy. Almanachfiirdiek. k. Krings-Marine. Annual. Vienna.
Statistics (general). Statistisches Handbuch der osterr.-ung. Monarchie. Vienna, 1891.
— Hof-und Staatshandbuch der osterr.-ungar. Monarchie. Annual. Vienna.
2. Non-Official PuBLic.vnoxs. — Austria-Hungary.
Auerbach{B.). Les Races et les Nationalites en Autriche-Hongrie. Paris, 189S.
Baedeker's Handbook for Southern Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Transylvania.
Leipzig, 1894. — The Eastern Alps. Leipsic, 1S95.
Brachelli(H. F.), Statistische Skizze der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarcliie. 13,
Auflage. 8. Leipzig, 1802.
Chavanne (Dr.), Physikalisch-statistischer Handatlas der Oesterr.-Ungar. Monarchie,
Wien, 1882-88.
Chronik, Volkswirthschaftliche, von Oesterreich-Ungarn, 1887. Hgg. von Blau. Wien.
1888.
Cfarfce (Ernest), Agiicultural Administration in Austria-Hungary, 'Journal of the R,
Agricultural Society,' January, 1891.
Czoernig (Freihcrr von), Ethnographie der Oestcrreichischen Monarchie, 3 vols Wien,
l8'>5 57,
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 405
Dupai7i(l,.), L'Ailministration militaire austro-hongroise, &c. 8. Paris, 1894.
Export-Compass, 1S90. Il^g. von Dorn. Wien, 1S90.
Ficker (A.), Die Vulkerstainme tier Oesterreicliiscli-Uiigarisclien Monarchic. 8. Wien,18G9.
Honig. Die list.-ung. Lebensversicheruugs^'t'suUschaften, 1S8S. Wicii, 1889.
Hiinfalvi (Di: J.), A iiiagyar-osztn'ik hirodaloiii fiUdrajza. 8. Pesth, 18Sf">.
Kdulbars {A. V.), f/Armoe aiistro-hongri)ise. Paris, 189:^.
Kay (David), Austria-Hungary. London, 1880.
Konta (Ignaz), Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch dcr Oesterreicliisch-Ungarisclien Monarchic. 21.
Jahrgang. Wien, 1891.
Lr(jer{lj.), Hist.oire de rAutriche-Hongrie, 4th ed. Paris, 189r». [Eng. Trans, of 1st ed.
by Mrs. niri<beck Hill. Loudon, 1889. J— La Save, le Danube, et le Balkan. Voyage chez
les Slovcn.^s, &c. Paris, 1884.
Levy (Daniel), L'Autriche-Hongrie, ses institutions, &c. Paris, 1872.
Mayer {\f. M.), Geschichte der osterreichiscli-ungarischen iMonarchie. Wien, 1894.
Monarchic. Die cist.-ung. iu Wort und Bild auf Anregung des Kronjirinzen Rudolf.
Wien, 1880-90. Lieferung 1-11(5.
Oesterreichisch-Uugarische Revue. Redigirt von J. B. Meyer. Wien.
/J«'ci««(Elisee), Nouvelle Geographic Universelle. Vol. HL 8. Paris, 1878.
Schwingenxchloeiil (R.), Der er.st Beauiten-Vcrein der osterreicliisch-ungarischen
Monarchic Wien, 1890.
Statistik d. dst.-ung. Aktiengesellschaften. Ausdem ' Aktionar,' 1888-89. Frankfurt, 1890.
C7m/ai(/< ( K. ), Die osterreichiscli-ungarische Monarchic, 3rd ed. Vienna, 1890.
Whitman (Sidney), The Roahn of the Habsburgs. 8. London, 1893.
Worms (Baron Henry de). The Austro-Hungarian Empire, 8. London, 1877,
AUSTRIA.
1. Official PuuLiCATioNf.
Agriculture, Industries, Ac. Ackerl)au-Ministeriums, Statistisches Jahrbuch, Heft L
Statistik der Ernte. Heft IL— Bergwerksbetriebe osterreichs. Annual. Vienna.— Arbeits-
einstellungen im Bergwerksbetriebe walirend 1894. Vienna, 1890.
Commerce, &c. Nachrichten iiber Industrie, Handel und Verkehr. Annual. Vienna.
— Das Handelsmuseuui and sujiplements with consular Reports. Vienna.
Finance. The Budget estimates of Revenue and Expenditure for Austria. Annual. —
Statistik Uber den Zustand &r.. der Finanzwache in lS9j. Vienna, 1897.— Ergebnisse der
Verzehrungssteuer. Annual. Vienna.— Mittheiiungen des k. k. Finanz-ministeriunis.
Annual. Vienna.
Instruction. Statistik der Unterrichts-Anstalten. Annual. Vienna.
Justice, Crime, *c. Ergebnisse der Strafreclitspflege ; der Concurs verfahrens ; der
Strafanstalten ; der Civilreclitspflege. Annual. Vienna.
Money, Credit, &c. Statistik der Banken. Annual. Vienna.— Statistik der Spar-
kassen. Annual. Vienna.
Navy. Annuario Marittimo. Trieste.
Pauperism, Health, (fee. Jahrbuch der Wiener k. k. Krankenanstalter. Vienna.
Population. Ergebnisse der Volkszithlung vom 31 December, 1890. Vienna.— Bewegnng
der Bevolkerung. Annual. Vienna.
Reichsge-setzblatt. Vienna, 1897.
Railways, Posts, Telegraphs, <fec. Haupt«rgebnisae des cisterr. Eisenbahn-Statistik.
AnnuaL Vienna.- Statistik des Verkehrs. Annual. Vienna.— Statistik des bsterr. Post-
und-Telegraphwe.sens. Annual. Vienna.
Shipping. Navigazione e Commercio in Porti Austriaci. Annual. Trieste.
StJidtebuch (osterrcichischos): Stxitistische Berichte der grbsseren, osterreichischen
Stadte. Annual. Vienna.— Statistisches Jahrbuch der atadt Wien, bearbeitet von
Sedlaczek und Liiwy. Vienna.
Statistics (general). Osterr. Statistisches Handbuch. Annual. Vienna.— Handbuoh
der Vereine fvir die im Reichsrathe vertretencn Kdnigreiche und Liinder. Annual.
Vienna.— Statistische Monatsschrift. Vienna.— Statistiche Mittheiiungen iiber die Verhalt-
ni.s3e Galiziens. Annual. Lemberg.
Xon-Officiai. Publicatioxs.
Batty (B.), Moravian Schools and Customs. 8. London.
Beer, Die Finanzcn Oesterreichs im 19. Jahrhundert. Prag, 1877
Bonrlier (J.), Les Tcheques et la Boheme conteniporaine. Paris, 1897
Chamagne (A.), Sensations de Dacie et d'Hlyrie. Paris, 1896.
Coldstream (J. P.), The Institutions of Austria. Westminster, 1895.
406 HUNGARY
Commenda (H.), Materialen zur landeskund lichen Bibliographie Obeiosterreiclis. Linz,
1891.
Compass, Cnanziolles Jahrbuch. Gegriindet von Leonhardt, 1889. Hgg. von Heller.
Wien.
Jackson (T. G.), Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria. 3 vols. 8. Loudon, 1893.
Hnher (A.), Geschiclile der Staatsbildimg und des oft'entlichen Rechts. Prag, 1895.
Hw.hner (J. A. von), Une annee de nia vie (18-18-49). Paris, 1891.
Kaiyeles (B.), Moravian and Silesian Miners. Statistical inquiries into their Social and
Economic Conclition. Vol. I. London. 1894.
Lorenz (J. R. v.), Atlas der Urproduction Oesterreichs. Wien, 1878.
Lutzoio (Count), Bohemia : an Historical Sketch. 8. London, 1896.
Marbeau (Edouard), Slaves et Teutons. Paris, 1882.
Maurice (C. E.), Bohemia from the Earliest Times to 1620. [In " Story of the Nations "
Series]. 8. London, 1896.
Murray's Handbook for South Germany and Austria. Two Parts. 8. London.
Peez (Dr. Alexander), Oesterreich und der Orient. 8. "Wien, 1875.
Turn and Taxis (Princess of), Travels in Uukuown Austria. 4. London, 1896.
Vlbrich. Handbuch der osterreichischen Verwaltung. Wien, 1887-89.
Werkowitseh, Das Land Vorarlberg. Denkschrift. Innsbruck, 1887.
Yriarte (C), La Dalmazia. 8. Milan, 1878.
HUNGARY.
1. Official Publications.
Agriculture, Industries, (.tc. Mittheilungen des K. Ung. Ministeriums fiir Ackerbau
Industrie, und Handel. Monthly. I3ndapest. — Ungarns Miihlen-Industrie in 1894. Buda-
pest, 1896.
Commerce, &c. Ungarns Waaren-Yerkehr. Annual. Budapest. — Auswartiger Handel
der Lander der ungarisclien Krone. Annual. Bu(hipest.
Finance. The Budget estimates of Revenue and Expenditure for Hungary. Annual.
Hungary and its People, The IMillennium of, Edited by J. de Jekelfaluss3\ Budapest, 1897.
Instruction. Das ungarische Unterrichtswesen, aus dem Bericht des Ministers. Annual.
Budapest.
Statistics (general). Ungarische Statistische Mittheilungen. Annual. Budapest. —
Ungarisches Statistisches Jahrbuch. Annual. Budapest.— Zigeuner-Conscrijition, Ergeb-
nis.se der. Budapest, 1895.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Arnold-Forster (F.), Francis Deak, a Memoir. London, 1880.
Bell (F. A.), Ungarn in Wort und Bild. Zurich, 1890.
Brote (E.), Die runiiinische Frage in Ungarn. Berlin, 1895.
Browning (II. Ellen), A Girl's Wanderings in Hungary. 8. London, 1896.
Butler (K.J).), Articleon Hungary in Encyclopedia Britannica. Vol. XII. Edinburgli, ISSl.
Ch(lard{R.), La Hongrie conlemporame. Paris, 1891.
Dux (A.), Aus Ungarn. Leipsic, 1880.
Felbermann (L.), Hungary and its People. London, 1892.
Gerrard (E.), Transylvania: The Land beyond the Forest. London, 1888.
Godkin (E. L.), History of Hungary and the Magyars. London, 1853.
Guides Joanne, Etats du Danube et des Balkans. l'"c Partie, Hongrie Meridionalc, &c
Pari.s, 1888. 1 1 '»c Partie, Haute Hongrie, &c. 2 vols. Paris, 18 >3.
Kalin{J.), Das Iieutige Budapest. Budapest, 1895.
■ Lang (L.), Magyarornag statistikaja. Budapest, 1885.
Liiher (F. von), Die Magyaren und andere Uugarn. 8. Leidzig, 1874.
Mandello (Dr. Karl), Riickblickc auf die Entwickelung dor ugariuschen Volkswirthschaft.
Budapest, 1871-1894.
Mazuchelli (N. E.), Magyarland. 2 vols. London, 1894.
Nemenyi (A.), Das moderne Ungarn. Berlin, 1880.
Patterson (Artliur J.), The Magj'ars ; tlieir Country and its Institutions. 2 vols, S.
London, 1870.
Prigl, Ortslexicon fiir die Konigreiche Kroatien und Slavonien. Nach amtlichen Quellen
Es.sek, 1888.
Singer and Wolfner's Handbook for Hungary and Budapest. 8. London, 189C.
Soiiiogyi (E.), Ludvvig Kossutli, sein Leben und Werken. 8. Leipzig, 1894.
Steinbaeh (G.), Die ungarisclien Verfassungsgesetze. Wien, 1891.
Sturm (Albert), Uj Orszaggyiilcbi Almanach. Budapest, 1887.
F(MnW?-2/ (A.), Der Ursiirung der Magyaren, Leipzig, 1882. Hungary. In "Storv of the
nations Series. 8. London, 1887.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 407
Vautier (G.), La Hongrie economiqxie. 8. Paris, 1S93.
TVirth (Max), Uiigarn und seine Bodenschiitze. Frankfort-on-Maine, 1875.
Zoricic, Statistischc Skizze der Konigreiche Kroatieu und Slavonien. Agrani, 1885.
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Das Bauwesen in Bosnien und der Ilercegovina, vom Baudepartement der Landesregier-
nng in Sarajevo, 1887.
Ortscliafts- und Bevolkerungsstatistik von Bosnien und Hercegovina. Amtliche
Ausgabe. 1885. — Hauptresultate der Volksziihlung vom 22 April, 18P5. Vienna, 1896.
Ergebnisso der Viehziihlnng, 1805. Vienna, IS'.iG.
Asboth (J.), An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina. [Translation.] 8.
London, 1800.
Blau (Dr. E. O. F. H.),Reisen in Bosnien und der Herzegowina. 8. Berlin, 1877.
Coquelle (P.), llistoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnic. Paris, 1890.
Eian8{A. J.), Tiirough Bosnia and Herzegovina on foot. 8. London, 187G.
Uaardt (V. von), Die Occujiation Bosniens und der Herzegovina. 8. Vienna, 1878.
Laveleye, The Balkan Peninsula. London, 1887.
Mntiro (R.), Rambles and Studies in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia. London, 1895.
Novibazar und Kossovo. 8. Vienna 1802.
Sainte-Marie (E. de) L'Herzegovine. Paris, 1875
Schneller (H.), Die Staatsrechtliche Stellung von Bosnien und Herzegovina. Lcipzic,
1802.
Schwarz (Di. B.), Aus den Osten ; Reisenbriefeu aus Ungarn, (fee. 8. Chemnitz, 1876.
Stillman (W. J.), Herzei^ovinaand the late uprising. London, 1877.
The Land of the Bora ; Camp Life and Sport in Dalmatia and the Herzegovina, 1894-06.
[Author not named.] London, lb07.
Thoemmel (Gustav), Beschreibung des Vilajet Bosnien. 8. Vienna, 1867.
Yriarte (C), Bosnie et Herzegovine. 12. Paris, 1876.
408
BELGIUM.
(ROYAUME DE BeLGIQUE.)
Reigning King.
Leopold II., born April 9, 1835, the son of King Leopold I.,
former Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and of Princess Louise,
daughter of the late King Louis Philippe of the French ;
ascended the throne at the death of his father, Dec. 10, 1865 ;
married, Aug. 22, 1853, to Queen Marie Henriette, born Aug. 23,
1836, the daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria.
Children of the King.
I. Princess Louise, born Feb. 18, 1858; married, February 4,
1875, to Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, born March 28,
1844, eldest son of Prince August, cousin of the reigning duke,
and of Princess Clementine of Orleans, daughter of the late King
Louis Philippe of the French.
J I. Pwaicess Stejihanie, born May 21, 1864 ; married to the
late Archduke Diede Rudolf, only son of the Emperor of Aus-
tria and King of Hungary, May 10, 1881 ; widow January 30,
1889.
III. Princess Clementine, born July 30, 1872.
Brother and Sister of the King.
I. Philippe, Count of Flanders, born March 24, 1837 ; lieutenant-general
in the service of Belgium ; married, April 25, 1867, to Princess Marie of
HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen. Offspring of the union are three children living : —
1. Princess Henriette, born November 30, 1870 ; married February 12, 1896,
to Prince Emmanuel of Orleans, Due de YendOme. 2. Princess Josephine,
born October 18, 1872 ; married, May 28, 1894, to Prince Cliarles-Antoine
of Holienzollern. 3, Prince Albert, born April 8, 1875.
II. Princess Charlotte, born June 7, 1840 ; married, July 27, 1857, to Arch-
duke Maximilian of Austria, elected Emperor of Mexico July 10, 1863 ; widow
June 19, 1867.
King Leopold II. has a civil list of 3,300,000 francs.
The Kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent
State in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands.
The secession was decreed on October 4, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, established in consequence of a revolution which
broke out at Brussels on August 25, 1 830. A National Congress
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 409
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg King of the Belgians en.
June 4, 1831 ; the prince accepted the dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. By the Treaty of London,
Nov. 15, 1831, the neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by
Austria, Russia, Great Britain, and Prussia. It was not until
after tlie signing of the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which
established peace between King Leopold I. and the sovereign of
the Netherlands, tliat all the States of l^^urope recognised the
Kingdom of Belgium.
Constitution and Government.
According to the Constitution of 1831 Belgium is 'a consti-
tutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legisla-
tive power is vested in the King, the Senate, and the Chamber of
Representatives. The royal succession is in the direct male
line in the order of primogeniture. By marriage without the
King's consent, however, the right of succession is forfeited, but
may be restored by the King with the consent of the two
Chambers. The King's person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government.
No act of the King can have effect unless countersigned
by one of his ministers, who thus becomes responsible for
it. The King convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers.
In default of male heirs, the King may nominate his successor
with the consent of the Chambers. If the successor be under
eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of majority,
the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nominating a
reo^ent dimng the minoritv.
According to the law amending the constitution, promulgated
7th September, 1893, the Senate consists of members elected for
eight years, partly directly, and partly indirectly. The number of
Senators elected directly is proportioned to the population of
each province, and is equal to half the number of members of the
Chamber of Representatives. The constituent body is similar to
that which elects deputies to the Chamber, except that the
minimum age of electors is fixed at thirty years. In 1895-96 the
number of electors was 1,186,000, disposing of 1,924,000 votes.
Senators elected indirectly are chosen by the provincial councils,
two for each province with less than 500,000 inhabitants ; three for
each with a population up to 1,000,000; and four for each with
over 1,000,0U0. No one, during two yea,rs preceding the election,
must have been a member of the council appointing him. All
410 BELGIUM
senators must be at least forty years of age, and those elected
directly must pay not less than 1,200 francs in direct taxes, or
own immovable property in Belgium yielding an income of
12,000 francs. In provinces, however, where the number
eligible for the Senate would be less than one in 5,000 of
population, the list is extended to this proportion by admission
of the most highly taxed. Sons of the King, or failing these,
Belgian princes of the reigning branch of the Boyal Family are
by right Senators at the age of eighteen, but have no voice in the
deliberations till the age of twenty-five years.
The members of the Chamber of Bepresentatives are elected
directly. Their number is proportioned to the population, and
cannot exceed one for every 40,000 inhabitants. They sit for
four years, one half retiring every two years, except that after a
dissolution a general election takes place. Every citizen over
twenty-five years of age, domiciled for not less than one year in
the same commune, and not legally disqualified, has a vote. Every
citizen over thirty-five years of age, married or widower, with legi-
timate issue, and paying at least 5 francs a year in house tax, has a
supplementary vote, as has also every citizen over twenty-five years
of age owning immovable property to the value of 2,000 francs, or
having a corresponding income from such property, or who for two
years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds
either directly or through the Savings Bank. Two supplementary
votes are given to citizens over twenty-five years of age who have
received a diploma or certificate of higher instruction, or who fill
or have filled ofiices or engaged in private professional practice,
implying at least average higher instruction. No person has
more than 3 votes ; failure to vote is a misdemeanour, punish-
able by law. There were in 1896-97 1,401,951 electors
possessing, in all, 2,141,041 votes. Deputies must be not less
than twenty-five years of age, and resident in Belgium. Each
deputy has an annual indemnity of 4,000 francs (160/,), and a
free pass over Government railways between his home and the
place of Session.
The Senate and Chamber meet annually in the month of
November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but the King
has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and
of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. In the
latter case a new election must take place within forty days, and
a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjournment
cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the con-
sent of the Chambers. Money bills and bills relating to the contin-
gent for the army originate in the Chamber of Representatives.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 411
Tlic Executive Government consists of eight departments, under tlic
jol lowing Ministers :^-
President of the Council, Minister of Railways, <(-c., and Minister of
War. — M. J. H. P. van den Pcerehoom.
Minider of Finance. — M. Liebaert. Appointed January 23, 1899.
Minister of Forciqn Ajffairs. — M. P. dc Favercau. Appointed Fel»ruary
25, 1896.
Minister of Justice. — M. V. Bcgerem. Appointed October 26, 1884.
Minister of Interior and Public Instruction. — M. Schollaert. Appointed
May 25, 1895.
Minister of Agriculture and Piiblie Works.— U. L. dc Bruyn. Appointed
October 26, 1884.
Minister of Indiistry and Labour. — M. Coorcman. Appointed Januaiy
23, 1899.
Besides tlie above responsible heads of de]xirtments, there are a number of
' ^linistres d'Etat,' without portfolio, who form a Privy Council called together
on special occasions by the sovereign. The acting ministers, as such, do not
form part of the. Privy Council.
Local Government.
The provinces and communes (2, 607 in 1896) of Belgium have a large amount
of autonomous government. The provincial and communal electors are the
same as those who elect the senators directly. Communal electors must have
Iteen domiciled at least three years in the commune, and a supplementary
vote is given to owners of real property yielding an income of at least 150
francs. No one has more than 4 votes. In communes with over 20,000
inhal)itants there are coimcillors elected directly, by single vote, by citizens
enrolled on the communal electoral lists, and possessing :he qualilications requi-
site for electors to the Councils of Industry and Labour ; half the councillors
are apjiointed liy the working-men electors, and half by the electors who are
industrial heads (chefs d'industrie). In communal elections vote by ballot
is suppressed, except when there is merely a single mandate to be conferred.
Candidates obtaining an absolute majority are declared elected ; others have
seats allocated in accordance with thesystem of " Proportional Representation."
In the year 1896-97 there were 1,188,208 provincial and 1,124,276 comnmnal
electors. To be eligible to the Provincial or Communal Council, persons must
l)e twenty-live years of age and domiciled in the province or commune. Half
the Provincial Council is renewed every four years, and it meets lifteen days each
year. There is a permanent deputation of six members elected, which is pre-
sided over by the Governor of the province. All provincial and communal
interests, including local linances, are under the care of the Council, as far as
they are not provided for in the general administration. The Communal
Councils are elected for eight years, half being renewed every four years. In
each commune there is a college composed of the Ijurgomaster, president, and
a" certain number of aldermen, corresponding to the permanent deputation of
the Provincial Council, and both are the organs of the central administration.
412
BELGIUM
Area and Population
Belgium ha;? an area of 29,455 scjuare kilometres, or 11,373 English square
miles. The following table shows the population in the various census years
since 1846, with the absolute increase and the rate percent, of increase be-
tween each of these years : —
Census
Years
1846
1856
1866
Population
Total
Increase
192,265
298,372
Increase
per cent.
per annum
Census
Years
Population
Total
Increase
1
Increase
per cent,
per annum
4,337,196
4,529,461
4,827,833
•44
•65
1876
1880
1890
5,336,185
5,520,009
6,069,321
508,352
183,824
549,312
1^05
•85
•99
The kingdom is divided into nine provinces, the area and population of
which were as follows at the census of December, 31, 1890, and on December
31, 1897, with population per square mile at the latter date: —
Provinces
Area :
Eng. sq. miles
Population
-I
Population per
sq. mile, 1S9T
Dec. 31, 1890
Dec. 31, 1897
Antwerp (Anvers)
1,093
699,919
296,759
728-9
Brabant
1,268
1,106,158
1,240,739
978-5
rk„aers {J^
1,249
738,442
792,297
634-3
1,158
949,526
1,014,369
875-7 i
Hainaut
1,437
1,048,546
1,112,440
774-1 j
Liege .
1,117
756,734
826,762
740-1 j
Limbourg .
931
2-22,814
236,510
254-0 1
Luxembourg
1,706
211,711
218,062
127-8
Namur
Total .
1,414
335,471
348,655
246-5
11,373
6,069,321
6,586,593
579-1
In 1897 there were 3,285,543 males and 3,301,050 females.
According to the census returns of 1890 there are 2,485,072
Belgians who speak French only; 2,744,271 who speak Flemish
only; 32,206, German only; 700,997, French and Flemish;
58,590, French and German ; 7,028, Flemish and German ;
36,185 who speak all three languages; and 4,972 who do not
speak any of the three.
The census returns for 1890 according to occupation are
tabulated as follows : —
AREA AND POPULATION
413
Males
Females
Total
Mining and metal industries .
Industries connected with vegetable
products
Industries connected with animal
products .....
Mixed industries ....
Commerce
Professions and official occupations .
Various occupations and independent
1 Total
1 Without profession or status .
Grand total
277,997
226,818
38,806
282,881
215,559
505,847
509,261
15,266
35,442
13,415
190,878
111,532
153,440
362,246
293,263
262,260
52,221
473,759
327,091
659,287
871,507
2,057,169 1 882,219
1,151,093 2,199,592
1
2,939,388
3,350,685
3,208,262
3,081,811
6,290,073 1
1
The difference between the above total and that of the popu-
lation of 1890 is no doubt accounted for by the fact that many
persons are entered under more than one head. It is estimated that
about 426,000 people are directly engaged in agricultural pursuits.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages in five years : —
i Total '
Illegiti-
Illegiti-
Surplus of
Year
Living
Still-boru
mate
mate per
Deaths
Marriages
Births over
i Births
(Living)
100 Births
Deaths
1893
183,062
8,636
16,086
8-79
125,530
47,065
57,532
1894
; 181,466
8,572
16,316
8-99
118,213
47,735
63,253
1895
' 183,015
8,627
15,811
8-64
125,148
49,712
57,867
1896
188,533
9,188
]6,510
8-75
113,748
52,585
74,785
1897
i 190,987
8,718
15,885
8-32
113,502
54,198
77,485
The following' t^ble shows the immigration and emigration : —
1893 1894
1895 \ 189G
1897
Immigi-ation .
Emigration .
Excess of immigration .
21,686 24,635
22,117 18,302
23,476
18,617
24,501
19,762
26,878
21,830
-431 1 + 6,333
+ 4,859
+ 4,739
-5,048
The following are the populations of the most important towns,
December 31, 1897 :—
414
BELGIUM
Brussels and
Verviers . . ,
suburbs ^
551,011
Bruges
Antwerp
271,284
Louvain .
Liege
167,305
Seraing
Ghent .
161,125
Tournai .
Mechlin .
54,848
Courtrai .
52,726
50,990
41,906
37,832
36,214
32,949
Naniur
. 32,732
Ostend
. 31,762
St. Nicolas
. 29,921
Alost
. 28,771
Mons
. 23,613
Charleroy .
. 23,480
1 The suburbs comprise S distinct communes.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants number only 10,000,
while the Jews number about 4,000. The State does not interfere
in any way with the internal aifairs of either Catholic or Protes-
tant Churches. Full religious liberty is granted by the Constitu-
tion, and part of the income of the ministers of all denominations
is paid from the national treasury. The sums granted in the
budget for 1898 are 5,234,000 francs to Roman Catholics ; 93,200
francs to Protestants ; and 19,000 francs to Jews ; besides 56,000
francs for various ecclesiastical expenses. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees
and voluntary gifts.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses and
185 deaneries; there are 5,622 Catholic churches and chapels of
all kinds. In each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary, and there
are besides 10 smaller seminaries. At the census of 1890 there
were 1,643 convents in Belgium, of which number 218, with
4,775 inmates, were for men, and 1,425, with 25,323 inmates, for
women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the
greater number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is under a
synod composed of the clergymen of the body, and a representa-
tive from each of the congregations.
Instruction.
There are four universities in the kingdom, three of them with
four ' facultes,' or branches of study, and one, Louvain, nursery
of the clergy, with five ; Ghent and Liege are State universities,
Brussels and Louvain free. The following table gives the number
of students attending the various ' facultes ' in each of the four
universities in the academical year 1896-97 : —
INSTRUCTION
415
1
Universities
Students of
Total
Theology
Jurispru-
dence
Philoso-
Medicine Sciences
Brussels .
Ghent
Liege
Louvaiu .
— 239 i 103
— 1 109 76
— 209 130
49 342 242
423 191 1,006
148 113 446
227 431 I 997
410 j 224 1,266
Attached to the universities are various special schools of en-
gineering, arts, manufactures, mining, &c., with a combined at-
tendance of 1,084 students in 1896-97. Other special schools are
the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, with 1,426 stu-
dents in 1896; schools of design, 17,632 students; royal con-
servatoires and other schools of music, 16,854.
The following are the statistics for the end of 1895 of the
various classes of public schools : —
—
No.
Pupils
—
No.
Pupils. 1
Royal Athe-
M i d d 1 e-cl a s s
1
n?eums and
normal schools
4
129
colleges .
35
7,324
Primary normal
Mid die-class
schools .
53
' 3,196
schools (male) .
88
15,789
Primary schools .
6,546
752,062
Middle-class
t
Infant ,,
1,769
164,540
schools (female)
40
6,941
1
Adult ,,
1,937
80,959
Besides the above public schools there are many private or free
schools — about 80 colleges, 65 middle-class schools for boys, 150
institutions for girls, besides many infant, primary, and adult
schools, mostly under ecclesiastical care.
By a law of 1842 each commune was required to have at
least one primary school. The Acts now in force are those of
1884 and 1895, by which the cost of primary instruction de-
volves on the communes, while the State and provinces inter-
vene by way of subsidies. The total sum spent on elementary
education in 1895 was 32,867,773 francs by State, provinces,
and communes,and including fees, <fcc.
There were in the school year 1895-96, 38 industrial schools,
with 12,009 pupils, and 48 professional schools and courses
with 6,775 pupils.
The proportion of the population above fifteen years who could
not read or write at the census of 1890 was 26*9 per cent., and
between seven and fifteen years 26*7 per cent. In the year 1896
there were 63,401 young men called out for military service, and
of this number 8,002 could neither read nor write ; 31,401 could
41G
BELGIUM
simply read and write, 1,160 could only read, 23,292 had more
complete instruction, and concerning 706 there was no return.
Justice and Crime.
Judges are appointed for life by the King from lists prepared by the Senate
and by the Court. There is one Court of Cassation for the whole kingdom.
There are three Courts of Appeal, and there are Assize Courts for criminal
cases. The country is divided into 26 judicial arrondissements or districts, in
each of which is a Court of first instance. In each canton there is a justice of
the peace, a police court, and a judge of the peace ; there are 216 such cantons.
There are, besides, special military, commercial, and other tribunals. There
is trial by jury in all criminal and political cases. The Gendarmerie (2,586)
and the Garde Civique are utilised for the maintenance of internal order.
The following table shows the number of criminals sentenced at the Assize
Courts and Correctional Tribunals in the years stated : —
- ISOO
1892 1893 I 1894
1895
1896
Assize Courts
Correctional
Tribunals
97
40,275
183 1 129 139
49,731 47,887 j 44,769
109
42,116
110
44,847
The mean number of inmates of the various classes of prisons was : —
— 1 1880 i 1890
1893
1894
1895
1890
Central prisons .
Secondary ,,
Ileformatories^ .
824
2,881
1,005
860
3,424
905
1,180
3,392
301
1,098
3,408
317
715
3,721
258
761
3,634
249
1 In 1891 the reformatories were classed as charities ; since that year the figures show
only the number of children in the correctional branch of the State charity schools annexed
lo the Glient central prison.
Pauperism. .
Apart from private charitable associations, which are numerous, public
charity is administered under precise regulations. The only public chaiity
institutions are refuges, depots cle mendicit{:, or alms-houses, hospitals, and
the bureaux de bicn/aisancc, the administrators of which are appointed liy the
Communal Councils, while the provinces of the State contribute to maintain
certain classes of hospitals, refuges, or alms-houses, au'l asylums. It is the
duty of the commune to furnish assistance to its paupers. The charity
institutions received in donations and legacies 3,159,056 francs in 1894;
3,676,719 francs in 1895 ; 2,606,232 francs in 1896. Outdoor relief is pro-
vided under certain conditions. The statistics of the depSts de mcndicite for
the reception of beggars and vagabonds (adults) were as follows : —
Year
Total Mean
Entries Foiuilation
,., ' V ! Total
Expenditure \ear ^^^^^..^^
Mean
Population
1
Expenditure 1
!
1890 17,124 , 4,644
1892 i 6,813 3,564
1893 ' 3,834 ! 4,324
francs ' 1
1,246,004 1894 ' 4,534
915,112 1895 4,055
1,076,411 1896 3,516
4,193
4,529
4,430
francs
1,136,678
1,248,886
1,303,140
FINANCE
417
State Finance.
The ordinary and extraordinary revenue and expenditure of
Belgium for the years stated are shown in the following table ni
thousands of francs : —
Years
1880
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Revenue
Expenditure
Ordinary
Extra-
ordinary
Total
Ordinary
l.OOOfr.
291,921
340,526
346,346
347,264
352,285
362,600
371,829
l,000fr.
l.ooofr.
02,294
394,215
37,878
378,404
55,601
401,947
66,781
414,045
45,393
397,678
42,589
405,185
23,901
395,730
480,940
l,000fr.
292,009
335,231
338,723
341,004
344,701
353,340
364,819
Special
l,000fr.
90,899
82,663
63,445
64,906
49,829
49,219
45,564
Total
l,000fr.
382,908
417,894
402,168
405,910
394,529
402,559
410,383
437,608
The following table gives the details of the proposed budget
for the year 1898 : —
Ordinary Revenue
Francs
Ordinaiy Expenditure
Taxes, direct : —
Property taxes
Personal taxes
Trade licences
Mines .
Taxes, indirect : —
Customs
Excise .
Succession duties .
Registration duties
Stamps
Various
Tolls :—
Rivers, Canals, &c.
Railways
Telegraphs .
Post Office .
Pilotage dues, kc
Capitals & revenues: —
Domains, forests, &c.
Unused amortisation
fund, securities,
national bank,&c.
Repayments .
25,456,000
20,085,000
7,400,000
600,000
36,246,632
52,420,297
19,940,000
19,900,000
6,500,000
5,771,000
1,590,000
154,000,000
6,880,000
13,160,020
1,430,000
2,718,000
10,051,900
4,149,749
Interest on public
debt and sinking
fund
Civil list and dota-
tions
Ministry of Justice .
„ Foreign
Affairs .
aiinistry of Interior
and Public Instruc-
tion
Ministry of Agricul-
ture k Public Works
Ministry of Railways,
Posts, Telegraphs,
and Telephones .
Ministry of War
, , Finance .
Gendarmerie
Repayments, &c.
' Ministry of Industry
and Labour
Francs
Total ordinary
revenue . I 388,298,598
Totil onlinary
penditure
ex-
114,152,253
4,930,200
21,517,990
2,797,065
26,378,070
21,773,694
116,337,880
48,320,375
19,514,515
4,917,100
1,896,000
2,743,560
385,278,702
V. K
418
BELGIUM
In the budget for 1899 the total revenue is estimated at
435,037,428 francs.
The following table shows the total amount of the national
liabilities of the kingdom in 1898 : —
Share of the Netherlands debt at 2^ per cent.
Loans at 3 per cent. ....
Total
Francs
219,959,632
2,346,633,844
2,566,593,476
Almost the entire debt of Belgium was raised for and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of State
railways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of
the debt, with the exception of the 21 per cent, old debt.
The total debt amounts to about 151. lis. per head of popula-
tion, and the annual charge to about 125. ; or, including civil and
military pensions, &c., to about 15s. per head; but the interest
is more than covered by the revenue from railways alone. The
total exports of home produce average 9^. 10s. per head.
Local Finance.
The provincial budgets for the year 1895 show a total revenue for all the
provinces of 15,663,866 francs, and a total exj^enditure of 14,582,162 francs,
thus leaving a surplus of 1,081,684 francs.
According to the communal budgets for 1892, the total revenues and
expenditures of the communes were : —
Francs. i Francs.
Ordinary revenue . 118.742,538
Extraordinary revenue 59,278,223
Total
178,020,761
Ordinary expenditure . 117,144,576
Extraordinary expenditure 62, 1 72, 21 6
Total
179,316,792
Defence.
The maritime frontier of Belgium is 42 miles in length ; the
Dutch frontier, north and east, 282 miles ; the German frontier,
in the east, 60 miles ; the Luxembourg frontier, in the east,
80 miles ; and the French frontier, south and west, 384 miles.
The chief military arsenal of the kingdom is Antwerp, where also
are the fortified towns of Dendermonde and Diest. There are
fortifications at Liege, Huy, and Namur on the Meuse, and at
Mons, Tournai, and Ypres on the French frontier, and in 1887 an
extensive scheme for the further fortification of the Meuse was
resolved upon and is being carried out.
The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every
able man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable, and
also voluntary enlistment. Substitution is permitted. The an-
nual contingent required is about 13,300 men. The legal period
of service is eight years, of which, however, two-thirds are
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
410
allowed, as a rule, on furlough. The country is divided into two
military circumscriptions or districts ; the first comprising the
province of Anvers and the two Flanders', and the second the rest
of the country. There are military schools of various grades
and several establishments for special military education.
The following is the composition of the Belgian army, apart from the
general staff and the administrative and sanitary services : — Infantry : 1 regi-
ment of carabineers, of 4 active and three reserve battalions, eacli of 4 companies
and 1 depot ; 1 regiment of grenadiers, 3 regiments chasseurs-a-pied, 14 regi-
ments of the line, each of these three bodies of 3 active and 2 reserve battalions
eachof 4 comjianies and 1 depot ; a corps of discipline and correction ; a school
for army cadets. Cavalry : 2 regiments of chasseurs, 4 regiments of lancers,
2 regiments of guides, each of 5 active squadrons and 1 depot. There are
also three divisions of gendarmerie each of 3 com])anics, and 1 light squadron.
Artillery : A special staff ; 2 regiments of field artillery each of 8 mounted bat-
teries, 2 reserve liatteriesand 1 depot battery ; 2 regiments of field artillery each
of 7 mounted batteries, 2 horse batteries, 3 reserve batteries, and 1 depot
battery ; 3 regiments of fortress artillery, each of 14 active batteries, 2 reserve
batteries, and 1 depot battery ; 1 regiment of fortress artillery of 16 active
Itatteries, 2 reserve batteries, and 1 depot battery ; 4 special companies —
pontooners, artificers, mechanics, and armourers. Train, consisting of a staff,
7 companies, and 1 depot company. Engineers : A special staff ; 1 regiment
of 3 battalions each of 4 companies of sappers and miners, 1 battalion of reserve
of 4 companies and a depot ; 5 special companies, telegraphists, railway corps,
&c. The following is the peace-strength of the Belgian army in 1898 : —
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
Gendarmerie
Others ^
Total
Officers
Rank and File
Total
1,745
1 304
i 534
27,900
5,760
8,214
29,645
6,064
8 748
146
1,860
2,006
59
631
2,831
1,449
2,890
2,080
3,419
48,014
51,433
1 General staff, train, administrative, military school; &c.
For the army there are 9,040 horses and 204 guns, and for the gendarmerie
1,845 horses. In time of war the total strength is 4,466 oflicers, 143,628
men, and 25,823 horses.
Besides the standing army, there is a 'Garde Civique,' numbering
in 1898, 42,827 men, organised as far as possible in the communes, and part
of whose duties is to maintain the integrity and independence of the territory ;
it is only active in communes of over 10,000 inhabitants and in fortified
places.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In each province of Belgium there is an Agricultural Commission appointed
by the King ; delegates from which, along with specialists, form a supreme
council of agriculture. There are six special services connected with the
K E 2
420
BELGIUM
department of agriculture, dealing with forestry, clearing and planting, irriga-
tion, veterinary affairs, cultivation, and agricultui-al laboratories.
The tendency in Belgium is to a great subdivision of holdings ; these
increased from 572,550 in 1846, to 910,396 in 1880, the date of the latest
statistics. At that date the holdings of various sizes were as follows : — Less
than 1 hectare (2 '47 acres) 594,376 ; from 1 to 5 hectares 226,088 ; from 5 to
10 hectares 48,390 ; from 10 to 20 hectares 25,893 ; from 23 to 50 hectares
12,186 ; above 50 hectares 3,403.
The area worked by owners increased by 94,650 hectares between 1866
and 1880. In 1880, 713,019 hectares were worked by owners, and 1,270,512
by farmers.
Of the 2,945,715 hectares which compose the area of Belgium, 67*34 per
cent, are under cultivation, and 16 '61 per cent, under forest, 7 '88 per cent,
uncultivated, the rest roads, marshes, rivers, &c. The population connected
with agriculture in 1880 numbered 1,199,319, or 21*77 of the whole.
The following figures show the yield of the chief crops for two years.
For the area under the various crops there are no more recent statistics than
those of 1880 :—
Crop
Area cultivated
1880
Yield
1896
1897
Hectares
Wheat .... 275,756
Barley . . • , 40,156
Oats 249.327
Rye ... . 277,362
Potatoes . . . 199,229
Beet (sugar) . . . ' 32,606
,, (other) . . . 1 26,171
Hectolitres
6,653,911
1,346,827
9,254,900
7,666,206
Quintals
29,612,723
10,583,982
1 10,758,422
Hectolitres
6,681,568
1,264,914
10,596,398
6,520,380
Quintals
29,037,626
8,722,105
11,776,950
In 1895 the yield of tobacco gi'own in Belgium was 5,166,000 kilogrammes.
The net revenue from forests alone in 1890 was 4,830,884 francs.
In 1880 there were 271,974 horses, 1,382,815 horned cattle, 365,400 sheep,
and 646,375 pigs.
II. Mining and Metals and other Industries.
There is a special department for the administration of Industry and
Labour. There are a Superior Council of Industry, a Council of Mines,
and a Council of Prud'hommes or specialists for advising the State as to the
interests of various industries.
The number of quarries in Belgium in 1896 was 1,409, workmen 32,601.
The number of workmen engaged in metallic mines in 1894 was 1,581 ;
in 1895, 1,422 ; in 1896, 2,017.^ The quantity of iron ore produced in 1895
was 307,031 tons, valued at 1,417,820 francs. There were in 1895, 223
coal mines in Belgium, of which 120 were worked. The number of work-
people in 1896 was 119,246 (in 1893, 116,861), of whom 888 were women
(in 1893, 2,172), 5,781 boys (in 1893, 6,359), working undcrgroimd. The
production of coal, and its value, were as follows : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
421
1890
1892
19,583
201,288
1893
1894
1895
1896
Tons (1000) .
Value in 1000 frs.
20,366
268,503
19,411
181,406
20,535
191,292
20,451
193,357
21,252
202,010
The (luantity of iron ore imported in 1895 was 1,857,624 tons ; in 1896,
2,069,676 tons, mostly from Luxemburg.
The quantity and value of pig iron and manufactured iron produced were
as follows : —
1892
753,268
38,716
189;}
' 745,264
1 36,052
1894
1895
1890 ,
Pig iron
Tons
Value (1,000 fr.)
818,597
40,828
1
829,234
40,207
948,023 '
50,810
Manufactured iron
Tons
1,000 fr. ,
479,008
64,879
48.5,021
61,873
453,290
57,589
445,899
55,729
449,032
64,004 1
Steel ingots
Tons
1 Million fr.
260,037
23,277
273,113
22,929
405,661
33,011
407,634
31,018
598,974 :
50,511^ 1
Steel rails, &c.
Tons
1,000 fr.
208,281
27,601
1
! 224,922
28,868
)
341,318
40,201
367,917
42,419
519,311
63,129
In 1896 there were 17 pig-iron works in activity and 3 unemployed ; 34
blast furnaces active and 9 inactive ; number of workmen, 3,305.
For the manufacture of iron there were 49 works active and 2 inactive ;
357 puddling furnaces active and 75 inactive ; number of workmen, 14,821.
Of steel works there were 12 active and 2 inactive ; Martin and other
furnaces, 9 active and 4 inactive ; Bessemer converters, 16 active and 15 in-
active ; number of workmen, 5,382.
The value of the zinc produced in 1896 was 45,912 francs, and the
workmen employed 4,970; value of lead, 5,149,000 francs ; of silver from
lead, 3,189,000 francs ; number of workmen, 727.
In 1896 there were 123 sugar manufacturing establishments which turned
out 199,844,000 kilogrammes of raw sugar, and 32 refineries giving an output
of 71,729,000 kilogrammes. There were also 209 distilleries in operation,
whose output was 546,470 hectolitres of alcohol at 50" G.-L.
In 1896 there were 422 fishing vessels of 9,981 tons, of which 432 vessels
were engaged in deep-sea fishery and the value of the deep-sea fish caught
was 2,981,833 francs.
Commerce.
The value of the general commerce in the year 1896 was,
imports 3,037,371,700 francs, and exports 2,720,302,115 francs;
in 1897, imports 3,090,829,820 francs, and exports 2,837,271,890
francs. Of the general imports in 1897, those by sea were valued
at 1,522,554,528 francs, and by land and river at 1,503,275,292
422
BELGIUM
francs; of the exports, those by sea were valued at 1,326,318,124
francs, by land and river 1,410,953,766 francs. The following
table shows the value of the imports for home consumption, the
exports of Belgian produce and manufactures, and the transit
trade, in millions of francs : —
1891
1802
1S03
lS9-i
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Transit
Million frs Million frs Million frs
1,799-8 ! 1,536-5 1,575-1
1,519-0
1,328-0
1,369-4
1,274-9
1,355-9
1,234-3
Million frs
1,574-5
1,303-7
1,120-9
Million frs Million frs
1,680-4
1,385-4
1,219-4
1,776-7
1,467-9
1,252-3
Million frs
1,818-0
1,568-4
1,268-8
in Belgium a distinction, as regards valuation, is made between imports subject to
ad valorem duties and other goods imported or exported. For the former, statistics are
drawn up according to the values which have served as a basis for the calculation of the
duties. For the others a commission of five members availing themselves of Bourse and
official quotations, and of information supplied by the Cliambers of Commerce, fixes average
vahies — without regard to countries of origin or destination. For imports the official values
comprise the first cost and cost of transport to the frontier, but not customs duties or
excise ; for exports, tliey consist of the cost at the place of production and the cost of
transport to the frontier. The quantities of goods subject to duty are strictly scrutinised ;
but for goods free of duty, imports and exports, the declarations of the parties interested
are generally accepted. When the gross weight is given an official tare is deducted. In the
case of goods subject to ad valorem duty the administration has a right of pre-emption at
the declared value increased by 10 per cent, when tlie importers disagi-ee with the fiscal
authorities and are unwilling to risk a reference of the dispute to experts.
The leading articles of special commerce were as follows in the
year 1897 :—
Imports
1,000 francs
Exports
1,000 francs
Cereals
312,505
Yarns, linen, wool, &c.
107,153
Textiles, raw
161,912
Coal, coke .
90,731
Chemicals and drugs .
101,828
Cereals
84,358
Timber, &c.
102,503
Machinery, carriages .
74,961
Resins, &c.
83,680
1 Chemicals, drugs
72,135
Oil seeds
49,803
Textiles, raw
80,168
Mineral substances
89,415
Tissues
55,841
Tissues, wool, cotton, silk
60,781
Steel ....
63,147
Coffee
60,828
Hides, raw and tanned
66,573
Hides, raw
64,867
Iron ....
72,590
Animals, living .
46,816
Glass ....
76,082
Animal products
35,478
! Meat ....
21,839
Metals
89,132
Sugar, raw and relined
59,382
Yarns, linen, wool, kv.
28,718
Animal products .
34,519
Manures
16,698
Zinc ....
42,597
Wines
24,565
Manures
28,328
Dyes, colours
25,893
Oil seeds
21,179
Coal, coke .
38,086
Animals (horses) .
35,095
Machinery .
24,834
Mineral substances
50,494
Butter and margarine .
13,519
' Resin, bitumen .
26,078
Tobacco, raw
10,217
j Dyes and colours
23,032
COAIMKRCE
423
The following table shows tlie respective shares of the leading
countries in the special commerce of Belgium in two years : —
The imports into Great Britain from Belgium, and exports of
British produce and manufactures to Belgium, according to the
Board of Trade returns, are shown in the subjoined tabular state-
ment for five years : — ■
— 1 1893 1894
1895
189G
1897
Imports into
Great Britain
Exports of
British pro-
duce .
£
16,818,979
7,130,605
£
17,052,405
7,632,901
£
17,545,636
7,326,965
19,221,408
7,816,152
£
20,885,812
8,231,686
The principal imports into Great Britain from Belgium, and
exports of British produce to Belgium (Board of Trade returns)
were : — ■
42i
BELGIUM
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Iiiii)orts into Great
£
£
£
£
£
Britain :
Woollen yarn
1,063,171
1,057,211
1,165,340
1,107,418
959,476
Silk stufts & lib-
bons
1,647,729
1,896,496
1,800,608
1,844,382
1,886,969
Flax .
647,001
431,142
849,856
1,078,219
1,024,206
Sugar .
1,220,666
651,725
960,439
985,495
967,735
Bar iron & manu-
factures .
759,176
782,054
515,207
917,637
1,017,621
Eggs .
682,636
885,136
713,464
694,322
768,077
Poultry, rabbits,
&c.
372,493
352,183
360,738
394,497
391,371
Exports to Belgium :
Cottons
1,104,711
1,026,862
1,096,337
1,278,891
1,398,108
Cotton yarns
387,504
448,465
350,069
330,583
294,126
Woollens
922,509
1,036,254
992,530
959,443
895,253
Machinery .
677,304
782,762
652,979
721,081
765,969
Iron .
255,553
275,420
276,951
537,754
672,017
Of foreign and colonial produce, amounting to 4,556,834^.
sent from Great Britain to Belgium in 1897, raw cotton was
valued at 373,867/., and wool at 1,653,460/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The condition of the merchant marine of Belgium is shown as
follows on December 31 : —
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Total
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
No.
Tons
No.j Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
10
46
4,393
71,553
5
50
917
78,272
5
53
917
84,822
5
54
917
86,296
5
56
917
84,510
56 75,946
55
79,189
58
85,739
59
87,213
61
85,427
The navigation at Belgian ports is shown as follows : —
Vessels-
Entered
Cleared
Total.
1890
1894
1895
1896
1897
No.
7,357
7,381
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
7,483,206
7,487,976
No.
Tons
5,785,980
5,803,168
11,589,148
7,272
7,273
6,513,730
6,542,962
7,249
7,227
6,858,237
6,811,765
7,814
7,815;
8,241
8,210
16,451
7,971,950
7,927,525
14,738
14,545
13,056,692
14,471
13,670,002
15,621
14,971,182
15,899,475
Of the total in 1897, 4,551 vessels of 3,023,916 tons entered
from, and 5,781 of 4,644,281 tons cleared to England ; the United
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS — MONEY AND CREDIT 425
States coming next with 361 of 929,991 tons entered, and 238 of
690,333 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
The length of public roads in Belgium was 5,705 miles in 1896, and of
navigable water (rivers and canals) 1,363 miles.
The length of railways open in Belgium on January 1, 1897, was :
lines worked by the State, 2,056 miles ; worked by companies, 795 miles ;
total 2,851 miles.
The total number of passengers conveyed by the State railways in 1896
was 82,676,592, and by the companies 24,155,216. The gross receipts in
1896 amounted for the State to 160,434,763 francs, of which 52,877,800
fi-ancs were for passengers; and for the companies 43,182,882 francs, of
which 13,184,718 francs were for passengers ; expenses for the State
90,757,306 francs ; for the companies 20,429,910 francs. The first cost of
the State railways from their origin in 1834 to the end of 1896 amounted to
1,434,552,921 francs ; the net receipts from 1835 amounted to 1,574,864,517
francs, and the financial charges to 1,494,727,924 francs.
The work of the Post Office in Belgium for three years was as follows : —
— 1894
1S95
1896
1897
Private letters .
Official letters .
Post-cards
Printed matter .
Newspapers
105,197,611
20,578,796
42,502,135
82,263,614
103,449,177
109,921,305
20,786,583
45,177,886
89,061,193
110,695,533
110,566,990
20,597,401
45,376,318
91,274,339
101,513,576
117,848,690
23,145,817
49,420,449
96,456,423
110,587,241
On January 1, 1897, there were 893 post offices in Belgium. The gross
revenue of the Post Office in the year 1897 amounted to 21,625,862 francs,
and the exi)enditure to 11,710,829 francs.
The telegraphs in Belgium carried 9,448,856 despatches, |)rivate and
official, in the year 1897. In 1897 the total length of public telegraph
lines was 3,955 miles, and the length of Avires 41,895 miles. There were in
1897, 1,026 telegraph offices. Receipts in 1897, 7,141,089 francs ; expenses,
6,068,318 francs.
Money and Credit.
The nominal value of money minted and circulated in Belgium from
1832 to 1897 was: gold, 598,642,745 francs; silver, 556,342,745 francs;
copper and nickel, 18,530,857 francs; total, 1,173,516,348 francs. No
gold has been minted since 1882, no silver since 1887, and no bronze or nickel
since 1895.
The one bank of emission in Belgium is the National Bank, instituted
1850. Its capital, entirely paid up, is 550 million francs. It is the cashier
of the State, ami is authorised to carry on the usual banking operations.
The situation of the Bank on December 1, 1898, was : —
Active : —
1,000 francs.
Passive : —
1,000 francs!
Cash ....
115,262
Capital and reserve .
76,727 i
Portfolio Belgian .
312,518
Notes in circulation
507,580 1
Foreign .
104,884
Treasury accounts current
33,464 !
Advances on public funds
32,884
Private ,,
35,209 :
Property, Investments, ^c.
94,420
Various ....
7,358
426
BELGIUM
The condition of the 54 joint-stock and private banks on December 31,
1896, was as follows : —
Assets.
1000 francs j
Liabilities
1000 francs
Cash
Securities : —
Commercial ,
Public Funds, &c. .
Accounts current .
Advances
Total .
39,577
169,390
296,908
399,115
261,037
1,166,027
Paid up Capital
Reserves (various) .
Contracts for fixed
term .
Contracts short dated
Unpaid dividends .
Total .
205,288
96,862
274,576
568,793
20,508
1,166,027
There are also agricultural banks, credit unions, and popular banks.
The following are statistics of the State savings-banks : —
Year
Offices
844
85(3
859
Depositors
Amount of
Deposits at
end of Year \
Year
Offices
Amount of
Depositors Deposits at
j end of year
1890
1893
1894
731,057
960,468
1,053,699
1
Francs
282,588,099
351,308,338
390,181,775
1895
1896
868
881
1.145,408
1,238,601
Francs
427,317,065
453,429,304
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The i^mwc Par value 25-22^ to £1 sterling.
Belgium belongs to the Latin Monetary Union.
The weights and measures are those of the metric system.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Belgium in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron Whettnall, appointed February, 1894.
Goimcillor of Legation. — Viscount de Beughem do Ilouthem.
First Secretary of Legation. — E. van Grootven.
Second Secretary. — A. Delcoigne.
Attache. — A. du Bois.
Consul- General in London. — F. H. Lenders.
There are Consular representatives of Belgium in the following towns : —
Aberdeen, Belfast, Berwick, Birmingham, l^radford, Bristol, Cardiff,
Devon, Dublin, Dundee, Falmouth, Glasgow, Hull, Leith, Liverpool, Man-
chester, Newcastle, Portsmouth, Queenstown, Sheffield, Southampton.
2. Of Great Britain in Belgium.
Envoy and Minister.— Yiow. Sir F. R. Plunkett, G.C.M.G., Envoy and
Minister to Sweden and Norway, 1888 ; to Belgium, 1893.
Secretary. — Arthur S. Raikes.
There is a Consul-General at Antwerp, and Yice-Consuls at Brussels,
Ghent, Lioge, Louvain, Ostend, and Spa.
STATrSTICAL AND OTHER P.OOKS OF REFERENCE 427
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Belgium.
1. Official Publications.
Aliiianach Royal Otiiciel de Belgiquc, conti^imnt iiotaiiiment It-s attributions et le per-
sonnel du tons les services publics du royaume. Annee 1898. Bruxelles, 1898.
Anuuaire statistique de la Belgique. Bruxelles, 189(5.
Documents statistiques, publics i>ar le depart, de I'lnterieur, avec concours de la com-
mission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1S57-C9.
Bulletin de la commission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1890.
Moniteur beige.
Budgets provinciaux. Exercice 1897. Bruxelles, 1897.
Projet des Budgets des recettes et ties depenses pour I'exercice 1898. Bruxelles, 1897.
Releve du chitlre officiel de la population en 1897. Bruxelles, 1898.
llapport triennal sur la situation de I'instructiou primaire en Belgique. Dix-septieme
Periode Triennale, 1891-93. Bruxelles, 1890.
Rapport triennal sur la situation de I'enseignement moyen, periode 1891-93. Bruxelles
1896.
Rapport triennal sur la situation de renseignement supericur, periode, 1892-94. Bruxelles,
1897.
Situation generale du tresor imblic au le^ Janvier, 1897. Bruxelles, 1897. Comiitc
g^nerale de rAdniinistration des Finances [lOur ranii'je 1895. Bruxelles, 18;i7.
Expose de la situation du royaume, periode 1841-50. 1 vol. Periode 1851-00. 3 vols
Periode lSGl-75. 2 vols. Public par le Ministre de I'lnterieur. Bruxelles
Statistique du mouvement de la population et de letat civil. Annual. Brus'sels.
Statistique de la Belgique. Population. Recensement general (31 Decembre, 1890)
Bruxelles, 1893. 2 vols.
Statistique de la Belgique. Agriculture. Recensement general de 1880. BruxellcH,
1885.
Statistique de la Belgique. Aiierc^u de la situation de royaume dresse en Avril 1889
I)ar les soins de la commission centrale de statistique dc Belgique. Bruxelles, 1889.
Statistique geuerale des recettes et depenses du royaume, 1885-00. Bruxelles, 1895.
Tableau general du commerce avec les pays etrangers, pendant I'annee 1897, publie par le
Ministre des Finances. Bruxelles, 1897.
Compte-rendu des chemins de fer, postes, tclegraphes et marine pour 1897. Bruxelles, 1897
British Consular and Diplomatic Reports. Annual.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries. Imp.
4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Allen (Grant), The Cities of Belgium. London, 1897.
BaedeA-er (K.) Belgium and HoHand. 12th ed. Leipzic, 1897.
Balan (L.), Soixante-dix ans d'histoire dc Belgique. Bruxelles, 1800.
Bavary (Ch. Victor de), Histoire de la revolution beige de 1830. 8. Bruxelles, 1876.
Bertrand (L.), Leopold II. et son regne, 1805-90. Bruxelles, 1890, <fec.
Black (C. B.), Guide to Belgium, &c. 4th ed. London, 1897.
Brialmont (A. H.), Situation militaire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1882.
C'oofc (T.), Tourist's Handbook for Belgium, <fec. London, 1895.
Garcia de la Vega (D. de), Royaume de la Belgique. Brussels, 1883.
Guide Joanne : Belgique et Grand Duche de Luxembourg. Paris, 1894.
Har^e (Em.), Statisque des mines, minieres, &c., pour I'annee, 1895. 8. Bruxelles, 1896
Jourdain (A.) and Stalle{L. von), Dictionnairc encyclopedique dc geographic de Belgique
8. Brussels, 1S95, &c.
Martel (II.), Le Developpement commercial de la Belgique, Sic. 8. Brussels. Annual.
Meulema7is (Aug.), La Belgique, ses rcssources agricoles, indtistrielles et commerciale.s.
8. Bruxelles, 1860.
Mossel (II. G.), Histoire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1881.
Murray's Handbook for Holland and Belgium. London.
Nicolai (E.), Les chemins de fer de I'etat en Belgique 1834-84. Etude historique, eccno-
mique et statistique. Bruxelles, 1885.
Poullet (E.), Histoire politique interne de la Belgique. Louvain, 1879.
iieclus (Elisee), Nouvelle geographic universelle. Tome IV L'Europe du Nord-Onest.
Paris, 1879.
Report of the British Iron Trade Delegation on the Iron and Steel Industries of Belgium.
London. 1890.
428
BHUTAN.
An independent State in the Eastern Himalayas, between 26° 45' and 28° N.
latitude, and between 89° and 92° E. longitude, bordered on the north-east
and west by Tibet and on the south by British India. Extreme length from
east to west 160 miles ; exti-eme breadth 90 miles.
The original inhabitants of Bhutan, the Teplius, were subjugated about
two centuries ago by a band of military colonists from Tibet. In 1774 the
East India Company concluded a treaty with the ruler of Bhutan, but since
then repeated outrages on British subjects committed by the Bhutan hill men
have led from time to time to punitive measures, usually ending in the
temporary or permanent annexation of various chodrs or submontane tracts
with passes leading to the hills. In November 1864 the eleven western or
Bengal dwars were thus annexed. The Bhutias at first acquiesced in the
annexation, but in January 1865 attacked an English outpost, and it was
found necessary to send an expedition into their country. Peace being
restored, a treaty was signed (November 1865) by which the rulers of
Bhutan receive a subsidy of Rs. 50,000, on condition of their good
behaviour. This gives the Indian Government an effective control over
them, while the occupation of two strong positions at Baxa and Diwangiri,
within a few miles of their frontier, serves as a material guarantee against
further aggression.
The government of Bhutan resembles that of Tibet, the chief authority
being nominally divided between the Deb Raja, or secular head, on the one
hand, and the Dharm Raja, or spiritual head of the State, on the other.
Practically, the Deb Raja is a mere instrument in the hands of powerful
barons (penlops and jungpens), while the Dharm Raja is only supposed to
be concerned with the spiritual welfare of his people. In theory the Deb
Raja is elected by the penlops and jongpens, but he is usually the
nominee of the most powerful chieftain for the time being. The Dharm
Raja is supposed to be the incarnation of his predecessor, and is chosen in
infancy. The most powerful chieftains of Bhutan are the penlops of
Toungso, Paro, and Taka, and the jongpens of Thimbu, Punakha, and
Angdaphorang.
Area about 16,800 square miles ; population about 20,000 in 1864, but now
much larger.
The chief towns of Bhutan are Punakha, the capital, a place of great
natural strength ; Tasichozong, Paio, Angdaphorang, Togsa, Taka, and
Biaka.
The people are nominally Buddhists, but their religious exercises consist
chietly in the propitiation of evil spirits and the recitation of sentences from
the Tibetan Scriptures. Tasichozong, the chief monastery in Bhutan,
contains 300 priests.
The military resources of the country are insignificant. Beyond the guards
for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a standing army.
The chief productions of Bhutan are rice, Indian corn, millet, two kinds of
cloth, musk, ponies, chowries, and silk. JMuzzle -loading guns and swords of
highly-tempered steel are manufactured.
The trade between British India and Bhutan amounted in 1897-98 to Rx.
14,685 impoits into and Rx. 15,882 exports from India. The chief imports are
tobacco, European cotton goods, betel-nuts, and rice ; the chief exports, wool,
musk, ponies, and caoutchouc.
Report on Explorations in Sikklin, BhulAn, and Tibet, 1850-8(5. Edited by Lieut-Colonel
G. Stialian. Dehra Dun, 1889.
Sandberg (G.), Bhotau, tlie Unknown State. [A Reprint fioui the Calcutta Review.
Calcutta, 1898.
429
BOLIVIA.
(Republica Boliviana.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Bolivia bears date October 28, 1880. By
its provisions the executive power is vested in a Pi'esident, elected for a term
of four years by direct popular vote, and not eligible for re-election at the ter-
mination of his period of oHice ; while the legislative authority rests with
a Congress of two chambers, called the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies,
the suttrage is possessed by all who can read and write. There are 18 Senators
elected for six years, and 64 Deputies elected for four years. Senators and
Deputies receive a salary of 200 bolivianos per month with an allowance for
travelling expenses. There are two Vice-Presidents and a ministry, divided into
five depaitments- — of Foreign Relations and Worship ; Finance and Industry ;
Government and Colonisation ; Justice and Public Instniction ; War.
President of the llepuhlic. — Senor Sevcro Fernandez Alonso, installed
August 15, 1896.
The supreme political, administrative, and military authority in each
department is vested in a prefect. The Republic is divided into nine
departments, 52 provinces, and 374 cantons, administered respectively by
prefects, sub-prefects, and corregidores. The capital of each province has its
municipal council.
Area and Population.
The area of Bolivia was estimated in 1869 at 842,729 English square
miles, with a population of close upon two millions. The following table
gives after official returns of 1890-93, the area of each of the existing
provinces, with their estimated population (excluding aboriginal Indians) : —
Departments
Area : English
square miles
Population
La Paz de Ayacucho ....
Potosi .
Oruro
Chuquisaca, or Sucre ....
Cochabamba
Beni
Santa-Cmz de la Sierra ....
Tarija .......
Total .
171,130
52,100
21,350
39,890
21,430
100,580
126,340
34,610
593,779
360,400
189,840
286,710
360,220 1
26,750
112,200
89,650
567,430
2,019,549
As a result of the war with Chile, 1879-80, Bolivia mortgaged to that
country the Litoral department, area 29,910 square miles, containing the port
of Antofagasta. The question of the redemption of the territory at present
mortgaged to Chile is discussed annually in the Bolivian Congress, but no
resolution concerning it has yet l)cen carried into effect. The aboriginal or
Indian population of Bolivia is estimated at a million ; the mestizos or
uiixed races at 500 000, and the whites about 500,000. They arc mostly
430 BOLIVIA
regarded as at least nominally Christian. The present population may be
estimated at about 2,000,000.
The population of La Paz is estimated at 40,000 ; Cochabamba. 25,000 ;
Sucre (the capital), 20,000; Tarija, 10,000; Potosi, 20,000 ; Santa Cruz,
10,000 ; Oniro, 15,000. The seat of Government changes ; in 1892 it was at
Oruro ; in 1893 at La Paz ; in 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897 at Sucre.
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The Roman Catholic is the recognised religion of the State ; the
exercise of other forms of worship is permitted in the settlements.
Primary instruction, free and nominally obligatory, is under the care ot
the municipalities. Jn 1897 the municipalities had 366 primary schools, on
which they spent 139,566 bolivianos. There were, besides, 121 private
primary schools, and 82 industrial schools, the total number being 569 giving
instruction to 36,690 pupils. For secondary instruction there were (1897)
8 colleges, 5 clerical institutions, and 4 private lycees with, in all, 91 teachers
and 2,057 pupils. For superior instruction there are 6 universities, at 4 of
which medical science is taught. In 1895 there were altogether 506 students.
In the clerical seminaries 146 students were taught theology. There is also a
military school with 60 ])upils and 9 professors. The primary schools include
70 schools for the rural Indian population, taught by the parish priests,
besides 160 schools at mission stations receiving subventions from Tarija, La
Paz, and Potosi, and 10,000 bolivianos from the' Government. Three schools
of arts and trades have been established under the direction of the Salesian
friars. In all the departmental cajiitals there are public libraries, and at La
Paz there is a museum.
The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, 8 district courts, and the
courts of local justices.
Finance.
For 1896 the revenue was stated at 3,566,777 bolivianos and the ex-
penditure at 4,264,681. For 1897 the revenue collected is stated to have
l)een 4,840,300 bolivianos, of which 2,691,723 was from customs ; 406,281
from duty on liquors ; 679,582 from silver and minerals ; 149,003 from
rubber export and patents ; 238,890 from revenue and postage stamps ; and
149,000 from nickel money. The revenue for 1898 was estimated at
5,194,593 bolivianos, and the expenditure at 5,713,897. The chief branches
of expenditure were instruction and public works, 1,817,490 bolivianos ;
hnance, 1,517,483; Avar, 1,519,218.
The external debt, originally 6,500,000 bolivianos, due to Chilian
creditors, stood in 1898 at 1,084,555 bolivianos ; to this debt 40 per cent, of
the customs collected at Arica is devoted. The internal debt in 1898
amounted to 3,707,541 bolivianos.
The provincial revenue amounts to about 600,000 bolivianos, and is
a])plied to maintaining provincial authorities and executing local works.
Defence.
Bolivia has a standing army of 2,000 men. There is also a national guard,
in which all citizens are bound to serve. In 1892 a conscription law was
passed making military service com^julsory from 21 to 50 years of age, in the
line, the reserve, extraordinaiy reserve, and territorial guard. The total
number of men in the army and reserve forces is about 82,000. The
estimated cost of the army for^l897 amounts to 1,748,697 bolivianos.
COMMERCE — COMMUNICATIONS 431
Production and Industry.
Agiiculture is iii a backward condition. "Wheat, maize, Larley, beans,
potatoes, are produced for local consumption, and coflee is exported to Chile
and Argentina. Sugar is grown for the purpose of distillation, but much
more is imported from Peru. The production of rubber is increasing, and
cinchona and coca are important products. Cattle, sheep, and llamas are
numerous. The wool produce is woven into coarse cloth for the use of the
Indians. Llamas are cm]doyed for transport purposes.
The mineral wealth of Bolivia includes silver, cop])er, tin, lead, zinc, anti-
mony, bismuth, gold, and borax. Tlic chief silver mines with their output in
1894, as deduced from the reports of the companies and the Government report
of silver dues collected in the year, were as follows (the silver, whether in ores
or bars, being exjjressed in standard ounces): Huanchaca, 8,468,727 oz. ;
Colquechaca, 1,333,318 oz. ; Oruro, 1,518,058 oz. ; Guadaloupe, 652,010 oz. ;
Royal Silver Mines, 365,549 oz. ; five districts 'lecitados,' 2,181,034 oz. ;
total, 14,519,296 oz. In 1895 and 1896 there was a considerable falling off
in the production, especially in the Hiianchaca district, where in 1895 the
silver produced amounted to about 4,500,000 oz., and in 1896 to about
3,200,000 oz. Next in importance is tin, which is produced in lar^e
tpiantities on the border of the table-land extending south from Lake Titicaca.
Tlie chief tin-mining centre is in the Huanuni district, Init the metal is found
almost wherever silver is worked. The annual production of concentrated tin
ore is about 4,000 tons. In 1895 about 2,000 tons were also exported in bars.
Copper of line quality is found in the Corocoro district, the annual output, in
the form of barilla, being about 3,000 tons. Gold is found in small quantities
throughout Bolivia, both in rivers and in quartz reefs, but its production is
limited to washings by Indians. Large deposits of common salt are found near
Lake Poopo and in the south of Bolivia ; and mineral oil is also met with.
Commerce.
Bolivia having no seaport, imports and exports jDass chiefly throucrh
Arica, Mollendo, Antofagasta, and the eastern river-jjorts Porto
Suarez and Villa Bella. The Argentine route through Salta is now
little used. Official statistics of trade are fragmentary, but for 1897 the total
imports are estimated at the value of 24,467,100 boliviano.s, and the exports
at 23,121,320 bolivianos. The chief imports are provision.s, hardware, wines
and spirits, cotton, woollen, linen and silk goods, and ready-made clothes.
The import trade is chiefly in the hands of Germans, but English o-oods are
largely introduced. The chief exports in 1897 Avere silver, 14^876,000
bolivianos ; tin and bismuth, 3,821,000 ; copper, 2,650,000 ; rubber, 1,351,000.
Bolivian official statistics are compiled simply on the basis of quaiititi'es on
which duties are paid, but extensive shipments of silver produced and coined
in the country, and of rubber, take place at the river-})orts without the
cogni.sance of the cu.stoms authorities. The rubber export is put at 7,579/.
from Villa Bella, and this export goes on increa.sing. Other exports are
wool, hides and skins, gold, coffee, coca, and cinchona.
Communications.
A railway connects the Chilian port of Antofagasta with the Bolivian
frontier at Ascotan, and it thence proceeds as far as Uyuni in Bolivian
territory ; from Uyuni there is a branch to Huanchaca and the extension to
432 BOLIVIA
Oruro is now complete. Nearly 500 miles of this railway are built in Bolivian
territory. Besides this, concessions have been given for other lines which are
being studied and will, it is stated, soon begin to be built— namely, from the
city of La Paz to the Peruvian frontier, to join the line from Mollendo on the
Pacific coast to Puno on Lake Titicaca ; from the River Paraguay, in the east
of Bolivia, to the city of Santa Cruz ; from Oruro to Cochabamba ; and
from Challapata, near Oruro, to Potosi. The route for an international rail-
way from Bolivia to the Argentine Republic is now being surveyed. New
roads are being constructed in many parts of the country, and 6 bridges (suspen-
sion and Eitfei) have been recently built or are purchased to be placed over
rivers.
There is a line of telegraph between Puno, on Lake Titicaca, and La
Paz, 145 miles, and from La Paz to Oruro, Cochabamba, and Colquechaca ]
another from Sucre to Colquechaca ; another between the capital and Potosi
and the Argentine frontier on the one hand and the Pacific coast on the
other. The total length of line is 2,260 miles ; offices, 33. In 1897 there were
328 post offices ; the number of letters, postcards, papers, &c., transmitted in
1897 was: internal, 1,983,522; international, 516,722. Bolivia belongs
to the postal union.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
In Bolivia there are two commercial banks of issue, the Banco Nacional
(paid-up capital 3,000,000 bolivianos), with no official connection with the
Government, and the Banco Francisco Argandona, a company en com-
mandile, founded in 1893 with paid-up capital of 2,000,000 bolivianos.
The bank notes in circulation amount to about 6,600,000 bolivianos.
There are also tliree mortgage banks, the Credito Hipotecario de Bolivia,
founded i n 1870 ; the Banco Hipotecario Garantizador de Valores, founded
in 1887 ; and the Banco Hipotecario Nacional, founded in 1893, each of
these three banks having a paid-up capital of 100,000 bolivianos.
The ? » iviano or Dollar, of 100 centavos, was struck on the basis of the
5-franc pieee ; actual value, about 1.9. 9rf. This coin weighs 25 grammes
'900 fine. Other silver coins are 50-, 20-, 10, and 5-centavo pieces, called re-
spectively the half-boliviano, peseta, real, and lialf-real. No gold pieces
have been coined for many years. Notwithstanding the large production of
silver there is scarcity of silver coin, for the metal not at once exported is
minted and. eiaves the country as coin. The Potosi mint now coins only half
bolivianos an i 20-oeaL pieces, 8 per cent, lighter than the old boliviano. The
annual issue of silver coin amounts to about 1,500,000 bolivianos. There are
also 5-cent and 10-cent coins of nickel.
The metric system of weights and measures is used by the administration,
and prescribed by iaw, but the old Spanish system is also employed,
The?n-a?'c weight, employed for mineral produce, is equal to 507 lb.
Consular Representative.
Of Bolivia in Great Britain.
MinisUr Resident. — Felix A. Aramayo ; appointed 1897.
Consul.— k. Ballivian.
Great Britain has no representative in Bolivia.
BOOKS OF llEFKRENCE 43:]
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia.
1. Official Publications.
Bolotin de la Oflcina Nacional ile InTnigraciiin, Estadlstica y Propaganda Qcografica-
La Taz.
Breves Indicacioncs para el Ininigraiite y cl Vigero h Bolivia. For M. V. Ballivian, La
Paz, 18i)8.
Iiiforme que prcsenta al Senor Ministro de Colonization el Intendente de la Delegacion
nacional en el Norocste Coronel Pastor Paldivieso. La Paz, IS'.tG.
Apuntes sobre la industria de Gonia Ehistica, <fec. PorM. V. I3allivian. La Paz, ISUO.
Handbook of Bolivia. Bulletin Xo. 55 of the Bureau of the American Republics.
Washington, 1892.
Relaciones Geograficas de Bolivia existentes en el Archivo de la Oficina Nacional de
Inniigracion, «fcc. By M. V. Balliviin. Le Paz, 1898.
Foreign Uflice Reports. Annual Series. No. 1,499. 1895. (Containing a concise ac-
count of the condition of Bolivia in 1894.) London.
2. Non-Official Puklications.
.(4A.u>rta(ia Mor<!«o (P.), Guerra del Paciflco. 6 torn. Fol. Valparaiso, 1884-80.
£aZi(c/an (Manuel V.)and Idiaquez (Edaavdo), Diccionario Geographico de la Republica
de Bolivia. La Paz, 1S90.— £. and Zarco(J.), Monografias de la Industria Minera. 1, Oro
en Bolivia. La Paz, 189S.
Bonelli (L. H. de), Travels in Bolivia. 2 vols. London, 1854.
Cisneros (C. B.) and Garcia (R. E.), Geografia Comercial de la America del Sur. Lima,
1898.
Church (Col. Geo. Earl), Papers and Documents relating to the Bolivian Loan, the National
Bolivian Navigation Company, <tc. 8. London, 1873.
Dalence (M.), Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca. 1878.
D'Orbigny, Descripcion geografica, historica y estadistica de Bolivia. 1844.
D'Orbigny (A.), Voyage dans I'Amerique Meridionale. 9 vols. Paris, 1835-47.
Ford (I. N.), Tropical America. 8. London, 1893.
Grandidier (P.), Voyage dans I'Amerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.
.Vat/fics (Edward D.), Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, tlirough Bolivia and Peru.
8. London, 1879.
Moreno (J. L.), Nociones de geografia de Bolivia. Sucre, 1889.
Paz Soldan (M. F.), Narracion de guerra de Chile contra Peru y Bolivia. La Paz,
1884.
Riick (Ernesto O.), Guia General de Bolivia. Sucre, 1865.
Temple (E.), Travels in various Tarts of Peru. 2 vols. London, 1830.
Tschudi (J. J. von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1856.
Ursel (Comte C. d'), Sud Amerique : Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie, <bc. 12.
Paris, 1879.
Weddell (H. A.), Voyage dans le Noi-d de la Bolivie. Paris, 1853.
Wiener (Cliarles), Perou et Bolivie. Paris 1880.
K F
434
BRAZIL.
(ESTADOS UnIDOS DO BRAZIL.)
Constitution and Government.
In 1807 the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815 the
colony was declared ' a kingdom ' ; and the Portuguese Court
having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled
at Bio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son
of King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ' Perpetual Defender '
of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on
September 7, 1822, and was chosen ^Constitutional Emperor and
Perpetual Defender ' on October 12 following. In 1831 he abdi-
cated the crown in favour of his only son, Dom Pedro II., who
reigned as Emperor until November 15, 1889, when by a revolu-
tion he was dethroned, and he^ and his family exiled, and Brazil
declared a Bepublic under the title of the United States of
Brazil.
General Deodoro Fonseca was the first President. On Novem-
ber 23, 1891, he resigned, and Yice-President Peixoto took his
place. Dissatisfaction, occasioned principally by military inter-
ference in the States, led to a rising in Bio Grande do Sul and
to a naval revolt in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. The rising in
the South terminated in August, 1895, and the naval revolt
was suppressed in March, 1894.
According to the constitution adopted by the National Congress in
February, 1891, the Brazilian nation is constituted as the United States of
Brazil. Each of the old Provinces forms a State, administered at its own
expense without interference from the Federal Government save for defence,
for the maintenance of order, and for the execution of the Federal laws.
Fiscal arrangements in such matters as import duties, stamps, rates ot
postage, and bank-note circulation belong to the Union ; but export duties
are the property of the various States.
The legislative authority is exercised by the National Congress Avith the
sanction of the President of the Republic. Congress consists of the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate. It meets annually on the 3rd of May, without
being convoked, unless another day be fixed by laAV, and sits four months, but
may' be p)rorogued or convoked extraordinarily. No member of Congress, after
his election, can contract with the executive power or accept any commission or
paid office, except such as are diplomatic or military or imposed by law. If,
in ordinary circumstances, the acceptance of diplomatic or military office
woukl cause the loss of the legislative services of a member, the permission
of the Chamber is required. Nor can any member of Congress take part in
the administration of any company which receives a sul)sidy from the
1 Dom Po'lro died in 1801.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 435
Federal Government. Deputies and Senators are paid, and neither can
be Ministers of State, and retain at the same time their scats in Congress.
Deputies must have been Brazilian citizens for four years. Senators must be
over thirty-live years of age and must have been citizens for six years.
The Chamber of Deputies consists of 212 members elected for three years
by direct vote (i)roviding for the representation of the minority), in a })ro-
portion not greater than one to every 70,000 of population as shown by a
decennial census, but so that no State will have less than four representatives.
It has the initiative in legislation relating to taxation.
The following table shows the number of Deputies from the different
States and from the Federal district : —
Deputies
Deputies
De
puties
Amazonas
4
Alagoas ,
. 6
Rio Grande do Sul
16
Para
7
Sergipe .
4
Minas Geraes .
37
Maranhao
7
Bahia .
. 22
Goyaz .
4
Piauhy .
4
Espirito Santo
4
Matto G rosso .
4
Cearii
10
Rio de Janeiro
. 17
Federal District
10
Rio Grande do Norte
4
San Paulo
. 22
Parahyba
5
Parana .
4
Totals .
212
Pernambuco .
.
17
Santa Catharina
. 4
Senators, 63 in number, are chosen by direct vote, three for each State,
and for the Federal district, for nine years, and the Senate is renewed to the
extent of one-third every three years. The Vice-President of the Republic is
President of the Senate.
The executive authority is exercised by the President of the Republic*
He must be a native of Brazil, over thirty-five years of age. His term of
office is four years, and he is not eligible for the succeeding term. The
President and the Vice-President are elected by the people directly, by an
absolute majority of votes. The election is held on the 1st of March in
the last year of each presidential period in accordance with forms prescribed
by law. No candidate must be related by blood or marriage, in the first or
second degree, to the actual president or vice-president, or to either who has
ceased to be so within six months.
The President has the nomination and dismissal of ministers, supreme
command of the army and navy, and, within certain limits, the power to
declare war and make peace. He (with the consent of Congress) appoints
the members of the Supreme Federal Tribunal and the diplomatic ministers.
No minister can appear in Congress, but must communicate by letter, or in
conference with commissions of the Chambers. Ministers are not responsible to
Congress or the Tribunals for advice given to the President of the Republic.
The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age,
duly enrolled, except beggars, 'illiterates,' soldiers actually serving, and
members of monastic orders, &c., under vows of obedience.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Campos Salles ; assumed office, Novem-
ber 15, 1898.
Vice-President, — Dr. Rosas e Silva.
There are 6 Secretaries of State at the head of the following Departments : —
1. Finance, 2. Justice, Interior and Public Instruction, 3. War, 4. Marine,
5. Foreign Affairs, 6. Industry, Communications and Public Works.
In 1885 a bill was passed for the gradual extinction of slavery, and on
May 13, 1888, an act was passed repealing all former acts on the subject, and
abolishing slavery from the day of the promulgation of the law.
K F 2
436
BRAZIL
T. Local Government.
According to the new Constitution each State must be organised under
the republican form of government, and must have its administrative, legisla-
tive, and judicial authorities distinct and independent. The governors and
members of the legislatures must be elective ; the magistrates must not be
elective nor removable from office save by judicial sentence. The Federal
executive cannot intervene directly in the local government of the States. In
cases of obstinate infringement of the Federal Constitution by State authorities
the only resource of the central power is an appeal to the Supreme Tribunal of
Federal District. The Federal District is administered by a council elected by
the citizens of the District, the municipal executive authority being exercised
by a Prefect appointed for four years by the President of the Republic. There
are in Brazil 892 municipalities and 1,886 parishes.
Area and Population.
The Bureau of Statistics has published returns from the census of 1890,
showing the population of the States and the Federal District.
States
Area:
sq. miles.
Population, 1890
Males
Females
Total
Per
sq. mile
Alagoas
Amazouas
Bahia
Ceara .
22,583
732,460
164,649
40,253
17,312
288,546
177,566
532,708
222,160
443,653
28,(S54
85,453
49,625
116,218
26,634
22,195
91,335
27,436
112,330
7,370
538
250,480
80,921
960,270
394,909
69,813
112,583
212,586
47,196
1,627,461
166,357
219,833
128,209
503,555
133,707
495,673
130,712
459,118
141,980
708,011
150,892
293,657
260,960
66,994
959.532
410,778
66,184
114,989
511,440
147,915
1,919,802
805,687
135,997
227.572
22-1
0-2
11-0
20 0
7-2
0-7
2-4
0-2
14-3
0-7
15-7
2-8
20-7
2-3
32-9
12-8
9-8
10-3
12-3
42-2
971-5
Espirito iSanto
Goyaz
Maranhao
218,268 j 430,854
45,631 ' 92,827
1 556,638 1 3,184,099
162,098 328,455
237,399 457,232
121,282 249,491
526,669 i 1.030,224
Matto Grosso
Minas Geraes
Paia
Parahyba
Parana
Pernambuco
Piauhy
Rio de Janeiro
Rio Grande do N orte
Rio Grande do 8iil
Santa Catharina
San Paulo
133,902
481,211
137,561
438,337
141,780
676,742
267,609
876,884
268,273
897,455
283,769
1,384,753
Sergipe
Federal District
Aggregate
160,034
228,994
310,926
522,651
3,209,878
7,237,932
7,095,983 14,333,915
4-5
In 1890 the population of Rio de Janeiro was 522,651 ; of Bahia, 174,412 ;
of Pernambuco, 111,556 ; Belem, 50,064 ; San Paulo, 64,934 ; Ceara 40,902 ;
Maranhao, 29,308 ; Porto Alegre, 52,421 ; Parahyba, 18,645 ; Pelotas,
41,591 ; Ouro Preto, 59,249.
At the census of 1872 there were 3,787,289 whites, 3,801,787 metis,
1,954,452 negroes, and 386,955 Indians. In the northern provinces the
Indian element preponderates, while in Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 437
and Miiias the negroes are numerons. At the seaports the chief part of the
population is of European descent.
In April, 1897, a convention was signed on behalf of the French and
Brazilian Governments, submitting the Guiana boundary dispute to arbitration.
Movement of the Population.
The returns of births, deaths and marriages are incomplete, and no statistics
are available later than 1884.
From 1871 to 1892 860,991 immigrants are stated to have entered the
country. The annual rate through Rio, Santos, and Victoria during fivevears
has been : 1892, 86,513 ; 1893, 84,143 ; 1894, 63,294 ; 1895, 164,371 ; 1896,
157,948. Of the immigrants in 1896, 96,324 were Italians, 24,154 Portuguese,
1,070 Germans, 11,366 Austrians and Hungarians. In Rio Grande do Sul
there are, under the administration of the Land and Colonisation Department
of the Federal Government, 15 Colonies with a population of 108,000,
occupying 562,400 hectares of land, of which 220,050 hectares are under
cultivation. In September, 1892, the President sanctioned a law permit-
ting Chinese and Ja]>anese immigration.
Religion.
The established religion under the Empire was the Roman Catholic, but
under the Republic the connection between Church and State has been
abolished, and absolute equality declared among all forms of religion. The
Federal Government continues to provide for the salaries and maintenance of
the existing functionaries of the Catholic Church. The population in 1890
contained 14,179,615 Catholics ; 143,746 Protestants ; 3,300 of other faiths ;
and 7,257 of no religious profession.
Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a metropolitan arch-
bishopric, the seat of which is at Bahia, 11 sutt'ragan bishops, 12 vicars-
general, and 2,000 curates. For the private instriiction of the clergy there
are 11 seminaries.
Instruction.
Public instruction is divided into three distinct forms or classes — namely,
primary ; secondary, or preparatory ; and scientific, or superior. The higher
education is controlled l)y the central Government. There are two schools
of medicine, four of law, four military and one naval school, a school of
mines, and a polytechnic. In 1890 these schools had, in all, 2,916 pupils.
There are, besides, the Lyceum of Arts and Trades with 2,277 pupils, and
five other special schools with 575 pupils. Connected with the observatoiy at
Rio is a school for astronomy and engineering. The two establishments for
secondary education called jointly the Gymnasio Nacional (old Pedro II.
college) confer a degree, and are controlled by Federal Government. The
States Governments are allowed to found gymnasia with similar organisation
and privileges, and to a certain extent control this branch of instniction. All
other secondary schools are private. Examinations are always official.
Primary instruction in the Federal District is under the charge of the muni-
cipality, and in the States under the municiiial and State authorities. Accord-
ing to the Constitution education is, at all stages, under lay management,
and primary education is gi-atuitous. The central department complain that
they can get no data from the States on puldic instruction. It seems that
education is nowhere compulsory in Brazil. In 1889 there were, it was
488
BRAZIL
officially stated; 7,500 public and private primary schools, attended by
300,000 pupils in all. The number of illiterates is returned at 8,365^997,
or 84 per cent, of the population.
Justice and Crime.
There is a supreme tribunal of Justice at Rio de Janeiro ; and a court of
appeal in the capital of each State, There are courts of first and second
instance, both in civil and criminal cases. Judges are appointed for life.
There are also municipal magistrates and justices of the peace, who are
elected, and whose chief function is to settle cases by arbitration.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure
according to the last Official Keports, balances on both sides
from former years being omitted. For 1898 the estimate of the
Finance Minister is given. The figures given for revenue also
do not include proceeds of loans, balance of deposits, and the
issues of nickel and paper money : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Revenue
Milreis
195,253,406
228,945,070
227,607,092
259,850,981
264,345,212
307,689,085
333,969,097
293,223,000
325,197,123
Expenditure
Milreis
220,645,874
220,592,463
279,180,219
291,311,070
364,550,264
344,881,528
373,894,847
328,974,000
372,812,424
The proposed budget for 1899 was as follows :-
Revenue
Milreis ' Expenditure
Milreis
16,009,897
1,832,412
26,439,932
46,329,296
89,464,676
165,924,210
346,000,423
Import duties
Railways .
Post and Telegraphs .
Stamps, &.C.
Rio Water Su})ply
Lottery taxes
Tobacco duties .
Other sources
Total .
222,000,000
45,080,000
12,900,000
10,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
46,184,000
Departments :
Interior and Justice .
Foreign Atl'airs .
Marine
War ....
Industry .
Finance
1
346,164,000
Total .
The public debt on December 31^ 1897, according to the Finance
Minister's report, was as follows : —
DEFENCE 4^*^
Milrci.s.
External, 34, 697, 300^. (at par =) . . . 308,420,444
Internal 637,425,600
Government paper money in circulation (December
31, 1897) 439,614,276
Banknotes 315,344,330
Floating debt 299,473,041
Total 2,000,277,691
To these debts there should be added the Western Minas loan of
3,606,000^.
To meet the deficit existing at the eml of 1S97 an internal loan of 00,000,000 niilreis
G per cent, bonds redeemable in 10 years and a 5 per cent, gold loan of 2,000,000i. a-edeem-
able in 2 years by half-yearly instalments were issued.
An arrangement has since been concluded bv wliich the interest on the Foreign Loans
and the Internal Gold Loan of 1870 is paid from" July 1, 1808, to June .30, 1901, in bonds of
a new Funding Loan bearing interest at tlie rate of 5 per 'Cent., limited in amount to
]O,O00,000L, and secured on the Custom House receipts. The interest guaranteed by the
Government on the capital of 17 railways, amounting to about 1,T30,000L, is included in
tins arrangement. As the funding lo.ni is issued, paper money to a corresponding amount
(exchange calculated at ISS) must be deposited by the Government in stated banks at Riode
Janeiro. In 1807 bonds to the value of 504,400?.' were redeemed, but the sinking fund and
redemption of Foreign Bonds will be suspended for 13 years from July 1, 1808.
In addition to this measure the Government have converted the Internal 4 "per cent.
Gold Loan, requiring 560,987?., per annum into a 5 per cent, paper loan, requiring
7,790,9.37 inilreis i)er annum.
The rate of interest on the Foreign Debt varies from 4 per cent, to 44 per
cent., that on the Internal Funded Debt from 4 per cent, to 6 per cent.
The redemption of the foreign loans is to be effected by a sinking fund
of 1 per cent, per annum, to be applied by purchase of bonds in the
market when the price is under par, and when at or above par by
drawings by lots. The internal debt is chiefly represented by bonds, called
Apoliccs, inscribed to the holder, and the payment of its cajiital and interest,
which is provided for by an annual vote of Congress, is under the charge of
the sinking fund department {Caixa da Ainortisactw), independent of the
(lovernment, directed by a committee, presided over by the Minister of Finance,
and composed of a general inspector and five large Brazilian bondholders.
For 1897 tlie revenues of all the States except San Paulo, Sergipe, and
Parahyba amounted to 102,286,000 milreis, and their expenditure to
101,977,000 milreis; of the 17 States reported on, the accounts of 2 exactly
balanced, those of 3 showed a deficit, and those of 12 a surplus. The revenue
of Sam Paulo amounted to 48,571,165 milreis, and the expenditure to
58,819,895 milreis, the year's deficit being 10,248,730 milreis. At the end
of the year the funded and floating debt of the State amounted to 19,889,724
mihvi.s.
The debts of the States in 1895 amounted to 91,706,736 milreis, of which
85,027,659 was funded, and 6,679,077 floating.
Defence.
The active army consists of 40 l)attalions of infantry, with 1 transport
company and 1 depot company ; 14 regiments of cavalry, each of 4 squadrons,
1 cavalry corps of 4 companies ; 6 regiments of horse artillery and 6 battalions
of foot artillery ; 2 pioneer battalions of engineers. In 1897 the army con-
sisted of 28,160 men, of whom 4,000 were oflicers. The gendarmerie
numlier.s 20,000 men. The national guard is being re-organised. Military
service (3 years ia the active army and 3 in the reserve) is compulsory.
The Brazilian navy includes the third-class battleships HiacMcelo and
440 BRAZIL
24. dc Maio (cx-Aquidaban), the sister armourclads, Maralial Deodoro aiul
Marshal Floriano, building (the first-named launched) at La Seyne ; the
coast-defence vessels Bahia (1,000 tons), Alagoas, Fiauhy, Bio Grande^
Maranhao, Pcrnamhvco (the last five being river monitors, 340 to 470
tons), the first-class cniiser Nicfh-croy {ex-Hl Cid) ; the second-class cruisers
Ahnirante Tamandare (4,735 tons), Barrozo and Amazonas (3,600 tons) ;
the third-class cruisers, Andrada {cx-Bntanvia), and Benjamin Constant
(2,750 tons), and 12 smaller vessels of the cruising and gunljoat classes.
The torpedo-flotilla consists of 8 first-class and 6 third-class boats, besides
small vedette craft. The torpedo cruisers, Tamoyo, Tiwhira and Twpy
(1,030 tons) have been launched at Kiel (1896 and 1898). The cruisers Abrrn
and Amazonas, built at Elswick, were sold to the United States at the
beginning of the war with Spain, and re-named.
The sea-going turret-ships, Riachuelo (5,700 tons displacement), and
24. de Maio (4,950 tons), were built in England, the former launched in 1883
and completed in 1884, and the latter launched and completed in 1885.
Both vessels are protected by a belt of armour (steel-faced) having a maximum
thickness of 11 inches, and each has two turrets protected by 10-inch armour.
The principal armament consists of four 9 "2 in. breech-loading guns earned
in the turrets, and there is an auxiliary armament of six 4 '7 in. quick-firers,
two 3-pr. and 15 machine guns. The 24 de Maio has been partly reconstructed
at Elswick and has received new guns. The small armour-clads, Deodoro and
Floriano (3,162 tons), are completing at La Seyne, and are of a type un-
represented in our navy. Their small displacement is combined with heavy
armouring (13*7 inches of Harvey steel on the sides), and powerful armament,
comprising 2 9 ■4-inch guns, 2 6-inch howitzers, and 4 4 7 quick-firers. The
cruiser Ahnirante Tamaiulare, built in Brazil in 1890, is a vessel of 4,465 tons
and 7,500 nominal horse-power, with a very extensive quick-firing armament.
The protected 20-knot cruiser Barrozo was launched in 1896 at Elswick.
This vessel has a large quick-firing armament.
There are five naval arsenals — at Rio de Janeiro, Para, Pernambuco, Bahia,
and Ladario de Matto Grosso.
Production and Industry.
Brazil is an agricultural country, though only a small fraction of its soil
has been brought under culture. Coffee is the chief product cultivated, and
after that sugar, tobacco, and cotton, mate (Parauguay tea), india-rubber,
timber, cocoa, nuts. The annual yield of coffee has steadily increased of late
years, and the crop of 1897-98 probably exceeded 10,000,000 bags. The
1898-99 crop will be, however, considerably smaller, probably between 8 and
9 million bags. In Pernambuco the sugar crop, 1896-7, yielded 1,488,206
bags (75 kilos.). In this State are about 30 sugar Victories with an average
capacity of about 160 tons of cane per day. In Rio Grande do Sul the cattle
industry is important. The number killed in 1895 was 280,000 ; 1896,
215,000 ; 1897, 320,000 ; in 1898, 340,000. In the same State are prosperous
fruit preserving establishments, tanneries and breweries. The production of
rum and alcohol is rapidly increasing. Both the forests and mines of Brazil
are of value, but little has been done to make use of them. The mines, with
certain reservations, belong to the proprietors of the soil. Coal mines are
worked in Rio Grande do Sul ; the output in 1895 was 11,012 tons ; in 1896,
18,300 tons. In Minas Geraes there are 5 important gold mines worked by
English companies and 1 by a French company. Gold is worked also to some
extent in Bahia, where silver, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, copper, quicksilver
and other minerals are found. Diamond mining is also carried on. Vast
COMMERCE
441
quantities of iron are known to exist, l)ut tliey cannot be worked from want of
fuel. Cotton mills are on the increase ; in Brazil there are 155 cotton
factories, of which 43 are in the State of Kio de Janeiro, 35 in Minas Geraes,
11 in San Paulo, 15 in Bahia, 14 in Maranhao, 17 in Santa Catarina, 5 in
Pernambuco, 4 in Ceare, 2 in Sergipc, and 1 each in Piaiihy, Rio Grande do
Norte, Parahyba, and Espirito Santo. The capital invested in cotton mills
and factories amounts to about 100,000,000 milreis, and the persons employed
number about 200,000. Theie are important woollen factories for cloths,
flannels, rugs, felts, &c., at Rio Janeirq, Nictheroy, Maranhao, Porto Allegre,
and Rio Grande do Sul. There are 2 silk mills at Petropolis near Rio. In
Rio de Janeiro are also 2 large flour mills capable of grinding per annum
60,000 and 40,000 tons respectively, wheat 1)eing imported chiefly from the
Argentine and Uruguayan Republics.
Commerce.
The total value of exports from Brazil for the year 1897 is given, exclusive
of specie, at 831,806,918 milreis {= 26,752,224^. at 7^^ to the milreis),
and the imports at 671,603,280 milreis ( = 21,567,660Z.). Remittances
abroad are estimated at 300,000,000 milreis (= 9,644,614^.).
The import duties are very high, sometimes 80, 100, and 120 per cent, on
value of imports. These duties are especially high on spirits, tobacco, matches,
preserved provisions, light cloths, cottons, drugs, perfumery and patent
medicines ; Avhile agricultural implements, machineiy and tools are but
lightly taxed.
The official values of the chief exports from the whole of Brazil in 1897
were : Cotiee, 509,190,115 milreis; rubber, 149,691,325 ; tobacco, 23,971,821 ;
hides, 13,427,229; cocoa, 12,757,957.
From the chief ports of Brazil the most important exports are : Coffee,
from Rio Janeiro in 1896, 2,784,958 bags (of 60 kilogrammes) ; in 1897,
4,066,734; from Santos in 1896, 4,157,971 bags; in 1897, 5,621,762;
from Victoria in 1896, 273,255 bags ; in 1897, 372,221 ; from Bahia in 1896,
260,981 bags ; in 1897, 292,480 ; from Ceara in 1896, 6,000 bags ; in 1897,
6,578 ; sugar from Pernambuco in 1897, 110,550 tons ; from Maceio in
1897, 28,705 tons ; cotton from Maranham in 1897, 1,375 tons ; from Per-
nainbuco in 1897, 11,970 tons ; from Ceara, 953 tons ; from Parahyba, 1,698
tons ; rublK'r Irom Para and Amazonas in 1897, 22,216 tons. From Rio
Grande do Sul the chief exports in 1897, were dried beef, 18,537,098
kilogrammes; tallow, 2,381,468 kilogrammes; hides, 658,642 in number.
The chief imi)orts into Brazil are cottons, woollens, iron and machinery,
coal, flour, .cattle and jerked beef, rice, codfish, pork, lard, butter, maize,
olive oil, macaroni, tea, candles, salt, petroleum, timber, wines and spirits.
The trade of Brazil is mostly with Great Britain, the United States,
Germany, and France.
The amount of the commercial intercourse of Brazil with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, is shown in the subjoined
table, for each of the last five years : —
Imports into U. K. from
Brazil.
Exports of British pro-
duce to Brazil .
1893 LS94
isor. 1S90
1897
£ £
4,636,102 3,940,069
7,774,510 7,526,700
£
3,614,155
7,323,690
£
4,053,663
0,664,004
£
3,736,419
5,431,234
442 BRAZIL
The following are the values of the principal imports into Great Britain
from Brazil :— Raw cotton, 201,589Z. in 1896 ; 303,425Z. in 1897 ; unrefined
sugar, 190,108Z. in 1896; 143,082Z. in 1897; caoutchouc, 3,017,921Z. in
1896 ; 2,671, 569Z. in 1897; coffee, 186,742^. in 1896 ; 190,273Z. in 1897.
The most important articles of British produce and manufacture exported
to Brazil are manufactured cotton, the value of which was 2,261,600Z. in 1896 ;
l,77l,235Z. in 1897 ; wrought and unwrought iron, of the value of 756,686Z.
in 1896 ; 598,225Z. in 1897 ; woollen manufactures, 295,265Z. in 1896 ;
164,124Z. in 1897; coals, 552,158Z. in 1896; 582,315Z. in 1897; and
machiner}', 628,4397. in 1896 ; 323,3587. in 1897.
Shipping and Navigation.
At Rio Janeiro in 1897 there entered in the foreign trade 1,274 vessels
of 2,146,834 tons (546 of 887,814 tons British) ; in 1896, 1,535 of 2,469,628
(687 of 1,238,596 British) The total shipping entered at Pernambuco in
1897 comprised 948 vessels of 1,145,706 tons (280 of 444,845 tons British ;
at Ceara, 285 of 258,368 tons (42 of 45,297 tons British) ; at Maranham, 189
vessels of 260,443 tons (50 of 56,985 tons British) ; at Rio Grande do Norte,
241 of 51,763 tons (11 of 10,422 tons British) ; at Rio Grande do Sul, 474 of
249,145 tons (47 of 14,741 tons British) ; at Parahyba, 194 of 18.5,488 tons
^25 of 21,883 tons British); at Paranagua, 429 of 227,713 tons (28 of
10,921 tons British).
The merchant navy in 1898 consisted of 229 steamers of 94,262 tons
net, and 344 sailing vessels of 88,000 tons net. In December, 1896, the
law requiring that all coasting and river vessels should be Brazilian, after
being twice deferred, came into force. In 1897, 212 steamers of 70,680 tons,
and 388 sailing vessels of 26, 637 tons were emploj-ed in the coasting trade.
Internal Communications.
Brazil possessed in December 1896 railways of a total length of 8,662
English miles open for traffic, besides 4,963 miles in process of con-
sti'uction, 4,670 under survey, and 8,440 to be surveyed. Of the lines open,
1,982 miles were Union lines, 2,430 miles were subventioned lines, 990 miles
were non-subventioned lines, and 3,260 miles were lines conceded to or
administered by the State. Of those under construction, 3,699 were subven-
tioned, 384 miles were non-subventioned, and 880 miles were worked by
States. Most of the railways have been constructed with the guarantee of
the interest (mostly 6 and 7 per cent.) on the capital by the Government.
The total cost of the Union lines up to end of 1894 has been 257,674,937
milreis, and the deficit paid from National Treasury, 11,118,481 milreis.
A law was published authorising the leasing of the Government railwaj^s.
The telegraph system of the country is under control of the Government.
In 1895 there were 10,143 miles of line, and 21,936 miles of wire. There
were 289 telegraph offices. The number of messages was 1,283,695. Receipts
for 1897 estimated at 3,600,000 milreis ; expenditure, 9,844,722 milreis.
The Post Office carried of letters and post cards, 33,441,000 ; of samples
and printed packets 37,674,000, in the year 1893. There were 2, 826 post-
offices. Receipts in 1895 (as far as published) 3,632,957 milreis.
Money and Credit.
There is little metallic money in circulation in Brazil. At the end of
1896 the ])aper cunenoy amounted to 712,355,394 milreis. At the end of
1895 it was 683,702,000 milreis. The Congress has taken steps to reduce
MONEY, WKICllTS, AND MEASUKES 443
the circulation by witluimwiiig notes, in 1897, at the rate of 10 per cent. ; in
1898, 15 i)er cent. ; in 1899, 20 per cent. ; so that in the three years the note
oircuhition would be reduced by 45 })er cent. In 1897 the Bank of the Re-
public was reorganised with a view to the liquidation of its debt of
194,649,000 niilreis to the Treasury. By the transfer of ])roperty and
securities the debt had by the end of 1897 been reduced to 94,670,150 milreis,
and this balance is to be paid without interest within twenty years. The
Baidc further agrees to advance foi- agricultural jmrposes 25,000,000 milreis
on hypothecary notes issued by various local lianks. The capital of the new
bank is stated'at 110,000,000 milreis.
The par of exchange in the early years of this century was 5s. 7^d. per
milreis ; in 1833 it was fixed at 3s. 7irf. ; and in 1846 the present rate,
2s. 2ld. was established The actual value of the paper milreis in 1868 fell
as low as l.<f. 2d. ; in 1891 it touched Is. Old. ; in 1893, average I2d. ; in
1894, average lO^d. ; in 1895, 10\d. ; in 1896, between Sd. andlOd. ; in 1897
between 9d. and 7d.', in 1898 it fell as low as 5|d, but on July 31, 1898, it
had recovered to 7\d.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money,
The Milreis of 1,000 Eeis is of the par value of 2s. 2Jft,
The 10 milreis piece w^eighs 8 '9648 grammes, '916 fine, and thus contains
8 "2178 grammes of fine gold.
The 2 milreis silver piece weighs 25*5 grammes, '916 fine, and therefore
contains 23 '375 grammes of fine silver.
Profe.ssedly the standard of value is gold. Gold and silver coins have
almost entirely disappeared, the actual circulating medium being inconvertible
paper currency with nickel and bronze coins. English sovereigns are legal
lender.
Weights and Measukes.
The French metric system, which became compulsory in 1872, was
adopted in 1862, and has been used since in all official departments. But the
ancient weights and measures are still i>artly employed. They are : —
The Libra , . . — 1 '012 lbs, avoirdupois,
,, Arroba , . . = 32-38 ,, ,,
,, Quintal , , . = 129'54 ,, ,,
,, Alqueire {of Rio) . = 1 imperial bushel.
,, Oitava . . . — 55 '34 grains.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives
1. Of Brazil in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — J. A. de Souza Correa, appointed 1890,
Hccrctary. — J. do Rego Barros.
2nd Secretary, — Raul de Aniaral.
Cons^cl- General in Liverpool. — J. C. da F. Pereira Pinto,
Consul in London. — E. Leite Chermont.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardill', Cork,
Dublin, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester, New-
castle, Southampton.
2. Of Great Britain in Brazil.
Envoy and Mi/iister. — Edmund C. H. Phipps, C.B., appointed envoy to
Brazil, September 3, 1894.
Secretary. — Sir Brook Bouthb}', liar I.
4t4
BRAZIL
There are Consular representatives at Rio de Janeiro (C.G.), Bahia, Para,
Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul, Santos, Ceara, Maceio, Maranhfio, Porto
Alegre, Manaos, Curityba, Paranagua, Penedo, Santa Catharina.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1 Official Publications.
Boletim da alfandega do Rio de Janeiro (weekly).
CoUecgao das leis do Imperio do Brazil e collecQao das decisoes do Governo do Imperio
do Brazil. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1864-8V.
Handbook of Brazil. No. 7 of publications of the Bureau of the American Republics.
S. Washinj,^ton. 1892.
Relatario apresentadoaAssembleaGeralLegislativapeloMinistro de Estadodos Negocios
do Imperio. Ditto, da Agricultura, Commercio e Obras Publicas. Rio de Janeiro, 1896.
Empire of Brazil at the Universal Exhibition of 1876 at Philadeliihia. 8. Rio de
Janeiro, 1876.
Recenseamento do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, 30 de Agosto, 1892. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1893.
Recenseameuto do Districto Federal em 31 de Dezembro de 1890. Rio de Janeiro, 1895.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. Loudon.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abreu and Cabral. Brazil geografico-historico. Rio de Janeu'O, 1884.
Agassiz (houis), Journey in Brazil. S. London, 1S6S.
Araujo (Oscar d'), L'Idee Republicaine an Bresil. Paris, 1893.J
Bates (H. W.), South America. London, 1882.
Bateii{B.. W.), The Naturalist on the River Amazon. London, 1864.
Buyern (Therese Prinze>;sin von), Meine Reise in den brazilianischen Tropen. Berlin. 1897.
Bigg-Wither (Thomas P.), Pioneering in South Brazil. 8. London, 1878.
Broxon (C. B.). and Lidstone (W.), Fifteen Thousand Miles on the Amazon and its Tribu-
taries. London, 1878.
Burton (Capt. R. F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869.
Canstatt (Oskar), Das re]iublikanische Bra.silien in Vergaiigeulieit und Gegenwart, 1898.
Constitution des Etats-Unis du Bresil. Paris, 1891.
Dent (J. H.), A Year in Brazil. London, 1886.
Fialho (A.), Historia de fundacao da Republica. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1891.
Fletcher (Rex. Jas. C.)and Kidder (Rev. D. P.), Brazil and the Brazilian j. 9tli ed. S.
London, 1879.
Ford (Isaac N.), Tropical America, S. London, 1893.
Gallenga (A.), South America. London, 1880.
Garraux (A. L.), Bibliographie Bresil ienne. Paris, 1898.
Grimm (J. Th.), Ileimatkuude des Staates Rio Grande do Sul. 8. Santa Cruz, 1891.
Hartt (Charles F.), Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil. Boston, 1870.
II Brasile. Rivista meusile agricola, commerciale, industriale, e finanziaria. Rio de
Janeiro.
Keller (Franz), The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Fol. London, 1874.
Laemviert (J^dwardo von), Almanak administrativo, luercantil e industrial, da corte e
provincia do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro.
Le Brisil. Paris (published weekly).
Levanseur (E.), Ije Bresil. Extract de la Grande Encyclopedie. 2nie edition accoin-
paguee d'un Appendice et d'un Album de Vues du Bresil. 4. Paris, 1889.
Milton (A. A.), A Constitucao do Brazil S. Rio de Janeiro, 1895
Nabuco de Araujo (J.), Uin Estadista do Imperio, Nabuco de Araujo, sua Vida, suas
Opinioes, sua Epoca. 2 vols. Paris, 1898.
Orton (James), The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across the Continent of South America.
8. New York. 1876.
Ourem {Baron d'), Etude sur la Representation Proportionale au Bresil. Paris, 1887
Ourem (Baron d'), Notice sur les Institutions de Prevoyance au Bresil. Paris, 1883.
Ourem (Baron d'), Quelques Notes sur les Bureaux de Statistique au Bresil. Paris, 1885.
Sa(C. de), Braziliaii Railways. Rio de Janeiro, 1893.
Selys-Longchamps (W. de). Notes d'un voyage au Bresil. 8. Bruxelles, 1875.
Smith (II. II.), Brazil, the Amazon, and the Coast. London, 1880.
Sodre (L.), The State of Para. Loudon, 1893.
South American Journal. Published weekly. London.
Steinen (C. von), Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Braziliens. 8. Berlin, 1894.
Villalba (E.), A Revolta da Armada de 6de Setembro de 1893. 8. Rio de Janeiro 1894.
Vincent (Frank), Round and About South America. New York, 1890.
Wallace (A\fr^'([ R.), Travels on tlic Amazon and Rio Negro. 8. London, 1870.
Wells (J W.), Three Thousand Miles through Brazil. London, 1886.
445
CHILE.
(Kepublica de Chile.)
Constitution and Government.
TuE Kepublic of Chile threw oif allegiance to the Crown of
►Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810,
finally freeing itself from the yoke of Spain in 1818. The Con-
stitution voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
with a few subsequent amendments, establishes three powers in
the State — the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The
legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting
of two assemblies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The Senate is composed of members, elected for the term of six
years, in the proportion of one Senator for every three Deputies ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, composed of members chosen for
a period of three years, consists of one representative for every
30,000 of the population, or a fraction not less than 15,000;
both bodies are chosen by the same electors — the Chamber
directly by departments, and the Senate directly by provinces
on the cumulative system of voting. Electors must be 21 years
of age, and can read and write. In 1887 there were 134,119
registered electors or 1 to 18 of the population. In the election
of deputies in March 1888, 89,977 citizens voted or 67 per cent,
of those who had the right to vote. Deputies must have an income
of 100/. a year, and Senators 400/. The executive is exercised
by the President of the Republic elected for a term of five years,
by indirect vote, the people nominating, by ballot, delegates who
appoint the President. A retiring President is not re-eligible.
In legislation the President has a modified veto ; a bill returned
to the chambers with the President's objections may, by a two-
thirds vote of the members present (a majority of the members
being present), be sun^tained and become law. The day of a Presi-
dential election is June 25 of the last of the five years of a Presi-
dency ^ and the inauguration takes place on September 18 of the
same year.
President of the Republic. — Sefior Errazuriz, elected June
25, 1896.
The salary of the President is fixed at 18,000 pesos, with
12,000 pesos for expenses.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a
Council of State, and a Cabinet or Ministry, divided into seven
departments, under six Ministers, viz. : — Of the Interior ; of
Foreign Affairs ; of Worship and Colonisation ; of Justice and
Public Instruction ; of Finance ; of War and Marine ; of Industry
446
CHILE
and Public Works. The Council of State consists of five members
nominated by the President, and six members chosen by the
Congress.
Local Government.
For the purposes of local government the Republic is divided into
Provinces, presided over by Intendcnts ; and the Provinces into Depart-
ments, with Gobernadores as chief officers. The Departments constitute one
or more municipal districts each with a council or municipality of 9 members,
inhabitants popularly elected for three years. The police of Santiago and
of the capitals of departments is organised and regulated by the President of
the Republic at the charge of the national treasury.
Area and Population.
The Republic is divided (according to rearrangement of 1887) into 28
provinces, subdivided into 74 departments and 1 territory. Departments and
territories are subdivided into 865 sub-delegations and 3,068 districts.
In 1884 the province of Antofagasta was ceded to Chile by Bolivia, and
those of Tarapacii and Tacna by Peru. The cession of Tacna was originally
for ten years, at the end of which period a plebiscite of the province would
decide to which country it should belong. Owing to troubles in Peru the
decision was deferred ; but a convention for the purpose of carrying out the
plebiscite was signed at Santiago Aprd 16, 1898. Boundary disputes with
the Argentine Republic have been referred to the decision of the Government
of Queen Victoria, who have agreed to arbitrate.
The following are the area and population of the provinces and territories,
according to the censuses of November 26, 1885, and November 28, 1895,
with the population of the provincial capitals, 1895 : —
1
Provinces and '
Territoiies
1
Area :
Sq. Miles
Popula-
tion 1885
Census
Popula-
tion 1895
Census
Pop.
per Sq.
Mile
1895
Capitals
Pop. of '■
Capitals ;
1895
Magallanes, ter.
75,292
2,085
5,170
_
Punta Arenas
3,227
Chiloe
3,995
73,420
77,750
19-4
Ancud .
3,182
Llanquihue
7,823
62,809
78,315
10-0
Puerto-Montt
3,480
Valdivia .
8,315
50,938
60,687
7-3
Valdivia
8,060
Arauco
4,248
73,658
59,237
13-9
Lebu .
2,784
Cautin
3,127
33,291
78,221
25-1
Teniuco
7,078
Malleco
2,857
59,492
98,032
34-3
Angol .
7,056
Bio-Bio
4,158
101,768
88,749
21-3
Angeles
7,868
Concepciun
3,535
182,459
188,190
56-1
Concepcion .
39,837
Nuble
3,556
149,871
152,935
43-0
Chilian
28,738
Maule
2,931
124,145
119,791
40-8
Cauquenes .
8,574
Linares
3,589
110,652
101,858
29-2
Linares
7,331
Talca .
3,678
133,472
128,961
35-0
Talca .
33,232
Curici'i
2,913
100,002
103,242
35-4
Curico.
12,669
Colcha^na .
3,795
155,687
157,566
41-5
San Fernando
7,447
O'Higgin.s .
2,524
87,641
85,277
33-7
Rancagua .
6,665
Santiago
5,223
329,753
415,636
79-5
Santiago . .
256,413
Valparaiso .
1,659
203,320
220,756
134-9
Valparaiso .
122.447
Aconcagua
6,226
144,125
113,165
19-3
San Felipe .
11,313
Coquimbo .
12,873
176,344
160,898
12-4
Serena
15,712
Atacaiaa .
28,380
76,566
59,713
2-1
Copiap(')
9,301
Antofagasta
72,204
21,213
44,085
0-6
Antofiigasta
13,530
Tarapaca .
19,306
45,086
89,751
4-6
Iquique
33,031
Tacna
Grand Total
8,688
29,523
24,160
2-8
Tacna .
■ * •
9,418
290,829
2,527,320
2,712,145
9-3
—
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
44.7
The Indians are estimated at about 50,000, and if 15 per cent, be added
to the census population for probable omissions, the total population may be
put at about 3,200,000.
In 1885 there were in Chile 1,263,645 males and 1,263,675 females At
the census of 1885 the foreign population amounted to 87,077 persons, ot
whom 34,901 were Peruvians, 13,146 Bolivians, 9,835 Argentines, 6,808
German, 5,303 English, 4,198 French, 4,114 Italian, 2,508 Spanish, 1,275
Swiss, 1,164 Chinese, 924 Anglo-American, 674 Austrian, 434 Swedish and
Norwegian, and the rest from other countries of Europe and of America.
The total urban population in 1895 was 1,240,353, and the rural 1,471,792.
The estimated population at the end of 1897 was 3,049,352. The esti-
mated population of Santiago (December, 1897) was 302,131 ; Valparaiso,
139,038; Conception, 49,607 ; Talca, 39,613.
The registration of births, marriages, and deaths in Chile began in 1885.
The official figures are : —
Year
Births
Marriages
Deaths
99,371
90,399
92,197
88,456
Surplus of
Births
1 1892
1894
1895
1897
103,065
108,724
110,154
109,057
12,895
14,726
14,779
13,454
3,694
18,325
17,957
20,601
Immigration is small, but is encouraged by the Government. The
number of immigrants (agricultural and industrial) who, by the Colonisation
Agency in Europe, entered Chili in 1895, was 1,402 ; in 1896, 2,102. The
latter number included 261 British, 400 German, 402 French, 365 Spanish,
274 Italian, 179 Dutch, 106 Belgian. In 1897 the total number was 870.
In 1898 the sum of 616,890 pesos was provided for colonisation purposes.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic religion is maintained by the State, but according
to the Constitution all religions are respected and protected. There is one
archbishop and three bishops. For 1898 the amount of subsidies to the clergy
and for building and other purposes was 578,888 pesos. Civil marriage is
the only form acknowledged by law.
Instruction.
Education is gratuitous and at the cost of the State, but is not com-
pulsory. It is divided into superior or professional, medium or secondary,
and primary or elementaiy instruction. Professional and secondary in-
struction is provided in the University and the National Institute of
Santiago, and in the lyceums and colleges established in the capitals of
provinces, and in some departments. In the University the branches
included are ilaw, physical and mathematical sciences, medicine, and
students inscribed for the study of these
The number of students at the National
There are 2 lyceums for girls in Santiago
There are, besides, provincial colleges,
normal, agricultural, and other special schools. At the seats of the bishops
there are seminaries under ecclesiastics where instruction is given similar to
that in the Government colleges. There were in 1897, 1,321 jjublic primary
schools, with 109,058 pupils, and an average attendance of 65,507, and
2,268 teachers. There were also 411 private schools, with an attendance of
18,052. The National Library contains over 86,000 volumes of printed
tine arts. The namber of
branches in 1897 was 774,
Institute in 1897 was 1,278.
maintained by Government.
448
CHILE
books, and 24,048 manuscripts. Other educational iustitutions are the
Paedagogic Institute, the National Conservatory of Music, the National
Observatory, School of Arts and Trades, Institute for Deaf Mutes, and public
museums. In 1897 the cost of higher instruction to the State was 2,000,000
pesos ; the cost of maintaining the elementary schools was 1,920,200 pesos ;
and the total cost of instruction supplied by the State, including buildings,
pensions, books, &c., in 1897, was 5,633,021 pesos.
Justice and Crime.
There are, in addition to a High Court of Justice in the capital, six
Courts of Appeal, Courts of First Instance in the departmental capitals, and
subordinate courts in the districts. The total number of offenders sent to
prison in 1896 was 33,338. Of this total, 13,998 were imprisoned from 1 to
60 days; more serious ollenders were 10,474, guilty of otfences against pro-
perty ; 5,419 guilty of offences against persons ; and 5,363 of offences against
order.
Finance.
The public revenue is mainly derived from customs duties,
while the chief branches of expenditure are for the national debt
and public works and salaries.
According to ofhcial statement, the ordinary income and ex-
penditure of Chile have been : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesos
Pesos
1889
62,457,934
61,247,783
1890
59,255,783
75,063,376
1892
62,400,000
60,900,000
1893
73,443,000
62,692,500
. 1894
83,436,000
78,482,000
1896
81,328,638
83,610,839 1
1897
85,439,021
84,614,284 I
For 1898 the expenditure was estimated at 79,931,452 pesos.
The estimated revenue and ex],enditure for 1899 were : —
Sources of Revenue
Pesos
Branches of
Expenditure
Pesos
Import duties
Export duties on nitrate
Export duties on iodine
Surcliarges .
Railways
Post-Oilice & Telegraphs
Stamps
Total ordinary .
Total extraordinary .
Total revenue
22,000,000
42,000,000
317,500
380,857
13,500,000
1,200,000
5,000,000
Interior
Foreign Affairs .
Worship
Colonisation
Justice
Instruction .
' Finance
1 War ....
j Marine
1 Industry
Public Works
Total (budget) .
Tarapaca bank .
Total .
8,213,190
1,261,073
441,728
515,790
3,778,120
4,594,941
17,634,197
13,800,791
9,608,273
595,183
15,906,075
76,349,361
4,444,444
84,398,357
9,446,4424
93,844,799
80,793,805
DEFENCE
449
On December 31, 1897, the public debt of Chile was : —
External 17,734,970/.
Internal (including municipal) . . . 26,744,263 pesos
The interest on the external debt is at 4^, 5, and a small portion at 6 per
cent., and the total charge amounts to about 965,680Z. (12,875,733 pesos).
In 1897 the State property consisted of lands valued at 114,062,702
pesos ; nitrate fields estimated at 150,000,000 pesos ; guano deposits estimated
at 2,500,000 pesos; railways (including rolling stock), 102,158,258 pesos;
telegraph lines, 1,500,000 pesos ; moveable property, 1,069,298 pesos ; total,
371,290,258 pesos.
The following .statement shows approximately, according to data collected
by the Statistical Bureau in the three years 1893-96, the value of the real
property in Chile owned by corporations and private persons : —
—
Urban
Rural
Total
Municipal
Charitable .
Ecclesiastical (untaxed)
,, (taxed) .
Private
Pesos
19,929,526
6,123,487
11,266,449
11,672,108
633,204,303
Pesos
107,792
3,810,008
680,085
2,285,566
752,921,385
Pesos
20,037,318
9,933,495
11,946,534
13,957,674
1,386,125,688
682,195,873
759,804,836
1,442,000,709
If to tlie value of private properties be added the sum of 50,000,000 pesos,
the estimated aggregate value of properties under 2,000 pesos, the value
in private ownership amounts to 1,436,125,688 pesos. Of this about
200,236,400 pesos (or one-seventh) is mortgaged, viz.: 160,236,400 pesos to
land banks and about 40,000,000 pesos to private persons.
Defence.
By the law of Xovember 24, 1897, the strength of the army must not exceed
9,000 men, distributed between 10 regiments of infantry, 8 of cavalry, 5 of
artillery, a corps of engineers, and 2 corps of invalidcs. There are 4
generals of division, 6 of brigade, 18 colonels, 40 lieut. -colonels, and 555
inferior officers. The army is provided with Mauser and Mannlicher rifles.
Besides the regular army there is a K'atioual Guard, composed of citizens.
This force has (1896) been reorganised, and every Chilian from 20 to 40
years of age is obliged to serve. It consists of three parts : the active, into
which citizens enter on the completion of their twentieth year ; the passive,
to which citizens i)ass on the completion of their twenty-first year after
having performed the services required in the active guard ; the sedentary,
composed of those who, having completed their thirtieth year, have passed
from the passive guard. In the year 1898 the numbers enrolled were : active,
16,309 ; passive, 7,301 ; sedentary, 5,672 ; total, 29,282. In the three years
1896-98 the total numbers enrolled were 512,700.
The Chilian fleet consists of 5 armourclads, including the old Huascar,
2 second-class and 3 third-class cruisers, 11 gun -vessels and gunboats, 4
destroyers, launched at Birkenhead in 1896, and all of more than 30 knots,
and 15 first-class and 4 second-class torpedo boats. The following are the
principal vessels. Abrev. -. c.h., central battery ; h., barbette ; a.c, armoured
cruiser ; cr. cruiser.
G G
450
CHILE
§
'S
09
<o
Q
c.b.
h.
a.c.
a.c.
cr.
cr.
cr.
cr.
Name
1
c
1874
1890
1896
1896
1893
1896
1890
. *
i IS
So
.22 a
P 2
3,500
6,900
7,020
8,500
4,400
3,600
2.080
Extreme
Armouring,
Indies
Armament
O CO
0,-S
Indicated
Horse-
Power
C a)
S as
OX!
55
Aim. Cochrane
Capitan Prat .
Esmeralda .
O'Higgins
Blanco Encalada .
Ministro Zenteno
Pres. Errazuriz '
Pres. Pinto
9
12
6
7
/ 6 8-in. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F. ; \
\ 4 3-pr. Q.F. '
\ 6 9-4-in. ; 8 4-7-in.;& \
\ 20 small Q.F. /
) 2 8-in. ; & 34 smaller \
1 QF. /
r 4 8-in. ; & 34 smaller \
I Q.F. >
/ 2 8-in. : 10 6-in ; t \
\ smaller Q.F. j
i 8 6-in. Q.F. ; 14 )
\ smaller Q. F /
1 4 6-in. Q.F. ; & 7 i
I smaller Q.F. t
3
4
3
3
5
3
3
2,920
12,000
18,000
16,500
14,500
5,400
13-0
18-3
23-0
21-2
22-0
20 0
19-0
The small battleship Capitan Prat, built at La Seyne, is a vessel of most
interesting character, combining a high speed with a powerful armament, and
sufficient protection. All her guns are worked either by electricity or by hand.
Four 9|-i]i. Canttguns, in armoured barbettes, are dispersed in the form of a
lozenge, one at the bows, one at the stern, and one on either broadside.
Eight 4f -in. Q.F. guns are coupled in four closed turrets, and there are 20
smaller Q.F. pieces, as well as machine guns. The first-class cruiser
Esmeralda is an extremely swift vessel. The ironclad Almirante Cochrane
was built at Hull in 1874 from the designs of Sir E. J. Reed. The smaller
second-class sister cruisers Presidente Errazuriz and Praidente Pinto have
more recently been launched at La Seyne. The Blanco Encalada, built
at Elswick, replaces the vessel of the same name which was torpedoed in the
late civil war. Her speed and gunnery trials were very successful. With
natural draught she attained 2175 knots, and with forced draught 2278
knots. The armoured cruiser O'Higgins, named after the famous Chilian
admiral, was also built at Elswick, and is a remarkably fine vessel, power-
fully armed, of bigh speed, and protected by a steel belt of from 7 in. to 5 in. ;
6 in. on the barbettes and gun casemates, 9 in. on the conning tower, and a
2 in. deck. The third-class training cruiser General Baquedano (2,350 tons)
is at Elswick completing afloat.
Industry.
About 14 million of the population are engaged in agriculture. Chile
produces annually about 28^ million bu.shels of wheat, and 8^ million bushels
of other cereals, besides fruits, vegetables &c. In 1888, 66,030 gallons of
wine were exported. Over 500,000 liead of cattle and 2, 000, 000 sheep, goats,
&c. are annually reared in the country. Of mineral produce the annual yield
of copper is about 400,000 metric quintals; of silver, 160,000 kilogrammes;
of gold, 500 kilogrammes; of coal, 10,000,000 metric tons; while man-
ganese and other minerals are obtained.
The nitrate fields of Cliile are estimated to cover 89,177 hectares, and to
contain 2,316 millions of metric quintals of the nitrate of commerce. Tlie
total produce is stated to have been 550,000 tons in 1884 ; 420,000 in 1885 ;
443,000 in 1886 ; 702 000 in 1887 ; 773,000 in 1888 ; 903,000 in 1889 ;
1,009,000 in 1890; and 877,000 in 1891 ; 804,812 in 1892; 9.18,871 in 1893;
COMMERCE
451
1,082,285 ill 1894; 1,220,000 in 1895; 1,092,000 in 189ti ; 1,064,075 in
1897 ; 1,254,000 in 1898. A large amount of Briti.sh capital has been em-
ployed in developing the nitrate industry of Chile.
In the Department of Valparaiso in 1895 there were 417 industrial
establishments which in that year consumed raw material valued at 20,057,573
pesos, and employed 12,616 operatives with 162 steam-engines of altogether
1,766 horse-power. The most important of these establishments were sugar
refineries, gas-works, breweries, mineral and aerated water factories, carriage
and cart works, saw-mills, and works for machine-making.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports of Chile
(special trade, including bullion and specie) for five years (in pesos of S8d.) : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Pesos
68,235,874
72,245,114
Pesos
54,483,616
72,040,420
Pesos
69,206,552
72,919,882
Pesos
74,082,805
74,359,414
Pesos
65,502,805
64,754,133,
Of the imports in 1897 the value of 49,260,796 pesos, or 75 per cent,
of the whole, was sul>ject to duty ; and of the exports, 39,890,929 pesos, or
61 percent. The import duties collected in 1897 amounted to 24,716,142
pesos ; and the export duties to 16,749,714 pesos, and 1,478,790Z. sterling.
The following table shows the leading imports and exports for two years : —
Imports
1896
1897
Exports
1896
1897
Sugar
Cattle
Coal
Cottons (wliiti) . .
Quimons (Jap. cot-
tons)
Sacks (empty) . .
Oil (illuminant) . .
Tocuyos (shirts). .
Cashmeres . . .
Rails (Nieles) . .
Timber
Tea
Candles ....
Iron, bar and block
Iron, galvanized. .
Rice
Woollens ....
Woollen handker-
chiefs
Total ....
Pesos
5,777,357
3,843,825
5,462,954
1,763,2.50
1,755,929
1,874,054
1,388,242
800.779
1,167,120
776,891
940,657
1,011,127
1,116,691
698,011
942,449
607,5.S6
825,511
550,006
Pesos
5,983,659
2,756,000
4,122,918
1,805,417
2,131,679
2,440,209 j
1,458,090 I
010,887
1,221,018
195,400
710,247
1,046,250
1,176,-557
354,502
1,202,170
824,079
835,153 i
529,300
Nitrate ....
Iodine
Copper in bars . .
Copi^er ore . . .
Copper "ejes" . .
Silver bar & ingot .
Silver ore ....
Gold in bars and
Pesos
r43,931,667
2,063,950
5,148,015
307,943
284,897
4,183,108
1,257,870
849,036
1,434,253
4,126,957
1,-535,106
315,675
437,339
1,225,355
731,241
Pesos
37,461,559
2,429,370
5,226,199
169,810
251,915
3,781,125
434,231
905,168
1,869,310
2,599,640
887,573
195,625
218,493
1,344,005
621,209
Coal
Wheat
Barley
Nuts
Hides
Shoe leather . . .
Wool
Total ....
Of the nitrate exported aliout 39 per cent, goes to Germany, 17 3 to
France, 133 to the Unite<l States, 11-2 to Groat Britain, and 10 9 per cent,
to Helgiuni.
G G 2
452 CHILE
The trade of the leading ports was as follows for two years
Imports
Imports
Exports
Exports
1896
1897
1896
1897
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Valparaiso
48,537,782
40,716,692
7,933,200
6,583,103
Iquique .
7,556,103
6,369,424
31,117,235
25,145,228
Pisagua .
747,075
772,329
8,235,244
7,380,550
Talcahuano
8,470,765
8,530,889
4,755,599
2,435,311
Coquimbo
2,105,804
2,269,080
3,755,712
3,601,447
Antofagasta
1,936,903
2,187,171
4,179,425
4,237,841
Coronel .
1,200,697
1,160,006
3,234,757
4,020,927
Taltal
534,847
497,911
4,554,454
3,876,526
Valdivia .
1,019,728
1,335,578
1,120,887
1,170.485
For the years stated the foreign trade of Chile was distributed as follows : —
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
Countries
(1895)
(1896)
(1893)
(1894)
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Great Britain
12,082,959
30,249,002
55,050,621
53,255,112
Germany
17,299,039
20,080,943
6,230,002
9,672,403
France
1,644,059
2,834,216
2,599,601
2,002,852
United States
4,579,614
6,807,165
2,860,885
1,667,745
Peru .
4,456,388
4,397,230
1,470,450
1,479,820
Argentine Republic
5,141,351
4,105,244
166,823
59,999
Brazil .
301,006
186,622
159,185
117,545
Italy .
539,790
692,534
39,173
176,487
The commercial intercourse between Chile and the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement in each of the last five years,
according to the Board of Trade returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895
Imports into
£
£
£
U. K. from
Chile .
3,797,429
3,711,544
3,436,142
Exports of
British pro-
duce to Chile
2,385,621
2,207 306
3,248,780
1896
1897
3,606,357 I 3,191,683
I
i
2,553,267 | 2,226,478
The imports from Chile into the United Kingdom include nitrate ot soda
of the value of 733,733/. in 1893 ; 1,129,877/. in 1894 ; 987 126Z. in 1895 ;
819 726/. in 1896 ; 778.335/. in 1897 ; copper (including ore and regulns),
742,129/. in 1896 ; 813,416/. in 1897 ; wheat, 594,996/. in 1896 ; 374,092 in
1897 ; barley 344,855/. in 1896 ; 168,613/. in 1897 ; silver ore, 303,581/. in
1896 ; 385,597/. in 1897 ; chemical products, 61,096/. in 1897 ; and wool.
224,095/. in 1896 ; 228,870Z. in 1897.
MONEY AND CREDIT 453
The piiiicipal articles of British produce exported to Chile were cottons
of the value of 1,182,252Z. in 1885 ; 83(3,045 in 1897 ; woollens, 241,316Z.
in 1897 ; of iron, wrought and unwrought, 319,622/. in 1897 ; coal, &c. ,
114.550/. iu 1897 ; hardware, 28,997/. ; machinery, 125,901.
Shippings and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Chile consisted, on January 1, 1897, of 160 vessels
of 80,275 tons, of which 48 were steamers, of 25,521 tons net. In 1896
there entered the ports of the Republic, in the foreign trade, 2,193 vessels
of 3,315,426 tons, and cleared 2,346 of 3,961,996 tons. Of vessels engaged
in the coasting trade in 1896 a total tonnage of 6,656,603 entered. There
are English, German, and French lines of steamers from the coasts of Chile
to Europe, through the Straits of Magellan, and English and Chilian lines to
Peru and Panama.
Communications.
chile was the first State in South America in the construction of railways.
In 1897 the total length of lines open for traffic wa.« 2,661 English miles, of
which 1,233 belonged, to the State, The cost of the State lines to the end of
1897 was 82,269,660 pesos. The revenue of the State railways in 1897 was
13,259,607 pesos, and the expenses 12,878,248 pesos. Of the Trans-Andine
railway from Santa Rosa to Mendoza, 18 miles of the Chilian section and 88
of the Argentine section are open, 46 miles of line being still required to
unite the sections.
The post-office in 1896 transmitted in the internal service 54,537,687
letters, newspapers, &c., and in the external, 5,387,020. There were 626
po.st-offices. Postal revenue, 1896, 951,816 pesos : expenditure 890,658
pesos.
The length of State telegraph lines at the end ol 1897, was 9,832 miles,
with 11,200 miles of wire. There were 229 offices. In 1897, 1,255,806 telegrams
were sent. The railway and private lines, over 2,613 miles in length, are
not included in these figures. In 1887 the telephone conversations numbered
19,463,775.
Money and Credit.
Chile has no State bank. The number of joint-stock banks of issue was 23 in
January 1898. Their joint capital amounted to 50,818,829 pesos, and their
registered issue to 16,230,840 pesos. The banks are required to guarantee their
note issue by dejwsiting gold. Government notes, or securities in tha'Treasury,
and the amount so deposited is stated to be 18,196,888 pesos. There are also
a number of land banks which issue scrip payable to bearer and bearing inter-
est, and lend money secured as a first charge on landed property and
repayable at fixed periods.
The conversion law of February 11, 1895, provided that the redemption
of the paper currency should be effected from June 1 of that year, at the rate
of 18c^. per peso, and authorised the i.ssue of the coinage described below.
The nominal value of the coinage of Chile during the last three years is
given as follows : —
454
CHILE
■ — "
Golrl
Silver
Total
1895
1896
1897
Peios
22,891,515
14,861,615
59,900
Poos
6,115,137
1,857,197
36,785
Peios
29,006,652
16,718,812
96,685
37,813,030
8,009,119
45,822,149
In July 1898, owing to financial tronbles, the President was authorised
to issue paper money to the amount of 50, 000, 000 pesos, to lend to the
hanks 20,000,000 pesos at 4 per cent., and in order to withdraw the paper
issue at the end of four years, to raise a loan of 4,000,000^.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
According to the Act of 1895, the coinage of Chile is as follows : — Gold
coins are 20, 10, 5 peso pieces, called respectively the Colon or Condor,
Dohlon, and Escudo. The 10-peso gold piece weighs 5 '99103 grammes '916
fine and therefore contains 5*49178 grammes of fine gold. Silver coins are
the peso, weighing 20 grammes, '835 fine, and the fifth, tenth, and twentieth
of a peso. Bronze coins (95 of copper to 5 of nickel) are the centavo and 2-
centavo pieces. The monetary unit is the twentieth part of a colon or the
(uncoined) gold peso.
The metric system has been legally established in Chile since 1865, but
the old Spanish weights and measures arc still in use to some extent.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Chile in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Senor Domingo Gana,
Consul- General. — Senor Ricardo Salas Edwards.
Attache. — Enrique Balmaceda de Toro.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Dublin,
Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Leith, Liverpool (C.G.), Newca.stle,
Southampton and many other places.
2. Of Great Britain in Chile.
Minister and Consul-General.—Awdley C. Gosling, appointed October 1,
1897.
There are Consular representatives at Coquimbo (V.C), Valjiaraiso (C.G. )
Antofagasta (V.C), Arica (V.C), Caldera, Coronel, Iquique (C), Lota,
Pisagua (V.C), Punta Arenas (V.C), Talcahuano (V.C), Tocopilla, Tome,
Traiguen.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chile.
1. Official Publications,
Annuario Estadistico, for the years 183r)-86. Fol. Valparaiso, 1893.
Memorias presentamlas al Congreso nacioiial por los Ministros de Estado en los departa
inentos de Relaciones Exteriores, Hacienda, &c Santiago, 1896.
Estadfstioa ooinevcial de la Repiiblica de Chile. 8. Valparaiso, ISOfi.
BOOKS OF REFERENCK 455
Synopsis estadistica y gcogrnflca ile Cliile 1897. yantiago, 1898.
Reports on the trade, manufactures, agriculture of Chile in Forpign Office Reports,
annual series. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
./^rana (Diego Barros), La guerre du Pacifique. Paris, 1882; and Historia general de
Chile.
Asta-Buruaga (Francisco S.), Diccionario geografleo de la Republica de Chile. S. New
Yorl<, 1807.
Ball (John), Notes of a Naturalist in South America. London, 1887.
Bates (U. W.), South America, London, 1882.
Child (Theodore), The Spanish American Republics. London, 1891.
Fonck (Dr. Fr.), Chile in der Gegenwart. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Oay (Claudio), Historia general de Chile.
Guerre entre le Chili, le Perou et Bolivie en 1879. Paris, 1879.
Hancock (A. M.), A History of Chili. 8. Cliicago, 1893.
Herveyi^l. H.), Dark Days in Chile. London, 1892.
Innes (G. Rose-), The Progress and Actual Condition of Chile. 8. London, 187.0.
Kunz (Hugo), Chile und die Deutschen Colonien. Leipzig, 1891.
Mackenna (Vicuna), Obras hist6ricas sobre Chile.
Maldonado (R.), Estudios geograflcos e hidrograficos sobre Chile. Santiago, 1897.
Markham (C. R.), The War between Chile and Peru, 1879-81. London, 188.S.
Rosales (R. P. Diego de), Historia general del Reyno de Chile. 3 vols. 8. Valparaiso,
1S77-7S.
Vincent (Frunk), Round and about South America. New York, 1890.
456
CHINA.
(Chung Kwoh, ' The Middle Kingdom.')
Reigning Emperor.
Tsait'ien, Emperor — Hwangti — of China ; born 1871 ; the son of Prince
Ch^un, seventh brother of the Emperor Hien-Feng ; succeeded to the throne
by proclamation, at the death of Emperor T'ung-chi, January 22, 1875 ; he
was married February 26, 1889.
The present sovereign, reigning under the style of Kwangsii, is the ninth
Emperor of China of the Manchu dynasty of Ts'ing, which overl"hrew the
native dynasty of Ming, in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary
succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint his suc-
cessor from among the members of his family of a younger generation than
his own. The late Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of his
age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of arrangements
directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the Emperor Hien-Feng, pre-
decessor and father of T'ung-chi, in concert with Prince Ch'un, that the
infant son of the latter was made the nominal occupant of the throne.
Having become of age the young Emperor nominally assumed government
in March 1887. In February 1889 he undertook the full control, but on
September 22, 1898, an Imperial edict was issued announcing that the
Emperor had resigned power to the Empress Dowager, who has since retained
the direction of affairs.
Government.
The laws of the Empire are laid down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien, or
* Collected Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty,' which ])rescvibe the govern-
ment of the State to be based upon the government of the family.
The supreme direction of the Empire is vested in the Chiin Chi Ch'u, the
Privy Council, or Grand Council. The administration is under the supreme
direction of the Nei-ko or Cabinet, comprising four members, two of Manchu
and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Han-lin, or Great
College, who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and
religious laws of the Empire, contained in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien and in the
.sacred books of Confucius. These members are denominated ' Ta-hsio-shih,'
or Ministers of State. Under their orders are the Ch'i-pu, or seven boards
of government, each of which is presided over by a Manchu and a Chinese.
These boards are : — (1) the board of civil appointments, which takes
cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil officers ; (2) the
board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs ; (3) the board of rites and
ceremonies, which enforces the laws and customs to be observed by the
people ; (4) the military board ; (5) the board of public Avorks ; (6) the high
tribunal of criminal jurisdiction ; and (7) the admiralty board at Tientsin,
established in 1885.
Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central
administration, is the Tu-ch'a-yuen, or board of public censors. It consists
of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents, the one of Manchu and
AREA AND POPULATION
457
the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of the Empire, all the
members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the
sovereign. One censor must be present at the meetings of each of the
Government boards.
The Tsungli Yamen, or Foreign Office, was created by a decree of January
19, 1861, autl comprises among its members all those of the Council of State
and six other officials of the highest rank. It controls not merely the matters
with foreign nations, but also those institutions in which foreigners form part
of the working staff, such as the Maritime Customs, Peking University
(Tung Wen Kwan), &c.
Local Government.
Each of the 18 provinces is ruled by a Governor or Governor-General,
who is responsible to the Emperor for the entire administration, political,
judicial, military, and fiscal. He is assisted by a council and various other
officials, such as the Treasurer, the sub- Commissioner, and the Literary
Chancellor. Each province is sub-divided into de})artments ruled by prefects,
and each department into districts, each with a district ruler. Two or more
departments are sometimes united into a tau, the ruler of which is called a
tautai Each town and village has also its governing body, and among the
various rulers there is regular gradation of rank, each being responsible to his
immediate superior. Political office in the general administration of the
Empire is less sought after than the position of viceroy or governor in the
provinces, where the opportunities of acquiring wealth, not from official
salaries but from gifts, &c. , are abundant.
Area and Population.
Hitherto the population of China, it is believed, has been
much over-estimated ; a recent estimate of the population of
China Proper will be found below. The following table gives a
statement of the area and population of the whole of the Chinese
Empire according to the latest estimates : —
—
Area
Population
China Proper ......
Dependencies : —
Manchuria .....
Mongolia ......
Tibet
Jungaria
East Turkestan
Total
Eng. .sq. miles
1,336,841
362,310
1,288,000
651,500
147,950
431,800
4,218,401
386,000,000
7,500,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
600,000
580,000
402,680,000
According to official data referring to 1842 the population of
the 18 provinces of China Proper and Formosa was 413,000,000 ;
other estimates gave 350,000,000. In the following table the
figures with an * are from Chinese official data for 1882; those
with a t have the population of 1879; Fukien is estimated on
the basis of the census of 1844.
458
CHINA
Provinces
Area : English
square miles
1
Population
Population per
square mile
Chili t . . . .
58,949
17,937,000
304
Shantung * . . .
53,762
36,247,835
557
Shansi*.
56,268
12,211,453
221
Honaii* . . . .
66,913
22,115,827
340
Kiangsu * . . .
44,500
20,905,171
470
Nganhwei
48,461
20,596,288
425
Kiangsit
72,176
24,534,118
340
Chehkiaiig * .
39,150
11,588,692
296
Fukien . , . .
38,500
22,190,556
574
Hiipeh * ,
70,450
34,244,685
486
Hunan * .
74,320
21,002,604
282
Shensi + .
67,400
8,432,193
126
Kansu t ...
125,450
9,285,377
74
Szechuen * . . .
166,800
67,712,897
406
Kwangtung with Hainan *
79,456
29,706,249
377
Kwangsi + . . .
78,250
5,151,327
65
Kweichau t . . .
64,554
7,669,181
118
Ylinnant
Total .
107,969
11,721,576
108
1,313,328
383,253,029
292
1
The Island of Formosa was ceded to Japan in accordance with the terms
of the Treaty of peace ratified and exchanged at Chefoo on the 8th of Ma)',
1895. The formal transfer of the Island was effected on the 2nd of June,
1895.
In December, 1897, the Germans seized the Port of Kiau-Chau, on the
east coast of Shantung, and in January, 1898, obtained from the Chinese a
99 years' lease of the town, harbour, and district. By agreement with the
Chinese Government, dated March 27, 1898, Russia is in possession of Port
Arthur and Talienwan (with territories still undefined) and their adjacent
waters, on lease for the term of 25 years, which may be extended by agreement.
Within the territories and waters leased Russia has sole military and naval
control, and may build forts and barracks as she desires. Port Arthur is
closed to all vessels except Russian and Chinese men-of-war ; part of Talien-
wan harbour is reserved exclusively for Russian and Chinese men-of-war, but
the remainder is freely open to merchant vessels of all countries. To the
north a neutral zone is to be defined where Chinese troops shall not be
quartered except with the consent of Russia. For such period as Russia
may hold Port Arthur, Great Britain is, by agreement with China, to hold
"Wei-Hai-Wei, in the province of Shantung, that port having been occupied
by the British in June, 1898. For defensive purposes Great Britain has, in
addition, obtained a 99 years' lease of territory on the mainland opposite the
island of Hong Kong. To compensate for these advantages given to the
Russians, British, and Germans, the Chinese Government granted to the
French in April, 1898, a lease of the Bay of Kwang-Chau-Wan, on the east
coast of the Tien-Chau peninsula, opposite the Island of Hainan.
According to a return of the Imperial Customs authorities,
the total number of foreigners resident in the open ports of China
was 11, 667 at the end of 1897. Among them were 4,929 British
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 459
8u])jecls, 1,564 Americans, 1,106 Japanese, 6U8 Fienclimeu, 950
Germans, 975 Portuguese, 362 Spaniards, and 439 Swedes and
Norwegians, all other nationalities being represented by very
few members. About one-half of the total number of foreigners
resided at Shanghai.
Religion.
Three religions are acknowledged by the Chinese as indigenous and
adopted, viz. Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the Empire, and can
alone, with his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great
religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the
public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian religion.
The Confucian is the State religion, if the respect paid to the memory of
the great teacher can be called religion at all. But distinct and totally
separate from the stated periodic observances of respect offered to the memory
of Confucius as the Holy Man of old, and totally unconnected therewith,
there is the distinct worship of Heaven (t'ien), in which the Emperor,
as the * sole high priest,' worships and sacrifices to ' Heaven ' every
year at the time of the winter solstice, at the Altar of Heaven, in Peking.
With the exception of the practice of ancestral worship, which is everywhere
observed throughout the Empire, and was fully commended by Confucius,
Confucianism has little outward ceremonial. The study and contemplation
and attempted performance of the moral precepts of the ancients constitute
the duties of a Confucianvst. Buddhism and Taoism present a very gorgeous
and elaborate ritual in China, Taoism — originally a pure philosophy — having
abjectly copied Buddhist ceremonial on the arrival of Buddhism 1,800 years
ago. Large numbers of the Chinese in Middle and Southern China profess and
practise all three religions. The bulk of the people, however, are Buddhist.
There are probably about 30 million Mahometans, chiefly in the north-east
and south-west. Roman Catholicism has long had a footing in China, and
is estimated to have about 1,000,000 adherents, with 25 bishoprics besides
those of Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea. Other Christian societies
have stations in many parts of the country, the number of Protestant ad-
herents being estimated at 50,000. Most of the aboriginal hill-tribes are still
nature-worshippers, and ethnically are distinct from the prevailing Mongoloid
population,
^^-~ Instruction.
Education of a certain type is very general, but still there are vast
masses of adult countrymen in China who can neither read nor write.
There is a special literary class who alone know the literature of their country,
to the study of which they devote their lives. There are boarding schools
and day schools for boys and young men, the latter being held in the
entrance halls of temples and in the spare chambers of guilds, and in all the
important cities there are colleges for training candidates for degrees. Ex-
aminations, mainly confined to moral i)hiloso])hy and literature, are held in
the prefectorial cities of each province twice in throe years for the lower
degree necessary as a ])assport to the public service, but of the six or seven
thousand candidates who come forward, not more than sixty ean he ndmitted
4(30 CHINA
to the der^ree by the Literary Chancellor. For the higher degree, examina-
tions are held in each provincial capital once in three years, and the successful
candidates are subjected to a third and a fourth examination, those who finally
emerge being divided into four classes to wait for appointments to offices of
different grades. There are, however, other means (e.g. military service) by
which such appointments may be obtained. In 1887, for the first time,
mathematics were admitted with the Chinese classics among the subjects ot
examination, and schools for the propagation of Western science and litera-
ture are now on the increase. The * Tung Wen Kwan,' or College of Foreign
Knowledge, at Peking, is a Government institution, where the English, French,
German, Japanese, and Russian languages, and mathematics, chemistry, physio-
logy, &c., are taught by European, Japanese, and American professors, while the
Chinese education of the pupils is entrusted to Chinese teachers. There are,
besides, numerous Catholic and Protestant mission schools and colleges at
Shanghai and other ports, where the English language and lower branches
of Western science are taught. The Chinese Government has of late years
established naval and military colleges and torpedo schools in connection
with the different arsenals at Tientsin, Nanking, Shanghai, and Foochow, in
which foreign instructors are engaged to teach such young Chinese as intend
to make their career in the army or navy of their country Western modes of
warfare, besides Western languages and literature. Ten Chinese news-
papers are published at Shanghai, and the success they have achieved has
led to the establishment of others at some of the other treaty ports.
Finance.
No general statement of the revenue and expenditure of China is made
public, and such estimates as have been formed by Europeans are founded
on financial reports of provincial governors published in the Peking Gazette.
Except the foreign maritime and a few native customs, the entire revenue is
collected by provincial agents. The Board of Kevenue at Peking issues
annually to each of the provincial governors a statement of the amount
required from his province for the following year, and Avhen to this amount
is added the sum necessary for local administration, civil and military, the
revenue to be provided by each collector is ascertained. The amount
actually levied, however, greatly exceeds this, and the surplus, which may
amount to 50 or 70 per cent, of the total, disappears in the form of costs, or
in presents to official superiors, or remains in the hands of the collectors.
The following estimate, taken from a report by Consul Jamieson of Shanghai,
is based on figures for the three years preceding the Japanese war, and shows
the sums accounted for by the provincial authorities : —
Sources of Revenue
Amount
I Taels
Land tax, silver i 25,08S,000
gi-ain ; 6,562.000
Salt duty and likin 13,659,000
Likin on merchandise 12,952,000
Foreign maritime customs (1S93) 21,989,000
Native custom-houses 1,000,000
Duty and likin on native opium 2,229,000
Miscellaneous duties 5,550,000
Total
88,979,000
FINANCE - 461
Branches of Expenditure
Amount
Taelu
19,478,000
Remittances:
Metropolitan administration, Mancbu garrisons and the Imperial
Household
Board of Admiralty (Peiyang Squadron) ' 5,000,000
Southern naval squadrons i 5,000,000
Forts, guns, and coast defence j 8,000,000
Defence of Manchuria ! 1,848,000
Kansuh and Central Asia . . ' 4,800^000
Aids to Yunnan and Kweichow 1,655,000
Interest and repayment of foreign loans j 2,500,000
Railway construction 500,000
Public works, river embankments, sea wall, &c 1,500,000
Customs administration, including maintenance of lighthouses,
beacons, and revenue cruisers i 2,478,000
Administration of IS provinces, including cost of troojts . . . 36,220!000
Total 88,979,000
The land tax varies in different provinces from lOd. or 1«. to Gs. 6d. or more per acre.
The rate of incidence is theoretically fixed, but under otlier names additional taxes are
imposed on land. Salt is a Government monopoly, all producers being required to sell to
Government agents, who, at a price which covers the duty, re-sell to merchants provided
with 'salt warrants.' Likin is a tax imposed on merchandise in course of transportation,
payable at appointed barriers ; with it is now united a producers' tax.
The collection of the revenue on the Chinese foreign trade and the
administration of the lights on the coast of China are under the management
of the Imperial Customs Department, the head of which is a foreigner (British),
under whom is a large staff of European, American, and Chinese subordinates
the department being organised somewhat similarly to the English Civil
Service. It has an agency in London.
The receipts amounted to 7,872,257 haikwan taels, or 2,361, 677Z. (ex. 6.?.),
in 1864, and, gradually increasing, have risen to 22,523,605 haikwan taels
(including 5,050,303 taels, opium likin), or 3,601,430Z. (ex. 35. 21^.), in
1894 ; to 21,385,389 haikwan taels (including 4,104,145 taels, opium likin),
or 3,497,402/. (ex. 3s. 3^^), in 1895 ; to 22,579,366 haikwan taels (in-
cluding 3,919,759 taels, opium likin), or 3,763,227Z. (ex. ds. Ad.), in 1896 ;
to 22,742,104 haikwan taels (including 3,947,607 taels, opium likin), or
3,387,626Z. (ex. 2s. Hid.), in 1897.
The existing debt of China has arisen almost entirely out of the recent
war with Japan. In 1887 there was contracted a German loan of 5,000,000
marks in gold at 5^ per cent. In 1894 a foreign silver loan of 1.635,000Z. was
raised at 7 per cent., and in February, 1895, a gold loan of 3,000,000Z., both
on the secuiity of tlie customs revenue, while other advances, on the same
security, amounting to over 2,000,000Z. were obtained from local banks
and foreign syndicates. Internal loans were also obtained amounting to
nearly 5,000,000Z. The war indemnity to be paid to Japan amounted to
200,000,000 Kuping, or Imperial Treasury, taels, and the compensation for
the retrc'cession for the Leao-tong peninsula to 30,000,000 taels. Conse-
quently, in 1895, another foreign loan was raised amounting to 15,820,000Z.
at 5 per cent, and in March, 1896, an Anglo-German loan of 16,000,000/. at
5 per cent, was contracted. To ]»ay otf the balance of the war indemnity
due to Japan a further loan of 16,000,000/. was concluded on March 1, 1898,
with the Hong Kong and Shanghai Danking Cori)oration and the Deutsch-
462 CHINA
Asiatisclie Bank. This loan was secured on certain likin collections pledged
by the Chinese Government, the collections being confided to the Inspector-
General of Customs. The outstanding amount of the foreign debt is about
54,000,000^.
Defence.
The army of China comprises : —
1. The Eight Banners, nominally containing about 300,000 men, descen-
dants of the Manchu conquerors and their allies. The number maintained
on a war footing is from 80,000 to 100,000. The whole force is subdivided
into three groups, consisting respectively of Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese,
and forms a sort of hereditary profession within which intermarriage is com-
pulsory. About 37,000 are stationed in garrisons in Manchuria ; the
Imperial Guard at Peking contains from 4,000 to 6,000.
2. The Ying Ping, or National Army, called also the Green Flags and
the Five Camps (five being the unit of subdivision). This army consists of
18 corps, one for each province, under the Governor or Governor-General.
The nominal strength is from 540,000 to 660,000 men, of whom about
200,000 are available for war, never more than one-third being called out.
The most important contingent is the Tientsin Army Corps, nominally
100,000 strong, really about 35,000, with modern organisation, drill, and
arms, employed in garrison duty at Tientsin, and at Taku and other forts.
Besides these forces there are mercenary troops, raised in emergencies, and
Mongolian and other irregular cavalry, nominally 200,000 strong, really
about 20,000, but of no military value. The total land army on peace foot-
ing is put at 300,000 men, and on war footing at about 1,000,000, but the
army, as a whole, has no unity or cohesion ; there is no proper discipline,
the drill is mere physical exercise, the weapons are long since obsolete, and
there is no transport, commissariat, or medical service.
The Chinese navy, during the war with Japan, disappointed those who
regarded it as an effective fighting force. At the opening of hostilities, on July
25th, 1894, when the Kcwshing transport was sunk, an engagement took
place between the Japanese cruiser Yoshino and the Tsi- Yuen, with other
vessels, and the small Chinese cruiser Kuang-Yi was driven ashore and
destroyed. In the battle of the Yalu (September 17th), or in immediate
consequence of that action, the barbette armour-clad King Yuen, 2,850 tons,
and the cruisers Chih Yuen, 2,300 tons, Chao Yung, 1,350 tons, Ya7ig Wei,
1,350 tons, and Kuang Ki, 1,030 tons, were sunk or burned. Subsequently
at Wei Hai Wei the barbette ship Ting Yuen and the cruiser Ching Yuen
were sunk, and the armour-clad Chen Yuen was captured. The Chinese fleet
is organized in district squadrons, which are severally raised and maintained
by the provincial viceroys. At the conclusion of the war the Chen-Hai and
the Kang Chi alone remained to China of her effective Pei Yang squadron.
Some smaller vessels have since been added to the fleet. Among these are
the cruisers ffai Chi and Hai Tien (4,300 tons) launched in the Tyne in
1897 and 1898. They have 6 in. armour on the guns positons and a 5 in.
deck, and they carry 2 8 in., 10 47 in., and 12 3 pr. Armstrong quick-firers.
The speed is 24 knots. The small cruisers Hai- Yung, Hai Shea, and Hai
Sheiv, 2,950 tons, have been launched at Stettin (1897) ; and 3 destroyers,
the Hai Lung (33*6 knots), Hai Niu, Hai Ching, and Hai Hoha a.t Elbing.
A French engineer, M. Doyere, lias reorganistnl the arsenal of Koochow, and
a torpedo gun vessel (817 tons) and a 20 '5 knot torpedo )>oat are in hand
there.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
463
Sze-ch'wan. The
The mulberry tree
Production and Industry.
China is essentially an agricultural country, and the land is all freehold,
held by families on the payment of an annual tax. Lands and houses are
registered, and when a sale takes place the purchaser, on informing the dis-
trict ruler, receives, besides the document given by the seller, an official state-
ment of the transfer, for which he pays at the rate of 6 per cent, of the pur-
chase money. Land, however, cannot be sold until all the near kindred have
successively refused to purchase. The holdings are in general small ; the
farm animals are oxen and buffaloes ; the implements used are primitive ;
irrigation is common. Horticulture is a favourite pursuit, and fruit trees are
grown in great variety. Wheat, barley, maize, and millet and other cereals,
with pease and beans, are chiefly cultivated in the north, and rice in the
south. Sugar, indigo, and cotton are cultivated in the south provinces.
Opium has become a crop of increasing importance. Tea is cultivated
exclusively in the west and south, in Fu-Chien, Hiipei, Hu-Nan,
Chiang-hsi, Cheh-Chiang, An-hui, Kuangtung, and
culture of silk is equally important with that of tea.
grows everywhere, but the best and the most silk comes from Kuangtung,
Sze-ch'wan, Cheh-Chiang and Kiang-su. An important feature in the
development of the Chinese industries is the erection of cotton mills in
Shanghai, and of silk filatures in Shanghai, Canton and elsewhere. Two
native cotton mills were started in 1890, and recently four foreign mill-
companies have been successfully floated.
All the 18 provinces contain coal, and China may be regarded as one of
the first coal countries of the world. The coal mines at Kai-p'ing, Northern
Chihli, under foreign supervision, have been very productive ; those of Fang-
shan-hsien supply Pekin with anthracite fuel. In Shantung the coal-field of
Poshan is at present the most productive, but at Changkiu-hsien, Ichou-fu,
and I-hsien there are also promising coal-fields. Coal is found also in
Kansu. In Eastern Shansi there is a field of anthracite of an area of about
13,500 square miles, and in Western Shansi a field of bituminous coal of
nearly equal importance. In South-Eastern Hunan the coal area covers about
21,700 square miles, containing both anthracite and bituminous coal, and in
some places the production is already considerable. In Central and Northern
Sze-Chuen coal is abundant, and the coal traffic is stated to be enormous.
Iron ores are abundant in the anthracite field of Shansi, where the
iron industry is ancient, and iron (found in conjunction with coal) is worked
in ^lanchuria. Copper ore is plentiful in Yunnan, where the copper-
mining industry has long existed, and near the city of Mengtse tin, lead,
and silver are found.
Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the
United Kingdom and the British colonies. The following table
shows the value of the foreign trade of China for five years in
haikwan taels : —
—
1893 1 j 1894 1
1895 1
1896 1 1897 1
Imports .
Exports .
i:.l, 3(52,819 Hi2,102,91l
llf.,r..'H2,311 l2S,104,r.22
I7i,(i0(;,7iri
14.'{,20:^,2I1
202,580,904 ' 202,828,62r>
131,081,421 103,501, 3r)8
1
1 Tliese values are the actual market prices of the goods (iinpoits and exports) in the ports
of Cliiiia ; liut fnr tlir i>niiio.sos (^f coinpariscin it is the \aliir nf the imports at the niuiiunt
464
CHINA
of landing, and of the exports at the moment of shipping, that should be taken. For this
purpose from the impoi'ts there have to be deducted the costs incurred after landing,
namely, the expenses of landing, storing, and selling, and the duty paid ; and to tlie exports
there have to be added the imi:)orter*s commission, the expenses of packing, storing, and
shipping, and the export duty. So dealt with, the value of the imports for 1896 comes
to 177,630,606 haikvvan taels, and that of -the exports to 146,92P,091 haikwan taels; and
tlie value of the imports for 1897 comes to 177,915,163 haikwan taels, and that of the
exports to 181,769,995 haikwan taels.
During 1897 the principal countries participated in the trade
of China as shown in the following table : —
Imports from
Exports to
Total Trade
—
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
taels)
taels)
taels)
Great Britain
44,015,587
12,945,229
52,960,816
Hong Kong
90,125,887
60,402,222
150,528,109
India ....
20,068,183
1,045,931
21,114,114
United States of America
12,440,302
17,828,406
30,268,708
Continent of Europe
(without Russia)
8,565,807
25,878,118
34,443,925
Japan ....
22,564,284 1
16,626,738 ^
39,191,022
Russia (in Europe and
Asia)
3,442,449
16,410,439
19,852,888
1 Including Imports from Formosa, etc., haikwan taels 5,413,194
,, Exports to ,, ,, ,, 794,707
The imports into China from Hong Kong come originally from, and the
exports from China to that colony are further carried on to. Great Britain,
Germany, France, America, Australia, India, the Straits, and other countries.
The figures given above include the statistics of imports and exports at
the treaty ports for the whole year ; and also the like statistics of the junk
trade of Hong Kong and Macao with the south of China (by the Kowloon and
Lappa custom houses).
The chief im|X)rts and exports are as follows (1897) : —
Imports
Haikwan taels
Exports
Haikwan taels
Opium
27,901,056
Tea ...
29,216,546
Cotton goods .
78,663,280
Silk, raw & manuf'd
55,250,660
Raw cotton
2,260,191
Sugar
1,777,460
Woollen goods
4,838,105
Straw braid
6,659,388
Metals
8,146,608
Hides, cow & buff'alo
3,070,329
Coal
3,692,669
Paper
2,121,661
Oil, kerosene .
13,299,136
Clothing
2,177,690
Seaweed, fishery pro-
China ware and pot-
ducts, &c.
5,896,090
tery .
1,384,336
Of the tea in 1897, 244,480 piculs (each 133.4 H^s.) went to Great Britain,
813,494 piculs to Russia, 207,888 piculs to the United States, 119,723 piculs
to Hong Kong, 33,327 piculs to Australia, out of a total of 1,532,158 piculs.
The total export of tea has been as follows to foreign countries in piculs : —
1885, 2,128,751 ; 1892, 1,622,681 ; 1893, 1,820,831 ; 1894, 1 862,312; 1895,
1,865,680; 1896, 1,712,841 ; 1897, 1,532,153,
COMMERCE
465
China has besides .ill extensive coasting trade, largely carried on h}'
British and other foreign as well as Chinese vessels.
Great Britain has, in virtue of various treaties with the Chinese Govern-
ment, the right of access to certain ports of the Empire. The following is a
list of twenty-three of these treaty ports, with the value of their direct foreign
imports and exports for 1897 : —
Names of Ports
Provinces
Population
Imports
Exports
t
Haikwan taels
Haikwan taels
Newchwang .
Shengking
[ 60,000
1,641,415
5,547,826
Tient-sin
Chihli
950,000
9,169,402
10,192,495
Chifu .
Shantung
1 35,000
3,685,050
1,388,970
Chung-king .
Szechuan
300,000
—
—
Ichang .
Hupeh
34,000
—
—
Shasi^ .
"
73,000
—
—
Hankau
' '
1 800,000
174,971
3,421,233
Kiukiang
Kiangsi
55,000
5,800
—
Wuhu .
Anhwei
78,000
2,105
8,935
Nanking
Kiangsu
, 150,000
—
—
Chinkiang ,
j>
1 140,000
852,785
1,490,254
Shanghai
j>
457,000
132,219,185
78,394,867
Suchau
>> •
500,000
—
—
Ningpo
, Chehkiang
255,000
705,751
64,624
Hangchau
>)
700,000
44,620
—
Wenchau
J >
80,000
12,260
2,196
Fuchau
Fukien
650,000
4,342,107
4,304,814
Amoy .
> J
i 96,000
11,336,255
1,711,555
Swatau
Kwangtung
35,000
9,441,305
3,322,278
Canton .
>>
2,500,000
13,729,975
19,930,353
Wuchow
Kwangsi .
50,000
1,368,983
398,329
Samshui
Kwangtung
4,000
37,647
660
Kongmoon &
I
Kumchuk .
> 5
—
170,128
7,623
Kiungchau .
I "
40,000
1,464,722
1,778,715
Pakhoi
1
" *
20,000
2,656,724
1,501,836
Lungchau
, Kwangsi
22,000
83,074
25,873
Mengtsz
Yunnan .
' 12,000
2,394,028
1,057,737
Szemao .
>)
1 15,000
154,596
31,378
Wuchow on the West River, and Samshui in Kuangtung, were opened to Foreign trade
on the 4th June, 1897, in accordance with tlie Special Article of the Burmese Frontier Con-
vention (British Treaty of February 4tli, 1897).
Szemao was opened to frontier trade on January 2nd, 1897, in accordance with the
stipulation of the Gerard Supplementary Frontier Convention of 1895.
The Chinese Government has announced its intention of opening Yochow, in Hunan;
Santuao, in Fukien ; Chingwangtao, in Chihli ; and Woosung, as treaty ports.
Since April 1887 the customs stations in the vicinity of Hong Kong and
Macao have been placed under the management of the foreign customs.
In 1897, Kowloon imports 13,027,228 haikwan taels, and exports 23,024,493
haikwan taels ; Lappa imports 3,514,878 haikwan taels, and exports
5,894,314 haikwan taels. The same service has also been charged with
the collection of the so-called Likin (inland) tax on foreign opium imported,
which is likely to result in a considerable increase of the foreign maritime
customs receipts. A custom house was opened at Yatung (Tibet) on 1st May,
1894. The port of Nanking, which the Chinese Government consented to throw
H u
4G0
CHINA
open hy a treaty made with France in 1858, in wliicli England participated
under the ' most favoured nation ' clause, had not been opened at the end of
1897.
The value of the total imports into the United Kingdom from Cliina,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures from
the United Kingdom to China (including Hong Koug and !RIacao), in each
of the last five years, were, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
~
1893
1S94
1895
1806
1897
Imports into Great Britain
Exports of British produce
£
4,786,824
6,447,035
£
4,177,446
6,263,773
£
4,121,968
7,167,459
£
3,788,606
8,540,543
£
3,305,220
7,117,896
From China, exclusive of Hong Kong and Macao, the imports into the
United Kingdom amounted in 1896 to 2,973,887^. ; in 1897 to 2,684,722Z. ;
to China, exclusive of these ports, the exports of British produce amounted
in 1896 to 6,717,353Z. ; in 1897 to 5,142,342Z.
In 1890 and in the last five years the quantities and value of the imports
of tea into the United Kingdom from China, including Hong Kong and
Macao, were : —
Year
Quantities
Value
Year
Quantities
Value
1890
1893
1894
lbs.
73,743,124
56,208,958
43,702,974
£
2,813,060
1,990,107
1,522,985
1895
1890
1897
lbs.
40,083,864
35,299,730
28,760,297
£
1,430,658
1,244,886
987,314
Other important articles of import into Great Britain from China are silk,
raw and. waste, the value of which amounted in 1896, to640,62lZ, ; 1897,
576,574^. ; silk manufactures, 1896, Ql,72Ql. ; 1897, 53,118/. ; hemp, 1896,
198,094Z. ; 1897, 50,192^ ; bristles, 1896, 195,166Z. ; 1897, 175,804Z. ;
drags, 1896, 66,907Z. ; 1897, 88,788Z. ; skins and furs, 1896, 237,375Z. ;
1897, 235411?. ; manufactures of skins and furs, 1896, 219,655/. ; 1897,
231,723/. ; straw plaiting, 1896, 348,453/. ; 1897, 288,290/. ; wool,
1896, 57,273/.; 1897, 38,148. The chief British exports to China were :—
Cottons, 1896, 5,599,367/. ; 1897, 4,330,633/. ; cotton yarn, 1896, 282,867/. ;
1897,333,272/. ; machinery, 1896, 352,977/. ; 1897, 274,748/. ; iron, 1896,
514,493/. ; 1897, 582,140/. ; woollens and worsteds, 1896, 785,225/. ; 1897,
588,277/.
Shipping and Navigation.
f: During the year 1897, 44,500 vessels, of 33,752,362 tons (34,566 being
steamers of 32,519,729 tons), entered and cleared Chinese ports. Of these
21,140, of 21,891,043 tons, were British ; 18,889, of 7,819,980 tons, Chinese ;
1,858, of 1,658,094 tons, German ; 653, of 660,707 tons, Japanese ; 333, of
269,780 tons, American ; 464, of 423,122 tons, French.
Internal Communications.
China is traversed in all directions by numerous roads, and, though none
are paved or metalled, and all are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried
on partly over them, but chiefly by means of numerous canals and navigable
rivers. In Febniary the Chinese Government agreed that all internal water-
MONKY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURER 407
ways blumld be open l>otli to foreign ami native steamers. The railway from
Tientsin to Peking, a distance of 73 miles, has been completed, and Avas
opened to public traffic on June 30, 1897. The Shaughai-Woosung railway
(12 miles) has been completed, and Avas o])ened to public traffic in August
1898. A small railway was constructed from the K'ai-p'ing mines for convey-
ance of coal to Hokau, situated on the Petang, a river ten miles north of
the Peiho, and was subsequently extended to deep water on the Petang.
A continuation has been completed from Petang, vid Taku, to Tientsin
and Lin-si, and is being carried on to Shan-hai-kwan.
In the northern, central, and southern provinces concessions have been
granted for railways extending, in all, over 3,000 miles, the necessary outlay
amounting to over 24,000,000/. Of these projects the most important is that
of a line to connect Peking with Han-kau in the Yangtse valley, and
eventually to be prolonged to Canton.
The imperial Chinese telegraphs are being rapidly extended all over the
Empire. There is a line between Peking and Tientsin, one which connects
the capital with the princijial places in Manchuria up to the Russian frontier
on the Amur and the Ussuri ; while Newchwang, Chifu, Shanghai,
Yangchow, Suchau, all the seven treaty ports on the Yangtze, Canton,
^Vuchau, Lungchau, and all the principal cities in the Empire are now
connected with each other and with the capital. The line from Canton,
westerly has penetrated to Y'^unnan-fu, the capital of Y'unnan province, and
beyond it to Manwyne, near the borders of Burmah, Shanghai is also in
communication with Fuchau, Amoy, Kashing, Shaoshing, !N'ingpo,&c. Lines
have been constructed between Fuchau and Canton, and between Taku, Port
Arthur, and Soul, the capital of Korea ; and the line along the Y'angtze
Valley has been extended to Chungking in Szechuen province. By an arrange-
ment recently made with the Russian telegraph authorities the Chinese and
Siberian lines in the Amur Valley were joined in the latter part of 1892, so
that there is now direct overland communication between Peking and Europe.
The postal work of the Empire is carried on, under the Iiliuister of War,
by means of post-carts and runners. In the eighteen provinces are 8,000
offices for post-carts, and scattered over the whole of the Chinese territories
are 2,040 offices for runners. There are also numerous private postal couriers,
and during the winter a service bc^tweeu the office of the Foreign Customs &t
Peking and' the outports. The Chinese Imperial Post Office was opened on
February 2, 1897, the management being confided to the Inspector
General of the Imperial Maritime Customs. China has also notified
the Swiss Government of her intention of joining the Universal Postal
Union.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The sole official coinage and the monetary unit of China is the copper cash,
of which about 1,600 — 1,700 = 1 liaikwan tael, and about 22 = 1 penny. The
silver sycee is the usual medium of exchange. Large payments are made b}*
weight of silver bullion, the standard being the Liang or tael, which varies
at different places. The haikwan (or customs) tael, being one tael weight of
pure silver, was equal in October, 1897, to 2.'?. 11^^/., or 6 71 haikwan taels
to a pound sterling.
By an Imperial decree, issued during 1890, the silver dollar coined at the
new Canton mint is made current all over the Empire. It is of the same
value as the Mexican and United States silver dollars, and as the Japanese
H n 2
468
CHINA
silver yen. Foreign coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken
by weight, except at the treaty ports.
10 Szc
10 ffu .
10
Hao
10
Li
10
Fim
10
Tsicn
16
Liang
100
Kin
Weight.
1 Eu.
1 Hao.
1 Li (nominal cash).
1 FiLn (Candaren).
1 Tsicn (Mace).
1 Liang (Tael) = 1 g oz. avoirdupois by treaty.
1 Kin (Catty) = 1^ lbs.
1 Ta?i(Picul) = ISS^bs.
Capacity.
10 A''o . . = 1 Sheng.
10 Sheng . . = 1 Tou (holding from 6i to 10 Kin of rice and mea-
suring from I'lo to 1"63 gallon). Commodities,
even liquids, such as oil, spirits, &c., are com-
monly bought and sold by weight.
Length.
10 Fun . . = 1 Tsiin (inch).
10 Ttsun . . = 1 Ghih (foot) = 14'1 English inches by treaty.
10 Chih . . = 1 Chang = 2 fathoms.
1 Li . . = approximately 3 cables.
In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China, the Chih
of 14yV English inches has been adopted as the legal standard. The
standards of weight and length vary all over the Empire, the Chih, for
example, ranging from 9 to 16 English inches, and the Chang ( == 10 Chih)
in proportion ; but at the treaty ports the use of the foreign treaty standard
of Chih and Chang is becoming common.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of China in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Lo Feng Loh.
Councillor of Legation. — Sir Halliday Macartney, K.C.M.G.
Secretary. — Chang T-^-k-Yee.
2. Of Great Britain in China.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald, K.C.B., K.C.M.G,
Appointed January 1, 1896.
Secretary. — H. G. D. Bax-Ironside,
Military Attache.— Col. G. F. Browne, D.S.O.
Chinese Secretary. — H. Cockburn, C. B.
There are British Consular representatives at Peking, Amoy, Canton,
Chefoo, Chinkiang, Chung-king, Foo-chow, Hangchow, Hankow, Ichang,
Kiukiang, Kiungchow, Momein, Newchwang, Ningpo, Pagoda Island (V.C),
Pakhoi, Samshui, Shanghai, (C G.), Shashi, Soochow, Ssumao, Swatow,
Tien-tsin, Wenchow, Wuchow, Wuhu.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF llEFERENCE 469
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.
Catalogue of the Cliinesc Collection at the London Fisheries Exhibition. Shanghai, 1883.
And the Intornational Health Exhibition. London 1884.
Custonj.s Gazette, Shanghai; published quarterly.
Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China. Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs
Revenue Statistics. Part IL Statistics of each Port. Shanghai, published yearly.
Report on the Trade of Central and Southern China. Foreign Office Reports. Miscel-
laneous Series. No. 458. London. 1898.
Tarift" Returns : a set of tables showing the bearing of the Chinese Customs Tariff of
1858 on the Trade of 1885. Shanghai, 1889. 4. 2 vols.
Opium : Historical Note, or the Poppy in China. 4. Shanghai, 1889.
Ichang to Chun;j;king, 1800. Shanghai.
Decennial Reports, 1882 to 1891. Shanghai, 1893.
Medical Rej'orts. Shanghai, published half-yearly.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual and Miscellaneous Series. London. [For Cliinese
Imperial Finance see Consul Jamieson's Report, Miscellaneous Series, No. 415. London,
1897.]
Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Opium Trade in
China, dated Peking, February 25, 1878, in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. H. E. Fulford on a Journey in Manchuria, China. No. 2. London, 1887.
Report by Mr. Bourne of a Journey in South-\Ve.stern China. London, 1888.
Treaties between Great Britain and China, by Sir E. Hertslet. 2 vols, London. 1896.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momein : a Nan-ative of the two-Expeditions to Western
China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace Brown. 8. London, 1876.
Baber (E. Colborne), Travels and Researches in Western China : in Supplementary Papers
of the Royal Geographical Society. London, 188.3.
J5aZI (J. D.), Things Chinese. 2nd edit. 8. London. 1894.
Bastian (Dr. A.), Die Volker des ostlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71
Bishop (Mrs. Isabella), A Journey in Western Szechuan. In Geographical Journal,
vol. X., No. 1 (July, 1897). London.
JSoui(7er(D. C), History of China. 2nd edit. 2 vols. London, 1898.
Bower (H.), Diary of a Journey across Tibet. 8. London, 1894.
Brandt (M. von), Aus dem Lande des Zopfes. Leipzie, 1894. Oatasiatische Fragen.
Leipzic, 1897.
China Review. Hong Kong. China Recorder. Shanghai.
r;itroZ(V.), The Far Eastern Question. 8. London, 1896.
Chisholm (G. G.), The Resources and Means of Communication of China. In Geo-
graphical Journal, xii. 5. (November, 1898.) London, 1898.
Colqnhoun (A. R.), Acro.ss Chryse : from Canton to Mandalay. 2 vols. London, 1883.—
China in Transformation. London, 1898.
Cordier (H.), Les Origines des deux etablissements fran§ais, Changhai et Ningpo. Paris,
1896.
Curzon (G. N.), Pi'oblems of the Far East. New. ed. 8. London. 1696.
Davtd (Abbe A.), Journal de mon troi.sieme voyage d'exploration dans I'empire chinois.
2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.
Douglas (R. K.), China. London, 1887. Confucianism and Taouism. London, 1893.
Society in China. 8. London, 1894. Li Hung Chang. London, 1895.
Drake (S. B.), Among the Dark-haired Race in the Flowery Land. London, 1897.
Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Commercial Re-
lations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.
Edkins (J.), Religion in China. 3rd edit. 8. London, 1880.
Fillers (O. E.), Im Osten Asiens. 3rd edit. Berlin, 1896.
Gill (Captain), The River of Golden Sand. 2 vols. London. 1880.
Gtlmour (J ), Among the Mongols. London, 1888. More about the Mongols. London, 1893.
Groham (J. A.), on the Threshold of Three Cloud Lands. London, 1897.
Grant (Sir J. Hope), Life of. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1894.
Gray (Ven. John Henrj-), China : a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the
People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Gundry (R. S.), China and her Neighbours. 8. London, 1895. China Past and Present.
London, 1895.
Hake (A. G.), The Story of Chinese Gordon. London, 1884. Gordon in China and the
Soudan. London, 1896.
470 CHINA
Hedin (Sven). Through Asia. 2 vols. London, 1898.
jffosie (A.), Three Years in "Western China. New ed. London, 1897.
fl"Mc(L'Abbe E. R.), L'enipire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.— Travels in
Tartary, Thibet, and China, 1884-86. Translated from the French, 2 vols. London, 1898.
James (H. E. M.), The Long White Mountain, or a Journey in Manchuria. London, 1888.
Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai.
Journal of the Pekin Oriental Society. Pekin.
Keane (Prof. A. H.), Asia. Vol. I. New ed. London. 1896.
Kraute (A.), China in Decav. London, 1898.
I,a7ie-Poo;c(S.), Life of Sir Harry Parkes, K.C.B. 2 vols. 8. London. 1894.
Lansdell (H.), Chinese Central Asia : a Ride to Little Tibet. 2 vols. London, 1893.
Legge (J.), Chinese Classics, with Translations, Prolegomena, &c. New ed. 7 vols.
Oxford, 1893. In progress.
Little (A.), Through the Yangtse Gorges, or Trade and Travel in Western China. 3rd ed.
London, 1898. , ^ , -r., ■ , ^
Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin s Second
Embassy to China in 1860. S. London, 1870.
MacGowa7i(J.), Pictures of Southern China. London, 1897. Historyof China. London, 1897.
MacMahon (A. R.), Far Cathay and Farther India. 8. London. 1893.
Madrolle (C), Les Peuples et les Langues do la Chine Meridionale. Paris, 1898.
Martin (Dr.), A Cycle of Cathay. Edinburgh. 1896.
Marston (Annie W.), The Great Closed Land (Tibet). 8. London. 1894.
Mayers(W. F.), The Chinese Government. New edition byG. M. H. Playfair. Shanghai, 1886.
Mesny (W.), Chinese Miscellany. 2 vols. Shanghai, 1896-97.
Norman (H.), Peoples and Politics of the Far Bast. London, 1895.
Ohrutsc/iew (W.), Aus China: Reiseerlebnisse. 2 vols. 8. 1896.
Oiipftant (L.), Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, 1856-59. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Oxenham (E. L.). Historical Atlas of the Chinese Empire. 2nd ed. London, 1898.
Playfair (G. M. H.), Cities and Towns of China. Hong Kong, 1879.
Podzneeff (A.), Mongolia and the Mongols; Results of a Journey in 1892-93. 7 vols.
St. Petersburg, 1896. [In progress.] Opisanie Manchurii. 2 vols. St. Petersburg, 1897.
Pyevtsof (M. V.), Results of the Tibet Expedition of 1889-90. [In Russian.] St.
Petersburg, 1896. See also Geographical Journal, vol. ix., pp. 546-555. London, 1897.
Pratt (A. B.), To the Snows of Tibet through China. 8. London. 1892.
Reclus (Blisee), Nouvelle geographic universelle. Tome VII. Paris, 1882.
Revenue of China, the. Hong Kong, 1885.
Richthofen (Ferd. von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegrlindeter
Studien. Vols. I., II. and IV., and Atlas. 4. Berlin, 1877-85.
Richthofen (Ferd. von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei ; and on
Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Slianghai, 1871.
Rocher (E.), La province chinoise de Yunnan. Paris, 1880.
Rockhill (W. W.), The Land pf the Lamas. London, 1891.
Ross (Rev. J.), The Manchus ; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress.
London, 1880.
Scherzer (Dr. K. von). Die wirthschaftlichen Zustjinde im Sliden und Osten Asien's. 8.
Stuttgart, 1871.
Scott (Grace), Twenty-six Years of Missionary Work in China. London, 1897.
Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. Paris, 1872.
Simon (E.), China : Religious, Political, and Social. London, 1887.
Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to
China via Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1S70.
Smit?! (A, H.), Chinese Characteristics. 2d. ed. 8. London, 1895.
Temple (Sir R.), Population Statistics of China, in Journal of the Statist. Soc, vol. 48,
1885, p. 1.
Vladimir, The China-Japanese War. London, 1895.
Waddell (L. A.), the Buddism of Tibet. 8. London, 1895.
Wellby (M. S.), Through Unknown Tibet. London, 1898.
Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom : a Survey of the Geography, Government,
&,c of the Chinese Empire. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1883.— A History of China : Being
the Historical Chapters from 'The Middle Kingdom,' with a Chapter on Recent Events by
F. Wells Williams. London, 1897.
Williainson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With
some Account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
Wilson (J. H.), Travels and Investigations in the Middle Kingdom. New York, 1888.
Younghusband(F. E.), The Heart of a Continent: Travels in Manchuria, Ac. 8. London.
1896.— Among the Celestials. London, 1898.
471
COLOMBIA.
(La Kepubltca de Colombia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Colombia gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and
was officially constituted December 27, 1819. This vast Republic split up into
Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada, February 29, 1832.
The Constitution of April 1, 1858, changed the Republic into a confederation
of eight States, under the name of Confederation Granadina. On September
20, 1861, the convention of Bogota brought out the confederation under the
new name of United States of New Granada, with nine States. On May 8,
1863, an improved Constitution was formed, and the States reverted to the old
name Colombia — United States of Colombia. The revolution of 1885 brought
about another change, and the National Council of Bogota, composed of three
delegates from each State, promulgated the Constitution of August 4, 1886.
The sovereignty of the nine States was abolished, and they became simple
departments, their -presidents, elected by ballot, being reduced to governors
under the direct nomination of the President of the Republic, the country
being now named the Republic of Colombia.
The legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses, called the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, numbering 27
members, is composed of representatives of the nine departments, each
deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives, numbering 66
(subject to change) members, is elected for four years by universal suffrage,
each department forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000
inhabitants.
The President is chosen by electoral colleges, holds office for six years, and
exercises his executive functions through eight ministers, or secretaries, respon-
sible to Congress. Congress elects, for a term of two years, a substitute, who,
failing the president and vice-president during a presidential term, lills the
vacancy.
President of the Republic. — M. A. Saclemente.
Vice-President {Acting-President). — J. M. Marroquin.
The ministries are those of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War,
Puldic Instruction, and the Treasury.
The departments have retained some of the prerogatives of their old
sovereignty, such as the entire management of their finances, &c. ; each is
presided over by a governor appointed by the President and removable at his
pleasure.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated to embrace 513,938 English square
miles, of which 330,756 square miles arc north of the equator, and the
472
COLOMBIA
remainder south of the equator. According to a census taken in 1870, the
population at that date was 2,951,323, and an official estimate of 1881 gives it
as follows : —
Departments
Area:
English
square miles
Population
1881
Density
per square
mile
Capital
Population
18S6
Antioquia. .
22,316
470,000
21
Medellin . .
40,000
Bolivar . .
21,345
280,000
13
Cartagena
20,000
Boyaca
33,351
702,000
21
Tunja , . .
8,000
Cauca . . .
257,462
621,000
2-4
Popayan . .
10,000
Cundinamarca
79,810
569,000
7
Bogota-
120,000
Magdalena .
24,440
90,000
3-7
Santa Marta ,
6,000
Panama . .
31,571
285,000
9
Panama . .
30,000
Santander
16,409
555,600
35
Bucaramanga
20,000
Tolima . .
Total . .
18,069
306,000
17
Ibague . ,
12,000
504,773
3,878,600
7-7
This includes 220,000 uncivilised Indians, and the population, 80,000, of the
extensive territories attached to each State. In 1895 the population was
estimated at about 4,000,000, including uncivilised Indians to the number of
about 150,000. There were 1,434,129 males and 1,517,194 females in 1870.
The capital, Bogota, lies 9,000 feet above the sea. The chief commercial
towns are Barranquilla (population 40,000) on a canon of the Magdalena and
connected with the coast by 20 miles of railway ; Cartagena (20,000) ;
Medellin (40,000), in an important mining region ; Bucaramanga (20,000) ;
Cucuta (10,000), the last two being large coffee centres in Santander.
Boundary disputes with Costa Rica have been referred to the President
of the French Republic as arbitrator.
Eeligion and Education.
The religion of the nation is Roman Catholicism, other forms of religion
being permitted, so long as their exercise is ' not contrary to Christian morals
nor to the law.' There is a national university, which includes 4 colleges and
technical schools, with about 1,600 students. Belonging to Departments are
4 universities or colleges with 1,083 students ; there are 34 public and
numerous private colleges or institutes for secondary instruction. In 1894
there were 15 normal schools with about 600 students, and 1,817 primary schools
with about 89,000 pupils in attendance. Primary education is gratuitous but
not compulsoiy. The Republic possesses a national library, museum, and
observatory.
Finance.
The following are the official estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
biennial periods indicated : —
1893-94
1895-96
1897-98
1899-90
Revenue ,
Expenditure
Pesos
27,312,381
33,502,386
Pesos
26,226,300
35,773,882
Pesos
34,361,000
35,771,013
Pesos
34.305,000
34,000,000
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION 473
The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties, estimated for 1897-98
at 24,000,000 pesos. The largest items of expenditure are war, 9,129,500
pesos ; internal development, 4,016,300 ; justice, 4,683,600 ; debt, 3,659,300 ;
hnance, 3,378,900.
The internal debt on June 30, 1896, was: consolidated, 5,633,046
pesos ; floating, 1,892, 110 pesos ; total, 7,525,156 pesos. This is exclusive of
paper currency amountinjj to 30,862,352 pesos. The floating debt should be
paid off" by means of sinking funds assigned by Congress for the purpose in
1888. The fund at present amounts to 604,000 pesos per annum.
The external debt, mostly due to British creditors, in 1896 amounted,
with arrears, to 3,514,442^. An agreement for a settlement was arrived at
by the Colombian Government and the bondholders in January, 1897,
new bonds being issued for 2,700,000/. at 1^ per cent, interest, increasing by
^ per cent, every three years till the rate is 3 per cent.
Defence.
The strength of the national army is determined by Act of Congress each
session. The peace footing was fixed at 1,000 in 1898. In case of war the
Executive can raise the army to the strength which circumstances may require.
Every able-bodied Colombian is liable to military service.
There is one river gunboat and two other small vessels.
Production.
Columbia is rich in minerals, and gold is found in all the departments.
From Antioquia alone gold valued at 40,000Z. is exported annually. The gold
mines at Cara in Darien, the only mines in full activity in 1897, average "94
oz. of gold per ton of ore. The average annual output of gold and silver is about
823,000/. in value. The number of mines of all sorts on which the legal imposts
were paid in 1891 was 4,961, nearly all of which were gold mines either alluvial or
in veins. Of the total number, 3,398 (all of them gold) were in Antioquia, 794
in Tolima, 571 in Cauca. In Tolima and Cauca there are many silver mines,
either alone or in association with gold or other metals. Other minerals,
more or less worked, are copper, platinum, lead, mercury, cinnabar (14
mines), manganese (7 mines), emeralds (32 mines). The emerald mines of
Muzo on the river Minero are said to yield to the value of about 20,000Z.
yearly. The Pradera iron works north-east of Bogota have a capacity of 30 tons
of pig iron daily, and manufacture wrought iron, rails, sugar mills, castings,
&c. In the immediate neighbourhood of the works are coal, iron, limestone,
sand, manganese, and fireclay deposits, which render the locality highly
favourable for the development of metallurgical industries. The salt mines at
Zipaquira, north of Bogota, are a government monopoly and a greatsource of
revenue, supplying nearly the whole of Colombia with salt. In several of
the departments there are extensive deposits of coal and petroleum.
Only a small section of the country is under cultivation. Much of the soil
is fertile, but of no present value, from want of means of communication and
transport. Coffee cultivation is extending rapidly ; cocoa, tobacco, sugar,
vegetable ivory, and dyewoods are produced, besides wheat, maize, plantains,
&c. The rubber tree grows wild, and is tapped, but is not cultivated. Tolu
balsam is cultivated, and copaiba trees are tapped but are not cultivated. In
Tolima are wide grazing districts, the total number of cattle, horses, mules and
asses in the department being 390,000. In Colombia the numlDer of these
animals is estimated at 3,465,000, besides 3,487,000 goats, sheep, and swine.
474
COLOMBIA
Commerce.
The value of the foreign commerce of Colombia for five years has been
as follows (in 1891 mostly in currency, in subsequent years mostly in
gold) :-
—
1891
1892 1893
1894
1895
Imports . .
Exports . .
Pesos
14,447,860
24,802,769
Pesos
12,189,253
16,067,549
Pesos
13,403,299
14,630,332
Pesos
10,711,207
15,962,019
Pesos
11,528,365
15,088,406
The principal imports are food-stuffs, beverages, textiles, and iron and steel
goods ; the chief exports are coffee, silver ore, cacao, cotton, dye-stuffs, live
animals, tobacco, hides, caoutchouc, timber. In 1896 the total imports
amounted to about 2,870,900Z. ; in 1897, to 3,335,900Z. In 1896 the total
exports reached 2,739,000Z. ; in 1897, 2,658,000Z. In 1897 the exports from
Barranquilla amounted to 1,776,734^., comprising coffee, value 1,074,626Z. ;
gold in bars and dust, 237,657Z. ; silver and silver ore, 186,481^. ; rubber,
17,370Z. ; tobacco, 78,000Z. ; hides, 101,209Z. About 60 per cent, of the
total imports enter by Barranquilla ; 20 per cent, by Carthagena.
Far more important than the direct commerce is the transit trade, passing
through the two ports of Panama and of Colon, which, united by railway,
connect the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. In the year 1896-97 the
freight carried from Colon to Panama was : from Europe 77,553 tons, from
New York 53,564 ; from Panama to Colon : for Europe 69,637 tons, for New
York 40, 290 tons. The local traffic in both directions amounted to 34,013 tons.
The following table gives the total value of the imports into the United
Kingdom from Colombia, and of the exports of British home produce to
Colombia, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the last five
years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into United Kingdom
Exports of British Produce .
£
629,736
957,608
£
569,412
976,586
£
434,893
1,227,244
£
569,232
1,344,841
£
556,560
1,191,023
Of the imports into the United Kingdom from Colombia, the most important
articles in 1897 were silver ore, of the value of 101,831?. ; coffee, of the value
of 324,418Z. ; caoutchouc, 26,163Z. At the head of the articles of British
home produce exported to Colombia in 1897 were manufactured cotton goods,
of the value of 722,070Z. The other principal articles exported from Great
Britain to Colombia in 1897 were linen manufactures, of the value of 50,783Z. ;
woollens, of the value of 111,059?. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the
value of 46,512?. ; apparel and haberdashery, 19,159?.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1896 the merchant shipping of Colombia consisted of 1 steamer of
457 tons and 7 sailing vessels of 1,770 tons. Vessels entered (1770) 1,573 of
1,136,354 tons. In 1895 there entered at Barranquilla 261 vessels of 392,573
tons (140 of 209,708 tons British), and cleared 258 of 391,668 tons (138 of
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 475
209,164 tons British). At Panama, Colon, Santa Maria, and Cartagena in
1897 there entered 923 vessels of 1,213,110 tons, and cleared 919 of 1,210,629
tons.
The total length of railways open in Colombia in 1897 was 400 miles.
There are besides about 270 miles unfinished, and contracts have been made
for the construction of 85 miles more. The roads of Colombia are simple
mule tracks, but the Government is employing soldiers to improve the main
roads. Thirty-three regular steamers visit Colombian ports every month ;
of these 15 are English, 9 American, 4 German, 3 French, 1 Spanish, and
1 Italian.
In 1893 the Post Office of Colombia carried 302,410 'inland letters and
post-cards, 615,844 samples, printed matter, &c., 70, 038. registered letters and
packets, and despatched 342,440 letters and 206,171 printed papers, packets,
kc, abroad.
There were 6,835 miles of telegraph in 1894, with 319 stations ; between
June 1, 1892, and March 31, 1894, 317,507 telegrams and 2,509 cablegrams
were sent out, while 372,630 telegrams and 3,322 cablegrams were received.
Under the superintendence of M. de Lesseps, a company was formed in
1881 for the construction of a ship canal, 46 miles in length, across the
Isthmus of Panama, mainly following the line of the railway. The capital
received up to June 30, 1886, amounted to 772,545,412 francs ; and it was
expected that before the undertaking was completed this would have to be
nearly doubled. It was attempted to raise a loan of 600 million francs in
December 1888, but only a small portion of the sum was taken up. It was
sought to form a new company, but without success, so that the company
was compelled to go into liquidation and suspend payment and all operations
on the canal (from March 15, 1889). In March 1893 a further extension
was granted for the organisation of a new company to take over the business ;
in 1894 a new company was formed, and work on the canal was provisionally
resumed. Since then about 3,000 labourers, on an average, have been em-
ployed, and it is estimated that the work may be completed in about ten
years. On June 30, 1897, the company had raised, in all, 48,420,184 francs,
of which 25,334,662 francs had been expended, and 18,976,987 francs in-
vested or deposited as guarantee, the cash in hand being 4,108,534 francs.
Money and Credit.
In 1894 a law was passed providing for the redemption of the paper
currency, the free coinage of gold, and the coinage of small silver pieces for
the Government in European mints. There is said to be no gold in the
country available for coinage, but small silver pieces are issued, amountino-
in 1896, to 3,000,000 pesos. On December 31, 1894, the amount o*f
metallic and paper money in the 4 banks was : silver, 1,903,832 pesos;
nickel, 17,095 pesos; paper, 986,635 pesos.
In December, 1895, the papej- money in circulation amounted to
30,862,352 pesos.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The peso, or dollar, of 10 reals is the legal tender, although the country
people and retail trade generally adopt the old dollar of 8 r., which is usually
meant unless peso fuerte or peso do ley is stipulatL-il. Its nominal value is is.
476 COLOMBIA
or 5 fr. ; fineness '835. At Panama and Colon, where paper has not yet
been introduced, the sol or Peruvian dollar is the legal tender.
Coined money : —
Nickel. — 2|-cent, 5 -cent, common in every-day use.
Silver. — The ^eso, 10-, 20-, 50-, and 80-cent. pieces, ^-real, 1 real, 2 real,
not coined at present.
All the foreign coins have long since disappeared, and any that arrive are
bought up at the ports at a high premium.
The metric system was introduced into the Republic in 1857. In custom-
house business the kilogramme, equal to 2, 204 avoirdupois pounds, is the
standard. In ordinary commerce the arroba, of 25 Colombian pounds, or 124
kilos ; the quintal, of 100 Colombian pounds, or 50 kilos ; and the carga, of
250 Colombian pounds, or 125 kilos, are generally used. The Colombian
libra is equal to 1*102 pound avoirdupois. The Colombian vara, or 80 cm.,
is the measure of length used for retailing purposes, but in liquid measure
the French litre is the legal standard.
Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.
1. Of Colombia in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — J. M. Hurtado.
Secretary of Legation. — M. de Santa Maria.
Consul- General. — Gonzalo Ramon Ruiz.
2. Of Great Britain in Colombia.
Minister and Consul-General. — George Earle Welby. Appointed Novem-
ber, 23, 1898.
Consul at Panama. — Claude C. Mallet.
Vice-Consuls at Bogota, Honda, Medellin, Barranquilla, Carthagena,
Colon, and Santa Martha.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Colombia
1. Official Publications.
Colombia Bulletin No. 33 of the Bureau of the American Republics. 8. Washington,
1892. Special bulletins of October and November 1S93 contain reports on coffee and coal
in Colombia.
Circulaire du Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres sur les mines d'or et d'argeut de la Repub-
lique de Colonibie. Bogota, 1886.
Descripcion historica, geographica y jiolitica de la Republica de Colombia. Bogota, 1887.
Constitution of the Republic of Colombia (August 7, 1886). Bogota.
Diario Official. Bogota, 1898.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. London.
Informe del Ministro de Fomento — del Ministro de Guerra ; del Ministro de Instruccion
Publica ; Ministro de Relacunes Exteriores ; Ministro de Gobierno ; Ministro del Tesoro ;
Ministro de Justicia ; Ministro de Hacienda. Bogota, 1898.
Report of the Minister of the Treasury submitted to Congress, 1896. Bogota, 1896.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Borda (J. J.), Compendio de Historia de Colombia. Bogota, 1890.
Bruycker (P. de), Les mines d'or et d'argent de la Colombia. Extrait du Bull, de la See.
R. de la Geographie d'Anvers. Antwerp, 1888.
Cadena (P. J.), Anales diploraaticos de Colombia. Bogota, 1878.
Efguerra, Diccionano gcograflco de los Estados Unidos dc Colombia. Bogota, 1879.
NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 4 </
Etienne (C. P.), Nouvelle-Grenade, aperc^u general sur la Colombie. Geneve, 1887.
Hall (Col F.), Colombia ; its Present State in respect of Climate, Soil, &c. 8 Philadelphia,
1871.
Hassaurek{¥.), Four Years among Spani.sh Americans. 12. New York, 1867.
Holton, Twenty Months in the Andes. New York.
Mosqiiera (General), Compendio de geografia, general, politica, fisica y special de los
Estados Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.
Nunez (R.) and Jahay (H.), La Republique de Colombie, Geographie, Histoire,
Organisation, &c. Brussels, 1893.
Pereira (R. S.), Les Etats-Unis de Colombie. Paris, 1883.
Perez (FeUiie), Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia.
Bogota, 1888.
Recltis (Armand), Panama et Darien. Paris, 1881.
Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders, Appendix. London,
18P7.
Restrepo Tirado (E.), Estudios sobre los Aborigenes de Colombia. Bogota, 1892.
Rodrigues (J . C), Tiie Panama Canal. London, 1885.
Rothlisberger (E.), Eldorado : Reise-und-Kulturbilde aus dem Sudamerican. Colombien.
1897.
Simons (F. A. A.), Goajira Peninsula. Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, Decem-
ber 1885.
Simons {¥. A. A.), Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Proceedings of Roj'al Geographical
Society, 1881.
Velnsco (T.), Geografia de Colombia. Bogota. Also Colombia. [Translation from
Recus' Nouvelle Geogi-aphie Universelle, with copious notes superadded]. Bogota, 1893.
White (R. B.), Noteson the Central Provinces of Colombia. Proceedings of Royal Geo-
graphical Society for 1883. London, 1883.
478
CONGO INDEPENDENT STATE.
Constitution and Government.
The Congo Independent State has succeeded to the Congo International
Association, founded in 1883 by Leopold 11. , King of the Belgians. That
Association, having obtained the recognition of its sovereignty by treaties in
1884 and 1885, -svith most of the European nations aud the United States of
America, adhered, February 26, 1885, io the resolutions of the Congress of
Berlin. These resolutions, collected in a " General Act, " establish freedom
of trade in the basin of the Congo, and declare absolutely free the navigation
of the Congo, its tributaries, and the lakes and canals connected with it ; they
lay down rules for the protection of the natives and the suppression ot the
slave trade, and impose on the powers which signed the Act the obligation to
accept the mediation of one or more friendly governments should any serious
dispute occur concerning the territories of the conventional basin of the Congo.
An International Conference at Brussels in 1890 authorised the Government
of the Independent State to levy certain duties on imports.
The State was placed under the sovereignty of Leopold II., King of the
Belgians, on the basis of personal union with Belgium, but it has declared
itself perpetually neutral in accordance with the provision of Chapter III. of
the General Act of Berlin. By a will dated August 2, 1889, the King has
bequeathed to Belgium all his sovereign rights in the State. On July 31,
1890, the territories of the State were declared inalienable, and a Convention
of July 3, 1890, between Belgium and the Independent State, reserved to
the former the right of annexing the latter after a period of ten years.
The Central Government at IBrussels consists of the King of the Belgians,
and, under his orders, a Secretary of State, who is cliief of the departments
of Foreign Affairs, Finance, and the Interior. A Governor-General repre-
sents the King at Boma and administers the territories of the State in accord-
ance with the King's orders.
The precise boundaries of the Independent State were defined by the
neutrality declarations of August, 1885, and December, 1894, after treaties
with Germany, November 8, 1884 ; Great Britain, December 16, 1884 ; the
Netherlands, December 27, 1884 ; France, February 5, 1885 ; Portugal,
Febi-uary 14, 1885, and May, 1891 ; and by treaties concluded with Great
Britain, May 12, 1894, and France, August 4, 1894. The State includes a
small region on the north bank of the river from its mouth to ilanyanga ;
French territory intervening between this last station and the mouth of the
Ubangi, whence the State extends northwards to the Ubangi River and the
Bomu River, north-east to the watershed of the Congo basin, eastwards to
30" E. long. , and Lake Tanganika, south-east to Lake Bangweolo and southern
watershed of the Congo basin to Lake Dilolo, south-west to the course of the
Kassai river, thence to 7° S., the river Kwilu, 8' S., the river Kwango,
and the parallel of Nokki.
The territory is divided into fifteen administrative districts : — Banana,
Boma, Matadi, the Falls, Stanley Pool, Kwango Oriental, Kassai, Lake Leopold
AREA AND POPUrATION — PRODUCTION 470
II., Uaiigala, Efjuator, Ubaiigi. AVelle, Stanley Falls, Annvinii, Lualaba. Al
the head of each district there is a commissioner.
Area and Population.
The area of the Independent State is estimated at 900,000 square miles,
with a population of 30,000,000 of Bantu origin. The European population
in January, 1898, numbered 1,678. Of these, 1,060 were Belgian, 87
English, 102 Portuguese, 91 Swedish and Norwegian, 26 French, 57 American,
102 Italian, 34 Danish, 60 Dutch, 17 German, 6 Spanish, 8 Austrian, and 11
Swiss.
The native languages comprise many dialects, every tribe having its own.
Kiswahili is the language spoken by the natives who have been under Arab
influence, and this is used by the missionaries. The religion of the natives
consists of a gross fetichism, but mission work is actively carried on. There
are 67 mission stations, with 223 missionaries, of whom 115 are Catholic and
108 Protestant. In education they co-operate with the Government, which
has formed 3 agricultural colonies where children are collected and taught.
Finance, Defence.
The revenue for 1898 was estimated at 14,765,050 francs; expenditure,
17,251,975 francs (2,524,920 francs being exceptional); for 1899, revenue,
19,966,500 francs; expenditure, 19,672,965 francs. The revenue is derived
mainly from customs, postage, state forests, transport, from a subsidy of one
million francs annually granted by the King of the Belgians, from an advance
of money by the Belgian Government, July 3, 1890, for a term of ten years
at the rate of two million francs a year. The largest items of expenditure for
1899 were : administration, 5,285,405 francs ; public force, 7,623,946 francs ;
marine, 1,481,624 francs ; public works, 1,261,270 francs ; working of public
domain, 4,020,720 francs.
There is an armed force of native Africans, divided into 23 companies,
commanded by 234 European officers and 173 sergeants. The effective
strength for 1898 is fixed at 15,580 men, the contingent to be recruited
within the State being 3,000. There are 6 camps of instruction.
Production, Commerce, Shipping.
The lands within the State are divided for the purposes of occupation, into
three classes : those which are occupied by natives, and on which they have
the right of occupation ; registered lands, constituting private estates of non-
}iatives ; and crown lands, comprising all vacant lands. For private estates
there is a system of registration, under the superintendence of the *' Conserva-
teur des Titres Fonciers," who is also chief of the Cadastral service.
The chief products are rubber, ivory, palm-nuts, and palm-oil. Coffee
grows freely, but the difficulties of transport have hitherto prevented its
export. Tobacco is grown in all native villages, but is not exported. Plan-
tations of Havana and Sumatra tobacco have been established ))y the
Government,
The commerce of the State has expanded rapidly. The special exports,
which in 1887 amounted to 1,980,440 francs, reached the value of
5,487,633 francs in 1892. The development in the last five years was as
follows : —
480
COXGO INDEPENDENT STATE
Years
Imports
Exports
Special
General
Special
General
Francs
1
!
Francs
Francs
Francs
1893
9,175,103
10,148,418
6,206,135
7,514,791
1894
11,194,723
11,854,022
8,761,622
11,031,704
1895
10,685,848
11,836,034
10,943,019
12,135,656
1896
15,227,776
16,040,371
12,389,600
15,091,138
i 1897
22,181.462
23,427,198
15,146,976
17,457,090
111 the special trade of 1897 the chief imports and exports
were : —
Imports
Value
Exports
Value
Francs
Francs
Arms and ammunition ,
1,754,500
Rubber
8,311,900
Machinery
3,532,400
Ivory .
4,916,480
Metals ....
3,213,700
Palm -nuts .
1,098,880
Drinks ....
1,323,700
Palm-oil
650,210
Food substances
3,680,000
Tissues and clothing
5,898,700
Of the special imports the value of 16,272,000 francs came from Belgium ;
2,593,250 francs from Great Britain; 1,174,860 francs from Germany;
911,013 francs from Holland. Of the general exports the value of
12,882,900 francs went to Belgium ; 2,348,100 francs to Holland ; 1,157,740
francs to neighbouring Portuguese possessions.
At the ports of Boma and Banana in 1897 of sea-going vessels there entered
201 of 342,809 tons, and cleared 206 of 348,657 tons. Of the tonnage entered
120,369 was Belgian, 123,433 British, and 67,618 German ; of the tonnage
cleared, 120,369 was Belgian, 123,256 British, and 71,231 Germany. In the
coasting trade there entered 434 vessels of 16,877 tons, and cleared 453 of
17,194 tons. There is regular steam communication (monthly) with Antwerp,
and frequent steam communication with Liverpool, Hamburg, Rotterdam,
and Lisbon.
Internal Communications.
The Congo 1$ navigable for about 100 miles from its mouth to Matadi,
and on this section 6 steamers belonging to the State ply. Above this,
for over 200 miles, are numerous rapids, which render the river unnavigable
as far as Stanley Pool (Leopoldville). Above the Pool theic are about 1,000
miles of navigable water, as far as Stanley Falls, while several of the great
tributaries are navigable over a considerable extent of their course.
A railway of about 250 miles in length, running at an average distance of
20 miles south of the river, connects Matadi with Stanley Pool. This railway
is now open for traffic in its whole length. From Leopoldville a public trans-
port service on the Upper Congo has been organised by the Government, 22
steamers being employed for this purpose.
In 1898 there were in the State 19 post offices. In 1897 in the internal
service 82,128 letters, papers, &c. , were transmitted ; and in the external,
261,264. The State is included in the Postal Union.
The legal money is as in Belgium.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 481
Consul'Oeneral in London for the Congo Independent State. — J. Houdret.
British Consid — Roger Casement (at Loanda),
British Vice-Consul at Boma. — A. J. Underwood (acting).
Books of Reference concerning the Congo State.
1. Official.
Bulletin officiel de I'Etat Independant du Congo.
Convention between Her Majesty and the King of the Belgians in the name of the
International Association of the Congo. London, 1885.
Correspondence with Her Majesty's Ambassador at Berlin respecting West African
Conference. London, 1885.
L'Etat Independent du Congo a I'Exposition de Bruxelles. Bruxelles, 1897.
Protocols and General Act of the West African Conference. London, 1885.
2. Unofficial.
Alexi8(}i. G.), Le Congo Beige. Brussels, 1888.
BaiUy (H.), Travel and Adventure in the Congo Free State. London, 1894.
Bentley (Rev. W. H.), Life on the Congo. London, 1887.
Boulger (D. C), The Congo State. London, 1898.
Bula iV'Zau.— Travel and Adventures in the Congo Free State. S. London, 1S94.
Burdo (A.), Les Beiges dans I'Afrique centrale. tt vols. 4. Brussels. 1891.
Burrows (G.), The Land of the Pigmies. London, 1899.
Chapaux (A.), Le Congo historiquc, diplomatique et colonial. Bruxelles, 1894.
Coquilkat (C), Sur le Haut-Congo. Paris, 1888.
Cottier (.M.), Droit et Administration de I'Etat Independant du Congo. Bruxelles,
1898.
Droogmans {H.), Le Congo. Quatre conferences publiques. Brussels, 1895.
Dupont{E.), Le Congo. Brussels, 1889.
Oldve (E. G.), Six Years of Adventure in Congoland. 8. London, 1893.
Oodelieve (XIarie),Six ans au Cougo. Bruxelles, 1898.
Hitide (S. L.), The Fall of the Congo Arabs. London, 1897.
Jeannent. Quatre annees au Congo. Brussels, 1889.
The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Johnston (Sir H. H.), The River Congo. London, 1895.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd Edition. London, 1895
Le Congo Illustre. Bruxelles, 1892-95.
Le Maire (C. F. A.), Congo et Belgique. 4. Bruxelles, 1894. Au Congo, comment le.s
noirs travaillent. Bruxelles, 1895.
Le Mouvement Geographique. Brussels, weekly.
Ortroz (F Van), Conventions Internationales concernant I'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Pechiiel-Loesche (Dr.), Kongoland. Jena, 1887.
Ptcard (E. ), En Congohe. Bruxelles. 1897.
Rectus (E.), Nouvelle geographie universelle. Vol. XIII. Paris, 1888,
Stanley (H. M.), The Congo and the Founding of its Free State. 2 vols. London, 1885.
Stanley (H. M.), Through the Dark Continent. 2 vols. London, 1878.
Thys (CsLpt), Au Congo et au Kassasi. Brussels, 1888.
Trouet (L.), I^e Cheiniu de Ferdu Congo. Brussels, 1898.
Van Moesel, Etude sur la legislature de I'Etat Independant du Congo.
Ward (H.), Five Years with the Congo Cannibals. London, 1890.
WautersiA. J.), L Etat Independant du Congo. Brussels, 1898.— Bibliographie du
Congo (1880-95). Brussels, 1896.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
WissmanniH.), Im Innern Afrikas. Berlin, 18S8.
I I
482
COSTA RICA
;JriEFUBLlCA DE CoSTA KlL'A.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Costa Kica, an iiulcpcndeut State since the year 1821, and
forming part from 1824 to 1829 of the Confederation of Central America, is
governed under a Constitution first promulgated in 1870, but modified very
frequently since that date. Practically there was no constitution, but only
dictatorships, between 1870 and 1882. The legislative power is vested in a
Chamber of Representatives — one rei^resentative to every 8, 000 inhabitants
— chosen in electoral assemT)lies, the memliers of which are returned by the
suffrage of all who are able to support themselves. There were 537 electors
in 1889, and 26 deputies (32 in 1895). The members of the Chamber are
elected for the term of four years, one-hali' retiring every two years. The
executive authority is in the hands of a president, elected, in the same
manner as the Congress, for the term of four years.
Prcsideyit of the Republic. — Rafael Yglesias, re-elected November 1897.
The administration normally is carried on, under the President, by four
ministers — viz. of the Interior ; of Foreign Affairs, Education, Justice, and
AVorship ; of Finance and Commerce ; and of War and ]\Iarinc.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 23,000 English square miles
divided into five provinces, San Jose, Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago, and Guana-
caste ; and two coniarcas, Puntarenas, pait of the Pacific coast-line, and
Limon, the whole of the Caril)bean coast. The lioundary with Colombia is
in dispute ; the President of the French Rejnililic has accepted the office of
arbitrator. The boundary with Nicaragua is also in dispute, and in July,
1896, a commission Avas appointed, with an arbitrator, nominated by the
President of the United States, to decide points of diff'erence. According to
the census of February 18, 1892, the population was 243,205 (122,480 males
and 120,725 females), besides 19,456 (estimated) unenumerated, and about
3,500 aborigines. There were 6,289 foreigners, of whom 831 Avcre from Spain ;
622 from Italy ; 342 from Germany ; 246 from England ; 204 from the
United States ; and 634 were British subjects frojn the "West Indies.
The enumerated population gives on an average 10 "5 inhabitants to the square
mile. In March, 1897, the population Avas put at 294,940, There were in
1897, 1,763 marriages, 13,012 births, and 9,925 deatlis! The average immi-
gration since 1894 is stated to be about 1,000 annually. The population of
European descent, many of them i)ure Spanish blood, dwell mostly around the
capital, the city of San Jose (25,000), and in the towns of Alajuela, Carkigo,
Heredia (6,047), Guanacaste, Puntarenas, and Limon (4000). The govern-
ment encourages immigration by the sale of land on easy terms. In 1893
many concessions were made for colonising and agricultural purposes.
For the jmrpose of public health the country lias been divided into 21
districts, superintended l)y medical men paid by the national Treasury.
Eeligion and Instruction.
The Roman Catholic is the religion of the State, but there is entire religious
libertj"^ under the Constitution. In 1892 there were in the Republic 2,245
Protestants, 35 Jews, and 224 Buddhists, &c. Education is compulsory and
free. In 1897 there were 327 primary schools, with 21,913 pupils in at-
tendance, besides five establishments for higher education. In 1896, 354,723
])osos were devoted to education. I'ublic instruction in all its branches is
ligidly enforced.
FINANCE — INDUSniV AND COMMERCE
4sr,
Justice.
.hibticc is aJiiiiuititered liy the Supiouic Cuuii of Justice, two Appeal Courts,
and the Court uf Cassation. There are also subordinate courts in the separate
provinces, and local justices throui^liout the Republic. Capital punishment
cannot be inflicted.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure for five years have been : —
—
1S03-94
1894-95
]S9r.-90 1890-97
1897-98
Pesos
Revenue . 4,800,000
Expenditure 4,741,840
Pesos
6,123,872
6,121,493
Pesos i Pesos
6,528,975 1 7,435,611
6,187,927 6,697,327
Pesos
8,424,104
8,313,454
The revenue is chiefly derived from customs, 2,766,248 pesos, and excise,
2,242,174 pesos, in 1896-97 ; while the expenditure is chiefly for the various
departments of Government, 3,501.354 pesos, and <lcbt. 1.072,690 ])esos in
1896-97.
The foreign debt of the Republic outstanding in 1887 was 2,691,300?., and
the arrears of interest amounted to 2,119,512Z, In 1888 an aiTangement was
made with the creditors, but in 1895 the Government again w^ent into default,
and in March, 1897 a new arrangement was agreed to. The interest on
525,O00Z. of the cajiital is reduced to 3 per cent., and that on 1,475,000Z. to
2^ per cent. Amortization at the rate of 10,000Z. annually Avill begin in
1917. The un])aid interest coupons, January, 1895, to April. 1897, will be
cancelled on the payment by Costa Rica at once of 3i,562Z.. and of 100,000Z.
by annual instalments of 5,000Z. The total foreign debt in 1898 stood at
2,095,000. The internal debt on March 31, 1897, amounted to l,116,784pesos.
It is being rapidly redeemed.
Defence.
Costa Rica has an army of 600 men and 12,000 militia, but on a war
footing can command 34,000 militia, as every male between 18 and 50 may
be required to serve. The Repulilic has also one torpedo boat, and a gunboat.
Industry and Commerce.
Almost anything can be grown in Costa Rica, but the principal agricultural
products are coffee and bananas. Maize, rice, and potatoes are commonly
cultivated, and cocoa culture is extending. Several districts are richly
auriferous, and gold and silver mines were recently worked, but at present
the indn.stry is almost entirely discontinued. In 1892 the live stock con-
sisted of 345,665 cattle, 77,043 horses, and 2,765 sheep, valued at, in all,
5,827,606 i)esos. In 1897 the estimated value was 12,695,065 j)esos.
The following is the value in pesos (gold 1892-93, paper 1894-95, gold
1896) of the imports and exports for live years.
—
1892
1893
1894
10,165,201
12,183,609
• 1895
1896
' Imports . .
Exiwrts . -
5,389,749
9,113,948
5,833,427
9,619,064
13,250,000
12,218,550
4,748,818
5,979,727
The value of the trade for three years is stated as follows in sterling : Im-
ports, 1894, 853,000/.; 1895, 802,000/.; 1896, 989,000Z.; exports, 1894,
1,053,000/.; 1895, 1,234,000/. ; 1896, 1,084,000/. For the first six m<.nths
of 1897 thp imports amounteil ro 469,000/. and the exports to 1,081,000/.
I 1 2
484
COSTA RICA
The most important export is coffee, the quantity exported in the year
1896 being 11,089,523 kilogrammes, valued at 4,318,286 pesos gold. Other
exports were bananas, 670,072 pesos ; hides and skins, cedar, and various
woods. The coffee exports are to Great Britain, the United States, and the
continent of Europe .
According to the Board of Trade Returns, the trade of the United Kingdom
with Costa Rica has been : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into U.K
Rica ....
Exports of product
Costa Rica .
from Costa
i of U.K.' to
£
493,131
167,424
£
356,115
157,029
£
289,038
175,133
£
317,514
217,173
£
333,310
197,692
The chief article imported from Costa Rica in 1897 was coffee, value
328,774Z. The chief domestic exports to Costa Rica in 1897 were cottons,
value 67,544Z. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 26,524Z. ; woollens and
worsteds, 18,243/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1898 Costa Rica had 3 merchant steamers of 600 tons and 2 sailing
vessel of 551 tons.
In 1896 there entered the ports of Limon and Puntarenas 476 vessels
of 471,125 tons (178 of 205,937 tons British ; 45 of 57,041 tons German ;
77 of 96,925 tons United States) ; and cleared 475 of 473,929 tons (173 of
205,336 tons British ; 47 of 58,976 tons German ; 76 of 96,476 tons United
States).
The railway system of Costa Rica extends from Limon, on the Atlantic coast,
inland to Alajuela, 117 miles. From Puntarenas, on the Pacific, a line ex-
tends to Esparza, 14 miles. This line is being continued to Alajuela, and
when it is completed there will be railway communication between the east
and west coasts. Other railways are projected.
In 1897 there were 83 post offices. Letters, &c., despatched (1896) :
internal, 1,164,807; external, 822,190.
There are (1897) telegraph lines of a total length of 917 English miles,
with 43 telegraph ofi&ces. The number of messages in 1897 was 382,116.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
There are two banks in Costa Rica, the Anglo-Costa Rican Bank, and the
Bank of Costa Rica, with a capital of 1,200,000 pesos, and 2,000,000 pesos
respectively. The paper in circulation in 1896 amounted to 3,300,000 pesos,
the specie reserve being 1,250,000 pesos.
The silver in circulation amounts to about 350,000 pesos.
The Peso or Dollar, of 100 Centavas : par vahie, 4s. The paper peso is
worth about Is. lOd. On October 26, 1896, an Act was passed for the adop-
tion of a gold standard, at the ratio of 1 to 26f , the monetary unit will be
the gold colon, weighing 778 gi-ammes, "900 fine. The present silver coin-
age will continue in circulation ; the new silver coinage will consist of frac-
tions of the colon, viz., 50, 25, 10, and 5-cent pieces 750 fine silver will be legal
tender up to 10 colons, and copper up to 1 colon. Foreign gold will be legal,
but not foreign silver. This project had not in 1898 been carried out ; steps
are being taken towards its completion.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 485
The metric system is now in use ; the following are the old weights and
measures : —
The Libra . . . = 1014 lb. avoirdupois.
,, Quintal .... r= 101-40 lbs. ,,
,, Arroha . . . . =25*35 ,,
, , Fanega . . =lh imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use, but the intro-
duction of the French metric system is legally established.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Costa Rica in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — M. Peralta (residing in Paris).
Consiil- General. — John A. Le Lacheur.
There are Consular Representatives at Birmingham, Cardiff, Falmouth,
Gibraltar, Glasgow, Hull, Kingston (Jamaica), Liverpool, Manchester, Not-
tingham, Southampton, Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Costa Rica.
Minister and Consul- General. — G. F. B. Jenner, resident at Guatemala.
Consul. — Percy G. Harrison.
There are Vice-Consuls at Port Limon and Puntarenas.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publications.
Anuario estadistico de la Republica de Costa Rica. San Jose.
Calvo (J. B.), Republica de Costa Rica. Apuntamientos geograficos, estadisticos e histo-
ricos. San Jose. 1887. Ceuso General de la Republica de Costa Rica. 18 Febiero, 1892.
San Jose, 1893.
Costa Rica— Bulletin No. 31 of the Bureau of the American Republics. S. Washington,
1892.
Estadistica del comercio exterior de la Republica de Costa Rica. San Jose.
Meuioria de la secretaria de gobernaci6n, policia y fomento. San Jose.
Memoria de la secretaria de guerra y marina. San Jose.
Memoria de la secretaria de hacienda y comercio. 5. San Jose.
Villavicencio (Enrique), Director of Statistical Bureau. Republica de Costa Rica. Ano
de 1886. San Jose, 1886.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Barrante$, (F. Montero), Elementos de Historia de Costa Rica. 8. San Jose. 1892.
Jiates (H. W.), Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Belly (Felix), A travers I'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1872.
Biolley (Paul), Costa Rica and her Future. Washington, 1889.
Boyle (Frederick), Ride across a Continent: a Personal Narrative of Wanderings through
Nicaragua and Costa Rica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Caceres (J. M.), Geografi'a de Centro-America. Paris, 1882.
Cairo (J. B.), The Republic of Costa Rica. Chicago, 1890.
Camphui$(G. W.), Costa Rica: The Country for Emigrants. London.
C/iurc/i (Col. G. E.), Costa Rica. In Geographical Journal, vol. x.. No. 1 (July, 1897).
London.
Fernandez (L.) Historia de Costa Rica, 1502—1821. 8. Madrid. 18^9.
Frobel (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans I'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Peralta (Manuel M.), Costa Rica: its Climate, Constitution, and Resources. With a
survey of its present financial position. 8. London, 1873.
Bcherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Statistisch-commerzielle Ergebnisse einer Reise urn die
Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.
bcherzer (Karl, Ritter von), W^anderuugen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten
8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Sehroeder (J.), Costa Rica Stat« Immigi'ation. San Jos^, 1894.
Wagner (Moritz), Die Republik Costa Rica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
486
DENMARK.
(KONGERIGET DaNMARK.)
Reigning King.
Christian IXo born April 8, 1818, the fourth son of the late
Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, and
of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to the succession
of the crown of Denmark by the treaty of London of May 8,
1852, and by the Danish law of succession of July 31, 1853.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederik YIL,
November 15, 1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to Queen Louise,
born September 7, 1817, died September 29, 1898, the daughter
of Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Frederik, heir apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married
July 28, 1869, to Princess Lowisa, daughter of King Carl XV.
of Sweden and Norway. Offspring of the union are :— 1. Prince
Christian, born September 26, 1870 ; married April 26, 1898, to
Princess Alexandra of Mecklenburg. 2. Prince Karl, born
August 3, 1872 ; married July 22, 1896, to Princess Maud
Alexandra of Great Britain. 3. Princess Lowisa, born February
17, 1875; married, May 5, 1896, to Prince Friedrich Georg
Wilhelm Bruno of Schaumburg-Lippe. 4. Prince Ha raid, born
October 8, 1876. 5. Princess Ingeborg, born August 2, 1878 ;
married August 27, 1897, to Prince Charles of Sweden. 6.
Princess Thyra, born March 14, 1880. 7. Prince Gustav,
born March 4, 1887. 8. Princess Dagmar, born May 23, 1890.
II. Princess Alexandra, born December 1, 1844; married,
March 10, 1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.
III. Prince Wilhelm, born December 24, 1845; elected
King of the Hellenes, under the title of Georgios I.,hj the Greek
National Assembly, March 31, 1863 ; married, October 27, 1867,
to Olga Constantinowna, Grand Duchess of Russia.
TV. Princess Marie Dagmar (Empress Maria- Feodorovna),
born November 26, 1847 ; married, November 9, 1866, to Alex-
ander III., Emperor of Russia; widow, November 1, 1894.
Y. Princess Thyra, born September 29, 1853; married,
December 21, 1878, to Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumber-
land.
VT. Prince Waldemar, born October 27, 1858; married,
October 22, 1885, to Princess Marie d'Orleans, eldest daughter
of the Due de Chartres, born January 13, 1865 ; offspring, Prince
BUOTIIERS AND SISTERS OF THE KING 487
A age, born June 10, 1887 ; Prince Axel, born August 12, 1888 ;
Prince Erich, born November 8, 1890; Prince Viggo, born De-
cember 25, 1893 ; Princess Margrethe, born September 17, 1895.
Brothers and Sister of the King.
I. Princess Frederiea, born October 9, 1811 ; married, October 30, 1834, to
Duke Alexander of Anhalt-Bernburg ; widow August 19, 1863.
II. Prince Julius, born October 14, 1824 ; general in th? Danish amiy.
III. Prince Haius, born December 5, 1825 ; general in the Danish ai-my.
The crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In 1448,
after the death of the last male scion of the Princely House of Svend Estridsen
the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, in
whose family the royal dignity remained for more than four centuries, although
the crown was not rendered hereditary by right till the year 1660. The direct
male line of the house of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king,
Frederik VII., on November 15, 1863. In view of the death of the king
without direct heirs, the Great Powers of Europe, 'taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy, as connected
with the general interests of the balance of power in Europe, is of high im-
portance to the preservation of peace,' signed a treaty at London on May 8,
1852, by the terms of which the succession to the crown of Denmark was
made over to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg,
and to the direct male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of
Hesse Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark. In accordance with
this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown was adopted
by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31, 1853.
King Christian IX. has a civil list of 500,000 rigsdalers settled upon him
by vote of the Rigsdag, approved December 17, 1863. The heir apparent of
the crown has, in addition, an allowance of 60,000 rigsdalers, settled by law
of March 20, 1868.
Subjoined is a list of the Kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Cliiistian I. of Oldenburg: —
A.D.
. 1670
. 1699
. 1730
. 1746
. 1766
. 1808
. 1839
. 1848
House of ^ickkswifj-Holsteiti-Sondcrhunj-fJlUcksbu nj.
Christian IX,, 1863.
Constitution and Government.
The present (Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the
charter of June 5, 1849, whicli was modified in some important
respects in 1855 and 1863, but again restored, with various
alterations, by a statute which obtained the royal sanction on
House of i
Oldenburg.
Christian I. .
A. D.
. 1448
Christian V. .
Hans
. 1481
Frederik IV. .
Christian II, .
. 1513
Christian VI.
Frederik I.
. 1523.
Frederik V. .
Christian III.
. 1533
Christian VII.
Frederik II. .
. 1559
Frederik VI. .
Christian IV. .
. 1588
Christian VIII
Frederik III. .
. 1648
Frederik VII.
488 DENMARK
July 28, 1866. According to this charter, the executive power
is in the king and his responsible ministers, and the right of
making and amending laws in the Rigsdag, or Diet, acting in
conjunction with the sovereign. The king must be a member of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which is declared to be the
religion of the State. The Rigsdag comprises the Landsthing
and the Folkething, the former being a Senate or Upper House,
and the latter a House of Commons. The Landsthing consists of
66 members. Of these, 12 are nominated for life by the Crown,
from among actual or former representatives of the Kingdom, and
the rest are elected indirectly by the people for the terms of eight
years. The choice of the latter 54 members of the Upper House
is given to electoral bodies composed partly of the largest tax-
payers in the country districts, partly of deputies of the largest
taxpayers in the cities, and partly of deputies from the totality
of citizens possessing the franchise. Eligible to the Landsthing
is every citizen who has passed his twenty-fifth year and is a
resident of the district. The Folkething, or Lower House of
Parliament, consists of 114 members, returned in direct election,
by universal suffrage, for the term of three years. According to
the ConstitutioTi there should be one member for every 16,000
inhabitants. The franchise belongs to every male citizen who
has reached his thirtieth year, who is not in the actual receipt of
public charity, or who, if he has at any former time been in re-
ceipt of it, has repaid the sums so received, who is not in private
service without having his own household, and who has resided
at least one year in the electoral circle on the lists of which his
name is inscribed. Eligible for the Folkething are all men of
good reputation past the age of twenty- five. Both the members
of the Landsthing and of the Folkething receive payment for
their services at the rate of 3 rixdalers (6s. 8d.) per day during the
actual session, and are reimbursed for travelling expenses to and
from the capital.
The Rigsdag must meet every year on the first Monday in October. To
the Folkething all money bills must in the first instance be submitted by the
Government. The Landsthing, besides its legislative fiuictions, has the duty
of appointing from its midst every four years the assistant judges of the
Rigsret, who, together with the ordinary members of the HiJiesteret, form the
highest tribunal of the Kingdom (Rigsret), and can alone try parliamentary
impeachments. The ministers have free access to both of the legislative
assemblies, but can only vote in that chamber of which they are members.
The executive, acting under the king as president, and called the State
Council — Statsraadet — consists of the following eight departments : —
1. The Presidency of the Council and Ministry of Finance. — H. E.
Horrinq, appointed May 25, 1897.
2. Ministry of the Interior.— V. de Barden/lefJi, May 2r., 1897,
xVREA AND POPULATION
489
3. Ministry of Justice and for Iceland. — N. R. Rump, June 13, 1896.
4. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — N. F. Ravn {ad interim).
5. Ministry of War.— Colonel C. F. Tu:t:en, May 25, 1897.
6. Ministry of Marine. — ViceAdmiral N. F. y^'a^;?;,, January 4, 1879.
7. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Bishop
H. V. Sthyr, May 25, 1897.
8. Ministry of Agriculture.— Alfred Hage, May 25, 1897.
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for their acts,
and if impeached, and found guilty, cannot be pardoned without the consent
of the Folkething.
Denmark is divided into 18 counties (Amter), each of which is administered
by a Governor (Amtmand), and the counties into Hundreds (Herreder), each
with a portion of the Peace (Herredsfoged or Birkedommer). In the towns
there is a Mayor, appointed by the government, with or without aldermen.
The Hundreds are divided into parishes of which there are, in all, about 1,070.
Copenhagen forms a district by itself, and has its own form of administration.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland,
has its owni constitution and administration, under a charter which
came into force August 1, 1874. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in the Althing, consisting of 36 members, 30 elected
by popular suffrage, and 6 nominated by the king. A minister for Iceland,
nominated by the king, is at the head of the administration ; while the highest
local authority is vested in the governor, who resides at Reikjavik. Besides him
there are two Amtmands for the western and the northern districts of Iceland.
Area and Population
The following table gives the area and population of Den-
mark, according to the last decennial census, taken February 1,
1890:—
Divisions
Area
Englisli sq. ni.
Population
1890
Population
per sq. m.
City of Copenhagen (Kjbbenhavu)\
without suburbs . . . , /
Islands in the Baltic
Peninsula of Jutland
Faeroe Islands (17 inhabited) .
Total
7-7
5,024
9,743
514
312,859
917,401
942,120
12,955
40,569
183
96
25
143
15,289
2,185,335
The population (excluding the Faeroes) consisted of 1,059,322
males and 1,112,983 females. The total population at the census
of 1870 was 1,794,723, and of 1880 1,980,259, showing an
increase during each of the two decennial periods of nearly 10
per cent., or 1 per cent, per annum. In Denmark proper the
town population has increased from 515,758 in 1880 to 663,121
in 1890. or at the rate of 28'7 per cent. ; while the rural popula-
tion has increased from 1,453,281 in 1880 to 1,509,084 in 1890,
or at the rate of 377 per cent. The popuLation is almost entirely
490
DENMARK
Scandinavian ; in 1890, of the inhabitants of Denmark proi)er,
96*67 per cent, were born in Denmark, 0*06 per cent, were born
in the Colonies, 0*16 per cent, in Norway, 1*56 per cent, in
Sweden, 0'96 per cent, in Sleswig, 0'47 per cent, in other parts
of Germany, and 0'12 per cent, in other foreign countries. The
foreign-born population was thus 3-27 per cent, of the whole.
According to occupation the population of Denmark in 1890 was classified
thus : —
Royal Family
16
Day labourers and
no fixed
Immaterial production
... 135,790
occupation
207,595
Railways, posts,
&c.
... 26,644
Pensioners . . .
57,999
Agriculture ...
... 882,336
Capitalists . . .
34,974
Industry
... 534,428
Blind, deaf, &c.
3,753
Commerce . . .
... 172,929
Public paupers
39,014
Land transport
... 16,086
In prisons ...
1,822
Navigation ...
.. 26,082
Fishing
... 32,912
Total ..
2,172,380
The population of the capital, Copenhagen (Kjobenhavn), in 1890, was
312,859, or with suburbs, 375,251 ; Aarhus, 33,308 ; Odense, 30,277 ; Aal-
borg, 19,503 ; Horsens, 17,290 ; Randers, 16,617.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and marriages,
with the surplus of births over deaths, in five years : —
Of the births 10 per cent, were illegitimate.
Emigrants, chiefly to the United States, 9,150 in 1893 ; 4,105 in 1894 ;
3,607 in 1895 ; 2,876 in 1896 ; 2,260 in 1897.
Religion.
The established religion ot Denmark is the Lutheran, which was intro-
duced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that time seized by the
Crown, to l)c delivered up to the university and other religious and educational
establishments. The affairs of the National Church arc under the superin-
tendence of seven l)ishops. The bishops have no political character. Com-
plete religious toleration is extended to every sect, and no civil disabilities
attach to Di.s.scnters. In 1885 there were 1,353 clergymen.
According to tlie census of 1890, there were only 33,851 persons, or 1'5
per cent, of the population, not belonging to the National Church. Of this
number 10,624 belonged to other Lutheran denominations, 4,080 were Jew.s,
4,556 Anabaptists, 3,647 Roman Catholics, 2,609 Irvingites, 2,301 Methodists,
1,252 belonged to the German or French Reformed Clinrch, 1,281 other
Christians, 941 JMormons, and 2,560 of no confossion.
Instruction.
Elementary education has Iteen widely dill'u.sed in Denmark since the
beginning of this century, and in 1814 it was made compulsory. The school
CRIME — FINANCK — DEFENCE
401
age is rioin 7 to 1-1. The puldic schools, iiiaiutained by coiiimunal rates, are
free. Of elementary schools there are about 2,940 (28 in Copenhagen, 132 in
other towns, and 2,780 in rural districts), with 231,940 pupils, or 123 per
1,000 of population. For liigher instruction there are: a veterinary and
agricultural college at Cojienhagen (founded 1892) with 22 teachers ; 21
agricultural or horticultural schools ; 67 folkehoj skolcr or popular high
schools ; 31 Latin schools (14 Government, 17 private) ; a college of
pharmacy (founded 1892) with 7 teachers ; a Royal academy of arts (founded
1754) with 7 teachers ; 99 rcalskoler or technical and commercial schools.
The folkehoj skolcr are all jnivate, but to them and the agricultural schools
the state annually makes a grant of about 300,000 kroner. To 72 of the
rcalskoler grants are made amounting in the j^ear 1892-93 to 109,000 kroner,
exclusive of the cost of apparatus, inspection, &c. The University of
Copenhagen founded in 1479, has 5 faculties, to all of which, except theology,
women are admitted on eaual terms with men. It has 40 professors and al^out
1,300 students.
Justice and Crime.
The lowest courts of justice in Denmark are those of the hundred or dis-
trict magistrates {hcrrcdsfogder and hirkcdommerc) and town judges {hyfogdcr).
From these courts an appeal lies to the superior court, or court of second in-
stance, in Viborg with 9 judges, and in Copenhagen with 17 judges. The
Copenhagen superior court, however, is identical with that of the civic magis-
trates. The supreme court {Hojcsteret) or court of final appeal, with a chief
justice, 12 puisne judges, and 11 special judges sits in Copenhagen. Judges
under 65 years of age can be removed only by judicial sentence.
In 1896, 3,009 males and 994 females were convicted of crime.
Finance.
By the terms of the Constitution of Denmark tlie annual
financial budget, called the ' Finantslovforslag,' must be laid on
the table of the Folkething at the beginning of each session. As
to the annual financial accounts, called ' Statsregnskab,' the Con-
stitutional Charter prescribes them to be examined by four paid
revisers, two of whom are elected by the Folkething and two by
the Landsthing. Their report is submitted to both Chambers,
which, after due consideration, pass their resolution generally to
the effect that they have no remarks to make on the balance-sheet.
The following shows the actual revenue and expenditure for
the five years ending March 31 : —
Year
Revenue
Expi'nditure
Kroner
Kroner
1894
58,075,266
62,152,474
1895
67,342,857
61,395,337
1S9G
79,051,735
74,470,636
: 1897
65,235,336
65,957,594
1898
138,681,496
134,740,065
The estimated revenue for 1898-!M.i was 08,568,723 kroner,
and expenditure 08,430,032 kroner. The following is an abstract
of tiie budiret for i89*J-rjUU
492
DENMAKK
Revenue
1
Kroner
Expenditure
Kroner
Balance of domain
Civil list and appa-
revenues
821,220
nages
1,203,200
Interest on State as-
Rigsdag and Council
sets
5,030,199
of State
319,016
Direct taxes
10,467,600
Interest and expenses
Indirect taxes, mainly
on State debt
6,828,100
customs and excise.
48,019,000
Pensions, including
Posts and Telegraphs
332,460 ;
military invalids .
3,356,812
Balance of lotteries .
1,100,000
Ministry of Foreign
Separate revenues
570,312
Affairs .
698,556
Revenue from employ-
i
Ministry of Agricul-
ment of property
1
ture
2,448,895
and funding of debt
1,821,501
Ministry of Interior .
4,850,478
Ministry of Justice .
4,594,797
Ministry of Public
Worship & Instniction
4,461,425
Ministry of War
10,316,835
Ministry of Marine .
6,996,844
Ministry of Finance .
4,168,378
Iceland .
78,431
Extraordinary State
expenditure .
5,245,489
Improvement of State
property and re-
Total revenue
duction of debt
Total expenditure
12,403,656
68,162,192
67,970,912
An important feature in the administration of the finances of the kingdom
is the maintenance of a reserve fund of a comparatively large amount. In
1867 it was 116,246,060 kroner; in 1877, 38,365,915 kroner; in 1887,
17,820,879 kroner. On the 31st of March, 1898, it stood at 17,890,461
kroner. The object of the reserve fund is to provide means at the disposal of
the Government in the event of sudden occurrences.
The public debt of Denmark has been incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary govern-
ment, and in part by railway undertakings and the construction of harbours,
lighthouses, and other works of public importance. The following table gives
the national liabilities at diff'erent periods, from 1870 to 1896 : —
Year
ending March 31
Capital of Debt
Year
ending March 31
1896
1897
1898
Capital of Debt
1880
1890
1895
Kroner
173,838,612
188,148,541
208,428,026
Kroner
199,061,871
196,405,438
208,193,351
The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The total foreign debt
amounted in 1898 to 138,512,250 kroner. The debt is mostly at 3 per cent
AUMY AND NAVY
493
The interest of the debt for 1897-98 was set down as 7,300,148
kroner; after deducting productive investments, &c., the charge per head of
population would be about 2s. 8d. The investments of the State on March 31,
1898, including the reserve fund, but excluding the State railways (valued at
218,021,694 kroner) and the domains amounted to 73,164,075 kroner.
Defence.
The army of Denmark consists of all the able-bodied young men of the
kingdom who have reached the age of 22 years. They are liable to service
for eight years in the regular army and its reserve, constituting the first
line, and for eight years subsequent in the extra reserve. The drilling is
divided into two periods : the iirst lasts six months for the infantry ; three
months for the Held artillery and the engineers ; eight months for the
cavalry ; and four months for the siege artillery and the technic corps. The
second period of drill, which is for only a portion of the recruits of each
branch of arms, notably those who have profited the least by the first course,
lasts eight months for the infantry, eleven months for the cavalry, and one
year for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to drill
each year during twenty-five to thirty days. The kingdom is divided into two
divisions or commands, the eastern and the western, the former subdivided
into two and the latter into three brigades, and each brigade into two regi-
ments of three battalions. Every brigade furnishes the contingent of a
brigade of infantry and one regiment of cavalry.
The forces of the kingdom comprise 31 battalions of infantry of the line
with 11 of reserve ; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 3 squadrons active
and a depot ; 2 regiments of field artillery, in 12 batteries, and 4 of
reserve, and 1 regiment of 3 battalions with 12 companies of fortress artillery,
and 6 companies of reserve ; and 1 regiment of engineers. The strength of
the army (1899) is 800 officers and 9,000 men ; the war strength is 1,350
officers and 58,600 men. The total war strength of Citizen Corps of
Copenhagen and Bornholm Island is about 4,700 men.
The Danish fleet is maintained for purposes of coast-defence. It com-
prises 4 coast-defence armourclads (named in italics below) : the turret-ship
Helgoland ; the barbette ship, Iver Hvitfcldt ; the torpedo ship, Tordenskjold ;
6 third-class cruisers and gun vessels, 7 gunboats, and a flotilla of 14
first-class and 20 second-class torpedo boats. The following are the armoured
vessels of the fleet. Those in italics are purely for coast defence class ;
b. broadside, c. b. central battery, t. turret, bar. barbette, Q.F. quick-
firing.
§
rs
■
oj «> C
o w
p.
■§ Name
S
1
1868
p. c:
to s
Q
2,100
Extrem
thicknes
Armour i
Inches
Armament
•SI
Si E 1 c
t Lindormen
5
2 13-ton ; 4 3in.
—
1,500
120
t ; Oorm
1870
2,400
1
2 18-ton ; 4 2iin. Q.F.
—
1,G70
12*2
e.bJ Odin
1872
3,230
8
4 18-ton ; 4 3Jin. Q.F.
—
2,300
12-4
t Helgoland
1878
5,370
12
/136-tou; 4 22-ton; 4 5in. ;
1 2 24in. Q.F.
4
4,000
13-4
bar Tordenskjold .
1880
2,530
8
1 52-ton ; 4 Sin.
4
2,600
13-2
15-6
13 "0
bar Iver Hvitfeldt .
1886
3.450
lU
2 28-ton i 4 5in. ; 2 2iin.Q.F.
4
5,100
t Skjold .
1896 2,160
9
1 26.ton ; 3 4iin. Q.F.
— •z,mv
494 DENMARK
The Toidcnakjold is a remarkable ship liaving no side-armour, but carrying
in an armoured barbette the heaviest gun in the Danish Navy. The deck-
jtrotected cruisers Gciscr, Ilckla, and Ilcimdal (1,310 tons), Fyca (2,740 tons,
and Valkyricii (3,020 tons) have been Iniilt, like most other Danish vessels,
at C^openhagen. These are the most important and recent of the cruising
vessels. An armoured sldp, the Herluf TroUc, of 3,470tons, and a .sister
.ship are in hand at Copenhagen.
Production and Industry.
The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the state of
the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into larger estates, but
encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out of landed property, and
leaves the tenant entire control of his land so long as the rent is paid.
Of the total area of Denmark 80 per cent, is productive ; about one sixth
of the unproductive area is peat bogs. Of the productive area 6 per cent, is
forest, and of the remainder less than one half is arable, and the remainder
])asture and meadows. The total area under corn crops, according to latest
returns (1896), was 2,876,000 acres; potatoes, 129, 500 acres ; clover, 656,600
acres ; bare fallow, 545, 600 acres ; meadows, &c., 2,247,000 acres. The leading
crops in 1897 were oats, 34,140,000 bushels ; barley, 18,580,000 Imshels ; rye,
17,570,000 bushels ; wheat, 3,368,000 bashels ; potatoes, 19,550,000 bushels ;
other roots, 147,000,000 bushels ; besides vegetables, hay and clover. The total
value of the produce in 1897 was 319,832,876 kroner'; in 1896, 323,598,188
kroner ; in 1895, 301,170,176 kroner.
On July 15, 1893, there were in Denmark proper 410,639 horses,
1,696,190 head of cattle, 1,246,552 sheep, 25,266 goats, and 829,131 swine.
(In 1881 there were 1,470,078 cattle, and in 1871, 1,238,898.)
In 1897 there were exported 20,800 horses, 81,122 head of cattle, 6,250
sheep and lambs.
In 1897 there were in Denmark 81 distilleries (Copenhagen 22), whose
output of brandv, reduced to pure alcohol (100 per cent.), was 3,586,000
gallons (16,870,000 potter). In 1896 there were produced 20,530,000
gallons of excisable beer and 29,840,000 gallons (small) beer, not excisable.
In the same year 48,345 tons of beet sugar were produced at 6 sugar
factories.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value, according to official
returns, of the imports and general exports (excluding precious
metal) for six years.
Years Imports Exports \\ fears ; Imports Exports
I Kroner Kroner I I Kroner ! Kroner
1890 I 307,031,194 ! 233,837,937 [ 1895 I 364,039,120 I 268,894,032
1893 , 320,294,907 \ 235,115,937 i 1896 i 383,936,695 ! 283,878,946
1894 , 348,969,131 \ 263,664,535 j 1897 ; 416,797,703 1 328,121,076
The exports of home produce in five years were, in kroners : — 1893,
198,300; 1894, 221,700,000; 1895, 216,700,000; 1896, 218,600,000; 1897,
243,500,000.
rOMMERCE
49;-)
111 181)7 the geiiei'iil imports and exports, and the special
imi)orts and exports (imports for consumption and ext>orts of
Danish produce or manufacture) were as follows : —
' Imports,
, (General)
Inipoils, Exports, Exports,
especial) (General) (Special)
1 1,000 kroner
Foods substances . . 127,600
Personal and domestic . 78,600
Fuel .... 23,400
Fodder, manure, seeds , 60,900
Raw lu-oducts . . . 126,300
Total . . . 416,800
1,000 kroner 1,000 kroiici' l.OdO kroner
78,100 244,000 197,300
68,600 17,200 7,200
21,500 2,200
54,200 7,300 2,100
103,500 57,400 36,900
325,900 328,100 243,500
The principal articles of import and export, with their re-
spective values, were as follows : —
Colonial goods ,
Beverages
Textile manufactures
Metals and hardware
Wood &, manufacture
Coal ....
Animals .
Pork , butter, eggs, lard
Cereals
Imports,
Imports
Exports,
1896
(General)
1890
1897
1000
1000
1000
Kroner
Ki'oner
Kroner
31 788
.39,477
11,892
5,467
7,001
2,713
42,645
50,0(55
5,384
44,268
32,406
9,041
21,598
24 212
2,670
22,138
22,413
1,610 i
3,169
. 2,531
2,444 ,
1 35,485
35,701
169,744 !
1 40,801
60,838
8,500
Exports,
1896
(Home
produce)
lOOO
Kroner
1,631
704
479
2,061
1,318
24,408
149,222
6,882
Exports,
1897
(General)
' 1000
Exports,
1S97
(Home
produce)
1000
Kroner
Kroner
14,261
1,214
3,421
641
6,558
1,150
4,908
1,072
2,024
452
2,166
_..
27,663
27,617
' 189,619
164,266
14,396
8,429
The following table shows the distribution of Danish foreign
trade : —
1;
! I Countries
Imports,
1896
Imports,
1897
Export*,
1896
Exports,
1897
Kruner
(General)
Kroner
(General)
Kroner
Kroner
Germany .
126,077,000
129,301,000
57,842,000
65.737,000
United Kingdom
78,264,000
78,807,000
169,684,000
191,188,000
Sweden and Norway .
56,465,000
59,051,000
30,089,000
36,647,000 1
United States .
17,023,000
48,335,000
1,758,000
2,119,000
Rest of America
614,100
7,283,000
170,000
171,000
Russia
32,839,000
38,709,000
5,619,000
20,379,000
Holland .
8,814,000
7,844,000
299,000
725,000
Belgium ,
6,555,000
7,029,000
780,000
1,027,000
France
7,975,000
10,644,000
1,974,000
1,861,000
Danish Colonies
2,332,000
2,959,000
4,533,000
4,139,000
Free port of Cojien-
hagen .
26,810,000
1
7,541,000
1
1
1 Before 1897 the free port of Copenhagen figared In the tahles as foreign territory, but
now lis tra«le is included with that of the rest of Denmark.
49G
DENMARK
The values of imports, whether subject to duty or duty-free, and of exports, always
duty-free, are determined by the Statistical Bureau in communication with commercial
firms, who state the average values of the various articles of merchandise. The quantities
are verified by the Customs authorities. The prime origin and ultimate destination of
goods are not recorded. The general trade coniprehends all imports and exports ; the
special trade only imports for consumption, and exports of home produce. Usually the
Customs authorities easily ascertain whether imports and exports belong to the general or
the special trade, but sometimes the amount of imports for home consumption is
determined merely by the excess of imports over exports.
The value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Denmark (in-
cluding Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, and Greenland), and of the domestic
exports from the United Kingdom to Denmark, is shown in the subjoined
table in each of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895 1896
1S97
Imports into Gt. Britain
Exports of British pro-
duce ....
£
8,936,835
2,542,258
£
9,543,766
2,594,867
1
£ £
9,799,328 10,640,598
2,703,537 2,865,635
£
10,968,397
3,085,195
The imports of butter into Great Britain from Denmark rose from 767,190Z.
in 1870 to 6,748,163Z. in 1897. In 1897 the imports of live animals from
Denmark amounted to the value of 41,212?. (in 1891, 359,553Z.), comprising
19,189Z. for sheep and 22,023Z. for horses. The import of eggs has risen from
67,654?. in 1878 to 596,282?. in 1897. The import of bacon in 1897 was
2,744,430?, Of British exports to Denmark in 1897, cotton manufactures
and yarn amounted to 536,811?., coal to 773,725?., iron, wrought and un-
wrought, to 397,292?., sugar, 71,816?., and woollens, including yarn,
300,138?.
Shipping and Navigation.
On December 31, 1897, Denmark and colonies possessed 3,696 vessels (of
4 tons and upwards) of 356,108 registered tons in her merchant marine, of
which 44 of 182,702 tons were steamers. In 1897, 32,036 vessels of
2,712,224 tons cargo entered the Danish ports, and 31,424 vessels of 713,671
tons cargo cleared, besides 35,389 coasting vessels entered, and 35,431
cleared.
Internal Communications.
There are (1897) railways of a total length of 1,532 English miles open
for traffic in the kingdom. Of this total, about 1,087 English miles belong
to the State, the total cost of which up to March 31, 1898, was 218,021,694
kroner.
The Post Office in the year 1897 carried 80,821,201 letters and post-cards,
and 74,403,222 samples and printed matter. There are 829 post-offices. The
State telegraphs in 1897 carried 2,009,788 messages, of which 597,437 were
internal, 1,262,734 international, 149,617 official or meteorological. The length
of State telegraph lines at the end of 1897 was 2,988 English miles, and
the length of wire 8,549 English miles ; number of offices 171. At the same
date the railway and private telegraphs had 249 offices. There are besides,
exclusively for the telephone traffic, 575 English miles of lines, and 1,067
English miles of double wire ; number of State telephone offices 27.
COLONIES 497
Money and Credit
On 31 July, 1898, the accounts of the National Bank balanced at
139,676,174 kroner. The assets included 31,677,655 kroner in bullion, and
20,230,300 in specie. The liabilities included 91,000,000 kroner note issue,
27,000.000 kroner of capital, and 3,000,000 kroner reserve fund. In Den-
mark there are about 66 other banks for commercial, agricultural, industrial,
and other purposes. On 31 March, 1897, there were 532 savings banks, with
1,062,649 depositors, and deposits amounting to 645,444,356 kroner, or 607
kroner to each account.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The monetary unit, the Krone of 100 ore, is of the value of Is. l^d., or
about 18 kroner to the pound sterling.
Gold coins are 20 and 10-kroner pieces. The 20-kroner piece weighs
8 '960572 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 8 '0645 grammes of fine gold.
The 2-kroner silver piece, or Rigsdaler, weighs 15 grammes '800 fine,
and thus contains 12 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is gold. Silver is legal tender up to 20 kroner.
The Fund -.
= 1000 Kvint = 1000 Ori
= l-10231b. avoi
rdupois. The Centner
= 100 PUTUl =
110*23 lb, avoirdupois.
Tonde grain
3-827 bush.
Alen{= 2Fod)
r=
0 -6864 yard.
,, oil
= 28-9189 gal.
Kuhikfod . .
=:
1-0918 c. ft.
, , butler
= 246-9179 lbs. av.
Tondeland . .
—
1 -36 acre.
,, coal
= 4-6775 bush.
Register- Tonior
Pot . . .
= 0-2126 gal.
sailing ships
—
1 ton reg.
Viertel . .
= 1-7011 „
Register- Ton for
Ship Last .
= 2 tons.
1 j« 1 /> _
steamers . .
_ 1 f* X
^ A.-
0-89
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives
1. Of Denmark in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — F. de Bille, accredited 1890.
Secretary of Legation. — Count C. Moltke (acting).
Attache. — Christian August Gosch.
Consul-Generalin London. — E. A. Delcomyn.
There are Consuls at Belfast, Bristol, Edinbui'gh (C.G.), Hull (C.G.),
Leith, Liverpool, SheflBeld, Southampton, Swansea, Yarmouth.
2 Of Great Britain in Denmark.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Edmund D. V. Fane, K.C.M.G., C. B., ap-
I)ointed July 1, 1898.
Secretary. — Hon. Alan Johnstone.
There are Consuls at Copenhagen, Reikjavik (Iceland), St. Thomas (West
Indies).
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of teiTitories in Europe and
America. Their area and population in October, 1890, and the value of their
imports into and exports from Denmark alone in 1897, according to Danish
returns, were :^
K K
498
DENMARK
Colonies
Area
English sq. m.
Population
Imports,
1897
Exports,
1897
Iceland .
Greenland
West Indies
Total .
39,756
46,740
138
70,927
10,516
32,786
Kroner
1,520,000
767,000
409,000
Kroner
2,972,000
368,000
136,000
86,634
114,229
2,696,000
3,476,000
The amount of the trade of Iceland and of the Danish West Indies is insufficiently
ascertained. The trade of Greenland is a State monopoly.
The West Indian Islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, are in-
habited mostly by free negroes engaged in the cultivation of the sugar-cane ;
but the trade with Denmark, formerly considerable, has fallen off in
recent years. The imports from the Danish West Indies into the United
Kingdom amounted to 20, 122Z. in 1897; and the exports of British pro-
duce to these islands to 55,086/. The chief article of import into Great
Britain from these islands in 1897 was sugar, 18,713Z. ; while the British
exports were mainly cotton goods, to the value of 15,324?., and machinery,
4,445Z.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries anil
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Apergu preliminaire des principaux resultats de recensement du l*^"" fevrier 1890 on
Danemark. Copenhague, 1890.
Den dansk-tydske Krig, 1864. Udgivet af Generalstahen. 8. Copenhagen. 1890.
Foreign Office Reports on the Trade, &c., of Denmark. Annual. London.
Hof og Staats Kalender Annual. Kjobenhavn.
Justice criminelle, 1886-06. 4. Copenhagen.
Meddelelser (Statistiske) Tredie Raekke. 13de, 14de Bind. Kjobenhavn, 1894.
Sammendrag af statistiske Oplysninger. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1896.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Kongerigets Vare-Indforsel og Udforsel samt den indenlandske
Frembringclse af Braendeviin og Rocsakker i Aaret 1896. Udgivet af det Statistiske
Bureaii. — Kongerigets Handels-Flaade og Skibsfart i Aaret 1896. 4. Kjobenhavn,
1897.
2. Non-Official Publications,
Andersen (L.), Copenhagen and its Environs. London.
Baedeker's Handbook fur Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, 6th ed. 12. London, ISO").
Both, Kongeriget Danmark, en historisk-topographisk Beskrivelse. 2 vols. Copen-
hagen, 1882-85.
Cook (T.), Guide to Norway and Denmark. London, 180.1.
Copenhagen and Its Environs [Danish Tourist Society publication]. London, 1898.
Dahlman (F. C), Geschichte von Danemark. 3 vols. 8. Gotha, 1840-1843.
GaJJe«(7a (A.), The Invasion of Denmark in 1864. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Goo8(A. II. F. C), Grundtraek af den danske statsret. Coi)enhagen, 1890.
Hoffman (C. A.), Erindringcr fra Krigcn 1864. Copenhagen, 1892.
Jeaffreson (J. R.), The Fanie Islands. London, 1897.
Murray's Handbook for Denmark, 6th. ed. 8. London ; 1893.
National iikonomisk Tidsskrift. K^i'obenhavn, 1896.
Nyholm (C. C. V.), Grundtraek afDanmarks StatsforvaUning. Copenhagen, 1893.
OtU (E. C), Denmark and Iceland. 8vo. London, 1881.
Petersen (C. P. N.), Love og andre offentlige Kundgjorelser, &c., vedkommende Landvae-
scnct i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobcnnavn, 1865.
Sidgwick (C. S.), Tlie Story of Denmark. London, 1890.
Torp (C), Dansk Tingsrct. Copenhgen, 1892.
'iVap (J. J'.), Slatistisk-toi)Ograpliisk Beskrivelse aflvf^ngerigot Danmark. 2nd ed. 4 vols.
8. Kjobenhavn, 1872-78.
Weitemeyer (H.), Diincmo.y'k ; Geschichte und Bcschreibnng. 12. (Of this Ihoie is an
English translation. 8. London, 1801.)
499
3. Dependencies.
Caratcnsen (A. 11.), Two 8uiiiiiicr.s in Greenland. S. onduji, ISW.
Leith (Mrs.), Three Visits to Iceland. London, 1897.
MacCormick (W. F.), A Ride Across Iceland in 1801. 8. London, IS'.iJ.
Nartsen (F.), Tlic First Crossing of Greenland. London, 1891. Eskimo Life. 8 London,
1803.
Taylor (C. E.) Leaflets from the Danish West Indies. 8. London, 1888
TJwroddten (Th.), Ge-suhichte derlsliindischen Geographic. 2 Biinde. Leii>zic, 1807-98.
ECUADOR
(Republica del Ecuador.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Ecuador was constituted May 11, 1830, in consequence
of a civil war which separated the members of the original Republic of
Colombia, founded by Simon Bolivar, by uniting the Presidency of
Quito to the Mce-Royalty of New Grenada, and the Captaincy-General
of Venezuela, when they threw off the Spanish yoke. By its Constitution,
dating 1884, with modilications in 1887 and 1896, the executive is vested in a
President, elected for the term of four years, while the legislative power
is given to a Congress of two Houses ; the first consisting of two senators
for each province (chosen for four years, one-half retiring every two
years), and the second of deputies, on the basis of one deputy for every
30,000 inhabitants, chosen for two years ; both elected by adults who can
read and write and are Roman Catholics. The Congress meets on the
10th of June of every other year at Quito, the capital, without being
summoned by the Government. The election of the President takes place in
a direct manner by the people, and that of the Vice-President, whose term of
office is also four yeai-s, by the same procedure, but two years after that of the
President, so that he is a member of two distinct administrations. The
Vice-President in certain cases may be called upon to occupy the Presidential
chair. He also discharges the duties of President of the Council State.
President of the llcpuhlic. — General Alfai'O.
The President, who receives a salary of 12,000 sucres a year, theoretically
exercises his functions through a Cabinet of five ministers, who, together with
himself, may be impeached by Congress, and who, with other seven
members, form a Council of State. Each minister receives a salary of 2,880
sucres a year. The President has the -power of veto, but if Congress insist on
a vetoed bill becoming law, he has no alternative but to give his assent to it.
He may summon an Extraordinary Congress for a specified purjjose, but he
cannot dissolve the Chambers or shorten their sittings. By the terms of the
Constitution privileges of rank and race are not allowed to exist within the
Republic, Init most of the Indians are virtually in bondage. By an edict of
the present (1896) Supreme Chief the Indians are, exempted from paying
tribute, and are admitted to citizenship.
The Provinces are administered by Governors, appointed by the Govern-
ment ; their subdivisions, or cantons, by political chiefs ; and the parishes by
jiolitical licutcii.nnts. Tlie Galapagos Archipelago is uuder a territorial chief.
Area and Population.
The area of Ecuador is about 120,000 square miles, divided into sixteen
provinces and one territory, with about 1,270,000 inhabitants — whites
K K 2
500 ECUADOR
100,000, mixed 300,000, Indians 870,000. Included in the above statement
are the Galapagos or Tortoise Islands, with an area of 2,400 square miles, and
a population of about 200. A Boundary Treaty which was concluded be-
tween Peru and Ecuador on the 2nd of May, 1890, and sanctioned by the
Ecuadorian Congress, was subjected to amendment by Peru in 1893, and in
1894 was revoked by the Ecuadorian Congress. Ecuador is also involved in a
dispute with the Republic of Colombia respecting certain territories on the
left bank of the river Napo.
The population of the Republic is distributed as follows : —
Provinces
Pop.
Provinces
Pop.
Provinces
Pop.
Carchi
36,000
Canar .
64,014
Guayas
. 98,042
Imbabura
67,940
Azuay .
. 132,400
Manabi
. 64,123
Pichincha
205,000
Loja
66,456
Esmeraldas
. 14,553
Leon
109,600
Bolivar .
43,000
Oriente
. 80,000
Tungurahua .
103,033
Rios
. 32,800
Chimborazo .
122,300
Oro
. 32,600
1,271,861
The chief towns are the capital, Quito (80,000), Guayaquil (50,000), Cuenca
(25,000), Riobamba (12,000), Ambato, Loja, and Lataeunga (each about
10,000).
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the Republic, according to the Constitution, is the Roman
Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Its income, in substitution for
tithes, is annually provided for in the estimates. Primary education is gratui-
tous and obligatory. There is a University in Quito with 32 professors and 216
students, and University bodies in Cuenca and Guayaquil. There are 9 schools
for higher education, 35 secondary, and 1,088 primary schools; the total
number of teachers is 1,498, and of pupils 68,380.
There are commercial and technical schools in Quito and Guayaquil.
Justice and Crime.
The appellate courts are the Supreme Court in Quito, and six superior
courts at different centres. The inferior courts deal with criminal, civil,
and commercial cases. In the Republic there are 33 cantonal and 359 parochial
justices, and 85 solicitors admitted to practice. There are consular courts in
Quito, in Guayaquil, and Cuenca.
In the one penitentiary of the Republic, which is in Quito, there were on
October 9, 1893, 140 men and 18 women convicted of serious crimes.
Finance.
Of the total revenue about 70 per cent, is derived from customs duties ; 15
per cent, from taxes on cocoa, real estate, white rum, and tobacco ; 6 percent,
from salt and gunpowder monopolies, and the remainder mostly from excise,
rents of State property, and the postal department. For the period from
June 19, 1895, to July 31, 1896, the ordinary revenue amounted to 5,128,620
sucres, and the extraordinary revenue (mostly loans from banks) to 3,730,740
sucres; total revenue, 8,859,360 sucres ; expenditure, 8,779,520 sucres. For
each of the years 1897 and 1898 the revenue is estimated at 9,093,551 sucres,
and the expenditure at 11,005,141 sucres.
The foreign liabilities of the Republic are made up of a debt of 1,824,000/.,
which amount formed the part of the debt assigned to Ecuador on its secession
from Colombia in 1830. In 1854 an arrangement was made with the bond-
holders, under which this debt was recognised by Ecuador, but in 1867 service
of this debt ceased. The arrears of interest amounted in 1891 to 428,640/.
In July, 1892, the capital of the foreign debt was reduced to 750,000/., and,
DEFENCE — COMMERCE oOl
an arraugeiiicuL was made tor the payment ol' interest and lui- amortization.
In 1895 another arrangement was made, but, on March 14, 1896, the President
(then Supreme Chief) decreed the suspension of payments to the bondholders
until a still more advantageous arrangement should be concluded. The
bonds in circulation (1898) amounted to 693,160/. In 1897 and 1898 con-
tracts were made for the purchase of the foreign debt by the Guayaquil and
Quito Railway Company. [Details are given in the Appendix to the Report
of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders, August, 1898. J
The internal debt amounted to 7,500,000 sucres at the end of 1896.
Defence.
The Ecuadorian army numbers 3,341 officers and men. This force is com-
posed of 1 brigade of fortress and 1 of field artillery, 4 battalions of infantrj'
2 columns of light infantry, and a regiment of cavalry. The national guard
is said to consist of 30,000 men.
The navy consists of a torpedo launch, and a transport, which vessels are
manned by about 128 men.
Commerce.
The staple produce of Ecuador is cocoa, of which the receipts at Guayaquil
in 1895 amounted to 16,122 tons ; in 1896, 15,327 tons, and in 1897, 14,800
tons ; but cottee, sugar, and rice are successfully cultivated. The rubber in-
dustry is also important, and as the accessible supply from wild trees is being
rapidly exhausted, attention is now turned to the planting of trees. Ecuador
is eminently auriferous. At Zarama, in the province of Oro, quartz crushings
by an English company yield from 1 oz. to l^oz. per ton ; at Esmeralda an
American company extracts gold by hydraulic methods from gravel beds to
the value of about 50 cents per cubic yard ; in many auriferous streams the
Indians, by washings, find considerable quantities of gold ; and at Pillzhum
in Caiian rich silver ore is found. Petroleum is abundant but is hardly
worked. The country is known to be also rich in copper, iron, lead and
coal.
According to the President's message, August, 1898, the imports in the
year 1897 amounted to 18,004,048 sucres, and the exports to 31,025,382
sucres ; the exports in 1896 having been of the value of 21,862,324 sucres.
The value of the trade at Guayaquil in four years, so far as published, has
been : —
—
1894
1895
1896
Sucres
10,889,190
■ 1897
Imports
Exports .
Sucres
12,000,000
13,933,750
Sucres
8,520,000
11,562,740
Sucres
12,176,280
The chief imports are cotton and other tissues and provisions. The
exports from Guayaquil comprised cocoa, 787,192/. in 1896; 960,031/. in
1897 ; cotfee, 94,105/. in 1896 ; 49,640/. in 1897 ; rubber, 34,096/. in 1896 ;
47,232/. in 1897; hides, 15,414/. in 1896; 20,848/. in 1897; straw hats,
13.102 in 1896; 15,000/. in 1897; specie, 29,762/. in 1896; 30,000/. in
1897.
The total value of the imports from Ecuador into Great Britain, and of the
exports of British produce to Ecuador, was as follows in eacdi of the last five
years, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
502 ECUADOR
—
1803 1 1894
1895 j 1890 1897
liiipoits into Great Britain
Exports of British pro-
duce to Ecuador .
201,137 233,479
300,114 1 263,632
£ £ £
117,957 153,812 92,412
250,858 372,167 j 418,049
The chief articles of import from Ecuador into Great Britain consist of cocoa,
of the value of 116,014^. in 1896 ; 61,769^. in 1897 ; coffee, 11,236^. in 1896 ;
12,982^. in 1897; sugar, 12,690/. in 1894; 1,683/. in 1896; nil. in 1897;
caoutchouc, 7,861/. in 1896 ; 12,845/. in 1897. Of the exports of British
produce to Ecuador, cotton goods, to the value of 272,957/. ; woollens,
40,496/.; and iron, wrought and unwrought, 26,496/., formed the principal
articles in 1897.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following is the movement of shipping at Guayaq^uil in 1897
—
Entered
Cleared
British ....
Ecuadorian ....
Foreign ....
Total ....
No.
100
92
Tons
140,621
124,587
No.
100
92
Tons
140,621
124,587
192
265,208
192
265,208
These figures are exclusive of about 2,000 small coasting and river craft of
from 5 to 80 tons entered and cleared at Guayaquil.
Internal Communications.
The roads of the country are mostly bridle-roads only, and often impass-
able for half the year. The one highway is from Quito towards Guayaquil,
for a distance of 115 miles, but the work of thus connecting the capital and
the port has long been discontinued. There is river communication throughout
the principal agricultural districts on the low grounds to the west of the
Cordillera by the rivers Guayas, Daule, and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by
river steamers in the rainy season), and other small affluents thereof. Naviga-
tion of these inland waters is carried on by about 17 American and Ecuadorian-
built side-wheel and screw steamers, and a large fleet of canoes and other small
craft.
A railway is open from Duran (opposite Guayaquil) to Chimbo, 58 miles ;
the prolongation, begun some years ago, has been discontinued. Various
proposals to complete the line to Sibambe have been submitted to Congress,
and in 1896 the proposals of an American syndicate to take over the existing
railway and carry on the extension were accepted by the Government. It is
now (August, 1898) reported, that engineers are being sent out, and steps
taken to comply with the terms of the contract.
The total length of telegraphs is about 1,242 miles, Quito being connected
with Guayaquil and the coast, with the Republic of Colombia, and by cable
with the rest of the world. There are about 60 telegi'aph stations. A
telephonic system with 400 subscribers is established at Guayaquil.
The inland coirespondence amounts to about 820,000 letters yearly, and
in 1893 the foreign correspondence passing through the post-office consisted
of 1,808,806 letters and 6,346,595 newspapers and packets, .^...i.... .
MONEY AND CREDIT
503
Money and Credit.
Eciuulor having no mint, the coin of the couutiy is minted in England,
the United States, and Peru. The silver coinage in the last three years
was as follows : —
Sucres
1895
At Birmingham, in sucres ....
102,073
>>
At Philadelphia, in 20-cent. pieces
900,000
1896
At Lima, in sucres
148,020
j>
,, in 20-cent. pieces
21,778
>j
At Philadelphia, in 20-cent. pieces
100,000
1897
At Lima, in sucres .....
583,687
M
,, in 5-cent. pieces ....
40,000
.
Total in three years ....
1,895,558
The amount of silver coin in circulation is estimated at about 3,000,000
sucres or 300,000/., of which about two-thirds are in the hands of the two
hanks at Guayaquil.
There are two banks authorised to issue notes for circulation, viz., the
Banco del Ecuador, capital 2,000,000 sucres, and the Banco Comercial y
Agricola capital 500,000 sucres. The authorised issue of notes depends on
the stock of silver in the vaults of the bank, and the banks are bound by law
to hold one-third of the value of their circulation in coin, silver or gold. In
1897 the notes of the Bank of Ecuador in circulation amounted to 1,847,632
sucres, and the silver reserve to 1,855,371 sucres; the notes of the Banco
Comercial y Agricola amounted to 2,656,269 sucres, and silver reserve to
1,659,288 sucres. By the banking law of 1897 the banks are required to
hold at least half their metallic reserve in gold {11. =10 sucres) ; the Bank of
Ecuador has therefore imported about 30,000/., and the Commercial and
Agricultural Bank a much larger sum, probably about 70,000/. in gold. The
banks present a monthly statement of balances of silver in deposit and notes
in circulation.
Other banks are the Banco Hipotecario with a capital of 2,000,000 sucre.s,
and the Banco Territorial.
Money, Weights and Measures.
The unit of the monetary system is the silver suc7'e of 100 cents,
weighing 25 grammes, '900 tine. The sucre is so called from the likeness of
Marshal Sucre (a former President) imprinted on the coin. Other silver coins
are 50, 20, 10, 5-cent pieces. There are nickel 5, 1 and i-cent. i»ieces, and
2 and 1 cent bronze coins. There is no gold in circulation, but a monetary
commission appointed by the Government has reported in favour of a gold
standard.
By a law of December 6, 1856, the French metrical system of weights and
measures was made the legal standard of the Rei)u))lic ; l)ut is not adopted liy
coninit'ifc.
504 ECUADOR
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives 1
1. Of Ecuador in Great Britain.
Consul. — C. Nevares (London).
There are Consular Representatives at Birmingham, Cardiff, Glasgow,
Hull, Liverpool (C.G.), Manchester, Southampton, and Falmouth.
2. Of Great Britain in Ecuador.
Minister. — W. N. Beauclerk.
Consul at Guayaquil. — Geo. Chambers.
Consul at Quito. — L. Sbderstrom.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.
1. Official Publications.
Geografia y Geologia del Ecuador, publicado por orden del Supremo Gobierno de la
Republica, por Dr. Teodoro Wolf. Leipzic, 1S93.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, and Miscellaneous Series. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Ecuador. No. 64 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washington,
1892.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Campos, Galei'ia de Ecuatorianos celebres. Guaj aquil, 1881.
Cevallos, Compendio del resiimen de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1885. Resi\men
de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1886. Geogi-afia del Ecuador. Lima 1888.
Ecuador in 1881. Report of Mr. G. E. Church to the United States Government. Re-
printed in South American Journal. London, 1883.
El Ecuador en Chicago. New York, 1894.
Flemming (B.), Wanderungen in Ecuador. 8. Leipzig, 1872.
Ger«<acfcer (Friedrich), Achtzehn Monate in Siid-Amerika. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1863.
Gonzalez Srtdrez, Historia ecclesiastica del Ecuador. Quito, 1881.
Hassaurek {V. ', Four Vears among Spanish Americans. 3rd edition. Cincinnati, 1881.
Herrera (P.), Apuntes para la historia de Quito. Quito, 1874.
Kaujmann (A. G.), Garcia Morena, Prasident der Republik Ecuador. Freiburg, 1891.
Oviedo y Valdes, Historia de las Indias. Madrid, 1885. 4 v.
Schwarda{T.), Reise um die Erde. Vol. III. 8. Braunschweig, 1861.
Simson (Alfred), Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador. London, 1887.
Stiibel (S..), Die Vulkanherge von Ecuador. [Geology and Topography.] Berlin, 1897.
Ternaux-Compan8{L.), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduite de I'Espagnol. (Velasco
Historia del reino de Q"ito.) 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Wagner (Moritz Friedrich), Reisen in Eucador; in ' Zeitschriftfiirallgemeine Erdkunde.
Vol. xvi. Berlin, 1864.
Whymper (Edward), Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator. London, 1892.
Wolf (T.), Geografia y Geologia del Ecuador. Fol. -Leipsic, 1891
FRANCE.
Constitution and Government.
I. Centkal.
Since the overthrow of Napoleon III. on September 4, 1870,
France has been under a Republican form of government, con-
firmed on February 25, and June 16, 1875, by an organic law
{Constitution Wallon), which has been partially modified in June
1879, August 1884, June 1885, and July 1889. It vests the legis-
lative power in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, and the
executive in the President of the Republic and the Ministry.
The President is elected for seven years, by a majority of
votes, by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in a
National Assembly, or Congress. He promulgates the laws voted
by both Chambers, and ensures their execution. He selects a
Ministry from the Chamber, appoints to all civil and military
posts, has the right of individual pardon, and is responsible only
in case of high treason. The President concludes treaties with
foreign Powers, but cannot declare war without the previous
assent of both Chambers. Every act of the President has to be
countersigned by a Minister. With the consent of the Senate
he can dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. In case of vacancy,
the two Chambers united immediately elect a new President.
President of the Republic. — M. Emile Louhet ; born, December
31, 1838 ; elected President, February 18, 1899.
The Ministers or Secretaries of State, the number of whom
varies, are usually, but not necessarily, members of the Senate or
Chamber of Deputies. The President of the Council (Premier)
chooses his colleagues in concert with the President of the Republic.
Each Minister has the direction of one of the great administrative
departments and each is responsible to the Chambers for his acts,
while the Ministry as a whole is responsible for the general policy
of the Government.
The Ministry, as constituted, October 30, 1898, consists of
the following members : —
President of the Council and Minister of the Interior. — M.
Charles Dupuy.
Minister of Finance. — M. Peytral.
Minister of Foreign Affairs. — M. Delcass^.
Minister of War. — M. de Freycinet.
Minister of Marine. — M. Lockroy.
Minister of Colonies. — M. Guillain.
Minister of Public Instruction and Worship. — M. Georges
Leygues.
Minister of Justice. — M. Lebret.
Minister of Commerce, huhistry and PoRts and Telegraphs.-^
M. Delombre.
50G
FRANCE
Minister of Ayrlcullure. — M. Viger.
Minister of Fuhlic Woi'ks. — M. Krantz.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns and Governments of
France, from the accession of the House of Bourbon : —
House of Bourbon.
Henri IV.
Louis XIII.
Louis XIV.
Louis XV.
Louis XVI.
, ' le Juste ' .
'le Grand' .
(+1793) '.
First Re2Juhlic.
1589-
1610-
1643-
1715-
1610
1643
1715
1774
1774-1792
1792-1795
1795-1799
1799-1804
Convention
Directoire
Consulate
Empire.
Xapoleonl. (+ 1821) . 1804-1814
House of Bourhon restored.
Louis XVIII. . , 1814-1824
Charles X. (4-1836) .1824-1830
House of Bourbon- Orleans.
Louis PhiUppe (4- 1850) 1830-1848
Second Republic.
Provisional Government,
Feb.— Dec. . . 1848
Louis Napoleon . . 1848-1852
Empire restored.
Napoleon III. (died 1873) 1852-1870
Third Republic.
Government of National
Defence . . 1870-1871
Louis A. Thiers, President 1871-1873
JSIarshal MacMahon
F. J. P, Jules Grevy
F Sadi Carnot
Casimir Perier
(June — Jan.)
Felix Faure
Emile Loubct
1873-1879
1879-1887
1887-1894
1894-1895
1895-1899
1899
The Chamber of Deputies is elected for four years, by universal
suffrage, and each citizen 21 years old, not actually in military
service, who can prove a six months' residence in any one town or
commune, and not otherwise disqualified, has the right of vote.
Deputies must be citizens and not under 25 years of age. The
manner of election of Deputies has been modified several times
since 1871. The scrutin de liste, under which each elector votes
for as many Deputies as the entire department has to elect, was
introduced in 1871. In 1876 it Avas replaced by the scrutin
d'arrondissement, under which each department is divided into a
number of arrondissements, each elector voting for one Deputy
only; in 1885 there was a return to the scrutin de liste, and
in 1889 the uni-nominal vote was reintroduced. In 1889 it
was enacted that each candidate is bound to make, within the
fortnight which precedes the elections, a declaration as to his
being a candidate for a given constituency, and for one con-
stituency only — all votes which eventually may be given for him
in other constituencies being reckoned as void. Multiple elections
and elections of persons previously condemned by the law courts
are thus rendered impossible. The Chamber verifies the powers
of its members. In each constituency the votes are cast up and
the Deputy proclaimed elected by a commission of Councillor.s-
General appointed by the prefect of the department.
The Chamber is now composed of 584 Deputies ; eacli * arron-
CONSTITUTIOX AND GOVERNMENT 507
di^jseinent ' elects one Deputy, and if its population is in excess of
100,000, it is divided into two or more constituencies. There
were 10,446,178 inscribed electors in 1893, and 7,427,354 voted.
The Senate is composed of 300 members, elected for nine
years from citizens 40 years old, one-third retiring every three
years. The election of the Senators is indirect, and is made by
an electoral body composed (1) of delegates chosen by the Muni-
cipal Council of each commune in proportion to the population ;
and (2) of the Senators, Deputies, Councillors-General, and District
Councillors of the department. Besides the 225 Departmental
Senators elected in this way, there were, according to the law of
1875, 75 Senators elected for life by the united two Chambers ;
but by the Senate Bill of 1884 it was enacted that vacancies
arising among the Life Senatorships would be filled by the elec-
tion of ordinary nine-years Senators, the department which should
have the right to the vacant seat to be determined by lot. The
Princes of deposed dynasties are precluded from sitting in either
House.
The Senate and Chamber of Deputies assemble every year on
the second Tuesday in January, unless a previous summons is
made by the President of the Republic, and they must remain in
session at least five months out of the twelve. The President is
bound to convoke them if the demand is made by one-half of the
number of members composing each Chamber. The President
can adjourn the Chambers, but the adjournment cannot exceed the
term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same session.
Bills may be presented either in the Chamber or Senate
by the Government, or on the initiative of private members. In
the first case they are remitted to the bureaux for examination ;
in the second, they are first submitted to a commission of parlia-
mentary initiative. Financial law s must be first presented to and
voted by the Chamber of Deputies.
The President and the Ministers may be impeached by the
Chamber of high treason, in which case the Senate acts as a
High Court of Justice. The same function is vested in the Senate
for all other cases of high treason.
Senators and Deputies are paid 9,000 francs (£360) a year,
and the Presidents of the two Chambers receive, in addition,
72,000 francs (£2,840) for the expense of entertainment. Mem-
bers of both Chambers travel free on all railways by means of a
small annual payment. The dotation of the President of the
Republic is 600,000 francs, with a further allowance of 600,000
francs for his expenses.
France has, besides, a special institution under the name of
Conseil cV £'taty which was introduced by Napoleon I., and has
508 FRANCE
been maintained since. It is presided over by the Minister of
Justice or (in his absence) by a vice-president, and is composed of
Councillors, Masters of Requests (Maitres de Requetes), and
Auditors, all appointed by the President of the Republic. Its
duty is to give opinion upon such questions, chiefly those con-
nected with administration, as may be submitted to it by the
Government. It is judge in the last resort in administrative
suits, and it prepares the rules for the public administration.
II. Local Government.
For administrative piu'poses France is divided into 86 departments, or 87
if the ' territory of Belfort ' (a remnant of the department of Haut-Rhin) be
considered as a separate department. Since 1881 the three departments of
Algeria are also treated, for most purposes, as part of France proper. The
department has representatives of all the Ministries, and is placed under a
Prefect, nominated by Government, and having wide and undefined functions.
He is assisted by a Pre fecto rial Council, an administrative body, whose advice
he may take without being bound to follow it. The Prefect is a representative
of the Executive, and, as such, supervises the execution of the laws, issues
police regulations, supplies information on matters which concern the depart-
ment, nominates subordinate officials, and has under his control all officials
of the State. There is a Sub-prefect in every arrondissement, except capitals
of departments and the department of the Seine.
The unit of local government is the cominune, the si^e and population of
which vary very much. There are 36,170 communes, and new ones cannot
be created otherwise than by law. Most of them (31,610) have less than
1,500 inhabitants, and 18,054 have even less than 500 ; while 117 communes
only have more than 20,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune
are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 10 to 36 members, elected
by universal suffrage, and by the scrutin de liste for 4 years by Frenchmen
after 21 years and 6 months' residence ; but each act of the Council must receive
the approval of the Prefect, while many must jbe submitted to the Council
General, or even to the President of the Republic, before becoming lawful.
Even the Commune's quota of direct taxation is settled by persons {repartitcurs)
chosen by the Prefect from among the lists of candidates drawn up by the
Municipal Council.
Each Municipal Council elects a Mayor, who is both the representative
of the commune and the agent of the central government. He is the head
of the local police and, with his assistants, acts under the orders of the Prefect.
In Paris the Municipal Council is composed of 80 members ; each of the
20 arrondissements into which the city is subdivided has its own Mayor.
The place of the Mayor of Paris is taken by the Prefect of the Seine, and, in part,
by the Prefect of Police. Lyons has an elected Mayor, but the control of the
police is vested in the Prefect of the department of the Rhone.
The next unit is the canton (2, 899 in France), which is composed of an
average of 12 communes, although some of the largest communes are, on the
contrary, divided into several cantons. It is a seat of a justice of the peace, hut
is not an administrative unit.
The district, or arrondissement (362 in France), has an elected conseil
d' arrondissement, with as many members as there are cantons, its chief function
being to allot among the communes their respective parts in the direct taxes
assigned to each an-ondisscment by the Council General. That body stands
under the control of the Sub-prefect. A varying number of arrondissements
form a department, which has its conseil giniral renewed by universal suffrage
AREA AND POPULATION
509
to the extent of one-half every three years (one Councillor for each canton).
These conseils deliberate upon all economical affairs of the department, the
repartition of the direct taxes amon» the arrondissemcnts, the roads, normal
schools, and undertakings for the relief of the poor. Their decisions are con-
trolled by the Prefect, and may be annulled hy the President of the Republic,
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition,
The area of France has changed but little since the treaties
of 1815, In 1860, after the Italian War, it was increased by
the annexation of Savoie and Nice from Italy ; and by the
treaty of May 10, 1871, France lost the entire department of the
Bas-Rhin, two arrondissenients, with a fraction of a third, of the
Haut-Rhin, and the greater portion of the department of Mo-
selle, making altogether an area of 5,590 square miles and
1,600,000 inhabitants, part of whom emigrated into France during
the next few years.
The following table gives the area, in English square miles,
and the legal population (including those present and absent) of
the 87 departments of France according to the census returns of
April, 1891 and March 29, 1896 :—
Area :
Population
Population per |
Departments
Engl. sq.
square mile, I
miles
April, 1891
April, 1896
1896 j
Ain
2,239
356,907
351,569
156-9
Aisne .
2,839
545,493
541,613
190
4
Allier .
2,822
424,382
424,378
150
4
Alpes (Basses-)
2,685
124,285
118,142
44
0
Alpes (Hautes-)
2,158
115,522
113,229
52
5
Alpes- Mari times .
1,482
258,571
265,155
178
9
Ardeche
2,136
371,269
363,501
170
1
Ardennes
2,020
324,923
318,865
157
8
Ariege .
1,890
227,491
219,641
116
2
Aube
2,317
255,548
251,435
108
5
Aude
2,438
317,372
310,513
127
3
Aveyron
3,376
400,467
389,464
115
4
Belfort (territ. de) .
235
83,670
88,047
387
4
Bouches-du-Rhone
1,971
630,622
673,820
341
8
Calvados
2,132
428,945
417,176
195
6 '
Cantal .
2,217
239,601
234,382
105
6
Charente
2,294
360,259
356,236
155
o
•J
Charente-Inferieure
2,635
456,202
453,455
172
1
Cher ,
2,780
359,276
347,725
125
1
Correze ,
2,265
328,151
322,393
142
3
Corse
3,377
288,596
290,168
85
9
Cote-d'Or
3,383
376,866
368,168
108
8
C6tes-du-Nord
2,659
618,652
616,074
231
7
Creuse .
2,150
284,660
279,366
129
9
Dordogne
3,546
478,471
464,822
131
1
Doubs ,
2,018
303,081
302,046
149
G
510
FRANCE
Area :
Popxilation
Population per
Departments
Engl. sq.
1
square mile,
miles
1 AprU, 1891
April, 1896
1896
Drome .
2,518
306,419
303,491
120-5
Eure
2,300
349,471
340,652
149-1
Eure-et-Loir .
2,268
284,683
280,469
123-7
Finistere
2,595
727,012
739,648
285-0
Garcl .
2,253
419,388
416,036
184-6
Garonne (Haute-) .
2,429
472,383
459,377
189-1
Gers
2,425
261,084
250,472
103-2
Gironde
3,761
793,528
809,902
215-3
Herault
2,393
461,012
469,684
196-2
Ille-et-Yilaine
2,597
626,875
622,039
239-5
Indre .
2,624
292,868
289,206
110-2
Indre-et-Loire
2,361
337,298
337,064
142-7
I sere
3,201
572,145
568,933
177-7
Jura
1,928
273,028
266,143
138-0
Landes .
3,599
297,842
292,884
81-4
Loir-et-Cher .
2,452
280,392
278,153
113-4
Loire
1,838
616,227
625,336
340-3
Loire (Haute-)
1,916
316,735
516,699
165-3
Loire-Iuferieure
2,654
645,263
646,172
243-4
Loiret .
2,614
377,718
371,019
141-9
Lot . . .
2,012
253,939
240,403
119-4
Lot-et-Garonne
2,067
295,360
286,377
138-5
Lozere ,
1,996
135,517
132,151
66-2
Maine-et-Loire
2,749
518,589
514,870
187-3
Manche .
2,289
513,815
500,052
218-4
Marne .
3,159
434,734
439,577
139-1
Marne (Haute-)
2,402
243,734
232,057
96-6
Mayenne
1,996
332,387
321,187
160-8
Meurthe-et-Moi «lle
2,025
444,150
466,417
230-3
Meuse .
2,405
292,253
290,384
120-7
Morbihan
2,625
544,470
552,028
210-3
Nievre .
2,632
343,576
333,899
126-8
Nord . .
2,193
1,736,341
1,811,868
826-2
Oise
2,261
401,835
404,511
178-8
Orne
2,354
354,387
339,162
144-1
Pas-de-Calai.s
2,551
874,364
906,249
355-2
Puy-de-D6me
3,070
564,266
555,078
180-8
Pyrenees (Basses-) .
2,943
425,033
423,572
143-9
Pyrenees (Hautes-)
1,749
225,861
218,973
125 1
Pyrenees-Orientales
1,592
210,125
208,387
131-0
Rlidne .
1,077
806,737
839,329
779-3
Saone (Haute-)
2,062
280,856
272,891
132-3
Saone-et-Loirc
3,302
619,523
621,337
1881
Sarthe .
2,396
429,737
425,077
177-4
Savoie .
2,224
263,297
259,790
116-8
Savoie (Haute-)
1,667
268,471
265,872
159-5
Seine
183 -6
3,141,595
3,340,514
18,194-5
Seinc-IiitV'vieur(>
2,330
839,876
837,82'J
359 -5
8eiiif'-f't-Maiii('
2,215
356,7-17
359,044
162-1
AREA AND POPULATION
511
Area :
English sq.
Population
Populaliou per
sq. mile.
Departments
miles
April, 1891
April, 1896
1896
Seine-et-Oise
2,164
628,590
669,098
309-2
Sevres (Deux)
2,317
354,282
346,694
149-6
Somme
2,379
546,495
543,279
228-3
Tarn .
2,217
346,739
339,827
153-3
Tarn-et-Garoniic .
1,436
206,596
200,390
139-5
A^ar
2,349
288,336
309,191
131-6
Yauclusc
1,370
235,411
236,313
172-5
A''en(lee
2,588
442,355
441,735
170-6
Vienne
2,691
344,355
338,114
125-6
Vienne (Haute-) .
2,130
372,878
375,724
176-4
A^osges .
2,266
410,196
421,412
186-0
Yonne .
2,868
344,688
332,656
115-9
Total
204,092
38,342,948
38,517,975
188-7
The population actually present at the date of the Census in 1886 was
37,886,566, and in 1891, 38,133,385. Of the total population present in 1891,
18,932,354 ^49-65 per cent.) were males, and 19,201,031 (50-35 per cent.)
females.
It will be seen that between 1891 and 1896 there has been a decrease of
population in 63 departments, and an increase in 24 the total net increase
being 175,027.
Notwithstanding a moderate death-rate, the population of France increases
more slowly than that of most States of AVestern Europe, owing to the low rate
of births. Between the years 1811 and 1820 the average annual surplus of births
over deaths was 5-7 per thousand of population ; between 1851 and 1860 it
was 2 9 ; and between 1881 and 1885 it was 1-6. The average number of
births per marriage was (1881-85) about 3 ; in 1891 it was 2'1.
The changes of area and pojnilation since 1801 (date of the first census taken)
are seen from the following table. Tlie third, fourth, and fifth columns o'ive
[in lirackets] for the first five censuses the poi)ulation, its density, and its
average annual increase on the present territory of France, and are thus compar-
able with the data for the censuses posterior to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.
Dates
Area : sq. miles
Population
Inhabitants
per sq. mile
Annual Increase
per 10,000 inhabits.
1801
204,765
27,349,00.3
134
_
[26,930,750]
[132]
1821
—
30,461,875
140
57
[20,871,176]
[146]
[55
1841
—
.34,230,178
167
62
[33,400,864]
[164]
[68]
1861
209,625
37,386,313
178
37
[35,844,002]
[176]
[36]
1866
—
38,067,064
182
40
[36,495,480]
[170]
[36]
1872
204,092
36,102,921
177
[-17J1
1876
—
36,905,788
181
.54
1881
—
37,fi72,04.S
184
41
1886
—
38,218,903
187
20
1891
—
38,342,948
187-8
6-5
1896
~~
.38,517,975
188-7
4-5
^ Decrea.se.
512
FRANCE
The foreigners (natives of Europe) residing in France in 1896 numbered
1,027,491, and constituted 2*66 per cent, of the aggregate population. The
numbers in 1891 were : —
Belgians
Italians
Germans
Swiss
Spaniards
English
Luxembourgeois
465,860
Russians .
286,042
Austro-Hungarian
83,333
Miscellaneous .
83,117
77,736
Total (1891)
39,687
„ (1886)
31,248
„ (1851)
14,357
11,909
36,922
1,130,211
1,126,531
379,289
Of the total in 1891, 420,842 were born in France. The number of French
citizens abroad in 1891 was 517,000.
According to the results of the census of 1891, the actual population
according to occupations was as follows : —
Occupations
Employers,
&c.
Employees,
Clerks,
Overseers,
&c.
Workmen
Dependents
in
Household
Domestic
Servants
Total
Agriculture .
Industry
Transport
Commerce
Public Force
Administration .
Professional .
Private Fortune .
Total .
Unclassed
Total populatio
3,570,016
3,021,659
62,501
879,969
558,186
202,205
420,133
956,729
75,400
207,222
138,707
378,318
781
7,620
78,024
13,021
2,890,183
3,319,217
245,979
480 344
2,908
30,348
29,819
106,061
10,216,749
4,814,985
730,040
1,983,441
141,611
426,816
449,500
781,115
683,540
169,477
22,106
239,424
12,138
32,526
137,397
312,824
17,435,888
9,532,560
1,199,333
3,961,496
715,624
699,611
1,114,873
2,169,750
7,671,398
899,099
7,104,859
19,544,257 1,692,432
1
36,829,135
1,304,250
D (exclusive c
f infants, cer
tain school
i, &c.)
38,133,385
II. Movement of the Population.
BirthSj Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
Marriages
Living
Births
Illegitimate
Children
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
over Deaths
Still-born
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
287,294
286,662
282,918
290,171
291,462
874,672
855,388
834,173
865,586
859,107
76,562
76,451
73,278
76,278
75,989
867,526
815,620
851,986
771,886
751,019
7,146
39,768
-17,813
93,700
108,088
42,394
42,046
41,572
42,054
42,249
The movement of the population is very unequal over France, and from
year to year the deaths are in excess of the births in from 32 to 60 depart-
ments out ol 87.
The birth-rate for all France in 1896 was 227 ; in 1897 22-4 per 1,000
inhabitants. The death-rate in 1896 was 20*2; in 1897 19-9 per 1,000 in-
habitants. In 1895 the number of deaths exceeded tliat of births ; in 1896,
owing to the increase in the number of births, as well as to the decrease in
AREA AND POPULATION
513
the number of deaths, the births were more numerous than the deaths ; in
1897 there was a decrease in tlie number of births, but there was a greater
decrease in the number of deaths, so that there was an increased excess ot
births over deaths. In 1872 and 1876 the births numbered 966,000 ; but
during the hist twenty years the diminution has been almost constant, the
death-rate having also considerably decreased.
The number of divorces is rapidly increasing ; it was 5,752 in 1891, 5,772
in 1892, and 6,184 in 1893; 6,419 in 1894, 6,743 in 1895, 7,051 in 1896,
7,460 in 1897, the aggregate number of 72,852 divorces having been registered
since the new law was voted in 1884.
Emigration.
In the years 1857-91, there were 285,873 French emigrants, of whom
59,304 went to the United States. In 1890 to 1893 the numbers of French
emigrants, with their destinations, were as follows : —
' United
— States.
Chile and
Peru.
Argentine
and Uruguay.
Other
Countries.
Total.
1890
1891
1892
1893
3,085
2,950
2,798
2,895
155
14,001
2,073
2,106
579
528
469
20,560
6,217
5,528
5,300
The total number of emigrants from French ports in 1890 was 72,512 ;
1891, 57,815 ; 1892, 39,146 ; 1893, 34,215.
III. Principal Towns.
The following, according to the census of 1896,
munal population over 30,000 : —
are the towns with a com-
Paris .
2,536,834
Tourcoing .
73,353
Lorient
41,894
Lyon .
. 466,028
Rennes
69,937
Cherbourg
40,783
Marseille
. 442,239
Dijon
67,736
Duii(|uerque .
39,718
Bordeaux
. 256,906
Orleans
66,619
Poitiers
38,518
Lille .
. 216,276
Grenoble
64,002
Angouleme
38,068
Toulouse
. 149,963
Tours .
63,267
Boulogne-sur-
St. Etienne
. 136,030
Le Mans
60,075
Seine
37,418
Roubaix
. 124,661
Besancon
57,556
Perpignan
35,088
Nantes
. 123,902
Calais .
56,940
Rochefort
34,329
Le Havre
. 119,470
Versailles
54,874
Roanne
33,912
Rouen
. 113,219
St. Denis
54,432
Clichy
33,895
Reims
. 107,963
Troyes
52,998
Pau .
33.012
Nancy
. 96,306
Clermont-Ferrand
Neuilly
32,730
Toulon
. 95,276
50,870
Cette .
32,729
Nice .
. 93,760
St. Quintin .
48,868
Le Creusot .
32.034
Amiens
. 88,731
Beziers
48,012
Moulu(;on
31,595
Limoges
. 77,703
Levallois-Perrt
't 47,315
Douai .
31,397
Angers
. 77,164
Boulogne
46,807
Perigueux
31,313
Nimes
. 74,601
Caen .
45,380
St. Xazairc .
30,813
Brest .
Montpcllier
. 74,538
. 73,931
Avignon
Bourges
45,107
43,587
St. Ouen
30,715
Total
7,323,340
L L
514
FRAi^CE
In 1891 the total population of the same towns was 6,996,331. For
fiscal and electoral purposes the population of each commune is divided
into agglomerated, scattered, and separated {compt6e d part) ; the first two
constitute the municipal population, and the third consists of garrison,
college, prison, and hospital population. In 1891 the total agglomerated
population was 23,191,218 (60-5 per cent.); scattered, 14,061,625 (36-6 per
cent.); separate, 1,091,349 (2-9 per cent); total, 38,343,192. Different
from this is the distinction between urban and rural population, a commune
being urban where the agglomerated population is over 2,000, and rural where
under 2,000. In 1891 the total urban population was 14,311,292 (37-4 per
cent); the riiral, 24,031,900 (626 per cent). In 1896, of the 36,170 com-
munes 28,005 had each a population under 1,000 ; 5,443 had a population
from 1,000 to 2,000 ; 2,134 from 2,000 to 5,000 ; 337 from 5,000 to 10,000 ;
134 from 10,000 to 20,000 ; and 117 over 20,000.
Religion.
There has been no religious census in France since 1872.
All religions are equal by law, and any sect which numbers
100,000 adherents is entitled to a grant ; but at present only the
Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews have State allowances.
For three years these grants were estimated as follows : —
—
1897
1898
1899
Administration, &c.
Roman Catholic worship.
Protestant worship .
Jewish worship
Total
Francs
254,000
41,136,923
1,495,100
206,530
Francs
257,000
41,106,923
1,495,100
206,530
Francs
277,000
41,085,923
1,495,100
206,530
43,092,553
43,065,553
43,064,553
There are 17 archbishops and 67 bishops; the number of
Catholic ecclesiastical officials paid by the State in 1899, was
42,417. At the end of 1892, the secular clergy, including
teachers, numbered 55,600, and there were 8,358 pupils
in ecclesiastical seminaries. The value of the total gifts and
legacies made to the Church during the present century up to
1882 is 23,976,733 francs. The Protestants of the Augsburg
Confession, or Lutherans, are, in their religious affairs, governed
by a General Consistory ; while the members of tiie Reformed
Church, or Calvinists, are under a Council of Administration,
the seat of which is at Paris. In 1899 there were 638 pastors
of the Reformed Church, and 62 Lutheran, while the Jewish
rabbis and assistants numbered 57. In the Protestant Theo-
logical Facult^s of Paris and Montauban there were 137 students
in 1898.
INSTRUCTION 515
Instruction.
Public education in France is entirely under the supervision
of the Government. The highest schools, or ' facultes de I'Etat,'
are now often designated by the name of universities. There are
15 'facultes des lettres,' one in each academy (except Chambery)
at Paris, Aix, Besan^on, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Lille,
Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and
Toulouse. At all of these, except Aix, are also ' facultes des
sciences,' besides one at Marseilles (instead of Aix, belonging to
the same academy). There are also 2 ' facultes ' of Protestant
theology, 13 'facultes de droit,' and 7 'facultes de medecine
et pharmacie,' 19 superior or preparatory schools of pharmacy,
and 8 schools of law, science, or letters. In January 1898, there
were 137 students of Protestant theology; 9,371 of law; 7,426
of medicine ; 3,544 of sciences ; 3,404 of letters; and 4,661 at
superior and preparatory schools of pharmacy, &c. ; total,
28,543 students. To the support of the ' facultes ' the sum of
12,496,911 francs was set down in the budget of 1899. The
Roman Catholic theological 'facultes ' were suppressed in 1885.
Catholic ' facultes ' or ' ecoles libres ' exist on certain condi-
tions as private establishments. The ' College de France,'
* Museum d'histoire naturelle,' ' Ecole pratique des hautes
etudes,' ' Ecole des chartes,' etc., are public establishments for
highest education. The ' Ecole libre des Sciences politiques '
is a private establishment.
There are many other pubhc establishments for special training. For
military and naval education : &ole Superieure de Guerre, Ecole Polytech-
nique, ficole Speciale Militaire de St. Cyr, ficole Superieure de la Marine,
Ecole ^avale de Brest, &c ; for civil services and industry : Ecole des Mines,
Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees, Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Ecole
Superieure des Hautes fitudes commerciales, Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.
For secondary instruction there were in France on November 5, 1897, 115
(with Algeria, Martinique and Reunion) State lycees with 52,630 pupils, 229
communal colleges with 32,740 pupils, and 65 lycees and colleges for girls witli
13,894 pupils ; total, 409 secondary schools with 99,264 pupils. Of the lyc6e.^
(boys' and girls') the receipts in 1896, from the State, from departments and
towns, and from fees, amounted to 37, 274,008 francs. To the communal colleges
the State contributed 2, 449,355 francs in 1895. There are also small seminaries
belonging to the clergy.
There are, besides, numerous technical, industrial, and other special
schools for the highest or secondary education, either public or private,
under the supervision of several Ministers (education, war, marine, colonies,
public works, commerce and industry).
Elementary schools existed before the Revolution in the towns and in
many of the rural parishes of France, but little was done for the advancement
of education till near the first quarter of this century. In 1833 a law was
passed requiring every commune to maintain at least one primary school,
every town one higher primary school, and every department one primary
L L 2
516
FRANCE
uormal school. A law of 1850 obliged every commuue with a population of
800 (extended in 1867 to communes with a population of 500) to have a
school for girls. Since 1878 elementary education has advanced rapidly ;
many schools have been built, the number of teachers and pupils has in-
creased (until 1889), and the standard of education has been raised. In 1881
primal y instruction was made free, and in 1882, obligatory for children from
6 to 13 years of age. In 1886 the system of education was reorganised, and
it was ordained that all public schools should be under the charge of laymen.
In 1892 there were only 50 communes which had no primary school, public or
private. In 1891 the total number of children of school age (6 — 13) was
found to be 4,664,000. In 1891-92, 4,522,000 children of school age were
enrolled in primary and infant schools in France, besides 74,800 in Algeria ;
64,400 were enrolled in secondary establishments, and about 5,000 taught at
home. Thus the number of untaught children in France seems to be about
72,000.
In 1892 7 '5 per cent., and in 1897 4 '9 per cent., of the young men
examined on the conscription list could neither read nor write.
The following table shows the number of elementary schools and pupils in
France and Algeria for the school year 1896-97 : —
—
Public
Schools
Private
Schools
Total
Pupils
Infant schools
Primary and superior .
Total
2,574
67,579
3,109
16,075
5,683
83,654
729,648
5,531,418 i
1
70,153
19,184
89,337
6,261,066
The total number of primary pupils includes about 56,533 receiving higher
primary instruction.
There was (in 1897) (without Algeria) one elementary school for every 438
inhal)itants, and 1 pupil in every six of the population. The number of primary
public schools directed by clericals (France with Algeria) was in 1896 : 5 for
boys, 5,146 for girls, and 498 mixed. In private education the number of lay
schools was 611 for boys, 1,863 for girls, 467 mixed; and of clerical schools
2,779 for boys, 9,883 for girls, 307 mixed ; total number of pupils in private
clerical schools, 1,209,697. The total number of teachers in lay elementary
(infants' and primary) schools (public and private) was 108,189-; in clerical
schools, 53,502. There were in 1892 87 normal schools for males, and 85 for
females.
The public funds, communal, departmental, and State, devoted to primnry
instruction in France amounted in 1855 to over twenty-five and a half million
francs for obligatory expenses, in 1887 to nearly ninety-four million, in-
cludhig voluntary expenses, and in 1892 (including Algeria), to a hundred and
eighty-six and a third million francs for all expenses obligatory and
voluntary. The expenditure of the State on public instruction in 1895
amounted to 190,554,000 francs ; in 1899 (estimates), 201,929,583 francs.
JUSTICE AND CRIME
517
Justice and Crime.
The Courts of First Instance in France are those of the
Justices of Peace who try civil cases and act also as judges of
Police Courts, where all petty offences are disposed of. In criminal
cases the Police Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver
-cases of misdemeanour (delits), including cases involving imprison-
ment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 3 judges
belonging to the civil tribunals. In all general cases,, the pre-
liminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate
(juge d'i7istructio7i), who, acting under the public ministry {Pro-
cureur), may dismiss the case or send it for trial. The Court of
Assizes is assisted by 12 jurors, who decide by simple majority
on the fact with respect to crimes involving a severe penalty.
The highest courts are the 26 Courts of Appeal, composed each of
one President and 4 Councillors for all criminal cases which have
been tried without a jury, and by one Court of Cassation which
sits at Paris, and is composed of a First President, 3 Presidents
of Sections, and 45 Councillors, for all criminal cases tried by jury.
For civil cases there is, under the Justice of Peace, in each
arrondissement, a civil tribunal of tirst instance, then the Appeal
Courts and Courts of Cassation. For commercial cases there are
Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of experts {jyrudliommes).
All Judges are nominated by the President of the Republic.
They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cas-
sation constituted as the Conseil Sujyerieur of the magistracy.
The agencies for the prosecution of misdemeanours and crimes in 1895
appeared as follows: — Gendarmes, 19,936; commissaires de police, 1,154;
agents de police, 15,145; gardes champetres, 32,618 ; private sworn 'gardes,'
42,842 ; forest gardes, 7,620 ; fishery police, 4,756 ; customs officials, 21,501.
The following table shows the number of persons convicted before the
various courts in five years : —
Year
Assize Courts
Correctional Tribunals
Police Coirts
1890
1891
t 1892
1894
1895
2,918
2,933
2,945
2,795
2,372
211,731
216,908
230,060
225,466
221,234
- ' ''
447,273 1
447,203
436,601
448,474
398,723
The French penal institutions consist, first, of Houses of Arrest (3,094
chambrcs dc suret6 and 35 dep6ts dc sHrcte). Next come 380 Departmental
Prisons, also styled ttiaisoiwi d'arrct, de justAo' and dc correctioiiy where lioth
persons awaiting trial and those condemned to less than one year's im])rison-
ment are kept, as also a number of boys and girls transferred from, or going to
be transferred to, reformatories. The reformatories are 11 for boys and 3 for
girls, lielonging to the State, and 12 for lx)ys and 7 for girls rented to private
518 FRANCE
persons and institutions. The Central Prisons {maisons deforce et de correc-
tion), where all prisoners condemned to more than one year's imprisonment
are kejrt, provided with large industrial establishments for the work of
prisoners, are 14 for men and 3 for women. To the same category belong 2
agricultural penitentiaries for men in Corsica,
All persons condemned to hard labour and many condemned to ' reclusion '
are sent to New Caledonia or Guiana (military and ricidivistes) ; the dep6t dc
formats of St. Martin-de-Re is a depot for transferred hard-labour convicts.
The prison population in France and Algeria on December 31, 1895, consisted
of 10,841 men and 1,260 women condemned to lengthened imprisonment,
21,579 men and 3,381 women condemned to short imprisonment ; 5,235 boys
and 1,152 girls in reformatories, 46 prisoners in houses of arrest, and 206 in
the depot for hard labour prisoners; total 43,700 prisoners. There are about
13,000 in New Caledonia and Guiana,
Pauperism.
There is no Government system of poor relief in France, The poor are
assisted partly through public ' bureaux de bienfaisance ' and partly by
private and ecclesiastical charity. They are partly under the care of the
communes and partly of the departments, both of which contribute, and
ultimately under the supei-vision of Government, The funds of the ' bureaux
de bienfaisance ' are partly derived from endowments, partly from communal
contributions, and partly from public and private charity. In 1895 there
were 15,227 of such bureaux, with a total revenue of 41,739,847 francs, the
expenditure amounting to 40,629,777 francs. Public assistance is also ren-
dered to poor or destitute children. At the end of 1895 there were 1,868
.sick children in hospital, 88,334 domiciled in the country, and 46,177 who
were being assisted at their homes, the total expenditure for the year
amounting to 24,566,421 francs. There are 1,694 public establishments for
the sick and for aged persons and imbeciles, receiving during the year 559,435
sick and infirm persons. The amount contributed in 1895 to institutions
for public charity was 33,776,702 francs.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
The ordinary revenue of France is derived chiefly from direct and indirect
taxation and from State factories and monopolies. About 16 per cent, of the
revenue is from direct taxes, of which the more important are the real property
tax {contrihiition foncierc) levied on lands and on buildings ; trade licences, and
a variety of taxes, including taxes on property in mortmain, royalties from
mines, taxes on carriages and horses, verification of weights and measures, the
military tax, and the tax on velocipedes. About 59 per cent, of the revenue is
from indirect taxes, of which the most important are those on registration (of
changes in the ownership of property, obligations, &c.), stamps, customs ; the
State monopolies and domains yield about 20 per cent, of the revenue. For
departmental and communal purposes 'additional centimes' are levied in
association with both branches of the land tax and with the personal and
property tax, doors and windows tax, trade licences, and taxes on carriages,
horses, velocipedes.
The provisional result of the budget for France in 1897 was : revt^nue,
3,467,674,327 francs ; expenditure, 3,451,488,378 francs ; surplus, 16,185,949
francs. On the other hand, the revenue of Algeria amounted to 60,2»il, 078
francs ; the expenditure to 72,515,596 francs ; showing a deficit of 12,254,518
francs. The total surplus was thus reduced to 3,931,431 francs,
FINANCE
519
The following table shows the budget estimates of the
revenue for 1899 and the estimates adopted for 1898: —
Sources of revenue.
1899
1898
Direct taxes
Assimilated taxes
Francs
472,181,557
36,363,527
Francs
456,327,386
37,066,582
493,393,968
Total, direct and assimilated .
508 544,084
Registration ......
Stamps
Bourse operations
Tax on income from personality
Customs
Indirectj contributions ....
Sugar
Total, indirect ....
Tobacco monopoly
Matches, gunpowder ....
Posts, telegraphs, telephones .
Various (mint, railways, &c. ) .
Total monopolies ....
Domains and forests ....
Various receipts .....
Exceptional
Receipts d'ordre .....
Total general budget of France .
Total general budget of Algeria .
Grand total
526,904,000 |
179,219,400 '
5,526,000 1
72,078,100 1
433,272,050
621,682,000
186,494,900
508,656,100
177,905,622
5,053,000
69,126,000
460,845,600
606,177,220
192,663,500
2,025,176,450
2,020,427,042
401,563,000
41,305,000
234,099,400
15,935,700
1
392,885,900
40,040,600
230,796,200
18,841,500
692,903,100
679,564,200 \
60,865,370
56,576,694
14,000,000
62,617,931
57,110,886
55,795,059
7,600,000
66,734,876
3,420,684,629
54,152,371
3,380,626,031
53,487,152
3,474,837,000
3,434,113,183
The following table shows the budget estimates of the expenditure foi
1899, and those adopted for 1898 :—
Branches of expenditure.
1899
1898
Public debt
President, Chamber, and Senate
Ministries :
Finance
Justice
Foreign Affairs .....
Interior ......
War
Francs
1,248,264,165
13,368,560
20,149,410
35,074,033
16,066,800
77,973,912
647,998,109
Francs
1,255,746,884
13,621,175
19,092,910
35,028,033
15,359,800
76,752,545
639,987,987
520
FRANCE
Branches of expenditure.
1899.
ISOS.
! Ministries {contimted) :
Fi-ancs.
Francs.
Marine ......
304,078,400
286,956,946
Instruction and Fine Arts .
217,405,043
214,359,464
Worship ......
43,065,553
43,065,553 j
Commerce, Industry, Posts, Telegraphs
218,006,188
213,822,081 !
Colonies ......
85,957,600
91,633,540
Agriculture .....
44,512,348
43,839,103
Public Works
191,438,894
183,484,494
Regie, collection of taxes, &c.
204,921,715
194,107,918
Repayments, &c. .....
Total, France .....
32,444,000
32,219,900
3,400,724,730
3,359,679,433
Total, Algeria .....
Grand total .....
73,370,449
73,738,962
3,474,095,179
3,433,418,395
The following figure.s, published by the Direction Generale
cle la Comptabilite Publique in April, 1897, do not include the
* budget sur ressources speciales,' and represent the actual verified
revenue (inclusive of loans) and expenditure for 12 years : —
Revenue
Years
Total
Expenditure
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
1884
3,032,014,444
416,781,288
3,448,795,732
3,538,714,027
1885
3,056,635,831
263,626,782
3,320,262,613
3,466,923,058
1886
2,940,291,981
229,133,507
3,169,425,488
3,293,561,815
1887
2,968,477,833
275,405,732
3,243,883,565
3,260,964,639
1888
3,107,534,722
160,256,078
3,267,790,800
3,220,594,184
1889
3,108,072,541
163,253,131
3,271,325,672
3,247,131,879
1890
3,229,372,253
146,389,175
3,375,761,428
3,287,908,973
1891
3,364,014,678
—
3,364,014,678
3,258,171,024
1892
3,370,415,415
—
3,370,41.5,415
3,380,355,174
1893
3,366,409,499
—
3,366,409,499
3,450,920,595
1 1894
3,458,320,575
—
3,458,320,575
3,479,975,191
1895
'I'otal .
3,416,117,018
—
3,416,117,018
3,434,020,477
38,417,676,790
1,654,845,693
40,070,522,483
40,319,241,036
Borrowed
Nett(
from preceding
)tals
judgets .
63,294,667
—
40,009,227,816
40,319,241,036
The accounts of revenue and expenditure ore examined by
an administrative tribunal {Cour des Comjytes).
Since 1869 the budget has more than doubled. To the budget
of 1899 is annexed a statement, showing of the deficits the
FINANCE
521
ordinary budgets from the period anterior to 1814 down to the
end of 1897, as follows : —
Period
Government
Deficit
Before 1814
1815 to 1829
1830,, 1847
1848 „ 1851
1852,, 1869
1870,, 1897
Napoleon I. and previously
Louis XVIII. and Charles X. .
Louis Philippe ....
The Second Republic
Napoleon III
Total ....
The Third Republic, surplus
Total deficits
Francs
99,678,480
269,801,915 1
519,067,077
29,399,140
93,921,998
1,011,868,611
32,776,715
979,091,896
These figures, however, do not represent the actual deficits arising from
the difference between the ordinary revenue and the total expenditure, nor
even those arising from the differences between the total revenue and total
expenditiire. Moreover, almost uninterniptedly, so as to make it the rule and
not the exception, the budgets voted by the representatives of the nation have
shown a small surplus, while the ' compte definitif,' published a number of
years afterwards, has exhibited a large deficit.
The following table shows the progress during the century of the French
national debt and its yearly charge : —
Date
Period
Nominal Capital
Interest
Millions of
Millions of
Francs
Fi-ancs
Sept. 23, 1800
First Republic
714
36
Jan. 1, 1815
Napoleon I. .
1,272
64
Aug. 1, 1830
Louis XVIII, and Charles X.
4,426
199
Feb. 24, 1848
Louis Philippe
5,913
244
Jan. 1, 1852
Second Republic .
5,516
239
Jan. 1, 1871
Napoleon III.
12,454
386
Jan. 1, 1889
Third Republic .
21,251
739
On January 1, 1896, the debt of France stood
as follows : —
Franr-s
Consolidated debt .....
. 22,005,373,951
Morgan loan ......
227,450.532
Redeemable debt .....
. 3,936,491,000
Annuitv, kc, debt ....
3,371,429,015
Floating debt
1,143,607,551
Guarantee de
ibt
310,004,695
Total 31,094,356,744
The following table shows the interest and annuities to be paid under the
various heads of the public debt, according to the budget estimates of 1899 : —
Francs
Consolidated debt 693;680,314
Redeemable debt : interest and amortisation . . 326J332,926
Floating debt 235,735,644
Total
1,255,748,884
522 FRANCE
The total debt would thus amount to about 32Z. 6s., and the interest and
-annuities to about XL Qs. per head of the population.
II. Local Finance.
For 1896 the revenue of the departments of France amounted to
-281,119,536 francs, and the expenditure to 280,499,908 francs. The
departmental debt stood at 423,716,228 francs. For 1897 the ordinary
revenue of the communes amounted to 751,770,240 francs, and expenditure
to 718,381,279 francs, while the debt on March 31, 1896, amounted to
3,511,984,252 francs. For the year 1898 the estimated ordinary revenue of
the City of Paris amounted to 298,854,415 francs, and the extraordinary
receipts to 54,874,705 francs i total receipts, 353,729,120. The expenditure,
ordinary and extraordinary, was estimated at the same amount. The debt of
Paris in 1896 amounted to 1,769,000,000 francs.
The total national and local revenues derived from taxation in France
were stated in the budget of 1892 to be as follows : —
_ i
Total.
Per Head of Pop.
Fiscal Revenues of the State
,, ,, Departments
„ ,, Communes .
Millions of Francs.
2,780
164
531
Francs.
72-50
4-30
13-85
Total
3,475
90-65
The capitalised value of private property has been the subject of many
calculations, which, however, differ too greatly to be considered as reliable.
The best estimates, by M. de Foville, put down the aggregate private fortunes
at: land, 3,000,000,000Z. ; buildings, 2,000,000,000^. ; specie, 200,000,000^. ;
convertible securities, 2,800,000,000Z. ; agricultural implements and live
stock, 400,000,000Z. ; other personal property, 680,000,000Z. ; total private
wealth, 8,080,000,000. M. Leroy Beaulieu estimates that the total yearly
income of the nation reaches about 1,000,000,000/., of which three-fifths is
the product of personal labour.
Defence.
I. Land Defences.
France has a coast line of 1,760 miles, 1,304 on the Atlantic
and 456 on the Mediterranean. Its land frontier extends over
1,575 miles, of which 1,156 miles are along the Belgian, German,
Swiss, and Italian frontiers, and 419 along the Spanish frontier.
The whole of France (exclusive of Algeria) is divided into 18
military regions, each under a general of division, and subdivided
into districts, of the same area as the departments, under a general
of brigade ; Paris and Lyon have each a separate military govern-
ment. The fortified places are specially administered by a * service
des fortifications.' Paris, which is considered as the centre of
defence, is surrounded by a wall which has 97 bastions, 17 old
forts, and 38 new advance forts or batteries, the whole forming
two entrenched camps at St. Denis and Versailles.
DEFENCE 523
The following are the strong places on the various frontiers : —
On the German frontier : first class fortresses, Belfort, Verdun,
Brian9on ; second class, Langres ; third class, Toul, Auxonne ;
and 9 fourth- class places. Belgian frontier : first class, Lille,
Dunkirk, Arras, Douai; second class, Cambrai, Valenciennes,
Givet, St. Omer, Mezieres, Sedan, Longuy, Soissons ; third class,
Gravelines, Conde, Landrecies, Bocroi, Montmedy, Peronne ; and
6 fourth-class places. Italian frontier : first class, Lyon, Grenoble,
Besangon ; and 1 1 detached forts. Mediterranean coast, first
class, Toulon (naval harbour); second class, Antibes ; and 21
fourth-class forts. Spanish frontier : first class, Perpignan,
Bayonne ; third class, St. Jean Pied-de-Port ; and 10 fourth-
class forts. Atlantic coast : first class, Rochefort, Lorient, Brest ;
second class, Oleron, La Rochelle, Belle Isle ; third class. He de
Re, Fort Louis ; and 17 fourth-class forts. The Channel coast :
first class, Cherbourg; second class, St. Malo, le Havre ; and 16
fourth-class forts.
II. Army.
The military forces of France are organised on the basis of laws
voted by the National Assembly in 1872, supplemented by further
organisation laws, passed in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, 1889, 1890,
and 1892. These laws enact universal liability to arms. Substitu-
tion and enlistment for money are forbidden, and it is ordered
that every Frenchman not declared unfit for military service may
be called up, from the age of twenty to that of forty-five years, to
enter the active army or the reserves. By the law of 1882, sup-
plemented by those of 1889 and 1892, the yearly contingent must
serve 3 years in the Active Army, 10 in the Reserve of the Active
Army, 6 in the Territorial Army, and 6 in the Territorial Reserve.
The Active Army is composed of all the young men, not otherwise
exempted, who have reached the age of twenty, and the Reserves
of those who have passed through the Active Army. Neither the
Active Army nor its Reserves are in any way localised, but drawn
from and distributed over the whole of France. On the other hand,
the Territorial Army and its Reserves are confined to fixed regions,
determined from time to time by administrative enactments.
Students and pupils of certain higher schools, and seminarists,
are required to serve only one year, on condition of completing
their studies and obtaining a certain rank before the age of
twenty-six years. All soldiers in the Active Army who have
learnt their duties, and who can read and write, may be sent on
furlough, at the end of a year, for an indefinite time.
The present organisation of the active French army is as
follows : —
524 PRANCE
Infantry.
145 divisional regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of 4 companies, each
regiment of 62 officers and 1,591 men.
18 regional regiments of the line, each of 4 battalions, each regiment of 51
officers and 1,560 men, located in the various fortresses of France.
30 battalions of chasseurs-a-pied, each of 4 or 6 companies, each company
having 19 officers and 552 men,
4 regiments of zouaves, each of 4 battalions of 4 companies, with 2 depot
companies, one of which is in France, each regiment of 73 officers
and 2,551 men.
4 regiments of tirailleurs algeriens, each of 4 battalions of 4 companies,
with 1 depot company, each regiment of 103 officers and 2,632
men.
2 regiments etrangers, of 5 battalions of 4 companies, with 2 depot
companies.
5 battalions of African Light Infantry.
Cavalry.
13 regiments of cuirassiers, 31 of dragoons, 21 of chasseurs, 14 of hussars,.
6 of Chasseurs d'Africpie, each regiment having 5 squadrons, with 37
officers, 792 men, and 722 horses.
3 regiments of Spahis, one having 8, and two 5 squadrons ; 1 regiment of
Tunisian Spahis.
8 companies of ' cavaliers de remonte,' 299 men each.
Artillery.
40 regiments of field artillery, comprising 428 mounted batteries, 52 horse
batteries, 16 mountain batteries, and 4 mounted and 8 mountain
batteries in Algeria and Tunis.
16 battalions of foot artillery, each of 6 batteries.
4 batteries of foot artillery for service in Africa.
Encuneers,
6 regiments of sapi)ers and miners, of which 5 contain each 3 battalions and
1 company of sapper-conductors, and the other 4 battalions and
1 company of sapper-conductors.
1 regiment of railway sappers.
Train.
20 squadrons of train, 12 of 4, 8 of 3 companies, 12 companies being in
Algeria.
According to the budget for 1899, the peace strength of the army in
France (including vacancies, furloughs, kc.) is compo.sed of 547,515 men
(of whom 26,849 are officers); in Algeria, 55,122 men (2,195 officers); in
Tunis, 13,455 men (560 officers) ; total, 616,092 men (29,604 officers). The
total number of horses is put at 142,333. The various .subdivisions of tlie
army and their relative strength are seen from the following table, the
number of men including that of the officers, the number of officers being
given separately in brackets : —
DEFENCE
525
France
Algeria
Tunis
Total 1
1
_,^
^.^
^_^
o-
1
s°
QQ
?>
CO
s°
»
SS
od
<D
2
o
o
to
S«6
2
o
O
s
o
ffi
o
w
o
n
, General staff.
4,189
(3,485)
3,619
377
(283)
282
1
93 1
(70)
77
1
4,059
(3,838)'
3,978
Military Schools .
3,374
(347)
2,374
(-)
—
^->
—
3,374
(347)
2,374
Unclassed amidst
the troops .
1,973
(1,728)
195
772
(550)
, 3(t4
114
(110)
70
2,859
(2,388)
569
Arm,]/ Corps :
Infantry
336,006
(12,300)
7,029
36,052
(866)
371
8,8-23
(256)
537
380,881
(13,422)
7,637
Administrative .
11,860
(-)
—
3,527
(-)
—
519
(-)
15,906
(-)
Cavalry
66,681
(3,489)
59,085
7,597
(365)
'7,660
1,853
(86)
1,097
76,131
(3,940)
68,442
Artillery .
78,090
35,444
2,583
1,418
854
473 1 81,527
37,335
(3,94S)
(49)
(17)
(4,014;
Engineers .
12,219
(484)
1,021
867
(13)
300
340
(4)
140
13,420
(501)
1,461
Train .
8,527
5,428
2,175
-1,901
716
658
11,418
7,987
Total Army Corps
(361)
(38)
1 ,
(13)
(412)
513,383
108,007
52,801
11, (150
13,105
3,205 579,289
122,862
Total Active Army
(20,582)
(1,331)
(376)
(22,289)
522,919
114,195
53,950
1
12,236
13,312
3,352 590,181
129,783
(26,142)
(2,164)
(556)
(28,862)
Gendarmerie .
21,546
10,807
1,172
902
143
101 ; 22,861
11,810
(624)
(31)
(4)
(659)
Garde Republicaine
3,050
740
—
—
3,050
740
Grand Total .
(83)
(-)
(-)
1 (8?)
547,515
125,742
55,122
I3.i:-J8
13,455^
3,453 ; 016,092
142,333
(26,849)
(2.195)
(r,60)
(29,604)
1
Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the total ctFective for 189& is
540,582 for the Active Army, and. 25, 647 for the Gendarmerie and Gairde
Republicaine.
The number of men liable to militaiy service is estimated as follows-: —
active army and its reserve, 2,350,000 ; temtorial army, 900,000 ; territorial
reserve, 1,100,000 ; total, 4,350,000 men, of Avhom about 2,500,000 would be
available.
Navy.
The French navy is under tlie supreme direction of the Minister of Marine,
who is assisted by a Chief of the Staff. The fiuictions of the last-named officer,
who is a vice-admiral, were enlarged in 1898. Under the Minister he has
charge of all the work of the dei)artmciit having reference to the building,
maintenance, commissiuning, and mobilization of the fleet, and particularly
of all that concerns preparations for war. He is chief of the Military Cabinet,
while the Civil Cabinet, devoted to acbuinistrative work, is directly under
the Minister. There are two sub-chiefs of the staff, of whom one is in charge
of various sections, and tlie other of the work of the ^lilitary Cabinet.
The central administration also embraces the directorates of personnel,
materiel, and artillery, the inspectorate of works, the finance depart-
ment, the services of submarine defences, hydrography, and other .special
branches. lu addition to these are the Superior Council of the Xavy, and the
526
FRANCE
•committee of inspectors-general, with a series of particular inspectorates, the
council of works, and a number of special and permanent technical and pro-
fessional committees. For purposes of administration the French coasts are
•divided into five maritime arrondissemeuts, having their headquarters at the
naval ports of Cherbourg, Brest, Lorient, Rochefort, and Toulon, at each of
which the Government has important shipbuilding establishments. At the
head of each arrondissement is a vice-admiral, with the title of Maritime
Prefect, who is responsible for the port administration and the coast defences,
mobile and fixed. The chief torpedo-stations are Dunkirk, Cherbourg, Brest,
Lorient, Rochefort, Toulon, Corsica, Bizerta (Tunis), Algiers and Bona. The
naval forces afloat are the Mediterranean squadron, the northern squadron
in the Channel, and the divisions of the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Far East,
Cochin China, and the Indian OCean ; and there are ships on local stations.
In 1898 the principal squadrons were reorganised, the most modern battle-
ships being collected in the Mediterranean, with the recent coast defence
ships, while the older battleships were sent into the Channel.
Since 1872, when the votes were 121,484,000 francs, there has been, with
fluctuations, a progressive increase in the naval expenditure of France, In
round millions of francs the following have been the naval votes since 1880 : —
1880, 186 ; 1881, 193 ; 1882, 202 ; 1883, 232 ; 1884, 254 ; 1885, 266 ; 1886,
233 ; 1887, 211 ; 1888, 194 ; 1889, 199 ; 1890, 201 ; 1891, 222 ; 1892, 219 ;
1893, 255 ; 1894, 267 ; 1895, 278 ; 1896, 268 ; 1897, 265 ; 1898, 287 ; 1899
(estimate), 304,078,400 fr. The following was the establishment for 1898 :—
1,733 ofl[icers (including 15 vice-admirals, 30 rear-admirals, 125 captains, 215
commanders, 758 lieutenants, 420 sub-lieutenants, and 170 midshipmen).
The warrant officers, petty officers, and seamen numbered 40,589.
It is intended to increase the fleet by a programme covering a period of
years, though not fixed, by legislative enactment. The total sum proposed
to be outlayed during eight years, beginning in 1898, is 721,815,572 francs,
■and the expenditure will be progressive up to the year 1901. In all, the pro-
.gramme at present in hand and thus contemplated includes 85 ve.ssels of
various classes, of which eight are battleships, ten armoured cruisers, ten
cruisers of other classes, ten destroyers, and forty -two various torpedo boats.
The sum to be devoted to new constructions in 1899, according to the pro-
gramme, is 111,494,942 fr. The list of ships to be laid down, according to
the Government proposals, is as follows : one battleship of 14,500 tons, two
armoured cruisers of 10,014 tons, two cruisers of 4,000 tons, two destroyers
of 400 tons, four large and eleven first-class torpedo-boats, and six sub-
marine boats.
The French navy stands next in importance to that of Great Britain. It
therefore becomes of much importance to compare the two. With the British
navy will be found a tabular statement of its strength. The following state-
ment of the strength of the French navy, including ships building, but
excluding transports, older cruisers, and non-service vessels, is analogous.
Vessels merely proposed are not included in the lists.
"afe
1
rd'-a
ojS
bo
aj S
bp
)X CO
G
/- 00
«^
'o'-'
.S
i^
s^
'•3
m
1
Build
Battleships, 1st Class
19
Cruisers, 3rd Class .
10
1
„ 2nd Class
10
1
Torpedo Gunboats .
21
1
,, 3rd Class
7
—
' Torpedo Craft, 1st Class .
125
22
Coast Defence Ships.
14
—
1 ,, ,, 2nd Class.
78
—
Cruisers, 1st Class
13
10
1 ,, ,, 3rd Class.
4§
—
,, 2nd Class
17
—
bEFENCte
527
The French navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by volun-
tary enlistment. By the channel of the 'Inscription Maritime,' which was
introduced by Colbert, and on the lists of which are the names of all male
individuals of the ' maritime population ' — that is, men and youths devoted
to a seafaring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age— France is provided
with a reserve of 114,000 men, of whom about 25,500 are serving with the
fleet. The time of service in the navy for the ' Inscrits ' is the same as that
in the army, with similar conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs, and
leave of absence for lengthened periods. It is enacted by the law of 1872
that a certain number of young men liable to service in the Active Army
may select instead the naval service, if recognised fit for the duties, even if
not enrolled in the ' Inscription Maritime.' The 'Inscription' will furnish
at least 50,000 men more than the navy would require upon mobilization.
The tables which follow of the French armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged chronologically, like the similar tables for the British
navy. The ships named in italics in the first list are coast-defence vessels-
The numbers following the names of the others indicate the classes to which
they have been assigned in the foregoing statement of strength. Abbre-
viations : h. , broadside ; c. &. , central battery ; t. turret ; bar, barbette ; Q. F. ,
quick-firing.
,5
.&
'C
o
00
Name
Launched
Displace-
ment.
Tons
Extreme
Armouring.
Inches.
c. b.
Friedland (2)
1873
8,852
9
c. b.
Richelieu (3)
1873
8,984
8J
t.
c. b.
Tonnerre
Colbert (3) .
1875
1875
5,765
8,783
13
e. b.
Trident (3) .
1876
8,717
Bi
c. b.
Redoutable (-2) .
1876
9,288
14
t.
t.
t.
bar.
Tempite
Fulminant .
Vengeur
Aniiral Duperre(l)
1876
1877
1878
1879
4,793
5,871
4,635
11,032
13
13
13
22
e. b.
Devastation (1) .
1879
10,535
15
bar.
Turenne (3).
1879
6,249
10
bar.
Bayard (3) .
1880
5,915
10
bar.
bar.
Tonnant
Terrible (2) .
1880
1881
5,010
7,455
18
20
e. b.
Courbet(l) .
1882
10,637
15
bar.
Vauban (3) .
1882
6,112
10
bar.
Duguesclin (3) .
1883
6,112
10
bar.
Amiral Baudin (1)
1883
11,723
22
bar.
Indomptable (2)
1883
7,513
20
Armament
loo
"S to
8 10-8in. ; 8 5-5in. ; 29 small
Q.F., &c. . . .
6 10-8in. ; 5 9-5in. ; 8 5-5in
25 small Q.F., &c. .
2 10-8in. ; 10 small Q.F., &c
8 lO-Sin. ; 2 9-5in. ; 6 5-5in.
26 small Q.F., &c. .
8 10 Sin. ; 2 9-5in. ; 6 5 'Sin.
25 small QF., &c. .
8 10-8in. ; 6 5-5in. ; 35 small
Q.F., (fee. . .
2 10-8in. ; 6 small Q.F., «tc
2 10-8in. ; 12 small Q.F., &c
2 13-4in. ; 8 small Q.F., (tc
4 13-4in. ; 1 5.5in. Q.F.; 14
4iu. ; 42 small Q.F., <fec.
4 12-6in.; 4 lOSin.; 6 5-5in.
27 small Q.F,,&c. .
4 9-5in.; 2 7-6in.; 6 5 Sin.; 16
small Q.F., <fec.
4 Qoin.; 2 76in.; 6 5'5in,
20 small Q.F., (fee. .
2 13-4in. ; 8 small. Q.F., <S:c
216-5in.;4 4in.Q.F.; 23 small
Q.F., &c. .
4 13-4in.; 410-8in.; 10 5-5in
40 small Q.F., &c. .
4 9"5iu.; 17'6in.; 6 5"5iu.;19
small Q.F., Ac. .
4 9 5in.; 1 7-6in.; 6 5-5in
16small Q.F., Ac. .
2 14-5in. ; 8 Ooin. Q.F. ; 10
5-5in.Q.F.:33smallQ.F.,(fec
2 10-8in. ; 6 3-9in. Q.F. ; 12
small Q.F., <fcc.
4,500
4,000
3,600
5,000
5,000
6,200
2,000
4 000
2,000
7,000
8,300
4,400
4,400
2,000
Knots
13-0 j
i 130
' 12-9
I 14-4
141
14-8
12 0
13 0 ,
10-9 I
15-0 I
; 150
■ 14-0
14-1
11-0
6,500
14-5
8,000
15-0
4,560
14-3
3,300
140
8,300
15-0
6,500
14-5
528
FRANCE
o
+3
•«
^
® a 2
«-tJ 05 B, U m
1-3
'u
Name
o
c8 p g \ 9^ ff a
Armament
O a; 1
-5 S
o
Q
1
i
1-^
.|EH..
^1-
'^m
l-c O
^y?
Knots
bar.
Furietix
1883
5,925 20
2 13-4iu. ; 14 small Q.F.,
&c
2
4,600
140
bar.
Caiiuaii (2) .
1885
7,520 20
2 10-Sin.; 6 ;v9in. Q.F.; 12
small Q.F., lS:c.
1
4
6,500
15-0
bar.
1
Rcquiii ('-?) .
1885
7,698 20 1
2 16-5in. ; 4 4in. Q.F. ; 14
.small Q F., &c. . .1
4
6,500
15-0
1
bar.
Formidable (1) .
1885
11,972 ! 22
2 14-5in.; 8 6-5inQ.F.;105-5iu.
Q.F. ; 32 small Q.F., &c. .
6
9,600
15-0
t. \
Hochc (1) .
1886
10,823 18
2 13-4in. ; 2 lO'Sin. ; 12 S'Sin.
Q.F. ; 29 small Q.F. , &c. .
5 '
11,000
17-0
t.
Neptune (1) .
1887
10,810 18
4 13-4in. ; 10 5-5in. Q.F. ; 26
small Q.F., &c.
5
11,000
16-5
t.
Marceau (1) .
1887
10,079 18
4 13-4in. ; 17 5-5in. Q.F. ; 25'
small Q.F..&C. . .1
4
11,000
16-5
'• 1
Magenta (1)
1890
10,680
IS
4 13-4in. ; 10 5-5in. Q.F. ; 34;
small Q.F., &c.
3
11,000
10-0
t. '
Breniius (1) .
1891
11,215
m
3 13-4in. ; 10 6-5in. Q.F. ; 31
small Q.F., &c.
4
13,500
17-5
L
Bouvines (2)
1892
0,505 1
18
2 12in. ; 8 4in. Q.F. ; 14 small
Q.F.;&c
2
8,000
17-0
t.
Valmy (2) .
1892
6,487 1
18
2 13-4iii. ; 4 4in. Q.F. ; 14
small Q.F., &c. .
2
8,000
ir-0
t.
Jeramapes (2)
1892
0,485
IS
2 13-4in. ; 4 4in. Q.F. ; 14
small Q.F., &c.
2
8,000
16-5
t.
Charles Martel (1)
1893
11,693
18
2 12in ; 2 lO-Siii. ; 8 5-5in.
Q.F. ; 26 small Q.F., &c.
6
13,500
18-0
t.
Jaureguiberry (1)
1893
11,637
18
2 12in. ; 2 10-Sin ; 8 5-5in.
Q.F. ; 28 small Q.F., &c.
6
13,270
18-0
t.
Trehouart (2)
1893
0,524
18
2 12in. ; 8 4in. Q.F. ; 16 small
Q.F., &C-.
2
8,000
17-0
t.
Caniot (1) .
1894
11,818
18
2 12in. ; 2 10-Sin. ; 8 5-5in.
Q.F. ; 30 small Q.F., &c'.
4
13,270
18-0
t.
Masseua (1) .
1895
11,735
18
2 12in. ; 2 10 -Sin. ; 8 5-5in.
j
O.F.:8 4in. Q.F.: 24 small
i
Q.F.,.fec. ' . .
6
11,000
is-0
t.
Charlemagne (1) ,
1895
11,097
15| ; 4 12in.; 10 5 5in. Q.F.; 8 4in.
Q.F. ; 34 small Q.F., &c.
4
14,000
18-0
t.
Bouvet (1) .
1890
12,012
18 ! 2 12in.;2 10-8in.;S5-5iiiQ^R;
S4in. Q.F.; 32 small Q.l'.
1
&c
4
11,600
ISO
t.
Suint Loui.s (1) .
189(3
11,097
151
4 12in. ; 10 5-5in Q.F.; 8 4in.
34 small Q.F., &f. .
4
14,000
ISO
h.
Gaulois (1) .
1S9G
11,097
15|
4 12in. ; 10 5-5in Q.F. ; 8 4in.
31 small Q.F., ttc. .
4
14,500
is-0
b.
h'iia(l)
1898
12,052
13i
4 12iu.; 86-4in.Q.F.; 8 3-9iii.
34 smaller .
4
15,500
ISO
t.
SullVeii (1) .
Henri IV. (2)
12,052
0,889
13i i Ditto, ditto . . . .
" 1 1 12in. ; 10 5-5in. Q.F. ; K
1 small Q.F., &c.
4
15,500
7,000
18-0
15-0
Fusee .
Flamme .
1884
1885
1,122
1,107
S ' 1 9-5in. ; 5 small Q.F., &e. .
8 Ditto, ditto
"i
1
1,500
1,500
12-0
12-0
j_
Acheron
1885
1,693
8 , 1 10-Sin. ;3 4in.Q.F.; 6 small
1 Q.F., &c. . . .
1,600
13-0
?c^
' Mitrallle
1886
1,112
8 1 1 9-5in. ; 5 small Q-F., &c. .
i
1,500
12-0
ir
Cocyte .
1887
1,688
8
1 lO-Sm.; 2 4in. Q.F. ; Tsmai
Q.F., &c. . . .
1 9-5 in. ; 5 small Q.F., &c
1
1,600
130
5
Grenade
1888
1,073
8
1 i
1,500
12-0
3
^
PhUgHon
1890
! 1,767
8 ! 1 lO-Sin. ; 1 5-5in. y.r. ; (
small Q.F., <S.'C.
1 1,600
13-0
Slyx .
1891
1,767
8 1 lOSin. ; 1 5-5in Q.F. ; '
small Q.F., &e.
\'"
1,600
130
DEFENCE
529
The first-class cruisers in the following list are all deck-protected,
ships named in italics are also armoured.
The
-d
,
n CO
tJ ?
Name
C3
Armament
5 c
o
P
.2 SH
!-4 ^
=sg
S
Q
Hg'
t-H 0
,S3
Iz;'"
Knots
Tage .
1886
7,589
8 6-4in. Q.F.; 8 5-5in. Q.F. ;
22 small Q.F., &c. .
7
12,410
19-0
Cecille .
1SS7
5,839
8 6-4in.Q.F.; 10 5-5in. Q.F.;
24 small Q.F., «fec. .
4
10,200
19-0
/
Dicpuy de Lome .
ISOO
6,305
2 7-6iii. ; 6 6-5in. Q.F. ; 20
"small Q.F., &c. .
4
14,000
20-0
r:
Latouche-Treville
1802
4,681
2 7-6in. ; 6 5 -5111. Q.F.; 14
i I
small Q.F., &o.
4
8,300
18-2
i ^
Charner
1893
4,716
2 7-6in.; 6 5-5 in. Q.F.; 16
small Q.F., &c.
4
8,300
18-2
-<
Bruix .
1894
4,679
Ditto, ditto . . . .
4
8,700
190
Chamy.
1894
4,855
Ditto, ditto . . . .
4
8,300
19 0
\
Pothuau
1895
5,275
2 7-6in. ; 10 5-5in. Q.F. ;
ISsmaU Q.F., <tc. .
4
10,000
19 0
*Foudre
1895
6,090
8 4in. Q.F.; 8 small Q.F.,&c.
11,500
18-5
D'Entrecasteaux .
1896
8,114
2 9-5in. ; 12 5-5in. Q.F.; 12
small Q.F., <tc. .
6
13,500
19-0
Guichen
1897
8,277
2 6-4in. Q.F.; 6 5-5in. Q.F.;
10 small Q.F., &c. .
24,000
23-0
Chateaurenault .
1S9S
8,018
Ditto, ditto . . . .
...
23,000
23-0
Jeanne d'Arc
11,270
2 7-6in.; 8 5-5in.Q.F.; 12 4in.
{
Q.F.; 26 small Q.F. , &c. .
2
28,000
23-0
Montcalm
9,53 7
2 7'6in.; 8 6-4in. Q.F.; 4 4in.
._,
24 smallrn- ....
2
20,000
210
_5
Dupetit-Thouars .
• ••
9,517
Ditto, ditto ....
2
20,000
21-0
1 /
Gueydon
9,517
Ditto, ditto ....
2
20,000
21-0
Gloire .
10,000
Ditto, ditto . . . .
2
20,000
21-0
J3
Condi- .
10,000
Ditto, ditto . . . .
2
20,000
21 0
Sully .
10,000
Ditto, ditto ....
2
20,000
21-0
Desaix
7,700
10 6 4in. Q.F. ; 16 smaller .
2
17,100
21-0
V
Kleber
7,700
Ditto, ditto ....
2
17,100
21 0
'
Dupleix
7,700
Ditto, ditto . . . .
2
17,100
21-0
Jurien de la
Graviere .
...
5,500
8 6-4 in. Q.F. ; 121-8in.Q.F.
"2
17,000
23
* Torpedo depot shij).
French battleships of the later classes present marked contrasts to the
earlier type. Their .superstructures are less imposing, their protection is
better, and the heavy guns are arranged as in our own shi[is. In the Hoche
(10,823 tons) two 13 "4 in. guns are severally fore and aft in closed revolving
turrets, while the two 10 "8 in. guns firing both right ahead and astern, are
disposed on either broadside in barbette turrets protected by shields. Closely
analagous are the Ncplunc, Marceau, and Magenta. These have a like dispo-
.sition of armament — the heaviest guns at the angle of a lozenge, but all
mounted en barbette. The Brennus differs from the ships named in having
her three heavy guns in closed turrets, two forward and one aft.
The Massina and Bouvct are still more powerful vessels. The follow-
ing are the dimensions of the Bouvet, Avhich is a little larger than the
other — length, 382ft. 3in. ; beam, 70ft. 3in. ; displacement, 12,012 tons.
In these ships the heavy guns are disposed as in the Neptune, but the pieces
of the secondary armament are also in closed turrets. The protection of the
J/rt.<?s^na consists of a Schneider steel belt (9fin. to 17fin.), IS^in. to lofin.
on the four large turrets, and 4in. on the smaller turrets. Beneath the armoured
deck, which is Z\ inches in extreme thickness, is a secondary splinter-proof
o30 FRANCE
ileck. The Charles Martel, which is closely resembled bj' the Jaurtyuiherry
and the Carnot, was designed by M. Huin. The following are her principal
characteristics : — Length 392ft. 6in., beam 71ft. 2in., stern draught 27ft. 6in.,
displacement 11,693 tons, speed 17 knots with 9,500 horse-power, and
18 knots with forced draught (13,500 horse power). The protection of
the ship consists of an over-all steel belt 17 71 in. thick, and further
broadside plating about 4in. thick intended to protect the armoured
deck (which is 2'75in. thick) from the direct action of high explosive
shells. 1\ie JauregiLihcrry, designed by M, Lagane, is a most interesting vessel.
All her guns are worked either by hand or by electricity. Eight of her
secondary guns are coupled in closed turrets ; and in the St. Louis d^^ndi Charlc-
tnagne this disposition is to be made for the heavy guns. These ships are
therefore interesting, and it seems likely that the type will be continued in
the battleships proposed. The Charlemagne and her two sisters, St. Louis
and Gaulois, have been launched. They dispiacii 11,275 tons, and are 385ft.
long with 66 'Gin. beam. The armaments consist of four 12in. guns, Avith ten
5'5in., eight 3*9in., and twenty-six smaller quick-firers ; engines of 5,400
horse-poAver are to give a speed of 18 knots. The Una is another ship of
the same class, launched at Brest in September 1898, which displaces 12,052
tons. She has Belleville boilers, and is better protected, and carries a more
powerful secondary armament, Another battleship of the same type, appa-
rentl}^ a sister, the Suffren, has been laid down at Brest. One battleshii>
in the programme of 1899 marks a further development. She will have four
12in. guns coupled, as in the other recent vessels, and will otherwise resemble
them, but the displacement of 14,500 tons is much greater, and approaches
within 400 tons of that of the Magnijicent. The additional weight will be
devoted largely to giving the ships better protection in the form of an end to
end belt of great height and equal vertical thickness, backed by cellular
cofferdams, as well as to the provision of larger coal capacity. Progress with
this ship is likely to be slow.
Of French cruisers the Dupuy dc L6me has three screws, is provided with
what is jiractically a complete coat of armour, and has both an armoured and
a splinter-proof deck. Her guns are well protected, and are admirably dis-
posed for use in any direction, and are besides of great penetrating power.
Many of her characteristics are found in the somewhat smaller armoured,
turtle-back-decked cruisers Lalouchc- Triville, Charncr, and their sisters, as
well as the Pothuau. The new armoured cruisers are of two principal classes,
those of the Gloire (10,000 tons) and the KUMr (7,700 tons.) The former will
be 452ft. 9in. long, with 63ft. Sin. beam, and 23ft. mean draft. Protection
will be given by a 6in. water-line l^elt, with thinner jilating above it, and by
armoured aud splinter-proof decks. The two heavy guns will be in turrets,
and the others in casemates. All will have water tube boilers. The KUber
type, though smaller, generally resembles the other. The KUhcr herself will
have Niclausse water-tube boilers. France also possesses some interesting
types of deck-protected cruisers, aud has recently added to her navy some
very swift torpedo-boats, one of which, the Forhan, built by Normand, has
attained a .speed of a little over 31 knots.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculturk.
Of the total area of France (52,921,578 hectares) 8,397,131 hectares are
under forests and 36,977,098 hectares under all kinds of crops, fallow, and
grasses. The following tables show the area under tlie leading crops and the
production for four years : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
531
I
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532
FRANCE
The annual production of wine and cider appears as follows
Year
Hectares i
under
Vines ;
Wine,
thousands of
hectolitres
Wine Import,
hectolitres
1
Wine Export,
hectolitres
Cider in-o-
duced lOOO's
of hectolitres
1875
2,246,963
82,727
272,730
3,717,590
1885
1,990,586
28,536
8,183,666
2,602,773
19,955
1890
1,816,544
27,416
10,830,462
2,162,129
11,095
1891
1,763,374
30,140
12,278,376
2,049,268
9,280
1892
1,782,588
29,082
9,400,000
1,845,000
15,141
1893
1,793,299
50,070
5,895,000
1,569,000
31,609
1894
1,766,841
39,053
4,492,000
1,721,000
15,541
1895
1,747,002
26,688
6,356,000
1,696,000
25,587
1896
1,728,433
44,656
8,818,716
1,783,000
8,074
1897
1,688,931
32,350
7,529,000
1,774,862
6,789
1898^
1,706,513
32,282
1 6,555,000
1,381,000
10,637
1 First ten months.
The value of the crop of chestnuts, walnuts, olives, cider-apples, plums,
and mulberry leaves in 1896 was estimated at 187,391,708 francs ; in 1897, at
171,132,758 francs. In Alpes-Maritimes, Var, and Corsica, the orange and
lemon crop was estimated at 1,140,355 francs.
On December 31, 1897, the numbers of farm animals were : Horses,
2,899,131; mules, 205,715; asses, 361,414; cattle, 13,486,510; sheep,
21,445,113; pigs, 6,262,764; goats, 1,495,756.
Silk culture, with Government encouragement {primes), is carried on in
27 departments of France — most extensively in Gard, Drome, Ardeche, and
Vaucluse. In 1897, 133,253 persons were employed in this industry; the
production of cocoons was 7,760,132 kilogrammes ; 463,232 kilogrammes of
cocoons were exported, valued at 4,053,280 francs, and 4,142,009 kilogrammes
of raw silk, valued at 89,308,843 francs.
II. Mining and Metals.
In-France there were in 1896, 499 mines (out of 1,407 conceded mines) in
work, with 152,125 workers. The annual yield was estimated at 33,811,705
tons, valued at 345,092,580 francs, as against 347,115,810 francs in 1894.
The following are statistics of the leading mineral and metal products : —
Year
Coal and lignite
Iron Ore
Pig Iron
Finished Iron
Steel
Tons
Tons
Tons
' Tons
Tons
1892
26,179,000
3,706,748
2,057,390
828,519
682,527
1893
25,651,000
3,517,438
2,003,096
808,171
664,032
1894
27,417,000
3,772,000
2,069,714
785,781
674,190
1895
28,019,893
3,679,767
2,003,860
756,793
714,523
1896
29,189,900
3,409,372
2,340,000
829,000
917,500
In 1896 there were ]U'oduced also : silver, 70,479 kilogrammes ; zinc.
o5,585 tons; copper, 6,544 tons; nickel, 1,545 tons; aluminium, 370 tons,
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
533
III. Manufactures.
The total uuniber ul' industrial establishments in France in 1896 was as
follows : —
Industries
Establishments
yteani engines
Horse-power
Tissues and clothing
6.627
7,317
279,506
Metals ....
4,926
8,135
226,689
Mines and quarries
3,065
5,500
179,6.v2
Foods ....
9,141
10,729
136,127 1
Buildings
6,922
7,982
169,272
Agriculture
15,239
18,743
111,123
Chemical and tanning .
3,123
3,788
59,850
Paper, printing, furni-
ture, &c.
3,493
3,847
55,099
State services .
Total
435
1,306
45,370 ,
52,971
67,347
1,262,688
Textile Indiidrics. — In 1896 the numbers of factories for silk, cotton,
woollen, and other manufactures were : silk, for unwinding cocoons, 221
with 10,468 pans; carding and combing, 37 with 692 machines ; throwing,
708 with 1,624,530 spindles, &c. ; for spinning, 19 with 150,000 spindles ;
for weaving, 745 with 28,270 power looms and 39, 165 hand-looms; cotton,
for carding, &:c., 46 with 186 machines ; for spinning 275 with 4,024,811
spindles ; wool, for carding 229 with 351 machines ; for spinning, 837 with
3,173,274 spindles; for carpet weaving, 82 with 5,593 looms; for other
woollen goods, 1,043 with 11,714 power looms and 16,604 hand looms ; for
various manufactures of cotton, Hax or hemp, 2,112 factories, and for
mixed tissues, 990 factories ; for spinning hemp, flax, or jute, &c., 103
factories.
The values of the yearly imports and exports of woollens and silks in
millions of francs are seen from the subjoined table : —
WooUeus
Silks
Years
Iiii]
orts
Exports
Imports
Exports
Yarn
Cloth
Yarn
Cloth
Tissues
Tissues
224-5
223-5
270-8
247-0
270-9
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
12-5
9-8
13-6
15-4
10-8
50-2
43-6
41-9
45-1
40-0
21-0
18-5
31-1
29-6
24-1
278-9
242-3
323-1
294-1
265-5
51-0
41-9
50-2
50-3
520
Sugar. — In 1896-97 there were 358 sugar works, employing regularly
43,654 men, 3,597 women, and 2,556 children, with occasionally about 8,000
other workpeople. The yield of sugar during the last 12 years (expressed in
thousands of kilogrammes of refined sugar) was : —
534
FRANCE
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
265,071
434,044
347,785
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
414,870
700,409
616,890
1891-92
1892-93
1893-94
578,110
523,366
514,789
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
704,454
593,647
668,545!
In 1895 2,166,000 hectolitres of alcohol were produced; in 1896,
2,022,000 hectolitres ; in 1897, 2,208,140 hectolitres.
IV. Fisheries.
In 1894 the number of boats engaged in the French home fishing was 27,062
of 131,159 tons ; the boats engaged in the cod fisheries numbered 353 of 4U, 153
tons. The total number of men employed was 155,125, of Avhom 9,046 were
in the cod fisheries, and 146,079 in the home fisheries ; of the latter, 84,727
Avere em^jloyed in boats, and 61,352 on foot. In 1896 the total value of the
sea and shore fishing in boats was 93,025,568 francs ; of the shore fisheries on
foot, 8,599,224 francs.
In 1897 the total weight of cod, oil, &c., landed in France by French and
colonial boats was 569, 1 55 metric quintals ; of herring, 319, 186 metric quintals.
The number of boats was 664, and of the fishermen 12,523. Government assist-
ance {primes) is given to the cod fishers, amounting to 4,983,000 francs annually.
Commerce.
In French statistics General Trade includes all goods entering or leaving
France, while Sj)ecial Trade includes only imports for home use and exports
of French origin.
The Commission Pervianente des Valeurs annually determines the values (called actual
values) which represent the average prices of the different articles in the Customs list
during the year. The values fixed at the end of one year and applied to that year retro-
spectively, are applied also during the following year, at the end of which the provisional
results thus obtained are revised according to new values definitely fixed by the Com-
mission. Thus each year there are published first the provisional and later the definitive
commercial statistics. The customs entries show the country of origin of imports and that
of ultimate destination of exports. For five years the actual values were :—
Years
General Commerce
Special Commerce
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Million francs
Million francs
Million francs
Million francs
Av
erage 1888-92
5,406-8
4,644-7
4,363-3
3,547 0
1893
4,951-5
4,326-4
3,853-7
3,236-4
1894
4,794-9
4,124-6
3,850-4
3,078-1
1895
4,919-6
4,589-3
3,719-9
3,373-8
1896
4,928-8
4,5936
3,798-6
3,400-9
1897
5,137-5
4,803-1
3, 9.- 6-0
3,598-0
The chief subdivisions of the special trade were : —
—
Imports (1,00(1,000 francs)
Exports (1,000,000 francs)
Food products
Raw „
Manufactured goods
Total .
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
1894 1895
1896
1897
1,061 1 1,198
2,229 2,104
564 548
1,0.S6
2,101
583
1,007
2,174
618
1,029 710
2,319 784
608 1,742
666
755
1,657
591
874
1,909
652 721
836 944
1,913 1,933 1
3,854 1 3,850
3,720
3,799
3,956 ' 3,236
1
3,078
3,774
3,401 3,598
The chief articles of import and export (special trade) were in millions of
francs : —
COMMERCE
535
1S93
189^
1895
1896
1897
........
Imports : —
Wine . . . .
183
145
212
293
280-3
Raw wool
325
317
308
365
343-7
Cereals
307
363
162
123
247-4
Raw silk
261
183
226
180
266-4
Raw cotton .
184
169
167
167
205-7
Timber and wood .
124
148
130
150
154-6
Hides and furs
146
116
135
111
116 5
Oil seeds
188
199
157
148
135-6
Coffee ....
146
147
177
175
105-4
Coal and coke
164
172
167
174
189-5
Ores ....
62
53
49
51
62-7
Cattle ....
42
132
112
58
41-1
Sugar, foreign and colonial
58
51
38
44
32-1
Textiles, woollen ,
50
44
42
45
400
,, silks
51
42
50
50
520
,, cotton .
33
33
34
38
36-3
Flax ....
70
52
60
62
51-4
Exports : —
Textiles, woollen .
279
242
323
294
265-9
,, silk
225
224
271
247
270-9
,, cotton .
101
113
118
131
119-3
Wine ....
189
23 i
222
242
232-5
Raw silk and yarn
126
89
126
~93
117-7
Raw wool and yarn
120
124
153
145
172-2
Small ware .
154
154
154
161
160-3
Leather goods
96
80
S3
82
69-4
Leather
97
81
105
83
102-8
Linen and clothes
131
101
96
99
95-4
Metal goods, tools
70
56
68
85
79-5
Cheese and butter
81
6Q
61
82
86 0
Spirits ....
56
54
48
49
51-9
Sugar, refined
55
48
41
40
45-4
Skins and furs
62
6Q
94
62
77-1
Chemical produce .
53
57
62
63
75-4
The chief imports for home use aud exports of home goods are to and from
the following countries, in millions of francs : —
—
1
1894 1 1895
t
1S96
1897
—
1894 ' 1895
1
1896
1897
Imparts from :
Exports to :
United King<loiii .
480 496
.^.11
485
United Kingdom .
913 1,000
1,031
1,132
Belgium.
872 288
282
2SS
Belgium.
478 497
501
513
Spain
175 213
288
247
Germany
325 334
340
380
United Suites
327 284
314
43S
United States
ISO 289 225
242
Germany
310 310
;{0h
30!)
Switzerland .
13n 163
180
191
Italv .
122 115
127
132
Italv .
9S
134
115
151
British Indiii.
212 163
108
122
Spain
109
109
100
99
Argentine Republic
168 ' 180
213
211
Algeria .
199
203
218
216
lUissia .
282 195
181
236
Brazil .
80
76
69
61
Algeria .
20S 245
197
238
Argentine Republic
5]
43
56
51
536
FRANCE
According to value of the general imports and exports, their distriljutiou
appears from the following, in millions of francs : —
—
1894
1895
1,625
1,832
1896
1897
Imports : —
By sea : French ships .
Foreign .
1,422
2,002
3,424
1,370
1,516
1,965
1,614
2,083
3,697
1,440
Total Ly sea
,, land .
Exports : —
By sea : French ships .
„ Foreign .
Total l)y sea
,, land .
3,457
1,462
3,481
1,448
1,525
1,326
1,699
1,477
3,176
1,413
1,694
1,443
1,642
1,628
2,851
1,273
3,137
1,457
3,270
1,533
The share of the principal French ports in the general trade (1897) was as
follows — imports and exports combined — in millions of francs :— =•
Marseilles .
Havre
Paris .
Dunkerf[ue.
The imports and exports (special trade) of coin and bullion were as follows
in 1897 :—
1,763
Bordeaux .
. 627
Dieppe
. 182
1,657
Boulogne
. 465
Belfort, RC.
. 161
740
Rouen
. 217
Tourcoing .
. 171
559
Calais
. 262
Cette .
. 164
Gold
Silver
Total
Imports .
Exports .
Francs
290,715,386
131,862;865
Francs
171,129,943
194,836,106
Francs
461,845,329
326,698,971
The transit trade in 1897 reached the value of 790 million francs.
The subjoined statement shows, according to the Board of Trade returns,
the value of the imports into the United Kingdom from France, and of the do-
mestic exports from the United Kingdom to France, in the years indicated : —
—
1892
£
43,519,130
14,687,796
1893
£
43,658,090
13,366,410
1804
1895
1896
1897 !
1
[iiiportsinto U.K.
from France
F-xports of British
pro<lncetoFranc('
£
43,450,074
13,526,494
£
47,470,583
13,870,902
£
50,104,973
14,151,512
£
53,346,882
1
13,818,812
The total exports to France from the United Kingdom amounted to
21,337,350Z. in 1892 ; 19,795,500/. in 1893 ; 19,751, 062Z. in 1894 ; 20,324,998/.
in 1895 ; 20,657,528/. in 1896 ; 19,517,711/. in 1897.
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
537
The following table gives the tleclared value, in pouiuls .sterling, of the
eight staple articles imported into the United Kingdom I'roni France in each
of the last four years : —
Staple Imports into U. K.
1894
£
1895
1896
£
1897
£
£
Silk manufactures .
8,774,495 11,140,003
12,123,661
12,480,421
Woollen ,, . .
5,628,545 6,373,340
5,923,308
6,159,977
Butter ....
2,351,867
2,443,734
2,537,695
2,330,576
Wine ....
2,744,873 | 2,887,409
3,462,214
3,751,763
Sugar ....
2,849,422 1,736,041
1,812,035
3,235,437
Leather and manufactures
1,455,779 1,806,888
1,770,732
1,715,220
Eggs ....
982,800 1,069,580
1,273,200
1,022,869
Brandy ....
1,402,299 1,139,884
1,195,279
1,300,182
These eight articles constitute about two-thirds of the total imports from
"France into the United Kingdom, The total quantity of wine imported into
the United Kingdom from France in 1897 was 6,605,077 gallons, being 37 "6
[)er cent, of the total quantity of wine imported into the United Kingdom.
The following table exhibits the value of the princi]:)al articles of British
)>roduce exported from the United Kingdom to France in each of the la.st
four years : —
Staple Exports from U. K.
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
Woollen manufactures and
yarn ....
2,453,644
2,609,731
2,495,257
2,068,359
■Nletals (chiefly iron and
copper)
789,536
936,305
882,168
977,907
Coals . . , •
2,462,139
2,206,349
2,137,209
2,363,721
Cotton manufactures and
yarn ....
1,087,079
1,090,260
1,057,217
875,544
Machiuei-v
1,139,833
1,265,933
1,324,729
1,288,452
Chemicals
408,262
505,685
698,468
670,401
Shipping and Navigation.
On December 31, 1897, the French mercantile navy consisted of
14,352 sailing vessels, of 421,462 tons, with crews 68,132, and
1,212 steamers of 499,409 tons, and crews numbering 20,234,
Of the sailing vessels 176 of 17,239 tons were engaged in the
European seas, and 297 of 177,998 tons in ocean navigation; of
the steamers 240 of 185,014 tons were engaged in European seas,
and 171 of 266,820 tons in ocean navigation. The rest were
•employed in the coasting trade, in port service, or in the fisheries.
Of the sailing vessels and steamers 12,971 were not over 50
tons. Government assistance (prhnes) is given for the con-
struction, equipment, and navigation of vessels, amounting to
12,500,000 francs annually.
538
FRANCE
The following table shows the navigation at French ports in
1896 and 1897 :—
Entered
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Vessels ,
Tonnage |
Vessels ;
Tonnage
Vessels i
Tonnage
1896
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade ^
Total French
Foreign vessels .
Total .
55,932
7,644
63,576
17,451
81,027
53,961
7,701
6,080,736 !
4,210,683
17,713;
788
18,501
2,315
975,240
112,543
73,645
8,432
1
7,055,976
4,323,226
10,291,419
9,865,925
1,087,783
508,100
82,077
19,766
11,379,202
10,374,025
20,157,344
20,8161,595,883
1
101,843
21,753,227
1897
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade ^
Total French .
Foieign vessels .
Total .
Cleared
5,933,679
4,469,566
17,452
891
18,343
2,462
975,234
133,754
1,108,988
529,230
1,638,218
71,413
8,592
6,908,913
4,603,320
61,662
17,810
79,472
10,403,245
10,457,568
20,860,813
80,005
20,272
100,277
11,512,233
10,986,798
20,805
22,499,031
17,713
1,477
19,190
6,948
26,138
1896
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade ^
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
.55,932
7,645
63,577
13,176
76,753
6,080,736
4,222,708
975,240
588,026
1,563,266
4,476,995
6,040,261
73,645
9,122
7,055,976
4,810,734
11,866,710
10,518,947
22,385,657
10,303,444
6,041,952
16,345,396
82,767
20,124
102,891
1897
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade ^
Total French
Foreign vessels ,
Total .
53,961
7,711
61,672
113,048
74,720
5,933,679
4,348,374
10,282,053
5,997,865
16,279,918
17,452
1,349
18,801
7,376
975,234
599,844
1,575,078
4,952,552
71,413
' 9,060
' 80,473
20,424
100,897
1
6,908,913
4,948,218
111,857,131
110,950,417
22,807,548
26,177
6,527,630
i Inclusive of colonics and maritime fisliini;
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
539
Internal Communication.
I. Rivers, Railways, etc.
In 1898 there were in France 38,214 kilometres of national roads.
Navigable rivers (1897), 8,832 kilometres ; actually navigated, 6,630
kilometres ; canals, 4,930 kilometres ; actually navigated, 4,851 kilometres ;
rivers navigable for rafts, 2,925 kilometres.
The traffic on the rivers and canals, expressed in millions of metric tons
carried one kilometre, has been : —
Year
Canals
Rivers
Total
1893
2,065
1,539
3,604
1894
2,260
1,652
. 3,912
1895
2,158
1,608
3,766
1896
2,466
1,725
4,191
1897
2,540
1,826
4,366 i
By a law of 1842, the construction of railways was left mainly to companies,
superintended, and if necessary assisted, by the State ; which now constructs
lines which the companies work, and works on its own account one important
State system. There are lines of local interest subventioned by the State or
by the departments. The concessions granted to the six great companies
expire at various dates from 1950 to 1960 ; the periods of State guarantee of
four of them terminate at the end of 1914, and of the others in 1934 and
1935. In 1830 there were in France 24 miles of railway ; in 1860, 4,000 miles ;
in 1890, 20,666 miles; in 1896, 22,707 miles, including 1,700 miles belong-
ing to the State. There are, besides, 2,404 miles of railway of local interest.
The length of line of general interest open for tralfic, cost of construc-
tion, receipts, and working expenses have been : —
Year
Length
Miles
Construction
Cost
Receipts Expenses
T> Goods !
Passengers Carried j
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
21,952
22,339
22,505
23,018
23,167
£1,000
607,000
615,480
620,840
628,480
£1,000 £1,000
48,190 27,515
49,359 27,491
50,542 27,362
51,906 27,464
52,522
1,000's
317,819
336,554
348,852
363,009
1,000 tons
97,023
99,105
100,834
104,046
There are 2,610 miles of railway of local interest.
On December 31, 1896, the length of tramways worked was : for goods and
passengers, 1,600 miles ; for passengers only, 634 miles ; total, 2,234 miles.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
Oil January 1, 1897, France had 8,826 post-offices, and Algeria, 517.
The postal (including telegraph and telephone) receipts for France alone in
540
FRANCE
1896 amounted to 229,072,774 francs, and expenditure to 180,324,215 francs.
The number of letters, &c., carried in France and Algeria in 1896 was : —
—
Internal
International
and Transit
(1,000's)
150,833
2,376
6,741
142,479
Total
Letters ....
Registered letters, &c.
Post-cards ....
Printed matter, samples, &c.
Total ....
(1,000's)
761,605
41,373
49,887
1,052,975
(1,000's)
912,438
43,749
56,628
1,195,454
1,905,840
302,429
2,208,269
The total length of the telegraphic lines on January 1, 1897, was 64,422
miles, with 208,828 miles of wire. There were 11,769 telegraph offices, and in
1896 there were despatched 45,708,298 telegrams, of which 36,968,805 were
internal, 5,944,217 international, 1,410,297 in transit, and 1,384,979 were
official. There are 237 miles of pneumatic tubes in Paris.
Money and Credit.
The total value of the coin minted in France from the commencement of
the existing mints has been : Gold (1803-1897), 9,334,161,500 francs ; silver,
5-franc pieces (1795-1878), 5,060,606,240 francs ; fractional silver (1803-1897),
486,112,885 francs ; bronze (1852-1897), 68,278,522 francs. Total,
14,949,159,147 francs. No 5-franc pieces have been coined since 1878.
The nominal value of the money coined in France during five years has
been : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Francs
50,943,360
9,831,060
108,006,930
112,538,240
221,379,540
Francs
4,000,000
8,000,000
44,000
Francs
200,000
200,000
110,000
829,494
1,400,000
Francs
51,143,360
14,031,060
116,116,930
113,367,734
222,823,540
502,699,130
12,044,000
2,739,494
517,482,624
From the results of an inquiry carried out on Sei)teniber 15, 1897, it is
estimated that the existing stock of money in France amounted to
6,375,000,000 francs, made up as follows : —
Coin
1
French 1 Foreign
Total
Gold coin ....
5-franc silver pieces
Fractional silver coin .
Total
3,675
1,380
205
lillions of Francs
525 4,200
555 1,935 >
35 240 1
5,260
1,115 1 6,375
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 541
The statistics of private banking are too unsatisfactory to be given.
The private savings-banks numbered 545 (with 2,132 l)ranch offices) in
January, 1896 ; and on December 31, 189*1, the number of depositors was
6,633,447, to the vahie of 3,382,355,533 francs, thus giving an average of 509 "9
francs for each account. The postal savings-banks, introduced in 1881, had
December 31, 1896, 2,682,908 accounts, to'the value of 784,950,207 francs,
tlms showing an average of 292 "6 francs per account.
The Bank of France, founded in 1806, has the monopoly of emitting bank
notes. Its capital is estimated at 182,500,000 francs.
The situation of the l)ank on Deccml)er 1, 1898, was : —
Cash: 1,000 francs 1,000 francs
Gold 1,831,478
Silver 1,216,704
3,048,182
Portfolio 996,292
Advances 596,340
Rents and real property ...... 239,721
Capital and reserves ....... 225,016
Notes in circuhation 3,799,233
Accounts current ...... 774,804
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Franc of 100 centimes is of the value of 9^^^. or 25 '225 francs to the
pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 20 and 10 franc pieces. The 20 franc
gold piece weighs 6 '4516 grammes "900 fine, and thus contains 5*80645
grammes of fine gold. Silver coins are 5, 2, 1, and half franc pieces and 20-
centime pieces. The 5-franc silver piece weighs 25 grammes "900 fine, and
thus contains 22 '5 grammes of fine silver. The franc piece weighs 5 grammes
•835 fine, and contains 4*175 grammes of fine silver. Bronze coins are 10
and 5 centime pieces.
There is a double standard of value, gold and silver, the ratio being
theoretically 15|to 1. Of silver coins, however, only 5-franc pieces are legal
tender, and of these the free coinage has been suspended since 1876.
The present monetary convention between France, Belgium, Italy,
Switzerland, and Greece is tacitly continued from year to year, but may be
denounced by any of the contracting States, and, if denounced, will expire at
the end of the year, which commences on January 1, following tlie denunci-
ation. According to its terms, the five contracting States have their gold
and silver coins respectively of the same fineness, weight, diameter, and
current value, and the allowance for wear and tear in each case is the same.
The coinage of 5-franc pieces, both gold and silver, is temporarily suspended,
and the is.sue of subsidiary silver is, with certain exceptions for special
reasons, limited to 7 francs per head of the population of each State (but 6
francs for Greece). Each Government, in its public offices, accepts payments
in the silver 5-franc pieces of each of the others, and in subsidiary silver to
the amount of 100 francs for each payment. Each State engages to exchange
the excess of its i.ssuos over its receipts of subsidiary silver for gold or 5-franc
silver pieces, and at the termination of the convention each is bound to resume
also its 5-franc silver pieces, and to pay in gold a sum equal to the nominal
value of the coin resumed. [But see also under Italy.] The following are the
total issues of the fivo States, authorised by the convention of 1897 : — France,
542
FRANCE
394 millions of francs; Italy, 232-4; Belgium, 46-8; Switzerland, 28;
Greece, 15.
The monetary system of the Union has been adopted, eitlier wholly or
partially, in Spain, Rumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Russia, Finland, and many
of the South American States.
Gramme
Kilogramme
Quintal MUrique
Tonneau
Litre, Liquid
Hedolitrel^'^''^'^
I Dry .
15 "43 gr. tr.
2-205 lbs. ay,
220^ ,, ,,
2,205 lbs.
1-76 pint.
22 gallons.
2-75 bushels.
Metre .
KilomUre .
Mhtre Cube \
St^re }
Hectare
KilomUre Carrk
— 39-37 inches.
= -621 mile.
= 35-31 cubic ft.
— 2-47 acres.
= •386sq.mile.
Diplomatic Kepresentatives.
1. Of France in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — M. Paul Cambon.
Minister. — M. L. Geoffray.
Secretary. — M. E. Daeschner.
Attache.— Yicomte A. d'Espeuilles.
Military Attache. — Count Pontavice de Heiissey.
Naval Attache — Commandant Fieron.
Secretary- A rchivist. — J . Kn edit.
There are French Consuls at— London (C.G.), Cardiff, Dublin, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester (V.C), :N'ewcastle, Southampton (V.C), and
other places.
2. Of Great Britain in France.
Ambassador.— Kxght^oYi. Sir. E. J. Monson, Bart., G.C.B., G C.M.G.
Secretary.— }ion. M. Herbert, C.B.
Military AttachL — Colonel Douglas F. R. Dawson.
Naval Attache. — Captain A. W. Paget, R.N.
Commercial Attache. — H. Austin Lee, C.B,
There are British Consuls at Paris, Ajaccio, Bordeaux, Brest, Calais,
Cherbourg, Dunkirk, Havre (C.G.), La Rochelle, Marseilles, Nice, Rouen.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning France.
1, Official Publications.
Agriculture :— StatisLique agricole annuelle. Bulletiu de statistique du Ministere de
rA'Ticulturc. "statistique des Forets soumises an regiuie forestier. Statistique agricole
d6cennale. Coinpte des depenses du Minist^VH de 1' Agriculture. Rapport sur I'enseigne-
nient agricole. Report by L. S. Sackville ou the Tenure of Land in France. Fol. London,
1870.
^rmy -—Handbook of the French Army, prepared in the Intelligence Division of the War
Office, by Captain A. K. Wisely. London, 1891. Budget general de la France. [Current
issues contain estimates of the numbers of men, horses, &c., in the Army.] Paris.
Bibliographie generale de I'lnstoire de la France. Published by the Directors .of the
National Library. Paris. , x -r. •
Commerce :— Tableau general du commerce de la France. (Annual.) Pans. Commerce
de la France. (Monthly.) Moniteur officiel du commerce. Foreign Office Reports. (Annual
series.) London. Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries, &c. London
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 543
Finance : — ''oniptcs sencranx de I'adniinistration dcs Finances. Bnlletiu de statistique
et de legislation comparee. (Monthly.) Paris. La situation linanciere des commiines.
Budget Kt'iieral de la France. (Annual.) Paris.
Foreign Office List. (Annual.) London.
Industries, Mining, &c. : — Album de statistique grniihique du Ministere des Travaux
publics. Paris. Almanack de la co-ojieration franoaise.— Bulletin de Toffice du travail.
(Monthly.) La petite industrie. 2 vols. Paris, 189G. Statistique des greves et des
recours a la conciliation, &c., i)endant, 1^95. Repartition des salaires du personal ouvrier
dans les manufactures de I'etat et des compagnifs de chemin de fer, 189(5. Salaires et
duree du travail dans I'industrie frauQaise. 3 vols. Bulletin officiel du Ministere de
I'int^rieur. Rajiports des inspecteurs divisiounaires du travail. Statistique de I'industrie
minerale et des apjiareils a vapour. (Annual.)
Instruction, Religion, «S:c. :— Bulletin de I'instruction publique. (Weekly.) Annuaire
de la Presse. Statistique de I'enseigneinent iirimaire. (Annual.) Rapport sur le budget
des oultes.
Justice an<l Crime : — Comptc de la justice criminelle. (Annual.) Conipte de la justice
civile et commerciale. (Annual.) Gazette des tribunanx. Statistique peniteutiaire.
Money and Credit : — Comptcs rendus sur les oixirations du credit fonQicr de France.
Rappoits sur les operations de la Caisse nationale d'Epargue. Rapports sur les operations
des Caisses d'Epargue privees. Rapports du Gouvernenr et des Censeurs de la Banque de
France. Rai>ports sur I'administration des monnaies et medailles.
Navy : — Annuaire de la Marine et des Colonies. (See also the Annual Budget General.)
Pauperism: — Rapport par la Commission superieure de la Caisse des retraits pour la
vieillesse. Etablissements g6n6raux de bienfaisance.
Population : — Resultats statistique du d^nomlevement de 1891. Paris, 1894. [For 1890
see Bulletin de statistique et de legislatuer comparee for January and for July, 1897.]
Railways, Posts, ifec. : — Album de statistique graphiquo aumini.st6re des travaux publics.
Statistique des chemius de fer fraugais. (Annual.) Releve du tonnage des merchandises
transportees sur les fleuves, canaux, et rivieres. 2 vols. (Annual.) Statistique de la
navigation intdrieure. 2 vols. (Annual.)
Sliipping : — Tableau general du commerce de la France. Part II. Tableau general des
mouvements da cabotage. (Annual.)
Statistics (General): — Almanach national. Paris. Journal officiel. Annuaire statistique
de la France (1S98). Annuaire statistique dela ville de Paris. Revue gen^rale de I'adminis-
tration. Nancy. Statistical abstract fur foreign countries. (Annual.) London, t^tatistique
g<^nerale dela France, 1898.
2. iSToN-OFFiciAL Publications.
Adams (G. B.), The Growth of the French Nation. London, 1897.
^/??n (Grant), Pi.ris. [Guide Book.] Lordon, 1896.
Baedeker's Guide-Books: Paris, 12th edition 189t5 ; Northern France, 1894; South-
Eastern France, 2nd ed., 1895 ; South-Western France, 2nd ed., 1895. Leipsic and London.
Barker (E. H.), Wayfaring in France. 8. London, 1890.
Baudrillart(li. J. L.), Les Populations agricoles de la France. .1 series. 8. Paris, 18S5-9.'5.
.Biocfc (Maurice), Dictionnaire de I'Administration frangaise New ed. Paris, 1898.
Bodley (J. E. C), France since the Revolution. London, 1898.
Bon ( \ndr6 le), Modem France. [In Story of the Nations Series.] 8. London, 1896.
Bourde (P.), En Corse. 3rd edition. Paris, 1887.
Boiitmy (E. G.), Etudes de Droit Constitutionnel. 18. Paris, 1885. English Transla-
tion by E. M. Dicey. 8. London, 1891.
Cheruel (P. A.), Dictionnaire historique des Institutions, mocurs et contumes de la
France. 2 vols. 12. Paris, 1855.
Clievallier (E.), La Mounaie de Paris en 1897. Paris, 1897.
Coubertin (P. de), L' Evolution Fran^aise sous la Troisifeme Republique. Paris, 1896.
[Eng. Trans. London, 1898.]
Currier (C. F. A.), Constitutional and Organic Laws of France, 1875-89. American
Academy of Political and Social Science. Philadelidiia.
Dally (F. J. M. A.), La France militaire illustree. 2 edition. 8. Paris, 1893.
Davaine (E.), Annuaire du jirotcstantisme fran(^ais. 8. Paris, annual since 1893.
Debidour (A.), Histoire des Rapports de I'Eglise et de I'Etat, 1789-1870. Paris, 1898.
Delarbre (J.), La marine militaire de la France. 8. Paris, 1881.
Demolim (Edmond), Les Francais d'Aujourdhui. Paris, 1S98.
Deschnmps (L.). Histoire de la Question Coloniale en France. Paris. 1891.
Dupont (P.), Annuaire de la marine pour 1896. 8. Paris, 1896.
DurHj/ (Victor), Histoire de France. 4. Paris, 1892.
Edwards (M. Betham), France To-day. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892-4
Forbes (A.), Life of Napoleon III. London, 1897.
Foville (A. de), La France actuellc. Paris, 1889.
Franceschi {G.), }ilnnue] municipal: Commentaire pratique de la Loi ilii :. A\TiI 1884.
<fcc. 8. Paris, 1892.
544 FRANCE
Fustel de Coulanges (N. D.), Histoire des Institutions politiques de 1 Ancieune France.
G vols. S. Paris, 1888-92.
Gla;>son (E.), Histoire du Droit et des Institntions de la France. Vol. VII. Paris, ISOO.
Gorce (P. de la), Histoire du Seconde Empire. Tomes I. -III. Paris, lS94-0(5.
Guides Joanne [for Paris and tlie various districts of France, 20 vols.]. Paris, 1887-06.
Guizot (P. P. G.), Histoire de France jusqu'en 1789. 5 vols. 4. Paris, 1870-76.
Histoire de France depuis 1789 jusqu'en 1848. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1879. English Translation
of Guizot's Histories by R. Black. 8 vols. 8. London, 1870-81.
-ffrt?i« (L.), Histoire" de la commiinante israelite de Paris. 12. Paris, 1894. — Les Juifs
de Paris ji«idant la Revolution. Paris, 189S.
Hare {A. 3. C). North-Western France, 1895. Paris, 1887. Days near Paris, 1887. North-
Eastern France, 1890. Sonth-Eastern France, 1890. South-Western France 1890, London.
Hillebrand (Karl), France and the French in the second half of the Nineteenth Century.
[Translated from the German]. 8. London, 1881.
Joanne (Paul), Editor, Dictionnaire Geographique et Administratif de la France, <fec.
4. Paris, 1888, (fee.
Lanessan (J. L. de), La republique democratique, la politique interieure, exterieure, et
coloniale de la France. Paris, 1897.
Lavergne (Leonce de), Economie rurale de la France. 4me ed. 18. Paris, 1878.
Lebon (A.) and Pelet (P.), France as it is. London, 1888.
Lebon (A.), Modern France, 1789-1895. In ' Story of the Nations' series. London,
1897.
Loisne (C. de), Histoire politique de France. Paris, 1886.
Levasseur (E.), La France et ses colonies. 3 vols. Paris, 1890-91. Lt population
francaise. ?> v«ls. Paris, 1880. La Production Brute Agricole de la France. Paris, 1891.
Leverdays (E.), Nouvelle organisation de la Republiqi;e, <fec. 12. Paris, 1892.
MacCarthy (J. H.), The French Revolution. 4 vols. London, 1897.
Molard (J.), Puissance Militaire des Etats de I'Europe. Paris, 1893.
MoH<dZ (Edgar), L'Administration de la Republique. 12. Paris, 1893.
Mosxe (B.), La revolution frangaise et le Rabbinat. Avignon, 1890.
Murray's Handbook for Travellers in France. 18th edition. London, 1892.
OZ/tfiVr(E.), L'Empire Liberal. 3 vols. Paris, 189S.
EecZws (Elisee), La France. Vol. II. of ' Nouvelle geogi-aphie universelle.' S. Paris, 1877.
Remy (V. H. A.), Traits de la Comptabilite publique. 8. Paris, 1894.
i?fnarrf (L.), Garnet de I'officier de marine. 16. Paris. (Annual.)
Say (L), Les Finances de la France sous la Troisidnie Republique. Vol. I., 1871-75.
Paris, 1898.
Schoene (L.), Histoire de la Population francaise. 12. Paris, 1893.
Shaw (A.), Municipal Government in Continental Europe. London, 1896.
Sloanr (W. M.), Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 4 vols. London, 1S97. '
Smith (R. T.), The Church in France. 8. London, 1894.
Taine (H. A.), Journeys tln-ough France. London, 1897.
Tripier (L.), Les Codes frangais. 42 edition. 8. Paris, 1892.
Vandam (A. D.), French Men and French Manners. London, 1895. Undercurrents of
the Second Empire. London, 1897.
Vigneron (H.), La France militaire et maritime du XlXme si^cle. Paris, 1890, (fee,
Vignon (L.), L'Exjiansion de la France. Paris, 1891.
Viihrer (M. A.), Histoire de la dette publique en France. Pai'is, 1886.
Villeneiive (M. de la Eigne de). Elements de Droit constitutionel fran§ais. 8. Paris, 1892.
Viollet (P.), Histoire des Institutions Politiques et Administrative de la France. 2 vols.
Paris, 1S98,
Wenzel (John), Comparative view of the Executive and Legislative Departments of the
Governments of the United States, France, England, and Germany. 8. Boston, 1891.
Worms (Emile), Essai de Legislation flnanciere : le budget de France dans le pass6 et
dans le present. 8. Paris, 1893.
Zevort (E)., Histoire de la Troisi^me Republique : Presidence de Jules Grevy. Paris,
1898.
The following statistical serials are jmblished in Paris : — Annuaire de I'^conomie
politique. Revue d'economic politique. (Monthly.) Economiste francais. (Weekly.)
Journal des 6conomistes. (Montldy.) Monde econoniiqr.e. (Weekly.) Annalcsde TEcole
libre des sciences politiques. (Monthly.) Comptes rendus tie 1' Academic des sciences
morales et politiques. Journal de la soci^te de statistique de Paris. (Monthly.) Circulaives
du musee social. Reforme sociale.
COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
545
ANDORRA.
The rcpul)lie of Andorra, wliich is under the joint suzerainty of France
and the Spanisli Bislioj) of Urgel, has an area of 175 sipiarc miles and a
population of about 6,000. It is governed by a council of twenty-four
members elected for four years by four heads of families in each parish. The
council elect a first and second syndic to preside ; the executive power is
vested in the first syndic, while the judicial power is exercised by a civil
judge and two magistrates {xigidcrs). France and the Bishop of Urgel appoint
each a magistrate'and a civil judge alternately. A permanent delegate, the
Prefect of the Pyrenees Orientales, moreover, has charge of the interests of
France in the republic.
References.— 'Vhii t^ui.lc-books fur Spain. Blade (J. F.), Etudes gcogTapliiques siir la
Vallee .rAiidurre. Paris. 1875. Aviles Arnau (J.), El Pallas y Andorra. Barcfdona, 1S0:{
Die andorranische Fra^'e, in "Deutsche Uundschau Gcog." 20, 1898. Spender (II.), Tlirough
the High Pyrenees. London, 1808.
Colonies and Dependencies.
The colonial possessions and protectorates of France (including Algeria),
dispersed over Asia, Africa, America, and Polynesia embrace, inclusive of
countries under protection and spheres of influence, a total area of 2,505,000
square miles. Not reckoned as a colony is Algeria, which has a government
and laws distinct from the other colonial possessions, Ijeing looked ui)on as a
part of France. Tunis is attached to the IMinistry of Foreign Affairs, the
other possessions and protectorates are attached to the Ministry of the Colonies.
Algeria, as well as all the colonies proper, are represented in the Senate and
Chamber of Deputies, and considered to form, politically, a part of France.
The estimated area and population of the various colonies and countries under
protection, together with the date of their first settlement or acquisition, is
shown in the subjoined table (on page 505), compiled from the latest official
returns.
In recent years the trade of the colonies was : —
Imports
Colonics
Fioni
France
I !• rom
I other
I Countries
Total
Senegal & Dependencies^
French Guinea (1896) .
Ivory Co i.sl (1S0(>).
Dahoiioy & Depend-
ei-ics" (189(3)
French Congoi
Mayotte & Coniorolsles^
Diego Suarezl
Nossi Bel
liiunioni
French Indiai
Cocliin-Cliina (ISOCi) »
Caiubodia . ,, (
An nam . . ,,
Tonkin . . ,,
St. Pierre & Miquelon ,,
Martini<iue (189(5) .
Cnadcloupc (1890)
French Guianai .
New Caledonia (1897) .
French Establishments
in Oceania (1897)
Francs I Francs Francs
9,022,000l 4,844,000 13,860,000
,000 4,109,000
800,000' 3,838,000
4,034,000
4,(i38,000
3.741,000' .0,988,000 9,729,000
1^440,000' 1,720,000 3,10(5,000
15-2,000 451,000 003,000
3,350,000 3,350,000' 0,700,000
350,0001 2,171,000: 2,521,000
9,579,000 10,092,000,19,071,000
532,000 2,745,000j 3,277,000
21,993,367. 33, ^24,923j55,818, 290
251, 411 ! 3,009,2711 3,800,082
ll,020,774,'l4,177,239| 25,204,013
3.054.000 3,(590,000 (5,750,000
9,370 000 12,509,000 22,885,000
10,755, 0001 1,017,000 21,702,000
7.400.0001 3,521,000 10,921,000
4,706,600 3,972,576 8,679,236
387,125 .3,203,600, 3,590,725
1 In 1893.
Exports
To To other
p ran ce Countries
Total
Francs | Francs Francs
13,883,000 4,102,000 17,9s.5,(!00
e04 000 4,923,000 5,787,000
2,236,000 2,104,000 4,400,000
3,890,000 5,204,000 9,100,000
454,000 1,891,000 2,345,000
849,000 123,000 972,000
340,000' 340,000 080,000
422,000' 1,901,000 2,3S3,00o
15,809,00ul 1,217,000 17,080,000
12,709,000 7,420,000 20,129,000
4,988,778J08,392,512|73,381,290
90,802! 2,301.808 2,.398,010
1.3(;2,850 0,198.042 7,5(50,89-
7 091,000 2,310,000 9,401,000
19!720,000 1,705,000 21, 431, ('00
7,100,559 11,087,000 18,793,000
4 387 000 347,000 4,7.34,000
3,332,785 3,712,239 7,045,024
307,725 2,653,725 2,901,450,
N N
546
FRANCE: — COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
The special trade of France with French Colonies in 1897 amounted to
132,877,008 francs for imports, and 117,669,081 francs for exports. Including
the trade with Algeria and Tunis, the total amount of imports was 399,321,037
francs, and of exports 358,230,360 francs.
In Asia : —
India .
Annam
Cambodia .
Cochin-China
Tonking (with Laos)
Total of Asia .
In Africa : —
Algeria
Algerian Sahara .
Tunis .
Sahara Region
Senegal
Western Sudan .
Ivory Coast, &c. .
Dahome
Congo ,
Bagirmi
Obock and Somali Coast
Reunion
Comoro Isles
Mayotte
Nossi-Be
Ste. Marie .
Madafjascar .
Total of Africa
In America : —
Guiana ....
Guadeloupe and Dependencies
Martinique ....
St. Pierre and Miquelon
Total of America .
In Oceania : —
New Caledonia and Dependencies
Marquesas Islands
Tahiti and Moorea
Tubuai and Raivavae .
Tuamotu and Gambler Islands
Wallis Archipelago, &c. .
Total of Oceania .
Grand Total .
Year of
Acquisition
1679
1884
1862
1861
1884-93
1830
1881
1637
1880
1843
1893
1884
1895
1864
1649
1886
1843
1841
1643
1896
1626
1634
1635
1635
1854
1841
1880
1881
1881
1887
Area in
Square Miles
197
81,000
46,000
22,950
135,000
285,147
184,474
123,500
50,840
1,684,000
115,800
250,190
64,420
14,140
496,920
65,650
8,640
970
620
143
113
64
227,750
3,288,034
46,850
688
380
93
48,011
7,630
480
455
80
390
100
9,135
Population
286,910
6,000,000
1,500,000
2,035,000
12,000,000
21,821,910
4,430,000
50,000
1,500,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
4,900,000
650,000
600,000
8,950,000
1,000,000
30,000
171,720
53,000
8,700
7,800
7,670
3,500,000
30,358,890
22,710
167,100
187,690
6,250
383,750
51,000
4,450
11,800
880
5,250
5,000
78,380
3,630,327 52,642,930
ASIA 547
111 the budget for 1899 tlio oxpondituie lor the Colonial Service, exclusive
of Algeria was estimated at 85,957,600 francs, while, for the same year,
the amount to be paid into the Frennli Treasury on account of various colonial
services was estimated at 4,842,830 francs. In addition, the Marine Jjudget
and tliat of tlie Ministry of War have to bear certain colonial expenses, while
each colony has a large budget of its own, insullicient to meet the colonial
expenditure.
Tiie only possessions of commercial importance, besides Algeria, Tunis
and tiie West African Colonies, are Cochin-China, the islands of Reunion
and Madagascar, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies. The
exports from and imports to French colonies are seen from the table on
page 504 ; where more recent statistics are availa])le they are given under
separate heads.
The total imports from French colonies and dependencies (exclusive of
Algeria and Tunis) into Great Britain amounted in 1897 to 700,649Z., and the
exports of British produce from Great Britain to these possessions to 602,393?.
The following are more detailed notices of the colonies, deiiendencics, and
spheres of influence, arranged under Asia, AFRifA, America, and Airs-
TRALASXA and Oceania.
Pondichery
. 49,052
Nedounkadou
24,256
Karical .
. 19,172
*Sliandernagar
24,059
Oulgaret
. 57,724
Bahour .
31,818
Yillenour
. 49,932
ASIA.
FRENCH INDIA.
The French possessions in India, as established liy the treaties of 1814
and 1815, consist of five separate towns, which cover an aggregate of 50,803
hectares (about 200 square miles), and had on Decem1)er 31," 1895, the follow-
ing estimated populations : —
La Grande Aldee 16,948
*Malie . . 8,911
*Yanaon . . 5,011
Total, 286,913.
Of this total less than 1,000 are Europeans. The colonies are divided
into five depcndanccs, the chief towns of which are marked with an asterisk
in the above table, and ten communes, having municipal institutions. The
Governor of the colony resides at Pondichery. The colony is represented bv
one senator and one deputy. Local revenue and expenditure (budget of 1897)
1,209,876 rupees ; expenditure of France (budget of 1899), 296,619 francs;
debt (annuity) 128,000 francs. The chief exports from Pondichery are oil seeds.
Im[»orts from French India into France, 1897: — General, 2,997,415 francs;
special, 78,616 francs. Exports from France to French India :^General,
983,030 francs ; special, 946,543 francs. At the ports of Pondichery and
Karikal in 1897 the imports amounted to 3,560,816 francs, and the exports
to 11,965,508 francs. At these two ports in 1897, 459 vessels of 622,328
tons entered and 439 of 494,769 tons cleared.
FRENCH INDOCHINA.
Under this designation the French dependencies of Cochin-China, Ton-
king, Annam, and Cambodia have, to a certain extent, been incorporated.
There is a Superior Council of Indo-China, which fixes the budget of Cochin-
China, and advises as to the budgets of Annam, Tonking, and Cambodia.
For the common expenditure of Indo-China the amount fixed in the local
budget of 1898 was 230,761 piastres; the expenditure of France (budget of
1899) was 20,360,000 francs.
N N 2
548 FRANCE : — ANNAM — COCHIN-CHINA
In 1893-96 about 110,000 square miles of Siam to the east of the Mekong
was annexed by France. [See Siam.]
In 1887 the French possessions in Indo-China, inchiding Annam, Tonking,
and Cambodia, were united into a Customs Union. Imports from French
Indo-China into France, 1897 :— General, 23,215,493 francs ; special,
21,880,344 francs. Exports from France to French Indo-China : — General,
38,557,399 francs ; special, 30,733,918 francs.
ANNAM.
French intervention in the affairs of Annam, which began as early as
1787, was terminated by a treaty, signed on June 6, 1884, and ratified at
line on February 23, 1886, by which a French protectorate has been estab-
lished over Annam. Prince Buu Lam was proclaimed King on January 31,
1889, under the title of Thanh Thai. The ports of Turane, Qui-Nhon, and
Xuan Day are opened to European commerce, and the customs revenue con-
ceded to France ; French troops occupy part of the citadel (called Mang-Ca)
of Hue, the capital (population 30,000). Annamite functionaries, under the
control of the French government, administer all the internal affairs of Annam.
The area of the protectorate is about 81,042 square miles, with a population
estimated at 2,000,000 by some, and at 6,000,000 by others ; the latter being
considered the more probable. It is Annamite in the towns and along the
coast, and consists of various tribes of Moi's in the hilly tracts. There are
420,000 Roman Catholics. In Annam and Tonking there are 23,370 troops,
of whom 14,500 are natives. The productions are rice, maize and other
cereals, the areca nut, mulberry, cinnamon, tobacco, sugar, betel, manioc,
bamboo, excellent timber, also caoutchouc, and dye, and medicinal plants.
Raw silk is produced, and coarse crape and earthenware are manufactured.
There are iron, copper, zinc, and gold in the province of Quang-nam ; the
mines are worked by natives. At Nho-Lam 120 primitive furnaces turn
out 120 lbs. of iron a day in bars. The chief imports are cotton -yarn,
cottons, tea, petroleum, paper goods, and tobacco ; chief exports, sugar
and cinnamon. There entered, in 1896 (including junks) 260 vessels of
105,178 tons, and cleared 352 of 113,561 tons.
CAMBODIA.
Area, 46,000 square miles; population about 1,500,000, consisting of several
indigenous races, 40,000 Malays, 250,000 Chinese and Annamites. The
country is under King Norodom, who recognised the French protectorate in
1863, and it is divided into 57 provinces The two chief towns are Pnom-
penh (population 50,000), the capital of the territory, and Kam})ot, a seaport,
])ut not accessible for sea-going vessels. The budget for 1898 was fixed at
2,523,000 Mexican dollars, including a sum of 415,200 Mexican dollars
allowed for the civil list of the king and princes. The chief culture is rice,
betel, tobacco, indigo, sugar tree, and silk tree, pepper, maize, cinnamon,
coffee. There are important factories at Khsach-Kandal, near Pnom-Penh,
for the shelling of cotton seeds. The external trade is carried on mostly
through Saigon in Cochin -China. The imports comprise salt, wine, textiles,
arms ; the exports comprise salt fish, cotton, tobacco, rice. The trade
statistics are included in those of Indo-China.
COCHIN-CHINA.
The area of French Cochin-China is estimated at 23,000 square miles.
The whole is divided into 4 provinces, Saigon, Mytho, Vinh-Long, and
Bassac ; and these into 21 arrondissements The colony is represented by
TON KING 549
one deputy. The total population in 1S97 was estimated at 2,034,453 con-
sisting chielly of Annaniites, but including Cambodians, Chinese (89,000),
Malays, and Malaharians. The French population is 4,335 ; Asiatic immigrants
in 1894, 15,645; departures, 11,958. There were 232 schools, with 115
European and 1,183 native teachers, and 28,000 puitils. The Catholic
l)opulation numbered 73,234 and the Buddhists, 1,688,270. There were
1,217 French troops, and about 2,400 Annamite soldiers. Of the total area
ai)out one-sixth (or 1,396,583 hectares) is cultivated. The chief crop is rice
— 8,281,300 piculs in 1896, exjiorted mostly to Cliina, Java, and Europe.
Cotton, silk, hides, fish, pepper, coi)ra arc also articles of expoil. Imports of
merchandise in 1896, 2,233, 130/., chioily tissues, metals, metal imj)lements.
wines, &c. Exports in 1896, 3,644,700/. ; in 1897, 3,900,050/. The chief
cxjiorts are rice (1897), 10,086,700 ])iculs, or 593,000 tons, valued at
2,701,840/. ; fish, 377,650/. ; salt, 250,000/. ; cotton, 170,000/. ; silk,
97,760/. ; hides, isinglass, pepper, cardamoms. At Saigon in 1897, 323
vessels of 414,190 tons cleared, or, including the Messagerie vessels, 497 of
of 660,920 tons. Of the total, 124 of 185,568 tons were British. There arc
in the colony 51 miles of railway (Saigon to Mytho), and 2,276 miles of
telegraph line with 3,840 miles of wire and 85 telegraph oflices. Telegrams
(1896) 321,536. There are 79 post offices. At Saigon there are 5 banks or
bank-agencies. In the local budget of 1898 the annual revenue and ex-
penditure balanced at 13,940,000 piastres. Expenditure of France (budget
1899) 33,505 francs.
TONKING.
This territoiy, annexed to France in 1884, has an area of 34,740 sfjuare
miles, and is divided into fourteen provinces, with 8,000 villages and a })opu-
lation estimated at 9,000,000. There are 400,000 Roman Catholics. The
King of Annam was formerly represented in Tonking by a viceroy, but, in
July, 1897, he consented to the suppression of the viceroyalty and the
creation of a French residency in its place. Chief town Hanoi, an agglom-
eration of many villages, with a population of 150,000. Including the Laos
region formerly claimed by Siam, but annexed by France in 1893, the total area
is about 135,000 square miles, and the population is estimated at 12,000,000.
There were 18, 555 troops in 1892, including 6,500 native soldiers. The chief
crop is rice, exported mostly to IIong-Kong. Other products are sugar-cane,
silk tree, cotton, various fruit trees, and tol)acco. There are cop]>er and iron
mines of good quality. French companies work coal mines at llongay, near
Haiphong, and at Kebao. The chief industries are silk, cotton, sugar, pepper,
and oils. Chief imports are metals and metal tools and machinery, yarn and
tissues, beverages ; chief exports rice and animal ]iroducts. The transit
trade to and from Yunnan amounts to about 5,000,000 and 3,200,000 francs
respectively. In 1896 there entered 1,407 vessels of 461,454 tons. The
IMiulang-Tliuong-Langson railway is 64 miles long ; it is proposed to extend
it to Nac-ham on the Chinese frontier. In AniKini and Tonking in 1896
there were 79 post o dices.
The Laos territory, under French protectorate since 1893, is estimated to
contain from 90,000 to 110,000 square miles, and about 270,000 inhabitants.
The soil is fertile, j)rodu<'ing rice, cotton, tobacco and fruits, and bearing teak
forests. Gold, tin, lead ancl precious stones are found, and concessions have
l)een granted to several French mining companies. But for commercial
jturposes the country is almost inaccessible. It can be entered onl}' by tlie
Me-kong, which is barred at Rhone by rapids. A railway, four miles in length,
has been constructed across that i.sland, and by means of it several steam
launches have been transported to the up[ier waters, where they now ply.
550 FRANCE : — Ai-KICA : ALGERIA
A telegraph line Connects Hne in Annam with the towns on the Me- Kong,
and these with Saigon. The cost of the Laos administration is home by
Cochin-China (to the extent of six-thirteenths), Tonkin and Annani (five-
thirteenths), and Caniliodia (two-thirteenths).
Local revenue of Annam and Tonking (budget of 1898) 9,404,000 piastres.
The expenditure of France for Tonking in the budget of 1899 was 450,000
francs. Tlie budget of the Laos protectorate for 1898 balanced at 874,000
piastres.
Books of Reference on French. Asia.
Indo-Chine Fraiic-aise. Rai'iiort Gt'iKral sur h^s StatisliqiuiS des Douancs. Ainnial. Hanoi.
Bill t (A.), Deux Aiis dans lu Hawt Tonkin. Taiis, lSf»8.
Boissct (Th.), A travcr.s le Tonkin pendant la Guerre. 12. Paris, 1S92.
Chailley-Bert (J.), LiaColoinaation de rindo-Chi)ie. 12. Paris, 1S92. [English Trans-
lation. London, ]S',)4.]
Coussoct (A.) and Ihwl (E.), Douzc Mois ehez les Sauvagcs du Laos. Paiis, 1S9S.
Deiijoy (P.). Indo-Cliinc franeaisc. S. Paris, 3 894.
Dcstrlan (Picard), Annam et Tonkin : Notes de Voyage. S. Paris, 1892.
Dujmia (J.), Le Tong-kin et I'lntervention fran(jaise. Paris, 1897.
Gioi (M.), Deux Annees de Lutte. 12. Paris, 1892.
Haurigot (G.), Les Etablissenients franeais dans I'lnde ct en Oceanie. 8. Paris, 1891.
Hocquard (G. E.), Une Cain])agne en Tonquin. 8. Paris, 1892.
Jammes{\i. L.). An Pays Annaniite. Paris, 1898.
LecVcrc (A.), Reclierclies sur lu legislation cambodienne : droit prive. Paris, 1890 ; droit
imblic, Paris, 1894 ; legislation criininelle, Paris, 1894.— Cambodge, Contes et legcndes.
Paris,1895.
Lefcvre (E.), Un Voyage an Laos. Paris, 1808.
Lirije (M. le G. de la),'L'Enipire d'Annani et le Peuplc Annaniite. 8. Paris, 1880.
iVcsH?y (Gen. W.), Tungking. 8. London, 1884.
Munlioi (A. H.), Voyage dans les Royaunies de Biani, de Canibodge, de Laos, &c. Paris,
ISGS. Travels in the central parts of Indo-China, Cambodia, and Laos during 1858-60.
2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
A'oTOmji (C. B.), Tonkin, or France in the Far East. 8. London, 1884. Peoples and
Polities of the Far East. London, ISOIi.
OrUavs (Prince H. d'), Antour du Tonkin. Paris, ISOC— Du Tonkin aux Lidcs. Paris.
1897. [Eng. Trans, by H. Bent]. London, 1807.
Bei-Uis{E.), Nouveile Geographic Universelle. Vol. VIIL Paris, 1883.
AFRICA.
ALGERIA.
(1/ A L G E R I E.)
Government.
A civil Governor- General, in constant communication with the dillerent
French ministries, is the central .administrative authorit}^ of Algeria, except
for finance, customs, worship, justit^e, and instruction, which are under
competent ministers. A small extent of territory in tlie Sahara is still ad-
ministered by the military authorities, but under the direction of the Governor.
Governor-General of Algeria. — M. Lafcrricre, appointed 1898.
The French Chambers have alone the right of legislating for Algeria,
while such matters as do not come within the legislative power are regulated
by decree of the President of the Re]»ul)lic. The Governor-General is assisted
by a council, whose function is purely consultative. A Superior Council,
meeting once a year, to whi(;h delegates are sent by each of the de]).artmental
general councils, is charged with the duty of discu.ssing and voting the
colonial budget. Each de})artmcnt sends one senator and two deputies to the
National Assembly.
FINANCE
551
Area and Population.
The southern boundary of Algeria is not very well defined, large portions
of the Sahara being claimed both by the French Government and the
nomad tribes who inhabit it and hold themselves unconquered. The
colony is divided officially into three departments, consisting as a whole
of the ' Territoire civil, ' and a ' Territoire de commandcment.' The follow-
ing table gives the area of each of the three departments of Algeria, according
to the census of 1896 : —
Departments
Area, sq.
uiiles
Population
Pop.
per sq.
mile
23-1
23-0
25-3
Civil
Territory
Military
Territory
Total
Algiers .
Oran
Constantine .
Total
65,929
44,616
73,929
1,313,206
888,177
1,671,895
213,461
140,071
202,611
1,526,667
1,028,248
1,874,506
184,474
3,873,278
556,143
4,429,421
24 0
The total does not include the Army.
The total population in 1891 was 4,124,732. In 1896, of the total population,
there were 318,137 French, 446,343 belonged to other foreign nations, and the
remainder were natives. In 1891, 3,301,795 persons (1896, 3,454,594) were
dependent on agriculture, 494,435 on trade, industries and carriage by sea
and land, 56,075 on the public service, 33,893 on liberal professions, 72,759
lived on their means, 56,374 were without profession or means, and 94,319
were of unknown or unclassed occupation.
The Algerian Sahara contains about 123,500 square miles with a popula-
tion of about 50,000.
The population of the city of Algiers in 1891 was 82,585 ; Oran, 74,510 ;
Constantine, 46,581; Bone, 30,806; Tlemgen, 29,544; Ghardaia, 28,782;
Tizi-Ouzou, 26,007 ; Mustapha, 24,349 ; Blidah, 23,686.
Religion and Instruction.
The native population is entirely Mussulman ; the Jews being now regarded
as French citizens. The grants for religious purposes provided for in the budget
of 1898 were : to Catholics 821,500 francs, Protestants 97,000 francs, Jews
29,570 francs, Mussulmans 13,000 francs ; total 961,070 francs.
There is an Academy at Algiers, consisting of faculties of law, medicine,
science and letters, with (1894) 463 students. In 1894 there were 1,936
pupils at the 4 lycces of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine ; 7 communal colleges
had 1,132 pupils, and one college for girls at Oran had 169 pupils ; in 1896,
1,127 (130 private, mostly^clerical) primary schools, had 101,123 pupils ; and
151 infant schools had 26,075 pupils. The budget for 1899 provided for an
expenditure of 6,487,130 francs on instiiiction in Algeria,
Crime.
Before the Assize Courts in 1895, 444 i)ersons were convicted of crime ;
before the correctional tribunals, 15,008 ; before the jtolicc courts, 60,576.
For the maintenance of order there are 1,271 gendarmes, 74 police com-
missaires, 814 police agents, 329 maircs, 2,603 police officials of various kinds,
and 1,061 custom-house officers.
552
FRANCE : — ALGERIA
Finance.
The receipts of the Government are derived chiefly from direct taxes,
customs, and monopolies. The natives pay only direct taxes. The depart-
ments of Public Debt, War, and JMarine are excluded from the estimates.
The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1899 were : —
Revenue
Exiicnditure
1
Francs.
Ministries :
Francs.
I Direct Taxes
11,713,841
Finance ,
565,450
i Registration, Stamps, &c.
7,905,300
Justice and Worship
3,620,420
1 Customs
12,641,400
I Interior .
23,458,480
^Monopolies .
5,442,300
Instruction, &c.
6,562,130
Domains and Forests .
4,452,150
Pul^lic Works .
22,031,000
Various
8,563,240
Regie, &c. .
16,044,169
Receipts d'ordrc .
3,434,140
Repayments, &;c.
1,088,800
Total .
54,152,371
Total .
73,370,449
Defence.
The military force in Algeria constitutes the 19th Army Cor})S. It consists
of the following troops : — 3 regiments of zouaves, 3 regiments of tirailleurs, 2
foreign legions, 3 battalions of light infantry, 3 discipline companies 5 regi-
ments of diasseurs d'Afrique, 3 regiments of Spahis, 3 companies of remount
cavalry, 12 batteries of artillery, 3 companies of engineers, 9 companies of
train, and 1 staff and recruiting section. There is also a territorial army
reserve, consisting of 10 battalions of zouaves, 3 sipiadrons of cavalry, and 10
batteries of artillery. Another body of troops is being formed for the defence
of the extreme south. The infantry will be called tirailleurs sahariens, and
the cavalry sp'xhis sxharicns. The budget estimates for 1899 provide that
the Algerian military force consist of 55,112 men, of whom 2,195 are officers,
and 13,138 horses. [See under France.]
Industry.
A great part of the land of Algeria is held undivided by Arab tribes by the
tenure called ' arch ' or 'sabega.' Freehold property, 'melk,' is not common.
Most of the State lands have, under various systems, been appropriated to
colonists. The population engaged in agriculture in 1895 was 3,482,358,
205,642 l)eing Europeans. About 20,000,000 hectares are occupied by the
agricultural population. The principal cereals and the area cultivated in
1895-96 are shown in the following table : —
Cereals
European Culture
Native ('ulturc
Total
Area
Hectares
124,102
187,228
307
120,497
05,590
11,.530
459,353
Quantity
Area
Hectares
54,314
1,005,819
05
1,314,899
6,209
38,745
2,420,111
Quantity
Area
Quantity
Wheat, soft .
, , liard
Rye .
Barley
Oats
Others
Total .
Quintals
971,480
850,347
1,900
938,279
704,902
98,159
3,565,133
Quintals
270,634
4,978,510
518
7.473, 9.S4
50,152
238,658
Hectares
178,476
1,143,047
.372
1,435,390
71,865
40,308
2,879,464
Quintals
1,242,114
5,828,857
2,424
8,412,263
755,114
336,817
13,012,456
16,577,589
COMMERCE
553
In January, 189(5, 122,186 hectares were \uu\vy vines; the yield in 1890
was 4,350,120 hectolitres. There were 28,620 vine-planters, ol" wliom 10,535
were Europeans.
In 1895, 1,480,779 hectares of forest and other land were worked for alia,
the quantity picked being 385,484 quintals. The State cork forests extend
over 281,400 hectares; in 1896, 22,073 quintals of cork were sold, value
696,815 francs. Under toliacco were in 1895 6,943 hectares, yielding
5,720,360 kilogrammes. Other products are olives (0,500,000 grafted trees),
dates, flax, colza and other oil seeds, and ramie.
There are 3,247,092 hectares under forest, nearly one fourth heing in re-
mote districts and unworked. Of the remainder 1,759,495 hectares belong to
the State, 70,919hectarcs to communes, and 408,395 hectares to piivatc persons.
Of the forest area nmch is so only in name, and the value of the total i»roduce
is small. In 1895 there were in Algeria 358,057 horses and mules, 280,803
as.ses, 255,408 camels, 1,121,240 cattle, 7,891,979 sheep, and 3,545,041 goats.
The total animal stock amounted to 13,544,719, of which 12,820,019 belonged
to natives.
In 1890, 14 mines (out of 51 concessions). were worked for iron, zinc,
lead, mercury, copper, and antimony. The quantity of iron ore extracted
was 374,000 tons, valued at 2,090,000 francs ; of zinc and lead ore 17,717
tons, valued at 844,000 francs; antimony ore, 058 tons, valued at 95,000
francs. Petroleum has been found in Oram, and fresh phosphate beds in
various parts of the country. The production of phosphate of lime in 1896
was 105,738 tons, valued at 2,504,523 francs, mostly from Tebessa. The
industry is largely in the hands of English firms.
Commerce.
The commerce of Algeria, like that of France, is divided into general
(total imports and exports), and special (imports for home use and exi)orts of
home produce). The former was as follows, 1897 (in francs) : —
Geiicnil Comnicrce.
Imports from
Exjiorts to
France .......
Foreign countries and French colonics .
Total
216,175,322
60,726,105
276,901,427
245,978,961
38,868,388
284,847,349
The total special commerce was as follows for five years (in francs) :-
Years
Total
Foreign Countries and Frencli Colonics
Imports
Exports
Imports from
Exports to
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
231,406,103
259,300,000
255,543,746
269,237,968
264,968,392
169,800,000
242,100,000
284,211,618
231,074,077
270,808,518
46,651,881
59,992,343
52,380,328
51,436:012
48,793,070
27,477,942
34,427,409
38,551,954
34,233,031
38,808,388
554
FRANCE : — ALGERIA
The special trade of Algeria with various countries in 1897 was : —
—
Ijnports
from
Francs
216,175,322
473,991
5,190,809
4,759,370
1,086,737
1,945,094
Exports to
Francs
237,940,130
4,030,951
12,893.152
1,872,538
8,080,454
901,720
—
Imports
from
Francs
0,192,554
3,822,763
7,692,518
3,438,966
5,504,627
926,220
Exports to
1
France
Belgium
Great Britain .
Spain .
Italy .
Austria
1
1
Russia
Tunis .
Morocco
j United States .
Brazil
Germany ,
Francs
1,927,580
3,064,029
193,558
764,451
2,584,007
The principal imports in 1897 were: animals, 8,296,010 francs; animal
products, 3,462,415 francs; colonial produce 8,716,437 francs; timber,
4,417,377 francs; tissues, 1,242,145 francs; clocks, trinkets, &c., 1,730,264
francs. The chief exports were: flour, &c., 957,964 francs; colonial pro-
duce, 4,903,766 francs; metals, 5,288,918 francs. The subjoined statement
shows the commerce of Algeria with Great Britain and Ireland in each of
the last five years.
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into United King-
dom from Algeria
Exports of British produce
to Algeria .
£
477,854
225,444
£
636,372
310,662
£
549,362
264,905
£
531,523
257,501
£
671,014 \
273,304 :
The most important articles of im])ort into Great Britain in 1897 were :
esparto and other fibres, for making paper, of the value of 307,332Z. ; iron ore,
164, 880^.; cork, 24,533^. ; phosphates, 111,852/.; hay, 20,469/. ; skins,
23,769/. The British exports to Algeria consist principally of cotton fabrics
of the value of 12,947/. ; coal, 221,328/. ; and machinery, 18,147/., in 1897.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1897, 1,729 vessels of 923,341 tons, entered Algerian ]iorts from
abroad, and 1,755, of 928,907 tons, cleared; of the vessels entered, 357 of'
148,014 tons, belonged to France. In the coasting trade 8,976 vessels of
1,437,449 tons entered, and the same cleared. On January 1^^1898, the
mercantile marine of Algiers consisted of 650 sailing vessels of 6,977 tons, and
59 steamers of 7,750 tons.
Ahners is now the most important coaling station in the Mediterranean.
IiA898 there were 1,815 miles of national roads in Algeria.
In 1897 there were 2,156 English miles of railway open for traffic ; of this
325 miles was on Tunisian territory.
The postal and telegraph revenue for 1896 was 4,512,746 francs, ami the
expenditure 5,335,666 fi-ancs. There were 517 post offices. Other postal
statistics are included in those of France.
The telegraph of Algeria consisted in 1896 of 5,025 miles of line and
12,280 miles of wire, with 436 olhces. Messages (1896), 1,674,092, of which
1,550,346 Avere internal, 49,634 international, and 74,112 official.
British Consul- General for yilyeria.—Ciii^tsim F. Hay Newton.
Vice-Consul at Algiers. — F. E. Drummond Hay.
Vice-Consuls at Arzeu, Bone, Oran, and Philippeville.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 555
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and nieasnres of France only are used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria.
1. Official Publications.
Aiinuaire statisliquc do la France. Paris, 189S.
Compti general de la justice eriniinelle. Annual.
Kxpose de la situation gonerale de I'Algerie. Annual.
Grand Annuaire, Commercial, Industriel, Adininistralif, Agricole et Viticolc de
I'Al.t^erie ct de la Tunisic. 8. Annual. Paris.
Taliliau <le la situation des etablisscments franc^aises. 19 vols., 4to, from lS38to 18GG : the
eontinuation bears the title 'Statistiquegenerale de I'Algerie,' jiublished every three year.s.
Le Pays du Mouton ; des conditions d'existence des troujieaux sur les hauts-i)lateaux
it dans le sml de I'Algerie. Published by the Government General. Alger, lt93.
Rrjiorls by the Commission d'^tude des Questions Algeriennes: — De]>ositii)ns du 1 Mai
au 20 Juillet, 1S91 ; Report by M. Combes on the primary instructiun of tlie natives ;
Report on the Bank of Algeria ; Report by Jules Ferry on the Government of Algeria ;
Ue])ort by M. Clamageran on tlie fiscal regime of Algeria ; Report by Jules Guichard on the
Regime Forcstier of Algeria. Paris, 1892.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
.Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
Hritish Possessions. Imji. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Tublications.
Barail (General du), Mes Souvenirs. Paris, 1895.
Beaulicn (P. Leroy), L'Algerie et la Tunisie. 2nd ed. Paris, 1S97.
Bcurmand (F.), Le IMarechal Bugeand. Paris, 1895.
Bridgmnn (F. A.), Winters in Algeria. 8. New York, 1890.
Degsolie.rs (F.), Organisation politique de I'Algerie. 8. Paris, 1894.
E$toiiblo7i (R.), Collection complete de la Jurisprudeucc Algerienne de])uis la conquete
jusqu' i\ 1895. 24 vols. 8. Alger.
Extournelles de Constant (Baron P. de), Les Congregations rcligicuses chez les Arabes
et la Con(pietc de I'Afi-ique du Nord. 12. Paris, 1887.
Fillias (A.), L'Algerie ancienne et moderne. 12. Alger, 1875.
Ga£'arel(V.), L'Algerie: histoire, conquete, colonisation. Paris, 1883.
Graurlin (L), Le Dernier Marechai de France (Canrobert). Paris, ItQb.
Guide Joanne : Algerie et Tunisie. Paris, 1896.
Haufori (¥.). Au Pays des Palmes: Biskra. Paris, 1897.
Lallimand (C), De Paris au Desert. Paris, 1895.
Lavelcye (Emile tie), L'Algerie et Tunisie. Paris, 1887.
MnUzan (Heinr. Freiherr von), Drei Jahi-eini Nordwestcn von Afrika : Reiscnin Algerien
uu'l Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1SG9.
Masqv.iray (B.), Souvenirs d'Afrique. Paris, 1894.
Nugent (E. G.), A Land of Mosques and Marabouts. 8. London, 1894.
Pease (A E.), Biskra and the Oases and Desert of the Zibans. London, 189.3.
Pfiisn (H.), L'Algerie. Voyage de la delegation de la Commission d' etudes, etc. 8.
Paris, 1894.
Pieasi^ (L.), Algerie [Guide Joanne]. Paris, 1S93.
Playfair (Sir R. L.), Handbook (Murray's) of Algeria and Tunis. London, 1895. The
Scourgf of Christendom. 8. London, 1884. Bibliograiihy of Algeria, published by the
Royal Geograiijiical Societj'. London, 1888.
Prax (V.), Etude sur la Question Algerienne. 8. Bone, 1892.
Reclits (FA\s(te), Geograjihie universelle. Tome XL L'Afrique septentrionalc. Paris, 1886.
Revue Africaine. 8. Alger. Yearly since 1856.
Rinn (L.), Ilistoire de I'lnsurrection de 1871 en Algerie. S. Alger, 1891. Marabouts.
Rohnt (G.), Voyage a travers I'Algerie. Paris, 1891.
.f Khouan : Etude sur 1' Islam en Algerie. 8. Paris, 18S4.
Saiivnifjo (E.), Les cultures sur le littoral de la Medeterranee. Paris, 1804.
Sabaticr (C). Touat, Sahara et Soudan. Paris, 1891.
Sai(r;;i (.!.), Manuel de riinmigrant en jVlgerie. 12. Paris, 1894.
Shaw (Thomas, D.D., kc), Travels or Observations relating to several Parts of Barbarv
an.l the Levant. Oxford, 18.38-46.
'rc}tihntchrilCS\.), L'Algerie et Tunis. Paris, 1880.
Vigiion (Ij.), La France en Algerie. 8. Paris, 189.3.
Villot (Capitaine), Moeurs, coutumcs ot institutions des indigenes d'Algerie. 12. Paris,
187 2.
556 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
FRENCH CONGO AND GABTJN.
The French Congo and Gabiin region is one continuous and connected
territory. The right liank of the Congo from Brazzaville to the month of the
Mobangi is French, and north to 4° N. , and along the north bank of the
Mobangi to the boundary of the British sphere. According to the agreement
with Germany in 1894, French territory runs northward behind the
Cameroons and along the east of the Shari to Lake Chad, and to the
water parting between the Nile and the Congo. An almost straight line
to the coast along the second degree N. embraces the Gabun, The total
area is 497,000 square miles. The territories are under a Commissioner-
General, Avho, assisted by two lieutenant-governors, has charge both of the
civil and military administration. There are twenty-seven stations established
in this region, on the coast, the Congo, and other places, elevcji of them being
on the Ogove. The number of the native population is estimated at 5, 000, 000 ;
there are 300 Europeans besides the garrison. The country is covered
with extensive forests. The exports in 1897 were — caoutchouc, 518 tons ;
elephants' teeth, 105 tons; palm oil, 140 tons; })alm kernels, 806 tons;
ebony, 1,748 tons; mahogany, 3,421 tons; besides coffee, cocoa, kola nuts,
piassava, and other produce. Vessels entered in 1897, 101 of 252,160 tons
(49 of 129,279 tons French, 26 of 59,500 tons British). The only
roads are native footpaths. There are 18 schools for boys and 7 for girls,
with 800 pupils. Post offices, 31 ; letters, &c., transmitted (1894), 346^314.
Local budget, 1898, 3,501,400 francs'; expenditure of France (budget of 1899),
2, 491, 165 'francs.
By the Franco-German Agreement of Felnuary, 1896, the region to the
east of the Shari, which includes Bagirmi, was reserved to the French
sphere of influence, in 1897 a treaty was made on behalf of the French
Government with the Sultan of Bagirmi, and a French Resident was appointed
to Massenia, the capital of the region. The Sultanate comprises the low-lying
marshy region between Lake Chad, the Lower Sliari river, and the Sokoro
hills west of Lake Fitri, and has an area of about 20,000 square miles, or
65,650 includitig the southern lands inhabited by tributary pagan peoples,
or to which slave-hunting expeditions are regi;larly sent. The IJarmaghe, as
the natives of Bagirmi call themselves, are all Mohammedan Negroes, who
numbered 1,500,000 about the middle of the century. Since then they have
been greatly reduced by the wars with "Wadai, famines and e]tidemics. In
September, 1898, they were dying of starvation by thousands, in consequence
of the ravages of the usurping Sultan of Bornu.
Gold Coast Territories. See Senkgal, S:c., p. 519.
MADAGASCAR.
Government.
The assertion of the claim of France over Madagascar dates from the year
1642, wdien a concession of the island was granted to a trading company by
the French King. This grant and similar concessions subseqiu^ntly made, as
well as decrees proclaiming French sovereignty and the appointment of
viceroys over the island, were entirely ineffective and, except on some parts of
the coast, nothing w'as done in the way of exploration. In the year 1810
Radama L succeeded in reducing a large part of the island to the sway of
the sovereigns of the Hova, the most advanced, though ])robably not the most
numerous, of the various Malagasy races, and in 1820 he was recogiiised by
AREA AND POPULATION 557
the Eii^dish as King of Mada^'ascar. His widow, (,)uocn Ranavalona I., ol>-
taiiied the sovereign power in 1829, and until her death, in 1861, intercourse
with foreigners was discouraged. She was succeeded by Radiima II., in
1861, and he l)y his wife Rasohferina, in 1863, onwhose death, in 1868, Ranava-
lona II. obtained the throne. The recently deposed sovereign, Ranavalona III.
(born 1861), succeeded in 1883. The French having claimed a portion of the
north-west coast as ceded to them by local chiefs, hostilities were carried on in
1882-84 against the Hovas, who refused to recognise the cession. In 1885
peace was made, Diego Suarez being surrendered to France. A French Resident-
General was received at the capital, and the foreign relations of the country
were claimed to be regulated by France. By the Anglo-French agreement of
August 5, 1890, the protectorate of France over Madagascar was recognised by
Great Britain ; but the Native Government steadily refused to recognise any
protectorate. In May, 1895, a French expedition was despatched to enforce
the claims of France, and on October 1, the capital having been occupied,
a treaty was signed whereby the Queen recognised and accepted the protectorate.
By a unilateral convention made in January, 1896, Madagascar became a
French possession, and by law promulgated August 6, 1896, the island and its
dependencies were declared a French colony.
On February 27, 1897, the Queen was deposed by the Resident-General, and
on March 11 she and her family were deported to the island of Reunion.
Governor-General. — General Gallieni.
An Administrative Council has been established at Antananarivo, and with
i ts assistance the Governor-General rules the whole island. There are numerous
residents and vice-residents at the towns and villages on the east and west
coasts, and at Fort Dauphin in the south.
Area and Population.
Madagascar, the third largest island in the world (reckoning Australia as
a continent), is situated on the south-eastern side of Africa, from which it is
separated by the Mozambique Channel, the least distance between island and
continent being 230 miles ; total length, 975 miles ; breadth at the broadest
point, 358 miles.
The area of the island, with its adjacent islands, is estimated at
228,500 square miles, and the population, according to the most
tmstworthy estimates, at 3,500,000 ; other estimates vary from 2,500,000
to 5,000,000. No census has ever been undertaken, and it is there-
fore only by vague and uncertain estimates that any idea can be formed
of the population, either of the island as a whole or of particular
districts. The female poi)ulation seems in excess of the male. A numlier of
foreign residents live on the coasts, chiefly Creoles from Mauritius and
Reunion, with Chinese and other Asiatics who cany on small retail
trade. The most intelligent, and enterprising tribe is the Ilova, whose
language, allied to the Malayan and Oceanic tongues, is understood
over a large part of the island. The people are divided into a great
many clans, who seldom intermarry. The Hovas are estimated to number
1,000,000 ; the other races, more or less mixed, are the Sakalavas in
the west, 1,000,000; the Betsileos, 600,000; Bara, 200,000; Betsimi-
saraka, 400,000 ; other southern tribes, 200,000. In the coa.st towns are
many Arab traders, and there are besi<les many negroes from Africa introduced
as slaves. The slave tra<le was nominally abolished in 1877, and ste})S are
now being taken by the French Government for the elTectual suppression of
slavery. The system of forced labour in the public service is still maintained ;
natives between 16 and 60 years of age being required to give 50 days
558 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
annually to the. State. This system, adopted because the natives are unable
to pay taxes, considerably reduces the expenditure of Government on road-
making and other public works. The capital, Antananarivo, in the interior,
is estimated to have, with suburbs, a population of about 100,000, The
principal port is Tamatave, on the east coast, with a population of 5000 to
7000. Majuuga, the chief ])ort on the north-west coast, has about 6,000
inhabitants.
Religion, Education, Justice.
Up to 1895 a large portion of the Hova and of the other tribes in the
central districts had been Christianised. The vast majority of professing
Christians were connected with churches formed by the London Missionary
Society, but Anglicau, Friends', Norwegian, American, Lutheran, and Roman
Catholic missions were also at work. The Christian population was esti-
mated at 450,000 Protestants, and 50,000 Roman Catholics. Hospitals,
college^, and about 1,800 schools, Avith 170,000 children, were connected with
the various missions. Since the establishment of French rule, it is alleged
that much has been done to break down the influence of Protestant missions
in the island. Though decrees have been issued proclaiining religious
liberty, the Catholic propaganda has nevertheless been pushed in such a
manner that many native Protestants have been constrained to call themselves
Catholic. The foim of tenure of the real property of the missions required
the adherence of Malagasy Christians of the same profession as the holders of
the property, and it is stated that many British mission churches are being
lost through the failure of this condition in conserjuence of the terrorism of
the Catholics.
On January 27, 1897, a French technical school was opened at Antananarivo,
with workshops for iron, tin, painting, pottery, carpentry, tailoring and
other work
A code of laws was printed in 1881. Justice is dispensed by French
authorities, but there are no statistics available showing crime. Regular
courts have been constituted at Antananarivo, Tamatave, and JSLijunga, and
their Courts have jurisdiction over British subjects in Sladagascar.
Finance.
In the local budget for 1898 the revenue was put at 9,437,096 francs,
the sources of income being: subvention, 1,800,000 francs; regies, &c.,
2,379,200 francs ; customs, &c., 412,200 francs; native taxes, 4,264,426
francs; general taxes and other proceeds, 581,270 francs. The estimated
expenditure was calculated to balance the revenue, the largest items being
administration, 1,215,378 francs ; militia, 1,823,028 francs ; posts and
telegraphs, 690,779 francs. In the French budget of 1899 the sum of
20,185,000 francs was allowed for the administration of Madagascar and
dependencies. In 1886 the Malagasy Government borrowed from the Paris
Comptoir d'Escompte, at 6 per cent., a sum of 15 million francs, of which
10 million wcnttofpay the indemnity to France. For the conversion of the
lialance of this loan, and for public works, &c. , in the island, it was pro-
vided in April, 1897, that there should be issued a loan of 30,000,000 francs
at 3 ]»er cent. ; 20,000,000 at once and the remainder when voted by the
Chambers. The loan lias tlie guarantee of the Republic.
Defence.
According to the budget of 1898 the colonial troops in Madagascar consist
of: infantry, 4,558 ; artillery, 1,367 ; cavalry, 44 ; total, 5,699, including 191
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS. 559
officers. Of the men, 1,220 are natives, and 560 are Al<::!jerians. For 1899
tlie French budget allows 18,381,000 francs for military expenditure in
Madagascar.
Production and Industry.
Of minerals, gold, copper, iron, lead (galena), sul})lmr, graphite, and a
lignite have been found. It seems probable that many parts of the island are
very rich in valuable ores. Cattle breeding and agriculture are the chief occupa-
tions of the people ; rice, sugar, coffee, cotton, cacao, vanilla, and sweet pota-
toes being cultivated. The forests abound with many valuable woods, while
tropical and sub-tropical products are plentiful. Concessions of land are
being made to French subjects free, while foreigners have to buy them. The
princii)al article at present produced in the island is caoutchouc, which is ex-
ported to London or Hamburg. Silk and cotton weaving are carried on,
and the manufacture of textures from the rofia palm fibre, and of mstal
work. At present, however, no machinery is used for the making of textile
fabrics. All are literally mcunc- hctnies, and carried on by the simple sjundle
and loom in use from a very remote period. And so with the manufacture
ami working of iron and other metals.
Commerce.
The chief exports are cattle, india-rubber, hides, horns, coffee, lard, sugar,
vanilla, wax, gum, copal, rice, and seeds. The chief imports are cotton goods,
rum, crockery, and metal goods. In 1896 the imports amounted to
13,493,100 francs; exports, 3,605,900 francs. Of the imports 3,280,700
francs in value came from France ; 6,749,816 francs from England ; 2,486,761
francs from the United States ; 687,859 francs from Germany. The chief im-
ports were cotton goods from England. Of the exports France took 736,670
francs ; England 1,550,000 francs, imports into France from Madagascar
in 1897, general, 2,038,677 francs; special, 1,389,042 francs; exports to
Madagascar, general, 16,796,399 francs ; special, 12,302,756 francs. In 1897
the value of the imports into Great Britain (Board of Trade Returns) from
Madagascar was 67,859Z. (in 1895, 139,005/.) ; and exports from Great
Britain to Madagascar 158,610Z. (in 1895, 66,400^.) The imports from
Madagascar were, in 1897, caoutchouc, 12,137^. ; vegetable fibres, 14,372?. ;
wax, 17,704/. ; raw hides, 10,052/, ; the exports to Madagascar, cottons,
111,857/, ; iron, wrought, and unwrought, 6,061/. ; machinery, 6,737/. in 1897.
Shipping and Communications.
Tamatave, the principal seaport of the island, has a commodious harbour,
safe during seven or eight months of the year, visited regularly by the
steamers of several shipping comjianies. There are as yet no roads in
Madagascar in the European sense of the word, and no wheeled vehicles
aie employed. All passengers and goods are carried on the shoulders of
bearers, except where the rivers or coast lagoons allow the use of canoes. A
waggon road is being made from Tamatave to Antananarivo, and the canali-
sation of the lagoons between Tamatave and the capital has l)ecn begun.
Negotiations are in progress for the construction of a railway which, with the
canal, will connect Antananarivo and Tamatave, in return for which the con-
tracting French Company will receive concessions of lands, mining rights,
and other privileges.
There is postal communication throughout the island. An electric telegraph,
180 miles in length, connects Tamatave and the capital, and another
connects the capital with Majunga which, by a cable laid in 1895, is in
communication with ^Iozambi<jue and the Eastern Telegraph Company.
560 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
Money and Banks.
The Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris has an agency at Antanana-
rivo and Taniatave.
The only legal coin is the silver 5-franc piece, with its silver sub-divisions
as well as copper coins of 5 and 10 centimes, but the Italian 5-lire piece
and Belgian, Greek, and other coins of equal value are also in circulation.
For smaller sums the coin is cut up into fractional parts, and weighed as
required to facilitate trade in the country,
Consular and other Representatives.
Of Great Britain in Mahagascah.
Consul at Tamatavc. — Anatole Sauzier.
Consul at Ankmdnarivo. — T. P. Porte i*.
Vicc-Consul at Majunga. — Stratton Knott.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning^ Madagascar.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of tlie Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Loudon.
Correspondence respecting Treaty of December 17, 18S5, between France and Madagascar.
London, 18SG.
Reiiort of Rear-Adiiiiral W. Gore Jones, C.B., on a visit to the Queen of Ma(higascar
London, 1SS3.
Correspondence between Great Britain and France respecting Madagascar. Ijondon, ISOS.
Treaties concluded between P'rauce and Madagascar, August 8, 1868 ; December 12, 1885 ;
and Siptember 30, 1895.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Anlaui'uiarivo Annual.
Beitriige zur Kenntniss IMadagaskars. Berlin, 18S.3.
Burleigh (B.), Two Campaigns in Madagnscir and Ashantee. London, 189C.
Carol (J.), Chez les Hova, au Pavs Rouge. Paris, 1S98.
Catat (L.), Voyage a Mad;igascar (1889-<i0). Paris, 1896.
Combette (M.), Madagascar, etude geograjjliique et commerciale. ' Annales de I'Extreme
Orient.' October, 1889.
Cousins (W. E.), Madagascar of To-day. 8. London, 1895.
Dawson (E. W.), Madagascar; its Capabilities and Resources. London, 1895.
Drury (Robert), Journal of Fifteen Years' Captivity. With Notes by S. P. Oliver. 8.
London, 1890.
Ellis (Rev. W.), History of Madagascar, 2 vols. London, 1838. Tliree Visits to
Madagascar. Loudon, 1S58. Madagascar Revisited. London, 1867.
Gautier, Guide du colon a Mailagasear. Paris, 189G.
Grandidier (X.), Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar. Paris, 1870.
In 28 4to. volumes, with many hundred plates, still in progress.)
Gninam (Cajitain), Documents sur I'histoire, la geograi>hie et le commerce lajiarliede
3ccidentale de Madagasear. Paris, 1845.
Grosihiude (K.), Un Parisien a Madagascar. Paris, 1897.
Hanotaux (G), L'Atl'aire de Madagascar. Paris, 1896.
/fa?-f/)ia/m (Robert), Madagascar und die Insein Seychellen, &c. In vol. Ivii. of Das
Wissen der Gegenwart. I;eii»zig, 1886.
Hocquard (E.), L'Expeditiou' de Madagascar. Paris, 1897.
Johnston (H\r Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambri<lge, 1899.
Knifjht (10. F.), Madagascar in War Time. 8. London, 1896.
Letnurf (.)), Madagasear : L'ExjK'ilition au point de vue me<lical, &c. Paris, 1896.
Leroy (L.), L('S Francais a Madagascar. Paris, 1883.
Mwicr (U.), La Vic i Madagascar. Paris, 1898.
Maude (F. C), Five Years in Mailngascar. London, 189.').
McLeod (J. L.), Madagascar and its Peojile. London, 1865.
Mullens (livv. Dr. J.), Twelve Months in Madagascar. London, 1875
Oliver (H. P.), Jladagascar and tlie INlalagasy. London, 1866. Madagascar. 2 vols.
London, ISSC). Tiie True IStory of the Frencli Disjaitc in Madagascar. 8. London, 18S6.
Olivier (Editor), Ce qu'il faut counaltre de Madagascar. Paris, 1895.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationahs Concernant rAfricjue. Brussels, 1898.
Pa(S(i/it(M.), Madagascar. 2nd ed. Paris, 1895.
DI^GO-SUAREZ, ETC. — RjfiUNION 561
Piolet{rkre J, B.), Ma(la<;ascar, sa Doscriiitioii, ses Habitants. Talis, ISOo. Madagas-
car et los Ilova. Paris, 18'.>5.
Pollen and Van Dam, Roi'.liorcliesHur 1r Faiinc (h^ Mada;^ascar. Ti vols. 4to. Lcyden, 18(58.
Jioiitirr (G.), Li's droits de la Franci" siir Madaj^ascar. Paris, IS'.io.
Shaw(livv. G. A.), ^Madagascar of To-day. 12. London, ISSti.
Sibrce (Rev. James), Madagascar and its Peo])le. London, 1870. Tlic Great African
Island. London, ISSO. Madagascar hcfore the Conquest. T^ondon, 1S'.>(5.
Vahsi'ere (Pere dc la), Histoire do Madagascar: scs liabitants ot ses niis.sionaires.
2 vols. Paris, 1SS4. Vingt aus a Madaga.scar. Paris, 1885.
DIEGO-SUAREZ, NOSSI-BE, 8*^ MARIE.
Those possessions were, by decree of January 28, 1896, placed under the
autliority of the Resident- General of Madagascar, and have thus become
dependencies of that colony.
Diego-Suarez, a territory of still undefined extent, on a bay of the same'
name at the nortliern extremity of Madagascar, is held by the French in;
accordance -with a treaty of Decend)er 17, 1885. At the census of 1887 the
population (including the garrison) was 4.567. The chief town of the:
colony is Antsirame.
Nossi-Be Island, close to Avest coast of Madagascar, with an area of 113'
S(j[uare miles, has 7,803 inhabitants, chiefly Malagasy and Africans. Chief
productions, sugar-cane, coffee, and rice. Imports into France from Nossi-
Be in 1897, 636,000 francs; exports from France to the island, 539,000
francs.
S'®- Marie, on the north coast of Madagascar, was taken by France as
early as 1643. It covers 64 square miles ; population, 7,667 ; chief export,
cloves. Imports into France in 1897, 74,610 francs, and exports from France
to the island, 108,000 francs.
MAYOTTE AND THE COMORO ISLANDS.
The island of Mayotte (140 square miles) has a population (1898) of 11,640
inhabitants. The chief production is cane-sugar, 3,020 tons of sugar in
1897 ; there arc 7 sugar works and 3 distilleries of rum. Vanilla cultivation
has recently much extended ; in 1897, 8,200 kilogrammes were produced of
excellent quality. Important coffee plantations are being made. Local
budget (1898), revenue, 322,000 francs ; expenditure, 317,000 francs. The
subvention from France was 31,000 francs. This aid decreases annually by
one-tenth, but in consequence of the cyclone of February, 1898, the French
Treasury has lent the colony 500,000 francs, repayable in 20 years without
interest. Expenditure of France (budget of 1899), 45,014 francs. The
Glorieuse Archipelago (with 14 inhabitants) Iwlongs to Mayotte.
The Comoro Islands, situated half-way between Madagascar and the
African coast, consist of 4 larger and a number of smaller islands, with
an area of about 620 square miles. Tliey are under the authority of the
Administrator of ^layotte. Sugar and vanilla are successfully cultivated,
and the culture of coffee and of cloves is Iteing tried. Each of the i.slands
has its own budget, the tot;il being about 240,000 francs. They receive no
subvention. Grande Comore has a debt of about 950,000 francs. They now
possess an important coal depot. They were taken under French [)rotection
in 1886. The population is estimated at 53,000, ehielly Mussulmans.
REUNION.
Reunion, about 420 miles east of Madagascar, has belonged to France since
1764. It is represented by a senator and two dejmties. It has an area of
965 square miles and population (1893) of 171,713(23,161 British Indians,
0 0
562 FRANCE: — SENEGAL, ETC.
5,617 natives of Madaj^asear, 9,769 Africans, 510 Chinese). The towns are
iinder the French municipal law. The chief port, Pointe-des-Galets, is con-
nected by a railway of 78 miles with St. Benoit and St. Pierre. The chief
productions are sugar (45,700 tons exported in 1896), coffee, cacao, vanilla,
spices. In 1895 the live stock on the island was 2,650 horses, 2,700 mules,
5,315 oxen, 8,750 sheep, and 7,800 goats. Imports in 1895, 18,650,000
francs ; exports, 21,734,520 francs. Imports from Reunion into France in
1897 :— General, 20,678,910 francs ; special, 15,922,391 francs. Exports
from France to Reunion : — General, 19,477,945 francs ; special, 8,485,837
francs. Shipping entered (1896), 164 vessels of 180,289 tons. The local
budget for 1898 showed income and expenditure, 5,211,508 francs. The
expenditure of France (budget 1899) was 4,514,942 francs.
St. Paul and Amsterdam, small islands in the Indian Ocean, belong to
France.
Kerguelen, a desolate island, about 50 S. lat. and 70 E. long, was
annexed by France in 1893.
OBOCK AND SOMALI COAST PROTECTORATE.
Obock, with the French Somali coast and dependencies on the Red Sea
coast of Africa, the Gulf of Aden, and the Bay of Tajurah, has an area esti-
mated at 8,640 square miles, with a population of 30,000 natives There is
a trade with Slioa and other countries in the interior, but as there is no custom
house, no trade statistics are published. Local budget (revenue and ex-
penditure), 617,307 francs. Expenditure of France (budget of 1899), 587,500
francs,
SENEGAL, FRENCH SUDAN, FRENCH GUINEA, IVORY COAST,
AND DAHOMEY.
With the exception of the British colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone, and the
Gold Coast, Portuguese Guinea, and Liberia, France claims the whole of West
Africa from Cape Blanco to Togo Land, and inland to the Upper and Middle
Niger, and considerable areas to the east of the Upper Niger, including the
Kingdom of Kong and neighbouring territories. By the Anglo-French
arrangement of August 5, 1890, Great Britain recognised as within the French
s])here of influence the whole region to the south of Tunis and Algeria north
of a line from Say, on the Middle Niger, to Barrawa, on Lake Chad, including
all the territories which belong to Sokoto. This was modified by the agree-
ment of 1898, by which 150,000 square miles was acquired by France from
the British Niger Territories. This agreement must be ratified by June
14, 1899. The French Sahara may embrace about 1^ million square
miles, mostly desert. Several railway ]»rojects from Algeria to the Niger are
under consideration. The total area claimed by France in West Africa is
about 650,000 s(|uare miles. It is divided into Senegal, French Sudan,
French Guinea and Dependencies, the Ivory Coast, and Daliomey.
Senegal proper (the colony) includes several stations on the river as far as
Matam, with a certain area of land around each, and the coast from the north
of Cape A^'crd to Gambia in the south. These, with the settled portion of
French Guinea, embrace over 14,700 square miles, with a })Opulation of
174,000, of whom 135,000 are in Senegal, ]>ut included in the protectorate
are various states, which give a total area of 115,800 sipiare miles, with a
liopulation of 2,000,000. There is a Governor-General in Senegal, assisted
l>y a Colonial Council. There are 2,508 troops (including natives) with 66
officers. The chief town of Senegal is St. Louis ; i>opulation, 20,000. Dakar
(population, 2,000) and Rufis(j[ue are important centres. The colony is
SENEGAL, ETC. ^63
i'e|)reseiited by one deputy. At high water the Senegal is navigable for srnall
vessels into the interior. In 1898 there were 246 miles of railway, 574 miles
of telegraph line, 1,022 miles of wire, and 21 telegraph offices. Ground-nuts
(arachides), gums, india-rubber, palm nuts and oil, hides and horns, mats
and gold are the chief ex])ort8 ; tobacco, beads, cutlery, made-up clothing
and calicoes are the chief imports. The total imports in 1897 were estimated
at 25,000,000 francs, and the exports of produce at 12,000,000 francs,
According to French statistics, the imports into France from Senegal in 1897
were :— General, 13,555,969 francs ; special, 13,532,087 francs. Exports
from France to Senegal :— General, 23,524,534 francs; special, 14,242,351
francs. At Dakar, Rufisque, Goree, and St. Louis in 1897 there entered and
cleared 505 vessels of 662,000 tons. Local budget for 1898, 3,929,367 francs ;
expenditure of France (budget for 1899), 6,106,942 francs; debt, 517,657
francs.
The French Sudan includes the Upper Senegal, and all the countries on
the Upper and iNIiddle Niger, and the states which extend inland from Senegal
and the Rivieres du Sud. It is divided into annexed territories and protec-
torates. The annexed territories, mostly in the Upper Senegal, embrace an area
of 54,000 si^uare miles, and a population of 360,000 ; the protectorates wereesti-
niated to have an area of 300,000 sc^uare miles, and a population of 24 millions.
The administration of the French Sudan is intrusted to a Superior Military
Commandant, who resides at Kayes, in the Senegal, under the authority of
the Governor of Senegal. There is a regiment of native riflemen, a squadron
of Sudan Spahis, and a battery of marine artillery. There is a railway from
Kayes to Bafoulabe, 94 miles, which it was originally intended to carry
on to the Niger. The produce consists of gum, rubber, earth-nuts, rice, &c.
Iron is found over wide regions, and gold in some districts. The foreign
trade in 1897 amounted to 8,551,805 francs for imports and 4,777,282 francs
for exports. The imports are .General European merchandise, and the exports
mostly earth-nuts. The local' budget for 1897 showed revenue and expen-
diture of 2,725,500 francs. According to the budget for 1899, the annual
expenditure of France on the Sudan is 6,873,000 francs.
French Guinea.— On January 1, 1890, the territory on the coast from
ll'' to nearly 9° N. (except the Los Islands, which belong to Great Britain),
and inland along and between the rivers as far as the Fouta Djallon, was
detached from Senegal and formed into a separate colony under the name of
Rivieres du Sud (a name not now officially used), with Conakry, on the isle
of Tombo, for its capital. The population of the colony proper (the coast
region) is given as 47,541.
The French colony of the Ivory Coast extends from Liberia eastwards to
the British Gold Coast colony, and inland towards the bend of the Niger.
The Governor of the Ivory Coast controls the state of Kong and other terri-
tories on the north-east, but Samory's kingdom and Tieba's kingdom are
under the Governor of the French Sudan. The settlements on the coast
comprise Grand-Bassam, Assinie, Grand-Lahou, and Jackeville.
Dahomey stretches from the coast between German Togoland and the
British Lagos and Niger territories to a distance inland not yet finally deter-
mined. The agreement between the French and British Governments, dated
June 14, 1898, has not yet been ratified, tlie time for ratification having
been extended to June 14, 1899. The colony on the coast and the pro-
tectorate inland comprise an area of about 14,000 square miles, with a
population of about 550,000. The chief trading centres are Porto-Novo,
Kotonu, Grand Popo, and Whydah. Abomey, the capital, is about 70 miles
inland. The natives, who are of pure Negro stock and fetish -worshippers,
belong to the Fon branch of the Ewe family, but have called themselves
o 0 2
564 FRANCE: — TUNIS
Dauma or Dahome since the foundation of tlie kingdom early in the
seventeenth century. They are industrious agriculturists, exporting through
Whydah the finest palm-oil produced in Upper Guinea. Maize, cattle, ivory,
and india-rubber also abound. The exports of palm oil have now reached a
total of about 10,000 tons, and of palm kernels about 20,000 tons per
annum. Imports into France from French Congo, Sudan, Guinea, Ivory
Coast, and the Bight of Benin in 1897 : General, 6,886,912 francs ; special,
6,272,766 francs. Exports from France to these settlements: General,
8,237,605 francs: special, 6,134,221 francs. The expenditure ot France for
French Guinea (budget of 1899) was 320,826 francs. The local budgets
were : French Guinea (1898), 900,000 francs ; Ivory Coast (1898), 1,485,000
francs ; Dahomey (1898), 1,885,000 francs.
References concerning French West Africa, &c.
Aahht (E.), La Guerre au Dahomey, 1S8S-93. 8. Paris, 1894.
Binger (G.), Du Niger au Golfe de Guiuee. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1892.
Boutheiller (J.), De iSaint Louis a Sierra Leone. Paris, 1891.
Burton (Sir R. F.), Mission to Gelele, King of Dahonie. 2 vols. London, 1804.
Castellani (C), Vers le Nil Frangais avec la Mission Marchand. Paris, 1898.
Cat (Edoiiard), A travers le Desert. 8. Paris, 1892.
Chanclouin, Trois mois de captivite au Dahomey. 10. Paris.
Deville (Prof.), Partage d'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Domcrgue (A.), Notes de Voyage, Gabon. Paris, 1893.
Dubois (F.), Timbuctoo the My.sterious. 8. London, 1890.
Duncan (J.), Travels in Western Afi'ica. 2 vols. 12. Loudon, 1847.
X))/ ?;o u'sW (J.), La Route du Tchad. 8. Paris, 1893.
Espagna (P. d'), Jours de Guinea. Paris, 1898.
Estampes (L. d'), La France au Pays noir. Paris, 1893.
Foa (M.), A Voyage up the Wheni River, ' Pi-oc. Roy. Geog. Soc' Feb. 1889.
FoUie (L. G.), Voyage dans les Deserts da Sahara. 8. Tours, 1892.
Fotireau (F.), Au Sahara : mes deux missions de 1892 et 1893. Paris, 1897.
Galieni. (Col.), Deux Campagnes au Soudan frangais. 8. Paris, 1891.
Hoiirat (Lieut.), La IMission Hourst sur le Niger et au Pays des Touaregs. Paris, 1898.
French Enterprise in Africa. [Eng. Trans, of Lieut. Hourst's Narrative.] London, 1898.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keltic (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd ed. London, 1895.
Kingsley (Mary H.), Travels in West Africa. London, 1897.
Laumann (E. M.), A la Cute occidentale d'Afrique. 8. Paris, 1894.
Lebon (A.), Rapport de la Mission au Senc^gal et au Soudan. Paris, 1898.
Mattel (Com.), Bas-Niger. Paris, 1890.
Mevil (A.), Au Pays du Soleil et de I'Or. [Senegambia.] Paris, 1890.
Mounier {isl), France noire : Cote d'lvoire et Soudan. Paris, 1894.
Oliver (W. D.), Crags and Craters : Rambles in the Island of Reunion. 8. London, 1890.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concernant I'Afrique. Brussels, 1898.
Poirier (.1 .), Campagne du Dahomey, 1892-94. 8. Paris, 1895.
Reclu8(E.), Nouvelle GeographicUniverselle. Vols. XI. XII. XIII. 8. Paris, 1880-88.
Toutce (Commandant), Dahome, Niger, Touareg. Paris, 1897.
Verdier (A.), Trentc-cinq annees de lutte aux colonies. Cote occidentale dAfrique.
Paris, 1897.
Fictor (N.), L' Expedition du Dahomey en 1890. 2nd c<l. S. Paris, 1893.
Vigne d'Octon (P.), Terre de Mort : Soudan et Dahomey. 8. Paris, 1S92.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
TUNIS.
(Afrikija.)
Bey.
Sidi Ali, son of ]Wy Sidy Ahsin ; born Octol)er 5, 1817 ; su(Tceded hi.s
brother, Sidi Mohamed-cs-Sadok, October 28, 1882.
The reigning family of Tunis, occupants of the throne since 1691, descend
from Ben Ali Turki, a native of the Isle of Crete, ^vho made himself master of
AREA AND POPULATION * 565
the country, acknowledging, however, the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey,
in existence since 1575. Sidi Ahsin ohtained an imperial finnan, dated
October 25, 1871, which lil»crated him from the ]>aynient of trihute, hut
clearly established his itosition as a vassal of the Sublime Porte,
Government.
After the French invasion of the country in the spring of 1881, the treaty
of Kasr-es-Said (May 12, 1881), confirmed by decrees of April 22, 1882, placed
Tunis under the protectorate of France. The government is carried on under
the direction of the French Foreign Office, which has a special department
for Tunisian affairs, under the control of a French Minister Resident- General,
who is also Minister of Foreign Alfairs, and a ministry of 9 heads of depart-
ments, 7 of the ministers being French and 2 Arali. The country is divided
into 13 districts (contrOles civiles), 2 military circles, and 1 military post ;
the district governors (controleurs) are French ; the subordinate officials
(Raids and Sheiks) are Arab. French tribunals administer justice between
subjects of European powers, and also l)etween them and natives ; there are
Arab courts for cases between natives. French administration in Tunis has
been confirmed by conventions with all the European Powers, regulating the
status and the conditions of trade of their respective citizens Avithin the
Regency.
French Resident-General- — R. Ph. Millet.
The army of occupation numbers about 600 officers and 16,000 men. The
cost of maintaining this force is borne by the budget of the Republic. The
Tunisian army (winch is little more than the Bey's guard) numbers about
600 officers and men. There is a French gendarmerie of about 100 ; also a
rural Tunisian police, and in the larger towns a civil police.
Area and Population.
The present boundaries are : on the north and east the ]\[editerranean Sea,
on the west the Franco-Algerian province of Constantine, and on the south
the great desert of the Sahara and the Turkish Pashalik of Tripoli ; and,
reckoning its average lireadth from west to east to be 100 miles, it covers an
area of about 51,000 English square miles, including that portion of the Sahara
which is to the east of the Beled Djerid, extending towards Gadames. Popu-
lation estimated at 1,700,000. The majority of the population is formed of
Bedouin Arabs and Kabyles. The French population (1896) numbers 26,678,
including the military.
The capital, the city of Tunis, including suburbs, has a population of
153,000, comprising Moors, Arabs, Negroes, and Jews, with 40,000 Europeans.
By means of the canal, which was opened in 1893, Tunis is directly accessible
to 0(;ean-going vessels.
The bulk of the poi.ulation is Mohammedan under the Sheik-al-Islam,
and the revenue from the " Habus " lands, like that from the "Wakf"
lands in Egyi»t, is applied to religious, educational, and charitable pui-poses.
The Jews number about 45,000. with a Grand Rabbi at their head. There
are al)out 35,000 Roman Catholics, under the ministration of the Archbishop
of Carthage, the Bishoi)S of Bizerta and Sfax, and about 25 other clergymen.
The Greek Church (400), the French Protestants, and the English Church
are! also represented, and there are 23 English Protestant missionaries at
woi-k.
566
FRANCE : — TUNIS
In the city of Tunis there are 14 schools and colleges, French and Jewish,
4 of them being for girls, while in the interior there are under French
direction 89 public and 24 private primary schools, with 15,146 pupils (of
whom 5,056 are girls). In the Great Mosque at Tunis there is a Moham-
medan university. In the city are 113 and in the interior about 500
Mohammedan primary schools, some of them assisted by Government funds.
Many private schools have recently sprung up at Tunis and Sfax. The
Italian Government and certain Italian societies still maintain Italian schools
at Tunis and other large towns,
A department dealing with the arts and antiquities of Tunisia has been
formed under French and Tunisian officials, and a national museum has been
established near Tunis.
Finance.
The total revenue for 1898 was estimated at 24,061,100 francs, and the
expenditure at 24,060,525 francs. The estimates for 1898 were : —
1 Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
Direct taxes. . . 7,860,100
: Customs, &c . . 8,269,500
Monopolies . . . 5,886,800
; State domain . . 1,271,400
Various , . . 772,300
Francs
Civil list, pensions . 1,841,900
Finance, debt . . 10,315,500
Administration, Posts . 4,700,500 \
Public works, Agriculture 5,247,000 '
Various . . . 1,955,625
1 Total ordinary .24,061,100
1
Total ordinary . 24,060,525
In 1884 the Tunisian debt was consolidated into a total of 5,702,000/.
The loan was emitted as a perpetual 3 per cent, rente of 6,307,520 francs,
or 252,300Z., divided into 315,376 obligations of a nominal capital of 500 francs.
In 1888, the loan was converted into a 3^ per cent. loan.
Industry.
The chief industry is agriculture, and the chief products are cereals. In
1895, wheat occupied 435,337 hectares, and barley, 433,978 hectares or
one-sixth of the cultivated land ; vine3^ards 8,069 hectares, yielding 190,000
hectolitres, mostly for local consumption. There are about 12,000,000 olive
trees in Tunisia, producing annually about 20,000,000 kilogrammes of oil,
valued at about 15,000,000 francs. In the south of Tunis there are about
1,350,000 date palms ; the annual export of dates is valued at 1,000,000
francs. The average value of the wine exports is about 2,000,000 francs;
the vineyard area scarcely exceeds 1,600 hectares. Other products are
almonds, oranges, lemons, shaddocks, pistachios, alfa grass, henna, and
cork.
The minerals found are zinc, iron, lead, but these are little worked. Rich
deposits of phos})hates in the south are actively exploited ; the output at
Gafsa is brought to the coast by a new railway 200 miles in length. In tlie
mountain ranges are veins of fine marble.
On December 31, 1896, the farm animals were : — horses, 61,121; asses and
mules, 128,908; cattle, 252,220; sheei), 907,642 ; goats, 612,621 ; camels,
112,265 ; swine, 13,403.
The fisheries are mostly in the hands of Italians. They produced in 1895 :
sardines, 208,430 kilogrammes, value 2, 045Z. ; anchovies, 19,800 kilogrammes,
value 560/.; sponges and sepia, 180,000 kilogrammes, value 53,720/,
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
567
Commerce.
Ill 1896 the imports amounted to 40,444,518 francs, and the exports to
34,507,532 francs. The chief imports and exports were as follows : —
Imports
Francs
4,400,000
Exports
Francs
Cottons ,
Cattle
2,000,000
Semolina and groats .
5,700,000
Olive oil .
4,000,000
iron and steel rails .
1,000,000
Wheat .
9,000,000
Sugar, re lined .
2,100,000
Wines
1,500,000
Wheat .
1,900,000
Tanning l)aik .
1,300,000
Collee
1,300,000
Barley
3,000,000
Tanned hides .
1,000,000
Alia and diss .
1,500,000
Timber .
1,100,000
Sponges .
1,200,000
Of the imports 25,563,000 hancs in value were from France; 1,536,000
francs from Algeria ; 3,832,000 francs from Great Britain ; 5,284,000 francs
from Italy ; 2,483,000 francs from Malta ; 2,012,000 francs from Russia. Of
the exports, 20,223,000 francs went to France ; 5,796,000 francs to Algeria ;
1,472,959 francs to Great Britain ; 3,656,000 francs to Italy ; 1,260,000 francs
to Malta. According to French statistics, the special imports into France
from Tunis in 1897 amounted to 28,493 935 francs, and the special exi)orts
from France to Tunis to 24,385,957 francs.
The commercial intercourse between Tunis and the United Kingdom in
each of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, was as
follows : —
1893
£
1894
1895
£
lS9t)
£
1807 1
V
Imports into United
!
Kingdom fromTunis
84,705
88,528
72,273
62,434
61,882
Exports of British
1
produce to Tunis .
112,999
226,688
303,384
215,840
208,575 '
The principal imports into Great Britain in 1897 were : esparto grass and
other materials for making paper, of the value of 60, 722/. The principal British
export to Tunis consisted of cotton manufactures, of the value of 147,297/.
In the year 1897 there entered the 16 ports of the Regency 9,540 vessels of
1,996,929 tons; of these vessels 1,421 of 964,971 tons were Fi-ench ; 2,189
of 756,003 tons were Italian ; and 170 of 147,577 tons were British. The
merchant shipi»ing of the Regency comprises 403 vessels of from 10 to 150 tons.
Length of railways, 883 miles, of which 866 miles belong to the State.
The State lines are worked by an Algerian company. The short lines (about
16 miles in all) connecting Tunis with Goletta and other suburbs belong to
the Italian Ruliattino Company.
There are 2,060 miles of telegraphs and 3,670 miles of wire ; 94 telegraph
offices; messages (1897), 526,634. There were in 1897, 244 post ollices ;
letters .sent, internal service, 3,084,539; external, 9,732,873.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The legal coinage consists of pieces similar to the French, the pieces being
coined in France.
568 FRANCE : — AMERICA
The ounce — 31 '487 grammes ; the multiples of the ounce are the various
Jenoininations of the liottolo, which contains from 16 to 42 ounces.
The Kaffis (of 16 whihas, each of 12 salis) = 16 bushels.
The principal measure of length is the pik : the pik Arhi for linen = •5392 j^d. ;
the pik Turki for silk = •7058 yd. ; the ^jiA; Andov,lsi for cloth = ^7094 yd.
J^^.rencli -weights and measures have almost entirely taken the place of
Ihose of Tunis, but corn is still sold in kaffis and tvhihas.
Consibl-Gcneral at Tunis. — Sir H. H. Johnston, K. C.B. ; appointed 1897.
■Vice-Consul. — Gerard Laseelles.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Tunis.
Correspondence resjiecting the Establishment of Frencli Tribunals, and the Abi'Ogation
'of Foreign Consular Jurisdiction in Tunis. London, 1884.
Journal Officiel Tunisien.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series No. 447. London,
1898.
Annuaire Statistique de la Tunisie Paris.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Rapport du Resident-Gene! al de France a Tunis. Annual.
Ashbee (H. S.), Bibliography of Tunisia. 8. London, 1889
Bazaban (L.), A travers la Tunisie. 8. Paris, 1887.
Baedeker's Handbook for Southern Italy. [Contains chapters on Tunis.] 11th ed.
London, 1S93.
Boddy (A.), To Kairwan the Holy. 8. London, 1885.
Broadley (A. M.), Tunis, Past and Present. London, 1882.
Charmes (Gabriel), La Tunisie et la Tripolitaine. Paris, 18S3.
Daubiel (.!.), Notes et Impressions sur la Tunisie. Paris, 1897.
Fauc(>n (N.), La Tunisie avant et depuis I'occupation francaise. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 189.3.
Graham (A.) an<l Ashbee (H. S.), Travels in Tunisia. 8. London, 1887.
IIes.ie-Wartegij (Chevalier de), Tunis, the Land and the People. London, 1882.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Lapie (P.), Les Civilisations tunisiennes. Paris, 1897.
Leroij-Beaulieu (Paul), L'Algerie et la Tunisie. Paris, 1887.
Michel (Leon), Tunis. 2nd edition. Paris, 1883.
Olivier (L.), La Tunisie. Paris, 1898.
Ortroz (F. Van), Conventions Internationales Concornant I'Africpie. Brussels, 1898.
PJay//a?r(Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. Lambert), Handbook (Mun-ay's) for Algeria and Tunis.
London, 1895.
P2a?//air (Lieut.-Coloncl Sir R. L.), Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce in Algeria and
Tunis. London, 1877.
Poir>', La Tunisie. Paris.
lleclus (KWste), Geograjihie universelle. Vol. XL L'Afii(iue septenlrionale. Paris, 1885.
Sdurin, Manuel de I'emigrant en Tunisie. Paris.
Tcliihat,chel/'{M.), Algerie et Tunis. Pai'is, 1880.
Tissot (Charles), E.vploration sc.ientifiqne de la Tunisie. 2 vols. Paris, 1884-87.
AMERICA.
GUADELOUPE AND DEPENDENCIES.
Guadolottpe, situated in the Lesser Antilles, consists of two islands separated
\)y a narrow channel, that on the west being called Guadelou])e })roper or
Basse-Terrc, and that to the east, Crande-Teire, witli a united area of 150,940
hectares (583 s<[. m.) ; it has five dependeiu'.ies consisting of the smaller
i.slands, Marie Galante, Les Saintes, Desirade, St. Bartlu'lcmy, and St. Maitin,
the total area being 688 square miles. Topidation (1894) 167,000, including
about 15,000 coolies. It is under a governor and an elected council, and is
represented by a senator and two deputies. Instruction is given in 1 lycee
with 350 pupils, and 97 elementary .schools with 11,000 jiupils. The colony
is divided into arrondissemcnts, cantons, and communes ; its chief town is
I*ointe-Ji-Pitre (17,100) with a Une harliour, Revenue and expenditure
GUINANA — ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON 509
balanced at 5,774,564 francs in tlie local Im.lgot of 1898; dcht, 1,000,000
francs ; expenditure of France (budget of 1899), 1,627,037 francs. Cliicf
cultures : sugar grown on 25,400 hectares in 502 properties em}doying 42,560
persons; coffee on 3,500 liectares, employing 4,936 persons; cacao, 1,634
hectares. For local consumption there are grown l)ananas, sweet potatoes,
manioc, tobacco, indian corn, and vegetables. The forests are interspersed
with valuable timber, which is little worked. The trade of France with
Gaudeloupe in 1897 amounted to 13,085,051 francs for imports, and
11,287,915 francs for exports. Guadeloupe is in direct communication
with France and England by means of two steam navigation companies.
Within the islands traffic is carried on by means of roads and navigable
rivers. Silver coin has disappeared from circulation ; treasury notes for 2
francs, 1 franc, and 50 centimes are authorised up to a total emission of
800,000 francs.
GUIANA.
Population estimated at 22,714, in addition to a few mountain trilies.
Cayenne has 12,351 inhal)itants. Population of the penitentiaries and the
liberated convicts about 4,500. A strip of territory now included in the
colony is claimed by lirazil, and in April, 1897, a convention was signed at
Rio Janeiro sulnnitting the dispute to arbitration. The colony is under a
Governor, with a Council-General and municipal councils, and is re^iresented
by one deputy. It is poorly cultivated, and its trade insignificant. In
1896, 101,938 oz, of gold were exported ; of this amount, about 58 per cent,
came from the disputed territory. Tlie trade of France with French
Guiana in 1897 amounted to 1,648,848 francs for imports, and to 10,849,482
francs for exports. Local budget (1898), 2,453,261 francs; the expenditure
of France (budget for 1899) being 6,368,139 francs, of which 4,915,000
francs was for the penal estaldishment.
MARTINIQUE.
The colony is under a Governor and municipal councils with elected
General Council ; divided into 32 communes. Represented by a senator and
two deputies. Area 381 .square miles; population in 1895, 187,692 (90,373
males and 97,319 females), with floating pojmlation of 1,907 ; only 1,307
were born in France, Births (1895), 6,026 ; deaths, 5,007 ; marriages, 624.
There is a law school (at Fort-de-France) with 76 students ; 3 secondary
schools, witli 487 pupils ; a normal school ; 38 primary schools, with 10,304
pupils ; also 13 clerical and jnivate schools. Chief commercial town, St,
Pierre (25,382 inhalntants). Sugar, coffee, cacao, tobacco, cotton, are the
chief cxdture, besides 15,067 hectares under the food-producing crops. In
1896, 34,429 tons of sugar and 3,765,000 gallons of rum and arrack were ex-
Itorted. The trade of France with Martinique in 1897 amounted to 18,997,565
francs for imports, and 12,965,952 francs for exports. The local budget
for 1898 balanced at 5,096,048 francs ; expenditure of France (budget of
1899), 2,581,848 francs; debt (annuity), 95,000 francs.
ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON.
The largest islands of two small groups close to the south coast of New-
foundland. Area of St. Pierre group, 10 S(j. miles ; i)opulation in 1892,
5,700; area of Miquelon group, 83 sq, miles; population, 550; total area,
93 sq, miles ; population, 6,250 (720 Engli.sh). There is a Governor with a
Council-General, and municipal councils. Pirths (1895), 214 ; deaths,
185 ; marriages, 42. Chief town, St. Pierre. There is a colonial college for
570 FRANCE: — AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA
primary and secondary education with 42 pupils, a higher class school for
girls with 76 pupils, and an ' ouvroir,' or workroom for training girls, with
40 pupils. Primary instruction is free. There are 3 communal schools foi
boys, and 3 for girls with (in all) 23 teachers and 720 pupils. There are,
besides, infant schools, 'salles d'asile,' frequented by 342 children.
The islands, being mostly barren rock, are unsuited for agriculture. The
chief industry is cod- fishing, mainly in vessels from France. The total
exports (mostly colonial produce) amounted, in 1895, to 11,188,087 francs ;
total imports, 8,165,792 francs. In 1897 the trade of France with the islands
amounted to 26,954,415 francs (including the catch of cod, &c.), for imports,
and 7,527,491 francs for exports. In 1895 there entered at St. Pierre, in the
foreign trade, 1,544 vessels of 47,868 tons. In addition, the French and
local vessels entered numbered 1,986 of 116,774 tons. Local budget for 1898,
500,710 francs; expenditure of France (budget 1899), 290,791 francs.
Books Concerning French America.
Annuaire de la Guadeloupe et Dependences. Easse-Terre.
Annuaire de la Martinique. Fort-de-France.
Annuaire des lies St. Pierre at Miqaelou. St, Pieri'e.
Coudremi (H. A.), Dix ans de Guyane. Paris, 1892.— Chez no.s Tndiens : Quati'e ans dans
la Guyane fran^aise. Paiis. 1S93.
Garaud (L.), Trois ans a la Martinique. Paris, 1892.
GuH (M. J.), Origines de la Martinique (1625-1720). Vaunes, 1893.
Mimande (^P.), Foreats ct Proserits. [In Guiana.] Paris, 1897.
Mismer (C.), Souvenirs de la Martinique. Paris, 1890.
Stoddard (C. A.), Cruising among the Caribbees. London, 1896.
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
NEW CALEDONIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
New Caledonia is a French penal colony, the government is in the hands
of the Governor, with a Council-General and municipal councils or com-
missions. Area, 6,000 square miles. Population (January 1, 1896), European :
civilian, 8,384 ; military, 1,506 ; penal, 10,757 ; Asiatics, &c., 3,041 ; natives,
27,345 ; total, 51,033. Capital, Noumea, 6,679 inhabitants. The expenditure
of the mother country in the budget of 1899 amounted to 7,392,361 francs,
of which 4,425,323 francs was for the ]ienal establishment. The local
budget for 1898 was 2,807,955 francs. Coal and other minerals are worked,
rough ore, nickel, chrome, and cobalt being largely exported to Europe
an(l Australia, About 1,900 square miles are appropriated to ratives and
colonists ; 600 square miles of land suited for agriculture or pasturage
remain uncultivated ; the rest is mostly forest or mountain. Wheat, maize,
and other cereals are cultivated, as also pine-apples, colFce, sugar, coco-nuts,
cotton, manioc, vanilla, vines, and other sub-tropical cultures. There are
120,000 huad of cattle. The chief imports are haberdashery, wines ami
spirits, flour, dried vegetables, alimentary goods. Chief exports : — nickel,
preserved meat, chrome ore, silver lead ore ; the ores and minerals exported
in 1897 amounted to 3,900,000 francs. According to French statistics the
trade of France with New Caledonia in 1897 amounted to 11,993,728 francs
for imports, and 10,416,844 francs for exports. In 1897, 127 vessels of
134,656 tons entered, and 157 of 183,091 tons cleared at the port of
Noumea.
Dependencies of New Caledonia arc : — The Isle of Pines, area 58 square
miles, 44 to the miles .south-east ; the Loyalty Archipelago, three principal
and many smaller islands, total area 756 square miles, 100 miles to the east ;
the Huon Islands, 150 miles to the north-east, and the Chesterfield
SOCIETY ISLANDS AND NEIGHBOURING GROUPS 571
Islands, 500 miles to the iiovtli-wcst, both groups uninhabited and covered:
witli f(uano ; the Wallis Archipelago, north east of Fiji, placed under the
protectorate of France definitively in 1887.
SOCIETY ISLANDS AND NEIGHBOURING GROUPS.
These are otlicially known as the French Establishments in Oceania.
They consist of the Society Islands — Tahiti, Moorea, the Tetiaroa Islands,
and jMeetia — and Raiatea and Tubuai-Manu, Huahine, Bora-Bora, and other
islands to the north-west ; the ^Marquesas, Tuamotu, Gambier, and Tubuai
groups, and the island of Rapa.
Tahiti, the principal of these islands, has an area of 412 square miles,,
and Moorea, 50 square miles. Pojmlation of Tahiti, 10,287 ; Moorea,
1.596. There is a Governor for all the establishments in Oceania, with a
council for consultation. There is also a general council elected by univer.sal
suffrage. The chief town and port of Tahiti is Papeete. The expenditure
of France (budget for 1899) is 856,080 francs. The local budget for 1898
amounted to 1,229,625 francs. The total exports in 1897 amounted to
3,150,668 francs; imports, 3,800,639 francs. The chief exports were:
mother-of-pearl, 1,127,736 francs; copra, 686,041 francs; cotton, 147,946
francs; vanilla, 894,051 francs; oranges, 41,113 francs. The imports
are breadstufl's, tinned and salt provisions, wines, parens cloth, timbei-,
sugar, calico. The imports are mainly from the United States, Great Britain
and colonies, and France and colonies. The trade of France with thei-e
settlements in 1897 amounted to 179,600 francs for imports, and 592,500
francs for exports. In Tahiti and Moorea 7,000 acres are under cultJivation,
the chief crops being vanilla, sugar, coffee, and copra. In 1897, 286,
vessels of 29,585 tons entered the port of Papeete.
Books of Reference concerning New Caledonia and
Dependencies.
British Colonial Reports. Annual. London.
Haurigot (G.), Les Etablissements fran(^ais en Oceanie. Paris, 1S91.
Hort (D.), Tahiti, the Garden of the Pacilic. London, 1895.
Jeannenc]! (A.), La Nouvelle Caledonie agricole. 16. Paris, 1804.
Lfi;ra?irf (M. A.), Au Paysdes Canaques. La Nouvelle Caledonie en 1800. 8. Paris, ISO."..
Marin (A.), Anloin : Souvenirs des lies Marquises. Paris, 1801.
Mimande (P.), C'riminopolis. Paris.
Monchoisy ( ), La Nouvelle Cythere. Paris, 1888.
Saliris (P. A. de), Marins et Missionaires : Conquete de la Nouvelle Caledonie, 1S4.3-18.'»3.
8. Paris, 1892.
Vuillod (.!.), La Nouvelle Caledonie et .ses produits en 1890. 8. Saint-Cloude, 1801.
Books of Reference concerning the French Colonies generally.
Auiiuaire ile la ^Liriiie et des Colonies. Paris.
Anunaire du Miiiistere des Colonies. Paris.
Les Colonies frangaises. Notices publiees par ordre du Sous-S6cr6taire d'Etat des.
Colonies. 5 vols. Paris, 1889-90.
Revue coloniale. (Weekly). Pari.s.
Statistiques coloniales. Annual. Paris.
Tableaux de population, de culture, ttc, sur les Colonies franijai.se.s. Paris, 180r».
Z)e8c/mmp« (L.), Ilistoire de la Question coloniale en France. S. Paris, 1891. Histoirr-
sonunnire de la Colonisation frun(;:aisc. 12. Paris, 1894.
Dubois, Geographic de la France et de .ses Colonies. 8. Paris, 1892.
(iajFarel (P.), Les Colonies francaises. 4th edition. Pari.s, 1888.
Gan'iuet (A.), Geographic de la France et de ses Colonies et Protcctorats. 8. Paris, 1892..
(iirault (A.), Principes de Coloni.sation et de Legislation coloniale. 8. Paris, 1896.
Joanne (P.), Dictionnaire gengrapliique et adiniuistratif de la France et de ses Colonies,
Palis, ISi'.'). [In progress.]
Lalanne, La France et ses Colonies. Paris.
Malrollf, La France et ses Colonies. Paris.
Petit (E.), Organisation des Colonies francaises et des Pays de Protectorat 8. Paris,
1894. <tc.
Rangier (J. C. P.), Precis de Legislation et d'Economie coloniale. 12. Paris, 1895.
^rti/ (E.), Histoire.monctaire des Colonies francaises. 8. Paris, 1892.
572
GERMAN EMPIRE.
(Deutsches E,Eicn.)
Reigning Emperor and King.
Wilhelm II., German Emperor, and King of Prussia, born
January 27, 1859, became German Emperor June 15, 1888 (see
Prussia).
Heir Apj^arent.
Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882, eldest son of
the Emperor-King (see Prussia).
The present German Empire is essentially different from • the
Holy Ptoman Empire which came to an end in 1806. But
thouf^h Austria, the most important factor in the earlier
empire, is not a member of the present, a brief historical
summary, including both, is for convenience inserted here.
The imperial throne, after the extinction of the Carlovingian
line, was filled by election, though with a tendency towards the
hereditary principle of succession. At first the Emperor was
chosen by the vote of all the Princes and Peers of the Reich ;
but the mode came to be changed in the fourteenth century,
when a limited number of Princes, fixed at seven for a time, and
afterwards enlarged to eight (nine from 1692 to 1777), assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being
acknowledged, were called Electors. With the overthrow of the
old Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Electoral
dif^nity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was re-
tatned sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, the
last of them dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. The election of
Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as the German Emperor (1871) was
by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation,
on the initiative' of all the reigning Princes of Germany. Tlie
imperial dignity is hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, and
follows the law of primogeniture.
Since Charleuiagnc was crowned ' Kaiser ' at Rome, on
Christmas Day in the year 800, there liave been the following
Emperors : —
House of Charlemagne.
Karl I., * Dcr Grosse ' . 800-814
Lu.lwig I., * Dor Fvonuiie ' 814-840
Liulwig II., 'Dor Deutsche' 843-876
Karlll., 'Dcr Kahle' . 876-877
Karl, 'Der Dicke' . . 881-887
Ariuilf .... 887-899
Liulwig III., ' Das Kind ' 900-911
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
573
House of Franconia.
Koiir.ul I. . . . 011-918
House of Saxony.
lluiniich I., ' Der Vocjcl-
stcUcr' . . " . 919-936
Otto I., 'DciGiosse' . 936-973
Otto II. ... 973-983
Otto III. . . . 983-1002
Heinrich II. . . . 1002-1024
House of Fraiiconia.
KonradlL, ' Der Stilier ' . 1024-1039
Heinrich III. . . . 1039-1056
Heinrich IV. . . . 1056-1106
Heinricli V. . . . 1106-1125
House of Saxony.
Lothar II. , ' Der Sach.se ' 1 125-1137
House of Hohcnstaufen.
Konraa III. . . . 1138-1152
Friedrichl., 'Barbarossa' 1152-1190
Heinrich VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philip]) .... 1198-1208
Otto IV., 'von ^Vitte]^i.
l)ach' .... 1208-1212
Fri(Mlrich II. . . . 1212-1250
Konra.l IV. . . . 1250-1254
First IjUerreynuin.
Wilhclia r)f Holland . 1254-1256
Richard of Cornwall . 1256-1272
House of Habshury.
Rudolf I. . . . 1273-1291
Adolf
House of Nassau.
. 1292-1298
House of Habsburg.
Albrechtl. . . . 1298-1308
Houses of Luxembury and Bavaria.
Heinrich VII. . . 1308-1313
LndwiglV., 'DcrlJaicr'. 1313-1347
Karl IV. . . . 1348-1378
Second Intcrrcynum.
Wcnceslaus of Bohemia . 1378-1400
Ruprccht 'Von der Pfalz' 1400-1410
Siirmund of Branden^)urf^ 1410-1437
House of
Albrecht II. .
Friedrich III.
Maximilian I.
KarlV. .
Ferdinand I. .
Maximilian II.
Rudolf II.
Matthias
Ferdinand II.
Ferdinand III.
Leopold I.
Joseph I.
Karl VI.
Habsburg.
. 1438-1439
. 1440-1493
. 1493-1519
. 1519-1556
. 1556-1564
. 1564-1576
. 1576-1612
. 1612-1619
. 1619-1637
. 1637-1657
. 1657-1705
. 1705-1711
. 1711-1740
House of JJacaria.
Karl VII. . . . 1742-1745
House of Habsbury^ Lorraine.
Franz 1 1745-1765
Joseph II. . . . 1765-1790
Leopold II. . . . 1790-1792
Franz II. ... 1792-1806
Third Interreguuin .
Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815
German 'Bund' . . 1815-1866
North German Confedera-
tion .... 1866-1871
House of HoTienzollern.
Wilhelm I., ' Der Grosse ' 1871-1888
Friedrich . 1888 (March-June)
Wilhelm II. . . 1888 (June)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Empire bears date April 16, 1871.
By its terms, all tlie States of Germany ' form an eternal union
for the protection of the realm and tlie care of the welfare of
the German people.' The supreme direction of the military and
political affairs of tlie Empire is vested in the King of Prussia,
who, in this capacity, bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser.
According to Art. 11 of the Constitution, 'the Emperor repre-
574
GERMAN EMPIRE
sents the Empire internationally,' and can declare war, if
defensive, and make peace, as well as enter into treaties with
other nations, and appoint and receive ambassadors. But when
treaties relate to matters regulated by imperial legislation, and
when war is not merely defensive, the Kaiser must have the
consent of the Bnndesrath, or Federal Council, in which body,
together with the Keichstag, or Diet of the Realm, are vested
the legislative functions of the Empire. The Emperor has no
veto on laws passed by these bodies. The Bundesrath represents
the individual States of Germany, and the Reichstag the German
nation. The 58 members of the Bundesrath are appointed by
the Governments of the individual States for each session, while
the members of the Reichstag, 397 in number (about one for
every 131,604 inhabitants), are elected by universal suffrage and
ballot, for the term of five years. By the law of March 19,
1888, which came into force in 1890, the duration of the legis-
lative period is five years. The various States of Germany are
a-epresented as follows in the Bundesrath and the Reichstag : —
Number of
Number of
states of the Emiiire
Members in
Deputies in
Bundesrath
Reichstag
Kingdom of Prussia
' 17
236
,, ,, Bavaria ....
6
48
,, ,, Saxony ....
4
23
,, ,, Wlirttemberg
' 4
17
Grand-Duchy of Baden
i 3
14
.,, ,, Hesse
3
9
,, ,, Mecklenbiu'g-Schwerin
2
6
,, ,, Saxe- Weimar .
3
,, ,, Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1
,, ,, Oldenburg
3
Duchy of Brunswick
3
,, ,, Saxe-Meiningen
2
,, ,, Saxc-Altenburg
1
,, ,, Saxc-Coburg-Gotha .
2
,, ,, Anhalt ....
•>
Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershause
n
1
,, ,, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
1
,, ,, Waldeck .
1
, , , , Rcuss Aelterer Linie .
1
,, ,, Reuss Jungerer Linie
1
,, ,, Schaumburg- Lippe .
1
,, Lippe
1
Free town of Lfibeck
1
,, ,, ,, Bremen
1
,, ,, Hamburg .
3
, Rcichsland of Alsace-Lorraine .
58
15
1 Total
•
397
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 5^5
Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrath by four commissioners
[Kommissdrc) without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter.
The total number of electors to the Reichstag inscribed on the lists was
10,(528,292, or 21 '5 per cent, of the population of 1890, at the general election
of 1893, while the number of actual voters was 7,702,265 at the same election,
or 72-5 per cent, of the total electors. In 252 districts Protestantism is pre-
dominant, and in the remainder Roman Catholicism claims the majority. Of
electoral districts with 60,000 of a population and under, there were 4 in
1893 ; between 60,000 and 80,000, 27 ; between 80,000 and 100,000, 72 ;
between 100,000 and 120,000, 116 ; between 120,000 and 140,000, 91 ; between
140,000 and 160,000, 41 ; and above 160,000, 46. Of electoral districts
with 12,000 voters or less, there were 3 in 1893; 12,000-16,000, 21;
16,000 20,000, 51 ; 20,000-24,000, 114 ; 24,000-28,000, 93; 28,000-32,000,
49 ; above 32,000 voters 66.
Both the Ihmdesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked
by the Emperor. The Emperor has the right to prorogue and dissolve,
after a vote by the Bundesrath, the Reichstag. Without consent of the
Reichstag the prorogation may not exceed thirty days ; while in case of disso-
lution new elections must take place within sixty days, and a new session
nuist open within ninety days. All laws for the Empire must receive the
votes of an absolute majority of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag. The
liundesrath is presided over by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the Empire,
and the President of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies.
The laws of the Empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the Reichstag, to
take edcct must be promulgated by the Emperor, and the promulgation, like
all other olhcial acts of the Emperor, requires the counter-signature of the
Chancellor of the Empire. All the members of the Bundesrath have the
right to be present at the deliberations of the Reichstag.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State : they do
not form a Ministiy or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under
the general supervision of the Chancellor.
1. Chancellor of the Empire. — Prince Hohcnlohe-ScMlUngsfurst, born
March 31, 1819 ; Ambassador from the German Empire to France, 1874-85 ;
Governor of Alsace-Lorraine, 1885-94 ; Chancellor of the Empire, October
29, 1894.
2. Ministry for Foreign AJairs. — KevY von Biiloio.
3. Imperial Home Office and 'Representative of the Chancellor.' — Dr. Graf
von PosadotosT(y-Wehner.
4. Imperial Admiralty. — Herr Tirpitz. Admiral Commanding -in- Chief. —
von Knorr.
5. Imperial Ministry of Justice. — Herr Nicberding.
6. Imperial Treasury. — Dr. Freiherr von Thielmann.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus ; —
7. Imperial Post-Officc. — Gen. Lt. z. D. von Podbichki.
8. Imperial Railways. — Dr. Schulz.
9. Imperial Exchequer. — Herr von Jf'olff.
10. Imperial Invalid Fund. — Dr. Rosing.
11. Imperial Bank. — President, Dr. Koch.
12. Imperial Debt Commission. — President, von //ojl'i/iioni.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-
rath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and aa
such has twelve standing committees — namely, for army and fortifications ; for
naval matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways, posts,
576
GERMAN EMPIRE
and telegraphs ; civil and ciimiual law ; financial accounts ; foreign affairs ;
for Alsace-Lorraine ; for the Constitution ; for the Standing orders ; and for
railway tariffs. Fach committee consists of representatives of at least four
States of the Empire ; Init the foreign affairs committee includes only the
representatives of Bavaria, Saxony, AViirttemberg, and two other represen-
tatives to be elected every year.
Area and Population.
I. Peogress and Present Condition.
The following table gives the area and population of the
twenty-five States of Germany in the order of their magnitude,
and of the E-eichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, as returned at the
three census-periods of 1885 and 1890, and Dec. 2, 1895 : —
states of the Empire
Area
English
sq. miles
134,603
Population
Dec. 1, 1885
Population
Dec. 1, 1890
Population
Dec. 2, 1895
Pop. ^
Iter sq. 1
mile 1895
Prussia
28,318,470
29,957,367
31,855,123
236
9
Bavaria
29,282
5,420,199
5,594,982
5,818,544
198
7
Wiirtteml»erg
7,528
1,995,185
2,036,522
2,081,151
276
4
Baden .
5,821
1,601,255
1,657,867
1,725,464
296
4
Saxony
5,787
3,182,003
3,502,684
3,787,688
654
5
Mecklenburg-Schw.
5,135
575,152
578,342
597,436
116
2
Hesse ,
2,965
956,611
992,883
1,039,020
350
3 ;
Oldenburg .
2,479
341,525
354,968
373,739
150
7 1
Brunswick .
1,424
372,452
403,773
434,213
304
9
Saxc-Weimar
1,388
313,946
326,091
339,217
244
2
McckleiibuTg-Str..
1,131
98,371
97,978
101,540
89
7
Saxe-Meiningen .
953
214,884
223,832
234,005
245
5
Anhalt
906
248,166
271,963
293,298
323
5
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
755
198,829
206,513
216,603
286
9
Saxe-Altenburg .
511
161,460
170,864
180,313
352
2
Lippe .
469
123,212
128,495
134,854
286
6
Waldeck .
433
56,575
57,281
57,766
133
4
Schwarzl mrg-Rud.
.363
83,836
85,863
88,685
244
0
Schwar/burg-Sond.
333
73,606
75,510
78,074
234
9
Reuss-Schleiz
319
110,598
119,811
132,130
414
2
S chau in burg- Lippe,
131
37,204
39,163
41,224
314
7
Reuss-Greiz .
122
55,904
62,754
67,468
552
0
Hamburg
158
518,620
622,530
681,632
4.314
1
Liibeck
115
67,658
76,485
83,324
724
5
Bremen
99
165,628
180,443
196,404
1,983
8
Alsace-Lorraine .
Total .
5,600
1,564,355
46,855,704
1,603,506
49,428,470
1,640,986
52,279,901
293-0
208,830
250-5
AREA AND POPULATION
577
The population of the lands now inehuied in the German
Empire (without Heligoland) was 24,831,396 in 1816, and
31,589,547 in 1837, showing an average annual increase of
nearly 1*3 per cent. The following table shows the actual
increase in population at various periods, with the annual rate of
increase per cent. The small increase in 1867-71 is explained by
the intervention of the war with France.
Year
Increase
Annual Rate
per cent.
Year
Increase
Annual Rate
per cent.
1858
1867
1871
1875
5,371,195
3,220,083
970,171
1,668,568
0-75
0-97
0-61
1
1880
1885
1890
i 1895
2,506,701
1,621,643
2,570,680
2,851,431
1-14
0-7
1-07
112
The increase of population during 1890-95 was greatest in
Keuss Younger Branch, Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, Saxony,
Anhalt, Brunswick, and Reuss Elder Branch ; and least in
Wiirttemberg and Waldeck.
The number of inhabited houses in 1890 was 5,790,689, and
of households 10,617,923 (in 1895, 11,256,150). Of the total
population in 1895, 49*9 per cent., in 1890 47*0 per cent, lived
in towns of 2,000 inhabitants and above. Of every 100 inhabi-
tants there lived in —
No.ofTowns
1885
No.ofTowns
1890
No.ofTowns
1895
Larfjje towns ^ .
21
9-5
26
12-1
28
13-9
Medium ,,
116
8-9
135
9-8
150
10-7
Small ,,
683
12-9
733
13-1
796
13-5
Country ,,
1,951
12-4
1,997
120
2,068
11-8
Other places
—
56-3
—
53-0
—
50-1
1 For the official signification of these names see p. 536.
Of the total population in 1895, 25,661,250 were males and 26,618,651
were females. In 1890 boys under 10 years of age numbered 5,993,681 ; girls,
5,966,226 ; men over 80 years of age numhercd 90,161 ; women, 119,289.
With respect to conjugal condition, the following was the distribution in
1890:—
_
Males
Females
Total
Unmamed ....
Married
Widowed
Divorced and separated
15,058,108
8,372,486
774,967
25,271
14,591,560
8,398,607
2,157,870
49,601
29,649,668
16,771,093
2,932,837
74,872
According to the occupation-census of June 14, 1895, the population of
Germany was divided as in the table below. Of the total, 22,013,683 were
actually engaged in the various occupation.s.
578
GERMAN EMPIRE
Place
Agricul-
ture,
Cattle
rearing,
&c.
Forest-
ry,
Hunt-
ing,
Fish-
Mining,
Metal
Works,
and other
Indus-
Com-
merce
and
Trade.
Do-
mestic
and
other
Service
Pro-
fessions
Without
Profes-
sion or
Occupa-
tion
i
Total
ing
tries.
31,490,315
Prussia. . . .
11,113,794
261,302 12,196,352
8,585,430
658,896
1
1,671,827,2,002,714
Bavaria . . .
2,601,712
45,953
1,793,541
564,585
45,329
294.748
483,308
5,779,176
Saxony ....
540,830
24,469
2,178,273
525.637
45,655
202,065
236,383
8,753,262
Wlirttemberg .
919,082
14,494
723,828
164,815
12,153
110,731
125,559
2,070,662
Baden ....
715,864
13,823
598,153
171,112
13,682
94,319
112,785
1,719,238
Hesse ....
366,619
5,800
394,294
123,412
16,396
66,972
59,154
1,032,147
Meckl.-Schwerin
283,269
12,330
156,107
58,586
16,244
38,952
46,021
606,459
Saxe- Weimar . .
124,894
3,846
131,971
32,293
3,807
19,478
22,871
889,155
Meckl.-Strelitz .
47,794
1,833
28,352
10,170
2,737
5,828
6,663
108,377
Oldenburg . .
168,820
2,066
118,788
39,852
3,921
16,129
19,488
369,014
Brunswick . .
118,336
7,075
197,695
52,641
4,675
24,897
30,412
435,731
Saxe-Meiningen .
68,269
4,961
115,570
20,108
2,752
11,675
9,612
232,942
Saxe-Altenburg .
47,463
1,484
91,518
18,143
2,708
7,821
9,559
178,696
S.-Coburg-Gotha
62,243
3,843
103,412
21,919
2,646
10,970
12,651
217,684
Anhalt ....
73,696
2,633
138,048
37,326
3,898
13,967
22,766
292,329
Sch.-Eudolstadt.
25,465
1,828
33,364
7,059
1,174
4,422
4,288
77,600
Schw.-Sondersh.
27,580
1,358
44,638
7,262
960
4,344
8,383
89,475
Waldeck . . .
30,504
666
17,741
4,876
451
3,615
3,235
61,088
Reuss-Greiz . .
9,574
643
45,121
6,464
466
2,136
2,248
66,647
Reuss-Schleiz .
23,922
1,950
76,339
14,103
1,295
5,784
5,885
129,228
Schaunib.-Lippe
11,901
1,128
19,037
3,452
575
2,648
2,530
41,266
Lippe ....
45,210
643
57,761
8,584
837
4,941
5,568
123,544
Lubeck . . .
8,663
730
32,808
23,503
3,394
5,924
7,793
82,815
Bremen . . .
11,333
296
89,544
58,267
2,486
14,974
14,496
191,396
Hamburg . . .
22,592
1,650
265,441
250,844
21,807
50,008
51,617
663,959
Alsace-Lorraine .
599,234
16,840
605,600
156,458
17,863
150,899
76,185
1,628,079
Total Empire .
18,068,668
432,644
20,253,241
5,966,846
886,807
2,835,014
3,327,069
51,770,284
The bulk of the German population is (on the basis of language) Teutonic ;
but in Prussia, chiefly in the eastern provinces, there were in December, 1890,
2,922,475 Slavs (Poles, Masurians, and Cassubians), 117,637 Lithuanians,
65,254 Wends, 74,069 Moravians and Czechs; while throughout Prussia
were 138,134 Danes, 40,124 Dutch, 10,972 Walloons, and 34,725 English,
French, Swedish, &c. The total non-Germanic population was 3,403,390, or
nearly 7 per cent, of the whole population
On December 2, 1895, Germany contained 486,190 persons born elsewhere,
the birthplaces of whom were as follows : —
Belgium . . . 8,947
Denmark . . , 28,146
France . . . 19,619
Great Britain and Ireland 15,290
Switzerland. . . 44,875
Other European countries 3,316
Italy .
22,693
Luxemburg
11,755
Netherlands
50,743
Austria-ITungarv
222,952
Russia and Fiidnnd
26,559
Sweden
8,937
Norway
2,154
Total Europe
United States
Other States
465,986
15,788
4,416
Total extra-European . 20,204
Total foreign residents 486,190
lu 1890 the number of foreign residents was 500,595.
AREA AND POPULATION
570
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the movement of the population of
Empire during five years :—
the
Year
Marriages
398,775
401,234
408,066
414,218
432,107
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
1,272,430
1,310,756
1,207,423
1,215,854
1,163,964
Surplus of
Births
584,569
617,514
696,874
725,790
815,783
1892
1893
1894
1895
189G
1,856,999
1,928,270
1,904,297
1,941,644
1,979,747
61,028
62,555
63,092
64,366
64,998
169,668
176,352
178,298
176,271
185,359
Of the children born in 1896, 1,018,075 were boys, and 961,670 girls.
Emigration, which in recent years assumed larger proportions in Germany
than in any other country in Europe, after declining for some time received
a new impetus in 1880 and 1881. The number of emigrants in 1881, viz.,
220,902, is the highest total yet reached in any one year. The following
table shows the annual number of German emigrants for five years : —
Destination
Years
Average
Total
United
States
Brazil
Other
American
Countries
Africa
Asia
Australia
1893
87,677
78,249
1,173
7,262
- 586
146
261
1894
40,964
35,902
1,288
2.638
760
151
225
1895
37,408
32,503
1,405
2.359
886
134
211
1896
33,8-24
29,007
1,001
2,152
1,346
144
174
1897
24,631
20,346
936
1,765
1,115
145
324
The great majority of the emigrants sail from German ports and Antwerp.
In 1893-97, 6,573 embarked at Rotterdam or Amsterdam ; and in 1893-97,
10,067 at French ports, notably Havre. The emigrants of 1897 by way of
German ports, Antwerp, Rotterdam and Amsterdam, comprised 12,972
males, 10,248 females. The number of families was 2,609, including
8,476 persons. During the 78 years from 1820 to 1897 the total emigration
to the United States and other transmarine countries numbered about
5,250,000, and during the last twenty-seven years 2,429,413, of whom
nearly nine-tenths to the United States, The number of emigrants to Brazil
during the last twenty-seven years (1871-97) has been 50,381.
Of the emigrants in 1897 (not including those who sailed from French
ports) the principal States sent as follows : —
Prussia
. 13,497
Saxony
950
Oldenburg
271
Bavaria .
. 2,638
Ilesso
468
Bremen
506
Wiirttemberg
. 1,401
Meek. -Sell wtrin
217
Alsace-Lorraine.
198
Baden
815
Hamburg .
1,449
In 1897, 64,419 emigrants other than Germans embarked at German
ports.
P p 2
580
GERMAN EMPIRE
III. Pkincipal Towns.
German towns are officially distinguished as large towns (with 100,000
inhabitants and upwards) ; medium towns (20,000-100,000 inhabitants) :
small towns (5,000-20,000 inhabitants), and country towns (2,000-5,000 in-
habitants). In 1895, only 1 town had over 1,000,000 inhabitants ; 6 others
over 250,000 ; 21 others OA^er 100,000 ; 29 between 50,000 and 100,000 ; and
121 between 20,000 and 50,000. According to the results of the census of
December 2, 1895, the population of the principal towns at that date was : —
Town
State
Pop.
Town
State
Pop.
Berlin .
Prussia .
1,677,304
Charlotten-
Hamburg
Hamburg
625,552
burg .
Prussia .
132,377
jMunich
Bavaria .
407,307
Barmen
; J
126,992
Leipzig
Saxony .
399,963
Danzig .
5>
125,605
Breslau .
Prussia .
373,169
Halle-on-Saal
» )
116,304
Dresden
Saxony .
336,440
Brunswick
Brunswick
115,138
Cologne
Prussia ,
321,564
Dortmund
Prussia .
111,232
Frankfurt-on-
Aachen .
> > •
110,551
Main .
>>
229,279
Krefeld .
>>
107,245
]\Iagdeburg .
J J
214,424
Mannheim .
Baden .
91,119
Hanover
>>
209,535
Essen .
Prussia .
96,128
Diisseldorf .
J}
175,985
Kiel .
>)
85,666
Konigsberg .
j>
172,796
Karlsruhe
Baden .
84,030
Nuremberg .
Bavaria .
162,386
Mulhausen .
Alsace-
Chemnitz
Saxony .
161,017
Lorraine
82,986
Stuttgart
Wtirttem-
Augsburg
Bavaria .
81,896
berg .
158,321
Kassel .
Prassia .
81,752
Altona .
Prussia .
148,944
Erfurt .
) J
78,174
Bremen
Bremen .
141,894
Mainz .
Hesse
76,300
Stettin .
Prussia .
140,724
Wiesbaden .
Prussia .
74,133
Elberfeld .
Prussia .
139,337
Posen .
) 1
73,239
Strassburg .
Alsace-
Lorraine
135,608
For further details see under the separate States.
Religion.
The Constitution provides for entire liberty of conscience .and
for complete social equality among all religious confessions. The
relation between Church and State varies in different parts of
the Empire. The order of the Jesuits is interdicted in all parts
of Germany, and all convents and religious orders, except those
engaged in nursing the sick and purely contemplative orders,
have been suppressed. There are five Roman Catholic arch-
bishops, and twenty bishoprics. The ' Old Catholics ' have a
bishop at Bonn.
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
581
The following are the results of three complete religious
censuses : —
Creed
1871
Per Ct.
of Pop.
ISSO
Per Ct.
of Pop.
1890
Per Ct.
of Pop.
Protestants
Roman Catholics
Other Christians
Jews .
Others and un-
classified
25,581,685
14,869,292
82,158
512,153
13,504
62-3
36-2
0-2
1-3
0 03
28,331,152
16,232,651
78,031
561,612
30,615
62-6
35-9
0-2
1-2
•07
31,026,810
17,674,921
145,540
567,884
13,315
62-8
35-8
•29
1-1
•03
Adherents of the Greek Church are included in * Roman Catholics. '
Roman Catholics are (1890) in the majority in only three of the German
States, and form more than 20 per cent, of the population in only foiu*
others, as follows : —
A. States with 20 per Cent
of Roman
Catholics.
States
Prot. p. Ct.
Rom. Cath.
p. Ct.
Other Chris-
tians
Jews p. Ct.
Others p. Ct.
Oldenburg
77-31
21-91
•34
•44
•006
Wiirttemberg .
69-10
29-94
•33
•62
•009
Hesse
67^09
29-58
•74
2-57
-019
Prussia .
64-20
34-22
•32
1-24
•016
B. Predominantly Ri
iman Catho
lie.
Alsace-Lorraine
21 -05
76-53
•23
2-16
-025
Bavaria .
28^10
70-83
•10
-96
•009
Baden .
3611
62-02
•24
1-61
•017
In all the other States the Roman Catholics form less than 4 ^6 per cent,
of the population. (For further particulars, see the various States. )
Instruction.
Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany.
The laws of Prussia, which provide for the establishment of
elementary schools (Volksschulen), supported from the local rates,
in every town and village, and compel all parents to send their
children to these or other schools, have been adopted, with slight
modifications, in all the States of the Empire. The school age is
from six to fourteen. The system of secondary education is also
practically homogeneous. Above the elementary schools rank
the middle schools of the towns, the BUrgerschulen and IJohere
Biirgerschulen, which fit their pupils for business life. Children
of the working clas.ses may continue their education at the
Fortbildungs Scliulen or continuation schools, which are open in
582 GERMAN EMPIRE
the evening or other convenient time. The Gymnasia are the
most fully developed classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine
years' course for the universities and the learned professions.
The Progyimiasia differ from these only in not having the highest
classes. In the Realgymnasia, Latin, but not Greek, is taught,
and what are usually termed ' modern subjects ' have more time
devoted to them. Real]yroyymnasia have a similar course, but
have no class corresponding to the highest class in the preceding.
In the Oherrealschulen and Realschulen Latin is wholly displaced
in favour of modern languages. In 1897, 1,048 secondary schools
(including 56 private schools), also 181 public Lehrer-
Seminare n.xidi ?>1 public Fachschulen : total 1,261 institutions,
possessed the right of granting certificates to pupils, entitling
them to serve in the army as one-year volunteers. The teachers
in German schools are required to hold a Government certificate,
and to have undergone a year's probation. Higher schools for
girls are called Hohere Tochterschulen. Besides these there are
numerous Geioerheschulen or technical schools, Polytechnica,
normal schools, seminaries, and the universities. The total
number of children of school age in 1890 was 8,694,887.
No official statistics of the number of schools, pupils, teachers, &c. , are
issued for the entire Empire ; but particulars on these heads will be found
under some of the separate States. The number of elementary schools was
estimated in 1891 at 56,560, of pupils attending them 7,925,000, and of
teachers 120,030. The immediate expenditure on elementary schools was
about 242,400,000 marks, of which 69,305,000 marks came from State funds.
[Brachelli, Statistische Skizze des Deutschen Reichs, 7th ed.] In 1897 the
number of secondary schools was as follows : —
Gymnasia
. 439
Realschulen
. 198
Progymnasia .
. 92
Hohere Burgerschulen
2
Realgymnasia .
. 128
Other iniblic schools
. 32
Realprogymnasia
. 93
Private schools
. 56
Oberrealscliulen
. 40
Among the more important special and technical schools in 1891 were 9
technical high-schools and polytechnics ; 31 middle schools of agriculture ; 15
schools of mining; 15 schools of architecture and building; 9 academies of
forestry ; 23 schools of art and art-industry (A'^«?s^ and Kunstgewerhe- Schulcn) ;
and 7 public music-schools. There are also numerous smaller as well as
private agricultural, music, &c., schools, and a large number of artisans' or
trade schools. There is a naval academy and school at Kiel, and military
academies at Berlin and Munich ; besides 47 schools of navigation, 9 military
schools, and 9 cadet institutions.
It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation of the united
German army, that of all recruits of the year 1896-97 only 0*11 per cent,
could neither read nor write. In East and West Pnissia and in Posen the
percentage ranged from 0'49 to 0'67 ; in all the other States the number was
less than 0 29 per cent. In Alsace-Lorraine it was only 0"23 per cent, in
1890-91, and OlO in 1896-97.
There are 21 universities in the German Empire, l)esides the Lyceum
INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
583
Ilosianum at Braunsberg (9 teachers and al)out forty students), which has
only faculties of theology (Roman Catholic) and philosophy.
The following table gives the number of teachers for the summer half-year
1898, and the number of students for the winter half-year 1897-98.
Professors
Students
TTiii v»^v<tit"io<;
Q |J(1
Ulll * V,'I >>ll'l\.0
Teachers
Tlieology
Jurisprudence
Medicine
Philosophy
2,150
Total
5,935
Berlin .
372
441
1,984
1,360
Bonn
147
304
409
264
694
1,671
Breslau .
164
324
443
345
385
1,497
Erlangen
68
240
182
434
112
1,068
Freiburg
115
218
249
392
214
1,073
Giessen .
72
58
236
224
156
674
Gottingen
123
137
336
236
445
1,154
Greifswald
91
209
167
293
87
756
Halle .
144
411
346
265
584
1,606
Heidelberg
147
54
340
203
487
1,084
Jena
96
35
158
198
241
632
Kiel
102
61
125
263
181
580
Konigsberg
113
67
211
235
171
684
Leipzig .
208
348
1,032
724
1,173
3,277
Marburg .
100
110
229
249
320
908
Miinchen
180
152
1,145
1,396
1,124
3,817
Miinster .
48
315
—
—
211
526
Rostock .
49
30
119
106
196
451
Strassburg
137
82
335
329
320
1,066
Tiibingen
98
409
441
255
121
1,226
Wiirzburg
101
146
249
742
288
1,425
There were besides a certain number of non-matriculated students — the
majority, 4,270, at the University of Berlin,
In four universities, namely, Freiburg, Miinchen, Miinster, and "Wiirzburg,
the faculties of theology are Roman Catholic ; three are mixed, both Pro-
testant and Roman Catholic — Bonn, Breslau, and Tiibingen ; and the remain-
ing fourteen are Protestant.
Justice and Crime.
In terms of Judicature Acts in 1877 and 1879 a uniform
system of law courts was adopted throughout the Empire not
later than January 1, 1879, though, with the exception of the
Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government
of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not
to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is
also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys
uniform codes of commercial and criminal law, and the civil code
of August 18, 1896, will come into force on January 1, 1900.
The lowest courts of first instance are the Amtsgerichte, each with a single
judge, competent to try petty civil and criminal cases. There was on January 1 ,
584
GERMAN EMPIRE
1897, 1,926 Amtsgerichte in the Empire, or one lor every 27,144 inhaltitants.
The Laiidgcrichtc exercise a revising jurisdiction over the Amtsgerichte, and
also a more extensive original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases,
divorce cases, &c. In the criminal chamber five judges sit, and a majority of
four votes is required for a conviction. Jury courts {Schwurgerichte) are also
held periodically, in which three judges preside ; the jury are twelve in num-
ber. There are 172 Landgerichte in the Empire, or one for every 303,953 of
the population. The first court of second instance is the Oberlandesgcricht.
In its criminal senate, which also has an original jurisdiction in serious
cases, the number of the judges is seven. There are twenty-eight such courts
in the Empire. The total number of judges on the bench in all the courts
above mentioned is 7,634. In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landes-
gericht, wath eighteen judges, with a revising jurisdiction over the Bavarian
Oberlandesgerichte. The supreme court is the licichsgcricht, which sits at
Leipzig. The judges, eighty-four in number, are appointed by the Emperor
on the advice of the Bundesrath. The court exercises an appellate jurisdiction
over all inferior courts, and also an original jurisdiction in cases of treason.
It has four criminal and six civil senates.
The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before the
courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted persons, and
the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil population over twelve years
of age : —
Year
Cases tried
Persons convicted
Total
Conviction
per 10,000
inhabitants
Aiatsger.
Laudger.
Males
Females
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1,131,165
1,141,278
1,164,591
1,141,998
1,182,739
88,418
87,480
88,934
89,551
90,310
347,050
356,232
370,392
377,214
382,432
75,277
74,171
75,718
76,997
74,567
422,327
430,403
446,110
454,211
456,999
119-9
121-0
124-4
125-1
124-4
Of the persons convicted in 1896, 44,275 were under eighteen years of
age ; and 177,574 had been previously convicted.
Pauperism.
The relief of the jioor is not an imperial function ; but all the States ex-
cept two have adopted the law of settlement passed by the Reichstag in June,
1870. Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine have independent poor-law legislation.
According to the law of 1870 each commune (Gemeindc) or poor law-district
{Armenverband) is bound to provide for its own poor, much as is the case
in English parishes ; and a settlement for purposes of poor-relief is generally
obtained by a residence of two years in any one commune. Paupers who
from any cause have no local settlement are looked after by the Government
of the State to which they belong, and are called Landarmcn, or national
})aupers. By an imperial law passed in 1874, any German entitled to poor-
relief may apply for it to the commune in which he happens at the time to be,
but that commune is empowered to recover expenses from the commune in
which the pauper has a settlement. Statistics of poor-relief have not been
published since 1885.
FINANCE
58o
As preventive measures under this head must be mentioned the imperial
laws introducing the compulsory insurance of workmen against sickness
(1883 and 1892) and insurance agains't accidents by employers (1884-1887) and
the compulsory insurance of workmen by the workmen themselves against old
age and infirmity (1889).
Finance.
The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed from the
revenues arising from customs, certain branches of the excise,
and the profits of the posts, telegraphs, and State railways. The
individual States are assessed to make up any deficit in proportion
to population.
The following tables exhibit the revenue and expenditure (in
thousands of marks) for five years, the figures for the last two
years being taken from the budget estimates : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Years
Ordinary
Extraord.
(loans, &c.)
Total
Ordinary
Extraord.
(military,
&c.)
Total
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
1898-99
1,000 M.
1,185,643
1,229,860
1,322,280
1,268,912
1,355,460
1,000 M.
158,449
64,256
69,771
91,833
57,427
1,000 M.
1,344,092
1,294,116
1,392,050
1,860,745
1,412,886
1,000 M.
1,190,787
1,232,077
1,307,987
1,281,020
1,384,152
1,000 M.
146,153
74,504
57,775
91,833
57,427
1,000 M.
1,336,940
1,307,181
1,365,762
1,372,853
1,441,579
The amounts raised by customs, excise, and stamps were as follows (in
thousands of marks) : —
—
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
Estimated
1897-98 1898-99
1
Customs and excise .
Stamps ....
642,007
48,994
661,639
64,747
731,517
58,736
653,132 701,490
61,873 60,842
Total
691,001
726,386
790,253
715,005 ' 762,332
The sums paid in lieu of customs and excise by the parts of the Empire
not included in the Zollgebiet are included in the above figures. The share
of this direct imperial taxation is about IQs. 6d. jter head.
580
GERMAN EMPIRE
The chief branches of Imperial expenditure, ordinal y and extraordinary,
in 5 years (estimates for the last two years) have been in 1,000 marks : —
Years
Army
Navy
Assignments l
Debt
1,000 marks
1,000 marks
1,000 marks
1,000 marks
1894-95
617,764
78,533
382,860
68,976
1895-96
562,717
85,894
400,126
71,696
1896-97
565,834
92,071
414,568
72,305
1897-98
590,973
117,526
404,056
75,066
1898-99
608,202
122,054
441,328
73,859
] These assignments {Ueherweisungen) are repayments to the various States of the surplus
of the revenue from customs, tobacco, stamp and spirit duties, over 130,000,000 marks.
The following table gives the estimated total revenue and expenditure,
including supplements for the financial year ending March 31, 1899 : —
Expenditure
1,000 Marks
Revenue
1,000 Marks
Reichstag
689-4
Customs and Excise
Chancellery
228-4
Duties .
701,489-5
Foreign Office .
11,360-7
Stamps .
60, 842 -C
Home Office .
40,755-6
Posts and Telegraphs
39,771-2
Imperial Army
511,892-5
Printing Office
1,639-3
Navy
62,750-9
Railways .
26,320-9
Ministry of Justice .
2,008-2
Imperial Bank
5,988-3
Imperial Treasury .
446,750-5
Various departmental
Railways
373-2
receipts
14,470-2
Debt of Empire
73,858-8
Interest of Invalid
Audit Office .
809-0
Fund .
28,646-5
Pension Fund .
, 61,713-1
Interest of Imperial
Invalid Fund .
28,646-6
Funds .
—
Total ordinary recur- \
ring expenditure/
I
1,241,836-9
Various .
Extraordinary re- \
ceipts . . j
Federal contribu- \
tions . . j
565-0
57,427-0
Total non-recur-S
ring and extra- (^
ordinary expen-
diture
Grand total .
!
199,741-7
475,726-6
1,441,578-6'
Grand total .
1,412,886-5 2
1 (At 20 marks to £1) =72,078,900?.
•-i =70,644,300i.
The Federal contributions [Matricular Beitrdge) are assessed according to
population, at a rate per head fixed annually in the Imperial budget. For
1898-99 they were estimated as follows: —
1,000 M.
Prussia 277,727-7
Bavaria 60,190-8
Saxony 33,046-6
Wurtemberg 21,047 7
Baden 16,327*7
Hesse 9,0E.4-0
Mecklenb'rg-Schwerm5,212-0
Saxe-Weimar 2,959-4
Mfckh-nburg-Strelitz 885-3
Oldenburg 3,258-4
1,000 M.
Brunswick 3,787-3
Saxe-Meiningen 2,0400
Saxe-Altenburg 1,574-1
Saxe-doburg-Gotha .. 1,887-9
Anhalt 2,558-0
Schwarzburg-Sonders-
hausen 679 2
Schwarzburg-Rudolst'dt773-8
Waldeck 503-4
Reuss Elder Branch 588-2
1,000 M.
Reuss YoungerBranchl. 156-9
Schaumburg-Lijjpe ... 359-3
Lippe 1,177-3
Llibeck 7263
Bremen 1,713-0
Hamburg 5,9416
Alsace-Lorraine 15,544-7
Total 475,726-6
DEFENCE 587
At the end of March 1897 the total funded debt amounted to 2,141,242,300
marks. Of this amount 450,000,000 bears interest at 4 per cent., 790,000,000
at 3^ per cent., and 901,242,300 at 3 per cent. Besides the funded there
exists an imfunded debt, represented by ' Reichs-Kasscnscheinc,' or imperial
treasure bills, outstanding on March 31, 1897, to the amount of 120,000,000
marks.
As a set off against the debt of the Empire there exists a variety of in-
vested funds. The fund for invalids (March, 1897) consisted of 424,613,700
marks. The war treasure fund, 120,000,000 marks, is not invested, but ju-e-
served in gold at Spandau.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Germany has a total frontier length of 4,570 miles. On the
north it is bounded by the North Sea (293 miles), Denmark (47
miles), and the Baltic (927 miles) ; on the south well-defined
mountain-ranges and the Lake of Constance separate it from
Austria (1,403 miles) and Switzerland (256 miles). On the re-
maining sides, however, the boundaries are chiefly conventional,
except in the south-west, where the Vosges Mountains separate
Germany and France. On the east Germany is bounded by
Russia for 843 miles ; on the west by France (242 miles), Luxem-
burg (111 miles), Belgium (70 miles), and Holland (377 miles).
Some of the coast defences and batteries have been placed
under the jurisdiction of the admiralty. The Empire is at
present divided into ten ' fortress districts ' (Festungs-Inspec-
tionen), each including a certain area with fortified places. The
following is a list of these districts, and the names of the fortresses
in each, the fortified places of the first class, serving as camps,
being distinguished by italics, while those specially designed for
railway protection or obstruction are marked by asterisks (*), and
coast fortresses by a dagger (t) :—
1. KoNiGSBERG : Konigshcrg, Danzig,i Pillau,t Memel,+ Boyen. 2
PosEN : Posen, Glogau,* Neissc, Glatz. 3. Berlin: Spandau, Magdeburg^
Torgau,* Kmtrin. 4. Mainz: Mainz, Ulm, Rastatt. 5. 5Ietz : Metz, Dieden-
hofen,* Bitsch.* 6. Cologne (Koln) : Cologne, Koblenz, Wesel,* Saarlouis.*
7. Kiel : Kiel, Friedrichsort,t Cuxhaven,t Geestemiinde,t Wilhelmshaven,t
Swinemiinde.t 8. Thorn : Thorn, Graudenz, Vistula Passages (Weichseliiber-
giinge), Dirschau. 9. Strassburg : Strassbtorg : New Breisach. 10. Munich
(Miinchen) : Ingolstadt, Germersheim. *
It will be seen that the Empire has 17 fortified places of the
first class, serving as fortified camps, and 19 other fortresses.
These fortresses are all connected with each other by means
of underground telegraphs, while strategical railway lines lead
from the principal military centres towards the frontiers.
588 GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Army.
The 63rd Article of the Constitution of 1871 enacts that 'the
whole of the land forces of the Empire shall form a united army
in war and peace, under the orders of the Kaiser.' The Prussian
War Office discharges also the functions of an Imperial War Office,
but Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirttemberg have War Ministers of
their own. The military budgets of the two last named are, how-
ever, prepared in Berlin, and Bavaria is obliged to vote military
supplies in a fixed proportion to the other budgets. The
Sovereigns of these three Kingdoms have the right to select the
lower grades of officers, and the King of Bavaria, by a
convention signed November 23, 1870, reserved to himself the
special privilege of superintending the general administration of
the Bavarian contingent to the German army. But the approval
of the Kaiser must be obtained to all appointments, and nothing
affecting the superior direction of the troops of any State of the
Empire can be done without his consent. All German troops are
bound by the Constitution to obey unconditionally the orders of
the Kaiser, and must swear accordingly the oath of fidelity. But
this oath to the Kaiser is not imposed upon the Bavarian troops
in time of peace. Art. 65 of the Constitution gives the Emperor
the right of ordering the erection of fortresses in any part of
the Empire ; and Art. 68 invests him with the power, in case of
threatened disturbance of order, to declare any country or district
in a state of siege. The constitution of the army is regulated by
various military laws passed between 1867 and 1893 ; the Prussian
military legislation before 1871 being extended to the Empire.
By the Constitution of April 16, 1871, it is enacted that 'every German
is liable to service — and no substitution is allowed.' Every German capable
of bearing arms has to be in the standing army (or navy) for six years (seven
years for the cavalry and field horse-artillery) as a rule from the finished
twentieth till the commencing twenty-seventh year of his age, though liability
to service begins on the completion of the seventeenth year. Of the six
years, two must be spent in active service (three for the cavnhy and liekl
horse-artillery), and the remaining four in the army of reserve. Alter quitting
the army of reserve, the conscript has to form part of the Landwehr for
another five years in the first class or ' ban ' (four years for the cavalry and
field horse-artillery), and seven years in the second 'ban.'
About 400,000 young men reach the age of twenty every year, and when
the numbers of those morally or physically unfit to serve, of volunteers, and
of emigrants, are deducted, about 360,000 are left liable for service. Of these,
however, owing to the legal limitation of the peace strength, only a certain
number (chosen l»y lot) join the ainiy, the remainder are drafted into the
DEFENCE
589
Ersatztruppen, a kind of reserve, where the period of service is twelve years.
Men in the Ersatztruppen are liable to three periods of drill {of ten, six, and
four weeks respectively) ; but as financial considerations allow of only a cer-
tain number being so drilled, many receive no military training at all. At the
end of twelve years the trained members of the Ersatz pass into the first ban
of the Landsturm, the untrained into the second ban. By the Army Act,
which came into force on October 1, 1893, the annual levies were increased
by about 60,000 men, and the period of service under arms of the infantry
was reduced from 3 to 2 years, that of the cavalry and horse artillery being 3
years as before.
One-year volunteers, of whom about 8,000 join annually, serve at their own
charges, and are not reckoned in the legal peace strength. Non-commissioned
officers are generally appointed from men desiring to make the army their
profession.
All able-bodied men between the age of seventeen and forty-five, who are
neither in the standing army nor the reserves, must belong to the Landsturm,
which is only called out in the event of an invasion of Germany. The Land-
sturm is divided into two classes or ' bans ; ' to the first ban belong those be-
tween the ages of seventeen and thirty-nine ; to the second those between
thirty-nine and forty-five.
The following table shows the strength and organisation of the imperial
army on the peace footing in 1898-99 : —
Peace Footing.
Officers
Rank and File
Horses
Infantry, 215 regiments
12,024
362,940
Rifles, 19 battalions .
410
11,996
—
Bezirkskommandos, 288
817
5,499
—
Surgeons, Instructors, &c. .
Total Infantry .
—
2,623
13,251
383,058
Cavalry, 93 regiments
2,385
65,853
64,601
, , special services (in-
cluding officers)
—
817
—
Field Artillery, 43 regiments
2,671
57,984
29,044
,, special ser-
vices (including officers) .
—
810
—
Foot Artillery, 17 regiments
and 1 battalion
870
22,713
43
Foot Artillery special ser-
vices (including officers) .
—
132
—
Pioneers, 23 battalions, 3
. railway regiments, 2 bal-
loon detachments, 1 rail-
way battalion, and 3 rail-
way companies
738
19,085
—
Special Pioneer services
—
127
—
Train, 21 battalions .
31Q
7,765
4,347
Special train services .
—
69
—
Special formations
509
3,571
—
Non-regimental officers, &c.
Total .
2,442
283
—
23,176
562,277
98,038
590 GERMAN EMrillE
By the law of August 3, 1893, to continue in force to March 31, 1899, the
peace strength of the imperial army is 479,229 men, besides officers, surgeons,
paymasters, &c.
No official returns of the war-strength of the German army are published ;
but it is estimated that in the last extremity Germany on her present organi-
sation would have a war-strength of over 3,000,000 trained men.
The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, battalions,
regiments, and corps d'armee. The strength of an ordinary battalion in peace is
544 men, raised in war to 1,002 by calling in part of the reserves ; it is
divided into four companies, each of which in war consists of 250 men.
Exceptions to this general rule are the battalions of the guards and the
regiments in garrison in the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, the strength of
which on the peace footing is 686 men. During peace each regiment of in-
fantry consists of three battalions, each brigade of two regiments ; each in-
fantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of the divisional
general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of artillery, each of six
guns, and either a battalion of riflemen or a battalion of pioneers are attached.
Each field-artillery regiment is divided into three detachments, each of two,
three or four batteries. In all there are 494 field batteries, of which 47 are
mounted. Each battery numbers, as a rule, in peace four, in war six, fully
mounted guns. The corps d'armee is considered a unit which is independent
in itself, and includes not only troops of all three arms, but a portion of all
the stores and appliances which are required by a whole army. Each corps
d'armee consists of two divisions of infantry, a cavalry division of four regi-
ments, with tAvo horse -artillery batteries attached, besides the two cavalry
I'egiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve of artillery of six
field batteries and one mounted battery. There is, moreover, attached to
each corps d'armee one battalion of pioneers and one of train.
The corps d'armee, with the exception of the corps of the guards, are
locally distributed through the Empire. There are (besides the Prussian corps
of the guards) 19 army corps districts and one divisional district for the 25th
(Grand Ducal Hessian) division, 12 of which are named after Prussian
provinces, and the remaining seven after States of the Empire. They are : —
I, East Prussia; 2, Pomerania ; 3, Brandenburg; 4, Saxony; 5, Posen ; 6,
Silesia ; 7, Westphalia ; 8, Rhineland ; 9, Schleswig-Holstein ; 10, Hanover ;
II, Hesse-Nassau; 12, Saxony; 13, Wiirttemberg ; 14, Baden; 15, Alsace;
16, Lorraine ; 17, AVest Prussia ; and the 1st and 2nd Royal Bavarian Army
Corps. Two of these army corps were added in 1890 ; so that on the lines
of the above-mentioned report the total war-forces would embrace 21 corps,
the guards corps forming the twentieth, the Hessian division being strengthened
to form the twenty-first.
III. Navy.
After the war of 1870-71 the German navy was re-organised, and a
Flottengru7idungs2Jlan laid down. "By a cabinet order of March 30, 1889,
the administration was wholly re-organised. Tlie chief command was separ-
ated from the administration, and vested in a naval officer, while the
administration was transferred to the Reich smarineamt, having at its head,
under the chancellor, the naval secretary of state. The first of these officials
deals generally with the movements of the fleet, and with questions relating
DEFENCE 591
to coast defence, training, the efficiency of the jyersonnel, &c. ; while the
imperial arsenals and dockyards, matters more especially concerninf the
maUriel, clothing, victualling, &c., fall to the department of the secretary
of state. The ships of the German navy are divided between the Baltic and
North Sea stations. The chief naval establishments are at Kiel on the Baltic
and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, across
the Schleswig-Holstein neck from Kiel to the Elbe, which was opened in
the month of June, 1895, facilitates the transference of forces from one base
to the other.
In the year 1888-89 a programme was laid down for practically a new
fleet, but provision was not made for all the ships, and changes were intro-
duced into the programme. At the close of 1897 great attention Avas directed
to the proposals of the German Government for a very considerable increase
of strength. The Admiralty had arrived at a tactical composition for the
fleet Avhich was declared to be final, so that when the new ships had 'been
built no others should be laid down, except such as would be required to
replace vessels which became obsolete. The strength thus arrived at was as
follows— exclusive of torpedo boats, training ships, special service vessels,
and gunboats— 17 battleships, the eight armoured coast-defence of the
Siegfried class, nine large, and twenty-six small cruisers, Avith the addition
of two battleships and three large and four small cruisers as a reserve. The
scheme received the sanction of the Reichstag ; the law bears the date of
April 10th, 1898. In order that this strength may be attained, seven battle-
ships and two large and seven small cruisers must be laid down before the
close of 1904-5. For each class of vessel an extreme age has been fixed, at
which they will be added to the reserve, and others be laid down in their
places. The total expenditure involved by the shipbuilding and other
estimates presented is nearly 50,000,000Z. The shipbuilding provision for
1898-99 was 2,953, 500Z. ; that for 1899-1900, under the programme, will be
2,812, OOOZ.
The personnel for 1898-99 consisted of 2 admirals, 2 vice-admirals, 11
rear-admirals, 42 captains, and 77 commanders, and the total number voted
were 24,713. The increase of the fleet will involve a progressive expansion
of the personnel.
In the folloAving tabular statement of the strength of the German fleet
only vessels built, building, and provided for are included. Three other-
battleships should be begun in 1899. Old and non-effective vessels and
transports are omitted. The 'coast defence ships' are old ironclads and
armoured gun-vessels : —
Launched, „ ....
February, 1899. Buildnig.
Battleships, 1st class 6 .... 3
,, 2nd class 4 . . . .
,, 3rd class 6 . . . .
Coast defence ships 19 . . . .
Cruisers, 1st class 2 .... 1
J, 2nd class 8 .... 1
,, 3rd class 10 ... . l
Torpedo gunboats 4 .... 4
Torpedo-craft, lstcla.ss^ 105 .... 8
,, 2nd class 9 . . . . —
The table which follows of the German armour-clnd fleet is arranged in
a manner similar to that adopted in the case of the British and French navies.
i Including 'division boats.'
592
GERMAN EMPIRE
The ships named in italics are classed as coast defence vessels in the foregoing
statement of strength. The numbers following the names of the others in-
dicate the several classes to which they have been assigned. Abbreviations : —
b. broadside ; c.h. central battery; t. turret ; hai . barbette ; Q.F. quick firing.
Light and machine guns are not given. The armament consists of Krupp
guns : —
a
g
S "5
O to
^ o
1-^
P4
Name
o
.2
03 s
^1
Armament
CO
p
ft
5
■^^
HIJ?
a 1
.
Tons
Inches
&.
Koiiig Willielm. 3
1868
9,603
12
18 9 6 in. ; 1-6 in.
6 5 9 in.
5
8,000
14-7
t.
Preussen . . 3
1873
6,660
lOj
4 102 in. ; 2 6-6 in. ;
4 3-4 in. Q.F.
4
5,400
13-9
t.
Friedrich der Grosse 3
1874
6,660
lOi
do. do.
4
5,400
14-2
c.b.
Kaiser . . 3
1874
7,550
10
8 10-2 in. ; 1 8-2 in. ;
7 5-9 in.
5
8,000
13-7
c.h.
Deutschlaud . 3
1874
7,550
10
do. do.
5
8,000
13-7
bar.
Sachsen . . 2
1877
7,280
16
6 10-2in.;4 41in.Q.F.
4
5,600
140
bar.
Bayern . . 2
1878
7,2S0
16
do. do.
4
5,600
13-5
bar.
Wiirtteraberg . 2
1878
7,280
16
do. do.
4
5,600
13-5
bar.
Baden . . 2
1880
7,280
16
do. do.
4
5,600
13-5
bar.
Oldenbm-g . 3
1884
5,120
12
8 9-4 in. ; 3-4 in. Q.F.
4
3,900
13-5
b.
Siegfried .
1889
3,440
H
3 9-4 in. ; 6 34 Q.F.
4
4,800
160
b.
Beowulf .
1890
3,440
94
do. do.
4
4,800
160
bar.
Brandenburg . 1
1891
9,840
15|
6 11 in. ; 16 4 1 Q.F. ;
8 3-4 Q.F.
7
9,500
160
b.
Frithjof
1891
3,440
H
3 9-4 in. ; 6 3 4 Q.F.
4
4,800
160
bar.
Kurfiirst Friedrich \
Wilhelm . 1/
1891
9,840
151
/6 11 in. ; 16 41 Q.F. ;\
\ s 3-4 Q.F. /
7
9,500
160
bar.
Weissenburg . 1
1891
9,840
15|
do. do.
1
0,500
160
bar.
Worth . . 1
1892
9,840
15|
do. do.
t
9,500
160
b.
Hildebrand
1892
3,440
H
3 9-4 in. ; 6 3*4 Q.F.
4
4,800
160
b.
Heimdal .
1892
3,440
H
do. do.
4
4,800
160
b.
Hagen
1893
3,440
n
do. do.
4
4,800
16-0
b.
Odin ....
1894
3,474
H
do. do.
4
4,800
16-0
b.
Aegir.
Kaiser Friedi'ich
1895
3,074
9i
do. do.
4
4,800
160
III. . . 1
1896
11,180
lia
4 9-6 in.; 18 6 in. Q.F. ;
32 smaller Q.F.
6
l.S,000' 18-0
bar.
Kaiser Wilhelm II. 1
1897
11,180
11:1
do. do.
6
13,000 : 18-0
Konia; Wilhelm
(relief) . . 1
—
11,180
m
do. do.
C
13,000
18-0
Kaiser (relieO A 1
—
11,180
111
do. do.
6
13,000
18 0
Deutschland (relief)
B . . . 1
—
11,180
113
do. do.
0
13,000
180
bar.
Basilisli, Biene, Ca-
maleon, C'rocodil,
Hummel, Milcke,
18701
1
Natter, Salamun- \
to
1881/
1,090
8
1 11 -8 in. (35-ton)
1
700
9-0
der, Skorpion, Vi-
per,Wespe— 11 ar-
moured gunboats ;
Germany has but two cruisers of the first-class afloat — the Kaiserin
Augusta and the Filrst Bismarck— hut has launched, and is building,
another fii-st-class armoured cruiser (sister of the Bismarck) and several
powerful second-class vessels, with .some smaller and a number of torpedo
boats.
DEFENCE 593
The early German battleships were built abroad ; but the ships of the
new programme are being constructed not only in German yards, but almost
exclusively of German materials. Of these, the Brandenburg battleships are
steel-built, with complete belt, double bottom, transverse and longitudinal
bulk-heads, and about 120 water-tight compartments. Their heaviest plating
(compound) is of 15^ inches, and the three protected barbette gun emplace-
ments have 11^ inches plating. These are in the axis of the ship, and the
heavy guns are placed in them in pairs. The forward gun is raised consider-
ably, and behind it lies the battery. The dimensions of these ships are —
length, 254 feet 4 inches; beam, 64 feet ; draught, 24 feet 7 inches. The new
ships of the Kaiser Friedrich III. class are a considerable improvement ui)on
their predecessors. The system of placing a turret amidships with two of the
heaviest calil)ro guns has been abandoned, but the quick-tiring armament,
which is well protected, is much larger. The heaviest guns are of 9 4 inch
calibre instead of 11 inch, but they are very powerful. The speed of the new
ships is two knots better than that of the earlier type, and the range is greater.
The Siegfried ships are provided with powerful rams, and, having their works
raised very high amidships, present a somewhat singular appearance. They
are protected by watertiglit compartments and cofferdams filled with cellulose,
and have an end-to-end belt with an extreme thickness of 9-^ inches. The
heavy guns are placed, two forward in an oval barbette, and one aft in a pear-
shaped barbette, and the lighter pieces on the forecastle and poop and at the
corners of the superstructure. The first-class cruiser Kaiserin Atignsta is
steel-built, planked, and coppered, has two fighting-masts, and has the
special feature of being provided with three independent screws, like the
French Ditpuy de Lomc^ a speed often knots being attainable with the middle
one alone.
The large armoured cruiser Fiirst Bismarck (10,650 tons) was launched in
1897. She is 393 feet 8 inches long, with 66 feet 9 inches beam, and is pro-
tected by Harvey steel, 7 '7 inches thick on her sides and turrets, besides
having a 3 inch deck. She will carry a very powerful armament, and have
engines of 14,000 horse power, intended to give a speed of 19 knots. Five
second-class cruisers, the Victoria Luise, Hcrtha, Freya, Ransa, and Vineta
have also been launched, and another is provided for. These displace 5,560
tons, are powerfull}'- armed, well protected, and intended to steam at 20 knots,
being superior in some respects to their immediate predecessors, the Gefion,
Irene, and Prinzess JFilhelm.
Germany subsidises, as auxiliary merchant cruisers, seven vessels with
a nominal speed of from 19^ to 20 knots or more, viz, the Fiirst Bismarck
(10,500 tons), and the Augusta Victoria (9,500 tons), belonging to the
Hamburg-American Steam Ship Company, and the North-German Lloyd
steamers Kaiser JFilhelm dcr Grosse and Kaiser Friedrich III. (20,000 tons),
and the Spree, Havel, and Lahn (7,700 to 8,900 tons). These are to be
severally armed, in case of war, with 8 5*9 in., 4 4 9 in., 2 3*1 in. Q.F., and
2 2 '2 in. Q. F. Krupp guns.
The German navy is manned by the obligatory service of the maritime
population {seemdnnische Bevolkericng) — sailors, fishermen, ships' carpenters,
and others ; and also of the semi-maritime population — that is, of those who
have smaller experience of the sea. All these are freed on this account from
service in the army. Great inducements are held out for able seamen to
volunteer in the navy, and the number of these in recent years has been very
large. The total seafaring population of Germany is estimated at 80,000, of
whom 48,000 are serving in the merchant navy at home, and about 6,000
in foreign navies.
Q Q
594 GERMAN EMPIRE
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In Prussia, by a series of ordinances from 1807 to 1850,
complete free trade in land has been established, and all personal
and material burdens removed that would stand in the way of
this. With the exception of the Mecklenburgs, similar legisla-
tion has been applied to the land in other parts of Germany.
Generally speaking, small estates and peasant proprietorship pre-
vail in the West German States, while large estates prevail in
the north-east. In Prussia, large estates, with an area of 250
acres and more, prevail in Pomerania, Posen, East and West
Prussia ; while the districts of Koblenz, Wiesbaden, Treves,
Baden, and Wiirttemburg are parcelled out into small estates.
Of the whole area of Germany, in 1883, 92 per cent, was
classed as productive, and only 8 per cent, as unproductive. Ac-
cording to the latest returns (1893), 91 per cent, is productive
and 9 per cent, unproductive. The extension of the unproductive
area is, however, only apparent, the waste lands in one portion
now classed as such having formerly been included with the
permanent pasture. The subdivision of the soil, according to
the latest official returns (1893), was as follows (in hectares; 1
hectare = 2 '47 acres) : — Arable land, vineyards, and other culti-
vated lands, 26,375,791; grass, meadows, permanent pasture,.
8,788,806 ; woods and forests, 13,956,827 ; all other, 4,927,201.
On June 14, 1895, the total number of agricultural enclosures
(including arable land, meadows, cultivated pastures, orchards,
and vineyards) each cultivated by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
Between 1 and
10 Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
2,529,132
2,329,367
674,757
25,061
5,558,317 1
Their total area was 43,284,742 hectares.
These farms supported 18,068,663 persons, of whom 8,156,045
were actually working upon them.
The areas under the principal crops, in hectares, were as
follows : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
505
—
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
Wheat
2,044,103
1,980,496
1,930,830
1,926,885
Rye .
6,012,315
6,044,588
5,893,596
5,982,180
Barley
1,627,029
1,628,058
1,690,592
1,676,329
Oats .
3,906,969
3,916,726
4,028,692
3,979,643
Buckwheat
170,334
162,502
155,816
151,526
Potatoes
3,036,867
3,025,103
3,049,718
3,052,790
Hay . . .
5,915,552
5,912,626
5,913,995
5,909,693
Beetroot (sugar) ,
395,089
439,386
406,837
434,708
,, (fodder)
440,177
446,732
457,175
461,074
Vines
115,766
116,548
116,137
116,405
Tobacco
15,198
17j575
21,154
22,145
Hops .
42,065
42,203
42,074
40,700
The total yield of their products in the years indicated, in metric tons (1
metric ton = 2,200 lbs. or '984 an English ton), or hectolitres (hectolitre ="•
22 gallons), and in tons or hectolitres per hectare, was as follows : —
—
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
Tons
Per
Hect.
Tons
Per
Hect.
Tons
2,807,557
6,595,758
2,411,731
5,252,590
103,924
31,786,621
21,001,621
11,196,320
9,265,607
48,546
30,181
Hectolitrs
2,011,637
Per
Hect.
1-45
1-12
1-43
1-30
0-67
10-42
4-27
27-52
20-27
2-30
0-72
17-3
Tons
Per
Hect.
Wheat .
Rye .
Barley .
Oats .
Buckwheat .
Potatoes 1 .
Hay .
Beetroot (sugar) .
(fo.lder)
Tobacco
Hops .
Wine .
2,994,823
7,460,383
1,946,944
3,242,313
93,825
32,277,851
11,490,787
9,794,482
8,086,699
32,082
10,640
Hectolitrs
3,820,352
1-4?
1-24
1-20
0-83
0-55
10 '63
1-94
24-79
18-37
2-11
0-25
33-0
3,012,271
7,075,020
3.432,913
5; 250, 152
93.556
29,049,238
18,970,259
12,537,429
10,088,216
38,317
33,109
Hectolitrs
2,824,422
1-52
1-17
1-49
1-34
0-58
9-60
3-21
28-53
22-58
2 IS
0-78
24-2
3,008,385
7,232,320
2,317,334
4,968,272
95,205
29,278,132
19,943,995
12,616,432
10,526,403
25,325
Hectolitrs
5,050,808
1-56
1-21
1-38
1-25
0-63
9-59
3-37
29-02
22-83
0-62
43-4
The number of domestic animals in Germany on December 1, 1897,
was : —
States
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Swine
Goats
(1892)
1,963,909
268,471
128,562
62,098
70,305
102,682
495,260
Prussia .
Bavaria .
Saxony
Alsace-Lorraine
Wiirtteniberg .
Baden
Other States .
Total, 1897 .
Total, 1892 .
2,808,419
376,757
161,317
138,689
107,140
71,515
374,648
10,552,672
3,419,421
681,788
512,329
992,605
650,885
1,681,072
7,859,096
905,916
79,365
93,204
341,250
81,821
1,506,120
9,390,231
1,412,579
498,523
375,635
433,507
411,253
1,752,829
4,038,485
3,836,256
18,490,772
17,555,694
10,866,772
13,589,612
14,274,557
12,174,288
3,091,287
Q Q 2
596
GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Forestry.
Forestry in Germany is an industry of great importance, conducted under
the care of the State on scientific methods. About 34,473,000 acres or 25*8
per cent, of the area of the empire, were estimated to be occupied by
forests in 1893. In South and Central Germany from 30 to 38 per cent, of the
surface is covered with forests : and in parts of Prussia 23 '5 per cent. From
forests and domains alone Prussia receives a revenue of about 4 millions
sterling.
Til. Mining.
The great bulk of the minerals raised in Germany is produced in Prussia,
where the chief mining districts are Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Silesia,
for coal and iron, the Harz for silver and copper, and Silesia for zinc. Saxony
has coal, iron, and silver mines ; and Lorraine rich coal and iron ore fields.
The annual quantities of the principal minerals raised in five years are
shown in the following table, the returns for 1897 being provisional only : —
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Coal .
73,852,300
76,741,100
79,169,300
85,690,200
91,055,000
Lignite .
21,573,800
22,064,600
24,788,400
26,780,900
29,419,500
Iron Ore
11,457,500
12,392,100
12,349,600
14,162,300
15,466,000
Zinc ore
787,900
728,600
706,400
729,900
663,900
Lead ore
168,400
162,700
161,600
157,500
150,200
Copper ore ,
585,000
588,200
633,400
717,300
700,600
Rock Salt .
669,100
734,900
686,900
758,900
763,400
Potassic salt ,
1,526,200
1,643,600
1,521,900
1,780,600
1,946,200
Other products
262,400
290,500
276,300
283,600
288,400
The total value of the minerals raised in Germany and Luxemburg in 1896
was 787 million marks ; in 1897, 859 million marks.
The following table shows particulars of the production of the foundries
in Germany and Luxemburg in 1896 and the number of foundries engaged
principally or partly with each metal in 1896 : —
Foundries engaged
Quantity in
Value in 1,000
1896
Average No.
"^
metric tons
1896
marks
1896
Hands
1896
Chiefly
Partly
Pig iron .
6,372,575
299,660
106
26,562
Zinc
153,100
47,108
27
3
10,467
Lead
113,793
25,032
14
10
2,902
Copper .
29,319
29,174
9
5
3,968
Silver
428
38,872
6
15
2,084
Tin,
826
952
3
—
32
Sulphur and sulph.
acid
593,150
15,313
58
19
3,183
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
597
In addition to the above, about 2,487 kilograms of gold, valued at
6,915,752 marks, were produced. Nickel, bismuth, vitriol, and other chemical
manufactures were produced to a total weight of 33,546 tons, and to a total
value of 10,941,149 marks.
The total value of the productions of the foundries of all kinds in 1896
was 473,967,705 marks. The total quantity of finished iron produced in
Germany in 1896 was 7,382,489 metric tons, and its value 916,787,819
marks. In 1896 there were in Germany and Luxemburg 1,560 works pro-
ducing finished iron, including steel-works. Over 224,084 men are employed
in connection with the various stages of iron (including pig iron), besides
35,223 iron-miners. In connection with coal and lignite mining alone the
average number of hands engaged was 354,708 in 1896.
IV. Fisheries.
The German fisheries are not important. In 1895 the persons engaged
in fishing numbered 32,199, of whom 12,224 were employed in sea and shore
fishing, and 19,975 on inland waters. In 1896 (January 1) 515 boats (26,585
tons gross tonnage), with an aggregate crew of 2,811, were engaged in deep-sea
fishing in the North Sea for cod and herrings. The Baltic fisheries are more
developed. In 1897 fresh fish to the value of 7,100,000 marks were exported,
while the imports of fresh fish were valued at 17,700,000 marks, of salted
heiTings at 24,400,000 marks, of other salted, preserved, and dried fish at
3,700,000 marks.
V. Manufactures.
The chief seats of the German iron manufacture are in Prussia, Alsace-
Lorraine, Bavaria, and Saxony. Steel is made in Rhenish Pnissia. Saxony
is the leading State in the production of textiles, but Westphalia and
Silesia also produce linen ; Alsace-Lorraine, Wiirttemberg, and Baden produce
cotton goods. Woollens are manufactured in several Prussian provinces ; silk
in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace, and Baden. Beetroot sugar is an important
manufacture in Prussia, Bnmswick, and Anhalt ; glass, porcelain, and earthen-
ware in Silesia, Thuringia, and Saxony ; clocks and wooden ware in Wiirt-
temburg and Bavaria ; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.
The following table shows the number of persons engaged in the principal
manufactures in the larger States according to the census of occupation in
1895. Additional information should be looked for under the various
States : —
—
Iron Manu-
facture
Machi-
nery, In-
struments
329,404
49,591
29,355
72,304
24,137
18,223
Textile
Paper
Leather
and India-
rubber
Wooden
ware
Prussia .
Bavaria .
Wiirttemberg ,
Saxony .
Baden .
Alsace-Lorraine
German Empire
334,079
49,448
21,584
44,364
14,358
13,350
441,885
75,222
39,968
267,441
29,303
73,684
993,257
72,250
14,031
8,280
31,211
9,278
2,997
86,692
14,060
7,723
12,772
7,144
4,094
160,343
322,989
76,415
30,537
56,212
21,541
16,324
1 524,707
582,672
152,909
598,496
598
GERMAN EMPIRE
The following are the statistics of the beetroot sugar manufacture in the
Zollgebiet : —
Years
Number of
Factories
Beetroot used
in Metric Tons
Production in Metric Tons
No. of Kgs.
Beetroot to
produce 1
Kg. of Sugar
Raw Sugar
Molasses
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
401
405
405
397
399
9,811,940
10,644,352
14,521,030
11,672,816
13,721,601
1,171,843
1,316,665
1,766,805
1,537,522
1,738,885
241,805
279,299
347,090
328,463
342,322
8-35
8-10
8-23
7-63
7-72
The total amount of refined sugar produced in 1896-7, was 1,004,454 tons ;
in 1895-96, 1,084,395 tons ; in 1894-95, 989,862 tons ; in 1893-94, 817,522
tons; in 1892-93, 765,455 tons.
In 1896-97 there were 22 manufactories of sugar from starch which
yielded 6,314 tons of dry sugar, 34,875 tons of syrup, and 4,183 tons of colour.
The following table shows the quantity of beer brewed within the customs
district at various periods. The Beer-excise district {Braustcucrcjehiet) includes
all the States of the Zollgebiet, with the exception of Bavaria, Wlirttemberg,
Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine, in each of which the excise is separately
collected. The amounts are given in thousands of hectolitres (1 hectolitre = 22
gallons) : —
Years
Beer
Excise Dist.
Bavaria
Wiirttera-
berg
Baden
Alsace-
Lorraine
Total
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
^896-97
33,171
34,385
33,974
37,733
38,357
15,104
15,025
15,186
16,034
16,198
3,750
3,478
3,493
3,885
3,795
1,714
1,710
1,728
1,914
2,192
912
907
869
997
937
54,651
55,505
55,250
60,563
61,479
The total number of j^ctive breweries in the Beer-excise district was in
1896-97, 7,682 ; 1895-96, 7,847 ; in 1894-95, 8,029 ; in 1893-94, 8,243 ;
1892-93, 8,460. The amount brewed per head of the population in 1896-97
was in littres (1 litre = 1 76 imperial pint) : — the Excise district 92, Bavaria
276, Wiirttemberg 181, Baden 126, Alsace-Lorraine 57. The average annual
consumption per head of the population of the entire Zollgebiet for the
twenty years 1877-97, was 97 litres or 21 gallons. In 1896-97, there were
62,108 distilleries in operation, which produced 3,101,000 hectolitres of
^Icohol.
Commerce.
The commerce of the Empire is under the administration and
guidance of special laws and rules, emanating from the Zollverein,
or Customs League, which, since October 15, 1888, embraces
practically the whole of the states of Germany, the towns of
IJamburg and Bremen, with one or two other small places,
COMMERCE
599
having been then incorporated. Included in the Zollverein
are also the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg and the Austrian
communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg. A few districts in
Prussia (2,362 inhabitants), in Baden (3,805 inhabitants), in
Bremen (659 inhabitants), in Hamburg (6,235 inhabitants in
1895), remain still unincluded. Population of the entire
Zollgebiet in 1895, 52,485,807.
The following table shows (in thousands of marks) the special
trade for six years : —
Years
Imijorts
Exijorts
Years
Imports
Exports
1892
1893
1894
4,227,004
4,134,070
4,285,533
3,150,104
3,244,562
3,051,480
1805
1896
1897
4,246,111
4,557,951
4,864,644
3,424,076
8,753,822
3,786,241
The following are the principal details of the special commerce
for 1896 and 1897 :—
—
1896
1897
Imports in
Exports in
Imports in
Exports in
1,000 marksll.OOO marks
1,000 marks
180,444
1,000 marks
Living animals
157,749
23,951
23,210
Animal products
117,498
26,361
153,064
31,300
Articles of consumption .
1,324,266
426,752
1,434,261
492,447
Seeds and plants
53,237
32,500
44,343
27,882
Fuel
116,854
165,157
130,375
177,972
Fats and oils ....
245,395
31,656
236,602
30,861
Raw and manufactured ma-
terials : —
Chemicals, drugs, &c.
284,225
360,743
285,109
358,581
Stone, clay, and glass
64,014
155,005
68,756
151,089
^letals and metal wares
471,500
658,929
455,316
585,912
Wooden wares .
274,173
124,550
382,269
147,159
Paper goods
21,776
106,985
23,630
105,786
Leather, &c.
211,353
216,480
236,461
230,500
Textiles ....
1,040.828
957,422
1,033,546
917,117
Caoutchouc, &c.
45,639
31,916
49,763
37,483
Machinery, instniments, &c .
69,888
212,656
86,335
230,551
Hardware, &c. ...
18,495
100,854
20,965
109,948
Literature, art, &c.
41,061
120,727
43,405
127,549
Various
Total ....
—
1,178
—
894
3,786,241
4,557,951
3,753,822
4,864,644
In Germany, the average value of each article is fixed annually, under the direction of
the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission of experts, who receive information from
Chambers of Commerce and other sources. There are separate valuations for imports and
exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment of crossing the frontier. For
imports the price docs not include Customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, ware-
600
GERMAN EMPIRE
housing, &c., incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price includes all charges
within the territory, but does not include export duties, nor are drawbacks or bounties taken
into account. The quantities are determined according to obligatory declarations, and, for
imports, the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For packages, an oflScial tare
is deducted. The country of origin of imports, and the ultimate destination of exports
are registered.
Custoihs duties are levied* on imports, and taxes upon spirits, beer (malt),
salt, sugar manufactured from beetroot, and tobacco, &c. Since 1879 Germany
has been protectionist in her commercial policy. Of the total imports in 1897,
the value of 2,553,524,000 marks was subject to duty, and 2,311,120,000
duty-free. The duties levied amounted to 474,889,826 marks, or 18 '6 per
cent, of the vahie of the imports subject to duty.
The combined imports of gold and silver (included in the above)
amounted to 233,552,000 and 227,989,000 marks for 1896 ; 168,068,000 and
150,881,000 marks for 1897.
Some of the leading imports and exports under the above heads were, in
thousands of marks value, as follows in 1897 : —
—
1,000
Marks
—
1,000
Marks
—
1,000
Marks
g I'Horses .
« I Swine
2 Wheat .
a iRye. . .
84,500
7,159
173,698
80,283
Barley
Coffee (raw) .
Petroleum
Raw hides
120,618
160,368
75,107
136,547
Cotton (raw)
Wool .
Woollen yarn .
Raw silk .
243,221
218,713
99,128
89,460
„ Hops
g Sugar .
o-^Coal and coke.
X 1 Aniline dyes .
W ^Wooden goods.
23,876
229,898
170,085
67,028
63,498
Paper
Leather goods
v^otton cloth (coarse)
Mixed silk and cot.
ton cloth
59,410
74,534
69,078
83,457
Woollen fabrics
(unprinted) .
Hosiery
Haberdashery .
144,430
82,276
115,459
The special commerce of the Deutsche Zollgebiet was divided
as follows in 1896 and 1897 :—
Countries
1896
1897
Imports
from
Exports to
Imports
from
Exports to
German Free Ports .
Great Britain .
Austria- Hungary
Russia ....
Switzerland
Belgium ....
Netherlands
France and Algeria .
Italy ....
Norway and Sweden
Denmark ....
Spain
1,000 Marks
15,801
647,773
578,032
634,671
146,343
175,702
162,632
233,587
137,484
93,109
58,224
35,942
1,000 Marks
40,456
715,946
477,324
364,142
243,953
168,000
262,265
201,553
85,630
127,144
97,417
39,428
1,000 Marks
17,123
661,990
600,293
708,319
158,613
186,512
185,234
248,844
152,981
111,620
60,407
42,118
1,000 Marks
64,374
702,589
435,131
372,064
254,393
189,619
263,862
210,410
90,255
148,435
107,387
29,960
COMMERCE
601
Countries
1896
1897
Imports
from
Exports to
Imports
from
Exports to
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
Balkan Peninsula (includ-
ing Greece, Montenegro,
and Turkey in Asia)
114,830
72,702
103,342
78,551
Portugal ....
15.226
13,412
17,285
14,081
British India ,
171,163
49,179
204,617
47,278
Rest of Asia
132,324
99,123
147,514
90,902
Africa (except Algeria)
88,588
57,457
88,341
60,445
North and Central America
640,142
424,766
710,739
439,353
South America and West
Indies ....
369,416
182,307
369,359
153,728
Australia ....
104,464
30,044
87,044
32,594
Other countries
Total
2,498
1,574
2,349
830
4,557,951
3,753,822
4,864,644
3,786,241
The following table shows the amount of the commercial
intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom in five
according to the Board of Trade Returns
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from
£
£
£
£
£
Germany into
U.K. .
26,364,849
26,874,470
26,992,559
27,585,236
26,189,469
Exports of Brit-
ish produce to
Germany
17,703,185
17,801,169
20,586,310
22,244,405
21,602,426
Including foreign and colonial produce, the total exports from the
United Kingdom to Germany in 1897 amounted to 32,012,595/.
The following tables give the declared value of the principal articles
imported into the United Kingdom from, and exported from the United King-
dom to Germany in five years : —
Staple Imports into U.K.
from Germany
1893
1894
1895
1806
1807 1
£
£
£
£
£
Cereals and flour
605,863
934,092
993,452
828,359
755,939
Sugar and glucose .
10,562,655
9,723,748
9,393,890
9,323,662
8,085,463
Butter and margarine
863,262
756,639
618,962
589,146
300,942
Eggs
618,631
937,087
916,821
782,121
813,022
Wood .
995,191
992,839
1,005,277
1,1 93,. 530
1,369,040
Zinc (including ore).
456,327
370,091
424,996
4 80, .578
379,798i
Woollen manufactures
741,776
907,569
1,016,694
1,252,225
l,126,336i
Cottons and yarn .
583,002
768,516
824,194
868,199
755,997
602
GERMAN EMPIRE
Principal articles of British
Produce exported to
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Germany
£
£
£
£
£
Cottons and yarn .
2,523,736
^i2, 484, 420
3,284,713
3,853,936
3,649,122
Woollens and yarn .
3,065,212
3,017,163
4,191,206
4,649,176
3,882,016
Alpaca, &c., yarn .
608,513
475,356
1,019,859
914,428
1,018,017
Wool .
1,065,645
829,509
887,201
933,866
733,974
Iron
965,218
1,070,912
1,113,966
1,706,697
1,785,976
Herrings .
837,598
990,358
1,092,676
793,064
881,100!
Machinery
1,432,711
1,621,148
1,602,831
1,787,968
1,809,871!
Coals, cinders, &c. .
1,559,233
1,817,850
1,702,404
1,784, 921 j 2,021,4441
Other exports of British produce to Germany in 1897 were linen goods and
yarn, 509, 910^. ; manure, 314,065/. ; oils, 221,943Z. ; chemicals, 330,750?. ;
leather, 362, 683?. ; copper, 313,204?.
Great Britain exported to Germany foreign and colonial cotton valued at
447,699?. ; wool at 2,980,395?. in 1896. Tea exported to Germany from Great
Britain declined from 1,082,950?. in 1884 to 281,701?. in 1897.
The ports of Hamburg and Bremen are the chief gates of commercial
intercourse of Germany with the United Kingdom.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following was the distribution of the mercantile navy of Germany
(only ships of more than 17 '65 tons gross-tonnage) on January 1, 1896, 1897,
and 1898:—
—
Baltic Ports
North Sea Ports
Total Shipping
Number
Net tonnage
Number
Net tonnage
Number
1
Net tonnage
1896 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals
1897:—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals .
1898 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals .
551
381
932
95,020
144,346
1,973
687
527,085
735,593
1,262,678
2,524
1,068
622,105
879,939
239,366
2,660
3,592
1,502,044
509
389
898
76,703
142,818
2,043
737
2,780
520,914
747,142
1,268,056
2,552
1,126
3,678
597,617
889,960
219,521
1,487,577
855,571
969,800
472
404
59,309
157,427
2,050
767
2,817
526,262
812,373
2,522
1,171
876
216,736
1,838,635
3,693
1,555,371
Of the total shipping in 1896, 2,055 of 255,443 tons; in 1897, 2,053
of 262,543 tons belonged to Prussian ports. The total number of sailors
required for manning the ships of the merchant navy in 1898 was 42,428.
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
(JU8
The size of the various ships in 1898 was as follows : —
—
Under 100
Tons gross
100-500
Tons gross
500-1,000
Tons gross
1,000-2,000
Tons gross
2,000 Tons
gross and
over
Sailing vessels
Steamers
1,790
140
382
326
103
233
213
186
34
286
Of the sailing vessels 527 were totally of iron or steel ; of the steamers
1,163 were of iron or steel.
The following table shows the shipping (foreign and coasting) of the
German Empire, in which each vessel, if it entered several ports on a
single voyage, is counted only once : —
1895 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Number
Net tonnage
Number
Net tonnage
Number
Net tonnage
57,436
49,948
14,225,271
10,227,895
9,252
17,194
957,951
5,057,632
66,688
67,142
15,183,222
15,285,5:^7
1896 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
62,631
54,150
14,504,365
10,426,323
10,859
19,896
1,129,462
4,986,338
73,490
74,046
15,633,827
15,412,661
1897 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
66,383
56,580
15,305,328
11,046,178
10,734
21,154
1,184,642
5,580,450
77,117
l77,734
16,489,970
16,626,628
The number and tonnage of foreign shipping of the German Empire
entered and cleared as compared with national shipping were as follows
in 1897 :—
Foreign ships
Entered
Cleared
With Cargoes
In Ballast
"V\' ith Cargoes
] n Ballast
No.
Net
tonnage
No.
Net
tonnage
No.
3,065
4,454
2,187
1,322
750
342
Net
tonnage
No.
Net
tonnage
British
Danish
Swedish
Dutch
Norwegian .
Russian
Total, indud-
ing other
foreign
German ships
5,469
4, SOI
3,711
1,744
1,245
604
4,421,869
822,676
744,755
260,368
563,703
201,945
273
1,500
200
288
134
20
282,561
101,492
40,953
24,700
71,126
7,405
2,090,279
660,509
501,908
204,277
311,909
121,509
2,734
1,812
1,731
721
623
311
2,688,270
270,379
290,554
70,370
325,000
95,046
17,805
48,578
7,214,012
8,091,316
2,423
8,311
537,981
646,661
12,279
44,301
4,027,191
7,018,987
8,017
18,137
3,815,873
1,764,577
604
GERMAN EMPIRE
The total shipping at the seven principal ports of Germany was as follows
in 1897 :—
—
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Number
Net tonnage
Number
Net tonnage
Number
Net tonnage
Hamburg :^ —
Entered
9,779
6,498,402
1,142
444,504
10,921
6,942,906
Cleared
9,076
4,930,707
2,540
2,238,181
11,616
7,168,888
Stettin : —
Entered
4,384
1,416,258
83
43,622
4,467
1,459,880
Cleared
3,056
815,368
1,261
649,185
4,317
1,464,553
Bremen : '^ —
Entered
3,825
1,708,243
172
61,980
3,997
1,770,223
Cleared
2,588
1,276,174
1,629
481,138
4,217
1,757,312
Kiel :—
Entered
3,028
499,210
112
15,259
3,140
514,469
Cleared
2,270
395,084
790
117,182
3,060
512,266
Lubeck : ^ —
Entered
2,580
528,157
286
14,652
2,866
542,809
Cleared
2,068
354,845
794
191,483
2,862
546,328
Neufahrwasser
(Dantzig) : —
Entered
1 1,600
577,003
237
122,592
1,837
699,595
Cleared
1,534
509,661
330
194,169
1,864
703,830
Konigsberg : —
Entered
1,561
317,851
29
8,976
1,590
326.827
Cleared
1,532
332,088
166
37,526
1,698
369,614
1 Including Cuxhaven.
'■i Including Bremerhaven and Vegesack.
3 Including Travemlinde.
The vessels engaged in the coasting trade and inland navigation (not in-
cluded in the above tables) on January 1, 1898, numbered 22,564, of which
21,945 had an aggregate burden of 3,371,247 tons.
Internal Communications.
I. Railways.
The great majority of the German railways are now owned by the Imperial
or State Governments. Out of 29,461 miles of railway completed and open
for traffic, only 2,502 miles belonged to private companies, and of these 172
were worked by Government. Narrow-gauge lines measured 819 miles
(Government lines 390 miles) in 1896-97.
The mileage and financial condition of German railways (including narrow-
gauge lines) are shown as follows, for five years ending 1896-97 : —
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
605
Years
Total Length,
in English
miles
Total Capital,
in 1,000 marks
Expenditure
(1,000 marks)
Receipts
(1,000 marks)
Percentage
on Capital
of Surplus
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
27,439
27,851
28,237
28,882
29,461
10,917,237
11,105,722
11,260,120
11,481,738
11,680,193
862,267
863,309
864,775
856,722
889,053
1,353,083
1,413,523
1,416,951
1,504,375
1,595,242
4-50
4-95
4-90
5-64
6-05
Certain lines not open to public traffic, which in 1896-97 measured 2,012
miles, are not included in the above figures. In 1896-97 270,628,000 metric
tons of goods, including live cattle, were carried by German railways, and
paid 1,041,790,000 marks. The number of passengers conveyed in 1896-97
was 646,461,000,^ yielding 428,142,000 marks. In these numbers narrow-gauge
lines are not included.
1 Besides 175,000 soldiers not paid for.
II. Canals and Navigations.
At the end of 1897 the canals and inland navigations of Germany Avere as
follows : —
Nature of Waterway
Length navigable for vessels of draught
Total
length
j
5ft. 9in. 4ft. llin.
3ft. Sin.
2ft. 6in.
Under
2ft. 6in.
Navigable rivers
Canalised rivers
Canals
miles
986
44
90
61
miles
1,494
208
171
miles
2,484
983
981
miles
238
104
30
miles
629
31
120
miles^
5,831
1,371
1,391
61
8,654
Kaiser Wilhelm
CanaP
Totals
1,181
1,873
4,448
372
780
1 The Kaiser Wilhelm canal, connecting the North Sea and the Baltic, was begun June
3, 1887, and opened for traffic June 19, 1895. Its breadth at the bottom is 72 ft., and at the
surface 213 ft. ; depth 29 ft. 0 in. The cost of con.struction was estimated at 7,8O0,000Z.
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
The postal and telegraphic services in Bavaria and Wiirttemberg are re-
tained in the hands of their respective Governments ; but all other parts of
the Empire are united to form an imperial postal district (Eeich.'tpostgebiet).
The following table shows the number of employes and offices of the post and
telegraph services for the year 1897 :—
600
GERMAN EMPIRE
—
Employes
No. of Post
Offices
No. of Boxes
No. of Tele-
graph Offices
Reichspostgebiet
Bavaria ....
Wiirttemberg .
Total ill Empire .
167,877
14,914
6,704
31,076
2,390
997
92,306
12,073
4,518
19,041
2,363
746
189,495
34,463
108,897
22,150
Tlie amount of business transacted by the post-offices is illustrated by the
following statistics of articles transmitted by post, and the value of post-office
orders, in marks, for the year 1897 : —
Eeichspostgebiet B&varia
Letters
Post Cards
Printed matter
Samples .
Journals .
1,292,091,978
515,399j716
626,085j928
41,507,744
984,174,761
136,921,360
32,483,120
57,229,693
3,360,220
198,517,392
Total, includ-
ing other de-
spatches . I 3, 718,992,388) 454,275,743
Money sent \ \
(marks) . i25,865,972,482 1,166,487,285
Wiirttemberg
Total
55,342,0921 1,484,355,430
21,039,304
30,731,889
1,316,926
49,137,301
568,922,140
714,047,510
46,184,890
1,231,829,454
171,079,812
1,410,036,763
4,344,347,943
29,442,496,530
The financial condition of the
1897-98 was as follows : —
united postal and telegraphic services in
—
Reichspostgebiet
Bavaria
Wiirttemberg
Empire
Receipts .
Expenditure
Surplus . .
324,783,298
290,956,745
29,337,071
25,673,901
13,719,477
11,444,174
367,839,846
328,074,820
33,826,553
3,663,170
2,275,303
39,765,026
The following are the telegraph statistics for the year 1897 : —
—
Telegraph
Lines, English
miles
74,013
10,128
3,372
Telegrapli
Wires, English
miles
Inland
Telegrams
Foreign
Telegrams
Reichspostgebiet .
Bavaria
Wiirttemberg
Total in Empire
295,742
30,800
9,892
25,693,469
2,249,248
1,207,659
29,150,376
9.823,895
584,769
201,052
87,513
336,434
10,609,716
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
(507
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the value (iu thousands of marks) of the money
■coined since the foundation of the present Empire : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Copper
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Total (since
1872) .
Withdrawn
Surplus
110,420-9
157,282-1
107,514-0
105,602-8
126,662-4
3,234,852-3
6,226-0
8,797-1
4,487-2
7,672-4
11,421-7
507,629-9
13,405-1
2,026-1
843-9
181-6
1,522-1
1,479-4
312-0
373-4
340-9
443-2
206-5
13,651-4
0-1
121,556-1
162,986-6
115,708-9
118,989-8
128,348-3
55,614-4
3-2
3,811,748-0
19,634-4
3,228,626-3
494,224-8
55,611-2
13,651-3
3,792,113-6
The total value of thalers in circulation is estimated (1894) at about
400,000,000 marks.
The following table shoAVs the average financial condition of the note-
issuing banks {Notenhanken), in thousands of marks : —
Year
Bks.
9
8
8
8
8
LlABILltlES
Assets
Capital
Reserve
Fund
Notes in
Circula-
tion
Total
Including
other Lia-
bilities
Coin <fc
Bullion
Notes of
State &
other
Banks
Bills
Total
including
other
Assets
i 1893
1894
1895
1896
1 1897
222,672
219,672
219,672
219,672
219,672
46,026
45,986
46,229
46,347
46,648
1,158,320
1,173,629
1,273,799
1,261,611
1,266,370
1,952,739
2,018,120
2,140,014
2,107,634
2,104,279
921,735
1,013,488
1,092,220
971,640
052,563
49,930
52,710
56,898
49,929
49,621
790,370
756,160
790,673
862,518
865,698
1,962,984
2,022,199
2,141,019
2,108,847
2,105,825
' Reichskassenscheine,* small paper notes for 5, 20, and 50 marks, were in
rnrculation at the end of March 1897 to the value of 120,000,000 marks.
These are not legal tender.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Mark, of 100 Pfcnnige is of the value of 11|^., or 20-43 marks to the
pound sterling The Thaler is 3 marks. Gold coins are 20, 10, and 5-mark
pieces, called respectively doppel-krone, krone, and halb-krone. The 20-mark
piece weighs 7-96495 grammes -900 fine, and consequently contains 7-16846
grammes of fine gold. Silver coins are 5, 2, and 1-mark pieces, and 50 and
20-pfennige. The mark weighs 5-5 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 5
grammes of fine silver. Nickel coins are 10 and 5-pfennige pieces. There
are l>ronze coins of smaller denominations.
The standard of value is gold, but old thalers are still legal tender. Other
silver is legal tender only up to 20 marks.
The metrical system of weights and measures came into force in Germany
on January 1, 187 2.
608 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BOOKS OF REFERENCE
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Germany in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Paul v. Hatzfeldt-Wildenburg, accredited Nov. 23,
1885.
Secretary and Councillor. — Count von Castell-Riidenhausen,
Military Attache. — Baron von Liittwitz.
Naxal Attache. — Captain Corper.
Director of Chancery. — Wilhelm Adolph Sclmiettau,
Consitl- General. — G. Baron von Lindenfels.
Germany has also Consular representatives at the following places : —
Aberdeen, Belfast, Bradford, Cardiff, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow, Hull, Leith,
Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Peterhead, Plymouth, South-
ampton, Sunderland.
2. Of Great Britain in Germany.
Ambassador. — Right Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. ;
appointed October 24, 1895.
Secretary. — Viscount Gough.
Military AttacM. — Col. J. M. Grierson.
Naval Attache. — Captain A. W. Paget, R.N.
ConsuUGeneral. — Dr. Paul Schwabach.
There are also British Consular representatives at the following places : —
Cologne, Danzig, Diisseldorf Frankfort-on-Main (C.G.), Hamburg (C.G.),
Stettin, Mannheim, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Kiel, Leipsic (C.G.), Lubeck,
Breslau, Harburg, Wismar, Husum, Swinemiinde, Konigsberg, Memel,
Cuxhaven.
Books of Reference concerning the German Empire.
{See also under Prussia, Bavaria, &c. )
1. Official Publications.
Amtliche Liste der Schiffe der Deutschen Kriegs- und Handelsmariiie, mit ihren Unter-
scheidungs-Signalen. Abgeschlossen am 1. Januar 189S. Herausgegeben im Eeichsamt des
Iiinem. Bei'lin, 1898.
Amtl. Mittheilungen aus den Jahres-Berichten der Gewerbe-Aufsichtsbeamten.
Zusammengestellt im Reichsanit des Iniicrn. Jahrg. 1-21. Berlin, 1879-97. 8.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 189(3. London, 1897.
Central Blatt flir das Deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben im Relchsamt des Innern. 1-26.
Jalirgang. Berlin, 4.
Denkschrift iiber die Deutschen Schutzgebiete. Reichstagsdrucksache. 6. Legislatur-
Periode, II. Session, 1884-86, Nr. 44. Berlin. (See also under "Foreign Dependencies.")
Deutscher Reichs- und Kdnigl. Preussischer Staats-Aiizeiger. Berlin.
Deutsches Handelsarchiv. Zeitschrift fiir Handel und Gewerbe. Herausgegeben vom
Reichsamt des Innern. Berlin (monthly).
Deutsches Meteorologisches Jahrbuch fiir 1896 (Beobachtungs-Systeme : Deutsche
Seewarte, Konigr. Preussen &c., Bayern, Sachsen, Wiirttemberg, Bremen, Elsass-Loth-
ringen), gr, 4. (Since 1887.)
Die Deutsche Armee und die Kaiserliche Marine. Eintheilung, Trnppen, &c. Bearbeitet
der kartographischen Abtheilung der Konigl. Landesaufnahme. Berlin, 1889.
Genealogie der Europaischen Regentenhiiuser fiir 1898. 8. Berlin, 1898.
Handbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich auf das Jahr 1898. Bearbeitet im Reichsamt des
Innern. Berlin, 1898.
Handbuch flir die Deutsche Handelsmarinc auf das Jahr 1898. Herausgegeben im Reichs-
amt des Innern. Berlin, 1898.
Hertslet(Sir Edward, C.B.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London.
Monatliche Nachwei.se liber den auswartigen Handel des deutschen Zoilgebiets, &c. S.
Berlin, 1891-98.
Statistik der Deutschen Reichs-Post und Telegraphen-Verwaltung flir das Kalenderjahr
1897. 4. Berlin, 1898.
Statistik der im Betriebc beflndlichen Eisenbahncn Deutschlands. Bearbeitet im Reichs-
Eiseiibahu Amt. Betriebsjahr 1896-97. Berlin, 1897.
Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statist. Amt. Neue
BOOKS OF REFERENCE C09
Folge. Band 1-119 to piul of 1898 (daiin .jalulich : "Handel" (2 vols.), "Seescliiftahrt,*
" Binnenschiffahrt," " Kriniinalstatistik," " Krankcnversicheruny ") ; ferner daraus einzeln :
Bd. 101 : Die Statistik des Deutschen Reiclis ini Jahr 1897 ; entfaltend die gesetzliclien
Bestimniungen nebst Eiliiuteningeu ; Bd. 102-119 : Ergebnisse der Benifs- und Gewerbezah-
lung voni 14 Juni, lS9u; darunter Bd. 112 : Die Landwirthschaft ini Deutschen Reich. 4.
Berlin, 1898.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statis-
tischen Amt. 1-19. Jahrgang, 1880-98. Berlin, 1680-98, (Darin audi Litteratur-Angaben).
Vierteljahrshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen
Statistischen Amt. 1-7. Jahrgang 1892-98. Berlin, 1892-98.
Weissbuch. Official Correspondence relating to German Possessions in Africa and the
Pacific, and to the Congo, Egypt, and East Asia. 18 vols. Berlin, 1884-1898.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baedeker's Northern Germany, 12th ed. London, 1897. Southern Germany, 8th ed.
London, 1895.
Bigeloii- (Poultney), History of the German Struggle for Liberty. Londt)n.
Btsmarck, the Man and the Statesman: Reflections, &c., by himself. [Eng. Trans.]
2 vols. London, ISOS.
Blondel (G.), Etudes sur les Populations rurales de I'Allemagne, &c. Paris, 1897.
BoguBlaivski (R. von) and Aschenborn (R.), Die Heere und Flotten der Gegenwart.
Erster Band, Deutschland. Berlin, 1896.
Brachelli (Ritter von), Statistischc Skizze des Deutschen Reichs. 7th edition. Leipzig,
1892.
Rriickner, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Kolonialpolitik und des Export. Berlin, 1887-89.
Brunekow (Osk.), Die Wohnplatze des Deutschen Reiches. Auf Grund der amtlichen
Materialien hearbeitet. 3. Neu bearbeitete Ausgabe. Bd 1-4. 4. Berlin, 1897.
Busch (il.), Bismarck : some Secret Pages of his History. 3 vols. London, 1898.
Cariy Z<f(T.), History of Frederick the Great. 10 vols. London.
Daniel (H. A.), Deutscldand, nach seinen pliysischen und politischen Verhiiltnissen
geschililert. 6te Aufl. 2 Bde. 8. Leipzig, 1895,
Dauson (W. H.), Germany and the Germans. 2 vols. 8. London, 1894.
Ernst IJ., Herzog von Saclisen-Coburg-Gotha. Aus meinem Leben und aus meiner Zeit.
3 Biinde. 8. Berlin, 1888.
Export, Organ des Central vereins fiir Handelsgeographie und Forderung dcutscher
Interessen im Auslande. Berlin (weekly).
Frederic (H.), The Young Emperor William XL of Germany. 2nd edition. London, 1898.
Frankenstein (K.), Die Arbeiterfrage in der deutschen Landwirtschaft. Berlin, 1893,
Giese (W.), Die Juden und die deutsche Kriminalstatlstik. Leipzic, 1893.
OoltzXl. A. G. L. von der). Die landliche Arbeiterklassen. Jena, 1893.
Gothaischer gcnealogischer Hof-Kalender auf das Jahr 1898. Gotha, 1897.
Gould (S. Baring), Germany, [in "National Churches" Series]. London, 1892
Gern.any, Past and Present. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Headlam (J. W.), The Foundation of the German Empire, 1815-71. Cambridge, 1897.
Hue de Grais (Graf.), Handbuch der Verfassung u. Verwaltung in Preussen u. d,
Deutsclien Retche. 11th ed. 8. Berlin, 1897.
James (E. J.), The Federal Constitution of Germany. [Translation.] 8. Philadelphia, 1890.
Kohut (A.), Geschichte der deutschen Juden. 1898.
Lone (Char es), Life of Prince Bismarck. 2 vols. London, 1888.— The German Emperor,
William IL [In " Public Men of To-Dav " Series]. London, 1808.
Loivemtein (L.), Beitrage zur Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland. Frankfurt, 1895, (fcc,
MoUke (Count von), The Franco-German War, 1870-71. [Translation by A. Forbes.]
8. London, 1893.
Morhain, De I'Empire Allemand : sa Constition ct son Administration. Paris, 1886.
Murray's Handbook for the Rhine and North Germany. Handbook for South Germany
(including Wiirttemberg, Bavaria, <fec.). London.
yeumann (G.), Gcograptiisches Lexicon des Deutschen Reichs. 2 vols. 8.
Neumann's Orts-Lexikon des Deutchen Reichs. 3rd ed. 8. Leipzig and Wein, 1894.
Petersilie (A.), Das Offentliche Unterrichtswesen im Deutschen Reich und in den librigen
europiiischen Kulturlandem : Bd, 1 — 2. Leipzig, 1897. 8.
Rectus (EWsee), Nouvelle Geographic universelle. Vol IIL Paris, 1878.
Richter (P, E.), Bibliotheca Geographica Germaniae Leipzig, 1896,
Staats-, Hof- und Kommunal-Handbuch des Reichs und der Einzelstaaten. 8.
Eisenach, 1897.
Stern (M.), Die israelitschen Bewolkerung der d titschen Stadte. Frankfurt, 1890, <fec.
SybellH. von). Die Begriindung des deutsclien Reichs. 7 vols. Munich, 1890-94. [Eng.
Tran<i. bv E. White. New York, 1898]
Treitschke (H. von), Deutsche Geschichte im 19 ten Jahrhundert. 5 vols. Leipzig,
1879-94.
Wenzel (.lohn), Comparative View of the Executive and Legislative Departments of the
Governments of the United States, France, England, and Germany. 8 Boston, 1891
TT/iitman (Sidney), Imperial Germany. London, 1889.
Wilkinson (S.), The Brain of an Army. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1895
610
GERMAN EMPIRE: — FOREiaX DEPENDENCIES
Foreign Dependencies.
Gennany has declared licv protection over various areas or spheres of
influence in Africa, in Cliina, and in the Western Pacific. The following is
a list of the various foreign regions at present (1898) under the protection
or influence of Germany, the estimates given being necessarily vague : —
—
Date of
Acquisition
Method of
Government;
Estimated
Area
Sq. Miles.
Estimated
Population
In Africa: —
Togoland .
Kamerun
German Soxitli-West
Afi-ica
German East Africa .
Total AfricanPossessions
In Asia : —
Kiaucliau Bay ,
In the Pacific : —
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands.
Marshall Islands, etc.
Total Pacific Possessions
Total Foreign Depen-
dencies
1884
1884
1884-90
1885-90
1884-90
1897
1885-86
1885
1886
1886
1884-86
1884-97
Imperial Commissioner
Imperial Governor
Imperial Commissioner
Imperial Governor
Imperial Governor
< New Guinea Company >
Imperial Commissioner
33,000
191,130
322,450
884,180
2,500,000
3,500,000
200,000
4,000,000
930,760
10,200,000
1201
70,000
20,000
9,000
150
60,0001
110,000
188,000
89,000
13,000
99,270
460,000
1,030,030
10,660,000
1 Exclusive of the Bay with ah area of about 200 square miles, and the neutral zone
with an area of about 2j500 square miles, and population of 1,200,000.
Togoland.
Togoland, with Little Popo and Porto Seguro, situated on the Slave Coast,
in Upper Guinea, between the Gold Coast Colony on the west and the
French Colony of Dahomey on the east, has an estimated area of 33,000
square miles, and an estimated population of 2,500,000 ; European popu-
lation, December 31, 1897, 110, of whom 102 are German. It extends from
long. 1° 14' E.to long. 1°38'E. The length of coast line is about 32 miles,
but inland the territory, which lies between the rivers Volta and Mona, widens
to three or four times that breadth. By agi-eement with France, July 23,
1897, the boundary on the east from near the coast is the middle of the river
Mona, as far as 7"^ N. Lat. ; on the north the boundary is the 11th degree
N. Lat. and the \Yhite Volta to the 10th degree N. Lat. The territory was
declared a German protectorate in 1884, and is placed under an imperial com-
missioner, assisted'by a secretary, an inspector of customs, and a local council
of representatives of the merchants. Lome, the chief port, is regarded as
the capital ; Little Popo, Porto Seguro, and Bagida are also on the coast.
Inland the government stations are Misahohe, Kratji, Sansanne-Mangu. Bas-
Bari, Bismarokburg, Atakpame, and Kpando. Togo, which has given name
to the region, is situated on Lake Togo, and is said to have 8,000 inhabitants.
KAMKRtJK r>ll
'riic militery force consists of 7 Germans and 150 natives, and an anucd police
force of 100 negroes lias been organised. The four missionary societies at
work in tlie colony have schools largely attended by native cldldren, at the
chief centres of population. The climate at the coast is unhealthy for
Europeans. Inland the country is hilly with streams and watercourses.
There are long stretches of forest and brushwood, and dry plains alternate
with cultivable land. Maize, yams, tapioca, ginger, and bananas are culti-
vated to some extent by the natives, most of whom are Ewe negroes ; and
cocoa, oil-palms, caoutchouc, and dye-woods grow in the forests ; but the
country is still entirely unexploited, and the main commerce is the barter
trade for palm oil, palm kernels, and gum, carried on by a few factories on
the coast. There are now considerable plantations of palms, and coffee
culture is being tried. In 1897 there had been planted 61,200 palms, and
90,940 cotlee bushes, with 17,500 seedlings. The cofiee yield was 4,300
kilogrammes. Native industries are weaving, pottery, smith-work, straw*
plaiting, wood-cutting. On August 1, 1887, an import tax was imposed upon
European goods. In 1895-96 the revenue, chiefly from customs, amounted
to 382,020 marks, and expenditure, 388,180 marks, deficit, 6,160 marks.
Togoland is the only German colony which is nearly self-supi)orting. Budget
revenue for 1899, 550,000 marks (subvention [1900] 254,100). The imports
for the year 1897 were of the value of 1,975,940 marks; 1896, 1,886,840
marks; exports in 1897, 771,025 marks; in 1896, 1,651,416 marks. In
1897 the chief exports Avere palm kernels, 427,681 marks ; gum, 245,369
marks ; palm oil, 84,677 marks. The chief imports were cottons, spirits,
toliacco. In the year 1896-97, 270 vessels of 309,724 tons (129 German,
85 English, and 50 French vessels), entered and cleared the ports.
Kamerun.
The KamerUn region, with a coast line of 199 miles on the Bight of Biafra,
between the Campo River and the Rio del Rey, is bounded on the north-east
l)y a treaty-line running north-east to about 30 miles east of Yola on the
Upper Benue, whence a further line of demarcation has been drawn to the
southern shore of Lake Chad (see under Niger Territories, p. 191). On
the south the boundary line runs inland due east from the mouth of the
Campo River to aljout the meridian of long. 15° E., which may be regarded
as the eastern or inland limit of tlie protectorate. The area is estimated at
191,130 square miles ; the population at 3,500,000. The native population
consists of Bantu negroes near the coast, and Sudan negroes inland. In 1897
(June) there were 253 whites, of whom 181 German. It became a German
protectorate in 1884, and is placed under an imperial governor, assisted by a
chancellor, two secretaries, and a local council of three representative mer-
chants. The military force consists of 28 Germans and 341 natives. There
are two Government schools with 150 pupils. Four missionary societies with
schools attended by about 5,000 pupils, are at work in the colony. The soil
in the coast region, volcanic in its nature, is fertile, and numerous valuable
African vegetable productions grow in profusion. Plantations of cacao, coffee,
and tobacco have been formed ; in 1895 there had been planted 364,820 cacao
trees and 31,596 coffee bushes ; and experiments are being made towards the
cultivation of cloves, caoutchouc, vanilla, ginger, pepper ; numerous factories
carry on an active trade in ivory and palm-oil. On January 1, 1888, an im-
port duty was imposed on European goods, and from this the revenue is
mainly derived. Tlie revenue in 1895-96 amounted to 1,166,560 marks (in-
cluding imperial grant in aid of 620,000 marks) ; the expenditure was
11 li 2
G12 GERMAN EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
1,383,400 marks ; showing a deficit of 212,840 marks. Budget for 1899, revenue
(including Imjierial contribution of [1900] 983,400 marks) and expenditure,
1,394,100 marks. The chief town is Kamerun. Buca, Victoria, Bibundi, and
Canipo are other important trading stations, and Aqua-town and Bell-town
are the principal native settlements. Gold and iron have been found within
the territory. In the j'ear ended July 1, 1896-97, 25 German vessels of 32,796
tons, 39 British vessels of 47,147 tons, and 1 French of 1,205 tons entered the
ports of Kamerun ; total tonnage entered, 81,148.
In the year 1897, the imports into the Kamerun region amounted to
5,340,000 marks ; and exports to 3,706,000 marks. The chief exports were :
rubber, 1,060,000 marks ; palm oil, 980,000 marks ; palm kernels, 1,320,000
marks; ivory, 370,000 marks ; cacao, 44,000 marks ; ebony, 111,000 marks.
The chief imports were cottons, spirits, salt, tobacco, rice, iron wares, wood
and powder, and colonial produce. Kamerun is connected by telegraph cable
with Bonn}^ in the Niger Coast Protectorate.
German South- West Africa.
This region extends along the coast for about 930 miles, exclusive of
Walfisch Bay, which is British. The Orange River forms the south
boundary to long. 20° E. ; the east boundary goes north along the 20° till
it meets the 22nd parallel of S. lat. ; it then turns east till it meets long. 21°
E., which it follows north to the 18th parallel ; it then goes east to the Chobe
River, which it follows to the Zambesi. The northern boundary is formed by
the Cunene River as far as the Humbe cataracts ; then east to the Cubango
and the Katima rapids of the Zambesi. The total area is estimated at 322,450
square miles and the population at 200,000, belonging to the Hottentot and
Bushman, the Bantu and the Damara races, among whom there are two evangeli-
cal missionary societies at work. The white population is 2,628 (1897),
1,221 males being Germans and 299 males British and Boers. The military
force consists of 755 officers and men, all European, but natives also are em-
ployed. The whole southern part and much of the east is barren and desert.
The coast lands are held by the ' Deutsche Kolonial Gesellschaft fiir Siidwest
Africa,' which has given the special names of Deutsch-Naraaland to the
southern part of its territories, and Deutsch-Damaraland to the northern.
An Anglo-German company has obtained from the German Government
(1892) a concession of the northern part of the territorj^ The chief stations
are Windhoek, Gobabis, Otjimbingue, Tsoakhaubmund, Keetmanshoop,
Gibeon. The two chief harbours in German possession are Sandwich
Harbour, which is being gradually sanded up, and Angra Pequena, or
Liideritz Bay. A new harl)our is being constructed at Swakopmund,
whence a railway to Windhoek is under consideration. The seat of adminis-
tration is at Great Windlioek, about 180 miles inland from Walfisch Bay.
There are also Government stations at the chief centres of pojmlation. There
is little agriculture. The chief industry is pastoral ; in Damaraland the
natives possess vast herds of cattle, while sheep, introduced from Cape Colony,
and goats of native breed are also reared. Copper has been found, though the
expense of working it has hitherto rendered the discovery almost useless. Gold
has been found, but not in sufficient quantity for working, and traces of other
minerals have been observed. Revenue for 1895-96 (including Imperial
contribution of 1,700,000 marks) 1,856,860 marks; expenditure. 1,991,480
marks ; deficit 134,620 marks. Budget for 1899, revenue (including Imperial
contrihution of 6,970,000 marks) and expenditure, 5,001,000 marks. Imports
in 1897, 244,366/.; exports, 62,337/. The chief imports are provisions and
textiles ; and exports, guano and ostrich feathers.
WESTERN PACIFIC Gil
German East Africa.
The German sphere of influence in East Africa, with a coast line of about
620 miles, and an estimated area of 384,000 square miles, is bounded
on the north by a treaty line, defined in 1886 and 1890, running north-west
from the Umbe Kiver, by the north of Kilima-Njaro, to the east shore of the
Victoria Nyanza, and to the W. of this lake, following the parallel of 1° S.
lat., to the boundary of the Congo State, making a loo]), however, so as to
pass S, of Mount Mfumbiro On the AVest it is bounded ])y Lake Tan-
ganyika, and on the S. by a line (define.! 1890) joining the S. end of that
lake with the N. end of Lake Nyassa and running to the N. of the
Stevenson Road, and by the Rovuma River. The narrow strip of territory
on the coast was leased by tlie Sultan of Zanzibar to the Germans for fifty
years, from April 1888, with its harbours and customs, but the Sultan's rights
were acquired by Germany in 1890 for a payment of 4,000,000 marks. The
German Empire is represented in the Protectorate by an Imperial governor.
The native population is estimated at 4,000,000, consisting mostly of tribes of
mixed Bantu race, with a strong Asiatic element near the coast. The Euro-
pean population in 1897 numbered 922 (678 German). The military force
consists of 172 Germans and 1,572 coloured men, while the police numbers
15 Germans and 482 coloured men (Askaris). There are seven Protestant and
three Catholic missionary societies at work. The country near the coast con-
tains forests of mangrove, coco-palm, baobab, tamarind, &c., while in the
higher regions the acacia, cotton-tree, sycamore, banian, and other trees
abound. In the more settled regions agriculture is pursued ; there are large
banana plantations belonging to the natives who also cultivate pulse and
maize. Near the coast there are German plantations of coco-palms, coffee (on
the higher lands), vanilla, tobacco, caoutchouc, cacao. Belonging to the
Government are several experimental stations for tropical culture and cattle-
rearing. The most common domestic animal among the natives is the o-oat,
but sheep and cattle are also reared. Minerals known to exist within the
Protectorate are coal, iron, malachite, salt ; gold has also been observed. The
resources of the region are still undeveloped, but commercial enterprise is
being encouraged by the Government which grants subsidies for railways and
steamers. The chief seaports are Dar-es-Salaam (population 13,000), Bagamoyo
(13,000), Saadani, Pangani, Kilwa (10,000), Lindi, Mikindani, and Tanga
(5,000), but few of these arc accessible to ocean-going vessels. A railway
from Tanga is open for traffic as far as Pongwe, nearly 10 miles, and is bein*'
extended towards Karagwe. There are in the coast towns 9 telegraph stations
and a line connects with Zanzibar. Budget for 1899-1900, revenue (indudino-
Imperial contrilmtion of 5,985,000 marks) and expenditure 8,000,000 marks.
In 1897 the value of the imports was 8,666,000 marks, and exports 4,117,000
marks. The chief exports are (1897) ivorv (1,682,000 marks), caoutchouc
(892,000 marks), sesame (110,000 marks), gum (174,000 marks). The chief
imports are cottons, iron ware, colonial wares, rice, oil, spirits, wine and beer.
Karag\ve, one of the large Central African States formed after the dissolu-
tion of the former Empire of Kitwara, lies mainly within the German Sphere
of Influence as delimited northwards by the Anglo-German Agreement of July
1, 1890. The capital, standing on two trade routes to the interior, may l»e
exi>ectcd to assume greater importance when reached by the railway now
nndor construetion,
6l4f GERMAN EMPIRE:— WEST TAGIFIC
Kiau-Chau.
Kiau-Chau, on the cast coast of the Chinese province of Shan-tnng, was
seized by Crermany in November, 1897 ; the town, harbonr, and district were
by treaty transferred to Germany on a 99 years' lease, March 6, 1898 ; and
the district was declared a Protectorate of the German Empire, April 27, 1898,
The administration is entrusted to the navy department, and a naval officer
has been placed at its head, with the title of f^overnor.
The area of the Protectorate is about 120 square miles, exclusive of the
bay (about 200 square miles). There are in the district 33 townships,
and a population of about 60,000. Surrounding tlie district and bay is a
neutral zone, Avhose outer limit is 30 miles from high water mark on the coast,
its area being about 2,500 square miles, and population about 1,200,000.
For the year 1899-1900 the sum required for administration expenses is
8,500,000 marks. The garrison consists of marines and marine artillery,
alaout 1,500 in all. There are judicial officers for Eiiropean residents, with an
appeal to the German consular court at Shanghai ; Chinese residents are
subject to this jurisdiction only in specified cases.
At present, Chinese owners are forbidden to sell land to any but the
Government, whose purpose is stated to be to resell to European settlers, with
a view to the formation of a European commercial, self-governing munici-
pality, Avith an improved harbour and other facilities for shipping. The ex-
tensive coal-fields of Wiehsien and Pashan are less than 100 miles distant ;
these, by agreement, are to be worked Avith German capital ; and concessions
have by the treaty been granted for the construction of railways, one of
which will pass through the coal-fields to the boundaiy of the province, and
the other to Chin-chao, Avith a branch to Tsinan.
The German Government, while reserving its liberty of action, has ex-
pressed its intention of making Kiau-Chau a free x>ort.
In the Western Pacific.
1. Kaiser Wilhehn's Land. — Kaiser "Wilhelm's Land, the northern section
of south-east New Guinea, Avas declared a German protectorate in 1884. In-
cluding Long Island, Dampier Island, and some other small islands, it has an
estimated area of 70,000 square miles, and a population of about 110,000. In
1896 (April) the European population of the Protectorate, including the Bismarck
Archipelago, numbered 164 (97 German) ; 1897 (March) in the Bismarck
Archipelago and Solomon Islands 198 (71 German). Three Protestant and
two Catholic missionary societies are at Avork. The development of the
Protectorate has been entrusted to the German New Guinea Company, Avhich
has extended its operations also to other German possessions in this ocean.
Negotiations are in ])rogress for the transfer of the administration to the
Imperial Government. Arcca and sago palms, bamboos, ebony, and other
woods are among the natural riches of the protectorate. There are plantations
of cotton (590 acres) and tobacco (yield in 1897, 79,000 lbs.), and care is
bestowed on the maintenance of the coco-palms (over 36,000 trees) ; coffee
is also cultivated (33,400 trees in 1897). The natives barter copra, mother-
of-pearl, and trepang. Horses, cattle, and goats flourish on the island, Avhich
seems less adapted for sheep. Gold has recently been found in the Bismarck
Mountains. Three steamers and several sailing ships are engaged in the
trade of the New Guinea Company. The chief harbours are Friedrich-
AVilhelmshafen, Berlinhafen, Konstantinhafen, Finschhafcn, and Stephansort
(the seat of Government). Estimated revenue for 1896-97, 93,000 marks ;
expenditure, 273,000 marks ; subvention for 1899, 657,000 marks.
WKSTEHN PACIKIU (J15
2. Bismarck Archipelago. — In November 1884 a German Protectorate was
declared over the New Britain Arcliipelago and several adjacent groups of
islands, which were then renamed together the Bismarck Archipelago. The
chief islands of this archipelago are Neu Pommern (formerly New Britain),
Neu Mecklenburg (New Ireland), Neu Lauenburg (Duke of York Islands),
and New Hannover, Admiralty, Anchorite, Commerson, Hermit, and other
islands. Cotton is cultivated (yield in 1897, 77,360 lbs.), and coco-nut
palms (46,200 trees in 1897). The New Guinea Company has a trading
station at Matupi. The chief exports are copra and cocoa-nut fibre. In
1896-97 (year ending March 31), the imports to the Bismarck Archipelago
amounted to 700,000 marks. The Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon
islands in 1896-97 were visited by 47 steamers and 113 sailing vessels, the
total tonnage being 52,679 tons.
3. Solomon Islands. — Geniisiiiy owns the more northerly part of this
group, including the islands of Bougainville, Choiseul, Isabel or Mahaga,
and various smaller islands. Sandal wood and tortoiseshell are the chief
commercial products. The islands are placed under the officials of Kaiser
Wilhelm's Land.
4. May-shall Islands. — The Marshall Islands, consisting of two chains or
rows of lagoon islands, known respectively as Ratack (with thiileen islands)
and Ralick (with eleven islands), have belonged to Germany since 1885.
European population in 1898 (January), 74 (43 German). The chief island
and seat of the German Imperial Commissioner is Jaluit. There are planta-
tions of coco-palm. Copra is the chief article of trade. The total production
in the year 1896-97 was 2,366 tons. In 1896-97, 84 vessels of 12,333 tons
entered the port of Jaluit.
Books of Repeuenck on German Dependencies.
Allan (G.), The Land of the Duallas ; Life in the Cameroons. 12. Newcastle, 1885.
Aiigra Pequefia. Copy of Despatch from the Earl of Derby to H.M.'s High Commission
in S. Africa relative to the Establishment of a German Protectorate at Angra Pequefia and
along the Coast. London, 1884.
Arrangement between Great Britain and Germany relative to their respective Spheres in
Africa. London, 1885 The same with reference to New Guinea. London, 1885.
•Bauma«K (Oscar), In Deutsch Ostafrika wiihrend des Aufstandes. 8. Vienna, 1890.
Usauibara und seine Nachbargebiete. 8. Berlin, 1891.
Brose (M.), Die deutsche Koloniallitteratur von 1894-95. Berlin, 1897.
Billow (F. J. von), Deutsch Sudwest- Africa : Drei Jahre im Lande Hendrik Witbbois.
Berlin, 1896.
BUttner (C. G.), Das Hinterland von Walfischbai und Angra Pequefia. Heidelberg, 1884.
Correspondence relating to Zanzibar. London, 1885.
Correspondence respecting Affairs in the Cameroons. London, 1885
Demay (Charles), Histoire de la Colonisation AUemande. Paris, 1890.
Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, Organ der Deutschen Kolonialgesellschaft. Berlin (fort-
nightly).
Deuischer Kolonial-Kalender. Berlin. Annual. (Beilage 20, 1898, contains organi-
satorisclie Bestinimungen fiir die Kaiserlichen Schutztruppen in Afrika.)
Deut.sches Kolonialblatt. Berlin, 1897.
Doutscliland und seine Kolonien ein Jahre 1800. Berlin, 1897.
Dilthey (R.), Der Wirthschaftliche Werth von Deutsch. Ost-Afrika. Diisseldorf, 1889.
Dorc (K), Deutsch-Siidwesf-Afrika. In Petermann's Mitteilungen, Ergauzungsheft, No.
l-.'O. Gotha, 1890.
Foreign Office Reports, Miscellaneous Series, No. 432. London, 1897.
For«ter( B.), Deutsch-Ostafrik. 8. Leipzig, 1890.
Fitrnrr (R.), Deutches Kolonial Handbuch. Berlin, 1896.
Framois (H. von), Nama und Damara. Deutsch-Stid-west-Afrika. 8. Magdeburg, 1895.
Framius (G), Kiautschou, Diutfclilands Erwerbung in Ossasien. 3rd ed. Berlin, 1898.
Fremelxuid Menile, Deutschlands Kolonien. Hannnvtr. 1SS9.
Hessc-Wartcfip (E. von), Schantung und Deutsch-China. Leipzig, IS'.'S.
Hesuler (C), Kurze Landeskui.de <lu Dcutsclicn Kolonien. 3rd cd. Leipzig, lti)8,
Hirth (F.), fcchantung und Kiau-tbtl.uu. Muuchen, 1898.
6] 6 GERMAN EMPIRE: — ALSACE-LORRAINE
Hdhnel (L. von), Discovery of Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie. [Translated by N. Bell.
2 vols. 8. liondon, 1894.
Jahresbericht der deutsehen Kolonialgesellschaft, 1896. Berlin, 1897.
Johnston (Sir H.), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keltic (J. S.), The Partition of Africa. 2nd ed. London, 1895.
Kiepert (R.), Deutscher Kolonial Atlas. Berlin, 1893.
Kleiner deutscher Kolonialatlas. Herausgegeben von der deutsehen Kolonialgesell-
schaft. 2 ed. Berlin, 1898
Koloniales Jahrbuch. Annual. Berlin.
Koschitzky (Max von), Deutsche Kolonialgeschichte. Leipzig, 1887 and 1888.
Zra!<S8 (P.), Spezialkarte von Deutscli-Ostafrika. 1. 2,000,000. Berlin, 1896.
Langhans (P.), Deutschlands Kolonial Atlas. Gotha, 1895-97.
Lewis (R.), The Germans in Damaraland. 8. Cape Town, 18S9.
Meinecke{G.), Koloniales Jahrbuch. Annual.
Mitteilungen aus den Deutsehen Schutzgebieten (nach amtlichen Quellen). Bd. 1-11.
Berlin, 1889-98. 8. [Vun Bd. 4 (1891) ab : " Wissenschaftliche Beihefte zum amtlichen
deutsehen Kolonialblatt."]
Mor^<;7i (C.), Durch Kamerun. 8. Leipzig, 1893.
Nachrichten liber Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und den Bismarck-Archipel. Herausgegeben
von der Neu-Guinea Kompagnie. Berlin (at intervals).
Peters (Dr. Karl), Das deutsch-ostafrikanische Schuzgebiet. 8. Miinchen und Leipzig,
1895.
iJeicTiard (P.), Deutsch-Ostafrika. 8. Leipzig. 1892.
Richthofen {¥ . von), Schantung und s ine E ngangspforte Kiautschou. Berlin, 1898.
Sammlung geographischer und kolonialpolitischer Schriften. Nos. 1-7. Berlin, 1897.
Schinz (H.), Deutsch-Sudwest-Afrika. 8. Oldenburg and Leipzig, 1891.
iSc/iaiidt (Rochus), Deutschlands Kolonien. Vol. L II. 8. Berhn, 1895-96.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich. 18 Jahrg. Berlin, 1897.
Wagner, Deutsch-Ostafrika. 2. Auflage. Berlin, 1888.
Weissbuch. Annual. Berlin.
Zintgrapf (Eugen), Nord-Kamerun. 8, Berlin, 1895.
STATES OP GERMANY.
ALSACE-LORRAINE.
(Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen.)
Constitution.
The fundamental laws under which the Reichsland, or Imperial Land,
of Alsace-Lorraine is governed were voted by the German Reichstag June 9,
1871, June 20, 1872, June 25, 1873, May 2, 1877, July 4, 1879, September 28,
1885, and December 11, 1889. By the law of June 9, 1871, it is enacted, 'The
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded by France in the peace preliminaries
of February 26, 1871, under limits definitely fixed in the Treaty of Peace
of May 10, 1871, shall be for ever united with the German Empire.' The
Constitution of the German Empire was introduced in Alsace-Lorraine on
January 1, 1874.
The administration of Alsace-Lorraine is under a Governor-General,
bearing the title of * Statthalter. '
Statthalter of Alsace-Lorraine. — Prince Hohcrdohe-Langenhurg, appointed
October 30, 1894.
According to the constitutional law of July 4, 1879, the Emperor appoints
the Statthalter, who exercises power as the representative of the Imperial
Government, having his residence at Strassburg, A Ministry composed
of four departments, with a responsible Secretary of State at its head, acts
under the Statthalter, who also is assisted by a Couiunl of State, comprising
the Statthalter as President, the Secretary of State at the head of the
Ministry, the chief provincial officials, and eight to twelve other members
appointed by the Emperor, of whom three are presented by the Landesausschuss,
or Provincial Committee. This Committee, which attends to local legislation,
consists of 58 members.
ALSACE-LORRAINE
017
Area and Population.
The Reiclisland lias an area of 14,507 square kilometers or 5,601 English
square miles. It is administratively divided into three Bezirke, or districts,
called Ober-Elsass, Unter-Elsass, and Lothringen, the first of which is sub-
divided into six, and the other two each into eight Kreise, or circles. The
following table shows the area, population, and the inhabitants per square
mile of each of the districts and of the whole : —
Districts
Area, English
square miles
Population
•
Density per
sq. mile
1895
1890
1895
Ober-Elsass
Unter-Elsass
Lothringen
Total .
1,354
1,846
2,401
471,609
621,505
510,392
477,477
638,624
524,885
352-6
346-0
218-6
5,601
1,603,506 1,640,986
2930
The annual increase of population from 1875 to 1880 amounted to 0*45 per
cent., while from 1880 to 1885 there wasayearly decrease of 0-03 percent., and
from 1885 to 1890 as well as from 1890 to 1895an annual increase of O'o per
cent. Of the population in 1895, 833,173 were males and 807,813 (or 97*0
per 100 males) were females. According to an official estimate (1890),
210,000 are of French origin (Sprachstamme), and 1,431,000 of German
origin. Foreigners numbered 48,507 in 1895, a larger number in proportion
to population than any of the other States of the Empire. The garrison
consisted of 79,405 men. In 1895, 45-2 per cent, of the population resided
in towns of 2,000 inhabitants and upwards ; 54-8 per cent, in rural com-
munes. The three largest towns are Strassburg (135,608 inhabitants in
1895), the capital of Alsace-Lorraine ; Miilhausen (82,986 inhabitants), in
Ober-Elsass ; and Metz (59,794 inhabitants), in Lothringen. Marriages, 1897,
12,179; births, 52,271; deaths, 35,109; surplus of births, 17,162. Of the
births, 1,635 (3-13 per cent.) were still-born, and 4,359 (8-34 per cent.) were
illegitimate. The emigration via German and Dutch ports to extra-European
countries was as follows in eight years : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
923
1,138
922
794
245
250
268
209
Religion, Instruction, Justice and Crime.
At the census of December 2, 1895, there were in the Reiclisland
1,246,791 Catholics, 356,458 Protestants, 4,367 members of other Chri.stian
sects, 32,859 Jews ; other religions, 15, and 496 uncla-ssilied. (Sec also
German Empirr, pp. 536-41.)
In 1897 the Reiclisland contained a university (at Stra.s.sl)urg, .see German
Enijnrc, p. 541), 17 Gymnasia, 7 Piogymnasien, 3 higher Rcalschiilen, 9 Real-
schulen (4 united with gymnasia), 1 agricultural school, 8 seminaries, 4 pre-
paratory schools for teachers, 68 higher girls' schools, 2,894 elementary
schools, 436 infant schools, 100 finishing schools, 28 intermediate schools,
4 institutions for the deaf and dumb, 2 for the blind, 2 for idiots.
t)l8 GERMAN EMPIRE; — ANHALT
Alsace-Lorraine has au Oberlandesgericht at Colmar, and six Laud-
gerichte. In 1896, 11,451 persons, i.e. 927 per 10,000 inhabitants above
the age of 12 years, were convicted of crime,
Finanoe.
The budget estimates of public revenue of Alsace-Lorraine in the year
ending March 31, 1899, amounted to 55,616,515 marks, and the estimates of
expenditure to 54,811,195 marks. There was also an extraordinary revenue
of 4,149,269 marks, and an expenditure of 4,954,589 marks. More than half
of the total revenue is derived from customs and indirect taxes, while one of
the largest branches of expenditure is for public instruction.
Alsace-Lorraine has a debt consisting of 3 per cent, rentes in circulation
to the amount of 715,284 marks, equivalent, if capitalised, to a debt of
24,115,000 marks.
Production and Industry.
On June 14, 1895, the number of separate farms was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Above 100 Hectares
Total
98,666
119,955
12,919
407
231,947
Their total area was 899,342 hectares.
These farms supported a population of 592,506, of whom 303,968 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Alsace-Lorraine yields the usual cereals,
and it is also a great wine-producing country. Of the 1,700 communes,
1,028 have vineyards. In 1896-97, 1,802 hectares were planted with
tobacco, and yielded 5,000 metric tons of dried tobacco.
The cotton manufacture in Alsace-Lorraine is the most important in
Germany ; woollens are produced on a smaller scale. In 1897 minerals to the
value of 22,957,715 marks (provisional figures) were raised in the Reichsland.
There were in 1897 1,078 miles of railway in Alsace^^Lorraine, of which 998
miles belonged to the State.
Books of Reference.
Beitrage zur Liuides-und Volkeskunde von Elsass-Lotluiugen. By various writers. In
progress. 1. 8trassbiirg, 1887-1895,
Handbuch ftir Elsass-Lothringen. Strassburg, 1898,
Statistische Mittheilungen von Elsass-Lothringen, Heft I. — XXVII. Strassburg,
1873, &c.
Statistisches Handbuch flir Elsass-Lothringen, I. Jahrgang. Strassburg, 1885.
Jacob (K.), Die Erwerbung des Elsass duroh Frankreieh im westfalischen Frieden, 1897.
Witte (H.), Zur Gescliichto des Deutschthums ini Elsass und ini Vosgesengebiet. Strass-
burg, 1897.
ANHALT.
(Herzogthum Anhalt.)
Reig^ning Duke.
Friedrich, born April 29, 1831, the son of Duke Leopold of Anhalt
and of Princess Friederike of Prussia. Succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, May 22, 1871 ; married, April 22, 1854, to Princess
Antoinette o'i Saxe-Altcnburg, born A]iri] 17, 1838. Children of the Dtike : —
I. Prince Friedrich, born August 19, 1856 ; marri«(.l, July 2, 1889, to
CONSTITUTION — AREA AND POPULATION 619
Princess Mary of Baden. II. Princess Elisabeth, born September 7, 1857 ;
married, April 17, 1877, to the Hereditary Grand-duke of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. III. Prince FAu'cird, born April 18, 1861 ; married, February 6,
1895, to Princess Louise of Saxe-Altenburg ; ofl'spriiifr, Prince Leopold
Friedrich, born February 10, 1897 ; Princess Mary, boru Juno 10, 1898.
IV. Prince Arihert, born June 18, 1864 ; married, July 6, 1891, to Princess
Louise of Schleswig-Holstein. V. Princess Alexandra, born April 4, 1868,
married, January 25, 1897, to the Prince Sizzo of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
Grandchild of the Duke: — Princess Antoinette, born March 3, 1885, daughter
of the late Prince Leopold, the Duke's eldest son, and Elizabeth, daughter of
the Landgrave of Hesse.
The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bcrnhard, son of the celebrated
Albert the Bear, jMargrave of Brandenburg, who died in 1211, The family,
in the course of time, split into numerous branches, now reduced to the
present line. At the establishment of the Germanic Confederation, in 1815,
there were three reigning Dukes of Anhalt — namely, of Anhalt-Cothen,
Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau. The first of these lines became
extinct in 1847, and the second on August 19, 1863, leaving the fonner
house of Anhalt-Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806 the
Princes of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt separated his property from that of the
State by decree of June 28, 1869. The entailed property belonging to the
ducal family is the sole resource of the Duke. Part of it, called 'the select
entail,' yielding al)Out 600,000 marks, cannot be sold by the Duke without
the approbation of the Diet. To the entailed property belong very large pri-
vate estates in Pmssia and Hungary, embracing an area of 280 square miles,
Constitution.
The Duchy has a Constitution, proclaimed September 17, 1859, and
modified by decrees of September 17, 1863, and February 13, 1872, which
give legislative power to a Diet composed of 36 members, of whom two are
appointed by the Duke, eight are representatives of landowners who pay
the highest taxes, two of the highest taxed inhabitants belonging to the
mercantile and industrial classes, fourteen of the other inhal)itants of
towns, and ten of the rural districts. The executive power is entirely in the
hands of the Duke, who governs through a Minister of State.
Area and Population.
The Duchy comprises an area of 906 English sc[uare miles, with a popu^
lation of 293,298 at the census of December 1895. In 1880 the population was
232,592, and in 1890 it was 271,963. From 1890 to 1895 the increase
was at the rate of 1*57 per cent, per annum. Of the population in 1895,
144,201 were males, and 149,097 (or 103 '4 per 100 males) were females.
Marriages (1897) 2,535 ; births, 10,735 ; deaths, 5,947 ; surplus of births,
4,788. Among the births are 317 (2 '95 per cent.) still-born, and 1,037
(9*66 per cent.) illegitimate.
The following are the emigration statistics : —
1890
67
1891
1892
162
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
96
211
106
82
74
49
The capital, Dessau, had 42,375 inhabitants in 1895. Nearly tlie whole ol
the inhabitants belong to the Reformed Protestant Church, there being (1895)
8,639 Catholics and 1,611 Jews.
G20 GEKMAN EMPIKE: — BADEN
In 1895 the number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one
household, was 32,280 (22,192 under 1 hectare, 7,530 of 1-10 hectares, 2,393
of 10-100 hectares, and 165 over 100 hectares). Their total area was 204,443
hectares.
These farms supported a population of 71,168, of whom 39,835 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
There are 200 miles of railway.
Finance.
The budget estimates for the financial year 1898-99 stated the income of
the State at 14,025,000 marks, of which 7,313,173 marks are derived
from State property, and the rest chiefly from indirect taxes. The amount of
the direct taxes is about 1,008,000 marks. The expenditure of the State is
14,025,000 marks. The income for the German Empire is 11,001,550 marks,
the expenditure the same. The public debt amounted, on June 30, 1897, to
474,594 marks, and the State property to 5,484,595 marks.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Rt. Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
BADEN.
(Grossherzogthum Baden.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich I. , born September 9, 1826, second son of Grand-duke Leopold I.
and of Grand-duchess Sophie Princess of Sweden. Regent, April 24, 1852 ;
took the title of Grand-duke September 5, 1856. Married, September 20,
1856, to Grand-duchess Luise, born December 3, 1838, the daughter of
Wilhelm I., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia. Offspring: — I.
Friedrich,hoYn July 9, 1857 ; married, September 20, 1885, to Hilda, daughter
of the Grand-duke of Luxemburg, Duke of Nassau. IL Victoria, born August
7, 1862 ; married, September 20, 1881, to Crown Prince Gustaf of Sweden.
iBrother and Sisters of the Grand-duke.
L Vxiwcc^s Alexandrine, born December 6, 1820 ; married. May 3, 1842, to
the late Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. IL Prince Karl, born March 9,
1832 ; married, May 17, 1871, to Rosalie von Beust, created Countess von
Rhena, born June 10, 1845. Offspring : Friedrich, Count of Rhena, born
January 29, 1877. III. Princess Marie, born Nov. 20, 1834 ; married, Sept.
11, 1858, to Prince Ernst of Leiningen.
The Grand-dukes of Baden are descendants of the Dukes of Zaehringen,
who flourished in the 11th and 12th centuries. Till the end of last century,
Baden was a Margraviate divided into two or more lines ; since then it has been
united, and in the changes which preceded and followed the dissolution of tlie
former German Empire its territory received various additions, and its niler
took the title of Elector in 1803, and of Grand-duke in 1806. Baden was a
member of the Confederation of the Rhine, and, from 1815 to 1866, of the
German Confederation. In 1866 Bailen sided with Austria, but soon made
peace with Prussia. The predecessors of the present Grand-duke during the
last two centuries are as follows : —
Leopold . 1830-1852
Ludwik' 11.^ 1852-1856
Karl Wilhelm . 1709-1738
Karl Friedrich . 1738-1811
Karl . 1811-1818
Ludwiff 1818-1830
1 Under the regency of liis brother, the reigning Gr£vnd-duke,
CONSTITUTION— AUEA AND POPULATION
()21
The Grand-duke is in the rc(3eipt of a civil list of 1,833,413 marks, which
includes the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the Grand-
duke, the legislative authority is shared by him with a representative assembly
(Landtag), composed of two Chaml)ers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning family who are of age ; the heads of the mediatised
families ; eight members elected by the territorial nobility ; the Roman
Catholic Archbishop ; the prelate of the Protestant Church ; two deputies
of Universities ; and eight members nominated by the Grand-duke. The
Second Chamber is composed of 63 representatives of the people, 20
of whom are elected by towns, and 43 by rural districts. Every citizen not
convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has a vote in the elections.
The elections are indirect : the citizens nominating the Wahlmiinner, or
deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives. The members of the
Second Chamber are elected for four years, one-half of the number retiring at
the end of every two years. The Chambers must be called together at least
once every two years. ^Members of both Chambers wdiose seats are not here-
ditary, receive an allowance of 12 marks a day and travelling expenses.
The executive is composed of four departments — the Ministers of the
Interior, of the Grand-ducal House and of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, and
of Justice, Ecclesiastical Aflairs and Instruction. The ministers are in-
dividually and collectively responsible for their actions.
For general administrative purposes the Grand-duchy contains 53
* Amtsbezirke,' suj^erintended by four general commissioners (Landes-
Kommissare). For purposes of local government it is divided into 11 circles
(Kreise), and 1,605 communes (Gemeinden), 117 communal cities, and 1,488
parishes.
Area and Population.
The following table shows the area and population of the whole, and of
the four commissioners' districts : —
District
Area :
Square miles
Population
Pop. per
square mile 1895
1890
1895
Konstanz
Freiburg
Karlsruhe .
Mannheim .
Total .
1,610
1,830
993
1,390
281,770
469,515
445,156
461,426
285,459
480,664
472,061
487,280
177-4
262-7
475-4
350-6
5,823
1,657,867
1,725,464
296-4
Adding the part of the Lake of Constance next to Baden the area is
5,893 square miles.
Between 1890 and 189.'> the increase was 67,597, or at the rate of 0-802
per cent. })er annum. Of the population in 1895, 45-3 per cent, lived in
communities with 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, 54*7 per cent, in smaller
communities ; 847,281 were males, and 878,183 females — i.e. 10365 females
per 100 males.
6^2
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BADEN
Baden . 14,862
Rastatt . 13,268
Bmchsal 12,614
The population of the principal towns at the census of December 2, 1895,
was : —
Mannheim . 97,780 Heidelberg . 35,190
Karlsruhe . 84,030 Pforzheim . 33,345
Freiburg . 53,118 Konstanz . 18,671
Lahr . 11,079
The number of marriages in Baden in 1897 was 14,245, births, 60,522,
deaths, 39,026, excess of births over deaths, 21,496. Included in the births
were 1,604, or 2*65 per cent, still-born, and 4,916, or 812 per cent, illegiti-
mate children.
Emigration from Baden to extra-European countries is estimated as
follows : —
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
.6,000
5,500
4,000
2,000
3,500
1,700
815
Religion and Instruction.
Nearly two-thirds of the population are Catholic, somewhat more than
one-third Protestant. At the census of 1895 there were 1,057,417 Catholics,
637,604 Protestants, 7,480 of other Christian sects, 25,903 Jews, and 160
others.
The Grand-duke is Protestant, and head of the Evangelical or Protestant
Church, which is governed by a synod (with 56 members), and whose affairs
are administered by a board (Oberkirchenrath). The Roman Catholic Church
has an Archbishop (at Freiburg). The Protestant Church has 359 parishes, the
Roman Catholic Church 773 ; the former are divided among 25 deaneries, the
latter among 35. The contributions of the State to the Roman Catholic
Church amounted, in 1898, to 292,885 marks (besides 86,919 marks dota-
tion of the archbishopric) ; to the Protestant Church, 333,867 marks ; given
in both cases, mainly in support of the poorer clergy. There are a certain
number of ' Old Catholic ' parishes, to which the State contributes yearly
24,000 marks. The Jews have 15 rabbinates, and receive (1898) 16,200
marks towards the support of the poorer clergy.
Instruction is general and compulsory. The elementary schools are
maintained by the communes (expenditure on material) and by the State
(personal expenditure), and administered by local authorities under the
inspection of Government. The following tabic sliows the public schools in
Baden for 1895-96 :—
—
Number
Teachers
Students &
Pupils
Universities .....
Gymnasia and Progymnasia
Realgymnasia, Realprogymnasia, Ober-
realschulen, and Realschulen .
Other middle schools ....
Elementary schools ....
Technical academy ....
Technical, agricultural, and otlicv
S[>ecial schools ....
Total
2
16
23
22
1,612
1
207
1,883
221
354
397
282
5,638
90
709
2,302
4,523
6,249
3,815
314,651
917
14,870
7,691
347,327
FtNANHE — PROmiCTION AKD INDU??TRV
623
Resides 33 private middle scliools, with 356 teachers and 2,671 pupils, and
13 private elementary schools, with 69 teachers and 1,981 pupils.
Finance.
The Budget is voted for a period of two years. The sources of ordinary
and extraordinary revenue and branches of expenditure were estimated for
1898 as follows :—
land)
Rovenup
Direct taxes .
Indirect taxes
Domains (Crown
and saltworks
Justice and Police .
Railways (net)
^Ministry of Justice,
,, ,, Interior
,i ,, Finance
Chamber of Accounts
Share in Customs of the
German Empire .
j\rark.«i
14,100,039
12,367,490
10,219,116
4,702,514
14,849,710
5,080,869
4,149,630
3,841,126
402
14,531,036
Expenditure Marks
/'interest
General debtj and —
Railway debt | amorti- 18,438,003
Total revenue
83,841,932
I' •
V. sation
Civil list and appanages
Ministry of State
,, ,, Foreign Af-
fairs .
,, ,, Justice, Wor-
ship, and Education .
^Ministry of Interior
,, ,, Finance
Chamber of Accounts
Charges of collection of
revenue
Pensions
Contrilmtion to German
Empire
Total expenditure .
1,833,413
170,154
234,572
17,940,239
17,136,659
2,049,676
105,056
12,761,976
7,117,640
15,980,178
90,767,566
The deficit is compensated by surplus of former years ( Amortisation-Kasse).
The direct taxes are a land tax, house tax, trade tax, rent tax, and
income tax ; the indirect taxes are chiefly excise on wine, beer, and meat,
registry, duties on succession.
Baden has no public debt, except the railway debt, amounting at the
beginning of 1898 to 329,029,252 marks.
Production and Industry.
Of the area 57 '2 per cent, is under cultivation, 37 '5 per cent, forests,
5 "3 per cent, uncultivated (hou.ses, roads, water, &c. ). Arable land occupies
573,800 hectares, vineyards 19,670. chestnut plantations 550, meadows
208,180, pastures 54,360, and forests 566,232 hectares (of which 98,570
belong to the State, 266,387 to the communes, 19,851 to other bodies,
and 181,434 to private persons).
The total number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one house-
hold, was in the year 1895 as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
Between 1 and 10
Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
236,159
83,485
140,146
12,411
117
024
GERMAK fiMHRE: — fJAVARIA
Their total alea was 1,011,755 hectares. The agriculture supported in
1895 709,854 persons, of whom 364,237 were actually engaged therein. The
chief crops, with the number of hectares under each, in 1897, were : —
Crops
Hectares
Crops
Hectares
Wheat .
Spelt
Rye . . .
Barley
38,280
58,880
45,240
60,620
Oats
Beetroot and turnips
Potatoes ,
67,570
79,520
87,570
In the same year 318,750 hectares were under hay crops, and 9,030 hectares
under tobacco ; hemp, hops, and chicory are also grown. The mineral
produce consists almost solely of salt and building-stone.
The principal manufactures are silk ribbons, felt and straw hats, brushes,
leather, paper and cardboard, clocks, musical instruments, machinery,
chemicals, and cigars.
Communications.
Mannheim is situated at the head of regular navigation on the Rhine, and
has a large river port ; 1897, arrival 3,493,069 tons, departure 709,191 tons.
At the end of 1896 the total length of railways in Baden was 1,046 miles, of
which 871 miles belonged to the State of Baden, besides 67 miles of railway
on neighbouring tenitories. The State operates its own railways and the
private railways situated in the country. The whole length of these rail-
ways is 963 miles, which had (in 1896) an income of 57,827,729 marks,
and an expenditure of 36,476,669 marks, leaving a surplus of 21,351,060
marks. The net revenue of the railways belonging to the State serves espe-
cially to cover the interest and sinking fund of the railway debt. The
capital invested by the State in railways is 483 million marks.
British Charge d' Affaires at Carlsruhe. — G. W. Buchanan (Darmstadt).
Consul. — Ferdinand Ladenburg (Mannheim).
References concerning Baden.
Staatsanzeiger. Beitraege zv^r Statistik der inneren Vcrwaltiing. Statistische Mitthei-
lungen. Statistisches Jahrbuch. Hof-und Staatshandbuch. Landvvirthschaftliches
Wochenblatt. Jahresberichte der Haiidelskammern.
Das Grosshcrzogthum Baden in geographischer, &c. Hinsicht dargestellt. 2 pts. 8.
Karlsruhe. 1885.
BAVARIA.
(KONIGEEICH BaYERN.)
Reigning King.
otto Wilhelm Luitpold, born April 27, 1848 ; succeeded hia brother,
Ludwig 11, , on June 13, 1886.
Regent.
Prince Luitpold. (See below.)
Uncle and Cousins of the King.
Prince Luitpold, born March 12, 1821 ; appointed Regent June 10, 1886 ;
married, April 15, 1844, to Archduchess Augusta of Austria, Princess of
Tuscany, who died April 26, 1864. Offspring of the union are four chil-
dren : —
I. Prince Ludwig, born January 7, 1845 ; married, February 20, 1868, to'
Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, of the branch of Modena,
born July 2. 1849, of which marriage there are ten children: — 1. Prince*
CONSTITUTION AND COVEIINMKNT 625
Ruppreclit, born May 18, 1869. 2. Princess Adelgunda, born October 17,
1870. 3. Princess Marie, born July 6, 1872 ; married May 31, 1897, to
Prince Ferdinand of Bourbon. 4. Priiice Karl, born April 1 1874. 5.
Prince Franz, born October 10, 1875. 6. Princess Matilda, born August
17, 1877. 7. Princess Hildegard, born March 5, 1881. 8. Princess
Wiltrud, born November 10, 1884. 9. Princess Helmtrude, born March 22,
1886. 10. Princess Gondelinde, ])orn August 26, 1891.
II. Prince Leopold, born February 9, 1846 ; married April 20,
1873, to Archduchess Gisela of Austria-Hungary, eldest daughter of the
Emperor- King Franz Joseph I. Offspring of the union are : — 1. Princess
Elizabeth, born January 8, 1874 ; married December 3, 1893, to Baron
Seefried. 2. Princess Augusta, born April 28, 1875 ; married November 15,
1893, to Archduke Joseph Augustus of Austria. 3. Prince George, born
April 2, 1880. 4. Prince Konrad, born November 22. 1883.
III. Tlicrcsa, born November 12, 1850 ; abbess of the chapter royal of St.
Anne at Munich.
IV. Aniulpk, born July 6.. 1852 ; married April 12, 1882, to Princess
Theresa of Liechtenstein. Offspring, Prince Heinrich, born June 24, 1884.
The late Prince Adalbert, brother of Prince Luitpold, married to Princess
Amelia, Infanta of Spain, left the following issue : — 1. Prince Ludwig Ferdi-
nand, l3orn October 22, 1859 ; married April 2, 1883, to Maria della Paz,
Infanta of Spain ; offspring, Prince Ferdinand, born May 10, 1884 ; Prince
Adalbert, born June 3, 1886 ; Princess Maria del Pilar, born March 13, 1891.
2. Prince Alphons, born January 24, 1862 ; married April 15, 1891, to Princess
Louise of Orleans, daughter of the Duke of Alen9on 3. Princess Isabella,
born August 31, 1863 ; married April 14, 1883, to Prince Tommaso of Savoy,
Duke of Genoa. 4. Princess Elvira, born November 22, 1868 ; married De-
cember 28, 1891, to Count Rodolph of Wrbna and Freudenthal. 5. Princess
Clara, born October 11, 1874 ; abbess of the chapter royal of St. Anne at
Wiirzburg.
United with the royal family of Bavaria is the branch line of the Dukes
t/i Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Zweibriicken-Birkenfeld. The head
of this house is Prince Ka)-l Theodor, born August 9, 1839, son of the late
Maxiiiiilian, T)\\\ic in Bavaria, and married (1) Febiaiary 11, 1865, to Sophia,
Princess of Saxony ; (2) Ai»ril 29, 1874, to Maria Josepha, Princess of
Braganza,
The members of the roj'al house of Bavaria are descendants of the ancient
Counts of Wittelsbach, who flourished in the twelfth century. Duke ]\Iaxi-
milian I. of Bavaria was elevated to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman
Empire in the Thirty Years' War ; and Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised
to the rank of king by Napoleon I. in 1805.
The civil list of the King, and allowances to other members of the royal
family, arc fixed at present at 5,403,160 marks.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from ^lay 26, 1818 ; but since
that time various modifications have been introduced. The Crown is here-
ditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole executive power ; but
his ministers are responsible for all his acts. The legislative functions are
exercised jointly by the king and Parliament, the latter consisting of an Upper
and a Lower House. The Upper House — Chamber of ' Reichsratlie, " or
councillors of the realm — formed in 1898 of 13 princes of the royal family, 3
crown dignitaries, the 2 archl)isho])s, the heads of 19 old noble families, and
s s
626
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
25 other hereditary ' Reichsriithe ' ; to which are added a Roman Catholic
bishop aud the president of the Protestant Oberconsistorialrath, and 17 lite-
members appointed by the Crown. The number of life-members so appointed
must not exceed one-third of the hereditary councillors. The Lower House,
or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies, chosen indirectly, the
people returning ' "VVahlmiinner, ' or electors, 1 for every 500 of the population,
Avho nominate the deputies. To be a deputy, it is necessary to be a Bavarian
citizen and to pay direct State taxes and to be past thirty ; to be on the electoral
lists, it is required to be twenty-five years of age, and to have paid for six
months previously direct taxation. The representation of the country is
calculated at the rate of one deputy to 31,500 souls of the whole population.
The Lower House is composed of 159 representatives, who, with the exception
of those resident in Munich, receive 10 marks a day during the session, and
travel free over the railways.
The executive is carried on, in the name of the king, by a * Staatsrath, ' or
Council of State, consisting of six members, besides the Ministers and one
prince of the blood-royal ; and by the Ministry of State, divided into six
departments, namely, of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs, of Justice,
of the Interior, of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, of Finance, and of
War.
Area and Population.
The kingdom has an area of 75,870 square kilometres, or 29,286 English
square miles. The following table exhibits the area and population of the
whole, and of each of the eight Regierungshezirke or government districts,
into which it is divided for administrative purposes : —
Regierungsbezirke
Area, Eng.
sq. miles
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile,
1895
1890
1895
Upper Bavaria (Oberbayern)
Lower Bavaria (Niederbayern)
Palatinate (Rheinpfalz)
Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz)
Upper Franconia (Oberfranken) .
Middle Franconia (Mittelfranken)
Lower Franconia (Unterfranken) .
Suabia (Schwaben)
Total ....
6,456
4,152
2,288
3,728
2,702
2,925
3,243
3,792
1,103,160
664,798
728,339
537,954
573,320
700,606
618,489
668,316
1,186,950
673,523
765,991
546,834
586,061
737,181
632,588
689,416
5,818,544
183-9
162-2
334-8
146-7
216-9
252-0
195-1
181-9
198-7
29,286
5,594,982
To this area has to be added 257 square miles for water.
In 1866 Bavaria was compelled to cede nearly 300 square miles to Prussia.
The increase of the population since 1880 has been as follows : —
Year
Population
.5,284,778
.5,420,199
5,594,982
5,818,544
_ .. ., Annual Increase
Density per sq.nnlo percent.
180-4 ' 1-04
185-1 , 0-51
191-0 0-63
198-7 0-78
1880
1885
1890
1895
AREA AND POPULATION
627
The urltau ami nival population was thus distributed at the censuses of
1890 and 1895:—
Census
No. of
Towns
244
245
No. of
Rui-al
Communes
7,777
7,774
Towns, Ac, with 2,000
inhabitants and over
Communes, Ac, with less
than 2,000 inhabitants
No.
234
251
Population
Per cent.
of pop.
No.
7,787
7,768
Population
Per cent.
of pop.
1890
1895
1,842,719
2,068,026
32-9
35-5
3,752,263
3,750,518
67-1
64-5
In 1895 the urban population was thus distributed :-
—
No.
Population 1895 ! —
No.
41
188
Population 1895
Large towns' .
Medium ,,
2
14
569,693 Small towns .
520,505 Country ,, .
387,127
408,608
1 See p. 536 for official signiflcation of these terms.
In 1895 the population included 2,846,687 males and 2,971,857 females ;
i.e., 104 "4 females per 100 males. With respect to conjugal condition, the
following was the distribution in 1895 : —
Males
Females
Total
Unmarried
Mai'ried ....
"Widowed
Divorced and separated .
1,790,035
954,945
100,172
1,535
1,779,606
952,411
237,266
2,574
3,569,641
1,907,356
337,438
4,109
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 534. In 1895 the number of foreigners in Bavaria (exclusive of
other Germans) was 80,399.
There is a large emigration from Bavaria. The emigration viS, German
ports and Antwerp was as follows in the undernoted years : —
1890
1801
1892
1893
1894 1
1895
1 1896
1897
9,725
10,756
10,057
8,541
3,989
4,111
3,418
2,638
The population of the principal towns of the kingdom was as follows at
the census of December 2, 1895 : —
TDwns
Dec. 2, 1895 t
407,307 '
Towns
I Dec. 2, 1895
40,828
Munich (Miinchen)
Kaiserslautern
Nuremberg (N'irnberg)
162,-386
Ludwigshafen
39,799
Augsburg .
81,896
Hainbcrg
38,940
Wiirzburg .
68,747
Hayreutli .
27,693
Fiirth ....
46,726
Hof .
27,556
Ratisbon (Regensburg).
41,471
Pirmasens .
. 1 24,548
S S 2
628
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
The following table shows the annual movement of the population in five
years : —
Year i Marriages I Z^l^„ \ Stillborn 'Illegitimate] Total Deatlis ^Bj-ths**
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
41,605
42,623
43,273
45,258
46,481
Births
216,610
213,026
215,763
222,533
222,991
6,601
6,631
6,908
6,881
6,784
30,581
30,617
29,790
31,754
31,082
162,051
152,949
152,721
142,939
151,409
54,559
60,077
63,042
79,594
71,582
Religion.
Kather more than seven-tenths of the population of Bavaria are Roman
Catholics. At the census of December 1890 there were 3,959,077 Roman
Catholics, 1,571,683 Protestants, and 53,885 Jews.
The religious division of the population in each of the eight provinces of
the kingdom was as follows on December 2, 1895 : —
Provinces
Roman
Catholics
Protestants
Jews
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria
Palatinate (Rheinpfalz) .
Upper Palatinate .
Upper Franconia .
Middle Franconia .
Lower Franconia ,
Suabia .....
Total ....
1,102,394
667,633
333,260
499,990
247,433
171,432
504,020
586,461
74,499
5,450
418,015
45,133
334,817
551,284
113,894
97,041
7,411
240
10,423
1,486
3,516
12,291
14,157
4,226
4,112,623
1,640,133
53,750
Besides the above there are included in other Christian sects 2,955 Old
Catholics, 3,249 Mennonites, 2,215 Reformed, 83 Anglican, 304 Greek
Catholics, 40 Irvingites, 98 Anabaptists, 851 Methodists, 1,169 Free
Christians, and 408 without declaration.
As regards ecclesiastical administration, the kingdom is divided into 2
Roman Catholic archbishoprics, those of Munich and Ilamberg ; 6 bishoprics ;
212 deaneries ; and 2,927 parishes. The Protestant Church is under a General
Consistory — ' Ober-Consistorium ' — and three provincial consistories, 80
deaneries, and 1,083 parishes. Among the Roman Catholics there is one
clergyman to 464 souls; among the Protestants, one to 1,013. Of the three
universities of the kingdom, two, at ]\Iunich and "Wiirzburg, are Roman
Catholic, and one, at Erlangen, Protestant.
Instruction.
(For Universities, see under Gervnany.) Elementary schools — 'Yolks-
schulen ' — exist in all parishes, and school attendance is compulsory for all
children from six till the age of fourteen. In 1896 there were 5,139 Catholic
schools, 1,919 Protestant, 144 mixed, and 89 Jewish. In 1896 there were
455 agricultural schools, with 8,127 pupils, besides 12 winter schools, with
510 pupils.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Bavaria is the only Ger^nan State which has established an Oberstcs Land-
qcricht, or a]tpoal-court intervening between the Oberlandesgericlite and the
FINANCE — ARMY
G29
Rciclhsgcricht. This court, which has its seat at Munich, has a bench of 18
judges. Subject to its jurisdiction arc 5 Oberlandesgericlite and 28 Land-
gerichte.
In 1896 the number of poor receiving relief ^Yas 189,297, the sum ex-
pended on them being 8,203,666 marks. Of the total number 110,932 were
permanent paupers.
Finance.
The Bavarian budget is voted for a period of two years. The estimates for
each of the years 1896 and 1897 provided for revenue and expenditure of
345,356,505 marks. The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure
were estimated as follows for each of the financial years 1898 and 1899 ac-
cordinf; to the finance l)ill : —
Sources of Revenue
Marks
Branches of Expenditure
Marks
Direct taxes .
Fines, &c.
Indirect taxes .
State railways, post, "j
telegraphs, mines, >-
&c. . . J
State domains.
Various .
Balance fromformer "1
financial period . /
Total gross revenue
32,100,000
28,508,200
86,699,530
184,421,804
38,806,371
1,616,090
15,600
Public debt .
Civil list and appanages .
Council of State
Diet ....
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
, , Justice .
,, Interior
,, Finance
,, AVorship and
Education .
Pensions and allowances .
Contribution to Imperial \
expenditure . /
Administration
Various expenses .
47,845,410
5,403,160
15,720
498,235
655,270
16,819,929
24,402,377
5,005,435
27,782,974
16,003,592
56,537,900
170,100,271
1,097,322
372,167,595
Total expenditure
372,167,595
The direct taxes are a trade-tax, house-tax, land-tax, and income-tax.
The debt of Bavaria amounted at the end of 1897, to 1,415,219,964
marks. Of this amount 1,069,394,800 marks is railway debt. The greater
number of the railways in Bavaria, constructed at a cost of 1,068,363,209
marks (end 1892) are the property of the State. For five or six years the
annual receipts from the railways have exceeded the charges for the railway
debt, in some years by as much as 6,000,000 marks.
Army.
The Bavarian army forms an integral part of the Imperial army, having,
in peace, its own administration. The military supplies, though voted by
the Bavarian Parliament, must bear a fixed proportion to the amount voted
for the rest of Germany by the Reichstag (see page 546). The Bavarian troops
form the 1st and 2nd Bavarian army-corps, not numbered consecutively with
the other German army-cor])S ; and there are certain differences in the matter
of uniform permitted to the Bavarian troops. The administration of the
fortresses in Bavaria is also in the hands of the Bavarian Government during
peace.
G30
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
The contribution of Bavaria to the Imperial army in 1897-98 was as
follows in officers and men : —
Meu
2,069
1,180
169
Officers
Meu
Officers
Infantry
. 1,372
41,551
Pioneers .
79
Jiiger
36
1,226
Train .
37
Landwehr
71
599
Special .
360
Cavalry
261
7,239
Artillery
396
9,074
Total
. 2,612
63,107
The number of horses was 10,206.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of Bavaria, nearly one-half is nnder cultivation, one-
sixth under grass, and one-third under forests. The number of separate
farms in 1882 and 1895 was as follows : —
—
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
374,907
372,683
10-100 Hect.
100 Hect. & over
594
621
Total
1882
1895
174,056
156,971
131,964
133,510
681,521
663,785
In 1895 their total area was 5,945,736 hectares.
These farms supported in 1895 a population of 2,585,858, of whom
Ij 331,105 were actually engaged in agriculture. Tlie areas (in hectares) under
the chief crops, and the yield per hectare in metric tons, in 1897, were as
follows : —
Area, iu hect. Yield
Area, in hect.
Yield
Wheat
Rye
Barley
318,038
550,755
357,694
1-29
1-20
1-27
Oats
Potatoes
Hay
461,714
322,019
1,284,462
1-35
9-64
5 '34
Vines occupied 21,182 hectares in 1897, and yielded 521,524 hectolitres
of wine as against 846,550 hectolitres in 1890 ; 3,418 hectares (1897) were
planted with tobacco, yielding 6,592 metric tons of dried leaf.
The total value of the leading mining products of Bavaria in 1896 was
9,385,797 marks.
The brewing of beer is a highly important industry in Bavaria (see Gcr^
man Empire, p. 554). The quantity manufactured in 1896 was 16,198,126
hectolitres. In 1896, 6,133 distilleries produced 1/4,000 hectolitres of alcohol.
In 1897 Bavaria had 3,908 miles of railway, of which 3,335 miles belonged
to the State.
British Minister Resideiit. — Victor A. W. Drummond, C. B. , appointed 1885.
Consul. — John S. Smith.
References.
Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Konigsreichs Bayern. 8. Mlinchen 1897.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das Konigreich Bayern. 8. Miinchen, 1898.
jBaedefcer(K.), Handbook for Southern Germany. 8th ed. Leipzig, 1895. The Eastern
Alps. 8th ed. Leipzig, 1895.
£rucA;?naji'8 Illustrated Guides : Munichj the Highlands of Bavaria. [Eng. Translations.]
Munich, 1895.
Koestler (C), Handbuch zur Gebiets und Ortskunde des Konigreichs Baiern. 4.
Miinchen, 1895.
Piloty (R.) (Editor), Die Verfassungskunde des Konigi-eiChs Baiern. 8. Miinchen. 1895.
Riezlfr (a.), GescliiChte Baicnis. 4 vols. Leipzig, 1898.
BREMEN 681
BREMEN.
(FiiEiE Stadt Bremen.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Bremen form a republic, governed, under a
Constitution proclaimed March 5, 1849, and revised Febmary 21, 1854,
Xovcmber 17, 1875, December 1, 1878, May 27, 1879, and January 1,
1894, by a Senate of sixteen members, chosen for life, forming the
executive, and the * Biirgerschaft ' (or Convent of Burgesses) of 150 mem-
bers, invested with the power of legislation. The Convent is elected for
six years by the votes of all the citizens, divided into classes. The
citizens who have .studied at a university return 14 members ; the merchants
42 members ; tlie mechanics and manufacturers 22 members, and the other
tax-paying inhabitants of the Free City the rest. The Convent and Senate
elect the sixteen members of the Senate, ten of whom at least must be lawyers.
Two burgomasters, the first elected for four years, and the second for the same
period, direct the affairs of the Senate, through a JMinistry divided into twelve
departments — namely. Foreign Afi"airs, Church and Education, Justice,
Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary Administration, ;Military Aflairs,
Commerce and Shipping, Ports and Railways, Public "Works, Industiy, and
Poor Laws. All the ministers are senators.
Area and Population.
The State embraces an area of 99 English square miles. The population
in 1880 was 156,723 ; on December 1, 1890, 180,443 ; on December 2, 1895,
196,404 ; on December 2, 1897, 202,465. The average annual rate of increase
of population from 1855 to 1895 was 3 "02 per cent. Of the total population
in 1895, 96,248 were males, 100,156 females— i.e. 104-2 females per 100
males. Marriages, 1896, 1,806, births, 6,503—204 (3-1 per cent.) still-born,
438 (67 per cent.) illegitimate ; deaths, 3,581 ; surplus, 2,922.
Bremen, with Bremerhaven, is one of the cliief outlets of German emigra-
tion. From Bremen itself the emigration was in 1893, 828 ; in 1894, 589 ;
in 1895, 679 ; in 1896, 645 ; in 1897, 506. The German emigration from
Bremen was in 1893, 39,852; in 1894, 17,269; in 1895, 15,160; in 1896,
12,548 ; in 1897, 9,559. The total emigration (including foreigners) from
Bremen was in 1895, 68,998 ; in 1896, 67,040 ; in 1897, 46,798.
Religion, Justice, and Crime.
On Dec. 2, 1895, Bremen contained 184,200 Protestants (94-2 per cent.),
8,800 Roman Catholics (4*5 per cent.), 1,510 other Christians, 1,100 Jews.
Bremen contains two Amtsgerichte and a Landgericht, whence appeals lie
to the ' Hanseati-sche Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. In 1896, 3,007 persons
were convicted of crime — i.e. 207 "5 per 10,000 inhabitants.
632 GERMAN EMriRE: — BRUNSWICK
Finance.
In 1897-98 the revenue was 20,532,538 marks, and expendituro 27,801,451
marks. j\Iore than one-third of the revenue is raised from direct taxes,
one-half of which is income-tax. The chief branch of expenditure is for
interest and reduction of the public debt. The debt amounted, in 1898,
to 141,984,533 marks. The whole of the debt, which bears interest at 3|
and 4^ per cent. , was incurred for constructing railways, harbours, and other
j)ublic works.
Commerce and Shipping.
Next to that of Hamburg, the port of Bremen is the largest for the inter-
national trade of Germany. About 65 per cent, of the commerce of Bremen is
carried on under the German, and about 30 per cent, under the British flag.
The aggregate value of the imports in 1897 was 894,075,354 marks, of which
45,603,962 marks were from Great Britain ; and of exports, 852,262,456 marks,
of which 34,177,522 marks went to Great Britain.
For shipping entered and cleared, see under 'German Empire.' The
number of merchant vessels lielonging to the State of Bremen on December
31, 1897, was 473, of 453,556 tons net register, the number including 242
steamers of an aggregate Inirthen of 255,680 tons. Bremen has several im-
]»ortant shipping companies, the chief of which are the ' Korth German
Lloyd' with, on January 1, 1898, 43 Atlantic steamers of 243,620 register
tons and 222,700 horse-power, besides river steamers and other craft, bring-
ing their total tonnage up to 272,266 tons; the 'Hansa' Company, with
35 steamers and other craft of altogether 87,218 tons, and the 'Neptune'
Company with 37 steamers.
British Co7istol- General. — William Ward (Hamburg),
British Vice-Consuls at Bremen, Brake, and Bremerhaven.
Eeferences.
Bippen (W. von), Gescliichte der Stadt Bremen. S. Bremen, 1891, &c.
Deutsches Handels-Arcliiv for June, 1^98. Berlin.
United States Consular Reports for February 1896. Washington.
BRUNSWICK.
(Braunschweig.)
Regent.
Prince Albrecht, born ]\Iay 8, 1837 ; son of the late Prince Albrecht of
Prussia, brother of the first German Emperor Wilhelm I., and Marianne,
daughter of the late William I., King of the Netherlands, Field-Marshal in
the German army. Married, April 19, 1873, to Princess J/arw, (died October
8, 1898), daughter of Duke Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg. Unanimously elected
regent of the Duchy by the Diet, October 21, 1885 ; assumed the reins of
government November 2, 1885. The children of the regent are: 1, Prince
Friedrich Jlcinrich, born July 15, 1874; 2, Prince Joachim Albrecht, born
September 27, 1876 ; 3, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born July 12, 1880.
The last Duke of Bmnswick was Wilhelm I., born April 25, 1806, the
second son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm and of Princess Marie of Baden ;
ascended the throne April 25, 1831, and died October 18, 1884.
The heir to Bmnswick is the Duke of Cumberland, excluded owing to his
refusal to give up claim to the throne of Hanover. The Duke of Cambridge, the
CONSTITUTION — AREA AND POPULATION 0^3
nearer (ujmUc heir, (is not accepted owing to lii.s relu.sal to give up his
English appointments and residence.
The ducal house of IJruuswick-Wolfenbiittel, extiurt on the death of
Wilhehn I., was long one of the most ancient and illustrious of the Germanic
Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion, possessed, in the twelfth
century, the united duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, with other territories in
the North of Germany ; but having refused to aid the Emperor Friedrich
Barbarossa in his wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived
of the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial domains,
the principalities of Brunswick and Liineburg. These possessions were, on the
death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between the two sons of the latter, who
became the founders of the lines oi Brunswick-Liineburg, Elder Line, and
Brunswick-Liineburg, Younger Line, the former of which was represented in the
ducal house of Brunswick, while the latter is merged in the royal family of
Great Britain.
The Brunswick regency law of February 16, 1879, enacts that in case the
legitimate heir to the Brunswick throne be absent or prevented from assuming
the government, a Council of Regency, consisting of the IMinisters of State
and the Presidents of the Landtag and of the Supreme Court, should carry on
the government ; while the German Emperor should assume command of the
military forces in the Duchy. If the rightful heir, after the space of a year, is
unable to claim the throne, the Bninswick Landtag shall elect a regent from
the non-reigning members of German reigning families.
The late Duke of Bninswick was one of the wealthiest of German
sovereigns, having been in possession of the principality of Gels, in Silesia,
now belonging to the Prussian Crown, and vast private estates and domains in
the same district and adjoining, bequeathed to the King of Saxony.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1832, but was
modified by the fundamental law^s of November 22, 1851, and March 26, 1888.
The legislative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting, according to the
law of 1851, of forty-six members. Of these, twenty-one are elected by those
who are highest taxed ; three by the Protestant clergy ; ten by the inhabitants
of towns, and twelve by those of rural districts. The Chamber meets,
according to the law of 1888, every two years, and the deputies hold their
mandate for four years. The executive is represented by a responsible
Staatsministerium, or Ministry of State, consisting at present of three depart-
ments, namely — of State, Foreign Affairs and Finance, of Justice and Eccle-
siastical Afiairs, and of tlie Interior.
Area and Population.
The Duchy has an area of 1,424 English square miles, with a population of
434,213 inhabitants (215,772 males, 218,441 females), according to the census
of December 2, 1895. The increase was at the rate of 1 68 per cent, per
annum in the five years 1885-90, and 1 "40 in 1890-95. Marriages, 1897,
3,787 ; births, 15,597; deaths, 8,524 ; surplus, 7,073. Included in the births
are 532 (3'41 per cent.) .still-born, and 1,701 (10*91 per cent.) illegitimate
children. Emigrants 1892, 333; 1893, 331 ; 1894, 195 ; 1895, 198 ; 1S9G,
157 ; 1897, 137. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants of the Duchy are
members of the Lutheran Church, there being only 19,508 Catholics in 1895.
The capital, Bninswick (Braunschweig), had 115,138 inhabitants at the
Census of December 2, 1895.
6.^4 TtERMAN EMPIRE: — HAMBURG
Finance.
The" budget is voted by the Chamber for the period of two years, but each
year separate. It is in two parts ; the first, Staatshaushalts-Etat, com-
prehends the particular expeuditurc of the State, the other, Kloster-uud-
Studienfonds-Etat, principally the expenditure for schools, arts and sciences.
For the year from April 1, 1898, to April 1, 1899, the budget of the
Staatshaushalts is fixed at 14,745,000 marks. The revenue and expenditure
of the Kloster-und-Studienfonds-Etat are put at 2,612,880 marks. Not
included in the budget estimates is the civil list of the Duke— 1,125,000
marks. The public debt of the Duchy, exclusive of a premium-loan repay-
able by 1,219,740 marks yearly till 1924, at the commencement of 1898 was
26,977,407 marks, four-fifths of which were contracted for railways. The
property of the State consists chiefiy of domains and forests and of active
funds amounting to about 42 million marks in 1897, besides an annuity
of 2,625,000 marks till 1932, stipulated at the sale of the railways of the
State.
Production and Industry.
Brunswick numbered on June 14, 1895, 58,091 agricultural enclosures each
under one household, having a population of 118,336, of whom 56,390 were
actively engaged on the farms. Of these farms, 38,901 were less than 1
hectare, 13,929 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, 5,080 from 10 to less
than 100 hectares, and 181 had an area each of 100 hectares and upwards.
Their total area was 253,571 hectares.
The chief crops are wheat (29,706 hectares in 1897), rye (29,356), oats
(35,764), and beetroot (23,584). The produce in 1897 was: — wheat,
76,230 tons; rye, 52,270; barley, 14,932; oats, 69,492; beetroot, 774,383
(beet sugar 107,456 tons).
In 1897 minerals, including salt, were raised to the value of 7,606,100 marks.
There were 308 miles of railway in 1897.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Right Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
Consul- General. — William Ward (Hamburg).
References.
Beitrage zur Statistik dcs Herzogthum Braunschweig, Hefte I.— XIII.
Handelskaminerbericlite.
Hassel uiul Bege, Geographisch-Statistische Beschreibung, 1S02-1S03.
Knoll unci Bode, Das Herzogthmu Braunschweig, 1892.
HAMBURG.
(Freie und Hanse-Stadt Hamburg.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Hamburg is a republic. The present Con*
stitution was published on September 28, 1860, and came into force on
January 1, 1861 ; a revision was published on October 13, 1879. According
to the terms of this fundamental law, the government — Staatsgewalt — is
entrusted, in common, to two Chambers of Representatives, the Senate
and the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises
chiefly, but not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen mem-
bers, one half of whose number must have studied law or finance, while seven
out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants. The
members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses ; but a
senator is at liljcrty to retire at the end of six years. A first and second
AHEA AND POPULATION
fi85
burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the meetings of
the Senate. No burgomaster can be in office longer than two years ; and no
member ol" the Senate is allowed to hold any other public office whatever. The
House of Burgesses consists of 160 members, 80 of whom are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax-paying citizens. Of the remaining 80 members,
40 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house-property in the city,
while the other 40 are chosen, also by ballot, by the members of various guilds,
corporations, and courts of justice. All the members of the House of Burgesses
are chosen for six years, in such a manner that every three years new elections
take place for one-half tlie number. The House of Burgesses is represented,
in permanence, by a Biirger-Ausschuss, or Committee of the House, consisting
of 20 deputies, of whom no more than live are allowed to be members of the
legal profession. It is the special duty of the Committee to watch the pro-
ceedings of the Senate and the general execution of the articles of the
Constitution, including the laws voted by the House of Burgesses. In all
matters of legislation, except taxation, the Senate has a veto ; and, in case of
a constitutional conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen
in equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses ; also to the
Supreme Court of Judicature of the Empire (Reichsgericht) at Leipzig.
The jurisdiction of the Free Port was, on January 1, 1882, restricted to
the city and port by the inclusion of the Lower Elbe in the Zollverein, and
on October 15, 1888, the whole of the city, except the actual port and the
warehouses connected \\ath it (population 1,585 in 1895), was incorporated in
the Zollverein. The alterations in the port necessitated by this step have
involved an expenditure of six millions sterling, to which the Imperial
Government contributes two millions.
Area and Population.
The State embraces a territory of 158 English square miles, with a pojm-
lation on December 1, 1880, of 453,869 ; December 1, 1885, of 518,620 ; on
December 1, 1890, 622,530 ; and on December 2, 1895, 681,632. Included in the
census returns were three battalions of soldiers, forming the garrison of-Ham-
l»urg. The State consists of two divisions, the population of each of whicli
was as follows on December 2, 1895 : — City of Hamburg, 625,552 ; Landgebiet
(4 Landherrenschafteu), 56,080. From 1871 to 1875 the population of the
State increased at the rate of 3-41 ; 1875-80 at 3-10; in 1880-85 at 2-66 ; in
1885-90 at 3*64 ; and in 1890-95, atl'81 per cent, yearly. A large stream of
emigi'ation, chiefly to America, flows through Hamburg. Of the population in
1895, 332,570 were males and 349,062 females, i.e. 104*9 females per 100 males.
There were 14,509 foreigners — 3,595 Austrians, 2,099 Swedish and Norwe-
gians, 2,424 Danes, 1,520 British, 3,240 other Europeans, 1,631 non-Euro-
peans, and 288 unclassified — resident in Hamburg in 1895.
The following table ^shows the number of emigrants viS, Hamburg foi
(ive years : —
Year
Prom
Hamburg
itself
Otliev
Germans
Foreigners
Total
Bound for the
United States
For other
Destinations
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,194
1,580
1,421
1,4/2
1,281
28,316
14,717
12,576
10,852
7,521
28,362
22,530
41,100
40,424
26,247
58,872
38,827
55,097
52,748
35,049
46,933
32,001
47,042
43,820
25,075
11,939
6,826
8,055
8,928
9,974
030
GERMAN empire: — HAMBURG
Marriages (1897), 6,369 ; births, 23,909 (838, or 3*46 per cent, still-born,
2,987, or 12"33 per cent., illegitimate) ; deaths, 12,840; snrplus of births,
11,069.
Religion, Justice, Crime, and Agriculture.
On December 2, 1895, Hamburg contained 633,949 Protestants (93 '16 per
cent.), 24,518 Roman Catholics (3-60 per cent.), 3,248 other Christians, 17,308
Jews (2 "54 per cent.), and 2,609 unclassified.
The State contains three Amtsgerichte, a Landgericht, and the ' Han-
seatische Oberlandesgericht," or court of appeal for the Hanse Towns and the
Principality of Liibeck (Oldenburg). In 1896, 9,236 persons, i.e. 181*6 per
10,000 inhabitants above twelve years, were convicted of crime.
The number of separate agricultural holdings in the rural districts
(" Landgebiet ") of Hamburg on June 14, 1895, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect. Above 100 Hect.
Total
5,454
1,263
607
12
7,336
The population actively engaged in agriculture (as principal profession)
was 7,618, and together with the domestics and dependants, 16,197.
Finance.
For 1898 the revenue was estimated at 77,406,696 marks, and expendi-
ture 79,392,639 marks. The largest source of income is direct taxes,
amounting to nearly one-third the whole revenue, and next to that the
proceeds of domains, quays, railways, &c. The largest item in the expendi-
ture is for the debt, 13,100,000 marks in 1898 ; for education the expenditure
is 8,084,132 marks. The direct taxation amounts to 30 marks per head of
population.
The public debt of Hamburg on January 1, 1898, amounted to 344,778,781
marks. The debt was incurred chiefly for the construction of public works.
Commerce and Shipping.
Hamburg is the principal seaport in Germany (comp. table on p. 562).
The following table exhibits the imports and exports by sea during live
years : —
Year
Imports by Sea
Exports by Sea
Weight in 100
Kilogrammes
Value in
1,000 Marks
Weight in 100
Kilogrdmmes
Value in
1,000 Marks
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
54,963,151
59,974,209
63,690,362
71,038,625
80,666,618
1,556,879
1,566,059
1,661,433
1,713,071
1,790,833
26,356,645
27,470,203
29,778,646
32,406,655
36,837,637
1,291,343
1,214,589
1,336,773
1,439,210
1,435,214
The import and export of the precious metals are not included in the above
figures. The total value of the imports in 1897 was 187,099,500 marks, and
of the exports 7,992,300 marks. The marine trade of Hamburg in 1897
in millions of kilogiammes was : —
COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
G37
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
United States .
Brazil
Other Ameri-
can Ports
Total for
America .
Asia . ' .
Africa
Australia .
Imports
Expoi-ts
Great Britain .
France .
Holland .
German Ports .
North Europe .
Other European
Ports .
Total for Europe
2,713-6
88-2
56-4
184-1
413-6
972-7
900-0 1
34-8
67-1
318-6
509-9
126 1
1,882-4
136-4
872-4
782-8
139-7
2731
2,891-2
1,195-6
547-7
158-6
40-6
306-1
135-8
89-8
4,428-6
1,956-5
The total number of vessels which entered and cleared at Hamburg during
each of five years was as follows
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
Ships Tons
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1
8,792
9,165
9,443
10,477
11,173
5,886,378
6,228,821
6,254,493
6,445,167
6,708,070
8,838
9,175
9,446
10,371
11,293
5,933,580
6,248,875
6,279,707
6,300,458
6,851,987
17,630 11,819,958
18,340 12,477,696
18,889 12,534,200
, 20,848 12,745,625
22,466 1 13,560,057
The following is the numb
with cargoes only : —
er and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared
Entered
Cleared
Total
Year
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
1893 i 7,339
1894 1 7,471
1895 ! 7,783
1896 : 8,459
1897 j 8,728
1 ■ ■
5,443,571
5,812,312
5,813,444
5,944,028
6,170,675
6,313
6,628
6,940
7,452
8,200
3,941,981
4,091,911
4,336,005
4,320,147
4,616,303
13,211
13,652
14,723
15,911
16,928
9,535,488
10,134,863
10,149,449
10,264,175
10,786,978
The number and tonnage of British vessels that entered and cleared at
Hamburg were as follows : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
With Cargoes
In Ballast
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Ships
Tons
2,581,559
2,813,564
2,714,303
2,582,849
2,817,504
Ships
Tons
Ships
2,017
2,047
2,080
2,054
2,091
Tons
Ships
Tons
1893 3,032
1894 3,097
1895 3,196
1896 3,271
1897 3,356
203
169
141
152
137
—
182,405
129,841
108,060
151,679
153,917
1,541,630 1,211
1,610,055 1,210
], 486,444 1,248
1,429,832 1,321
1,549,979 1,435
1,211,036
1,329,141
1,334,746'
1,220,717
1,477,535
638
GERMAN EMPIRE: — HESSE
The total number of sea-goiug vessels (exclusive of fishing vessels), above
17 "65 registered tons, which belonged to the port of Hamburg, was as follows
on December 31 of the years 1893-97 : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steamers Total
No. of
Crews
. i
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
287
282
283
290
294
196,687
189,642
190,368
197,144
200,441
337
355
353
377
377
421,731
473,984
474,260
482,917
514,949
624
637
636
667
671
618,418 ,14,389
663,626 14,884
664,628 14,659
680,061 15,431 i
715,390 15,752;
1
1 Since March 1, 18P5, the tonnage of sea-going vessels Is calculated on the same
basis as the British mode of measurement, which (especially for steam-vessels), jnits the net
tonnage at a little lower figure.
On December 31, 1897, of sea-fishery vessels over 17 "65 registered tons,
Hamburg had 152 sailing vessels of 4,780 tons, and 12 steamers of 733 tons ;
total, 164 vessels of 5,513 tons, with 578 men.
In 1896 there were 23 miles of railway.
British Consul- General, — William Ward.
References concerning Hamburg.
Tabellarische Uebersichten des hamburgischen Haiidels. Statistik des hamburgischen
Staates. Statistisches Handbuch flir den hamburgischen Staat. Hamburgisclier Staats-
kalender.
United States Consular Reports for February, 1896. Washington.
Melle (W. von), Das hamburgische Staatsrecht. 8. Hamburg, 1891.
Zivimern (Helen), The Hansa Towns. In Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1889.
HESSE.
(Grossherzogthum Hessen.)
Reigning Grand-Duke. — Ernst Ludwig, born November 25, 1868 ; the
son of Grand-duke Ludwig IV. and of Princess Alice, second daughter of
Queen Victoria, of Great Britain and Ireland ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, March 13, 1892. Married. April 19, 1894, to Princess
Victoria, born November 25, 1876, the daughter of Duke Alfred of Saxe-
Coburg and Gotha ; offspring, Elizabeth, born March 11, 1895.
Sisters of the Grand-duke. — I. Victoria, born April 5, 1863 ; married to
Prince Ludwig of Battenberg, April 30, 1884. II. Elizabeth, born November
I, 1864; married to the Grand-duke Sergius Alexandrovitch of Russia, June
15, 1884. III. Irene, born July 11, 1866, married to Prince Heinrich of
Prussia, May 24, 1888. IV. Alix, born June 6, 1872 ; married (as Alexandra
Feodorovna) to Nicholas II. Emperor of Russia, November 26, 1894.
Uncles of the Grand-duke. — I. Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838 ;
married, Feb. 28, 1878, to Caroline Willioh, created Freifrau zu Nidda ;
widower, Jan. 6, 1879 ; married, Sept. 20, 1892, to Emily Hrzic-Topuska,
created Freifrau von Dornberg ; oftspring (first marriage): — Charles, Count of
Nidda, born Jan. 4, 1879 ; (second marriage) : Elimar, Freiherr von Dornberg:
II. Prince JVilhelm, born Nov. 16, 1845, married, Feb, 24, 1884, to Louisa
Bender, created Frau von Lichtenberg ; offspring, Godfrey von Lichtenberg.
Children of Prince Alexander, uncle of the late Grand-duke Ludwig IV.
(died Dec. 15, 1888) and Princess Julia von Battenberg, born Nov. 12, 1826
AREA AND POPULATION
639
(died Sept. 18, 1895). are ^ :— 1. Maiie, born July 15, 1852; luanicd April
29, 1871, to Count Gustaf von Erbach-Scliiinbcr^'. 2. Ludwig, liorn May 24,
1854, coniniandor in tlic Britisli navy ; married to Princess Victoria of Hesse,
April 30, 1884 ; offspring, Alice, born February 25, 1885 ; Louise, born July
13,1889; George, born Nov. 6, 1892. 3. Franz Josef, born September 24,
1861 ; married to Princess Anna of Montenegro, May 18, 1897.
The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke given
them by Napoleon L, in 1806, together with a considerable increase of
territory. At the Congress of Vienna this grant was confirmed, after some
negotiations. The reigning family are not possessed of much private
})roperty, but dependent almost entirely upon the grant of the civil list,
amounting to 1,331,857 marks, the sum including allowances to the
lu'inces.
Constitution.
The Constitution bears date December 17, 1820 ; but was modified in 1856,
1862, and 1872. The legislative power is vested in two Chambers, the first
composed of the princes of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble
houses, the Roman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University, two members elected by the noble landowners,
and a number (twelve) of life-members, nominated by the Grand-duke ; while
the second consists of ten deputies of the eight larger towns, and foity repre-
sentatives of the smaller towns and rural districts. Electors (Urwiihler) are
Hessians a])ove twenty-five years of age who pay direct taxes. Elections are
indirect : the electors nominate the deputy-electors (Wahlmanner), and the
latter choose the representatives. The members of the Second Chamber are
elected for six years, one-half of the number retiring every three years. The
Chambers must be called together at least every three years. Members of both
Chambers whose seats are not hereditary, and who do not reside at the seat
of the Legislature, receive an allowance of 9s. a day and travelling expenses.
The executive is represented by a ministry of State, divided into three de-
partments, namely, of the Interior ; of Justice ; and of Finance. The minister
of state is also minister of the Grand-ducal House and Foreign Affairs, and
head of the department of the Interior.
For administrative purposes, the Grand-duchy is divided into three
provinces, eighteen circles (Kreise), and 993 communes (Gemeinden),
Area and Population.
The area and population were as follows on December 1, 1885, 1890, and
December 2, 1895 :—
Proviuces
Sq. Miles
1,269
531
1,166
Population
Pop.
per sq.
mile,
1895
18S5
263,044
291,189
402,378
1890
265,912
307,329
419,642
1895
Upper Hesse (Oberhessen)
Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen) .
, Starkonlmrg
Total
271,524
322,934
444,562
213 9
608-1
381-3
2,966
956,611
992,883
1,039,020
350-3
1 Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria, 1879-86, afterwards Count Hartenau, died Nov. IC, 1893,
and Henry, married to Princess Beatrice cf Gioat Britain, dial J&nuary 20, 18i.i6.
640 GERMAN EMPIRE: — HESSE
There were 516,516 males and 522,504 females in 1895 — i.e. 101*1 females
per 100 males. Increase from 1885 to 1890 was at the rate of 076 per cent. ;
from 1890 to 1895 at the rate of 0'97 per cent, per annum. There were
9,188 marriages in Hesse in 1897, 21,227 births and 35,429 deaths, leaving
a surplus of 14,202 births. Among the births 1,281, or 3'62 per cent, were
stillborn, and 2,816, or 7 "95 per cent., illegitimate children. Emigrants
to extra-European countries, 1,992 in 1891, 1,716 in 1892, 1,422 in 1893,
515 in 1894, 693 in 1895, 558 in 1896, and 468 in 1897.
Of the population in 1895, 47 '9 per cent, lived in communes with 2,000
inhabitants and upwards ; 52 '1 per cent, in smaller communes.
The largest towns of the Grand-duchy are Mayence or Mainz, with 76,946 ;
Darmstadt, the capital, 63,745 (including Bessungen) ; Offenbach, 39,408 ;
Worms, 28,636 Giessen, 22,924 inhabitants, at the census of December 2, 1895.
Religion and Instruction.
Somewhat more than two-thirds of the population are Protestant ; nearly
three-tenths Catholic. At the census of 1895 there were 694,962 Protestants,
305,906 Catholics, 6,619 of other Christian sects, 24,618 Jews, and 42
unclassified, or of no religion. The Grand-duke is Protestant and head of
the Evangelical or Protestant Church, which is governed by a synod (with
56 members), and Avhose affairs are administered by a consistory (Ober-
consistorium). The Roman Catholic Church has a Bishop (at Mainz). The
Protestant Church has 416 parishes, the Roman Catholic Church 159 ; the
former are divided among 23 deaneries, the latter among 19. The con-
tributions of the State to the Protestant Church amounted in 1898 to 240,000
marks; to the Roman Catholic Church, 137,892 marks. The Jews have
8 rabbinates.
Instruction is compulsory in Hesse. The elementary schools are main-
tained by the communes, but with contributions by the State. There are
(1898) 987 public elementary schools with 2,559 teachers, attended by 158,053
pupils ; 34 advanced elementary schools (erweiterte Volksschulen), of which
26 are higher schools (hohere Biirgarschulen) with 90 teachers and 1,474
pupils, and 8 other middle schools with 93 teachers and 2,996 pupils. The
children who leave the elementary schools proceed to the continuation schools
(Fortbiklungs-scliulen). In 1897-98 the nuni])er of these schools was 906 ; of
the pupils, 24,098. Hesse has 28 Gymnasia, Realgymnasia, Progymnasia,
Oberrealschulen, and Realschulen, with (1897) a total attendance of 8,358 ;
5 higher girls' schools with (1898) 2,010, and 52 private schools with (1898)
4,110 pupils. In addition, tliere are a University at Giessen with 733
matriculated students and 31 listeners, and a Technical High School
(Technische Hochschule) at Darmstadt, with 1,237 students and 84
" hospitants," &c., in 1898. Besides, there are many industrial, technical,
agi'icultural and other special institutes.
Finance.
The budget is granted for the term of three years. The sources of ordinary
revenue and branches of expenditure were estimated for each year of the
financial period 1897-1900 as follows : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
G4J
Revenue.
Direct taxes ....
Indirect taxes
Domains and forests
Regales
Share in Customs of the
German Emi)ire .
Miscellaneous receipts .
Total revenue
Marks
Expenditure.
Marks
10,360,186
Public debt (interest and
2,826,443
amortisation)
7,933,782
14,871,917
Civil list and appanages
1,331,857
3,800
Diet
63,890
Ministry of State .
.357,239
8,000,000
,, ,, Interior
8,050,824
1,315,813
,, ,, Justice
2,809,828
,, ,, Finance
4,891.962
Pensions
1,265,600
Contribution to German Empire
8,000,000
Adjustment of salaries .
600,000
Various expenses .
Total expenditure ,
1,513,213
37,378,159
37,418,195
The extraordinary revenue was estimated at 4,021,388, and the extra-
ordinary expenditure at 3,224,900 marks per annum.
The direct taxes are a land (and house-) tax, trade-tax, rent-tax and
income-tax ; the indirect taxes are chiefly a stamp-tax and fees, dog-tax,
duties on successions, &c.
The public debt amounted to 238,769,000 marks in 1898, of which
210,584,000 marks are railway debt; against this are active funds of the
State amounting to 10,734,000 marks. The total annual charge of the debt
(interest and sinking fund ) in the budget of 1897-1900 is 7,933,782 marks
in ordinaiy and 19,194 marks in extraordinary.
Production and Industry.
Of the area, 641 per cent, is under cultivation ; 31*2 per cent, forests ;
4*7 percent, uncultivated (houses, roads, water, &c ). Arable land occupies
381,143 hectares; meadows and pastures, 100,528; vineyards, 10,825 ; and
forests, 240,700 hectares ; of the latter, 68,738 belong to the State, 89,932 to
the communes, 1,713 to other bodies, and 80,317 to private persons.
The number of agricultural enclosures, each under one household, was
(1895) 133,840, with a population of 366,619, of whom 165,880 were actively
engaged on the farms. Of these farms 59,043 were less than 1 hectare each ;
65,419 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, and 9,255 from 10 to less than
100 hectares, while there were 123 having a surface of 100 hectares and
upwards. Their total area was 570,616 hectares. The chief crops are wheat
and spelt (34,629 hectares in 1897), rye (69,967), barley (58,230), oats (48,218),
beetroot and turnips (31,714), and potatoes (68,607). In the same year
142,700 hectares were under hay crops.
The number of domestic animals in Hesse on December 1, 1897, was : —
Horses, 56,002 ; cattle, 324,626 ; sheep, 86,731 ; swine, 271,595 ; goats
<1892), 115,158.
Minerals to the value of 1,942,319 marks, and salt of 787,849 marks were
raised in 1896. The principal manufactures are leather, cloth, paper,
chemicals, furniture, wagons, railway cars and carriages, machinery, musical
instruments, tobacco and cigars, sparkling-wine.
Hesse has 665 miles of railway, all, except 50 miles, the property of the
States of Hesse, Pnissia and Baden.
British Chargi d' A ffaire.9. — G. W. Buchanan.
Consul-General. — Sir Charles 0]ipenheimer (Frankfort).
References concerning Hesse.
Hof-und-Staats-Handbuch dos Grossh. Ilessen. 1S96. nannstadt. Beitragc zur Sta-
tistik des Grossh. Hessen. 42 Bde. Darmstadt, 1862-98, Mittheilungen der Gros.sli.
T T
642
GERMAN EMPIRE: — LIPPE
Hess. Centralstelle fiir die Landesstatistik. 2S Bde. Darmstadt, 1862-98.
Hessler (C), GeschicVite von Hessen. 8. Cassel, 1891.
Kiichler (F.), Bcarbeitet von Braun (A. E.) und Weber (A. K.). Verfassnngs-uud
Vervvaltungsrecht des Grossh. Hessen. 5 Bde. Darmstadt, 1894-9(3.
A'!/eH0eZ(H.), Grossherzogtum Hessen. 2nd ed. 8. Giessen, 1893.
Zeller (Dr. W.), Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung im Grossh. Hessen 3 Bde.
Darmstadt, 1885-93.
LIPPE.
(FUrstenthum Lippe.)
Reigning Prince.
Alexander, born January 16, 1831, son of Prince Leopold and of
Princess Eniile of Schwarzburg-Sondersliausen ; succeeded to the throne at
the death of his brother, Prince Waldemar, March 20, 1895. Regent —
Count Ernst, born June 9, 1842, son of Count Julius of Lippe- Biesterfeld,
and Adelaide, Countess of Castell-Castell ; married September 16, 1869, to
Caroline, Countess of Wartensleben ; offspring : Adelaide, born June 22,
1870, married April 25, 1889, to Prince Frederick ot Saxe-Meiningen ;
Leopold, born May 30, 1871 ; Bernard, born August 26, 1872 ; Julius and
Carola, born September 2, 1873 ; Matilda, born March 27, 1875. The Kegent
has four brothers.
The house of Lippe is the eldest branch of the ancient family of Lippe,
from which proceeded in the seventeenth century the still flourishing
collateral lineages of Lippe-Biesterfeld, Schaumburg-Lippe, &c. For the
expenses of the court, &c. , are allotted the revenues arising from the
Domanium (farms, forests, &c.), which, according to the covenant of June 24,
1868, are indivisible and inalienable entail estate of the Prince's house, the
usufruct and administration of which belong to the reigning Prince. From
the Domanium the Regent receives a donation of 250,000 marks a year.
Constitution.
A charter of rights was granted to Lippe by decree of July 6, 1836, partly
replaced by the electoral law of June 3, 1876, according to which the Diet is
composed of twenty-one members, who are elected in three divisions deter-
mined by the scale of the rates. The discussions are public. To the Chamber
belongs the right of taking part in legislation and the levying of taxes ;
otherwise its functions are consultative. A minister presides over the
government.
Area and Population.
The population at the census of December 2, 1895, numbered 134,854,
living on an area of 469 English square miles. Of the population 66,176
were males, and 68,678 (or 103 "5 per 100 males) females. On December 1, 1890,
the population was 128,495. Marriages, 1897, 1,076 ; births, 4,942 ; deaths,
2,609 ; .surplus, 2,333 ; of the births 160 (3*24 per cent.) were stillborn, and
241 (4*87 per cent.) illegitimate.
The emigration statistics are as follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
49
47
166
245
55
21
15
8
The capital, Detmold, has 11,237 inhabitants (1895), JJxcept 4,332
Catholics and 989 Jews (1800), the people are Protestants.
LUBECK
643
Finance and Industry.
For 1898-99 the revenue was estimated at 1,326,889 marks, and ex-
penditure at 1,348,127 marks. Public debt in 1897, 948,598 marks.
In 1895 the separate farms were as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare j 1-10 Hectares 10-100 Hectares Over 100 Hectares
Total
16,109 7,327 1,586 37
25,059
Their total area was 99,813 hectares. These farms supported a popula-
tion of 44,758, of whom 20,877 were actively engaged in agriculture.
Railways, 51 miles,
British Gons^tl- General, — "William Ward (Hamburg).
LUBECK.
(Freie und Hanse-Stadt Lubeck.)
Constitution.
The free city and State of Lubeck form a Republic, governed according
to a Constitution proclaimed December 30, 1848, revised December 20,
1851, and April 7, 1875. The main features of this charter are two repre-
sentative bodies — first, the Senate, exercising the executive, and, secondly,
the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising, together with the
Senate, the legislative authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen
members, elected for life, and presided over by one burgomaster, who holds
office for two years. There are 120 members in the House of Burgesses,
chosen by all citizens of the town. A committee of thirty burgesses, pre-
sided over by a chairman elected for one year, has the duty of represent-
ing the legislative assembly in the intervals of the ordinary sessions, and
of carrying on all active business. The government is in the hands of the
Senate, but the House of Burgesses has the right of initiative in all measures
relative to the public expend.iture, foreign treaties, and general legislation.
To the passing of every new law the sanction of the Senate and the House of
Burgesses is required.
Area and Population.
The State comprises a territory of 115 English square miles, of which
the population on December 1, 1890, was 76,485 and on December 2, 1895,
83,324 (40,273 males and 43,051 females). The city proper had 39,743,
and the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of territory surrounded
by Pnissia, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg, 12,415 inhabitants in 1875 ; in
1880 the city had increased to 51,055, and in 1895 to 69,812. In the five
years 1890-95 the population increased by 9 '78 per cent.
In the State of Liibeck the movement of population during four years was
as follows : —
Year
Marriages
Births
Peaths
Surplus of
Bjrths
Emigration
1894
1895
1896
1897
631
572
665
684
2,589
2,684
2,847
2,734
1,457
1,515
1,446
1,621
1,132
1,169
1,401
1,113
80
83
109
63
T T 2
G44
GERMAN EMPIRE : — LUEECK
In 1897 there were 289 illegitimate births, or 9*5 per cent, of the total
births, and 72 still-births, or 38 "0 per cent.
Religion, Instruction, Justice, and Pauperism.
On June 14, 1895, Protestants numbered 80,709 (97 '5 per cent.),
Roman Catholics 1,303 (17 per cent.), other Christians 79, Jews 709, and
'unclassified' 15. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14.
In the city and suburbs there are (1895) 18 elementary scliools (9 for each
sex), with 7,750 pupils ; for boys 1 gymnasium (580 pupils), 1 real school
(172 pupils), 2 private higher schools (719 pupils), and 3 public middle schools
(1,357 pupils) ; for girls there are 5 private high schools and 2 private middle
schools (1,179 pupils). There are also a public technical school for ap-
prentices, and 2 private commercial schools. Five daily newspapers, one weekly
and one bi-weekly periodical, are published in the city. Liibeck contains an
Amtsgericht and a Landgericht, whence the appeal lies to the ' Hanseatisches
Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. The police force number 105 men, and in
1897-98 cost 147,247 marks. In^l893, 540 ; 1894, 543 ; 1895, 683 ; 1896, 1,076 ;
1897, 1.215 criminals were convicted. In 1894-95, 1,591 persons received
poor-relief from the State ' Armen-Anstalt, ' which spent, in 1897-98, 107,641
marks out of a revenue of 120,639 marks.
Finance.
The estimated revenue for the year 1898-99 amounted to 4,859,071 marks,
and the expenditure to 4,859,071 marks. About one-sixth of the revenue is
derived from public domains, chiefly forests ; one-fourth from interest ; and
the rest mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-fourth is for
the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting, in 1897,
to 18,871,020 marks.
Commerce and Shipping".
The total commerce of Liibeck was as follows : —
Year
Imports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
Exports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
kilogrammes
marks
kilogrammes
marks
1875
486,756
194,435
276,324
160,314
1894
838,691
250,650
514,368
205,123
1895
830,607
258,349
538,047
211,061
1896
879,772
259,098
538,770
200,406
1897
1,020,630
294,249
601,628
223,480
Imports by sea in
The chief articles
and colonial produce,
with Denmark, Great
ping statistics see und
British flag in 1897 w
belonging to the port
tonnage of 13,011, of
were steamers.
1897, 77,287,063 marks; exports, 141,494,606 marks,
of commerce are timber, corn, coal and coke, iron, wine,
The bulk of the direct trade of Liiljeck is carried on
Britain, Russia, and Sweden and Norway. (For the ship-
er Germany.) The number of vessels arriving under the
as 10 of 8,704 registered tons. The number of vessels
of Liibeck at the end of 1897 was 29, with an aggregate
which 27 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 11,788,
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN 645
The State contained 29 miles of railway in 1896, belonging to private
companies.
British Vice-Consul. — H. L. Belincke.
References.
There are published annually by the Handelskamnier, Jahresberlcht der Handel skammer
and Tabellarische Ubersichten des Lubeckischeu Handels.
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg-Schwerin. )
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich Franz IV., born April 9, 1882 ; son of Friedricli Franz III. ;
succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, April 10, 1897. The
Guardian during the minority of the Grand-duke is Duke Johanii Albrccht.
(See below). Sisters of the Grand-duke are : 1. Alexandrine, born Decem-
ber 24, 1879 ; married April 26, 1898, to Prince Christian, eldest son of
Christian, Crown-prince of Denmark. 2. Cccilc, born September 20, 1886,
Uncles and Aunts of the Grand-dukc. — I. Paul Friedrich, born Sep-
tember 19, 1852 ; married May 5, 1881, to the Duchess Maria of Windisch-
Grajtz. Offspring : 1. Paul Friedrich, born May 12, 1882. 2. Marie Antoi-
nette, born May 28, 1884, 3. Heinrich Borwin, born December 16, 1885.
Duke Paul in 1884 renounced all hereditary rights to the Grand-duchy
for himself and his descendants ; he himself became a Roman Catholic.
II. Marie, born May 14, 1854 ; married August 28, 1874, to Grand-duke
Vladimir, second son of Alexander II., Emperor of Russia. III. Johann
Albrecht, born December 8, 1857 ; married, November 6, 1886, to Duchess
Elizabeth, daughter of the Grand-duke of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach. IV.
Elisabeth, born August 10, 1869 ; married, October 24, 1896, to Prince
August, heir-apparent to the Grand-duke of Oldenburg. V. Adolf
Friedrich, born October 10, 1873. VI. Heinrich, born April 19, 1876.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning family in
Western Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest sovereign
house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-dukes style them-
selves Princes of the Wends. The genealogical table of the reigning Grand-
dukes begins with Niklot, who died 1160, and comprises 25 generations. The
title of Grand-duke was assumed in 1815.
Constitution.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the 'Union' of 1523,
the 'Reversales' of 1572 and 1621, and the charters of 1755 and Nov. 28,
1817. Part of the legislative power (only in the Domain has the Grand-
duke the whole legislative power) is in the hands of the Diet — 'Landtag.'
There is only one Diet for both Grand-duchies, and it assembles every year
for a few weeks ; when it is not in actual session it is represented by a
committee of nine members — ' Engerer Ausschuss. ' Seats and votes in the
Diet belong to the Ritterschaft — that is, tlie proprietors of Rittergiiter, or
Knights' Estates — and to the Landschaft, consisting of the burgomasters oi
646
GERMAN EMPIRE : — MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN
48 towns. The Ritterschaft has nearlj^ 800 members, but only a few of
them take seats in the Diet. The Domain has not a representation of its own.
The only elected representatives of the people are the 6 deputies returned to
the German Reichstag.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four departments,
appointed by, and responsible to, the Grand-duke alone.
Area and Population.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin is situated on the north-east coast of the Empire.
The total area is 5,135 English square miles. There is no other administra-
tive division than that springing from the ownership of the soil, in which
respect the country is divided as follows, with population in 1895 : — Grand-
ducal Domains, 192,101 ; Knights' Estates (Rittergiiter), 118,477 ; Convent
Estates (Klostergiiter), 8,095 ; Towns and Town Estates, 278,184. Total,
596,857. Average density, 116 '2 per square mile. Population : 1880,
577,055 ; 1890, 578,342 ; 1895 (final returns), 596,436. Of the total
population in 1890, 427 per cent, lived in towns of 2,000 inhabitants or
upwards, 57 "3 per cent, in rural communes ; in 1895 86,300 lived in medium
towns, 80,257 in small towns, and 100,485 in country towns. The rural
population was thus 329,815. The chief towns are Rostock (49,912 in-
habitants), Schwerin (36,388 inhabitants), the capital, Wismar (18,240
inhabitants), Giistrow (17,531 inhabitants), and Parchim (10,275 inhabitants).
In 1895 the population included 296,981 males and 300,455 females, i.e.
101*2 females per 100 males. In 1895 there were 1,572 foreigners.
Nearly one-half of the people are engaged in agriculture and cattle
rearing, as is shown in the table on p. 534. Marriages, 1896, 4,698 ;
total births, 18,207 ; stillborn, 561 (3"1 per cent.) ; illegitimate, 2,385
(13'1 per cent.) ; total deaths, 11,031 ; surplus of births, 7,176.
The numbers of emigrants, via German and Dutch ports and Antwerp, for
eight years were as follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1,046
1894 1895
1896
1897
217
1,133
1,536
1,329
396 354
345
Religion and Instruction.
Nearly all the inhabitants are Protestants. In 1890 there were : Roman
Catholics, 5,034 ; Jews, 2,182 ; other Christians, 905. The State Church is
Protestant. There are 478 Protestant churches and 346 clergymen. The
parishes are generally well endowed with landed property.
There are about 1,315 elementary schools in the Grand-duchy ; Gymnasia,
7 with 1,782 pupils ; Realschulen, 9 with 1,838 pupils ; normal schools, 2
with 204 pupils ; navigation schools, 2 ; agricultural school, 1 ; architectural
schools, 2. There are besides several middle and special schools. There is a
university at Rostock (see German Empire).
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
The Grand-duchy contains 43 Amtsgerichte, 3 Landgerichte, and 1 Ober*
landesgericht at Rostock, which is also the supreme court for Mecklenburg*
Strelitz. There are also certain special military and ecclesiastical tribunals.
MECKLENBURG-STllELITZ
647
In 1895, 4,050 criminals were convicted, i.e. 94'6 per 10,000 inhabitants over
12 years of a^^e. On October 1, 1897, 319 pei"sons were in prison — 271 men,
37 women, and 11 children.
The Grand-duchy is divided into aliout 1,700 poor-law districts. In 1885,
14,475 heads of families, or solitary paupers, with 8,735 dependents, were
relieved at a total cost of 1,308,488 marks. A poor-rate, averaging about 1
per cent, on incomes, may be levied by the poor law districts.
Finance.
There exists no general budget for the Grand-duchy. There are three
systems of finance, entirely distinct. 1. That of the Grand-duke, estimated
for 1898-99 at 19,200,000 marks. 2. The financial administration of the
States, the resources of which are very small. 3. The common budget of
the Grand-duke and States, the receipts and expenditure of which balance at
4,070,000 marks (for 1898-99). On July 1, 1898, the public debt was estimated
at 110,905,500 marks. The interest of the railway debt (9,660,000 marks),
and of the consolidated loan of 1886, amounting to 12,000,000 marks, is
covered by the annuity of 960,000 marks paid by the State railways, and
the remaining debt is more than covered by the State funds.
Production.
On June 14, 1895, the number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated
by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
65,531
21,633
8,604
1,301
97,069
These farms had an aggregate area of 1,143,618 hectares, and supported
820,822 persons, of whom 122,175 were actively engaged upon them.
The areas in hectares under the principal crops were as follows in 1897 :—
Wheat, 44,000 ; rye, 161,575 ; barley, 19,569 ; oats, 112,081 ; potatoes,
48,003 ; hay, 104,895. In 1897 the yield was (in quintals) .-—wheat, 2,123,506 ;
rye, 4,527,892 ; barley, 742,092 ; oats, 3,256,992 ; potatoes, 11,438,172 ; hay,
6,747,052.
In 1897 the railways measured 704 miles.
Consul-Gencral. — William Ward (Hamburg).
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
(GllOSSHERZOGTHUM MeCKLENBURG-StRELITZ.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich Wilhelm I., born October 17, 1819; the son of Grand-duke
Georg and of Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the
f)48
GERMAN EMPIRE : — MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ
death of liis father, September 6, 1860 ; married June 28, 1843, to Augiista,
born July 19, 1822, the daughter of the late Duke Adolphus of Cambridge.
Offspring : Adolf Fricdrich, born July 22, 1848 ; married April 17, 1877,
to Princess Elizabeth of Anhalt, born September 7, 1857, of which union
there is offspring : Mary Augusta, born May 8, 1878 ; Jutta, born January 24,
1880 ; Adolf Friedrich, born June 17, 1882 ; and Car] Borwin, born October
10, 1888.
The reigning house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was founded, in 1701, by
Duke Adolf Friedrich, youngest son of Duke Adolf Friedrich I. of Meck-
lenburg. There being no law of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was
unable to prevent the division of the country, which was protested against by
subsequent Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, The Grand-duke is, however,
one of the wealthiest of German sovereigns, more than one-half of the countiy
being his private property.
Constitution and Finance.
Mecklenburg-Strelitz has, in common with Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a
Diet consisting of landowners and town magistrates. The country is divided
into two provinces : Stargard, which alone participates in the Constitution,
and Ratzeburg, whose special Constitution, framed in 1869, has never been
put in force. Of the 48 burgomasters and nearly 800 members of the Ritter-
schaft (see Mecklenburg -Schwcr in), 7 burgomasters and over 60 proprietors of
Rittergiiter belong to Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is exercised
by him through his Government, at the head of which is a * Minister of
State. ' Accounts of public income and expenditure are never made known,
and the whole State revenue forms the civil list of the Grand-duke ; the debt
is estimated at 6,000,000 marks.
Area, Population, &c.
The area of the country is 2,929 square kilometres, or 1,131 English square
miles, the ownership of which territory is divided between the sovereign,
the feudal proprietors, and the corporations of certain towns, in the following
manner : — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke ; 353 to the titled and
untitled nobles ; and 117 to the town corporations.
The population on Dec. 1, 1890, was 97,978 ; on Dec. 2, 1895, 101,540.
Of the total population in 1895, 50,233 were males, and 51,307 were females,
or 102-2 females per 100 males. Marriages, 1896, 748; births, 3,213;
deaths, 1,931 ; surplus of births, 1,282. Among the births were 89 (2-8
per cent.) still-born, and 433 (13 '5 per cent.) illegitimate children.
The emigration statistics for eight years are as follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
262
198
333
175
45
44
32
16
With the exception of 654 Catholics and 489 Jews (1890), the people arc
Protestants. The capital, Neu Strelitz, had 10,343 inhabitants in 1895.
In 1896, 726 persons were convicted, or 98 '5 per 10,000 of population
over 12 years of age.
OLDENBURG 649
Fully oiie-lialf of the poi)ulation arc engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing,
<fcc., and only 38 '4 per cent, live in towns with 2,000 inhabitants or upwards.
In 1895 the aojricultural tenements were divided as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
13,844
2,430
1,416
231
17,921
Their total area was 208,140 hectares. These farms supported 47,264
persons, of whom 20,251 were actively engaged upon them.
Mecklenburg-Strelitz has 59 English miles of railway.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Rt. Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
Consul-General. — William Ward (Hamburg).
Reference.
Afaj/^r (A.), Geschichte des Grossherzogthuras Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 1816—1890. 8.
Neustrelitz, 1S90.
OLDENBURG.
(Grossherzogthum Oldenburg.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1827 ; the son of Grand-
duke August and of Princess Ida of Anhalt-Bernburg ; succeeded to the
throne at the death of his father, February 27, 1853 ; married, February 10,
1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826 (died February 2, 1896), daughter
of Prince Joseph of Saxe-Alteuburg. Offspring : I. Prince August, heir-
apparent, born November 16, 1852 ; married (1), Fcbiaiary 18, 1878, to Princess
Elizabeth (died August 28, 1895) daughter of Prince Friedrich Karl of
Prussia ; (2), October 24, 1896, to Princess Elizabeth of Mecklonburg-
Sclnverin ; issue of first marriage, a daughter, Sophia, born February 2, 1879,
of the second, a son, Nicolaiis, born August 10, 1897. II. Prince Gcorg, born
June 27, 1855.
The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to Denmark,
Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from Wittckind, the cele-
brated leader of the heathen Saxons against Charlemagne. In the fifteenth
century a scion of the House of Oldenburg, Count Christian VIII., was elected
Xing of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The main line became extinct with
Count Anton Giinther, in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to
the King of Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paul of Russia, in
1773, in exchange for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-
duke then (1773) gave Oldenburg to his cousin, Prince Friedrich August of
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December 1810,
when Napoleon incorporated it with the Kingdom of Westphalia. But the
Congress of Vienna not only gave the country back to its former sovereign,
but, at the urgent demand of Czar Alexander I., added to it a tenitory of
650
GERMAN EMPIRE : — OLDENBURG
nearly 400 square miles, with 50,000 inlialntants, bestowing at the same
time upon the Prince the title of Grand-duke. Part of the. new territory
consisted of the Prineipality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine,
close to the French frontier, and some three hundred miles distant from
Oldenburg. The other part consists of the Principality of Liibeck. The
Grand-duke has a civil list of 255,000 marks, or 12,750Z. ; he draws also
a considerable revenue from private estates of the family in Holstein, Silesia,
and Russia.
Constitution and Revenue.
A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy on February 18, 1849,
revised by a decree of November 22, 1852. The legislative power is exercised
by a Landtag, or Diet, elected for three years, by the vote of all citizens
paying taxes and not condemned for felony by a court of justice. The mode
of election is indirect. One delegate ( Wahlmann) for every 500 inhabitants
is chosen by the iirst electors ; and these delegates, grouped in nine districts,
elect 37 deputies, or one for every 10,000 inhabitants. The executive is
vested, under the Grand-duke, in a responsible ministry of three departments.
The Principalities of Liibeck and Birkenfeld have also provincial councils
(Provinzialnithe), both of 15 members, summoned twice a year by the
provincial government.
The budgets are voted for three years at a time, and are divided into
the budget of the Grand-duchy and the budgets of the Duchy of Oldenburg
and the Principalities of Liibeck and Birkenfeld. The estimated revenue of
the Duchy and Principalities is :— 1894, 13,863,471 marks ; 1895, 9,174,971
marks; 1896, 9,210,571 marks ; 1897, 10,350,382 marks. The estimated
expenditure :— 1894, 10,526,316 marks ; 1895, 10,369,137 marks ; 1896,
10,445,551 marks ; 1897, 8,949,581 marks. For 1898 the revenue is put at
7,242,612, and expenditure at 7,834,000 marks. The debt of the Grand-
duchy amounted, at the beginning of 1898, to 50,408,043 marks.
Area and Population.
Oldenburg embraces an area of 2,479 English square miles. The popu-
lation of the chief divisions was in 1895 : — Duchy of Oldenburg, 295,990 ;
Principality of Liibeck, 35,501 ; Principality of Birkenfeld, 42,248. Total,
373,739, (males, 186,170 ; females, 187,569, i.e. 1007 per 100 males).
The growth of the population since 1867, when the Duchy attained its
present limits, is as follows :— 1867, 315,995 ; 1871, 312,728 ; 1875, 319,314 ;
1880, 337,478; 1885, 341,525; 1890, 354,968.
In 1895 only 26 '6 per cent, of the population lived in towns with 2,000
inhabitants or upwards. Oldenburg, the capital, had 25,472 inhabitants in
1895.
In 1896 there were 3,194 marriages, 13,490 births, 7,047 deaths ; surplus
of Inrths, 6,443. Of the births 422 (3"1 per cent.) were still-born, and 752
(5 "6 per cent.) illegitimate. The emigration statistics for eight years are as
follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,001
1,142
1,296
1,123
680
526
340
271
RELIGION, INSTRUCTION, AND JUSTICE 65l
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
In 1805 Oklcnlmrg contained 289,020 Protestants (77-5 per cent.), 81,492
Roman Catholics (21-8), 1,197 other Christians (0-3), 1,430 Jews (0-4). ^ The
State Church (Protestant) is under the Ministry for Ecclesiastical Affairs.
The following table shows the higher schools of Oldenburg in 1896 : —
—
No.
No. of Teachers
72
36
30
26
9
4
9
No. of Pupils
Gymnasia .....
Realschulen ....
Hbhere Biirgerschulen .
Hohere Tochterschulen
CI • r Protestant
Seminary | Catholic . .
Biirger and agricultural
5
2
6
3
1
1
1
864
656
675
490
116
30
82
In addition to these are a middle ' Stadtschulc' for boys, with 16 teachers
and 632 pupils ; two ' Stadtschulen ' for girls, with 23 teachers and 610
pupils ; and a school of navigation, with 6 teachers and 55 pupils.
Oldenburg contains an Oberlandesgericht and a Landgericht. The Amts-
gerichte of Liibeck and Birkenfeld are under the jurisdiction of the Landge-
richte at Liibeck and Saarbriicken respectively. In 1896, 2,619 persons, or
100 '5 per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve, were convicted of crime.
Recent statistics on pauperism are not available.
Production.
Of the total area in 1894, 201,077 hectares were uncultivated ; about
half the population are engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing, &c. In
1895 the number of agricultural holdings was 59,106 ; of these, 24,326 were
less than 1 hectare, 26,632 were from 1 to 10 hectares, 8,079 from 10 to 100
hectares, 69 over 100 hectares. Their total area was 495,002 liectares. The
farms supported 136,846 persons, of whom 60,391 were actually engaged in
agriculture. In 1897 the area (in hectares) under rye was 66,030 ; under wheat,
5,558; barley, 7,567; potatoes, 15,403 ; oats, 33,371 ; hay, 74,069. The
yield was (in metric tons): rye, 79,563; wheat, 12,063; barley, 12,157 ;
potatoes, 142,940 ; oats, 38,929; hay, 186,495.
Oldenburg had 290 miles of railway on January 1, 1897, which are all
under the direction of the State.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir F. C. Lascelles, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
Comul- General. — William Ward (Hamburg).
References.
Zeitschrift filr Verwaltung und Rechtspflege (three times a year).
fcJtatistische Nacluichten iiber das Grossherzogthuiu Oldenburg (published bj' the Bureau
of Statistics.)
Kollmann (P.), Das Herzogthum Oldenburg in seiner wirthschaftlichen Entwickelung
Oldenburg, 1893. Statistische Beschreibung der Genieindcn des lierzogthiuns Olden-
burg. Oldenburg, IS'Jl.
652 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
PRUSSIA.
(KONIGREICH PrEUSSEN.)
Reigning King.
Wilhelm II., born Jan. 27, 1859, eldest son of Friedrich III.,
German Emperor and King of Prussia — who was eldest son of
Wilhelm I., and was born Oct. 18, 1831, married, Jan. 25, 1858,
to Victoria (Empress and Queen Eriedrich), Princess Royal of
Great Britain, succeeded his father March 9, 1888, and died June
15, 1888, when he was succeeded by his son. Prince Friedrich
Wilhelm, under the title of Wilhelm II. The Emperor married,
Feb. 27, 1881, Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Augustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858, daughter of the late Duke
Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg.
Children of the King.
1. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882, Crown
Prince of the German Empire and of Prussia ; 2. Prince
Wilhelm Eitel- Friedrich, born July 7, 1883; 3. Prince Adalbert,
born July 14, 1884; 4. Prince August Wilhelm, born Jan. 29,
1887 ; 5. Prince Oscar, born July 27, 1888 ; 6. Prince Joachim,
born Dec. 17, 1890; 7. Princess Viktoria Luise, born Sept. 13,
1892.
" Brother and Sisters oj the King.
1. Princess Charlotte, born July 24, 1860; married, Feb. 18,
1878, to Prince Bernhard, eldest son of Duke George II. of Saxe-
Meiningen. 2. Prince Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862 ; married,
May 24, 1888, to Princess Irene, daughter of the late Grand-duke
Ludwig IV. of Hesse ; offspring of the union are two sons,
Waldemar, born March 20, 1889, and Sigismund, born Nov.
27, 1896. 3. Princess Victoria, born April 12, 1866 ; married,
Nov. 19, 1890, to Prince Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe. 4.
Princess Sophie, born June 14, 1870; married, Oct. 27, 1889,
to Crown-Prince Konstantin of Greece, Duke of Sparta. 5. Prin-
cess Margarethe, born April 22, 1872, married, Jan. 25, 1893, to
Prince Friedrich Karl Ludwig of Hesse.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Luise, born Dec. 3, 1838; married, Sept. 20, 1856, to
Grand-duke Friedrich of Baden.
The Kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor,
Count Friedrich I., built the family castle of Hohenzollern, near
the Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohen
PRUSSIA 653
zollern, Friedrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of
the Holy Roman Empire in 1273, and received the Burggraviate
of Nuremberg in fief ; and his great-grandson, Friedrich VI., was
invested by Kaiser Sigmund, in 1415, with the province of
Brandenburg, and obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A cen-
tury after; in 1511, the Teutonic Knights, owners of the large
province of Prussia, on the Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht, a
younger son of the family of Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-
Master, and he, after a while, declared himself hereditary prince.
The early extinction of the male line of Albrecht brought the
province of Prussia by marriage to the Electors of Brandenburg,
who, by early adopting Protestantism, acquired a very important
position as leaders of the new faith in Northern Germany. In
the seventeenth century, the Hohenzollern territories became
greatly enlarged by Friedrich Wilhelm, ' the Great Elector, ' under
whose fostering care arose the first standing army in Central
Europe. The Great Elector, after a reign extending from 1640 to
1688, left a country of one and a half million inhabitants, a vast
treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops to his son, Friedrich I.,
who put the kingly crown on his head at Konigsberg on January
18, 1701. The first King of Prussia made few efforts to in-
crease the territory left him by the Great Elector ; but his suc-
cessor, Friedrich Wilhelm I., acquired a treasure of nine millions
of thalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling, bought family
domains to the amount of five million thalers, and raised the annual
income of the country to six millions, three-fourths of which sum,
however, had to be spent on the army. After adding part of
Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son and
successor, Friedrich II., called ' the Great, ' a State of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half million inhabitants. Friedrich
II. added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a
quarter million of souls ; and this, and the large territory gained
in the first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square
miles, with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants.
Under the reign of Friedrich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm II.,
the State was enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of
Anspach and Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in
another partition of Poland, which raised its area to the extent
of nearly 100,000 square miles, with about nine millions of souls.
Under Friedrich Wilhelm III., nearly one-half of this State and
population was taken by Napoleon ; l:)ut the Congress of Vienna
not only restored the loss, but added part of the Kingdom of
Saxony, the Rhineland, and Swedish Pomerania, moulding
Prussia into two separate pieces of territory, of a total area of
654 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
106,820 square miles. This was shaped into a compact State of
134, 463 square miles, with a population of 22,769,436, by the war
of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the Kings of Pnissia enjoyed the whole
income of the State domains, amounting to about a million sterling per annum.
By a degree of Jan. 17, 1820, King Friedrich Wilhelm III. fixed the Krondo-
tations at the total sum of 2,573,098| thalers, which was sanctioned on Jan.
31, 1850, by Art. 59 of the Constitution ; remaining, as before, dependent on the
revenue derived from domains and forests. The amount of the civil list was
fixed by Art. 59 of the Constitution of Jan. 31, 1850 ; but by law of April 30,
1859, it was raised 500,000 thalers, by law of Jan. 27, 1868, 1,000,000 thalers,
and by law of Feb. 20, 1889, a further 3,500,000 marks. At present the total
* Krondotations Rente,' as far as it fi.gures in the budgets, amounts to 15,719,296
marks, or 770,554Z. The reigning house is also in possession of a vast amount
of private property, comprising castles, forests, and great landed estates in
various parts of the kingdom, known as 'Fideikommiss- und-Schatullgiiter,'
the revenue from which mainly serves to defray the expenditure of the court
and the members of the royal family.
The Royal Fideikommiss was last regulated by Cabinet Order of Aug. 30,
1843. Besides this the Royal Crown treasure, founded by King Friedrich
Wilhelm III., consists of a capital of 6 millions, which has since consider-
ably increased, and also the family Fideikommiss, likewise founded by King
Friedrich Wilhelm III., for the benefit of princes born afterwards. It
comprises the domains of Flatow, Krojanke, and Frauendorf, as well as
the Fideikommiss founded by the late Prince Karl (Glienicke). Finally,
the Royal House is also entitled to the House Fideikommiss of the Hohen-
zollern princes.
Dating from King Friedrich I. of Prussia (Elector Friedrich III. of
Brandenburg), there have been the following
Sovereigns of the House of Hohenzollern.
Friedrich I.
. 1701
Friedrich Wilhelm III.
1797
Friedrich Wilhelm I. .
. 1713
Friedrich Wilhelm IV.
1840
Friedrich II. called
'the
Wilhelm I.
1861
Great'
. 1740
Friedrich III. (Mar. 9- June 15)
1888
Friedrich Wilhelm
. 1786
Wilhelm II.
1888
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Prussia was drawn up by the
Government of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-opera-
tion of a Constituent Assembly, sitting August-December 1849,
and was proclaimed Jan. 31, 1850 ; but subsequently modified by
royal decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 May
7 and 24, 1853 ; June 10, 1854; May 30, 1855; April 14 and
30, 1856; May 18, 1857 ; May 17, 1867; March 27, 1872;
April 5, 1873 ; June 18, 1875 ; Feb. 19, 1879 ; and May 27,
1888. These fundamental laws vest the executive and part of
the legislative authority in a king, who attains his majority upon
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT (355
accomplishing his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in
the male line, according to primogeniture. In the exercise of the
government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap-
pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares
with a representative assembly, the Landtag, composed of two
Chambers, the first called the ' Herrenhaus, ' or House of Lords,
and the second the ' Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies.
The assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite for all
laws. Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted
to the Abgeordnetenhaus, and be either accepted or rejected en
bloc by the Herrenhaus. The right of proposing laws is vested
in the Government and in each of the Chambers.
The Herrenhaus, according to the original draft of the Constitution,
was to consist of adult princes of the royal family, and of the heads of
Prussian houses deriving directly from the former Empire, as Avell as of
those heads of families that, by royal ordinance, should be appointed to
seats and votes in the Chamber, according to the rights of primogeniture
and lineal descent. Besides these hereditary members, there were to be
ninety deputies directly elected by electoral districts, consisting of a num-
ber of electors who pay the highest taxes to the State ; and, in addition, other
thirty members elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
towns. This original composition of the ' House of Lords ' was greatly
modified by the royal decree of Oct. 12, 1854, which brought into life the
Herrenhaus in its present form. It is composed of, first, the princes of
the royal family who are of age, including the scions of the formerly sovereign
families of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; secondly,
the chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress of
Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Pnissia ; thirdly, the heads of the
territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some fifty members ;
fourthly, a number of life-peers, chosen by the king from among the rich
landowners, great manufacturers, and ' national celebrities ' ; fifthly, eight
titled noblemen elected in the eight older provinces of Prussia by the resident
landowners of all degrees ; sixthly, the representatives of the universities, the
heads of ' chapters,' and the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand
inha])itants ; and seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by
the king for life, or for a more or less restricted period.
The Abgeordnetenhaus consists of 433 members — 352 for the old kingdom,
80 added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed provinces, and 1 in 1876 for
Lauenburg ; the proportion to the population is now (1895) 1 to every 73,569.
Every Pmssian who has attained his twenty-fifth year, and is rpialified to vote for
the municipal elections of his place of domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect
elector. Persons who are entitled to vote for municipal elections in several
parishes can only exercise the right of indirect elector, or * Urwiihler,' in one.
One direct elector, or ' Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete number of
250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes, according
to the respective amount of direct taxes paid by each ; arranged in such
manner that each category pays one-tliird of the whole amount of direct
taxes levied on the whole. The first category consist of all electors who
pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole ; the second,
of those who pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the
second third ; the third of all tlie lowest taxed, who, together, complete
656 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
the last class. Direct electors may be nominated in each division of the circle
from the number of persons entitled to vote indirectly, without regard to
special divisions. The representatives are chosen by the direct electors.
The legislative period of the Abgeordnetenhaus is limited to five years.
Eveiy Prussian is eligible to be a member of the second Chamber who has
completed his thirtieth year, who has not forfeited the enjoyment of full
civic rights through a judicial sentence, and who has paid taxes during three
years to the State. The Chamber must lie re-elected within six months of
the expiration of their legislative period, or after being dissolved. In
either case former members are re-eligilile. The Landtag is to be regularly
convoked by the king during the month of November ; and in extra-
ordinary session, as often as circumstances may require. The opening
and closing of the Landtag must take place by the king in person, or
by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers are to be convoked,
opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously. Each Chamber has to
prove the qualification of its members, and to decide thereon. Both
Chambers regulate their order of business and discipline, and elect
their own presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries. Functionaries do
not require leave of absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member
accepts paid functions, or a higher office connected with increased salaiy,
he vacates his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the
same by a new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The
sittings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the proposition
of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret deliberation.
Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution Avhen the legal majority of its
members is not present. Each Chamber has a right to present addresses
to the kino-. No one can deliver a petition or address to the Chambers, or
to either of them, in person. Each Chamber can refer documents addressed
to it to the ministers, and demand explanations relative to complaints
contained therein. Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions
of investigation of facts for its own information. The members of both
Chambers are held to be representatives of the whole population. They
vote according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescriptions
or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for their votes
or for opinions uttered by them in the Chaml)ers. No member of the
Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to examination or arrest
for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless seized in the act, or within
twenty-four hours of the same. All criminal proceedings against members
of the Chambers, and all examination or civil arrest, must be suspended
during the session, should the Chamber whom it may concern so demand.
Members of the Abgeordnetenhaus receive and must accept travelling expenses
and diet money from the State, according to a scale fixed by law, amounting
to 15 marks, or 15 shillings, per day.
The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium, or
Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the king, and
hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsministerium is divided into ten
departments, as follows : —
1. President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of State, Minister of
Foreign A fairs, and Imperial Chancellor — Prince Chlodwig su Uohenlohe-
Schillingsfurst ; born March 31, 1819 ; appointed October, 1894.
2. Vice-President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of State, and
Minister of Finance. — Dr. Johannes von Miguel, born February 21, 1829:
appointed January 25, 1890.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT G57
3. Minister of Public Works. — Heir Thielen, born 1831 : appointed June
22, 1891.
4. Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs, Instruction, and Medical Affairs. —
Dr. Julius Kobert Bosscy born July 12, 1832 ; appointed March 24, 1892.
5. Minister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. — Freiherr von Ham-
mcrstein-Loxtcn, born October 6, 1827 ; appointed October, 1894.
6. Minister of Justice. — Dr. Schonstedt ; born January 6, 1833; appointed
October, 1894.
7. Minister for Interior. — Freiherr von der Recke, born 1847 ; appointed
December 9, 1895.
8. Minister of Commerce. — Herr Brefeld, born 1839 ; appointed June
27, 1896.
9. Minister of War. — General-Lieutenant von Gossler, born September
29, 1841 ; appointed August 14, 1896,
10. Imperial Secretary of State for the Interior. — Graf von Posadowsky-
Wehncr ; born 1845 ; ai>i)ointed Minister September 1, 1893.
The salary of the President of the Council is 54,000 marks, and that of
each of the other ministers 36,000 marks.
Local Government.
Each of the provinces of the Kingdom is placed under the superintendence
of an ' Oberprasident,' or governor, who has a salary of 21,000 marks. Each
province has also a military commandant, a superior court of justice, a director
of indirect taxes, and a consistory, all appointed by the king. The provinces
are subdivided into Regierungsbezirke, or counties, and these again into
' Kreise ' or circles, and the latter into Amtsbezirke or Biirgermeistereien,
these again into towns and Gemeinden or Gutsbezirke. Each county has a
president and an administrative board or council ; and the further sub-
divisions have also their local authorities. The councils and principal
functionaries are all elective, the system of voting being that of the three,
class franchise which secures the predominance of the wealthier electors.
The principal officials must, moreover, be confirmed by the Government.
The local councils deal with such matters as primary instruction, poor-
relief, road-making, police, and local finance.
u u
658
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table exhibits the area and population of the
whole and of each of the 14 provinces in 1890, and on December
2, 1895.
Provinces
East Prussia (Ostpreussen) .
West Prussia (Westpreussen)
Berlin .
Brandenburg
Pomerania (Pommern)
Posen .
Silesia (Schlesien)
Saxony (Sachsen).
Schleswig-Holstein
Heligoland ^
Hanover (Hannover)
Westphalia (Westfalen)
Hesse-Nassau
Rhine (Rheinland)
Hohenzollern
Total .
Area :
Eng. Sq.
Miles
14,282
9,854
25
15,381
11,628
11,184
15,566
9,750
17,337
14,869
7,803
6,060
10,423
441
Population
1890
1,958,663
1,433,681
1,578,794
2,541,783
1,520,889
1,751,642
4,224,458
2,580,010
1,217,437
(2,086)
2,278,361
2,428,661
1,664,426
4,710,391
66,085
1895
134,603 29,955,281
2,006,689
1,494,360
1,677,304
2,821,695
1,574,147
1,828,658
4,415,309
2,698,549
^,286,416
2,422,020
2,701,420
1,756,802
5,106,002
65,752
31,855,123
Pop.
per Square
Mile, 1895
140-5
151-6
' 67,092-2
183-5
135-4
163-5
283-7
276-8
175-3
162-9
346-2
289-9
489-9
149-1
236-7
1 Including Heligoland.
- Heligoland has been attached to Schleswig-Holstein since 1891.
At the close of the reign of Friedrich I., first King of Prussia,
the Kingdom had an area of about 43,400 square miles, and a
population of 1,731,000. The following table illustrates the de-
velopment of Prussia since 1816 : —
Year
1816
Area in Sq. Miles
Population
10,349,031
Average per
Sq. Mile
97-1
Percentage of
Annual Increase
106,614
1831
106,614
13,038,960
122-3
1-7
1858
108,514
17,739,913
163-5
1-3
1861
108,514
18,491,220
170-4
1-4
1867
134,046
23,971,337
178-8
1-06
1871
134,046
24,643,623
183-8
0-70
1875
134,179
25,742,464
191-8
1-06
1880
134,468
27,279,111
202-9
119
1885
134,505
28,318,470
210-5
0-76
1890
134,537
29,955,281
222-6
1-15
1895
134,603
31,855,123
236-7
1-26
Area and population
059
Of thb total population in 1895, 51*4 percent, lived in towns and rural
communes of 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, and 48 '6 per cent, in com-
munes with less than 2,000 inhabitants.
While the town population increased at the rate of 2 "33 percent, per annum
between 1885 and 1890, the country population increased at the rat6 of 0"46
per cent, per annum. The town population in 1895 was 12,954,591, showing
a rate of increase of 1'84 per cent, per annum sinCe 1890, while the rate of
increase in the country districts was only 0"89 per cent, per annum.
The urban and rural population were distributed as follows at the census
periods, 1885, 1890 and 1895 :—
Census
No. of
Towns
Nos. Rural
Coninmnesi
Towns and Communes, with
2,000 Inhabitants and upwards
Communes, &c., with less
than 2,000 Inhabitants
No. j Pop.
Per Ct.
No. Pop.
Per Ct.
1885
1890
1895
1,280
1,263
1,266
55,002
53,640
52,517
1,648
1,726
1,842
12,754,674
14,529,598
16,383,267
45-0
48-5
51-4
53,722
53,177
51,941
15,563,796
15,425,683
15,471,856
55-0
51-5
48-6
1 Including 16,403 separate ' Gutsbezirke ' in 1885 ; 16,559 in 1890 ; 16 143 in 1805.
The urban population was thus distributed in 1895 : —
—
No.
18
88
Pop. 1895
—
No.
Pop. 1895
Large towns^
Medium ,,
4,633,361
3,182,096
Small towns
Country ,,
327
514
3,094,388
1,603,781
1 See p. 536 for the official signification of these terms.
In 1890 the population included 14,702,151 males and 15,253,130 females
— i.e. 103 '7 females per 100 males ; in 1895 there were 15,645,439 males and
16,209,684 females — i.e., 103*6 females per 100 males. With respect to con-
jugal condition the following was the distribution in 1895 : —
—
Males j Females
9,730,803 ! 9,357,651
5,429,929 5,445,398
466,060 i 1,371,008
18,647 35,627
Total
Unmarried ....
Manied .....
Widowed .....
Divorced or separated
19,088 454
10,875,327
1,837,068
54,274
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 534, and some particulars as to race on the same page.
In 1895 the number of foreigners (exclusive of other Germans) resident in
Prussia was 205,818, of whom 63,289 were Austrians and Hungarians, 47,715
Dutch, 18,998 Russians, 24,389 Danes, 6,301 Swedes and Norwegians, 8,120
British, 6,564 Belgisan, 7,327 Armenians (United States), 10,062 Swiss, and
2,127 French.
u u 2
C60
GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the movement of the population
years.
for the five
Year
Marriages
Total Births 1 Still-bom
1
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
incl. Still-
born
Surplus of
Births
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
245,447
248,348
250,960
253,729
264,822
1
1,143,904 1 37,401
1,195,293 39,043
1,182,833! 39,789
1,208,215 40,288
1,226,107 40,823
88,287
92,092
94,022
93,432
97,305
752,055
785,520
719,582
729,917
707,500
391,849
409,773
463,251
478,298
518,607
In 1896 3 '33 per cent, of the total births were still-born, and 7 '94 percent,
illegitimate.
The emigration from Prussia by German ports, Dutch ports, and Antwerp
was in 1892, 76,196; in 1893, 53,471 ; in 1894, 24,203 ; in 1895, 20,564; in
1896, 19,459 ; and in 1897, 13,497. The following table, indicating the
emigrants from each province in 1897, shows that the northern provinces
contribute most largely :—
Hanover
2,321
Hesse-Nassau
928
Brandenburg (with
Berlin)
2,024
Silesia .
726
Posen .
1,560
Saxony
726
Rhine .
1,166
Westphalia .
480
Schleswig-Holstein
1,155
East Prussia
456
Pomerania .
979
Hohenzollern
14
West Prussia
962
III. Principal Towns.
The following table gives the population of the principal towns as at the
census of December 2, 1895 : —
Towns
Population
Towns
Population
Berlin
1,677,304
Krefeld
107,245
Breslau
373,163
Essen ....
96,128
Cologne (Koln) .
321,564
Kiel ....
85,6Q6
Frankfort-on-Main
229,279
Kassel
81,752
Magdeburg .
214,424
Erfurt
78,174
Hanover
209,535
Wiesbaden ,
74,133
Dtisseldorf .
175,985
Posen
73,239
Konigsberg .
172,796
Duisburg .
70,272
Altona
148,944
Gorlitz
70,175
Stettin
140,724
Frankfort-on-Oder
59,161
Elberfeld .
139,337
Potsdam
58,455
Charlottenburg .
132,377
Miiuster
57,135
Barmen
126,992
Spandau
55,841
Danzig
125,605
Bochum
53,842
Halle-on-Saale .
116,304
Miinchen Gladbach ' .
53,662
Dortmund .
111,232
Liegnitz
51,518
Aachen
110,551
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
GCl
Religion,
Absolute religions liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution. Nearly two-
thirds of the population are Protestants, and rather over one-third Roman
Catholics. The numbers of the different creeds by provinces at the census of
1895 were as follows : —
Provinces
Protestants
Catholics
Other
Cliristians
Jews
14,364
Others
and un-
known
East Prussia
1,724,374
266,641
1,220
90
West Prussia
715,581
758,168
310
20,238
63
City of Berlin
1,426,591
155,363
7,824
86,152
1,374
Brandenburg
2,681,637
118,265
2,725
18,394
674
Pomerania .
1,530,003
31,739
679
11,661
65
Posen .
561,201
1,227,197
221
40,019
20
Silesia .
1,980,552
2,384,754
2,232
47,593
178
Saxon V
2,498,748
187,559
4,081
7,850
311
Schleswig-Holstein
1,257,454
24,184
517
3,702
559
Hanover
2,094,604
311,457
602
1.5,065
292
AVestphalia .
1,298,852
1,378,676
4,394
19,359
139
Hesse-Nassau
1,224,021
482,752
3,709
45,725
595
Rhine .
1,434,715
3,610,142
11,278
49,018
849
Hohenzollern
Total 1895 .
2,566
62,608
2
576
—
20,430,899
10,999,505
39,794
379,716
5,209
Per cent.
64-14
34-53
0-12
1-19
0-02
Total 1890 .
19,294,180
10,252,807
31,545
372,058
4,691
Per cent.
64-41
34-23
0-10
1-24
0-02
The Evangelical or Protestant Church is the State Church, and since 1817
has consisted of a fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies, from which,
however, there are still a few dissenters. It is governed by * consistories,' or
boards appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, and general synods representing the old
provinces only. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the various
provinces. In the Upper Rhenish ecclesiastical province it is fixed by a
concordat between the Government and Pope Pius VII. In every part of the
Monarchy the Crown has reserved to itself a control over the election of
bishops and priests. The higher Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the
Prince Bishop of Breslau receiving 34,000 marks a year, and the other bishops
about 22,700 marks. The incomes of the parochial clergy mostly arise from
endo^^^nents. In the budget of 1896-97 the sum of 3,016,161 marks is set
down as direct expenditure in Evangelical Churches, and 2,599,631 marks for
the Catholic Church.
Instruction.
Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every
town, or community in town or country, must maintain a
school supported by local rates, supplemented by the State,
and administered by the local authorities, who are elected
by the citizens, and called aldermen or town councillors. All
parents are compelled to bave tlieir children properly taught
862
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
or to send them to one of these elementary schools, in which
all fees are now abolished. No compulsion exists in reference to
a higher educational institution than elementary schools, but
parents who send moi^e than one child to any school supported by
the community have, in many cases, a reduction made in the
charge, and a limited number of pupils whose parents cannot
afford to pay the full rate either enjoy this reduction or are
admitted entirely free, at the discretion of the authorities.^ The
school age is from 6 to 14 years, and the number of children of
that age in 1896 was returned at 5,654,918,
The following table gives the educational statistics of Prassia : —
No.
Teaching
Students or
Staff
Pupils
Universities (1897-98) ^ .
11
1,589
19,134
Gymnasia andProgymnasia (1896-97)*
325
5,537
93,052
Realgymnasia, Realprogymnasia, and
Higher Realschulen (1896-97)* .
173
2,584
47,826
Realschulen (1896-97)* .
78
1,128
24,182
PubUc elementary schools (1896)
36,138
82,182
5,236,826
Private ,, ,, ,,
404
17,876
Middle schools (public) , ,
604
5,645
143,097
„ (private)
1,099
82,400
Public normal schools (1897) .
126
929
11,782
2 Winter half year.
The number of elementary schools in Prussia m 1822 was 20,440 ; in 1843,
23,646 ; in 1864, 25,056 ; in 1878, 32,613 ; in 1891, 34,742 ; and in 1896,
36,138.
There are also 3 technical high schools, 2 forestry schools, 2 technical
mining schools, 2 agricultural high schools, agricultural institutes connected
with universities, 2 veterinary high schools, 264 other schools for various
aspects of agriculture, besides other special schools and State establishments
for art and music.
The Universities, all the high schools, some of the Gymnasia, Real-
gymnasia, and similar schools, as also all the normal schools, are maintained
and administered by the Government, while all the other scholastic institutions
are supported by the community, under control of the Government. (For
number of professors, teachers, and students at each of the Universities of
Prussia, see under German Empire. )
The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia are under the
control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs, but
there is a local supervision for every province. The administration of each of
these, as far as regards the licgicrungs-Bezirke, is vested in a President, who
is the head of the Civil Government [Recjierung) ; while the management ot
the higher (secondary) schools and the normal schools belongs to the Provincial
Schul-Collegium, under the supervision of the Oberprasident, who is the head
1 The system of secondary education coninioji to Prussia and tlie rest of Germany is
(^escribed on p. 537.
JUSTICE, CRIME, AND PAUPERISM — FINANCE
663
of the Civil Government of the province. The Consistorium, which has no
jurisdiction in the school administration, and the Provincial Schul-Collcgium
are separate provincial authorities, not sections of the same authority. As a
general rule, the administration of school funds provided by the State is iinder
the control of the Civil Government, which likewise takes upon itself nearly
the whole management of the lower and elementary schools, while the Schul-
Collegium is responsible for the higher schools and the normal schools, for
the general system of instruction and discipline therein, the proper selection
of school books, the examination and appointment of masters, and the
examination of those who leave school for the Universities.
According to the Constitution of 1850, all persons are at liberty to teach, or
to form establishments for instruction, provided they can prove to the
authorities their moral, scientific, and technical qualifications. But private
as well as public establishments for education are placed under the super-
intendence of the jMinister of Public Instruction, while all public teachers are
considered, directly or indii'ectly, State servants.
In the budget of 1896-97 the sum of 83,321,2.51 marks was set down for
direct expenditure on public instruction ; 4,164,615 marks for expenditure
on science and art ; 11,293,080 marks on technical instruction.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Prussia contains 15 Oberlandesgerichte (see German Empire, p. 540). The
Oberlandesgericht at Berlin is called the Kammergericht, and serves as an
ultimate appeal court for summary convictions ; though for all cases the court
of final instance is the Reichsgericht at Leipzig. The prosecution in all
criminal cases is conducted by Staatsanivdlte, or public prosecutors, paid
by the State. In 1896 there were 284,356 criminal convictions in Prussia,
or 128-2 for every 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve. The fol-
lowing table shows for the different provinces in 1895, the number of
convictions and the proportion per 10,000 inhabitants 12 years of age and
upwards : —
Provinces
Criminals
Provinces
Criminals
Persons
Per
Persons
Per
Con-
10,000
Con-
10,000
victed
Inhab.
victed
8,557
Inhab.
East Prussia .
23,174
169-9
Schleswig-Holstein
95-0
"West Prussia
18,832
189-7
Hanover
17,166
100-6
Berlin (City).
22,020
171-2
Westphalia .
18,685
102-7
Brandenburg.
24,880
124-4
Hesse-Nassau
12,083
96-0
Pomerania
14,282 130-5
Rhineland
34,840
98-4
Posen .
19,715 162-5
Hohenzollern
342
70-6
Silesia .
46,715 : 151-5
Saxony
23,064 ! 123-5
Total .
284,356
128-2
Finance.
The following table gives the revenue and expenditure during
each of the six years ending March 31 from 1893 to 1898,
664«
GERMAN EMPIRE :■ — PRUSSIA
1893, 1894, and 1895 being the final accounts, 1896 and 189 7
being revenue accounts, and 1898 the budget estimates : —
Year
Eevenue
Expenditure Tear
Revenue
Expenditure
1893
1894
1895
Marks
2,078,410,407
2,100,551,611
2,240,701,876
1
Marks ii
1.993,640,926 i| 1896
2,004,338,161 1 1897
2,126,934,337 : 1898
1
Marks
1,971,700,886
2,067,483,780
2,046,031,385
Marks
1,962,144,201
2,066,-4 06,601
2,046,031,385
In the budget estimates for the year ending March 31,
1899, the sources of revenue and expenditure were given as
follows : —
REVENUE. Marks
Ministiy of Agriculture, Do-
mains, and Forests : —
Domains and forests . . . 86,529,004
Various 1,600,000
Total .... 88,129,004
Ministry of Finance : —
Direct taxes .... 170,397,700
Indirect taxes .... 75,114,000
Lottery 82,474.000
Marine Bank . . . 2,344,000
Mint 358,920
Total Ministry of Finance . 330,688,620
Ministry of Commerce & In-
dustry: —
Produce of mines, iron furnaces,
and salt works . . . 134,797,310
Ministry of Public Works : —
Administration of railways . 1,209,717,256
Tota
1 Dotations, &c. .
Administration : —
. 315,088,892
State J
Ministry
of State .
4,465,478
Foreign
Office .
4,600
Ministry
of Finance .
2,126,430
»i
„ Public Works
9,629,000
,, Commerce and In
dustry
2,612,076
>>
,, Justice .
68,018,500
j>
,, the Interior .
13,099,184
,, Agriculture, &c.
4,578,046
,, Public Worship anc
I
Instruction
4,572,688
>)
„ War
tate Administration .
300
Totals
109,106,302
Dotations, and Finance Ad-
ministration : —
Dotations 285,240
General Finance Administration 314,803,652
Total estimated revenue 2,187,527,384
Expenditure. Marks
A. Working Expenses : —
Ministry of Agriculture, Domains,
and Forests . . 44,660,320
,, ,, Finance . . . 121,980,090
,, ,, Commerce & Industry : —
Adnjinistration of mines, &c. . 118,522,731
Ministry of Public Works : —
Administration of railways . 693,897,782
Total working expenditure 979,060,923
B. Charges on Consolidated
Charges on
Fund : —
Addition to ' Krondotation ' of
the King ....
Interest of public debt, inclusive
railway debt ....
Sinking fund of debt.
Annuities, management, &c. .
Chamber of Lords
,, ,, Deputies
Contribution to imperial funds.
Appanages, annuities, indemni-
ties, (fee
Total charges on Consoli-
dated Fund
8,000,000
224,133,416
38,911,332
2,353,071
184,860
1,215,920
277,523,878
72,858,164
625,180,642
C. Administrative Expendi
ture : —
Ministry of State . . . 7,340,169
,, ,, Foreign Affairs . 551,300
,, Finance. . , 91,395,047
,, ,, Public Works . 29,053,432
,, ,, Commerce and In-
dustry . . 8,932,573
,, ,, Justice . . . 103,145,000
,, ,, the Interior . . 60,259,739
,, ,, Agriculture, Domains,
and Forests . 20,877,014
,, ,, Public Worship and
Instruction . 129,958,014
„ War . . . 137,527
Total administrative expen-
diture ....
451,649,815
Total ordinarj' expenditure 2,055,891,380
Extraordinary expenditure 131^636,004
Total expenditure
2,187,527,384
ARMY
665
The total expenditure amounts to 68 '9 marks per head of population. Th
direct taxes amount almost to 5'3 marks per head. Since April 1, 1895, only
the income tax, a new supplementary tax ( Vermogensstener), and the tax " vom
Gewerbebetriebe im Umherziehcn " are direct State-taxes ; the land-tax,
the house-tax, and the trading-tax are received by the communes.
The expenditure for the army and navy is not entered in the budget of
Prussia, but forms part of the budget of the Empire.
The public debt of the Kingdom, inclusive of the provinces annexed in
1866, was, according to the budget of 1898-99, as follows : —
Amount
Sinking Fund
National debt bearing interest :
State Treasure Bills at 3i per cent. .
Consolidated debt at 3-i per cent.
„ ,, 3| per cent.
,, ,, 3 percent.
State railway debt ....
Debt of provinces annexed in 1866 .
Total national debt .
Marks
12,419,700
3,588,190,000
1,914,100,650
834,899,600
130,343,599
5,268,520
Marks
6,171,766
2,868,363
46,537
6,485,222,069
9,086,667
The charges for interest, amortisation, and management of the debt
amounted to 265,397,820 marks in the financial year 1898-99.
The debt amounts to 203 marks per head of population, and the annual
charge to 8 '9 marks per head. In 1890 the total value of incomes was estimated
by Dr. Soetbeer at 10,000 million marks, or 500,000,000^. sterling, and the
average per head at 342 marks, or 17^. 2s.
Army.
The military organisation of the Kingdom, dating from the year 1814, is
based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing arms, shall receive
military instruction and enter the army for a certain number of years. The
conditions of service have been already described under German Empire.
The peace strength of the Prussian contingent of the Imperial army was
given as follows in the budget estimates of 1898-99 : —
.—
Officers,
Surgeons, &c.
Men
Horses
Infantry ......
Riflemen, or ' Jager ' .
Bezirks-Kommandos ....
Cavalry ......
Artillery (field and fortress)
Engineers
Military Train, &c
Total .
11,246
364
650
2,512
3,544
694
2,861
279,617
8,856
4,196
51,554
63,874
15,142
8,623
50,642
23,127
3,489
21,871
431,862
77,258
666
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
Production and Industry.
I, Agriculture.
The number of farms in Pmssia on June 5, 1882, and on June 14, 1895,
was as follows : —
—
Under
1 hectare
1-10 hectares
10-100
hectares
Over
100 hectares
Total
1882
1895
1,456,724
1,649,134
1,178,625
1,236,393
384,408
402,209
20,439
20,390
3,040,196
3,308,126
The total area of the farms in 1882 was 26,581,300 hectares ; in 1895,
28,479,739 hectares.
These farms supported, 1895, a population of 10,948,476, of whom
4,633,055 were actively engaged in agriculture. The areas under the chief
crops and the yield in metric tons per hectare in 1897-8 and the annual
average yield for the period 1889-97 are as follows : —
—
1897-98
Average Yield
1889-97
Hectares
Yield
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Oats .....
Potatoes ....
Hay (meadow)
1,111,854
4,547,889
877,206
2,618,003
2,086,913
3,271,764
1-59
1-13
1-32
1-14
9-68
2-71
1-33
0-96
1-20
1-08
8-05
2-22
The largest wheat-crops are grown in Silesia, Saxony, Rhineland, East
Pmssia and Hanover ; rye is a common crop all over the Kingdom ; barley is
produced in greatest quantities in Silesia and Saxony ; and oats in Silesia,
East Prussia, Hanover, Rhineland, and other northern provinces. Silesia,
Brandenburg, and Posen produce the most potatoes.
In 1896-97 Prussia contained 308 establishments engaged in the manufac-
ture of beet-root sugar, which consumed 10,738,018 metric tons of beet-root in
the production of 1,355,763 metric tons of raw sugar. In 1896-97 there were
5,503 breweries in action in Prussia, which brewed 27,680,273 hectolitres of
beer, or 85 litres per head of the population.
In 1896-97 there were --6,213 distilleries in operation, which produced
2,550,915 hectolitres of alcohol.
II. Minerals.
The mineral riches of Prussia are very considerable. The coal-mines
especially have developed greatly during the last half-century. The coal raised in
Pmssia amounts to over 90 per cent, of the total coal produced in Germany, and
is found mostly in Silesia, Westphalia, and the Rhine Province ; lignite being
mainly worked in Saxony. The output of coal increased from 17,571,581 tons
in 1848 to 84,253,393 tons in 1897, and the output of lignite in the same time
from 8,118,553 tons to 24,222,911 tons.
Considerable quantities of iron are also raised in Prussia, chiefly in the
COMMERCE — REFERENCES
GG7;
—
1896
1897
1
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Coal
Lignite .
Iron ore .
Pig iron .
78,993,655
21,981,201
4,053,109
4,470,551
531,128,418
48,781,565
28,407,328
220,577,560
84,253,393
24,222,911
4,183,536
4,892,059
582,660,597
53,296,979
33,731,064
259,120,324
Prussia yields aboiit one-half (150,616) of the world's annual production;
of zinc ; and copper (25,997 tons) and lead (108,879 tons) are also found.
The total value of the mining products in 1897 was 738,917,554 marks,,
and of the smelting products 409,623,517 marks.
Commerce.
The trade of Prussia forms an important part of the general trade of the-
German customs district (Zollverein), which now includes the whole of the
Empire, with exception of few districts in Baden and of small parts of the
ports of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven, and Geestemiinde. This,
is carried on through the various ports of the Baltic and North Seas,,
through many navigable rivers and canals, and an extensive network of roads,
railways, telegraphs and telephones. There are 84 chambers and corporations-
of commerce in the large towns of the Kingdom. The most important
commercial towns are Berlin, Konigsberg, Danzig, Stettin, Posen, Brcslau,
^Magdeburg, Altona, Hanover, Frankfort-on-j\Iain, Cologne, Elberfeld, and:
Barmen. There are no separate statistics for the trade of Prussia; it is-
included in that of Germany,
Internal Communications.
The railway system of Prussia is extensive and complete. On April 15,
1898, the length of the system open for traffic was as follows : Owned or ad-
ministered by the State, 12,442 miles ; owned and administered by private
companies, 416 miles ; total, 12,858 miles. There were, besides, 105 miles
of narrow gauge railway belonging to the State, and 161 miles belonging
to private persons.
The whole of the railways of Prussia will in time become national property.
As will be seen from the budget statement, a very large revenue is derived by
the State from the railways.
References concerning Prussia.
Centralblatt fiir die gesammte Unterrichts-Verwaltnng in Preussen. Herausgegeben in
dem Ministerium der geistlichen, Unterrichts und Medicinal-Angelegenheiten. Ergjinzungs-
heft : Stati.stische Mittlieiluiigcn liber das hohere Unterrichtswesenim Konigreich Preussen.
14 Heft. 1897. Berlin, 8'.
Die endgiiltigen Ergebnisse der Volkszahlung vom 1. Dezember 1890 im Konigreiche
Preussen. Berlin, 1893.
Handbuch iiber den Kiinigl. Pi'eussischen Hof und Staat fiir das Jahr 1897. 8. Berlin,
1898.
Preussische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Konigl. Statist. Bureau. Folio. Berlin, 1895.
Statistisches Handbuch fiir den Preussischen Staat. Berlin, 1893.
Zeitschrift des Konigl. Preussischen Statistischcn Bureaus. 4. Berlin, 1897.
Zeitschrift fiir das Berg-, Hiitten-und Salinenwesen in jireussischen Staate.
Droysen (J. G.), Geschichte des preussischen Politik. 5 vols. Leipzig.
Goltz (Th. L. von der), Die liindliche Arbeiter und der preussische Staat. 8. Jena,
1S93.
Hue de Grata, Handbuch der Verfassnng und Verwaltung in Preussen und den deutschen
Reiche. 5 ed. Berlin, 1886.
Jan«c7i (K.) and Samwer (K.), Schleswig-Holsteins Befreiung, Wiesbaden, 1897.
Pollard (J.), A Study of Municipal Government. The Corporation of Berlin. 2 ed.
Loudon, 1S94.
668
GERMAN EMPIRE : — REUSS BRANCHES
REUSS, Elder Branch.
(FiJRSTENTHUM ReUSS — AeLTERE LiNIE.)
Reigning Prince.
Heinrich XXII., born March 28, 1846 ; the son of Prince Heinrich XX.
and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-Homburg ; succeeded his father Nov. 8,
1859 ; married, Oct. 8, 1872, to Princess Ida of Schaumburg-Lippe, born July
28, 1852; died September 28, 1891.— Offspring :— I. Heinrich XXIV., born
March 20, 1878. II. Emma, born Jan. 17, 1881. III. Maria, born March
26, 1882. IV. Caroline, born July 13, 1884. V. Hcrminc, born Dec. 17, 1887.
VL Ida, born Sept. 4, 1891.
The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the old prefects of
Weida, who were imperial functionaries and afterwards free lords. All the
heads of the house, ever since the commencement of the eleventh century,
have been called Heinrich. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family
council, that the figures should not run higher than a hundred, beginning
afterwards again at one. The present sovereign of Reuss-Greiz has no civil
list, but a great part of the tenitory over which he reigns is his private property.
Constitution and Finance.
The Constitution, bearing date March 28, 1867, provides for a legislative
body of 12 members, 3 nominated by the sovereign, 2 by the nobility, 3
elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts. The public revenue, and expen-
diture for 1899 were estimated at 1,540,883 marks. There is a public debt
of 31,050 marks.
Area and Population.
The area of the Principality is 122 English square miles, and the popula-
tion in 1895 was 67,468 (32,836 males and 34,632 females). Population per
square mile 552 '8. Of the population in 1890, 62,754 were Protestant, and
936 Catholic. The capital, Greiz, has (1895) 22,296 inhabitants. In 1896
there were 568 marriages, 2,846 births, 1,586 deaths; surplus of births,
1,260. Of the births 97 (3-4 per cent.) were stillborn, and 221 (7-8 per cent.)
illegitimate. Emigrants in 1894, 27 ; 1895, 55 ; 1896, 19 ; 1897, 29. In
1896 there were 379 criminals convicted, or 82*0 per 10,000 of population
over the age of 12.
Agriculture.
On June 14, 1895, there were in the Principality 5,225 farms, as follows :
under 1 hectare, 3,159; 1-10 hectares, 1,393; 10-100 hectares, 669; over
100 hectares, 4. Their total area was 29,767 hectares. In 1896 the culti-.
vated area and produce were as follows : —
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Rye
Wheat
Barley
3,662
308
1,503
4,732
426
2,398
Potatoes . . .
Oats
Hay
2,104
2,598
5,304
13,291
4,276
15,544
There are 2
2 miles of ra
ilway.
REUSS, Younger Branch.
(FiJRSTENTHUM ReUSS — JiJNGERE LiNIE. )
Reigning Prince.
Heinrich XIV., born May 28, 1832; the son of Prince Heinrich LXVII.
and of Princess Adelaide ; succeeded his father July 14, 1867 ; married
(1) Feb, 6, 1858, to Princess Agnes of Wiirtteniberg, who died July 10, 1886
CONSTITUTION AND FINANCE — AGRICULTURE
669
(2) Morganaticall}', to Frecleiika von Saalburg. Offspring of first
marriage : — I. Prince Hcinrich XXVII. , born November 10, 1858 ; married
November 11, 1884, to Princess Elise, born September 4, 1864, daughter of
Prince Hermann of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ; four chiklren. II. Princess
Elisabeth, born October 27, 1859 ; married November 17, 1887, to Prince
Hermann of Sohus-Braunfels.
The reigning house forms a younger branch of the Reuss family. As in
Reuss-Greiz, a great part of the territory of the Principality is the private
property of the reigning famOy.
All the princes are called Hcinrich, and to distinguish them they have
numbers attached to their names, beginning and ending in each century.
Number I. is given to the first prince of the branch born in the centuiy,
and the numbers follow in the order of birth until the century is finished,
when they begin again with number I.
Constitution and Finance.
The Principality has a Constitution, proclaimed November 30, 1849, and
modified April 14, 1852, and June 20, 1856. Under it restricted legislative
rights are granted to a Diet of sixteen members, of whom three are elected
by those paying the highest income-tax, and twelve by the inhabitants in
general. The head of the collateral Reuss- Kostritz family is hereditarily
a member. The Prince has the sole executive and part of the legislative
power. In the administration of the State a cabinet of three members acts
under his direction. On November 27, 1892, the hereditary prince (Hcinrich
XXVII.) received authority from the reigning prince to carry on the
government in his name.
The annual estimated public income was given as 2,386,900 marks
for the financial period 1896-98, with an expenditure of 2,379,734 marks.
There is a public debt (1898) of 1,040,550 marks.
Area and Population.
The area of the Principality is 319 English square miles, and the popula-
tion in 1895 was 132,130 (64,042 males and 68,088 females). Population
per square mile 414. Of the total population in 1895 (132,130), 129,382 were
Protestant, 2,090 were Catholic, 477 other Christians, and 181 were Jews.
The capital, Gera, has (1895) 43,544 inhabitants. In 1896 there were 1,181
marriages, 5,613 births, and 3,312 deaths ; surplus of births 2,301. Of the
births 214 (3"8 per cent. ) were stillborn, and 690 (12'3 ])er cent.) illegiti-
mate. Emigi-ants in 1892, 237 ; 1893, 169 ; 1894, 75 ; 1895, 94 ; 1896, >5 ;
1897, 60. In 1896 there were 1,020 criminal convictions, or 110-5 per 10,000
of population over the age of 12.
Agriculture.
In 1895 there were in the Principality 8,558 farms, as follows : — under 1
hectare, 3,657 ; 1-10 hectares, 3,429; 10-100 hectares, 1,443 ; over 100 hectares,
29. Their total area was 75,134 hectares. These farms supported a population
of 23,080, of whom 11,666 were actually engaged in agriculture. In 1897 the
cultivated area and produce were as follows :-
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Rye
Wheat ...
Barley
7,752
1,977
3,340
9,664 '
3,316 ,
4,497 ,
Potatoes ...
Oats
Hay
5,153
6,884
14,070
42,343
8,400
33,628
Railways (1897), 53 miles.
British Consul- General. — Freiherr C
C. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
fi76 GERMAN EMPIRE :—SAXE-ALTENBURG '
SAXE-ALTENBURG.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Altenbukg. )
Reigning Duke.
Ernst, bmm Sejftember 16, 1826 ; the son of Duke Georg of Saxe-Altenburg
and Princess Ma-rie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Succeeded to the throne at
the death of his fiather, August 3, 1853 ; married April 28, 1853, to Princess
Agnes, of Anhalt-Dessau, born June 24, 1824 ; died October 23, 1897.
Brother of the Duke ; Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829 ; married
October 15, 1862, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has
issue three daughters and a son — 1. Maria Anna, born March 14, 1864,
married April 16, 1882, to Prince George of Schaumburg-Lii)pe ; 2, Elizabeth,
born January 25, 1865, married April 27, 1884, to Grand-duke Constantine of
Russia; 3. Ernst, born August 31, 1871, married February 17, 1898, to
Princess Adelheid of Schaumburg-Lippe ; 4. Louise, born August 11, 1873,
married February 6, 1895, to Prince Edward of Anhalt-Dessau.
There was a separate Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg from 1603 till 1672, but
its territories were aftenvards incorporated with Saxe-Gotha until 1826, when
the Duke of Hildburghausen, which had been a separate Duchy since 1680,
exchanged Hildburghausen for Altenburg, and became Duke Frederick of Saxe-
Altenburg. In 1874 the Duke resigned his right to a civil list, in exchange
for a charge upon the State or crown-domains (Domanenfideicommiss).
Constitution and Finance.
The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831, but was altered at subsequent
periods. The legislative authority is vested in a Chamber composed of thirty
representatives, of whom nine are chosen by the highest taxed inhabitants,
nine by the inhabitants of towns, and twelve by those of rural districts.
The deputies are elected for three years. The Chamber meets once at least in
each financial period.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely — 1, of the
Ducal House, Foreign and Home Aftairs ; 2, of Justice ; 3, of Finance. The
budget is voted for three years, the estimates for the period 1896-98,
•exhibiting an annual revenue of 4,057,798 marks, and an expenditure of
4,056,189 marks. Two thirds of the revenue are derived from the State
•domains and the remainder from direct taxes. The public debt in July
1898 amounted to 887,450 marks, while the active funds of the State
^amounted to 5,454,737 marks.
Area and Population.
The area of the Duchy is 511 English square miles, and the population in
1890 was 170,864 (83,010 males and 87,854 females), 890 being foreigners.
■Of the total, 168,549 were Protestant and 2,091 Catholic. On December
:2, 1895, the population was 180,313 (87,746 males and 92,567 females.
Population per square mile 352-8. The capital, Altenburg, had in
1895 33,420 inhabitants. Many of the inhabitants of the Duchy are of
•Slavonic origin. The peasants of the " Ostkreis " (eastern part of the
Duchy) are reputed to be more wealthy than those of any other part of
Germany, and the rule prevails among them of the youngest son becoming
the heir to the landed property of the father. Estates are kept for genera-
tions in the same family, and seldom parcelled out The rural population,
however, has been declining in numbers for the last thirty years. In 1896
there were 1,629 marriages, 7,335 births, 4,340 deaths ; surplus of births 2,995.
Of the births 292 (4-0 per cent.) were stillborn, and 820 (11-2 per cent.)
illegitimate. Emigrants in 1891, 112 ; 1893, 81 ; 1894, 29 ; 1895, 59 ; 1896,
38 ; 1896, 30. In 1896 there were 924 criminals convicted, or 73 '5 in
■every 10,000 of the population over 12 years of age.
SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA
G71
Agriculture.
In 1895 there were 16,180 separate larins in the Duchy, as follows :
under 1 hectare, 8,280; 1-10 hectares, 5,309; 10-100 hectares, 2,547 ; over
100 hectares, 44. Their total area was 111,241 hectares. These farms sup-
ported a population of 46,208, of whom 24,883 were actively engaged in
agriculture. In 1896 the cultivated area and produce were as follows : —
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
25,907
14,832
11,946
t Crop
Hectares
8,567
14,722
11,324
1,000 kilog.
Rye
Wheat ...
Barley
18,018
7,878
7,. 538
Potatoes . . .
Oats
Hay
78,100
23,511
46,755
In 1897 there were in the Duchy, 11,807 horses, 67,282 cattle, 10,754
sheep, and 58,603 swine.
There are 107 miles of railway.
British Co^isul-Gcneral. — Freiherr C. C. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
Reference.
Statistlsche Mittheiluiigeu aus dem Herzogthum Saclisen-Altcnburg, Annual, Altenhurg:
SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha. )
Reigning Duke.
Alfred, born August 6, 1844, son of Prince Albert and Queen Victoria of
Great Britain; succeeded his uncle, Ernest II., August 22, 1893; married
January 23, 1874, to the Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of the Emperor
Alexander II. of Russia. Offspring^: — 1, Marie, born October 29, 1875;
married January 11, 1893, to Crown-Prince Ferdinand of Rumania ; 2,
Victoria, born November 25, 1876; married April 19, 1894, to Ernst Ludwig,
Grand Duke of Hesse; 3, Alexandra, born September 1, 1878; married
April 20, 1896, to Ernst, Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ; 4^
Beatrice, born April 20, 1884.
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
was Duke John Ernst, seventh son of Duke Ernst the Pious, who succeeded
his brother Albrecht, Ernst's second son, in 1699, in the Duchy of Saxe-
Coburg, to which he added Saalfeld. John Ernst's two sons ruled in com-
mon, under the title Dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld ; but their single successor
Ernst Frederick I. (1764-1800) introduced the principle of primogeniture. On
the extinction of the line of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg in 1825, Ernst I. received,
in 1826, Gotha in exchange for Saalfeld, which wasassigned to Saxe-Meiningen,
and assumed the title of Ernst I. of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. The family is
in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated cliiefly by Duke
Ernst I,, to whom the Congress of Vienna made a present of the Princi-
pality of Lichtenberg. This Principality he sold, September 22, 1834,
to the King of Prussia, for a sum of two million thalers, and other advan-
tages. The reigning Duke receives 300,000 marks out of the income of the
Gotha domains, 100,503 marks is paid into the public exchei^uer, while the
rest is divided between the Duke and the State. The Duke further receives
one-half of the excess of revenue over expenditure from the Coburg domains.
Constitution and Finance.
The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law of the two Duchies, pro-
claimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in the Duke in con-
1 Prince Alfred, the only son of the reigning Duke, died February 6, 1899. The Duke
of Connaught is now heir-apparent.
672
GERMAN EMPIRE: — SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA
junction with two separate chambers, one for the Duchy of Coburg and
the other for the Duchy of Gotha. For the common affairs of the two
Duchies the two Chambers meet in common. The Coburg Chamber
consists of eleven, and that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as
many electoral divisions, by the indirect vote of all the electors. Every
man above the age of twenty-five who pays direct taxes has a vote, and
every fully-qualified citizen above thirty may be elected a deputy to the
Landtag or Chamber. Deputies resident in Coburg or Gotha receive six
marks per diem, the others ten marks per diem and travelling expenses.
New elections take place every four years. The two assemblies meet separately,
regularly in the first and last years of their duration, otherwise when
necessary ; the ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the towns of Coburg
and of Gotha.
The doraain budget is voted for the term of four years for Gotha and of four
years for. Coburg, and in the financial State-accounts a distinction is made
between domain-revenue and State-revenue. The annual domain revenue for
Coburg 1897-1901 is estimated at 439,600 marks, and expenditure 255,600
marks ; revenue for Gotha 1893-97, 2,144,226 marks, expenditure 1,182,425
marks. The special State revenue for each year from 1897 to 1S99 for Coburg
is set down at 942,840 marks, and for Gotha at 2,052,570 marks ; while the
common State-revenue of Coburg and Gotha is set down at 2,318,333 marks,
and expenditure 2,994,148 marks. The public debt, in 1897, amounted to
2,778,300 marks for Coburg, and to 146,558 marks for Gotha, both being
largely covered by productive investments.
Area and Population.
The area of the Duchy is 755 English square miles, and the population in
1895 was 216,603 (104,668 males, and 111,935 females), 776 being
foreigners. Population per square mile 279*5. Of the total in 1895
212,514 were Protestant and 2,956 Catholic ; there were also 580 Jews.
The chief towns, Gotha and Coburg, have respectively 31,671 and 18,689
inhabitants (1895). In 1896 there were 1,902 marriages, 7,727 births, 4,381
deaths; surplus of 'births 3,346. Of the births 252 (3 '3 per cent.) were
stillborn, and 898 (11*6 per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants, 1893, 198 ; 1894,
73; 1895, 102; 1896, 66; 1897, 33. In 1896 there were 1,500 criminals
convicted, or 98 "0 per 10,000 of population over 12 years of age.
Agriculture.
In 1895 there were in the Duchy 29,458 separate farms, as follows : under
1 hectare, 15,230 ; 1-10 hectares, 11,100; 10-100 hectares, 3,053 ; over 100
hectares, 75 ; their total area was 154,805 hectares. These farms supported
a population of 60,633, of whom 29,073 were actually engaged in agriculture.
In 1896 the cultivated area and produce were as follows :—
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
1
Crop
1
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Rye
Wheat
Barley
13,147
11,059
12,843
19,440
15,427
21,979
! Potatoes ...
i Oats
Hay
10,775
16,938
19,369
119,648
22,030
73,388
There are 173 miles of railway.
British Minister-Resident. — Sir A. Condic Stephen, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Consnl-General. — Freiherr C. C. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
SAXE-MEININGEN 0 / 6
SAXE MEININGEN.
(Hkuzogthum Saciiskn-Meininuen. )
Reigning Duke.
Georg II., born April 2, 1826 ; the son of Duke Bernhard I. Succeeded,
on the abdication of his father, September 20, 1866. Married, (1) May
18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who died March 30, 1855; (2)
October 23, 1858, to Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, who
died February 10, 1872 ; (3) niorganatically, March 18, 1873, to Ellen Franz,
Baroness von Heldburg. Offi^pring (first marriage) : — I. Prince Bernhard,
born April 1, 1851 ; married February 18, 1878, to Princess Charlotte,
ehlcst daughter of the late German Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm ; offspring
of the union is Feodora, born May 12, 1879 ; married September 24, 1898,
to Prince Henry XXX. of Reuss, Younger Branch. II. Princess Marie
Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853. (Second marriage) III. Prince Ernst,
born September 27, 1859 ; married morganatically Sept. 20, 1892, to
Katharina Jensen, Baroness von Saalfeld. IV. Prince Friedrich, born October
12, 1861 ; married April 25, 1889, to Adelheid, Countess of Lippe Biesterfeld ;
offspring two daughters and two sons, Georg, born October 11, 1892, and
Ernst, born September 23, 1895.
The line of Saxe-]\Ieiningen was founded by Duke Bernhard, third son of
Ernst I. of Saxony, surnamed the Pious, the friend and companion in arms
of King Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. The Duchy was only one-third its present
size up to the year 1826, when, by the extinction of the ancient family of
Saxe-Gotha, the territories of Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the father
of the present Duke. The Duke has a civil list of 394,286 marks paid out of
the produce of the State domains. Besides these he receives the half of the
surplus, which is estimated for the 3 financial years 1897-99 at 410,800
marks.
Constitution and Finance.
The charter of the Duchy bears date August 23, 1829, and is supplemented
by the laws of 1870, 1873 and 1896. It provides for a legislative organization,
consi-sting of one Chamber of twenty-four representatives. Four of these
are elected by those who pay the highest land and property tax, and four by
those who pay income tax on an iiicome of 3,000 marks or more ; sixteen
by all other inhabitants. The Chamber meets as often as necessary, and in
any case for the arrangement of the budget every three years, and new elections
take place eveiy six.
The budget for the 3 financial years 1897-99 states the revenue at
7, 624, 330 marks, and the expenditure at 6, 802, 800 marks. More than one third
of the revenue is drawn from State domains belonging to the ducal family.
The chief items of expenditure are Matrikularbeitrage (or contributions) for
the Empire, the interest of the public debt, and the expenses for the adminis-
tration of the State domains and of the State. The debt in 1898 amounted
to 9,160,847 marks. Most of the debt is covered by productive State capital.
Area and Population.
The area of the Duchy is 953 English square miles, and the population in
1895 was 234,005 (114,424 males and 119,581 females). Population per square
mile 245-5. Of the total 231,969 were Protestants; 3,179 were Catholics;
1,487 were Jews. The capital, Meiningcn, had, in 1895, 12,869 inhabitants.
In 1896 there were 1,987 marriages; 8,538 births; 4,716 deaths; surplus
of births, 3,822. Of the births 305 (3*6 per cent ) were stillborn, and
1,076 (12-6 per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants: 1892, 183; 1893, 6^
X X
G74
GERMAN EMPIRE : — SAXE-WEIMAR
1894, 64 ; 1895, 68 ; 1896, 66 ; 1897, 34. In 1896 there were 1,945 miminals
convicted or 119-9 per 10,000 of population over 12 years of age.
Agriculture.
In 1895 there were in the Duchy 31,907 separate farms, as follows 1 under
1 hectare, 15,370 ; 1-10 hectares, 13,469 ; 10-100 hectares, 3,011 ; over 100
hectares, 57. Their total area was 166,229 hectares. They supported a
population of 67,540, of whom 32,106 were actively engaged in agriculture.
In 1896 the cultivated area and produce were as follows : —
Crop
Hectares 1,000 kilog.
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
%e
Wheat
Barley
18,193
10,275
6,430
19,336
12,858
8,560
Potatoes ...
Oats
Hay
13,413
18,255
27,283
108,262
23,407
106,161
There are 163 miles of railway.
British Consid- General. — Freiherr Chr. K. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig)
Reference.
Statistik des Herzogthums Sachsen Meiningen. Meiningen, 1SS2-1897.
SAXE-WEIMAR.
(Grossherzogthum Sachsen- Weimar.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Carl Alexander, born June 24, 1818; the son of Grand-duke Karl
Friedrich and of Grand-duchess Marie Paulowna, daughter of the late Czar
Paul I. of Russia. Succeeded his father July 8, 1853 ; married October 8,
1842, to Sophie, born April 8, 1824, daughter of the late King Willem II. of
the Netherlands, died March 23, 1897. Offspring :— I. Prince Carl Auaust,
born July 31, 1844 ; married August 26, 1873, to Princess Pauline of Saxe-
Weimar; died November 20, 1894; offsining, (1) AVilhelm Ernest, heir-
apparent, born June 10, 1876, and (2) P>ernhard Heinrich, born April 18, 1878.
II. Princess l/a?'m, born Jainiary 20, 1849 ; married February 6, 1876, to Prince
Heinrich VII., of ReUss-Schleiz-Kostritz. III. Princess Elisabeth, born
February 28, 1854 ; married Nov. 6, 1886, to Johann, Duke of Mccklenburg-
Schwerin.
Cousins of the Grand-duke.
I. Prince Eduard, born October 11, 1823, the son of the late Duke Bern-
hard of Saxe- Weimar ; major-general in the British army ; married Nov. 27,
1851, to Lady Augusta Catherine, born Jan. 14, 1827, daughter of the fifth
Duke of Richmond.
II. Prince Herrmann, born August 4, 1825, brother of the preceding;
married June 17, 1851, to Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826, youngest
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of AViirttemberg, of which union there are
oft'spring five children.
The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine or
elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-Meiningen,
Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; while the younger, or Albertiue
line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony. In the event of the Albertine
line bcconung extinct, the Grand-duke of Weimar would ascend the Saxon
throiic. Saxe-Wcimar was formed into an imU^pendcnt Principality in 1640.
CONSTITUTION AND REVENUE — POPULATION
675
After a temporary subdivision the Principality was finally, on the death of
the last duke of Eisenach in 1741, united into a conipa(;t whole under Ernest
Augustus (1728-1748), who introduced the piinciple of primogeniture. At
the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of territory, together with
the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to Duke Karl August, known as a
patron of German literature.
The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of which he obtained in
dowry with his consort. Princess Sophie of the Netherlands. He has also a
civil list of 960,000 marks, or 48,000^.
Constitution and Finance.
The Constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816 ; but
slightly altered by the law of October 15, 1850. It was the first liberal
Constitution granted in Germany. According to this charter the legislative
power is vested in a Hoiise of Parliament of one Chamber. It is comi)osed of
33 members, of whom five are chosen by landowners having a yearly income
of from 3,000 marks upwards ; five by other persons of the same income ;
and twenty-three by the other inhabitants. The first-mentioned ten deputies
are elected directly, the remaining twenty-three indirectly. All citizens over
twenty-one years of age have the franchise. The Chamber meets every three
years. The executive, acting under the orders of the Grand-duke, but re-
sponsible to the representatives of the country, is divided into three
dejiartments.
The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period of three years. That
from 1899 to 1901 comprises an annual income and an annual expenditm-e of
10,461,076 marks. The State forests yield a large income, while there is a
graduated tax on all incomes, the estimates for which are based on a total
income for the population of 93,567,670 marks. The public debt amounted to
1,955,465 marks on January 1, 1898. The debt is more than covered by the
productive capital of the State.
Area and Population.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,388 English square miles, and consists
of the three detached districts of Weimar, Eisenach, and Neustadt, to which
belong also 24 smaller exclaves. The population was 292,933 in 1875 ;
326,091 on December 1, 1890. On Dec. 2, 1895, it was 339,217. During the
years from 1885 to 1890 the increase was at the rate of 0*77 per cent, per
annum. Of the population in 1895, 164,631 were males and 174,586
females ; i.e. 106*0 females per 100 males. Foreigners numbered 1,572.
Marriages, 1896, 2,797 ; births, 11,555 ; deaths, 6,708 ; surplus of births,
4,847. Among the births, 397 (3'4 per cent.) were stillborn, and 1,197
(10 '4 per cent.) illegitimate.
In 1895, 397 percent, of the population lived in towns with 2,000 inhabi-
tants and upwards, and 60*3 per cent, in rural communes. The town of Weimar,
capital and largest town of the Grand-duchy, had 26,670 inhabitants at
the census of December 2, 1895. The number of emigrants in eight years was
as follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893 1894
1895
1896
1897
98
97
173
104 122
137
120
125
X X 2
676
GERMAN EMPIRE : — SAXONY
Religion, Instruction, Justice, and Crime.
In 1895 Saxe- Weimar contained 325,315 Protestants (95*9 per cent.),
12,112 Catholics (3 '6 per cent), 455 other Christians, 1,290 Jews, and 45 others.
The University at Jena (see Germany, p. 539) is common to the four Saxon
Duchies. The public schools in the Grand-duchy at the close of 1894-95
were as follows : —
Schools
No.
Teachets
Pupils
Elementary schools
Gymnasia
Realgymnasia
Realschulen (2 private) .
Normal schools
Drawing schools .
Deaf-mute and blind asylum
462
3
2
4
2
2
1
904
50
28
45
34
8
11
54,106
677
528
559
197
595
43
Saxe-Weimar contains two Landgerichte, while the district of Neustadt
is subject to the jurisdiction of the Landgericht at Gera, common to Saxe-
Weimar and the Reuss Principalities. The Oberlandesgericht at Jena is a
common court of appeal for the four Saxon Duchies, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
the two Reuss Principalities, and parts of Prussia. In 1894, 2,285 persons,
i.e. 94 '8 per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of 12, were convicted of crime
in Saxe-Weimar. In 1885, 4,198 persons, with 2,601 dependents, received
public poor relief, i.e. 21*66 per 1,000 inhabitants.
Production.
The number of separate agricultural tenements on June 14, 1895, was as
follows : —
Under 1 Hect.
16,575
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
19,419
6,073
Over 100 Hect.
160
Total
42,227
Their total area was 289,568 hectares. These farms supported a
population of 123,011, of whom 56,693 were actively engaged in agriculture.
The chief crops in 1897 were as follows : —
Crops
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Hectares 1,000 Kilog.
Crops
224,467
343,085
265,967
33,154
36,453
41,110
Oats .
Potatoes
Hay.
Hectares
334,318
224,896
315,841
1,000 Kilog.
39,687
215,503
111,134
There were 193 miles of railway in 1895.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Rt. Hon. Sir F. C. Lascelles, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
GooistU' General. — Freiherr C. C. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
SAXONY.
(KONIGREICH SaCHSEN.)
Reigning King.
Albert, born April 23, 1828 ; eldest son of King Johann and of Queen
Amalie, daughter of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. Succeeded to the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 677
throne, at the death of his father, October 29, 1873. Man*ied June 18, 1853,
to Queen Karoline, born August 5, 1833, daughter of Prince Gustav of Vasa.
Sister and Brother of the King.
I. Princess Elisabeth, born February 4, 1830 ; married April 22, 1850, to
Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia ; widow February 10, 1855,
II. Prince Georg, Duke of Saxony, born August 8, 1832 ; married May
11, 1859, to Infanta Maria Anna, born July 21, 1843 (died Febniary 5, 1884),
daughter of King Ferdinand of Portugal. Offspring of the union are six
children : — 1, Princess Mathilde, born March 19, 1863. 2. Prince Friedrich
August, born May 25, 1865 ; married November 21, 1891, to Princess Luise
of Tuscany, born September 2, 1870. Offspring : Prince Georg, born January
15,-1893 ; Prince Friedrich Christian, born December 31, 1893 ; Prince Ernst
Heinrich, born December 9, 1896. 3. Princess Maria Josefe, born May 31,
1867 ; married October 2, 1886, to Archduke Otto of Austria. 4. Prince
Johann Georg, born July 10, 1869 ; married April 5, 1894, to Duchess
Maria Isabella of Wiirttemberg. 5. Prince I^Iax, born November 17, 1870 ;
became a priest July 26, 1896. 6. Prince Albert, born February 25, 1875.
The royal house of Saxony counts amongst the oldest reigning families in
Europe. Heinrich of Eilenburg, of the family of Wettin, was Margrave of
Meissen 1089-1103 ; he was succeeded by his uncle, Thiemo (1103-1123), and
Konrad the Great (1123-1156), well known in Saxon history. The house
subsequently spread into numerous branches, the elder of which, called the
Ernestine line, is represented by the ducal families of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and Saxe-Meiningen, and the grand-ducal family of Saxe-
Weimar ; while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers of the
Kingdom of Saxony. In 1806 the Elector Friedrich August III. (1763-1827),
on entering the Confederation of the Rhine, assumed the title of King of
Saxony, which was confirmed in 1815. The predecessors of the present King
were Friedrich August I. (1806-1827), Anton (1827-1836), Friedrich August
II. (1836-1854), Johann (1854-1873).
King Albert has a civil list of 3,142,300 marks per annum. Exclusive
of this sum are the appanages, or dotations of the princes and princesses,
amounting annually to (1898-99) 650,039 marks. The formerly royal domains
consisting chiefly of extensive forests, became, in 1830, the property of the
State.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Saxony dates from September 4, 1831 ; but
has undergone numerous alterations, the last being that of March 28, 1896. The
crown is hereditary in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in
the female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth year,
and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes the regency.
The legislature is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter consist-
ing of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber com])rises the princes of the
blood royal who are of age ; one deputy of the (Lutheran) archbishopric of
Meissen, the proprietor (or one deputy) of the ' Hen'schaft ' of Wildenfels,
one of the proprietors of mediatised domains, now held by five owners, one
deputy of the University of Leipzig, the two proprietors of ' Standesherr-
schaftcn,' the Lutheran * Oberhofprediger ' at Dresden, the Dean of the Roman
Catholic Chapter of St. Peter at Bautzen in his character ns ' Apostolic Vicar '
at Dresden, the superintendent at Leipzig, one deputy of the collegiate insti-
tution of Wurzon, one of the proi)rietors of four estates in fee ; twelve deputies
gleeted by the owners of other nobiliar estates for life ; ten noble proprietors
078
GERMAN KMPlllK :— SAXONY
and five other members without restriction nominated by the King for life ;
and the burgomasters of eight towns. The Lower Chamber is made up of
thirty-seven deputies of towns and forty-five representatives of rural communes.
The qualification for a seat in the Upper House is the possession of a landed
estate worth at least 4,000 marks a year, and the qualification for the right of
electing to the same, is the possession of a landed estate worth at least 3,000
marks a year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the ex-ojieio
deputies of chapters and of the university. Members of the Lower House
must be Saxon citizens over thirty, and pay at least 30 marks in direct State
taxes; and electors of the ' Wahlmanner,' i.e., direct electors, are all men
above twenty-five years of age who pay any direct contribution. The in-
direct electors are divided into three classes ; the first consists of all electors
who pay at least 300 marks, the second of those who pay at least 38 marks
annual land tax, and the third of all the other electors. The members of
both Houses, with the exception of the hereditary and certain of the ex-
officio members, are each allowed 12 marks per day during the sittings of Par-
liament, and an allowance for travelling expenses. Both Houses may propose
new laws ; no taxes can be imposed, levied, or altered without the sane-
tion of both.
The executive is in the King and in the Ministry of State {Gesammt'
Minister iu7n), and in the separate Ministries of Justice, of Finance, of the
Interior, of War, of Foreign AflTairs, and of Education and Ecclesiastical
Afiairs.
Area and Population.
Saxony has an area of 14,992*94 square kilometres, 5,787 English square
miles. The following table shows the area and population of the whole and
of each of the four ' Kreishauptmannschaften,' or chief governmental divi-
sions : —
Kreishauptmannschaften
Area, Eng-
lish Sq.
Miles
Population.
Population
I'er Sq.
Mile
1895
Dec. 1890
Dec. 1895
Dresden
Leipzig ....
Bautzen,
Zwickau
Total ,
1,674
1,378
953
1,782
950,530
871,132
370,739
1,310,283
1,067,757
945,179
385,010
1,389,672
637-8
085 -9
404-1
779-8
5,787
3,502,684
3,787,688
654-5
In 1815, when the Kingdom received its present limits, the population was
1,178,802. The growth of the population since 1834 is shown in the follow-
ins table : —
Density
Annual
Density
Annual
Year
Pqpulation
per Sq.
Increase
Year
Population
per Sq.
Increase
1,595,668
Mile
per Cent.
1875
Mile
per Cent.
\SU
272
__
2,760,586
471
1-99
1846
1,836,433
313
1-3
1880
2,972,805
507
1-54
1855
2,039,176
348
1-2 :
1885
3,182,003
543
1-41
1864
2,337,192
399
1-6
1890
3,502,684
605-3
2-00
1871
2,556,244
436
1-3 i
1895
3,787,688
654-5
1-63
IIELIGIO^
070
Of the total iiopulntioii in 1895, 1,850,142 or 48'8 per cent., live ii^
towns and the ivniainiU'r, 51 '2 per cent., in rural communes.
The population in 1895 included 1,838,422 males, and 1,949,266 females,
i.e. 106 "0 females per 100 males. The conjugal condition of the population
was as follows in 1895 : —
—
Males
Females
Totfil
Children ....
Adults —
Unmarried
Married ....
Widowed
Divorced or separated ,
649,436
449,539
690,562
45,777
3,108
662,929
427,780
692,248
159,491
6,818
1,312,365
877,319
1,382,810
205,268
9,926
The division of the population according to occupation is shown under the
German Empire, Besides the German population, Saxony contains (1885)
19,916 Wends, most of them in the district of Bautzen. In 1895 there were
(besides other Germans) 82,357 foreigners.
The movement of the population is shown in the following table : —
Surplus
Year
MaiTJagos
Total Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
of
Births
1892
31,000
147,599
5,071
18,271
94,875
47,653
1893
31,388
151,293
5,135
18,879
97,883
48,275
1894
32,382
145,661
5,080
18,988
87,079
58,582
1895
33,693
151,473
5,313
19,001
90,656
55,524
1896
i
35,142
157,593
5,376
20,525
85,677
66,540
The emigration from Saxony, embarking at German and Dutch ports, was
as follows : —
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,577
4,126
4,920
3,908
2,018
1,914
1,303
950
The population of the principal towns, according to the results of the
census, December 2, 1895, is : —
Leipzig
399,963
Zittau .
. 28,132
Dresden
336,440
Glauchau .
. 24,914
Chemnitz .
161,017
Reichenbach .
. 24,415
Plauen
55,191
Bautzen .
. 23,678
Zwickau
50,391
.Crimmitschau .
. 23,553
Freiberg
29,287
iMeerane .
. 23,074
Religion.
Although the royal family is of the Roman Catholic confession, the vast
majority of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants. The distribution of
the diflerent creeds was as' follows in 1895 : — Lutherans, 3,611,670, or 95*35
per cent.; Roman Catholics, 140,285, or 3'70 per cent.; Reformists, 10,538 ;
6cS0 GERMAN empire: — SAXONY
other Christians, 15.059; Jews, 9,902; unclassified, 234. The heads of the
Lutheran Church are the ministers ' in evangelicis. ' The chief governing
body is the ' Landes-Consistorium ' or National Consistory at Dresden ; and
it also has a representative Synod (Synocle) with 33 clerical and 40 lay
members (1897). . Ecclesiastically the Kingdom was divided into 1,005
Lutheran parishes and 37 Roman-Catholic parishes in 1897.
Instruction.
The Kingdom is divided into 28 school-inspection districts. On December
1, 1894, there were in Saxony 2,213 public Protestant and 41 Roman Catholic
common schools (Yoiksscimien), 64 private and chapter schools, and 1,970
advanced common schools (Fortbildungsschulen), or altogether 4,288 common
schools, with a total attendance of 702,665. In addition there were 1
polytechnic at Dresden (in 1898, 806 students), 1 mining school at Freiberg,
1 forestry school at Tharandt, and 1 veterinary school at Dresden ; further,
17 Gymnasia, 10 Realgymnasia, 30 'Realschulen,' 19 seminaries, and 2 higher
girls' schools — altogether 78 educational establishments, with a total attend-
ance of 19,301, exclusive of the University and a large number of industrial,
commercial, agricultural, musical, and art institutes.
The Universit}^ of Leipzig, founded in 1409, and attended in the summer
of 1898 by 3,174 students, is one of the largest in Germany.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Saxony has one ' Oberlandesgericht, ' at Dresden, 7 ' Landgerichte', and 106
* Amtsgerichte, ' (See German Empire, p. 532.) The ' Reichsgericht ' has its
seat at Leipzig. In 1896, 24,121 persons (or 90 '9 per 10,000 of the population
over 12 years of age) were convicted of crime. In 1891, 10,075, in 1892,
12,174 persons were punished as beggars or vagrants.
In 1890, 49,977 persons or 1*43 per cent, received public poor relief.
Recent statistics of pauperism are not available.
Finance.
The financial period extends over a term of two years. In the financial
accounts, both the revenue and expenditure are divided into ' ordinary ' and
' extraordinary,' the latter representing disbursements for public works. The
budget estimate for each of the two years 1898-99 was 82,934,955 marks, and
was balanced by the expenditure ; there was also for the two years 1898-99
an extraordinary revenue and expenditure of 106,495,114 marks. More than
one-half of the total revenue is derived from domains, forests, and State rail-
ways. The net revenue from railways alone amounted in 1897 to 37,540,190
marks. The chief branch of expenditure is that of interest and sinking fund
of the public debt, amounting to 31,575,119 marks for each of the years 1898
and 1899.
The public debt amounted in 1898 to 752,464,950 marks. The debt was
incurred almost entirely for the establishment and purchase of a network of
railways and telegraphs, and the promotion of other works of public utility.
The total capital invested in State railways at the end of 1897, was
866,692,404 marks.
The total income of all classes of the population was estimated in 1897
at 1,902,598,244 marks.
Production and Industry.
Saxony is, in proportion to its size, the busiest industrial State in the
Empire, rivalled only by the leading industrial provinces of Prussia. Textile
manufactures form the leading branch of industrv, but mining and metal-
working are also important. Agriculture supported directly and indirectly
716,448 persons in 1895.
1»R0I)UCTI0N AND INDUSTRY
G81
In 1897, of the total area, 977,467 hectares were under cultivation, viz. : —
795,845 hectares (81-42 per cent.) arable ; 174,751 hectares (17-88 per cent.)
meadow; 6,373 hectares (0-65 per cent.) pasture; 498 hectares (0-05 per
cent.) vineyard; besides 387,729 hectares (1893) under wood, of which
168,804 belonged (1893) to the State. The number of separate farms on
June 5, 1882, ami on June 14, 1895, was as follows : —
—
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
Over 100 Hect.
Total
1882
1895
94,783
96,796
69,171
67,685
28,209
28,392
758
754
192,921
193,627
In 1895 their total area wis 1,344,824 hectares. They supported a
population of 517,642, of whom 271,977 were actively engaged in agriculture.
The areas (in hectares) under the chief crops, and the yield per hectare in
metric tons (of 1,000 kilogrammes) at the undernoted dates were as follows : —
—
Area
Yield in metric tons
1896
1897
1896
1897
Aver. 1888-97
Wheat .
51,088
52,316
2-14
2-00
1-97
Rye
215,591
213,330
1-50
1-36
1-45
Barley ,
31,427
30,584
1-67
1-65
1-58
Oats
188,693
189,070
1-64
1-49
1-56
Potatoes .
123,006
124,020
10-40
10-46
10-80
Hay, &c.
174,554
174,751
3-63
3-84
3-12
On May 1, 1897, the factory hands in Saxony were returned' at 481,074,
of whom 323,727 were males and 157,347 females ; 176,588 were engaged in the
textile industry, 68,104 in the manufacture of machinery and tools, 51,113 in
industries connected with stone and earth, and 31,812 in those connected with
paper and leather. The total number of factories and industrial establish-
ments was 17,354, of which 6,370 had steam power. The following shows the
mining statistics for five years : —
Year
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Coal Mines
Other Mines
Total
No. of
Mines
Hands
Production in
metric tons
Value
inl,000
marks
No. of
Mines
Hands
Pro-
duce
in
1,000
marks
No. of
Mines
Hands
Pro-
duce in
1,000
marks
Coal
Lignite
152
153
145
149
147
1
24,023
24.221
23,988
24,107
24,779
4,212,875
4,274,064
4,123,227
4,435,328
4,536,603
927,860
940,988
918,580
1,018,480
1,035,825
42,457
43,171
40,311
43,577
45,778
101
89
82
70
73
6,880
6.453
6,114
5,811
5,534
5,097
4,370
3,723
3,506
3,252
263
242
227
219
220
30,903
30,674
30,102
29,918
30,313
47,554
47,541
44,034
47,084
49,030
In 1896 the Saxon iron-foundries produced 246,933 metric toivs of llni.shW
iron, representing a value of 41,217,913 marks. In 1896-07, 686 breweries
produced 4,379,001 liectolitres of beer ; and 581 distilleries consumed
124,845,300 kilogrammes of raw material in the manufacture of spirits, and
produced 128,353 hectolitres of pure alcohol.
682 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SCHAUMBURG-LIPPK
Communications.
At the end of 1897 the total length of the Saxon State Railways was
2,050 miles, 170 miles being in neighbouring teiritoiies ; besides, 25 miles of
railways belonged to companies but were worked by the State.
British Minister Resident. — Sir A. Condie Stephen, K.C.M.G., C.B.,
(residing at Coburg).
British Consul-Gcneral. — Freiherr C. C. B. von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
Consul at Dresden. — Henry Palmie.
References concerning Saxony.
Kalender und Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir das Konigreich Sachsen auf das Jalir lS9i).
Dresden, 1898*
Staatshandbuch fur das Konigreich Sachsen. Dresden, 1898.
Zeitschrift des K. Siichsischen Statist. Bureaus. Dresden, 1898.
Hassel (P.), Aus dem Liebeus des Kunigs Albert von Sachsen. Berlin, 1898. [Ip
progress.]
SCHATJMBURG-LIPPE.
(FiJBSTENTHUM SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE.)
Reigning Prince,
Georg, born October 10, 1846, son of Prince Adolph Georg ; succeeded his
father May 8, 1893 ; married, April 16, 1882, to Princess Maria Amia, of Saxo-
Altenburg, born March 14, 1864. — Offspring : — 1. Prince Adolph, born February
23, 1883. 2. Prince Moritz, born March 11, 1884. 3. Prince Wolrad, born
April 19, 1887. 4. Prince Stephan, born June 21, 1891. 5, Prince Heinrich,
born Sept, 25, 1894. Mother of the Reigning Prince : — Princess Herminc,
born Sept. 29, 1827, daughter of the late Prince George Heinrich of
Waldeck. — Brothers and Sister of the Reigning Prince. — 1. Princess Herminc,
born Oct. 5, 1845 ; married, Feb. 16, 1876, to Maximilian, Duke of Wiirtr
temberg, who died July 28, 1888. 2. Prince Hermann, born May 19, 1848.
3. Prince O^^o, born Sept. 13, 1854; married (morg. ) Noveniber 28, 1893,
to Anna von Koppen, created Countess von Hagenburg. 4. Prince Adolph,
born July 20, 1859 ; married, November 19, 1890, to Princess Victoria of
Prussia, daughter of the late Emperor Friedrich. The reigning house of
Lippe is descended from a count of the same name who lived in the sixteenth
century.
Constitution and Finance.
The Principality has a Constitution, dated November 17, 1868, under
which there is a legislative Diet of 15 members, two of whom arc appointed by
the Prince, one nominated by the nobility, one by the clergy, one by certain
functionaries, and the rest elected by the people. To the Prince belongs part
of the legislative and all the executive authority.
For the financial year 1898-99 the revenue was stated at 1,080,489 marks,
and the expenditure the same. There was in 1898 a public debt of 481,500
Uiarks.
Area and Population.
The census of 1875 gave a population of 33,133 ; of 1890, of 39,163, on an
area of 131 English square miles. On Dec. 2, 1895, the population was
41,224 (20,693 males and 20,531 females). Marriages, 1896, 332 ; births,
1,327; deaths, 620; surplus of births, 707. Of the births 22 (17 per
cent.) were stillborn, and 40 (3'0'per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants, 1892, 27 ;
1893, 42 ; 1894, 3 ; 1895, 8 ; 1896, 3 ; 1897, 2. In 1896 there were 198
criminal convictions, or 697 per 10,000 of population over 12 years of age.
Except 607 Catholics and 366 Jews (1890) the inhabitants are Protestaut,
Buckeburg, the residence town, has 5,620 inhabitants (1895).
SCllWAliZBURGl-liUDOLSTADT G83
Ajifricultural enclosures (1895), 7,218, vvitli a })opulatioii of 11,725, of
whom 5,180 were actively engaged on the farms. Of these enclosures 4,186
were less than 1 hectare each ; 2,399 ranged from 1 to less than 10 ; 625 from
10 to less than 100 hectares ; while only 8 had an area of 100 hectares and
upwards. Their total area was 24,016 hectares. In 1896 the area (in hectares)
under rye was 5,247 ; wheat, 1,943 ; barley, 288 ; potatoes, 1,558 ; oats,
2,525; hay, 3,902. The yield (in tons) was: rye, 9,938; wheat, 4,082;
barley, 496; potatoes, 17,285; oats, 4,713; hay, 13,904.
The State has 15 miles of railway.
British Goiisul-Gcncral. — William Ward (Hamburg).
Official Publication.
Schaumlnirg-Lipiii.scho Landcsanzeigeii bezw. Laudesverordimngen.
SCHWARZBTJRG-RTTDOLSTADT.
(FURSTENTHUM SCHWARZCURG-RUDOLSTADT. )
Reigning Prince.
Giinther, born August 21, 1852, succeeded his cousin Prince Georg, Jan. 19,
1890; married Decembar 10, 1891, to Princess Anna Luiso of Schonburg-
Waldenburg.
The Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt line is a younger branch of the house of
Schwarzburg, being descended from Albert VIL, 1605, who died in the middle
of the seventeenth centuiy. The present sovereign has a civil list of 297,012
marks. The State doniains are the property of the reigning family.
Constitution and Finance.
The fundamental law of the Principality is the Constitution of March 21,
1854, modified November 16, 1870. For all legislative measures the Prince
has to obtain the consent of a Chamber of Representatives of sixteen members,
four of whom are elected by the highest assessed inhabitants, and the rest
returned by the general population. The deputies are elected for three years. |
There are triennial budgets. For the period 1897-99 the annual public in-
come and expenditure were settled at 2, 778, 050 marks each. There is a public debt
of 3,884,000 marks, one-fourth of which is covered by productive investments.
Area and Population.
The Principality has an area of 363 English square miles, and, in 1895,
the population was 88,685 (43,035 males, and 45,650 females). Population
per square mile 244 '3. The population is Protestant, there being (1895) only
479 Catholics, and 81 Jews. Rudolstadt, the capital, has (1895) 11,907
inhabitants. In 1897 there were 745'" marriages, 3,226 births, and 1,792
deaths; surplus of births, 1,434. Of the births, 100 (3"0 per cent.) were
stillborn, and 369 (11 '0 per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants in 1892, 239 ;
1893, 88 ; 1894, 38 ; 1895, 42 ; 1896, 31. In 1896 there were 886 convic-
tions for crime, or 145 per 10,000 of population over the age of 12.
Agriculture.
On June 14, 1895, there were in the Principality 13,264 farms, as follows :
under 1 hectare, 7,072 ; 1-10 hectares, 5,186 ; 10-100 hectares, 986 ; over 100
hectares, 20. Their total area was 72,899 hectares. They supported a popu-
lation of 27,195, of whom 11,770 were actually engaged in agriculture. In
1897 the cultivated area and the yield were as follows : —
Rye, 7,428 hectares, yielding 7,940 tons ; wheat, 3,428 hectares, yielding
6,247 tons; barley, 3,168 hectares, yielding, 4,333 tons; oats, 5,192 hec-
tares, yielding 6,233 tons; potatoes, 6,006 hectares, yielding 59,496 tons;
hay, 7,430 hectares, yielding 29,545 tons.
There are (1896) 42 miles of railway.
Britiah Coiisul-Gciicral. — J. L, Schwabach (Berlin).
684 GERMAN EMPIRE : — SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN
SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHATJSEN.
(FiJRSTENTHUM SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. )
Reigning Prince.
Karl Gunther, born August 7, 1830 ; succeeded his father. Prince Giinther
Friedrich Carl II., July 17, 1880 ; married, June 12, 1869, to Princess Marie
of Saxe-Altenburg, born June 28, 1845.
Brother and Sister of the Prince. — I. Prince Leopold, born July 2, 1832.
II. Princess Marie, born June 14, 1837.
The princes of the house of Schwarzburg belong to a very ancient and
wealthy family. The small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the
Congress of Vienna. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
amounts to 500,000 marks, being nearly one fourth of the revenue of the
country.
Constitution and Finance.
The Principality has a Constitution, granted July 8, 1857, under which
restricted legislative rights are given to a Diet composed of fifteen members,
five of whom are appointed by the Prince, live elected by certain highly-
taxed landowners and others, and five elected by the inhabitants in general.
The sole executive and part of the legislative power is in the hands of the
Prince, who exercises his authority through a Government divided into five
departments.
For the year 1898-99 the revenue was estimated to amount to 2,985,755
marks, and the annual expenditure to the same. There is a public debt
(January 1, 1898) of 3,011,701 marks.
Area and Population.
The area of the Principality is 333 English square miles (86,404 hectares),
and the population in 1895 was 78,074 (37,976 males, and 40,098 females).
Population per square mile 234 '46. In 1890 the population was 75,510, of
whom 74,615 were Protestant, 636 Catholic, and 228 Jews. The chief towns,
Sondershausen and Arnstadt, have respectively 7,013 (1895) and 13,595
inhabitants. In 1896 there were 597 marriages, 2,619 births, 1,465 deaths ;
surplus of births, 1,154. Of the births, 84 (3 '2 per cent. ) were stillborn, and
248 (9-5 per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants:; 1893, 52; 1894, 9; 1895,
19 ; 1896, 11 ; 1897, 5. In 1896 there were 626 criminals convicted, or
115*3 per 10,000 of the population over 12 years of age.
Agriculture.
In 1895 there were in the Principality 11,786 separate farms, as follows:
under 1 hectare, 5,616 ; 1-10 hectares, 5,006 ; 10-100 hectares, 1,128; over
100 hectares, 37. Their total area was 63,747 hectares. They supported a
population of 25,064, of whom 11,212 were actually engaged in agriculture.
In 1897 the cultivated area and produce were as follows :
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Crop
Hectares
1,000 kilog.
Rye
Wheat ...
Barley
5,540
5,560
5,641
8,644
11,047
9,578
Potatoes . . .
Oats
Hay
4,628
7,589
3,942
53,436
11,940
14,553
r There are 49 miles of railway.
WALDECK
G85
WALDECK.
(FOrstenthum Waldeck.)
Reigning Prince.
Priedrich, bom January 20, 1865 ; the son of Prince George Victor and
Princess Helena of Nassau ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
May 12, 1893 ; married, August 9, 1895, to Princess Bathildis of Schaum-
burg-Lippe ; offspring: Prince Josias, born May 13, 1896; Prince Max,
born September 13, 1898, Brother and sisters of the reigning prince are : —
I. Princess Pauline, born October 19, 1855 ; married. May 7, 1881, to the
Hereditary Prince Alexis of Bentheim-Bentheim. II. Princess Emma, bom
August 2, 1858 ; married, January 7, 1879, King Willem III. of the Nether-
lands; widow, November 20, 1890. III. Princess Helena, bom February 17,
1861 ; married, April 27, 1882, to Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, son
of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain ; widow March 28, 1884, IV, Princess
Elizahcth, born September 6, 1873. V. 'PxiucQ Wolrad-Friedrich (^Tot]xQV on
the father's side), born June 22, 1892,
After the war between Austria and Prussia, at the end of 1866, a 'Treaty
of Accession' was signed by the Prince on July 18, 1867, by which he sur-
rendered his chief sovereign rights to King Wilhelm I, for ten years, retain-
ing merely nominal power, and renewed November 24, 1877, till January 1,
1888. A Treaty, made March 2, 1887, continued the arrangement for the
future, making it terminable on notice given.
Constitution and Finance.
The charter of the Principality was granted August 17, 1852, It
provided for a legislative assembly of forty-one members, but this number is
now reduced to fifteen, with authority restricted to purely local affairs. In
terms of the ' Treaty of Accession ' all public officials are appointed by the
King of Prussia, and take the oath of fidelity to liim. Prussia also manages
the finances of the Principality.
The estimated revenue and expenditure for three years are : — 1896,
1,414,179 marks ; 1897, 1,401,428 marks ; 1898, 1,401,428 marks.
The debt on July 1, 1898, was 2,004,300 marks.
Area and Population.
The Principality has an area of 433 English square miles.
It is thus divided for administrative purposes into circles: — Waldeck:
Twiste, population, 16,588; Eisenberge, population, 17,686; Eder, popula-
tion, 15,138; Pyrmont : population, 8,354 — total, 57,766 (27,932 males
and 29,834 females) in December, 1895.
Marriages, 1896, 379 ; births, 1,838 (63, or 3 '4 per cent., stillborn,
and 118, or 6 "4 per cent., illegitimate) ; deaths, 1,023 ; surplus, 815. Emi-
grants, 1894, 25; 1895, 30; 1896, 43; 1897, 11, Criminals convicted in
1896, 175, or 44*1 per 10,000 of tlie population over 12 years of age. Except
1,700 Catholics and 696 Jews, the people are Protestants. The residence
town, Arolsen, has (1895) 2,768 inhabitants.
On June 14, 1895, the number of separate agricultural tenements was as
follows : —
Below 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
Over 100 Hect
Total.
4,185
4,249
1,599
34
10,067
086 GERMAN EMPIRE: — WURTTEMBERG
Their total area was 71,195 hectares. They supported 30,299 persohs
of whom 11,937 were actively engaged in agriculture. Railways, 6 miles.
British Ministcr-Uesident—^h- A. C. Stephen, K.C.M.G.j C.B.
Gons%tl-Gencral.—\\ iWidinx Ward (Hamburg).
S>6f6rGIlC6>
Waldeckischer Lamles-Kalender aufdas Jahi-. 1899. Mengeringliansen. 1S9S.
WtJRTTEMBERG.
(KONIGREICH WDRTTEMBKRO.)
Reigning King.
Wilhelm II., King of Wiirttemberg, born February 25, 1848 ; son of thfe
late Prince Friedrich of V/iirttemberg (cousin of the late king Karl I.) and
Princess Katharine of Wiirttemberg (sister of the late king) ; ascended the
throne on the death of Karl I., October 6, 1891. Married (1), February 15,
1877, to Princess il/aWeof Waldeck-Pyrmont, who died April 30, 1882 ; issue
of this union, Princess Paidinc, born December 19, 1877, married October
29, 1898, to Prince Friedrich of Wied. (2), April 8, 1886, Princess Charlotte
of Schaumburg-Lippe.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826; married June 17, 1851, to
Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar ; issue, five children. nj
The former Duchy and Electorate of Wiirttemberg was erected into a
Kingdom by the Peace of Pressburg, 1805, and by a decree of January 1, 1806.
The civil list of the king amounts to 1,999,337 marks, with additional
grants of 137,563 marks, for the other members of the royal family.
Constitution and Government.
Wiirttemberg is a constitutional hereditary Monarchy, the Constitution of
which bears date September 25, 1819. It vests certain powers in the
Landstiinde, or two ' Estates ' of the realm, called together every three years, or
ofteuer if necessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is com-
posed of the princes of the royal family, of the heads of twenty mediatised
houses which were before 1806 endowed with votes in the Imperial Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king hereditarily or for life, which
number, however, must not exceed one-third of that of the two other categories
(there are now eight, two hereditary). The Second Chamber, or House of
Deputies (Abgeordnetcn), consists of thirteen members of the nobility, elected
by the Rittcrschaft (Ecpiestrian Order) of the Kingdom : six dignitaries of the
Evangelical clergy ; three dignitaries of the Catholic clergy • the chancellor of
the University of Tiibingen ; seven deputies of towns V g^^te Stiidte '), and
sixty -three of districts ('Oberiiniter'), elected by all citizens over twenty-five
years of age by secret ballot. All the members of the Second Chamber are
chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; property qualifica-
tion is not necessary. The president of the Upper Chamber is appointed by
the king, the vice-president is elected by the Chamber from among the
hereditary members ; the president and vice-president of the Second Chamber
are both elected by the deputies. The debates of both Chambers are public.
Whenever the Chambers are not sitting they are represented by a committee
of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both Chambers, two members
of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House. A special court of justice, called
the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed guardian of the Constitution. It is com-
AREA AND POPULATION
687
posed of a president and twelve members, six of whom, together with the
president, are nominated by tlic king, wliile the other six are elected by the
combined Chambers. ]\Iembcrs of both Chambers receive an allowance of
ds. 2d. a day during the session and travelling expenses, but to hereditary
members of the Upper Chamber payment is made on ai)plication only.
The executive of the Kingdom is a Ministry of State composed of six
ministerial departments. The heads of the six departments are the Ministers
of Justice ; of Foreign Affairs and the Royal House, to whose province belongs
also the administration of the State railways, posts, and telegraphs ; of the
Interior ; of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; of War ; and of
Finance. There is also a Privy Council, of which the IMinisters are members,
and which the sovereign has a right to consult on all occasions.
For administrative purposes the country is divided into 4 circles (Kreise),
64 districts (Oberiimter), and 1.911 communes (Gemeindeu).
Area and Population.
Wiirttemberg has an area of 7,533 English square miles.
The following table shows the area and population of the whole and of each
of the four * circles ' (Kreise) ; —
Ereise
Area
inSq.
Miles
Population
Population
l^er Sq.
Mile
1895
1890
1895
Neckar ....
Black Forest (Schwarz-
wald).
Jagst ....
Danube (Donau) .
1,285
1,845
1,985
2,418
7,533
665,049
481,334
402,991
487,148
697,373
488,431
398,887
496,460
543-1
265-2
201-2
205-2
276-5
Total .
2,036,522
2,081,151
The increase of population between 1890 and 1895, amounting on the whole
to only 0*44 per cent, per annum, varied greatly in the four circles of the
Kingdom. There was an increase of 32,324 in the Neckar circle, but a
decrease of 4,104 in the Jagst circle. Of the total population in 1895,
844,044, or 40 "6 per cent., lived in communes of 2,000 inhabitants and
ujtwards, and 1,237,107, or 59 "4 per cent., in rural communes. Thei)opula-
tion included 1,007,125 males and 1,074,026 females, or 106-6 females for
every 100 males. The division of the population according to occupation
is shown in the table on p. 534. The number of foreigners wa,s 12,661.
The movement of the population for five years was : —
Year
Marriages
Total
Births
StiUborn
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
13,994
14,878
15,209
15,656
15,972
73,091
71,376
73,559
74,964
73,800
2,359
2,253
2,403
2,454
2,299
7,803
7,727
7,347
7,962
7,129
56,303
52,882
50,902
46,443
49,657
16,788
18,494
22,657
28,521
24,143
688
GERMAN EMPIRE : — WURTTEMBERG
The emigration from Wiirttemberg, chiefly to the United States of America,
was as follows for eight years: —
1890
1891
6,182
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
5,987
5,728
5,401
2,343
2,398
2,121
1,401
The population in 1895 of the largest towns was as follows : —
Stuttgart
158,321
Ludwigsburg
19,311
Ulm
39,304
Gmiind
17,282
Heilbronn
33,461
Gcippingen
16,183
Esslingen
24,031
Tubingen
13,976
Cannstatt
22,590
Ravensburg
12,694
Reutlingen
19,822
Tuttlingen
11,672
Religion.
The various creeds were distributed as follows at the last religious census,
1895 :—
Creed
Numbers
Per Cent, of Population
Evangelicals
Roman Catholics
Other Christians
Jews .....
Others ....
1,440,240
621,474
7,451
11,887
99
69-2
29-9
0-36
0-57
0-004
The administration of the Evangelical Church is in the hands of a con-
sistorium of one president, nine councillors, and six general superintendents,
at Ludwigsburg, Heilbronn, Reutlingen, Tiibingen, Hall, and Ulm. In the
king is vested, according to the Constitution, the supreme direction as well as
the guardianship — ' obersthoheitliche Scliutz und Aufsichtsrecht ' — of the
Evangelical Protestant Church. The Roman Catholics, most numerous in the
southern part of the Kingdom, comprising the circle of the Danube, are under
a bishop, who has his seat at Rottenburg, but who, in all important matters,
has to act in conjunction with a Catholic church-council — Kirchenrath — ap-
pointed by the Government. The Jews likewise are under a special council
(Oberkirchenbehorde), nominated by the king on the proposition of the
Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory in Wiirttemberg, and there must be one public
school or more in every commune. According to recent official returns, there
is not an individual in the kingdom, above the age of ten, unable to read and
write. There are 2,319 elementaiy public schools with (1897) 4,793 teachers,
attendedby 297,568 pupils ; 83 Realschulen with 9,307 pupils; 67 grammar
schools ; 19 classical colleges (gymnasia), of which 4 are training colleges for
the Protestant clergy, and 6 lyceums, having (1897) together 8,386 scliolars.
The whole educational system is completed by the University of Tiibingen
(founded in 1477). There are, besides, the Technical University (Polytech-
nicum) at Stuttgart, and several agricultural and other special institutes.
The funds appropriated by the State to educational puq^oses amounted
in 1895-96 to 6*6 million marks, not including the sums bestowed on public
schools by the parishes or out of the revenue of foundations.
CRIME AND PAUPERISM— FINANCE
689
Crime and Pauperism.
In Wiirttemberg there is one Oberlandesgericlit at Stuttgart (see German
Empire, p. 540). In 1896, 15,627 persons were convicted of crimes, i.e. 104.6
per 10,000 of the population over 12 years of age. In 1892 the number of
convictions was 14,526. In 1892-93, 37,318 persons received public poor
relief amounting to 3,544,563 marks.
Finance.
The estimated revenue and expenditure for two years ending March 31,
1899, are as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
1897-98
1898-99
Marks
Marks
Forests, Farms, Mines, Metal and Salt Works
8,583,582
8,683,582
Commercial Revenues — Railway : net re-
ceipts .......
15,195,000
15,246,000
Post Office, Telegraph, Steamers .
2,295,642
2,645,263
Miscellaneous ......
502,701
409,400
Direct Taxes — on Lands, Buihlings, Trades .
9,770,925
9,840,330
Income Tax
6,616,000
6,706,000
Indirect Taxes — Excise
1,858,000
1,858,000
Dog Tax ......
243,100
243,100
Taxes on "Wine and Beer
9,925,150
9,925,150
Fees and Perquisites ....
2,190,000
2,190,000
Duties on Successions ....
850,000
850,000
' German Empire : — Quotas from Customs, &c.
16,093,440
16,093,440
Total Revenue .....
74,123,540
74,690,265
Branches of Expenditure
1 1897-98
1898-99
Civil List .
Appanages and Dowries ....
National Debt — Interest and Sinking Fund .
Annuities and Compensations
Pensions — Ecclesiastical, Civil, and Military
Others ........
Ministry of Justice
,, Foreign Affairs ....
,, the Interior ....
, , Worship and Education
,, Finance .....
Parliament, Expenses of ... .
Reserve Fund ......
German Empire^-]\Iatricular contribution to
Postage .......
Marks
2,000,901
131,485
20,300,506
303,820
2,971,000
592,576
4,284,186
166,103
8,277,623
11,055,134
3,785,682
427,921
70,000
19,821,876
510,000
74,698,813
Marks
2,000,901
131,485
19,439,841
326,867
3,050,500
602,806
4,284,248
167,003
8,248,083
11,054,465
3,738,772
429,534
70,000
19,821,876
510,000
Total Expenditure ....
73,876,381
The capital of the public debt was estimated to amount to 471,624,200
marks on April 1, 1898, of which the bulk bears interest at 4 per cent.
The debt of the Kingdom is divided into two portions— namely, the general
debt and the railway debt. The latter, forming by far the largest portion of
Y Y
690
GERMAN EMPIRE
-WURTTEMBFRG
the total, amounted to 436,354,739 marks ou April 1, 1898, The total debt
amounts to about 227 marks, or 111. Is. per head of the population, and the
charge (interest and sinking fund) for 1897-98 to 20,300,506 marks, or about
105. per head. The net income of the railways, all expenses deducted, amounts
to (1895-96) 16,076,804 marks, covering 81 per cent, of the interest charge of
the whole public debt, and 89 per cent, of the interest charge of the railway
debt alone.
Army.
The total strength of the Wlirttemberg corps d'armee (the 13th of Ger-
many) had on the peace footing, 1898, 24,156 men, 4,190 horses, and 132
guns. In 1896-97 there were 10,827 recruits.
Industry.
Wlirttemberg is primarily an agricultural State, and 2,9^
5,900 acres, or
64 per cent, of the entire area, are under cultivation, and 1,482,240 acres,
or 31 per cent, under forest. On June 15, 1895, the total number of
agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
Between 1 and
10 Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
106,846
173,422
26,219
156
306,643
Their total area was 1,498,949 hectares. They supported 1,080,032
persons, of whom 429,624 were actively engaged upon them.
The areas under the principal crops (in hectares), and the yield (in metric
tons) per hectare in 1897, and the average annual yield for 1885-97 were as
follows : —
—
1897
Average
Yield,
1885-94
—
1897
Average
Yield,
1885-94
Hectares
Yield
perhect.
Hectares
Yield
perhectv
Wheat
Rye .
Barley
Oats .
Spelt
32,824
39,346
100,201
143,348
170,195
1-02
1-01
1-19
1-22
0-90
1-28
1-15
1-39
1-20
1-05
Potatoes .
Hay . .
Clover, etc.
Hops
93,412
290,506
105,013
5,503
7-04
4-43
4-44
0-61
9-82
3-91
In 1897 vines occupied 16,992 hectares, and yielded 249,851 hectolitres
©f wine.
In 1896-97 were produced 3,794,757 hectolitres of beer. The total value
of the minerals raised in the kingdom in 1896 was 1,020,866 markS)
In 1897 there were in Wlirttemberg 1,014 miles of railway, of which 977
miles belonged to the State, 22 miles to private persons, and 15 miles to
the neighbouring States of Baden. The Government owned also 110 miles of
railway within neighbouring States.
British Minister. — Vi(;tor A. W. Drummond (residing at Munich).
Consul at Stuttgart. — Albert v. Kaulla.
References.
The following publications of the Royal Statistical Landesamt, Stuttgart :' Wiirttem-
bergische .Tahrbiieher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde. Oberanitsbeschreibungen, neue Folge.
VerijfTcntlichungen des K. Statistischen Landesamts iiu Staatsanzoiger fiir Wlirttemberg.
Topographischer Atlas des Konigreichs Wiirttemberg. Hauptflnanzetat des Konigreichs
Wiirtteuibcrg.
Bnedeker'g Southern Germany. 8th ed. Leipzig, 1895.
GREECE OOl
GREECE.
(Kingdom of the Hellenes.)
Reigning King.
Georgios I., born December 24, 1845, the second son (Wil-
helm) of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, present King of Denmark ; elected King of the
Hellenes by the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30),
1863 ; accepted the crown, through his father the King of Den-
mark, acting as his guardian, June 4, 1863 ; declared of age by
decree of the National Assembly, June 27, 1863; landed in
Greece November 2, 1863; married, October 27, 1867, to Queen
Olga, born August 22 (September 3), 1851, the eldest daughter
of Grand-duke Constantine of Russia, brother of the late Emperor
Alexander II.
Children of the King,
I. Prince Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, heir-apparent, born
August 2, 1868; married October 27, 1889, to Princess Sophia,
Princess of Prussia. Offspring: — 1. Prince Georgios, born July
19, 1890. 2. Prince Alexander, born August 1, 1893. 3. Princess
Helen, born May 2, 1896. II. Prince Georgios, born June
24, 1869 ; High Commissioner in Crete, December 1898. III.
Prince Nicolaos, born January 21, 1872. IV. Princess Maria,
born March 3, 1876. V. Prince Andreas, born February 1, 1882.
VI. Prince Christophoros, born August 10, 1888.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863,
a civil list of 1,125,000 drachmai was settled on King Georgios I.,
to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Russia
added 4,000/. each, making the total income of the sovereign
of Greece about 52,000/. per annum. An annuity of 200,000
drachmai is allowed to the heir-apparent since he came of age in
August 1886.
Greece, a province of the Turkish Empire since the commencement of the
16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection of 1821-29, and by
the Protocol of London, of February 3, 1830, was declared a kingdom, under
the protection of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg having declined the crown of Greece, on the gi'ound that the boun-
daries proposed were insufficient, and especially excluded the island of Crete,
it was ottered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of Bavaria, who ascended the
throne January 25, ] 833, being under the age of eighteen. He was expelled
tlie Kingdom, after a reign of 29 years, in'Octoltor, 1802, which event ^yas
followed by the election, uiiih'r the directing guidance of the three protecting
Powers, of the present sovereign.
The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864, attains his
majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before he ascends the throne,
Y Y 2
692 GREECE
he must take the oath to the Constitution in the presence of the ministers, the
sacred synod, the deputies then in the metropolis., and the higher officials of
the realm. Within two months at the most the King must convoke the
Legislature. If the successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the
time of the King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative
Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within ten days after the occur-
rence of that event. The constitutional royal authority in this case has to be
exercised by the ministerial council, until the choice of a Regent, or the
arrival of the successor to the throne. The present sovereign is allowed, by
special exception, to adhere to the religion in which he was educated, the
Protestant Lutheran faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of
the Greek Orthodox Church,
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Greece, adopted October 29, 1864, vests
the whole legislative power in a single chamber; called the
Boule, consisting of 207 representatives, elected by manhood
suffrage for the term of four years. Representatives must be
at least 30 years of age, and electors 21. The elections take
place by ballot, and each candidate must be put in nomination
by the requisition of at least one-thirtieth of the voters of an
electoral district. At the election of 1881 there were 460,163
voters on the list, being 1 voter in every 4*3 of the population ;
the number who voted was 306,957, or 66 per cent, of the
voters. The Boule must meet annually for not less than three,
nor more than six months. No sitting is valid unless at least
one-half of the members of the Assembly are present, and no
bill can pass into law without an absolute majority of members.
Every measure, before being adopted, must be discussed and
voted, article by article, thrice, and on three separate days. But
the Legislative Assembly has no power to alter the Constitution
itself ; particular provisions may be reviewed after the lapse of
ten years, with the exception of ' fundamental principles.' The
Chamber of Deputies, unless specially convoked at an earlier
date, for extraordinary occasions, must meet on November 1
(old style) of every year. The deputies are paid 2,000 old
drachmai (equal to 1,800 new drachmai, or 72^.) each per session ;
for an extra session the allowance varies according to its length
from 20^. to 72/.
The Ministry as constituted November 10, 1898, is as follows :—
President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs.— M. Zaimis.
Minister of Interior, Worship, and Instruction. — M. TriantaphyJakos.
Minister of Marine.— Captain Miaou/is.
Minister of War.— Colonel Karpas.
Minister of Finance. — M. NcgrU.
Minister of Justice.— M. Monfcralos.
The Ministers of Finance and Justice are not members of the Cabinet.
AREA AND POPULATION
(J93
Area and Population.
At the census of 1879 Greece had a popuhition (iiichuling that of Tliessaly
in 1881) of 1,973,768 ; in 1889, 2,187,208 ; in 1896, 2,433,806. In 1896 the
population consisted of 1,266,816 nude.s and 1,166,990 females. The territory
detached from Turkey, consisting of most of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus,
was added to Greece by a treaty with Turkey, executed — under pressure of
the Great Powers— June 14, 1881. The Kingdom is divided into 16
nomarchies. In 1889 and 1896 the area and population were as follows : —
Area :
Pop.
Nomarchies
English
Population
Population
per sq.
(Provinces)
square
miles
1889
18'J6
mile,
1896
Northern Greece : —
Attica and Bceotia
2,472
257,764
313,069
125-1
Phocis and Phthiotis
2,044
136,470
147,297
71-9
Acarnania and jEtolia .
3,013
162,020
170,565
56-6
Peloponnesus : —
Argolis and Corinth
1,442
144,836
157,578
104-4
Achaia and Elis
1,901
210,713
236,251
124-3
Arcadia ....
2,020
148,285
167,092
82-7
Messenia ....
1,221
183,232
205,798
168.5
Laconia ....
1,679
126,888
135,462
86-7
Islands : —
Eubcea and Sporades
2,216
103,442
115,515
52-1
Cyclades ....
923
131,508
134,747
145-9
Corfu
431
114,535
124,578
289-0
Zanthe (Zakynthos)
277
44,070
45,032
162-6
Cephalonia (Kephallonia)
302
80,178
83,363
276-0
Thessaly : —
Arta .....
395
32,890
39,144
99-1
Trikkala ....
2,200
143,143
, 176,-773
80-3
Larissa .....
Total .
2,478
168,034
181,542
73-1
25,014
2,187,208
2,433,806
1
97-3
The increase of the population of Greece from 1870 to 1879 was at the rate
of 1-87, and from 1879 to 1889 1-05 per cent, per annum.
The number of foreigners living in Greece in 1879 was 31,969, of whom
23,133 were Turks, 3,104 Italians, 2,187 English, 534 French, 364 Austrians,
314 Germans, 101 Russians.
The male population in 1889 according to occupation was as follows :—
Agricultural and pastoral, 444,096; artizans, 64,211; traders and their
employes, 117,979; workmen and servants, 31,321; professions, 15,735;
officials, 12,109; clergy, 10,059; defence, 34,624.
From a linguistic point of view, at least, the nationality of Greece is
Hellenic. Most of the Albanians who have, at various dates during the last
400 years, migrated into Greece, have become Hellenised. At present there
11,486
Corfu .
17,918
Zante
. 14,650
42,169
Hermopolis .
17,894
Calamata
. 14,298
37,958
Volo .
16,232
Pyrgos .
. 12,705
21,149
Larissa ,
15,373
Tripolitza
. 10,465
694 GREECE
are not more than 90^000 or 100,000 of distinct Albanian nationality in the
whole of Greece. These are scattered in small communities chiefly over
Attica ; northwards as far as Thebes ; then across the Isthmus of Corinth,
throughout the ancient Argolis, in the southeru districts of Euboea, and a few
of the neighbouring isles. On the other hand, there are large numbers of
Greeks in the Ottoman Empire, raising the whole Greek nationality to over
8,000,000, as under :— Greece, about 2,200,000; Asia Minor, 2,000,000;
Crete, Cyprus, and other Ottoman islands. 400,000; European Turkey,
3,500,000; total 8,100,000.
In 1890 there were 19,899 marriages; 78,226 births; 55,813 deaths;
surplus of births, 22,413. There are no more recent figures.
The principal towns are the following, with populations, 1896 : —
Athens
Pirseus
Patras
Trikkala .
Religion.
The great majority of the inhabitants of the Kingdom are adherents of the
Greek Orthodox Church. Before the census of 1889 there were 1,902,800
belonging to the Greek . Orthodox Church; 14,677 other Christians, mainly
Roman Catholics ; 5,792 Jews ; and 24,165 Mohammedans. By the terms of
the Constitution of 1864, the Greek Orthodox Church is declared the religion
of the State, but com|)lete toleration and liberty of worship is guaranteed to all
other sects. Nominally, the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of
Constantinople, though he now exercises no governing authority ; he is
elected by the votes of the bishops and optimates subject to the Sultan ; his
jurisdiction extends over Thrace and other countries, including Bosnia, as
well as the greater part of Asia Minor. The real ecclesiastical authorit)',
formerly exercised by him in Greece, was anniilled by the resolutions of a
National Synod, held at Nauplia in 1833, which vested the government of the
Orthodox Church, within the limits of the Kingdom, in a permanent
council, calleJ the Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens and
four archbishops and bishops, who must during their yesiv of office reside at
the seat of the executive. The Orthodox Church has nine arclibishoj^s and
eight Ijishops -in Northern Greece; six archbishops and six bishops in the
Peloponnesus ; one archbishop and five bishops in the islands of the Greek
Archipelago ; and five archbishops and ten bishops in the Ionian Islands.
There are 161 monasteries and nunneries, Avith 2,620 monks and 485 nuns.
Instruction.
All children between the ages of five and twelve years must attend school
but the law is not well enforced in country districts. Of the army recruits 30
per cent, are illiterate, and 15 ])er cent, can read only.
There are (1892) 2,745 primary schools, 295 secondary schools ami a uni-
versity. The total number of teachers is 3,680, and of pupils, 139,385, of
whom 22,100 are females. There are 2 agricultural schools in Greece with,
together, 51 pupils. In 1895 an industrial and commercial school, with 40
teachers, was opened at Piraeus to give instruction in the industries relating
to wine, spirits, beer, soaj), perfumes, dairy-keeping, cattle and silkworm
rearing, and in the duties of commercial clerks. In 1895 the University of
Athens had 2,987 students, of whom 967 studied medicine, 1,327 law, 516
philosophy, 51 theology, 124 chemistry. Of the total number 604 Averefrom
abroad, chiefly from Turkey.
FINANCE
()9o
Finance.
Ill iiccoiilaiicc with tlic peace picliiuinaiies Ix'twceu CJictHC and 'J'uikcy,
and the Greek Law of Control of March, 1898, the fhiancial commission of <lele-
gates representing Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy,
and Russia (the mediating powers) established at Atliens, has investigated the
general position of the revenue and expenditure of Greece ; has arranged i'or
the service of the old debt and for the conclusion of the new loan ; and has
organised a system of international control over Greek finance. A review of
the revenue and expenditure for five years, 1892-96, showed that the average
receipts amounted to 91,651,134 drachmai (currency) and the avenige admi-
nistrative expenditure to 61,951,326 drachmai. These averages being taken
as a basis, it was assumed, on the one hand, that owing to the recent war
there would be a diminished revenue until the normal condition should be
restored, and on the other hand, that, while certain branches of expenditure
should be reduced, others, including the reorganisation of the police and of
primary education in acconlance witii existing enactments, would require to be
increased. The following table, compiled from the tables given (April, 1898)
in the Report by Major Law, the British delegate to the commission, presents
a summary of the estimated budgets for six years, showing the ordinary
revenue, the expenditure for administration and for the service of the old
debt, the sum available for service of the new loan, the annual expenditure
for the new loan and international commission ; and the surplus or deficit
( — ) at the end of each year (exchange at 1 '60 drachmai currency = 1 franc,
or 1 drachma = about 6d.) : —
1898
1899
1900
Ordinary revenue . . . .
Expenditure :
Administrative
Loan of 1833 and extornal debt .
Special jiaynients to old creditors
Internal debt and withdrawal of forced
currency
Total expenditure ....
Balance available for new loan .
Receipts from new loan
Total available receipts
Expenditure on new loan, &c. :
Deficit of preceding year
Service of new loan ....
Commission expenses ....
Temporary loan charges
Total . . .
Surplus or deficit at end of year .
Drachmai
85,556,500
Drachmai
89,639,040
Drachmai
92,598,780
65,501,326
15,658,750
6,580,000
5,545,610
64,051,326
15,658,750
1,780,000
5,145,610
63,851,326
15,658,750
1,780,000
7,145,6101
93,285,686
86,635,686
88,435,686
-7,729,186
4,425,000
3,003,954
8,000,000
4,163,094
-3,304,186
11,003,954
4,163,094
8,000,0002
200,000
6,504,186
6,050,0003
250,000
250,000
2,050,232
6,200,0004
250,000
250,000
3,200,000
13,054,186
8,750,232
-6,504,186
-2,050,232
-4,587,138
1 Including, for 1900 and onwards, 2,000,000 drachmai for withdrawal of forced currency.
- Interest on liist issue for half year at 2i per cent.
3 Interest on first and second issues at 2i per cent.
4 Int«^rest and sinking fund together 3'0 per cent.
096
GREECE
1901
1902
1903
Ordinary revenue
Expenditure :
Administrative
Loan of 1833 and external debt .
Special payments to old creditors
Internal debt and withdrawal of forced
currency
Total expenditure ....
Balance available for new loan
I. Keceii^ts from new loaTi
Total available receipts
Expenditure on new loan, A'c. :
Deficit of preceding year
Service of new loan ....
Commission expenses ....
Temporary loan charges
Total
Surplus or deficit at end of year .
Drachma!
95,557,520
Drachmai
98,103,5041
Drachmai
99,750,0561
64,151,326
15,658,750
1,780,000
7,145,6102
88,735,686
64,451,326
15,658,750
500,000
7,145,6102
64,751,326
16,065,000
7,145,6102
87,755,686
87,961,936
6,821,834
10,347,818
11,788,120
6,821,834
10,347,818
11,788,120
4,587,138
6,200,000
250,000
250,000
4,465,304
6,200,000
250,000
250,000
817,486
8,928,0005
250,000
250,000
11,287,138
11,165,304
10,245,486
- 4,465,304
- 817,486
1,542,634
1 Tlie sliare of old creditors in plus-values being deducted (see below).
i2 Including, for 1900 and onwards, 2,000,000 drachmai for withdrawal of forced currency.
3 Interest on first issue for half year at 2^ per cent.
4 Interest on first and second issues at 2^ per cent.
5 Interest and sinking fund together 3'6 per cent.
The revenues shown in the following table are assigned to the Commission
for the payment of the external debt charges (including guaranteed loan of
1833), special payments to old creditors, and the service of the new guaranteed
loan, as shown in the budget table : —
—
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
Monopolies
Stamps
Customs
Tobacco
Total .
Less — Share of Old
Creditors in plus-
values
Less — Expenditure
(say)
Balance available
Dr.
10,250,000
9,000,000
10,700,000
5,470,000
Dr.
10,795,140
9,200,000
10,700,000
5,781,000
Dr.
11,340,280
9,400,000
10,700,000
6,092,000
Dr.
11,885,420
9,600,000
10,700,000
6.403,000
Dr.
12,430,560
9,800,000
10,700,000
6,714,000
Dr.
12,905,700
10,000,000
10,700,000
7,025,000
35,420,000
36,476,140
37,532,280
38,588,420
39,644,560
413,556
40,700,700
516,944
35,420.000
3,000,000
36,476,140
3,000,000
37,532,280
8,000,000
38,588,420
3,000,000
39,231,004
3,000,000
40,183,750
3,000,000
32,420,000 33,476,140
34,532,280
35,588,420
36,231,004
37,183,756
DEFENCE
697
The plus-values anticipated lor 1902 and 1903 are the surplus of the gross
proceeds of the monopolies and tobacco and stamj) dues over 28,900,000
drachmai ; from such surplus 18 per cent, is to l)e deducted for expenses, and
60 per cent, of the remainder is to be a])i)lied to the .service of the old debt.
The expenditure represented by 3,000,000 drachmai will be incurred for
the purchase of matches, i)laying cards, cigarette paper and stamps, to be .sold
uuder the monoj^oly and stamp administration.
Before the issue of the new loan the gold debt of Greece consisted of the
loan of 1833, guaranteed by Great Britain, France, and Russia, nominally
100,932,833 drachmai, with a charge of 900,000 drachmai ; consolidated loans
amounting to 551,716,500 drachmai ; and floating debt amounting to
31,375,093 drachmai ; the amount of the consolidated and floating gold
debt being thus 583,091,593 drachmai. The paper currency debt consisted
of that due to the heirs of KingOtho, 1,800,000 drachmai ; the patriotic loan,
2,345,000 drachmai; consolidated loans, 60,723,795 drachmai; and the
floating debt, 112,345,000 drachmai ; total paper currency debt, 177,213,795
drachmai.
The total amount of the new loan guaranteed by the Powers is 6,800,000Z.
at 2i percent, in two issues of 5,004,900/. and 1,795,100/. The first issue
has been applied to the payment of the war indemnity due to Turkey,
£T4, 000,000, and of indemnities for private dainage estimated in the treaty
of peace at £T100,000, the balance being a])])litd in aid of Greek finance.
The cost of the debt is shown above in the budget table. Arrangements are
proposed for the conversion of the internal debt in accordance with the Law
of Control, so that an outstanding amount of 78,881,295 drachmai will be
converted into new capital amounting to 76,353,575 drachmai.
Municipal taxation is limited to 2^ per cent, on Government direct taxa-
tion, and an octroi of 2 per cent, on articles of consumption calculated on a
Government valuation.
The municipal revenues amount to 17,180,802 drachmai, and the debts to
19,164,264 drachmai.
Defence.
There is universal liability to service on all able-bodied males aged 21
years and upwards. The total service is for 19 years, of which 2 years (with
considerable terms of leave) must be passed with the colours, 8 and 7 years in
the reserve, and the remainder in the militia or Landwehr.
The nominal strength of the army in 1896 was : —
Branches cf the Military Service
Officers
Non-com-
niissioiied
Officers
Total
War Office
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery .......
Engineers .......
General Services ......
Military Schools ......
Gendarmerie
Total
204
857
93
222
101
206
54
143
36
1.5,182
1,509
2,065
1,112
295
168
3,086
240
16,039
1,602
2,287
1,213
501
222
3,229
1,880
23,453
25,333
698
GREECfi
There were at the same time 3,294 horses and mules, and 180 guns.
By the terms of a law passed by the Boule in the session of 1887, the
numerical strength of the army on the peace footing was fixed at 24,076 men,
comprising 16,136 infantry, 4,877 cavalry, and 3,063 artillerymen and engi-
neers. On the war footing, the strength could be mobilised to 82,000 men.
The territorial army numbers about 96,000 men.
The navy consists chiefly of five armour-clad vessels. Of these the oldest
(1867 and 1869) are the Basileus Gcorgios (1,770 tons), carrying two 6 "6
in. Krupp guns on the upper deck, with 10 light and machine guns, speed
12 knots; and a wooden vessel, the Basilissa Olga (2,060 tons), carry-
ing six 6-6 in._ guns, speed 10 knots. The steel-built Hydra (4,885
tons), and her sister- ships the Spetsai and Psard, were built in France in
1889-90, Each is protected by an over-all steel belt of 11*8 in, at the water-
line, above which is another belt 2-9 in, thick. Each carries three 10*6 in. and
four 5 '9 in. Canet guns, besides seven 6 pdr. quick-firers, and 16 other small
and machine guns. The Psara has received new and additional armament
at Toulon. There are 17 torpedo boats over 86 feet in length, 1 torpedo
depot and school, and 2 Nordenfeldt submarine torpedo boats. Of
unprotected vessels there are 2 corvettes (1,300 and 1,800 tons), 2 cruisers
(1,000 tons each), launched 1884-85 ; 12 gun-boats (6 built 1881-84, the
rest old) ; 3 revenue vessels (1884) ; a steel yacht, built in 1868, and an
iron transport, besides miscellaneous craft. During the war with Turkey,
the Greek fleet Avas inactive, useless bombardments only being undertaken.
The personnel of the navy includes about 185 officers and cadets, 247 employes,
587 petty officers, 1,643 sailors, 503 stokers, &c, ; total, 3,165 men. The
navy is manned partly by conscription from the people of the sea-coast and
partly by enlistment. In 1887 the period of service was made two years
instead of one. a
Production and Industry.
Greece is mainly an agricultural country, and the existing manufactures
are few and unimportant.
According to an official report of 1893, the acreage of agricultural produc-
tion is approximately as follows : —
Crop
Acres
Yield
Cereals
Cotton
Tobacco
Vineyards .
Currants
Olives .
Figs, &c.
Various
Fallow.
Forest .
1,111,500
14,800
12,000
336,000
168,000
432,000
52,000
211,400
1,200,000
2,025,400
Bush. 20,250,000
Lbs. 16,000,000
Gall. 66,000,000
Lb.s. 350,000,000
,, 15,000,000
,, 60,000,000
—
5,563,100
—
There are, besides, about 5,000,000 acres of pasture and 3,000,000 acres of
waste land. By the draining of Lake Copais, an area of about 60,000 acres
has been acquired for agricultural purposes. Of this area about 22,800 acres
is now cultivated, while the remainder serves for pasturage.
COMMERCE
699
While there are a few large proprietors in Greece, the land is to a large
extent in the hands of peasant jjroprietors. On the whole, agriculture is in a
backward state, though the soil is of unusual fertility. The average production
of cereals for the whole of Greece is :— wheat, 7,000,000 bushels; l)arley,
3,000,000 bushels; rye, 825,000 bushels; for the old provinces 2,700,000
bushels of maize ; mezlin, 1,380,000 bushels. The most favoured and best
cultivated crop is the currant, which covers vast districts. The yield in
1896 was estimated at 150,000 tons ; in 1897, 146,000 tons. By the Reten-
tion Law of 1895 15 per cent, of the crop is retained Ijy the Government, so
that in 1897 the quantity available for export was about 124,000 tons. The
Retention Law, intended to maintain the price by reducing the quantity of
exports, was originally passed for one year, but has been renewed annually.
The crop of figs (dried) in 1897 reached 10,000 tons; of valonea (the acorn
cup of the Quercus AcgiUops, used in tanning) 9,000 tons. Silk culture is
confined to Messenia, where, in 1897, the cocoon produce was 150,000 kilo-
grammes, besides 8,000 kilogrammes of silk. The wine and olive industries
are important. In 1892 there were in Greece 100,000 horses, 360,000 cattle,
and 2,900,000 sheep. There were in 1896, 29 powder and dynamite mills,
producing annually about 843 tons of powder and 112 tons of dynamite. For
the manufacture of soap (olive) there were in 1896 37 factories employing 480
men and 11 women, and producing 8,240 tons of soap i^er annum.
In the Laurium district the marketable ores produced in 1897 were :
manganese iron ore, 192,789 tons ; hematite, 136,811 tons ; zinc ore, 24,830
tons; silver lead ore, 9,660 tons ; dressed rich galena, 6,912 tons; dressed
blend of lead and zinc ore, 3,084 tons ; lead smokes, 2,508 tons ; besides
409,085 tons of poor lead ore from which 16,074 tons of marketable pig
lead were obtained. There are 26 smelting furnaces at work (1897) in French
and Greek foundries. Other minerals worked in Greece are silicate of mag-
nesia, barytes, sulphur, emery, gypsum. Magnesite ore is worked in Euboea.
Other considerable industries are the manufacture of engines, glass,
leather, thread, cloth, flour, and spirit.
Commerce.
The total value of the special commerce of Greece in 1896 was : — Imports,
116,275,516 drachmai gokl ; exports, 72,477,295 drachmai gold; in 1897,
imports, 114,761,525 ; exports, 80,734,074 drachmai gold. The special
commerce for 1895 and 1896 was as follows with the leading countries : —
Imports from
Imxiorts from
Exports to
Exports to
(1895)
(189(5)
(1805)
(1890)
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drackmai
Russia
28,446,089
24,140,783
5,310,294
7,616,517
United Kingdom
30,773,918
29,447,472
16,833,009
18,196,956
Austria-Hungary
13,886,716
11,842,079
5,957,206
6,941,553
Turkey and Egypt
10,058,345
14,980.776
9,975,117
10,636,576
France
6,791,022
8,523,420
7,974,573
6,504,648
Italy ....
2,448,802
2,905,776
6,840,565
3,968,828
Germany .
8,440,279
10,208,723
5,086,449
3,334,394
Belgium
1,434,568
2,744,815
7,830,674
8,229,232
United States
3,707,216
4,501,670
2,349,758
2,680,488
Holland .
467,093
939,152
3,107,459
3,230,290
Other countries .
1,513,050
6,040,850
1,905,048
i
1,137,813
109,610,203
116,275,516
72,183,221 j
72,477,295
700
GREECE
The following table sliows the principal classes of special imports and
exports and their values in 1897 : —
Imports
Gold
Drachmai
Exports
Gold
Drachinai
"Wheat and mesliu
30,140,636
Silk and cocoons
834,648
Yarn of woven stuffs .
20,371,281
Sponges .
1,038,300
Coal & raAv materials .
12,110,954
Currants .
31,841,759
Fish, caviar, &c.
5,166,870
Figs .
2,064,647
Raw hides
3,667,172
Tobacco .
1,910,515
Wood and timber
2,618,886
Olive oil .
4,748,023
Ores and metals
2,785,720
Olives
888,258
Sugar
3,179,461
Soap .
319,285
Live stock
1,640,540
Tanned hides
288,642
Coffee
2,754.512
Ores .
19,429,248
Rice
2,067,324
Emery
300,675
Colours
2,117,843
Wine in cask
5,701,108
Sundries .
91,621,199
Cognac
979,049
Total
Sundries .
10,389,917
80,734,074
114,761,525
Total .
•
The customs revenue in 1897 amounted to 26,637,543 drachmai, against
27,348,205 drachmai in 1896. The revenue from the State monopolies in
1897 was: salt, 2,409,376 drachmai paper; petroleum, 4,862,280; matches,
1,027,832 ; playing cards, 280,076 ; total, 8,579,564 drachmai paper, against
9,252,557 in 1896.
The countries of origin are those from which the goods are imported into
Greece, and the countries of destination are those to which the goods are
ultimately exported. The values are determined by a special commission ap-
pointed by the Ministry of Finance, and represent the official values accord-
ing to a scale drawn up in 1889.
The value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Greece, and of the
domestic exports from the United Kingdom to Greece in each of the last five
years, according to the Board of Trade returns, was : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into U. K,
from Greece .
Exports of British
produce to Greece .
£
1,420,167
604,905
£
1,288,175
881,379
&
1,241,406
806,328
£
1,246,574
842,412
£
1,638,995
833,228
The staple article of import from Greece into the United Kingdom is currants,
the value of which in 1896 amounted to 744, 953(5. ; in 1897 to 1,043,646^.
Other articles of import in 1897 were : — iron ore (including chrome), 266,480^. ;
lead, 53,733Z. ; manganese ore, 19,535^. ; zinc ore, 16,113^. ; raisins,
24,426Z. ; sponges, 39,119Z. ; valonia, 38,012Z. ; silver ore, 40,439Z. Of the
exports irom the United Kingdom to Greece in 1897, cotton goods and
yarns were valued at 376,185^. ; woollens and worsteds, 86,03U. ; coal,
152,077Z. ; iron, 42,208/. ; machinery, 21,310/.
NAVIGATION AND SHITPlNa 701
Navigation and Shipping.
Tho merchant navy of Greece on January 1, 1898, had, of sea-going
vessels, 1,152 sailing vessels of 238,196 tons, and 118 steamers of 87,845 tons ;
total, 1,270 vessels of 326,041 tons. In 1896, 6,262 vessels of 2,937,925 tons
entered, and 5,797 of 2,884,367 tons cleared at the ports of Greece ; in 1897,
4, 560 vessels of 2,491,522 tons entered, and 4,487 of 2,444,618 tons cleared. Of
the vessels entered in 1897, 1,566 were Greek. More than half the trade is
throTigh the port of Pineus. A considerable amount of the carrying trade of
the Black Sea and the Eastern ports of the Mediterranean is under the Greek
flag.
Internal Communications.
Recently the internal communication by roads has greatly improved ;
there are now about 2,043 miles of roads. In October, 1893, the canal
across the Isthmus of Corinth (about 4 miles) was opened for traffic. From
its opening to the end ot 1897, 9,509 vessels of 1,293,885 tons have jjassed
thi'ough ; in 1S97 the number was 2,404 of 329,063 tons.
Railways were open for traflSc in 1898 ^or a length of 591 miles, while 300
miles were under construction. The Athens-Larissa railway, the main line
in Greece, is intended to bring that country into communication with the
rest of Europe at Salonica.
The telegraphic lines, land and submarine, were of a total length of 5, 087
English miles, at the end of 1896 ; length of wire, 6,023 miles. The number
of offices was 209. They despatched 981,989 inland telegrams, and 413,602
international, in the year 1896. Receipts, 2,514,623 drachmai.
Of post offices there existed 354 at the end of 1896, and there passed
through the post in that year in the internal service, 4,337,000 letters and
post-cards, and 5,666,000 printed papers and samples; in the international
service, 5,107,000 letters and post-cards, and 2,867,000 printed papers and
samples. The receipts were 2,110,877 drachmai; expenses, 1,983,860
drachmai.
Money and Credit.
The nominal value of the Greek coinage (minted in Paris) put in circula-
tion since 1866 has been: gold, in 1876, 1,000,000 drachmai; in 1884,
11,000,000 drachmai ; total gold, 12,000,000 drachmai; silver, up to 1883,
26,262.865 drachmai; bronze, up to 1883, 6,816,065 drachmai; nickel,
1893-95, 2,999,000 drachmai. Since 1884 there has been no issue of coin
except the nickel money. In accordance with the Convention of the Latin
Union, 1885, the Greek Government may issue fractional silver to the nomi-
nal value of 15,000,000 francs. In fact, gold and silver money have disap-
peared, and their i)lace has been taken by a forced paper currency.
The forced currency was begun in July 1877, was withdrawn December,
1884, again circulated'September, 1885, and, from 1900, will be redeemed by
annual payments. The small note circulation was begun in June, 1886.
Tho National, the Ionian, and the Epiro-Thessalian Banks are authorised
to issue notes for forced currency to the amount of 88,000,000 drachmai,
including 14,000,000 drachn^ai in iiotes under 5 drachmai.
702
GREECE
The situation of the National Bank of Greece on August 31, 1897, was as
follows : —
Gold and silver on hand
Notes to bearer in circulation
Private accounts current and deposits
Portfolio ....
Advances on real property .
Advances on personal property .
Funds abroad ....
The gold and silver on hand amounted to
circulation.
Drachmai
1,700,000
. 137,500,000
41,800,000
13,600,000
38,300,000
5,100,000
12,600,000
1 per cent, of the notes in
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Greece entered in 1868 the Latin Monetary Union.
The Drachma, of 100 lc2Jtd, is equivalent to the franc (25.225 francs =
IZ. sterling). 100 new drachmai = 112 old drachmai.
' By Royal decree of January 30, 1893, the gold coins of Great Britain,
Austria, Germany, Denmark, Russia, Spain, Turkey, Egypt, and the United
States are accepted by the Treasury and by private persons as legal tender,
one-fourth per cent, being deducted from their nominal value.
In September, 1898, it was announced that it had been decided to intro-
duce the metric system as regards measures of length, weight, and capacity.
The change from the old system is to be gradual, commencing with measures
of length. The old system is as follows : —
The Oke .
,, Caiitar ...
,, Livrc . . ■ •
,, Baril (wine)
,, Kilo . . . .
,, Pike . . . . •
,, Strcmma . . . •
2-80
123-20
lbs. avoirdupois.
5 > 5 >
1-05
16-33
0 114
3
4
J3 53
imperial gallons.
, , quarter.
of an English yard
•242
, , , , acre
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Greece in Great Britain.
Ghargd d' Affaires.— J. D. Metaxas.
Attache.— h. Caftangioglu.
Consul -General. —Ij. Messinesi.
There are Consular representatives of Greece at Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow,
Liverpool, Manchester, Southampton, Calcutta, Malta.
2. Of Great Britain in Greece.
Minister. — Sir Edwin H.
Egerton,
K.C.B., appointed
Envoy and
January 26, 1892.
Secretary. — Edward Thornton.
There are British Consuls at Athens (V.C), Calamata (V.C), Cephalonia
(V C), Corfu, Patras, Pirteus, Pirgos (V.C), Syra, Volo V.C.^, Zaute(V.C.l
703
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Greece.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Commerce de la Grece avec les jiays etrangores. Annual. Athens.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. 8. London.
Greece in Europe. By S. P. Skiadan. (In Greek.) 8. Athens, 1891.
Handbook of the Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, &c. By Captain W. E. Fairholme and
Captain Count Gleichen. London, lSi»5.
Regarding ivjlitical transactions ooncerning Greece from 1826 onwards, the Parliamentary
papers (correspondence, conventicms, protocols, treaties, reports, &c.) are available.
Correspondence Respecting the Finances of .Greece, Nos. I, 2, and 3 (1898). [C— 8778;
C.—SS18; and C— 8849.]. London, 1898.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Armstronf) (Isabel J.), Two Roving Englishmen in Greece. New ed. London, 1897.
Avelot (H.), Croquis de Grece et de Turquie. Paris, 1897,
Baedeker's Handbook for Greece. 2nd ed. London, 1894.
Barrows (S. J.), The Isles and Shrines of Greece. London, 1898.
Bent (J. Th.), Modern Life and Thought Amongst the Greeks. 8. Loudon, 1891. The
Cyclades : Life Amongst the Insular Greeks. 8. London, 1885.
Berard (Victor), La Turquie et I'Hellenisme Contemporaine. 8. Paris, 189.3.
Bianconi (C. F.), Ethnographic de la Turquie, de I'Europe et de la Grece. Paris, 1877.
Bickford- Smith (R. A. H.), Greece under King George. 8. London, 1893.
Brockhaus (Hermann), Griechenland, geographisch, geschichtlich und kultui'historisch
von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart dargestellt. 4. Leipzig, 1870.
Campbell (Hon. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. 8. London, 1887.
Co-operation of Foreign Bondholders, Report of Council, Appendix, issued August,
1898. London. '
Estournelle de Constant (Baron d'), La Vie de Province en Grece. 8. Paris, 1878.
Field (H. M.), Greek Islands and Turkey after the War. 8. London, 1885.
Finlay (G.), A History of Greece, b.c. 14(3 — a.d. 1864. New ed. 7 vols. 8. Oxford,
1877.
Frazer (J. G.), Pausanias's Description of Greece. 6 vols. London, 1898.
Greco-Turkish War of 1897. From Official Sources. By a German Staff Officer. [Eng.
Trans.] London. 1S98.
Guiraud (P.), La Propriety fonciere en Grece. Paris, 1893.
Guerber (H. A.), The Story of the Greeks. London, 1S9S.
Janeway (Catherine), Glimpses at Greece — To-day and Before Yesterday. London, 1897.
Jebb (R. C), Modern Greece : Two Lectures. 8. London, 1880.
TToZofcotron^s (Th.), Klepht and Warrior. [Autobiography translated.] 8. London, 1890.
Mahaffy (J. P.), Rambles and Studies in Greece. 3 ed. 8. London, 1887.
Maurer (G. L. von), Das Griechische Volk in offentlicher und privatrechtlicher Beziehung.
3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.
Melingo (P. von), Griechenland in unseren Tagen. 8. Vienna, 1892.
Palmer (K.), Going to War in Greece. New York, 1897.
Philippson (A.), Thessalien und Epirus. Berlin, 1897.
Phillips (W. A.), The Greek War of Independence, 1821-33. London, 1897.
Pullen (H. W.), Handbook (Murray's) for Greece and the Ionian Islands. Gth ed.
London, 1S95.
Rectus (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Vol. I. Paris, 1877.
Rodd (J. Rennell), The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece. 8. London 1802,
Rose (W. K.), With the Greeks in Thessaly. London, 1897.
SamneZgoH (J.), Greece : Present Condition and Recent Progress. 8. London, 1894.
Schmidt {Dv. Julius), Beitriige zur physicalischen Geographic von Griechenland.
8. Leipzig, 1864-70.
Sergeant (L.), Greece in the 19th Century. London, 1897.
Sj/nioHffs(.I. A.), Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece. 3 vols. 2nd ed, London,
1898.
Tozer (H. F.), The Islands of the ^Egean. 8. Oxford, 1890.
TrtA-owpc»(S.), History of the Greek Revolution. [In Greek.] 8. London, 18G0.
Tuckerman (Charles K.), The Greeks of To-day. 8. London, 1873.
Iforrfiiporfh (Bishop Ch), Greece : Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. New ed.
London, 1882.
704
GUATEMALA.
(Reptjblica de Guatemala.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Guatemala, established ou March 21, 1847, after having
formed part for twenty- six years of the Confederation of Central America, is
governed under a Constitution proclaimed December 1879, and modified
October 1885, November 1887, and October 1889. By its terms the legislative
power is vested in a National Assembly, consisting of representatives (one
for every 20, 000 inhabitants) chosen by universal suffrage for four years. The
executive is vested in a President, elected for six years, and not eligible for
the following period.
President of the Republic. — Don INIanuel Estrada Cabrera for the term
1899-1905 ; proclaimed by the National Assembl}^, September 25, 1898.
The administration is carrietl on, under the President, by the heads of six
departments — of Foreign Afiairs, Government and Justice, Hacienda and
Public Credit, Public Instruction, Fomento, War.
Area and Population.
The area of Guatemala is estimated at 63,400 English square miles.
In 1897 the population was 1,535,632. About 60 per cent, are pure Indians,
most of the remainder being half-caste, there being very few descendants of
Europeans. The foreign population numbered 11,331 in 1893. Guatemala is
administratively divided into 22 departments.
The marriages in 1896 were 5,504 ; births (1897), 71,353 ; and deaths,
43,892. Owing to an imperfect system of registration, the number of deaths
given is considerably below the actual number. About one-fourth the births
among the whites and one-half among the Indians were illegitimate. In
1894, 8,475 persons entered the Rapublic by sea and 16,987 by the land
frontiers ; 7,832 departed by sea and 13,346 by the land frontiers.
Capital of the Republic and seat of the government is Chiatemala la Nueva,
with 72,102 inhabitants (1893), five-sixths of them of European origin. Other
towns are Quezaltenango, 22,265, Coban, 24,475, Totonicapani, 25,196, and
San Pedro, 11,189.
Religion.
Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion ; but all other creeds have
complete liberty of worship. The State does not recognise any creed.
Instruction.
Education is free and compulsory. In 1895 there were 1,266 government
primary schools, of which 458 were for girls and 143 mixed. The number
of children enrolled was 75,020, of whom 64,015 (39,411 males, 24,604
females) attended school. Theie were also 49 private primary and secondary
schools ; 6 institutes and normal schools ; 4 establishments for professional
and 9 for special instruction. The Goverjiment spent on education, exclusive
of the polytechnic school, which is dependent on the ministry for war lor
1895, 95,062 dollars. The national library contains 19,400 volumes. There
are 37 periodicals published (1896) within the Republic : 7 daily, 1 three
times and 3 twice a week, 14 weekly, and 12 monthly.
Crime.
Justice is administered in a su})rcnie court, 6 appeal courts, and 26 courts
of first instance. In all the municipalities there are Justices of Peace.
In 1897, 927 persons were sentenced for serious crimes, and 24.560, in
misdemeanours.
FINANCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 705
Finance.
Nearly half of the revenue is from customs, and over one-third from taxes
on spirits, tobacco, &c. ; while seven-tenths of the expenditure is for public
debt, instruction, and war.
The revenue and expenditure for five years (estimates for 1898) are given as
follows (currency): —
—
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
Revenue
Expenditure .
dollars
11,851,026
13,577,034
dollars
14,491,667
15,515,081
dollars
15,150,741
17,437,452
dollars
12,479,741
dollars
11,565,000
Of the u-evenue for 1898, 3,926,000 dollars is from customs, 2,226,000
dollars from exchange, additional duties, &c. ; 3,224,000 dollars from liquors.
Of the total estimated revenue for 1898, 4,636,000 dollars Avas assigned to
special purj»oses (debt charges, railways, &c. ), leaving only 6,929,000 dollars
for administration.
In 1898 (according to the report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign
Bondholders) the outstanding amount of the 4 per cent. External Debt oi
1895 was £1,482,800. The national balance sheet for the year ending
December 31, 1897, showed assets (cash, property, railways, &c.) amounting to
17,383,513 dollars currency, and liabilities (including External Debt, 18,443,600
dollars) amounting to 40,185,424 dollars, or (at 150 per cent.) 3,215,000Z.
Defence.
The array of Guatemala, the cost of which is about one-tenth of the total
public expenditure, consists (1896) of about 7,000 officers and men in regular
service. The effective army consists of 56,900 men from 18 to 30 years of
age ; the reserve has 30,000 men from 30 to 50 years of age.
Production and Industry.
By the National Land Law of 1894, the State lands (except those on the
frontiers and the sea-shore) were divided into lots for sale, the maximum
allotment permitted to one person being 15 caballarias (or about 1,687 acres).
The price varies from 250 dollars per caballaria (112^ acres) to 400 or 500
dollars, including costs of surve}^ titles, &c. IJncultivated lands may be
granted gratuitously to immigrants or to immigrant companies, to
municipalities, villages and schools, or as assistance towards road-making.
The soil in general is exceedingly fertile. The most important crop is
coffee, of which, in 1896, the exports reached 687,726 quintals; in 1897,
824,756 quintals. The export duty on cofl'ee was reduced in 1898 from
li dollar gold to 1 dollar silver. About 2,500 acres are devoted to tobacco
culture, yielding about 9,900 quintals. Bananas are produced in large
quantities ; maize and cocoa are also grown. On the high plateaux there is
good pasture for cattle, the number of which in 1895 was about 500,000.
The number of horses in the Republic is put at 62,000, and of mules at
42,000. Slice]) are raised in considerable numbers, but poor and small.
Pigs of fair quality are reared.
Gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, sulphur, .salt, and other minerals exist,
but are little worked. In 1897 mining for gold was carried on at the
Motagna River, where about 10,000/. had been spent on machinery, dwellings,
kc. ; for silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula ; and for
salt in the departments of Alta Vera Paz and Santa Rosa. The precious
z z
70G
GUATEMALA
metals are found ouly in small quantities. Industries more or less prosperous
are the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods, cement, bricks, earthen-
ware, furniture, cigars, &c., and the preparation of ramie ; also foundries,
sugar mills, breweries and distilleries are at work.
Commerce.
The following are the statistics of trade, in dollars (gold for imports and
currency for exports), for the years indicated, including bullion and specie : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports .
6.383,835
19,087,000
6,937,000
20,324,000
8,911,627
26,534,394
11,429,2001
23,085,544
8,584,8212
19,775,800
1 Or 26,287,145 dollars silver, 2 Or 21.462,053 dollars silver.
In 1897 the chief imports were : cottons, 1,716,984 dollars gold; cereals,
659,832 ; wine, beer, spirits, 667,176 ; preserves, &c., 350,444 ; iron,
246,961 ; railway and telegraph material, 227,267 ; woollens, 312,475
dollars gold. The chief exports were: coffee, 18,875,700 dollars silver;
bananas, 77,548 ; hides, 205,965 ; silver coin, 473,000 dollars silver.
Of the imports the value of 1,484,246 dollars gold came from Great Britain;
875,873 from France ; 1,483,710 from Germany ; 2,296,790 from the United
States. Of the coffee exports (824,755 quintals in all), 543,807 quintals went
to Germany ; 123,277 to Great Britain ; 137,055 to the United States.
In the customs returns, the country whence goods are shipped is entered
as the country of origin, and the port to which goods are consigned as the
ultimate destination.
The trade of the United Kingdom with Guatemala (according to the
Board of Trade Returns) for the last five years was as follows : —
—
1893
1894 1895
1896
1897
Imports into U.K.
from Guatemala .
Exports of British pro-
duce to Guatemala.
£
368,256
257,969
£
337,333
316,685
£
383,011
430,447
£
409,133
428,303
£
375,858
232,160
Of the imports from Guatemala into the United Kingdom in 1897, coffee
amounted to 374,939/. ; of the exports to Guatemala, cottons amounted to
85,185Z. ; cotton yarn, 28,965/. ; iron, 18,961/. ; machinery, 24,984/. ;
woollens, 15,964/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1897, 614 vessels of 782,076 tons entered the ports of the Rei)ublic.
The vessels belonged mostly to the United States.
There is a line of railway from San Jose through Escuintla to the capital
(85 miles), a line from Chaniperico to Retalhuleu (32 miles), and one from
Retalhuleu to San Filipe. New lines to a length of over 210 miles between
l*orL Barrios and the capital are l)eing constructed ; in 1898 about 133
miles was completed, and was worked by an American firm, which received
from the Government a bonus of 40,000 dollars per mouth. The line con-
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 707
necting the capital with the port of Iztapa has been completed. The
Government guarantees a subsidy of about 1,630Z. per mile. There are a
few good roads, but away from the railway most of the traffic is on niuler
back.
There were in 1897, 272 post-offices. The total postal movement (letters,
cards, parcels, <fcc.), in 1897 was, despatched, 4,038,966 ; received, 5,674,100.
Of telegraphs there were 3,093 miles, with 171 offices, in 1897 ; the number
of messages was 664,169 ; receipts, 293,563 dollars ; expenses, 418,394 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Banks of issue in Guatemala are : — The Banco Interuacional, the Banco
Colombiano, Banco de Guatemala. Banco Agricola Hipotecario, Banco Ame-
ricano, and the Banco de Occidente.
The Dollar or Peso, of 100 Ccntavas, weight, 25 grammes, '900 fine ;
nominal value, 45. The currency is mostly paper money, value about 12 '5
dollars to £1.
The Spanish Xi&?'a of 16 ounces . . = 1 "014 lb. avoirdupois.
,, ^rro&a of 25 libras . . . = 25 '35 lb.
,, Quintal oi ^ axvdhdi^ . . . = 101*40 ,,
,, To7ieIada oi 20 qnintah . . = 18*10 cwt.
,, Fancga . . . . . . = 1^ imperial bushel
The metrical system is now adopted.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Guatemala in Great Britain.
Unvoy and Minister. — Senor Fernando Cruz, accredited May 28, 1892 ;
accredited also to France, and resident in Paris.
Secretary. — Domingo Estrada.
Consul-General (London). — J. J. Saborio.
There are also Consular representatives at Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
Southampton, Plymouth, Birmingham, Cardiff, Newport.
2. Of Great Britain in Guatemala.
Minister and Consul-General to the several Republics of Central America,
G. F. B. Jenner, appointed 1897.
There is a British Consul at Quezaltenango and a Vice- Consul at
Livingston and San Jose.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Guatemala
1. Official Publications.
Anuario de la Direccion General de Estadistica. [Criininalidad. Ciudadauos. Ben
flcieucia. Rentas Municipals. Territorio y Poblaciou.] Statistics down to 1804.
Guatemala, 1898.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. Imp. 4. London.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
Guatemala. No. 32 of the Bulletins of tlie Bureau of the American Republics.
Washington, 1892.
Informe de la Direccion de Estadistica. Annual. Guatemala.
Informe de la Secretaria de Fomento. Annual. Guatemala.
Memorias de los Secretarios de Estado del Gobierno de la repiiblica de Guatemala
(Gobernacion y Justicia ; Instruccion Piiblica ; Guerra ; Hacienda ; Relaciones Exteriores).
Annual. Guatemala.
Movimiento de poblacion habido en los pueblos de la republica de Guatemala. Annual.
Guatemala.
Z Z 2
70S
2. Non-Official Publications.
Sernout«i (Dr. Gustav),Briefeaus Guatemala, in Dr. Peterraann's 'Mittheilungien.' 4.
Gotha, 1868-69. , „ v,-, .-. ^ i • t. a t> *
Bermuilli (Dr. Gustav), Reise in der Republik Guatemala, in Dr. A. Petermann s
Mittheilungen.' 4. Gotha, 1873. , ,,, ^ , , ^ , ico^
Brigham (T.), Guatemala. The Land of the Quetzal. London, 1S87.
Frb'bel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Gonzalez (Dario), Geografia de Centro-Araerica. /San Salvador, 1877.
Lafiriere (J.), De Paris a Guatemala, Notes de voyage au centre de TAmerique. 8.
Lemale (G.), Guia geografica de los centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala.
Guatemala, 1882. „ , „ tx , ,r,^«
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelet (L), Voyage dans I'Ameriqne centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Report of Comuiittee of Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders. Appendix
for 1897. London, 1898. , ^
Sapper (C), Das nordliche Mittel-Amerika Reisen und Studien, 1888-95. Brunswick,
1897
Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
Stoll (Otto), Guatemala. Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-83. Leipzig,
1886
Whetham (J. "W. Boddam), Across Central America. 8. London, 1877-
HAITI.
(Rl^PUBLIQUE D'HaiTI.)
Constitution and Government.
The Repuljlic of Haiti, formerly a French colony, was proclaimed indepen-
dent January 1, 1804, and is now governed under a Constitution proclaimed
June 14, 1867. The legislative power rests in a National Assembly, divided into
two chamljers, respectively called tlie Senate and the House of Representa-
tives. The latter is elected by the direct vote of all male citizens engaged
in some occupation, for the term of three years ; while the members of the
Senate (39 in numl)er) are nominated for si.\ years by the House of Repre-
sentatives from two lists presented by the Executive and the Electoral Colleges ;
one-third retire every two years. JSIembers of both houses are paid, repre-
sentatives and senators by the month (150 dollars) during session. The
executive power is in the hands of a President who, according to the Con-
stitution, must be elected by the people, but in recent years has generally
been chosen by the United Senate and House of Representatives, sitting in
National Assembly, and in some instances by the troops, and by delegates
of parties acting as representatives of the people. The nominal term of
oflice of the President is seven years ; it is generally cut short, however
by insurrections.
President of the Republic. — General Tiresias Simon Sam, elected April 1, 1 896,
The administration of the Republic is carried on, under the President,
by four heads of departments. The President receives a salary of 4, SOOl.
Area and Population.
The area of the Rei>ublic, which embraces the western portion of the
island of Haiti — the larger liut loss populated eastonj division forming the.
RELiraON AND IXSTRIJCTIOX
709
Repuljlic of Sanlo Domingo — is estimated at 10,204 English s<.[uare miles.
A census of the population does not exist ; the inhabitants, nine-tenths of
whom are negroes and the rest mulattoes, with very few of European
descent, aie calculated by the best authorities to number about 572,000,
while a more probable estimate by a native writer gives the total at
960,000 in 1887. Capital : Port-au-Prince, with 40,000 to 60,000 inhabi-
tants, situated on a large bay, and possessed of an excellent harbour. Cape
Haiti has a population of about 29,000, and Les Cayes about 25,000. The
language of the country is French, though most of the people speak a
debased dialect known as Creole French.
Religion and Instruction.
The religion is nominally Roman Catholicism. Public elementary edu-
cation is free, the country being divided into 14 inspectors' districts. The
sum allotted for public instruction amounts to nearly 1,000,000 dollars
annually, but the educational system is still very imperfect, especially in rural
districts. There are 400 national schools, besides private schools, and 5 public
lycees.
Finance.
The revenue of Haiti is derived almost exclusively from customs, paid in
American gold on exports and in currency gourdes on imports. For years
ended September 30, the revenue is given as follows : —
■ 1892
1893
1895
Total Revenue
Export Duties
Import Duties
Gold dollars
7,322,076
7,691,580
7,406,321
Gold dollars
3,102,456
3,164,960
3,442,114
Currency dollars
5,063,544
4,526,620
4,107,989
The expenditure for 1894-95 was 8,042,705 dollars; for 1896-97
(estimated), 8,984,539 dollars.
On April 30, 1897, the public debt was as follows : — External debt at
5 percent, 4,176,113 dollars; at 6 per cent, 9,300,000 dollars; total
external, 13,476,113 dollars gold. The internal debt amounted to 4,437,105
dollars gold, and 10,812,574 dollars paper.
Defence.
The army, under a ' law of reorganisation ' passed by the National
Assembly in 1878, consists, nominally, of 6,828 men, chiefly infantry.
There is a special 'Guard of the Government,' numbering 650 men, com-
manded by 10 generals, who also act as aides-de-camp to the President of
the Repultlic. The Republic possesses a flotilla of six small vessels, which
may be ranked as third-class cruisers. The Crele-d-Pierrot was built in
England in 1895 ; she is 210 feet long and 30 feet broad, and has a displace-
ment of 940 tons and 15 5 knots speed. Her armament consists of 1 6 3-in.
De Bange gun, 1 4-7-in. ditto, 4 4-in ditto, and 6 light guns. A despatch
gun-boat, the Capois-la-Mort, with her sister the Alexandre Pition (since lost)
was launched at Havre in 1893. The Toussaint UOuvertxtre dates from
1886, and the Dessalincs (1,200 tons) from 1883. Other vessels are the
sloops 1804 and St. Michael^ and the gun-vessel 22nd of December (900 tons).
710
HAITI
Commerce and Communications.
For 1895 the total imports into Haiti are put at 6,232,335 dollars ; and
the exports at 13,788,562 dollars; in 1896, imports 6,053,835 dollars;
exports 9,463,903 dollars; in 1897, imports, 6,363,798 dollars; exports,
12,549,848 dollars.
The exports consist chiefly of coff"ee, cocoa, and logwood. For the year
ended September 30, 1897, the quantities exported were : Coff'ee, 73,057,397
lbs. ; cocoa, 2,120,242 lbs. ; logwood, 112,756,225 lbs. Other exports
are cotton, hides and skins, mahogany, and honey. Of the imiiorts in 1897,
the value of 4,379,000 dollars came from the United States; 943,000
dollars from France; 529,000 dollars from Germany; 309,000 dollars from
Great Britain.
There is no report of the exact value of the commercial intercourse of the
Republic with the United Kingdom in the ' Annual Statement ' published
by the Board of Trade, which gives Haiti and Santo Domingo together.
But as the population of the latter State is only about one -fourth of that
of Haiti, an estimate may be made of the exports and imports of each
during the last five years from the statement given in the following table : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Haiti and
Santo Domingo into U. K.
Exports of British pro-
duce to Haiti and
Santo Domingo
£
67,706
332,810
£
81,072
337,979
£
53,216
359,027
£
92,940
288,394
£
74,034
296,964
The chief imports into the United Kingdom in 1897 were logAvood, valued at
48,353^. ; mahogany and other woods, 22,780^. The staple article of British
produce exported to Haiti and Santo Domingo consists of cotton manufactures,
valued at 163,079/. in 1896, 185,107/. in 1897; linens, 21,441 in 1896,
14,919/. in 1897 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 31,164/. in 1896; 22,366/.
in 1897.
At Port-au-Prince in 1897 there entered 234 vessels of 323,611 tons; at
Cape Haiti, 203 of 274,609 tons; at Les Cayes, 144 of 163,842 tons; at
Jacmel, 212 of 371,468 tons. At each port the same tonnage cleared.
There are 31 post offices. Haiti joined the Postal Union in 1880.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Gourde, or dollar, nominal value, 4.9. The coin represents 5 francs,
but its value is subject to fluctuation, of which the annual average may be 17
per cent, premium on the American dollar.
During the ten years 1881-90, 2,900,000 gourdes in silver, and 75,000
gourdes in copper were issued. In 1895, silver and coj^per coin was issued to
Liie amount of 1,600,000 gourdes. The bank notes in circulation are issued by
the Haytian Government under the control of the Banque Nationale d'Haiti.
Jn February, 1898, a law was passed authorising a loan of 3,500,000 United
States gold dollars for the purpose of withdrawing the paper money.
The wcifjlit.s and measures in use are those of France.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 711
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Haiti in Great Jjiutain.
Charge d' Affaires. — Louis Joseph Janvier.
Consul. — Maurice Erdmann.
There are consular agents at Cardiff, Liverpool, Southampton, Cork,
Grimsliy, Dundee, Glasgow.
2. Of Great Britain in Haiti.
Consul-General. — Augustus Cohen.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Haiti.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
Haiti. Bulletin No. C2of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washington, 1S92.
Reports on Trade and Shipping of Haiti, in ' Deutsches Plandels-Archiv,' for May,
August, and Xovemher, 1897. Berlin.
United States Consular Reports for April, August, and September, 1898. Washington.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ardouin (Beaul.run), Etudes sur I'histoire de Hait . 10 vols. Paris, 1S53-G1.
Bonneau (Alex.), Haiti, ses progres, son avenir. 8. Paris. 1862.
Fortunat (Dantes), Nouvelle geographie de I'ile de Haiti. Port-au-Prince, 1888.
Handelmann {3 .\ Geschichte von Haiti. 8. Kiel, 1856.
JJo^ard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a glance at Haiti. London,
1878.
Janvier (L. J.), Les Constitutions d'Haiti (1801-188')). Paris, 1886. La Republiqr.e
d'Haiti, 1840-82. Paris, 1883.
Justin (J.), Etude sur les Institutions Haitiennes, Paris, 1894.
Madiou (N.), Histoire de Haiti. 3 vols. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1847.
Nau(K.), Histoire des Caziques de Haiti. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1855.
St. John (Sir Spenser), Haiti, or the Black Republic. 2nd ed. London, 1889
Tippenhauer (L. Gentil), Die Insel Haiti. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1893
712
HONDURAS.
(Republica de Honduras.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Honduras, established January 11, 1839, before the dis-
solution of the Confederation of Central America in 1839, is governed under
a charter proclaimed October, 1894. It gives the legislative power to a
Congress of Deputies in the ratio of one per 10,000 inhabitants. The
executive authority rests with a President, nominated and elected by popular
vote for four years.
President of the Reptcblic. — Policarpo Bonilla. January 1, 1895-99.
The administration of the Republic is carried on by a Council of ministers,
to whom are entrusted the departments of Interior, Public Works, War,
Finance, Public Instruction and Justice.
Honduras forms with Salvador and Nicaragua the Republica Mayor de
Centro-America, constituted for the purposes of foreign relations, September,
1896. But this federation seems for practical purposes to have come to an
end through the action of the de facto president of Salvador.
The active army consists of 500 men with 20,000 militia.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is calculated to embrace about 43, 000 English square
miles, with a population, in 1895, of about 400,000, or about 9 inhabitants to
the square mile. The Republic is divided into 15 departments. The bulk of
the inhabitants consists of aboriginal 'Indians,' and the sparse European-
descended population, mainly of Spanish origin. The capital of the Republic
is the ancient town of Tegucigalpa, with 12,600 inhabitants, situate nearly
in the centre of the State. The main ports are Amapala on the Pacific,
Omoa, Puerto Cortez, La Ceiba, Trujillo, Roatan, and Utila on the Atlantic.
Instruction and Crime.
The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but the Constitution
guarantees freedom to all creeds, and the State does not contribute to the sup-
port of any. Instruction is free, compulsory, and entirely secular. There is
a university, 11 colleges (three of them for females), and about 683 schools
with 23,767 scholars. In 1889, 1,144 persons were tried for oftences. Of these
288 were condemned to lengthened periods of imprisonment (28 for homicide).
Finance.
The revenue is mainly derived from customs, and the duties on spirits and
tobacco. For the years stated, ending July 30, the revenue and expenditure
(in pesos) are given as follows : —
—
1S91
1892
1895
189G
Revenue
Expenditure
1,850,163
2,983,570
1,764,137
2,603,650
2,172,760
1,248,811
1,901,606
2,264,586
PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE 713
Receipts from customs duties, 627,512 pesos; from excise duties on
spirits, tobacco, stamped paper, &c., 7(52,859 pesos.
In July, 1898, the external debt of Honduras consisted of four loans,
contracted from 1867 to 1870, amounting to 5,398,570Z., with arrears of
interest amounting to 11,972,959/. ; total, 17,371,529/. No interest has been
paid since 1872. The internal debt in 1896 amounted to about 6,000,000
pesos.
Production and Commerce.
Agriculture is gradually developing. The chief culture is that of bananas ;
other products are tobacco, sugar, maize, and coffee ; while indigo, rice, and
wheat are grown in small quantities. Cattle. breeding is carried on extensively,
and dairy farming on a small scale. The Government grants facilities for the
ac(|uisition of land by private persons and companies for agricultural and
mining purposes, l»ut labour is scarce. The mineral resources of Honduras
are great — gold, platinum, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, antimony, nickel
being found in almost every department. Deposits of brown and other coal
have also been found. There are about 17 important mining companies at
work, but statistics of their operations are not procurable. The quantity of
gold dust extracted by washings from the sands of rivers is estimated at the
value of 750,000 to 1,250,000 francs a year.
For the year 1895-96, the total imports were put at 1,322,418 pesos ; and
the exports at 3,125,000 jjcsos. For 1896-97, imports, 3,260,575 pesos;
exports, 2,647,248 pesos. The chief exports were (1897) : precious metals,
1,075,000 pesos ; cattle, 705,000 pesos; bananas and other agricultural pro-
duce, 839,000 pesos. The trade is mainly with the United States, but Great
Britain, (xermany, and France also participate.
The imports into the United Kingdom from Honduras (according to the
Board of Trade Returns) amounted in 1897 to 1,590/., of which 785/.
was for mahogany. The domestic exports from the United Kingdom to
Honduras amounted to 39,443/., the chief article exported being cottons,
26,884/.
In 1894, 117 vessels of 71,022 tons (33 of 23,600 tons British) entered the
port of Puerto Cortez.
Communications.
In 1896 there were 237 post-offices ; letters, papers, &c. despatched,
370,456. There are (1897) 2,732 miles of telegraphs, with 155 offices.
There is a railway from Puerto Cortez to San Pedro Sula, and thence to
La Pimienta, 60 miles. A contract has been made for the construction of a
railway from La Pimienta to the Pacific, and another for a line from Puerto
Cortez to Trujillo.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Silver Dollar, of 100 cents, weighs 25 grammes, '900 fine. There
are also 16, 8, 5, and 4 dollar gold pieces. The fractional silver money
consists of 50, 25, 124, 10, 6}, 5, and 3g cent pieces.
In November, 1894, the adoption of a gold standard equal to the American
gold dollar was announced.
The Arroha { ^^^ T' ' - l\ '"'^"'"^ ^''^^°"'-
V J> on . . — ^4 ,, ,,
,, Square Vara . . = 1'90 vara = 1 yard.
,, Manzana . . . = 1^ acre.
,, Fancga . . = 1^ imperial bushel.
714 HONDURAS
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Honduras in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister (for the Greater Republic). — Crisanto Medina.
Consul-General. — W. Binney.
There are Consuls at Manchester and Cardiff.
2. Of Great Britain in Honduras.
Minister and Consul-General. — G. F. B. Jenner.
There are Consuls at Truxillo, Omoa, and Tegucigalpa.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Honduras.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. Imp. 4. London.
Annuario Bstadistico for 1889, by A. R. Vallejo. Tegucigalpa, 18"?.
Boletin Financier©. Tegucigalpa.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
Gaceta Oficial de Honduras.
Honduras. Bulletin No. 57 of the Bureau of the A-.iierican Republics. Washington, 1802.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (B.. W.), Central and South .America. London, 1882.
C;iarie«(C.), Honduras. 8. Chicago, 1890.
Fiallo8(E. C.), Sketch of Central America by.
Frobel (Julius), Seven Years' Travel in Central America. 8. London, 1853.
Gonzalez (D.), Geografia de Centro-America. San Salvador, 1878.
Lombard (Tliomas R.), The New Honduras. New York, 1887.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hambi;rg, 1863.
PeJie/ter (Consul E.), Honduras et ses ports. Documents officiels sur le chemin-de-fer
interoceanique. 8. Paris, 1869.
Reichardt (M.), Centro-America. 8. Braunschweig, 1851.
Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders. Appendix for 1897.
London, 1898.
Sapper (C), Das nordliche Mittel- An; erika. Reisen und Studien, 1888-95. Brunswick,
1897.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderuiigcn durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Soltera (Maria), A Lady's Ride across Spanish Honduras. London, 1884.
.S5Htcr(E. G.), Honduras : Descriptive; Historical, and Statistical. 8. London, ISVO.
715
ITALY.
(Regno d'Italia.)
Reigning King.
Umberto I., born March 14,1844, the eldest son of King Vittorio
Emanuele II. of Italy and of Archduchess Adelaide of Austria.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 9,
1878. Married, April 22, 1868, to Queen Margherita, born
November 20, 1851, the only daughter of the late Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa.
Son of the King.
Vittorio Emanuele of Savoy, Prince of Naples, born November
11, 1869 ; married, October 24, 1896, to Princess Helena, born
January 8, 1873, daughter of Nicholas, Prince of Montenegro.
Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Clotilde, born March 2, 1843; married, January
30, 1859, to the late Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul
Bonaparte ; widow, March 17, 1891 ; offspring of the union are
Napoleon Victor, born July 18, 1862 ; Louis, born July 16, 1864 ;
and Maria L^etizia, born December 20, 1866 ; married, September
11, 1888, to Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta ; widow,
January 18, 1890.
II. Princess Fia, born October 16, 1847; married, September
27, 1862, to the late King Luis I. of Portugal ; widow, October
19, 1889.
Nephews of the King.
Prince Emanuele Filiberto of Savoy, Duke of Aosta, born
January 13, 1869, married, June 25, 1895, to Princess Elena
d'0rl6ans, daughter of the late Comte de Paris ; Prince Vittorio
Emanuele of Savoy- Aosta, Count of Turin, born November 24,
1870 ; Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy- Aosta, Duke of Abruzzi,
born January 30, 1873 ; Prince Umberto Maria of Savoy-
Aosta, Count of Salemi, born June 22, 1889 — children of the
late Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Elisabetta, horn February 4,1830, the daughter of
King Johann of Saxony; married, April 30, 1850, to Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa ; widow, February 10, 1855 ;
re-married, in 1856, to the Marquis of Rapallo. Offspring of the
tirst union are: — 1. Princess Margherita, born November 20,
710 ITALY
1851 ; married, April 22, 1868, to King Umberto I. 2. Prince
Tommaso of Savoy, Duke of Genoa, admiral, born February 6,
1854; married, Apiil 14, 1883, to Princess Isabella, daughter of
the late Prince Adalbert of Bavaria ; olf spring, Prince Ferdinando
[Jmberto of Savoy-Genoa, born April 21, 1884; Prince Filiberto
of Savoy-Genoa, born March 10, 1895 ; Princess Maria Bona
Margherita of Savoy-Genoa, born August 1, 1896; Prince Adal-
berto, born March 19, 1898.
The origin of the reigning house is not historically estabhshed ; but most
genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, who, in the eleventh
century, established himself on the western slope of the Alps, betAveen ]\Iont
Blanc and Lake Leman. In the end of the eleventh century the Count of
Savoy acquired the countries of Turin and Susa. Count Amadeus, in 1383,
founded a law of primogeniture Avhich greatly strengthened the family,
leading to the immediate acquisition of the territory of Nice. In 1416 the
Counts of Savoy adopted the title of Duke ; in 1418 they acquired the
Principality of Piedmont ; and in 1713 they obtained the island of Sicily,
with the title of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of
Sardinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached. Genoa
and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian C'rown at the peace
of 1815. The direct male line of the House of Savoy died out with King
Carlo Felice in 1831, and, the existing Salic law prohibiting the accession of
females, the crown fell to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the house of Savoy-
Carignano, a branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Carlo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto, the first of
the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne March 23, 1849, in favour
of his son, the late King Vittorio Emanuele II. By the Peace of Ziirich,
November 10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained Lombardy, with
the exception of Mantua and a part of the surrounding territory. On
March 11, 1860, annexation to Sardinia was voted by plebiscites in
Parma, ]\Iodena, the Romagna, and Tuscany ; on October 21, Sicily and
Naples (including Bcncvento and Pontecorvo, part of the Papal States),
and on November 4, IMarche and Umbria. The first Italian Parliament
assembled in February 1861, and declared (March 17, 1861) Vittorio Emanuele
King of Italy. The remaining part of the province of Mantua and Venetia
were added to his dominions in 1866 (October 21). Finally, the remaining
part of the Papal States (province of Rome), having been taken possession
of by an Italian army (September 20, 1870), after the retreat of the French
garrison, was annexed to the Kingdom by pUbiscite on October 2.
The ' Dotazione della Corona,' or civil list of the King, has been settled at
15,050,000 lire. Out of this the Prince of IS' aples receives an allowance of
1,000,000 lire; the children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta,
receive jointly allowance of 400,000 lire; the cousin of the King, Prince
Tommaso, Duke of Genoa, an allowance of 400,000 lire.
Tiie greater part of the private domains of the reigning family were given
up .0 the State in 1848.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Italy is an expansion of the
* Statuto fondamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by
King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to
this charter, the executive power of the State belongs exclusively
to the Sovereign, and is exercised by him through responsible
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 717
ministers ; while the legishitive authority rests conjointly in the
King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two Chambers — an
upper one, the Senate, and a lower one, called the ' Camera
de' Deputati.' The Senate is composed of the princes of the
royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited number of
members, above forty years old, who are nominated by the King
for life ; a condition of the nomination being that the person
should either till a high office, or have acquired fame in science,
literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit of the
nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of
3,000 lire, or 120^. In 1897, there were 372 senators.
By the electoral law of March 28, 1895, electors for deputies to
the Lower House are all citizens over twenty-one years of age
who can read and write and who possess one or other of the
following qualifications : they must have reached a certain
standard in elementary education ; or must pay not less than
19 '80 lire in direct (including provincial) taxation ; or, if peasant
farmers, must pay annually at least 500 lire of rent, or be
managers, with a share in the profits, of farms on which direct
(including provincial) taxes of not less than 80 lire are
paid ; or, being occupants of lodgings, shops, &c., in towns,
pay an annual rent ranging from 150 lire in communes of 2,500
inhabitants to 400 lire in communes of 150,000 inhabitants.
Non-commissioned officers and men in the army have no vote
while under arms. Members of academies, professors, persons
who have served their country under arms for two years,
and numerous other classes, are qualified to vote by their
position. The number of deputies is 508, or 1 to every 57,000 of
the population (census 1881). In 1896 the number of enrolled
electors was 2,120,909, exclusive of the electors temporarily
disfranchised on account of military service (39,029 in 1895).
At the general election in March 1897, the number of those
who voted was 1,241,486, or 58-5 per cent, of those who had
the right to vote. For electoral purposes the whole of
the Kingdom is divided into 508 electoral colleges or districts,
and these again into several sections. No deputy can be
returned to Parliament unless he has obtained a number of
votes greater than one-sixth of the total number of inscribed
electors, and than half the votes given. A deputy must be thirty
years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral
law. Incapable of being elected are all salaried Government
officials, as well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and
filling clerical charges, or receiving pay from the State. Officers
in the army and navy, ministers, under-secretaries of State, and
718 ITALY
various other classes of functionaries high in office, may be
elected, but their number must never be more than forty, not in-
cludincf the ministers and the under-secretaries of State. Neither
senators nor deputies receive any salary or other indemnity, but
are allowed to travel free throughout Italy by rail or steamer.
The duration of Parliaments is five years ; but the King has the power to
dissolve the lower House at any time, being bound only to order new elections,
and convoke a new meeting within four months. It is incumbent upon the
executive to call the Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers
has the right of introducing new bills, the same as the Government ; but all
money bills must originate in the House of Deputies, The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower House ; but
they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings of both Chambers
are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an absolute majority of the members
are present.
The executive power is exercised, under the King, by a ministry divided
into 11 departments. The ministry, constituted June 29, 1898, is as follows : —
1. President of the Council and Minister of Interior. — General Luigi
Pelloux, senator.
2. Minister of Foreign Affairs.— k^raixdl Felice Napoleoue Canevaro,
senator.
3. Minister of the Treasury. — Pietro Vacchelli, senator.
4. Minister of Finance. — Paolo Carcano, deputy.
5. Minister of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs.— CsuwiWo Finocchiaro
Aprile, deputy.
6. Minister of War. — General Alessandro Asinari di San Marzano,
senator.
7. Minister of Marine. — Admiral Giuseppe Palumho, deputy.
8. Minister of Commerce, Industry ^ and Agriculture. — Alessandro i^oriis,
deputy.
9. Minister of Puhlic Instruction. — Professor Guido ^«cc<?ZZi, deputy.
10. Minister of Public Works. — Pietro Zac«m, deputy.
11. Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. — Nunzio Nasi, deputy.
Local Government.
The two principal elective local administrative bodies are the communal
councils and the provincial councils. According to the law of February 10,
1889, each commune has a communal council, a municipal council, and a
syndic. Both the communal councils and the municipal councils vary accord-
ing to population, the members of tlie latter being selected by the former
from among themselves. The syndic is the head of the communal adminis-
tration, and is a Government official ; he is elected by the comnninal council
from among its own members, by secret vote, in all the chief communes of
provinces and districts, and in other communes having more than 10,000
inhabitants. In other communes the syndic is appointed by the King froin
among the communal councillors. Each province has a provincial council
and a provincial commission, the numbers vaiying according to population.
The council elects its president and other officials. The provincial commission
is elected by the council from its own members. It conducts the business of
AREA AND POPULATION
719
tho province when the latter is not sitting. Both communal and provincial
councillors are elected for five years, one-fifth being renewed every year. The
communal council meets twice and the provincial once a year in ordinai-y
session, though they may be convened for extraordinaiy pui-poses. All
communal electors are eligible to the council except those having an oflRcial
or pecuniary interest in the commune. Persons not resident in the province,
or having no solid interest in it, or who do not pay taxes on movable property,
as well as ofiicials in any way interested in the province, are ineligible to the
provincial councils. Electors must be Italian citizens, twenty-one years of
age, able to read and write, be on the Parliamentary electoral list, or pay a
direct annual contribution to the commune, of any nature, or comply with
other conditions of a very simple character.
In 1895 the number of enrolled administrative electors was 2,814,918, of
whom 41,984 were temporarily deprived of electoral rights. In the general
communal elections of 1895, 1,762,081 electors voted, or 63-55 per cent, of the
total number. The number of electors, both political and administrative, has
been considerably reduced in consequence of the general revision of the lists
in accordance with the electoral law of July 11, 1894.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The first census of United Italy was taken on December 31,
1861, but at that date Venetia, certain districts of the province
of Mantua, and the present province of Rome had not been
annexed, and were excluded from the census. At the censuses of
1871 and 1881, the area was, as now, 114,410 square miles. In
1861 the area of the Kingdom of Italy was about 96,500 square
miles. The census of 1861, of 1871, and of 1881 gave the follow-
ing results: — December 31, 1861 (excluding the regions annexed,
Yenetia, southern part of Mantua, and the province of Rome),
21,777,334; December 31, 1871 (present territory), 26,801,154;
December 31, 1881 (present territory), 28,459,628.
The following figures show the increase of the population of
the present territory of the Kingdom of Italy from 1800 onwards,
in round numbers : —
Year
1800
1816
1825
1838
Population
Increase per
cent, per
annum
Year
1
Population
Increase per
cent, per
annum
18,124,000
18,383,000
19,727,000
21,975,000
0-089
0-812
0-876 1
1848
1861
1871
1881
23,617,000
2.5,000,000
26,800,000
28,460,000
0-747
0-450
0-400
0-619
The Kingdom of Italy is divided into 69 provinces, the names
of which, with area (as determined by a recent survey executed by
the Italian Government) in English square miles, population
in 1881, estimated population, and density per square mile
720
ITALY
in 1898, are given in the subjoined table, which is classified
according to the old compartimenti, not now recognised as legal
divisions : — •
Population. Present : Census 1881
Pi'Oviiices and
Area in
Estimated
Population
Compartimeuti
square
1
Population
' per square
miles
Males
j Females
Total
Dec. 31, 1898
mile, 189S
i
Alessandria
1,950
374,060
1
355,650
!
729,710
808,009
414-36 '
Cuneo
2,882
321.423
313,977
635,400
666,394
231-23
Novara
2,553
327,010
348,916
' 675,926
771,427
302-16
Torino
Piedmont .
Genova .
3,955
506,175
i 523,039
1,541,582
1,029,214
3,070,250
1,134,711
286-91 1
298-11
11,340
1,582
1,528,668
3,380,541
376,408
383,714
760,122
847,089
535-45
Porto Maurizio .
Liguria
Bergamo .
455
2,037
65,630
66,621
132,251
147,627
324-46 j
442,038
196,915
450,335
892,373! 994,716
1
488-32
1,098
193,860
390,775 431,605
393-08
Brescia
1,845
240,669
230,899
471,568j 499,083
270-51
Como
1,091
256,444
258,606
515,050' 584,124
535-40
Cremona .
695
152,526
149,612
302,1381 307,909
443 03 :
Mantova .
912
151,328
144,400
295,7281 316,200
346-71
Milano
1,223
567,367
547,624
1,114,991' 1,319,098
1,078-58
Pavia
1,290
237,527
232,304
469,831
512,188
397-04
Sondrio .
Lombardy .
Belluno .
1,232
59,189
61,345
120,534
137,644
111-72
9,386
1,861,965
1,818,650
3,680,615
4,107,851
437-66
1,293
82,677
91,463
174,140
177,166
137-02 i
Padova
823
201,652
196,110
397,762
459,933
558-85
Rovigo
685
109,602
108,098
217,700
249,496
364-23
Treviso
960
192,128
183,576
375,704
418,693
436-14 :
Udine
2,541
247,340
254,405
501,745
538,923
212-09
Venezia .
934
178,551
178,157
356,708
391,548
419-22
Verona
1,188
202,769
191,296
394,065
442,954
372-86
Vicenza .
Venice
Bologna .
1,052
9,476
200,461
195,888
396,349 458,456
2,814,173 3,137,169
435-79
1,415,180
1,398,993
331-06
1,448
232,557
224,917
457,474' 497,378
343-49
Ferrara
1,012
117,453
113.354
230.807 259,678
256 60
Forli
725
128,628
122,482
251,110 282,160
389-19 1
Modena .
987 '
141,308
137,946
279,2541 291,938
295-78 '
Parma
1,250
135,355
131,951
267,306 274,641
219-71 !
Piacenza .
954 1
116,668
110,049
226,717 230,022
24111 1
Ravenna .
715 1
115,143
110,621
225,764 226,271
316-46 i
Reggio Emilia .
Emilia
876 1
1
123,622
1
121,337
244,959
2,52,465
288-20 1
7,967 I
1,110,734!
1,072,6571
2.183,391^
2,314,5531
290-52
ARliA AND POl^ULATlOxV
721
Provinces and
Ooinpartlineliti
Area in
square
miles 1
1,273 i
2,265
1,738
133
558
687
1,179
1,471
Population, Present : Census 1881
Estimated
Population
Population
ner sauare
Males
Females
Total
Dec. 31, 1898*milei 1898
Arezzo
Firenze .
Grosseto .
Livorno .
Lucca
Massa e Carrara
Pisa .
Siena
Tuscany
Ancona .
Ascoli Piceno .
Macerata .
Pesaro e Urbino
Marches
Perugia(Umbria)
Roma
Aquila degli
Abruzzi
Campobasso
Chieti
Teramo .
Abruzzi e
Molise
Avellino .
Benevento
Caserta .
Napoli
Salerno .
Campania .
Bari delle Puglic
Foggia .
Lecce
Apulia
Potenza (Basili-
cata)
; Catanzaro.
Cosenza .
Reggio di Calabria
* Calabria'
122,958
400,953
64,401
61,085
135,452!
81,813
147,170
108,033
115,786
389,923
49,894;
60,527
149,032
87,656
136,393
97,893
238,744
790,776
114,295
121,612
284,484
169,469
283,563
205,926
245,847
832,819
126,653
126,697!
291,544!
185,069,
315,499
208,128
2,332,256
193-12
367-69
72-87
952-61
522-48
269-39
267-60
141-49
9,304
762
796
1,087
1,118
1,121,865
1,087,004
2,208,869
250-67
130,937
101,907
116,589
112,290
136,401
107,278
123,124
110,753
267,338
209,185
239,713
223,043
275,973
220,029
244,413
240,789
362-17
276-42
224-85
215-38
3,763
461,723
477,556
939,279
981,204
260-75
3,748
294,019
278,041
572,060
612,044
163-30
4,663
480,689
422,783
903,472
1,043,998
223-89
2,484
1,691
1,138
1,067
6,380
164,263
176,287
168,920
127,319
188,764
189,147
175,028
127,487
353,027
365,434
343,948
254,806
390,183
385,772
352,205
270,588
157-08
228-13 !
309-49 ;
253-60 ,
636,789
680,426
1,317,215
1,398,748
219-24
1
1,172
818
2,033
350
1,916
6,289
194,349
118,799
353,618
498,978
266,129
198,270
119,626
360,513
502,267
284,028
392,619
238,425
714,131
1,001,245
550,157
422,946
249,831
749,414
1,177,059
578,568
360-88
305-42 ,
368-62
3,363-20 1
301-97 1
1
1,431,873
1,464,704
2,896,577
3,177,818
505-30 !
1
2,065
2,688
2,623
7,376
338,285
177,873
276,193
341,214
178,394
277,105
796,713
679,499
356,267
553,298
1,589,064
824,125
419,535
667,139
1,910,799
399-09
156-08
254-34
, 792,-351
259-06
1 3,845
, 251,621
272,883
' 217,692
236,752
188,063
1
524,504
551,351
143-39 ;
' 2,030
2,568
1,221
216,283
214,433
184,660
' 433,975
451,185
372,723
, 474,243
473,839
407,412
223-62
184-52
333-67
.5,819
615,376
642,507
1,257,883
1,355,494
232-94 '
722
ITALY
Provinces and
Compartiiuenti
Area in
square
miles
Population, Present : Census 1881
Estimated
Population
Dec. 31, 1896
!
Population
per square
mile, 1898
Males
Females
Total
Caltanisetta
Catania
Girgenti
Messina
Palermo
Siracusa
Trapani
Sicily .
Cagliari
Sassari
Sardinia
Total .
1,263
1,917
1,172
1,246
1,948
1,442
948
136,493
280,014
156,034
227,934
352,722
173,295
141,612
129,886
283,443
156,453
232,990
346,429
168,231
142,365
266,379
563,457
312,487
460,924
699,151
341,526
283,977
338,278
695,287
355,832
536,123
856,872
433,786
387,132
267-83
362-70 1
303-61
430-28
439-87
300-82
408-37
9,936
1,468,104
1,459,797
2,927,901
3,603,310
362-65
5,204
4,090
217,497
134,891
203,138
126,476
420,635
261,367
471,950
294,144
90-69
71-92
9,294
352,388
329,614
682,002
766,094
82-43
110,646
14,265,383
14,194,245
28,459,628
31,667,946
286-21
At the time of the census of 1881, the resident or legal population was
28,953,480. The number of foreigners in Italy was 59,956, of Avhom 16,092
were Austrians, 12,104 Swiss, 10,781 French, 7,302 English, 5,234 Germans,
1,387 Prussians, 1,286 Americans (United States), 1,212 Greeks, 922 Spaniards,
and the rest mainly Turks, Belgians, Swedes and Norwegians, Dutch,
Egyptians, Argentines, Brazilians.
The administrative divisions of Italy are provinces, territories (circondari),
districts (distretti), and communes. There are 69 provinces : of which 60 are
divided into territories, and 9 (the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of
Venetia) into districts. There are 197 territories and 87 districts. Most of
the districts (70) have been 6?e/acto suppressed, though still nominally existing
as administrative divisions. The territories and districts are divided into com-
munes (comuni), of which at the census of 1881 there were 8,259; the
number at present (January, 1898) is 8,263,
The population of Italy is in general perfectly homogeneous. According to
statistics of 1861, the exceptions are : about 100,000 of French origin, in the
territories of Aosta, Pinerolo, and Susa, in the province of Torino ; from 3,000
to 4,000 of Teutonic origin in some communes of the temtories (circondari) of
Domodossola and Varallo, in the province of Novara, and of Aosta, in the
province of Torino ; from 55,000 to 60,000 of Albanian origin, in a dozen
communes of Nearer Calabria, and in some communes of the provinces of
Foggia, Avellino, Potenza, and Palermo; from 20,000 to 25,000 of Greek
origin, in a few communes of Nearer and Further Calabria, and of the province
of Lecce ; lastly, from 7,000 to 8,000 of Spanish (Catalan) origin, settled in
Alghero in the province of Sassari, in Sardinia.
The population over 16 years of age in 1881 was 19,301,420; of these
7,047,163 were unmarried, 10,361,039 were married, and 1,893,218 were
widowers or widows. Of the whole population, 16,205,371 or 569 per cent,
were unmarried ; 10,361,039 or 36-5 per cent, were married ; and 1,893,218 or
6-6 per cent, were widowers or widows.
The numbers of inhabitants at the different centres do not in Italian
statistics alford a suflBcient basis for distinguishing between the urban and rural
AREA AND POPULATION
V23
population. In Northern Italy the population is scattered over the country
and there are few centres. In Southern Italy and in the islands the country
people live in the towns, coming and going to cultivate their own plots of
land ; consequently there are many populous centres where, if numbers alone
were considered, the population would be regarded as urban, though it is, in
truth, almost exclusively rural. The following statement gives the number of
the head communes (capoluoghi) of provinces and of tcmtories (circondari) or
districts, with their population according to the census of 1881, but many of
these local capitals have under 6,000 inhabitants : —
Head communes of provinces
,, ,, of teriitories (cir-
condari) or dis-
tricts
Total
Other communes .
Total population
69 population . 4,509,159
215
284
2,573,004
7,082,163
21,377,465
28,459,628
The following table gives the population according to occupation in 1881,
exclusive of children under 9 years : —
Occupation
Male
Female
Total
Agi-iculture ....
5,124,431
3,048,951
8,173,382
Raising of animals and api-
culture ....
213,556
30,896
244,452
Horticulture
58,914
14,925
73,339
Silviculture
53,226
6,425
59,651
Fishing and chase
47,901
340
48,241
Mining ....
58,937
575
59,512
Mineral industiy
755
—
755
Industrial productions
2,281,317
1,904,144
4,185,461
Inns, clothing, &c.
51,500
99,594
151,094
Commerce ....
246,618
33,155
279,773
Transport ....
310,347
2,664
313,011
Proprietors and pensioners .
427,456
535,425
962,881
Employes and domestics
265,605
447,800
713,405
National defence .
160,155
—
160,155
Civil administration .
167,252
3,400
170,652
Public worship .
103,161
28,424
131,585
Justice ....
28,248
2
28,250
Sanitary service .
44,333
15,384
59,717
In.struction ....
32,908
46,887
79,795
Fine arts, &c. .
31,174
4,450
35,624
Literature and applied science
19,740
35
19,775
Hawkers ....
28,993
5,457
34,450
Workmen, porters, &;c.
121,562
8,267
129,829
Prisoners, paupers, &c.
73,188
56,493
129,681
Students, housekeepers, &c.
582,407
4,143,274
4,725,681
No occupation stated .
Total .
725,284
855,691
1,580,975
11,258,968
11,292,158
22,551,126
3 A 2
724 ITALY
Number of proprietors in Italy on December 31, 1881
—
Land
Buildings
Land and
Buildings
Total
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Total
Agriculturists
Pensioners and
persons of
means .
Other categories
Total .
219,328
26,370
102,088
131,181
70,311
133,524
204,395
27,938
249,725
59,406
54,702
185,768
1,033,753
289,985
579,885
227,175
263,733
274,165
1,457,476
344,293
931,698
417,762
388,746
593,457
1,875,238
t
733,039
1,525,155
347,786
335,016
482,058
299,876
1,903,623
765,073
2,733,467
l,399,96f
1,133,432
II. Movement of Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
Marriages
Births Living
Stillborn
Deaths
exclusive
of the
Stillborn
Surplus of
Births
Legitimate
Illegiti-
mate and
Exposed
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
228,103
231,581
228,152
222,603
229,041
1,048,190
1,028,242
1,021,563
1,025,227
1,031,649
78,106
74,693
70,539
70,278
70,199
1,126,296
1,102,935
1,092,102
1,095,505
1,101,848
46,254
46,256
45,896
46,364
47,132
776,713
776,372
783,813
758,129
695,602
349,583
326,563
308,289
337,376
406,246
The numbers of
according to Italian
2. Emigration.
emigrants from Italy to various parts of the world,
statistics (provisional for 1897), for six years were : —
—
1892
1893
1894
1895
1806 1897
Europe
107,025
104,482
110,759
105,273
109,928 ' 125,310
North Africa
2,317
3,119
2,390
3,063
3,227 2,457
America —
United States \
Canada . /
42,953
49,765
31,668
37,851
53,486 j 47,000
211
382
805
783
i 397
( 139
Mexico, Colom-
bia, Venezuela,
CentralAmerica
1,342
1,088
1,204
1,688
1,816
1,783
Brazil
36,448
45,324
41,628
98,090
76,665
80,984
Chili and Peru .
734
657
192
461
669
770
The Argentine,
Uiniguay, and
Paraguay
28,542
36,212
34,383
43,484
58,004
39,538
America(country
not named)
3,577
4,871
1,579
1,562
1,961
1,080
Other countries .
Total
518
851
717
926
1,329
794
223,667
246,751
225,323
293,181
307,482
299,899
PRINCIPAL TOWNS
725
This classification is founded upon the declarations of intending emigrants
made before the syndics (or mayors) of communes on application for passports,
and the figures difi'er considerably from those given in the statistics of the
various countries mentioned. The ditt'erence is explained chiefiy by the fact
that, in many cases, emigration to other European States, intended to be
temporary, becomes permanent, the emigrants embarking for America from
their temporary home. According to the statistics of the respective countries,
the Italian immigrants into the United States in 1897, 59,431 ; Argentina
and Uruguay, 48,329.
To the emigration in 1897 the different parts of Italy contributed as
follows: — Piemonte, 18,576 (11,938 temporary); Liguria, 3,931 (292 tem-
porary); Lombardia, 24,706 (11,118 temporary) ; Veneto, 110,896 (84,860
temporary) ; Emilia, 17,317 (6,042 temporary) ; Toscana^ 16,640 (6,072 tem-
Eorary) ; Marche, 4,803 (133 temporary); Umbria, 1,734 (199 temporary) ;
lazio, 6,832 (34 temporary) ; Abruzzi e Slolise, 12,591 (3,135 temporary); Cam-
pania, 32,604 (6,749 temporary) ; Puglie, 3,270 (710 temporary) ; I3a.silicata,
8,529 ; Calabrie, 15,557 ; Sicilia, 19,109 (3,115 temporary) ; Sardinia, 2,760
(29 temporary) ; total, 299,855 (134,426 temporary).
The number of Italians abroad in 1891 Avas oflBcially estimated at about
2 000,000.
III. Principal Towns.
The communal population of the capitals of provinces was as follows on
December 31, 1897 :—
Towns
Popula-
tion
! Towns
Popula-
tion
1
Towns
Popula-
tion
Naples .
536,073
Reggio neir
Lecce
32,271
Rome
487,066
Emilia
59,117
Ascoli Piceno .
30,755
Milan
470,558
Ancona .
58,088
Siena
30,468
Turin .
351,855
Parma .
53,421
]\Iantova
29,743
Palermo
287,972
Trapani .
49,992
Cuneo .
28,853
Genoa .
228,862
Foggia .
Forli .
47,173
' Avellino
27,805
Florence
209,540
47,092
Pesaro .
26,485
Venice .
155,899
Reggio di Cal .
46,399
Massa .
2.'), 804
Bologna .
153,206
Bergamo
45,929
Benevento
2.^800
Messina .
152,648
Arezzo .
45,289
Siracusa .
25,740
Catania .
129,651
Novara .
45,189
Girgenti
24,851
Leghorn
104,536
Cagliari .
44,624
Macerata
24,770
Ferrara .
89,310
Vicenza .
42,020
Cliieti .
23,112
Padua .
82,210
Sassari .
40,847
Teramo .
21,278
Lucca .
80,559
Pavia
39,058
Aquila degli
•Bari
80,450
Cremona
37,632
Abruzzi
21,202
Alessandria .
77,046
Caltanissetta .
37,467
Coscnza .
20,860
Verona .
72,860
Udine .
37,315
' Potenza .
19,418
Brescia .
67,923
Salerno .
37,310
Belluno .
18,348
Ravenna
67,760
Treviso .
36,120 ,
Campobasso .
15,000
Modena .
(57,658
Catanzaro
35,379 '
Rovigo .
11,800
Pisa
65,516
Piacenza
35,233
Grosseto
9,521
Perugia .
59,762
Caserta .
34,645 '
Sondrio .
9,166
Como
34,177 1
Porto Maurizio
7,557
726 ITALY
San Marino. — Embraced in the area of Italy is the independent Republic,
and one of the oldest States in Europe, San Marino. It has an area of 32
square miles, and a population of about 8,500 (1896). Its annual revenue is
about 361,000 lire, and expenditure 357,000. It has no public debt. A
new treaty of friendship with the Kingdom of Italy was concluded at
Florence, June 28, 1897.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State
religion of Italy ; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since
the establishment of the Kingdom, and more especially since
the suppression of the Supreme Pontiff's temporal govern-
ment, have subordinated the power of the Church and clergy to
the authority of the civil government, and secured freedom
of worship to the adherents of all recognised religions. How-
ever, scarcely any other positive creed as yet exists but Roman
Catholicism. At the census of 1881, of the total population about
62,000 were Protestants and 38,00 J Jews. Of the Protestants
22,000 belonged to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont, about
10,000 to the other evangelical Italian Churches, and 30,000
to foreign Protestant bodies.
Under the Roman Pontiff, this Catholic episcopal hierarchy in Italy con-
sists of 49 archbishoprics and 220 bishoprics, besides the 6 cardinal-
bishoprics near Rome. Of these prelacies, 76 are immediately subject to the
Apostolic See, 12 being archbishoprics. Thus there are altogether 37 metro-
politan sees, the average number of suffragan sees to each metroiiolitan being
about 4. Every archbishop or bishop is appointed by the Pope, on the advice
of a council of Cardinals ; but the royal exequatur is necessary for his instal-
lation. The number of parishes in 1881 was 20,465 ; of churches and
chapels, 55,263; of secular clergy, 76,560.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has greatly dwindled since the
year 1850, when the Siccardi bill, abolishing external ecclesiastical jurisdiction
and clerical privileges, passed the Sardinian Chambers. This law was ex-
tended, in 1861, over the whole Kingdom, and had the effect of rapidly dimi-
nishing the numbers as well as the incomes of the clergy.
In 1865 there were in Italy 2,382 religious houses, of which 1,506 were for
men and 876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of
whom 14,807 were men and 14,184 women. The mendicant orders numbered
8,229 persons, comprised in the above-mentioned total. A law for the entire
suppression of all religious houses throughout the Kingdom was adopted by
the Italian Parliament in 1866. This law provided a small pension to all
religious persons who had taken regular vows'before January 18, 1864. Several
RELIGION 72T
monasteiies were temporarily set aside for such monks, friars, or nuns as
might wish to continue their conventual life, the inmates, when come
down to a certain number, to be drafted off to another house, and so again,
until all finally died out. All collegiate chapters were likewise dissolved.
The lands and goods of these suppressed bodies were appropriated by thp
State.
See and Church of Rome.
The ' Statuto fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article, that * the
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole religion of the State.'
By the Royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that ' Rome and the
Roman Provinces shall constitute an integral part of the Kingdom of
Italy,' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged supreme head of the
Church, preserving his former rank and dignity as a sovereign prince.
Furthermore, by a bill that became law May 13, 1871, there was guaranteed
to His Holiness and his successors for ever, besides possession of the Vatican
and Lateran palaces and the villa of Castel Gandolfo, a yearly income of
3,225,000 lire or 129,000^., which allowance (whose arrears would in 1899
amount to 93,525,000 lire, or 3,741,000^.) still remains unclaimed and unpaid.
Supixme Pontiff. — Leone XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci), born at Carpineto in
the diocese of Anagni, March 2, 1810, son of Count Luigi Pecci ; conse-
crated Archbishop of Damiata 1843 ; Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium 1843-46 ;
Bishop of Perugia 1846 ; proclaimed Cardinal December 19, 1853 ; elected
Supreme Pontiff", as successor of Pio IX., February 20, 1878 ; crowned
March 3 following. He is, therefore, now 88 years old, and has filled the
Pontifical throne for 20 years.
The election of a Pope ordinarily is hy scrutiny. Each Cardinal in conclave
writes on a ticket his own name with that of the Cardinal whom he chooses,
These tickets, folded and sealed, are laid in a chalice which stands on the
altar of the conclave chapel ; and each elector approaching the altar repeats a
prescribed form of oath. Thereupon the tickets are taken from the chalice by
scrutators appointed from tJie electing body ; the tickets are compared with
the number of Cardinals present, and when it is found that any Cardinal has
two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected. Should none
have received the needful number of votes, another process is gone through,
viz., access — so called because any Cardinal may accede to the choice of
another by filling up another ticket made for that purpose. The present
Pontiff, Leone XIII., was chosen almost unanimously. He is regarded as
the 263rd Pope (or thereabouts) from St. Peter.
The rise of the Roman Pontificate, as an avowed temporal sovereignty, dates
from the year 755, when Pippin, King of the Franks, gave to Pope Stefano III.
the Exarchate and Pentapolis (or Romagna), conquered from the Lombards,
to which Charles the Great added part of Tuscany and Sabina ; and three
centuries later Countess Matilda of Tuscany bei|ueathed to the Holy See
her ample territories. Rome, however, with the Roman duchy, came practi-
cally under the Pope's civil dominion in the days of Gregorio the Great
(590-604). In 1860 the whole Pontifical State comprised an area of about
16,000 square miles, with a population of 3,125,000 souls ; thenceforth,
until 1870, about 5,000 square miles and 692,000 souls.
728
ITALY
From the accession of Martino V., 213th in the usual list of Roman
Pontiffs, to Leone XIIL, 263rd in the list, the Popes have been as follows : —
No. in
the list
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
Name of Pontiff
Martino V.
Eugenio IV. .
Niccolo V.
Calisto in, .
Pio 11. .
Paolo IL
Sisto IV.
InnocenzoVIII.
Alessandro VI.
Pio III. .
Giulio II.
Leone X.
Adriano VI. .
Clemente VII.
Paolo III. .
Giulio III. .
Marcello II. .
Paolo IV.
Pio IV. .
PioV. .
Gregorio XIII.
Sisto V.
UrbanoVII. .
Gregorio XIV,
Innocenzo IX.
CleraenteVIII.
Nation-
Year of
No. in
ality
Election
the list
Italian
1417
239
1 3 5
1431
240
1 > J
1447
241
S})ani.sh
1455
242
i Italian
1458
1 243
1
1464
i 244
1471
: 245
1484
! 246
Spanish
1492
247
Italian
1503
248
1503
249 !
3 )
1513
: 250 '
Dutch
1522
' 251
Italian
1523
1 252
1534
253
1550
254
1555
255
,3
1555
256
1559
257
1566
258 i
1572
259
1585
260
1590
261
1590
262
1591
263
1 3 3
1592
1
Name of Pontiff
Leone XI.
Paolo V.
Gregorio XV. .
Urbano VIII.
Innocenzo X. .
AlessandroVII.
Clemente IX.
Clemente X. .
Innocenzo XI.
AlessandroVII I
Innocenzo XII.
Clemente XI.
InnocenzoXIII.
BeuedettoXIII.
Clemente XII.
BenedeltoXIV.
Clemente. XIII.
ClementeXIV.
Pio VI. .
Pio VII.
Leone XII. .
Pio VIII.
Gregorio XVI.
Pio IX. .
Leone XIII. .
Nation-
Year of
ality
Election
Italian
1605
1605
1621
t , ,
1623
s
1644
'
1655
1667
1670
,,
1676
1689
1691
1700
1721
1724
1730
1740
1758
i 33
1769
1
1775
1800
i 3,
1823
1
1829
1831
1846
1
1878
The Bishop of Rome, or Pope, bj^ Roman Catholics accounted Vicar of Jesus
Christ upon earth and,' in that office, Successor of St. Peter, is the absolute and
irresponsible ruler of the Roman Catholic Church, regarded as the whole
Christian Church here below, Hisccc cathedra definitions on matters of faith
or morals are held to be infallible, and against his judgments there is no
appeal. Every baptized person is held to be spiritually subject to him, and
his jurisdiction over such to be immediate. The Roman Pontiff has for
advisers and coadjutors the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting, when
complete, of seventy meml)ers, namely, six cardinal-bishops, fifty cardinal-
priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons, but hardly ever comprising the full
number. In January 1899 the Sacred College consisted of six cardinal-
bishops, forty-five cardinal-priests, and five cardinal-deacons. The follow-
ing list gives the names of these fifty-six cardinals : —
RELIGION
729
Names
Cardinal- Bishops : —
Luigi Oreglia di
Santo Stetano
Lucido Maria Faroe- 1
chi . . 1
Serafino Vannut
elli.-j
Mario Mocenni
Isidoro Verga . \
Camillo Mazzella . i
}
Cardinal-Priests : —
Mieczyslaw Ledo-
cliowski
Luigi di Canossa
Jose Sebastiuo Netto .
Pietro Gcremia Mi- \
clielangelo Celesia j
Alfonso Capecelatro .
Patrick Francis Morau
Benoit M. Langenicux
James Gibbons .
Gaetano Aloisi-Ma- f
sella . . \
f
Mariano Ranipolla
del Tindaro .
Agostino Bausa .
Fran<^ois Marie Ben-\
jamin Richard j
Peter Lambert Goossens
Office or Dignity
Bp. ofOstia&Velle- N
tri, Dean Sacr. Coll., I
Camerlengo of Holy V
RonianChurcli, Prof. |
Congr. Ceremonial. -^
Bp. of Porto (fc Santa ^
Rufina, Sub-Dean of I
the Sacred College, ^
Vicar-General of I
His Holiness . -^
Bp. of Frascati, Pre-^
feet Congr. Bishops V
and Regulars . J
Bishop of Sabina
Bishoj^ of Albano, \
Great Penitentiary j
Bishop of Palestrina,
Prefect of the Con- I
gregation of Sacred j
Rites . . J
Prefect of the Congr. )
de Propaga n da Fide J
Bishop of Verona
Patriarch of Lisbon .
Archbp. of Palermo
, , Capua .
Sydney .
,, Reims .
, , Baltimore
Pro-Datary of His
Holiness .
Pontifical Secretary ^
of State, A roll-
priest of the Vati-
can Basilica, Gr.
Prior in Rome of
the Sov. Military
Order of St. John .
of Jerusalem . I
Archbp. of Florence .
, , Paris
,, Mechlin.
Nationality
Italian
Polish
Italian
Portuguese
Sicilian .
Italian .
Irish
French .
American
Italian .
y [ Sicilian
Italian
French
Belgian
Year of
Birth
Year of
Crea-
tion
1828
1
1873
1833
1877
1834
1887
1823
1893
1832
1884
1833
1886
1822
1875
1809
1841
1877
1884
1814
1884
1824
1830
1824
1834
1885
1885
1886
1886
' 1826
1887
1843
1887
1821
1887
1819
1889
1827
1889
730
ITALY
Names
Cardinal-Priests — cont
Franz de Paula von\
Schonborn . /
Vincenzo Vannutelli
Office or Dignity
Sebastiano Galeati
Anton Joseph Gruscha
Angelo di Pietro
Philipp Krenientz
Michael Logue .
Claudius Yaszary
Herbert Vaughan
Georg Kopp
Adolphe Louis Albert)
Perraud . /
Victor Lucien Sul-)
pice Lecot . J
Lorenz Schlauch
Giuseppe Sarto .
Ciriaco Maria Sancha\
y Hervas . j
Domenico Svampa
Andrea Ferrari .
Francesco Satolli . \
Joliann Haller .
Antonio ]\Iaria Cas-
cajares y Azara
Girolamo Maria Gotti
•Salvador Casauas j
Pages
Achille Manara
Maria
{
Domenico
Jacobini
Antonio Agliardi
Domenico Ferrata
Serafino Crotoni
Giusep[)e Prisco
Jose Maria Martin de
Herrera y de ... .
Iglesia . . )
Pierre Hector CouUie .
de*)
lat
Arclibp. of Prag
Archpriest of tlie\
Liberian Basilica /
Archbp. of Ravenna .
,, Vienna .
Prefect Cong. Council
Arclibp. of Xoln
,, Armagh .
5 , Gran
,, Westminster
Bishop of Breslau .
,, Autun .
Archbp. of Bordeaux
Bp. of Gross-Wardein
Patriarch of Venice .
Archbp. of Toledo .
Bolomia .
Milan
of the
Arch-
Prefect
Archpriest
Lateran
Basilica,
Congr. Studies
Arclib]). of Salzburg .
Valladolid
Prefect Congr. In- J
dulgences and >
Sacred Relics . )
Bishop of Urgel
Bishop of Ancona
and Umana.
Archbp. of Naples
Archbp. of Santiago
de Compostela .
Archbp. of Lyons
Nationality
Year of
Biilh
Bohemian
1844
Italian .
1836
>>
1822
Austrian.
1820 '
Italian .
1828
German .
1819
Irish
1840
Hungarian
1832
English .
1832
German .
1837
French .
1828
j>
1831
Hungarian
1824
Italian .
1835
Spanish ,
1838
Italian .
1851
>}
1850
}}
1839
Austrian.
1825
Spanish .
1834
Italian .
1834
1
Spanish .
1834
Italian .
1829
j>
1837
> 1
1832
> •
1847
J t
1833
>>
1836
Spanish .
1835
French .
1829
Year of
Crea-
tion
1889
1889
1890
1891
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1894
1894
1894
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1896
1896
1896
1896
1896
1897
1897
IIELIGION
731
Names
}
Cardinal- Priests — cout,
Guillaume Marie
Joseph Laboure
Guillaume Marie Ro-
main Sourrieu
Cardinal-Deacons .
Teodolfo Mertel .
Office or Dignity
r)
Arclibp. of Reiines
, , Rouen
Luigi Macchi
Andreas Steinhuber
Francesco Segna
Raffaele Pierotti
Vice-Cliancellor of\
Holy Roman Church/
Secretary of Apo
stolic Briefs .
Prefect Congr. Index
Nationality
YearoflY^"^"^^
Birth Cjea-
tion
French
Italian
German
Italian
1841
1825
1897
1897
1806 1858
1832 I 1889
1825 i 1893
1836 1894
1836 1896
Of these Cardinals 5 were nominated by Pope Pio IX., and 51 by
Leone XIII, ; 30 are Italian (continental or insular), and 27 not ; 3 are
British subjects. Under the present Roman Pontiff there have hitherto died
123 Cardinals, of whom 65 were of his own creation.
Though primarily belonging to the local Roman Church, the Cardinals are
regarded as Princes of the Church at large. Original iv they were simply
the parish rectors of Rome, or the deacons of districts there. In 1586
their number was finally settled by Sisto V. at seventy. The Cardinals compose
the Pope's Council and the various Sacred Congregations, govern the Church
while the Pontifical throne is vacant, and elect the deceased Pontiffs
successor. They received the distinction of the red hat under Innocenzo IV.,
during the Council of Lyons, in 1246 ; and the title of Eminence from
Urbano VIII., in 1630.
In 1898, besides the Pope and the Sacred College of Cardinals, the upper
Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world comprised 8 patriarchates of the
Latin and 6 of the Oriental Rite, 174 archbishoprics of tlie Latin and 18 of the
Oriental Rite, and 720 bishoprics of the Latin and 53 of the Oriental Rite.
Tlie list was as follows : —
I, Patriarchates.
Latin Rite : — 1. Constantinople ; 2, Alexandria ; 3. Antioch ; 4, Jeru-
salem ; 5, Venice ; 6, Lisbon ; 7. West Indies ; 8. East Indies.
Oriental Eite : — 1. Antioch, of the Maronites ; 2. Antioch, of the Mel-
chites ; 3. Antioch, of the Syrians ; 4. Babylon, of the Chalda^ans ; 5. Cilicia,
of the Armenians ; 6, Alexandria, of the Copts.
II. Archbishoprics.
Latin Rife : —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See
With Ecclesiastical Pro-
vinces ....
Oriental Rite : —
With Ecclesiastical Provinces
Armenian Rite
Graeco-Rumanian Rite
Grreco-Rutheniau Rite
1
Under Patriarchs :
9
Armenian Rite.
1
Greeco-]\Iclchite Rite
3
i)
Syriac Rite
3
Syro-Chaldaic Rite
2
Syro-]VIaronite Rite .
6
1
1
199
732
ITALY
Latin Rite: —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See
Sutfragan in Ecclesiastical
Provinces
Oriental Rite : —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See :
Grseco-Ruthenian Rite .
Suffragan in Ecclesiastical
Provinces :
III. Bishoprics.
Graeco-Rumanian Rite
Grseco-Ruthenian Rite
Under Patriarchs :
Armenian Rite .
Coptic Rite
Grseco-Melchite Rite
Syriac Rite .
Syro-Chaldaic Rite
Syro-Maronite Rite
83
637
3
6
16
2
8
5
9
2
773
Besides the above 979 sees, and 17 abbacies and prelatures ' nullius dice-
ceseos,' there are now 8 apostolic delegations, 129 apostolic vicariates,
and 48 apostolic prefectures, most of them held by titular archbishops or
bishops (formerly called ' in partibus infidelium ').
The summary of actual dignitaries stood as follows for the beginning of
1899 (each dignitary being reckoned under his highest rank and title) : —
Sacred College of Cardinals 56
Patriarchs of either Rite ...... 7
Archbishops and Bishops of the Latin Rite, Residential 802
Archbishops and Bishops of the Oriental Rite . . 54
Archbishops and Bishops, Titular .... 347
Archbishops and Bishops now without title . . 7
Prelates Nullius Dicecescos ..... 8
Total
1,295
The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on
by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, composed
of Cardinals, with Consultors and Oflicials. There are now twenty Sacied
Congregations, viz , Inquisition or Holy Office, Consistorial, Apostolic
Visitation, Bishops and Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State of
Regulars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for Eastern Rite,
Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Regular Discipline, Indulgences and Sacred
Relics, Examination of Bishops, Fabric of St. Peter's, Lauretana, Extra-
ordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies.
Except seven apostolic vicariates in South America and one in Mexico,
which depend upon the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs,
the apostolic delegations, vicariates, and prefectures throughout the world
stand under the ' Congregatio de Propaganda Fide. ' Their present distribution
is as follows : —
Continents, &c.
Apostolic
Delegations
Apostolic Apostolic
Vicariates Prefectures
Europe ....
Asia ....
Africa ....
America ....
Oceania .
Total
2
4
1
1
0
11
58
26
21
13
4
11
25
5
3
8
129 48
1
Within the British Empire the present number of Roman Catholic reai-
INSTRUCTION 733
Jonlidl 9CCS is 132, viz., 28 archbishoprics and 104 bishoprics, besides 1 apo-
stolic delegation, 28 apostolic vicariates, and 11 apostolic prefectures ; while
the Roman Catholic population sul)ject to Queen Victoria is estimated at ten
millions and a half.
Instruction.
The State regulates public instruction, and maintains, either en-
tirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces, public
schools of every grade. Every teacher in a public institution
maintained by the State, or by any other public body, must have
the qualitications required by law ; and in all public institutions
not belonging to the State, the same programme must be fol-
lowed, and the same rules observed. No private person can keep
a school without having obtained the authorisation of the State.
Elementary education is compulsory for children between six and nine years
of age. (Of these, according to the census of 1881, there were 1,808,129.)
The compulsory clause is by no means strictly enforced. The enactment,
however, provided that education for children of school age should be com-
pulsory only when the supply of teachers should reach the proportion to
population, in the least populous communes, ot one to every 1,000 inhabitants ;
in the most populous, one to every 1,500 inhabitants. The law now applies
in all the communes.
Schools in Italy may be cla.ssified under four heads, according as they
provide : (1) elementary instruction ; (2) secondary instruction — classical ;
{'6) secondary instruction — technical ; (4) higher education.
(1) Schools providing elementary instruction are of two grades. Religious
instruction is given to those whose parents request it. Only the lower-gra.de
instruction is compulsory. Every commune must have at least one lower-
grade school for boys and one for girls ; and no school with only one master
should have more than seventy pupils. Higher-grade elementary schools are
required in communes having normal and secondary schools, and in those
with over 4,000 inhabitants. In both grades the instruction is free.
(2) Secondary instruction — classical — is provided in the (jinnaai and Ucci,
the latter leading to the universities.
(3) Secondary instruction — technical. This is supplied by the technical
schools, technical institutes, and institutes for the mercantile marine.
(4) Higher education is supplied by the universities, by other higher
institutes, and by special higher schools.
Of these various educational institutions, the elementary schools are
supported by the communes, subsidies or free loans being occasionally
granted by the State. In the normal schools and licei. the State provides for
the payment of the staff and for scientific material. The ginnasi and techni-
cal schools should, according to the general law, be supported liy the com-
munes ; but, in many eases, the cost of these is borne, in great part, by the
State. In the technical institutes, half the sum paid to the staff is i)rovided
by the State. The universities are maintained by the State and by their own
ancient revenues, such expenses as those for scientific material, lal)oratories,
kc, being, in some cases, borne by the various provinces of the inii versify
region. The higher special schools are maintained conjointly by the State,
the province, the commune, and, sometimes, the local Chamlicr of Commerce.
The actual expenditure of State funds by the Ministry of Public Instniction
in 1896-97 was 42,918,376 lire ; in 1897 the provinces expended 5,432,773 lire
and the communes (including subsidies from the State and the provinces),
75,945,801 lire. There' are, besides, revenues derived from foundations
(opere pie) for the benefit of schools of different grades generally
734
ITALY
nor particular communes. For elementary instruction alone, in 1895, tliere
was expended by the State 4,126,089 lire ; by the Provinces 192,574 lire ; by
the Communes 58,708,509 lire : total, 63,027,172 lire.
The attendance at elementary schools (public and private) has, in the
last 34 years, risen from 1,000,000 to 2,585,000 ; or, allowing for the
increase of population, there has been an increase of 80 per cent, in school
attendance.
The percentage of illiterates, male and female, over five years for 1861,
over six for 1871 and 1881, and over twenty years of age, in 1861, 1871, and
1881, was :—
Year | Over 6 Years
Over 20 Years
1861
1871
1881
Male
68-091
61-86
54-56
Female
81-271
71-73
69-32
Male
65-47
60-17
53-89
Female
81-52
77-18
72-93
1 Over 5 years (1861).
The percentage of illiterate conscripts, and of illiterates married, at
various intervals from 1871 to 1896 was as follows : —
Year
Illiterate Conscripts
Illiterates Maniecl
Male
Female
1871
56-74
57-73
76-73
1881
47-74
48-24
69-90
1891
40-25
4112
59-16
1895
38-34
37-92
53-83
1896
—
36-96
52-57
According to the census of 1881 the number of the poimlation above six
years of age who could not read nor write in Upper Italy was 40-85 per cent. ;
Middle Italy, 64*61 per cent. ; South Italy, 79-46 per cent. ; and in the
Islands, 80-91 per cent. The smallest percentage of illiterates above six
years was in Piedmont, 32-27, and the largest in Basilicata, 85-18.
The following are the statistics of elementary (including normal) schools
and for higher schools : —
Teachers
Pupils
Males
Females
Total
317,117
^siZt for infants (1896)
2,813
6,884
160,485
156,632
Public schools : —
(1895-96)
50,526
51,505
1,296,461
1,082,888
2,379,349 !
Private do. ,,
9,000
9,565
C9,424
140,650
210,074 I
Evening, &c.,
1
schools , ,
4,687
4,848
110,468
40,901
151,369
Normal schools ,,
148
1,622
1,836
22,316
24,152
Licei , ,
332
1,852
—
—
17,689
Ginnasi ,,
708
4,739
—
—
59,578
Technical instit. ,,
74
1,314
—
—
10,274
Technicalschools,,
381
2,755
—
—
37,193
Naval mercantile , ,
21
183
—
—
917
JUSTICE AND CRIME
735
The following is a list of the twenty-one universities of Italy, with
statistics for 1897-98 :—
State Univer-
sities : —
Bologna
Cagliari
Catania
Genoa
Macerata
Messina
Modena
Naples
Padua
Palermo
Parma
Pavia
j Date of
No. of
Students .
Founda-
Teach-
and 1
tion
ers^
Auditors
1
i
1200
66
1,507
: 1626
32
241
1434
48
906
1243
64
1,256
1290
11
310
1549
45
591
1 1678
45
435
' 1224
81
5,465
, 1222
71
1,588 '
' 1805
61
1,222 1
1512
42
550 ;
1300
53
1,321 '
Pisa .
Rome
Sassari
Siena
Turin
Free Univer-
sities : —
Camerino .
Ferrara
PeiTigia
Urbino
Total .
Date of
Founda
tion
1338
1303
1677
1300
1404
1727
1391
1276
1564
No. of iStudent.s
Teach- and .
crs 1 I Auditors
56
75
24
31
6S
18
22
26
14
1,087
2,300
148
231
2,551
234
77
320
100
962 i22,440
1 Official only, exclusive of 'liberi docenti.'
In 1895-96 university courses under 22 professors were attended by 203
students at the licei of Aquila, Bari, and Catanzaro.
There were besides (1895-96) 13 university institutions, with 2,668
students ; 9 superior special schools, with 813 students ; 33 special and
practical schools of agriciUture (1897), with 1,137 students ; 2 schools of mining
(1897), with 82 students ; 196 industrial and commercial schools (1896),
with 30,398 students; 15 Government fine art institutes (1897), with 3,359
students ; 6 Government institutes and conservatoires of music (1897), with
913 students.
In 1891 there were in Italy over 1,831 libraries. Of these, 33 were
Government libraries, with 1,277,835 readers, who had 1,662, 083 books-given
out (1897).
On December 31, 1895, there were in Italy 1,901 periodical publications.
Of these, 479 were political ; 327 were economic, juridical, or on social
science ; 202 agricultural ; 243 religious ; 169 literary and scientific ; 138
medical ; the remainder being artistic, military, geographical or humorous
publications. In foreign countries there are about 130 periodicals publislied
in Italian.
In 1897 there were 9,732 books publislied in Italy, comprising 761
religious books ; 931 scholastic and educational ; 546 historical and
geographical; 399 biographical ; 1,515 of poetry and general literature; 309
in mathematical, physical, and natural science ; 1,053 in medicine ; 1,011 in
agi-iculture, the industries, commerce, &c.
Justice and Grime.
In Italy, justice in penal matters is administered in the first instance by
the Pretori, by the penal Tribunals, and by the Courts of assize ; on appeal,
by the penal Tribunals, and by the Courts of Appeal. The highest court
is the Court of Cassation, which confines itself to inquiring whether the forms
prescribed by law have been observed.
73G
ITALY
The Prctoii have jurisdiction concerning all delicts (delitti) yuiitshable by
imprisonment not exceeding three months, or banishment not exceeding one
3'ear, or by fine not exceeding 1,000 lire and all misdemeanors (contraven-
zioni). The penal Tiiljnnals have jurisdiction in the first instance in offences
(delitti) (excepted the offences for which the Code establishing a minimum of
five years punishable by imprisonment 'from ten months to ten years, or by fine
exceeding 1,000 lire. The Courts of Assize, which in most cases have juries,
have jurisdiction in all proceedings concerning serious offences (delitti) punish-
able by imprisonment for life (ergastolo) or l»y imprisonment from ten to
twenty-four years, or by minimum imprisonment exceeding five years. They
have exclusive jurisdiction concerning offences against the internal and external
security of the State, and all press offences. Appeal is allowed to the penal
I'rilninals from the sentences of the Pretori, and to the Courts of Appeal
from those of the penal Tribunals. The Court of Cassation has power to
annul, for illegality, sentences passed by the inferior Courts, and to decide
questions of jurisdiction or competency.
Italy is divided, for the administration of justice, into 20 appeal court
districts, each of which is subdivided into tribunal districts, 162 in all, and
these again into mandamenti, each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 1,548
in all.
Table showing the number of persons convicted ot offences of all kinds
before the various classes of courts, during five years : —
Year
Convictions
Total
Before the
Pretori
Before the
Tribunali
(first instance)
1
Before the
Corti d' Assise
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
370,305
324,509
370,144
360,289
377,448
297,343
249,008
290,515
278,658
293,106
69,616
71,853
76,112
78,027
80,997
3,346
3,648
3,517
3,604
3,345
The number of prisons or penitentiaries, with number of inmates, on De-
cember 31, 1895, is given as follows : —
Prisons or Penitentiaries
Number
Inmates
Male
Female
Total
Lock-ups .....
Penal establishments
Correctional establishments for the
young :
Government reformatories .
Private reformatories .
Penal colonies (Colonic di Coatti) .
Total
1,455
76
9
33
8
32,038
27,069
1,362
2,418
4,385
2,755
1,169
133
2,409
34,793
28,238
1,495
4,827
4,385
1,581
67,272
6,466
73,738
Pauperism.
In Italy legal charity, in the sense of a right in the poor to be supported
by the parish or commune, or of an obligation on the commune to relieve tlic
FINANCE 737
poor, does not exist. Exceptions to this rule are in favour of forsaken
children and the sick poor, the former being maintained and the latter
supplied with medical attendance at the expense of the province or commune.
Public charity in general is exercised through the permanent charitable
foundations, called ' Opere pie,' regulated by the law of July 17, 1890. These
are very unequally distributed in the dift'erent provinces, and their operation is
in the manner prescribed and in the territory named in the deeds of founda-
tion, or by the statutes in force. A thorough inquiry into their finaucial
position was made in 1880. The general results were : — Leaving out of
account institutions intended for lending, or for the encouragement of saving
(that is, monti di pieta, monti frumentari, casse di prestanze agrarie), there
were 21,866 opere pie, with a gross capital of about 2,000,000,000 francs.
Their income and ex])enses were : —
Lire.
Gross income . ... 90,446,446
Burdens (not charitable) . . . 7,704.055
Taxes, &c 15,287,969
Expenses of administration . . 15,690,132
Total disbursement . . 38,682,156
Balance free . . . 51,764,290
Added to this net income were casual legacies, contributions from private
benefactors, subsidies from communes (for hospitals), kc, all of which receijits
are spent annually, and thus the sum at the disposal of the opere pie in 1880
amounted to 96,509,071 lire.
The property of these foundations is constantly increasing. In the space
of 17 years (1881-97) the new legacies amounted to 277,772,725 lire. In
1897 the communes spent about 43,687,148 lire, and the provinces about
22,884,975 lire in charity ; over one-fourth of the former sum and over three-
fourths of the latter being disposed of through the opere pie.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
Revenue and JSxpenditure.
Direct taxes are those on lands, on houses, and on incomes
derived from movable capital and labour. The tax on lands,
amounting to about 96 millions, with an additional tenth, is spread
over the 9 cadastral compartimenti. That on houses is at the
rate of 12-5 per cent, (with three-tenths additional) of the amount
taxable, which is two-thirds of the real annual value in the case of
factories, and three-fourths in the case of dwelling-houses. By
hiw of July 22, 1894, thj tax on incomes from movable wealth
was raised to 20 per cent, of the amount taxable. The amount
taxable in the case of incomes on which the tax payable may
be levied by simply withholding the amount (public funds and
treasury bonds) is the whole income ; where the tax may bo
exacted by means of registers it i.=?, with some exceptions, thirty-
3 B
738
ITALY
fortieths of the income ; in the case of industrial and commercial
incomes, it is twenty-fortieths ; for life annuities and incomes from
labour alone (professions) it is eighteen- fortieths ; for incomes of
State, provincial and communal employees it is fifteen-fortieths.
The communes and provinces also tax lands and buildings.
The State grants to the communes one-tenth of the proceeds
of the tax on incomes as compensation for other communal re-
venues made over to the State by various laws.
The principal indirect taxes are : — the customs duties, the
octroi, the taxes on manufactures, the salt and tobacco monopolies,
lotto.
The financial year of Italy ends on June 30. The following
table exhibits the total ordinary revenue and expenditure of
the Kingdom, together with the annual difference in each of the
last seven years, the budget estimates being given for the last
two years : —
Tears
Total Eevenue
Total Expenditure
Difference
Lire
Lire
Lire
1892-93
1,748,429,655
1,739,085,890
+ 9,343,765
1893-94
1,853,294,087
1,912,149,991
- 58,855,904
1894-95
1,807,372,533
1,806,963,455
-1- 409,078
1895-96
1,839,753,509
1,841,386,659
+ 1,633,150
1896-97
1,745,497,676
1,745,370,744
+ 126,932
1897-98
1,699,659,117
1.692,234,369
+ 7,424,748
1898-99
1,696,791,355
1.686,793,409
+ 9,997,946 '
The following table shows for the year ending June 30, 1899,
the estimated revenue and expenditure : —
Revenue
Revenue — cont.
Lire
Lire
A.. Ordinary revenue : —
Taxes on transactions
1st Category : ^
Succession duties
37,500,000
State property
12.481,835
Registration
58,000,000
State railways
79,932,200
Stamps
67,900,000
Various
1,455,612
Raihvay tax
19,800,000
Various
32,925,000
Direct taxes :
Indirect taxes :
Land tax ,
306,750,000
Excise
48,000,000
House tax .
88,600,000
Customs .
246,000,000
Income tax
286,249,000
Octrois
Tobacco (mono-
51,865,000
poly)
188,250,000
1 The revenue and the expenditure of each Ministry are divided into four categories :—
1. Effective receipts or expenditure ; 2. Construction of railways, (fee. ; 3. Movement of
capital ; i. Receipts or expenditure d'ordre.
FINANCE
731)
Revenue — cont.
Lire
Salt(mono])oly). 74,000,000
Lottery . . 65,500,000
Public services :
Posts . 55,000,000
Telegraphs 14,500,000
Prisons . . 5,408,200
Fines . . 1,460,000
School taxes . 7,200,000
Various . . 6,143,600
Repayments . 22,263,184
Various receipts . 20,342,500
Total 1st Category 1,596,425,931
4th Categoiy {d'm-dre)
"Working of State
domains .
Interest of paper-
money caution
fund
Share of gross pro-
ceeds of Octrois
of Rome and
Naples .
A^arious
15,510,555
18,913,388
27,950,947
2,656,159
Total 4th Gate- j 65^031,049
Revenue — cont.
Lire
Total ordinary) . ^^, .^^ ^.q^
revenue ' | ^, 661, 456, 980
B. Extraordinary re-
venue : —
1st Category (ef-
fective receipts)
2nd Category (con-
struction of
railways) .
3rd Category
(movement of
caj)ital) :
Sale of property, &c.
Recovery of debts .
Various
Total 3rd Gate -)^
gory /
Total extraordi-
nary revenue
}
9,858,046
565,465
14,264,514
4,000,000
6,646,350
24,910,864
35,334,373
Total revenue 1, 696, 791, 355
Recapitulation.
—
Ordinary-
Extraordinary
Total
Lire
Lire '
Lire
1st Category (effective
receipts)
1,596,425,931
9,858,046
1,606,283,977
2nd Categoiy (construc-
tion of railways) .
—
565,465
565,465
3r(l Category (movement
of capital) .
—
24,910,864
24,910,864
4th Category (receipts
d'ordre)
Total .
65,031,049
—
65,031,049
1,661,456,980
35,334,375
1,696,791,355
3 B 2
740
ITALY
Expenditure
A. Ordinary expendi-
ture : —
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
Interest on con-
solidated debt .
Interest on re-
deemable debt .
Railway annui-
ties .
Floating debt
Fixed annuities .
Civil list and appa-
nages
Senate and Cham-
ber of Deputies
General expenses
Reserve fund
Various
Lire
Total 1st Cate-
gory
4th Category
{cCordre)
Total Ministry)
of Treasury /
Ministry of Finance ;
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
General expendi-
ture
Expenses of collec-
tion .
Total 1st Gate-)
gory /
4th Category
Total Ministry I
of Finance j
Ministry of Justice,
&c. .
^Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
Ministry of Public
Instruction
Ministry of the
Interior
Ministry of Public
AVorks .
474,593,831
61,498,696
26,802,676
118,407,646
5,720,000
16,050,000
2,201,200
9,695,984
3,500,000
1,001,260
Expend itu ee — cont.
\ 719,471,293
21,609,373
778,741,460
28,724,917
149,540,622
178,265,539
29,733,287
207,998,826
40,175,798
12,797,930
44,625,844
64,198,946
27,978,423
Ministry of Posts
and Telegraphs .
Ministry of War .
Ministry of Marine
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry,
and Commerce .
Total ordinary)
expenditure /
B. Extraordinary ex-
penditure : —
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture)
3rd Category
(movement of
capital) :
Redemption of
debts
Other disbursements
Total 3rd Gate-) '
goiy /
Total Ministry)
of Treasury J
]\Iinistiy of Finance
Ministry of Justice,
&c. .
^Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
Ministry of Public
Instruction
Ministry of the
Interior
Ministry of Public
Works .
JNlinistry ot Posts
and Telegraphs .
Ministry of War .
Ministry of JNIarine
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Commerce,
and Industry
Total extraor- ^
dina^v ex- j-
penuiture j
Total cxpendi-\
ture j
Lire
60,089,029
263,306,783
101,843,646
9,139,838
1,573,235,729
7,981,130
25,009,664
4,670,000
29,679,664
37,660,794
3,470,910
24,920
23,000
439,045
2,329,097
47,164,213
60,016
16,038,000
4,120,000
2,227,685
113,557,680
1,686,793,409
FINANCE
741
Recapitulation by Categories.
—
1st Category
(effective)
2nd Category
(Construction
of railways)
3rd Category
(Movement of
capital)
4th Category
(d'ordre)
Total
Revenue
Expenditure
Difference .
Lire
l,606,2s3,977
1,569,019,813
Lire
565,405
18,645,983
Lire
24,910,804
31,096,504
Lire
(>5, 03 1,049
65,031,049
Lire
1,696,791,355 1
1,086,793,409
-f37,264,164
. -18,080,518
-9,185,700
—
+ 9,997,946
In the ordinary revenue there is a surplus of 88,221,251 lire,
and in the extraordinary revenue a deficit of 78,223,305 lire ;
giving a net surplus of 9,997,946 lire.
Public Debt.
The following table shows the interest (including premiums
and sinking fund of the Public Debt on July 1, 1898 : — ■
1
1
Debts
Per
Cent.
Rentes, Inter-
ests, &c.
Sinking
Fund
1897-98
Year of
Extinc-
tion
I. Consolidated debt :
Rentes at 5 per cent.
>> 3 ,,
4^ „
>» ^ >j
Total consolidated debt .
II. Permanent annuity due to)
the Holy See ". . /
III. Debts separately inscribed :
IV. Various debts
V. Floating debt :
Treasury bonds
Current accounts
Bank advances
Total floating debt
Total public debt .
5
3
44
4
3to5
3to6
Lire
401,741,482
4,817,539
56,188,606
7,519,208
Lire
470, "266, 835
—
\1896-
/1961
\1902-
/1985
3,225,000
—
13,016,421
417,113
93,361,342
3,069,935
8,800,000
400,000
450,000
9,650,000
—
—
589,519,598
3,487,048
—
742 ITALY
The capital of the consolidated and redeemable debt amounted
to 12,294,182,508 lire on July 1, 1897, or 491,767,300^. sterling,
and the interest 582,464,125 lire, or 23,298, 565^. sterling.
The debt per head of population was thus 15^. lis. Qd., and the
interest 14s. 9d. The value per head of the special exports
(exclusive of the precious metals) in 1897 was II. 8s. 2^d. For
the period 1884-89, the real and personal property of Italy,
estimated from the inheritances taxed annually, were, by Signor
Pantaleoni, put respectively at 33,100 and 21,600 million francs,
the total wealth being thus estimated at 54,700 million francs,
or 2,188,000,000^. sterling.
11. Local Finance.
The total revenue of the communes of Italy in 1897 amounted, according
to official rej)orts, to 646,923,550 lire ; the revenue of the provinces amounted
to 130,296,553. The debts of the communes in 1896 (January 1) amounted
to 1,202,469,371 lire; of the provinces, in 1895 (January 1), to 164,279,041
lire.
III. Public Pkoperty.
On June 30, 1897, the property of the State was as follows : —
Estimated Value.
Lire
Financial assets (Treasury) ..... 697,274,253
Property, immovable, movable, loans and various
titles 553,629,376
Property of industrial nature ..... 1,547,989,065
Material in use in army and navy . . 1,343,724,929
Property used in the service of the State , . . 455,361,170
Scientitic and artistic material .... 216,669,215
Total. . . . 4,810,648,008
In the financial year 1896-97 the revenue from State property was : —
Railways, 78,215,188 lire; ecclesiastical, 1,973,939 lire; from fixed capital,
7j890,723 lire; from the Cavour Canals, 2,596,498 lire; various, 2,147,055
lire ; total, 92,823,323.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The extent of the land frontier of Italy is as follows : — French
frontier 487 kilometres; Swiss 672; Austro-Hungarian 779;
frontier of San Marino 37*8; in all (exclusive of San Marino)
J)EFENCE 743
1,938 kilometres. The coast line of the peninsula measures
3,383 kilometres; of »Sicily, 1,115; of Sardinia, 1,336; of Elba
and the small islands, 1,042 ; the total length of coast is thus
6,876 kilometres.
On the Continental frontier of Italy the principal passes of
the Alps are defended by fortifications distributed according to a
plan decided on in 1874, and at present in process of execution.
The basin of the Po is also studded with fortified places, though
some of the old fortresses have been either abandoned or de-
classed, while others are being constructed. The chief strong places
in the region are the following : — Casale, Piacenza, Peschiera,
Verona, Mantua, Legnago (these four form the old Austrian
Quadrilateral), Venice, Alessandria, Bologna. On the coasts
and islands are the following fortified places : — Vado, Genoa,
Spezia, Monte Argentaro, Gaeta ; w^orks in the Straits of
Messina ; Tdrento ; Ancona. On the north Sardinia is de-
fended by the fortifications in the Island of Maddalena. Home
is surrounded by walls, and is protected by a circle of forts.
II. Army.
The army of Italy, in virtue of the law of June 28, 1897, consists of the
permanent army, the mobile militia, and the territorial militia. Personal
military service is obligatory on all citizens fit to bear arms from the
completion of their twentieth year to December 31st, after the completion
of their thirty-ninth year. The annual levies are enrolled in three categories.
Those who (as decided by lot) belon<; to the first category serve as follows : —
In the permanent army the carabineers, and non-commissioned oflBcers of
whatever corps, five years under arms and four years with unlimited leave ;
in the territorial militia both carabineers and non-commissioned officers
serve ten years with unlimited leave ; other corps (cavalry included),
in the permanent army, two or three years under arms and tive to seven
years with unlimited leave ; in the mobile militia four or three years ; and in the
territorial militia seven years. Those of the second category remain eight or nine
years in the permanent army with unlimited leave, four or three years in the
mobile militia and seven years in the territorial militia. Those who belong to the
third category join neither the permanent army nor the mobile militia, but
serve their nineteen years in the territorial militia with unlimited leave. The
men of the second category are called to arms for training for a period varying
from two to six months, which may be divided over one or more years. Those
of the third category have thirty da}'S training ; in time of war they have
garrison duty and form the last reserve. In the levy of the year 1696, the
number of recruits examined was 3i'6,824. Of these, 99,849 were put back ;
108,326 were unfit to serve ; 94,695 were assigned to the first category ; 1,681
to the second ; and 92,273 to the third. Youths who have received a superior
education are allowed to serve as one-year volunteers on payment of a sum
744 ITALY
fixed annually but never exceeding 2,000 lire for cavalry, or 1,500 lire for
others. They may fulfil their period of service at any time after their seven-
teenth up to their twenty-sixth year. They belong to the first category. Non-
commissioned officers engage to serve five years ; by continuing their service
for twelve years they have a right to government employment ; and after
twenty j^ears service they are entitled to a pension. Officers are chiefly drawn
from the military institutes.
The army consists of twelve army corps as follows : — I. Turin, II. Alexan-
dria, III. Milan, IV. Placentia, V. Yerona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona, VIII.
Florence, IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. Bari, XII. Palermo. There is, besides,
the divisional command of the Island of Sardinia, dependent on the ninth
army corps. Each army corps contains two divisions, and each division com-
prises from two to five military districts of which there are in all eighty-
eight.
1. The Permavent Army consists of the general stafi" ; corps of the general
staff" ; Infantrj^ : 96 regiments of the line and 12 regiments of bersaglieri,
each regiment of 3 battalions of 4 companies, 1 depot, and 1 staff ; 7 regi-
ments of Alpine troops divided into 22 battalions, in 75 companies, and
7 depot companies ; 88 military districts.
Cavalry : — 24 regiments (10 of lancers and 14 of light horse) of 6 squad-
rons and 1 depot and 1 staff" ; 4 depots for remounts.
Artilleiy : — 24 regiments of field artillery, each of 1 staff and 2 brigades
of batteries, 1 or 2 companies of train, and 1 depot ; 1 legiment of horse
artilleiy, of 1 staff", 3 mounted brigades (6 batteries), 1 brigade of train (4
companies) and 1 depot ; 1 regiment of mountain artilleiy, of 1 staff", 5
brigades (15 batteries), 1 depot ; 22 brigades of coast and fortress artillery (78
companies) ; 5 companies of artillery mechanics.
Engineers : — 5 engineer regiments, consisting of 1 staff", with 21 brigades,
60 companies of engineers, 10 companies of train, and 1 depot, besides an
independent brigade of 6 comj)anies of railway engineers, to be distributed by
the war office amongst the various regiments according to requirements.
Carabineers : — 11 temtorial legions, 1 legion of recruits consisting of com-
panies (the number of which may vary according to requirements), of a
squadron of mounted carabineers and of 1 depot.
Sanitary corps, 12 companies ; commissariat, 12 offices of commissaiiat ;
veterinary corps ; administrative corps, comprising 12 companies army service
corps ; invalids and veterans, 2 companies and 1 staff" ; establishments and
institutes of instruction ; disciplinary establishments, 12 companies and 2
houses of correction.
2. The Mobile Militia consists of infantiy : — 51 regiments of the line of
3 battalions of 4 companies ; 20 battalions of bersaglieri of 4 companies ;
38 companies of Alpine troops ; 31 squadrons of cavalry.
Artillery : — 63 batteries of field artillery ; 15 batteries of mountain
artillery ; 78 companies of coast and fortress artillery ; 24 companies of
train (artilleiy).
Enginee' -; : — 54 companies of engineers, 4 companies of train (engineers).
3. '" 6" Territorial Militia consists of 324 battalions of infantry ot 4 com-
r lilies ; 22 battalions of Alpine trooi)s with 75 companies ; 100 companies of
fortress artillery ; 30 companies of engineers ; sanitary and accountant com-
panies, ^-^ ^.,«
DEFENCE
745
Official statement of the strength of the Italian army for June,
1897 :—
Pennauent Army
Militia
1
Under
Arms
On
Unlimited
Leave
Mobile
\
Territorial
Officers.
Effective
14,076
—
18
4,677
Half-Pay .
.
248
—
—
—
Supplementary
• ■ • .
9,811
—
Auxiliary
.
—
—
1,196
—
Reserve
.
—
—
—
6,116
Total officers
Troops.
14,324
,.
10,793
11^625
Carabineers .....
23,469
5,104
1,017
14,959
Infanti7
101,466
293,279
407,499
405,133
Bersaglieri .
14,243
35,632
29,212
33,847
Alpine troops
11,392
23,364
32,135
20,894
]\Iilitary districts
9,218
49,360
—
—
Unassigned .
r
—
9,522
1,375,256
Cavalry
22,703
24,215
—
50,578
Artillery
34,672
89,094
12,681
41,645
Engineers .
8,821
22,597
16,845
9,998
Military schools
1,378
—
—
—
Sanitary corps
2,602
9,474
8,928
12,064
Commissariat
2,041
4,865
3,763
1,729
Invalid and veteran corps ,
160
—
—
—
Penal establishments and disci-
plinary companies .
2,098
—
—
—
Guards (Policemen, &c.)
—
—
4,370
9,079
Depot for horses ....
397
—
—
—
Railway and telegraph service
Total troops
Grand total
—
—
—
17,499
237,660
556,984
475,972
1,992,681
251,984
.^
^
2,003,474
1,043,981
3,299,439
The special African corps on July 1, 1896, was composed as follows : —
1 company of carabineers, 1 battalion of chasseurs, 7 battalions of infantry
(native), 1 squadron of cavalry (native), 1 mountain battery (native) 1
company of fortress artillery, 1 company of engineers, 1 company of
specialists, 1 company of sappers, 1 train company. The force contained
in all 7,729 men, of whom 5,600 natives. There were in Africa, besides,
as troops of reinforcement : 3 battalions of infantry, 2 batteries of artillery,
1 company of engineers ; in all 2,290 men.
746
ITALY
The Italian army is provided with the repeating rifle (the Italian system)
and sword bayonet.
III. Navy.
The naval administration, under the Minister of Marine, is thus organised :
An assistant secretary ; an admiral as chief of the staff" ; a medical inspector
at the head of the sanitary service ; a major-general or colonel of military
engineers at the head of a section having charge of the engineering works
of the naval stations ; and two officials directing the sections of account. An
admiral is chief of a special department administering matters concerning the
'personnel, an inspector-general of the genio navale of that dealing with naval
construction, and an admiral of that devoted to ordnance and equipment.
A civil official administers the department of the merchant marine, which is
under the direction of the assistant secretary for the navy. For purposes of
local naval administration and defence the Italian littoral is divided into
three prefectures : 1, Spezia ; 2, Naples ; 3, Venice. By a royal decree of
August 14, 1893, the vessels of the Italian fleet have been apportioned, for
administrative purposes, between the three prefectures and Taranto. There
are torpedo stations all round the Italian coasts, the head stations being at
Spezia, Maddalena, Gaeta, Messina, Taranto, Ancona, and Venice.
The following tabular statement of the strength of the Italian Navy, in-
cluding ships built and building, but excluding training ships, transports, and
non-effective vessels, is framed on the same plan as similar tables given for the
British, French, German, and other navies.
-
Launched
Dec. 1897
Building
i
Battleships, 1st Class
10
3
,, 2nd Class
2
—
,, 3rd Class
2
—
Coast defence ships .
1
—
Cruisers, 1st Class .
2
2
,, 2nd Class .
5
—
,, 3rd Class .
10
1
Torpedo gunboats .
17
—
Torpedo-craft, 1st Class
IQ
4
, , , , 2nd Class
103
—
,, ,, 3rd Class
73
1
The tables which follow of the Italian armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged chronologically, after the manner of other similar tables
in this book. In the first table, the figures following the names indicate the
several battleship classes to which they have been assigned. Abbreviations :
c. h. , central battery ; t. turret ; bar. , barbette ; q. f., quick fire : —
DEFENCE
747
a
p.
Prineii>al
o to
cc
3
CO
Q
Name
Pi2 o
Arinaiiient
^1
12-0
cb
Castolfitlanlo .
3
18C3
4,259
U
6 6-Oin. q.f. ; 6 4-7in. q.f. .
3
2,500
cb
Sail Martino
:i
1863
4,234
^
8 5-9in. ; 5 4-7in.
3
2,090
13-0
cb
Maria Pia
•A
1803
4,208
u
8 5-9in. ; 6 4-7in.
3
2,243
13-0
t
Affondatore
•d
1805
3,913
5
2 10-Oin, ; 6 4-7in. q.f.
2
2,700
13-C.
cb
Palestro .
1871
6,167
9
1 11-Oiu. ; 6 lOOin.
2
3,301
12-9
t
Duilio
2
187(5
11,138
22
H lOin. ; 3 Oin. q.f. ; 5 4-7r
4
7,710
15-(;
t
Dandolo .
o
1878
12,205
22
/ ill. q f. I
4
7,794
15-0
bar
Italia
1
1880
15,054
19
417'Oin. ; 8 5-9iii. ; 4 4-7in.(i.f.
4
11,986
17-8
bar
Lepaulo .
1
1883
15,900
19
417-Oin. ; 8 0-Oin. ; 4 4-7in.(i.f.
4
15,797
18-4
bar
Lauria
1
1884
11,174
18
U 17-Oin. ; 2 O'Oin. ; 4 4-7in.
1 q.f.
^1
10,590
17-5
bul-
Andrea Doria .
1
1885
11,204
18
10,300
161
bar
Francesco Murosiui
1
1885
11,324
18
10,000
16-4
bar
Re Uniberto
1
1888
13,893
14
^
■^-1
19,500
18-5
bar
Sardegna
1
1890
13,800
14
}4 13-5in. ; 8 6-Oin. q.f. ; 10
22,h00
20-2
bar
Sicilia
1
1891
13,298
14
) 4-7in. q.f.
19,500
19-8
bar
Ammiraglio di Saiut-
Bon
1
1897
9,800
10
U 10-Oin. ; 8 0-Oin. q.f. ; 8
/ 4-7in. q.f.
M
13,500
18-0
bar
Emanuele Filiberto 1
1897
9,800
10
13,500
18-0
bar
Regina Margherita
1
—
13,500
—
—
_.
bar
Benedalto Brin .
1
—
13,500
—
—
—
—
' bar
1
Priiicipessa Elena
1
13,500
-
—
—
—
The first-class cruisers in the following list are all of deck-protected,
have more or less of side-armourinff.
and
Name
Marco Polo .
Vettor Pisani
Carlo Alberto
Varese .
Qiuseppe Garibaldi
Francesco Ferrucio
-o
•g
H'P-
s
PhS 5
s
.2 Eh
c8
ft
1892
4,583
1895
6,500
1892
6,500
—
7,400
—
7,400
—
7,400
Armament
6 0-Oin. q.f. ; 10 4-7in. q.f.
^12 0-Oin. q.f. ; 0 4-7in. q.f.
,4 Sin. ; 10 6-Oin. q.f. ; 0
I" 4-7in. q.f.
1^
O .1-!
12
(2; «
CO
5 I 10,000
4 I 13,000
19-0
20-0
13,000 I 20-0
The turret battleship Duilio is of the central citadel turret type,
represented in our own navy by the Inflexible, to which it is superior
in speed and armament, but much inferior in protection. Its four
10-inch Armstrong guns are coupled in two closed turrets amidships,
which are placed somewhat diagonally in relation to one another, their
axes a little on either side of the keel-line. The Dandolo, originally of the
same type, has been refitted and rearmed ; in place of the four 100-ton
muzzle-loaders, 10-inch breech-loaders have been mounted, along with
seven 6-inch and five 4 7-inch quick firers. In the Italia and Lcpanto,
which are the heaviest of Italian battleships (15,900 tons), and among
the largest war-ships afloat, there is a similar disposition of the heavy
guns. Except upon the casemate and at the base of the funnels, these ships have
no vertical armour, the jirotection being given by a 4-inch steel deck below the
water-line. The liuggiero di Lauria and her two sisters are smaller battle-
ships (11,000 tons), but their four Armstrong guns are still heavier (105 tons).
These are mounted in couples in a timilar manner in two protected barbettes
before and abaft the single fighting mast, and severally on the starboard and
748 ITALY
port sides. The vital parts of the ships are protected by eighteen inches of
vertical compound armouring. They have thus an advantage over the colossal
Italia and L&panto, which, through deficiency of side-armouring, are subject
to serious damage to the substructure of the heavy guns, The Be Umhcrto,
l:iarde(jna, and Sicilia are very powerful battleships. They may be regarded
as enlarged Benboivs, Their heaviest guns are of 67 tons, and are mounted in
pairs in polygonal inclined barbettes fore and aft in the keel-line of the ship.
The heaviest guns have been replaced by lighter ones in the older battle-
ships. Tiie new battleships, Ammiraglio cli Saint-Bon and Emamiele
Filiherto, mark a change in Italian ship-building policy. The protection is
better. The over-all steel belt is 10 inches thick at the water-line, and the
redoubts have 4-incli plating, and the maximum thickness of the protective
deck is 3 inches. The heavy guns are coupled in turrets at either end of a
redoubt, which contains the secondary armament. The armament consists
of four 10-inch guns and eight 6-inch, eight 4*7 inch, and twenty-two smaller
quick-firers. Three other battleships of greater displacement (13,500 tons)
have been laid down, and are in an early stage. They were designed by the
late Signor Brin, Minister of Marine. To replace the several armoured
cruisers built nnder the name of Garibaldi and Varese, at Leghorn, and
Sestri Ponente, and sold, by permission of the Italian Government, to the
Argentine Kepublic and Spain, two other cruisers of the same class, and bear-
ing the same names, have been laid down. They will be of greater displace-
ment than their predecessors, and superior in armament and some other
respects.
The personnel consists of 1,731 officers (comprising 1 admiral,
20 vice- and rear-admirals, 140 captains and commanders, 340 lieutenants,
167 sub-lieutenants, 120 midshipmen, 303 engineers, 173 surgeons, 129 pay-
masters, 129 warrant officers, 3,729 petty officers, 18,377 sailors, 155 bovs ;
total 23,992.
Production or Industry.
1. Agriculture.
The systems of cultivation in Italy may be reduced to three : — 1, The
system of peasant proprietorship (coltivazione per economia o a mano propria) ;
2. That of partnership (colonia parziaria) ; 3. That of rent (affitto).
Peasant proprietorship is most common in Piedmont and Liguria, but is found
in many other parts of Italy ; in the province of Rome, the Abruzzi and
Molise, Campania, Apulia, the Basilicata, Calabria, and in Sicily and Sardinia.
This system tends to become more general The system of partnership or
colonia parziaria, more especially in the form of mezzadria, consists in a form
of partnership between the proprietor and the cultivator. No wages are pai^l,
profits and losses are equally divided, the families of the two partners sub-
sisting, it may be, entirely on the common produce of the cultivation. This
system is general in Tuscany, the Marches, and Uml)ria ; it prevails over other
systems in Emilia, and is frequently found in the sub-mountain (pede montane)
regions of Lombardy and Venetia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, in Campania and
in Sicily. It is almost unknown in the Basilicata, little practised in Apulia,
Calabria, and Sardinia, and has been entirely abandoned in the two most
advanced centres of cultivation in the south, viz : — Barese and the province of
Naples. Various modifications of the system exist in different parts of Italy.
The system of rent (affitto) exists in Lombardy and Venetia, especially in the
marsh lands, Emilia, Campania, the Abruzzi and Molise, Piedmont, and
Sicily. It is little used in Umbria, the Marches, Tuscany, the Province of
PRODUCTION OK INDUSTRY
741J
Rome, the Basilicata, and Sardinia. In Upper Italy the agreement is usually
for nine (sometimes other multiples of three) years ; in Southern Italy
for two, four, or six years, according to local customs.
Large farms (la grande coltura) exist in the neighbourhood of Vercelli,
Pavia, Milan, Cremona, Chioggia, Ferrara, Gro.sseto, Rome, Caserta, and iu
Apulia, the Basilicata, Calabria, and at Girgenti and Trapani in Sicily. In
Italy generally the land is much subdivided.
the area of Italy comprises 28,658,900 hectares. Of this area, 20,238,000
hectares (70*6 per cent.) is productive, 4,647,451 hectares (16 "2 per cent.)
unproductive, and 3,773,449 hectares (13*2 per cent.) produces little or
nothing. Agriculture is generally in a primitive condition. The areas
and produce of the various crops in 1895 and produce in 1896 and 1897,
so far as officially ascertained, are shown in the following table : —
Area
Produce |
_
Total
Per
Hectare
1895
1895
1895
1896
1897
Hectares
Hectolitres
Hectares
Hectolitres
Hectares
Wheat .
4,593,000
41,499,000
51,180,000
30,630,000
9-03
Maize
1,957,000
24,838,000
23,160,000
21,074,000
12-69
Oats
474,000
6,764,000
—
—
14-28
Barley
297,000
2,620,000
3,544,000
—
9-11
Rye .
137,000
1,413,000
—
"""
10-30
Rico
163,000
5,994,000
3,761,000
6,430,000
36-86
Pulse
849,000
4,080,000
—
—
4-84
Quintals
Quintals
Quintals
Quintals
Hemp
105,000
757,000
—
—
7-18
Flax
52,00C
203,000
—
3-90
Potatoes .
209,000
7,022,000
—
33-67
Chestnuts
412,000
2,633,000
1,633,000
—
6 40
Hectolitres
Hectolitres
Hectolitres
Hect.
Wine
3,462,000
24,246,000
28,396,000
25,959,000
7-00
Olive oil .
1,034,000
2,894,000
1,912,000
1,290,000
2-80
Kilogrammes
Kiloga'ammcs
Kilogrammes
Kilog.
Tobacco .
5,245
6,743,000
5,911.000
6,210,000
1-287
Silk cocoons .
—
41,152,000
39,844,000
36,726,000
Plants
Number
Number
Number
Per plants
Acid fruits
17,085,000
3,337,400,000
3,464,000,000
—
19-5
The wheat yield in 1898 was 47,000,000 hectolitres. The area under
tobacco in 1896 was 4,902 hectares ; in 1897, 4,798 ; regarding other crops,
there are no more recent statistics than those given in the table.
In 1890 Italy had 5,000,000 cattle, 6,900,000 sheep, 1,800,000 goats,
1,800,000 swine. In 1897 Italy exported 37,226 and imported 17,850 cattle ;
exported 38,603 and imported 8,134 sheep ; exported 887 and imported
5,152 goats ; exported 40,066 and imported 3,779 swine. In 1895 the pro-
duction of wool was 9,777,000 kilogrammes, of the value of 16,725,000 lire.
Silk culture, though flourishing most extensively in Piedmont and
Lombardy, is carried on all over Italy. In 1895 there were 550,048 persons
employed in rearing silkworms, and 172,000 skilled and other workers (in-
cluding nine-tenths women and children) were employed in the treatment and
manufacture of silk. The production of silk in 1896, was 3,083,000 kilo-
grammes ; in 1897, 2,916,000 kilogrammes.
In the census of December 31, 1881, there were 5,024,826 malesof 15 years
of age and upwards described as engaged in agriculture. The entire agricul-
tural population, male and female, of 15 years and upwards, was thus
about 10,000,000.
750
ITALY
II. Forestry.
The forestry department is under the direction of the Ministry of Agricnltuve,
Industry, and Commerce, with a council (consiglio forestale) consisting of the
Director of Agriculture, the higher forestry inspectors, and a legal adviser.
The executive of the department consists ofinspectors of various classes and 190
guards with 25 officers (brigadieri).
The forest area (exclusive of chestnut plantations) is about 4,093,000 hectares.
The yield from the forests, including both those free from and those under
the forest regulations (vincolo), is valued at about 88,000,000 lire, as follows : —
Cubic metres Lire
Useful timber . . 1,374,547 17,062,006
Firewood . . . 6,289,341 20,632,380
Charcoal . . . 3,019,148 18,133,294
Secondary produce, "j Quintals
excluding chest- V . 15,527,404 32,174,111
nuts . . J
Total . . 88,001,791
The values of produce, agricultural, animal, and forest, are in round num-
bers—Cereals, fibres, wine, fruit, &c., 2,639,000,000 lire (average 1891-95);
animals, wool, milk, cocoons, &c., 1,424,000,000 lire (1890); forest yield,
88,000,000 lire (1886), total, 4, 151, 000. 000 lire. The value of accessory agricul-
tural produce, such as vegetables, fungi, poultry, eggs, &c., is not known, but
the exports alone of such produce amount to about 80,000,000 lire annually.
III. Mines and Minerals.
The following table gives the production of the mines in 1896 : —
Mineral
Mines
Tons
Lire
Employes
Iron ore ....
Copper and manganese ore .
Zinc ore ... )
Lead ore . . . \
Silver ore .
Gold ore ....
Antimony ore
Mercury ore .
Tin ore and iron pyrites
Mineral fuel (anthracite, &c. ) .
Sulphur ore ....
Salt, graphite, boric acid,
petroleum, &c. .
Totals ....
15
21
77
8
15
45
3
6
28
509
76
203,966
102,298
118,171
33,705
640
7,659
5,086
14,305
45,728
276,197
2,738,057
2,539,863
2,325,844
7,490,645
4,477,523
536,254
853,008
302,950
737,850
544,124
1,981,861
23,876,393
3,302,790
1,271
1,691
I 10,344
646
457
314
446
705
2,205
24,775
1,956
803
—
48,969,105
44,810
The value of the mineral products was: — in 1878, 55,078,461 lire; 1888,
52,377,908; 1894, 52.042,605; 1895, 39,103,279 ; 1896, 48,969,105. The
quarries of Italy employ about 30,000 men, of whom about 7,000 are employed
in quarrying marble, the annual output of marble being valued at £600,000
sterling.
TV. Fisheries.
On December 31, 1896, the number of vessels and boats employed in
fishing was 23,096, with an aggregate tonnage of 64,677. These numbers
COMMERCE
751
include 91 boats of 299 tons engaged in coral fishing. At the same date
there were 77,109 fishermen, of whom 6,648 were engaged in deep-sea
or foreign fishing. In 1896 there went to tlie deei>-sea fishing 1,788 boats of
18,857 tons. Of these. 91 of 1,352 tons were employed in coral-fishing, and 101
of 2,173 tons in fishing for sponges. The value of the fish caught in 1896 (ex-
cluding foreign fishing) was estimated at 14,948,884 lire, probably too low an
estimate ; the value obtained from tunney-fishing was 1,780,985 lire and from
coral-fishing 1,013,700 lire, the quantity (much less than the average) being
estimated at 299,000 kilogrammes.
Commerce.
The following table shows the total special imports and
exports (excluding gold, coined silver, and goods in transit), and
the imports and exports of the precious metals (excluding un-
coined silver) in each of the last five years : —
Year
Special trade
Precious Metals
Imports
Ex])orts
Imports
Exports
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Lire
1,191,227,553
1,094,649,101
1,187,288,208
1,173,233,425
1,192,138,168
Lire
964,188,135
1,026,506,040
1,037,707,599
1,052,097,943
1,092,719,241
Lire
43,014,800
108,135,700
7,293,400
10,280,800
8,676,200
Lire
94,173,900
31,517,700
21,302,100
19,916,900
23,096,400
The following table shows the value of the leading imports
and exports in 1897 : —
Imports
Exports
Lire
Lire
Grain, wheat .
78,680,520
Silk, raw and thrown
270,376,300
Cotton, raw .
110,628,804
,, waste
24,290,050
Coal
97,971,789
,, cocoons .
3,027,030
Timber for building .
35,090,513
1 Wine in casks
^8,479,100
Sugar, raw
21,038,836
, Oil, olive.
57,859,944
,, refined ,
164,206
Fruit (fresh) .
39,761,242
"Wool, raw
31,151,690
1 Eggs
32,558,900
Machinery
33,519,782
Coral, manufactured.
23,849,160
Silk, unbleaclicd, raw,
, Hemp and flax, raw
44,156,233
or twisted .
68,318,100
Sulphur, unrefined
Fish, of all sorts
31,556,200
j and refined .
34,098,568
Iron in bars, &c.
11,103,885
i Rice
7,639,045
Coffee
19,481.353
' Cotton raw
1,698,680
Linen and hejnp varn
11,660,760
Marble .
14,344,114
Hides, raw and dried
42,290,140
Meat, fresh and salted
15,398,440
Cheese .
7,664,990
Skins, raw
15,09.^280
Tobacco leaf .
21,404,740
' Straw plaiting.
6,179,640
Cotton, unbleached .
791,594
1 Dyeing and tanning
Cotton bleached
1,212,530
stuffs .
12,191,043
,, coloured & dyed
1,513,266
Animals, cattle
14,816,940
,, printed .
3,558,060
1 ,, horses
1,184,150
752
ITALY
Imports
Expoi-ts
Lire
1
Lire
Horses .
29,121,300
Animals, swine
3,672,389
Cotton yarn .
2,962,343
Zinc ore .
10,650,000
Oil, mineral refined .
11,035,696
Lead ore .
806,990
Eice
2,889,085
Grain, wheat .
121,680
Railway materials .
1,467,648
i ,, other .
8,268,840
Indigo
5,797,200
Oil, olive
3,096,050
Silkworms' eggs on
cards .
2,050,500
\
The following table shows, in thousands of lire, the value of
the special trade (including the precious metals) with the leading
countries in two years : —
Imports from
Imports from
j Exports to
Exports to
(1895)
(1896)
! (1895)
(1896)
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
France ....
164,101
137,263
141,167
157,599
United Kingdom .
234,703
229,990
115,682
110,577
Austria
135,045
135,174
117,308
126,029
Germany
146,779
146,672
i 175,948
166,187
Russia
103,848
118,844
12,660
12,783
Switzerland
45,962
45,307
193.607
173,161
United States and Canada
124,182
121,570
( 101,846
86,456
Turkey, Servia, Roumania
31,550
42,734
20,576
17,956
Belgium
27,562
27,923
18,527
19,005
Argentine Republic
25,638
27,431 1
: 35,638
57,375
Central America
2,411
5,081 1
1,121
4,913
British Possessions in Asia
59,473
66,667
19,636
25,509
Egypt
9,321
5,541
12,238
14,386
Spain and Gibraltar
11,345
9,573
11,851
12,990
Brazil ....
7,040
4,999
15,821
For the determination of Cnstonis' values, <fec., in Italy there is a permanent central
commission, comprising official members, representatives of commercia. corporations, &c.
The values recorded are those of tlie goods at the frontier, exclusive of import or export
duties. For imports and exports the parties interested declare the value of the goods,
their quantity, and the country of origin or destination. For imports there is recorded the
gross weight in the case of goods subject to a duty of 20 francs per quintal (8«. l^d. per
cwt.) or less ; the net legal weight (i.e. with deduction of an official tare) in the case of
goods object to duty of 20 or 40 francs per quintal (S«. l^d. to 16«. 3d. per cwt.); the
actual net weight in the case of goods taxed at over 40 francs per quintal (168. 3d. per cwt.)
For exports the gross weight is usually given. Inaccurate declarations are punishable by
fine if the inaccuracies are prejudicial to the Treasury.
The trade of Italy is regarded either as general or special. The general trade compre-
hends all imports from abroad, whether intended for consumption within the kingdom or
merely for transit, and all exports to foreign countries, whether national, nationalised or
only issuing after transit. The special trade is restricted to imjiorts for consumi)tion and
exi)orts of national or nationalised merchandise. National merchandise consists of the
produce and manufactures of the kingdom, while foreign imports on which the duties have
been paid at tlie frontier are said to be nationalised. Transit trade denotes merchandise
merely passing through the king<1om whether directly or after having been temi)orarily
warehoused.
NAVIGATION AND SHIPPING
753
The following table shows the re-exportation and transit, in thousands of
lire, for eight years : —
—
1SS9
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1,000
Lire
21,075
57,774
1895
1896
Re-exportation
Transit .
1,000
Lire
121,055
55,111
1,000
Lire
100,485
00,821
1,000
Lire
73,050
71,208
1,000
Lire
69,593
51,405
1,000
Lire
20,227
49,737
1,000
Lire
22,357
79,998
1,000
Lire
21,105
100,102
The value of the imports into Great Britain from Italy, and of the exports
of domestic produce and manufactures from Great Britain to Italy for five
years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the following
table : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Italy ,
Exports of British
produce to Italy .
£
2,948,336
5,206,796
£
3,129,173
5,555,365
£
3,132,720
5,545,966
£
3,192,856
5,357,250
£
3,317,292
'5,596,900
The principal articles of import into Great Britain from Italy in the year
1897 were : — Olive oil, of the value of 297,159/. ; hemp, 419,162/. ; oranges
and lemons, 414,177/. ; sulphur, 100,580/. ; chemical products, 77,936/. ;
sumach, 132,363/ ; other dyes, 118,306/. ; wine, 74,826/. ; almonds,
68,620/. ; stones, 165,342/. ; andiron ore, 126,640/. The value of the cotton
manufactures and yarn exported from Great Britain to Italy in the year 1897
amounted to 309,035/. ; coals, 2,045,723/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
581,336/. ; woollen manufactures, 336,874/. ; machinery, 492,691/. ; refined
sugar, 26,227/. ; fish, 161,316/. ; copper, wrought and unwrought, 85,653/.
Navigation and Shipping.
On Dece*mber31, 1896, there were on the registers of the mercantile marine
6,353 vessels, classified as follows : —
_
Sailing Vessels
i
—
Steam Vessels
Total
For long sea voyages .
For long coasting voyages .
For short voyages, fishing,
&c
Totals ....
Or according to tonnage : —
Vessels over 1,000 tons .
,, 501 to 1,000 tons .
,, 101 to 500 tons .
,, 51 to 100 tons
,, 1 to 50 tons .
Totals
No.
338
154
5,510
6,002
Tons
265,364
59,253
202,937
527,554
Over 2,000
1,001—2,000
401—1,000
101— 400
1— 100
No.
83
44
224
Tons
139,197
43,351
55,179
No.
421
198
5,734
Tons i
404,561
102,604
258,116
351
237,727 ; 6,353
765,281 1
61
262
564
556
4,559
76,812
183,985
143,77s
42,282
80,697
23
83
70
54
121
HmS} 1"5' 250,786 1
}|g ,,, 333,3,,
3,172 5,236 126,151
6,002
527,554
851 287,727 | 6,353
765,281
3 C
'54
ITALY
In 1896 there entered Italian ports 89,808 Italian vessels of 16,286,138
tons, and 10,807 foreign vessels of 10,508,257 tons; in all 100,615 vessels of
26,794,395 tons. There cleared from Italian ports 89,371 Italian vessels of
16,197,822 tons, and 10,787 foreign vessels of 10,480" 130 tons ; in all 100,158
vessels of 26,777,952 tons.
At the principal Italian ports the number of vessels entering and clearing
in 1896 were :—
Port
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Genoa
Leghorn .
Naples .
Messina .
Palermo .
Venice .
6,255
4,028
5,803
3,198
3,588
2,993
4,171,136
1,546,055
2,699,632
1,628,597
1,576,252
1,091,064
6,005
4,022
5,815
3,172
3,604
3,064
4,049,688
1,540,996
2,698,238
1,628,806
1,588,213
1,099,485
Of the Italian steam tonnage, more than half belongs to the ' Italian
General Navigation ' (Societa Florio e Rubattino — Genoa and Palermo).
Internal Communications.
1. Railways.
A large portion of the Italian railways belong to the State, but in accord-
ance with a law of April 27, 1885, the working of the State lines has been
transferred to private enterprise. The contracts are for 60 years, but at the
end of 20 and 40 years they may be terminated.
On January 1, 1893, there were 5,364 miles of State railway, 96 miles
jointly State and companies', and 3,216 miles of companies' railway ; in all,
8,676 miles. The length of the principal lines, January 1, 1897, was : —
Mediterranean, 3,580 miles ; Adriatic, 3,479 miles ; Sicilian, 679 miles ;
Sardinian, 643 miles ; various, 1,212 miles ; total, 9,592 miles.
In 1892 the total receipts were 253,135,975 lire, of which 98.912,077 lire
were for passenger traffic. In the same year the expenses were 174,151,182
lire. By slow trains there were forwarded 15,987,792 tons of goods, and by
fast trains 10,381,480 quintals of goods. The numlier of passengers was in all
50,248,717.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
During the year ending June 30, 1896, there were transmitted 217,237,611
letters and post-cards, to which 40,495,849 Government official letters have to
be added. There were sent also 5,361,337 manuscript papers, and 249,761,929
periodicals and other printed matter. The money orders numbered 10,484,037,
value 873,287,982 lire. On June 30, 1896, there were 7,435 post-offices
and collecting-boxes.
The public telegraph service is a monopoly of the Government, certain con-
cessions, however, being made to the railway and tramway companies. On
June 30, 1896, the length of line and wire on land was, in English miles : —
Government lines 23,318, wire 74,758 ; railway lines 2,131, wire 23,560 ;
total lines 25,449, wire 98,318.
During the year ending June 30, 1896, there were despatched from Govern-
ment and railway telegraph offices 7,214,927 private telegi'ams inland, and
there were sent or received from abroad 1,995,312 telegi-ams. Number of
State offices, 3,549 ; other offices, 2,236.
MONEY AND CREDIT
755
The gross revenue from posts was 52,653,221 lire, and telegraphs
13,785,725 lire (exclusive of official despatches), total, 66,438,946 lire ; the
expenditure was 55,018,028 lire ; and the net revenue 11,420.918 live.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of State notes and bank notes iti
circulation at the end of each of the last five years in thousands of lire : —
State notes
Bank notes^
1893
1,000 Lire
351,792
1,221,634
1894
l,000Lire
492,149
1,128,598
1895
1,000 Lire
510,000
1,085,675
1896
1,000 Lire
510,000
1,069,233
1897
1,000 Lire
576,491
1,086,129
1 Including, for 1893, 9,182,000 lire, for 1894 2,445,000 lire and for 1895, 857,355 lire of
notes of the Banca romana (in liquidation).
The total coinage from 1862 to the end of 1897 was: gold, 427,099,650
lire; silver, 567,037,025 lire; nickel, 20,000,000 lire; bronze, 83,679,051
lire; total, 1,097,815,726 lire. The re-coinage was 30,846,271 lire.
The nominal value of the money coined (including recoinage) in the last
five years has been : —
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Nickel
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1 1897
1
Lire
824,280
766,660
Lire
1,595,632
Lire
3,667,338
3,790,978
170,080
42,930
125,725
Lire
17,780,200
2,219,800
Lire
4,491,618
21,571,178
2,389,880
42,930
2,488,017
1,590,940
1,595,632
7,797,051
20,000,000
30,983,623
By the monetary convention of October 29, 1897, the contracting States agreed that
each (except Greece) might increase its fractional silver coinage (2-franc pieces and .smaller
coins) from the limit of 6 francs per inhabitant to 7 francs ; and thus Italy, which, by the
convention of 1885 was restricted to 182,400,000 lire of fractional silver and 20,000,000 lire
additional for special reasons, may increase its issue bv 30,000,000 lire, the total amount
authorised being now 232,400,000 lire. By a protocol of March 15, 1898, Italy is freed from
the obligation, created by the convention of 1885, to take back its fractional coins within
the year following the dissolution of the Union on condition of forbidding the exportation
of such coins while the Union continues, and undertaking not to change its present system
with respect to such coins during five years following the dissolution of the Union. Not-
withstanding these arrangements the fractional silver money remains withdrawn from
circulation.
By law of July 22, 1894, gold and silver were temporarily withdrawn from
circulation, being represented by paper. In January, 1898, the actual cur-
rency consisted of 466,491,470 lire of State notes, 110,000,000 lire of "buoni
di cassa" (one and two-lire notes guaranteed by .silver in the Treasury),
1,086,129,247 lire of bank notes, and aboiit 100,000,000 lire of copper and
nickel coin.
There is no national l)ank in Italy. According to the law of Augitst 10,
1893, there are only three banks of issue : the Banca d' Italia (formed by the
fusion of the two Tuscan banks with the Banca Nazionale nel Regno
d'ltalia), the Banco di Napoli, and the Banco di Sicilia. The following table
3 c 2
756
ITALY
shows the state of the assets and liabilities of those three banks on December 31,
1897, in thousands of lire : —
—
Assets
—
Liabilities
1,000 Lire
1,000 Lire
Cash and reserve .
642, 094^
Capital
317,000
Bills ....
318,505 j
Notes in circulation
1,086,129
Anticipations
50,666 j
Accounts current, &c. .
326,682
Credits.
90,962 1
Titles and valuables
Deposits
1,663,656 i
deposited .
1,663,656
Various securities .
Total .
805,631
Various
Total .
178,047
3,571,514
3,571,514
1 Gold, 896,960,935 lire; silver, 52,159,605 lire ; fractional silver, 12,200,486 lire.
In January, 1895, there were 950 co-operative credit societies and popular
banks, 140 ordinary credit companies, and 8 agrarian credit companies. There
were 10 credit foncier companies with assets 1,071,378,107 lire, and liabilities
1,063,418,487 lire in 1894.
The post-office savings-banks have been in operation since January 1, 1876.
Private savings-banks are subject to certain statutory rules and to Government
inspection. The following table shows the number of post-office savings-banks
on December 31, 1897, with the numbers of their depositors and amount depo-
sited at that date, and the deposits and repayments made during the year, with
the like statistics for the ordinary and co-operative savings-banks in 1895 : —
—
Offices
Depositors
Total
Deposits
Deposits
during year
RepajTnents
during year
Post-office savings-banks
Ordinary
Co-operative ,, ,, and
ordinary credit companies
4,889
402
793
3,013,004
1,588,424
374,294
Lire
536,634,812
1,843,720,018
266,053,032
Lire
291,636,668
482,263,872
331,632,383
Lire
252,369,057
445,045,600
311,334,607
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those of France,
the names only being altered to the Italian form.
The Lira of 100 Ccntesimi ; intrinsic value, 25 •22^.9. to 1^. sterling.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1, Of Italy in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Baron F, di Renzis di Montanaro.
Councillor. — Count Bottaro Costa.
Secretary. — Count A. del Vaglio.
Attaches. — Prince Ruspoli, Count V. Carrobio.
Naval Attach4. — Captain A. Bianco.
Archivist. — G. Manetti.
There are Consular representatives at London (C.G.), Dublin, Glasgow,
Liverpool (C.G.), &c.
FOREIGN DEPENDENCIES 757
2, Of Great Britain in Italy.
Ambassador. — Rt. Hon. Lord Currie of Hawley ; appointed July 1, 1898.
Secretary. — Sir G. Bonham, Bart.
Military Attache. — Col. C. Needham.
There are Consular representatives at Rome, Brindisi, Cagliari, Florence
(C.G.), Genoa, Leghorn (V.C.), Messina (V.C.), Milan, Naples, Palenno,
Spezia (V.C), Taranto (V.C).
Foreign Dependencies.
The dominion of Italy in Africa extends, on the coast of the Red Sea, from
Cape Kasar (18° 2' N.) to the southern limit of the Sultanate of Raheita,
on the strait of Bab-el-]\Iandeb (12° 30' N.). The length of coast is abo\it
670 miles. The area is about 88,500 square miles, and the population, which
is to a great extent nomadic, is estimated at 450,000. In 1893 there were
enumerated 191,127 natives and 3,452 Europeans ; Massowah, the seat of
government, having 7,775 inhabitants, of whom 600 are European (exclusive
of the garrison), and 480 Asiatic, but this * census ' cannot have extended over
the whole territory actually claimed. By vaiious decrees between January 1,
1890, and February 18, 1894, the Italian possessions on the Red Sea are con-
stituted as the Colony of Eritrea, with an autonomous administration and the
managementof its own finance. By the treaty of Uchali, May 2, 1889, and a
supplementary convention of February 6, 1891, King Menelik surrendered
Hamasen, all the districts to the north of it, and the coast, to the Italians.
Kasala was occupied by them on July 17, 1895, and was held 'in trust' for
Egypt ; and in 1895. as a result of the war with the King of Abyssinia, the
province of Tigre was annexed. These successes, however, were of short dura-
tion. On March 1, 1896, an Italian army met with a crushing defeat to the
east of Adowa, and in the treaty of Adis Abeba, October 26, 1896, the whole
of the country to the south of the Mareb, the Belesa, and Muna rivers is
restored to Abyssinia, which, moreover, is recognised as an absolutely indepen-
dent power. In December, 1897, Kassala was restored to the Egyptian
Government.
In the Italian dependencies the central government is represented by a civil
governor, who is nominated by the King and is under the direction of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs. When the Governor is a general or superior officer
in active service he superintends the discipline of the troops and is in this re-
spect controlled by the Minister for War. For the year 1897-98 the revenue and
expenditure of the colony were each estimated at 18,130,000 lire, the revenue
from the colony itself being 2,630,000 lire, and the contributions of Italy being
15,500,000 lire. The total expenditure of Italy on account of its Red Sea pos-
sessions, including i)0stal, military, and naval services, from 1882 to 1896-97
is put at 352,353,786 lire, that for the year 1896-97 being 48,970,462 lire.
Throughout the colony agriculture is in a very primitive condition. The
tropical climate and the general scarcity of water duiing the summer
months necessitate works for irrigation before crops can be raised with
success. Pasture is abundant, but the pastoral population is essentially nomadic.
Camels, oxen, sheep, goats, are common, and the produce, consisting of meat,
hides, butter, supplies articles of local trade. Pearl-fishing is carried on
at Massowah and the Dahlak archipelago to the annual value of from 250,000
lire for pearls and 800,000 lire for mother-of-pearl. This trade is chiefly in
the hands of Banians (Indians). Trade of Massowah in 1896 : imports b)-^
land and sea 28,442,551 ; 1895, 14,012,835 lire. In 1896, in the total trade,
5,811 vessels of 248,567 tons (2,649 vessels Italian) entered, and 5,782 of
758 ITAI.Y
251,807 toils (2,640 vessels Italian) cleared. There are 17 miles of military
railway from Massowah to Saate, and about 16 miles connecting other
centres. In 1895-96 there were transmitted 181,925 letters and post-cards,
18.976 manuscript and other packets, and 95,723 pieces of official corres-
pondence. There is a telegraph line of 319 miles from Massowah to Assab,
and of 62 miles from Assab to Perim. In 1895-96 there were 19,329 messages
sent and received.
The legal currency consists of Italian coips and those of the Latin Union ;
but in actual circulation are Maria Theresa dollars and Anglo-Indian and
Eg}''ptian money. The Italian mint has issued coin amounting to
10,879,995 lire, under the denominations of Eritrean dollars (= 5 lire),
and T%-, t\j tV> dollar pieces.
In February, 1889, the Sultan of Obbia, on the Somali coast (5° 33' N. to
2° 30' N.), put his sultanate under the protection of Italy. In April, 1889,
the protectorate Avas extended to the country between 5° 33' N. and 8° 3' N.
by treaty with the Sultan of the Mijertain Somalis, who agreed not to con-
clude any treaty with any foreign Power regarding the remainder of his
territory. In August, 1892, the Somali coast, from the sultanate of Obbia
to the mouth of the Juba, was ceded to Italy by the Sultan of Zanzibar,
and the administration of the region was taken over in September, 1893.
In 1896 the " SocietS, anonima comnierciale italiana nel Benadir " made with
the Goverpment an agreement for rights over Benadir for the term of 50 years.
The boundary between the spheres of influence of Italy and Great Britain
in East Africa, settled March 24, 1891, and May 5, 1894, ascends the
channel of the Juba from its mouth to 6° N". ; thence it follow's the parallel
of 6° N. as far as 35° E., whence it goes north to the Blue Nile.
By the treaty of Adis Abeba, 1896, the Italian dominion in Somali-Land
is confined to a strip of coast, 180 miles in width, but including Logh on
the Juba.
Italian Somali-Land has an area of 100,000 square miles, with about
400,000 inhabitants.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official Publications.
Agi-iculture. — Atti della Giunta per 1' iiichiesta agi'aria e sulle condizioni della classe
agricola. Voluini 15 (1881-86). Notizie di statistica agi-aria. Memorie illuBtrative della
Carta idrograflca d'ltalia. Voliimi IS (1888-93). Notizie intorno alle condizione dell' agr
ricoltura. Vol urn 6 (1876-93). Bollettino di notizie agrarie, periodico dal 1879. Censi-
nieiito dei cavalli e dei muli, 1876 ; del bestiame asinino, bovino, &c., 1881. Bollettino per
I'amniinistrazinne forestale italiana, trimestrale, dal 1868.
Area. — Superficie del Regno valutata nel 1884 (Firenze). Prima e seconda appendice
(1896).
Army. — Annuario militare del Regno d' Italia (1865-98)t Della leva e delle vicende del
regio esercito (1863-97). Handbook of the Italian Army. By J. R. Slade. London, 1891.
Commerce, — Movimento comnierciale del Regno d' Italia (1861-96). Statistica delcom-
mercio speciale di importazione e di esjiortazione, mensile. Bollettino di legi.slazione e
.statistica doganale et commcrciale, trimestrale. Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, <fec. London.
Finance. — Rendicoiito generale consuntivo dell' Amministrazione dello stato (presentAto
annualiuento al Parla nento). II Bilancio del Regno (1862-95). Relazione del Direttore
generale alia Coinniissione di vigilanza sul rendiconto dell' Amministrazione del debito
pubblico ^1865-97); della Direzione generale delle iniposte dirette (1865-97 ; sull' Amminis-
trazione del demanio e delle tasse sngli atfari (1873-97) ; sull' Amministrazione delle gabelle
(1873-97K della Coiumissione centrale di .'^indacato sull' Amministrazione dell' A.s.se eccle-
siastico (1867-97). Impo.sta sui refliti di ricchizza mobile, statistica del reddito accertato e
tassato (1882-95). Bilanci comunali (1863-07). Bilanci provinciali (1863-97). Statistica dei
debiti comunali e provinciali (1873-94). Stati 4i previsione dell' Entrata c della gpesj^
(Annuali).
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 750
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, and Miscellaneous Series. London. Foreign
Office List, by Sir E. Hertslct. Annual, London.
Industries, mining, Ac. — Monografie di statistica industriale, Annali di statistica, serie
IV. (Monografie per tntte le provincie del Regno). Rivista del serviziominerario (1879-96).
Statistica d(>llo fahbriche di spirito, birra, <fcc. (senio.strale.) Azienda dei sali. Relazinne e
bilancio industriale (1887-97). Azienda dei tabaocbi (1884-97). Statistica degli scioperi
avventeti nell' industria e nell' agiicoltiira (1884-96). Society co-operative (muratori
ed affini), 1894.
Instruction, RHigion, Ac— Statistica dell istruzione eleiuentare (1877-96); secondaria
e superiore (1880-90). Notizie statistiche sul moviinento degli alunni e sugli esami nelle
regie scuole superior!, speciali e pratiche di agricoltura (1893-97). Ordiiiainento e risultati
delle scuole conimcrciali, industriali, professionali, di Disegno industriale e di arte
applicata all' industria, dipendeuti o sussidinte dal Ministero dell' industria e del com-
niercia, 1898. Sl-atistioa dclle biblioteclic (1891-97). Statistica della Stampa periodica
(1880-93). La Gcrarchia Cattolica, la Famiglia e la Cappella Pontificia, annuale, publi-
cazione dell* Autoriti ecclesiastica. Relazione del direttore generale del fondo per il culto,
(fee, '1897.
Justice, Crime, &c. — Statistica giudiziaria civile e commerciale (1880-96). Statistica
giudiziaria penale (1880-96). Statistica dellc cai'ceri (1867-82). Relazione del direttore
generale e degli ispettori delle carceri (1878-95).
Money, Credit. <fec. — Memoria preseutata alia Commissione pernianentedi vigilanzasulla
circolazione e sugli istituti di emiss'onc (1897). Relazione del Direttore generale del tesoro
intorno alle operazioni di rinipatrio delle monete divisional! d'argento (1895). Bollettino
(mensile) delle situazioni dei conti degli istituti di emissione, <fcc. Le societa co-oi)erative
di credito e banche populari, le societa ordiuario di credito.le societa ed istituti di credito
agrario, e gli istituti di credito fondiario (1887-90). Statistica delle banche popolari(1880-
93). Statistica delle casse di resparmio (1889-93). Relazione statist'ca ai servizi postale
e t«legrafico ed al servizio delle casse postal! di risparuiio (1889-96). Bollettino ufRciale
(settimanale) delle societa per azioni.
Navy. — Annuario ufficiale della Regia marina (1862-98). Leva marittima e situazione del
corpo reale equiitagiri e della ri.serva navale (1879-96). Relazione suH'andamento dell' am-
ministrazione marittima (1877-97).
Pauperism. — Statistica delle Opere pie alia fine del 1880 e dei lasciti di beneficenza fatti
negli anni 1881-1892. Volumi 10. Atti della Commissione Reale di inchiesta sulle Opere
pie. Volumi 9 (1884-92). Statistica della assistenza dell' infanzia abbandonata (1890-9.3).
Population. — Censimento general! della popolazioue del Regno, 1861, 1871, e 1881. Cen-
simento degli italiani all' est.ero nel 1871 e nel 1881. Emigrazione e colonic, Rapport! di
RR. agent! diplomatic! e consolari, 1893. Movimento dello stato civile (1862-97). Emigrar
zione italiana all' estero (1876-97).
Railways, Posts, Telegraphs, «fec. — Relazione snll' escvcizio e sulle costruzioni delle strado
ferrate italiane (1867-92). Elenco delle tramvie a vapore ; a trazione niecanica (1895).
Relazione sulle strade nazionali, provincial!, et comunali (1884-97). Relazione statistica
intorno ai servizi postale e telegraflco, <fec. (1888-96). Indicatore postale-telegraflco del
Regno d'ltalia (1864-97).
Shipping, &c. — Movimento della navigazione ne! port! del Regno (1862-96). BuUe con-
dizioni della marina mercantile italiana (lSSl-96).
Statistics (general).— Annuario statistioo italiano (1878-98).
Foreign Dependencies.
Possess! e Protettorati in Africa. Estratto dall' Annuario statistico italiano, anno
1895 (which contains a list of official documents relating to the colony of Eritrea). Roma,
1896.
2. Non-Official Publications. — Italy
.^JZ^n (Grant), Florence. [Historical Guide.] London, T897.
Amati Amato, Dizionario corografico dell' Italia. Milano, Vallardi, s. d. 8 vols. in4to.
^nMnori (Giusejipe). Sttidii Social!. 8. Napoli, 1885.
Baedeker's Handbooks for Travellers. Northern Italy, 1892 ; Central It«ly and Rome,
1897 : Southern Italv and Sicily, 1893. 8. Leipsic and London.
Bazin (R.), The Italians To-day. fTr. by J. Crooklands.] London, 1896.
Beaufort (Count de), Histoire de I'lnvasion des Etats Pontificaux et du Siege de Rome,
1870. S. Paris, 1874.
Bemiclerk (Dr. W. N.), Ruralltaly ; an Account of the pre.sent Agricultural Condition of
the Kingdom. London, 188R.
Bent (Th.), A History of Genoa. London.
Boffio (L.), Di alcuni indici misurator! del movimento oconomico in Italia. 3a edizione
riveduta ed amxiliata. Roma, tipografia Nazionale di G. Bertero, 1896.
Bertolotti (Giuseppe). Statistica ecclesiastica d' Italia. Savona, 1885.
Caesaresco (Countess Martenengo), Cavour. London, 1898
Chamber8(0. W. S.), Garibaldi and Italian Unity. 8. London, 1864.
Coldstream (J. P.), The Institutions of Italy. London, 1895.
Crnvford (F. Marion), Ave Roma luimortalis. London, 1898.
Dic«y(E.), Victor Emmanuel. 8. London, 1882. Cavour : a Memoir 8. London, 1861.
760 ITALY
Du^i/ (Bella), The Tuscan Republics. [In "Story of the Nations" series.] 8. London,
1892.
Edwardes (C), Sardinia and the Sardes. 8. London, 1SS9.
Elliot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Italy. 2 vols. 8. London, 1871. Diary of
an Idle Woman in Sicily. 2 vols. 8. London, 1881.
Forbes (Sir C. S.), The Campaign of Garibaldi in the Two Sicilies : a Personal Nan-ative.
8. Edinburgh, 1861,
Gallcnga (A.), History of Piedmont. 3 vols. 8. London, 1885. Italy, Present and
Future. 8. London, 1887. Italy Revisited. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
Giacometti (G.), L'Unite Italienne. Paris, 1S98.
Gli Albori della Vita italiana. [A series of essays by various writers on the origin of the
Communes of Florence, Milan, Venice ; the origin of Monarchy in Piedmont and Naples ;
the Papal Power and the Commune of Rome ; the Religious Orders and Heresy]. 2 vols.
8, Milan, 1890-91.
Gregorovius (Ferdinand), Geschichte der Stadt Rom ira Mittelalter. 4th edition. 4 vols.
8. Stuttgart, 1886. English Translation by Mi-s. A. Hamilton Vols. I.-VI. London, 1898.
Hare (A. J. C), Cities of Southern Italy and Sicily. London, 1883. Cities of Northern
Italy. London, 1884. Cities of Central Italy, 2 vols. London, 1884. Days near Rome.
3rd ed. 2 vols. London, 1884. Florence. 4th ed. London. Venice. 4th ed. London.
Walks in Rome. 14th ed. London, 1896. The Rivieras. London, 1897.
i?od^fcm (T.), Italy and Her Invaders. 2 ed. 6 vols. London, 1896.
King (E. A.), Italian Highways. London, 1896.
Lindsay (S. M.), and Bowe (L. S.), The Constitution of Italy. Bnix (G. A.), Amendments
to the Italian Constitution. [These publications are Xo. 135 and No. 155 of the series issued
by the American Academy of Political and Social Science.] Philadelphia.
Marriott (J. A. R.), The IMakers of Modern Italy : Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi. [Contains
a short bibliography relating to the period.] 8. 'London, 1889.
' Massari (G.), La Vita ed il Regno di Vittorio Emanuele II. di Savoia. 2nd ed. 2 vols.
8. Milan, 1878.
Murray's Handbooks for Tiavellers. North Italy : Central Italy ; Rome and its Environs ;
South Italy and Sicilv. 8. London.
O'Clery (P. K), The Making of Italy, 185G-1S70. 8. London, 1892.
Pastor (L.), History of the Popes. 6 vols. London, 1898.
Pennington {A. R.), Italy. In " National Churches " series. Loudon, 1891.
Probyn (J. W.), Italy from the Fall of Napoleon I. (1815-1890). London, 1892.
Piocca (General Count E. della), Autobiography of a Veteran, 1807-93. [Eng. Trans.]
London, 1898.
Rodocanachi (E.), Les Corporations ouvrieres a Rome depuis la Chute de I'Empire
Romain. 2 vols. Paris, 1896.
Rolfe (F. V. N.), Naples in 1888. London, 1889. Naples in the Nineties. London, 1897.
[This author's consular reports on Naples also contain much interesting infoi-mation.]
Statistical serial publications are : Giornale dcgli Economisti (monthly) ; L'economista
weekly).
Sciioener (R), Rome. Conrlensed by Mrs. A. Bell. London, 1898.
Stillman (W. J.), The Union of Italy 1815-1895. Cambridge, 1898.
Symonds (J. A.), Sketches and Studies in Italy and Greece. 2d. ed. 3 vols. London, 1898.
Villari (Pasquale), Le Lettere meridionali ed altri Scritti sulla Questione Sociale in
Italia. 2d. Ed. 8. Torino, 1885.
Villari (I.), Here and There in Italy and over the Border. 8. London, 1893.
Witte (Baron J. de), Rome et I'ltalie sous Leon XIII. 8. Paris, 1892.
Worsfold (W. B.), In the Valley of Light. [Piedmont.] London, 1898,
Zermant (R.), Sardinia and its Resources, 8. London, 1885.
FoiiEiGN Dependencies.
Cora (G.), Several Special Maps of Assab, Massowah, Afar Country, and of the other
Italian Possessions and adjoining Countries, jjublished in Turin from 1881 to 1890.
Heuglin (M. Theodor von), Reise in Nordost-Afrika. 2 vols. 8. Brunswick, 1877.
Jonqui'ere (C. de la), Les Italiens en Erj'thr^e. Paris, 1897.
3far«im (F.), Nell Africa Italiana. 3rd ed. 8. Milan, 1891.
Pellenc (Capt.), Les Italiens en Afrique, 1880-96. Paris, 1897.
Smith (A. Donaldson), Through Unknown African Countries. London, 1897.
Wolverton (Lord), Five Months in Somaliland. 8. London, 1894.
Books of Reference concerning San Marino.
Bent (J. Th.), A Freak of Free(!om. 8. London, 1879.
Boyer de Sainte Suzanne (R. de). La Republique de Saint-Marin. 18. Paris. 1883.
Delfico (Melchiorre), Memorie storiche della Repubblica di San Marino. 3rd ed. 3 vols.
8. Florence. 1843-44.
Fea (Carlo), II diritto sovrano della Santa Sede sopra le Valli di Commacchio e sopra le
Repubblica di San Marino difeso. 8. Roma. 1834.
Franciosi (P.), Garibaldi e la Repubblica di San Marina 8. Bologna, 1891.
761
JAPAN.
(NlPHON.)
Reigning Sovereign.
The Japanese claim that their empire was founded by the first
Emperor Jimmu 660 B.C., and that the dynasty founded by him
still reigns. It was revived in the year 1868, when the now
ruling (dejure) sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power
of the Shogun (the de facto sovereign), who had held the ruling
power in successive families since the twelfth century ; and in
1871 the feudal system (Hoken Seiji) was entirely suppressed.
The sovereign bears the name of Kotei, or Emperor ; but the ap-
pellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is
the ancient title of Mikado, or ' The Honourable Gate.'
Mikado of Japan. — Mutsuhito, born at Kyoto, November 3,
1852; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, Feb. 13, 1867; mar-
ried, Feb. 9, 1869, to Princess Haruko, born May 28, 1850,
daughter of Prince Ichijo.
Offspo'ing. — Prince Yoshihito, born Aug. 31, 1879 ; proclaimed
the Crown Prince (Kotaishi), Nov. 3, 1889; Princess Masako,
born Sept. 30, 1888; Princess Fusako, born Jan. 28, 1890;
Princess Nobuko, born August 7, 1891 ; Princess Toshiko, born
May 11, 1896 ; Princess Takiko, born September 24, 1897.
By the Imperial House Law of February 11, 1889, the suc-
cession to the throne has been definitely fixed upon the male de-
scendants. In case of failure of direct descendants, the throne
devolves upon the nearest Prince and his descendants. The civil
list for 1896-97 amounts to 3,000,000 yen.
In December, 1898, by a unanimous vote the Diet expressed its gratitude
for the Emperor's direction of the naval and military operations against
China, by including in the Imperial estates a sum of 20,000,000 yen from the
indemnity obtained in consequence of the country's victories.
Constitution and Government.
The system of government of the Japanese Empire was that
of an Absolute Monarchy. A Constitution was, however, pro-
mulgated on February 11, 1889.
By this Constitution the Emperor is the head of the Empire,
combining in himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercising
the whole of the executive powers with the advice and assistance
of the Cabinet Ministers, who are responsible to him, and are
appointed by himself. There is also a Privy Council, who de-
liberate upon important matters of State when they have been
consulted by the Emperor. The Emperor can declare war, make
762 JAPAN
peace, and conclude treaties. The Emperor exercises tiie legisla-
tive power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. It is the
prerogative of the Emperor to give sanction to laws, to convoke
the Imperial Diet, to open, close, and prorogue it, and to dissolve
the House of Representatives. The Imperial Diet consists of
two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives.
Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet. Both
Houses may respectively initiate projects of law, can make re-
presentations to the Government as to laws or upon any other
subject, and may present addresses to the Emperor.
The House of Peers is composed of (1) male members of the Imperial
family of the age of 20 and up^Yards ; (2) princes and marquises of the age of
25 and upwards (11 princes and 28 marquises) ; (3) counts, viscounts, and
barons of the age of 25 and upwards, and who have been elected by the
members of their respective orders, never to exceed one-fifth of each order (80
counts, 355 viscounts, 29 barons) ; (4) persons above the age of 30 years, who
have been nominated members by the Emperor for meritorious services to the
State or for erudition ; (5) persons who shall have been elected in each Fu and
Ken from among and by the 15 male inhabitants thereof, of above the age of
30 j^ears, paying therein the highest amount of direct national taxes on land,
industry, or trade, and have been nominated by the Emperor. The term of
membership under (3) and (5) is seven years ; under (1), (2), and (4) for life.
The number of members under (4) and (5) not to exceed the number of other
members. The entire membership of the House of Peers is to be about 300.
The members of the House of Representatives number 300, a fixed number
being returned from each election district. The proportion of the number of
members to the population is about one member to 128,000. The qualifica-
tions of electors are (1) male Japanese subjects ofnot less than full 25 years of
age ; (2) fixed permanent and actual residence in the Fu or Ken for not less
than a year ; (3) payment of direct national taxes to the amount of not less
than 15 yen for one year in the Fu or Ken, and in case of income tax for three
years.
The qualifications of persons eligible for election are generally the same as
those of electors, except that they must be of not less than 30 years, and need
not have fixed residence in the Fu or Ken. The term of membership is four
years.
Disqualified for members of the House of Representatives are officials of
the Imperial Household, judges, auditors, ofiicials connected with the collec-
tion of taxes, police officials, officials of electoral districts within their own
districts, military and naval officers, and priests or ministers of religion. The
President and Vice-President of tlie House of Peers are nominated by the
Emperor from among the members, and President and Vice-President of the
House of Representatives are nominated by the Emperor from among three
candidates elected by the House. The Presidents of both Houses receive an
annual salary of 4,000 yen; Vice-Presidents, 2,000 yen ; elected and nomi-
nated members of the House of Peers and members of the House of Repre-
sentatives, 800 yen, bpsides travelling expenses. No one is allowed to decline
these annual allowances.
The Imperial Diet hq,s control over the fiances and the administration of
justice. Voting is by secret ballot, apd the systepi is that of scnUin de listc.
The Diet must be assembled once every year,
LOCAL GOVERNMENT — AREA AND POPULATION
763
Local Government.
At the head of local adniiuistration in the provinces are the governors, one
of thera residing in each of the 46 districts (3 Fus and 43 Kens) into which
Japan is divided. In 1879, city and prefectural assemblies were created, based
on the principle of election ; their power is confined to fixing the estimates of
the local rates, subject to the confirmation of the governors, and finally of the
Minister of the Interior. Eligible to the assembly are all male citizens 25
years of age, resident in the district at least three consecutive years, and pay-
ing land tax of more than ten yen annually. The franchise is conferred on all
male citizens of 20 years residing in the district, and paying more than five
yen land tax. Annually, or in every other year, governors are summoned to
the Department of the Interior to deliberate upon matters of local administra-
tion. Each district is subdivided into cities {ku), and counties {gun), each
with its chief magistrate {cho), who manages local affairs. The Island of
Hokkaido (Yezo) has a governor and a special organisation.
To further carry out the principle of decentralisation and self-government
a system of local administration in ski (municipality), clio (town), and son
(village) was established by Imperial Rescript, April 17, 1888, which came
into effect April 1, 1889, and is to be applied gradually according to the
circumstances and rer^uirements of these localities.
Area and Population.
The Empire is geographically divided into the four islands of
Honshiu or Nippon, the central and most important territory ;
Kiushiu, * the nine provinces,' the south-western island ; Shikoku,
* the four states,' the southern island ; and Hokkaido (Yezo) to
the north of Honshiu ; besides the Liukiu, Sado, Awaji, Oki,
Tsushima, Bonin Islands, Formosa, and the Pescadores Is-
lands. The last two possessions were ceded by China, in ac-
cordance with the treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. Formosa has
the area of 13,541 square miles, with a population of about
1,996,989. The area of the Pescadores is estimated at 49 square
miles, with a population of about 44,820. Administratively
there exists a division into three * Fu ' and forty-three * Ken,' or
prefectures. There is also a political division into 85 provinces, 44
urban and 705 rural arrondissements, 1,102 towns, and 13,681
villages (number of villages of Okinaw prefecture excluded)
(1896).
The population of Japan has increased as follows in six
years : —
Tear
1800
1891
1892
Population
(Dec. 31)
40,453,461
40,718,677
41,089,940
Annual
Increase
per cent.
0-95
0-66
0-91
; Year
_.
1898 '
1894
1895
Population
(Dec. 31)
41,388,313
41,813,215
42,270,620
Annual
Increase
per cent.
0-73
103
1-09
The tot^,! area of Japan (witjiout Formosa and Pescadores
64
JAPAN
Islands), according to the official returns of December 31, 1896.
was 147,655 square miles. The population of the six divisions
was as follows : —
—
Sq. ni.
Population
Pop.
jier
sq. m.
—
Sq. m.
Population
Pop
per
sq. m.
Central Nippou
Northern ,,
Western ,,
Total Nippon
36,600
30,204
20,681
16,532,349
6,502,867
9,612,622
452
215
464
Shikoku.
Kiushiu .
Hokkaido
Grand tot.
7,031
16,840
36,299
2,948,009
6,604,047
508,870
419
392
14
87,485
32,647,388
373
147,655
42,708,264
289
The population consisted of 21,561,023 males and 21,147,241 females.
On December 31, 1896, the population was divided among the various
classes as follows : — Imperial family, 45 (not included in the total population) ;
kwazoku, or nobles, 4,375 ; shizoku, or knights (formerly retainers of the
daimios), 2,067,997 ; common people, 40,635,892. The number of foreigners
in 1896 was 9,238, of whom 4,533 were Chinese, 1,960 English, 1,025 Ameri-
cans, 476 Germans, 343 French, 124 Portuguese, 83 Dutch, 269 Russians.
The number of Japanese residents abroad in 1896 was 54,342.
The number of Ainus in Hokkaido ( Yezo) in 1896 was stated to be 16,978.
The following table gives the statistics of the births, deaths, and mar-
riages for five years : —
Year
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Excess of Births
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1,217,521
1,178,428
1,208,983
1,246,427
1,282,178
886,988
937,644
840,768
852,422
912,822
349,489
358,389
361,319
365,633
501,777
330,533
240,784
368,215
394,005
369,356
In 1896 the still-births (not included in the above) numbered 127,213
(or 9 03 per cent.), and the illegitimate, 84,479 (or 6 6 per cent).
The following is a list of
the large towns and cities in 1896
Tokio .
1,299,941
Toyama .
Osaka .
503,690
Wakayama
Kioto .
341,101
Okayama .
Nagoya .
242,085
Kumamoto
Kobe .
184,192
Kagoshima
Yokohama
. 179,502
Niigata .
Hiroshima
107,685
Otani
Kanazawa
85,916
Sakai
Sendai .
77,476
Fukui
Nagasaki
72,390
Shidzuoka
Hakodate
70,821
Akamagaseki
Fukuoka
62,212
Utsomomiya
Tokusima
61,489
Kofu
58,975
Kochi
35,470
57,366
Matsuye .
34,625
57,210
Otsu
34,556
56,824
Matsuyama
34,535
53,895
Takamatsu
34,274
51,335
Naba
34,117
50,717
Sapporo .
33,987
49,063
Nagano .
. 33,141
44,290
Yamagata
. 32,151
39,950
Mito
32,064
36,570
Morioka .
. 31,989
36,430
Hirosaki .
. 31.295
35,738
RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
765
Religion.
By the Constitution absolute freedom of religious belief and practice
is secured, so long as it is not prejudicial to peace and order. The chief
forms of religion are — (1) Shintoism, with 11 sects; (2) Buddhism, with 12
sects and 30 creeds. There is no State religion, and no State support. The
principal Shinto temples are, however, maintained by State or local authorities.
In 1895— Shinto temples, 190,754 ; priests, 14,927 ; students, 1,939.
Buddhist temples, 71,821 ; priests, 53,275 ; students, 9,286. There are
also numerous Roman Catholics, adherents of the Greek Church, and
Protestants.
Instruction.
Elementary education is compulsory. The number of children of school
age (6-14) on December 31, 1895,
educational statistics for 1895 : —
was 7,670,837. The following are the
Institutes
Number
Teaching Staff
73,182
Students and Pupils
Elementary schools .
26,631
3,670,345
Lower middle , ,
96
1,324
30,871
High
7
279
3,580
High girls' ,,
15
186
1,266
Normal ,,
49
743-
7,734
Technical ,,
97
1,078
14,806
Special ,,
1,263
3,250
64,948
University ,,
3
184
1,646
Kindergarten ,,
220
482
17,481
The University consists of a University Hall, Colleges of Law, Science,
Medicine, Literature, Engineering, and Agriculture. It is supported by
Government. The bulk of the elementary and higher schools are also sup-
ported by Government and by local rates. One of the normal schools is
for high school teachers.
In 1895 there were 25 libraries in Japan, with 441,034 volumes. In 1895,
26,792 books of various kinds, and 753 periodicals, monthly, weekly, daily,
were published. Of the periodicals 409,429,528 copies were issued.
Justice and Crime.
A system of justice founded on modern jurisprudence has been established.
Judges are irremovable, except by way of criminal or disciplinary punishment.
There is a Court of Cassation at Tokio, which takes cognisance of civil and
criminal appeals. There are seven courts of appeal for civil and criminal cases
decided in the courts of first instance. There are 49 courts of first
instance, one in each Fu or Ken, with branch courts in some Fus and Kens
having unlimited original civil jurisdiction. As criminal courts they
try and decide all lesser crimes, and also make preliminary examination
of serious crimes. Justice of Peace Couits (301), established in principal
towns and villages of every Fu and Ken, take cognisance of all petty
offences. Once in three months criminal courts are constituted in courts of
766
JAPAN
appeal, and sometimes in courts of first instance, a president and four judges,
to try serious crimes.
A few judges of high rank are directly appointed by the Emperor, and
some are appointed by him on nomination by the Minister of Justice. The
following are the criminal statistics for five years : —
— ■
1891
1892
1893 1894
1895
Serious crimes
Lesser ,,
Total .
3,260
154,087
3,249
166,884
3,129
172,489
2,999
182,826
2,858
163,672
157,678
170,133
175,618
185,825
166,530
There are eight State prisons, 130 local prisons, reforaiatories at least in
each Fu and Ken, also 7 military prisons, and 4 naval prisons. Number
of prisoners of all kinds, convicted and accused, and those in reformatories,
at the close of 1895 :— Men, 72,651 ; women, 5,412 ; total, 78,063.
Pauperism.
Government reserves an amount of 22,290,001 yen for a relief fund,
and grants relief out of the interest of the fund. The amount thus granted
in 1895-96 was 129,596 yen for food to 4,911,159 persons (counting the
same person as different for each day), 145,438 yen for provisional dwellings
to 45,534 families, 28,315 yen for instruments of agriculture to 8,343
families, 40,162 yen for seed grain to 27,757 families, 11,483 yen for subsidy
of land tax to 13,528 families, and 27,170 yen for loan of land tax to 14,297
families. The central Government also grants relief to the extremely poor, the
helpless, and friendless; in 1895, 20,891 persons were thus relieved, to the
amount of 141,450 yen, as compared with 6,018 persons and 44,800 in 1883-84.
In the end of 1895, 4,548 foundlings were being maintained. There is a work-
house in Tokio, with 538 paupers at the end of 1894, as compared with 108 in
1884 ; income, 1894-95, 21,232 yen ; expenditure, 16,971 yen.
Finance.
I. Imperial.
The following are the revenue and expenditure for five fiscal
years, the amounts for the years 1895-96 and 1896-97 being
provisional accounts, and for 1897-98 estimates : —
—
1893-94
1894.95 1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
Revenue . . .
Expenditure , .
Yen
89,042,210
84,581,872
Yen
92,421,605
78,128,643
Yen
98,390,615
85,317,179
Yen
153,665,203
16.'>, 162,360
Yen
238,709,484
249,547,286
The figures for 1897-98 include in the receipts 50,500,000 yen from the
Chinese indemnity, and 61,300,000 yen of loans.
The following are the budget estimates for the year ending 31 March,
1898 :—
FINANCE
767
Xo regular biulgot for the year 1898-99 having been sanctioned by the
Diet, the Government had recourse to the estimates of 1897-98 ; but in June,
1898, a supplenientaiy budget was passed providing for additional revenue to
the amount of 310,410 yen, and additional expenditure to the amount of
13,743,220 yen. The large deficit will be met by appropriations from the
indemnity fund.
The public debt of Japan stood as follows on March 31, 1897 :— Home debt :
7h per cent., 4,000,000 yen; 5 per cent., 378,615,020 yen; no interest,
27,486,363 yen; total, 410,101,383 yen. Foreign debt: 7 per cent., 233,752
yen. Total, 410,335,135 yen. Paper currency, 9,045,082 yen.
II. Local.
The estimated revenue of Fu and Ken for 1896-97 is 21,298,049 yen, and
expenditure 22,31,494 yen. The Treasury is to grant to local governments
1,061,758 yen. The actual revenue for 1894-95 of Shi, Clio, and Son was
30,110,595 yen, and expenditiire 27,962,119 yen.
768 JAPAN
Defence.
The Emperor has the supreme command of the army and
navy. Since the restoration of Imperial authority and the con-
sequent abolition of the feudal system, the army of the Empire
has been organised on a uniform system on the basis of con-
scription. According to the present law, all males of the age
of 20 are liable to serve in the standing army for seven years, of
which three must be spent in active service, and the remaining
four in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve
they have to form part of the landwehr for another five years ;
and every male from 17 up to 40 years of age, who is not either
in the line, the reserve, or the landwehr, must belong to the
landsturm, and is liable to be called to service in times of national
emergency.
The army is composed of the Imperial Guard, the six divisions, the
gendarmerie, the Yezo militia, the reserves, and the territorial army or
landwehr. In 1897 its peace strength was as follows : — The Imperial Guard,
11,213 men (including 370 officers) ; the six divisions, 76,351 men (2,745
officers) ; the gendarmerie, 1,065 men (51 officers) ; the Yezo militia, 4,577
men (95 officers) ; the reserves, 83,080 men (696 officers) ; territorial army,
104, 954 men (357 officers). Including the central administrative departments
and the military schools, the total strength was 284,741 (including 4,760
officers). The total number of horses is about 29,000. There are a staff
college, military college, cadet college, military school, gunnery school,
a school for non-commissioned officers, &c., with 2,400 students.
All the fire-arms, ordnance, and ammunition used in the Imperial army
are manufactured at the arsenals of Tokio and Osaka. The rifle now used in
the army is the Murata rifle, which was invented in Japan a few years ago.
The Japanese navy has its Ministry and the department of naval command
in Tokio. The Minister of Marine is a member of the Cabinet and superin-
tends the administration. The chief of the naval command is appointed from
the admirals on the active list, and is responsible under the Emperor for the
operations of the fleet. The coast of Japan is divided into five maritime dis-
tricts having their head-quarters with docks, arsenals, and barracks, at
Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru, and Muroran (the last two not established
yet). The personnel of the navy in 1897 included 1 admiral, 5 vice-admirals,
8 rear-admirals, 147 captains, 335 lieutenants, besides officers of marines,
engineers, &c., and 10,161 sailors, the total being 13,685 officers and men.
The personnel is trained as in the navies of Europe, and has given excellent
proofs of bravery, steadiness, and discipline during the course of the conflict
with China.
The development of the Japanese navy is one of the most notable elements
in the politics of the Far East. During the war with China the squadron was
handled with considerable skill and with very decisive effect. An extensive
shipbuilding programme has been laid down which provides for the building
of many battleships and cruisers and about 100 torpedo craft.
The strength of the fleet is as follows : — 3 first-class battleships and 3
building, 4 armoured coast defence vessels, 7 armoured cruisers and 16 pro-
DEFENX'E
760
tected cruisers built and builliug, r» third-class cruisers, and 12 gun vessels,
kc. The torpedo Hotilla consists of 16 iirst-class, 23 second-class, and 28
third-class boats.
The following table includes all the battleships built and building,
armoured cruisers and principal protected cruisers (abbreviations : b. barbette
battleship ; c.d. coast defence vessel ; a.c. armoured cruiser ; p.c. protected
cruiser ; q.f. quick -liring gun) : —
c
Name.
CO
i a
1^
« C ■
Principal armament
: O ?!
"SI
icated
orse-
e|2
3:
o
0
h
eS
18
IS
5
|IP.
^^^
Yasliiitia
Fuji .
18%
isor.
12,320
12,320
]4 12-in.; 10 0-in. Q.F.; 20 3-pr. Q.F,
14,000
18-5
h
Shikishiiiia .
1S!18
14,850
0
1
b
h
Asalii .
Unnamerl .
—
15,200
15,000
9
9
(4 12-in. Q.F.; 14 6-in. Q.F.; 20 12 pr.
j QF.
5
14,500
18-5
b
Uniiaiiud .
—
15,000
0
c d
Chin-Ye)i
1SS2
7.400
14
4 12-in.; 2 5-9-in
3
6,200
14-0
r (I
Hel-Yei
Kon-Go
187S
1S77
2,200
2.200
tl
\ 3 6-6-in. ; 6 5-9-in.
—
2,490
13-0
c d
Ping-Yen
1890
2,000
8
1 10-2-in. ; 2 5-9-in.
4
2,400
11-0
<l c
Chiyoda
1880
2,450
4i
10 4-7-in. Q.F. ; 14 3 pr, Q.F.
3
5,700
17-5
a c
Tokiwa
1898
9,750
7
]
a c
Asania
1898
9,750
7
U 8-in, Q.F.; 14 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 12 pr.(
( Q.F. /
r.
18,000
21-5
a c
Unnamed .
—
9,750
7
o
a c
Yakunio
—
9,850
►•
1
)
a (■
Aznma
_.
9,4;:;o
6
4 8-in.Q.F.; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 3-in.Q.F.
5
17,000
21-0
p c
Akitsiishima
189-2
3.150
—
4 6-in. Q.F. ; 6 4-7-in. Q F.
4
8,400
190
P c
Hashidate .
1891
4,277
\
P <^
Itsukusliinia
1891
4,277
\ 1 12-5-in. ; 11 4-7-in. Q.F.
4
5,400
17-0
p c
JIatsushima
1890
4,277
—
/
pc
pc
Naniwa
Takachiho .
1885
1885
3,650
3,700
—
1 2 10-2-iu. J 6 5-9-in.
4
7,235
185
p c
Yoshiuo
1892
4,180
—
4 6in. Q.F. ; 8 1 7-in. Q.F.
5
15,000
23-0
P c
Chitose , j
1898
4.760
—
\
pc i
p '^ !
Kasat,'i
Takasago
1897
1897
4,760
4,160
— j
2S-iii. Q.F. ; 10 4-7-in. Q.F.
0
15,500
22-5
pc
i
Unnamed .
—
4,160
1
1
The two battleships Yashiina and Fuji, first of the class in the Japanese
navy, were built in England. Dimensions : — Length 374 feet, beam 73 feet,
draught 26 feet 6 inches ; armouring from 6 to 18 inches ; armament, four
12-iuch guns coupled in barbettes fore and aft, and ten 6-inch, twenty
3-pounder and four smaller quick-firers, with five torpedo tubes. Another
ship of the type, but of gri^ater displacement (14,850 tons), the Shikishima,
is completing at the Thames Ironworks. She is a very powerful ship, 400 feet
long, with 75 feet beam, 9-inch Harvey plating, and a chief armament oi
four 12-inch guns. Three other battleships of the same type have been laid
down, at Elswick, Clydebank, and Barrow. All will be magnificent vessels,
as good as anything afloat, and generally resembling the Majestic. Five very
powerful armoured cruisers approximating to 9,750 tons are in hand at
Elswick, Stettin, and Rochefort. They will be swift vessels, well armoured
with Harvey steel, and carrying a very large quick-firing armament. A
cruiser of the Yoshino type (4,160 tons) has been built at Elswick, and nameil
the Takasago, and another is in hand. The Kasagi and Chitose have been
completed in America.
The sister ships Hoshidate, If-mkusJizma, and 3fa(mshima (the first built
3 D
770
JAPAN
at Yokosuka, the others at La Seyne) are of an older class of protected
cruisers. They displace 4,277 tons, are 295 feet in length, and measure
50 feet 6 inches in beam. Each carries one gun of 12^ inches, and has a
considerable quick-firing armament. The AMtsushima, built in Japan, is a
like vessel, but of greater speed (19 knots). The Yoshino, built at Elswick,
is analogous to the Argentine 9 de Julio, but is larger and provided with a
double bottom. Her length is 360 feet, her beam 46 feet 6 inches, and she
has a displacement of about 4,200 tons.
Production and Industry.
The land is cultivated chiefly by peasant proprietors, tenancy being rare.
The land is thus officially divided for 1894 in acres : — Public land, used for
Government purposes 9,675; forests, 2,885,776; open field, 1,412,179; mis-
cellaneous (1893-94), 17,420; total, 4,325,050 acres. Private land: under
cultivation, 1,235,917 ; homesteads, 93,365 ; forests, 1,789,438 ; open field,
262,774; miscellaneous, 6,718; total, 3,388,212 acres. The public lands
include only those surveyed, and the private only those taxed.
The following are some agricultural statistics for five years : —
_
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Rice (acres) .
6,750,904
6,752,755
6,692,971
7,015,712
6,830,075
,, (bushels)
189,203,356
205,359,621
207,776,255
198,127,873
179,655,848
Wheat (acres)
1,043,718
1,064,192
1,081,914
1,093,008
1,082,425
,, (bushels) .
17,577,262
15,256,168
19,689,080
19,719,457
17,632,137
Barley (acres)
1,590,559
1,601,155
1,588,011
1,600,808
1,594,189
,, (bushels) .
40,273,730
33,793,999
42,325,636
42,367,136
38,955,217
Rye (acres) .
1,565,378
1,592,811
1,621,282
l,64fi,256
1,648,113
,, (bushels
31,870,166
30,060,404
36,300,159
34,818,262
29,396,488
Tea (in kwan ^) .
7,211,865
7,640,368
7,883,232
8,698,781
8,500,745
Sugar (in kwan »)
10,721,172
12,635,293
—
14,402,588
11,822,307
Silk : cocoons (in koku2)
1,480,705
1,686,894
1,800,596
2,258,173
1,836,672
,, raw (in kwan 1) .
1,618,632
1,774,821
—
1,887,584
2,299,6S8
1 kwan = 8-28 pounds avoir.
1 koku = 4-96 bushels.
In 1895 the number of cattle was 1,136,278 ; of horses in 1895, 1,530,603.
The mineral and metal products in two years were : —
Official Mines
1
Private Mines
Official Mines
Private Mines
—
1894-95
1894
1895-96
1895
Gold, mommei .
90,298
121,280
90,909
150,047
Silver ,, .
2,666,919
16,693,617
2,264,178
17,000,900
Copper, kwan 2
73,869
5.234,971
86,566
5,011,519
Iron ,, .
322,068
4,860,395
816,442
6,562,864 '
Lead
13,321
376,622
5,926
518,207 ;
Coal, tons
22,289
4,238,929
— 1
Antimony, kw n 2 .
—
418,968
__
— 1
Sulphur
"~
5,001,147
—
: ~ i
120 raonime = 1 lb. avoirdupois.
2 1 kwan = 8-28 lbs.
Silk, cotton, and other textiles were manufactured to the value of
17,825,645 yen in 1886 ; in 1892, 48,940,536 yen ; in ]894, 58,623,792 you ;
COMMEKCE
771
ill 1895, 71,350,747 yen. Cotton yarn was manufactured in 1886 to tlic extent
of 785,424 kwan ; in 1892, 10,338,411 kwan ; in 1894, 14,620,008 kwan ;
in 1895, 18,411,094 kwan.
In 1891 there were 377,501 fishing-boats, and 2,508,361 persons wholly or
partially engaged in fishing. Some of the products were : — (1895) salt lish,
6,759,975 kwan; dried fish, &c., 16,260,478 kwan; fish manure, 44,669,571
kwan ; fish oil, 1,519,279 kwan ; sea-weed, &c., 7,169,522 kwan.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the foreign trade of Japan for five
years : —
Imports
Exports
1893
1894
Yen Yen
89,355,338 |l21, 677,263
1895
1896
Yen
Yen
1897
Yen
138, 674,842'171, 674,474 219,300,772
90,419,909 113,308,997 i 136,186,328117,842,760:163,135,0771
In 1896 the imports subject to duty were of the value of 130,431,093 yen,
and the duty-free 41,243,380 yen. The exports subject to duty amounted to
50,595,375 yen, and the duty-free exports to 64,020,407 yen.
The commercial intercourse of Japan was mainly with the followino-
countries, and to the following values in two years : —
Countries
Imports from
Exports to 1
1896
1897
1896
1897
United States
British America .
Great Britain
China . . . .
France ...
East Indies and Sim a
Germany ....
Korea
Hongkong ....
Russia
' Switzerland.
1 Italy
1 Austria ....
Australia ....
Holland ....
: Belgium ....
Yen
16,373,420
51,524
59,251,780
21,344,521
7,682,346
22,720,699
17,183,953
5,118,025
9,133,777
1,416,848
2,534,217
182,923
40,400
835,046
62,799
3,106,094
Yen
27,030,537
129,129
65,406,266
29,265,845
5,147,591
30,966,898
18,143,279
8,864,359
12,027,197
1,907,585
2,555,904
213,266
8.0,943
897,050
57,992
3,173,218
Yen
31,532,341
1,594,045
9,012,398
13,823,844
19,027,389
4,547,544
2,972,1.36
3,367,693
19,965,900
1,910,581
617,707
2,609,106
539,278
1,458,253
231,221
111,467
Yen
52,436,404
2,054,619
8,481,195
21,325,065
26,213,654
5,585,798
2,207,018
5,196,572
25,390,293
2,039,342
897,046
2,981,889
258,371
1,875,169
261,023
109,311
The recorded quantities and values are ascertained from shipping documents and in-
voices, the values in the case of exports being given as the market values in Japan, and of
imports as the values in the countries of purchase, exclusive of the cost of tran.sport in-
surance, (fee. The prime origin and ultimate destination, as far as they are known, are re-
corded as disclosed in the shipping documents.
The foreign commerce of Japan is carried on through the open ports of
Yokohama, Kobe, Osaka, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, and 13 other ports.
The following table shows the chief articles of the foreign commerce, including
exports of foreign produce and imports of home produce, for 1896 and
1897 :—
3 D 2
772
JAPAN
Imports
1896
1897 1 Exports
1896
1897
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
Rice.
5,662,337
21,528,428^ Rice
7,957,295
6,141,217
Pulse
3,475,016
5,889,616 Tea .
6,240,896
7,728,966
Sugar
13,711,738
19,799,090; Seaweed .
486,930
726,895
Chlorate of potash .
429,042
497,650, Vegetable wax
.371,700
730,576
Raw cotton
32,573,352
43,122,262, Cuttlefish
1,151,143
1,413,646
Cotton varn .
11,372,001
9,625,258j Camphor.
1,119,196
1,318,291
Cotton goods .
5,117,916
4,247,440! Silk, raw, waste,<tc.
31,595,037
58,650,431
Woollen varn .
1,114,872
1, 337,424 i Silk goods
12,034,000
13,229.476
Flannels .
1.997,245
1,187,654 Carpets, of hemp, &c.
1.152,177
973,871
Woollen nuislin
0,498,162
3,835,88(1^ Umbrellas
773.620
627,057
Italian cloths .
2,813,097
1,815,581' Copper, injrot .
2,423,116
1,075,945
Blankets .
1,932,482
608,928, ,, manufactured
2,461,039
2,680,806
Iron and steel rails .
2,595,459
3,325,004 Matches .
4,986,260
5,641.992
Iron, bar, &c. .
2,359,705
3,046,131 Coals
6,242,931
8,316,775
Iron nails
1,440,253
1,458,294 Lacquered ware
948,734
767,400
Watches .
1,897,481
1,901,813 Porcelain & earthen-
Kerosene oil .
6,331,036
7,667,350, ware
1,974.854
1,819,061
Oil cake .
3,220.600
3,315,587 Floor mats
3,056,759
3,232,738
Spinning machinery
2,992,361
5,401,701 Cotton >arn .
4,029,424
13,490,196
Locomotives .
1,620,767
4,235,616; ,, piece goods .
i
1,333,560
1,838,504
The imports of bullion and specie in 1897 amounted to 81,466,713 yen,
and exports to 19,219,163 yen.
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of
Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table for five years : —
1893
£ £
Imports from Japan into U.K. . 1,046,598 958,541
Exports of British produce to
Japan 3,485,770 3,719,475
1894
1895
£
1896
£
1897
£
1,283,165
1,143,382 j 1,241,433
4,638,207 I 6,033,342 | 5,607,822
The staple articles of import from Japan into Great Britain in the year
1897 were raw silk and silk waste, of the value of 39,879/. : silk manu-
factures, 167,116Z. ; tobacco, 20,561Z. ; drugs, 27,249Z. ; copper, 136,809Z. ;
rice, 124,903Z. ; china and earthenware, 30,074Z, The staple articles of
British export to Japan consist of cotton goods, of the value of 1.042,178/. ;
cotton yarn, 1,040, 786Z. : woollen fabrics, 365,947/. ; iron, wrought and un-
wrought, 983,567/. ; machinery, 1,208,163/. ; chemicals, 104,566/. in the year
1897.
Shipping and Navigation.
The folluwing are the shipping staliJitics of the Japanese })orts, exclusive
of coasting trade, for 1897 : —
—
Entered Cleared j
1
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Japanese steamships
,, sailing ships and
junks
Foreign steamships .
, , sailing ships
Total
529
1,145
1,708
142
650,839
32,066
2,919,038
168,946
513
1,218
1,384
142
583,986
34,669
2,365,651
162,251
3,524
3,770,889
3,257
3,146,557
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
773
Of the total foreign ships entered, 1,020 of 1,971,895 tons were British ; 361
of 471,855 tons Oernian ; 70 of 12(J,824 tons American ; 26 of 56,119
tons French. Of the total shipping in 1895, 590 vessels of 827,937 tons
entered Nagasaki ; 358 of 422,150 !;ons Yokohama ; 350 of 457,223 tons Kobe.
In 1897 the merchant navy of Japan consisted of 570 steamers of European
type, of 227,841 tons ; 165 sailing vessels of European type, of 25,485 tons ;
and 668 native craft above 50 tons, of 51,152 tons.
Internal Communications.
There are 4,481 miles of State roads and 15,362 miles of provincial roads.
Railways are of two classes — (1) State railways ; (2) railways owned by
private companies, twenty-eight in number, three of them guaranteed a certain
rate of interest by Government. The following table gives the railway
statistics for 1896-97 : —
Stafe Railwiv^ : Railways owned by
1 cor a- ^ ' Private Companies,
ibyo-y. 1896-97
Length in miles .
Gross income, yen
Expenditure, yen
Goods carried, tons
PassengervS, number .
631-62 1,873-50
8,273,652 12,873,432
3,815,663 5,565,452
1,276,658 , 5,421,013
22,681,161 j 4-2,4-26,737
The following are postal statistics for four fiscal years. The income, ex
penditure, and officers include those of the telegraph service : —
1 —
1893-94
1894-95 1895-96
1896-97 !
Letters and postcards
Newspapers and periodicals .
. Books
1 Samples, &c
1 Registered packets ....
Parcels
Total
' Income (yen)
'. Expenditure (yen) ....
Officers
254,573,715
56,968,379
5,391,852
421,243
3,540,704
734,615
.302,311,129
80,415,390
5,257,376
484,634
4,049,933
1,206,849
356,141,242
78,962,299
5,917,775
683,923
4,679,471
1,686,977
403,818,612
86,801,875
6,617,114
898,190
5,223,891
2,737,138
321,630,508
393,725,311
448,071,087
506,096,820
6,487,088
5,087,047
14,209
8,-381,049
6,811,060
14,733
8,341,042
5,433,825
15,299
16,925
All open ports and other important cities and towns are connected with
each other and with Europe by lines ot telegraph. In March, 1897, there
were 11,720 miles of telegraph with 37,661 miles of wire, besides 387
miles of .submarine cable, with 1,481 miles of wire. The number of telegrams
carried was 10,978,153 in the fiscal year 1896-97. There were 1,114 olfices
in Japan,
In March, 1897, there were 528 miles of telephone (6,347 miles of wire),
with 6 exchange offices, 25 calling offices, and 3, 232 subscribers.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of coinage i.ssned in the fi.scal
years stated (ending 31.st March) : —
774
JAPAN
—
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96 1896-97
Gold coins .
Silver ,, .
Nickel ,, .
Copper,, .
Yen
1,351,267
12,141,928
500,000
Yen
1,364,612
13,177,375
726,000
Yen
1,583,088
28,539,445
350,000
Yen Yen
1,423,750 952,433
20,007,377 12,927,0^^4
51,500 650,000
Total
13,993,195
15,261,987
30,472,533
21,482,627
14,529,467
The total coinage issued from the mint from its foundation in 1870 up to
March 31, 1897, exclusive of re-coinage, amounted to 284,782,821 yen.
The paper money in circulation consists of Treasury notes, Kokuritsu
Ginko notes, or notes of the National banks, and Nippon Ginko (or Bank of
Japan) notes, exchangeable for silver on presentation. The amount in circu-
lation on 1st April, 1897, was 203,768,357 yen.
In 1895 the Nippon Ginko, or Bank of Japan, had a paid-up capital of
22,500,000 yen ; notes in circulation, 180,336,815 yen; loans, 328,525,696 yen :
deposits, 540,665,431 yen. The Kokuritsu Ginko (133 head offices having 180
branches), paid-up capital, 48,951,100 yen ; notes in circidation, 20,728,708
yen ; loans, 518,363,525.yen ; deposits, 1,099,963,525 yen. The Shokin Ginko,
or Specie Bank, paid-up capital, 4,500,000 yen; loans, 47,421,012 j'en ;
deposits, 322,413,441 yen.
In 1895 tliere were 792 private banks (of which 6 banks also act as
savings banks), with paid-up capital of 49,967,260 yen ; loans, 380,898,955
yen; deposits, 842,575,973 yen. In 1895-96 1,605,855 persons deposited
46,397,978 yen and withdrew 17,918,294 yen from the post-offices, which act
as savings banks.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The standard of value (from October, 1897), is gold. The ratio to silver
is 32^ to 1. The unit is the gold yen, "900 fine, weighing 0*83 grammes, and
thus containing '75 grammes of pure gold. The coinage formerly was as
follows : — The silver Fen, or Dollar, of 100 sens, of the nominal value of
4s. ; actual value about 35. Ad. Gold coins were 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1-yen
pieces. The 5-yen gold piece weighing 8 '3 grammes, about '900 fine,
contained 7 '5 grammes of fine gold.
Trade dollars are also coined weighing 27*2156 gi'ammes, '900 fine, and
thus containing 24*4940 grammes of fine silver.
The 5-sen piece is also coined in nickel. Copper coins are 2, 1, half, and
tenth-sen pieces, the last, called the rin, being the smallest coin used.
Paper currency of various denominations, corresponding to the coins, is in
general use, and is now at par Avith silver.
Tlie Ki7i =160 momme
—
1"325 lb. avoirdupois.
,, Ktuan = ],000 ,,
z=
8-281 lbs. ,,
,, Shaku .....
=
•994 foot.
,, Siln .....
=
1,193 inches.
,, Ken = 6 shaku
=
5-965 feet.
„ Ch6 = 60 ken
z=
tV mile, 5 '4229 chains.
„ Hi = 36 chO
=.
2*44 miles.
,, Ri &{[. ....
=
5*9552 sq. miles.
,, Chd, land measure .
r=
2-45 acres.
,, Koku, liquid , . .
=:
39-7033 gallons.
,, dry ...
=
4 -9629 bushels.
,, To, liquid ....
=
3-9703 gallons.
M ,, dry ....
=
1 -9703 peck.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 775
It is stated to ])e the intention of the Government to introduce into
Japan at an early period a new system of weights and measures, based on tlie
metric system.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Japan in Gueat Buitain.
Envoy and Minv^ter. — Takaaki Kato.
Secretary. — Keisliiro IMatsui.
Attache — Chozo Koike.
Naval Attache. — Captain Mukoyama.
Military Attache. — Major Shiba.
Chancellor. — Tadachi Shirasu.
2. Of Great Britain in Japan.
Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul-General. — Sir E. ^I. Satow,
K.C.M.G., appointed June 1, 1895.
Secretary. — J. B. Whitehead.
Military Attache. — Lt. -Colonel A. G Churchill.
Japanese Secretary. — J. H. Gubbins, C.M.G.
There are Consular Representatives at Hakodate Niigata, Hiogo, Osaka,
Xagasaki, Tokio, and Yokohama, and at Tamsuy and Tainan in the Island of
Formosa.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.
1. Official Publications.
Constitution of the Empire of Japan. Tokio, 1SS9.
General Outlines of Education in Japan. Tokio, 1884.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. S. London.
Reports of the various Government Departments. Annual. Tokio.
Resume statistique de I'empire du Japon. Annual. Tokio.
Returns of the Foreign Commerce and Trade of Japan. Anuual. Tokio.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries and British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Perkins (N.), Report on Formosa. [Contains list of works on Formosa]. Loudon, 1896.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adams (F. 0.), History of Japan, from the earliest period to the present time. 2 vols.
8. London, 1875.
Alcock (Sir Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a Narrative of a three years*
Residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1803.
Arnold (Sir Edwin), Seas and Lands. 2 vols. London, 1891. Japonica : Essays on
Japan. 8. London, 1892.
Aston (\V. G.), Niliongi : Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to 697 a.d. 2 vols.
London, 1897.
.Ba<c/(eZor (John), The Ainu of Japan. 8. London, 1892.
Baxter {K. S. ), In Bamboo Lands. London, 1897.
Berkeley (H), Jajianese Letters. 8. London, 1891.
Bickersteth{}il. J.), Japan as we saw it. 8. London, 189.3.
Bird (Miss J. L.), Unbeaten Tracks in Jajian. 2 vols. London, 1880,
Brandt (yi. von), Ostnsiatische Fra;;cn. Ltipzic, 1897.
Brinkley (Capt.) (Eilitor), Japan Described and Illustrated by Native Authorities.
London, 1898
Caron, Account of Japan (163J). In Vol. YII. of Pinkerton's Collection. 4. London
1811.
Chamberlai7ie (B. H.), Things Japanese, 3d ed. 8. London, 1898.
Cordier (H.), Bibliographic des Ouvrages relatifs a I'lle Formosa. [Up to end of 1892]
Paris, 1893.
776 JAPAN
Diogy (A), The New Far East. London, 1898.
Dixon (W. G.), The Land of the Morning. Edinburgh, 1882. Gleanings from Japan
8. Edinburgh, 1889.
Eastlake (F W.), and Yoshi-Aki (Yamada), Heroic Japan. Historv of the China-Japanese
"War. London, 1897.
Griffis (W. E ), TJie Reb'gions of Japan. 8. London, 1895.
iTarris (Townsend), Fir.st American Envoy to Japan. [Journals.] 8, London, 1895.
Hearne (L.), Kokoro, Hints of the Japanese Inner Life. London, 1896. Gleanings in
Buddha Fields. London, 1897.
Heine (W.), Japan : Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Landes und seiner Bewohner. Fo .
Leipzig, 1873.
Johnston (J.), Cliina and Formosa. Loudon, 1897.
Knapp (A. M.), Feudal and Modern Japan. 2 vols. London, 1898.
Lx Farge (J.), An Artist's Letters from Japan. London, 1897.
Landor (A. H. Savage), Alone with the Hairy Ainu. London, 1893.
Lane-Poole (Stanley), Life of Sir Harry Parkes, K.C.B. 2 vols. 8. London, 1894.
Layrle (J.), La Restauration imperiale au Japon. 8. Paris, 1893.
Leupe (P. A.), Reise van Maarten Gerritz-Uries in 1643 naar net ;ioorden en oosten van
Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.
Mackay (G. L.), From Far Formosa. 3d. ed. London, 1898.
Metchnikoft {L.), Empire Japonais. Geneva. 1881.
Murray's Handbook for Japan. By B. H. Chamberlain and W. B. Mason. 4th ed. 8
London, 1895.
Mwrray (D.), Japan, in " Story of the Nations " Series. 8. London, 1894
Norman (H.), The Real Japan. London, 1892. The Peoples and Politics of the Far East.
8. London, 1895.
Oliphant (L.), Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan, 1856-59. 2 vols. 8. London,
1860.
Pecry (R. B.), The Gist of Japan. London, 1897.
Pickeriuf) (W. A.), Pioneering in Formosa. London, 1898.
Eeclus (Elisee), Geographie universelle. Vol. VIL L'Asie orientale. Paris, 1882.
Reed (Sir E. J.), Japan : its History, Traditions, and Religions, with the Narrative of a
Visit in 1879. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Reim (Dr. J.), Japan nach Reisen und Studien. Vol. I. 1880. Vol. II. 1886. The
Industries of Japan. London, 1S89.
Satow (E. M.) Handbook for Travellers in Japan. 3d. ed. 8. London, 1891.
Siebold (Ph. Franz von), Nippon : Archiv zur Besclu-eibung von Japan. New e
Wurzburg. 1897.
Sladen (D. B. W.), The Japs at Home. 8. London, 1892.
Taylor (B.), Japan in our Day. 8. New York, 1871.
Thomas (J. LI.), Journeys among the Gentle Japs, 1895. London, 1897.
Titsingh (Isaac), Nipon o dai itsi ran, on annales des empereurs du Japon. Oiivr. corr.
sur I'original japonais-chinois par M. J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834.
Tristram (Canon), Rambles in Japan. 8. London, 1895.
Ussile (J.), A travers le Japon. Paris, 1893.
Vladimir, The China-Japanese War. Loudon, 1895.
Weston (W.), Mountaineering and Exploration in tlie Japanese Alps. London, 1896.
waller storf-Urhair (Baron von), Reise der oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara um die
Erdc in den Jalu-en 1857, 1858, 1859. Beschi-eibender Theil von Dr. Karl v. Scherzer.
2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.
Younghushand (G. J.), On Short Leave to Japan. 8. London, 1894.
V I i
KOREA.
(Ch'ao-hsien, or Chosen.)
Government.
The reigning monavch, whose surname is Yi and name Heui, succeeded his
predecessor — now known under his posthumous title of Ch'yelchyong — in
1864. On October 15, 1897, he assumed the title of Emperor. He is reckoned
as the thirtieth in succession since the founding of the present dynasty in
1392 ; but four of the so-called Kings were Crown Princes Avho never ascended
the throne. Up to July, 1894, when war was declared by Ja})an against
China, tlie monarchy, which is hereditary, was practically absolute. The
constitution, the penal code, and the system of otlicial administration were
framed on the Chinese model, except that the government was in the hands
of a hereditary aristocracy, exclusive and corrupt. Since early times Korea
had acknowledged the suzerainty of China, a suzerainty which was denied by
Japan and which was one of the alleged causes of the war between China
and Japan, 1894. By the treaty of Shimonoseki, May, 1895, China renounced
her claim, and under Ja})anese influence, with the aid cf money borrowed
from Japan, many reforms were introduced, such as the payment of taxes
in money instead of in kind ; lixed salaries for government officials ; a
reduction in the number of useless liangers on, and an eiiort towards order
in the departments of State. There exists, however, a strong reactionar}'
tendency, especially in the Household Department, and various abuses have
recently revived. The constitution as it at present exists may be briefly
described as follows : — The Em^ieror is an independent sovereign, but his
power is to a certain extent modified by the Cabinet, which passes resolutions
and frames laws which must be submitted to the Emperor for ratification.
The privileges of the aristocracy have been abolished, and the selection of
ofiicers for government posts is made by the Ministers and officials of the
first order, subject to the Emperor's approval. The central government
consists of 8 departments or ministries of state. The departments are
those of (1) the Cabinet, presided over by the Premier, (2) the Home Oflfice,
(3) the Foreign Office, (4) the Treasury, (5) the War Office, (6) Education,
(7) Justice, (8) Agriculture, Trade and Industry. A ninth department, that of
the Household, does not confer upon the Minister in charge a seat in the Cabinet.
The eight jnovinces into which Korea was formerly divided have been
abolished, and local government is now administered in 13 tOy or provinces,
these being sub-divided into 339 kiin, or districts. There is a separate
government for the capital, while each of the five treaty-ports, Chemulpo,
Fusan, Wonsan, Chinnampo, and Mokpo, and the Russo-Korean trading mart
Kyenheung, is under a Superintendent or Kamni, who ranks with a Consul.
Area and Population.
Estimated area, 82,000 square miles ; population estimated at from
8, 000, 000 to 1 6, 000, 000. Recent statistics give 2, 356, 267 lamilies and 10,528,937
inhabitants— 5,312,323 males and 5,216,614 females. The capital, Seoul,
has 200,000 inhabitants. The foreign population consisted, in 1897, of
10,000 Japanese, 4,000 Chinese, and about 300 others, of whom 73 are
British and 130 Americans. At Chemulpo there are over 6,000 Japanese
and Chinese. Ping- Yang has a population of about 30,000. The language
of the people is intermediate between Mongolo-Tartar and Japanese, and an
alphabetical systen) of writing is used to some extent. In all official writing,
and in the coiTespondence of the upper classes, the Chinese characters were
used exclusively, but in official documents a mixture of the native script is
now the rule.
778 KOREA
Religion and Instruction.
The worship of ancestors is observed with as much punctiliousness as in
'Jhina, but, otherwise, religion holds a low place in the kingdom. The law
forbidding temples and priests in the city of Seoul has been repealed ; in
the country there are numerous Buddhist monasteries. Confucianism is held
in highest esteem by the upper classes, and a knowledge of the classics of
China is the first aim of Korean scholars and aspirants for oihcial station.
There are about 20,000 Catholics and 300 Protestants. In 1890 an English
Church mission was established, with a bishop and 20 other members.
Two hospitals are attached to the mission with an English doctor, and
trained nurses. The American missionaries have also two hospitals in Seoul.
In 1895 there were about 80 Protestant missionaries (British and American),
30 Roman Catholic.
In Seoul there is a school for English with 2 English teachers and 100
pujiils. There are, besides, schools for teaching Japanese, French, Chinese,
and Russian, an American Mission School, and 10 or 11 schools for little boys,
where Chinese and Korean are taught. A school for German is about to be
established. All these schools are subsidised by the Government.
Finance and Defence.
The revenue is derived chiefly from the land tax (about 2,000,000 dollars),
the customs duties (1,110,000 dollars), the house tax (200,000 dollars),
the ginseng tax (estimated at 150,000 dollars), and the tax on gold dust
(40,000 dollars), amounting altogether to nearly 5,000,000 dollars. The
expenditure for 1897 was estimated at 4,238,186 dollars, of which the House-
hold Department absorbed 600,000 dollars, and the Home office and War
office 1,225,655 and 1,251,745 dollars respectively. The privy purse of
the King now stands at about 60,000/., of which 50,000/. (500,000 dollars)
is given in place of the monopoly in ginseng formerly enjoyed by the palace.
In 18 months of 1896-97 there was paid off 2,000,000 dollars of the Japanese
loan of 1895. For several years a British official has been superintendent
of Korean customs ; in December, 1897, a Russian colleague was appointed,
but retired in April, 1898.
The standing army, which used to consist of about 5,000 men, badly
armed, drilled, clothed and fed, and was practically useless, was in 1896
taken in hand by a Russian colonel with 3 commissioned and 10 non-
commissioned officers. A Royal Body Guard of about 1,000 men has been
formed and armed with Berdan rifles obtained from Russia. The Russian
officers retired in April, 1898, but the guard has been drilled, and periodi-
cally a draft of Avell-trained men is transferred from it to the other regiments
of the standing army, of which there are 5, averaging about 900 men.
There is thus a fair proportion of drilled troops in the ranks of this force.
It is proposed to raise a small force of foreigners as a special body-guard for
the Emperor. A police force of about 2,000 men has also been formed, and
is under the control of a special department under the Home Office.
Production and Commerce.
Korea is a purely agricultural country, and the metliods of cultivation are
of a backward and primitive type, the means of communication being few
and difficult. In the south rice, wheat, beans, and grain of all kinds are
grown, besides tobacco ; in the north the chief crops are barley, millet, and
oats. Rice, beans, and ginseng, are now exported in large quantities. Gold,
copper, iron, and coal abound. An American company is working a gold
mine at Won San, to the North of Ping- Yang, under a concession granted in
PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE
779
1895, A similar concession has been granted to a Russian subject in Ham
Kyeng, and another to a German company at Chemulpo, Gold has been
hitherto ol)tained in Korea only by surface washing.
In 1876 Korea concluded a treaty with Japan ; in 1882 China (Trade and
Frontier Regulations) and the United States ; in 1883 Germany and Great
Britain; in 1884 Italy and Russia; in 1886 France; in 1892 Austria. An
overland Trade Convention has been concluded with Russia, whose frontier is
separated from that of Korea by the Tinmen River. By virtue of these
treaties Seoul and the three ports of Inch'yen(Chemuli)o), Fusan, and Wonsan
are open to foreign commerce. The ports of Chinnampo and ^lokpo were
opened to foreign trade on October 1, 1897, and have attracted Japanese
and Chinese settlers. In May, 1898, Kun San, Songchin, Masanpo, and Ping
Yang were declared open, but no steps have yet (October, 1898) been taken to
give effect to the Resolution.
The total value of the trade (merchandise only) at the open ports has been
as follows : —
—
1893
1894 1 1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports .
Dollars
5,660,434
1,698,116
Dollars
6,941,273
3,456,140
Dollars
8,084,465
2,481,808
Dollars
6,539,630
4,728,700
Dollars
10,067,514
8,973,895 |
The imports in 1897 were : cotton goods, value 5,064,926 dollars ; woollen
goods, 60, '714 dollars; metals, 556,025 dollars; kerosene, 531,768 dollars ;
silk piece goods, 548,445 dollars ; grass cloths and matches. The chief exports
were: rice, 5,558,780 dollars; beans, value 1,710,121 dollars; cow-hides,
187,627 dollars; ginseng, 632,441 dollars ; fish, 330,828 dollars ; wheat,
190,475 dollars.
The actual trade is much greater than that stated. The statistics refer
only to the open ports, at which a customs service has been established.
No account is taken of the trade at non-treaty ports, or of that on the Russian
and Chinese frontiers, or of the under-valuation of imports owing to "ad
valorem " duties. About 60 per cent, (in value) of the imports were formerly
goods of British manufacture, and 30 per cent. Chinese and Japanese, but the
trade in Japanese cotton goods is steadily increasing, the value in 1S97
amounting to 1,914,298 dollars. In addition to the exports mentioned above,
gold was exported to China and Japan (exclusive of clandestine shipments
to the amount of 1,390,000 dollars in 1396 ; 2,034,079 dollars in 1897.
The number of vessels entering from foreign countries was in 1896,
1,720 of 499,160 tons, of which 13 of 14,651 tons were British ; in 1897,
2,417, of 601,275 tons, of which 14 of 13,794 were British.
Transport in the interior is by porters, pack-horses and oxen. Improve- "
ments in road-making are being carried out in and about Seoul. Small
river steamers, owned by Japanese, run on the Han River between Chemulpo
and Seoul. A railway from Chemulpo to Seoul has been begun by an
American syndicate and should be completed by March, 1899. A French
company has obtained the concession of a proposed railway between Seoul and
Wiju on the Chinese frontier. A telegraph line in Japanese hands connects
Seoul with Fusan and Chemulpo, whence there is a cable to Nagasaki ; the
Korean government has acquired the line between Seoul and Wiju connecting
with the Chinese system. They have also lines from Seoul to Wonsan
Chemulpo, and Fusan. A Korean post-office has been established, and letters
780 LIBERIA
are sent to any part of the country. There are Jajtanese post offices at Seoul,
Chemulpo, Fusan, Wonsan, and Mokpo.
Money.
The legal currency is the copper cash, together with the newly minted
silver dollar, silver 20 cent piece, nickel 5 cent, copper 5 cash, brass 1 cash.
The amount of the new coinage in circulation is, however, totally inadequate,
and is supplemented by the Japanese yen which has recently become prac-
tically the currency of the country. The adoption of a gold standard by
Japan has caused much confusion in Korea.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Claude Maxwell IMacdonald,
K.C.M.G. (Peking).
British Charge d' Affaires at Seoul. — John Xewell Jordan, C.M.G.
Acting Vice-Consul at Chemulpo. — A. J. Sundius.
Books of Reference concerning Korea.
Foreign Office Reports on tlie Trade of Korea. Annual Series. London.
Bibliogi-aphie Corcenne. 3 vols. Paris, 1897.
Bishop (Mrs. Isabella), Korea and her Neighbours. London, 1897.
Brandt (M. von), Ostasiatisclie Fragen. Leipzic, 1897.
Campbell (C. W.), Report of a Journey in North Corea. Blue Book. Cliina No. 2. 1^~01
Cavendi6h(A. E. J.) and Goold-Adams (H. E.), Korea and the Sacred White Mountain.
S. London, lb94.
Courant (M.), Bibliograpliie Coreenne. 3 vols. Paris, 1896.
Ctilin (Stewart), Korean Games. 4. Philadelphia, 1895.
Curzon (G. N.), Problems of the Far East. New ed. 8. London, 1896.
Dallet, Histoiredel'eglisedeCovee. 2 vols. Paris, ls74. [This work contains much accurate
information concerning the old political and social life, geography, and language of Corea-].
Gale (J. S ), Korean Sketches, hdinburgh, 1898.
Griffis (W. E.), Corea : the Hermit Nation. London, 1882.
Gundnj (R. S.), China and Her Neighbours. London, 1893.
Hamel (Hendrik), Relation du Naufrage d'un Yaisseau Holandois. &c., traduitc du
Plamand par M. Minutoli. 12. Paris, 1670. [This contains the earliest'European account
)f Korea. An English translation from the French is given in Vol. IV. of A. and J
Churchill's Collection, fol., London, 1744, and in Vol. VII. of Pinkerton's Collection,
4, London, 1811].
Korean Repository. Published monthly. Seoul.
Laguerie (V. de), La Coree, Independante, Russe, ou Japonnaise. Paris, 1898.
Landor (H. 8.), Corea, the Land of the Morning Calm. London, 1895.
Wilkinson (W. H.), the Corean Government: Constitutional Changes in Corea during
the Period July 23, ls94— June 30, 189G. 4. Shanghai, 1896. [Contains a detailed
account of recent changes.]
LIBERIA.
(United States of Liberia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Kepublic of Liberia is on the model of that of the
Qnited States of America. The executive is vested in a President, and the
legislative power in a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Re})resentatives. The President and the House of Representatives
ire elected for two years, and the Senate for four years. There are 13 members
of the Lower House, and 8 of the Upper House. The President must be
chirty-five years of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars
or 1201.
AllKA AND POPULATION — COMMERCE 781
President of Liberia. — W. D. Coleman.
Vice-President. — J. J. Eoss.
The President is assisted in his executive function by the Secretary of
State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the .Secretary of the Interior, the
Attorney-General, the Postmaster-General, and the Secretary for War and
Navy.
Area and Population.
Liberia has about 500 miles of coast line, and extends back 200 miles on an
a\erage, with an area of about 14,360 square miles. The total population is
estimated to number 1,068,000, all of the African race, and of which number
18,000 are Anierico-Liberians, and the remaining 1,050,000 aboriginal in-
habitants. Monrovia, the capital, has, including Krootown, an estimated
poi)ulation (1897) of 5,000. Other towns are Robertsport, 1,200 ; Buchanan
and Edina, 5,000 ; Harper, 3,000, and Greenville (Sinoe), with suburbs,
1,000.
For defence every citizen from 16 to 50 years of age capable of bearing
arms is liable to serve. Two small gunboats are used in preventive service.
Finance.
The reveinic and expenditure for three years, ending September 30, are
stated to have been (in American dollars) : —
Revenue
Expenditure .
1892
1893
1894
Dollars
176,291
165,214
Dollars
185,345
188,187
Dollars
158,861
151,975
The revenue is derived mainly from customs duties, while the expenditure
embraces chiefly the cost of the general administration. A debt of 100,000^.
at 7 per cent, was contracted in 1871 ; of this the interest, unpaid since
August, 1874, amounts to 171,500Z. There is also an internal debt, of which
the arrears of interest exceed the principal, and the ordinary revenue is in-
sufficient to meet the cost of administration.
Commerce.
The principal exports are coffee, palm oil, palm kernels, rubber, cocoa,
sugar, arrowroot, ivory, hides, and piassava. No statistics are available, but
the exports and imports combined probably do not exceed 500,000/. A syndi-
cate holds a concession for exportation of rubber on condition that at least
200 tons are exported annuallv for three years ending January 1, 1899,
According to the 'Annual Statement of Trade' issued by theBoard of
Trade, the value of the trade between the United Kingdom and Liberia wa.s
as follows in 1897 : —
1897
! £
Imports into U.K. from Liberia I 36,434
Exports of British produce to
Liberia I 32,048
782 LIBERIA
The cliief articles of import IVoia Liberia to Great Britain in 1897 were
palm oil of the value of 3,275/ : coflFee, 9,036Z. ; caoutchouc, 1,558Z. The
British exports to Western Africa consist mainly of cotton manufactures,
of the value of 12,741Z., and iron, 3,102/. in 1897.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money chiefly used is that of Great Britain, but accounts arc kept
generally in American dollars and cents. There is a large paper currency.
In 1896 a Liberian coinage was established. The coins are as follows : —
Silver, 50-, 25-, and 10-cent pieces ; copper, 2- and 1-cent pieces.
"Weights and measures are mostly British.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Or Liberia in Great Britain.
Consul-General and Acting Minister. — Henry Hayman.
There are Consuls in London, Birmingham, Cardifi", Glasgow, Hull,
Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Sheffield,
Southampton, Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Liberia.
Consul. — Sir F. Cardew, K.C.M.G., Governor of Sierra Leone.
Vice-Consul at Moirovia. — AV, A. King.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.
1. Official Publication,
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Blyden (E. W.), Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. London, 1S87.
Buttikofer (J.), Reisebilder aus Liberia. 2 Bde. Leiden, 1890.
Die Negerrepublic Liberia, in ' Unsere Zeit,' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858.
Durham (F. A.), The Lone Star of Liberia. Loudon, 1893.
Hutchinson (E.), Impressions of Western Africa. 8. London, 1858.
Johnston (Keith), Africa. London, 1882.
Reports of Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders for 1895-98.
Appendices. Loudon, 1896-97.
Hitter (Kai'l), Begrlindung und gegeuwartige Zustande der Republic Liberia, in ' Zeit
schrift fiir allgemeine Erdkunde,' Vol. I. 8. Leipzig, 1853.
Schwnrz (Dr. B.), Eiuiges iiber das interne Leben der Eingebornen Liberias, 'Deutsche
Kolonialzeitung,' Dec. 15, 1888. Berlin.
Stockivell (G. S.), The Republic of Liberia: its Geography, Climate, Soil, and Produc-
tions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 18(58.
Wauivermans (Colonel H.), Liberia, histoire do la fondatiou d'un etat uegre librc.
Brussels, 1885.
iriJson (J.), Western Africa. 8. London, 1850.
783
LUXEMBURG.
Reigninff Grand-duke.— Adolf, D^^ke of Nassau, born July 24, 1817,
married, April 23, 1851, to Adelaide, Princess of Anhalt ; succeeded Novem-
ber 23, 1890, on the death of King Willem III. of the Netherlands, who was
also Grand-duke of Luxemburg. Offspring. — 1. Prince IFilhelni, born April
22, 1852 ; married June 21, 1893, to Marie Anne, daughter of Miguel, Duke
of Braganza ; issue, Princess Marie, born June 14, 1894 ; Princess Charlotte,
born January 23, 1896 ; Princess Hilda, born February 15, 1897. IL
Princess Hilda, born November 5, 1864 ; married September 20, 1885, to
Frederick, son of the Grand Duke of Baden.
The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation.
There is a Chamber of Deputies in the Grand Duchy of 45 members, elected
tlirectly by the cantons for six years, the half renewed every three years. By
the Treaty of London, 18G7, Luxemburg is declared neutral territory. It has
an area of 998 square miles, and a population (Dec. 2, 1895) of 217,583
(109/282 males and 108,301 females), or 219 inhabitants to the square mile.
The population is Catholic, save 1,316 Protestants, 1,054 Jews, and 177
belonging to other sects. The chief town,.JjUxemburg, has 19,909 inhabitants.
The revenue for 1896 was 11,956,315 francs (including surplus from 1895),
and expenditure 9,338,430 francs. In the budget estimates for 1898 the
revenue is set down at 11,223,600 francs, and the expenditure at 9,904,440
francs. For 1899, revenue 12,032,800 francs (including 2.685,000 francs
from preceding year) ; expenditure, 10,998,500 francs. The debt consisting
of loans, mainly for the construction of railways, was, in 1893, converted into
a single loan of 12,000,000 francs at 3 ^ per cent. The annuities amount to
493,130 francs. There is a revenue fund consisting of bonds of the national
debt to the amount of 1,487,000 francs. For commercial purposes Luxem-
burg is included in the German Zollverein. There are 270 miles of railway,
457 miles of telegi-aph line with 1,153 miles of wire, and 141 telegraph-
offices. In 1897 there were 85 post-offices through which there passed 6,446
letters and post-cards, and 6,066 samples, &c.
Books of Reference.
Baedeker's Belgium and Holland, including the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. 12th ed.
Leipzic, 1897.
Bonnardot (F.), Les Archives de I'Etat de Luxembourg. Vol. 41 of Publications of
the History Section of the Luxemburg Institute. 1800.
Coster (J.), Geschiclite der Festung Lxixemburg. 8. Luxemburg, 1869.
Eltz (.J. V. d.), Aus Luxemburgs Ver^angenheit und Gegenwart. Trier, 1S91.
Groevig{^.), Luxemburg : Land und Volk. 4. Luxembuig, 1867.
Perk(il. A.), Luxemburgiana. Bussum, 1892.— Schetsen nit Luxemburg. Haarlem, 1894
Pflips (H.), Das luxemburger Land. Aachen, 1895.
784
MEXICO.
(Republica Mexicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Mexico bears date February 5, 1857,
with subsequent modifications down to May 1896. By its
terms Mexico is declared a federative republic, divided into States
— 19 at the outset, but at present 27 in number, with 2 territories
and the Federal District — each of which has a right to managre
its own local affairs, while the whole are bound together in one
body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers
of the supreme Government are divided into three branches, the
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power is
vested in a Congress consisting of a House of Representatives
and a Senate, and the executive in a President. Representatives
elected by the suffrage of all respectable male adults, at the rate
of one member for 40,000 inhabitants, hold their places for two
years. The qualifications requisite are, to be twenty-five years
of age, and a resident in the State. The Senate consists of fifty-
six members, two for each State, of at least thirty years of age,
who are returned in the same manner as the deputies. The
members of both Houses receive salaries of 3,000 dollars a year.
The President is elected by electors popularly chosen in a general
election, holds office for four years, and, according to an amend-
ment of the Constitution in 1887, may be elected for consecutive
terms. Failing the President through absence or otherwise,
whether the disability be temporary or permanent. Congress has
power to elect an acting-president who shall discharge the
functions of President temporarily or, if necessary, to the end
of the constitutional period. Congress has to meet annually
from Ai)ril 1 to May 30, and from September 16 to December 15,
and a permanent committee of both Houses sits during the
recesses.
President of the Repuhlic. — General D. Porfirio Diaz; first
elected in 1876 ; present term (the fifth), December 1, 1896, to
November 30, 1900.
The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President and a Council, by seven Secretaries of State, heads of
the Departments of : — 1, Foreign Affairs ; 2. Interior; 3. Justice
and Public Instruction ; 4. Fomento, Colonisation and Industry.
5. Communications and Public Works \ 6. Finance and Public
Credit. 7. War and Marine
AUEA AND POPULATION
785
Local Goveunment.
Each separate State has its own internal constitution, government, anil
laws ; but inter-State customs duties are not permitted. Each has its
governor and legislature popularly elected under rules similar to those of
the Federation ; and the civil and criminal code in force in the Federal
District prevail, with few exceptions (Vera Cruz and the State of Mexico),
in the ditfL'ront States.
Area and Population.
Tlie following table gives the area, census population of
1879, and that of October 20, 1895, with the population per
square mile in 1895 : —
Av^fl in
Census
Census
Population
states and Territor
les.
X&.X C/CV« 111
square miles
Population,
1879
Population,
1895
per square
mile, 1895
Atlantic States : —
Taraaulipas
32,128
140,137
206,502
6-4
A'era Cruz .
.
29,201
542,918
866,355
29-7
Tabasco
.
10,072
104,747
134,839
13-3
Campeche .
.
18,087
90,413
88,302
4-9
Yucatan
35,203 -
302,315
298,850
8-4
Total .
124,692
1,180,530
1,594,848
127
Inland States : —
Chihuahua .
i 87,802
225,541
262,771
3 0
Coahuila
63,569
130,026
241,026
3-8
Xuevo Leon
23,592
203,284
309,252
13-1
Durango
38,009
190,846
286,906
7 '5
Zacatecas .
24,757
422,506
452,578
18-3
San Luis Potosi
25,316
516,486
568,440
22-4
Aguascalientos
2,950
140,430
104,615
35-4
r4uanajuato
11,370
834,845
1,062,554
93-4
Quert'taro .
3,556
203,250
228,551
64-2
Hidalgo
8,917
427,350
558,769
62-6
Mexico
9,247
710,579
841,618
91-0
Federal District
463
351,804
476,413
1028-9
Morclos
2,773
159,160
159,355
57 "5
Tlaxcala
. 1,595
138,988
166,803
104-6
PueV)la
12,204
784,466
9SJ,413
80-6
Total .
316,125
5,439,561
6,704,073
21-2
Pacific States : —
Lower California (Ter. )
58,328
30,208
42,245
0-7
Sonora
76,900
115,424
191,281
2-5
Sinaloa
33,671
186,491
258,865
7-6
Tepic (Ter.)
11,275
—
148,776
13-2
Jalisco
31,846
983,484
1,107,227
34-8
Colima
•
i 2,272
65,827
55,752
24-5
786
MEXICO
1
states and Territories
Area, in
square miles
Census
Population,
1S79
Census
Population,
1895
Population
per square
mile, 1895
Pacific States : — contd.
Michoacan .
Guerrero
Oaxaca
Chiapas
Total .
Islands ....
Grand Total
22,874
24,996
35,382
27,222
324,768
1,420
661,534
295,590
744,000
205,362
894,763
417,621
884,909
319,599
i
39-1
16-7
25-0
11-7
3,287,920
4,321,038
13-3
767,005
9,908,011
12,619,959
16-4
In 1874 the population was returned at 9,343,470; in 1882 there Avere
5,072,054 males, 5,375,930 females. Of the total population 19 percent,
are of pure, or nearly pure, white race, 43 per cent, of mixed race, and 38
per cent, of Indian race. The Indians in 1882 were returned at 3,765,044.
Distinctions of race are abolished by the Constitution of 1824. Of the mixed
and Indian race only a very small proportion can be regarded as civilised.
The chief cities with their population according to the census of 1895,
are :— Mexico (capital), 344,377 ; Guadalajara, 83,870 ; Puebla, 91,917 ; San
Luis Potosi, 69,676 ; Guanajuato, 39,337 ; Leon, 90,978 ; Monterey, 56,855
Aguascalientes, 31,619 ; Merida, 36,720 ; Vera Cruz 88,993 ; Oaxaca, 32,641
Morelia, 32,287; Colima, 19,305; Pachuca, 52,189; Jalapa, 18,173
Duraugo, 42,165; Queretaro, 32,790 ; Zacatecas, 40,026; Toluca, 23,648
San Juan Bautista, 27,036.
In 1890 the number of foreigners resident in the capital was 7,215.
The systematic registration of births, marriages, and deaths is defective.
The figures given for three years are : —
1893
1894
1895
Births
Marringps Dcatlis
342,791
351,144
383,747
49,750
50,469
53,691
487,931
452,287
391,177
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic, but the Church is independ-
ent of the State, and there is toleration of all other religions. In 1889 there
were 10,112 Roman Catholic churches and chapels and 119 Protestant churches
in the Republic. No ecclesiastical body can acquire landed property. On
August 12, 1890, there were in the municipality of Mexico 320,143 Catholics
and 2,623 Protestants.
In almost all the States education is free and compulsory, but the law has
not been strictly enforced. In the municipality of Mexico there were in
1890, 15,268 persons who could read only, and 176,692 persons who could neither
FINANCE 787
read nor write. Primary instruction is mostly at the expense of the states
and municipalities, but the Federal Government makes frequent grants, and
many schools are under the care of beneficent societies. Higher education
is carried on in secondary schools and seminaries, and in colleges for pro-
fessional instruction, including schools of law, medicine, engineering, mining,
Hue arts, agriculture, commerce, arts and trades, music. In 1896 the
nuniber of schools supported by tbe states was 5,852, and by the munici-
palities, 3,218 ; the number of teachers in both was 13,352 ; there were 666,301
enrolled pupils, and an average attendance of 413,790. The cost of these
schools for the year was 5,463,350 dollars. The private and clerical schools
numbered 2,442 with 101,641 enrolled puoils and an average attendance of
76,956. The total nuniber of schools was thus 11,512, with 767,942 enrolled
pupils, and an average attendance of 490,746. Of the average attendance,
300,272 were boys and 190,501 were girls. There are also one military and
one naval college. The number attending the higher schools is stated at
21,000.
In 1896 there were in the Republic the National Library, with 159,000
volumes, and 102 other public libraries. There were in that year 17 museums
for scientific and educational purposes, and 3 meteorological observatories. The
number of newspapers published was 531, of which 7 were in English, 5 in
Spanish and English, 2 in French, and 1 in Germ n.
The judicial power, which is entirely ilistinct from and independent of the
executive, consists of the Supreme Court, with 15 judges chosen for a period
of six years, Circuit Courts, with 3 judges, and District Courts, with 32 judges.
The Ordinary, Civil, Criminal, and Correctional Courts are controlled by
the Department of Justice and Public Instruction.
State Finance.
Of the revenue in recent years about 40 per cent, has been
derived from customs, 45 per cent, from internal taxation, and 15
per cent, from other sources. Of the expenditure about 44 per
cent, has gone to the administration of the government, over 46
per cent, to the service of the debt, and nearly 10 per cent, to
railway subventions.
The receipts and expenditure for five years have been : —
1893-94 .
1894-95 .
1895-96 .
1896-97 .
1897-98 .
The receipts include (besides ordinary revenue) loans on cuiTent account,
and sums raised for special purjioses, e.g., the money obtained by the issue of
bonds for payment of railway subventions.
The following are the budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for
the year ending June 30, 1900 : —
3 E 2
Receipts
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
48,319,766 .
50,991,560 .
50,521,470 .
51,500,629 .
52,748,712 .
. 48,644,525
. 50,740,976
. 45,070,123
. 48,330,505
. 51,815,286
788
MEXICO
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
Import & export duties
24,192,000
Legislative power
1,019,243
Internal taxes in the
Executive ,, •
82,469
States .
22,411,000
Judicial ,,
449,451
Internal taxes in the
Foreign Affairs .
553,804
Federal district and
Home Department
3,904,061
Territories
2,931,000
Justice and Education .
2,446,110
Public services, &c. .
3,907,000
Agriculture, &c. .
818,426
Assay, coining, patents
1,472,000
Public Works
6,162,078
Finance
6,265,717
Public debt & pensions
21,021,042
War and Marine .
12,164,355
54,913,000
54,886,756
The external gold debt of Mexico at the beginning of 1898 amounted to
21,655,300^., mostly at 6 per cent. The outstanding 6 per cent, .silver
currency bonds amounted to 186,000 dollars. The internal debt consists of
the 3 per cent, consolidated debt amounting in June, 1897, to 51,175,200
dollars, and the 5 per cent, redeemable internal debt (first and second
issues) amounting at the end of 1897, to 35,781,400 dollars. The bonds of
the latter debt were issued to provide the means for subsidising railway and
port works, and for the conversion of other railway and port bonds. The
floating debt on June 30, 1897, amounted to 1,473,696 dollars.
The fiscal value of property' in Mexico in 1896 is given as follows : —
Urban, 297,209,493 dollars; rural, 334,477,883 dollars; total, 631,687,376
dollars ; the fiscal value being taken as one-third less than the actual value.
Local Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the State Governments and of the
municipalities (including the Federal District) of Mexico for four years are
given as follows : —
1 Years
1
States
Municipalities
Revenue
Expenditure
Revenue
Expenditure
1893
1894
]895
1896
Dollars
18,962,990
16,824,750
17,542,573
14,971,057
Dollars
18,301,276
17,214,187
16,573,018
14,472,906
Dollars
13,284,662
14,345,024
11,406,612
11,779,976
Dollars
12,969,218
14,048,436
11,113,898
11,670,784
Defence.
The army consists (1897) of infantry, 22,605; cavalry, 7,249 ; artillery
and train, 2,289; total, 32,143, including 2,068 officers. Included in the
cavalry are 118 gendarmes, and 261 rural guards. The total fighting strength,
including reserves, is stated to be 123,500 inftmtry, 20,000 dragoons, and
8,000 artillery. Every Mexican capable of carrying arms is liable for military
service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year. There is a fieet of 2 despatch
vessels (launched 1875) and 2 unarmoured gun-vessels (launched 1874), each
of 425 tons and 425 horse-power, and severally armed with a 4-ton muzzle-
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
■SIJ
loading gun, and 4 small breech-loaders. A steel training cruiser, the Zaragoxa
(1,200 tons), was built at Havre in 1891 ; 4 gunboats and 5 first-class
torpedo-boats are building or projected. The fleet is manned by about 90
officers and 500 men.
Production and Industry.
Mexico has been estimated to contain 479 s([uarc leagues of forest, 18,134
square leagues of mountain-land, and 4,822 s<{uare leagues of uncultivated
land. The climate and soil are fitted for very varied produce, but, as regards
crops usually grown in cold countries, agriculture is in ilexico in a very
primitive condition. Provision is made for the sale and occupation of public
lands by a law of Jul)^ 22, 1863. The demarcation of such lands is carried
out by public companies, the third part of the area demarcated being ceded to
them for expenses incurred. There are 34 colonies, or agricultural settle-
ments, of which 13 with 6,926 colonists have been established by the Govern-
ment, and 21 with 4,091 colonists by companies or persons authorised by the
Government. Government has assisted in introducing plants of vines, olives,
and other fruit trees, while seeds of vegetables and of silkworms have been dis-
tributed gratuitously. The cultivation of the orange is rapidly extending,
and already there are large overland exports to the United States.
The chief agricultural products in 1896 were : —
Rice, tons .
44,275
Henequen, tons .
. 531,319
Maize, hectol.
. 25,833,503
Cotton, tons
. 29,185
Wheat, tons
601,782
Logwood ,, .
. 67,853
Sugar
71,429
Cacao ,, .
. 1,313
Panocha ,, .
62,688
Coffee ,, .
. 13,254
Molasses ,, ,
52,749
Tobacco ,, .
. 15,875
Brandies, hectol.
. 5,663,757
Rum, hectol .
. 328,986
Large numbers of cattle are reared in Mexico for the United States.
In 1883, in Northern Mexico alone, on an area of 300,000 square miles,
there were 1,500,000 cattle, 2,500,000 goats, 1,000,000 horses, and 1,000,000
sheep. In the whole of Mexico in 1883 there were 20,574 cattle ranches,
valued at 103,000,000Z.
Mexico is rich in minerals, gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, quicksilver, tin,
cobalt, antimony, sulphur, coal, petroleum, being either worked or known to
exist. There are in the country (April 1, 1894) 3,167 mining enterprises, of
which two-thirds belong to Mexican companies or individuals, and the
rest to foreigners.
The gold and silver presented at the Mexican mints and assay offices in
ten years have been in weight and value as follows : —
Years
Gold
Silver
Total value
Kilogi-.
Dollars
Kilog.
Dollars
Dollars
1SS6-87
832
548,415
601,83'.t
25,897,9S2
20,446,306
1887-88
1.112
738,599
652,828
25,570,903
20,309,561
18S8-89
1,313
874,224
669,797
26,246,729
27.120,953
1889-00
1,405
979,060
632,o:;(j
24,814,005
25.704,025
1890-01
1,610
1,089,702
632,0:i2
24,M4,782
25,004,485
1891-02
2,471
1,657,717
712,572
28,096,085
29,758.802
lsO'2-O:}
2,840
1,902,296
772,637
30,383,429
32,285,725
1S93-94
3,382
2,260,865
886,178
34,845.543
37.106,408
1894-95
3,991
2,674,278
981,222
38,934,102
41,008.470
1895-96
6,289
4,247,760
1,314,840
53,797,061
58,044,820
Up' to 1895 the official values of gold and silver were respectively !?643'529 and .§39-109
l>er kilogramme ; in the year 1895-96 they were raised to 8675 417 and ^0-915 per kilogramme.
790
MEXICO
There are four mints and seven Federal assay ofl&ces in Mexico, and
every jirodncer is free to have his bullion coined, the mints receiving 4 "62 per
cent for gold, and 4 "41 per cent, for silver. Mining operations, whether for
gold and silver, or other metals, as lead, copper, tin, zinc, are carried on
under the provisions of the mining law, which came into force July 1, 1892.
Important metallurgical works are carried out at San Luis Potosi, Monterey
and Dnrango.
Iir 1893 there were in Mexico 2,899 factories for sugar and brandy; in
1896 there were 107 cotton factories with 13,660 looms, 448,156 spindles, and
13,826 horse-power, the consumption of raw cotton having been 53,273,397
lbs., about half of which had been grown in Mexico.
Commerce.
The following table shows the total imports and exports and the proportion
of precious metals and other produce in the exjiorts of Mexico during the last
five years
Years
Total Imports
Exports
Merchandise
Precious Metals
Total
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
Dollars
30,287,489
34,000,440
42,253,938
42,204,095
43,603,492
Dollars
32,858,927
38,319,099
40,178,306
45,164,417
53,930,417
Dollars
46,484,360
52,535,854
64,838,596
66,182,077
75,042,332
Dollars
79,343,287
90,854,953
105,016,902
111,346,494
128,972,749
The trade of Mexico, including precious metals, is chiefly with the fol-
lowing countries : —
Countries
Imports from
Exports to '
1896-97
1897-98
Dollars
21,490,604
8,105,696
5,435,698
4,781,821
2,039,132
1,750,541
1896-97
1897-98
United States
Great Britain
France
Germany .
Spain
Other countries
Dollars
22,593,860
6,881,701
4,989,082
4,003,263
1,983,794
1,752,395
Dollars
86,742,951
14,280,527
1,873,522
4,416.744
1,192,328
2,840,422
Dollars
94,974,616
14,775,638
5,320,016
6,995,733
1,231,342
5,675,404
The following table shows the value of the principal articles exported in
the last two vears : —
SHIPPING — MONEY AND CREDIT
01
Tlic subjoined table shows the value of the trade between Mexico and the
United Kingdom in each of the last five years, according to the Board of
Trade returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into U.K.
from Mexico
Exports of British
produce toMexico
£
584,235
1,152,847
£
554,746
1,213,721
£
467,331
1,522,022
£
593,00-2
1,520,387
£
593,894
1,602,818
The principal articles of import from Mexico into the United Kingdom in
the year 1897 were mahogany, of the value of 79,614^. ; silver ore, 29,697^. ;
hemp and other vegetable substances, 17,736Z. ; coffee, 24,464Z. ; copper
and regulus, 363,190Z. (in 1894, 280Z.). The chief exports from Great Britain
to Mexico were: cottons, of the value of 575,649?. ; linens, of the value of
43,973?. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 301,503?. ; machinery,
209,714?. ; and woollens, 79,273?.
Shipping and Communications.
The mercantile marine of Mexico in 1898 comprised 17 steamers of 4,081
tons, and 51 sailing vessels of 9,317 tons. The shipping includes also many
small vessels engaged in the coasting trade. In 1898 in the foreign and
coasting trade there entered 10,527 vessels of 4,085,200 tons, and cleared
10,452 of 3,880,940 tons.
In 1898 there were 7,700 miles of railway and 127 miles of tramway in
operation. Of the total length, 889 miles have been built by Mexican capital
and 5,617 miles by foreign capital. In 1896 26,081,000 passengers, and
5,084,000 tons of goods were conveyed, the gross proceeds being 30,231,000
dollars.
The total length of telegraph lines in 1898 was 42,150 English miles, of
which 28,220 miles belonged to the Federal Government, the remainder
belonging, to the States, companies, and the railways. There were 327
state offices. The telephone had a network of 7,459 miles.
In 1898 there were 1,688 post-offices. The post, inland and international,
carried in 1897-98 112,750,000 letters and postcards. The receipts were
1,409,528 dollars, expenditure 1,587,115 dollars.
Money and Credit.
There are 4 mints in the Republic. Most of the silver exported is
shipped in the shape of dollars, which find their way. chiefly to China and
the smaller communities in Indo-China and the Eastern Archipelago.
The following table shows the nominal value of the coinage of Mexican
mints for ten years : —
792
MEXICO
Years
Silver
Gold
Copper
Total
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1888-89
26,031,252
334,972
129,844
26,496,068
1889-90
24,323,728
243,298
134,632
24,701,658
1890-91
24,237,449
308,083
218,869
24,764,402
1891-92
25,526,717
291,940
156,694
25,975,351
1892-93
27,169,876
361,672
87,055
27,618,604
1893-94
30,185,591
553,978
—
30,739,569
1894-95
27,628,981
545,237
32,957
28,207,175
1895-96
22,634,788
565,786
36,525
23,237,099
1896-97
19,296,009
453,474
32,250
19,781,733
1897-98
21,427,057
459,219
31,600
21,917,876
There are 17 banks in Mexico, the most important being the Banco de
Londres, with a paid up capital of 10,000,000 dollars, and reserve of 500,000
dollars ; the Banco Nacional with a capital of 20,000,000 dollars (3,000,000
dollars paid up) ; the Banco Hipotecario, with a paid up capital of 5,000,000
dollars.
Concessions have been granted to a number of new banks in several of
the States for the purpose of advancing loans for agricultural and mining
purposes.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The silver peso or dollar of 100 centavos is of the nominal value of 45.,
actual value variable (average 22|(1 to 23(5?. ).
The 10-peso gold piece weighs 16 '920 grammes, '875 fine, and thus con-
tains 14*795 grammes of fine gold.
The silver peso weighs 27*073 grammes, '9028 fine, and thus contains
24*440 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is silver. There is no paper currency except
ordinary bank notes.
The weights and measures of the metric system were introduced in
1884 and their use is now enforced by law, though the old Spanish measures
are still occasionally referred to. The old weights and measures were : —
Weight. 1 libra = 0*46 kilogramme = 1*014 lb. avoirdupois.
1 arroba = 25 libras = 25*357 lbs. avoirdupois.
For gold and silver. 1 marco = ^ libra = 4,608 granos.
1 ochava = 6 tomines.
1 tomin = 12 granos.
20 granos = 1 French gramme.
Length. 1 vara = 0*837 metre = 2 ft. 8^^ English in.
1 legua comun — 6,666| varas.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Or Mexico in Gkkat Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Manuel do Yturbe.
First Secretary. — Cayetano Romero.
Second Secretary. — L. T. Rivas.
AttacM. — V. G. Farias.
Consul in London. — Adolfo Bulle,
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 71)3
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Cardiff, DuMin. Glasgow,
Great Grimsby, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Newport, Southampton,
Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Mexico!
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Ilenrv N. Bering, Bart., C.B. , ajipointecl
July 8, 1894.
Secretary. — Francis "VV. Stronge.
There arc Consular representatives in Mexico City and Vera Cruz, and
Vice-Consuls at Acapulco, Canipeche, Chihuahua, Coatzacoalcos, Frontera,
Guaymas, Laguna de Terminos, Mazatlan, Monterey, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz,
Progreso, San Bias, Soconusco, Tuxpam, and Tampico.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.
1. Official Publications.
Anales del niinistcrio de fomcnto, colonizacion, industria y comercio. S. Annual.
Mexico.
Annario Estadestico do la Republica Mexicana. Annual. Mexico.
Boletin del niinistcrio de foniento de la ReimVdica Mexicana. Annual. Fol. Jlexico.
Boletin semestral de l:x estadistica de la Republica Mexicana, a cargo del Dr. Antonio
Penatiel. Annual. Jloxico.
Comercio exterior do Mexico. Annual. Fol. Mexico.
Cuadro geografico, estadistico descriptivo e historico de los Estados Unido.s Mexicanos
A. G. Cubas. Mexico, IS89.
Datos niercantiles. Annual. Mexico.
Estadistica general de la Repiiblica. Annual. Mexico.
Menioria del Secretario del despacho de Hacienda. Annual. Fol. Mexico.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series and Report on Cotton Manufacturing Industry in
Mexico, in Miscellaneous aeries, 8. London.
Statistique descriptive et liistorique des Etats Mexicains de Garcia Cubas. 1889.
United States Consular Reports for Febrr.ary, 1807. [For Orange-growing in Mexico.]
Wa.shington.
Annual Statement of the Trade of tlie United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
Britisli Possessions. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boletin de la sociedad de geografia y estadistica de la Republica Mexicana. S. Mexico,
1878-96.
jBancro/f (11. H.) A Popular History of the Mexican People. 8. London. Resources
and Development of Mexico. San Francisco, 1894.
Brocklehunt (T. U.), Mexico To-dav. London. 1883.
Burke (U. R.), Life of Benito Juarez. 8. London, 1894.
Castro (Lorenzo), The Republic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882.
C/mrnni/ (D.) Ancient Cities of the New World. Tr. 8. London.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien et moderne. IS. Paris, 1886.
Conkling (Howard), Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883.
Conkling (A. R.), Appleton's Guide to Mexico. New York, 1890.
El economista ^lexicano, weekly. Mexico.
Flint (H. M.), Mexico undor :Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1807.
Glossop (Lady Howard of), Journal of a Tour in Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
London, 1897.
Gooch (F. C), Face to Face with the Mexicans. London, 1890.
Griffin (S. B.), Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.
Hamilton {L. L. C), Hamilton's Mexican Handbook. London, 1884.
Kozhevar(¥j.), Report on the Re]iublic of Mexico. London, 1880.
La BcdolUere (Emile G. de), Histoiro de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris, 1866.
Lummis (C. F.), The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1898.
Ober (F. A.), Travels in Mexico. Boston, U.S., 1884.
Prercott (W. H.), History of the Conque.st of Mexico. 8. London.
liatzel (Fried.), Aus Mexico, Reiseskizzen aus den Jaliren 1874-75. Breslau, 1878.
Roiwro (M.), Geograi>hical and Statistical Notes on Mexico. London, 1898. — Mexico
and the United States. [A Study of their Relations.] Vol. I. New York, 1808.
Routier (G.), Le Mexique de nos Jours. Paris, 1895.
Scobel(\.), Die V'erkehrswege Mexicos und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung. In ' Deutsche
Geographische Blatter." Band X., Heft 1. Bremen, 1887.
Wright (Marie R.), Picturesque Mexico. Philadeljdiia, 1698.
Through the Land of tiie Aztecs, or Life and Travel n Mexico. By a 'Gringo.'
London, 1892.
MONACO.
Prince Albert, born November 13, 1848 ; succeeded his fatlier, Prince
Charles III., September 10, 1889 ; married (1) to Lady Mary Douglas
Hamilton, September 1, 1869 ; ^ (2) to Alice Duchess-Dowager de Richelieii.
Son by first wife, Prince Louis, born July 12, 1870.
Monaco is a small Principality in the Mediterranean, surrounded by the
French Departement of Alpes Maritimes excepting on the side towards the sea.
From 968 it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. In 1715 it passed into the
female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter of Antony I., heiress of Monaco,
marrying Jacques de Goyon Matignon, Count of Thorigny, who took the
name and arms of Grimaldi. Antony I died in 1731, Louise Hippolyte
only reigning ten months and dying in 1732. She was succeeded by her
husband under the name of Jacques I., who also succeeded Antony I. as
Due di Valentinois, who was in his turn succeeded 1)y his son Honorius III.
This prince was dispossessed by the French Revolution in 1792, and died in
1795. In 1814 the Principality was re-established, but placed under the
protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of Vienna (1815).
In 1848 Mentone and Roquebrune revolted, and declared themselves free
towns ; in 1861 Charles III. ceded his rights over them to France, and the
Principality thus became geographicall}^ an enclave of France, when the
Sardinian garrison was withdrawn and the Protectorate came to an end.
Ever since the year 1819 the Government of the Principality have adopted
the French Codes and possessed a Court of First Instance, as well as a Juge de
Paix's Court. A Court of Appeal is constituted by the Prince's appointment
of two Paris judges wlio act as such when necessary.
The Principality has its own coinage which is current since 1876 in all the
States of the Latin Union ; it also issues its own separate postage-stamps.
There is a Governor-General and a Council of State.
The area is eight square miles. Population, 1890, 13,304. Towns :
Monaco, 3,292; Condamine, 6,218; Monte Carlo, 3,794.
There is a Roman Catholic bishop. No church, except the Roman
Catholic, is allowed in the Principality. Exclusive of the 'guard of honour,'
the troops consist of 5 officers and 70 men. Olive oil, oranges, citrons, and
perfumes are exported. The industries and trade are unimportant, and the
revenue is mainly derived from the gaming tables. These are in the hands
of a Joint-Stock Company which holds a concession for 50 years from 1863,
granted by Prince Charles III. The capital of the company consists of
1,200,000/. in 60,000 fully paid up 20Z. shares. In return for the concession
there is annually paid to the Prince the sum of 50,000/. and for the adminis-
tration of justice, police, &c., within the Ferine ipality a further sum of
20,000/. The company also expends for State purposes (church, education,
lighting, water, roads, races, &c.) 60,000/., the total expenditure on Prince and
Principality being about 130,000/. The maintenance of the Casino proper
(including 25,000/. for press subventions) cost in 1897, 834,000/., and the
dividend paid to shareholders amounted to 576,000/. ; total expenditure in
1897, 1,540,100/.
Consul-General for Monaco in London. — Th. Lumley.
British Consul. — Sir J. C. Harris (residing at Nice).
British Vice-Consul. — J. W. Keogh (residing at Monaco).
Books of Reference.
Boyer de Ste. Suzanne (R. de), La Principante de Monaco. 12. Paris, 18S4.
Harris (J. C), Monaco : Pieces Ilistoriques et Trait.es. Nice, 1882.
Metivier (Henri), Monaco et ses Princes. 2 vols. 8. La Fleche. 1S62.
Play fair (Sir R. L.), Handbook (Murray's) to the Mediterranean. 3rd ed. 2 vols. S.
London, 1890.
Saige (G.), Monaco, ses Origines et son Histoirc. Paris, 1898.
1 The religious marriage was annulled by the Court of Rome (Papal Court) on January S,
1880, and the civil maniage declared dissolved by decree of the reigning Prince on
July 28, 1880.
MONTENEGRO.
(Crnagora — Kara-dagh.)
Reigning Prince.
Nicholas I., Petrovic Njegos, born October 7 (September 25), 1841 ;
educated at Trieste and Paris ; proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor
of his uncle, Danilo I., August 14, 1860. Married, November 8, 1860, to
Milcna I'tfrovna Vucoticova, born j^lay 4, 1847, daughter of Peter Vukotic,
senator, and Vice-President of the Council of State. Oilspring of the union
are three sons, Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent, born June 29, 1871 ; Mirko,
born April 17, 1879 ; Peter, born October 10, 1889 ; and six daugliters,^
Militza, born July 26, 1866, married, August 7, 1889, to the Russian Grand
Duke Peter Nikolaievitch ; Stana, born January 4, 1868, married August 28,
1889, to George, Duke of Leuchtenberg ; Helena, born January 8, 1873,
married October 24, 1896, to Victor Emanuel, Prince of Naples ; Anna,
born August 18, 1874, married May 18, 1897, to Prince Francis Joseph of
Battenberg ; Xenia, born April 22, 1881 ; Tew, born February 22, 1887.
The supreme power has been retained in the family of Petrovic Njegos,
descending collaterall)', since the time of Danilo Petrovic, who, being pro-
claimed Vladika, or prince-bishop, of Montenegro in 1697, liberated the country
from the Turks, and, having established himself as both spiritual and tem-
poral ruler, entered into a religious and political alliance with Kussia. His
successors retained the theocratic power till the death of Peter Petrovic II.
(October 31, 1851), last Vladika of Montenegro, a ruler of great wisdom, as
well as a widely celebrated poet. He was succeeded by his nejihew, Danilo I.,
who abandoned the title of Vladika, together with the spiritual functions
attached to it, and substituted that of Gospodar, or Prince. At the same time
Danilo I., to throw off a remnant of nominal dependency upon Turkey,
acknowledged by his predecessors, obtained the recognition of his new title
from Russia. In 1878 the independence of Montenegro was formally recog-
nised by Turkey and the other Signatory Powers of the Treaty of Berlin.
That Treaty closes the Port of Antivari and all the waters of JNIontenegro to
the ships of war of all nations, and places the administration of the maritime
and sanitary police on the coast of Montenegro in the hands of Austria.
The following is the complete list of the Retrovir dynasty, with their
dates : —
Vlaclikas or Prince-Bishops.
Danilo . . . 1696-1735 | Peter I. (St. Peter) . 1782-1830
Sava and Vassili . . 1735-1782 | Peter II. (Vladika Rade) 1830-1851
Danilo I. (Kuiaz and Gospodar) ...... 1851-1860
Nicholas I. (reigning Prince, nephew of the last)
Former rulers of Montenegro possessed the whole of the revenues of the
country, and, in fact, this system obtains still, although laws have from time
to time been passed regulating both the Prince's annual civil list and the public
expenditure. Prince Nicholas's nominal yearly income is fixed for the present
at 9,000 ducats, or 4,100Z. A yearly sum of 48,000 roubles, or 4,800Z., has
been received by ilontenegro from Russia since the Crimean war, as a reward
for its friendly attitude during that period. The Austrian Government is
stated to contribute about 30,000 florins per annum towards the construction
of carriage roads in Montenegro.
Government.
Tlie Constitution of the country, dating from 1852, with changes effected
in 1855 and 1879, is nominally that of a limited monarchy, resting on a
patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests M'ith the reigning Prince,
while the legislative power is vested, according to an ' Administrative Statute ' ^
1 The Prince's eldest dauj;1ittr, Zorka, M'ho died in 1SS7, was married to Prince Peter
Kaiagoorgevitch, "Pretender " to the tluouc of Scrvia.
79G
MONTENEGRO
proclaimed March 21, 1879, in a State Council of eight members, one half of
them being nominated by the Prince, and the other elected by the male in-
habitants who are bearing, or have borne, arms. Practically, all depends on
the absolute Avill of the Prince. The inhabitants are divided into 40 tribes,
each governed by elected 'elders,' and a chief or captain of district called
Knjez, who acts as magistrate in peace and is commander in war. By the
' Administrative Statute ' of 1879, the country was divided into 80 districts and
eight military commands.
President of the Council of Ministers and Minister of the Interior,
Voivode Bojo Petrovic. There are ]\Iinistries for Foreign Affairs, War,
Finance, and Justice and Worship.
Area and Population.
The area of Montenegro is estimated to embrace 3,630 English square
miles, inclusive of the annexations effected by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
Its extreme length, from the northernmost point of Piwa to the Boyana, is
little more than 100, and its width, from Grahovo to the Lim, about 80
English miles. It is bordered on the south or south-east by the Turkish
Vilayets of Scutari and Kossovo (North Albania), on the east by the Sanjak of
Novi Bazar, and on the north-west by the Herzegovina, On the west it is
separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of Austrian territory forming
the extremity of Dalmatia (Bocche di Cattaro, Budua, Spizza), excepting in
the recently (1878-81) acquired districts of Antivari and Dulcigno, where it
possesses a seaboard some 28 miles in length. The total population numbers
about 228,000. The capital is Cettinje, with 2,920 population ; Podgoritza,
6,534 ; Dulcigno, 5,000 ; Niksic, 3,500 ; Danilograd, 1,100. The population
is mainly pastoral and agricultural. The Montenegrins belong almost entirely
to the Servian branch of the Slav race.
Religion.
The Church is nominally independent of the State, except that the bishops
are appointed by the Prince ; but the personal authority of the latter is all-
pervading. The principal monasteries are possessed of sufficient property for
their maintenance, aided In' occasional contributions from Russia. The rural
clergy are maintained by the communities. Orthodox Montenegro is divided
into two dioceses, Cettinje and Ostrog, but actually the cure of both sees is
united in the hands of the Metropolitan Bishop of Cettinje. The former see
comprises 8 sub-districts, called proto-presbyteries, with 84 parishes, and the
latter into 9 such districts with 75 parishes. The Roman Catholic Arch-
bishopric of Antivari contains 10 parishes, all of which arc situated in the
districts recently acquired from Turkey, in which there are likewise 10 Mus-
ulman parishes.
Religion
Number of
Churches
Number of
Clergy
Adherents
Greek Orthodox
Mohammedan .
Roman Catholic
177
19
10
180
33
13
201,067
13,840
12,924
206
226
227,831
Instruction.
Schools for elementary education are supported by Government ; education
is compulsory and free ; there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000
INSTRUCTION — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 7D7
male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed
to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium
or college for boys at Cettinje, and a girls' high school with 44 resident
pupils maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
A Judicial Code founded upon the Code Napoleon has been prepared, and
is being gradually put in force.
There are district courts in four or five of the principal towns. In rural
districts justice is administered in the lirst instance by the local knezes, but
the ' Veliki Sud,' or supreme court at Cettinje, has jurisdiction, Ijoth appellate
and concurrent, over the whole principality, an<l in the last resort there lies
an appeal to the Prince in person. There are no judicial statistics, but crime
in general is rare.
There is no regular provision for poor relief. The Government, however,
annually undertakes a certain number of public works, such as roads, bridges,
kc. , at which the indigent are invited to labour, being paid mostly in grain,
procured for that purpose from Russia. Russian charity also does much.
Finance, Defence.
No official returns are published regarding the public revenue and expen-
diture. Reliable estimates state the former at 600,000 Austrian florins, or
about 50.000/., derived chiefly from land and cattle taxes, the salt monopoly,
and customs duties. Montenegro owes to the Lander Bank of Vienna a sum
of one million florins (80,000/.) borrowed at 6 per cent.
There exists no standing army, but all the inhabitants, not physically
unfitted, are trained as soldiers, and liable to be called under arms. The
Moslem inhabitants of Montenegro are exempted from military service on
payment of a capitation tax. The number of trained men is put at 35,870
infantry, and 856 artillery. About 25,000 men are in the fiist class. In
1896 military barracks were constructed at Cettinje ; a battalion of 800 men
occupies them for 4 months, when it is disbanded and another takes its
place. Regular drill and military instruction are superintended by
Montenegrin officers who have been educated in Italy.
There are about 100,000 rifles in the country :— 20,000 Werndl, 10,000
Kruka, 10,000 Snider and Peabody-Martini, 30,000 Berdan rifles presented
by Russia in 1895, and 30,000 repeating rifles, presented by Russia with
1,000,000 cartridges in 1898. The artillery consists of 2 siege guns, 2 bronze
Russian 12-pounders, 6 Gatlings, 12 steel and 6 bronze Ivriipp guns, and 24
mountain guns, kept at the central depot of Spuz, and at Cettinje.
Production and Industry.
Agriculture is of the most primitive kind. The cultivated land is mostly
the property of the cultivators, the Croatian sj'stem of domestic comnmnisra
being generally prevalent. In some districts, however, the land is split up
into diminutive peasant-holdings, while in a few the metayer system is met
with, but large estates nowhere exist. The principal crops grown are maize,
tobacco (500 tons in 1895), oats, potatoes, barley, and buckwheat. The
vine is cultivated successfully in the Tchermnitchka Nahie, and the district
of Podgoritza, and the olive about Antivari and Dulcigno. The uncultivable
area consists, in the east, of mountain pasturage and forests of beech, oak,
&c. , which, owing to the want of roads, are valueless; and, in the west,
of bare limestone sparsely sprinkled with brushwood and stunted sciiib.
There are no sea-fisheries. Good trout fishing is to be obtained in the
rivers. Any small manufactures that exist are only for local consumption
Live stock of all kinds are reared : there are 500,000 sheep and goats ;
60,000 cattle ; 8,000 swine ; 3,000 horses.
798 MONTENEGRO
Commerce.
The customs tariff is 6 per cent, ad valorem on all merchandise, with the
exception of certain prohibited articles. The exports for 1897 ■were
valued at about 50,000/. ; the imports for 1897, exclusive of petroleum
and salt, and of 2,500?. worth of grain from Scutari, amounted to
about 60,000/. The principal exports are sumach, flea powdei {Pyrethrum
roseum), smoked sardines (scoranze), smoked mutton, cattle, sheep, goats,
cheese, wool, hides, skins, and furs, honey, beeswax, wood for walking-
sticks, &c., olive-oil, wine, tobacco. The imports are salt from Sicily, a
Government monopoly yielding 9,500/. a year ; petroleum from Russia, made
a Government monopoly in 1896, expected to yield over 1,500Z. a year ; maize,
cottons, hardware, sugar, coffee, rice. The trade is mostly with Austria and
England.
Communications.
There are excellent carriage roads from Budua and Cattaro to Cettinje ;
from Cettinje by Rieka, near Lake Scutari, to Podgoritza, and to NikSiJ ;
also from Podgoritza to Plawnitza (the Scutari-Lake Port of Podgoritza) ; and
from Antivari to Vir Pazar on Lake Scutari. A carritige road is being
constructed from Podgoritza to Kolaschine. There are public diligences
between Cattaro and Cettinje, and between Cettinje, Podgoritza, and Xiksic.
There are bridle roads over the rest of the principality. For the construction
of roads Austria gives the Principality an annual subvention of 30,000 florins,
and for postal diligence service, 8,000 florins. A lake steamer of about 50 tons,
belonging to the i\.nglo-]\Iontenegrin Trading Company, plies between Rieka and
the town of Scutari. There are 400 miles of telegraph wire in the country, with
15 offices. Montenegro forms part of the Postal Union ; it has 12 post offices.
Money.
Montenegro has no coinage of its own ; Austrian paper is the principal
medium of exchange. Turkish silver is also current, and French and English
gold circulates freely at a rate of exchange fixed from time to time by the
Government. There is no bank of any kind in the country.
Bi'ifAsh Minister Resident. — Robert J. Kennedy, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. No. 1761, 1890, No. 1SS4, 1S'.»7, and 2114, 1898.
London.
Andrlc Qil.), Geschichte des Fiirstenthums Montenegro. S. Wien, 1853.
Brown (H. C.), A Winter in Albania. London, 1888.
Caldwell (C. E.), Handbook of the A niies of the Minor Balkan States. Issued by
Intelligence Division, War Office. 8. London, 1891.
Coquelle (P.), Histoire dii Montenegro et de la Bosnic. Paris, 1896.
Cozens-Hardy. Montenegro and its Borderlands. Geographical Journal. Vol. IV. 1894.
Denton {Rtiv. William), Montenegro: its Peoide and their History. 8. London, 1877.
Evans (A. J.), lUyrian Letters. 8. London, 1878.
Frilley (G.) and Wlahovitz (Ivan), Lc Montenegro Contcmporain. Paris.
Ifasgeri (C), Reise durch Montenegro. S. Wien, 189.').
2ifo/iI (J. Geo.), Reise nach Montenegro. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1851.
Kovalevsky (Egor Petrovich), Montenegro and the Slavonic Countries. (Russia.) S.
St. Petersburg, 1872.
Krasinski (Walerjan Skorobohaty), Montenegro and the Slavonians of Turkey. S. London,
1853.
MJ??er(W.), the Balkans. [In ' Story of the Nations ' Series.] S. London, 1896.
Norman (II.), The Near East. London, 1896.
Schivarz (Dr. B.), Montenegro, SchiUlerung einer Reise durch das Innere nebst Entwurf
einer Geograi)hie des Landes. 8. Leipzig, 1883.
Sextak (J. F.) and Scherba (F.), Militarische Beschreibung des Paschaliks Herzegovina und
des Fiir.stenthums Cernagora. 8. Wien. 1862.
Marnier, Lettres sur I'Adriatique et le Montenegro.
Lenormant, Turcs et Montenegrins
Yriarte (Ch.), Les Bords dc I'Adriatique et le Montenegro.
D'Avril (Baron), La France au Montenegro.
Wingfeld (W. F.), Tour in Dalmatia, &c. London, 1859.
799
MOROCCO.
(Maghrib-el-Aksa. — El Gharb.)
Reigning Sultan.
Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz, born about 1881, sen of Sultan Mulai- Hassan ; suc-
ceeded on the ileatli of his father, being proclaimed Sultan in the Sherifian
Camp June 7, 1894.
The present Sultan of Morocco — known to his sulijects under the title of
' Emir-al-Mumenin,' or Prince of True Believers — is the fifteenth of the
dynasty of the Alides, founded by Mulai- Achmet, and the thirty-sixth lineal
descendant of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. His four pre-
decessors were : —
Sultan Reign | Sultan Reigti
Mulai-Soliman . . 1794-1822 ' Sidi-Mulai-Mohamed . 1859-1873
Mulai-Abderrahman . 1822-1859 ' Mulai- Hassan . . 1873-1894
The Sherifian umbrella is hereditary in the family of the Sharifs of Fileli,
or Tafilet. Each Sultan is supposed, prior to death, to indicate the member
of the Sherifian family who, according to his conscientious belief, will best
replace him. This succession is, however, elective, and all members of the
Sherifian family are eligible. Generally the late Sultan's nominee is elected
by public acclamation at noonday prayers the Friday after the Sultan's death,
as the nominee has probably possession of imperial treasure, and is supported
by the black bodyguard, from among whom the large majority of court officials
are selected.
Government.
The form of government of the Sultanate, or Em23ire of Morocco, is in
reality an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or religious.
The Sultan is chief of the State, as well as head of the religion. As spiritual
ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority not being limited, as in
Turkey and other countries following the religion of Mahomet, by the ex-
pounders of the Koran, the class of ' Ulema,' under the ' Sheik-ul-Islam.' The
Sultan has six ministers, whom he consults if he deems it prudent to do so ;
otherwise they are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. They are
the Grand Vizier, the Ministers for Foreign Alfairs, Home Affairs, and War,
Chief Chamberlain, Chief Treasurer, and Chief Administrator of Customs.
The Sultan's revenue is estimated at 500,000^. per annum, derived from
monopolies, taxes, tithes, and presents.
Area and Population.
The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the southern
frontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled. According to the most recent
investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000 English
squar3 miles. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from 2,500,000
to 9,^00,000 ; it is generally considered to be about 5,000,000 souls, although
Dr. llohlfs, in the ' Geographische Mittheilungen ' (1883), maintains that
the population is not more than 2,750,000. An estimate of 1889 gives the
following results : — The region of the old kingdom of Fez, 3,200,000 ; of
Morocco, 3,900,000 ; of Tafilet and the Segelmesa country, 850,000 ; of Sus,
Adrar, and the Northern Draa, 1,450,000 ; total, 9,400,000. Again, as to
race :— Berbers and Tuaregs, 3,000,000; Shellah Berbers, 2,200,000; Arabs
(1) pure nomadic Bedouins, 700,000; (2) Mued, 3,000,000; Jews, 150,000;
800
MOROCCO
negroes, 200,000. The number of Christians does not exceed 5,000 ; the
Christian population of Tangier alone probably amounts to 4,000. Much of
the interior of Morocco is unknown to Europeans. Fez, the capital, has a
population of about 140,000, and Tangier about 30,000. Morocco city is the
southern capital. Tlie Sultan and his subjects are of the Malekite sect of
Sunnite Mohammedans. The differences between sects are chiefly in the
attitudes assumed during the recital of prayers.
Defence.
The Sultan's armj^, which is quartered at the capital where he may happen
to reside, is composed of about 10,000 Askar or disciplined infantry, under the
command of an Englishman, and 400 disciplined cavalry ; a few batteries of
Held guns commanded by three French ofhcers, and 2,000 irregular cavalry.
Two Italian artillery ofhcers and an Italian civil engineer have Ijeen recently
lent to the Sultan by the Italian Government to assist in the establishment of
a small-arms factory at Fez. A Spanish military commissioner also is engaged
on topographical sworks, either at Tctuan, Tangier, or Fez, according to the
direction of the Spanish Government. There is also a Spanish engineer
ofhcer and military doctor, and a German engineer officer with the Sultan.
In addition to these forces there are in the Empire about 8,000 militia
cavalry and 10,000 infantry. Every year several of the governors of pro-
vinces are ordered to assemble their contingents to accompany the Sultan in
his progress from Fez to Morocco. The irregular cavalry and infantry which
could be collected in time of war would amount to about 40,000, in addition
to the forces already enumerated. There is no commissariat.
There is a gunboat of 1,200 tons, the Beschir-es-Salamch, as Avell as an
old iron screw ship, the Hassaneh. A gunboat was launched at Leghorn in
1897, and another, of 450 tons, specially intended for the repression of
piracy, is building at Sampierdarena. She will carry two guns, one fore and
the other aft, and have engines of 1,200 horse-power, intended to give a
speed of 14 '5 knots.
Commerce.
In 1896 the imports, including specie, amounted to 1,315,536/., and the
exports to 1,286,847Z. The following table shows the value of the trade
and the shipping of Morocco at the different ports in 1897, excluding
specie and precious metals : — •
Shipping
; entered
Ports
Imports
Exports
Total
Total
British
British
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage
Tangier
£
306,166
£
188,185
1,011
327,554
288
106,443
Tetuan
33,316
4,962
129
5,677
82
5,034
Laraiche
206,604
41,166
132
57,691
42
20,967
Rabat .
110,488
42,877
104
58,349
26
20,541
Mogador
.180,225
229,525
151
120,400
52
48,901
Dar-al-Baida
—
—
217
151,949
59
54,835
Mazagan
194,121
146,104
197
144,300
59
54,255
Safli .
101,485
81,903
97
83,456
54
54,647
Total
'
—
—
2,038
949,376
662
365,623
803
NEPAL.
An independent Kingdom in tlie Himalayas, between 26° 25' and 30° 17' N.
lat., and between 80° 6' and 88° 14' of E. long. ; its greatest length 500 miles ;
its greatest breadth about 150 ; bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by
Sikkim, on the south and west by British India.
The sovereign is His Highness Maharaja Dhiraj Piithivi Bir Bikram,
Shamsher Jang Bahadur Shah Bahadur Shamsher Jang, who was born on
August 8, 1875, and succeeded his grandfather on May 17, 1881. The
government of Nepal is a military oligarchy. All power is in the hands of
the Prime Minister to whom it was delegated by the Maharaja Dhiraj
when he came of age.
The Gurkhas, a Rajput race originally from Oodeypore in Rajputana, who
had settled in the province of Gurkha in Nepal, overran the whole country
during the latter half of the eighteenth century, and have maintained their
supremacy ever since. About 1790 a Gurkha army invaded Tibet ; and to
avenge this atfront the Chinese Emperor, Kuen Lung, in 1791, sent an
army into Nepal, which compelled the Gurkhas to submit to the terms
of peace, by which they were bound to pay tribute to China. This tribute
used formerly to be sent at irregular intervals, but the last three missions
have succeeded each other at intervals of five years. The relations between
the Indian Government and the Gurkha rulers of Nepal date from the time
of the Chinese invasion, when Lord Cornwallis endeavoured, but without
success, to avert hostilities. A commercial treaty between India and Nepal
was signed in 1792, and an English Resident was sent to reside at Katmandu,
but was recalled two years later. A frontier outrage, in 1814, compelled the
Indian Government to declare war ; and a British force advanced to within
three marches of the capital. Peace was concluded and the Treaty of
Segowlie signed on December 2, 1815. Since then the relations of the
English with Nepal have been friendly ; and during the Indian JMutiny, the
Prime ^linister, Sir Jang Bahadur, sent a detachment of Giirkha troops to
assist in the suppression of the rebellion in Oudh. Jang Bahadur died in
1877, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Sir Ranodip Singh, who was
oveithrown and murdered in a revolution which occurred in November
1885. ^Maharaja Sir Bir Shamsher Jang Rana Bahadur, G.C.S. I., has been
Prime Minister ever since.
In accordance with the treaty of Segowlie, an English Resident, with a
small escort of Indian sepoys, lives at the capital ; but he does not interfere
in the internal affairs of the State.
Area about 54,000 square miles ; jjopulation estimated at from 2,000,000
to 5,000,000. The races of Nepal, besides the dominant Gurkhas, include
eailier inhabitants of Tartar origin, such as Magars, Gurangs, Newars, and
Bhutias.
Capital, Katmandu ; po})ulation about 50,000.
Hinduism of an early type is the religion of the Gurkhas, and is gradually
but steadily overla}ing the Buddhism of the primitive inhabitants.
u r 2
804
NEPAL
There is a standing irregular army in Nepal, with an estimated strength of
25,000. Besides this, a force of 17,000 regulars is stationed in and about
the capital. The troops are equipped with Enfield, Snider and Martini-Henry
rifles, and there is a limited numl)er of field and mountain guns.
The trade of Nepal with British India during three years ending March 31,
1898, has been as follows (including treasure) : —
1895-96. Rs.
1896-97. Rs.
1897-98. Rs.
Imports from India .
Exports to India
13,(523.888
18,336,959
15,307 519
18,930,554
18,288,103
20,565,292
The principal articles of export are cattle, hides and skins, opium and other
drugs, gums, resins and dyes, jute, wheat, pulse, rice and other grains,
clarified butter, oil seeds, spices, tobacco, timber, saltpetre. The chief
imports are cattle, sheep and goats, salt, spices, sugar, tobacco, drugs and
dyes, petroleum, leather, brass, iron and copper wares, raw cotton, twist and
yarn, silk, cotton and woollen piece goods.
The silver mohar is valued at 6 annas and 8 pies of British Indian currency.
Copper pice of varying value are also coined. The Indian rupee passes
current throughout Nepal,
British Resident. — Colonel H. Wylie, C,S, I,
Books of Reference.
Aitehison (C. U.) (compiled by), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements, and Sanads
relating to India and Neighbi Hiring Countries. Vol. II. Calcutta, 1892,
Bailantine (H.), On India's Frontier. 8. London, 1896.
Hamilton (Francis) (formerly Buchanan), An Account of the Kingdom of Nepil,
London, 1819,
Hodgson (B.), Essays on the Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepaul and Tibet.
London, 1874.
Hunter (Sir W. W.) (compiled by), Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. X. London, 1886.
— Life of Brian Houghton Hodgson, British Resident at Nepal. London, 1S96.
Kirkpatrick (Colonel), An Accoimt of the Kingdom of Nepal. London, 1811.
Oldjield {H. A.), Sketches from Nejmul, Historical and Descriptive. London, 1880.
Vansittart (Captain E.), Notes on Nepal. Calcutta, 1895.
Wheeler (J. Talboys), Short History of India and the Frontier States. London, 1880.
Wright (Dr. D.) (translated by), Histoiy of Nepaul. Cambridge, 1877.
COMMERCE — MONEY, WEIGIHTS, AND MEASURES 801
111 1S95 and 1896 tJie trade was distributed among the principal countries
(including tlieir dependencies) as follows : —
Imports from
Imports from
E\)>oits to
Exports to
(1895)
(1896)
(1895)
£
(1896)
£
£
£
Great Britain .
938,708
777,743
533,538
219,089
France
446,991
358,361
328,389
179,013
Spain .
59,180
9,277
328,203
199,129
Germany .
148,403
124,660
115,341
110,031
Belgium .
00,715
96,308
Thus, in 1896, of the imports about 59 per cent, were from Great Britain,
27 per cent, from France, and 9 '5 per cent, from Germany ; of the exports
about 17 per cent, went to Great Britain, 14 per cent, to France, and 9 per
cent, to (rermany.
The chief imports (1896) are cotton goods (545,360Z.), sugar (344, 840Z.), tea
(104,912Z.), silk, candles, woollen cloth, alcoholic liquors, flour, earthenware,
and glass; while the chief exports are beans (86,223/.), cattle, wool (148,532Z.),
goat-skins (66,126Z.), eggs (91,858/.), wax, maize, slippers (77,830/.), bird-
seed, almonds and dates.
The value of the trade between Morocco and the United Kingdom in each
of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade returns, was : —
Imports into U. K.
from Morocco
Exports of British
produce to Morocco
1893
1894
549,687
360,926
1895
£
404,400
1890
1897
£
218,309
£
211,928
494,908 538,685 629,783 i 489,864 ' 412,753
The chief articles of import into the United Kingdom from jSIorocco in
1897 were beans, of the value of 18,558/. (216,0777. in 1893); almonds,
35,593/. ; wool, 59,651/. ; gum, 24,043/. ; goatskins, 37,671/. ; wax, 4,998/.
The staple articles of British export to Morocco consists of cotton manufac-
tures, to the value of 320,519/. ; caudles, 35,303/. in 1897.
By the Treaty of Wa.l Kas, 1860, the Sultan granted the claim of Spain,
although the question has at dittcrent times been raised, to the small territor>
of Santa Cruz dc IMar re([uena, south of jMogador, but Spain has not yet
taken advantage of the cession. On the Xorth coast of Morocco, Spain
occupies positions at Ceuta.and Melilla.
Postal services, under the control of the Moorish, British, or French
Government, have been begun, and now six couriers a week pass in each
direction between Fez and Tangier, while a bi-weekly service extends to
Elksar, Laraiclie, and other towns.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
T777**-
The Blankxd or Muzoona ~ ^ Floos Approximate English value
The Ounce or Okia = 4 BlanJcech ,, ,, ,. = \jsts^-
The Mitl-al =10 Owiccs ,, ,, ,t = ^ivs^^'
Spanish dollars and pcsetos, as well as Moorish coins minted for tht
Government in France, are current. The values fluctuate, and the market
3 F
802 MOROCCO
values are sometimes only one-third of those adopted by the Government for
custom-house puri)0ses.
The KiiUar by which is sold the produce of weight of the country, 100
Ratals, equal to 168 lb. English.
The Kintar by which is sold the articles of weight of importation is 100
Ratals, equal to 112 lb. English.
The Drah, 8 Tomins, about 22 English inches.
Grain is sold by measure.
The actual Tangiit, almost 8 Tomins, equal to l^-J English bushel.
Oil is sold, wholesale, by the kula ; that of Tangier actually weighs
28 rotals, 47 lb. English, and is equal to about SyVcr British imperial gallons.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Of Great Britain in Morocco.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Arthur Nicol-
son, K.C.1.E, C.M.G. ; appointed June 26, 1895.
Consul at Tangier. — H. E. White.
There is also a Consul at Dar-al-Baida ; Vice-Consuls at Fez, Laraiche,
Rabat, Mogador, Mazagan, Saffi and Tetuan.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Morocco.
1. Official Publications.
ForeigPx Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amicis (E. de), Marocco. 8. Milano, 1878. Morocco and its People. [Translated from
the Italian.]. London, 1879.
Bonsai (S.), Morocco as it is. With an Account of Sir Charles Euan Smith's Recent
Mission to Fez. London, 1892.
De Cavipou (Ludovic), Un empire qui croule, le Maroc contemporain. Paris, 1886.
De Foucauld (Vicouite Ch.), Reconnaissance au Maroc, 18S3-1SS4. Paris, 1888.
Diercks (G.), Materialen zur Kenntniss, &c., der Marokko-Frage. 8. Berlin, 1894.
Erckmann (JuJes, capit.), Le Maroc moderne. Paris.
Frisch(R. J.), Le Maroc. Paris, 1895.
Ganniers (A. de), Le Maroc d'aujourdhui, d'hier, et de demain. Paris, 1894.
Graham (R. B. Cunninghame), Mogreb-el-Acksa. London, 1898.
Harris (A.), The Land of an African Sultan : Travels in Morocco, 1887-89. 8. London,
1889.
Har7-is(yf. B.), Tafilet. the Narrative of a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Moun-
tains, (fcc. Loudon, 1895.
Hay (Sir J. D.), Morocco and the Moors. 8. London.— Memoir of Sir J. D. Hay,
completed by his daughters. London, 1896.
Hooker (Sir Joseph D.), Journal of a Tour in Morocco. 8. London, 1878.
Keane (A. H.), Africa. Vol. [. North Africa. London, 1894.
Lenz (Dr. O.), Timbuktu. Leijizig, 1884.
Maltzan (Heinrich, Frcihen- von), Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika : Reisen iTi
Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1S69.
Martiniere (H. M. P. de la), Morocco : Journeys to the Kingdom of Fez and to the Court
of Mulai-Ha.ssan, with a Bibliogra])liy of Morocco from 1844 to 1887. London, 1SS9.
3/on<6ard (G.), A travers le Maroc. 4. Paris. Among the Moors. 8. London.
Playjair (Sir R. L ) and Brown (R.), Bibliogi-aphy of Morocco. 8. London, 1892.
J?o/i//s (Gerhard), Land und Volk in Afrika. b. Bremen, 1870. Mein erster Aufenthalt
in Marokko. 8. Bremen, 1873. [English translation, Adventures in Morocco, &c. 8.
London, 1874.] Reise durch Marokko, &c. 8. Bremen, 1868. Quer durch Afrika. 2 vols.
8. Leipzig, 1874.
Stutjield (Hugh E. M.), El Maghreb; 1,200 Miles' Ride through Morocco. London, 1886,
Thomson (Joseph), Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco. London, 1889.
Trotter (Capt. P. D.), Our Mission to the Court of Morocco. Edinburgh, 1881.
Watson (R. S.), A Visit to Wazan. London, 1880
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 807
According to the electoral reform act, passed in 1896, voters are all male
Dutch citizens not under 25 years of age, in profession of certain outward and
positive signs of capacity and well-being. The chief sign is the fact of
payment of one or more direct State taxes (for the land tax an amount of
1 Horin is sufficient). Besides the.se, the Reform Act admits as electors all
those who can prove that they are householders, and have paid rent of houses
or lodgings <luring a fixed term, or that they are owners or tenants of boats
of not less than 24 tons capacity, or that they have been during a fixed term
in employment with an annual wage or salary of at least 22/. 185. 4d., or
possess a certificate of State interest of at least 100 florins, or a State savings
bank deposit of at least 50 florins, or the legal qualifications for any profession
or employment. The mode of voting adopted is based upon the couloir
system. Voting is not compulsory.
The electoral body numbered, in 1897, 577,059 voters, i.e., one voter for
eiffht inhabitants.
The members of the Second Chamber receive an annual
allowance of 2,000 guilders (£166), besides travelling
expenses. They are elected for 4 years, and retire in a body,
whereas the First Chamber is elected for 9 years, and every
three years one-third retire by rotation. The Sovereign has the
power to dissolve both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them,
being bound only to order new elections within 40 days, and to
convoke the new meeting within two months.
The Government and the Second Chamber only may intro-
duce new bills ; the functions of the Upper Chamber being
restricted to approving or rejecting them, without the power
of inserting amendments. The meetings of both Chambers are
public, though each of them, by the decision of the majority, may
form itself into a private committee. The ministers may attend
at the meetings of both Chambers, but they have only a delibera-
tive vote, unless they are members. Alterations in the Consti-
tution can be made only by a bill declaring that there is reason
for introducing those alterations, followed by a dissolution of the
Chambers and a second confirmation by the new States-General
by two-thirds of the votes. Unless it is expressly declared, the
laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the colonies.
The executive authority, belonging to the Sovereign, is exercised by a
responsible Council of Ministers. There are eight heads of departments in
the Ministerial Council, namely : —
1. The Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Ministerial
Council. — Dr. W. H. de Beaufort', appointed July 26, 1897.
2. The Minister of the Interior. — Dr. H. Goeinan Boi^gesius ; appointed
July 26, 1897.
3. The Minister of Finance. — Dr. K. G. Picrson; appointed July 26,
1897.
4. The Minister of Justice. — Dr. P. W A. Cort van der Linden ; appointed
July 26, 1897.
5. The Minister of the Colonies. — J. T. Cremer ; appoiuted July 26, 1897.
■S08 NETHERLANDS
6. 'fhe Minister of Afarine. — J. C. Jansen ; appointed July 26, 1897.
7. The Minister of JVar. — K, Eland; appointed July 31, 1897.
8. The Minister of Public Works and Commerce (Waterstaat). — C.
Lely ; appointed July 26, 1897.
Each of the above Ministers has an annual salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,000Z.
There is a State Council — ' Raad van State ' — of 1 4 members, appointed by the
Sovereign, of which the Sovereign is president, and which is consulted on all
legislative and a great number of executive matters.
II. Local Government.
The territory of the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces and 1,123
communes.
Each province has its own representative body, ' the Provincial States. '
The members are elected for 6 years, directly from among the male Dutch
inhabitants of the province who are 25 years of age, one-half of the number
being subject to re-election or renewal every 3 j^ears Except that they must
be inhabitants of the province, the electors, as well as the mode of voting,
are the same as for the Second Chamber. The number of members
varies according to the population of the province, from 80 for
Holland (South) to 35 for Drentlie. The Provincial States are entitled to
make ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes
according to legal precepts. All provincial ordinances must be approved by
the King. The Provincial States exercise a right of control over the munici-
palities. They also elect the members of the First Chamber of the States-
General. They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent com-
mission composed of 6 of their members, called the 'Deputed States,' is
charged with the executive power in the province and the daily administra-
tion of its affairs. This coniinittee has also to see the common law executed
in the province. Both the Deputed as well as the Provincial States are i)rc-
sided over by a Commissioner of the Sovereign, who in the former assembly
has a deciding vote, but in the latter named only a deliberative vote. He
is the chief magistrate in the ])rovince. Only the members of the Deputed
States receive an allowance.
The communes form each a Corporation with its own interests and rights,
subject to the general law. In each commune is a Council, elected for six
years directly, by the same voters as for the Provincial States, provided they
inhabit the commune ; one-third of the Council retiring every two years.
All the male Dutch inhabitants 23 years of age are eligible, the number of
members varying from 7 to 41, according to the population. The Council has
a right of making and enfoKiiig l)y-laws concerning the communal welfare.
The Council may raise taxes a<T'or(ling to rules preserilied l)y common law ;
besides, each commune receives JVoin tlie State Treasury an allowance pro-
portioned to the total number of its inhabitants and to the share which its
non-contributing inhabitants liave failed to pay towards local taxes. All
by-laws may be vetoed by the Sovereign. The Municipal Budget and the
resolutions to alienate municipal jiroperty require the approbation of the
Deputed States of the province. The Council meets in public as often as may
be necessary, and is ])resided over by a Mayor, appointed by the Sovereign for
G years. I'he executive power is vested in a college formed by the Mayor
and 2, 3, or 4 Aldermen (wethouder.s), elected by and from the Council ;
this college is also charged with tlie execution of the common law. The
Municipal Police is under the authority of the Mayor ; as a State functionary the
Mayor supervises the actions of tlie Council ; lie may susjiend their resolutions
for 30 days, but is bound to ijiform the Deputed States of the province.
805
NETHERLANDS (THE).
(KONINKRIJK DER NeDERLANDEN.)
Reigning^ Sovereign.
Wilhelniina Helena Pauline Maria, born August 31, 1880,
daughter of the late King Willem III. and of his second wife,
Princess Emma, born August 2, 1858, daughter of Prince George
Victor of Waldeck ; succeeded to the throne on the death of her
father, November 2.3, 1890; came of age August 31, 1898, and
was inaugurated September 6 of that year. During her
minority her mother, the Queen-Dowager, was Queen Kegent.
Tlie royal family of tlic Netlierlaiuls, known as the House of Orange,
descends from a German Count AValram, who lived in the eleventh century.
Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of the branch of Otto, Count of
Nassau, with Jane of Polanen, in 1404, the family acquired the barony of
Breda, and thereby became settled in the ISTetherlands. The alliance with
another heiress, only sister of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of
Chalons, brought to the house a rich province in the south of France ; and a
third matrimonial union, that of Prince AVillem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II., led to the transfer of the crown of Great Britain
to that prince. Previous to this period, the members of the family had
acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands under the name
of ' stadtliolders, ' or governors. The dignity was formally declared to be
hereditary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V., had to fly
to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French rejmblican army. The
family did not return till November, 1813, when the fate of the republic,
released from French supremacy, was under discussion at the Congress of
Vienna. After various di])lomatic negotiations, the Belgian provinces,
subject before the French revolution to the House of Austria, were ordered by
the Congress to be annexed to the territory of the republic, and the whole to
be erected into a kingdom, with the son of the last stadtholdcr, Willem V., as
hereditary .sovereign. In con.serjuenco, the latter wa- pioclaimed King of the
Netherlaiids at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815, and recognised as
sovereign by all the Powers of Europe. The establi.slied union between the
northern and southern provinces of tlie Netherlands was dissolved by the
Belgian revolution of 1830, and their ])olitical relations were not readjusted
until the signing of the treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which constituted
Belgium an independent kingdojn. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840,
806 NETHERLANDS
bequeathing the crown to his son "W'illem 11. , who, after a reign of nine
years, left it to his heir, "Willem III. This king reigned 41 years, and died
in 1890 ; in default of male heirs, he was succeeded by his only daughter
Wilhelmina.
King Willem II. had a civil list of 1,000,000 guilders, but the amount
was reduced to 600,000 guilders at the commencement of the reign of King
Willem III., and is since maintained. There is also a large revenue from
domains, and in addition an allovrance of 50,000 guilders for the maintenance
of the royal palaces. The Queen-Regent receives an annual allowance of
150,000 guilders. The family of Orange is, besides, in the possession of a
very large private fortune, acquired in greater part by King Willem I, in the
prosecution of vast enterprises tending to raise the commerce of the Nether-
lands.
The House of Orange has given the following Sovereigns to the Nether-
jands since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the Congress of Vienna : —
Willem I. 1815
Willem II 1840
Willem III 1849
Wilhelmina 1890
Government and Constitution.
I. Central Government.
The first Constitution of the Netherlands after its reconstruc-
tion as a kingdom was given in 1815, and was revised in 1848
and in 1887. According to this charter the Netherlands form a
constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is
in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture ; in default
of male heirs, the female line ascends the throne. In default of
a legal heir, the successor to the throne is designated by the Sove-
reign and a joint meeting of both the Houses of Parliament (each
containing twice the usual number of members), and by this
assembly alone if the case occurs after the Sovereign's death. The
age of majority of the Sovereign is 18 years. During his
minority the royal power is vested in a Eegent — designated by
law — and in some cases in the State Council.
The executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the
Sovereign, while the whole legislative authority rests conjointly
in the Sovereign and Parliament, the latter — called the States-
General — consisting of two Chambers. The Upper or First
Chamber is composed of 50 members, elected by the Provincial
States from among the most highly assessed inhabitants of the
eleven provinces, or from among some high and important function-
aries, mentioned by law. Members of the First Chamber not resid-
ing in the Hague, where the Parliament meets, are allowed 10
guilders (16s. 8d.) a day during the Session of the States-General.
The Second Chamber of the States-General numbers 100 deputies,
who are elected directly.
POPULATION-— RELIGION
811
III. Principal Towns.
Oil Doceiuber 31, 1897, the following towns had a population of more than
20,000 inhabitants, namely : —
'sHortogenbosch 30,355
Zwolle^ . . 30,660
Schiedam . 26,884
Breda . . 26,160
Deventer . 25,930
Holder . . 25,823
Amsterdam
. 503,285
Leiden .
. 53,703
Rotterdam
. 298,433
Tilburg .
. 38,599
The Hague
. 196,325
Maestricht
. 34,125
Utrecht .
. 98,434
Nimeguen
. 40,098
Groningon
. 63,863
Dordrecht
. 37,631
Haarlem
. 62,066
Leeuwarde
. 31,944
Arnhem
. 55,848
Delft .
. 31,886
Religion.
According to the terms ot the Constitution, entire liberty of conscience
and complete social equality are gi'anted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The royal family and the majority of the inhabitants belong to the
Reformed Church. The salaries of several British Presbyterian ministers,
settled in the Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with the
Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of the public funds. The State Budget
contained fixed allowances for the different churches ; for Protestant Churches,
1,379,852 guilders ; for Roman Catholics, 578,035 ; and for Jews, 12,775,
The number of adherents of the different churches in the various provinces,
according to the census of 1889, was as follows : —
Provinces
N. BralKint .
Guelders . .
South Holland
North Holland
Zealand . .
Utrecht . .
Friesland . .
Overyssel . .
Groningen
Drenthe . .
Limburg . .
Dutch
Reformed
48,555 I
284,142 ,
575,996
S81,310
120,398
117,897
206,230
176,063
180,804
100,153
3,101
Other
R. Cuth.
Protestant
Church
11,638
446,531
34,131
185,321
116,033
229,199
141,343
225,652
23,8-23
50,180
22,785
75,942
70,087
25.848
31,457
80,740
56,899
18,467
^008
18,058
673
250,594
2,194,649
532,907 1,596,482
Jansenists
Jews
17
2,252
357
5,243
1,758
15,277
3,9.53
57,257
5
412
1,554
1,426
6
1,817
13
4,182 '
12
5,946 :
8
2,327
4
1,185
7,687
97,324 1
Other or
unknown
creeds
635
3,008
11,378
19,974
4,416
1,423
25,570
2,990
10,658
2,150
164
82,366
The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian. At the end
of 1897 the Dutch Reformed, Walloon, English Presbyterian, and Scotch
Churches had 1 Synod, 10 provincial districts, 44 classes, and 1,348 parishes.
Their clergy nunil>ered 1,606. Xine other Protestant bodies had about 260
churches and about 280 clergymen. The Roman Catholic Church had one
archbishop (of Utrecht), 4 bishops, 1,050 churches, and a])out 2,509 clerg)'-
men. The Jansenists had 1 archbishop, 2 bishops, 26 churches, and 27
clergymen. The Jews had about 180 places of worship.
Instruction.
Public instruction (primary) is given in all places where needed, but
education is not compulsory nor necessarily free ; religious convictions arc
respected.
From the beginning of this century elementary schools have been more
or less under State regulation and inspection. In 1806, and more expressly
812
NETHERLANDS
ill 1848, secular instruction was separated from religious or sectarian
instruction. Elementary education is now regulated by the Primary
Instruction Act, passed in 1857, supplemented by an Act of 1878, and
again considerably altered by the Act of December 1889. By the last
Act public instruction is diminished and a greater share in the education of
the youths left to private instruction, which is now supported by the State.
According to the regulations of the present Act the cost of public primary
instruction is borne jointly by the State and the communes, the State con-
tributing to the salaries of the teachers and being responsible for 25 per cent,
to the costs of founding or purchasing schools.
The following table is taken from the Government returns
for 1896-97 :—
Institutions
Number
Teaching Staff
Pupils or Students
Universities (public) ^ .
4
165
2,936
Classical Schools .
29
428
2,462
Secondary Day and Evening
Schools
39
465
5,695
j Navigation Schools
11
68
709
Middle Class Schools
74
965
8,911
Polytechnicum
1
24
450
Elementary Schools :
Public ....
3,069
15,040
487,774
Private ....
1,414
6,785
220,880
j Infant Schools :
1 Public ....
139
+ 825
25,865
Private ....
896
± 2,635
84,837
1 Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam. . ,
Besides the schools named in the table, there is a great number of special
schools— viz., agricultural (1), horticultural (2), deaf and dumb (3) and blind
(1) schools, 1 school for philology, geology, and demography of the East Indies
(for the Indian Civil Service), several military schools, a national Academy
of Art, a royal school of music, a national normal school for drawing; teachers,
several technical schools and normal schools for the training of teachers.
Since 1880 there is also a private university, with 110 students in 1S95-96.
1893
1S04 i
1895
£
189G
£
£
On Primarv Education —
The Government spent .
471,433
486,759
495,667
512,233
The Communes spent .
679,523
663,489
678,925
715,878
On Normal Schools were
spent in all
86,852
95,359
99,229
105,875 1
The total expenses for Edu-
c;ation were : —
For the State
728,416
737,250
764,917
791,883
For the Communes
833,500
828,750 i
841,917
873,583
Of the conscripts called out in 1897, 4'0 per cent, could neither read nor
write, the percentage being highest in Drentho, 9*6. In 1875 the total
percentage was 12 '3. Of the total number of childi-en from 6 to 12 years
(school age) on 31 December, 1896, 9 '22 per cent, received no elementary
instruction. In 1885 it was 12'70,
cSOl)
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
3,579,529
4,012,693
4,511,415
Population at various census periods : —
1829 . . 2,613,487 I 1869
1839 . . 2,860,559 | 1879
1849 . 3,056,879 1889
1859 . . 3,309,128 |
The rate of increase in each year has been, in 1880, 0*6 ; in
1885, 1-4; in 1890, M8 ; in 1892, 1'03; in 1893, 1-36; in
1894, 1-33; in 1895, 1*33; in 1896, 1-42; in 1897, 153.
The following table shows the area and the population of
the eleven provinces of the kingdom, according to the census of
December 31, 1889, and to the communal population tables on
December 31, 1897 :—
Area :
English
Population j
Provinces
square miles
Dec. 31, 1889
Dec. 31, 1897
Per sq. mile
IN'ortli Brabant
1,980
509,628
547,071
276
Guelders
1,965
512,202
555,686
283
South Holland
1,166
949,641
1,106,265
949
North Holland
1,070
829,489
949,316
887
Zealand
690
199,234
213,618
309
Utrecht
534
221,007
244,830
458
Friesland
1,282
335.558
340.512
266
Overvssel
1.291
295,445
324,607
251
Groningen
790
272,786
296,521
375
Drenthe
1,030
130,704
145,433
141 ,
Limburg
850
12,6^8
255,721
280,345
329
Total
4,511,415
5,004,204
396
Of the total population in 1897 there were 2,477,118 males
and 2,527,086 females.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively large urban popula-
tion, especially in the provinces of North and South Holland.
Year
Popnlatitin of
the 21 principal
Towns 1
936,801
1,115,627
1,411,584
1.506,703
1,717.045
Porcentagc
of the whole
Population
26-1
27-8
31-2
32 "2
34-4
Rural
Population
Percentage
of the whole
Population
Dec.
31, 1869
,, 1879
,. 1889
,, 1892
,, 1897
2,642,728
2,897,066
3,099.831
3,162,873
3,287,159
73-8
72-1 ■
68-7
67-8
65-6
1 Tlic towns with a population of more than 20,000 inhabitants.
810
NETHERLANDS
The census of Dec. 1889 gives in a population of 4,511,415 : —
—
Males
Per cent.
Females
Per cent.
Unmarried ....
Married ....
Widowers and widows .
Divorced and separated .
1,406,646
738,256
81,419
2,127
31-1
16-3
1-9
0-04
1,374,956
739,051
165,496
3,403
30-4
16-3
3-6
0-07
The Dutch belong to the Germanic race.
At the census of 1889 there were 47,888 persons of foreign
birth living in the Netherlands, 28,767 of them being Germans,
13,697 Belgians, 1,339 English, and 4,085 from other countries.
2,950,471 persons were born in the communes where they lived ;
977,360 in some other communes in the province ; 497,809 in
other provinces of the realm ; and 9,795 in the Dutch colonies.
II. Movement of the Population.
The following are the statistics of births, deaths, and mar-
riages : —
Years
Total Living
Births
Illegiti-
mate
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of
Birthsover
Deaths
StUlborn
Average
■
1879-84
144,879
4,264
90,127
30,046
54,751
7,689
1884-89
149,516
4,753
91,658
30,501
57,864
7,744
1889-93
152,452
4,853
93,419
32,769
59,047
7,404
1894
154,722
4,833
87,970
34,383
66,752
7,390
1895
158,130
4,779
90,007
35,598
68,123
7,611
1896
160,247
4,611
84,291
36,490
75,956
7,527
1897
161,441
4,407
83,855
36,783
77,586
7,375
The em
igration in the last five
years has been as follows : —
Year
North America
South
America
Australia
Africa
Total
Average
1887-91
4,314
903
—
52
5,271
1893
4,820
—
—
—
4,820
1894
1,146
—
—
—
1,146
1895
1,277
—
—
37
1,314
1896
1,241
51
—
95
1,387
1897
—
—
—
—
792^
In 1897, 433 were males, 197 females, and 162 children.
The total number of emigrants, Dutch and foreigners, sailed
from Dutch ports was, in 1897, 9,036.
1 The countries of debtination are tot mentioned in the records for 1897.
FINANCE
815
Year
Direct Taxes
Excise
Indirect Taxes
Customs Duties
1
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
; 1893
32,351,922
43,208,403
19,938,942
5,840,051
1894
34,907,207
42,989,388
20,222,984
5,992,995
1895
35,162,795
42,859,657
21,414,331
6,787,095
1896
35,577,345
43,849,565
20,036,387
8,447,069
1897
32,998,960
44,800,796
20,075,659
8,588,810
The amount of these taxes per head of the population was, in 1897, in
guilders: direct taxes, 6'QQ ; excise, 9*02; indirect taxes, 4"05 ; custom
duties, 1-73. Total, 24-58.
The expenditure of the 'Department for the Colonies' entered in the
budget estimates only refers to the central administration. There is a separate
budget for the great colonial posses -ions in the East Indies, voted as such by
the States-General. The iinancial Cbtimates for the year 1899 are distributed
between the colonies and the mother country in the following proportions : —
Guilders
Administrative and other expenses in the colonics . 116,600,742
Home Government expenditure .... 29,485,202
Total expenditure
Revenues in the mother country
,, colonies ,
146,085,944
17,075,964
115,666,550
132,742,514
In the budget for 1899 the national debt is given as follows : —
Nominal Capital
Annual Interest j
Funded Debt
2^ per cent, debt
3 „ ,, „ of 1895 and 1898
;. r debt of appropriated
r. " "- railway (to redeem
" '-• " [ in 1899)
Total.
Floating debt ....
Annuities . .
Paper money ....
Sinking fund ....
Total debt .
Guilders
626,008,500
517,327,000
294,000
2,719,693
Guilders
15,650,212
15,551,390
4,700
83,312 j
1,146,349,193
15,000,000
31,289,614 1
50,000
262,019
6,228,571
1,161,349,193
37,830,204
The following table shows the interest and sinking fund for the last six
years : —
Year
Interest
Sinking Fund j Year
Interest
Sinking Fund
1898
1897
1896
Guilders
29,852,993
29,935,246
30,629,789
Guilders
2,638,100 1895
2,708,500 1894
1,507,556 ij 1893
Guilders
31,912,910
32,015,837
31,463,972
Guilders
3,275,200
3,032,800
5,185,458
816 NETHERLANDS
During the years 1850-1898, 302,868,689 guilders have beeli
devoted to the redemption of the public debt. The total debt
(1898) amounts to 1,092,093,754 gld. or 18/. 35. U. per head,
and the annual charge to 32,491,093 or lOs. 9d. per head.
The rateable annual value of buildings was given at 124,301,000
guilders in 1897, and of land, 96,457,000 guilders. The total
real property of the Netherlands in 1892 was estimated by the
Minister of Finance at 308 million pounds ; the total amount
of personal wealth, estimated from the declared inheritances, has
been put at 572 million pounds ; the total wealth would thus be
22,000 million francs, or 880,000,000/. sterling.
The various provinces and communes have their own separate
budgets ; the provincial expenditure and revenue for 1898 was
estimated at 5,760,000 guilders : the special communal expenses
in 1896 amounted to 93,994,000 guilders, whereof 22,051,000
guilders for debt. The communal revenues were, in the same
year, 100,485,000 guilders.
Defence.
I. Frontjerj
The Netherlands are bordered on the south by Belgium, on
the east by Germany. On the former side the country is quite
level, on the latter more hilly ; the land frontier is open all
round. These frontiers are defended by few fortresses. The
most effective means of defending the Netherlands consists in
piercing the dykes, and inundating a great stretch of land
between the Zuiderzee and the river, the Lek. The few roads
lying above the level of tiie water are guarded by fortresses
connected with each other ; the river can be defended by gun-
vessels, if necessary. A. large part of the province of Utrecht,
besides North and South Holland, with the principal towns, is
thus secured.
II. Army.
The army of the Netherlands, according to the regulations
of a law of 1861, is formed partly by conscription and partly
by enlistment, the volunteers forming the stock, but not the
majority of the troops. The men drawn by conscription at the age
of nineteen — numbering yearly 1 1 ,000 — have to serve in person,^
nominally, five years ; but really only for twelve months, meeting
afterwards for six weeks annually for practice, during four years.
Besides the regular army, there exists a militia — ' schutterij ' —
mainly for internal defence, divided into two classes. The first, the
' active militia ' (dienstdoende), exists in communes of 2,500'
1 In 1898 personal military service was I'endered obligatory, except or ministers of
religion. Formerly substitution was allowed.
JUSTICE AND CRIME — PAUPERISM
81 :^
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of
Cassation), by 5 courts of justice (Courts of Appeal), by 23 district tribunals,
and by 106 cantonal courts ; trial by jury is unknown in Holland. All
Judges are appointed for life by the King (the Judges of the High Court from
a list prepared by the Second Chamber). They can be removed only by a
decision of the High Court.
The number ot"i)enal sentences pronounced was :
By the Cantonal
Courts
District Tribunals
Courts of Justice
High Court
1885
1891
1893
1895
1897
67,583
69,104
75,536
80,272
95,978
15,079
15,750
19,186
18,743
15,889
497
807
931
910
861
230
252 1
283
270
317
The number of persons
convicted was :—
1888
1 1894
1895
1896
1897
By the Cantonal Courts
1
By the District Tribunals
Male
Female
Male
Female
64,513
70,260
75,206
58,975
81,006
7,008
7,595
8,482
6,598
9,375
14,931
15,545
15,081
13,964
14,483
1,952
1,710
1,677
1,628
1,603
The number of prisons in 1897 was 32, of houses of detention 44.
number of inmates in the prisons at the end of 1897 was 2,185 males and
155 females; in the houses of detention, 715 males and 39 females. There
are also 3 State-work-establishments specially for drunkards, beggars and
vagabonds. The number of inmates was, at the end of 1897, 3,703. Children
under 16 years placed in the 3 State reformatories numbered in 1897 573 boys
and 102 girls. There are both State and communal police. The State police
consists of tield-constables and cavalry. The former are spread over the
country, the latter guard the frontiers (eastern and southern). The cavalry
police (marechausse) numbers about 19 officers and 778 men. There are about
800— appointed and paid by the Government — field-constables, divided into
numerous brigades. Besides each commune has its own field-constables or
police force.
Pauperism.
The relief of the poor is largely efi'ected by the religious societies and
organised private charity. The State does not interfere, except when no
relief is to be obtained from private charity ; in that case the pauper must be
supported by the commune where he is living. The communes grant small
subsidies to the private societies ; there is no poor rate in the Netherlands.
Mendicity and vagabondage are treated as a crime, and persons so convicted
can be placed in a State-work establishment. Workhouses for the poor are
found in very few communes.
The number of poor relieved, either temporarily or continuously, during
the year 1896 was 236,396 or 4-87 per cent, of the total population. The per-
centage for 10 years has been :— 1887, 513 ; 1888,5-12 ; 1889, 5 08 ; 1890,
5-34 ; 1891, 4-38 ; 1892, 5-43 ; 1893, 5-19 ; 1894, 525 ; 1895, 499.
814
NETHERLANDS
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure in the last five years were
Revenue.
Year
Ordinary
Exti-aord. (loans, &c.)
Total
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1893
126,527,164
290,000
126,827,164
1894
131,517,521
1,385,552
132,903,073
1895
132,257,968
200,000
132,457,968
1896
135,175,567
180,000
135,355,567
1897
135,408,474
260,000
135,668,474
Expenditure.
Year
Defence
Debt
Public Works
General
Total
1
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1893
38,171,279
36,649,430
12,465,307
48,157,077
135,443,093
1894
36,584,712
34,419,145
11,120,181
49,367,844
131,491,882
1895
38,005,542
34,777,269
9,988,970
50,364,108
133,135,889
1896
39,295,234
32,137,346
10,223,130
51,829,158
133,448,868
1897
39,312,394
32,643,746
11,596,285
55,674,733
139,227,158
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
years 1898 (October) and 1899 (October) were as follows : —
Branches of Ex-
penditure
1 189S
1899
Sources of Revenue
1898
1899
1
1 Guilders
Guilders
Direct taxes : —
Guilders
Guilders
Civillist
800,000
800,000
Land tax .
12,309,000
12,490,000
Legislative body
Personal .
8,700,000
8,675,000
and Royal cabinet
701,681
084,707
Tax on capital .
7,000,000
7,000,000
, Department of Fo-
Tax on incomes
reign Affairs
S38,43G
849,134
from trades, pro-
! Department of Jus-
fessions, &c. .
4,620,000
5,044,000
tice
5,643,437
5,841,167
Excise duties
44,400,000
45,600,000
Department of In-
Indirect taxes
20,385,000
20,732,000
terior .
14,455,836
15,067,028
Import duties
8,716,500
8,816,950
Department of Ma-
Tax on gold & silver
240,900
300,900
rine
15,533,996
15,890,424
Domains
2,450,000
2,350,000
Department of Fi-
Post office
8,976,000
9,447,000
nance .
23,452,348
25,081,465
Telegraph service .
1,403,000
1,795,000
Department of War
22,333,006
22,585,901
State lottery .
659,000
659,000
Department of Pub-
Shooting and fish-
lic Works, &c.
24,055,195
26,633,231
ing licences
130,000
130,000
Department of Colo-
i
Pilot dues
1,850,000
1,950,000
nies
1,388,716
1,300,696
Dues on mines
5,980
7,245
Public Debt .
32,491,093
37,830,205
State railways
3,885,000
4,162,990
Contingencies
50,000
50,000
Part paid by the
East Indies ill the
interest and sink-
ii)g fund of public
debt .
—
3,847 250
Miscellaneous re-
Total expenditure
1
ceipts .
Total revenue
8,641,970
134,432,350
7,789,565
141,743,746 152,613,959
140,796,900
The share of the direct taxes, excise, indirect taxes and cus-
toms duties in the revenue for five years 1893-97 was : —
DEFENCE 817
inhabitants and more ; in the others there is a 'resting' (rustende)
militia. All men from 25 to 30 belong to the militia, from 30 to 35
to the reserve. The militia is subdivided into three parts (bans) :
(1) the unmarried men and widowers without children ; (2) the
married men and widowers with few children, who are supposed
not to be absolutely necessary for their family or the exercise of
their profession ; (3) the married men and widowers with children
belonging to the militia. The militia numbers 2 per cent, of
the i^opulation ; in 1897 the first part was formed by 42,243
men. Besides this there is the * landstorm,' consisting of all
capable of bearing arms, and the ' Society of Sharpshooters,'
corresponding somewhat to the English ' Volunteers.'
The regular army on footing of war consists in all of about
68,000 men, including special services, but excluding officers.
In peace the total number of the army was, on June 1, 1897,
only 27,834 men and about 1,971 officers.
Included in the infantry are 1 regiment of guards, and 8
regiments of the line ; there are 3 regiments of cavalry, 1 battalion
of sappers and miners, 3 regiments of field artillery, 4 of fortress
artillery, 1 corps of light-horse artillery, 1 corps of pontooneers,
and 1 corps of torpedoists (see under Colonies).
III. Navy.
The Navy i« maintained for a double purpose— viz. the protection of the
Dutch waters and coast, and the defence of the East Indian possessions.
These latter contribute to the maintenance of that division of it known as
the Indian Marine. The fleet, built and building, consists of six armoured
turret and barbette rams (ranging between 3,400 and 5,400 tons); 19 small
port and local defence rams, monitors, and armoured gunboats ; a large number
of small unprotected cruisers and gunboats, and a torpedo-flotilla, besides
guard, training, and special service vessels, and three powerful protected
cruisers (3,900 tons) of a type new to the Netherlands Marine, but resembling
our Latoiui and Astrcca classes. The fleet is being extended upon a settled
programme which will provide for the replacement of vessels which are
regarded as obsolescent. These three protected cruisers, the Hollaticl., Zee-
land, and Friesland, have been built as part of tliis scheme, and the work
is to be conducted gradually by the addition of six coast- defence vessels. Two
of them are for the Indian Marine, and a ship of 5,000 tons is to be built for
the same service. The efteetive floating strength of the Netherlands, including
the three cruisers alluded to, and the Indian Marine, may l)e thus stated : —
Coast Defence Ships . . 25 i Gun vessels, various . . 50
Cruisers, 2nd Class . . . 9 | Torpedo-craft, 1st Class . 28
3rd Class. . . 4 ' ,, 2nd & 3rd Class 28
The following is a list of the armour-clad fleet of the Netherlands and of
the principal (uuisers. The first nine are sea-going vessels ; the rest are
purely for local defence.
3 G
818
NETHERLANDS
Displace- 1 Anuour
ment, or i Thickness at
Tonnase water-line
Koningin Wil-
helmina
4,600
Holland . cr. 3,900
Zeeland . cr. ,,
inches
9^ (turret)
Steel deck
do.
Heaviest Guns
Number
Calibre
Friesland cr.
SJ
do
Evertsen
3,400
6
Kortenaei
> ;
5 J
Piet Heiii
) J
> 5
Prins Hendrik .
3,375
4i
Koning der
Nederlandeu .
5,400
8
Stier
2,069
6
Scliorpioen
2,175
8
ReirderClaeszeii
2,490
5
Draak
2,156
8
Matador .
1,935
H
Luipaard
1,525
H
Hijena .
1,566
H
Panter
1,566
H
Haai
1,566
5i
Wesp
1,566
5i
Krokodil .
1,530
5|
Heiligerlee
1,530
H
Tijger .
1,414
5J
Cerberus .
1,530
H
Bloedhond
1,530
5k
Rhenus .
367
5
Isala
367
5
Mosa
367
5
Merva
367
5
Vahalis .
340
4
{I
{I
16
{I
3
r4
\4
centimetres
28 & 21 \
15|
12J
15|
12/
15|
12/
21 & 15
231
12/
28
28
28
21 & 17
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
12
12
12
12
7, 5
Indicated
Horse-
power
Nominal
Speed-
Knots
5,900
17-0
9,250
20
-
20
• )
20
—
20 0
—
5 >
—
>>
2,000
12-1
4,500
2,257
2,225
2,400
807
11-0
12-4
12-0
16-5
8-5
691
7-5
680
7-3
654
7-3
650
7-3
872
7-3
744
7-3
630
8-0
630
8-0
684
9-5
617
8-0
680
8-0
310
7-5
306
7-5
400
7-5
395
7-5
243
6-0
The navy is officered by 2 vice-admirals, 2 rear-admirals ('schouten-
bijnaclit'), 25 captains, 35 commanders, and about 470 lieuteiiants and mid-
shipmen, besides engineers, surgeons, &c. , and about 7,000 seamen. The
marine infantry consists of 44 officers, and about 2,000 non-commissioned
officers and privates. Both seamen and marines are recruited by enlistment,
conscription being allowed, but not actually in force.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture,
The surface of the Netherlands was divided in 1896 (latest available statistics)
as follows (in hectares, 1 hectare = 2 '47 acres): — Uncultivated land (heath),
600,484 ; water and morass, 124,426 ; dykes and roads, 60,086 ; untaxed land,
78,455 ; building land, houses, &c., 43,451. Total 896,902 h.a. Accordingto
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
819
the statistics of 1896 there were: land under culture, 865,458; pasture,
1,182,879; gardens and orchards, 61,405; forest, 248,383. Total, 2,358,125 h.a.
Large estates prevail in the provinces of Zealand, South Holland,
Groningen, and Xorth Holland ; small estates in North Brabant, Guelders,
Limburg, and Overyssel.
In 1896 the number of estates was : —
5 hectares From 5 to i From 10 to
aud less '. 10 hectares 20 hectares
From 20 to
40 hectares
From 40 to
75 hectares
From 75 to
100 hectares
Above 100
hectares
78,813 34,473 29,674
18,369
6,397
432
192
42 "8 per cent, of all estates being held by farmers, and 57 "2 per cent, by the
owners. In 1888 the percentage was 41 '5 and 58"5.
The total number of cattle in 1896 was about 1,583,000 ; of horses,
269,000 ; of sheep, 700,000 ; and of ^ligs, 1,260,400.
The areas under the principal crops, in hectares, were as follows : —
Wheat
Rye .
"Winter barley
Summer barley
Oats .
Potatoes
Buckwheat
Beans
Peas .
Rapeseed .
Flax .
Beetroot
Tobacco
Madder
1890
1
1895
1894
62,265
61,862
64,586
' 214,917
210,077
208,275
: 28.195
25,729
25,113
11,117
12,987
13,260
128,429
130,987
132,502
150,203
150,949
150,023
31,858
35.519
36,899
38,828
40,218
39,345
24,285
24,374
24,969
2,983
3,234
6,321
11,156
13,871
16,678
45,571
35,092
33,435
698
707
621
321
588
719
1893
Average, I Average,
1871-80 1881-90
70,804
201,993
26,767
15,137
126,350
151,970
38,099
38,914
24,161
7,354
13,529
28,379
616
792
86,421
196,112
26,667
21,034
113,627
135,310
65,135
36,814
16,493
12,690
18,530
13,904
1,676
2,295
86,237
202,069
29,478
16,485
116,292
144,330
50,729
38,310
23,016
7,661
14,685
20,330
1,234
723
The mean yield of these products was, per hectare, in hectolitres (1 hecto-
litre =2 '75 bushels) : —
—
1896
1895
1894
1893
Average,
1871-80
Average,
1881-90
Wheat
28-6
24-4
22-7
24-7
22-0
23-4
Rye .
22-3
21-5
20-8
21-6
17-3
191
Winter barley .
43-7
42-8
35-7
46-8
39-0
40-4 '
Summer barley .
337
31-7
31-2
28-2
28-8
29-7 j
Oats .
42-1
41-8
40-2
34-4
38-3
38-3
Potatoes
195-0
174-0
139-0
207-8
136-0
154-0
, Buckwheat
13-6
17-5
15-5
14-3
17-4
14-3
Beans
23-4
23-9
20-5
25-9
21-7
22-7
j Peas .
27-7
24-4
18-1
25-7
20-5
21-5
Rapeseed .
27-2
19-5
22-0
26-7
21-3
23-5
Flax (kilo.) .
480-0
508-0
471-0
377-0
476-0
490-0
1 Beetroot ,,
38,237-0
29,281-0
•22,037-0
26,715-0
26,260-0
24,809-0
Tobacco , ,
2,278-0
2,065-0
1,810-0
2,081-0
2,247-0
2,139-0
Madder , ,
3,108-0
2,559-0
2,331-0
2,741-0
2,500-0
2,629-5
3 G 2
S-20
NETHERLANDS
The value of imports and exports of the leading agricultural products in
1896 and 1897 was as follows (in guilders) : —
__
1896
1S97
Imports
Exports
Imports i
1
Exports 1
Wheat .
134,439,000
98,161,000
144,359,000
113,677,000
Flour wheat and
rye
48,779,000
8,271.000
48,870,000
12,227,000
Rye .
77,343,000
35,430,000
78,838,000
37,769,000
Barley
26,092,000
18,520,000
27,395,000
19,239,000
Oats .
28,971,000
24.060,000
23,398,000
20,352,000
Potatoes .
129,000
1,133,000
197,000
1,081,000
Potato-flour
4,945,000
15,077,000
4,230,000
16,059,000
Buckwheat
2,548,000
734,000
2,956,000
1,013,000
Flax .
1.178,000
16,298,000
967,000
13,585,000
Beetroot .
240,000
2,482,000
107,000
1,494,000
The import of bulbs, shrubs, and trees was valued for 1897 at 425,000 gl.,
the export at 5,109,000 gl. ; for 1896, 347,000, and 6,032,000 gl. ; vegetables
at 1,752,000 gl. import and 39,167,000 gl. export in 1897, and 1,627,000 and
27,106,000 gl. in 1896.
II. Mining and Manufactures.
A few coal mines are found in the province of Limburg ; they belong to
the State. The quantity of coal extracted in 1897 was 103,955,000 kilos.,
valued at 412,873 gl. ; clear revenue, 145,041 gl. ; part of the State, 45,020 gl.
There are no official returns of all the manufacturing industries. According
to the last reports there were, in 1897 : 544 distilleries, 10 sugar refineries, 31
beet-sugar manufactories, 47 salt works, 498 breweries and 92 vinegar manu-
factories.
The total number of manufactories which made use of steam-engines at the
end of 1897 was 4,375 ; the number of engines, 5,075.
III. Fisheries.
In 1897 : 5,318 vessels of all kinds were engaged in the fisheries, with
crews numbering about 18,387. The produce of the herring fishery in the
North Sea was valued at 5,567,756 guilders. The total number of oysters
produced in 1897 amounted to 40,000,000 ; aboutone-fourth part of it exported
to England.
Commerce.
The Netherlands is a free-trading country. A few duties are
levied, but they have only a fiscal, not a protectionist character.
The duties amount usually to 5 per cent, of the value of manu-
factured articles, and nihil or only 2^^ per cent, if these articles
are used for the industries of the country.
No official returns are kept of the value of the general trade,
but only of the weight of the goods. The growth of the total
commerce of the Netherlands may be seen from the fact that ii^
COMMERCE
82J
1872 the total imports were estimated at 6,451 million kilo
grammes, and the exports at 2,956 millions ; while in 1897 the
former were 22,426 million kilogrammes, and the latter 14,076
millions, exclusive of goods in transit.
The following are the estimates of the imports for home con-
sumption and the exports of home produce for five years : —
Year
1 Imports
Exports
Guilders
Guilders
1893
1 1,408,723,000
1,116,618,000
1894
! 1,461,000,000
1,115,000,000
1895
1,444,000,000
1,178,000,000
1896
1,635,000,000
1,340,000,000
1897
1 1,706,000,000
1
1,479,000,000
The values of the leading articles of import and export in
1896-1897 were (in thousands of guilders) : —
1
Imports,
Exports,
Impoi-ts, 1
Exports,
1
1890
1890
99,044 !
1897 1
1897
Iron and steel of all kinds
150,816
160,196 1
101,142
Textiles, raw and manu-
J
factured
88,112
65,307
98,339 !
73,984
Cereals and flour
315,624
184,422
325,816 s
204,277
Coal ....
47,184
3,238
49,516 1
3,480
Rice ....
39,527
15,412
44,955 :
20,110
Mineral oil . . .
10,840
80
11,419
82
Coffee ....
40,872
24,434
47,939
24,762
Butter ....
1,572
17,170
1,655
17,625
Margarine (raw & eatable)
18,240
38,224
19,018
48,093
Sugar ....
29,118
52,435
25,854
54,440
Cheese . . .
76
11,731
82
13,334
Di-ugs ....
203,899
187,021
176,105
236,726
Gold and silver
6,353
779
22,194
81
Vegetables
1,627
27,106
1,752
39,167
Wood ....
38,397
21,086
50,944
34,298
Skins ....
22,931
21,472
26,921
29,696
Indigo ....
9,649
6,911
8,789
6,119
Copper ....
68,044
65,367
72,882
67,801
Paper ....
5,026
27,7.32
5,144
32,035
Soot, grease, tallow, suet .
16,336
6,186
22,331
9.326
Saltpetre . . . ,
25,664
22,238
21,760
19,686
Zinc ....
10,954
10,700
10,997
10,792
Tobacco ....
9,374
4,511
9,208
5.388
Tin
18,569
17,017
18,914
15,365
Colours (painters' wares) .
11,729
9,852
12,250
10,787
Flax ....
1,178
16,298
967
12,685
Seeds (colza, linseed, &c.)
39,565
18,557
32,917
15,881
822
NETHERLANDS
The following table shows the value of the imports and
exports of the great classes of products in 1896 and 1897 (in
1,000 gl.) :—
Imports 1 Exports
1896
1897 1896
1897
Food products .
Raw materials .
460,107
496,290
1
405,627
465,633
355,073
390,986
246,457
266,589
Manufactured products
Miscellaneous .
195,317
213,710
189,036
202,545
356,959
306,622
279,183 !
308,152
For the last five years the returns were, in millions of kilo-
grammes : —
Year
Total Imports
Total Exports'
Re-exports
Transit
2,650
1893
16,378
i 9,599
697
1894
17,629
1 10,542
728
2,793
1895
17,843
10,630
800
3,070
1896
20,517
12,777
817
3,633
1897
22,426
14,075
868
3,819
The following table shows the value of the trade with the
leading countries for the last five years, in millions of guilders : —
—
1893 1894
[
1895
1896
1 Tco- Percentage
1^^' . j 1897 !
Imports for home consump-
tion from —
Prussia ....
258-8
266-1
272-4
278-7
277-0
16-2
Great Britain ,
263-8
246'1
238-2
255-7
269-9 i 15-8 '
Belgium ....
175-6
161-1
166-1
174-2
186-4 10-9
Dutch East Indies .
193-0
225-0
202-4
239^2
218-0 1 12-8
Russia . , , .
88-8
175-3
198-2
223-4
248-8 1 14-6
United States of America
155-1
132-1
110-9
166-8
234-2 1 13-7
British India .
53-4
43-8
41-5
41-5
36-8 1 2-2
France ....
20-1
21-5
18-0
23-6
19-7
1-2
Hamburg
17-5
15-2
17-1
20-2
24-3
1-4
Exports to —
'
Pnissia ....
534-2
538-2
575-3
679-7
767-6
51-9
Great Britain .
256-3
260-3
267-7
290-2
321-9
21-8 '
Belgium ....
167-9
155-2
154-2
164-0
165-8
11-2
United States of America
21-8
22-2
37-5
46-5
45-0
3 0
Dutch East Indies .
57-1
53-8
52-0
52-8
60-3
4-1
Hamburg
15-5
17-5
19-1
19-5
20-9
1-4
France ....
10-0
11-9
15-2
23-4
35-4
2-4
Italy ....
6-0
5-1
5-1
6-2
. 7-2
0-5
Russia ....
5-9
6-2
5-3
5-5 6-9
0-5
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
823
In the Netherlands the statistics give sometimes the real, sometimes the official, value
of goods. For goods liable to an ad valorem import duty and for some articles duty-free,
the importer lias to declare the real value according to the current prices of the day; in
case of disagreement, tlie tiscal authorities may acquire the goods at the declared value
increased 10, 11, or 12 per cent. To other goods the oHicial values, unchanged since 1862,
are applied. Every declaration of imports and of exports is, in principle, subject to verifi-
catiou, but in fact only those relating to goods subject to duty are checked. Returns are
made out in gross weight, in net weight (with deduction of an official tare), in number or in
value according to the nature of each case. When goods are imported or exported by river
the neighbouring country is always regarded as the country of origin or of destination ; thus
imports really from France are attributed to Belgium. When transjiort is by sea, generally
the real country of origin is given ; thus Spanish wines are set down as from Spain, unless
they have been imported first into some other country, in which case they are attributed to
that country.
The total value of the imports from the Netherlands into Great Britain, and
of the exports of British and Irish produce to the Netherlands, in each of
the last five years is shown in the table following, according to the Board
of Trade returns : —
1893 -
1894
£
1895
1896
1897 .
£
£
£
^ i
Imports into
U. K. from
Netherlands .
28,851,490
27,606,397
28,419,477
29,261,023
28,971,316 1
Exports of
1
British pro-
duce to Neth
erlands . ,
—
9,249,136
8,788,341
7,375,011
8,333,935
8,854,696 !
Tlie principal articles of trade between the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands (Ijoard of Trade Returns) in two years were : —
Imports into U. K.
from Netherlands
ISDO
1897
£
Exports of produce
and manuf. of U.K.
to Netherlands
1 9j
1897
£
£
£
Cottons
1)80,222
998,686
Cottons .
986,636
1,012.750
Woollens
2.775,366
2,726,156
Cotton yarn .
1,139,807
1,300,501
Silk manufactures
2.250,356
2,006,968
Woollens
642,978
618,833
Iron and steel manuf, .
1,164,144
1,071,408
Woollen 5'arns
465,805
469,761
Cheese ....
734,611
748,251
Coal
340,877
411,222
Butter ....
1,156,726
1,353,349
Iron
933,180
1,152,482
Margarine .
2,304,335
2,291,796
Copper .
314,773
280,617
Gloves (leathei-) .
910,521
708,216
Machinery .
529,906
510,657
Paper ....
813,538
875,580
Cycles .
154,921
126,145
Sugar ....
1,504,705
1,248,516
Leather .
120,58.3
185,158
! Cocoa and iireparatious
327,675
574,261
Hardware
101,008
112,067
Coffee .
226,836
40,350
Tallow .
ISO oso
190,400
Glass mauuf.
419,653
446,789
Chemicals . ,
167. 739
198,590
Much of the trade here entered as with the Netherlands consists of goods
in transit from and to Germany, notably the imports of silk goods which are
from Rhenish Prussia.
Shipping and Navigation.
of
vessels belonging to the
mercantile navy at
The number
the end of 1897 was : —
Sailing vessels 441, of 95,226 English tons; steamers 171
of 211,426 English tons.
824
NETHERLANDS
The following table gives the number and tonnage (in English
measurement) of vessels which entered and cleared the ports of
the Netherlands : —
Entered.
With Cargoes
]
[a Ballast
Total
Year
1893
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
9,178
Tonnage
8,519
6,014,460
659
252,756
6 267,216
1894
9,048
6,688,830
705
237,180
9,753
6,925,656
1895
8,915
6,541,566
685
243,906
9,600
6,785,472
1896
10,222
7,610,292
831
294,882
11,053
7,905,174
1897
10,599
8,278,998
636
250,278
11,235
8.529,276
Cleared.
1893
6,392
3,676,290
2,678
2,478,354
9,070
6,154,644
1894
6,663
3,795,588
3,078
3,0 ;'k066
9,741
6,850,254
1895
6,569
3,777,180
2,973
2,993.424
9,542
6,770,604
1896
7,174
4,195,254
3,592
3,540.000
10,766
7,735,254
1897
7,084
4,220,034
4,014
4,179,324
11,098
8,399,358
Of the total number in 1897, 2,995 Dutch vessels entered
with a tonnage of 2,108,070, and 8,240 foreign vessels with a
tonnage of 6,421,206; 3,106 Dutch vessels cleared, with a
tonnage of 2,114,088, and 7,992 foreign vessels with a tonnage
of 6,285,624.
The vessels with cargoes which entered at the chief ports were
as follows : —
Entered
1S96
1S97
1
Port
Number
Tons.
4,522,604
1,209,972
675,432
per cent.
Ninnher
5,604
1,794
792
Tons.
pr.cnt
61-2
161
8-1
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing
5,111
1,682
799
59-4
15-9
8-9
5,071,050
1,335,996
668,706
Cle
ared
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing .
3,836
1,279
760
2,096,388
849,246
658,440
50 '0
20-2
15-7
3,065
1,300
771
1,826,114
877,920
662,334
45-6
20-0
15-7 i
The number of Dutch vessels engaged in the carrying trade
between foreign ports was, in 1896, 2,696, with a tonnage of
1,782,390. The coasting trade is of no importance.
Internal Communications.
I. Canals and Kail ways.
The length of navigable water (canals excluded) is about 3,000 miles.
The total extent of the canals was in 1879, 1,907 miles ;of roads, 2, 943 miles.
In 1896 the total length of the principal tramway lines was 749 miles ;
I XT KH\ A I- ( (jM M i: N ICATIOXS
H'25
'10,228,000 passengers were carried, and 417,440,000 kilogrammes of goods.
Tiu.'ir revenue amounts to 5,477,000 guilders.
The total outlay upon the State railways up to 1897 was 269,718,000 guilders.
In 1897 the railways had a length ot 1,699 miles, whereof the State
owned 898 miles, and private companies the remainder.
Year
Revenue I Expenditure
(guilders) (guilders)
Goods carried
(kilogrammes)
1890
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.^
1894
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1895
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1896
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1897
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
Passengers
carried
14,872,000. 7,833,000
12,431,000 7,300,000
I 19,880,000|l8,244,000
■ 14,140,000jll, 061,000
20,807,000 17.975,000
15,446,000 11,598,000
I
20,665,000 17,752,000
15,679,00011,771, 000
i 21,390,00017,364, 000
I 16,314,000 12,380,000
4,715,000,000
2,376,000,000
5,904,000,000
2,838,000,000
6,134,000,000
3,291,000,000
6,445,000,000
3,293,000,000
6,824,000,000
3,596,000,000
6,664,000
10,306,000
11,682,000
12,705,000
11,921,000
13,387,000
11,102,000
13,680,000
11,009,000
14,013,000
1 In 1S90 one of the private companies was appropriated by the State.
II. Post and Telegraphs.
The postal traffic was as follows in the years named :-
Letters
Post Cards
Newspapers and
Printed Matter
Parcels
Letters with
Money Orders
1893
Internal .
52,609,000
31,075,826
100,428,000
3,707,825
1,112,891
Foreign .
18,875,000
4,832,720
9,913,000
582,578
820,735
1894
Internal .
53,396,000
31,607,786
103,887,000
3,737,235
1,166,557
Foreign .
20,162,000
5,183,915
11,032,000
630,707
871,942
1895
Internal .
56,857,000
34,018,789
112,197,000
3,799,588
1,201,823
Foreign .
22,176,000
5,986,692
11,779,000
698,942
866,987
1896
Internal .
62,170,000
36,322,651
119,481,000
3.859,524
1,166,508
Foreign .
1897
Internal .
23,053,000
6,570,795
13,615,000
778,738
935,927
65,746,000
38,064,220
120,783,000
3,933,982
1,202,268
Foreign .
2.5,536,000
7,251,559
13,796,000
864,403
940,403
The average number of letters and post-cards per inhabitant was 27 '6.
The receipts of the Post Office in 1897 were 8,783,090 guilders, the ex-
penditure 6,936,152 guilders.
There are several private telegraph lines but most of the lines are owned
by the State. The length of State lines on Dec. 31, 1897 was 3,598 miles, the
826
NETHERLANDS
length of wires 12,747 miles. The number of State oflEices was, on December 31,
1897, 549. The number of paid messages by State lines in 1897 was
4,672,142. The receipts of the State amounted in the same year to 1,674,944
guilders, and the ordinary expenses to 2,143,535 guilders.
Money and Credit.
The money in general circulation is chiefly silver. Before 1875 the
Netherlands had the silver standard ; but a bill which passed the States -
General in the session of 1875 allowed an unrestricted coinage of ten-guilder
pieces in gold, whereas the coinage of silver was suspended for an unlimited
time.
The total circulation was valued as follows in thousands of guilders : —
Jan. 1
Silver, &c.
Gold
Paper money
issued
Paper money
issued
Total
Gold, or covered
by gold at the
by the State
by the Bank
Bank was in
total
1894
58,153
23,594
14,347
201,809
297,903
68,625
1895
58,888
23,671
14,534
202,943
300,036
72,737
1896
57,420
23,654
14,579
209,817
305,470
59,764
1897
57,131
22,992
14,678
207,856
302,657
54,602
1898
57,762
23,009
14,662
211,578
307,011
54,551
Value of money minted
guilders) : —
during the following years (in thousands of
Year
Gold
Silver
Copper
For the
East India
Colonies
Total
value
Total number
of pieces 1
1
1840-70
1871-80
1881-90
1896
1897
74,300
4,030
372,235
97,325
1,433
450
2,400
1,220
840
30
25
17,939
2,660
1,247
1,149
390,078
172,649
8,955
1,727
3,574
1,282,681
146,433
111,768 :
71,525
94,855
State Banks are unknown. The Bank of the Netherlands is a private
institution, but it is the only one which has received the right of issuing
1)ank-notes, by a bill of 1863, for a period of 25 years, in 1888 prolonged for
15 years, with continuation for 10 years if the contract is not broken l)y one
of the parties two years before the beginning of a new period. The Bank does
the same business as other banks, only Avith more guarantees. Two-fifths of
the paper money in circulation must be covered. It has agencies in all
places of importance.
Year
Notes in
Circulation
Total Exchanges
Stock of Gold
Stock of Silver
March 31
Marcli 31
1,000 guilders
in July
1,000 guilders
in July
1,000 guilders
1,000 guilders
1894
200,029
364,540
54,270
83,660
1895
203,683
374,018
51,390
84,320
1896
199,669
399,773
31,610
83,560
1897
201,597
423,254
31,560
83,890
1898
203,454
443,029
36,630
83,870
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
cS27
The capital amounts to 20,000,000 guilders, the reserve fund to 5,201,479
guilders. The Bank keeps the State-Treasuiy and the cash of the State
Postal Savings-Bank. It receives 5 per cent, of the clear gains ; the remainder
is divided between the State and the Bank.
There are many savings-banks, all private. Besides thefc there is a State
})ostal savings-bank, established in 1881. The following table gives some par-
•ticulars of both : —
Number of
Amount
Amount
Total De-
posits at
Number of
Amount
Year
1
Savings
Banks
deposited
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
withdrawn
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
end of vear
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
Depositors at
end of year
per inhabi-
tant
1892
Private banks .
246
15,526
15,704
57,267
294,105
12-26 gl.
State P. S. B.
15,370
12,473
27,562
358,483
5-90,,
1893
Private banks .
264
17,353
17,102
66,371
328,137
J4-02,,
State P. S. B.
17,651
13,726
32,247
401,046
6-81 „
1894
Private banks .
282
19,186
16,955
70,027
338,979
14-60,,
State P. S. B.
20,102
15,576
37,651
448,581
7-85,,
1895
Private banks .
282
19,313
17.872
72,584
343,592
14-94,,
State P. S. B.
23,220
17,727
44,185
499,963
9-09 ,,
1896
Private banks .
286
19,536
19,067
76,210
363,325
15-46 ,,
State P. S. B.
28,640
21,191
52,863
561,989
10-73,,
1897
State P. S. B.
—
31,736
24,407
61,646
627,409
12-32 „
The reserve fund of the private savings banks amounted in 1896 to
105,620,000 guilders.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The standard coin is the 10-ilorin piece weighing 6-720 grammes, -900 fine,
and thus containing 6-048 grammes of fine gold. The unit of the silver coin-
age is the florin, weighing 10 grammes, "945 fine and containing 9-45gi'ammes
of tine silver.
Gold is legal tender, and the silver coins issued before 1875.
The principal coins are : —
The gulden, guilder, ox fi or in of 100 cents. =1 sh. 8d. ; or 12 g. =£1.
The rijksdaalder = 2^ guilders.
The gold-piece of ten guilders.
i guilder, I guilder {kicartjc), -^ giiilder {duhheltje), ^ guilder (stuivertje).
Cent coins are : 1 cent, ^ cent, and 2^ cents.
Weights and Measures.
The metric system of weights and measures, and, with trifling changes,
the metric denominations are adopted in the Netherlands.
828
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of the Netherlands in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Dr. W. Baron van Goltstein van OlJenaller.
Councillor. — Dr. A. W. Baron Schimmelpenninck van der Oye.
Chancellor. — H. N. Brouwer,
Consul- General in London. — H. S. J. Maas ; appointed 1897.
Netherlands Consular representatives are at the following places in the
United Kingdom : —
Newport.
Plymouth.
Portsmouth
(Southampton).
Ramsgate.
Stockton,
Sunderland.
Swansea.
Weymouth.
Yarmouth.
2. Of Great Britain in the Netherlands.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Henry Howard, K.C.M.G., C.B. ; accredited
October 1.5, 1896.
Secretary. — A. F. Leveson-Gower.
British Consular representatives are placed in the following places in the
Netherlands : —
Amsterdam (C). The Hague. Rotterdam (C).
Brouwershaven Harlingen. Terneuzen.
Dordrecht. Helder. Texel.
Flushing. Hellevoetsluis.
Gronincren. Maassluis.
Aberdeen.
Dartmouth.
Hull.
Belfast.
Dover.
Invergordon.
Borrowstoness.
Dublin.
Leith.
Birmingham.
Dundee.
Liverpool.
Bradford.
Falmouth.
London.
Bristol.
Glasgow.
Londonderry.
Cardiff.
Gloucester.
Lowestoft.
Chatham.
Grangemouth.
Manchester.
Cork.
Hartlepool.
Middlesborough.
Cowes.
Harwich.
Newcastle.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands, situated in the
East Indies and the West Indies, embrace an area of about 783,000
English square miles. The total population, according to the
last returns, was, approximately, 35,000,000, or about seven times
as large as that of the mother country.
DUTCH EAST INDIES.
The Dutch possessions in Asia, forming the territory of Dutch East India
(Nederlandsch Oost Indie), are situated between 6° N. and 11° S. latitude,
and between 95" and 141" E. longitude.
In 1602 the Dutch created their East India Company. This Company
conquered successively the Dutch East Indies, and ruled them during nearly
two centuries. After the dissolution of the Company in 1798 the Dutch
possessions were governed by the mother-country.
Government and Constitution.
Politically, the territory, which is under the sovereignty of the Nether-
lands, is divided in (1) Lands under direct government ; (2) Vassal lands ;
(3) Confederated lands.
EAST INDIES — GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 820
With regard to administration, the Dutch possessions in the East Indies
are divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and dessas (vil-
lages). They are also very often divided into : (1) Java and Madura ; (2)
the Outposts — Sumatra, Borneo, Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Banca, Billiton,
Celebes, ^lolucca Archipelago, the small Sunda Islands, and a part of New-
Guinea.
Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands,
was formerly administered, politically and socially, on a S3'stem established
by General Johannes Graaf Van den Bosch in 1832, and known as the 'cul-
ture system.' It was based in principle on the officially superintended
labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a sufficiency of food
for themselves, l)ut a large quantity of colonial produce best suited for the
European market. That ' culture system ' comprised the forced labour of
the natives employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo, pepper, tea,
tobacco, and other articles. At present, the labour of the natives is only
recpiired for the produce of coffee, which is sold by the Government partly in
the colonies, but mostly in the Netherlands. By the terms of a bill which
passed the Legislature of the Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of
the sugar-cane is now totally abolished.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura — is
divided into twenty-two provinces, or residencies, each governed by a
Resident, assisted by several Assistant-Residents (except the Resident of one
of these provinces, Krawang, who has no Assistant-Resident), and a number
of subordinate officials, called Controleurs. All these functionaries must have
gone through an examination previous to their appointment l)y the Govern-
ment. The Resident and his assistants exercise almost alisolute control over
the province in their charge ; not, however, directly, but by means of a vast
hierarchy of native officials. There is a regular and unceasing personal
intercourse between the native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the
immediate agents of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries
or percentages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives. In
the ' Outposts ' the ' culture ' system has never been introduced, except in
the province of Sumatra, Avest coast, and in the Residency of ^lenado (island
of Celebes), whei-e also the labour of the natives is required for the produce
of coffee. These Outposts are administered by functionaries with the titles of
' Governor, ' ' Resident, ' ' Assistant-Resident, ' ' Controleur, ' &c.
The superior administration and executive authority of Dutch India rests
in the hands of a Governor-General. He is assisted by a Council of five
members, partly of a legislative, partly of an advisory character. The mem-
bers of the Council, however, have no share in the executive.
Governor-General. — Jhr. C. H. A. vander JVyck; appointed July 15, 1893.
The Governor-General represents not only the executive power of govern-
ment, but he has a right of passing laws and regulations for the administra-
tion of the colony, so far as this power is not reserved to the legislature of the
mother- countr}\ However, he is bound to adhere to the constitutional principles
on which the Dutcli Indies are governed, and which are laid down in the
' Regulations for the Government of Netherlands India,' passed by the King
and States-General of the mother-country in 1854.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and ]>opulation of Java — including
Madura — and of the Outposts : —
830
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Area :
"PnirliaVl
Population at
square miles
the end of 1897
Java and Madura ....
50,554
25,697,701
[ Sumatra, "West Coast
31,649
1,353,315^
Sumatra, East Coast
35,312
335,432-
Island of j Benkulen ....
9,399
158,767-
Sumatra 1
Lampongs ....
11,284
137,5011
Palembang ....
53,497
692,3171
i Atjeh
20,471
531,705-
Riau-Lingga Archipelago
16,301
107,861-
Banca
4,446
93,6001
Billitou
1,863
41,5581
Borneo, West Coast
55,825
370,7752
Borneo, South, and East Districts .
156,912
809,8033
Island of / Celebes .....
Celebes \ Menado ....
49,390
1,448,722^
22,080
549,138-^
Molucca Islands ....
43,864
399,208-
Timor Archipelago ....
17,698
119,239-
Bali and Lombok ....
4,065
1,044,757=*
New Guinea to 141° E. long.^ .
151,789
200,000='
Total
736,400
±34,090,0006
1 Tolerably accurate. 2 Approximately. 3 Mere conjecture.
5 New Guinea belongs to the residency of Ternate, Molucca Islands,
ti Approximate total. The population of several unexplored countries is not included.
In the official records the population is given every five years.
The total number of Europeans and persons assimilated to them at the
beginning of 1896 was 35,134 males and 32,022 females; of these 29,666
males and 25,389 females were Dutch, of whom 23,295 males and 22,435
females were born in the East Indies ; of the remainder, 1,183 were German,
246 French, 236 English, 187 Swiss, 236 Belgians ; the remainder being
mostly Austrians and Armenians. Of the remaining population about
460,000 were Chinese, 24,000 Arabs, and 27,000 other Orientals, and about
32,000,000 natives.
The movement of population between Europeans and persons assimilated
to them, by marriages, births, and deaths, was as follows : —
1891
1892
1893
fJava and Madura
\ Outposts .
f Java and Madura |
^ Outposts .
/'Java and Madura
I
Outposts
-■on. rJii'Va and Madura
1^^^ I Outposts . .
iQQ- /Java and Madura
^^^^ \ Outposts .
Man'iages
Perl.OOO
Births
2,135
Perl.OOO
45-8
Deaths
PerljOOOj
429
9-2
1,673
35-9
78
6-7
665
57-2
443
38-0
469
10-0
2,296
49-0
1,408
30 0
74
6-3
. 595
51-1
382
32-8
493
10-3
2,387
49-8
1,485
310
69
5-9
677
57-9
418
35-7
484
9-8
2,343
47-3
1,192
24-1
66
6-7
/ 691
59-9
387
33-6
497
—
1,835
1,381
~"~
: 66 '
—
524
435
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 831
The European population of the three principal towns of Java was, in
1896, Batavia, 9,423; Samarang, 3,355 ; Soerabaya, 6,988.
The whole population of Java is legally divided into Europeans and
persons assimilated with them, and natives and persons assimilated with
these. The former are generally living under the same laws as the inhabi-
tants of the mother-country, while in the jurisdiction of the latter the
Indian customs and institutions are considered. The division of the whole
population into these two classes is a fundamental principle in the policy
of the administi-ation, and enacted in the code specifying the limits and
conditions for legislation in Dutch East India. The Governor-General,
however, is, in agreement with the Council, authorised to make individual
exceptions on this rule.
Religion.
According to the terms of the regulations for the government of Nether-
lands India, entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The Reformed Church counts 35 ministers and 24 assistants, the
Roman Catholic 24 curates and 25 priests, not salaried out of the public
funds. The number of Christians among the natives and foreign Orientals
was : —
In Java and Madura in 1873 . 5,673, and in 1896 (1 Jan.) 19,193
,, the Outposts ,, ,, .148,672 ,, ,, . . 290,065
In 1896, 114 missionaries of various societies were working to propagate
Christianity in the Dutch East Indies. In the same year 9,110 natives went
to Mekka on pilgrimage, whereof 8,761 returned.
Instruction.
For the education of Europeans and persons assimilated with them there
were in 1896, 7 public middle class schools, with 930 pupils. The cost of
these schools to the Government in the same year was 546,633 guilders, and
the revenue out of the school fees 91, 623 guilders.
In 1896 there were for Europeans 131 mixed public elementary schools,
and 31 for girls only, with 19 private schools, or a total of 181 elementary
schools. The 162 public schools had a teaching stafl" of 536, and an attend-
ance of 14,280 pupils, and the 19 private schools a teaching staff of 151,
and an attendance of 2,970 pupils. The cost of the public elementary schools
was, in 1896, 2,430,456 and the income 271,710 guilders.
The following statement relates to schools for natives : —
In 1896 Dutch India had 4 normal schools, with 23 teachers and 168
pupils ; besides there were 4 schools for sons of native chiefs, with 220 pupils,
The elementary schools for natives were, for Java and Madura, in 1875:
104 Government schools, with 14,906 pupils, and 132 private schools, with
6,978 pupils; and in 1896, 205 Government schools with 37,103 pupils, and
202 private schools with 20,753 f upils. In the Outposts in 1881, 281 Govern-
ment schools with 21,388 pupils, and 205 private schools with 10,696
pupils; and in 1895, 296 Government schools with 41,656 pupils, and 455
private schools with 24,085 pupils. In 1890 there were in Java and Madura
116 private subventioned schools with 14,212 pupils, and 180 non-subventioned
832
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
with 7,176 pupils. lu 1875 the Government spent 803,906 guilders for the
education of natives, and in 1896 1,276,311 guilders.
For foreign Orientals there were in 1896 about 466 schools with 8,580 pupils.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is based on the principle that Europeans
and persons assimilated with them are subject to laws nearly similar to those
of the mother-country, Avhile the natives are subject to their own customs
and institutions. The administration of justice for Europeans is entrusted to
European judges, while for natives their own chiefs have a large share in the
trial of cases.
There is a High Court of Justice at Batavia — courts of justice at Batavia
Samarang, Soerabaya, Padang, and Makassar — Resident and Regent courts,
courts of circuit, district courts, and courts of priests.
The number of natives condemned for serious crimes in 1895 was 11,280 ;
for police offences, 9,212; while it was in 1882, 11,701 and 6,667. There
are about 300 prisons ; their population was 22,140 at the end of 1895.
The relations of the State to j)auperism are limited to subvention to Pro-
testant and Catholic orphan-houses ; for this purpose the budget contains
about 100,000 guilders yearly.
Finance.
The local revenue is derived from land, taxes on houses and estates,
rom licences, customs duties, personal imposts, the Government monopolies
of salt and opium, railways, and a number of indirect taxes. But the chief part
of the large profits is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of
coffee, grown under the 'culture system,' and sold in India and Europe,
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for 1870, 1880
1890, and 1894-98 :—
Year
Revenue
Guilders
1870
123,525,000
1880
146,838,000
1890
137,789,482
1894
128,418,699
1895
131,242,887
1896
133,091.391
1897
129,634,774
1898
139,412,904
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficit
Guilders
115,765,000
146,936,000
127,736,739
138,683,776
139,458,999
143,779,363
148,922,452
154,519,438
Guilders
+ 7,760,000
98,000
+ 10,052,743
- 10,265,077
- 8,216,112
- 12,269,972
- 19,287,678
- 15,106,534
The percentage of the different sources of revenue is shown in the follow-
ing table
Year
Taxes
Monopolies i
Products 2
Other Receipts
13-2
Total
1893
36-2
19-3
31-3
100
1894
35-9
24-5
24-1
15-5
100
1895
37-0
24-3
22-9
15-8
100
1896
36-0
24-7
23-3
16-0
100
1897
37-7
25-6
20-0
16-7
100
1898
36-3
24-1
22-4
17-2
100
J <)l>iu)ii and salt, etc.
Coffee, ciuchonB, tin, and coal,
FINANCE — DEFENCE
833
The budget estimates for 1899 are :-
Home government expenditure
Expenditure in the Colonies
Revenues in the mother country
,1 ,, Colonies .
Guilders
29,485,202
116,600,742
17,075,964
115,666,550
Deficit
146,085,944
132,742,514
13,343,430
The sources of revenue are stated as follows :
Receipts in the Netherlands from sales of Government coffee (7,543,168
guilders), cinchona {148,500 guilders), tin (7,164,729 guilders), railways
(925,000 guilders), share of the State in the profits of the Biliton Company
(470,000 guilders), various (824,567 guilders).
Receipts in India from sales of opium (18,860,000 guilders), im}»ort,
export, and excise duties (17,211,500 guilders), land revenues (19,806,100
guilders), sales of coffee (6,626,600 guilders), sales of salt (8,807,000 guilders),
railways (10,975,000), from all other sources (33,380,350 guilders).
About one-third of the annual expenditure is for the army and navy, and
another third for the geneml administration, both in Java and in the Nether-
lands.
Defence.
The army is purely colonial. At the end of 1896 the strength of the army
was 1,466 officers and 40,195 sub-officers and soldiers, comprising 16,066
Europeans, 55 Africans, 3,662 Amboinese, and 20,412 natives. The number
of horses was 1,428. No portion of the regular army of the Netherlands
is allowed to be sent on colonial service ; but individual soldiers are at
liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding officers, and they
form the nucleus of the army of Dutch India. The native and European
soldiers are not divided into separate corps, but generally mixed together,
though in separate companies in the same battalions. The artilleiy is com-
posed of European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are
Europeans and natives.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in Dutch
India, is divided into field, garrison, and depot battalions. Each battalion is
composed of four companies, two companies consisting of European soldiers
and two of natives, or one of Europeans and three of natives. The 'half-
castes ' are on a footing of perfect eqiiality with the Europeans. The whole
of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the exception of a few
natives of high rank to whom honorary ranks are given ; in each of the com-
panies composed of natives, at least one-half of the non-commissioned ofiicers
must also be Europeans. A military academy is established at Meester
Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to. every battalion.
Unlike the army, which is i)urely colonial, the navy in Dutch India is
partly colonial, partly belonging to*^ the royal navy, and its expenses are
therefore borne partly by the mother-country and partly by the colony.
(See 'Defence,' mother-country. ) 'The personnelin the Dutch Indies num-
bers about 4,500 men, thus divided : 1,700 Europeans and 900 natives with
the Indian marine (25 ships) 1,500 Europeans and 400 natives with the
auxiliary scjuadron).
3 H
834
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Production and Industry.
The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Governuieiit property,
aud it is principally in the residencies in the western part of Java that there are
l">rivate estates, chiefly owned by Europeans and by Chinese. The bulk of the
people are agricultural labourers. The Government or private landowners can
enforce one day's gi'atuitous work out of seven, or more, from all the labourers
on their estates ; in 1882 the greater part of these enforced services for the
Government was abolished, in return for the payment of one guilder per head
yearly. Great power is vested in the Resident aud his European and native
officials to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.
The extent of the soil of Java and Madura regularly cultivated by the
natives was, in 1896, 6,511,339 acres (If acre = 1 bahu). From 1892-96 the
increase of various cultures was as follows, in acres : —
Year
Rice
Maize, Arachis,
Cotton, and
various plants.
Sugar-
cane
Tobacco
Indigo
Total
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
4,851,554
4,756,227
5,064,107
5,126,400
4,828,642
3,621,751
3,660,923
3,807,216
3,574,637
3,595,226
167,980
212,017
211,561
923,254
213,349
231,045
237,014
237,014
177,038
258,930
47,805
53,128
54,229
60,231
54,252
8,931,325
8.913,341
9,373,127
9,162,259
8,950,399
Owing to the 'agrarian law' (1870), which has afforded opportunity to
private energy for obtaining waste lands on hereditary lease (emphyteusis) for
seventy-five years, private agriculture has greatly increased in recent years, as
well in Java as in the Outposts. In 1896 were ceded to 711 Companies and
Europeans, 814,427 acres ; to 47 Chinese, 30,746 acres ; to 6 natives, 3,031
acres — total, 848,204 acres. Since 1816 no land in Java has been alienated
by the Government. The lands, now the property of Europeans, have an
2,069,733 acres, of Chinese, 639,999 acres, and of other foreign Orientals,
extent of 34,856 acres.
In 1891 the Government ceased to cultivate sugar. The sugar is grown
on lands hired from the natives, or on lands held on emphyteutic tenure
from the Government, or on private properties. In 1891 the number of sugar
estates was 211 ; in 1896, 198. The yield of sugar in six years has been as
follows : —
Year
Tons !
Year Tons
Year
Tons
1892
1893
415,000 '
483,000
1
1894 480,400
1895 550,508
1896
' 1897
1
501,122
546,750
The
production of coffee in Dutch India in the years 1892-95
was, in lbs. : —
Year
Government
Lands
Free Cultivation
by natives
Lands on Em-
pliyteusis and
on Lease
Private
Lands
Total
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
101,323,066
17,265,733
52,043,252
48,333,858
42,164,666
24,386,666
9,467,866
15,671,148
13,564,994
10,663,066
46,094,133
19,365,866
00,840,919
48,559,186
58,309,333
2,956,133
1,754,800
3,277,181
3,765,239
4,928,000
174,759,998
47,854,265
131,832,500
114,223,277
116,065,065
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 835
The production of cinchona, in kilogrammes, in Java was as follows : —
Year
Government
Lands on Emphyteusis
Private Lands
Plantations
Production
Plantations
Production
Plantations
Production
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
8
S
8
8
8
308,021
278,662
295,107
317,387
293,603
112
100
96
98
86
2,793,820
2,856,138
2,890,630
3,573,260
3,440,393
6
4
3
2
1
28,944
46,928
47,862
60,020
63,932
The production of tobacco, in kilogrammes, was as follows : —
Tear.
In Java.
In Sumatra (Deli, etc.).
Plantations.
Production.
Plantations.
Production.
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
93
83
94
88
90
8,512,217
13,228,810
10,276,134
9,807,178
13,360,013
± 307
222
123
116
103
12,921,509
15,210,315
17,569.300
18,075,917
15,704,703
The production of tea in Java, in kilogrammes, was as follows : — 1892,
4,598,234; 1893, 4,129,031; 1894, 4,096,863; 1895, 4,746,588; 1896,
3,916,398.
The production of 1896 was obtained from 85 plantations.
The production of indigo in Java was as follows : — In 1893, 685,984 kilo-
grammes from 159 plantations ; in 1894, 565,547 kilogrammes from 155
plantations ; in 1895, 621,666 kilogrammes from 149 plantations ; and in
1896, 721,719 kilogrammes from 151 plantations.
The tin mines of Banca are worked by the Government ; those of Biliton
and Riouw by private enterprise. Their total yield in 1892-93 was 12,200
tons ; in 1896-97, 15,600 tons.
The yield of the principal coal mines in Java, Sumatra and Borneo was in
1893, 13,500 tons; in 1895, 26,100 tons ; in 1896, 25,150 tons.
The production of the principal mineral oil enterprises was in 1896,
111,387,385 litres.
At the end of 1895 there were in Java in all about 2,643,000 buffaloes,
2,572,000 oxen and cows, and 485, 500 horses. Horses are never used in India
for agricultural purposes.
In 1896 there were 3 Government and 41 private printing-offices, 51 ice or
soda water manufactories, 11 soap factors, 11 arak distillers, 8 saw mills,
and 170 rice mills. The industrial establishments in Dutch India used, in
1895, 1,831 steam engines.
Commerce.
No diflerence is made between Dutch and foreign imports and vessels,
There is a tarift" of 6 per cent, on certain goods ; on some articles there is a
small export duty, including coffee and tobacco. The export duty on sugar is
definitely abolished.
The following table shows the value of the general import and export
during the years 1892-96, in guilders : —
3 H 2
836
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
ImiMrts
Year
Government
Pi'ivate
Grand
Total
Merchan-
dise
Specie
Total
Merchan-
dise
Specie
Total
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
6,633,294
6,585,534
6,711,597
8,185,091
6,746,332
26,298,479
20,377,312
17,022,361
22,281,009
14,325,256
2,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
615,000
8,633,294
7.585,534
7,711,597
8,185,091
7,361,332
26,208,479
20,377,312 t
17,022,361
22,281,009
14,325,256
152,225,378
159,473,640
158,557,897
145,051,045
152,055,300
Exports
178,119,132
171,023,668
182,184,679
201,652,239
184,413,534
10,030,052
10,298,297
8,945,735
8,294,158
8,932,001
10,536,893
1,030,671
878,777
1,154,562
891,921
162,255,430
169,771,937
167,503,632
153,345,203
160,987,301
188,656,025
172,054,339
183,063,456
202,806,801
185,305,455
170,888 724
177,357,471
175,215,229
161,530,294
168,348,633
214,954,504
192,431,651
200,085,817
225,087,810
199,630,711
The principal articles of export are sugar, coffee, tea, rice, indigo, cinchona,
tobacco, and tin. With the exception of rice, about one-half of which is
shipped for Borneo and China, nearly four-fifths of these exports go to the
Netherlands.
The subjoined table shows the value of the trade of Java with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the last five
years
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into
£
&
£
£
£
U. K. from
Java .
1,352,512
505,248
870,419
746,233
318,052
E x p 0 r t s of
British pro-
duce to Java
1,902,389
1,799,620
1,740,565
1,891,543
1,803,416
The chief and almost sole article of import into the United Kingdom is un-
refined sugar; in 1882 of the value of 3,579,119^. ; in 1894, 380,232^; in
1895, 675, 822^. ; in 1896 677,750Z ; in 1897, 218,229?. The staple
article of British liome produce exported to Java is manufactured cotton ;
including cotton yarns, of tlie value of 1,376,851?. ; machinery, 70,430Z. ;
iron, wrought and unwrought, 76,208Z. ; coals, 40,033?. ; woollens, 33,477?. ;
manure, 60,173?., in the year 1897.
Shipping and Communications.
The following table shows the navigation at the various ports of Nether-
lands India in 1895 and 1896, and the share of England in it : —
Year
1895 j
1896 1
—
Entered
Whereof, from England :
Number
3,418
215
3,692
213
Tons
Number
Tons
Steamers
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Sailing vessels
1,368,564
139,476
1,469,808
133,812
370
33
317
34
417,366
50,268
438,960
49,560 1
MONEY AND CREDIT 837
At the ciul of 1896 the total length of railways (State and private) opened
for traffic was about 1,112 English miles ; the revenues were 14,048, 230 guilders.
Tliere are about 300 post-ofiioes ; the number of letters carried in 1896 and
1895 for internal intercourse was 7,249,424 and 7,085,364, while 5,504,174
and 5,524,662 newspapers, samples, &c., for the interior passed through the
various post-offices in the Dutch Indies during the same years. In 1896
and 1895, 1,479,561 and 1,446,477 letters were carried for foreign postal
intercourse.
There were 6,699 miles of telegraph lines in Dutch India in 1896 with
109 offices; the number of messages was 638,388. In December, 1896,
Batavia, Samarang, and Sourabaya were connected by telephone.
Money and Credit.
The 'Java Bank,' cstal)lished in 1828, has a capital of 6,000,000 guilders,
and a reserve of about 1,200,000 guilders. The Government has a control over
the administration. Two-fifths of the amount of the notes, assignats, and credits
must be covered by specie or bullion. In September, 1897, the value of the
notes in circulation was 44,659,000 guilders, and of the bank operations
23,905,000. There are two other Dutch banks, besides branches of British
banks.
In the savings-banks, in 1896, there were 15, 001 depositors, with a deposited
amount of 10,698,600 guilders.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Weights and Measures.
The Ainsterdamsch Pond .
,, Pikol
,, Catty ...
,, Tjengkal . . . = 4 yards
The only legal coins, as well as the weights and measures, of Dutch
India are those of the Netherlands.
Consular Representatives.
British Consul at Batavia. — H. V. S. Davids.
Vice-Constcl at Saina,rang. — D. D. Fraser.
Vice-Consul at Sourabaya. — A. J. Warren.
DUTCH WEST INDIES.
The Dutch possessions in the West Indies are {a) Surinam, or Butch
Guiana, and {h) the colony Cura(^ao.
Surinam or Dutch Guiana.
Dutch Guiana or Surinam is situated on the north coast of S. America,
between 2^ and 6' N. latitude, and 53° 50' and 58° 20' E. longitude, and bounded
on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east ]»y the river Marowijne, which
separates it from French Guiana, on the west by the river Corantyn, which
separates it from British Guiana, and on the south by inaccessible forests and
savannas to the Turmchumce Mountains.
= 1-09 lb.
avoirdupois,
= 133^ „
n
— li
) J
838
NETHERLANDS : — WEST INDIES
At the peace of Breda, in 1667, between England and the United Nether-
hxnds, Surinam was assured to the Netherlands in exchange for the colony
New Netherlands in North America, and this was confirmed l>y the treaty
of AVestminster of February, 1674. Since then Surinam lias been twice
in the power of England, 1799 till 1802, when it was restored at the peace
of Amiens, and in 1804 to 1816, when it was returned according to the
Convention of London of August 13, 1814, confirmed at the peace of Paris of
November 20, 1815, with the other Dutch colonies, except Berbice, Demerara,
Essequibo, and the Cape of Good Hope.
The superior administration and executive authority of Surinam is in
the hands of a governor, assisted by a council consisting of the governor as
president, the attorney-general as vice-president, and three members, all
nominated by the King. The Colonial States form the representative body of
the colony. Four members are chosen every year by the governor ; the others
by electors in proportion of one in 200 electors.
Dutch Guiana is divided into sixteen districts and numerous communes.
The area of Dutch Guiana is 46,060 English square miles. At the end of
1896 the population was about 64,372, exclusive of the negroes living in the
forests. The capital is Paramaribo, with about 30,000 inhabitants.
According to the terms of the regulation for the government of Dutch
Guiana, entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious confessions.
At the end of 1896 there were : Reformed and Lutheran, 8,974 ; Moravian
Brethren, 25,421 ; Roman Catholic, 11,773 ; Jews, 1,250; Mohammedans,
2,681 ; Hindus, 9,698, etc.
There were, in 1896, 19 public schools with 2,283 pupils, and 35 private
schools with 4,847 pupils. Besides these elementary schools, there are a
normal school and a central school of the Moravian Brethren for training
teachers and of the Roman Catholics.
There is a court of justice, whose president, members, and recorder are
nominated by the Sovereign, Further, there are three cantonal courts and
two circuit courts.
The relations of Government to pauperism are limited to subventions to
orphan-houses and other religious or philanthropical institutions.
The local revenue is derived from import, export, and excise duties, taxes
on houses and estates, ])ersonal imposts, and some indirect taxes. A subven-
tion from the mother-country is necessary. The revenue and expenditure in
the last four years, in guilders, were : —
1895
1896
1897
1898
Expenditure , Local Revenue
Subvention
2,006,000 1,827,000
2,271,000 2,042,000
2,245,000 2,017,700
2,348,000 2,141,000
179,000
228,000
229,000
207,000
1
In 1896 the militia {' Schutterij ') consisted of 26 officers and 417 men, the
civic guard of 64 officers and 1,438 men, and the garrison of 22 officers and 372
men. The navy consists of a few guard ships, with some vessels of the royal
navy.
Sugar was produced on 9 plantations of 1,705 hectares to the amount
of 10,390,747 kilogrammes in 1896 ; 10,283,800 kilogrammes in 1895 ; cacao
on about 97 plantations and 1,032 small properties of 12,243 hectares to the
amount of 3,088,194 kilogrammes in 1896 ; 3,922,709 kilogi-ammes in 1895.
SURINAM — CURACAO
839
The other productions in 1897 were bananas, 562,949 bunches ; coffee, 280,875
kiloffranimes ; rice, 134,223 kilogrammes ; maize, 359,922 kilogrammes ; rum,
1,000,7-17 litres ; and molasses, 1,370,110 litres.
For gold mining were granted, at the end ol' 1896, 287 concessions, com-
prising 413,919 hectares. In that year the export of gold was 874,897
grammes, valued at 1,198,600 guilders. This export was : to the Netherlands,
698,478 grammes ; to Great liritain, 42,890 grammes. The declared value
since the beginning ol" tlie gold industry (1876) to the end of 1896 is
20,694,380 guilders. In 1896 the gold production amounted to 846,366
grammes. The working for gold has hitherto been carried on chiefly by
alluvial washings, but several companies are now erecting plant for crushing
operations.
In 1897 there entered 248 vessels of 107,153 tons, and cleared 253 ships of
108,988 tons. The following talde shows the value of the imports and exports
during the years 1893-97 :—
Year
Imports
Exports
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
5,730,365 guilders
6,225,076
5,203,029
5,335,180
5,635,161
5,467,631 guilders
5,062,814
5,490,735
4,391,728
5,241,671
In 1897 the imports into the United Kingdom from the Dutch West
Indies, including Curasao, were valued at 12,476Z, ; and exports from the
United Kingdom of British produce or manufacture to the Dutch West Indies,
58,921Z.
The colonial savings-bank had, at the end of 1895, a balance of 544,148
guilders.
The communication between several districts of the colony is carried on by
vessels and small steamers.
British Consul at Paramaribo. — J. R. W. Pigott.
Cura9ao.
The colony of Cura(^ao consists of the islands Curasao, Bonaire, Aruba, St.
Martin (as far as it belongs to the Netherlands), aS^. Eustache, and Saba, lying
north from the coast of Venezuela.
—
Square
Miles
Population
Dec. 31, 189(i
Cura9ao ....
Bonaire ^ . . .
Aruba ....
St. Martin ^ .
St. Eustache .
Saba ....
210
95
69
17
7
5
403
28,884
4,524
8,955
3,613
1,530
2,093
49,599
1 Only the southern part belongs to the Netherlands, the northern to France.
840 NETHERLANDS
The colony is governed by a Governor, assisted by a Council composed of
the Attorney-General and three members, all nominated by the Sovereign.
There is also a Colonial Council consisting of the members of the Council
and eight members nominated by the Sovereign. The different islands of
the colony, except Curacao, are placed under chiefs called ' gezaghebbers, '
nominated by the Sovereign.
At the end of 1896 there were 41,*235 Roman Catholics, 7,730 Protestants,
831 Jews. The number of schools was about 28 with about 5,538 pupils.
The revenue is derived from import, export, and excise duties, taxes on
land, and some indirect taxes. In the Budget for 1898 the revenue is estima-
ted at 638,000 guilders, and the expenditure at 700,000 guilders; the dif-
ference is supplied by the mother-country.
The militia (Schutterij) of the Isle of Cura9ao consisted at the end of 1896
of 27 officers and 354 men ; the garrison of 7 officers and 197 men. A vessel
of the royal navy is always cruising and visiting the different islands.
The imports of the island of Cura9ao in 1896 were valued at 2,962,668
guilders ; the exports of the other islands— Cura9ao has no export duties —
at 364,669 guilders. The chief produce are maize, beans, pulse, cattle, salt,
and lime.
There entered the different islands in 1896, 2,569 vessels of 526,148
English tons.
British Consul at Cura<^ao. — J. Jesurun.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands and its Colonies.
1. Official Publications.
(1) The Netherlands.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London, 1895.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. London.
Gerechtelijke Statistiek van het Kouinkrijk der Nederlanden. 's Gravenhage, 1897.
Jaarcijfers over 1897 door de Centrale Commissie vour de Statistiek.
Onderzoek naar de geschiedenis en Werkzaainheid der Vakvereenigingen, uitgegeven
door de Centrale Commissie voor de Statistiek, 1806.
Report by Mr. Sydney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on land laws and landed property,
dated The Hague, December 20, 1869; in ' Re])orts from H.M.'s Representatives respecting
the Tenure of Land in the several Countries of Europe.' Parti. Fol. London, 1870.
Statistiek van het Gevangeniswezen. 1897.
Staatsalmanak voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1898. Met machtiging van de
regering uit officiele opgaven zaniengesteld. 's Gravenhage.
Staatsbegi-ooting voor het dienstjaar 1899. 's Gravenhage.
Statistiek van den in-, uit- en doorvoer over 1897.
Statistiek van den Handel en de Scheepvaart van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden.
's Gravenhage, 1897.
Uitkomsten der 7e tienjaarl : volkstelling van 1889-90 in liet koninkrijk der Neder-
landen. 's Gravenhage, 1891.
Verslag der Nederlandsche Bank. 1897.
Verslag van den Raad v Toezicht op de Spoorwegdiensten over 1897.
Verslag van den Staat der hoogere, middelbare en lagere scliolen over 1897.
Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsclie Zeevisscherijen over 1897. 's Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Landbouw in Nederland over 1894 and 1895, opgemaakt op last van
den Minister van Handel en Ni,jverheid. 8. 's Gravenhage. 1898.
Verslag der Alaatschappy tol Expl. van Staatsspoorwegen over 1897.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 841
Vcrzaiuelitig van ConsiUaire en andere Berigteu en Verslagen over Nijvcrheid, Haudel en
ycheopvaart. Uitgegcvcn door het Miuisterie van Buitciilaiidschc Zakeii. Jaargang 1807.
4. 's Graveiihagc.
(2 Colonica.
Algemeen vij^jarig verslag van Let inlandsch onderwijs in N.I. over 1873-1877 (Batavia,
1880), en over 1878-1882 (Batavia, 1885).
Begrooting van Ned. Indie voor 1809.
Holland. East Indies. Colonial Possessions. Admiralty, Naval Intelligence Depai't-
nient. London, 1888.
Jaarcijfers voor 1896 door de Centrale Comrnissie voor de Statistiek.
Jaarboek van het niijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie. Uitgegeven op last van Z.
E.vc. den Minister van Kolonien. 1888. Amsterdam, 1889.
Koloniaal Verslag van 1897. 's Gravenhage, 1898.
Naamregister van Nedcrlaiidsche-Indii' voor 189(5. Batavia.
Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie. 1898. Batavia.
Reports on tlie Trade of Java and of Curacjoa. Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series.
London
Re.siime van het onderzoek uaar de rechten van den inlander op den grond op Java en
Madoera. Batavia. 1890.
Verhcek (H. D. V.), and Fennevia (R.), DescriiJtion geologiqne de Java et Madoura.
2 vols. Amsterdam, 189(5.
Verslag van den dienst der Staats spoorwegen op Java over 1895.
2. Non-Official Publications.
(1) The Netherlands.
Algemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Uitgegeven door deVereeniging voor de Statistiek
in Nederland. 8. Leiden, 1SC9-82.
^mtcis (E. de), Holland. [Translated from the Italian.] 2 vols. 8. London, 1883.
Baedeker's Handbook for Belgium and Holland. 11th ed. London, 1894.
Bloki^. J.), History of tlie People of the Netherlands. [Eng. Trans.] Part I. London,
1898.
Ditchfield (P. IL), The Church in the Netherlands. 8. London, 1892.
Dowp^<j/(H. M.), Friesland Meres. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1890.
Een Halve Eeuw, 1848-98. The Hague, 1898.
Hare (A. J. C), Sketches in Holland and Scandinavia. London, 1885.
Havard (H.), In the Heart of Holland. (Eng. Trans.) 8. Lonaon, 1880.
Heusden (A. van), Handboek der aardrijkskunde, staatsinrigting, staatshuishouding en
statistiek van het koningrijk der Nederlanden. 8. Haarlem, 1877.
Loos (D. de). Organisation de I'enseignement secondaire dans le Royaume des Pays-Bas.
Leiden, 1894.
Meldrum ( D. S.), Holland and the Hollanders. New York, 1S9S.
IfofZej/ (J. L.), The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 3 vols. 8. London, 1858.
Motley (J. L.), History of the United Netherlands. 4 vols. London, 1869.
Murray's Handbook for Holland and Belgium. 8. London.
Oppenheim (Dr. J.), Handboek voor het gemeenterecht. Groningen, 1895.
Rengers (van Welderen, Baron), Schets einer parlementaire genhidenis van Alderland.
2 vols, 's Gravenhage, 1893.
/foyers (J. E. T.), Holland. In " Story of the Nation" Serie-s. 8. London, 1886.
Staatkundig en staathuishoudkundig Jaarbockj . Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging voor de
Statistiek in Nederland. 8. Amsterdam.
Wood (C. W.), Through Holland. 8. London, 1877.
(2) Colonics.
Aardi-ijkskundig en statistisch woordenboek van Ned. Indie. Amsterdam, 1861.
Almeida (W. B. d'), Life in Java. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Bemmele (J van) and Hooyer (G. B.), Guide to the Dutch East Indies. London, 1897.
Beig (Van den), The Financial and Economical Condition of Nethei-lands India. 1895.
Bickmore (H. S.), Travels in the East Indian Archipelago. 8. London, 1868.
BooI(H. J.), Regeringsreglement van Ned. Indie. Zalt-Bommel, 1876.
Boys (H. S.), Some Notes on Java and its Administration by the Dutch. 8. Allahabad,
1892.
Cool (W.), With the Dutch in the East. [Military operations in Lombok, Sic, in 1894.
Eng. Trans.] London, 1897.
De indische Gids. Leiden, 1897.
DeJonge (Jhr. M. J. K. J.), De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch gezag over Java II. — VII.
The Hague, 1869-75.
De Louter (Dr J.), Handleiding tot de kennis van het staats- en administratiefrecht van
Ned. Indie, 's Gravenhage, 1895.
842 ^^ETHEHLANlDS
Deventer(JSz., S. van), Bijdi-agen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op Java, op.
last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D. Fransen van do Puttc bijcenvcrzanicld
8. Zalt-Bonimel, ISOo.
Forbes (Mrs. H. O.), Insuliude, 8. London.
Gorkom (van), De Oost-lndischo Cultures in bctrekking tot haudel en uijverhcid
Amsterdam, 1881,
Haga(A.), Nederlandsch Nieuw Guinea en de Papoesche Eilauden. 2 vols. Batavia
1884. ^
Jlellwald (Fr. Von), Das Colonialsystem der Niederlander in Ostindien. 8. Leipzig,
1873.
Heutsz (J. B. van), De ondervverping van Atjeh, 8. The Hague, 1893.
Hollander (Dr. J. T. de), Handleiding bij de beoefening van de Taal-, Land- en Volken-
kunde van Ned Indie. Breda, 1883.
Idem, Borneo's Wester-afdeeling. Zalt-Bomniel, 1854.
Hugronje (Dr. Suouck), De Atjehers. Batavia, 1894.
Jaarcijfers over 1894 en vorigejareu onitrent de kolonien. Uitgegeven door de Vereeni-
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Keuchenius (Dr. L. W. C), Handelingen betreftende het reglement op het beleid der re-
gering van Nederlandsch Indie. 3 vol. Utrecht, 1857.
Leclercq (J.), Un Sejour dans I'lle de Java. Brussels, 1898.
Lith (Dr. P. A. van der), Encj^clopedie van Nederl-Indie. Leiden, 1895.
Margadant (Dr. C. W.), Ned. Regeeringsreglement van Ned. Indie. 1895.
i¥arsde/( (W.), History of Sumatra. 3rd edition. 4. London, 1811.
Money (J. W. B.), Java, or. How to Manage a Colony; showing a practical solution of
the questions now artecting British India. 2 vols. 8. London, 18(31.
Palgrave (W. G.), Dutch Guiana. 8. London, 1876.
Petit (W. L. de). La Conquete de la Vallee d'Atchin. 8. Paris, 1891.
Powell (F. B. S. B.), In Savage Isles and Settled Lands. 8. London, 1892.
Reclus (Elisee), Universal Geography. Vol. XIV. London, 1890.
Scidmore (Eliza R.), Java the Garden of the East. New York, 1897.
Tijdschrift van het koninklijk instituut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Neder-
landsch-Indie. 's Graveuhage, 1855-97.
Veth (Prof. P. J.), Java : geographiseh, cthnologisch, historiseh. Haarlem. 3 vols.
1875-84.
Verslag der Javasche Bank over 1896-97.
Wallace (Alfred Russel), The Malay Archipelago. 8. London, 18(59.
Wit (Augusta de), Facts and Fancies about Java. Singapore, 1898.
Worsfold (W. B.), A Visit to Java. 8. London, 1893.
>.
i
843
NICARAGUA.
(Kepublica de Nicaragua.)
Constitution and Government.
The new Constitution of the Kepuljlic of Nicaragua was proclaimed on July
4, 1894. It vests the legislative power in a Congress of one House. The
Legislature is elected by universal suffrage, the term being two years, and the
numl)er of representatives 40. The executive power is with a President
elected for four years.
President of the Republic. — General Santos Zelaya, for the term 1898-
1902.
The President exercises his functions through a council of responsible
ministers, composed of the four departments of Foreign Affairs and Public
Instmction ; Finance ; Interior, Justice, War, and Marine ; Public Works.
In 1896 Nicaragua, Salvador and Honduras were, for the purposes of
foreign relations, constituted as the Greater Republic of Central America,
but towards the end of 1898 the confederation collapsed.
The active army consists of 2,000 men, with a reserve of 10,000 men, and
a militia or national guard of 5, 000.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 49, 200 English square miles, and
the population (1895) 380,000, or including uncivilised Indians 420,000,
giving about 8 5 inhabitants ])er sij^uare mile. The great mass of the popu-
lation consists of al)original 'Indians,' umlattoes, negroes, and mixed
races, and the number of Europeans and their descendants is very small but
on the increase. Their number is about 1, 200 ; while the number of foreigners
who have settled in Nicaragua is (1892)371, possessing property valued at
4,205,160 dollars (Nicaraguan currency). Of these foreigners 88 are German,
69 Italian, 60 from United States, and 52 from Great Britain. There are 14
towns with from 2,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. The chief occupation of the
inhabitants is the rearing of cattle and raising of coffee. The capital of the
Republic and seat of government is the town of Managua, situated on the
southern border of the great lake of the same name, with about 18,000
inhabitants, Leon has a population of 34,000, iiluefields in 1885 had 2,091
inhabitants, and San Juan del Norte 1,480.
On November 20, 1894, the so-called Mosquito Reserve was reincorporated
with the territory of the Republic by free resolution of the Indians. The
new ' Departamento ' is called Departamento de Zelaya. It brings the number
of provinces of Nicaragua up to 13, and the area to 49,200 square miles.
For the delimitation of the boundary towards Costa Rica a commission
has been appointed July 9, 1896, with an arbitrator to decide points of
disagreement.
Instruction.
According to an official statement of 1894 there were 1,020 schools with
20,000 pupils. There are, besides, two higher schools for boys and one for
girls. In 1895 an official report stated that in Granada and Leon (the most
advanced of the towns), 30 per cent, of the children were enrolled, but only
half of these learned any thing, while of the whole population of school age
only about 3 per cent, learned the few things taught.
In 1897 a law was passed for the establishment of a national Industrial,
Commercial, and scientific Museum at Managua.
844
NICARAGUA
Pinance.
For the bieuuium ending June 30, 1897, the revenue and expenditure are
stated to have been : —
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1896
1897
Total
dollars.
3,572,497
4,688,061
dollars.
4,059,674
3,852,750
8,260,558
7,912,424
In 1897 tlie tax on commerce yielded 2,645,249 dollars; the liquor
revenue amounted to 620,090 dollars ; coffee export duty, 187,529 dollars ;
slaughter tax, 132,742 dollars ; direct tax, 134,248 dollars ; national railway
and steam-boats, 693,391 dollars ; telegraph and telephones, 47,559 dollars;
post office, 33,726 dollars. Of the expenditure in 1897, the various govern-
ment departments absorbed 2,667,012 dollars (including 850,013 for inter-
national development ; 429,303 dollars for war ; 446,719 dollars for finance ;
132,804 for public instruction) ; while supplementary credits accounted for
899,441 dollars, and war expenses, 176,124 dollars. The authorised expen-
diture for 1898 amounted to 5,097,588 dollars, including war, 663,008
dollars ; finance, 1,735,816 dollars ; internal development, 1,099,888 dollars.
The foreign debt consists of a railway loan raised in London in 1886 for
285,000/. in 6 per cent, bonds. Default was made in payment of interest on
July 1, 1894, and in 1895 an arrangement was made for the settlement of
the debt, reducing the interest to 4 per cent, and the arrear coupons to half
their nominal value. The amount outstanding in July, 1898, consisted of
bonds 278,200Z. and arrear coupons, 10,723/. ; total, 288,923/.
The internal debt amounted to 7,000,000 dollars in 1894. In November,
1896, a new national loan for 500,000 Nicaraguan currency dollars was issued,
for payment of which the Government were to issue orders to bearer to be used
in paying custom house duties.
The value of the urban property of Nicaragua is put at 8,590,429 dollars ;
and of the rural at 33,972,690 dollars.
Industry and Commerce.
There are about 400, 000 head of cattle in the Republic, and there is a con-
siderable export of hides. Comparatively little of the land is cultivated, but
coffee cultivation and banana culture are extending. The sugar industr}^
has recently shrunk, partly owing to political causes. The production of
cocoa is insufficient for local supply. The exportation of rubber gathered
in the public forests has been suspended since January 1, 1898, bui, bj
special decree, the state of Zelaya (or Mosquito Territory) is exempt from
the prohibition. There are several rubber plantations from which good
returns are expected, and tobacco is cultivated in Masaya.
There are (1891) in the Republic 109 mines, worked by American com-
panies. In nearly all of these gold is found mixed with silver ; in a few,
silver mixed with copper. In 1895 the shipments of gold bar and dust
reached 8,000 ounces.
Full commercial statistics regarding Nicaragua are not available. The
following figures are taken from the consular report on the trade of the
SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS
845
Republic for 1897. In tliat year the total imports were estimated at
528,384/., the principal articles imported having been cottons, 205,000Z. ;
woollens, 20,560/. ; wines and spirits, 40,440Z. ; flour, 27,000Z. ; hardware,
18,000/. ; drugs, 17,000/. ; wire fencing, 15,000/. The total exports were
valued at 611,533/., the chief articles of export having been cofree, (about
154,000 bags), 385,000/. ; gold in bar and dust (36,000 oz.) 110,000/. ; silver
dollars 617,500 in number), 51,000/. ; rubber (1,596 cwt.), 16,000/. ; hides,
3,500 cwt.), 10,500/. ; cattle (1,500 head), 6,500. In 1895 the imports were
valued at 847,090/., and the exports at 1,027,679/. In 1897 the imports
were from Great Britain, 204,600/. ; from the United States, 100,320/. ; from
Germany, 94,964/. ; from Frauce, 55,000/. ; other European countries,
58,500/. ; Central American States, 15,000/. Of the exports the value of
150,050/. went to Great Britain ; 106,100/. to the United States, 280,150/.
to Germany ; 20,000/. to France ; 10,576/. to other European countries ;
44,657/. to Central American States. The trade of the United Kingdom
with Nicaragua ^according to the Board of Trade Returns) has been as
follows : —
1S93
1894
£
77,723
100,0157
1895
1896 1897 j
Imports into U.K.
from Nicaragua
Exports of lionie pro-
duce to Nicaragua .
£
80,077
74 222
£
89,264
242,559
£ £
53,972 148,170 j
101,154 113,537
The chief imports from Nicaragua in 1897 were coffee, 126,934/. ; mahogany,
15,254/. ; and the chief exports to Nicaragua, cottons, 66,572/. ; iron, 7,788/. ;
woollens, 7,240/.
Shipping and Communications.
About two-thirds of the trade of Nicaragua passes thiough Corinto. At
this port in 1897 there entered, of ocean-going vessels, 50 vessels of 39,520
tons (38 of 25,000 tons German, and 7 of 13,520 tons British). Of coasting
vessels there entered 161 of 148,662 tons (including 82 of 145,392 tons
belonging to the American Pacific Mail Company's steamers).
Work on the canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts is at
present suspended. Legislation concerning its construction is under con-
sideration in the United States.
There are few good roads in the country. There are 91 miles of railway
open, which cost 2,700,000 dollars. One line extends from Corinto, on the
Pacific, to Momotombo, 58 miles, and another from Managua, the capital,
to Granada, 33 miles. The Government is constructing a line from ^lasaga,
through the coffee district, to the village of Jinotepe, which will bring the
plantations into communication with Corinto.
In 1896 there were 119 post offices; 1,376,366 letters, papers, &c.,
received and 1,242,876 delivered. There are 1,245 miles of telegraph wires,
and 59 offices.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Bank of Loudon and Central America has a suliscribcd capital of
260,000/. of which 130,300/. is paid up. In December, 1895, its note issue
amounted to 130,272/.
The system of money is the .same as in Honduras, tl)<)Ugh Mexican,
846 NICARAGUA
Chilian, Peruvian, and other South and Central American dollars are
issued.
There is also a pa]:)er currency. The peso or dollar is of the value of
about 20d. or 12 silver dollars to the £. The notes of Nicaragua and of
the Bank of London and Central America are redeemable in silver, but not
in gold. Since January 7, 1893, the metric system of weights and measures
has been in use.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Nicaragua in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister for the Greater Republic of Central America. —
Crisanto Medina.
Consul-Gcneral. — Frederick S. Isaac.
There are Consular Representatives at London, Manchester, Liverpool,
Nottingham, Birmingham, Glasgow, Southampton, Cardiff, Newport (Mon. ),
Brighton.
2. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua,
Minister and Consul- General. — G. F. B. Jenner.
Consul at Granada. — "Walter J. Chambers.
Consul at Greytoivn. — H. F. Bingham.
Consul at Managua. — Charles E, Nicol.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Nicaragua.
1. Official Publications.
Foreign Office Reports. Trade of Nicaragua in 1897. Annual Series. 8. London. 1808.
Nicaragua. No. 51 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washing-
ton, 1892.
United States Consular Reports for January, April, June, 1897. Washington.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Belly (N.), Percement de I'isthme de Panama par le canal de Nicaragua. 8. Paris, 1885.
Belt (Thomas), The Naturalist in Nicaragua : a Narrative of a Residence at the Gold
Mines of Chontales, &c. 8. London, 1873.
Boxjle (Frederick), A Ride across a Continent. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Billoio (A. von), Der Freistaat Nicaragua in Mittelamerika. 8. Berlin, 1849
Colquhoun(A. R.), The Key of the Pacific. London, 1895.
Corporation of Foreign Bondholders, Report of Committee. Appendix. London, 1897.
Kalb (C. de), Nicaragua ; Studies on the Mosquito Shore in 1892. American Geographi-
cal Society, 189.3.
Keasbey (L. M.) The Nicaragua Canal and the Monroe Doctrine. London, 1897.
Levy (P.), Notas geograficas y economicas sobre la republic de Nicaragua. Paris, 1873.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Centralamerika 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1803.
f- Niederlein (G.), The State of Nicaragua. Philadelphia, 1898.
Pector (Desire), Etude Economique sur la Republique de Nicaragua. Neuchatel, 1893.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Waiideruiigen durch die mittelamerikanischcn Freistaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squier (E. G.), Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the proposed Inter-
oceanic Canal. 2 vols. 8. London, 1852.
Wetham (J. W. Bodham), Across Central America. 8. Jjondon, 1877.
847
OMAN.
An independent State in South-eastern Arabia extending along a coast line —
S.E. and S. W. — of almost 1,000 miles from the Gulf of Ormuz and inland to
the deserts. Area, 82,000 square miles ; population, 1,500,000. The capital,
Muscat (40,000 inhabitants), was occupied by the Portuguese till the seven-
teenth century. After various vicissitudes it was taken in the eighteenth
century by Ahmed bin Sa'eed, of Yemenite origin, who was elected Imam in
1741. His family have since ruled. The present Sultan is Seyyid Feysal bin
Turki, second son of the late Seyyid Turki bin Sa'eed bin Sultan, who succeeded
his father June 4, 1888, and has now been formally recognised by the British
Government. In the beginning of the present century the power of the Imam
of Oman extended over a large area of Arabia, the islands in the Persian Gulf,
a strip on the Persian coast, and a long strip of the African coast south of
Cape Guardafui, including Socotra and Zanzibar. On the death of Sultan
Sa'eed in 1854 Zanzibar was detached from Oman and placed under the rule of
the second son, and subsequent troubles curtailed the area of the state in Asia.
The closest relations have for years existed between the Government of India
and Oman, and a British Consul or Political Agent resides at Muscat. The
authority of the Sultan does not extend far beyond Muscat, Negociations
for the leasing of a coaling station near Muscat to the French, carried on in
February, 1899, have, it is understood, come to an end, the lease being
withheld.
The revenue of the Sultan amounts to about 225,000 dollars.
The exports in 1897-98 were valued at 1,834,500 dollars ; chiefly dates,
867,500 dollars ; cotton fabrics, 250,000 dollars ; fruit, 65,000 dollars ; pearls,
35,000 dollars ; mother-o'-pearl, 25,000 dollars ; salt, 22,800 dollars ; fish,
96,000 dollars. The imports were valued at 3,537,500 dollars ; chiefly rice,
1,000,000 dollars ; coff'ee, 80,000 dollars ; sugar, 70,000 dollars ; piece goods,
282,000 dollars ; twist and yarn, 165,000 dollars ; silk and silk goods,
75,000 dollars ; cereals, wheat, and other grain, 275,000 dollars ; oils of all
kinds, 100,000 dollars; ghee, 81,500 dollars ; arms and ammunition, 1,000,000
dollars.
The imports from United Kingdom were valued at 900,000 dollars ;
India, 2,226,500 dollars ; France, 100,000 dollars ; America, 27,000 dollars;
Asiatic Turkey, 69,000 dollars ; Persia, 145,000 dollars ; other countries,
70,000 dollars.
The number of vessels entered and cleared the port of Muscat in 1897-98,
including the native craft, was 402 of 192,100 tons, of which 133 of 162,700
tons were British.
British Consul. — Major C. G. F, Fagan.
Administrative Report of the P(!rsian Gulf Political Residcncj'. Calcutta. Annnal.
848
ORANGE FREE STATE.
(Oranje-Vrijstaat.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic known as the Orange Free State, founded originally by Boers
who quitted Cape Colony in 1836 and following years, is separated from the
Cape Colony by the Orange River, has British Basutoland and Natal on the
east, the Transvaal on the north, and Transvaal and Griqualand West on the
west. Its independence was declared on February 23, 185-1, and a Constitu-
tion was proclaimed April 10, 1854, and revised February 9, 1866, May 8,
1879, and May 11, 1898. The legislative authority is vested in a popular
Assembly, the Volksraad, of 60 members, elected by suffrage of the burghers
(adult white males) for four years from every district-town, and ward, or
field-cornetcy. Every two years one-half of the members vacate their seats
and an election takes place. The members of the Volksraad receive pay at the
rate of 21. per day. Eligible are burghers 25 years of age, owners of real
property to the value of 500Z. Voters must be white burghers by birth or
naturalisation, be owners of real property of not less than 150Z., or lessees of
real property of an annual rental of 36Z., or have a yearly income of not less
than 200/., or be owners of personal property of the value of 300?., and have
been in the State for not less than five years. The executive is vested in a
President chosen for five years by the registered voters, who is assisted by an
Executive Council. The Executive Council consists of the Government Secre-
tary, the Landdrost of the capital, and three unofficial members appointed by
the Volksraad, one every year for three years.
President of the Eepublic.—M. T. Steyn, elected February 19, 1896.
There is a Landdrost or Magistrate appointed to each of the districts (IS) of
the Republic by the President, the appointment requiring the confirmation of
the Volksraad. At some of the smaller towns Assistant Landdrosts, or Resident
Justices of Peace are stationed. In every ward there are commissioners for
various purposes, the members of which are elected by the burghers.
Area and Population.
The area of the Free State is estimated at 48,326 square miles ; it is divided
into 18 districts. At a census taken in 1890 the white population Avas found
to be 77,716 — 40,571 males and 37,145 females. Of the population 51,910 were
born in the Free State and 21,116 in the Cape Colony. There were besides
129,787 natives in the State — 67,791 males and 61,996 females — making a
total population of 207,503. The capital, Bloemfontein, had 2,077 white
inhabitants in 1890 and 1,302 natives. Of the white population 10,761 were
returned in 1890 as directly engaged in agriculture, while there were 41,81^
* coloured servants. '
Immigration is on the increase, mainly from Germany and England.
RELIGION — FINANCE 849
Religion.
The Government contributes 10,050^. for religious purposes. The State is
divided into 36 parochial districts for ecclesiastical purposes. There are about
80 churches. The principal body, according to the last census (1890), is the
Dutch Reformed Church with 68,940 adherents ; of Wesleyans there are 753 ;
English Episcopalians, 1,353 ; Lutherans, 312 ; Roman Catholics, 466 ;
Jews, 113.
Instruction.
The system of education is national. Small grants are also made to the
Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches. The Government schools are
managed by local boards, partly elected and partly appointed by Govern-
ment, which choose the teachers, who are ap pointed by the President, if
he is satisfied with their qualifications. Education is compulsory to some
extent and free for very poor children. In 1897, about 52,000<f. was
allotted to education, a portion of which consisted of interest on a
capital of 200,000/. set apart by the Volksraad for this purpose. Besides this
amount a considerable sum was spent upon school buildings under the Public
Works Department. There are no foundations, properly so called, for educa-
tion. In 1897 there were 179 Government schools, inclusive of the two
higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein, with 7,390 pupils and
263 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on certain conditions. In
1897 there were 37 such schools, with 650 pupils. The Grey College, the
highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the matriculation examina-
tion of the Cape University ; and the ' Eunice ' Institute is a similar school
for girls.
At the census of 1890 45,015 of the white population could read and write.
2,721 only read, 23,722 (of whom 19,508 were under 7 years of age) could
neither read nor write, while 6,258 were not specified.
There is a good public library in Bloemfontein, and small libraries in
several villages.
There is a Government Gazette, two daily and two bi-weekly papers.
Justice and Crime.
The Roman Dutch law prevails. The superior courts of the country are
the High Courts of Justice, with three judges, and the circuit courts. The
inferior courts are the court of the Landdrost and the court of Landdrost and
Heemraden. The circuit courts, at which the judges of the High Court
preside in turn, are held four times a year at Bloemfontein and twice a year
in the chief town of every district. In these courts criminal cases are tried
before a jury. The court of Landdrost and Heemraden consistsof the Land-
drost (a stipendiary magistrate) and two assessors. The Landdrost's court
thus has both civil and criminal jurisdiction. There are also justices of the
peace who try minor offences and settle minor disputes.
There are no statistics of crime. There are police-constables in every town,
and mounted police patrol the countr)\
Finance.
The following is a statement of revenue and expenditure for the three
years ending February 1805, for the ten months ending December 1895, and
for the calendar years 1896 and 1897 : —
3 I
850
ORANGE FREE STATE
Years
Rcvcinic
Exiienditure
£
£
1892-93
310,372
378,922
1893-94
293,790
323,899
1894-95
306,653
319,221
1895
259,589
271,935
1896
374,774
381,861
1897
402,230
381,589
Among the items of revenue (1897) are quit rents, 14,932(^. ; transfer duos'
33,736Z. ; posts and telegraphs, 35,399^. ; import dues, 162,929^. ; stamps'^
53,975Z. ; native poll-tax, 17,429Z. ; and of expenditure, salaries, 53,234/. 5
police, 13,156Z. ; education, 49,667/. ; posts and telegraphs, 29,660/. ; public
works, 27,365/. ; artillery, 10,543/.
The Republic has a debt of 40,000/ (1897), but possesses considerable
public property in land, buildings, bridges, telegraphs, &c. (valued at
430,000/.), and in its share in the National Bank, ajuounting to 70,000/.
Bloemfontein has a municipal debt of 7,000/.
Defence.
Frontier measures about 900 miles ; of this 400 miles marches with Cape
Colony, 200 Basutoland, 100 Natal, and S.A. Republic 200 miles.
There are no fortifications on the frontier.
Every able-bodied man in the State above 16 and under 60 years of age is
compelled to take arms when called upon by his Field Cornet (equal to the
rank of a captain), when necessity demands it. The number of burghers
available is 17,381 (^18-60 years). Four batteries of artillery are stationed at
the capital, Bloemfontein ; 150 officers and men, with 550 passed artillerists,
as a reserve. A new fort is being built on a hill at the north end of the town.
Production and Industry.
The State consists of undulating plains, affording excellent grazing. A
comparatively small portion of the country is suited for agriculture, but a
considerable quantity of grain is produced. The number of farms is 10,499
with a total of 29,918,500 acres, of which in 1890 250,600 were cultivated.
There were in the same year 248,878 horses, 276,073 oren, 619,026 other
cattle (burthen), 6,619,992 sheep, 858,155 goats, and 1,461 ostriches.
The diamond production in 1890 was 99,255 carats, valued at 223,960/. ;
in 1891, 108,311 carats, valued at 202,551/. ; in 1893, 209,653 carats valued
at 414,179/, ; in 1894, 282,598 carats valued at 428,039/. In 1896 the
diamond exports were valued at 462,509/. and in 1897 440,964/. Garnets
and other precious stones are found, and there are rich coal-uiines ; gold has
also been found.
Commerce.
The imports, besides general merchandise, from Cape Colony and Natal
comprise cereals, wool, cattle, and horses from Basutoland. The exports to
the Cape, Natal and South African Republic are chiefly agricultural i)roduce
COMMUNICATIONS — BOOKS OF REFERENCE
851
and diamonds, wliile other inercliandise goes to Basutoland. The trade is
estimated as follows for two years : —
—
Imports from
(1890)
Imports from
(1897)
Exports to
(1896)
, Exports to
(1897)
Cape Colony .
Natal ....
Basutoland
South African Republic .
Total
£
845,812
224,440
116,205
£
913,158
185,469
107,987
25,085
£
612,313
116,961
70,751
944,459
£
735,883
127,253
59,368
871,738
1,186,457 1 1,231,699
1,744,484
1,794,242
Gommunicatioiis.
A railway constructed by the Cape Colonial Government connects the
Orange River (at Norval's Pont) with Bloemfontein, and Bloemfontein with the
Transvaal (at Viljoens drift on the Yaal River), On January 1, 1898, the
State took over the railways. The gross profits for the year 1897 were
504,099Z. ; payments for new lines, additional works, stores, &c., 309,488^. ;
leaving a balance of 194,611Z. on January 1, 1898, for building new lines, &c.
For the debt due to Cape Colony on the transfer of the railways, debentures
were passed for 1,692.213Z. Length of railway lines, 366 miles. Capital cost
of railways, 2,500,000^. There are roads throughout the districts, ox-
waggons being the princiiml means of conveyance.
In the Orange Free State there are 1,429 miles of telegraph line with
1, 683 miles of wire, besides 333 miles of railway telegraph with 999 miles of
wire. Bloemfontein is in telegraphic communication with Cape Colony, Natal,
South African Republic, and Basutoland
The money, weights, and measures are English. The land measure, the
Morgen, is equal to about 2^^ acres.
Consul'Gcneral in London. — Sir AVm. Dunn, Bart.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
Census van den Oraiye-Vrijstaat, opgenomen op 31 Maart, 1890. Bloemfontein, 1891.
Broicn (A. S. and G. G.), Guide to South Africa. London, 1897.
Jo/m^ton (Keith), Africa. London, 14)84.
Noble (J.), Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. Cape Town.
Johannesburg, and London, 1893.
Norris-Ncwvian (C. L.), With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. London,
1882.
Sandeman (E. Y.), Eight Months in an Ox-Wagon. London, 1880.
Silver's Handbook to South Africa. 4th Edition. London, 1891.
The Argus Annual and S. African Directory, 1897. Cape Town, 1890.
Trollope (Anthonj), South Africa. 2 vols. London, 1878.
Weber (Ernest de), Quatre ans au pays des Boers. Pans 1882.
3 J
852
PARAGUAY.
(RepiJblica del Paraguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish rule in 1811,
and after a short government by two consuls, the supreme power was seized,
in 1815, by Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, who exercised autocratic
sway as dictator till his death, September 20, 1840. Dr. Francia's reign was
followed by an interregnum, which lasted till 1842, when a National Congress,
meeting at the capital Asuncion, elected two nephews of the Dictator, Don
Mariano Roque Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the
Republic. Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, a new Constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole President ; he was continued
by another election, March 14, 1857. At the death of Don Carlos, September
10, 1862, his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, born 1827, succeeded to the
supreme power. President Lopez, in 1864, began a dispute with the Govern-
ment of Brazil, the consequence of which was the entry of a Brazilian army,
united with forces of the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the
Republic, June 1865. After a struggle of five years, Lopez was defeated and
killed at the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870.
A new Constitution was proclaimed on November 25, 1870. The legisla-
tive authority is vested in a Congress of two Houses, a Senate and a House of
Deputies, the executive being entrusted to a President, elected for the term of
four years, with a non-active Vice-President at his side. The Senate and
Chamber of Deputies are elected directly by the people, the former in the ratio
of one representative to 12,000 inhabitants, and the latter one to 6,000 in-
habitants, though in the case of the sparsely populated divisions a greater
ratio is permitted. The Senators and Deputies receive each 200Z. per annum.
President of the Republic. — Emilio Aceval.
Vice-President. — Hector Carvallo.
The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of responsible
ministers, five in number, presiding over the departments of the Interior, of
Finance, of Worship and Justice, of War, and of Foreign Aff"airs. The
President receives a salary of 1,900Z., the Vice-President 960Z., and each of
the ministers 600Z. a year ; but the total administrative expenses are stated not
to exceed 5,000Z.
The country is divided into 23 counties {partidos), which are governed by
chiefs and justices of the ])eace, assisted by municipal councils.
Area and Population.
The area of Paraguay is 98,000 square miles. An enumeration made by the
Government in 1857 showed the population to number 1,337,439 souls. At
the beginning of 1873 the number of inhabitants, according to an official re-
turn (regarded as exaggerated), was reduced to 221,079, comprising 28,746
men and 106,254 women over fifteen years of age, with 86,079 children. A
very imperfect census of March 1, 1887, gives the population as 329,645—
155,425 men and 174,220 women. There are besides 60,000 semi-civilised
and 70,000 uncivilised Indians. In 1895 the population was estimated at
432, 000. The white population in 1897 was oflicially estimated at 600,000. Of
foreigners in Paraguay in 1887, there were 5,000 Argentines, 2,000 Italians, 600
Brazilians, 740 Germans, 500 French, 400 Swiss, and 100 English. The popu-
lation of the capital, Asuncion, in 1895, was 45,000 ; other towns are Villa Rica,
19,000 ; Concepcion, 10,000 ; San Pedro, 8,000 ; Luque, 8,000. In the thirteen
RELIGION, INSTRUCTION, AND JUSTICE
853
years 1881-1893 there were 7,152 immigrants mostly Italians, Germans,
French, and S})aniards. The total number in 1894 was 270 ; in 1895, 243
(73 German, 34 Swiss, 29 French, 26 Italian, and 81 others). Nearly three-
fourths of the territory was national property; but in recent years most of it
has been sold, much of it in very large estates.
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The Roman Catholic Church is the established religion of the State, but
the free exercise of other religions is permitted. Ediication is free and com-
pulsory. In 1887 only 20 per cent, of the adult Paraguayans and 60 per cent,
of adult foreigners could read and write. There were in 1896 358 public and
private elementary schools, with 23,000 pupils and 680 teachers. Private
schools are subsidised by the Council of Education. At Asuncion there is a
National College, with 15 professors and 205 students. Besides contributions
from general taxes, there is a special Government fund for education consist-
ing of a proportion of the proceeds of land sales, customs dues, &c.
Asuncion has also a public library and five newspapers.
A High Court of Justice, and various inferior tribunals, with local magis-
trates, exercise judicial functions.
Finance.
The revenue is derived from customs, stamps and other dues, and from the
sale of land and yerbales. The revenue and expenditure for four years are
officially given as follows : —
—
1892-93
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
Revenue .
Expenditure
Dollars
5,775,899
5,852,720
Dollars
4,910,472
5,357,498
Dollars
5,120,248
4,992,007
Dollars
5,832,867
7,109,581
The deficit in 1895-96 was made up by a 1)alance remaining from the
previous year, by the appropriation of 500,000 dollars from a new issue of
8,000,000 dollars paper currency, and from other sources. Of the receipts
the customs dues amounted to 5,080,622 dollars in 1895-96.
The revenue for 1896-97 was estimated at 5,462,475 dollars, of which
3,562,560 was available for the public service ; and expenditure at 5,462,475
dollars, including that on institutions with assigned revenues.
In 1874, the principal of the foreign debt of Paraguay stood at 1,505,400?.,
the outstanding amount of loans contracted in 1871 and 1872. In 1885 it
was agi-eed that 850,0007. of new bonds should be issued in exchange for this
amount, an arrangement was made for the future payment of interest, and
an assignment of land was executed in payment of arrears of interest up to
July, 1886. Land warrants were issued to holders of unpaid coupons, and
the Paraguay Land Company (now called the Anglo- Paraguayan Land
Company) was formed to deal with these warrants. Interest under the new
arrangement was paid till January 1, 1892. In 1895, an arrangement
was made with the bondholders for the reduction of interest, the funding of
arrear coupons, the creation of a sinking fund, and the assigniuent of
.securities. In 1898, the outstanding debt amounted to 994,600/. The
guarantee debt due by the Government to the Paraguayan Central Railway,
April 30, 1897, amounted to 429 471/. The debt due to Brazil is put at
9,876,500 pesos, and that to the Argentine Re})ublic at 12,393,600 pesos.
854
PARAGUAY
Defence.
The army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and artillery, maintained chiefly to
preserve internal order, consists of 82 officers and 1,345 men. Every citizen
from 20 to 35 years of age is liable to military service. There is a screw
steamer of 440 tons and 4 guns, and 2 small steamers on the river.
Production and Industry.
The number of horned cattle in Paraguay in 1896 was 2,102,680 ; horses
214,916, mules and asses 31,644, sheep 130,352, goats 33,514, pigs 39,513.
The most important industry is the growing of yerba maU, or Paraguay tea,
the yerbales, formerly the property of the State, being now in the hands of
capitalists and companies. The total quantity of the leaf exported in 1896
was 5,141 tons ; in 1897, 6,548 tons. Other industries are timber, tobacco,
and fruit-growing, while maize, manoic, beans, &c., are also cultivated. A
large sugar factory is being established on the Tebicuary River. Hides (nearly
100,000 annually) are exported to Buenos Ayres. The immense forests
contain valuable timber both hard and soft, which now finds a market in
neighbouring countries and in Europe. Immigration is encouraged and there
are ten agricultural settlements or 'colonies,' with, in all, 3,219 colonists.
The Government, through the Agricultural Bank, gives to each settler 300
dollars paper (equal to 35 or 40 dollars gold) in the form of a loan on his
property. In 1893 a settlement of Australian immigrants was made on
lands conceded by Government ; the colony was unsuccessful, and was
broken up in 1896 ; but a number of its members (93) have formed a new
settlement, called the Cosme colony, which is well conducted and prosperous.
In the neighbourhood of Asuncion are several breweries, tanneries, match
factories, flour mills, and factories for soap, bricks, earthenware palm-leaf
hats, &c., and all over the country there are distilleries for cana, a pure sort
of rum. Though the sugar-cane grows freely, no sugar is produced.
Paraguay contains valuable minerals which are now unworkcd. Iron
abounds in the south, and marble in the north, and pyrites, copper, kaolin, are
found.
The following is the value
(paper dollars) for five years : —
Commerce.
of the imports (gold
dollars) and exports
—
1893
1894
1895
189G
1897
Imports
Exports
2,533,298
7,994,845
2,222,202
11,100,597
2,460,050
12,728,627
2,786,335
12,292,000
2,203,459
12,908,299
The chief imports are textiles — 85 per cent, from Great Britain ; wines,
rice. About 48 per cent, of the total imports come from Britain,
The chief exports are i/cr&f^ mfl^^d, or Paraguay tea, 6,547,642 kilogrammes,
valued at 5,475,633 dollars currency in 1897 ; tobacco, 1,064,593 kilo-
grammes, value 595,609 dollars ; hides, 169,490 in number value 1,959,293
dollars ; timber, value 1,164,162 dollars ; oranges, value 146,485 dollars.
The British trade passes almost entirely through the territories of Brazil
and the Argentine Republic. There are no direct imports into the United
Kingdom from Paraguay, and the British exports (mostly cottons) direct
to Paraguay amounted to only 15,514Z. in 189f,
COMMUNICATIONS — DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 855
Communications.
In 1897, 367 vessels of 132,592 tons, visited the port of Asuncion.
There is a railway from Asuncion to Pirapo, the actual length of line
open being about 156 miles. Gross receipts in the year 1896-97 amounted
to 897,756 paper pesos. During the year 494,742 passengers were carried, and
79,875 tons of goods. There are 10 miles of tramway. The country roads
are in general mere bullock tracks, and transport is difficult and costly. There
is a line of telegraph at the side of the railway ; the national telegraph connects
Asuncion with Corrientes in the Argentine Republic, and thus with the outside
world ; there are altogether 360 miles of telegraph line ; there were 52,964
messages in 1897. The telephone is in operation at Asuncion. Paraguay
joined the postal union in 1881 ; in 1897 the number of post offices was 95 ;
letters, &c., received or transmitted in 1897, 936,710.
Money and Credit.
The banks in Paraguay are the Agricultural Bank, with a nominal capital
of 3,250,000 pesos, supplemented, October 6, 1896, by a further sum of
1,000,000 pesos; the Territorial Bank, the Mercantile Bank, the Bank of
Milleres and Company, and the Industrial Bank, which has its seat at
Concepcion.
Paper money is the chief circulating medium, the amount in circulation
being about 5,957,000 pesos. In October, 1896, the issue of 8,000,000 dollars
over a period of five years was authorised. Gold is at a premium of about
660 per cent.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money. — The Pcn'o, or i)oZZar = 100 Centavos. Nominal value, is.
The Qitintal . . . . = 101 "40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Ati'oha . . . . = 25'35 ,, ,,
,, Fanega . .• . . = 1^ imperial bushel.
,, Sino (land measure) . = 69| Engl. sq. yards.
,, Legua cuadrada . , = 12| Engl. sq. miles.
The weights and measures of the Argentine Repuljlic are also in
general use.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Paraguay in Great Britain.
Consul- Gaural in Great Britain. — Alfred James. Appointed 1897.
There are Consuls at Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester.
2. Of Great Britain in Paraguay.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. W. A. C. Barriugton (residing at Buenos Aires).
Consid at Asuncion. — W. J. Holmes.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Paraguay.
Anuario Estftflistico do la Ropi\blica <lol Paraguay. Asuncion.
Mensage del PresifU*nte de la Republlca, ]ircsentndo al Congroso Legislativodcla Naclon.
4. Asuncion, 1897.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London.
Revue (In Paraguay. Pultlishcd monthly. Asuncion.
Paraguay. Bulletin N<>. '.4 of the Bureau of the American Republics, Washington, 1S02.
Report of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders for 1897. London, 1898
856 PARAGUAY
Azara (Felix de), Voyages dans I'Amerique meridionale. Paris, 1809.
Braine-le-Conte, La Republiqiie de Paraguay. Bordeaux, 1889.
Bruyssel (E. van), La Republique du Paraguay. Bruxelles, 1893.
Criado (M. A.), Guide de I'eniigrant au Paraguay. Asuncion, 1889.
Deviersay (L. A.), Histoire physique, econoniique et politique du Paraguay et des etab-
lissements des Jesuites. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.
Jourdan (E. C), Guerra do Paraguay. Rio de Janeiro, 1800.
Kennedy (A. J.), La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay, during the War. 8. London, 1869.
La Dardye (E. De B.), Paraguay : The Land and the People, Natural Wealth and Com-
mercial Capabilities. English Edition. Edited by B. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S. London, 1892,
Mansfield (Charles), Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New Edition. By the Rev. Charles
Kingsley. 8. London, 1856.
Ma««erma»i (G. F.), Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay. 8. 2nd Edition, London, 1869.
Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook to the River Plate Republics, <fec., and the Republics
of Uruguay and Paraguay. 8. London, 1885.
Olascoaga (R. de), Paraguay. [Translation from Reclus' ' Geographie Universelle,' with
prolegomena and notes.] Asuncion, 1896.
Pape (Commander Thomas G.), La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and Paraguay.
Narrative of the Exploration of the Tributaries of the River La Plata and adjacent Countries
during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, under the orders of the United States Govern-
ment. 8. 'New York, 1867.
Santos (C. R.), La Republica del Paraguay. Asuncion, 1897.
Thompson (George), The Paraguayan War ; with sketches of the history of Paraguay, and
of the manners and customs of the people. 8. London, 1869.
Washbur7i (Charles A.), The History of Paraguay. With notes of personal observations,
vols. 8. Boston and New York. 1871.
857
PERSIA.
(Iran.)
Reigning Shah.
Muzaffar-ed-din, born 14 Jemadi II. a.h. 1269 = March 25,
1853, second son of Nasr ed-din. Shah; succeeded his father
May 1, 1896.
Children of the Shdh. — I. Mohammed Ali Mirza, Valiahd
(heir-apparent), born 1872. II. Malik Mansur Mirza Shua es-
Saltaneh, born 1880. III. Abu'l Fath Mirza Salar ed Dowleh,
born 1881. IV. Abu'l Fazl Mirza Azud es-Sultan, born 1883.
Y. Husein Kuli Mirza, born 1894. VI. Nasr ed-din Mirza,
born 1896. There are also twelve daughters.
Brothers of the Shdh. — I. Mas'iid, Zil es-Sultan, born January
5, 1850, has five sons and six daughters. II. Kamran, Naib
es-Saltaneh, born July 22, 1856, has three daughters. III. Salar
es-Saltaneh, born May 2, 1882. IV. Rukn es-Saltaneh, born
February 14, 1883. V. Yamin ed-Dowleh. YI. Sultan Ahmed
Mirza, born 1891. There are also twelve sisters.
The royal family is very numerous : there are some thousands
of princes and princesses, but the official year-book only mentions
two brothers, two sisters, 120 uncles, great-uncles, and cousins
of the late Shah.
The Shah of Persia — by his official title, ' Shahinshah,' or king
of kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of
the lives and goods of all his subjects. The whole revenue of
the country being at their disposal, recent sovereigns of Persia
have been able to amass a large private fortune. That of the
present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to five or
six millions sterling, most of it represented by diamonds, the
largest, the Derya i Nur, of 186 carats, and the Taj i Mah, of 146
carats, and other precious stones, forming the crown jewels.
The present sovereign of Persia is the fifth of the dynasty
of the Kajars, which took possession of the crown after a civil
war extending over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date
of accession of each of the sovereigns of the dynasty was as
follows : —
1. Agha Muhammed . . 1794
2. Fath Ali, nephew of Aglia
Muhammed . . . 1797
3. Muhammed, grandson of Fath
Ah 1835
It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to
overrule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown
Nasr ed-din, son of Muham-
med .... 1848
Muzatfar-cd-din, son of Nasr-
od-din .... 1896
858 PERSIA
with disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their
family, but preference is generally given to a prince whose
mother was a Kajar princess.
Government.
The form of government of Persia is in its most important
features similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on
the precepts of the Koran, and though the power of the Shah is
absolute, it is only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doc-
trines of the Muhammedan religion, as laid down in the sacred book
of the Prophet, his oral commentaries and sayings, and the inter-
pretation of the same by his successors and the high priesthood.
The Shah is regarded as vicegerent of the Prophet (a great part
of the priesthood and descendants of the Prophet [Syeds] deny
this), and it is as such that he claims implicit obedience. Under
him, the executive government is carried on by a ministry, for-
merly consisting of but two high functionaries, the grand vizier
and the lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into
several departments, after the European fashion. The office of
Sadr Azam or Grand Vizir, twice vacant since November, 1896,
has, since August 11, 1898, been held by Mirza Ali Asghar
Khan, Amin es Sultan. The chiefministers are Amin el Mulk,
Minister of the Interior ; Mushir-ed-Dowleh, Minister for Foreign
Affairs ; Amir Khan Serdar, Minister forWar ; Nizam es Saltaneh,
Minister of Finance. Other departments represented in the
Ministry are : Treasury, Justice, Commerce, Instruction, Tele-
graphs, Posts, Religious Endowments, Agriculture, Crown
Domains, Court, Public Works, Press, Crown Buildings,
Ceremonies, Mines, Mint, Customs. There are twenty-one
ministers of departments and also several ministers without
portfolios, but only five or six of the more important are
consulted on affairs of state.
The country is divided into thirty-three provinces, which are governed
by governors-general, who are directly responsible to the central Govern-
ment, and can nominate the lieutenant-governors of the districts com-
prised in their own governments-general. Some of the governments-general
are very small, and do not bear sut)di vision into districts, &c. ; others are very
large, and comprise several provinces. Governors-general and lieutenant-
governors are generally called Hakim, the former also often have the title
of Wall, Ferman Ferma, &c. A lieutenant-governor is sometimes called
Naib el-Hukumah ; one of a small district is a Zabit. Every town has a
mayor or chief magistrate called Kalantar, or Darogha, or Beglerbeggi.
Every quarter of a town or parish, and every village, has a chief who is
called Kedkhoda. These officers, whose chief duty is the collection of the
revenue, are generally appointed by the lieutenant-governors, but sometimes
elected by the citizens. Most of the governors have a vizir or a pishkdr, a
man of experience, to whom are entrusted the accounts and the details of the
government. The chiefs of nomad tribes are called Ilkliani, Ilbeggi, Wall,
Serdar, Sheikh, Tushmal ; they are responsible for the collection of the
revenues to the governors of the province in which their tribe resides.
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION 859
Area and Population.
According to the latest and most trustworthy estimates, the
country — extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and
for 900 miles from east to west — contains an area of 628,000
square miles. A vast portion of this area is an absolute
desert, and the population is everywhere so scanty as not to
exceed, on the average, twelve inhabitants to the square mile.
According to the latest estimates, based on personal observation
of travellers and statistics of the Persian Home Office, the popu-
lation of Persia numbered in 1881 : —
Inhabitants of cities 1,963,800
Population belonging to wandering tribes . . 1,909,800
Inhabitants of villages and country districts . . 3,780,000
Total population .... 7,653,600
The population in 1897 is estimated at about 9,000,000.
The number of Europeans residing in Persia does not exceed
800.
The principal cities of Persia are: — Teheran, with 210,000 ;
Tabriz, with 180,000; Ispahan, with 80,000; Meshed, with
60,000; Barfurush, with 50,000; Kerman, Yezd, each with
40,000 to 45,000 ; Hamadan, Shiraz, Kazvin, Kom, Kashan, Pesht,
each ^vith 25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Of the nomads 260,000
are Arabs, 720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700
Baluchis and Gipsies, 234,000 Lurs.
Religion.
Of the population about 8 millions belong to the Shia'h faith, 800,000
Sunnis, 9,000 Parsis (Guebres), 25,000 Jews, 45,000 Armenians, and 25,000
Nestorians.
The ^Mahometans of Persia are mostly of the sect called Shia'h, differing
to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical belief, from the
inhabitants of the Turkish Empire, who are called Sunni. The Persian priest-
hood (Ulema) is very powerful, and works steadily against all progress. Any
person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws may act as a
priest (Mulla). As soon as such a priest l^ecomes known for his just interpreta-
tion of the divine law, and for his knowledge of the traditions and articles of
faith, he is called a Mujtahid, a chiel" iniest. There are many ^lujtahids in
Persia, sometimes several in one town ; there are, however, only four or five
whose decisions are accepted as final. The highest authority, the chief priest
of all, is the Mujtahid ' who resides at Kerljela, near Baghdad, and some con-
sider him the vicegerent of the Prophet, the representative of the Imam. The
Shall and the Government have no voice in the matter of appointing the
Mujtahids, but the 8heikh-el-Islam, chief judge, and the Imam-i-Jum'ah,
chief of the great moscpie (Ma.sjed-i-Jam'ah) of a city, arc appointed by Govern-
ment. Under the Imam-i-.Tum'ah are the pish nenuiz or khatib (leader of
puVilie prayers and reader of the Khutbeh, the Fiiday oration), the nui'azzin
(crier for prayers), and sometimes the Mutavalli (guardian of the mo.sque)
this latter, as well as the mu'azzin, need not necessarily be a priest. Alj
1 The la.st holder of this office died on February 20, 1S95 ; no successor has yet been
appointed.
860 PERSIA
mosques aud shriues have some endowments (wakf ), and out of the proceeds
of these are provided the funds for the salaries of the priests attached to them.
The shrines of some favourite saints are so richly endowed as to be able to
keep an immense staff of priests, servants, and hangers-on.
The Orthodox Armenians are under a bishop residing at Ispahan ; there
are also a few hundred Roman Catholic Armenians in Persia, There is a
wide tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, Jews, and Parsis
in cities where Europeans reside ; in other places, however, they occasionally
suffer oppression from Mussulmans belonging to the lower classes.
Instruction.
There are a great number of colleges (medresseh), supported by public
funds, in which students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic
literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge, and many
schools for children, while private tutors are very common, being employed by
all families who have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of
European professors, opened in Teheran in 1849 has done much towards
introducing the knowledge of Western languages and science into Persia.
There are also military colleges at Teheran and Tabriz. Two or three
preliminary schools with an improved system of teaching, supported by
public subscriptions and small payments (4 sh. per month for each pupil),
were opened in March, 1898. But the bulk of the population are taught
only to read the Koran.
Justice.
Justice is administered by the governors and their representatives, and by
the Sheikhs-el-Islam and the priesthood. The former administer justice
according to the Urf, the unwritten or common law ; the latter accordLing to
the Shar', the written or divine law.
The dispensation of justice is always summary. In May, 1888, the Shah
published a proclamation stating that henceforth no subject would be punished
except by operation of law, and that all subjects had full liberty as to life
and property. But another proclamation published in June annulled the first
as far as regards liberty of property.
Finance.
The total revenue in cash and kind in 1839-40 amounted to 34,026,150
krans, or (1 kY.=12'95d.) 1,835,995Z, In the year 1876-77 the amount was
50,700,000 krans, or (1 ki\=9-25d.) 1,950,000Z. In 1888-89 it was 54, 487, 630
krans or (1 kr, =7'06d.) 1,602,580Z, With the rise in the price of silver, the
value of the revenue rose in 1890-91 to 1,775,000Z., and owing to the fall in
silver the receipts for 1898-99 are estimated at 1,500,000?.
The expenditure for the year 1888-89 amounted to about 50,100,000
krans, and was about the same for 1898 ; of this expenditure 18,000,000
were for the army, 10,000,000 for pensions, 3,000,000 for allowances to
princes, 600,000 for allowances to members of the Kajiir tribe, 800,000 for
the Foreign Office, 5,000,000 for the royal court, 500,000 for colleges,
1,500,000 for civil service, 2,630,000 for local government expenses, 800,000
remission of revenue in ])ooy districts ; the remainder was paid into the
Shah's treasury.
About 82 per cent, of the revenue consists of payments in cash or kind
raised by assessments upon towns, villages, and districts, each of which has
to contribute a fixed sum, the amount of which is changed from time to time by
tax-assessors (mumayiz) appointed by the Government. Almost the entire
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 861
buithen of taxation lies upon the labouring classes. The amount collected from
Christians, Jews, and Parsis is very small. About 15 per cent, of the revenue is
from customs, while posts, telegraphs, fisheries, mines, and other concessions
supply the remainder. In May, 1892, the Government concluded with the
Imperial Bank of Persia a contract for the issue of a loan of 500,000Z. , the
produce of which should serve for the payment of an indemnity to the Tobacco
Regie Company of Persia. The loan, guaranteed by the Customs receipts of
Southern Persia and the Persian Gulf, will be repayable in eighty half-yearly
instalments together with 6 per cent, interest. Yearly instalments and interest
have been regularly paid.
Defence.
The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of War,
numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery (20 batteries),
54,700 the infantry (78 battalions), 25,200 the cavalry, regular and irregular,
and 7,200 militia (24 battalions). Of these troops, however, only half are
liable to be called for service, while the actual number embodied — that is, the
Standing army — does not exceed 24,500. The number liable to be called for
service is as follows := — Infantry, 35,400 ; irregular cavalry, but more or less
drilled, 3,300 ; undrilled levies, 12,130 ; artillery, 2,500 ; camel artillery, 90 ;
engineers, 100 ; total, 53,520.
By a decree of the Shah, issued in July 1875, it was ordered that the army
should for the future be raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies,
and that a term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old
system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life ; but the
decree has never been enforced.
The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts. A
province furnishes several regiments ; a tribe gives one and sometimes two,
and a district contributes one. The commanding officers are generally selected
from the chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised. The
Christians, Jews, and Parsis, as well as the Mussulman inhabitants of the
Kashau and Yezd districts, are exempt from all military service. The army
has been under the training of European officers of different nationalities for
the last forty years or more.
The navy consists of 2 vessels, built at Bremerhaven — the Persepolis, screw
steamship, 600 tons, 450 horse-power, armed with four 3-inch guns ; and the
Susa, a river steamer, on the river Karun, of 30 horse-power.
Production and Industry.
Besides wheat, barley, rice, fruits, and gums, Persia produces silk, the
annual yield, chiefly from the Caspian provinces, being about 606,100 lbs.
In 1897 the quantity of spun silk exported from the Reslit district to other
places in Persia and to Baghdad amounted to 7,420 bales, each of 6 batmans
(1 batman = 13 lbs.), or about 579,000 lbs., valued at 133,560Z., while 420
bales of floss silk (value 4,230Z.), were exported to Baghdad, and 30,000
batmans (390,000 lbs.) of dried cocoons (value 33,000/.) were exported to
Euroi)e. The opium industry is on the increase. The export is estimated at
13,000 cases, valued at over 750,000/., the opium sent to Europe being
prepared for medicinal purposes, and that to China for smoking. Tobacco is
exported annually to the amount of 5,500 tons; cotton, 9,934,400 lbs.;
wool, 1,200,000 fleeces, weighing 7,714,000 lbs., about one-third to Bombay
and the remainder, mixed with Turkish wool, chiefly to Marseilles. Persian
carpets, of which there are about thirty different kinds, are all made by
hand, and the design varies with each carpet. The export of these carpets
mounts to over 140, 000 Z.
862
PERSIA
The mineral resources of Persia are considerable, but undeveloped. Gold
and copper are found in tlie north and north-east near Meshed ; silver and
lead mines are worked near Tabriz ; tin occurs in the same district and in the
north-east ; sul[)hur is obtained in several districts, chiefly in the neighbour-
hood of Demavend ; iron, manganese, cobalt, and nickel are also found ; coal
is met with near the Caspian, and petroleum is abundant in southern Persia ;
salt, borax and alum are worked. The turquoise has been mined in Persia
from an early age ; in Khorassan the yearly output is now valued at about
8,000Z.
Commerce.
The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan ; the
principal ports, Bender Abbas, Lingah, and Bushire on the Persian Gulf, and
Enzeli, Meshed i Sar, and Bender i Gez on the Caspian. There are no official
returns of the value of the total imports and exports ; the revenue from the
customs being, however, known, the approximate value of the commerce may
be calculated. The custom dues are for Europeans 5 per cent, ad valorem,
the value being considered to be the invoice price plus the freight ; for
Persian subjects they vary from 1| per cent, to 8 per cent. The customs are
farmed out to the highest bidders, who generally make a good profit ; the farm
money, therefore, does not represent the actual sum taken for customs, which
latter sum, it is estimated, is 20 per cent, in excess. The following table shows
the farm money received by Government for ten years, the estimated amounts
paid annually for customs, and the value of the imports and exports, obtained
by taking the average of the duty at 4 per cent, of the value : —
Years
Farm Money received
by Government
Rate of
Exchange
for the
Year
Estimated Totals
of Customs Paid
Farm Money -i-
20 per cent.
Estimated Value of j
Imports, and Ex- |
ports, Average Duty
taken at 4 per cent.
ad valorem
Tomans
£
Kran.s=£l
'£
£
1889-90
800,000
242,424
33
290,908
1,212,10^
1890-91
820,000
241,200
34
289,450
7,236,200
1891-92
830,000
237,140
35
284,568
7,114,200
1892-93
850,000
223,684
38
268,417
6,710,425
1893-94
850,000
170,000
50
204,000
5,100,000
1894-95
930,000
178,846
52
214,815
5,370,375
1895-96
1,250,000
250,000
50
300,000
7,500,000
1896-97
1,250,000
250,000
50
300,000
7,500,000
1897-98
1,500,000
300,000
50
360,000
9,000,000
1898-99
1,500,000
300,000
50
360,000
9,000,000
It was stated in 1896 that considering the great fall in the value of silver, the
figures ujj to year 1894-95 were no longer correct, for if they were it would seem that the
value of the commerce had decreased by about 2,000,000?. Competent persons pointed out
that the commerce had not decreased, but was equivalent to about 7,500,000L or more, and
that the farmers pocketed a large amount of money which by rights ought to enter into
the Government treasury. The Government in 1895 thereupon increased the farm money
to 1,250,000 tomans, or 250,O00L, and increased it again for the year 1897-98 to 1,500,000
tomans.
The imports into Persia consist mostly of cotton fabrics, cloth, glass,
woollen goods, carriages, sugar, petroleum, tea, coffee, drugs, &c. The
exports principally consist of dried fruits, opium, cotton and wool, silk,
carpets, pearls, turquoises, rice, &c.
COMMERCE
863
Tlie following figures from Persian Gulf Consular Reports and from reports
published l»y the Persian Custom House relate to the foreign trade of the
year 1897.
—
Imports
Exports
Total Tonnage
British Tonnage
Entered
Cleared
Entered
Cleared
Bushiie .
Lingali .
Bunder Abbas
Mohainmerah
£
1,145,329
582,472
381,562
121,407
£
392,532
548,464
230,781
41,608
113,857
115,300
94,140
72,973
111,398
92,070
88,850
80,944
99,914
93,050
87,920
68,928
98,123
73,500
82,980
75,950
Total .
2,230,770
1,213,385
396,270
373,262
349,812
330,553
The trade at these ports in 1897 was distributed mainly as follows : —
Countries
United Kingdom
India .
France
Turkey
China .
Imports
from
^^P^°^"*^ I Countries
Imports
from
Exports
to
£
868,600
843,390
75,216
55,747
10,950
£
120,847
475,742
2,546
37,868
225,760
Persian Ports
Arab Coast .
Muskat
Bahrein
Egypt.
£
74,330
225,931
29,965
23,673
10,505
£
85,611
189,118
32,874
22,701
17,283
The trade at tliese four ports in 1897 was mainly in the following
articles : —
Imports.
1897
Exports.
1897
£
£
Rifles .
118,171
Rifles .
14,905
Cottons .
931,879
Opium .
258,894
Sugar
126,437
Pearls .
225,349
Tea
101,912
Shell
23,396
Pearls
224,537
Dates .
42,910
Rice
75,711
Hides, Skins .
22,826
Wheat .
37,127
Wool
53,017
Indigo .
41,192
! Carpets .
36,790
Copper .
27,534
Cotton .
54,353
Coffee .
18,168
Rice
41,943
Specie .
189,341
Specie .
j
277,550
At Tabriz in the year 1896-97, the total imports amounted to 64S,920Z.,
including Manchester T-cloths, shirtings, and printed cottons, 264,000/.;
woollen goods from Austria, 80,000/. ; tea, 70,000/. ; sugar from Russia,
100,000/. The exports amounted to 227,530/., including carpets, 102,000/.
A large trade is carried on with Russia through Resht on the Caspian. In
1896 the imports into the Resht district via Baku amounted to 842,655/.,
and included sugar, 514,311/. ; silk-worm seed 67,200/. ; tissues, 81,400/. ;
bar silver, 30,000/. ; petroleum, 15,000/ The exports to Riissia via Baku
amounted to 365,342/., including rice, 177,220/. ; fruits, 42,350/. ; raw
cotton, 40,740/. ; tea, 31,890/. In the year 1896-97 the trade of Khorasan
through Meshed was : Imports from India by Bombay and Bunder Abbas,
89,547/. ; from Russian territory, 92,547/. ; from Afghanistan, 6,206/. ;
through Turkey, 19,740/. Exj.orts to India, 19,681/. ; to Russian territory,
80,320/. ; to Afghanistan, 15,073/.
864
PERSIA
The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom in each of the last
five years was as follows, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into U.K.
from Persia .
Exports of British
produce to Persia
£
119,001
251,751
£
206,918
323,772
£
175,857
373,121
£
147,129
273,786
£
197,778
427,150
The direct imports from Persia into Great Britain in 1897 consisted mainly
of opium, valued at 28,799Z. ; shells, 44,713Z. ; wool, 51,389Z. ; fruit
14,558Z. ; gum, 13,193Z. ; woollen manufactures, 16,770Z. Cotton goods,
of the value of 332,693^. copper (wrought and unwrought), 15,916^., and
arms and ammunition, 44,917^., were the staple articles of British export to
Persia in 1897.
Money and Credit.
The Shah in 1889 granted a concession to Baron Julius de Renter for the
formation of an Imperial Bank of Persia, wdth head office at Teheran and
branches in the chief cities. The bank was formed in the autumn of the same
year, and incorporated by Royal Charter granted by H.M. the Queen, and
dated September 2, 1889. The authorised capital is 4 millions sterling, which
may be increased. The bank started with a capital of one million sterling, of
which the greater part was remitted to Persia at the then reigning exchange
of 32-34. In consequence of the great fall in .silver and the rise in the
exchange, to 50 or more, the capital was reduced in December 1894, to
650,000Z. The bank has the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes — not
exceeding 800,000^. without the assent of the Persian Government. The
issue of notes shall be at first on the basis of the silver kran. The coin in
reserve for two years must be 50 per cent., aftenvards 33 per cent. The bank
has the exclusive right of working throughout the Empire the iron, copper,
lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese, borax, and asbestos mines, not
already conceded. It started business in Persia in October 1889, in April 1890
took over the Persian business of the New Oriental Bank Corporation (London),
which had established branches and agencies in Persia in the summer of 1888,
and now has branches at Tabriz, Resht, Meshed, Ispahan, Yezd, Shiraz,
Bushire, and Bombay ; and agencies at several other towns. The mining
rights have been ceded to the Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation,
Limited, which was formed in April 1890, and went into liquidation in
January, 1894. There are also established at Teheran the Russian ' Banque
des Prets de Perse,' and a branch of the Russian ' Banque de Commerce de
Moscou.'
Communications.
A small railway from Teheran to Shah Abdul-azim (six miles) was opened
in July, 1888. Another from Mahmiidabad on the Caspian to Barfurush and
Amol (twenty miles) was commenced, but has been abandoned. The
former is in the hands of a Belgian company, ' Society des chemins de fer et
tramways de Perse ' ; the latter was a private undertaking by a Persian merchant.
The river Karun at the head of the Persian Gulf has been opened to foreign
navigation as far as Ahwaz, and Messrs. Lynch Brothers are running a
steamer on it once a fortnight, with a subsidy from the British Government.
In virtue of a concession to a Persian subject, Messrs. Lynch have obtained
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 865
certain rights and are now employing some capital for opening a caravan road
between Alnvaz and Isjjahan.
The only carriageable roads in Persia are Teheran-Kom and Teheran-
Kazvin, each about 91 miles, and on the latter mails and travellers are con-
veyed by post-carts. A concession for the construction of a cart road from
Kazvin to Enzeli on the Caspian was granted to a Russian firm in 1893.
There are hopes that this road will be completed in 1899, the concession
having been extended until then, with the stipulation that it is not to be
renewed if the construction be incomplete. The extended concession in-
cludes the continuation of the road from Kazvin to Teheran, and from Kazvin
to Hamadan.
Persia has a system of telegraphs consisting of about 4,150 miles of line,
with about 6,700 miles of wire, and 95 stations,
{a) 675 miles of line with three wires — that is, 2,025 miles of wire
between Bushire and Teheran — are worked by an English staff, and form
the 'Indo-European Telegraph Department in Persia,' an English Govern-
ment department, {b) 415 miles of line with three wires, 1,245 miles of
wire between Teheran and Julfa on the Russo-Persian frontier, are worked
by the Indo-European Telegraph Company, Limited, [c) About 3,400 miles
of single wire lines belong to the Persian Government, and are worked
by a Persian staff. A line, which will connect some posts along the north-
western frontier with Tabriz and Ardabil is under construction. During the
year 1897-98, 163,134 messages with an aggregate of 2,249,451 words were
transmitted by the English Government and Indo-European Telegraph
Company's lines. The average time of transmission of a message between
Karachi and England was forty-nine minutes. The income of the Indo-
European Telegraph Department for the year 1897-98 was 176,900 R. ; that
of the Indo-European Telegraph Company for the year 1895-96, 152,285Z.
The Persian lines are held in farm by the Minister of Telegraphs for 300,000
krans (6,000Z. ) per annum.
The first regular postal service, established by an Austrian official in Persian
employ, was opened January, 1877. Under it mails are regularly conveyed to
and from the principal cities in Persia. There is a service twice a week to and
from Europe via Resht or Tabriz and Tiflis (letters to be marked ' via Russia '),
and a weekly service to India via Bushire. There are 84 post offices. The
posts are held in farm by the Minister of Posts for 700,000 krans (14,000Z.)
per annum.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The monetary unit is the kran, a silver coin, formerly weighing 28 nak-
hods (88 grains), then reduced to 26 nakhods (77 grains), now weighing
only 24 nakhods (71 grains) or somewhat less. The proportion of pure silver
was before the new coinage (commenced 1877) 92 to 95 per cent. ; it was then
for some time 90 per cent., and is now about 89^ per cent. The value of the
kran has in consequence much decreased. In 1874 a kran had the value of a
franc, 25 being equal to 11. ; in December 1888 a II. billon London was worth
34 krans. In the month of April, 1888, a 1^. bill on London was worth 36^ to
37 krans. In consequence of the recent fall in the price of silver, the value
of a kran is at present (October, 1898) about i^d., a ll. bill on London being
worth 53 krans, while the average exchange for 1896-97 was 50.
3 K
866 PERSIA
The coins in circulation, with their vahies calculated at exchange II. —
50 krans, are
Silver.
Copi)er.
Fdl .... 0'12d.
Shdhi = 2Piil . . . 0-24:d.
Two Shdhts= 4. PHI . . O'dSd
Four Shdhts - (1 Abhdssi) . 0 -^Qd.
Mis =
6-49 lbs
, =
7-30
J =
10-14
;=
12-98
, =
25 -96
, —
8-52
J =z
116-80
ins =
649-
Five SkdMs =10 Fill = i Krdnl-20d.
Ten Shdhts = h Krdn . 2A0d.
One Krd7i = 20 Shdhts . 4 -80c?.
Two Krdns . . . 9-60d.
Five Krdns . . .2s. O'OOd.
Gold coins are : ^ Toman, ^ Toman, 1 Toman, 2, 5 and 10 Tomans.
The Toman is nominally worth 10 Krdns ; very few gold pieces are in circu-
lation, and a gold Toman is at present worth 16*50 Krdns = Qs. 7^d.
Accounts are reckoned in dinars, an imaginary coin, the ten-thousandth
part of a toman often krans. A kran therefore = 1,000 dinars ; one shahi =
50 dinars.
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into 24 nakhods
(2-96 grains) of 4 gandum (-74 grain) each. Sixteen miskals make a sir,
and 5 sir make an abbassi, also called wakkeh, kervankeh. Most articles
are bought and sold by a weight called batman or man. The mans most
frequently in use are : —
Man-i- Tabriz =8 Abbdssis . . . = 640 MisTcdls
Man-i-Noh Abbdssi = 9 Abbdssts . . = 720
Man-i-Koh7ieh {the old. msin) . . . =1,000
Man-i-Shdh = 2 Tabriz Mans . . . =1,280
Man-i-Eeij = 4: ,, . . . =2,560
Man-i-Bender Abbdsst . . . . = 840
Man-i-ffdshe77ii = 16 Mans o( . . , 720
Corn, straw, coal, &c., are sold by A7i«/'mr = 100 Tah^tz Mans
The unit of measure is the zar or gez ; of this standard several are in
use. The most common is the one of 40-95 inches; another, used in
Azerbaijan, equals 44-09 inches. A farsakh theoretically = 6, 000 zar of
40-95 inches = 3 -87 miles. Some calculate the farsakh at 6,000 zar of 44-09
inches = 4 -17 miles.
The measure of surface is jerib = 1,000 to 1,066 square zar of 40-95
inches = 1,294 to 1,379 square yards.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Persia in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Mirza Mohamed Ali Khan, Ala-es-Sultaneh, ac-
credited March 4, 1890.
Secretaries. — Hussein Kuli Khan, Mirza Mehdi Khan, and Mirza Abdul
QhufFar Khan.
Consiil- General. — H. S. Foster,
2. Of Great Britain in Persia.
Teherdn: Envoy, Minister, and Consul- General. — SirH.Mo--timer Durand
K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E. Appointed May 1, 1894.
Secretary of Legation. — Cecil A. Spring-Rice.
Military Attache and Oriental Secretary. — Lieut. -Col. H. P. Picot.
Tabriz: Consul-Gencral. — Cecil Godfrey Wood.
Resht and Astrabdd : Consul. — H. L. Churchill.
Bushire : Political Resident and Consul-Gencral. — Lieut. -Col. Malcolm
Meade.
Vice-Consul. — John C. Gaskin.
Meshed: Consul-Gencral. — Lieut. -Col. H. M. Temple.
Ispahdn : Consiil. — J. R. Preeee.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 8G7
Muliamrah : Vice-Coiisul. — W. McDouall.
There are agents at Sliiraz, Keruiansliali, Ilainadaii, and YezJ.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia.
1. Official Publioationis.
Report by Mr. Baring on theOpiuin Trade and Cultivation, 1881, i'in ' Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. And by Mr. Dickson on the Trade of Persia,
in Part VI. London, 1882.
Report by Mr. Herbert on the Present State of Persia, and her Mineral Resources, in
' Reports from H.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Officers.' Part IV. London, 1880.
Eastern Persia : an Account of the Journeys of the Pei'sian Boundary Commission,
1870-7-2. 2 vols. 8. 187(5.
United States Consular Reports for January, 1898 [contains a short account of Persian
telegraphs and telephones]. Washington.
Foreign Office Reports. [On the trade of Bushire, Lingah, Bunder Abbas, Mohammerah,
and other ports in the Persian Gulf. On the trade of Resht, and of Meshed]. Annual
Series. London.
Annual Statement of tlie Trade of the United Kingdom. Imp, 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bassett (James), Persia, the Land of the Imams. London, ISS6.
Benjamin (S. G. W.), Persia and the Persians. London, 1887. Persia. [In Story of the
Nations Series]. 3d. ed. 8. London, 1888.
Bigham (Olive), A Ride through Western Asia. London, 1897.
Bird (Isabella), Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1803.
Browne (E G.), A Year amongst the Persians. London, 1893.
Brugsch (Dr. H.), Reise der k. preuss. Gesandtschaft nach Persien, 1860-61. 2 vols. S.
Leipzig, 1864.
Collins (E. T.), In the Kingdom of the Shah. 8. London, 1896.
Chardin (Jean), Journal de son Voyage en Perse, &c. Amsterdam, 1686. New ed. 2 vols.
Paris, 1883.
Curzon (Hon. G.), The Karun River. Proc. R.G.S. 1890. The Persian Question. [Chap.
I. contains an account of European literature relating to Persia (900-1891), and there are
bibliographical footnotes throughout the volumes.] 2 vols. London, 1892.
Dieulaj'oy (Jane). La Perse, la Chaldee et la Susiane. 4. Paris, 1887. [Eng. Trans, by
F. L. White. 8. Philadelphia, 1890.
JBa«(it;/cfc(E. B.), Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Residence in Persia. 2 vols.
London, 1864.
FejTier(J. J. P.), Caravan Journeys and Wanderings in Persia, &c. 8. London, 1856.
Gnbineau (Ch. de), Les religions et les philosophies de I'Asie centralc. 8. Paris, 1865.
Gordon (Sir T. E.). Persia Revisited, 1895. 8. London, 1896.
Harris (W. B.), From Batum to Baghdad. 8. London, 1896.
Hedin (Sveu), Genoni Persien, Mesopotamien, (fee. Stockholm, 1887. Genoni Khorasan
och Turkestan. 2 vols. Stockholm, 1892.
Layard (Sir H. A.), Eai'ly Adventures in Persia, (fee. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1894.
Macgiegor {Co\. C. M.), Narrative of a Journey tlu'ough the Province of Khorassan and
the North- West Frontier of Afghanistan in 1875. 2 vols. 8. London, 1879.
Malcolm (Sir John), Histoi-y of Persia. 2 vols. 4. London, 1815. 2 vols. 8. London. 1829.
Malcolm (Sir John), Sketches of Persian Life and Manners. 2 vols. 8. London, 1828.
Markham (Clements R.), General Sketch of the History of Persia. 8. London, 1874.
Morgan{J. de). Mission Scientifique en Per.se. 4 vols. Paris, 1894-97.
Ouseley (Sir W.), Travels in various Countries of the East, particularly Persia. 3 vols.
4. London, 1819-23.
Polak (Dr. J. E.), Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Rawlinson (G.), History of Ancient Persia. Vol. IV. of the History of the Ancient
Monarchies of the East. London, 1868. The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy. 8. London.
1876.
Schindler (A. Houtum), Historical and Archseological Notes on a Journey in South-
western Persia, 1877-78. Journal of R. A. Soc. London, April, 1880. Eastern Persian
Irak, R. G. Soc. Suppl. London, 1896.
Stack (E.), Six Months in Persia. 2 vols. London. 1882.
Sykes (Ella C), Through Persia on a Side Saddle. London, 1898.
Texier (Oh.), L'Armenie, la Perse, dtc. 2 vols. Paris, 1843-48.
Watson (R. Grant), A History of Persia, from the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century
to the year 1858. 8. London, 1873.
Weeks (E. L.), From the Black Sea through Persia and India. London, 1896.
TftH* (Dr. C. J.), The Land of the Lion and Sun, 8. London, 1883. Per-sia as it is.
London, 1886.
Wilson (Sir C), Handbook for Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, Persia, «bc. London, 1895.
3 K 2
868
PERU.
(E-EPUBLICA DEL PeRU.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Peru, formerly the most important of the Spanish
Viceroyalties in South America, issued its declaration of indepen-
dence July 28, 1821 ; but it was not till after a war, protracted
till 1824, that the country gained its actual freedom from Spanish
rule. The Republic is politically divided into departments, and
the departments into provinces. The present Constitution, pro-
claimed October 16, 1856, was revised November 25, 1860. It is
modelled on that of the United States, the legislative power
being vested in a Senate and a House of Kepresentatives, the
former composed of deputies of the provinces, in the proportion
of one for every 30,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 15,000,
and the latter of representatives nominated by the electoral
colleges of the provinces of each department, at the rate of two
when the department has two provinces, and one more for every
other two provinces. The parochial electoral colleges choose
deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send represen-
tatives to Congress, and elect the municipal councils as well.
The executive power is entrusted to a President. There are
two Vice-Presidents, who take the place of the President only in
case of his death or incapacity, and they are elected for four years.
The Presidents and Vice-Presidents are elected dy direct vote.
President of the Rejoublic. — Nicolas de Pierola.
The President exercises his executive functions through a
Cabinet of six ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The
ministers are those of the Interior, War and Marine, Foreign
Affairs, Justice, Finance and Public Works. None of the Presi-
dent's acts have any value without the signature of a minister.
Area and Population.
It is estimated that 57 per cent, of the population of Peru are aborigines
or 'Indians,' and that 23 per cent, belong to mixed races, ' Cholos ' and
' Zambos.' The remaining 20 per cent, are chiefly descendants of Spaniards,
the rest including, liesides 18,000 Europeans, 25,000 Asiatics, chiefly Chinese.
The population of the capital, Lima, is estimated at over 100,000, Callao
15 000 (35,000 in 1880), Arequipa 35,000, Cuzco 20,000.
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
869
The Republic is divided into nineteen departments, the area and
population of which were reported as follows at the last census taken (in
1876) :-
Area :
Area :
Departments
English
Population
Departments
English
Population
square miles
-
square miles
Piura .
13,931
135,502
lea
6,295
60,111
Cajamarca .
14,188
213,391
Ayacucho
24,213
142,205
Amazonas .
14,129
34,245 '
Cuzco .
95,547
238,445
Loreto
32,727
61,125 •
Puno .
39,743
256,594
Libertad .
15,649
147,541
Arequipa
27,744
160,282
Ancachs .
17,405
284,091
Moquegua
22,516
28,786
Lima . . )
Callao . /
14,760
/ 226,922
t 34,492
Apurlinac
62,325
119,246
Lambayeque
17,939
85,984
Huancavelica .
Huanuco . \
Junin . . /
10,814
33,822
104,155
/ 78,856
\ 209,871
Total
463,747
2,621,844
There are, besides, many uncivilised Indians, but their numbers are
absolutely unknown.
It is believed that the population is nearly stationary owing to the great
infant mortality in the lower classes, as well as to small-pox and alcoholism
among the Indians.
As a result of the war with Chile, the latter country has annexed the
province of Tarapaca. The Chilians have also occupied the provinces of
of Tacna and Arica for fourteen years. A popular vote should in 1894 have
decided to which country they are to belong, but owing to the failure of nego-
tiations for arriving at a modus operandi, the decision was deferred. A
convention for the purpose of carrying out the plebiscite was signed at
Santiago, April 16, 1898.
Religion.
By the terms of the Constitution there exists absolute political, but not
religious freedom, the charter prohibiting the public exercise of any other
religion than the Roman Catholic, which is declared the religion of the State.
But practically there is a certain amount of tolerance, there being Anglican
churches and missionary schools in Callao and Lima. In 1897 an Act was
passed removing certain marriage disabilities of non-Catholics, so that
marriages of such persons solemnised by Diplomatic or Consular officers or by
ministers of dissenting Churches shall, if registered, be valid, and those
solemnised before the passing of the Act, if registered before the end of
1899, shall be valid. At the census of 1876 there were 5,087 Protestants,
498 Jews ; other religions, 27,073.
Instruction.
Elementary education is compulsory for both sexes, and is irce in the
public schools that are maintained by the municipalities. High schools are
maintained by the Government in the capitals of the departments, and in
some i>rovinoes pupils pay a moderate fee. There is in Lima a central univer-
.sity, called * Universidad de San Marcos,' the most ancient in America ; its
charter was granted by the Emperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties of juris-
prudence, medicine, political science, theology, and applied science. Lima
870
PERU
possesses a school of mines and civil engineering, created in 1874, Avith good
collections and laboratories. There are in the capital and in some of the
principal towns private high schools under the direction of English, German,
and Italian staffs. Lima has also a public library, besides the one of the
university and school of mines. There are two minor universities at CUZ90
and Arequipa.
Finance.
The public revenue is mainly derived from customs. A direct tax is
levied, at the rate of 3 per cent., on the rent derived from real property.
In 1896 the collection of the dues on alcohol, opium, tobacco, and stamps
was farmed out for two years to a company, which should pay to the
Government 126,734 soles per month and half the profits over that amount ;
this contract has been renewed for five years, during which the Government
will receive 75 per cent, of the profits instead of half. In the same year
salt was declared to be a Government monopoly, the proceeds from which
shall be devoted exclusively to the ransom of Tacna and Arica.
The revenue and expenditure for the year 1896 (ended May 31), and the
estimates for 1897 and 1898 were as follows in soles (10 soles == 11.).
1S96
1S97 1898
Revenue
Expenditure .
Soles
9,826,196
9,064,255
Soles
10,721,520
11,308,240
Soles
10,785,850
11,488,240
Theoflficial statement for 1896 showed an apparent surplus of 751,941 soles,
but there was in reality a deficit of 876,588 soles arising from former deficits
and from extraordinary expenditure for the suppression of insurrection. To
meet this deficiency and those anticipated for 1897 and for 1898, the Govern-
ment has been authorised to raise a sum not exceeding 1,500,000 soles, and
it is proposed to arrange with the Tax Collection Company for the service
and redemption of this loan.
For 1898 the revenue and expenditure were estimated as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
Branches of Expenditure
Customs .
Taxes
Salt Mono])()ly
Posts and Telegraphs
Various .
Total
Soles I
6,320,000 Congi-ess.
2,167,410 Ministry of Interior
1,130,440
272,000
896,000
10,785,850
Foreign Affairs
Justice
Finance .
War, Marine
Public Works ,
Total
Soles
364,370
2,656,200
644,760
1,265,450
3,086,000
, 3,214,320
257,140
11,488,240
DKFENCE — INDUSTRY S71
The Ibicign debt of Peru was made up of two loans, contracted in England
in 1870 and 1872 :—
£
Railway 6 per cent, loan of 1870 .... 11,141,580
„ 5 percent, loan of 1872 .... 20,437,500
Total .... 31,579,080
These two loans were secured on the guano deposits (now in possession
of Chile) and the general resources of Peru. No interest having been paid
on the foreign debt since 1876, the arrears in 1889 amounted to 22,998,651Z.
In January, 1890, by the final ratification of the Grace-Donoughmore contract,
Pern was released of all responsibility for the two loans, and the bondholders had
ceded to them all the railways, guano deposits, mines, and lands of the State
for 66 years. In 1882, and subsequently, arrangements were made with Chile
that a portion of the proceeds of the guano deposits should be paid as interest
to the bondholders, but certain disputed claims have delayed the settlement.
For the consolidation of the internal debt the issue of 40,000,000 soles in
bonds, bearing interest at the rate of 1 per cent, per annum, was authorised
in 1889, and 36,174,150 soles were issued. The total amount redeemed
(1897) is 9,416,000 soles. During the late civil war the payment of interest
and the amortisation were suspended. The interest payments have been
resumed, but not the redemijtion. The total internal obligations are estim-
ated (1898) at 47,591,760 soles, including the interest-bearing funded debt,
and other claims on the Treasury whether recognised or still under examin-
ation.
Defence.
The army, in time of peace, is composed of six battalions of infantry,
numbering 2,086 officers and men ; of two regiments of cavalry, numbering
622 officers and men ; of two brigades of artillery, numbering 449 officers
and men, forming a total of 3,157 men. Four officers have been sent by the
French Government for the purpose of re-organising the army. A military
school has l)een opened at Chorillos, near Lima. There is also a police force
numbering between 2,000 and 3,000 men.
The Peruvian navy now consists of one cruiser of 1,700 tons displace-
ment, a screw steamer, and 10 various small vessels of no real value.
Industry.
The chief productions of Peru are cotton, coffee, and sugar. The cotton
exports reached 5,586 tons in 1897. The chief coffee -growing districts are
those of Chanchamayo, Perene and Paucatambo in Central Peru, where the
Peruvian Corporation has done much useful colonising work. The concession
to the Corporation comprises about 5,000,000 acres, but the labour and trans-
port difficulties in the tropical forest region are serious. The export of coffee
in 1897 was 1,239 tons. The sugar industry is carried on chiefly in the coast
region. The total area devoted to sugar cultivation is about 187,000 acres,
of which 95,000 are planted with cane. The production in 1897 aniountcd
to 105,000 tons. Cocoa, rice (4,222 tons in 1897), tobacco, wines and siurits,
maize, are also produced. The most important coca growing district is in
the province of Otuzco in the department of La Libertad, where there are 9
coca estates with, altogether, about 2,700,000 coca trees. Besides, there are
in the country indiarubber, cinchona, dyes, medicinal plants, and the alpaca
and vicuna. The guano deposits on Huanillos, Punta Lobos, Pabellon de
Pica, and the island of Lobos de Afuera, have been delivered over to the
Peruvian Corporation by the Chilian Government.
872
PERU
The number of mining claims of all kinds in 1897 was 3,475, including
gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, quicksilver, coal, salt, sulphur, and petro-
leum. Many of the claims, however, are unworked. Gold is found in most
of the departments of Peru, but mining operations are now, in general,
attended with little success. Many gold fields have been abandoned or are
worked only by natives. In the department of Junin the mines of Cerro de
Pasco, a ridge of gravelly sand, yield 31 to 52 grm. to the metric ton. Other
important silver mines in active working are those at Caylloma, Castrovireina,
and Recuay. The silver produced and melted into bars at Cerro de Pasco
was, in 1891, 159,629 marks (the mark ^ 8oz.); in 1892, 163,019 marks;
in 1893, 166,480 marks; in 1894, 148,759 marks; in 1895, 174,866 marks ;
in 1896, 158,386 marks. The total silver production of Peru in 1896 is put
at 3,300,000 oz. In 1897 the production of bar silver was estimated at
3,980,000 soles (1 sol. =24d) ; silver sulphides, 3,500,000 soles, and silver
ores, 2,250,000 soles ; total silver, 9,730,000 soles. In 1897 the gold,
copper, and lead exported amounted to 700,000 soles. Exports of silver not
included in these figures probably amount to 600,000 soles, so that the total
mineral produce in 1897 is about 11,000,000 soles.
Anthracite and bituminous coal fields are reported to exist in the province
of Hualgayoe, about 120 miles from Pascamayo, and deposits of coal are
known in the Huamachuco and other districts. Railways for the develop-
ment of the coal fields are under consideration.
Commerce.
The foreign commerce of Peru, which is chiefly with Great Britain
and Germany, is carried on from several ports, of which the principal are
Callao, Paita, Eten, Salaverry.. Chimbote, Pisco, and Mollendo. In 1897 the
imports amounted to 18,004,048 soles, and the exports to 31,025,382 soles ;
1896, imports, 17,505,148 soles ; exports, 25,473,663 soles. The chief exports
are sugar, silver and silver ore, copper and copper ore, cotton, Avool, rubber,
cocaine and coca leaves ; of cocaine 4,206 kilogrammes, and of coca leaves
493,679 kilogrammes, were exported in 1897, valued together at 1,173,066
soles.
The imports into Peru, are mainly from Great Britain (over one-third),
Germany (about one-sixth), France, (about one-ninth), Chile, and the
United States. The exports are mostly to Great Britain (more than half),
and Chile (about one-fourth). According to a statement by the Minister
of Finance, the imports from Great Britain in 1897 amounted to 6,831,969
soles, and the exports to Great Britain, to 15,648,310 soles. (In conversions
of trade figures by the Peruvian Government the sol. = 48(^. ).
The commercial intercourse between Peru and the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement, for each of the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
£
1,371,088
681,401
1896
1897
Imports into United
Kingdom from Peru
Exports of British
produce to Peru .
£
1,399,287
790,693
£
1,070,949
554,018
£
1,288,383
902,086
£
1,453,627
728,211
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
873
The quantities and value of the iinpoits of guano into Great Britain from
Peru in the last six years were as follows : —
—
1892
1893
1894
1895
29,560
260,901
1896
1897
Quantities, tons
Value . £
13,767
109,422
9,220
41,029
17,556
81,546
4,834
21,576
6,680
30,675
Imports into the United Kingdom from Peru are : — sugar, 1,380,622Z.
in 1879; 477,979Z. in 1896; 425, 66U. in 1897 ; sheep and alpaca wool,
302,743^. in 1896; 300,759^. in 1897; raw cotton, 162,046^. in 1896;
157,213Z. in 1897; copper ore and copper, 49,294^. in 1896; 105,790 in
1897; silver ore, 90,157^. in 1896; 169,765^. in 1897; nitre, 10,010^. in
1896 ; 5,7661. 1897.
The chief exports from Great Britain to Peru are : — cotton goods, 455,424Z.
in 1896 ; 327,412Z. in 1897 ; woollens, 113,440Z. in 1896 ; 105,466^. in 1897 ;
iron, wrought and unwrought, 64,570Z. in 1896; 60,474Z. in 1897;
machinery, 63,066^. in 1896 ; 45,387Z. in 1897.
Shipping and Navigation.
At the port of Callao in 1897, of vessels of over 50 tons, 492 vessels of
600,049 tons (196 vessels of 307,597 tons British) entered, and 503 vessels
of 618,677 tons (199 of 313,992 tons British) cleared. There entered
also 889 vessels, under 50 tons, of 10,966 tons. At Trujillo there entered
(1896) 284 vessels of 446,520 tons (156 of 310,692 tons British).
The merchant navy of Peru in 1896 consisted of 36 vessels of over
50 tons, their aggregate tonnage being 9,953 tons, and 96 vessels under 50
tons, their aggregate being 1,246 tons.
Internal Communications.
Good roads and bridges are required all over the countr3^ A road is
being constructed from La Merced in Chanchamayo to the Pichis River, by
which communication with the Amazon will be established ; on this road a
large sum has been spent, but the result, so far, is unsatisfactory. A carriage
road is to be made from Oroya, the terminus of the Central Railway, to
Cerro de Pasco, 66 miles, where at present the sole means of transport is
by llamas, horses, and mules. The construction of a carriage road from
Sicuani, the railway terminus, to Cuzco is far advanced.
In 1895 the total working length of the Peruvian railways was 924
miles, of which 800 miles belong to the State. The Peruvian railways,
including those ceded to Chile, cost al)out 36 millions sterling.
The length of State telegraph lines in 1897 was 1,400 miles, and of the
Corporation lines, 533 miles. Then*, are 48 telegraph ofliccs. In 1896,
88,326, and in 1897, 121,492 telegrams were despatched. The telegraph
cables laid on the west coast of America have stations at Paita, Callao,
Lima, and Mollendo, and thus Peru is placed in direct communication witli
the telegraphic system of the world. A telephone .system has a network
of 2,300 miles.
874
PERU
In 1897, 12,760,771 letters, post-cards, newspapers, &c., passed through
the Post Office ; there are 320 offices. Revenue (1897) 259,478 soles, exclu-
sive of a balance of 9,769 soles for former year from local offices ; expenditure,
261,360 soles.
Money and Credit.
The silver coined in the 12 years 1874-85 amounted to the nominal value
of 9,841,582 soles ; that coined in the 12 years 1886-97, to 30,669,099 soles.
For each of the last three years the value was : 1895, 4,150,966 soles ; 1896,
2,704,031 soles; 1897, 429,807 soles. In 1897 the mint was closed to the
coinage of silver, and the importation of all silver coin prohibited. Measures
have been taken for the conversion of silver coin into bars, to be exchanged
for gold, the cost to be defrayed {pro tanto) by a surcharge on duties paid in
silver. The executive is also authorised to coin money of the same weight
and fineness as the English sovereign, and to accept English sovereigns and
national gold coin as equal to 10 soles, the ratio being thus 31 to 1. The new
gold coin will probably be made the monetary unit. Up to June 1, 1898
about 150,000 sovereigns had been imported, and about 23,000 Peruvian
pounds, or libras, had been coined but not put in circulation.
In Peru there are three commercial banks : the Bank of Peru and London,
with a paid-up capital of 2,000,000 soles; the Italian Bank, paid-up
capital, 750,000 soles ; and the International Bank of Peru, paid-up capital,
500,000 soles. There is also a Savings Bank, with deposits amounting to
over 1,000,000 soles. The condition of these four banks, collectively, on
December 31, 1897, was as follows : —
Assets :
Soles.
Liabilities :
Soles.
Cash ....
5,135,839
Paid-up capital .
3,250,000
Advances, bills, securi-
Current accounts.
. 11,266,777
ties ....
11,320,342
Drafts pending .
11,500
Bank premises .
411,814
Rebate on bills .
46,647
Advances for Mortgage
7,100
Fixed deposits .
. 2,919,751
Liability of branches
Reserve Fund
160,992
to head office .
263,277
Profit and Loss .
204,158
Due from Banks in
liquidation
675,551
Installation account .
45,897
17,859,820
17,859,820
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Sol = 100
Peseta = 20, Eeal
centavos ; actual value, about 2s.
= 10, Medio Eeal = 5 centavus.
3Ieclio Sol = 50.
The Ounce ....
,, Libra ....
,, Quintal ....
. , r of 25 pounds
" ^01 wine or spirits
,, Gallon ....
,, Vara ....
,, Square Vara ,
1*014 ounce avoirdupois.
1-014 11).
101-44 lbs.
25-36 „
6-70 imperial gallons.
0-74 ,, gallon.
0 -927 yard.
0 -859 square yard.
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 875
Tlic French metric system of weights and measures was est.ihlislied hy
law in 1860, but has not yet come into general use, except for the customs
taritt'.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Peru in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Jose F. Canevaro,
Secretary. — Don Wenceslao Melendez.
Co7isul- General (London). — Edward Leml)cke.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Cardiff, Duhlin, Dundee,
Glasgow, *Livcrpool, Queenstown, Southampton.
2. Of Great Britain in Perti,
Minister mid Consul-General. — William Nelthorpo Beauclerk.
There are a Consul and Yice-Consul at Callao, a Consul at Iquitos,
Vice-Consuls at Lima, Payta, Lambayeque, Arequipa, Mollendo, Pisco, a
Vice-Cousul for Trujillo and Salaverry, one for Poronc and Chanchamayo
districts, and a Consular Agent at Cerro de Pasco.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Peru.
1, Official Publications.
Deinarcacion politica del Peru. Edicion oficial de la direccion de estadistica. Fol.
Lima, 1874.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Diccionario geografico-estadistico del Peru : Contiene
adeuias la etiiaologia Ajniiara y Quechua de las principales poblaciones, lagos, rios, cerros,
Ac. 8. Lima, 1879.
Peru. No. 60 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washington,
1892.
Raimondi (Antonio), El Peru. 3 vols. Published at Lima, 1874.
American Consular Reports for April 1895. "Washington.
Rei>ort by Sir C. Mansfield on the auriferous deposits of Peru. No. 107 of 'Reports on
Subjects of General and Commercial Importance.* 1890.
Reports on the Trade of Peru in Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
Trade of Peru with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom witli Foreign Countries and British Possessions Imp. 4 London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Albertini (L. E.), Perou en 1878. Paris, 1878.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Chrrot (A.), Le PiTOU : Productions, guano, commerce, finances, &c. 8. Paris, 1S7G.
CJnrfc (E. B.), Twelve Months in Peru. 8. London, 1891.
Crommelin (May), Over the Andes from Chili to Peru. London, 1895.
Duffield (A.), Peru in the Guano Age. 8. London, 1877.
El Econoinista. Weekly. Lima.
Evann (V. F.), From Peru to the Plato. S. London, 1889
Fwfnffg (Manuel A.), Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru : Historical, Statistical,
Administrative, Commercial, and Moral. 8. London, ISCti,
Grandidler (E.), Voyage clans TAnu'rique du Sud, Pirou et Bolivie. 8. Paris, 1863.
Guillaume (II.), The Amazon Provinces of Peru as a Field for European Emigration,
London, 1888.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peni and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Hutchinson (T. J.), Two Years in Peru. 2 vols. S. London, 1874.
Miirkham (C. R.), Cuzco and Lima. London, 1868.
ilarkham (C. R.), Pcni. Loudon, ISSl.
876 PERU
Markham (C. R.), The War between Peru and Chili, 1879-81. London, 1883.
Markham (Clements R.), Travels in Peru and India, while superintending the Collection
of Cinchona Plants and Seeds in South America, and their Introduction into India. 8.
London, 1862.
Menendez (D. Baldomero), Manuel de geografia y estadistica del Peru. 12. Paris, 1862.
Middendorf (E. W.), Peru : Beobachtungen und Studien liber Das Land und Seine
Bewohnern, wahrend eines 25 Jahrigen Aufenthalls. Berlin, 1893.
Ordinaire (Olivier), Du Pacifique a I'Atlantique par les Andes peruviennes etl'Amazone.
12. Paris, 1892.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Historia del Peru Independente. 3 vols.
Pradier-Fodere (C), Lima et ses environs. Paris, 1897.
Prcscott (W. H.), History of the Conquest of Peru. London.
Squier (E. G.), Peru : Incidents of Travels and Exploration in the Land of the Incas. 8.
London, 1877.
Temple (Edmond), Travels in various Parts of Peru. 2 vols. London, 1830.
Tschudi (Joh. Jakob von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 5 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866-68.
Ursel (Comte C. d'), Sud Amerique : Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie, ef'au Perou.
12. Paris, 1879.
Wappaeus (Joh. Eduard), Die Republic Peru ; in Stein's ' Handbuch der Geographic und
Statistik.' Part III. 8. Leipzig, 1864.
Wiener (Charles), Perou et Bolivie. Paris, 1880.
877
PORTUGAL.
(Reino de Portugal e Algarves.)
Reigning King.
Carlos I., born September 28, 1863, son of King Luiz Land
his Queen Maria Pia, daughter of the late King Yittorio Emanuele
of Italy, who still survives ; married. May 22, 1886, Marie Amelie,
daughter of Philippe Due d' Orleans, Comte de Paris : succeeded to
the throne October 19, 1889. Offspring : — I. Luiz Fhilippe, Duke
of Braganza, born March 21, 1887. II. Manuel, born November
15, 1889.
Brother of the King. — Prince Affonso Henriques, Duke of
Oporto, born July 31, 1865.
Aunt of the King. — Princess Antonia, born February 17, 1845 ;
married, September 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen, born September 22, 1835. Offspring of the union
are three sons: — 1. Prince Wilhelm, born March 7, 1864. 2.
Prince Ferdinand, born August 24, 1865. 3. Prince Karl, born
September 1, 1868.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of Braganza,
which dates from the end of the fourteenth century, at which period Alfonso,
an illegitimate son of King Joao, or John I., was created by his father
Count of Barcellos, Lord of Guimaraes, and by King Atfonso V., Duke of
Braganza (1442). When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the House of
Avis, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his successor.
Cardinal Henrique, Philip II. of Spain became King of Portugal in virtue of
his descent from a Portuguese princess. After 60 years' union under the same
kings with Spain, the people of Portugal revolted, and proclaimed Dom Joao,
the then Duke of Braganza, as their national king, he being the nearest
Portuguese heir to the throne. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of
Joao IV., to which Portuguese historians appended the title of 'the Restorer.'
From this Joao the present rulers of Portugal are descended. Queen
Maria II., by her marriage with a Prince of Coburg-Gotha, Fernando, Duke
of Saxe, united the House of Braganza with that of the Teutonic Sovereigns.
Carlos I. is the third Sovereign of Portugal of the line of Braganza- Coburg.
Carlos I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis ; while his consort has a
grant of 60,000 milreis. The whole grants to the royal family amount to
525,800 milreis.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns of Portugal since its conquest
from the Moors : —
PORTUGAL
A.D.
A.D.
1097
rhilipll. .
1598
1140
rhiiipiii. .
1621
1185
1211
IV. House of Braganza.
1223
1248
Joan IV., 'the Restoi
er
' 1640
1279
Affouso VI.
1656
1325
Pedro II. .
1683
1357
Joan V, . . ,
Jose
1706
1750
1367
Maria I. and Pedro III
Maria I. .
Joan, Regent
1777
1786
1799
1385
Joan VI. .
1816
1433
Pedro IV. .
1826
1438
Maria II.
1826
1481
Miguel I. .
1828
1495
Maria II., restored
. 1834
1521
1557
V. House of Braganza-
Cohurg.
1578
Pedro V. .
1853
Lniz I. . , .
1861
1580
Carlos I.
1889
878
I. House of Burgundy.
Henri of Burgundy
Affonso I., ' the Conqueror '
Sancho I., 'the Colonizer'
Affonso II., 'the Fat
Sancho II., ' Capel' .
Affouso III., 'the Bolonian'
Diniz, ' the Farmer ' .
Affonso IV., 'the Brave' .
Pedro, 'the Severe'
Ferdinando I., 'the Hand-
some ' . . . .
I i . House of Avis.
Joan I., 'of Happy memory'
Duarte ....
Affonso V,, ' the African ' .
Joan II., 'the Perfect'
Manoel, ' the Fortunate '
Joan III, ....
Sebastian, ' the Desired '
Cardinal Henrique
III. TJie Spanish Dynasty.
Philip I. (II. of Spain)
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental law of the Kingdom is the ' Constitutional
Charter ' granted by King Pedro IV., April 29, 1826, altered by
the additional Acts, dated July 5, 1852, July 24, 1885, and by
laws of 1895 (March 28, September 25). The crown is heredi-
tary in the female as well as male line ; but with preference of the
male in case of equal birthright. The Constitution recognises
four powers in the State, the legislative, the executive, the judicial,
and the ' moderating ' authority, the last of which is vested in the
Sovereign. There are two legislative Chambers, the ' Camara dos
Pares,' or House of Peers, and the * Camara dos Deputados,' or
House of Commons, which are conjunctively called the Cortes
Geraes. The law of July 24, 1885, provided for the abolition of
hereditary peerages, though only by a gradual process. The law
of March 28, 1895, made without the concurrence of the
Parliament, alters considerably the past constitution of the two
houses. The number of life peers appointed by the King will be
90, not including princes of the royal blood and the 12 bishops
of the Continental dioceses. The nominated peers, who must be
over 40 years of age, may be selected without limitation as to
class, but certain restrictions and disqualifications are imposed.
The elective portion of the Chamber ceases to exist. The
members of the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by
all citizens twenty-one years of age who can read and write, or
AREA AND POPULATION 879
who pay taxes amounting to 500 reis : convicts, bankrupts,
beggars, domestic servants, workmen in the Government service,
and non-commissioned soldiers are not electors; electors must
register themselves. The deputies must have an income of at
least 400 milreis per annum ; but lawyers, professors, physicians,
or the graduates of any of the learned professions, need no
property qualification. Peers and certain Government employees
cannot be deputies, and deputies cannot accept any paid employ-
ment from Government during the session or 6 months after.
Continental Portugal is divided into 17 electoral districts, which,
with Madeira and the Azores, return 114 deputies, or 1 deputy to
45,000 people ; there are also 6 deputies for the Colonies. The
annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections must take
place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolution a
new Parliament must be called together immediately. But from
November 1894 to January 1895 the Parliament did not meet.
The General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto
on a law passed twice by both Houses. A committee composed
of members of the two houses decides in case of conflict, the
King having the final decision if the committee does not come
to a decision.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a responsible Cabinet
of seven ministers, as follows (August 18, 1898) : —
Premier and Minister of the Interior. — Jos(* Luciano de Castro.
Foreign Affairs. — F. A. da Veiga Beirdo.
Finance. — M. A. Esprcgucira.
Justice and Worship. — J. iL d'AIpoim.
War. — General Sebastiiio Custodio de Sousa Tellcs.
Marine and Colonies. — A. E. Villa<;a.
Public Works, Industry, and Commerce. — E. J. de Sousa Brito.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important eases, to take the advice of a
Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting, when full, of thirteen ordinary
and three extraordinary members, nominated for life. The leading ministci-s,
past and jiresent, generally form part of the Privy Council,
Area and Population.
Continental Portugal was divided into six natural provinces,
and is now divided into seventeen districts ; in addition there
are the Azores (3 districts) and Madeira (1 district), which
are regarded as an integral part of the Kingdom. The area,
according to the latest official geodetic data, and the de facto
population, according to the census of January 1, 1878, and of
December 1, 1890, are given in the following table : —
880
PORTUGAL
Provinces and Districts
Area in
sq. miles
Population
Per
sq. mile
1890
1878
1890
Entre Minho-e-Douro : —
Vianna do Castello
Braga
Porto
Tras-os-Montes :—
Villa Real
Braganza
Beira : —
Aveiro
Vizeu
Coimbra ....
Guarda
Castello Branco ....
Estremadura : —
Leiria
Santarem
Lisbon
Alemtejo : —
Portalegre
Evora
Beja
Algarve (Faro) ....
Total Continent
Islands :—
Azores
Madeira (FunehaJ) ....
Total Islands ....
Grand total ....
1
867
1,058
882
201,390
319,464
461,881
207,366
338,308
546,262
239-3
319-8
617-1
2,807
982,735
1,091,936
353-4
1,718
2,575
224,628
168,651
237,302
179,678
138-3
69-6
4,293
393,279
416,980
97 1
1,124
1,920
1,500
2,146
2,. 558
257,049
371,571
292,037
228,494
173,983
287,437
391,015
316,624
250,154
205,211
255-8
202-5
211-1
116-5
80-3
156-8
9,248
1,323,134
1,450,441
1,343
2,651
2,882
192,982
2-J0,881
498,059
217,278
2.54,844
611,168
161-9
96-0
2-24-8
6,876
911,922
1,083,290
157-5
2,484
2,7.38
4,209
101,126
106,858
142,119
112,834
118,408
157,571
45-3
43-2
37-5
9,431
350,103
388,813
228,635
41-2
1,873
199,142
1220
34,528
4,160,315
4,660,095
135-7
1,005
505
259,800
130,584
255,594
134,040
254-3
426-0
1,510
390,384
389,634
5,049,729
314-9
36,038
4,550,699
141-9
In 1890 the population consisted of 2,430,339 males and 2,619,390
females, or 108 females to every hundred males. In the 14 years, 1864 to
1878, the poinilation increased by 362,289, or at the yearly rate of '62 per
cent, of the population in 1864 ; in the 12 years 11 months, 1878 to 1890, the
increase was 499,030, or at the yearly rate of -85 per cent, of the population in
1878. In 1878 the continental urhan population numbered 1,174,876 or 28'2
percent, while the rural numliered 2,985,439 or 7r8 per cent., the island
urban and rural population being respectively 38-2 and 61-8 per cent. In
1890 the continental urban population was 1,445,032 or 31 '0 per cent, and
the rural 3,215,063 or 69 0 per cent, the island urban and rural being
respectively 37 "4 and 02-6 per cent. Thus, on the continent the urban popu°
MOVEMENT OF THE POPULATION — RELIGION
881
lation has increased at the expense of the rural ; in tlie islands the reverse
has been the case.
The chief towns with their population in 1890 were : Lisbon, 301,206 ;
Oporto, 138,860 ; Braga, 23,089 ; Funchal (Madeira), 18,778 ; Setubal,
17,581 ; Covilha, 17,562 ; Coimbra, 16,985 ; Ponta Delgada (Azores), 16,767 ;
Evora, 15,134 ; Povoa de Varzim, 12,057 ; Tavira, 11,558; Angra (Azores),
11,067; Ovar, 11,002.
Movement of the Population.
In 1896 there were 33,018 marriages, including 2,433 in the Azores and
Madeira. The average for 1896 was 6*54 marriages per 1,000 of population.
The numbers of births and deaths in Continental Portugal and the Azores
and Madeira for two years have been as follows : —
—
Births
Deaths
Legiti-
mate
Illegiti-
mate
Total Total
1895 1896
1805
1896
Continent
Islands
Totals .
124,333
12,605
18,822
645
143,155
13,250
144,530
13,335
99,904
8,531
110,970
8,761
J36,938
19,467
156,405 157,865
108,435
119,731
The birth rate in 1896 was 31*24 per 1,000; the death rate 23-71 per
1,000. The rate of natural increase was 7 '53 per 1,000. In earlier years the
births were: 1891, 162.051 ; 1892, 159,205 ; 1893, 164,141; 1894, 153 971
Deaths: 1891, 115,610 ; 1892, 103,587; 1893, 109,931 ; 1894, 107,450.
The number of emigrants from Portugal from 1866 to 1890 was 359,517.
From 1878 to 1890 it was 275,442. For the last six years the emigration has
been as follows : —
Years
Europe
Asia
Africa
America
Oceania
Total
Brazil ' .Oth,«^
Countries
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
351
302
290
252
327
355
7
10
6
2
3
1,574
1.189
1,252
1,402
1,239
1,145
29,630 ' 2,024
17,321 2,252
25,130 2,659
25,074 1,618
40,676 1.885
24,212 2,249
5
6
15
C17
16
33,585
21,074
30,383
29,261
44,746
27,080
Religion.
The Roman Catholic faith is the State religion ; but all other forms of
worship are tolerated. Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira, is
divided into three ecclesiastical provinces, with their seats at Lisbon, I3rar'a
and Evora ; the lirst is under the jurisdiction of a Patriarcli, the otheis of
Archbishops. The Patriarcli of Lisbon, if not a Cardinal at the time of liis
nomination, receives that dignity as .soon as a i)lace lieconies vacant in the
Holy College. Tiie Archltishop of Braga bears the title of Primate. The
ecclesiastical provinces are divided into 14 dioceses. The Portuguese colonial
o L
882 PORTUGAL
possessions of West Africa constitute parts of the ecclesiastical province of
Lisbon.
The total income of the upper hierarchy of the Church is calculated to
amount to 300,000 niilreis. There are 93,979 parishes, each under the
charge of a presbitero, or incumbent. All the conventual establishments of
Portugal were suppressed by decree of May 28, 1834, and their property con-
fiscated for the benefit of the State. At that period there existed in the
country 632 monasteries and 118 nunneries, with above 18,000 monks and
nuns, and an annual income of nearly a million sterling. This revenue was
applied to the redemption of the national debt ; while a library of 30,000
volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco, at Lisbon, from
the collections of books and manuscripts at the various monasteries. The
number of Protestants in Portugal, mostly foreigners, does not exceed 500.
They have chapels at Lisbon and Oporto.
Instruction.
By a law enacted in 1844, primary education is compulsory; but this pre-
scription is far from being enforced, and only a small fraction of the children
of the lower classes really attend school. According to census results the
proportion of the population (including children) that could not read in 1878
was 82*4 per cent. ; in 1890, 79 '2 per cent. In 1890 there were 5,339 public
and private primary schools or 10 "6 per 10,000 of population, the number
of pupils being 237,791 or 471 per 10,000 of population. There were 175
primary schools for adults with 6,774 pupils. Normal schools for the train-
ing of teachers are being gradually created in the chief towns. Secondary
instruction is regulated by a law of December, 1894. There are 24 State
lycees (one in the chief town of each district, and also at Amarante, Guima-
raes, and Lamego) with (in 1897) 3,468 pupils ; a military college with (1898)
213 pupils ; many private secondary schools ; 18 seminaries (clerical) with
(1897) 2,262 pupils. Commercial, industrial, and general education is sup-
plied in 28 industrial schools with (1897) 3,429 students, 2 commercial
elementary schools, and 2 higher technical schools at Lisbon and Oporto with
(1897) 812 students.
For higher instruction there are polytechnic schools at Lisbon and Oporto,
the former with (1898) 442, and the latter with 273 students; schools of
medicine at Lislion (289 students), and Oporto (290 students) ; a school of
agriculture at Lisbon with 104 students ; a military school (177 students) ; a
naval school (56 students) ; a high school of letters (57 students) ; a school of
fine art at Lisbon (303 students) and one at Oporto (105 students) ; a Con-
ser\atorio at Lisbon for nnisic and dramatic art with 489 students. The
University of C^oimbra (founded in 1290), has faculties of theologj' (57
students in 1898), law (602 students), medicine (195), mathematics (179), and
philosophy (340 students).
The expenditure on Public Instruction, according to the budget of 1898-99,
is 1,178,593 milreis, exclusive of 91,166 milreis to be expended through the
War and Marine ministries.
Justice and Crime.
The Kint'dom is divided for judicial jmrposes into coniarcas ; in every
comarca there is a court of first instance. More than half of the chief towns
are seats of such courts. There are three courts of appeal (Tribunaes de
Relagao), at Lisbon, Oporto and Ponta Pelgada (Azores), and a Supreme
Court in Lisbon.
FINANCE
883
The iiumbei' of ])ersoiis convicted of crime iu the years 1891-95 was : —
Years
Persons Convicted
Males
Females Total
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
13,778
13,514
14,806
13,078
14,588
3,372
3,355
3,800
3,656
3,892
17,150
16,869
18,606
16,734
18,480
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure for six years were : —
Years ; Revenue
Expenditure
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Milreis
1891-92 38,643,209
1892-93 41,875,869
1893-94 46,104,788
Jlilreis i
54,947,083 '
48,013,398 1
46,461,638 I
1894-95
1895-96
1896-97
Milreis
46,519,932
53,179,020
50,711,536
Milreis
48,602,870
54,591,648
57,516,358
For the year 1897-98 the revenue was estimated at 55,105,878 milreis,
and the expenditure at 55,034,844 milreis ; for 1898-99, revenue, 52,805,942
milreis; expenditure, 52,655,037 milreis.
The following are the estimates for 1899-1900 : —
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes .
Registration and Stamps
Indirect taxes.
Additional taxes
National property
sundries
Receipts d'ordre
Total ordinary .
Extraordinary
and
Milreis
11,891,601
5,277,500
24,301,830
1,122,200
4,674,540
3,505,910
50,773,581
1,600,000
Total .
Deficit .
52,373,581
1,545,715
Branches of Expenditure
Civil list, Cortes, and
^''arious
Consolidated debt .
Loss on exchange .
Ministry of Finance
,, ,, Interior
,, ,, Justice, &c, .
,, War .
., ,, Marine and
Colonies .
,, ,, Foreign Affairs
,, ,, PublicWorks.
&c. .
9,
18,
3,
2,
1,
5,
4,
Deposits
Milreis
755,918
124,354
500,000
702,007
400,594
002,578
973,128
272,054
346,097
,460,990
69,337
Total ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
51,607,057
2,312,239
53,919,296
The following are statistics of the Portuguese National Debt, showing its
aniitunt at various periods : —
3 L 2
884
PORTUGAL
Year
3 7o Consolidated Fund
Aniortisable
Floating Debt
Internal
External
6 7=
5 7o,4rL 4 7o
and various
1853
1863
1873
1883
1890
Milreis
25,704,627
90,053,802
204,507,489
235,681,119
258,086,897
Milreis
3,667,435
17,182,619
31,571,908
43,513,350
46,366,759
Milreis
2,034,000
16,273,3601
Milreis
1,377,270
53,614,890
104,172,464 2
Milreis
19,565,172 '
1 Paid up by conversion.
All the old 5 % debt is converted into 4i 7o bonds.
Ill 1891 the finances became quite deranged, and steps were taken for the
reduction of the amount of interest payable. The law of February 26, 1892,
reduced by 30 per cent, the interest on the internal public debt payable in
currency, and that of April 20, 1893, reduced by 66| per cent, the interest on
the external debt to be paid in gold.
In 1898 (according to the Report of the Council of the Corporation of
Foreign Bondholders) the outstanding debt of Portugal was as follows ; —
£
External 3 per cent. Consolidated . . . 38,504,551
,, 4 ,, ,, Redeemable . . . 1,817,009
4^ ,, ,, ,, ... 12,760,348
,, 4| ,, ,, Tobacco Loan . , . 9,024,600
Total external .
Internal, 3 per cent, (quoted in London)
Total . . . ,
Also outstanding :
Internal, at 4 and 4 J per cent.
Stated to be in hands of Government :
External, at 3, 4, and 4^ per cent.
. Internal, at 3 and 4 percent.
62,106,508
58,761,423
120,867,931
6,158,204
3,286,558
26,782,391
30,068,949
The floating debt in January, 1898, amounted to 58,576,400 milreis.
Defence.
The fortified places of the first class in Portugal are Lisbon (with the forta
of Monsanto, San Juliao-da-Barra, and other defensive works), Elvas and
Angra (Azores). The defences of Lisbon, now almost complete, are the only
thoroughly modern ones.
The army is formed partly by voluntary enlistment and partly by conscrip-
tion. The conscription is regulated liy the law of 1887, modified in 1891,
1892, 1894, 1895, and 1896. All young men of twenty-one years of age are,
with certain exceptions, obliged to serve. The period of service extends over
twclyo years, of which three years are spent in the active army, five vears in
the first reserve, and four in the second reserve. Tlie number'of men in tl)'
PRODTTCTION AND INDUSTRY 885
annual contingent is fixed each v(^ar by the Cortes ; for 1898 the number was
16,500.
The organisation of the army is based on the law of October 30, 1884,
modified by laws of 1888, 1890, 1895, 1896, and 1897. Continental Portugal
is divided into 4 military districts, and the islands into 4 military commands.
The army consists of 24 regiments of infantry, 12 regiments of chasseurs,
10 regiments of cavalry, 3 regiments of field, 1 regiment of mountain, and 2
regiments and 4 companies of garrison artillery, 1 regiment of engineers,
besides administration and sanitary services. The peace effective (including
the Municipal Guards at Lisbon and Oporto, and the Fiscal Guard) is 35,337
men and 4,892 horses and mules. The war effective is 160,000 men, 18,000
horses and mules, and 276 guns. There are maintained in the Colonies 9,478
officers and men, the greater number being native troops.
The navy of Portugal comprises : — 1 old armoured vessel, the Vasco da
Gama; 5 protected cruisers, built and building (1,800 to 4,100 tons), 2
modern third class cruisers, 4 old vessels of the same class, 26 various gun-
boats, including 10 for river service, and 15 first class and 30 smaller torpedo
boats. The fleet is being gradually expanded, in part through the patriotic
effort of a national defence committee, which has raised a fund for the pur-
pose. A small cruiser, the Adamastor (1,933 tons), has been launched at
Leghorn, and two gunboats at Ginjal. A cruiser of 1,660 tons, the Rainha
Amelia, is in hand at Lisbon, and two others of 1,800 tons, the Sao
Gabriel and Sao Raphael, were launched at Havre in 1898, while the Dom
Carlos I., 4,100 tons, is completing at Elswick. Two coast-defence vessels
are also in hand.
The Dom Carlos I. is a cruiser 360 feet long, with 46 ft. 6 in. beam and
17 ft. 6 in. draught, liaving a 4 in. protection deck, and a speed of 22 knots,
and carrying four 6 in., eight 4 7 in., twelve 3 pr., and six smaller quick-
firers, besides machine guns. She has five torpedo tubes.
The only ironclad of the Portuguese navy is the Va^co da Gama, built
at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall, and launched in December 1875. She
is plated with armour 11 inches thick on central battery, and a belt from 10
to 7 inches thick, and carries 2 18-ton guns, 1 4-ton, 2 Hotchkiss, quick-
firing guns, and 2 machine guns. Her displacement is 2,420 tons, and her
speed 13 knots.
Production and Industry.
Of the whole area of Portugal 2 "2 per cent, is under vineyards ; 7 "2 per
cent, under fruit trees ; 12 "5 per cent, under cereals ; 27 per cent, under
pulse and other crops; 267 per cent, pasture and fallow; and 2*9 per
cent, under forest; 45*8 per cent, waste. In Alemtejo and Estremadura
and the mountainous districts of other provinces are wide tracts of com-
mon and waste lands, and it is asserted that from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000
hectares, now uncultivated, are susceptible of cultivation.
There are four modes of land tenure commonly in use : — Peasant pro-
prietorship, tenant farming, metayage, and emphyteusis. In the north-
ern half of Portugal, peasant proprietorship and emphyteusis prevail,
where land is much subdivided and the 'petite cidtiu-e' practised. In the
south large properties and tenant farming are common. In the peculiar
system called aforamento or emphyteusis the contract arises whenever
the owner of any real property transfers the dominium utile to another
person who binds him.self to pay to the owner a certain fixed rent called
foro or canon. The landlord, retaining only the dominium directum of
886
PORTUGAL
the land, parts ^Yitll all his rights in the holding except that of receiving
quit-rent, the right to distrain if the (juit-rent be withheld, and the right
of eviction if the foro be unpaid for more than five years. Subject to
these rights of the landlord, the tenant is master of the holding, which
he can cultivate, improve, exchange, or sell ; but in case of sale the landlord
has a right of pre-emption, compensated by a corresponding right in the tenant
should the quit-rent be offered for sale. This system is very old — modifica-
tions having been introduced by the civil code in 1868.
The chief cereal and animal x^roduce of the country are : — In the north,
maize and oxen ; in the mountainous region, rye and sheep and goats ; in
the central region, wheat and maize ; and in the south, wheat and swine,
which fatten in the vast acorn woods. Throughout Portugal wine is pro-
duced in large and increasing quantities. Olive oil, figs, tomatoes are largely
produced, as are oranges, onions, and potatoes.
Portugal possesses considerable mineral Avealth, but coal is scarce, and,
for want of fuel and cheap transport, valuable mines remain unworked.
The quantity and value of the mineral produce in 1897 was : —
Minerals
Tons
Value
Milreis
Copper precipitate ....
3,304
540,290
Copper ore ......
66,244
240,364
Ore for sulphur
210,265
412,960
Anthracite and lignite
17,388
95,486
Lead ore
2,180
65,785
Antimony ore .....
417
28,083
Manganese ore .....
1,652
17,241
Arsenic ore .....
544
16,623
Gold and silver
—
13,582
Wolfram ......
29
6,724
Tin and tin ore .....
Total
—
2,361
—
1,439,499
Common salt, gypsum, lime, and marble are exported. In 1897 the
number of concessions of mines was 470 ; the area conceded extended to
30,240 hectares.
There are three cotton factories at work for exportation to Angola. The
population engaged in industries of various kinds, exclusive of agriculture,
in 1881 was 90,998.
Portugal has about 4,000 vessels engaged in fishing, and the exports of
sardines and tunny fish are considerable.
Commerce
The following table shows the value of the imports for con-
sumption and the exports (including coin and bullion) for five
years : —
OoMmeroe
887
Years
Imports
Exports
Milreis
Mih'eis
1893
39,837,000
29,337,500
1894
36,489,000
27,796,000
1895
41,004,929
29,268,884
1896
40,815,193
29,879,875
1897
40,683,097
29,515,296
Of the imports into Portugal in 1897, 29 per cent, came from Great Britain,
13 per cent, from Germany, 10 per cent, from Spain, and 11 per cent,
from the United States. France, Russia and Brazil contrilnited most of the
remainder. Of the exports Great Britain took 31 per cent. ; Brazil, 19 per
cent, ; Spain, 14 per cent. ; and the Portuguese colonies, 13 per cent.
The following table shows the various classes of imports and
exports (special trade) in two years : —
—
Imports
Exports
1S96 1 1897
1896
1897
Milreis Milreis
Milreis
Milreis
Living animals .
2,499,968 2,667,877
2,519,262
3,400,695
Raw materials .
14,883,494 14,757,938
.5,243,150
5,381,034
Textiles .
5,263,632 4,924,222
1,288,078
1,628,836
Food substances
12,023,059 ; 13,250,085
15,460,425
15,196,794
Machinery, &c.
1,828,490 i 1,879,553
84,491
77,439
Various manufactures.
2,956,853 ' 2,874,646
1,547,277
1,634,471
Tare ....
74,766 : 71,616
—
—
Cohi and hiillion
Total .
1,284,931 1 357,160
1
3,737,192
2,196,027
40,815,193 40,683,097
29,879,875
29,515,296
The following table shows the declared values of the leading special
imports and exports in 1897 : —
Imports
Exports
Milreis
Milreis
Wheat
5,367,620
Wine .
10,289,232
Cottons and yarn
2,104,194
Cork
3,567,898
Cotton
2,840,179
Cattle .
903,858
Wool ....
1,170,622
Horses .
447,207
Iron ....
1,351,470
Copper ore
782,687
Woollens and N^arn
839,247
Cottons ,
1,254,982
Coal ....
1 1,808,065
Olive oil
416,865
Sugar.
Codfish
1,906,727
Sardines .
1,319,029
2,307,745
Tunny fish
297,344
Leather and hides
' 1,020,761
Bananas .
205,090
Cattle
767,369
Figs
246,045
Tobacco leaf
394,611
Onions .
201,872
Coffee
674,697
Eggs
231,115
1
888
PORTUGAL
Wine is the most important piodnct ; tlu^ export in 1897 consisted of
47,372,230 litres of common wine ; 267,150 litres of liquenr wine ; 2,417,360
litres of Madeira ; 28,099,230 litres of port. Most of the wine shipped at
Oporto is sent to Brazil and to England, considerable tjuan titles being ex-
ported also to the Portuguese colonies.
The subjoined table gives the total value of the imports from Portugal into
the United Kingdom and of the exports of British produce to Portugal, in the
last five years, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
Imports into U. K.
from Portugal .
2,377,892
2,390,065
2,491,926
2,616,662
2,652,713
Exports of British
produce to Por-
tugal
1,739,090
1,445,676
1,461,501
1,535,908
1,416,887
The recorded quantities, values, and origin or destination of imports and exports are
those presented in the declarations to the Customs houses, the values being reduced to
averages.
Wine is the staple article of import from Portugal into the United Kingdom,
the value amounting in 1897 to 1,141,704Z, Other imports from Portugal
are:— copper ore and regulus, 126,040^ ; cork, 408, 419^.; fruits, 149,361^. ;
fish, 212,517^.; onions,' 40,049/. ; avooI, 120,696/.; caoutchouc, 72,197/.
The exports of British home produce to Portugal embrace cotton goods
and yarn to the value of 342,984/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, valued at
212,305/. ; Avoollens and worsted, 38,618/. ; butter, 26,678/. ; coal, 230,004/. ;
machinery, 156,919/. in 1897.
The sulijoined table shows the quantity and declared value of wine
imported into the United Kingdom from Portugal in each of the last five years : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Gallons
&
1893
3,181,841
978,617
1894
3,096,649
944,139
1895
3,363,451
1,026,198
1896
3,571,520
1,058,841
1897
3,957,505
1,141,704
In 1897 the total imports of Avine from all countries into the United
Kingdom amounted to 17,559,284 gallons, valued at 6,433,934/.; conse-
quently the imports from Portugal were 22 per cent, of the total quantity,
and 18 per cent, of the total value of the wine imported.
Shipping, Navigation, and Internal Communications.
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted on January 1, 1898, of 286
vessels of 77,835 tons, including 47 steamers of 35,583 tons net.
Including vessels merely calling at ditierent ports, the shipping (foreign
MONEY, WKIGHTS, AND MEASURES
8S0
trade) wliieli entered and cleared the ports of Portugal, the Azores, and
Madeira in two years was : —
—
1896
1897
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Entered .
Cleared .
Total .
5,763
5,703
7,257,632
7,271,986
6,107
6,139
7,910,128
7,896,639
11,466
14,529,618
12,246
15,806,767
Of the vessels entered (1897), 4,119 of 5,507,784 tons ; and of those cleared,
4,827 of 6,282,110 tons had cargoes. In the coasting trade ^897) there
entered 4,299 vessels of 1,326,920 tons, and cleared 4,217 vessels of
1,312,940 tons.
The length of railways open for traffic in 1897 was 1,464 miles, of which
507 miles belonged to the State. The number of passengers conveyed in the
year was 9,599,117 ; the tonnage of goods, 1,953,742 ; traffic receipts (net),
3,215,379 milreis.
The number of post-offices in the Kingdom in December 1897 was 1,273 ;
the number of letters, newspapers, &c., carried was : internal, 51,891,818 ;
international, 9,258,335. The number of telegraph offices at the end of 1897
was 425. There were at the same date 4,584 miles of line and 9,475 miles
of wire. The number of telegrams (including transit) in the same year
was: internal, 1,272,042; international, 1,065,309.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
At the end of 1892 there were 44 banks (including the savings banks),
with cash in hand 14,444,413 milreis; bills, 26,731,700 milreis; loans on
security, 29,260,333 milreis ; deposits, 32,916,206 milreis ; note circulation,
53,360,014 milreis. On December 28, 1898, the situation of the Bank of
Portugal was as follows : — Metallic stock, 13,736,684 milreis.; note circulation,
69,189,307 milreis ; deposits, 1,927,390 milreis ; commercial account,
14,356,452 milreis ; advances on securities, 3,577,944 milreis ; balance
against Treasury, 26,294,153 milreis.
On June 30, 1897, the Portuguese Savings Bank had deposits amounting
to 2.869,077 milreis.
The gold coinage of Portugal issued since 1854 amounts to the nominal
value of 7,950,000 nulreis, and the silver coinage to 26,273,436 milreis. No
gold has been coined since 1891.
The Milreis, or 1,000 Ecis is of the value of 4s. od., or about 4 '5 milreis
to the £1 sterling. Large sums are expressed in Contos (1,000 milreis of the
value of £222 4i-. bd.
Gold coins are 10, 5, 2, and 1 milreis pieces, called the corda, meia corOa,
&c. The gold 5 milreis piece weighs 88675 grammes, "916 fine, and conse-
quently contains 8 '12854 grammes of fine gold.
Silver coins are 5, 2, 1, and half-testoon (testSo) pieces, or 500, 200, and
50-reis pieces. The 5-testoon piece weighs 12 '5 grammes, '916 fine and there-
fore contains ll'4583gi-ammes of fine silver.
Bronze coins are 40, 20, 10, and 5 reis pieces.
890
POHTtJGAL
The standard of value is golil. The English sovereign is legal tender for
4,500 reis. In the present derangement of the monetary system, Bank of
Portugal paper is chiefly in circulation.
The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard. The
chief old measures still in use are : —
The Libra
J J y f of Lisbon
" { ,, Oporto
,, Alquicre .
,, 3foio
1"012 lb. avoirdupois.
3 "7 imperial gallons.
5 "6 ,, ,,
0-36 ,, bushel.
2 "78 ,, ([uarters.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Portugal in Great Britain.
Envoy and Ministe7\ — Dom Frederico Arouea.
Secretaries. — A. de Castro, General L. de Quilinan.
Attache. — Baron Costa Ricci.
Consul-Gencral in London. — J. Batalha Reis.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Newcastle, Liverpool, and
Consular agents at Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Leitli, Glasgow, Hull, Southampton.
2, Of Great Britain in Portugal.
Envoy and Minister.— 8iY li. G. MacDonell, K.C.M.G., C.B., appointed to
Lisbon January 1, 1893.
Secretary. — C. Conway Thornton.
There are Consular representatives at Lisbon, Oporto ; Funchal (Madeira),
St. Michael's (Azores), St. Vincent (Cape Verdes).
Dependencies.
The colonial possessions of Portugal, situated in Africa and Asia, are
as follows : —
Colonial Possessions
Area :
English
sq. miles
Popula-
tion
Colonial Possessions
Area :
English
sq. miles
Popula-
tion
Possession in Africa:
Cape Verde Islands
(1890) .
Guinea .
Prince's and St.
Thomas' Islands .
Angola .
East Africa .
Total Africa
1,480
4,440
360
484,800
301,000
114,130
820,000
1
24,660 1
4,119,000
3,120,000
Possessions in Asia :
In India— Goa (1887)
Daniao, Din (1887) .
Indian Archipelago
(Timor, <fcc.) .
China : Macao, &c.
(1886) .
Total, Asia .
Total, Colonies .
1,390
168
7,458
4
494,836
77,454
300,000
78,627
9,020
940,917
792,040
8,197,790
801,060
9,216,707
Portuguese India consists of Goa? containing the capital, Panjin, on the
Malabar coast ; Damao, on the coast about 100 miles north of Bombay ; and
Diu, a small island alxnit 140 miles west of Damao. In Goa there are 501
saltworks emjtloying 1,968 men, the annual jtroduction amounting to al)out
DEPEND KNCIES 891
12,200 tons. Ill Daiiifio there are 11 salt works, and in Din 5. The military
force consists ol" 1,630 men (1,426 natives). The estimated revenue of Goa,
&c., in 1898-99 was 924,394 inibeis ; expenditure, 1,070,584 inilreis. The
trade chiefly in grain, pulse, and salt, is largely transit. In 1897 the Mar-
magoa Custom-house returns showed imports, 644,926 rupees ; exports, 75,186
rupees ; transit, 4,224,787 rupees.
Macao, i" China, situated on an island of the same name at the mouth
of tlie Canton River, forms witli the two small adjacent islands of Taipa and
Coloane, a province, the city being divided into two wards, one iiilial>ited l)y
Chinese and tlie other by non-Chinese, each having its own administrator.
The population, in 1896, numbered 74,568 Chinese, 3,106 Macao Portugiiese,
615 Portuguese from Portugal, 177 other Portuguese, 161 various nationalities,
78,627 in all. Estimated revenue, 1898-99, 433,575 milreis ; expenditure,
388,929 milreis, including 38,400 milreis, the contribution for the administra-
tion of Timor. The trade, mostly transit, is in the hands of Chinese. The
most important article of commerce is opium, which is imported raw and
exported manufoctured to San Francisco and Australia for the use of the
Chinese tliere, but this trade is rapidly declining. The value exported in
1896 was 285,600Z.
Portuguese Timor consists of the eastern portion of the island of that
name in the Malay Archipelago, with the neighbouring isle of Pulo Cambing.
By treaty of 1859 the island was divided between Portugal and Holland, but
by a new convention a second delimitation of the frontier has been agreed to,
though not yet can-ied into effect. This possession, formerly administratively
joined to Macao, was in 1896 made an independent district, but it still
receives a contribution from Macao. Estimated revenue, 1898-99, 146,726
milreis, including 38,400 milreis from Macao ; expenditure, 176,965 milreis.
The chief products exported are coffee and wax, but the island is quite
undeveloped.
The Cape Verde Islands, fourteen in number, are administered by a
Governor, whose seat is at Praia, the capital. The- population is of mixed
race, descended from early Portuguese settlers and negroes of various tribes
introduced from Guinea. The chief products are coffee, medicinal produce,
and millet. The estimated revenue in 1898-99 was 336,400 milreis ;
expenditure, 292,739 miliL-is. Imports, in 1896, 1,595,900 milreis; exports,
386,500 milreis.
Portuguese Guinea, "^ the coast of Senegambia, is bounded by tlie
limits fixed by tlie convention of May 12, 1886, with France, and is entirely
enclosed on the land side by Frencli possessions. It includes the adjacent
archipelago of Bijagoz, with the island of Bolama, in which the capital of
the same name is situated. The chief commercial products are rubber, wax,
oil seeds, ivory, hides. Estimated revenue, 1898-99, 72,280 milreis ; ex-
penditure, 180,854 milreis. Imports in 1895, value 283,000 milreis ; exports,
221,000 milreis. The chief port is Bissau.
The islands of S. Thome and Principe constitute a province under a
Governor. The population consists mainly of Creoles and negroes. The
islands are hilly, the soil volcanic, and the vegetation rich and various.
The chief commercial products are cacao (average yield in Principe, 600,000
kilos. ), coffee (in S. Thome, 2,250,000 .kilos.)', and cinchona. Estimated
revenue, 1898-99,356,373 milreis; expenditure, 292,971 milreis. Imports
(1896), value 1,055,500 milreis; exports (1896), 2,283,917 milreis.
Angola* "^\ith a coast-line of over 1,000 miles, is separated from French
Congo by the boundaries assigned by the convention of 5lay 12, 1886 ; from
892 PORTTTOAL
the Congo Independent State by those fixed by the convention of May 21,
1891 ; from British South Africa in accoidance with the convention of June
11, 1891, and from German South-Avest Africa in accordance Avith that of
December 30, 1886. This possession is divided into hve districts : Congo,
Loanda, BengueUa, Mossamedes, and Lunda. The capital is S. Paulo de
Loanda, other important towns being Cabinda, Ambriz, Novo Redondo,
BengueUa, Mossamedes, and Port Alexander. The military force consists
of 4,010 men (2,858 being natives). The chief products are coffee,
rubber, wax, sugar (for rum distilleries), vegetalile oils, coco-nuts,
ivory, oxen, and fish. The province contains large quantities of malachite
and copper, iron, petroleum, and salt. Gold has also been found. The
Companhia de Mossamedes (Portuguese, with German capital) has a
concession for cattle-rearing, tish-curing, and the exj)loration of mines.
Their concession includes the recently-discovered Cassinga gold mines, and a
great extent of country in the interior. Estimated revenue (1898-99),
1,651,797 milreis ; expenditure, 1,846,469 milreis. Value of imports,
1896, 3,451,456 milreis ; of exports, 1896, 4,612,800 milreis. The chief
imports are textiles, and the chief exports are coffee and rubber. The trade
is largely with Portugal. In 1896 there entered the ports of Loanda,
BengueUa, Ambriz, and Mossamedes 286 vessels of 431,774 tons ; 37 of
44,242 tons being British, 33 of 45,754 tons German, and 189 of 326,457
tons Portuguese. Jn 1896 the length of railway open w^as 230 miles ; length
of telegraph line, 430 miles ; 13 telegraph offices.
Portuguese East Africa is separated from British Central and South
Africa by the limits of the arrangement between Great Britain and Portugal
in June, 1891 [See South Africa (British) and Central Africa (British)],
It is separated from German East Africa, according to agreements of October
and December, 1886, and July, 1890, by a line running from Cape Delgado
at 10° 40' S. lat. till it meets the course of the Rovuma, which dt follows to
the point of its confluence with the 'Msinje, the boundary thence to Lake
Nyasa being the parallel of latitude of this point. The whole possession
is divided into three districts : Mozambique, Zambezia, and Lourenco Marques,
to which have to be added the districts of Inhambane, formed on the failure
of the administrative concession to the company of that name, and the Gaza
region, which, has been temporarily constituted as a military district. The
Manica and Sofala region is administered by the Mozambique Company,
which has a royal charter granting sovereign rights for 50 years from 1891.
The Nyasa Company, with a royal charter, administers the region between
the Rovuma, Lake Nyasa, and the Lurio. The military force consists of
4,888 men (3,246 being natives). For 1898 the estimated revenue was
4,232,326 milreis ; expenditure, 3,945,765 milreis. The principal ports are
Mozambique, Ibo, Quilimane, Chinde, Beira (population in 1897, 4,055, of
whom 979 were European), and Lourenco Marques, the last having a Euro-
pean population of about 1,700 (700 Portuguese), and a native population
of about 6,000. The Zambezia Company carries on industrial, commercial,
agricultural, and mining operations, and the Mozambique Sugar Company
has plantations on the Lower Zambeze. At the port of Mozambique in
1897 the imports amounted to 151,823^., in 1896, to 87,7Q0l. Exports, 1897,
160,571Z. ; 1896, 59,418^. At Quilimane in 1895 the imports amounted to
94,537^., and the exports to 76,344^. At Beira in 1897 the imports
amounted to 578,500^., and the exports to 35,460Z. ; while the transit trade
reached 205,320Z. At Louren90 Marques in 1897 the imports amounted to
784,000^.; in 1896, 638,410Z. ; in 1897 the exports amounted to 38,000Z. ;
in 1896, to 17,857^. ; in 1897 the transit trade amounted to 2,660, 000^. ; in
1896, to 1,518,970Z. The chief articles imported into the colony are cotton
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF RKFEKENCE S93
goods, spirits, beer and wine. In 1897 the imi»orts into the United Kingdom
from Portuguese East Africa, according to the Board of Trade returns,
were of tlie vahic of 125,467^. (44,045^. in 1895) ; and the exports thereto
from the United Kingdom, 1,264,766/. (in 1895, 586,517/.)- In 1897 the
port of Mozambinue was visited by 236 vessels of 171,471 tons (57 of
84,328 tons German, and 24 of 32,394 tons British) ; Beira was visited by
237 vessels of 282,640 tons (118 of 131,667 tons British, and 58 of 86,061
tons German ; Chinde was visited by 69 vessels of 32,850 tons (22 of 21,810
tons British) ; Louren9o JMarquez in 1897 by 267 vessels of 691,000 tons.
In Manica the gold mining industry has been taken up mainly by British
subjects. In October 1895, 1,325 clairis had been pegged out, but, as
ordinary means of communication such as roads and postal and telegraph
arrangements scarcely existed in the region, little liad been done in actual
mining.
The Delagoa Bay railway has a length of 57 miles in the colony, and is
continued for 290 miles to Pretoria. The Beira railway is open from
the sea to the British frontier (222 miles), whence a line is being constructed
to Salislniry in Mashonaland. Beira is connected by telegraph with Salisbury
in Jklashonaland, and Louren(;o Marques with the Transvaal system. In the
colony there are about 950 miles of telegraph line.
The Portuguese coinage is little used. At Mozambique the currency is
chiefly British-Indian rupees, on which an import duty of 10 per cent, is
levied. At Louren(;o JSIarques English and Transvaal gold, and Transvaal
silver coins are chiefly used.
Consul to Portuguese Possessions in West Africa south of the Gulf of
Guinea. — Roger Casement, residing at Loanda.
CoHSiil at Mozambicpie. — Ralph Belcher.
ConsK/ at Beira. — J. E. MacMaster.
Consul at Louren^o Marques. — A. C. Ross.
There are Vice -Consuls at Chinde and Quilimane, Consul at Marmagao
(Goa), Vice-Consul at Macao.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications. Portugal and Dependencies.
Aiinuario da Direcgao Geral da AdministraQao civil e politica do Ministerio do Reino
Annuario estati.stico de Portugal, 1884-1892. Ministerio das Obras Publicas, Lisboa.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. Imp. 4. London.
Annuario Estatistico da DirecQao Geral das contribuicoes directas. Ministerio da Fazenda.
From 1877 to 1884.
Boletim da DirecQ5o Geral de Agricultura, 1891 e 1892.
Boletiin estatistico (monthly) da Direc^ao Geral das Alfandegas.
Boletim official do Estado da India.
Boletim official da Provincia de Angola.
Boletim official da Provincia de MoQ;ambique.
Censo da Populacao do Reino de Portugal no 1 de Dezembro de 1890. Vol. 1. Lisboa,
1896.
Collec<iao de Tratados, conven^Ses, contractos, e actos publicos celebrados cntre a corte
de Portugal e as mais Potencias d'esde 1640 ate ao presente, por Borges de Castro e Judice
Byker, .30 vols. 1856-1870. Nova Collecr.^o de Tratados, «fec. 2 vols. 1800-1891.
Contas de gerencia do anno economico de 1896-1897.
Conta Geral de administrara'^ tlnanceira rlo Estado. 189.3-1894.
Corresjiondence respecting Portuguese Claims in Soutli .\frica. London, ISSO.
Diario das Camaras. LJs>bon.
Diario do Governo.
Poruiiieutos apresentados as Cortes na scssiio legislativa de 1S91 : negocios d'Africa.
Corresp. com a Inglaterra : negocios de Mocambique, dos Matabrles e Amatongas. 1 vol.
Negocios da Africa oriental e General. I vol. Xegociaqoes do tratado com a Inglaterra. 1 vol.
894< PORTUGAL
Estatistica de Portugal — Coiiuuercio do Coutinente do Rciuo e Ilhas adjaceutcs com
Paizes estrangeiros, &c. From 1880 to 1897. Lisboa, 1898.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual and Miscellaneous Series. London.
H^»i«Ze< (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London.
Negocio externo: Arbitragem de Manica, 1897.
Movimento da PopulaQao. From 1887 to 1893. Lisbon.
Orgamento geral e proposta de lei das receitas e das despezas ordiuarias do Estado na
metropole jiara o exercicio de 1898-99. Lisbon, 1898.
2. Non-Official Publications. Portugal and Dependencies.
Adam (Madame), La Patrie portugaise. S. Paris. 1896.
Aldama-Ayala (G. de), Compendio geograflco-estadistico de Portugal e sus posesiones
ultramarinas. 8. Madrid, 1880.
Andrade Corvo(J. de), Estudos sobre as Provincies Ultramarinas. 4 vols. Lisbon, 1883-87.
Baedeker (K.), Spain and Portugal. London, 1898.
Boletim e Publicagoes de Sociedade de Geographia de Lisbon.
Brown (A. S.), Madeira and the Canary Islands. [Guide Book]. London, 1898.
Crawfurd (Oswald), Portugal : Old and New. 8. Loudon, 1880.
Round the Calendar in Portugal. London, 1890.
Danvers (C. F.), the Portuguese in India. London, 1894.
Delbosc (R. Foulche), Bibliographie des Voyages en Espagne et en Portugal. [Re-
printed from Revue Hispanique for March, July, and November, 1896.] Paris, 1696.
Eschivege (Wilhelm L. von), Portugal : ein Staats- und Sittengemalde, nach dreissigjah-
rigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.
Foa (E.), Mes grandes chasses en Afrique Centrale. Paris, 1897. Du Cap au Lae
Nyasse. Paris, 1897.
Handbook of the Mozambique Company. 8. London, 1893.
Herculano (Alexandre), Historia de Portugal desde o comeQO da Monarchia ate ao fim do
reinado de Affonso HI. (1097-1279). 4 vols. Lisbon, 1863.
Johnston (Sir Harry), The Colonisation of Africa. Cambridge, 1899.
Keltie (J. S.), Partition of Africa. 2 ed. London, 1895.
La Teillais{C. de), Etude historique, economique et politique surles colonies portugaises
leur passe, leur avenir. 8. Paris, 1872.
Lavipne (Germond de), L' Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1883.
JMackwrdo (M. M.) and Monieiro (M.), History of Portugal 3 vols. 8. London, 1888.
Monteiro (J. J.), Angola and the River Congo. 2 vols. 8. London, 1875.
Monteiro (Rose), Delagoa Bay, its Natives and Natural History. 8. London, 1891.
Morse Stephens (H.), Portugal : Story of the Nations Series. London, 1890.
Oliveira Martins (J. P.), Historia de Portugal. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1880.
• (J. P.), Portugal contemporaneo. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1881.
Historia da civilisaQao iberica. Lisbon, 1879.
Politica e economica nacional. Porto, 1885.
(J. P.), O Brasil e as colonias portuguezas. Lisbon, 1888.
Portugal em Africa. Porto, 1S91.
Portugal nos mares. Lisbon, 1889.
Pery (G.), Statistique du Portugal. Lisbon, 1878.
Pinheiro Chagas, Historia de Portugal. 8 v. (2 ed.).
Quillinan (D.), Journal of a Residence in Portugal. London, 1895.
Eeis (J. Batalha), Os Portuguezes na regiao do Nyasa. Lisboa, 1889.
Revista Portugeza Colonial e Maritima. Revista illustrada. Lisbon.
Riddle (A. J. D.), the Madeira Islands. Philadelphia, 1S97.
Theal (G. M'C), The Portuguese in South Africa. 8. London, 1856.
Vascoiicellos (Ernesto J. dc), As Colonias portuguezas. Lisbon, 1897.
895
RUMANIA.
Reigning King.
Carol I. King of Rumania, l)orn April 20, 1839, son of the late Prince
Karl of Hohcnzollern-Sigmaringen ; elected ' Domn,' or Lord, of Rumania,
April 20 (N.S.), 1866 ; entered Bucharest May 22 (N.S), 1866. Proclaimed
King of Rumania March 26 (KS), 1881. Married, November 15, 1869, to
Princess Elizabeth von Ncuivied, born Dec. 29, 1843.
The King has, in addition to revenues from certain Crown lands, an annual
allowance of 1,185,185 lei', or 47,400?. The heir to the crown has an annual
donation of 300,000 lei (12,000?.).
Tlie succession to the throne of Rumania, in the event of the King remain-
ing childless, was settled, by Art. 83 of the Constitution, upon his elder brother.
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who renounced his rights in
favour of his son. Prince AVilhelm, the act having been registered by the
Senate in October 1880. Prince Wilhelm, on November 22, 1888, renounced
his rights to the throne in favour of his brother, Prince Ferdinand, born
August 24, 1865, who, by a decree of the King, dated March 18, 1889, was
created 'Prince of Rumania.' Prince Ferdinand was married, January 10,
1893, to Princess Marie, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ;
offspring of the union is Carol, born October 15, 1893 ; Elisabeth, born
October 11, 1894.
The union of the two Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia was
publicly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy on Dec. 23, 1861, the present
name being given to the united provinces. The first ruler of Rumania was
Colonel Cuza, who had been elected ' Hospodar,' or Lord, of Wallachia and of
Moldavia in 1859, and who assumed the government under the title of Prince
Alexandru Joan L A revolution which broke out in February 1866 forced
Prince Alexandru Joan to abdicate, and led to the election of Prince Carol 1.
The representatives of the people, assembled at Bucharest, proclaimed
Rumania's independence from Turkey, May 21, 1877, which was confirmed
by Art. 43 of the Congress of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution now in force in Rumania was voted by a Constituent
Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, in the summer of 1866. It has
twice been modified — viz., in 1879, and again in 1884. The Senate consists
of 120 members, elected for 8 years, including 2 for the Universities, and 8
bishops. Tlie heir to the crown is also a Senator. The Chamber of
Deputies consists of 183 members, elected for 4 years. A Senator must
be 40 years of ago, and a Dejaity 25. Members of either House must be
Rumanians liy birth or naturalisation, in full enjoyment of civil and
political rights, and domiciled in the country. For the Senate an assured
income of 9,400 lei (376?.) is required. AH citizens of full age, paying taxes,
896 RUMANIA
are electors, and are divided into three Electoral Colleges. For the Chamber
of Deputies, electors who are in possession of property bringing in 501. or
upwards per annum vote in the first College, Those having their domicile
and residence in an urban commune, and paying direct taxes to the State of
20 fr. or upwards annually, or being persons exercising the liberal profes-
sions, retired officers, or State pensioners, or who have been through the
primary course of education, vote in the second College. The third College
is composed of those who, paying any tax, however small, to the State, belong
to neither of the other colleges ; those of them who can read and write and
have an income of 300 lei (12/.) from rural land, vote directly, as do also
the village priests and schoolmasters, the rest vote indirectly. For each
election every fifty indirect electors choose a delegate, and the delegates
vote along with the direct electors of the Colleges. For the Senate
there are only two Colleges. The first consists of those electors having
property yielding annually at least 801. ; the second, of those persons whose
income from property is from 321. to 801. per annum. Both Senators and
Deputies receive 25 lei (francs) for each day of actual attendance, besides
free railway passes. The King has a suspensive veto over all laws passed by
the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The executive is vested in a
council of eight ministers, the President of which is Prime Minister, and may
or may not have a special department.
Local Government,
For purposes of local government Wallachia is divided into seventeen,
Moldavia into thirteen, and the Dobruja into two districts, each of which has a
prefect, a receiver of taxes, and a civil tribunal. (The chief difference between
the Dobruja and the other districts is that it does not elect senators or deputies. )
In Rumania there are 119 arrondissements (plasi) and 2,977 communes, 71
urban and 2,906 rural. The appellations 'urban' and 'rural' do not
depend on the number of inhabitants, but are given by law.
Area and Population.
The area and population of Rumania are only known l)y estimates.
The total actual area is 48,307 sc]^uarc miles, and the estimated popula-
tion (1893), including the Dobruja, is 5,800,000. The Rumanian is a
Latin dialect, with many Slavonic words ; it was introduced by the
Roman colonists who settled in Dacia in the time of Trajan. The
people themselves, though of mixed origin, may now be regarded as homo-
geneous. Rumanians are spread extensively in the neighbouring countries —
Transylvania, Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria ; their total number probably is be-
tween 9 and 10 millions. Included in the poimlation of Rumania Proper
are 4^ million Rumanians, about 300,000 Jews, 200,000 Gipsies, 50,000
Bulgarians, 20,000 Germans, 37,400 Austrians, 20,000 Greeks, 15,000 Arme-
nians, 2,000 French, 1,500 Magyars, 1,000 English, besides about 3,000
Italians, Turks, Poles, Tartars, &c. The total pojiulation of the Dobruja
is estimated at 200,000, comprising about 77,000 Rumanians, 30,000 Bul-
garians, 30,000 Turks, 10,000 Lipovani (Russian heretics), 9,000 Greeks, 3,000
Germans, and 4,000 Jews, in 1889-90.
The number of l)irths, deaths, and marriages, with surplus of births
over deaths, was as follows (inrludiiig the Dolnnija) in oar:h of the last five
years : —
AREA AND POPULATION
897
Years
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1 Dirths
Deaths
MaiTiages
8uriilu.s of BirMis
over Deaths
222,324
227,469
238,957
232,417
247,814
170,005
176,483
156,755
166,189
171,071
41,200
50,323
43,228
47,230
41,387
52,319 1
51,036
82,202
66,228
76,743
Not included in the births and deaths are the still-horn, 3,690 (1'4
per cent, of the total births in 1897). The illegitimate births are (1891) 5'9:-
per cent, of the total number.
According to the results of an inquiry for fiscal purposes in 1894, the
population of the princijial towns was as follows : — Bucharest, the capital and
seat of Government, 232,000; Jassy, 66,000; Galatz, 57,500; Braila,
51,120; Botosani, 31,800; Plocsti, 37,400; Craiova, 38,700; Berlad,
22,000 ; Focsani, 20,000. These numbers, however, are regarded as too low.
Religion and Instruction.
Of the total population of Rumania Proper it is estimated that 4,950,000
belong to the Orthodox Greek Church, 150,000 are Roman Catholics, 13,800
Protestants, 15,000 Armenians, 10,000 Lipovani (Russian heretics), 300,000
Jews, 20,000 to 30,000 Mahometans. The government of the Greek Church
rests with two archbishops, the first of them styled the Primate of Rumania,
and the second the Archbishop of Moldavia. There are, besides, six bishops
of the National Church, and two Roman Catholic bishops. Only the clergy
of the national orthodox church are recognised and ].)aid by the State.
Education is free and compulsory 'wherever there are schools,' but is still
in a very backward condition. In 1896-97 there were 3,257 rural primary
schools, with 4,078 teachers and 220,420 pupils (the rural .school population
being estimated at 643,795). In 1895-96 the urban primary schools (361 in
1891) had 1,333 teachers and 77,863 pupils, of whom 15,659 were in private
schools. The urban school population was estimated at 87,985. There are 8
normal schools, with 770 pupils ; 52 high schools and secondary schools,
with 1,143 teachers and 18,969 pupils, besides special schools for agriculture,
engineering, kc. There are 2 universities (Bucharest and Ja.ssy), with faculties
in law, philosophy, science, and medicine, and having about 110 professors
and teachers and 1,650 students. In 1896 the expenditure of the State for
primary instruction was 9,140,527 lei, and on secondary, 5,970,942 lei.
Finance.
The chief sources of revenue consist in direct and indirect taxes, and the
profits derived from the extensive State domains and valuable salt-mines, and
from the salt and tobacco monopolies. A tax, at the rate of 6 lei (4s. 9d.) pei
head, called 'Contribution for means of Communication,' is, with certain
exceptions, levied on all persons over 21 years of age. There is an income
tax of 6 per cent, on houses, 5 })cr cent, for property farmed by a resident
owner, 6 per cent, for property let by an owner resident in Rumania, and 12
per cent, for estates whose owners reside aliroad. The following table shows the
I'evenue and exj)enditure for years ending March 31 (old style) : —
3 M
898
RUMANIA
Revenue
Expenditure
1892-93
Lei
1893-94
Le'i
1894-95
1895-96
1897-98
Lei I Lei Lei
■182,095,596 219,597, 3361199, 620,405i202,507,632i210,591, 020
178,532, 004,199,261, 159|209,985,905 216,560,5671217,335,486
The budget estimates for 1898-99 were : revenue 222,095,000 lei ; expendi-
ture the same. For 1899-1900 the estimates were as follows :—
Revenue.
Direct taxes .
Indirect ,, .
State monopolies
Ministries : —
Agriculture, &c,
Public Works
Interior
Finance
War .
Instruction and
Foreign Affairs
Justice
Various
Total .
Lei
. 34,110,000
. 70,290,000
. 53,965,000
. 24,718,000
. 16,492,000
. 11,107,000
4,590,000
803,000
Worship 229,000
236,000
380,000
. 11,456,000
228,376,000
Expenditure.
Lei
Public Debt . . . 85,757,480
Council of Ministers . 71,300
Ministries : —
War. . . . 45,930,325
Finance . . . 27,421,167
Worship and Public
Instruction . . 28,368,709
Interior . . . 18,507,465
Public Works . . 5,682,070
Justice . , . 6,672,676
Agriculture, &c. . 6,939,490
Foreign Affairs . 1,796,660
Supplementary credit . 1,227,658
Total. . . 228,375,000
The public debt of Rumania amounted on April 1, 1898, to 1,224,849,525
lei. Of the total amount more than half has been contracted for public
works, mainly railways. The remainder has been contracted to cover deticits,
reduce unfunded debt, and pay otf peasant freeholds. For 1898-99 the
service of the debt (interest, amortization, pensions, &c.) was estimated at
70,910,178 lei.
Defence.
The entire military strength of Rumania consists of the Active Army,
divided into Permanent and Territorial, each with its reserve ; the Militia and
the levee en masse. Every Rumanian from his 21st to his 46th year is liable
to military service. He must enter (as decided by lot) either the permanent
army for 3 years of active service, the territorial infantry for 5 years of active
service, or the territorial cavalry for 4 years of active service, and afterwards,
till the age of 30, serve in the reserve .of the army to which he belongs.
Every retired ofiiccr must serve in the reserve till the age of 37. From their
30th to their 36th year conscrijits and all young men who have not been
conscripts, belong to the militia, and from the 36th to the 46th year to the
Gloata or levee en masse. The army is also kept up to its strength by the
enlistment of volunteers and the re-enlistment of men in the reserve.
According to the organisation in force the army consists of Infantry : 6
battalions of rilies or chasseurs ; 34 regiments of infantry (Dorobantzi), of
3 battalions each, 1 permanent, 2 territorial, and 1 platoon not in the ranks ;
Cavalry: 6 rcginicnts of hussars (Roshiori) ; 11 regiments of light cavalry
(Calarashi), of which 2 consist of 4 permanent squadrons and 1 territorial, and
9 consist of 1 permanent squadron and 4 territorial ; Gendarmerie : 2 com-
panies on foot, and 3 squadrons mounted ; Artillery ; 12 regiments of field
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
899
artillery, with 60 batteries and 2 regiments of siege artillery ; Engineers : 2
regiments. The Administrative Troops consist oY 5 companies of artificers,
and 4 sipiadrons of train. The Hospital Service has 80 ollicers, 18 employes,
and 4 companies. The strength of the permanent army in time of peace is
3,478 ollicers, 448 employes, 56,489 men, 12,675 horses, and 390 guns. The
Territorial Army consists of 75,000 men and 8,050 horses. The Militia has
33 regiments of infantry. The strength of the Icveo en masse is not definitely
fixed. The infantry is armed with the Manulicher repeating rifle, model
1893.
Rumajiia has in the navy the Elisaheta, launched at Elswick in 1887,
a protected cruiser of 1,320 tons displacement and 4,900 horse-power, 3^-inch
armour at the belt, 4 6-inch and 8 machine guns ; the Mircea, training
ship, a composite brig of 350 tons ; 7 gunboats ; 6 coast-guard vessels ; a
screw despatch vessel (240 tons) ; 6 first-class and 2 second-class torpedo-
boats. A floating dock has been purchased in Scotland and several gunboats
will be constructed in it. The , fleet is gradually exjianding, and there is a
project of building two armoured vessels.
Production and Industry.
Of the total population of Rumania 70 per cent, are employed in agri-
culture. There are about 700,000 heads of families who are freehold pro-
prietors. Of the total area 68 per cent is productive, and 29 per cent, under
culture, 21 per cent, under grass, and 16 '9 per cent, under forest. The
total area cultivated in 1897 was estimated at 5,716,000 hectares.
In 1897 and 1898 the chief agricultural crops were as follows : —
Area cultivated
Production
Crop
1S97
1898
1897
1898
Hectares
Hectares
Hectolitres
Hectolitres
Wheat
1,595,087
1,453,600
12,844,300
20,600,100
Rye .
225,770
193,080
2,394,300
2,688,335
Barley
677,225
654,850
7,479,700
10,450,800
Oats .
288,137
295,950
3,471,900
6,135,300
Maize
1,845,879
—
28,112,300
—
Wine.
153,808
—
249,630
—
Plums
57,647
—
465,840
Quintals
—
Tobacco
4,514
37,900
—
In 1897, 58,156 liectares were under colza, yielding 475,780 hectolitres of
seed; 29,943 hectares under flax, yielding 238,135 hectolitres of seed;
6,840 hectares under hemp, yiehling 20,840 (Quintals of fibre; and 654,518
hectares under grass, yielding 13,052,700 quintals of hay.
The State forests of Rumania have an aggi-egate area of 931,727 hectares
and the annual produce is valued at 2,338,310 lei. The State lands sold from
1868 to 1896 covered an area of 571,518 hectares, valued at 210,130,382 lei.
In 1897 Rumania had 670,909 horses, 2,138,315 cattle, 6,847,825 sheep
and 1,079,312 swine.
The country, especially in the Carpathians, is rich in minerals. A
mining law of 1895 permits the introduction of foreign capital, and gives
3 M 2
900
RUMANIA
other facilities for the development of mining industries. Coal and
petroleum are worked, but the out-put of the latter is of inferior quality. Salt-
mining is a State monopoly, the mines being worked by convicts.
Other industries are the manufacture or preparation of paper, cement,
sugar, woollen goods, hides, and timber.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value (in 1,000 lei) of the commerce for five
years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports .
1,000 lei
430,490
370,652
1,000 lei-
422,142
294,198
1,000 lei
304,575
265; 048
1,000 lei
337,923
324,057
1,000 lei
355,782
224,180
The following, according to Rumanian returns, shows the value of the
commerce in 1897 of the leading countries (imports from and exports to) with
which Rumania deals : —
—
Ger-
many
iSSn ^"«t"^ France ^^
Turkey Russia
1 1
Ttilv Switzer-
"'^^y land
Imports
Exports
1,000 lei
98,987
6,532
1,000 lei-
78,759
54,675
1,000 lei
96,645
55,406
1,000 lei
23,915
5,092
1,000 lei
14,467
75,938
1,000 lei
15,476
11,614
1,000 lei
8,163
3,608
1,000 lei
11,196
7,107
1,000 lei
4,166
169
The following are the values of the leading articles of import and export in
1897 :—
—
Imports
Exports
—
Imports
Exports
Textiles ,
Metals anc
metal goods
Hides, leather
&c.
Wood .
Glass and pot
tery .
Chemicals
Oil, wax, &c.
I
1,000 lei
150,000
74,900
16,000
5,700
7,600
28,800
7,300
1,000 lei
2,600
1,900
1,600
6,700
100
Cereals
Animals & ani-
mal products
Fruits, vege-
tables, &c. .
Drinks
Paper
Fuel
Various ,
Total .
1,000 lei
5,400
8,400
23,800
1,000
6,000
10,100
10,800
1,000 lei
179,800
6,300
14,800
2,600
2,200
4,700
335,800
224,200
The following table, taken from the Board of Trade Returns, shows the
value of the imports into Great Britain from Rumania, and of the domestic
exports from Great Britain to Rumania, for five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into Great Britain
Exports to Rumania
£
4,218,174
1,397,449
£
3,992,134
1,316,867
£
2,118,505
891,917
£
3,204,111
1,286,582
£
3,258,503
1,340,231
COMMERCE 901
The principal British exports to Rumania are cotton goods and yarn
651,814Z. in 1896; 604,845/. in 1897 ; woollens, 67,303Z. in 1896 ; 59,884Z.
in 1897 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 169,287Z. in 1896 ; 229,083Z. in 1897 ;
coals, 155,406/. in 1896 ; 172,957/. in 1897. The leading imports into Great
Britain from Rumania are barley, 703,560/. in 1896; 701,009/. in 1897;
maize, 720,012/. in 1896"; 956,138/. in 1897 ; and wheat, 1,696,170/. in 1896,
425,020/. in 1897.
Shipping and Communications.
The total number of vessels that entered the ports of Rumania in 1897
was 33,845 of 9,367,850 tons, and the number that cleared was 33,441 of
9,235,535 tons. In 1897 the merchant navy of Rumania consisted of 317
vessels of 73,276 tons, including 54 steamers of 7,099 tons.
The navigation of the Danube is carried on under regulations agreed to at
the Berlin Conference of 1878, and subsequently modified at a conference of
the delegates of the leading Powers (Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia,
France, Italy, and Turkey), which met in London in 1883. From its mouths
to the Iron Gates it is regarded as an international highway, the interests
of the several States being specially provided for. The navigation, except
that of the northern branch, is under the superintendence of a mixed com-
mission of one delegate each for Austria, Bulgaria, Rumania, and Servia,
with a delegate appointed for six months by the signatory Powers in turn
The commission has its seat at Galatz, in Rumania. The arrangement
lasts for 21 years from April 1883. In 1897, 1,324 vessels of 1,397,917
tons cleared from the Danube at Sulina. Of these, 544 of 855,477 tons were
British, the other nationalities represented being mainly the Turkish, Greek,
Austrian and Italian.
In 1898 Rumania had 1,800 miles of State railway. The State has the
working of all the railwaystin Rumania, and has, besides, under the general
railway direction, a commercial navigation service on the Danube and
Black Sea.
In 1897 there were 3,062 post-offices, through which there passed 18,498,355
letters, 14,386,506 post-cards, 31,022,339 newspapers, samples, and parcels.
In 1897 there were 4,290 miles of telegraph lines, and 10,305 miles of wire,
on which 2,336,380 messages were forwarded. The number of offices was 520.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The National Bank of Rumania on Xoveniber 14, 1898, had a note
circulation of 183,977,000 lei, and cash in hand amounting to 85,222,000 lei.
The nominal value of the coinage of lUunanian money since 1867 has
been : gold, 3,805,800 lei ; silver, 82,700,000 lei ; bronze, 5,345,000 lei ; total,
91,850,000 lei. Ko gold coinage has been issued since 1884, nor silver since
1894, nor bronze since 1885.
The decimal system was introduced into Rumania in 1876, the unit of
the monetary system being the leu, ecjuivalent to the franc. The gold lea
is the monetary unit. Silver is legal tender up to 50 lei only. Gold coins
are 20, 10, and 5-lei pieces.
The metric system has been introduced, but Turkish weights and measures
are, to some extent, in use by the people.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Rumania in Great Britain,
Envoy and Minister. — J. Balaceano.
Cmincillor of Legation. — lil. D. Nedeyano.
902 RUMANIA
Consul- General in London. — J. Iiiman.
There is a Consul at Manchester.
2. Of Great Britain in Rumania.
Envoy and Minister. — John G. Kennedy. Appointed to Bucharest, 1897.
Vice-Consul. — Hamilton E. Browne.
Co^isul- General at Galatz and Danube Commissioner. — Lieut. -Col. H.
Trotter, KE., C.B.
There are Vice-Consuls at Galatz, Ibraila, Kustendjie, and Sulina,
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Rumania.
1. Official Publications.
Comerciul Eomaniei cu Tarile streine in 1897. Published by the Ministry of Finance
Bucharest, 1898. '
Lege pentru Organisatea Administrativa, cu tabela Plasilor si Comunelor. 1892.
Ministry of the Interior.
Miscarea populatiunei Romaniei pe anii 1886-92. 8 vols. 4. Published by the
Statistical Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, &c. Bucharest, 1887-95.
Budgetul General pe 1898-99. 4. Bucharest, 1898.
Buletin Statistic General a Roinauiei. 1892-97. (6 vols.) Bucharest.
Report by Mr. White on the Kingdom of Rouniania, in ' Reports of H.M.'s Diplomatic
and Consular Officers.' Part VI. 1883. Folio.
Report by Mr. Drage on Austria-Hungary and the Balkan States, issued by tlie Ro\ al
Commission on Labour (c. 7063, xi.) London.
Statistical Roman;!. Bucarest, 1899.
Traites, conventions et arrangements internationaux de la Roumanie, par T. G. Djuvara.
Bucharest, 1888.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual series. 8. London.
Handbook of the Armies of the Minor Balkan States. By E. C. Callwell. 8. London,
1891.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Arion{G. C), La Situation economique et sociale du paysan en Roumanie. 8. Paris.
1895.
Aurelian (P.S.), Tara Noastra, 2nd Edition Bucuresci. 1888.
Bamherg (F.), Geschichte der orientalischen Angelegenheiten. Berlin, 18SS.
jBfJiffcr, Rumjinien, ein Land der Zukunft. Stuttgardt, 1896.
Bergner (R.), Rumiinien. Breslau, 1887.
Blancard i^W). Les Mavroyeni. Paris, 1893.
Cretzulesco (E.), La Rumanie consideree sous le rapport physique, administratif et
economique. 8. Bucharest, 1876. (Bulletin de la Soc. de Geographic.)
Crupensld (C.) and Turburi (G.), Asupra Agriculture! Romilniei. Studiu Statistic. 8.
Bucliarest, 1895.
E7inel (J. C), Geschichte der Moldau und Walachei. 2 vols. 1804-
(jubcrnalia (Cmutc A. de), La Roumanie et les Roanuiins. Paris, 1898.
Krauss (H.), Bucarest und RumJinien. Leipzig, 1896.
Laveleye (Emile de). The Balkan Peninsula. London, 1887.
Miller (W.)- The Balkans. In " Story of the Nations " series. 8. London, 1896.
ObMhiare (M. G.), La Rumanie economique. Paris, 1876.
Bichard (A. de), La Rumanie a vol d'oiseau. Bucarest, 1895.
Beclus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographic Univcrsello. Vol. I. Paris.
Roany (L. de), Les populations danubiennes. 4. Paris. 1885.
Saviuelson (James), Rumania, Past and Present. London, 1882.
Sentupery, L'Europe politique et sociale — Rumanie. Paris, 1S95.
LJbjcini (J. H. A.), Les provinces Roumaines. 8. Paris, 185 Dans I'Univers pitto-
resque.
7atna«,t(J. A.), La Romanic: histoire, langue, &c. 3 vols. 8. 1845.
Vogel. L'Orient Europeen. 8. Paris.
TFaZfcer (Mrs.), Untrodden Paths in Rumania. 8. London. 1888.
JCcreopol (A. D.), IstoriaRomanilor. 6 vols. 8. Jassy. [An abridged etUtion in French,
2 vols. Paris, 1896.]
003
RUSSIA.
(Empire of All the Russias.)
Eeig^ning Emperor.
Nicholas II., Emperor of All the Russia?!, bf)rn May 6
(May 18 new style), 1868, the eldest son of the Emperor Alexander
III. and of Princess Marie Dagmar, daughter of King Christian
IX. of Denmark ; ascended the throne at the death of his father
October 20 (November 1 new stylo), 1894 ; married November
14 ( ovember 26), 1894, to Princess Alexandra Alix, daughter
of Ludwig TV., Grand Duke of Hesse, born May 25 (June 6),
1872. Offspring of this union two daugliters : Olga, born Novem-
ber 3 (November 15), 1895, and Tatiana, born May 22 (June 11),
1897.
Mother of the Emperor.
Empress Marie Dagmar, widow of Emperor Alexander III.,
born November 26, 1847; married November 9, 1866.
Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor.
I. Grand-duke George, heir-apparent, born April 27 (May 9),
1871.
II. Grand-duchess Xenia, born March 25 (April 6), 1875 ;
married to Grand Duke Alexander (see next page).
III. Grand-duke Michael, born November 22 (December 4),
1878.
IV. Grand-duchess Olga, born June 1 (June 13), 1882.
Uncles and Aunts of the Emperor.
I. Grand duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April 22), 1847;
married August 16 (August 28), 1874, to Princess Marie of
Mecklenburg- Sell werin. Offspring of the union are three sons
and one daughter: — 1. Cyril, born September 30 (October 12),
1876. 2. Boris, born November 12 (November 24), 1877. 3.
Andreas, born May 2 (May 14), 1879. 4. Helene, born January
17 (January 29), 1882.
II. Grand-duke Alexis, his^h admiral, born January 2 (January
14), 1850.
III. Grand-duchess J/rt?-irt, born October 5 (October 17), 1853 ;
married January 21, 1874, to the Duke of Edinburgh, son of
Queen Victoria of Great Britain.
IV. Grand-duke Sergius, born April 29 (May 11). 1857;
married June 3 (June 15), 1884, to Princess Elizabeth of Hesse-
Darmstadt.
V. Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3), 1864;
married June 5 (June 17), 1889, to Princess Alexandra, daughter
of the King of Greece ; widower September 24, 1891. Offspring :
Maria, born April 6 (18), 1890 ; Dimitri born September 18. 1891.
904 RUSSIA
Grand-uncle of the Emperor.
The Graiul-iluke Michael, brother of the Emperor Alexander II., born
October 13 (October 25), 1832, General Field-Marshal, President of the State's
Council and Chief of Artillery ; married to Princess Cecilia of Baden, who
died April 1 (April 13), 1891. His children:—!. Nicholas, born April 14
(April 26), 1859. 2. Anastasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860, and married
January 12 (January 24), 1879, to Prince Friedricli Franz of ]\Iecklenburg-
Schwerin ; widow April 10, 1897. 3. Michael, born October 4 (October 16),
1861, and married April 6, 1891, to Sophie, Countess of Merenberg, which
marriage led to his exclusion from the army, a trust being nominated on
his estates. 4. George, born August 11 (August 23), 1863. 5. Alexander,
born April 1 (Af)ril 13), 1866 ; married to the Grand-duchess Xenia, sister of
the reigning Emperor; oftspring: a daughter, Irene, born July 3 (July 15),
1895, and a son, Andreas, born January 13 (January 25), 1897. 6. Sergius,
born September 25 (October 7), 1869.
Cousins of the late Emperor.
The children of the late Grand-duke Constantine, brother of the
Emperor Alexander II., and his wife Princess Alexandra of Saxe-
Altenburg, of which union there are issue : — 1. Nicholas, born
February 2 (February 14), 1850. 2. Olga, born August 22 (September 3),
1851, and married October 27, 1867, to Georgios I., King of the Hellenes.
3. Vera, born February 4 (February 16), 1854, and married May 8, 1874, to
Prince Eugene of Wllrtteinberg ; widow January 15, 1877. 4. Constantine,
born August 10 (August 22),"l858 ; married April 15 (April 27), 1884, to
Princess Elizabeth of Saxe-Altenburg, Duchess of Saxony ; offspring : — John,
born July 6, 1886 ; Gabriel, born July 15, 1887 ; Tatiana, born January 23,
1890 ; Constantine, born January 1, 1891 ; Oleg, born November 15,
(November 27), 1892 ; and Igor, born May 29 (June 10), 1894. 5. Dimitri,
born June 1 (June 13), 1860.
The children of the late Grand-duke Nicholas, died April 13 (April 25),
1891, and his wife, the Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg : — 1. Nicholas, born
November 6 (November 18), 1856. 2. Peter, born January 10 (January 22),
1864; married July 26 (August 7), 1889, to the Princess Militsa of Montenegro ;
issue, Marina, born Feb. 28 (March 11), 1892 ; Roman, born October 5
(October 17), 1896 ; Nadeshda, born March 3 (15), 1898.
The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from IMichael
Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of the House of Rurik ; and
in the male line from the Duke Karl Fricdrich of Holstein-Gottorp, born in
1701, scion of a younger branch of the princely family of Oldenburg. The
union of his daughter Anne with Duke Karl Friedricli of Holstein-Gottorp
formed part of the great reform projects of Peter I., intended to bring Russia
into closer contact with the Western States of Eurojie. Peter I. was succeeded
by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian i)easant, and she by
Peter II., the grandson of Peter, with whom the male line of the Romanofs
terminated, in the year 1730. The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia,
Anne, Ivan VI., and Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanof, formed a
transition })eriod, which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of
the house of Holstein-Gottorp. All the subsequent emperors, without
excei>tion, connected themselves by marriage with German iamilies. The wife
and successor of Peter III., Catherine II., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt
Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the croAvn to her only son, Paul,
who became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the
grandfather of a third, Alexander II. All tlie.se sovereigns married German
princesses, creating intimate family alliances, anioug others, with the reigning
1) mi SOS of "\Viirt;temberg, Baden, and Prussia,
REIGNING EMPEROR — CONSTITUTION D05
Tlie Emperor is in possession of tlie revenue from the Crown domains, con-
sisting of more than a million of S(|uare miles of cultivated land and forests,
besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and producing a vast revenue, the
actual amount of which is, however, unknown, as no reference to the subject
is made in the budgets or finance accounts, the Crown domains being con-
sidered the private projierty of the imperial family.
The following have been the Tsars and Emperors of Russia, from the time
of election of ^lichael Romanof. Tsar Peter I. was the first ruler who adopted,
in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.
House of Romanof —Male Line. i Ivan VI, . . . 1740
Michael .... 1613
Alexei . . . . 1645
Feodor . . . . 1676
Ivan and Peter I . . 1682
Peter 1 1689
Catherine I. . . . 1725
Peter II. . . . 1727
House of Romawf — Female Line.
Anne .... 1730
Elizabeth . . . 1741
House of Romanof- Holstein.
Peter III. . . . 1762
Catherine II. . . . 1762
Paul . . . . 1796
Alexander I. . . 1801
Nicholas I. . 1825
Alexander II. . . . 1855
Alexander III. . . 1881
Nicholas II. . . . 1894
Constitution and Government.
The government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in
the emperor, whose will albne is law. There are, however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the present reigning
house have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of
the Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular
descent, by the right of primogeniture, with preference of male
over female heii-s. This decree annulled a previous one, issued
by Peter I., February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to
select his successor to the throne from among the members of the
imperial family, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture.
Another fundamental law of the realm proclaimed by Peter I. is
that every sovereign of Russia, with his consort and children,
must be a member of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes
and princesses of the imperial house, according to a decree of
Alexander I., must obtain the consent of the emperor to any
marriage they may contract ; otherwise the issue of such union
cannot inherit the throne. By an ancient law of Russia, the
heir-apparent is held to be of age at the end of the sixteenth
year, and the other members of the reigning family with the
completed twentieth year.
The administration of the Empire is entrusted to four great
boards, or councils, possessing separate functions. The first of
these boards is the CoimcH of the State, established in its present
906 RUSSIA
form by Alexander I., in the year 1810. It consists of a presi-
dent— the Grand-duke Mikhail since 1882 — and an unlimited
number of members appointed by the emperor. In 1894 the
Council consisted of 62 members, exclusive of the ministers, who
have a seat ex officio, and six princes of the imperial house. The
Council is divided into three departments, namely, of Legislation,
of Civil and Church Administration, and of Finance. Each de-
partment has its own president, and a separate sphere of duties ;
but there are collective meetings of the three sections. The chief
function of the Council of the Empire is that of examining into the
projects of laws which are brought before it by the ministers, and
of discussing the budget and all the expenditures to be made
during the year. But the Council has no power of proposing altera-
tions and modifications of the laws of the realm ; it is, properly
speaking, a consultative institution in matters of legislation. A
special department is entrusted with the discussion of the requests
addressed to the emperor against the decisions of the Senate.
The second of the great colleges or boards of government is
the Ruling Senate or ' Pravitelstvuyuschiy Senat,' established by
Peter I. in the year 1711. The functions of the Senate are
partly of a deliberative and partly of an executive character.
To be valid a law must be promulgated by the Senate. It is also
the high court of justice for the Empire. The Senate is divided
into nine departments or sections, which all sit at St. Petersburg,
two of them being Courts of Cassation. Each department is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain descriptions
of cases. The senators are mostly persons of high rank, or who
fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence presides over each
department, who represents the emperor, and without whose
signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenum, or
general meeting of several sections, the Minister of Justice takes
the chair. Besides its superintendence over the courts of law,
the Senate examines into the state of the general administration
of the Empire, and has power to make remonstrances to the
emperor. A special department consisting of seven members is
entrusted with judgments in political offences, and another (six
members) with disciplinary judgments against officials of the crown.
The third college, established by Peter I. in the year 1721, is
the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of
the religious affairs of the Empire. It is composed of the three
metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kieff ), the archbishops
of Georgia (Caucasus), and of Poland (Kholm and Warsaw), and
several bishops sitting in turn. All its decisions run in the
emperor's name; and have no force till approved by him. The
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 907
President of the Holy Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod and
St. Petersburg.
The fourth board of government is the Coimniltee of Ministers.
It consists of all the ministers, who are —
1. The Ministry of the Ivipcrial Hoitsc and Imperial Domains. — General
/F. Frrcdcrickz, aide-de-camp of the Emperor; appointed 1898.
2. The Ministry of Foreign ylffairs, Assistant Minister. — Privy Councillor
Count Moiiravieff, appointed 1897.
3. The Ministry of War. — Gewava]. Kuroiiaikin, appointed December, 1897.
4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Vice-Admiral Tyrtoff, appointed July 13,
1896.
0. The Ministry of the Interior. — Privy Councillor GorcmyJcin, appointed
December 18, 1895.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — M. Bogolepo^ (curator of
Moscow), appointed February, 1898.
7 . The Ministry of Finance. — Actual Privy Councillor JVittc, appointed 1 892.
8. The Ministry of Justice. — Privy Councillor N. V. Muravicff^ ap-
pointed 1893.
9. Tlie Ministry of Agriculture and State Domains. — Privy Councillor
Yermoloff, appointed 1893.
10. The Ministry of Public IVorks and liaihcays. — Privy Councillor, Prince
Hilkoff, appointed January, 1895.
11. The Department of General Control, — Actual Privy Councillor Filipoff,
appointed Comptroller-General 1889,
12. The Procurator-General of the Holy Synod. — K. P. Pobyedonostscf?'.
Besides the Ministers, four Grand Dukes, and six functionaries, chiefly
ex-ministers, form part of the Committee, of which Actual Privy Councillor
Diirnovo is President.
Minister and State Secretary for Finland. — Lieutenant-Geueral Bobrikoff.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers who supply
their place on certain occasions. They all communicate directly with the
sovereign.
The emperor has two Private Cabinets, one of which is occupied with
charitable affairs, and the other is devoted to pul)lic instruction of girls and to
the administration of the institutions established by the late Empress ]\Iaria,
mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, there is the Imperial Head-
<^iarters (Glavnaya Kvartira), and a Cabinet, which is entrusted also with
the reception of petitions presented to the emperor, formerly received by a
special Court of liequests (abolished in 1884). According to a law of ^lay
19, 1888, a special Imperial Cabinet having four sections (Administrative,
Economical, Agricultural and Manufacturing, and Legislative) has been created,
instead of the same departments in the Ministry of Imperial Household.
According to the law of ^[ay 22, 1894, a special chief for the protection of the
Imperial residences and trains has been appointed under the title of 'General
in Service at the Emperor' {Dezhurnyi General), General Aide-dc-Camp
Tchcreviii holding this position.
Local Government.
The Empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are at present in European Rus.sia (in-
cluding Poland and Finland) 68 governments, with 635 districts {uyezd),
2 otdycls, and 1 okrug, also considered as separate governments. Some of
908 RUSSIA
them are united into general governments, which are now those of Finland,
Poland, Wilna, Kieff, and Moscow. The Asiatic part of the Empire com-
prises 5 general governments, Caucasus, Turkestan, Stepnoye (of the Steppes),
Irkutsh, and of the Amur, with 10 governments (gubcrniya), 17 territories
(oblasts), and 3 districts {okrug, or otdycl : Zakataly, Chernomorsk, and
Sakhalin). At the head of each general government is a governor-
general, the representative of the emperor, who as such has the supreme
control and direction of all affairs, whether civil or military. In Siberia
the governors-general are each assisted by a council, which has a delibe-
rative voice. A civil governor assisted by a council of regency, to which
all measures must be submitted, is established in each government, and
a military governor in twenty frontier provinces. A vice-governor is
appointed to fill the place of the civil governor when the latter is absent
or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of control under
the presidency of a special oflScer, depending directly on the Department
of Control. Each government is divided into from 8 to 15 districts,
having each several administrative institutions. A few districts {okrug or
otclyel) in Siberia, in the Caucasus, in Turkestan, and in the Transcaspian
region are considered as independent governments. So also the townships
{gradonachalstvo) of St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kertch, Sebastopol, and Ta-
ganrog ; Cronstadt, Vladivostok, and Nikola evsk are under separate military
governors. In 1894, the Government of Warsaw has been increased by one
district of Plock and one district of Lomja.
In European Russia the government of the parish, in so far as the lands
of the peasantry are concerned, and part of the local administration, is en-
trusted to the people. For this purpose the whole country is divided into
communes (107,676 in European Russia, exclusive of the three Baltic pro-
vinces), which elect an elder (Starosta), or executive of a commune,
as also a tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these
officers are elected at communal assemblies ('Mir' — which means both 'the
village' and 'the world') by the peasants, and from among themselves.
The communal assemblies are constituted by all the householders in the
village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal
assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into
cantons, or 'Voloste,' each embracing a population of about 2,000 males
(10,530 in Eurojiean Russia). Each of the cantons is presided over also by
an elder, 'Starshina,' elected at the cantonal assemblies, which are com-
posed of the delegates of the village communities in proportion of one
man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide the same class of
affairs as do the communal assemblies, but concerning each its respective
canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own, which
are submitted also to special colleges 'for jteasants' affairs,' instituted in
each government. In Poland the 'Voloste' is re^daced by the 'Gmina,'
the assemblies of which arc constituted of all landholders — nobility in-
cluded, the clergy and the police excluded — who have each but one
voice, whatever the area of land possessed. The ' Gmina ' has, however,
less autonomy than the 'Voloste,' being subject directly to the ' Cliief of
the District.' In conjunction with the assemblies of the Voloste and Gmina
are cantonal tribunals, consisting of from four to twelve judges elected at
cantonal assemblies. Injuries and offences of every kind, as well as dis-
putes relating to property l)etween the peasants, not involving more than
a hundred roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these popular tribunals.
Affairs of more importance, up to 300 roubles, are judged by Judges of
Peace, elected in Central Russia, and nominated elsewhere ; appeal against
CONSTITUTION AND govehnment 909
their judgments can be made to the 'Syezd,' or gathering of judges of the
district, and further to the Senate. In 1889 an important change was made
in the above organisation. Justices of Peace have been replaced in twenty
provinces of Central Russia by Chiefs of the District {uyezdnyi nacholnik),
nominated by the administration from among candidates taken from the
nobility, recommended by the nobility, and endowed with wide discii)linary
powers against the peasants ; in the cities, except St. Petersburg, Moscow, and
Odessa, special ' town magistrates ' {gorodskoi sudia), nominated in the same
way, are to take the place of the former Justices of Peace. As to the peasants'
tribunals {volostnoi sud), they are placed in direct subjection to the ' Chiefs of
the Districts.' The same measure has been extended in 1890 and 1891 over
all the provinces endowed with provincial institutions {zemstvos).
A new Peasants' Administration and Peasants' Chiefs have been intro-
duced in Siberia (law of June 2, 1898).
The administration of the economical affairs of the district and province
are, to some extent, in the hands of zemstvos, or the district and provincial
assemblies, composed of representatives elected l^y the peasantry, the house-
holders in the towns, and the landed proprietors. Their executive power is
entrusted to provincial and district ' Upravas.' The president of the nobility
of the district, or of the province, presides ex officio over the zemstvos of the
district, or of the province. Important modifications, increasing the jjowers
of noble landowners in the affairs of the zemstvos, reducing the numbers of
representatives, and limiting their jTOwers, were introduced in 1890.
The towns and cities have municipal institutions of their own, organised
on nearly the same principles as the zemstvos. All house-owners are divided
into three classes, each of which represents an equal amount of real property,
and each class elects an equal number of representatives to the Dumas ; the
latter elect their executive the Uprava. The new law of 1894 reduces the
powers of the Municipal Government and places it almost entirely under the
Governors nominated by the Emperor. In 1894, municipal institutions, with
still more limited powers, were introduced in several towns of Siberia, and in
1895 in Caucasia.
During the years 1883-97 the institutions of the s(!?«s^c-o were in force in
34 provinces (361 districts) of European Russia. The number of electors
was: 40,172 landowners, 48,091 urban population, and 196,773 peasants.
As to the number of votes given to the above electors, it appears that 64 j)er
cent, of all votes belong to peasants, 12 per cent, to nobles, 10 percent, to
merchants, 5 per cent, to the clergy, and 4 per cent, to artisans. Of the
13,196 elected members of the Assemblies of the zemstvos, 35 per cent,
belonged to the nobility, 15 per cent, to the class of the ' merchants,' and 38
per cent, to the peasantry. The Executives of the zemstvos (the upravas) have
1,263 members, out of whom two-thirds are peasants in East Russia, while in
Middle Russia from two-thirds to three-quarters of the members are nobles.
The 34 provincial executives have 137 members (98 nobles, 21 oflScials,
9 merchants, 3 artisanS; and 2 peasants).
Finland \ — The Grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia
by the treaty of Frederickshamn, September 17, 1809, has preserved, by
special grant of Alexander I. in 1810 (renewed by his successors), some-
remains of its ancient Constitution, dating from the year 1772, reformed in
1789, and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882. This charter i)rovides for a
national parliament, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the
burghers, and the peasants, convoked by the 'Grand-duke,' Emperor of
Russia, for four months. They discuss the schemes of laws proposed by the
1 For further details on Finland, see end of Russia.
910 RUSSIA
emperor, who has the right of veto. The unanimous assent of all four
chambers is necessary for making changes in the Constitution and for levying
new taxes. The national representatives have been regularly convoked, since
1861, every four or five years ; the last time they met was in 1888. The
schemes of laws are elaborated by the 'State's Secretariat of Finland,'
which sits at St. Petersburg, and consists of the State Secretary and four
members nominated l)y the Crown (two of them being proposed by the
Senate). The Senate, which sits at Helsingfors, under the presidency of the
Governor-General, is nominated by the Crown. It is the superior adminis-
trative power in Finland, and consists of two departments, Justice and
Finance, which have under them the administration of posts, railways, canals,
custom-houses, hygiene, and the tribunals. The military department is under
the Russian Ministry of War, and the Foreign Affairs under the Russian
Chancellor Finland has its own money and system of custom-houses.
Recent laws have, however, altered this to some extent. In 1898 the Senate
was asked by the Grand Duke to prepare a scheme of general obligatory
military service in Finland, (See Finland.)
Poland. — Poland, which had a Constitution of its own from 1815 to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date of the
last remnant of its administrative independence. Finally, by ukase of the
Emperor, dated Feb. 23, 1868, the government of Poland was absolutely
incorporated with that of Russia, and the use of Polish language in public
places and for public purposes (railways, signboards, wills, &c.), Avas prohibited.
Baltic Provinces. — The Baltic Provinces have had some institutions for self-
government of their own. They have, however, been gradually curtailed,
and the privileges of the provinces in police and school matters, chiefly
vested in the nobility, have been taken away by a laAV of June 21, 1888, the
judicial and police rights of the landlords having been transferred to
functionaries nominated by the State, By a law of July 21, 1889, the last
vestiges of manorial justice and of tribunals under the German-speaking
nobility have been abolished, but the Law of Justice of 1864, which is in
force in Russia, has been but partially applied to the provinces, so as to
maintain the administration of justice under the central Government. The
Russian language has been rendered obligatory in the official correspondence
of all parish, municipal, and provincial administration ; so also in the Dorpat
University, which was deprived in December 1889 of its privileges of self-
government, and the gymnasia in 1890, The town of Dorpat has received
the namc'of Yuriev, and the seat of the administration of the Baltic Educa-
tional District has been transferred to Riga. In April, 1893, new Committees
for peasants' affairs were introduced, with the same powers as in Russian
Governments.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The Russian Empire comprises one-seventh of the land-surface
of the globe, and covers, with internal waters, an area of 8,644,100
English square miles. There has been no general census of the
population until 1897 (February 10), but various enumerations,
chiefly made by the statistical committees, furnished an approxi-
mately correct return of the people.
The rapidity of growth of the population of the Empire (its
acquisitions being included in the figures of population) is seen
from the following, the years being partial census years and
1897 being the year of a general census.
AREA AND POPULATION
911
Yeai-
Population
Year
Population
1722
14,000.000
1815
45,000,000
1742
16,000,000
1835
60,000,000
1762
19,000,000
1851
68,000,000
1782
28,000,000
1859
74,000,000
1796
36,000,000
1897
129,000,000
1812
41,000,000
The following tabh' oxliil>its tlie details of the census which was taken
over the whole of the Empire on January 28 (February 9) 1897, with
the exception of the Grand-Duchy of Finland, — no less than 230,000
persons having been engaged to take part in it. Comparing the items ol' the
census with the figures of the 1856-59, it appears that the population of the
Em])irc has increased by 93 per cent. The largest increases took place in the
capitals (270 p.c. in St. Petersburg); South Russia comes next (207 p.c.
in Kherson, 170 p.c. in Ekaterinoslaf, 137 p.c. in Taurida). The increase in
other parts of the Empire appears as follows : — North-West Russia, from
56 to 73 p.c. ; Baltic Provinces, 25 to 58 p.c. ; White Russia and Lithuania,
77 (Kovno) to 130 (Minsk) p.c. ; Poland, 117 p.c. ; Caucasus (without
annexations) 95 p.c, ; Siberia, 130j).c.
1
Area :
Domiciled
<U 1
Area :
Domiciled
,i
Province
English
square
Popula-
tion
53 03
Provinc
English
square
Popula-
tion
CD '-'
miles
1897
P.
1 miles
1897
P<
74
1. European
Saratoff
. 32,624
2,419,884
Russia —
Simbirsk
. 19,110
1,549,761
81
Archangelsk
331,640
347,589
1
Smolensk
21,638
1,551,008
72
Astrakhan .
91,327
994,775
11
Tamboff
. ' 25,710
2,715,453
106
Bessarabia .
17,619
1,933,436
113
Taurida
24,497
1,443,566
62
Chernigotf
' 20,233
2,321,900
115
Tula
, 1 11,954
1,432,743
120
Courland .
i 10,535
672,634
64
Tver .
, 1 25,225
1,812,825
73
Don, Region of
63,532
2,575,818
41
Ufa .
, 1 47,112
2,220,497
47
Ekaterinoslaf .
1 24,478
2,112,651
86
Vilna ,
, : 16,421
1,591,912
98
Esthonia .
; 7,818
413,724
54
Vitebsk
, \ 17,440
1,502,916
89
Grodno
' 14,931
1,617,859
109
Vladimir
18,864
1,570,733
84
Kaluga
11,942
1,185,726
99
; Volhj-nia
27,743
2,997,902
109
Kazan
• 24,601
2,191,058
89
Vologda
. 155,498
1,365,587
9
Kietl- .
19,691
3,576,125
181
Voronezh
25,443
2,546,255
109
Kostroma .
32,490
1,429,228
44
Vvatka
59,329
3,082,788
52
Kovno
15,692
1,549,444
100
Yaroslav
, - 13,751
1,072,478
78
Kursk.
17,937
2,396,877
134
Sea of Azo\
r , 14,520
—
—
Kharkoff .
Kherson
21,041
27,523
2,509.811
2,732,832
119
100
Total, Ru
ssian i
Livonia
18,158
1,. 300, 640
74
Province?
. jl,902,202
94,215,415
51
Minsk
Moghilev .
Moscow
.35,293
i 18,551
12,859
2,156,123
1,708,041
2,433,356
61
92
189
2. Poland:-
Kalisz.
194
, ' 4,392
846,719
Nijni-Novgorod .
Novgorod .
Olonetz
Orel .
Orenburg .
19,797
47,236
57,439
18,042
73,816
1,600,304
1,392,933
366,715
2,054,749
1,609,388
81
33
7
114
22
Kielce
Lomja
Lublin
Piotrkow
Plock .
. , 3,897
4,667
6,501
, t 4,729
, I 4,200
763,746
585,781
1.159,463
1,409,044
556,877
196 i
144
177
297
153
Penza .
Perm .
14,997
1 128,211
1,491,215
3,003,208
99
24
Radom
Siedlce
4,769
5,535
820,363
77 -.,.31 6
171
140
Podolia
Poltava
16,224
19,265
3,031,513
2,794,727
187
145
Suwalki
Warsaw
4,846
5,623
604,945
1,933,689
12V
286
Pskov
17,069
1,136,540
68
Rvazan
16,255
1,827,5.39
113
Total, Polai
id . 49,159
9,455,043
193
St. Petersburg .
20,760
2,107,691
123
Total, Rnss
ia and
1 Samara . .
1 58.321
2,763,478
46
Poland
. 1,951,361,
103,671,358
53
912
RUSSIA
Province
square
miles
tion
1897
3. Grand-Duchy
of Finland :-^
(1 890)
Abo-Bjorneborg
Kuopio
Njiand
St. Michel .
Tavastehus
Uleaborg .
Viborg
Vasa .
Lake Ladoga
Finland (1S96)
0,383
1(3,499
4.584
8,819
8,334
63,957
13,530
16,105
3,094
144,255
Total European
Russia . . 2,095,616:106,191,795
41 9, .369
300,291
264,243
185,098
276,010
260,763
379,115
435,548
2,520,437
4. Bussia in Asia :
Kuban
Stavropol .
Terek
Tchernomoisk .
Northern,Caucasia
Baku
Daghestan .
Elizabethpol
Erivan
Kars
Kutais
Tiflis
Zakataly .
Trans-Caucasia
Caucasus
Akmolinsk
Seniipalatinsk
Seinirechensk
Turgai
Uralsk
Lake Aral .
36,441
23,398
26,822
2,836
89,497
15,095
11, .332
16,721
10,075
7,308
13,968
15,306
1,541
91,346
1,922,773
876,298
933,485
54,228
3,786,784
789,659
586,636
871,5.57
804,757
292,498
1,075,861
rl, 040,943
5,461,911
180,843 9,248,695
229,609
184,631
152,280
176,219
1.39,168
26,166
The Steppes
908,073
678,957
68.5,197
990,107
453,123
644,001
O) a:
47
22
61
28
40
4
33
30
20
51
54
38
35
20
43
55
58
52
101
43
54
62
64
Province
3,451,385
Samarcand
Ferganah
Sj-r-Daria
Turkestan
Trans-Caspian
Caspian Sea .
Total, Central
Asian dominions
Tobolsk .
Tomsk .
Western Siberia
Irkutsk .
Transbaikalia ,
Yakutsk .
Yeniseisk
Eastern Siberia
Amur
Primorskaya
Amur Region.
Sakhalin .
Total, Siberia
Total, Asiatic
dominions .
Russians in
Finland, Bok-
hara, Kliiva,
and in the
navy abroad .
Grand Total
Area :
English
square
miles
214,237
169,381
1,548,825
539,659
331,159
287,061
236,868
1,533,397
987,186
3,044,512
172,848
715,982
Popula-
tion
1897
4,833,496
6,564,778
26,627 857,847| 30
35,654 1,560,411 43
194,853, 1,479,848 7
2.^7,134 3,898,106; 15
2
372,1931
7,721,6841 5
1,438,484
1,929,092
870,818| 3,367,576; 4
500,517' 2
664,071 3
261,731 -2
559,902 1
1,992,221
118,570
220,557
339,127
28,166 1
5,727,090
22,697,469
42,909
8,660,395 128,932,1731 15
The internal waters (lakes and estuaries) occupy the following areas, in
square miles :— In European Russia, 25,804 ; in Finland, 18,471 ; In Siberia,
18,863 ; and in Central Asia, 19,855. The Seas of Azov, Caspian, and Lake
Aral cover an aggregate surface of 210,025 square miles. The superficies of all
Russian provinces have been carefully revised by General Strelbitzky, and his
AREA AND POPULATION
913
figures are given in the above. The figures showing density of population are
calculated in proportion to the areas from which the areas covered by the
larger inner waters have been excluded, while the areas given in the above
table include the inner waters.
The proportion of wx^nien in the population varies, in the Russian pro-
vinces, from 116-2 per each 100 men (Kaluga) and 119-4 (Tver) to 87*4 (St.
Petersburg) and 89-8 (Taurida) — this disproportion being due to the male
population temporarily moving to the capitals or to the shipbuilding centres
during the winter. The average proportions are : —
Russian Provinces, 102*8 Avomcn for 100 men ; Poland, 98-6 women fur 100
men; Finland, 102-2 Avomen for 100 men; Caucasus, 89-5 women for 100
men; Siberia, 93-7 women for 100 men; The Steppes, 89-4 for 100 men;
Turkestan and Transcaspian, 83 '0 women for 100 men ; Russian Empire, 100 0
women for 100 men.
The ethnical composition of the population will be shown when the results
of the recent census have been worked out. In the meantime, the following
rough estimates concerning the Russian population of the Empire may be
computed from Rittich's percentage figures, (see Year-Book 1885, j). 416; : —
Groups of Provinces
Population
Great Russians
1
Little Russians
Northern and Baltic
6,572,000
3,600,000
Lithuania, White Russia and
South-west Russia
19,719,000
200,000
(6,800,000)
White Russians)
8,810,000
Little Russia and Don
12,750,000
4,000,000
8,400,000
Central Russia .
28,082,000
26,100,000
1,000,000
Volga Provinces
9,923,000
6,100,000
3,800,000
Xorth-east Russia
9,913,000
7,400,000
100,000
Southern Provdnces .
8,222,000
1,300,000
4,300,000
European Russia
94,081,000
49,700,000
(7,000,000
White Russians)
26,400,000
Caucasia, about
9,724,000
3,000
,000
Siberia, ,,
5,731,000
5,000
,000
Turkestan, Transcaspian, and
Kirghiz Stoppes, about . , j
1
7,590,000
1,000
,000
For other ethnical elements of the population, see Year-book 1885, p. 416.
The populations of the Caucasus appear as follows, according to recent
investigations : —
Jews . . 50,992
Kartvelians : —
Georgians . 310,499
Mingrelians 200,092
Imeretes . 373,141
Pshaves, Khev-
zurs. . 20,079
Western Moun-
taineers . 188,083
3 N
Russians
. 1,915,614
Poles .
8,910
Germans
23,613
Greeks
42,562
Iranians :-
—
Ossets
. 127,430
Persians,
Tat is.
Talysh]
ns 132,792
Kurds
10,097
Armenians
. 803,696
Eastern Moun-
taineers .
707,619
Tartars . 1
,027,828
Turks
75,980
Turcomans,
&c.
Northern
44,046
Tartars .
Kalmuks .
126,000
10,707
914
RUSSIA
The chief nationalities of Transcaucasia were as follows in 1886-90 : —
Russians
Greeks .
Kurds .
Ossets .
Armenians
JeAvs
Georgians
140,095
57,156
97,499
76,130
965,167
33,663
400,487
Imeretes
Gurians
Ajares .
Mingrelians
Aphasians
Svanetes
419,967
74,171
59,495
214,601
29,260
14,035
Samurzakanes
Turcomans .
Turks .
Tartars
Tatis .
Talyshins
27,247
10,174
75,863
1,107,232
124,693
88,449
The remaining nationalities number less than 10,000 each.
According to a recent partial census, the Jews number 2,843,364 in the
western and south-Avestern provinces of Russia (2,261,863 in towns), that is
11*3 per cent, of the aggregate population ; 77,275 in the three townships of
Odessa (73,389, i.e. 35 "1 per cent, of population), Kertch, and Sebastopol ;
and 431,800 in five governments only of Poland out of ten (11 per cent, of
population). Their aggregate number in Russia would thus exceed 3^ millions.
II. Movement of the Population.
The statistics of marriages, births, and deaths for 1895, if not otherwise
mentioned, appear as follows : —
—
Marriages
(1890.)
Births
(1895.)
Birth-
rate
Deaths
(1895.)
Death-
rate
Surplus
(1895.)
Russia in Europe
and Poland ,
Finland (1896)
Siberia .
Caucasus .
Central Asia
867,4761
16,189
23,481^
56,5501
8,5401
4,916,259
83,884
259,288
347,817
127,699
47-1
33-3
51-2
41-3
32-0
44 :
3,385,485
49,289
177,834
221,762
84,855
32-5
19-5
35-4
26-1
19-7
1,530,774
34,595'^
81,454
126,055
42,844
Total .
972,236
5,734,947
3,919,225
30-4
1,815,722
1 In 1893.
Immigrated, 5i',:i40; emigrated, 59,353.
The average births and deaths for the years 1890-95 were, per 1,000
inhabitants: in European Russia, respectively, 46 '3 and 33 '6 ; for Caucasia,
39-9 and 26-6 ; for Siberia, 46-8 and 33*4 ; for Central Asia, 377 and 25 7 ;
for the Empire (exclusive of Finland) 45 '8 and 33 '3 ; while the average per-
centage of surplus in 1883-95 was 1*38 per cent, of the total })opulation. It
is estimated that over 25 per cent, of all new-born children die before reaching
the age of one year, and over 40 per cent, before reaching five years.
The movement of the population among Greek-Orthodox only is given by
the Holy Synod as follows : —
Year
Marriages
Births
Deaths
Increase
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
726,150
697,343
659,836
706,949
733,652
3,932,075
4,130,793
4,047,109
4,291,646
3,991,568
2,550,698
2,939,197
3,011,888
3,045,828
3,564,352
1,101 893
1,243,204
1,381,377
1,245,810
427,216
According to ofiBcial statistics there was in Russia an excess of emigration
over immigr^tiou in the case of Russians of 1,146,052 in 33 years (1856-1888),
AREA AND POPULATION
915
and a surplus of immigration of 2,304,717 foreigners during the same time.
Emigration is on the increase. Of late the Russians, especially Jews, con-
tributed a large part to the flow of emigrants into the United States The
number of immigrants from the Russian Empir' into the United States
during the vears 1873 to 1890 (July 1) attained 313,469; during the years
1891-1897 it was:— 292,032 from Russia proper, 24,977 from Finland, and
91,994 from Poland ; total in 24 years, 722,472.
The emigration to Siberia may be judged from the following numbers of
emigrants carried on board the steamers which ply on the Ob and Irtysh : —
in 1888, 26,129; in 1889, 30,410; in 1890, 36,000: in 1891, 60,000; in
1892, 100,000 ; in 1895, 100,000 ; in 1896 and 1897 from 150,000 to 200,000
immigrants entered Siberia from Russia every year, and 60,000 in 1898.
III. Principal Towns.
The great majority of the population of Russia being agriculturists, they
dwell in villages, and in 1897 the urban and rural population (exclusive of
Finland), as also the division according to sex appeared as follows : —
In Towns
European Russia 11,830,546
Poland . . , 2,059,340
Caucasus . . ' 996,248
Siberia . . 462,182
Central Asia . 932,662
In the Country
Males
82,384,869
7,396,603
8,252,447
5,264,908
6,789,022
46,447,963
4,764,007
4,891,054
2,95^,559
4,158,980
Females
47,767,452
4,691,936
4,357,641
2,772,531
3,562,704
Total
16,280,978 110,087,849
63,216,563
63,152,264
Many of the towns, moreover, are very small, a few in European Russia
and man}' in Asiatic Russia having less than 1,000 inhabitants.
The aggregate number of settlements reached, in 1886, 555,990 in the
Empire ; of these 1,281 (468 in Poland) had municipal institutions. The
following are the populations of the principal towns, according to the census
of 1897. The letters (C. ), (S. ), (T. ), and (St. ), after the towns in Asia signify
Caucasus, Siberia, Turkestan, and the Kirghiz Steppes, while the Polish towns
are marked by the letter (P.),
Eiissia in Eicrove —
Towns
Population
Towns Population
Towns
Pojiulation
Kishineff ,
. 108,796
Libau
64,505
St. Petersburg^
1,267,023
Nijni-Novgorod 95,124
Byelostok
63,927
Moscow .
. 988,614
Nikolaieff
. 92,060
Penza
61,851
Warsaw (P.)
. 638,209
Samara
. 91,672
Elizabethgrad ,
61,841
Odessa
. 405,041
Minsk
. 91,494
Cronstadt
59,539
Lodz (P.)
. 315,209
Voronezh .
. 84,146
Krementchug .
58,648
Rigai .
. 282,943
Kovno
. 73,543
Tsaritsyn .
55,967
Kieft-
. 247,432
Orenburg .
. 72,740
IvanotF-Vozne-
Kharkofl' .
. 174,841
Diinaluirg
sensk
53,949
Vilna
. 159,568
(Dvinsk)
. 72,231
Berdicheff
53,728
Saratov .
. 137,109
Yaroslavl
. 70,610
Tver
53,477
Kazan
. 131,508
Orel .
. 69,858
Poltava .
53,060
Ekaterinoslav
. 121,216
Kherson
. 69,219
Kursk
52,896
Rostov onDonl 119,889
Vitebsk .
. 66,143
Novotcherkask
52,005
Astrakhan
. 113,001
Zhitomir .
. 65,452
Taganrog .
51,965
Tula
. T* 1,048
Reval
•. 64,578
Sebastopol
3 N
50,710
2
916
RUSSIA
Towns Population
Russia in Europe —
Lubliu (P.) . 50,152
Ufa . . 49,961
Kaluga . . 49,728
Simi^heropol . 48,821
Tambov . . 48,134
Smolensk . 46,899
Grodno . . 46,871
Brest-Litovsk . 46,542
Perm . . 45,403
Czenstochowo (P.)45,130
Ryazan . . 44,552
Simbirsk . . 43,298
Moghilev on Dnie-
per
Dorpat (Yuricv)
Kostroma
Kozlov
Yelets
Gomel
Bobruisk .
Mitau
Kamenets-
Podolsk
Syzran
Nyezliin .
1 With suLurbs.
43,106
42,421
41,268
40,347
37,455
36,846
35,177
35,011
34,483
32,377
32,108
Towns
Mariupol .
Izmail
Piotrkow (P. ) .
Kerch -Yenikale
Pskov
Cherkassy
Population
. 31,772
. 31,293
. 30,824
30,342
30,424
29,619
Finland (1896)—
Helsingfors . 77,414
Abo . . 34,964
Tammerfors . 26,713
Viborg . . 23,472
Russia in Asia —
Tiflis(C.). . 160,645
Tashkend(T.) . 156,414
Baku(C.). . 112,253
Kokand (T.) . 82,054
Ekaterinodar (C. ) 65, 697
Namangan (T.) 61,906
Ekaterinburg (S.) 55,488
Samarcand(T.) 54,900
Tomsk (S.) . 52,430
Irkutsk (S.) . 51,434
Andiian(T.) . 46,680
Vladikavkaz (C.) 43,843
- 149,201 with Nakhichevan.
Towns Population
Stavropol (C.) . 41,621
Omsk(S.) . 37,470
Uralsk (St.) . 36,597
Old Marghelan
(T.) . . 36,592
Osh(T.) . . 36,474
Yeisk . . 35,446
Maikop (C) . 34,191
Elisabethpol (C.) 33,090
Kutais (C.) . 32,492
Alexandropol (C.) 32,018
Khojent(T.) . 30,076
Tyumen (S.) . 29,588
Barnaul (S.) 29,408
Nakhichevan (C.) 29,312
Erivan (C) . 29,033
Vladivostok (S.) 28,896
Batnm (C.) . 28,512
Krasnoyarsk (S.) 26,600
Semipalatinsk(St. )26,353
Shusha (C.) . 25,656
Nukha . . 24,811
Vyernyi(T.) . 22,982
Kars(C.). . 20,891
Tobolsk (S.) . 20,427
3 53)037 with sulnab.s.
Religion.
The established religion of the Emjjire is the Grfeco-Russian, oflficially
called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. It has its own independent synod, but
maintains the relations of a sister Clnirch with tlie four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, The Holy Synod, the
board of government of the Church, was established with the concurrence of
the Russian clergy and tlie four Eastern patriarchs.
The emperor is head of the Church ; he appoints to every office in the
Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to the bishops and prelates the
l)rivilege of proposing candidates ; and he transfers and dismisses persons
from their offices in certain cases. But he has never claimed the right of
deciding theological and dogmatic questions. Practically, the Procurator of
the Holy Synod enjoys wide powers in Church matters.
The points in which the Grteco-Russian Church difTers from the Roman
Catholic faith arc, its denying the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its not
enforcing the celibacy of the clergy, and its authorising all individuals to read
and study the Scriptures in the vernacular tongue. With the exception of
the restraints laid on the Jews, all religions may be freely professed in the
Empire. The dissenters have been and are still, however, severely perse-
tuted, though recently some liberty has been extended to those of the
' United Church.' It is estimated that there are more tban 12,000,000
dissenters in Great Russia aloue. The allairs of the Ronian Catholic Cliurch
INSTRUCTIOX 017
are entrnsted to a Collegium, and those of the Lnthciau Clmicli to a Con-
sistory, l)otli settled at St. Petersburg. Roman (.'atliolics are most numerous
ill the former Polish provinces, Lutherans in tJio.se of the Baltic, and
Mohammedans in Eastern and Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost
entirely settled in the towns and larger villages of the western and south-
western provinces.
There are no exact figures as to the numbers of adherents of different creeds
— many dissenters being inscribed under the head of Greek Orthodox ; they
are only estimated as follows : —
Creed
Total
75,000,000
55,000
8,300,000
2,950,000
3,000,000
2,600,000
26,000
Orthodox Greek Catholics (1 895), without army and navy .
United Church and Armenians ......
Roman Catholics ........
Protestants
Jews ...........
Mohammedans .........
Pagans
In Poland the adherents of different religions appeared as follows in
1890 :—
Roman Catholics
6,214,504
Jews ........
1,134,268
Protestants
445,013
Greek Church (without the troox)s)
398,885
Various
478
Unaccounted for, floating population .
63,414
Total, exclusive of military .
8,256,562
The Russian Empire is divided into 64 bishoprics (eparchiya), which
according to the last published report, for 1894-95 {OJf. Mess., 1898),
were under 3 metropolitans, 17 archbishops, and 45 bishops ; the latter
had under them 37 vicars ; all of them are of the monastic clergy. There
were, in 1892, 63,191 churches both public and private (of which : cathedrals,
708 ; parish churches, 36,662 ; churches at cemeteries and in private houses,
hospitals, &c., 9,742 ; yrdinovyertsxjs, or nonconformists recognised by
Church, 248, and 17,195 chapels), with 56,900 priests and deacons, and
43,615 cantors, &c. The monasteries numbered 774, as against 507 in 1892,
and had 7,590 monks and 6,700 aspirants, and 252 nunneries with 8,350
nuns antl 22,000 aspirants. The management of Church allhirs is in the
hands of 56 "consistoriae."
Other religions had in 1888 the followingnTimbers of churches and clergy :
Churches Priests I Churches Priests
Roman Catholic . . 5,156 3,629 ! Mus.sulman . . 9,254 16,914
Lutherans (excl. Finland) 1,866 605 Jewish . . . 6,319 5,673
Armenian . . . 1,275 2,025 Karaims ... 35 35
918
RUSSIA
Tlic adherents ot different religions in Northern Caucasia and Trans-
caucasia appeared as follows in 1886-92 : —
—
Northern
Caucasia
Transcaucasia
Total
Orthodox Greeks .
Raskolniks ....
Armenian Gregorian
,, Catholics
Roman ,, . .
Mennonites ....
Lutherans ....
Jews .....
Sunnite Mussulmans
Shiite ,, . .
Yezides ....
Pagans .....
Various .....
Total ....
Unknown ....
2,164,381
50,157
29,062
9,732
1,105
19,330
12,372
560,989
12,495
624
1,481,066
57,105
955,2.39
30,676
12,445
14,000
37,066
1,544,137
805,746
11,449
7,787
3,645,455
107,262
984,301
30,676
22,177
33,330
49,438
2,105,126
305,749
11,449
12,495
8,411
2,859,401
4,958,721
7,818,122
338,852
The Holy Synod has a capital of about 5,000,000/. sterling at its disposal,
and the income of the churches amounted in 1895 to over 31,000,000 roubles,
out of which 13,334,845 were received as donations to churches. The
expenditure of the Synod in 1897 was : 21,179,581 roubles contributed by the
Imperial budget. The expenditure for other churches was : Armenian
clergy, 14,204 roubles; Catholic clergy, 1,560,340 roubles ; Lutheran clergy,
121,282 roubles ; Mussulman clergy, 50,955 roubles were contributed by
the Synod for schools; while 1,723,680 roubles were contributed by the
Ministry of Interior for the clergy.
Instruction.
Most of the schools in the Empire arc under the Ministry of Public In-
struction, and the Empire is divided into 14 educational districts (St. Peters-
burg, Moscow, Kazan, Orenburg, Kharkolf, Odessa, Ivieff, Vilna, Warsaw,
Dorpat, Caucasus, Turkestan, West Siberia, and East Siberia). However,
many special schools are under separate ]\Iinistries. The total contribution for
education from the various Ministries in 1894 was 39,336,096 roubles ; of
this, 7,29 4,473 roubles was for universities, 19,576,208 roubles for middle-
class schools, and 7,403,612 roubles for primary schools.
The statistical data relative to education in Russia are extremely defective,
the Caucasian and Turkestan educational districts being the only ones which
publish full information.
INSTRUCTION
919
The high and middle schools of tho Empire (exclusive of Finlaml) are
given in the subjoined tahlc, but they are incomplete : —
—
Number
Teaching
Stair
Pupils and
Students
Universities (incomplete)
Special high seliools ....
Ladies' universities ....
Theological academies ....
Medical
Military academies ....
Agricultural academies ....
Engineering and Mining ....
Total high schools ....
Normal schools
Normal seminaries with practi(\Tl
schools ......
Gymnasia and progymnasia
Realschulen ......
Technical and professional
Theological seminaries ....
Military and naval schools
Total middle-class schools for boys
Girls' gymnasia and progymnasia
,, institutes .....
Total middle-class schools for girls
9
17
1
7
2
5
3
7
923
190
126
16,326
4,530
557
900
760
1,227
412
507
53
I 78
236
106
44
55
113
822
2,815
1,403
1,054
25,219
5,586
68,682
18,827
4,769
17,246
21,109
136,219
70,174
7,911
631
343
30
373
—
78,085
Finland has a university of its own (see Finland). Nearly 4,000 students
are either supported by bursaries or dispensed from paying fees.
The expenses for the middle schools arecontrilmtetUiy the State Exchequer
to the amount of 25 per cent, of the aggregate expenditure for the gymnasia,
progymnasia, and technical schools, the remainder being made up by fees
(about 30 per cent.) and by donations of the zrmstvos, the municipalities, and
.so on. The Cossack schools are maintained by the separate voiskos,
which, moreover, maintain a number of their pupils in the governmental
.schools. The Church contrilmted in 1890 the .^um of 1,389,000 roubles, the
costs for the schools under the Holy Synod being paid by either the
Exchequer or the zrmstvos and the village communities.
The education in Caucasia appeared as follows, according to the official
report for 1896, i.ssued by the School Administration : — There were 22 ly-
ceums, gymnasia, and Realschulen, 1 teachers' institute, 5 normal schools, 18
lyceums and gymnasia for girLs, with a total of 16,450 pupils (9,033 boys, 7,417
girls) ; 38 town .schools (8,639 pupils), 9 professional and 3 naval schools (937
pupils), u schools for Mountaineers (546 boys) ; 3 girls' schools (588 girls) ; 101
920
RUSSIA
private schools, with 6,854 boys and girls; 1,001 (46,889 hoA's, 12,869 girls
in 1893, 79,861 pupils in 1896) primary schools (18 in Transcaspian region) ;
240 Armenian schools (12,616 boys, 6,619 girls) ; 1,696 Mussulman and
Jewish schools ; 991 various schools (35,477 boys, 9,825 girls).
A certain extension has been given of late to schools conducted by the
clergy, the masters of which receive the rights of teaching by lettrcs d' obedience
of the bishops. They attained the number of 31,835 in 1894, and had
about 980,000 pupils. They are not taken into account in the just-
mentioned figures.
By a law, April 24, 1890, the middle schools of the Baltic provinces have
been transformed entirely on the plan of Russian gj'mnasia.
In 1897 European Russia had 90 agricultural schools, out of which 3
high schools (Moscow, 61 students, Riga, and New Alexandriya) and 9
middle schools (Kharkoff, Kazin, Kherson, Gorki, Uman, Mariiusk, Moscow,
Kmsnoufionsk, and Bessarabia), 2 of which were kept by the zcmstvos ; 1,300
pupils, and 60 primary schools, with 2,327 pupils (111 girls).
There were in 1896 only 1 mining institute (309 students), and 5 mining
schools (370 pupils). For professional education there were in 1897 5 high
schools, 4 middle, and 49 primary technical schools. There were besides 474
handicraft classes in various schools, and 43 sailing classes. For military
education there are 5 academies (one medical) and 4 higher schools (1,116
pupils), including the special classes of the corps of cadets ; corps of cadets
8,118 pupils), and various other schools (9,303 ympils).
The Cossack voiskos keep their own schools (18 gymnasia, 49 progymnasia,
and 3,093 primary schools for boys ; 10 gymnasia, 12 progymnasia, and 369
lower schools for girls, which both showed an aggregate of 182,000 pupils (1
pupil per 32 inhabitants) in 1896. Girls in gymnasia, 1,268 ; in lower
schools, 32,664.
The number of elementary schools, teachers, and pupils in the Russian
Empire in 1896 was as follows : —
Schools of
Ministry of Instructiou
Ministry of W.ar
Ministry of Interior .
Other niinistries
Holy Synod
Various foundations .
Total
Schools
Teachers
Pujiils
Male
Female
Male
Female
564,073
48,720
655
205,732
12,364
32,708
10,270
459
49
34,836
402
5.3,215
13,180
37
24,185
4y2
01,10.-.
16,768
363
40
4,893
815
l,775,s61
252,373
1,969
910,760
7,311
78,724
22,879
2,948,274
831,544
The number and distribution of the schools of the Ministry of Instruction
(exclusive of Sunday schools, improvement schools, &c.) in 1896 are given as
follows : —
JUSTICE AND (.'RLMi:
1)21
Districts
Schools
Teachers
Pupils
Schools supported by
Local
authori-
Imperial
Private
Treasury
ties
persons
St. Peteisbmg .
2,28:5
5,217
143,465
419
1,805
59
Moscow
G,490
10,253
481,362
346
5.922
228
Kharkhov
3,527
8,435
273,019
78
2,786
9
Kiev ....
2,.i75
6,620
' 196,312
102
2,436
37
Odessa
2,591
5,303
196,071
450
2,124
17
Ka.sau
3,346
7,278
284,260
207
3,121
18
Orenburg
1,411
3,615
102,179
265
1,112
34
Wilna.
1,(572
3.288
117,8!t4
463
1,208
1
Warsaw
3,02(3
3,729
206,973
98
2,899
29
Riga ....
2,690
4,081
136,635
77
2,601
12
Caucasus
1,125
2,772
88,643
95
1,022
S
W. Siberia .
139
438
33,279
31
106
2
E. Siberia .
200
335
10,507
10
171
19
Turkestan .
105
209
4,305
45
60
—
Amur ....
Total
408
—
14,418
40S
—
—
31,594
67,582
2,289,322
3,094
27,373
473
In 1896 there were 78 training schools for teachers with 5,233 piipil.s
(4,867 male and 366 female). To the support of these school.s the Imperial
Treasury contributed 1,270,865 roubles; local authorities, 181,484 roubles;
and private persons, 43,328 roubles.
The Press. — There were pul)lished in the Russian Empire (exclusive of
Finland) in 1894 10,651 books, with an aggregate of 32,208,372 copies. Of
these there were in Russian 8,082 works. 25,046,592 copies, the remainder
being in different languages, the relative proportions being as follows in
1889:— in Polish 723 works, 1,836,088 copies; Hebrew 474 works, 1,132,192
copies; German 377 works, 744,380 copies; Lettish 203 works, 767,570
copies ; Esthonian 115 works, 544,410 copies.
Periodicals numbered 743 in 1892 (exclusive of Finland), in the following
languages : 589 in Russian, 69 in Polish, 44 in German, 11 in Esthonian, 7 in
Lettish, 9 in French, 5 in Armenian, 2 in Jewish, 3 in Georgian, 1 in Finnish,
2 in Russian, German, and Polish, 1 in Russian, German, and Lettish, 1 in Tartar
and Russian, 1 in Russian and Turkish, and 1 in Russian and French. In
Tiflis, there were 12 periodicals : 4 Russian (7,600 copies), 3 Georgian (1,740
copies), and 5 Armenian (3,850 copies). By the end of 1894 the number of
periodicals was 802 (dailies, 112 ; several times a week, 101 ; weeklies, 223 ;
fortnightly and monthly, 280 ; several times a year, 86).
Justice and Crime.
The organisation of justice was totally reformed by the law of 1864 ; but
the action of that law has not yet been extended to the governments of
Olonets, Vologda, Astrakhan, Ufa, and Orenburg, and has been applied but
in a modified form (in 1889) to the Baltic Provinces and the government of
Arkhangelsk. In the above-named governments the Jiistice of Peace has
been introduced, but the other tribunals remain in the old state. No
juries are allowed in Poland and the Caucasus ; the justices of peace are
nominated by the Government in the provinces which have no zcmslxos.
922
RUSSIA
In Poland tlieve ai'e judges of peace in the towns only, their functions
in the villages ])eing performed by Gmina courts, elected by the inhabitants
of the Gmina. Siberia has maintained the tribunals of old ; in the Steppe
Provinces there are district judges, while courts of higher instance are repre-
sented by the Justice Department of the provincial administration.
There were in 1891-2 appeal departments of the Senate, 10 high courts, 85
courts of first instance. There were besides — 1,280 inquiry judges and 1,345
notaries ; 2,126 actual and 3,652 honorary justices of peace. In the unreformed
tribunals there were 604 judges, 129 public prosecutors, and 156 inquiry judges.
By a law, dated June 21, 1889, the functions of the juries were limited to
some extent, especially as regards the crimes committed by the representa-
tives of nobility in their elective functions,
B}^ a law of April 6, 1891, reformed courts as well as chiefs of districts have
been introduced in the provinces of the Kirghize Steppes, In Siberia, the
reformed Courts and trial liy jury were introduced in 1897, and in Turkestan
in 1898.
The following figures (the most recent published) show for the year 1889
the activity of the 62 courts, 8 chambers of justice, and 1,107 enquiring
magistrates of European Russia: — Number of prosecutions, 207,060 (73,850
pending from former years) ; prosecutions terminated, 125,924 ; afiairs brought
before the law courts 133,472 (ended 98,143) ; before the chambers of appeal
3,070 (ended 1,948) ; before the appeal courts of the Senate 2,008 (ended
1,726), Condemned by juries 20,952 men and women (hard labour and exile
3,580), without juries 16,984 (crimes against religion 672, murder 913, man-
slaughter 1,553) ; acquitted by juries 12,228, without juries 5,746, Prosecuted
before the justices of peace 81,671 ; condemned 57,524.
In Poland (10 courts, 1 appeal chamber) were: — Prosecutions 41,892
(15,832 pending from former years) ; prosecutions terminated 22,731 ; affairs
brought before law courts 29,356 (terminated 19,006) ; 3,174 appeals (ended
1,784); 211 appeal cases (ended 186), Condemned by law courts (without
juries) 7,978 men and women (hard labour and exile 337 ; crimes against
religion 45, murder 188, manslaughter 346) ; acquitted 4,276.
According to the last report of the Chief Administration for Prisons the
Russian Empire had, in 1896, 888 prisons (of which 125 were in Poland), and
the prison population on January 1, 1896, appeared as follows : — ■
—
Men
Women
Under judgment
20,804
1,456
Condemned to imprisonment
40,916
4,211
,, exile .
9,628
540
Waiting transport to Siberia
5,144
507
Kept by order of Administration .
811
24
Voluntarily following their parents
or husbands ....
744
871
Total
78,047
7,609
In the course of 1896, 603,974 persons entered the prisons, and 613,976
left (each prisoner being counted several times as he is transferred from one
prison to another), so that on January 1, 1897, the prison population
numbered 75,654, distril)Uted as follows: — lock-ups in Russia, 57,046;
FINANCE 923
lock-ups in Poland, 6,348; hard labour ^prisons, 3,000; correction houses,
5,423 ; depots, 3,240. The highest figure attained on a given day in all
prisons was 117,530 inmates, exclusive of the childrcu. For exile to
Siberia, 17,013 persons reached the prison of Tinmen (whence they are
distributed over Siberia), and 7,971 were sent further east. Of the 16,077
prisoners brought to Tinmen iu 1888, 2,000 were harddal)our convicts,
the remainder being — runaways, 1,913 ; condemned to exile l)y courts, 3,119 ;
exiled by order of Administration, 3,205 common law and 636 political
exiles ; women and children following exiles, 5,184. In 1893, the percentage
of exiles condemned by law courts was 51 p.c, and exiled by single order of
the Administration, 49 p.c. In 1896, 1,699 convicts and persons sent into
exile by order of the Administration were conveyed to the island of Sakhalin,
on board steamers (36 children), as well as 186 women convicts and exiles
and 294 women and children following their husbands and parents, and 150 con-
victs for the Usuri railwa5\ The average population of the hard-labour
convict prisons was 14,613. Besides, about 1,000 children were kept in 21
reformatories. In the convict island of Sakhalin on January 1, 1896, there
were 6,703 hard-labour convicts, and 8,433 released convicts and exiles ; to
these must be added 1,323 women who followed their husbands, with about
4,768 children ; and the free settlers, who numbered 2,838. There were
nearly 19,060 acres under culture (12,479 persons). Total Russian popu-
lation, 29,004 ; indigenes, 6,150. The actual expenditure for prisons reached
in 1897 the sum of 13,414,578 roubles, of which only 876,000 roubles
were obtained through the work of prisoners and convicts.
By the law of December 25, 1895, the prison administration has been
transferred from the Ministry of Interior to the Ministry of Justice, and it has
been ordered to enter upon a thorough reform of the system of imprisonment
and exile. The criminal code is also under revision.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
The annual financial budget is usually published on January 13, and since
1866 accounts of the actual revenue and expenditure are published by the
Control Administration, after a minute revision of each item. It consisted
until 1892, both for revenue and expenditure, of three separate parts : the
ordinary revenue and expenditure; the 'recettes d'ordre ' and 'depenses
d'ordre,' being transferences of sums among different branches of Administra-
ion ; and the extraordinary revenue (loans, war indemnity, &c.) and expendi-
ture (railways, military, public works). The second heading has been
abolished since 1892.
In accordance with a law of June 4, 1894, all expenditure for the re-arma-
ment of the army, special reserves of food, the building of new ports, as also
upon the State's railways, is to be henceforward included in the ordinary ex-
penditure, leaving expenditure for new railway lines only under the heading
of extraordinary expenditure ; while the military contributions (Turkey,
Khiva) have been transferred to the ordinary revenue, leaving under the
heading of extraordinary revenue only the money realised from loans, and the
perpetual deposits at the Impeiial Bank.
A new income tax (by classes) upon all trade establishments, factories,
shareholders and co-operative societies, and incomes from industry and trade
was introduced by the law of June 8, 1898.
924
RUSSIA
The following table gives the total actual ordinary and extraordinary
revenue and expenditure for each of the years 1886-97, in paper roubles,
according to a report published by the Control of the Empire in the Official
Messenger in December, 1898.
j
Onlinary
1
Extiaordinarjf ,
Year
Balance
1
Revenue
Expenditure
Revenue
Expenditure \
P:il>er Roubles
Paper Roubles
Paper Roubles
Paper Roubles
Paper Roubles
1888
873,560,748
836,992,477
+ 36,568,271
54,662,834
69,231,493
1889
914,526,821
868,824,115
+ 45,702,706
53,161,540
80,456,102
1890
933,379,144
914,789,775
+ 18,589,369
94,858,076
123,901,207
1891
890,545,476
925,355,708
-34,810,232
29,513,486
178,377,328
1892
964,687,095
952,575,764
+ 12,111,331
189,617,408
166,759,310 !
1893^
1,031,489,740
996,392,639
+ 35,097,101
160,523,630
47,702,806
1894
1,145,352,364
1,045,512,088
+ 99,840,276
75,226,335
101,423,380
1895
1,244,362,202
1,129,439,236
+ 114,922,966
153,068,740
366,634,470
1896
1,368,719,351
1,229,044,280
+ 139,675,071
43,500,457
255,308,655
1897
1,416,386,096
1,299,649,313
+ 116,736,783
42,591,539
194,948,911
1 Famine Yeai*.
This table diifers from the corresponding tables issued in previous years
(1887-94) by the State Control, and given in the previous issues of this Yeah
Book (with the exception of last two years) in the following : (1) All revenue
which was commonly calculated in the budget estimates with a varying value
of the paper rouble is now calculated at a uniform value of 1 rouble 50c. paper
= 1 rouble in gold, and 1 rouble 50c. in silver ; and (2) various items which were
differently classed in former estimates, some of them in the ordinary and some
others in the extraordinary budget, are classed, for all the ten years, according
to the new classification adopted on June 4, 1894. Consequently in the table
of ordinary expenditure new items have been introduced (railways, re-armament
of tlie army and navy), which formerly were comprised in the extraordinary
budget, hut now are included in the ordinary ex})enditure.
The increase of revenue in ten years, 542,800,000 roubles (or 62 ])er cent.)
is chiefly due to an increase in the revenue from new railways bought by the
State (217,693,000), wliich is absorbed by the costs of exploitation and the pay-
ments ou obligations. Another source of increase (77,200,000) was in tlie
increased import duties, a thinl an increased excise on spirits (52,400,000), as
also on tobacco, na})htha, sugar, and nuitches (altogether 80,200,000) ; and
the remainder is due to an increase of direct taxes. State's domains, &c.
The actual ordinary revenue and expenditure for the last five years, as re-
vised by the State's Control, are given as follows in the Memoir i)reseuted by
the Control to the Council of the State in December, 1898, in thousands of
roubles. They also are drawn in accordance with the law of June 4, 1894,
and with the above-mentioned uniform value of the paper rouble.
FINANCE
925
Actual Ordinary Revenue.
Sources of Revenue
1893
1894
1895
1'896
1897
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1. Taxes:—
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
A. Direct.
Land and forests .
46,818
47,507
49,297
40,686
39,243
Trade licences
40,475
42,432
42,761
45,280
46,617
5 ])er cent, on capital .
13,158
12,067
13,848
13,558
15,567
B. Indirect.
Spirits
260,832
297,386
298,219
294,299
280,129
Tobacco
31,809
32,565
34, .545
35,103
35,294
Sugar ....
30,340
41,228
47,688
42,670
55,476
Other excise duties
(naphtha, matches) .
22,955
26,455
27,294
28,215
28,894
Custom duties
147,107
172,737
167,712
182,. 303
195,615
Stamp duties
27,913
29,051
29,743
30,820
31,758
Transfer duties .
17,840
18,393
19,022
19,003
20,254
Passports, railway
taxes, &c. ,
22,980 25,104
23,274
24,919
23,155
2. State Mono2)olies : —
Mining
3,472
3,610
3,515
3,705
3,456
Mint ....
931
539
720
11,665
17,550
Posts ....
22,928
23,805
24,835
26,067
25,850
Telegraphs .
12,339
13,156
14,003
15,064
15,729
Sale of Spirits ,
—
—
—
27,789
52,478
3. State Domains : —
'
Rent for domains
14,467
14,267
14,018
14,196
15,745
Sales of ,,
866
891
725
855
661
Crown forests
21,756
25,844
28,670
33,619
37,704 1
Crown mines, &c.
9,900
9,856
21,676
10,296
10,834 '
State railways
85,146
115,990
194,675
293,260
277,846 1
Crown cajtitals and
banking operations .
6,567
6,852
5,366
4,300
25,050
Crown's part in private
railways .
4,161
6,822
2,376
3,636
2,657
4. Redemption of Land : —
Liberated serfs .
42,802
40,100
42,124
40,626
37,544
Crown peasants .
56,192
52,719
59,173
56,320
50,975
5. Miscellaneous : —
1
1
Railway debts
30,361
32,644
20,650
15,477
12,631 1
Crown debts
23,149
23,235
30,058
30,983
29,802 ;
Aid from municipali-
1
ties
18,730
19,397
18,655
15,528
16,380 '■
Military contribution .
3,523
2,859
2,4.53
1,930
2,358
Various
11,971
7,842
7,267
6,547
8,164
Total ordinary revenue .
1,031,490
1,145,352
1,244,362
1,368,719
1,416,386
(Out of it in gold) . i
101,381' 117,579
115,330
139,419
926
RUSSIA
Actual Ordinary Expendituhe.
—
1893
1894 1
1895
1896
1897
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
state debt
259,395
270,215
277,146
268,214
258,558
Out of it, railway debts
(67,840)
(84,141)
(98,812)
(101,212^
(102,456)
Higher institutions of the
State ....
2,240
2,286
2,464
2,805
2,729
Holy Synod ,
12,304
13,308
13,809
17,571
19,806
Ministries : —
Imperial House .
10,522
11,797
12,678
14,450
12,968
Foreign Affairs .
5,034
4,944
5,120
4,860
4,930
War ....
272,439
280,427
285,230
294,359
293,790
Out of it :—
Keformof armament,
and food stores for
the army
(36,045)
(41,424)
(32,220)1 (29,792)
(23,661)
Transcaspian Railway
(3,630)
(3,744)
(3,894)' (5,999)
(5,105)
Navy ....
54,842
55,114
57,136 ^ 59,531
85,275
Out of it, re-armament
^607)
(700)
(324)i (729)
—
Finances
117,469
125,552
140,310 188,545
204,324
Out of it, loans to rail-
way companies, &c.
(8,448)
(7,448)
(3,019) (2,797)
(3,711)
Agriculture and State
I
Domains
25,296
27,872
29,930 ; 31,920
33,172
Interior
83,214
84,668
86,173 1 90,205
80,458'
Public Instruction
22,440
22,184
23,570 24,995
26.476-
Ways and Communica-
tions
99,791
114,771
162,974
195,971
226,861
Out of it :—
Exploitation of
State railways .
(53.349)
(74,406)
(121,597) (146,076)
(168,802)
New feeding lines
and improve-
ments
(19,142)
(11,549)
(13,223)
(19,394)
(25,300)
Justice
25,608
25,962
26,096
27,955
41,8322
State's Comptrol
4,493
4,900
5,343
6,166
6,868
Out of it, railways .
(1,496)
(1,828)
(2,266)
(2,805)
(3,309)
State's studs .
Total .
1,305
996,393
1,508
1,461
1,496
1,601
1,045,512
1,129,439
1,229,044
1,299,649
1 This diminution is due to the transfer of the prisons to the Ministry of Justice, and
to transfers in consequence of creation of the new Chernsniorsk Government.
2 Increase due to above cause.
The increase of ordinary expenditure due to the gradual purchase of the
railways by the State [i.e., railway debts, guarantee upon revenue to share-
holders, improvements, exploitation, and control), but not including the
building of new lines, which still makes part of the extraordinary budget, has
thus been within the iaet ten years as follows : —
1
FINANCE
927
Paper roubles.
Paper roubles.
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
101,879,360
107,235,964
136,459,763
130,398,647
142,905,128
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
153,905,131
183,115,228
242,811,956
278,283,293
308,083,051
The extraordinary revenue and expenditure diu'ing the same years were : —
Actual Extraordinary Revenue and Expenditure.
—
1893
1894 1895
1896
1897
Revenue.
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
State's loans .
154,866
49,932
147,214
26,039
32,339
Perpetual deposits at the
Bank of Russia .
1,766
2,410
517
6,878
7,688
Debts paid by railways .
577
21,836
—
2,272
—
Sale of State's property ,
—
— ■
4,438
—
238
Free sums returning to
the Exchequer
2,939
345
—
—
13
Various ....
375
694
899
8,311
2,314
Total extraordinary revenue
160,524
75,226
153,069
43,500
42,592
Expenditure.
Building of new railways
and increase of rolling
stock ....
35,731
48,709
.95,773
132,310
129,194
Payment of State debt
(conversion).
11,972
669
264,761
122,951
64,279
Operations for purchase of
railways
—
9,682
5,634
48
1,476
Payment of consolidated
railway bonds
—
—
—
To State bank. Nobility
bank, and various
—
42,363 466 ]
—
—
Total extraordinary ex-\
penditure . . ./
47,703
101,423 366,634
255,309
194,949
The total ordinary and extraordinary revenue and expenditure in 1897
taking Ir, 50c. pai)er=lr. gold, were as follows : —
928
RUSSIA
1897
Ordinary revenue .
Ordinary expenditure
Difference .
Extraordinary revenue .
Extraordinary expenditure
Balance
Total balance
Estimates
Actual Revenue
and Expenditure
Roubles I Roubles
1,318,366,495 1,416,386,096^
1,283,858,862 , 1,308,528,746-
+ 34,507,633 H- 107,857,350
95,604,563 42,591,539^ ' *
130,112,196 209,696,916-*
-34,507,633 -167,105,377
- 59,248,027
A Including the balance of previous budgets.
2 Including 189,251,155 roubles to be paid on previous budgets.
3 Including balance left from previous budgets.
4 Including 68,321,78(5 roubles to be paid ou previous estimates.
The final balance ot the total revenue and expenditure for the last five
years, in paper money, is given as follows in the above-mentioned Con-
troller's Report. The sign ( + ) shows an excess of revenue over the expendi-
ture ; the sign ( - ) shows the reverse : —
Years
Balance of Ordinary Revenue
Expenditure
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Balance for Five Years
Balance of Extraordiru
Expenditure.
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Balance for Five Years
and
Roubles
Total Balance
. - . +
+
+
+
106,507,022
220,275,626
155,465,857
172,528,610
107,857,350
+
evenue and
+
762,634,465
45,157,571
51,784,944
253,786,654
174,048,951
167,105,377
.
601,568,355
+
161,066,110
FINANX'E
929
The detailed budget estimates for the years 1898 and 1899 appear as follows
Revenue.
Sources of Revenue
1898
1899
Roubles
Roubles
I. Ordinary revenue :
Direct taxes —
Laud and personal
40,875,716
44,713,331
Trade licences ....
45,277,800
54,061,900
On capital .....
Total direct taxes
Indirect taxes —
14,424,300
14,779,400
100,577,816
113,554,631
Excise on spirits ....
260,453,000
270,820,000
,, ,, tobacco ....
34,913,000
35,350,000
,, ,, sugar ....
51,046,000
58,042,000
,, ,, naphtha.
20,782,000
23,551,500
,, ,, matches.
7,015,200
7,011,200
Customs duties ....
169,260,000
196,600,000
Stamp duties ....
Total indirect taxes
Mint, mines, post, and telegraphs
70,210,674
75,806,757
623,679,874
667,182,457
48,529,100
52,875,800
Sale of spirits by the State .
85,461,000
92,141,000
State Domains (including railways)
370,127,108
396,307,398
Sale of State Domains
593,339
902,302
Redemption of land : State's peasants .
43,181,586
40,433,597
Liberated serfs -
37,376,714
37,260,403
Reimbursement of railways' and other
loans ......
57,318,227
58,879,906
Miscellaneous
5,163,453
5,643,596
War contributions ....
Total ordinary revenue
IL Exlraorclinary revenue :
2,450,000
3,947,113
1,364,458,217
1,469,128,203
Perpetual deposits at the Bank of
Russia ......
Total extraordinar}- revenue .
To niLct extraordinary expenditure
Total revenue .
3,300,000
4,000,000
3,300,000
4,000,000
106,291,709
98,604,443
1,474,049,923
1,571,732,646
The estimated increase in revenue is di
le to foreseen inc
reases (1) m the
n c\r\C\\ mvine- to
uusiom revenue ;_'.i/,i5UU,uuu) ; (Zj aiate railways (,auoui, ^v,ouv,vv,"/ ^..— „ --
the opening of more State railways, and increase of revenue in tjie
remainder ; (3) the retail of spirits by the State (10,400,000) ; and (4) tlie
3 o
930
RUSSIA
new taxes upon industry to be introduced in 1899 instead of the former ones,
by the law of June 8, 1898 ; excise on sugar and so on. The direct taxes,
and especially the land taxes, have been reduced at the same time (by
2,900,000), the crop of 1898 having been poor, and another poor crop being
expected in 1899.
Expenditure.
The main increase of ex[)enditure is expected : (1) in the State railways
(23,400,000 roubles) ; (2) for the further extension of the sale of spirits by
the State ; (3) for various ministries: War, 34,816,258; Navy, 16,015,000;
Justice, 2,200,000; Agriculture, 1,200,000; and Education, 2,400,000
roubles.
The deficit is met by (1) the extraordinary revenue (4,000,000) ; (2) the
surplus of ordinary revenue over ordinary ex})enditure (6,468,970) ; and (3)
the sums disposable at the Imperial Treasury (98.601,443 re
>ubles).
Branches of Expenditure
1898
1899
Roubles
Roubles
I. Ordinary expenditure :
1. Public debt—
(a) Interest and capital. State debts
220,376,536
228,549,279
(b) ,, railway obligations
51,716,196
51,688,807
2. Higher institutions of the State
2,612,842
2,880,621
3. Holy Synod .....
20,374,941
21,199,144
4. Ministry of the Im])erial Household
12,597,492
12,637,506
5. ,, ,, Foreign Affairs
4,802,176
5,314,556
6. ,, „ War ....
288,808,664
323,791,710
7. ,, „ Navy ....
67,050,000
83,065,000
8. ,, ,, Finances
211,118,038
233,381,888
9. ,, ,, Agriculture and State
Domains .
35,737,983
36,980,741
10. ,, ,, Interior
80,175,211
82,145,703
11. ,, ,, Public Instruction
26,440,843
28,761,171
12. ,, ,, Ways & Communications
264,677,232
288,074,712
13. ,, ,, Justice
42,733,274
44,944,651
14. State Control .....
7,178,935
7,459,627
15. Direction of studs ....
1,614,850
1,784,117
Unforeseen and war ....
Total ordinary expenditure
II. Extraordinary expenditure :
12,000,000
20,000,000
1,462,659,233
1,350,085,213
For railways and ports
Total extraordinary expenditure
Total expenditure .
123,964,7101
109,073,413 2
123,964,710
109,073,413
4,740,149,923
1,571,732,646
1 Siberian Railway, 34,447,020 roubles ; works connected with it, 3,718,363 roubles ;
other railwjiys of jjeneral use, 13,665,182 roubles ; local small branches 10,000,000 roubles ;
rolling stock for tlie Siberian aud other railways, 49,234,145 roubles; expropriation
expenses, ] 0,000,000 roubles.
'■i Siberian Railway, 27,151,350 ; works connected with it, 8,706,256 ; other railways,
24,777,782 ; rolling stock for Siberian aud other railways, 46,864,525 ; railway debts in an-
ticipation, 6,570,500.
FINANCE
931
The State's debt liaving undergone during the year 1894 considerable
modifications, which, among others, render it impossible to treat the Re-
demption of Land Loans separately, the Ministry of Finances has adopted
the following new classification of State debts : —
Debts
Jan. 1, 1897
Jan. 1, 1898
Loans
Gold
1 Imperial=10r.
Paper
Gold
1 Imperial=10r.
Paper
per cent.
3 .
3-79 .
4 .
4i .
5 .
Others .
Roubles
333,895,250
99,659,375
1,509,501,908
110,397,500
11,558,600
Roubles
78,000,000
137,331,000
136,553,044
248,560,000
155,400,000
37,057,153
Roubles
332,830,375
99,421,875
1,501,787,625
109,707,500
26,517,860
Roubles
78,000,000
104,331,000
113,120,874
248,180,000
152,060,000
35,712,565
2,065,012,633
792,901,197
2,070,265,235
731,404,459
per cent.
Bonds :
3 .
4 .
5 .
6 .
Others .
14,976,266
48,837,200
2,024,368,274
42,157,538
38,490,119
22,938,531
14,503,392
48,837,200
2,131,487,389
42,157,538
38,488,362
22,934,404
Paper
currency
uncovered .
63,813,466
2,127,954,463
621,281,634
63,340,592
2,410,067,693
175,000,000
Grand total
in paper
ronbles=i'j
of Imperial.
2,128,826,100
3,542,137,294
= 6,735,376,443
2,133,605,827
3,141,472,152
= 6,341,880,893
The excess of 15,109,836 roubles gold and 107,244,169 paper roubles is
due : (1) to the acceptance by the State of railway debts (15,109,836 gold) ;
and (2) to inner 4 per cent, bonds (80,000,000) ; while the diminution is due
to : (1) 446,281,634 roubles by which the paper currency has been covered ;
and (2) various small items.
During the ten years 1887-97, the movement of the State's debt was as
follows : —
20 3
932
RUSSIA
Increase or decrease
of:—
Gold
^'^^^'^ lr.gold=lr.50c. paper
State's debt
Interest
Annuities .
+ 762,291,505
+ 23,230,273
+ 350,558
-65,500,832 +1,078,881,425
-15,505,113 +19,340,296
-16,364,464 \ -15,838,627
It thus appears that although the State's debt has increased by nearly
1,079,000,000 roubles (20 "5 per cent.), the yearly payments of interest and
annuities were only increased by nearly 3,500,000 roubles (0.3 per cent,
during the same time.
The conversion operations of the years 1889-96 are summed up as
follows in Controller's report {Official Messenger, December 31, 1897) : —
—
Gold
Silver and Paper j
Loans converted :
6 per cent
5^ per cent. ....
5 per cent. ....
4^ per cent
Treasury bonds
Total ....
Paper currency covered
Cost of conversion
To cover paper currency
Total cost
New loans concluded :
(4 p. c.) for nominal sum of
Taken from Imperial Treasury .
Roubles
50,000,000
773,283,420
121,507,438
Roubles
65,174,900 1
1,531,376,7/00 |
57,669,000
944,790,858
1,654,220,600
( = 3,071,406,888)1
148,061,277
1
106,301,507
265,301,277
129,307,625 \
31,278,167 1
—
( = 717,989,967)
910,448,375
391,233,647
1,674,000,000 '
( = 3,039,672,562)1
164,004,800
(=750,855,269)
1 1 rouble 50 copecks paper = 1 rouble gold ; 1 rouble paper = 1 rouble silver.
The money in the Imperial Treasury for the last five years was : —
Year
Jan. 1.
Gold
Paper and silver
roubles
Total (paper
roubles at 66§ c.
in gold)
544,800,288
732,323,209
628,848,882
755,817,892
.562,678,265
Ready cash
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
236,248,745
258,682,411
193,548,259
225,136,522
190,427,171
344,299,593
338,526,493
418,113,108
239,553,120
333,404,565
273,944,615
246,501,328
214,733,443
FINANCE
933
The figures of the last column represent those of the fourth column, after
deduction of tlie outlays which had to be made according to previous estimates.
As to the liabilities to the State, they were as follows on January 1, 1898 : —
Military contributions from Khiva
,, ,, Turkey
Railways ....
Redemption of peasants' lands
Debts of local treasuries
Debt of Nobility Land Bank .
Various . . . . ,
Roubles
290,108 paper.
175,626,072 gold.
r 86,568,697 gold.
\ 123,832,570 paper.
1,531,392,928 paper.
91,518,196 paper.
83,105,961 gold,
r 6,086,346 gold.
\ 129,490,458 paper.
Total .... 2,403,644,873 paper.
Besides, there are at the Treasury various sums, partly in cash, and partly
in debts (famine fund, pensions' funds, military, philanthropic, special
agricultural funds, funds for scientific prizes, and so on), which attained on
January 1, 1898, a total of 314,994,844 roubles.
The payments of interest and capital for the State and railway debts in the
budget estimates for 1899 appear as lollows, no distinction being now made
between payments in gold and in paper money, but all being expressed in
roubles = yV of the imperial, i.e., in paper roubles : —
1890
Interest and
cai»ital
Roubles
1. Exterior loans
60,045,559
2. ,, bonds .....
6,597,397
3. Interior loans
34,591,956
4. ,, bonds .....
94,984,450
5. Obligations of State railways
20,737,028
6. ,, of private railways (to be re-
paid by them) .....
51,688,807
7. Payments for debentures not drawn liy
their owners in former years
1,481,000
8. Banking expenses
Total
111,889
270,238,086
During the year 1895, the Ministry of Finance, in order to put an end
to the continual fluctuations in the value of the paper rouble, ottered
facilities for all payments to the Treasury^ and railways being made in gold, at
a certain ratio between gold and paper currency to be determined from time
to time by the Ministry. By the laws of May and November, 1895, the ratio
had been established at Ir. 48c. in paper money for Ir. in gold, the golden
' imperial' coin of lOr. thus being taken for 15r. 24c. in paper money, and
the new lOr. gold coin (law of December 29, 1885) at 14r. 80c. in paper
money. For the year 1896, the value of the old and the new 'imperial' has
been established (in December, 1895) at, respectively, 15r. 45c. for the old, and
at 15r. for the new coin — the ratio between gold and paper being thus 15 paper
934
RUSSIA
roubles for 10 roitbhs in gold. This ratio has been confirmed for the year 1897.
It is proposed to maintain it further on, and to impose upon the State's bank
the dut}' of accepting paper money at the above ratio in exchange for gold.
And finally, in view of the proposed permanent introduction of the above
regular ratio between gold and paper currency, it was ordered, by an Imperial
decree, dated January 3 (15), 1897, while leaving the gold money of the
same contents of pure gold, weight, and dimensions as before, to mark upon
it — on the 'imperials' 15 roubles (instead of 10), and on the 'half-
imperials ' 7r. 50c. (instead of 5 roubles). In 1897 (Nov. 26), a new gold
money of the value of 5 paper roubles, i.e., equal in value to g of the
' imperial ' was introduced.
A regular value of the i)aper currency having thusibeen introduced, a law
was passed on September 10 (August 29), 1897, to the eflect that paper cur-
rency may be issued by the State's Bank, when necessity occurs, but on the
following conditions : If the amount of paper' currency does not exceed
600,000,000 roubles, it must be guaranteed by half that sum (300,000,000
roubles in gold) ; while every issue above 600,000,000 roubles must be
guaranteed to the full amount in gold deposited at the bank. In the me-
moir which accompanies the budget estimates for 1898, the Minister of
Finances shows that the amount of gold accumulated at the Treasury and the
State's bank now attains 1,315,000,000 in paper roubles, that is, exceeds the
amount of paper money in circulation by 316,000,000 roubles. A considerable
part of this amount of gold— that is, 575,000,000 roubles ( = 862,500,000
roubles in paper money) — is considered as a guarantee fund for the paper
currency, which has been reduced, since 1896, by 122,300,000 roubles. The
growth of the guarantee fund since 1887 is represented as follows : —
Total amount of paper currency
Total amount of gold at Trea-
sury and Bank, valued, Ir.
gold =lr. 50c. paper .
Percentage of paper currency
covered by gold reserves
Guarantee fund in gold to cover
paper currency valued, Ir.
gold = Ir. 50c. paper .
Percentage of paper currency
covered by above guarantee
fund .....
Jan. ], 1887. , Dec. 16, 1896. Sept. 13, 1897.
1,046,500,000 1,121,300,0001,068,778,167
441,600,000
42-2
255,500,000
24-4
1,206,000,0001,131,700,000
107-5
750,000,000
66-9
105-9
862,500,000
80-7
In consequence of the just-mentioned law of September 10 (August 29),
1897, the form of the bahmce of the State's bank was altered on September 13,
1897. The paper currency, which represented a total of 1,068,778,167
roubles, will now ajtpoar in the ^^amw of the bank, while the guarantee
fund in gold (750,000,000 roubles), and the liabilities of the State Treasury
to cover the paper currency, will appear in active of the bank. The total
amount of gold at tlie bank, considered as a guarantee for paper currency,
attained on September 25, 1,131 700,000 roubles. The gold owned by the
bank abroad (13,100,000) and the gold owned abroad by the Treasury were
not included in that item. (See below, under Money .vnd Credit.)
DEFENCE 935
II. Local Finance.
The actual annual receipts of the 32 provincial assemblies (the zcmsh'os),
which were 32i million roul)les in 1881, reached 44,679,400 in 1894, as
against 49,291,500 roubles foreseen in the estimates. Of the 585,300,000 acres
which pay the lantl tax, 235,000,000 acres belonging to peasants pay an average
of 6 "3 copecks per acre, while the 351,000,000 acres belonging to landlords
pay an average of 3 '3 copecks per acre. The aggregate expenses of the
zcvistvos reached the same year 56,638,100 roubles. Of that, 8 per cent,
was spent for the administration of the zcmstvo.'^, 24 per cent, for hygiene and
medical help, 15 per cent, for education, and 37 per cent, for obligatory
expenses. Debt of all zcmsLvos to Government, 37,466,300 roubles.
The aggregate budgets of 684 towns of European Russia and Poland reached
in 1893 67,252,370 roubles of income and 68,250,214 roubles expenditure.
Only 6 towns have each an income above one million roubles, and 8 more above
500,000. The aggregate debt of all towns reached in 1882 26,842,177 roubles.
The expenses of the village communities have been tabulated for 50
provinces of European Russia proper for 1891 ; they reached the sum of
45,016,796 roubles ; that is an average of Ir. 35c. per male soul of population,
varying from 41c. to 3r. 38c. in different provinces.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Russia has an extensive frontier both by sea and land, pro^
tected by numerous fortifications of various classes. On the west,
Poland is defended by a system of four strongholds, sometimes
called the Polish Quadrilateral — Novogeorgievsk on the right
bank of the Vistula ; the fortifications of Warsaw ; Ivansrorod
on both sides of the Vistula ; Brest-Li to vski on the Bug. As the
Vistula line remained unprotected on the rear from a possible
invasion through Eastern Prussia, new fortifications have been
raised in the rear of these fortresses. Western Poland, to the
west of the Vistula, remained also quite unprotected, but new
fortifications are being raised now about Kielce, at the foot of
the Lysa-Gora Mountains in south-west Poland. There are
numerous other fortified places, mostly neglected, on the Vistula
and Bug.
The more important fortresses and forts are divided into
three classes as follows : — In the first class are Warsaw, Novo-
Georgievsk, and Brest-Litovsk in the Warsaw district, and
Kovno in the Vilna district. The second class consists of
Kronstadt and Sveaborg in the St. Petersburg district ; Ivan-
gorod in the Warsaw district ; Kerch in the Odessa district ;
Libau in the Vilna district ; and Vladivostok in the Pri-Amur
district. In the third class are Viborg in the St. Petersburg
district ; Ossovets and Ust-Dvinsk (Diinamiind) in the Vilna
district ; Sevastopol and Ochakov in the Odessa district ; and
93G RUSSIA
Kars and Batum in the Caucasus district. There are also forty-
six places unclassed, many of them being mere fortified posts.
The list is as follows : — Zegrj in the Warsaw district ; St. Peters-
burg ; Kiev and Dubno ; Dvinsk in the Yiliia district ; Alexan-
dropol, Evdokimov Shatoi, Yevgenievsk, Karadagh, Khunzakh,
Khodjal Makhi, Preobrajensk, Veden, Georgievsk, Guvieb, Akhti
and Zakatali in the Caucasus district ; Kushk Port, Alexan-
drovsk, Krasnovodsk, Ashkhabad, Merv, Chikishliar, Tashkend,
Ura Tiube, Namangan, Kokand, Aulieata, Khodjend, Samar-
kand, Chinaz, Kliuchevoi, Khust, Makhram, Petro Alexan-
drovsk, Andijan, Margelan, Chimkend, Perovsk, Djarkend,
Bakhti, Karakol, Narin, and Zaisan in the Turkestan district ;
and Nikolaievsk in the Pri-Amur district.
II. Army.
Since January 13, 1874, military service has been rendered
obligatory for all men from tlieir 21st year. With the modifica-
tions introduced in that law on October 30, 1876, and June 26,
1888, military service is organised as follows : — Out of about
870,000 young men reaching every year their 21st year, about
275,000 are taken into the active army, and the remainder are in-
scribed partly in the reserve and partly in the 2nd reserve, or * Za-
pas.' The period of service is, in European Russia, five years in the
active army (in reality reduced by furloughs to 4 years), 13 years
in the reserve, and 5 years in the ' Zapas ; ' 7 years in active
army and 6 years in the reserve in the Asiatic dominions ; and 3
years in the active army and 15 years in the reserve in Caucasia.
In case of need the Minister of War has the right of keeping the
men for another six months under the colours.
Certain privileges are granted on account of education, and
clergymen are exempt, as also doctors and teachers.
In 1896, of the 987,917 young men liable to military service
(of whom 50,641 Jews and 26,382 Mussulmans), 30,585 (7,736
Jews) did not appear ; 77,542 were found too weak for military
service; 212,209 inscribed in the first part of the militia, and
275,247 (15,831 Jews) were taken into the army, besides 3,394
Caucasian natives, out of 26,228 liable to service. The contin-
gent for 1896 was 274,650 men, besides 2,750 Caucasians. The
men inscribed in the reserve troops are convoked for drill six
weeks twice a year.
The 'Opoltchciiie,' formerly a simple militia, was reorganised in 1888 and
1891 (April 27th), and the duration of the service prolonged to 43 years in-
stead of 40, for the soldiers, and from 50 to 55 for the officers. It is divided
into two parts. The first i)art {pervyi razryad) has the character of reserve
DEFENCE 987
troops, and includes all those who have passed through active service, as also
those who have not been taken into the active army, though able-bodied. It
is intended chiefly to complete the active troops in time of war, and enables
Russia to call out, in case of need, 19 classes of drilled conscripts. * Cadres '
having been formed in the 'Opoltchenie,' the men called out in case of war
will tind ready battalions, squadrons, kc, wherein to enter, and these parts
will be provided with artillery. Drilling of some parts of the militia has been
introduced. The second part, or vtoroi razryad (including all able-bodied
men who have served in the first division, as also those liberated from service
as not fully able-bodied, or being single workers in their families), can be
called out only by an Imperial manifesto, and only for organising corps of
militia.
The Cossacks, who constitute 11 separate voiskos (Don, Kuban, Terek,
Astrakhan, Orenburg, Ural, Siberia, Semiiyetchensk, Transbaikalia, Amur,
and Usuri — the latter erected to a separate voisko in 1889), are divided into
three classes : the first in active service ; the second on furlough with their
arms and horses ; and the third with arms but without horses. Each xoisko
is bound to equip, clothe, and arm its soldiers. Part of the Cossack cavalry is
incoqwrated in the field troops, together with regular cavalry. The obliga-
tions of each voisko are regulated by separate laws.
The indigenous troops, whicli number in time of peace 23 squadrons and
2 companies, are organised from Caucasians.
By the law of December 18, 1878, which came into force on January 1,
1881, personal military service is declared obligatory in Finland. The
Finnish troops form 9 battalions of riflemen, each with 18 oflicers and 505
men, and number in all 4,833 and 1 regiment of dragoons. In 1886 obliga-
tory military service was extended to the natives of the Caucasus, but, accord-
ing to the law of June 9, 1887, the Mussulman population of Caucasia has had
a tax imposed of 528,000 roubles, to be paid from January 1, 1890, instead of
military service.
By a law. May 15, 1891, a new rank of subaltern officers, nominated in
case of war out of sub-officers not entitled by education to the grade of
officers {zauryad-praporschiki), as well as of clerks of the same kind in the
military administration {zauryccd-tchinovniki), has been introduced. They are
intended to fill the several thousands of places of both officers and officials
which would be vacant in case of mobilisation.
During the year 1892 new measures have been taken for the speedier for-
mation of the militia in case of war ; standing * cadres' are to be formed, and
a new (3rd) ' mortar regiment ' has been formed on the western frontier. In
the ten governments of Poland, all men of the militia {opolcheniye) who have
passed through the army will be ready to be mobilised at the same time as
the army itsel f.
For military purposes the Russian Empire is divided into 13 districts (in-
cluding one province), and among these are distributed the 24 army corps of
which (with the addition of some independent divisions) the army consists.
An army corps has in general a staff, 2 infantry divisions, and 1 cavalry
division (with attached artillery), a corps of engineers (consisting of 1 com-
pany of sappers, 1 telegraph company, 1 section of field engineers, and half
a pontoon battalion), 1 battalion of train, and a section of the reserve horse
depot. Its normal strength is about 1,030 officers, 47,653 men, 16,965
horses, and 124 guns. The active army is supplemented by the Reserve
troops, Depot troops. Fortress troops, Local troops, and the Imperial militia,
these supplementary forces being distributed among the various arms as
shown in the following statement.
938 RTTSSlA I
The infantry consists of 12 regiments of the guard, 16 grenadier regi-
ments, and 181 army infantry regiments, each regiment having 4 battalions
of 4 companies. In addition there are 4 rifle battalions of the guard, 24
rifle regiments, 8 Finland rifle battalions, 8 Caucasian rifle battalions, 8
Trans-Caspian rifle battalions, 4 Turkestan rifle battalions, and 3 2 East
Siberian rifle regiments. For frontier service in Asia there are 15 Turkestan,
5 West Siberian, and 11 East Siberian battalions. The Cossack infantry
consists of 16 Kuban and 4 Trans-Baikal battalions. The reserve infantry
(intended to expand in war) has, in Europe, 1 guard reserve regiment, 15
reserve regiments of 2 battalions, and 50 reserve cadre battalions of 5 com-
panies. In the Caucasus are 4 reserve regiments (Russian), 4 native reserve
regiments of 2 battalions, and 10 reserve cadre battalions. In Siberia there
are also 10 reserve cadre battalions, and in Turkestan 5 line cadre battalions.
The fortress infantry has 1 regiment of 5 battalions, 17 of 2 battalions, and
13 single battalions. There is also local infantry in 141 small detachments
in remote places. Depot infantry is formed on mobilisation — one battalion
for each infantry regiment of the active army, and smaller bodies for the rifle
brigades and Cossack battalions. The imperial militia infantry is to consist
of 640 battalions in brigades of 8 battalions, and divisions of 2 brigades, so
that there will be 40 divisions ; in addition, there will be 18 fortress militia
infantry battalions in the Warsaw district ; making 658 battalions in all.
The cavalry consists of 4 regiments of guard cuirassiers of 4 squadrons ;
6 regiments of light cavalry of the guard, of 6 squadrons ; 54 regiments of
dragoons of the line, of 6 squadrons ; 1 regiment of Finland cavalry, 1 of
Littoral, 1 of Crimean Tartar, and 1 of Daghestan cavalry, each of 6
squadrons ; 1 division of Osset, and 1 of Turkestan cavalry, each of 2
squadrons. The Cossack cavalry consists of 44 regiments (in war, 130) of 6
squadrons ; 8 (in Avar, 18) of 4 squadrons ; and 21 (in war, 53) independent
squadrons. Depot cavalry sections are maintained corresponding to the 64
cavalry regiments of the guard and line, ready to be grouped into cadres and
brigades. The imperial militia cavalry will consist of 80 squadrons, grouped
in 20 regiments.
The artillery consists of: Field artillery, 3 guard brigades; 4 grenadier
brigades ; 45 line brigades, attached to infantry divisions ; 1 Turkestan
brigade ; 2 East Siberian brigades ; 1 Finland regiment of 4 batteries ; 6
divisions of 3 batteries attached to 5 line rifle brigades ; 1 Trans- Baikal
division of 2 batteries ; 1 West Siberian division of 2 batteries ; 3 Trans-
Caspian batteries ; 1 division of 2 light and 1 mountain batteries attached to
•Caucasian rifle brigade ; 1 division of 2 batteries attached to guard rifle
brigade ; and 1 East Siberian division of 3 batteries. The regular horse
artillery, 1 guard horse artillery brigade of 5 batteries ; 23 line horse
batteries ; 1 horse mountain division of 2 batteries ; 1 Turkestan horse
mountain battery. The Cossack horse artillery has 20 batteries (in war, 38).
The howitzer artillery consists of 7 regiments of, in all, 24 batteries of 6
howitzers each ; and 2 batteries belonging to the Siberian artillery. The first
•and second reserve field ammunition columns (expanding in war), consist, in
peace, of 52 parks for the 52 divisions of the active army ; 8 parks for the 5
divisions of the guard, the Finland and the Caucasian rifle brigades ; 2 East
■Siberian parks ; 7 howitzer parks ; and 1 cadre for transport column for
troops in Trans-Caspia. The third ammunition reserve column consists of
91 local parks. The reserve field artillery consists of 7 reserve brigades, 3 of
■6 batteries, 3 of 5, and 1 of 7 ; and 1 reserve cadre battery. On mobilisation
these 41 batteries expand into 164. The field communication columns consist
■of 8 parks, which expand in war into 18 reserve artillery park brigades,
DEFENCE 989
attached 18 reserve divisions ; 12 parks attaclieil to 12 reserve divisions in
European Russia ; and 2 reserve mountain parks, attached to 2 reserve
divisions in the Caucasus. Depot artillery has permanent peace cadres of 3
depot brigades, each of 3 batteries (expanding into 12 batteries) ; 3 depot
batteries (expanding into 12) ; 1 guard battery, and 1 Caucasian battery (ex-
panding respectively into 3 guard batteries, and 4 Caucasian) ; and 1 horse
artillery depot battery. Imperial militia field artillery will consist of 80
batteries combined into 40 regiments, each of 2 batteries, attached to the 40
divisions of the militia infantry. The foot artillery consists of 56 fortress
battalions ; 4 siege battalions ; 10 fortress artillery companies ; 2 fortress
detachments in Asia ; and 5 sortie batteries. The imperial militia foot
artillery will consist of 10 battalions in war.
The engineers consist of 25 sapper battalions ; 4 Turkestan and Siberian
battalions ; 8 pontoon battalions, and 7 of field park engineers. There are 7
battalions of railway troops ; 2 engineer siege parks ; and an instructional
balloon park. Reserve engineers consist of 2 reserve sapper battalions. The
fortress engineers are 23 fortress sapper companies and 4 half companies ; 15
submarine mining companies ; 6 fortress balloon detachments ; 7 fortress
telegraph detachments ; and 10 engineering artificer detachments. The depot
engineers form on mobilisation 4 depot sapper battalions and a depot technical
battalion. The imperial militia engineers will consist, on mobilisation, of
20 militia sapper companies in 5 battalions.
The frontier guard, stationed on the frontier, are in 31 brigades and 2 de-
tachments, in all about 35,000 men. In addition to these components^ of the
Russian army there are field gendarmerie (6 cadres kept up in peace), field
post service, Caucasian native militia, the Palace grenadier company, corps of
military topographers, veterinary service, sanitary divisions (attached to the
infantry divisions), train (6 battalions), reserve horse depots, &c.
The infantry and rifies are armed with the new small-bore rifle (3 lines),
with a magazine of five cartridges ; the dragoons have a t;imilar rifle taking
the same cartridges. The active field and mountain artillery have steel
breechloaders of four patterns : heavy, with an extreme range of 4,150 yards ;
light, range 4,480 yards ; light (pattern of 1892), range 4,480 yards; and
mountain, range 4,700 yards. The wedge gun of the regular horse artillery
takes the same ammunition as that of the light batteries. The howitzers,
used for shell and shrapnel, have a maximum range of 3,600 yards.
940
RUSSIA
The following table shows, approximately, the peace and war strength of
various units in the ditfeient arms : —
—
Peace
War
Officers
Men
Horses
Officers Men
Horses
Infantry regiments .
70
1,887
25
79
4,024
158
Rifle regiments
31 to 41
/965 to\
( 2,055 /
11 to 101
35
1,994
84
Rifle battalions
19 to 21
(528 to)
\ 825 /
9 to 36
21 to 22
/I 012 to\
( 1,123 /
46
Frontier battalions .
19 to 21
/480 tol
t 1,089 /
9 to 111
21 to 22
; 1,012 to^
\ 1,123 /
46
Cossack infantry battalions
28 to 43
/S27 to\
\ 950 /
5
22
/ 831 to \
\ 1,036 /
3,942
49 to 109
Reserve infantry regiments
36
829
9
63
186
Fortress ,, ,,
41
1,717
11
78
4,847
21
Depot infantry battalions
—
—
3 to 13
223 tol,000
5
Cavalry, regular :
4-Squaclron rt3giments
32
779
585
30
673
676
6-Squadron ,, . .
38
1,100
905
36
975
1,010
Finland regiment
37
817
667
36
931
90S
Daghestan regiment .
21
695
679
21
939
971
Crimean division
17
405
283
—
—
—
Osset ,, ...
—
—
—
11
320
294
Turkoman ,, ...
—
—
—
10
287
202
Tittoral regiment
—
—
37
1,111
1,188
Cossack squadrons .
5 to 6
93 to 170
95 to 170
3 to 6
93 to 180
95 to 190
Dep6t cavalry sections
3
99
103
—
—
Depot cavalry squadrons .
—
—
—
5 to 8
186 to 201
103 to 21 n
Artillery :
Heavy field batteries
6
182
48
6
260
207 !
Light „ „ . . .
6
178
48
6
228
181 i
Mountain ,,
6
149
49
6
301
201 i
Each of the field batteiies has 4 guns in peace ; S in war.
Horse artillery batteries .
5 173 179 6 190 241
Horse mountain batteries
5 198 141 7 236 245
Each liorse battery has 6 guns in peace and war. j
Cossack artillery batteries
5 to 10 P-'fii^\ {^"1^^}! 5 207 to 293 245 to 324
Five batteries have 6 guns each ; one has 4 guns.
Howitzer batteriea .
5 1 175 1 62 1 5 1 226 | 157
Each battery has 6 howitzers. |
Reserve field artillery :
1
Heavy batteries
11 219 54 6 260 207
Light batteries
11 101 54 6 228 IS I
Each battery has 4 guns in peace and 8 in war.
Depot artillery batteries .
— 1 — 1 — 1 10tol4 1 610to870 1 165 to 286
1
Each has from 4 to 8 guns, except the Don and Orenburg
batteries, which are smaller.
Foot artillery : companies
3 113 — 1 5 320 —
Foot sortie batteries .
11 126 36 1 6 i:i0 75
Sortie batteries bave 2 guns in peace ; 8 in war.
Engineers :
Sapper battalions
26 651 17 30 1,367 346
Pontoon battalions .
12 277 12 12 591 495
Railway troops :
Battalions ....
20 1 98 i 2 1 25 1,112 1 85
DEFENCE 041
The lowest estimate which can be made of the peace strength of the
Russian army puts the number of officers at 36,000, and of the rank and file at
860,000 men ; the total number being 896,000. In war the total strength is
approximately 63,000 oflicers and 3,440,000 men ; total, 3,500,000.
III. Navy
The Russian Navy is subject to special conditions such as do not affect the
navies of other Powers. Owing to the geographical situation of the Empire,
and the widely separated seas which wash its coasts, Russia is obliged to main-
tain four distinct fleets or flotillas, each with its own organization. Of these
the most important in regard to Western relations is the Baltic Fleet. It is
a powerful force, to which additions are being made of battleships, cruisers of
various classes and torpedo-ciaft, now completing and building in Russia and
abroad. The chief base of the Baltic Fleet is Cronstadt, which is heavily
fortified, as are Diinamiinde, Wiborg, Sweaborg, and other Baltic ports. The
Gulf of Finland is usually blocked by ice from November to April, whereby
the operations of the fleet are impeded, but a new ice-free port at Libau, in
Courland has now been made ready for the fleet. It is further in contempla-
tion to establish a naval port on the Arctic coast of Russian Lapland, which is
free from ice throughout the year, and thus to open up the possibility of
creating a naval force with free access to the Atlantic Ocean, Considerable
progress has lately been made in the constniction of ice-breaking vessels.
The Black Sea Fleet, which has no access to the Mediterranean except by the
exercise of force, has been largely augmented. To the first battleships of
this fleet the powerful armour-clads Georgi Pobiedonosetz (' George the Vic-
torious'), Dvenadzat Apostoloff ('Twelve Apostles'), and Tri Sviatitelia
('Three Saints') have been added, and the Rotislav (a sister of the Sissoi
Veliky) has been launched. Other vessels are in hand. In this sea, Sebas-
topol, now a naval port, and headquarters of the fleet, has been strongly
fortified ; Nicolaieft*, Kinburn, and Ochakoff" have received important defensive
works ; Kertchand Yenikale have been made very strong, and Azov, Poti, and
Batoum have been strengthened. Great additions have lately been made to
the Russian squadron in the Pacitic and China seas, where Vladivostok and
Port Arthur are the bases. There is a flotilla also in the Caspian Sea, which
ensures the communications of the Trans-Caspian railway between Baku and
Usun Ada, and would have its purpose in operations against Persia.
The Russian naval estimates show a continuous increase. The total ex-
penditure upon the navy in 1893 was 49,892,893 roubles, being an increase
of 2,010,660 roubles upon the outlay of 1892, which again showed a con-
siderable advance upon that of 1891. There was a further increase to
52,492,803 rs. in 1894, to 55,100,000 rs. in 1895, to 57,966,600 rs.
(6,440,666/.) in 1896 to 59,902,166 rs. (6,239,809Z.) in 1897, and to 68,055,417
rs. (7,089,106Z.) in 1898. In 1898 a special grant of 9,000,000?. was allotted
to new constructions to be spread over a period of seven years. Russia has
now excellent shipbuilding yards, but her swiftest torpedo boats have been
built at Elbing. The new Admiralty yard and the Baltic works are both
State establishments. There is also a large Imperial ship-building yard
at Nicolaieff", Private establishments which build for the State are those
of the Franco- Russian and Black Sea Companies, and the Neva, Putiloff,
and Ishora yards.
The chief of the Russian Navy is the General Admiral, Commander-in-
Chief. There are 15 admirals, 316 superior oflicers, 1,326 junior oflicers,
376 engineers, 521 medical and civil officers, and 95 admiralty oflicers. Up
to a recent period the men of the Russian Navy were divided into \2
' equipages, but the progressive increase in numbers rendered these units
942
RUSSIA
imwield}'-, and there are now 18 'equipages' in the Baltic, a half equipage
at Revel, and a company at Sveaborg, an equipage of the Imperial Guard at
St. Petersburg, 8 equipages in the Black Sea, one at Baku, and one at
Vladivostock, each including the complements of one battleship and of a
number of smaller vessels. The total number provided for in 1898 was 2,627
officers and 29,850 men.
The following is a statement of the strength of the Russian Fleet, including
ships building and provided for, but excluding training ships, transports, and
non-effective vessels specially indicating those in the Black Sea.
Baltic and
other stations
Black Sea
Totals
Launched
Nov. 1898
Building
Launched
Nov. 1898
Building
Battleships, 1st class
,, 2nd class
,, 3rd class
Coast defence vessels
Cruisers, 1st class
,, 2nd class
,, 3rd class
Gunboats, &c.
Torpedo craft, 1st class
6
3
5
11
9
3
4
30
74
5
1
8
4
2
24
5
2
2
1
8
25
1
1
4
i
28 ,
14
17
7
5
41
ni27
I
1 Russia has also 'mure than 100 torpedo boats less than 86 feet in length.
The Caspian flotilla, which is not included in the above statement, consist
of a few small gunboats and steamships, but on the part of Persia has
practically nothing opposed to it.
The tables which follow of the Russian armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged in chronological order. In the first table the coast
defence vessels (named in italics) follow the battleships. The numbers after
the names of the last named indicate the classes to which they have been as-
signed in the foregoing statement of strength. The ships marked by an
asterisk (*) are in the Black Sea. A considerable force is now maintained
on the Pacific border, and several of the ships in hand will be despatched to
that station. Abbreviations: h., broadside; c.h., central battery ; t., turret;
bar., barbette ; dr., circular ',a.g., armoured gunboat ; Q.F., quick-firing.
t.
bar.
bar.
bar.
bar.
Peter Veliky (8) .
Tchesme*(l)
EkaterinaIL*(l).
Sinope * (1).
fEmi)eror Alex-\
I ander IL (2) . /
/Emperor Nico-1
I las L (2) . /
-3
a?
■ e9
• -3-
Displace-
ment.
Ton'--.'
"1?
■p'3S
1872-
1880
• 8,750 =
10,180
■ 14
18
188G
1887
10,180
10,180
18
18
1887
8,400
14 1
1889
8,400
u{
O r^
to
rS (-
■tS o
c f=
Armament
f7o
0] Q,
.-1 9J
£'3
o «
"o to
O 0)
jHS'
-1 ••
''^^
^
02
14-5
4 12in. ; 18 smaller Q.F., &c.
2
8,260
6 12in. : 7 6in. ; 14 smaller
x""-'
Q.F., &c
7
11,500
16-0
Ditto
7
11,500
10-0
6 12in. ; 7 Oin. ; 10 smaller
Q.F., &c
7
11,500
16-0
2 12in. ; 4 9in. ; S Oin. ; 24
smaller Q.F., «fec.
5
8,000
16-0
2 12in. ; 4 Oin. ; S Oin. ; 22
smaller Q.F., &c.
6
8,000
160
DEFENCE
943
bar.
t.
bar,
bar.
Name.
1890
1891
/Twelve Apos- \'
\ ties* (-2) . /
Navarin (1) . .|
rGeorge tlie Vic-I, 1992
\ tonous » (1) I
Three Saints * (1) 1893
Petropavlovsk (1)' 1894
,3 C 13
.2 SH
Q
Ceo
2 "
S c
Armament
\0 '/!]
ctr
cfr.
o. j^.
a g.
a.g.
t.
a. g.
t.
e.b.
c.b.
-.6.
c.b.
Poltava (1) .
Sissoi Veliky(-2)
Sevastopol (1)
Rostislav* (2)
New Ship (2)
Oslyabya (1)
1894
1894
1895
1896
1898
1898
Peresvyet (1)
/Kniaz Potemkin
\ Tavrichesky (1)
Pobieda
Retwisan . '
Four unnamed
Tsarevitch . .1 ...
Admiral LazareffA 1867
I-
U868
(Admiral Tchiteha-\\
I pq# . . .'/
Admiral Spiridoff 1868
Admiral Greig
Novgorod * .
Vice - Admiral
Popof * .
Grozyashtchy
1868
1
1873 ,
1875 '
1800
Gremyaahtchy . 1892
Otvajny . .' 1892
Adviiral Ushakoff. 1893
Admii'al Senyavin 1894
Khrabry . .\ 1895
(General Admiral]
\ Apraxin . \
AdmiralBoutakojff
Kniaz Pojarsky
(3) .
General Admiral
(3)
Minin (3) .
/Duke of Edin-
l burgh (3)
1896
1867
1873
1874
1875
8,076
9,476
10,300
12,480
.10,960
10,960
8,880
10,960
8,880
8,880
12,674
12,674
12,480
12,700
13,100
3,500
3,500
3,500
3,500
2,700
3,550
1,492
1,492
1,492
4,126
4,126
1,492
4,126
4,126
5,000
4,600
5,740
4,600
14 {
16
u{
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
10
4 12in. ; 4 6in. ; 22 smaller
Q.F., &c I
4 12in. ; 8 6in. ; 25 smaller
Q.F., &c j
6 12in. ; 7 6in. ; 24 smaller
Q.F., &c I
4 12in. ; 8 6in. Q.F.; 4 4-7in.'
Q.F. ; 52 smaller Q.F., &c.
4 12in. ; 12 6in. Q.F. ; 34
smaller Q.F., &c.
Ditto
4 12in. ; 6 6in. Q.F. ; ISj
smaller Q.F., &c. . .'
4 12in. ; 12 6in. Q.B\ ; 34;
smalle- Q.F., &c. . .|
4 lOin. ; 8 6in. Q.F. ; 26|
smaller Q.F., &c. . .1
Ditto '
8 6in. Q.F. ; 6 4-7in.:
3'^ smaller Q.F.,&c. I
4 lOin.
Q.F.
Ditto
4 12in.
Q.F.
10 Gin. Q.F. ; 16 3in.
30 smaller
6 3 llin. ; 10 light and machine
guns
g r 2 llin.; 10 light and machine
t guns . . • . .
6 , Ditto
6 j 3 llin. ; 8 light and machine
I guns ...
11 j 2 llin. ; 4 light gun .1
18 I 2 12in. ; 8 light guns . .|
5 , 1 9in. ; 1 6in. ; 8 smaller.
I Q.F., &c. . .
5 I 1 9in. ; 1 6in. ; 10 smaller]
Q.F., &c
5 ; Ditto I
10 I4 lOin. ; 4 4-7in. Q.F. ; 36
smaller Q F., &c.
10 Ditto
5 2 Sin. ; 1 6in. Q.F. ; 10
■ smaller Q.F., <tc.
... r 4 lOin. ; 4 4-7in. Q.F. ; 36
^" (, smaller Q.F., &c. . .]
10 I Ditto I
4J I 8 Sin. ; 2 6in. ; 16 smaller'
I Q.F., &c. . . . • J
6 i 6 Sin. ; 2 6in ; 16 smaller
Q.F., &c '
7 4 Sin. ; 12 Gin. ; 20 smaller
1 Q.F., &c I
/I 4 Sin ; 5 Gin. ; IS smaller
t| Q.F., (fee
6
^ >
■B CO
^ is.
CO
■*->
0
n
a
M
^
TS
0
O)
!z;
CO
11,500
9,000
10,600
10,600
10,600
10,600
8,500
13,609
8,500
8,500
12,000
12,000
10,600
16-6
160
16-5
160
17-5
17-5
160
17-5
16-0
16-0
18.0
18-0
17-0
2,004
10-3
2,060
2,007
10-5
10-5
2,031
2,000
10-0
60
3,066
8-0
2,000
150
2,000
2,000
15-0
15-0
5,000
. "4,250
16-0
16-0
2,000
15-0
5,000
5,000 .
160
16.0
2,885
11 '0
5,000
16-0
5,290
14-0
5,222
15-2
944
RUSSIA
The first-class cruisers in the following list are all of 5,000 tons or more.
The vessels named in italics are armoured.
09
Name
•a
place-
lent
ons
Armament
■§1
+- o
o
.23 CE-"
^■^
n CD
h- 1 O
O o
CO
arm.
Vladimir Monomaeh.
1882
5,700
4 Sin. ; 12 6in. ; 22 smaller
Q.F., &c
3
7,000
15-2
arm.
Dmitri Donskoi
1883
5,700
6 6in.; 10 4-7in. Q.F. ; 30
smaller Q.F., &c.
5
7,000
16-5
arm.
Admiral Nachimo^ .
1885
7,700
8 Sin. ; 10 6in. ; 16 smaller
Q.F.,&c
3
8,000
16-7
prot.
Admiral Koniiloff .
1887
5,000
14 6in. ; 18 smaller Q.F., &c.
9,000
17-5
arm.
Pamiat Azova
1888
6,000
2 Sin. ; 13 6in. ; 17 smaller
Q.F.,&c
3
8,000
18-8
arm.
Rurik
1892
10,933
4 Sin.; 16 6in ; 6 4-7in. Q.F.;
18 smaller Q.F. , (fee. .
4
13,250
18 0
arm.
Ro88ia
1896
12,130
4 8in.;24 6in.;6 4-7in. Q.F.;
30 smaller Q.F., «fec.
6
18,000
20 0
arm.
Gromoboi .
12,336
4 Sin. Q.F. ; 16 6in. Q.F. ; 6
4-7in. Q.F. ; 50 smaller .
5
arm.
Bayan
7,800
.
prot.
Diana
1898
6,500
6 6in. Q.F. ; 6 4-7in. Q.F. ;
35 smaller Q.F., (fee.
4
11,610
20-0
prot.
Pallada .
1898
6,500
Ditto ...
4
11,610
20.0
prot.
Aurora
1898
6,560
Ditto
4
11,610
20 0
prot.
Bogatyr .
Waryag .
prot.
6,500
prot.
Askold . [
prot.
Three unnamed ;
The energies of Russia were for many years devoted to the construction
of coast-defence monitors in the Baltic. The old K7iias Pojamky, a central-
battery vessel, was joined in 1872 by the mastless turret-ship Peter the
Great. Fifteen years later the powerful sister ships Alexander II. and
Nicolas I. were added. These bear some resemblance to our own Hero.
The Gangut was a smaller barbette ship (6,590 tons), partially belted. She
was lost in the Gulf of Finland, June, 1897. The turret battleship Navarin
displaces 9,476 tons, and is armed with four heavy guns coupled fore and
aft. The extreme thickness of side armouring is 16 inches, and there is 12-
inch plating on the barbettes. The sister battleships, Fetropavlovsk, Poltava,
and Sevastopol, of 10,960 tons, heavily armoured, and carrying four 12-
inch guns as well as a powerful secondary and quick-firing armament, were
the most powerful vessels in the Baltic Fleet, but they are exceeded in size
and o-un power by the Oslyahia and Peresvyet now completing afloat. These,
with^their displacement of 12,674 tons, carry their four 10-inch Oushakoff
guns coupled in turrets, and have a very large secondary and smaller quick-
firing armaments. They have 9"5-inch side armour and 9 inches on the
turrets, all Harvey steel, and are furnished with water-tube boilers. The
recent extraordinary grant for shipbuilding enables many vessels to be put in
hand, and two battleships of the Oslyabya class are already beginning at the
Baltic and New Admiralty yards on the Neva, while a third has been ordered
of the Rus.sian locomotive and shipbuilding company, and a fourth of Messrs.
Cramp of Philadelphia. Another battleship (13,100 tons) is being put in
hand by the French yard at La Seyne. All these are exclusive of the
Black Sea squadron. The Sissoi Vehky, and her sisters in the Black Sea,
are of a smaller but very powerful type.
The great want of a suitable fleet in the Black Sea led the Russians to lay
DEFENCE 945
down the three powerful battleships, CatheriTic IL , Tchesme, and Sinope, which
were launched in 1886-87. The iollowiug are the dimensions of these remark«
able vessels : displacement, 10,180 tons ; length between the perpendiculars,
320 feet ; beam, t)9 feet ; draught, 25 feet. The compound armour belt has
a maximum thickness of 18 inches, and the triangular redoubt is plated with
10 inches. This redoubt or citadel is a special feature. It presents its base
to the bows, and, inasmuch as two r2-inch 56 ton guns are coupled en barbette
at each of the angles, the bow fire is exceedingly powerful. The six heavy
guns are mounted on the disappearing principle ; they only show over the
top of the redoubt wlieu about to tire. Of the seven 6-inch guns, four are also
ilisposed for bow fire, and three directed astern. The later battleship,
Dvcnadzat Apostoloff (Twelve Apostles), which is smaller (8,076 tons), but
carries four of the heavy guns coupled in turrets, steamed 16 '6 knots at her
trials without pressure and without reaching the estimated horse power. The
Georgi Fobiedunosctz (George the Victorious), launched in 1892 (10,300 tons),
is armed with six 56-ton guns, and is of a modified fSinope type. The Tri
Sviatitelia (Three Saints) is of a still more powerful type (357 feet 6 inches
long and 72 feet beam, with a 16-inch belt), and the Kniaz Fotcmkin Tavri-
cheskij, ot the same class, is advancing towards completion at Nicolaieff, and
will be launched in 1899. The armour-clad Ilostidav, launched at Nikolaielf
in 1896, has the following dimensions : — Maximum length, 351 feet, maximum
width, iS^ feet ; displacement, 8,880 tons ; engines, 8,500 horse-power ; ex-
pected speed, 16 knots ; length of armour belt, 224 feet. Armed with four
10-inch and eight 6-inch guns ; twelve 47-nim. and fourteen 37-mm, quick-
firing guns ; six turrets. She is of the Sissoi Veliky class, and another ol the
same is in hand.
The belted cruiser Paiiiiat Azova or Remembrance of Azoff, is 377 feet
long. She is an improved Dmitri Dontskoi, and carries her two 8-inch guns
in sponsoned barbettes on either broadside The Rurik, launched 1892,
is 435 feet long, 67 feet beam, and has 25 feet 9 inches draught. The
armour at the water-line is 10 inches thick for 80 per cent, of the ship's
length. Her armament is very strong, and she will carry 2,000 tons of coal,
being enough for 20,000 miles steaming at 10 knots. The cruiser Rossia,
which was launched in 1896, has a displacement of 12,130 tons. She is
armed with four 8-inch and 16 6-inch guns, 24 quick-firing guns, and 5
torpedo ejectors. Armour from 5 to 8 inch, but the defect of the class is
insufficient protection lor the batteries, and a defective system of ammunition
supply. The Rossia has two engines 7,250 horse-power each, and one of 2,500
horse-power. JMaximum speed, I95 knots. The Gromoboi, which is in hand
at the Baltic Yard, St. Petersburg, is of the same class, but larger, and an
armoured cruiser, the Bayan, ot 7,800 tons is being begun at La Seyne.
The armour-clads, Admiral OushakoJfa,nd Ad7niral ISeniavin, built as coast-
defence vessels, are, in fact, armoured cruisers having a powerful armament
and respectable speed. The General Admiral Apraxine is a sister vessel.
The three cruisers, Aurora, Fallada and Diana, which are building on the
Neva, are three- screwed, 6,630 tons displacement, three engines of 3,870
horse-power each. At least three other cruisers of the same class are
ordered, and several of smaller (3,000-ton) class. Xone of these belong to
the Black Sea Fleet.
The so-called Russian " Volunteer Fleet," which is being added to, consti-
tutes a factor that must not be underrated in Russia's next war. The ships of
the Volunteer Fleet, about fifteen in number, are, in peace-time, merchant-
men, which can, in time of war, be easily armed and used for doing the work
of cruisers. They provide for the regular tralhc between Odessa, Vladivostok
3 P
946
RUSSIA
and Port Arthur, and run, in addition, the tea trade and passenger ttafBc
between China and the Black Sea, besides being employed in peace as transport
for troops, particularly for carrying recruits and Reserve men between Odessa
and Batoum. The connection of this fleet with the State was formerly
much too loose, in consequence of which a new organisation of it took place
in 1886, whereby the Volunteer Fleet is under the Admiralty, but has its
own management and capital.
Production and Industry.
I. Agricultural.
According to official data of 1892, the whole territory of the
50 Governments of European Russia proj:er, exclusive of the
islands of Arkhangelsk, and the pasture grounds of the
Kalmucks and Kirghizes (40,925,060 acres), was distributed
among different owners, as follows : —
Owners.
Area
Unfit for Culture, Roads, &c.
The State .
The Imperial Family .
The Peasants
Private Owners .
Total .
Acres
410,801,867
19,890,835
373,310,496
294,504,582
Acres
139,397,498
35,545,735
35,115,557
1,098,507,780
210,058,770
In 1892, the total land and that held in private ownership was as follows : —
Nature of Land
Total
In private ownership
Acres
Per cent.
Acres
Per cent
Arable ....
287,969,552
26'2
80,063,271
27-3
Orchards, meadow, graz-
ing, &c. . .
174,958,734
15-9
68,628,269
23-2
Forests, &c. .
425,520,714
38-8
110,697,486
376
Unfit for culture, roads.
&c
Total .
210,058,770
19-1
35,115,566
11-9
1,098,507,780
100-0
294,504,582
100-0
In Poland 55 per cent, of the area is arable land.
The state of the redemption operation among the village communities of
liberated serfs is seen from the following accounts up till January 1, 1895.
The accounts are shown separately for Russia and the Western provinces where
the conditions of redemption were more liberal for the peasants, according to
the laws of 1863
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
947
Number of male peasants who redeemed the
land with State help
Number of acres redeemed
Value of the land, in roubles .
Average price of the allotment
Average size of allotment, in acres
Average price of the acre
Average former debt of the landowner to the
State mortgage bank, per allotment
Average sum paid to the landlord, per allot-
ment ........
Russia
Western Provs.
6,641,836
61,575,821
704,018,004
106r. Oc.
9-4
llr. 43c.
37r. 32c.
68r. 68c.
2,516,919
25,517,788
162,506,668
64r. 57c.
100
6r. 37c.
26r. 99c.
37r. 58c.
Moreover, 109,791 Iwiseholders redeemedtheir allotments (2,100,000 acres),
for the sum of 24,349,890 rouliles, in South Russia and the Western Pro-
vinces, according to the laws of 1868-88, which recognise private ownership of
land.
In accordance with a new law, of December 26, ISO.*?, the jieasants' allotments are recog-
nised in European Russia proper (exclusive of Poland and the Balticprovinces), the property
of the peasant communities, whether redeemed or not. They cannot be sold by the commu-
nity otherwise than in virtue of a decision taken by a majority of two-tliirds of the commu-
nity : householders, approved by the Provincial Peasants' Institutions if under 500 roubles
of value, and by the Ministers of Interior and Finance if above that value. The allot-
ments redeemed' individually by separate householders under previous laws, can be trans-
mitted, or sold for redemption arrears, only to persons belonging to the peasant commu-
nities. The communities allotments can be mortgaged no more, even after redemption
money having been paid in full. No separate householder can personally redeem liis
allotment without the approval of the mir.
In Central Russia 66 per cent, of the arable land is under crops ; in South
Russia 78 per cent. ; in North and in South-east Russia 10 per cent. ; and in
Astrakhan only 8 per cent. In 1896, the areas under crops were : —
— 1 Acres
European Russia
Poland
North Caucasia .
Siberia^ ....
Central Asia^
170,253,400
10,284,650
9,459,440
8,402,000
2,495,800
Russian Empire^ .
200,895,290
1 Incorai)lete.
Crops. — The cereal crops of Russia (exclusive of Finland) for the last six
years are seen from the following, in thousands of quarters for all sorts
of grain, and in thousands of tons for potatoes : —
3 p 2
948
RUSSIA
-
Wlieat
Rye
Barley
Oats
Variousi
Total
Potatoes
1
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
tons
European Russia, 1895 .
7,770
17,813
4,471
9,556
3,291
42,900
14,554
,, ,, 1896 .
7,986
17,392
4,433
9,485
4,334
43,630
16,630
1897 .
6,332
14,080
4,325
7,757
3,771
36,277
15,624 :
Poland, 1895 .
462
1,358
338
614
188
2,881
6,117 1
lS9ti .
518
1,534
356
678
201
3,287
6,036
1897 .
473
1,345
1,000
340
590
1,000
202
1,000
2,950
1,000
5,789
1,000 1
1,000
1,000
quarters
quarters
quarters
quarters
(juarters quarters
quarters
North Caucasia,2 1895 .
8,456
579
2,635
1,679
2,568 15.917
276
1896 .
5,707
1,334
2,493
1,388
2,792 13,714
365
1897 .
—
—
—
—
— 9,321
—
Siberia,^ 189-t
3,917
2,840
618
4,870
410 12,655
—
1895
3,807
2,495
624
4,983
305 ; 12,214
309 i
„ 1896
4,464
2,679
775
6,907
447
15,272
368
Turkestan'4, 1895 .
982
88
306
40
427
1,843
56
1896 .
1,715
126
407
115
1,017
3,380
38
Transcaucasia, 1897
5,535
24
2,494
22
3,661
11,736
174
1 Mixed rye and wheat, buckwheat, millet, Indian corn and peas.
'- Provinces Kuban, Stavropol, and Terek.
3 Provinces Irkutsk, Tobolsk, Tomsk, and Yeniseisk.
4 Provinces Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, and Turgai.
The crop in 1898 was a medium one, very unequal, resulting in a great
scarcity in the central provinces.
Of special cultures there were, in European Russia in 1897, 8,358,000 acres
under flax (290,000 tons of flax fibre and 645,000 tons of linseed), 2,241,000
acres under hemp (301,500 tons of fibre and 370,000 tons liempseed), about
650,000 cwt. of hops are gathered every year.
The amount of hay gathered in 1897 attained 33,208,000 tons in European
Russia, out of which 1,805,000 tons in Poland, and 10,200,000 tons in
West Siberia and North Caucasia.
In 1895 128,480 acres were under tobacco in Russia, Siberia, and Caucasia,
yielding about 1,263,400 cwt, as against 1,287,500 cwt. (120,025 acres) in
1890. There were in 1892 no less than 350 tobacco factories, which manu-
factured no less than 1,073,080 cwt. of tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, &c. Under
vineyards there were about 16,000,000 acres, but only 361,000 acres were
under proper culture. The yield was 4,550,000 gallons, of which 150,000
were produced in Crimea.
The cotton crops in Turkestan which covered, in 1888, 214,115 acres, and
yielded 325,148 cwt. of raw cotton, one half of which was the American, and
the other half the local cotton tree, attained in 1895 to 469,800 acres, chiefly
in Ferganah (351,000 acres), and yielding over 840,000 cwt. of purified cotton
(2,080,000 cwt. of raw cotton). Khiva and Bokhara supply annually about
322,000 cwt. Attempts at raising cotton have also been made in Trans-
caucasia, the crop of 1891 attaining 2,900 cwt. in Elisabethpol, and 200,000
cwt. in Erivan ; 9,833 acres were under cotton trees in 1892. Nearly
2,670,000 cwt. of rice are grown every year in Turkestan, and about 330,000
cwt. of cocoon silk are obtained.
In 1888 Russia in Europe (without Poland) had 19,633,340 horses,
24,609,260 horned cattle, 44,465,450 sheep (about 9 "5 millions of fine breeds),
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
949
and 9,243,000 swine, showing thus a notable diminution against 1882.
Poland had, same year, 1,204,340 horses, 3,013,400 horned cattle, 3,754,665
sheep, and 1,499,100 swine In Caucasia and Turkestan, in 1892, there were
1,690,740 horses, 6,511,930 cattle, 20,175,800 sheep, 960,000 swine, 441,120
camels, and 211,760 mules and asses. The horse census of 1891 showed
21,665,632 in European Russia and Poland, 706,985 horses in North Cau-
casia, and 449,343 in Transcaucasia.
Since sanitary measures have been taken for slaughtering the herds of
cattle attacked by epizooty, the number of heads of cattle lost every year,
which formerly attained from 180,000 to 220,000 heads, has been reduced to
14,000 a year for the period 1890-94.
There are now 68 experimental farms under the Ministry of Agriculture.
II. Forests.
Of the total area of European Russia, nearly one-third is under forest. It
appears from recent investigation that the following areas are under forest in
European Russia, Poland, Finland, and Caucasia (the two latter incomplete) -. —
European Russia, 422,307,000 acres ; Poland, 6,706,000 ; Finland, 50,498,000 ;
Caucasia, 18,666,000 : total, 498,177,000 acres. On Jan. 1, 1895, the area of
forests under Crown management in Russia attained 618,244,000 acres, out of
which 36,959,000 acres were under regular treatment. The net revenue of
the Crown forests attained in 1896 only 14,500,000 roubles.
An important measure was taken in 1888 for the protection of forests, most
of which have been placed under a special committee appointed in each province
of European Russia. Some forest lands have been recognised as ' protective '
for rivers, &c. , and they can in no case be destroyed, felling of timber in these
tracts being submitted to severe regulations.
III. Mining and Metals.
The soil of Russia is rich in ores of all kinds, and mining industry is steadily
increasing. The statistics during the years 1880 and 1889-95 are given in the
following table : —
Yeai-
Gold
Plati-
num
Silver
Lead
Zinc
Cop-
per
Pig
Iron
Iron
Steel
Coal
Naph-
tha
Salt
Kilogrammes
Tons
Thousands of tons
1880
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
43,276
38,003
39,394
39,016
42,996
44,804
42,910
41,110
37,176
2,947
2,622
2,837
4,183
4,357
5,094
5,210
4,415
4,930
10,107
13,857
13,776
-
13,688
12,459
9,980
10,757
1,146
569
825
558
883
844
743
412
4,256
6,343
3,697
5,059
4,522
4,935
4,951
3,203
5,978
5,318
5,456
5,315
5,463
5,409
5,570
5,416
448
740
926
1,005
1,072
1,149
1,332
1,452
1,612
292
428
433
448
497
499
503
440
307
258
378
433
515
630
726
879
3,289
6,213
6,015
6,233
6,946
7,122
8,762
9,099
9,314
352
3,310
3,980
4,757
4,896
5,793
5,162
7,057
779
1,370
1,361
1,405
1,337
1,316
1,523
Gold is obtained chiefly in Siberia (71,532 lbs. in 1893 and 64,208 lbs. in
1895) and the Ural Mountains (26,352 lbs. in 1893 and 21,451 lbs. in 1895),
where one-fifth of the whole is obtained from pulverized rocks ; silver
950
RUSSIA
from tlie following districts, with the amount obtained 1893 : Altai and
Nertchinsk, 13,680 lbs. ; Semipalatinsk, 3,564 lbs. ; Caucasus, 1,188 lbs. ;
from gold, 7, 956 lbs. Platinum in the Urals. Copper was obtained chiefly in the
Urals (2,589 tons in 1895) and the Caucasus (2, 100 tons). Cobalt is found in the
Elisabethpol government of Caucasia (56 cwt. of ore in 1895) ; also manganese
ore (118,170 tons of ore). Mercury was extracted in S. Russia to the amount of
954,000 lbs. in 1895, (81 tons of ore in Caucasia) ; tin, 12 tons in Finland.
Zinc comes entirely from Poland. Of the salt extracted in 1895, 797,700
tons were from South Russia ; 270,000 from Astrakhan ; 277,000 from Penn ;
40,000 from Caucasia; 39,000 from Orenburg; the remainder being from
Turkestan, the Transcaspian region, Siberia, North Russia, and Poland.
In 1895 21,895 workers were employed in the salt works.
The province of Ekaterinoslav grows to be an important centre of iron
mining. In 1895 South Russia yielded 533,000 tons of pig iron, 24,200 of iron,
35,000 tons of steel, and 194,000 tons of rails. The manufacture of agri-
cultural machinery, which was valued at 2^ million roubles in 1867, rose
to nearly 10 million roubles in 1885, and has much increased since.
Iron is chiefly obtained from the Urals (542.000 tons of pig-iron in 1895),
South Russia (same quantit}^, and Poland (181,000 tons), the remainder of
the Empire, exclusive of Finland, supplying only 165,000 tons. The import
duties are so high that they are nearly 150 per cent, of the price of pig-iron
in England, i.e., 28r. 12c. (about 56.s'., per ton). The imports of pig iron
were only 75,000 tons in 1896 (160,000 in 1893), and of iron and steel goods
837,000 tons (357, 000 in 1893), the annual consumption per head being thus
38 lbs. of iron per inhabitant.
In 1896 the output of coal in the most important coalfields was : — Perm,
330,630 tons; Moscow, 154,178 tons; Western District, 3,510,480 tons;
Kharkov- Poltava, 574,020 tons ; Lugansk, 1,110,000 tons : Bakhmut,
1,219,650 tons. Strong measures have been taken to increase the local con-
sumption of Russian coal and coke by im])osing a duty of 98if?. per ton
of coal imported through the Black Sea, 47^?. through the Western frontier,
and 23ic?. through the Baltic Sea, and by reducing the tariff's of railway
shipping of Russian coal from the Don mines. The import of foreign coal
and coke has not been reduced.
Imports
of
Coal
Tons
Coke
Tons
Imports
of
Coal
Tons
Coke
Tons
1891
1892
1893
1,502,800
1,410,900
1,682,000
199,900
226,500
285,300
1894
1895
■ 1896
1,736,000
1,942,400
1,948,600
276,000
236,240
357,800 1
During the last three j'cars the annual consumption of iuel in the Moscow
manufacturing region was about 1,000,000 tons of wood, 80,000 tons of
English coal, 80,000 tons of Russinn coal, and about 80,000 tons of
naphtha refuse. The Caspian na])htha industry is extending very rajntlly.
The output of petroleum in various forms in 1896 was (in gallons) : crude oil,
127,423,000 ; residuum, 927,125,000 ; illuminating oil, 433,615,000 ; lubricat-
ing oil, 42,785,000 ; others, 5,180,000 ; total, 1,536,130,000.
The number of persons engaged in the mining and working of minerals
was 498,351 in 1895 : of these, 232,285 were in the Ural, 42,625 in central]
Russia, 36,449 in Poland and the North- West, 83,784 in the South andj
South-West, 21,518 in the Caucasus, and 55,517 in Siberia. The number o\
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
951
water and steam engines employed in the Empire in the iron industry respec-
tively was 1,110 and 1,040, showing an aggregate of more than 100,000 horse-
power.
IV. Manufactures.
The number of all kinds of manufactories, mines, and industrial establish-
ments in European Russia (without Poland and Finland) was 62,801 in 1885,
employing 994,787 workpeople, and producing a value of 1,121,040,270
toubles. The 20,381 manufactories of Poland employed 139,650 workmen,
and produced a value of 185,822,200 roubles. Transcaucasia had in 1891
9,333 manufactories, mostly small, with 40,284 workmen, producing a value
of 40,003,900 roubles, chiefly in silk ; while the 6,496 manufactories of Fin-
land yielded in 1890, 6,681, 700Z.
According to the estimates of the Department of Trade and Manufactures,
which includes the mining industries, as well as those which pay excise
duties (spirits, beer, sugar, and tobacco), the manufactories of the Empire
having a yearly productivity of more than 1,000 roubles each appeared
as follows : —
1893
Numbers
17,605
2,711
1,199
609
359
People employed
Steam engines
Yearly production
Men
Women
Number
Horse
Power
European Russia
Poland
Caucasia
Siberia
Turkestan .
Total, 1893 .
949,044
108,484
20,766
10,961
6,295
264,030
44,925
1,261
1,056
10,525
1,959
791
115
25
289,404
81,328
7,114
1,812
399
Roubles
1,466,988,000
229,485,000
34,733,000
11,929,000
16,186,000
22,483
1,094,972
311,803
13,325
380,057
1,759,331,000 1
Of the people employed, 30,000 were children. The small factories, having
a production of less than 1,000 roubles a year, numbered 103,360 in 1891.
The chief branches of the above were as follows in the year 1893 : —
1893
Numbers
Production
Roubles
Articles of food
13,345
500,525,000
Textiles .
3,520
619,945,000
Paper and cardboard
436
26,995,000
Wood
1,373
35,666,000
Chemicals
1,227
40,944,000
Tallow, candles, &c.
1,138
35,229,000
Leather .
2,815
39,571,000
China, glass
437
16,099,000
Iron and steel .
804
166,833,000
Machinery
635
66,021,000
Copper and jewellery
591
19,738,000
952 RUSSIA
The gi-owth of the cotton industry is best seen from the following
Years
Spinning
Weaving
Printing and
Dyeing
Finishing
Total
1880
1885
1893
Roubles
74,100,000
97,400,000
135 274,000
Roubles
99,700,000
98,000,000
160,935,000
Roubles
61,100,000
59,500,000
98,869,000
Roubles
5,500,000
3,300,000
3,122,000
Roubles
240,400,000
258,200,000
398,196,000
In 1889 the textile industries of Russia and Poland had 3,799,416 spindles
and 191,290 looms. They were concentrated chiefly in the two governments
of Moscow and Vladimir (yearly production 131,150,000 roubles, and more
than one-half of the total cotton industry of Russia), Piotrkov in Poland
(38,818,000 roubles), St. Petersburg (23,610,000 roubles), Kostroma and
Esthonia (about 14,000,000 roubles each). The cotton industry proper is
valued at 384,000,000 roubles per year.
The production of spirits in 1895-6 was 82,216,000 gallons of pure alcohol ;
in 1896-97, 79,300,000 gallons. There were in 1897, 2,037 distilleries.
There were (1893) 1,233 beer breweries and 528 meathe breweries. The
former produced 87,282,100 gallons, while the production of the latter is
quite insignificant.
Since the year 1894 the Crown undertook itself the retail selling of spirits,
which is now introduced in 25 provinces.
There were 238 sugar works in Russia in 1898, and 992,980 acres were
under beetroot. In 1896-97 the output of refined sugar was 636 890 tons.
Only g-J^ part of all corn exported from Russia during the last 4 years
was exported in the shape of flour. There were in Russia and Poland, in
1895, 3,854 flour mills, each yielding more than 670 cwt. of flour per year.
Their total })roduction was 35,100 tons per diem. There were 979 steam mills
producing 1,076,000 tons of flour, and 4,020 water mills, 1,209,000 tons.
Most of the latter have steam motors in reserve. Out of the above, 497 mills
(1,000,000 tons) used rollers for grinding.
Commerce.
Tho following table gives the average yearly imports and
exports of Russia for 1886-90, and for each of the years 1891 to
1897, in her trade with Europe, Asia, and Finland (bullion not
included, nor the external trade of Finland) : —
Years
Exports
Imports
Paper roubles
Paper roubles
1886-90
675,200,000
415,100,000
1891
721,600,000
379,300,000
1892
489,409,718
403,879,940
1893
613,732,409
463,546,017
1894
668,752,915
559.571,718
1895
689,082,263
538,508,423
1891-95
628,000,000
469,000,000
1896
689,572,236
589,810,343
18971
704,222,000
508,5] 6,000
J European frontier and trade wjth Fijiland,
COMMERCE
953
In Russia the Custom House agents fix the values of imports and exports, either on the
basis of declarations of interested parties and documents in sujtport of them or by refer
once to exjierts when the declarations are untrustworthy and erroneous. Tliey are
assisted also by price lists. The values of exports are determined at the point of shipment
exclusive of cost of transport, insurance, &c. The quantities of goods imported are deter-
mined by weighing or other effective means, as are also the quantities of goods exported —
when subject to export duty. The dc(;larations of shipping are sufficient in the case of
exports duty free. The gross weight is always recorded except in those cases for which
the Customs regulations have i)rovi(le<l official tares. The Customs officials never require
the true country of origin or of destination. They register the port where the bill of lading
is dated, for imports — and proceed similarly in the case of exports.
The chief trade of the Empire is carried on througli its European frontier,
^vhich does not inchide the Caucasus. However, as the exports of naphtha
ai)d "rain from tlie Caucasus to Western Europe became of late very important,
tlie Ministry of Finances began to inchide, since the year 1894, into the
exports through the European frontier, the exports through the Black Sea
frontier of Caucasus and the trade with Finland.
The exports and imports from and to the different frontiers for the last
five years, are given in the following table : —
-
1892 2
1803
1894
1895
1890
Exports : —
Through European frontier
,, Asiatic ,,
Trade with Finland .
Total ....
(Black Sea frontier of Caucasus)
Moreover, to Russian Manchuria
Imports : —
From European frontier .
,, Asiatic ,,
Trade with Finland .
Total ....
(Black Sea frontier of Caucasus)
Oold and silver in money and
ingots —
Exports
Imports
i,0;.'C-
roubles
365,890
'^■^,586
21,099
1,000
roubles
505,805
74,787
18,528
1,000
roubles
633,0871
20,363
15,.303
668,753
(52,731)
15,865
1,000
roubles
653,2621
21.307
15,514
1,000
roubles
593,709
77,208
17,655
475,580
(50,.354)
13,743
599,210
(55,749)
14,497
680,083
(58,782)
23,771
688,572
(77,209)
346,475
45,456
11,949
305,091
52,618
15,836
496, .3571
63,215
18,879
457,7121
59,016
20,880
502,784
66,576
20,451
403,880
(10,956)
463,546
(10,956)
559,571
(7,859)
538,508
(10,808)
1,000
roubles
gold
1,375
37,507
589,810
(28,926)
1,000
roubles
gold
4,610
113,765
1,000
roubles
gold
7,318
31,319
1,000
roubles
gold
44,222
130,041
1,000
roubles
gold
2,067
1 Inclusive of Black Seafronti(
jr but not 0
f trade witl
1 Finland.
- Faniin
e year.
"With the exception of the year 1894, when 37,528,000 roubles in gold
( = 56,292,000 paper roubles) were exported, the exports of gold are insignifi-
cant, the chief export being silver to Asia. Of silver from 10 to 21 million
roubles were imported, the remainder being gold.
The following tables, giving the value of exports and imports, in thousands of
paper roubles, to and fiomEurope (European frontier, including Caucasus since
the year 1895) will better show the character of the foreign trade of Russia : —
954
RUSSIA
—
1887-89
1890-94
1895 1 1896 1 1897 l
Exports : —
Articles of food
Raw and half - manufac-
tured articles
Animals .....
Manufactured goods ,
Total .
Imports : —
Articles of food
Raw and half- manufac-
tured articles
Animals ....
Manufactured goods .
Total .
1,000
roubles
400,493
222,274
12,597
17,843
1,000
roubles
349,400
232,300
14,200
12,200
1,000
roubles
382,517
258,408
15,138
11,196
1,000
roubles
381,524
257,833
15,144
12,906
1,000
roubles
413,478
254,506
17,092
19,146
661,206
607,900
667,259
667,412
704,222
52,952
230,246
535
64,007
63,800
261,500
1,700
101,500
67,652
282,373
2,883
136,403
69,805
306,656
2,278
161,528
64,071
283,729
1,619
159,097
347,740
428,500
489,401
540,267 1 508,516
I Including trade on Black Sea frontier of Caucasus and with Finland, but exclusive of
trade with Russian Manchuria.
For the last six years grain has formed, on the average, 55 per cent, in
value of the aggregate exports to Europe, 58 '7 per cent, in 1888, and 51 in 1889.
The official figures of grain exports being now given in units of weight the
exports from European Russia, Caucasus, and to Finland in 1897, as well as
during the two preceding years, are given in the subjoined table : — ,
—
1895
1896
1897
Cwts.
Cwts.
Cwts.
Wheat ....
76,453,000
70,774,000
68,670,000
Rye ... .
29,588,000
26,281,000
23,685,900
Barley ....
34,877,000
26,289,000
28,780,300
Oats ....
21,457,000
21,768,000
14,044,900
Maize ....
8,268,000
4,170,000
6,810,600
Peas ....
3,246,000
3,017,000
3,224,200
Various groats
284,000
254,000
318,780
Flour ....
2,600,000
2,466,000
2,726,100
Other grain products
Total .
8,469,000
8,822,000
8,301,500
185,242,000
163,611,000
156,562,200
The export of naphtha for the last five years (from Russia and Caucasus as
well) will be seen from the following table : —
Year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Raw Naphtha
Oils for
LightinK
Cwt.
28,400
33,800
330,000
1,011,000
Cwt.
16,034,000
15,998,000
16,605,000
17,011,000
16,007,600
Oils for
Greasing
Cwt.
2,042,000
2,092,000
2,469,000
2,394,000
2,844,200
Waste
Cwt.
1,030,000
1,064,000
1,064,000
968,000
1,223,000
Total
Cwt.
19,134,400
17,062,000
20,468,000
20,097,000
COMMERCE
955
The export of eggs (chiefly to Germany, France, and Austria) is acquir-
ing every year a greater importance, as seen from the following figures of
exports for the last five years : —
Year
No. of E-gs
Value
Preserved Eggs in Tins '
Roubles
pCwt.
Roubles
1893
724,000,000
13,469,000
22,890
309,000
1894
955,000,000
15,485,000
23,860
381,000
1895
1,411,000,000
19,775,000
33,100
599,000
1896
1,475,000,000
21,925,000
26,760
355,000
1897
1,737,000,000
25,520,000
30,300
431,000
The export of oil cakes attained 12,769,000 roubles in 1897 ; 58,300
horses and ponies were exported the same year.
The following table shows the relative importance of the chief exports
from European Russia and North Caucasia, including exports to Finland,
during the last three years : —
Exports
1895
1896
1897
Roubles
Roubles
Roubles
Corn, flour, buckwheat, &c. .
334,896,000
321,950,000
353,353,000
Fish and caviare
2,548,000
4,711,000
5,730,000
Dairv ]>roduce and eggs .
23,513,000
25,476,000
31,835,000
Alcohol and gin
1,853,000
1,584,000
2,459,000
Sugar
11,830,000
20,368,000
10,315,000
Various articles of food ,
Articles of food .
22,339,000
9.649,000
9,786,000
385,647,000
382,888,000
413,478,000
Timber and wooden goods
40,144,000
46,727,000
54,781,000
Raw metals (platinum, mercy.)
3,052,000
4,248,000
3,417,000
Oleaginous grains, chiefly lin-
seed and grass seeds
45,901,000
50,721,000
45,309,000
Flax
. 72,364,000
62,836,000
56,182,000
Hemp .....
19,212,000
16,115,000
11,215,000
Tallow
533,000
542,000
497,000
Bristle, hair, and feather
10,439,000
9,924,000
11,727,000
Wool . . . .
6,490,000
7,869,000
8,933,000
Furs
4,172,000
3,673,000
5,027,000
Naphtha and naphtha oils, &c.
27,274,000
28,679,000
25,158,000
Various . . . .
Raw and half-manu-
73,779,000
26,554,000
32,260,000
factured goods .
260,044,000
257,838,000
254,506,000
Metallic goods
1,114,000
1,451,000
2,717,000
Woollens ....
2,265,000
1,749,000
1,869,000
Cottons
2,792.000
1,601,000
3,972,000
Various .....
Manufactured goods.
5,025,000
8,105,000
10.588,000
11,196,000^
12,906,0001
19,146,000
Animals .
—
15,144,000
17,092,000 j
1 Besides, to Vla4ivostQk, 19,005,000 roubles worth in 1805. and 24,552,000 in 1896.
956
RUSSIA
The principal imports into European Russia nd North Caucasia are shown
in the following table : —
Imports
1895
Roubles
1896
1897
Roubles
Roubles
Rice .....
700,0002
676,000 2
708,000 2
Other grain and flour
367,000
359,000
378,000
Fruits and nuts
7,431,000
7,839,000
6,423,000
Fish
11,998,000
13,026,000
9,544,000
Tea
19,163,0001
19,016,0001
17,867,0001
Coffee
5,542,000
5,184,000
6,042,000
Tobacco .....
2,479,000
2,383,000
2,306,000
Wines, ale, and spirits .
9,740,000
10,113,000
10,345,000
Raw cotton ....
59,439,000
72,092,000
67,037,000
Wool, raw and yarn
30,347,000
23,261,000
29,209,000
Silk, raw and yarn ,
11,183,000
11,559,000
10,131,000
Leather, hides, and skins
13,586,000
16,352,000
14,434,000
Gum and resin
7,770,000
9,136,000
9,146,000
Colours .....
14,194,000
15,013,000
11,926,000
Chemicals ....
8,920,000
9,777,000
9,297,000
Coal and coke
13,489,000
13,948,000
10,846,000
Raw metals . .
52,032,000
61,887,000
56,604,000
Manufactured goods : —
Cotton goods ....
2,657,000
2,416,000
2,530,000
Other textile goods
10,023,000
10,835,000
10,599,000
Metal goods ....
21,697,000
25,149,000
26,080,000
Machinery ....
53,692,000
64,961,000
53,125,000
Watches and clocks
5,264,000
4,757,000
2,753,000
1 Moreover, 19,214,000 roubles' worth through Asia in 1895, 20,253,000 in 1896, and
3,362,000 in 1897.
2 Moreover, 2,622,000 roubles' worth from Persia in 1895, 2,775,000 in 1896, and 18,940,000
in 1897.
The exports and imports by the frontier of Asia (exclusive of the Black
Sea coast of Caucasia) were : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
Exports : —
Articles of food ....
Raw and half-manufactured goods .
Animals .....
Manufactured goods
Total ....
Imports : —
Articles of food ....
Raw and half-manufactured goods .
Animals .....
Manufactured goods
Total ....
1,000
roiibles
7,468
2,391
682
8,523
1,000
roubles
9,540
2,299
743
7,780
1,000
roubles
8,637
2,671
417
10,039
1,000
roubles
7,888
2,513
492
10,149
19,064
20,362
21,823
21,042
27,961
8,487
1,177
4,035
28,893
8,769
1,413
5,405
30,085
10,359
2,304
5,259
30,888
10,897
1,805
5,453
41,660
44,390
48,007
49,043
COMMERCE
957
The main items of the exports and imports by tlie frontier of Asia
(inclusive of Caucasia) were in 1896 : —
~
Roubles
—
Roubles
Gold 1 Paper '
Gold
Paper
1892
1893
1894
82,420,750
97,175,007
114,461,845
697,023
3,323,070
3,861,909
1895
1896
1897
113,637,683
125,613,783
3,626,668
4,644,506
202,064,105^
1 As against 193,0(55,180 roubles in 1896. No distinction is now made between gold and
paper revenue, the latter being reckoned at j^jth of the "Imperial."
The following table shows the value of the imports from, and exports to
the countries named, through the European and Asiatic frontier, including
the trade with Finland, in thousands of roubles : —
.
1896
1897
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
Germany ....
190,162
185,368
179,800
175,237
United Kingdom
111,041
160,903
102,091
150,8P9
France
23,412
50,208
24,683
63,684
Austria-Hungary
22,900
29,942
19,297
39,082
Belgium .
19,523
23,143
25,037
32,716
Netherlands .
5,835
70,850
5,863
87,255
Turkey .
5,748
14,069
5,589
12,686
Italy
10,006
36,412
10,538
31,472
Denmark ,
2,318
9,018
1,885
9,235
Rumania .
1,705
7,941
1,360
10,926
958
RUSSIA
—
1896
1897
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
United States .
China ....
Egypt ....
Other countries
Total
65,671
14,543
13,599
53,804
1,606
18
3,790
74,144
47,678
13,771
24,092
46,832
2,707
1,008
5,816
81,499
540,267
667,412
508,516
704,222
Since 1869 the customs duties have been steadily increasing. In that
year the duties levied on articles of food amounted to 31 per cent, of the
declared value of imports over the European frontier ; in 1894, to 61 per
cent. ; duties on goods used for the industries in 1869, 5 per cent. ; in 1894,
24 per cent, of declared value of imports ; on manufactured goods in 1869,
9 per cent. ; in 1894, 32 per cent, of declared value of imports.
The imports from Russia into the United Kingdom, and the exports of
British home produce to Russia, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
are shown in the subjoined table : —
—
1893
1894 1895
1896
1897
Imports from Russia
into U. K. .
Exports to Russia
from U. K. .
£
18,574,565
6,372,236
£ 1 £
23,598,748 24,736,919
6,884,480 7,004,537
£
22,667,443
7,185,185
£
22,284,365
7,513,165
The chief article of import from Russia into the United Kingdom is grain
mainly wheat, oats, and barley, as follows : —
—
1893
1894
1895 1896
1897
£
5,439,052
1,425,765
1,485,083
Wheat
Oats .
Barley
£
3,095,501
2,304,088
2,854,088
£
4,284,862
2,967,999
3,508,840
£ £
6,048,929 5,187,240
2,763,851 2,405,298
2.634,256 1,999,562
Other articles of import into Great Britain from Russia in the year 1897
were flax and tow, to the value of 1,998,482^. ; wood and timber, 5,013,796^. ;
flax seed, 1,137,784Z. ; hemp and tow, 177,442Z. ; wool, 417,646Z. ; petro-
leum, 526,994Z. ; butter, 970,264Z. ; sugar, 70,088Z. Minor articles of
import into Great Britain are tallow and stearine, bristles, cordage and
twine, oil-seed cake, and tar. The principal British exports to Russia in tlie
year 1897 were iron, wrought and unwi'ought, of the value of 1,520,885Z. ;
lead, 148,440Z. ; cotton stuffs and yarn, 392,288Z. ; woollens, with worsteds
and yarn, 464,161Z. ; coal, 921,719Z. ; machinery, 1,766,517^. ; alkali,
68,312Z. ; fish (herring), 195,016Z.
The quantities of wheat imported from Russia into the United Kingdom
in five years from both the northern and southern ports of the Empire, were
as follows:— 1893, 10,063,614 cwts. ; 1894, 16,822,271 cwts. ; 1895,
23,017,035 cwts. ; 1896, 17,241,600 cwts. ; 1897, 15,049,900 cwts.
For the year 1897 the quantities of cereals exported from Russia to
SHIPPING AXD NAVIGATION
959
different countries of Europe (according to Russian statistics) appear as
follows in 1,000 ponds (1 pond = 0-32244 cwt) :—
Exports to
(1897)
Wheat
Rye
Barley Oats
Great Britain ; . . .
Holland
France . . , .
Germany .....
Austria Hungary ....
Belgium .....
45,232
41,996
33,717
16,812
8,834
8,716
6,838
18,697
22,468
3,999
20,785
13,575
6,386
16,941
1,715
5,104
15,411
11,781
2.107
9,370
926
2,108
Total (including other countries) .
213,263
73,559
89,411
43,616
According to the Central Statistical Committee — the total crops of
European Russia, Poland, and North Caucasia being taken into account, and
the seeds as well as the exports being deduced therefrom — the following
quantities remain for annual home consumption, in E. lbs. per head of
population : —
Wheat .
Rye .
Oats
Barley
1892-31
1893-4
E. lbs.
69-3
258-5
E. lbs.
120-6
312-0
327-8
100-4
48-1
432-6
149-8
77-6
1894-5
E. lbs.
88-1
351-0
439-0
155-2
46-9
1 Bad crops year.
The exports from Russian Turkestan, via Bukhara and Khiva (Trans-
caspian railway) attained, in 1894, 13,600,000 roubles, chiefly raw cotton
(12,324,000 roubles) ; and the imports, 13,062,000 roubles, chiefly grain,
cottons, dry fruit and wool, naphtha, sugar, and manufactured goods.
The Imports from China, rid Kiakhta, were in 1897, 19,264,907 roubles,
out of which tea, 15,472, 623 roubles.
The chief Russian fair is that of Nijni Novgorod. The value of
the goods brought to the fair in 1896 was 17,655,757^., being 1,458,576Z.
below that of 1895. The .sales amounted to 15,333,840/., or 1,508,000Z.
less than in 1895. Including orders for the fair of 1896 and banking
operations, the transactions reached about 35,000,000?. The principal articles
sold were: cotton.s, 5,100,000?.; woollen cloth, 680,000/.; flax goods,
169,000/. ; wool, horsehair, &c., 400.200/. ; furs, 400,000/. ; leather and hides,
585,000/. ; iron, about 2,000,000/. ; tea, 1,269,000/. ; raw cotton from
Turkestan and Persia, 393,250/.*
Shipping and Navigation.
On January 1 , 1 898, the registered mercantile marine of Russia consisted of
391 steamers, of 116,593 tons register, and 1,755 .sailing vessels, of 155,430 tons
960
RUSSIA
register ; total, 2,146 vessels, of 322,023 tons. Of these vessels, 95 steamers
of 19,053 tons, and 586 sailing vessels of 78,745 tons belonged to the Baltic ;
33 steamers of 5,028 tons and 396 sailing vessels of 22,149 tons to the White
Sea ; 263 steamers of 142,512 tons, and 773 sailing vessels of 54,535 tons to
the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov.
In 1897 the navigation in the ports of Russia and the Black Sea coast of
the Caucasus appeared as follows for vessels above 20 tons.
1897
Eussian
Foreign
Total
NTimber
Tons
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
Entered: —
White Sea .
Baltic .
Black and Azov .
Total .
Cleared : —
White Sea .
Baltic .
Black and Azov .
Total .
338
796
330
45,004
290,798
424,608
378
4,957
2,867
8,202
269,540
3,209,655
3,518,738
716
5,753
3,197
314.544
3,500,453
3,943,346
1,464
760,410
0,997,933
9,666
677
5,682
3,162
7,758,343
300
756
303
43,083
287,560
418,315
377
4,926
2,859
269,093
3,202,203
3,515,179
312,176
3,489,763
3,933,494
1,359
748,958
8,162
6,986,475
9,521
7,735,433
The Caspian ports were entered in 1896 by 18,055 vessels of 233,714
tons foreign and 8,360,269 tons in coast trade. Vladivostok and Nikolaievsk
on the Pacific coast was visited by 347 vessels of 313,531 tons.
In 1896, 38, 943 coasting vessels, 13,794,870 tons visited the ports of the
White Sea, Baltic, and Black Sea, and 17,284 coasting vessels, 8,360,269
tons, entered the ports of the Caspian Sea.
The movements of passengers and emigrants in the empire has been : —
—
Entered Russia
Left Russia
1861-90
4,546,613
4,996,711
1891
2,508,400
2,648,100
1892
1,875,900
1,901,200
1893
2,087.591
2,034,574
1894
2,043,760
2,048,776
1895
2,586,118
2,580,942
1896
2,725,645
2,743,418
1
The surplus or otherwise of Russian and foreigners is seen from the following
—
Entered more than left
Left more than entered
1895
1896
1895
27,594
1896
Russians
Foreigners
17,062
6,906
27,084
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
961
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers and Canals.
In 1896, 121,620 smaller vessels, and 239,703 rafts were unloaded
at the river ports of European Russia and Poland, the value of merchandise
thus transported exceeding 278,558,000 roubles, and its total weight,
24,716,000 tons. Plying on Russian rivers (exclusive of Finland and
Caucasus) in 1891 were 1,824 steamers, 103,200 nominal horse-power, capable
of receiving a load of 141,700 tons, and valued at 75,576,600 roubles (crews,
25,814 men). There were besides 20,125 vessels of various denominations,
capable of carrying about 6,500,000 tons (cost, 38,327,000 roubles; crews,
90,356 men). An average of 72 steamers (3,395 horse-jiower) and 6,102 boats
(1,880,000 tons) has been built during the years 1888-91. Of the latter, the
greatest number is destroyed every year.
In 1894 the river fleet of European Russia and Poland consisted of 2,185
steamers (115,140 horse-power), thus distributed in the different basins:
Volga, 1,197; Neva and lakes, 339; Dnieper, 250 ; Don, 148; Northern
Dvina, 82 ; Western Dvina, 62 ; Vistula, 28 ; Dniester, 16 ; Lakes Pskov and
Chudskoye, 13 ; Nyeman, 13 ; Narova, 5 ; Urals, Eastern Slope, 3.
In 1894 102 steamers navigated on the rivers of West Siberia, the- traffic
attaining an aggregate of 322,000 tons, and 66 steamers plied on the rivers
of East Siberia. In 1897, 94 steamers and 129 barges plied on the Amur and
its tributaries.
The naphtha flotilla of the Caspian Sea numbers 57 steamers and 263
sailing vessels, which have transported above 30,000,000 cwt. of naphtha.
In 1894 Russia and Poland had 46,277 English miles of navigable rivers,
and 499 miles of canals and 648 miles of canalized rivers. The traffic on the
rivers of European Russia proper (exclusive of Poland, Finland, and Caucasus)
was in tons : —
• —
Total
Corn
Firewood
Timber
Naphtha
1891
1892
1893
1894
1896
16,710,000
16,480,000
19,040,000
23,290,000
27,716,000
1,996,000
1,482,000
2,390,000
3,680,000
3,705,000
3,282,000
3,240,000
3,822,000
6,470,000
7,011,000
7,604,000
9,209,000
1,153,000
1,378,000
1,256,000
2,022,000
Of the whole river traffic (including rafts) of European Russia, 67 per
cent, falls upon the system of the Volga and the Neva — the remainder being :
28 per cent, on the Dnieper-Nyemen and Dvina system, 3 per cent, only
on the Don, 1 "4 per cent, on the Dniester, and 1 '1 on the Narova.
Siberia has 27,920 E. miles of navigable rivers (16,366 miles navigated by
steamers), and Central Asia 2,745 miles.
II. Railways.
The railway-net, on September 1, 1898, was as follows -.-^Opened for
traffic, 27,644 miles. Of these, under the Ministry of Ways and Commu-
nication, 24,591 miles (16,453 miles worked by the State, and 8,138 mile.s
by private com[ianies) ; under the Ministry of War (Transcasjiian), 1,027 miles;
in Finland, 1,566 miles. In huildiwj, 7,426 miles. Of these, by the
State, 1,064 miles ; by the Siberian Railway administration, 2,636 miles ; by
3 Q
962
RUSSIA
private companies, 3,727 miles; in Finland, 150 miles. To he huiU,
2,205 miles. Of these 235 miles by the State, 63 miles by the Manclmrian
railway, and 1,917 miles by private companies.
The activity of the Russian railways, exclusive of the Transcaspian railway
and those of Finland, is seen from the folloAving table, which shows the
length, gross receipts, working expenses, and net receipts, as also the number
of passengers and amounts of goods carried for the last five years, according to
the last figures published by the Ministry of Ways and Communications.
Years
E. miles
Gross
Receipts
Workiug
Expenses
Net Receipts
Passengers
Goods
carried
1891
1892
1893
1894
1S95
1896
18,441
18,441
21,690
22,986
23,220
25,756
Paper Roubles
296,087,000
301,709,000
328,793,000
370,129,955
396,822,770
426,322,767
Paper Roubles
177,651,000
194,032,000
199,362,000
215,012,634
231,303,682
248,245,732
Paper Roubles
118,436,000
107,676,000
129,431,000
155,117,320
165,519,088
178,077,035
Persons
47,942,765
49,353,000
51,523,000
48,490,000
49,342,000
Tons
69,848,000
72,311,100
78,134,000
42,060,0001
90,115,000
1 Exclusive of transfers from cue Russian line to anotlier.
The chief line in construction was the Trans-Siberian, 4,950 miles, which
it is proposed to complete in 1905, at the cost of about 150,000,000 roubles.
On December 11, 1895, the first section from Tchelyabinsk (which is already
connected by rail with Samara, via the ironworks Zlatoust and Mias) to
Omsk, 493 miles, was ready, with the exception of the iron bridge across the
Irtysh ; the se^'ond section, Omsk to the Ob River, 388 miles, Avas ready
in October, 1896; and building was begun on the next three sections: Ob to
Krasnoyarsk on the Yenisei, 476 miles (rails already laid on December 17,
1895), and traffic opened from the Ob to Bolotnaya, 70 miles), Krasnoyarsk to
Irkutsk, 672 miles, and Station Mysovaya on Lake Baikal to Sryetensk
at the head of navigation on the Amur, 701 miles. In 1898 trafiic was
opened as far as Irkutsk ; building proceeded round to southern shore of Lake
Baikal, but temporarily powerful ice-bj-eaker steamers had been built
to maintain steamer communication across the lake during the winter. At the
Pacific end of the railway, the section from Vladivostok to Khabarovsk, 475
miles, was completed in the summer of 1897 ; the first train from Vladivostok
leached Khabarovsk on the Amur on September 13, ]897. The branch,
Tchelyabinsk to Ekaterinburg, 150 miles, which connects the main trunk with
the Middle Urals line Perm-Ekaterinburg-Tyumen, was opened in 1896.
However, as the building of the line would have met with extreme
difficulties from Sryetensk on the Sliilka till Pokrovskoye on the Amur (240
miles), as Avell as from this last further on down the Amur, a company has
been formed by the Russian Government, by a law of December 4 (16), 1896,
for building a railway to connect Transbaikalia (Onon station) with Vladi-
vostok, via ]\Ianchuria (Russian frontier village Tsurukhaitu, to Tsitsikar,
Khulan-chen, and Kinguta). The total length of this line is estimated at
about 1,273 miles, of which 945^ miles are in Chinese territory. As this
line must, however, cross the valley of the Sungari, it will also have to
cope Avith considerable difficulties. Preliminary researches are being made
along this line, and an easy passage across the Great Khiugan has been found.
Work was begun last summer at the southern end of this railway in the
Valley of the Usuri. A new great raihvay, from Perm to Vyatka and
thence to Kotlas, on the Northern Dvina, at its junction with the
Vychegda in order to make Arkhangelsk the chief port of West Siberia,
RAILWAYS
963
is ill progi'css. It will have a length of 619 miles, and its cost is
estimated at 35,000,000 roubles. The line Vologda- Arklangelsk was opened
in 1897. A sum of 129,112,196 roubles has been subscribed for new railways
in the budget estimate of 1897, out of which 64,414,762 for the Siberian
l"ailway and works connected with it, and 10,656,047 for narrow gauge feeding
branches.
Two other important lines were begun in 1895, one in Caucasia, to con-
nect Tiflis with Kars (188 miles), and another in Central Asia. This last
will connect the Saraarcand terminus of the Transcaspian railway with
Andijan in Ferganah, and have a branch to Tashkend, capital of Kussian
Turkestan. Length, 342 miles ; estimated cost, 27,000,000 roubles. In
Caucasia, a branch line from the main Vladikavkaz line to Petrovsk on
the Caspian has been completed in 1896, and the Borjom tunnel is in-construc-
tion ; in European Russia, the lines Kursk to Voronezh ; I\Ioscow to Kazan ;
Tamboff to Kamyshin ; and St. Petersburg to Sestroryetsk are in construction.
The number of passengers on Russian railways having been small (from one-
third to one-tenth of that on the railways of AVestern Europe), a zone-tariff" for
passengers was introduced in 1894, whereby the cost of travelling was so
much reduced that the fare for a journey of 3,000 versts (1,989 miles) is
now 16 roubks 80 copecks, instead of 43 roubles 13 copecks as formerly.
Since this new tariff" has been introduced, the passengers' traffic has much in-
creased (by 29 per cent, in three years), attaining 53,354,186 persons in 1897,
and the revenue from passengers' traffic has grown by 18 per cent. (66,767,500
roubles in 1897).
The rolling stock on January 1, 1896, was : 8,123 steam engines (7,571
on January 1, 1895), 9,133 passengers' carriages, 179,690 goods carriages,
and 256 post carriages. Moreover, on the Transcaspian railway, 110 engines
and 1,080 carriages. About 400 engines and 15,000 carriages can be built
every year by Russian works. The number of men employed on the Russian
railways was 343,996 in 1895, receiving an aggregate of 109,795,743 roubles
of wages.
The financial conditions of the Russian railways and their relations to the
State are best seen from the yearly reports of the State Control for 1896
{Official Messenger, December 1897). The revenue and expenditure of the
State Treasury in connection with both the State railways and the private rail-
ways appeared for the five years 1892-96 as follows (in paper roubles) : —
Year
Revenue from
railway, State
and private
Expenditure for
the same
Balance
Balance after
deducting expendi-
ture for improvement
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Roubles
111,102,293
119,667,663
155,455,493
217,701,690
312,374,372
Roubles
142,905,128
153,905,031
183,115,228
242,811,956
278,283,293
Roubles
-31,802,835
-34,237,368
-27,659,735
-25,110,266
-1-34,091,079
Roubles
-20,000,150
-15,095,193
-16,111,096
-11,887,014
-f 25,283, 461
The considerable surplus of 1896 is due to the transfer of 35,300,000
roubles from special accounts to the Treasury.
On January 1, 1897, the net of raihvays belonging to the State attained
17,009 E. miles, out of which 16,493 miles {%Q per cent, of all the railway
net of the Empire) were under State management, and 516 miles were rented
by the State to private companies.
3 Q 2
964
RUSSIA
The building capital of the whole net belonging to the State was reckoned
at 1,346,677,788 roubles in gold and 724,906,895 in paper ( = 2,744,923,577
paper roubles).
The gross receipts of the railways exploited by the State in 1896 were
273,969,819 roubles, and the expenditure 157,366,602 roubles, thus showing
a net income of 116,603,217 roubles, or 119,666,619 roubles, including a
newly-acquired railway ; out of them 110,635,698 roubles had, however, to
be paid as interest upon the capital borrowed for the purchase of these lines,
thus showing a real net revenue of 9,030,921 roubles.
On the same date (January 1, 1897) the railway-net belonging to private
cowi^.7awies which had standing obligations towards the State attained 8,101
miles built, and 2,465 miles building ; total, under private management,
9,566 miles (inclusive of the 516 miles of State railways rented to private
companies).
The building capital of this net was reckoned at 485,012,071 roubles in
gold and 477,627,778 paper roubles ( = 1,005,145,885 paper roubles). The
yearly interest upon this capital attained 41,668,695 roubles.
The gross receipts from the private net attained in 1896, 140,224,306
roubles, and the expenditure was 81,851,231 roubles.
In consequence of new purchases of private railways by the State, the
total debt of the private railway companies to the State was, on January
1, 1898, 253,685,615 roubles, as against 819,170,204 roubles on January 1,
1897, i.e. about 92 per cent, of their total liabilities. ^
The activity of the Transcaspian railway appears as follows : —
1896. 1897.
Goods carried ... 292,500 tons. 390,100 tons.
Gross receipts ... 5,449,030 roubles. 7,061,000 roubles.
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
The following are the postal statistics for 1896 :— Number of offices, 7,887.
Sent out.
Interior.
International.
-
Letters and Postcards .
Letters with Money .
Value, Pounds (1895).
Periodicals & Book Post
Parcels
302,500,308
16,858,164
884,560,760?.
110,037,929
3,914,959
37,893,691
564,366
18,447,040Z.
21,077,868
177,237
The length of State telegraph lines in Russia on January 1, 1895, was
78,396 English miles, and the length of wire 157,397 English miles; there
were 4,623 stations. Of the total system, about nineteen-twentieths were
the property of the State. The total number of telegrams carried in 1894
was 14,546,753 (and about 55,000,000 railway telegrams). The length ot the
telephone lines attained 19,313 miles in 45 towns (12,669 call .stations) anil
the number of telephone messages was 21,199,500, as against 10,766,000 in
1894. The actual receipts and expenditure of the posts and telegraphs
combined have been as follows : —
MONEY AND CREDIT
965
Years
Income
Expenditure
1892
1893
1894
1895
Roubles
33,753,332
35,267,039
36,961,042
38,837,399
Roubles
25,769,010
24,085,362
26,144,108
29,123,907
1
Money and Credit.
The amount of money coined at the mint during the last three years was :
Year I Gold
Silver at ^a-
Silver at ■[%
Copper
Roubles
1895 1 50,000,560
1896 1,315
1897 117,500,000
Roubles
4,605,053
25,723,862
13,364,0001
Roubles
1,099,001
301,001
699,0001
Roubles
54-2,065
1 During the first 3J months only.
The amount of gold, silver in money and ingots and paper money in cir-
culation are thus given by the Minister of Finances (Jan. 13, 1898), in
millions of roubles : —
1
1
Year
Gold 1 Silver at f(->
Paper currency
At the
Bank and
Treasury
J At the
circulation ^l^Z^J^Jli
Ireasurj'
In
circulation
At the J
End of 1896 .
End of 1897 .
End of 1898 .
1,206
1,315
1,146
37-5 73
155 63
445 1 48
50
99
142
139-7 ' 981-6
69 930
42 683
As to the paper money, which amounted end 1897 to 999,000,000 roubles,
out of which 69,000,000 were at the Bank, it was covered by gold money and
gold in ingots at the Bank alone to the extent of 1,166,000,000 roubles, thus
showing an increase of 226,500,000 roubles in gold, and 39,000,000 roubles
in silver, with a decrease of 122,500,000 in the paper currency.
1. 21ic Bank of Russia acts in a double capacity — of State Bank and of a
commercial bank. It has 108 branches. Its accounts, according to the new
form of accounts established by the law of September 10, 1897 (see under
Finance) were on January 1, 1899 : —
Liabilities — Roubles
Paper, roubles in circulation
Lialiilities abroad and metallic
Foundation capital
Reserve ,,
Capital for building new house
Interest bearing deposits
Unredeemable deposits
725,000,000
5,720,472
50,000,000
3,000,000
134,892
27,995,277
58,621,066
966
RUSSIA
Liabilities {continued)—
Current accounts, Treasury, State, and private
Kailways' accounts . . . . ,
Interest due and various transferable sums ,
Profits of 1896
Transfers .......
Roubles
536,107,630
13,370,480
24,951,838
7,907,913
228,247,077
Assets-
Total 1,681,046,636
Cash
Roubles
paper money 62,948,817
„ gold 145,742,962
,, silver at iV 28,010,507
,, silver at yV and copper 13,776,442
Debt of Treasury for paper money .... 100,000,000
Gold in money, ingots, &c 845,772,368
,, abroad 16,093,184
Sums at Bankers' abroad . . . . . . 4,288
Discounted bills ..... . . 153,792,627
Paid on current accounts guaranteed by securities . 35,651,580
Loans under securities 76,419,819
Bonds, &c., belonging to the Bank .... 28,182,459
Accounts of the Branches of the Bank and Treasury . 135,465,316
Miscellaneous 39,186,266
Total 1,681,046,636
Deposited in trust 2,935,937,244
2. The Savmgs Banks. — On August 1, 1898, the number of savings banks
(State, municipal, and postal) was 4,404, the depositors numbered 2. 6 12, 7 49,
and the deposits amounted to 490,760,000 roubles.
3. State Banks for mortgage loans to the nobility, on January 1, 1896,
showed loans granted amounting to 523,689,700 roubles, the renjaining debt
being 395,767,597 roubles.
4. Land Bank for the purchase of land by the peasants. — Up to January
1, 1895, the bank had made loans to village communities, associations,
and separate individuals, representing an aggregate of 319,011 householders
and 1,024,124 individuals. They bought 6,374,116 acres, valued at
10,664,874^., of which 8,243,226Z. were lent by the bank, and 2,421,648Z.
paid by the buyers. Only 104,641 acres of the whole quantity have been
acquired by separate individuals. During the year 1895, 494,698 acres were
bought with the aid of the bank for a total value of 954,124?., out of which
630,523?. were lent by the bank.
5. Mortgage Banks. — On January 1, 1895, there were in European Russia,
Poland, and Caucasus, 36 mortgage banks, including both those for the
nobility and for the peasantry. The extent of their operations is shown in
the following statement : —
Land estates
Properties in towns (300 towns)
Number of Mortgages . 119,516
Area in acres (43 per
cent, of total) . 134,649,182
Loans, roubles . 1,404,262,237
Unpaid, roubles . 1,312,924,036
Number of Mortgages . 52,067
Value in roubles . 1,468,740,707
Loans, roubles . 853,050,400
Unpaid, roubles . 631,822,179
DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR REPRESENTATIVES 067
The number of shareholders' companies attained 1,200 in 1892, and their
aggregate net protits were 84,941,140 roubles.
In 1896 there were 40 banking companies, 104 societies of mutual credit,
and 241 municipal banks. The aggregate assets and liabilities of 38 private
banks balanced at 939,272,000 roubles (1,114,639,000 on Jan. 1, 1898); of
98 societies of mutual credit, at 177,556,000 roubles ; and of 238 municipal
banks, at 132,525,000 roubles. Total, 1,249,353 roubles.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The legal unit of money is the silver BouhU of 100 Kopecks. It is of the
value of 3s. 2"054d, but in official calculations 6 "40 roubles are taken as
equal to the pound sterling.
Gold coins are the tm??cri«Z and half im^fjriaZ of 10 and 5 roubles. The
half-imperial weighs 6 '544041 grammes '916 fine, and contains, therefore,
5 '998704 grammes of tine gold. Its value, in paper roubles, for the year
1896, has been settled at 7r, 72c., and 15r. 45c. for the imperial. The new
imperial weighs 12 '902 grammes '900 fine, and consequently contains 11*6118
grammes of fine gold. Its value, in paper roubles, has been settled by the
Ministry of Finance, for the year 1896, at 15 roubles for the imperial, and
7r. 50c. for the half-imperial. The ratio between gold and paper currency is
thus established for the year 1896 at 1^ : 1.
According to the new laws of January 3 (15), and August 2 (Sept. 10),
1897, new gold coins of exactly the same value, weight, and dimensions as
the above, will henceforward be coined, bearing the inscription of 15 roubles
on the imperial, 7r. 50c. on the half -imperial, and 5 roubles on a new gold
coin of this value, and paper money can at any time be exchanged at its
nominal value against these gold coins.
The silver rouble weighs 20 '7315 grammes "86806 fine, or (in the new
coinage) 19*9957 grammes "900 fine, and consequently contains 17*994
grammes of fine silver. Besides the silver rouble, credit notes (100, 25, 10,
5, 3, and 1 rouble) are legal tender.
Weights and Measures.
1 Ferst {500 saj^nes) . . = 3,500 ft., or two-thirds of a statute
mile (0*6629).
1 S'ajene (3 arshins) . . = 7 feet English.
1 Arshin (16 vershok) . . = 28 inches.
1 Square verst . . . = 0*43941 square mile.
1 Dessiatine . . . . = 2 '69972 English acres.
1 Pound (96 zolotniks-^2 lot) = A of a pound English (0*90283 lb.)
1 Tj J /Af\ j\ r=36 lbs. English.
1 Pood (40 pounds) . . . I ^ Q. 32244 ^.^^
63 Poods =1 ton.
1 Ship Last . . . . = about 2 tons (1*8900).
1 Fedro {8 shtoffs) . . . = 2| imperial gallons (2*707).
1 Tchetvert (8 tchetveriks) . =5*77 imperial bushels, or ^ imperial
quarter (0*72186).
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Russia in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — His Excellency Actual Privy Councillor Georgesde Staal,
accredited July 1, 1884.
Councillor of Emhassy. — P. M. Lessar,
First Secretary. — B. Sergueiew.
068
RUSSIA : — FINLAND
Military AttacM. — Colonel Yermololf.
Naval Attache — Captain Ouspensky.
Coiisid-General. — Baron Ungern-Steniberg.
Russia has also vice consuls at Aberdeen, Belfast, Bristol, Cardiff, Cork,
Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow, Hull (C), Leitli, Liverpool (C), Newcastle (C),
Plymouth, Southampton, Swansea, &c.
2. Of Great Britain in Russia.
Ambassador. — Right Hon. Sir Charles S. Scott, appointed to St. Peters-
burg, July 1, 1898.
Secretary of Emhassij. — Hon. C. Hardinge, C.B.
Military Attaclii.—Lt. -Col. W. H. Waters, R.A.
Consul-General and Translator. — J. Michell.
There are also British vice-consuls at Abo, Archangel, Batum (C),
Berdiansk, Bjorneborg, Cronstadt, Helsingfors, Kieff (C), Kertch, Moscow
(C), Nicolaietf, Odessa (C. G.), Poti, Revel, Riga (C), Sebastopol, Taganrog
(C), Warsaw (C. G.).
FINLAND.
The Government of Finland and her relations to the Empire have been
described under the heading of Local Government, and its area and
population are given with the area and population of the Russian provinces.
Of the total area 11*15 per cent, is under lakes. According to a law
of August 14, 1890, the circulation of Russian paper roubles and silver
money has been rendered obligatory. The penal code, elaborated by the
Senate, which had to be promulgated on January 1, 1891, has been stopped by
the Russian Government till further notice. In 1891 the postal administration
of Finland was subjected to the Russian Ministry of Interior.
Population.
The gradual increase of the population is seen from the following : —
Years
In Towns
In Country
Total
Men
Women
1830
1870
1890
1895
76,489
131,603
235,227
272,415
1,295,588
1,637,166
2,144,913
2,248,022
1,372,077
1,768,769
. 2,380,140
2,520,437
663,621
• 860,425
1,171,541
1,243,851
708,456
908,344
1,208,599
1,276,586
In 1895 the population was estimated to consist of 2,169,000 Finns,
341,500 Swedes, 7,000 Russians, 1,790 Germans, 1,150 Laps.
Of the total population there were at end of 1895 : — Lutherans, 2,473,441;
Greek Orthodox and raskolniks, 46,509 ; Roman Catliolics, 487.
The chief towns, with population, of Finland are : — Helsingfors (witli
Sveaborg), 69,025 ; Abo, 33,077 ; Tammerfors, 23,237 ; Wiborg, 22,344 ; Ule&-
borg, 13,383 ; Bjorneborg, 10,813 ; Nikolaistad (Wasa), 11,372 ; Kuopio, 9,334.
The movement of the population in five years was as follows ; —
PAUPERISM — FINANCE— INDUSTRY
969
Years
Marriages
Births
Deaths
Excess of Birtlis
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
14,825
14,095
16,113
18,256
19,189
76,433
73,030
76,206
84.010
83,884
57,486
51,002
47,467
46,709
49,289
18,947
22,028
28,739
37,301
34,595
Immigration in 1895, 59,240. Emigration, 59,353.
Instruction.
In 1897 Finland liad 1 university, with 2,062 students (158 ladies); in
1896 1 polytechnic, 184 students ; 43 lyceums (23 State), 6,488 pupils ; 15
real schools, 668 i)upiLs ; 71 girls' schools, 5,217 pui)ils ; 1,273 higher
primary schools, with 56,956 pupils; in 37 towns, primary schools with
724 teachers and 25,233 pupils; 4 teachers' schools, with 647 pupils.
There are besides 7 navigation schools, with 180 pujiils ; 8 commercial
schools, with 475 ^wpils ; 34 primary trade schools, with 1,010 pupils ; and
8 higher, with 384 pupils ; 18 agricultural and 28 dairy schools, with 653
pupSs, In the Lutheran and Greek Orthodox parishes in 1896, out of
457,678 children of school age (from 7 to 15 years old), 18,771 received no
education.
There were, in 1896, 73 Swedish, 99 Finnish, and 5 Swedish-and. Finnish
newspapers and reviews published.
Pauperism and Crime.
The number of paupers in 1895 supported by the towns and the village
communities was 87,367 (3 "5 per cent, of the population) ; and the total cost
was 3,412,352 marks.
The prison population, at the end of 1895, was 1,863 men and 617 women,
while the number of sentences pronounced for crimes in 1893 Avas 2,772, and
for minor offences 10,592.
Finance.
The estimated receipts for 1897 were 65,601,746 marks (14,664,098 marks
being left from previous budgets, and 2,000,000 marks being taken from the
reserve fund), and expenditure the same (11,227,168 marks being left for
the next year). Of the revenue, 5,801,620 marks came from direct taxes ;
24,480,000 marks indirect taxes. The chief items of expenditure are military
affairs, 7,997,920 marks; civil administration, 9,827,195 marks; worship
and education, 7,682,335 ; public debt, 4,663,160.
The public debt on January 1, 1898, amounted to 84,264,668 marks, as
against 85,130,944 marks on Jaimary 1, 1890 ; of which l,7i>9,560 marks
internal. The debt is at 3^ and 4 per cent, interest.
Industry.
The land was divided in 1895 among 117,700 owners (345 nobles, 2,218
Burger, 111,557 peasants, and 297 foreigners in 1888), and the landed property
was distributed as follows : — Less than 12^ acres, 32,711 i»ersons (as against
42,592 in 1885) ; from 12^ to 62§ acres, 60,121 persons, from 62^ to 250 acres,
970
RUSSIA
22,135 persons ; more than 250 acres, 2,823 persons. Small farmers, 70,444.
The crop of 1895 was in hectolitres :— Wheat, 51,715 ; rye, 4,667,198;
barley, 2,154,015 ; oats, 6,623,900; potatoes, 6,357,312; flax, 1,619 tons ;
hemp, 667 tons.
Of domestic animals Finland had: — Horses, 300,650; horned cattle,
1,409,183 ; sheep, 1,067,384 ; swine, 197,356 ; reindeer, 129,984 ; goats, 14,540 ;
poultry, 400,927.
The crown forests cover 14,050,471 hectares. Their maintenance cost
628,000 francs, and the income derived from them was 2,284,000 francs. In
1895 there were 207 saw mills with water motors, and 220 steam mills, as
against 117 in 1888. They give occupation to 12, 091 workers, and their aggre-
gate production was 1,772,038 cubic metres of timber, as against 3,003,354
cubic metres in 1889.
The annual produce of pig-iron and iron, in metric tons, for seven years,
was : —
Years
Ore
Pig-iron
Bar Iron
1889
48,693
15,060
12,227
1890
59,435
23,749
16,948
1891
58,692
23,072
19,780
1892
58,210
24,167
19,710
1893
54,771
21,355
13,996
1894
68,243
21,174
15,287
1895
67,724
23,220
17,863
Finland had in 1895, 7,197 large and small manufactures, employing an
aggregate of 65,250 workers, and yielding an aggregate product (exclusive of
flour mills) of 188,472,312 marks (7,538,900^.). The chief were :—
—
No. of
Establishments
No. of
Workers
Production
Marks
Iron and mechanical works
1,175
12,063
25,972,355
Textiles ....
40
7,336
25,058,523
Wood and bone industries ,
754
14,651
45,771,214
Distilleries and breweries .
154
1,823
8,675,596
Paper ....
124
4,830
18,075,166
Leather ....
765
2,714
12,384,803
Chemicals ....
253
1,685
6,191,430
Dress and dyeing
1,125
4,072
6,576,620
Graphic arts
107
1,584
3,631,551
The total number of steam engines was in 1895, 649 ; horse-power,
17,082.
Commerce,
The exterior trade of Finland appears as follows, in thousands of marks
(francs) : —
COMMERCE — INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
971
—
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
from
to
from
55,500
to
from
to
Russia
51,100
48,600
47,900
73,200
48,300
Sweden and Norway-
9,700
6,100
11,100
5,500
12,200
6,300
Denmark
4,400
16,500
5,900
18,700
7,200
17,000
Germany
52,500
10,000
58,600
10,600
65,700
13,000
Great Britain .
19,300
36,000
24,300
46,800
29,200
51,200
Spain
2,100
5,700
2,200
5,400
2,000
6,000
France .
3,300
11,100
3,800
12,700
5,800
14,600
Various .
Total .
7,900
8,900
11,200
11,300
158,900
7,200
12,300
150,300
142,900
172,600
202,500
168,700
The chief articles of export are : timber (79,400,000 marks in 1897, as
against 28,699,000 in 1887), butter (30,300,000), paper, paper mass, and
cardboard (15,600,000), iron and iron goods (4,400,000), textiles, leather,
hides, tar, and pitch.
The chief imports were :— Cereals (41,000,000 marks), coffee (11,170,000),
sugar (6,600,000), iron and hardware (12,800,000), cotton and cottons
(13,900,000), woollens (8,500,000), machinery (12,100,000), chemicals, leather
ware, tobacco, colours, and oils.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels which entered and cleared the ports of Finland in
1897 was as follows : —
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
Finnish .
Russian .
Foreign ,
Total .
5,871
528
1,977
822,907
83,414
962,392
5,848
529
1,977
812,619
82,923
965,635
8,376
1,868,713
8,354
1,861,177
The Finnish commercial navy numbered on January 1, 1898, 1,790 sailing
vessels of 248,809 tons, and 218 steamers, 35,103 tons ; total, 2,008 vessels
of 283, 912 tons.
Internal Communications.
For internal communications Finland has a remarkable system of lakes
connected with each other and with the Gulf of Finland by canals. The
number of vessels which passed along the canals in 1896 was 24,332 ; the
receipts from vessels, 525,978 marks ; and expeuditure,379,529 marks.
In January, 1898, there were 1,535 miles of railways, all but 20 miles
972 RUSSIA
belonging to the State. The traffic in 1896 was 3,608,065 x^assengers and
1,434,969 tons of goods. The total cost of the State railways to the end of 1896
was 195,348,043 marks. The total revenue of the same in 1896 was 17,867,386
marks, and the total expenditure 10,799.742 marks,
Finland had 743 post-offices in 1896, and revenue and expenses were
respectively 2,393,303 and 2,008,830 marks; united letters and post-cards,
11,123,781; parcels, &c., 1,939,899 ; newspapers, 10,631,868.
The 163 savings-banks had on December 31, 1895, 93,247 depositors, with
aggregate deposits of 49,331,796 marks.
Money, Weights, &c.
The markka of 100 penni is of the value of a franc, 9|d. The standard
is gold, and the markka, though not coined in gold, is the unit.
Gold coins are 20 and 10-markka pieces. They contain '2903225 grammes
of fine gold to the markka.
Silver coins are 2, 1, ^, and | -markka pieces.
Copper coins are 10, 5, and 1 -penni pieces.
The paper currency is exchangeable at par against gold or silver.
The unit of linear measure is the foot, which is - 0 "2969 metre, or very
nearly equal to the English foot. 1 verst (3,600 Finn, feet) = nearly | of a
statute mile ; 1 tit7inland {56,000 square Finn, feet) = nearly 1^ acre (0 '49364
hectare); 1 tunna (63 ^'a?i?ior) = nearly 4^ bushels (1'6488 hectolitre; 1
sk§,lpund = yVit of Eng. lb, (425 01 grammes); 1 centner (100 ska-lpund = 5
Us2nind) — -^^\ of Eng. ton (45 '501 kilogrammes). Metric measures are now
in general use.
RUSSIAN DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
The following two States in Central Asia are under the suzerainty of
Russia : —
BOKHARA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between N. latitude 41° and
37°, and between E. longitude 62° and 72°, bounded on the north by the Russian
province of Turkestan, on the east by the Pamir, on the south by Afghanistan,
and on the west by the Kara Kum desert.
The reigning sovereign is the Ameer Say id Abdul Ahad, fourth son of tlie
late Ameer, by a slave girl ; born about 1860, educated in Russia, succeeded
his father in 1885. The heir is his son Sayid Mir Alim Khan, born January
3, 1880.
The modern State of Bokhara was founded by the Usbegs in the fifteenth
century, after the power of the Golden Horde hadl)cen crushed by Tamerlane.
The dynasty of Manguts, to which the present ruler belongs, dates from the
end of the last century, Mir Muzaft'ar-ed-din in 1866 proclaimed a holy war
against the Russians, who thereupon invaded his dominions, and forced
him to sign a treaty ceding the territory now forming the Russian district of
Syr Daria, to consent to the demand for a war indemnity, and to permit
BOKHARA — KHIVA 973
Russian trade. In 1873 a further treaty was signed, in virtue of which no
foreigner was to be admitted to Bokhara without a Russian passport, and the
State became practically a Russian dependency.
Ameers of Bokhara.— ^2.y\^ KmQQT Hyder, 1799-1826 ; Mir Hussein, 1826 ;
Mir Omir, 1826-27 ; Mir Nasrulla, 1827-60 ; Muzaffer-ed-din, 1860-85.
Area about 92,000 square miles, population about 2,500,000. Chief towns
— Bokhara, about 75,000 ; Karshi, 25,000 ; Khuzar, Shahr-i-Sabz, Hissar,
10,000 ; Charjui, Karakul, Kerniine.
The religion is JMahomedan.
The Ameer has 20,000 troops, of which 4,000 are quartered in the city. A
proportion of the troops are armed with Russian rifles and have been taught
the Russian drill
Bokhara produces corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, and hemp ; and breeds goats,
sheep, horses, and camels. The yearly ])roduce of cotton is said to be about
32,000 tons, of silk 967 tons. Gold, salt, alum, and sulphur are the chief
minerals found in the country.
The following figures show the trade of Bokhara in 1887 : —
Imports.— Yvom Russia, 10,600,000 roubles ; from Persia, 5,475,000
roubles; from Afghanistan and India, 600,000 roubles; total imports,
16,675,000 roubles.
Exports.— "To Russia, 12,500,000 roubles; to Persia 2,120,000; to
Afghanistan and India, 420,000 roubles ; total exports, 15,040,000 roubles.
In 1890 the exports, Russian and native, from Bokhara to Aighanistan,
are said to have been 3,944,568 roubles ; the imports (largely Anglo-Indian)
from Bokhara to Afghanistan 4,884,270 roubles.
The yearly imports of green tea, mostly from India, are said to amount to
1,125 tons. The imports from India also include indigo, Dacca muslins, drugs,
shawls, and kincobs. Bokhara exports raw silk to India, the quantity
exported in one year being estimated at 34 tons. The exports of cotton in
1888 were 122,000 bales. By the treaty of 1873 all merchandise belonging
to Russian traders, whether imported or exported, pays a duty of 2^ per cent.
ad valorem. No other tax or import duty can be levied on Rus.sian goods,
which are also exempt from all transit duty. The Ameer has forbidden the
import of spirituous liquors excej)t for the use of the Russian Embassy.
The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway now runs through Bokhara from
Charjui, ontheOxus, to a station within a few miles of the capital, and thence
to Samarkand ; the distance from Charjui to the Russian frontier station of
Katti Kurghan being about 186 miles.
There is a telegraph line from Samarkand to Bokhara, the capital.
Russian paper roubles are current everywhere. The Bokhara silver tenga
is valued at ocl.
Russian Political Resident, W. J. Ignatieff.
Books of Reference concerning Bokhara.
Burnet (Sir Alexander), Travels into Bokhara. 1S39.
Curzon (Hon. G.), Russia in Central Asia. 1889. [Contains ample Bibliography].— The
Pamirs and the source of the Oxus. London, 1897.
Le Messurier (Col. A.), From London to Bokhara, 1889.
O'Doiwcan (E.), Tlie Merv Oasis. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Vambery, History of Bokhara. London, 1873.
KHIVA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between N. latitude 43^ 40'
and 41% and E. longitude 58° and 61" 50'. Extreme length 200 miles ; ex-
treme breadth 140 miles ; bounded on the north by the Aral Sea, on the east
by the river Oxus, on the south and west by the Russian Trans-Caspian
province.
974 RUSSIA
Seyd Mahomed Raliim Khan succeeded his father in 1865 as reigning
sovereign ; born about 1845. The heir-apparent, accepted by Russia, is
Asfendiar, the third son of the Khan (by a Persian slave).
Russian relations with the Khanate of Khiva — an Usbeg State, founded,
like that of Bokhara, on the ruins of Tamerlane's Central Asian Empire—-
date from the beginning of the 18th century, when, according to Russian
writers, the Khivan Khans first acknowledged the Czar's supremacy. In 1872,
on the pretext that the Khivans had aided the rebellious Kirghiz, an expedi-
tion advanced to the capital, bombarded the fortifications, and compelled the
Khan to sign a treaty which puts the Khanate under Russian control. A war
indemnity of about 274,000Z. was also exacted. This heavy obligation, still
being liquidated by yearly instalments, has frequently involved the Khan in
disputes with his subjects, and Russian troops have more than once crossed the
frontier to afford him aid and support.
The Khans of Khiva have been Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1806-25 ; Alia
Kuli Khan, 1825-42 ; Rahim Kuli Khan, 1842-45 ; Mohamed Arnin Khan,
1845-55 ; AbduUa Khan, 1855-56 ; Kutlugh Murad Khan, 1856 ; Seyid Mo-
hamed Khan, 1856-65 ; Seyid Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1865.
Area, 22,320 square miles; population estimated at 700,000, including
400,000 nomad Turcomans. Chief towns— Khiva, 4,000-5,000 ; New Urgeuj,
3,000 ; Hazar Asp, and Kungrad.
The religion is Mahomedan. Army, about 2,000 men.
The annual production of silk is said to be about 48 tons ;'of cotton, about
8,064 tons.
The exports of cotton in 1888 were 57,000 bales.
Books of Reference concerning Khiva.
Abbott (J.), Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva. London, 1884.
Burnaby (Col.), A Ride to Khiva. London, 1884.
MacGahan (J. A.), Campaigning on the Oxus and the Fall of Khiva. London, 1874.
Rectus (H.), Nouvelle geographic universelle. L'Asie Russe. 1881.
Rocca (F. de), De I'Alai a I'Amou-Daria. Paris, 1896.
Wood (H.), The Shores of the Lake Aral. London, 1870.
Yoimghusband (F.), The Heart of a Continent. London, 1896.
PORT ARTHUR AND TA-LIEN-WAN.
By an agreement, signed March 27, 1898, Russia has obtained from China
a lease of Port Arthur and Ta-lien-wan, with the adjacent seas and territory
to the north, the limits of which are still undefined. The duration of the
lease is to be 25 years, but may be extended by mutual agreement.
Within the whole land and water area leased, the control of the military
and naval forces, as well as of the civil officials, is vested in a Russian officer.
All Chinese military forces are withdrawn ; Chinese residents may withdraw
or remain ; but Chinese accused of crime shall be handed over to be dealt with
by the nearest Chinese official.
To the north of the territory leased there will be a zone where Chinese juris-
diction will continue, Init where Chinese troops may not be quartered without
the consent of Russia.
Port Arthur is reserved as a naval port for Russian and Chinese men-of-
War, closed against naval and merchant vessels of other nations. One i)art of
the harbour of Ta-lien-wan is reserved for Russian and Chinese men-of-war,
but the remainder is left as a commercial port open to merchant vessels of
all countries. Both of these ports are being fortified.
The agreement contains stipulations in the interest of Russia regarding
the construction of railways.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 075
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Russia.
1. Official ruBLicATioN.s.
Russian.
Animal {Pamyatnaya Knijka) odhcMimstry of the Navy for 1894. St. Petersburg.
Annual.s(Freme/i7iifc)of the Central Statistical Coniiiiittee. St. Petersburg, 1878-'J(>.
Collection of Materials {Sbor7iik Svedeniy) for Russia for 1887 and 1888, published by the
Central Statistical Coniinittee. St. Petei'sburg, 1891.
Collection of Medical, Sanitary, and Veterinary Laws, published bv tlie Medical Depart-
ment of the Ministry of Interior. St. Petersburg, 1890. 3 vols.
Consular Keports, Vol. v. St. Petersburg, 1898.
The Year 1897 with Relation to Agricidture. Also the preceding years. Published by
the Department of Agriculture. St. Petersburg, 1898.
Materials for a Statistic to the Empire of Russia. Published by the Statistical Depart-
ment of the Ministry of the Interior. 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-97 : —
Movement of Population in European Russia in 1891 ; Prices on Land in 1882-87 ; The
Zemstvos in 1886 ; Crops of 1889 compared to those of 1883-87; Yearly'Crops, &c.
Report of the Procurator of the Holy Synod for 1892-93. St. Petersburg, 1890.
Statistics of tlie Landed Property and Inhabited Places of the Russian Emi)ire, with
maps, &c. Published by the Statistical Department. St. Petersburg, 1861-80.
The Expenses of the Peasant Communities and Volostes in 1891 (Vremennik, vol. 38).
St. Petersburg, 1895.
The Agriculture and Forestry (Selskoye i Lyesnoye Khozyaistvo) of Russia. Published
by the Ministry of Agriculture, under V. I. Kovalevsky. St. Petersburg, 1893.
The Crops of 1890 and 1897, by the Central Statistical Committee. St. Petersburg, 1897.
Reports and Researches relative to the Village Industries, published by the Ministry of
State Domains. St. Petersburg, 1892-95. 3 vols.
Review of Data {Svod Danny kh) relative to the Manufactures of Russia in 1887-91, and
for all subsequent years till 1894 by the Ministry of Finances. St. Petersburg, 1893-97.
Review of the Exterior Trade [Obzor vnyeshnei Torgovli) for 1894, and Exterior Trade
on the European Frontier in 1896, published by the Ministry of Finances. St. Petersburg,
1897.
Prix des Marchandises sur Ics principaux Marches de la Russie, pour les annees 1890-96.
St. Petersburg, 1897. Published by the Ministry of Finances.
Statistical Annual (Frc?nen?ijfc) of Caucasus. Tiflis, 1895.
Statistical Materials published by the Provincial Statistical Committees
Statistics (Svod Statisticheskikh Svedeniy) relative to the judicial institutions in 1889,
St. Petersburg, 1895.
State's Aid to Domestic and Petty Trades in 188S-98. Published by the Ministry of
Agriculture. St. Petersburg, 1898.
Yearly Report of the Caucasus Administration about the Schools in 1892. Tiflis, 1894.
Official Messenger, periodical published by the Ministry of Interior.
Vyestnik Finansof, periodical published by the Ministry of Finances.
Sbornik of Materials for the Description of Caucasus and its Inhabitants. Tiflis,
22 parts; best one in 1897.
Kaufmann (Dr.), Financial Statistics of Russia for 1802-84 published by the Central
Statistical Committee. St. Petersburg, 1886.
I. Kaufmann. The value of paper money of Russia for the last 50 years (Veksehiyie
Kursy Rossii), publ. in Vremennik of the Central Stat. Committee. St. Petersburg, 1892.
The actual Income and Expenditure for 1886-95, in Off. Messenger and Vyestnik Finansof
for 1895 and 1896. « s> j
Statistical Reports (Sbornik) of the Ministry of Ways and Cominunicat.io«.s vols. 41 and 42
(Transport of Goods on Railways in 1894 ; Rivers and Canals in 1893) St. Petersbui-g, 1896.
(Witli maps.)
Reports of the Medical Department for 1892. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Report of the Prison Administration for 1893. St. Petersburg, 1895.
A. Haspuanaud Baron Nolckeii, Law (Pologenie) of the New Organisation of Peasants'
Tribunals in the Baltic Provinces, with a Summary of Motives. Published by Ministry of
Justice. St. Petersburg. 8. 2 vols. 1889.
Postal and Telegraph Statistics for 1893. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Stati-stics collected by the Zemstvos, being house-to-house inquests covering 123 districts
of European Russia, and embodying 2,983,733 households (17,990,317 souls). 1880-94. 450
volumes.
Report of the Finances of the Zemstvos for 1871-80, 1881-83, 1886-87. St. Petersburc
1884-90. ^'
Annual of the Zemstvos for 1868 (Zemskiy EJegodnik). St. Petersburg, 1890.
976 RUSSIA
Institutions of the Navy (Sroti morskikh Postanovleniy),'[S volumes. St. Petersburg, 1SS8.
History of the Ministry of Domains for the Fifty Years of its Existence. St. Petersburg,! 887
Orloff and Budaijoff, Index of Manufactures in Eurojieau Russia. 3rd edition. St.
Petersburg, 1S94.
A. Golubeff, Statistics of Mortgages in Russia {Statistika Dolgosrochnago Kredita),
edited by the Congress of Representatives of Mortgage Banks. 3 vols. St. Petersburg,
1S94.
Erivenko, Short Description of the Governmental Institutions of Russia. 2nd edit. St.
Petersburg, 1889.
Materials (Svod Materialov) relative to the Economical Conditions of the Peasants of
Transcaucasia. 5 vols. Tiflis, 1886-91.
Materials (Materiabj) relative to the Economical Conditions of tlie Peasants and
Indigenes of West Siberia. 18 parts. St. Petersburg, 1888-92.
Mutual Insurance against Fire n 1889-92, edited by the Central Statistical Committee.
St. Petersburg, 1893
Collections of Laws (Sboi-nik uzakoneniy) issued on July 12, 1889, on the Peasants' Insti-
tutions and Justices of the Peace. Edited by the Ministry of Interior. St. Petersburg, 1890.
Memoirs and Bulletins of the Russian Geographical Society and its Branches in
Caucasus and Siberia.
Historical Review {Istoricheskiy Obzor) of the Measures taken bv Government for Food
Supply in Russia. Vol. I. St. Petersburg, 1892. Edited by Ministry of Interior.
Collection of Materials (Sbornik Materialov) for the Description of the land and In-
habitants of Caucasus. Edited by the Ministry of Instruction. 25 vols. Tiflis, 1880-95.
Results from Statistical Materials (Svod Statisticheskikh Materialov) relative to the Con-
ditions of the Agricultural Population of European Russia. Issued by the Coinmittee of
Ministers. St. Petersburg, 1894.
Review (Obzor) of the Transcaspian Region in 1890. St. Petersburg, 1892.
Review (Obzor) of the activity of the zemstvos concerning the" Petty and Domestic
Trades, 1865-97. Edited by the Ministry of Agriculture and Srate Domains. St. Peters-
burg, 1897.
Siberia, a book of Reference, edited by the Emigration Committee of the Ministry of
Interior. Part I. St. Petersburg. 1897.
Maps of the Gold Mines of Siberia, and the Urals, with Descriptions. Edited by the
Mining Department, 1897.
Report and Additional Report of the Minister of Agriculture about his .journey to
Siberia. St. Petersburg, 1897.
French, English, 8j-c.
Annuaire des finances russes : budget, credit, commerce, chemins de fer. Par A. Vess6-
lovsky, secretaire du comite scientifique du ministere des finances. 8. St. Petersburg.
Premier Reccnsement General de la Population de I'Empire de Russie, 1897. Livraisons
1 and 2. St. Petersburg, 1898.
Tableaux Statistiques du Commerce exterieur de la Russie, 1802-1894. Publics par le
Department des Douanes. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Resultats generaux de la recolte de 1895. Publics par Ic Comite Central de Statistiques
de Russie. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Handbook of the Russian Troops in Asia, by Major J. W. Murray. Issued by the War
Office. 8. London, 1890.— Handbook of the Military Forces of Russia, by Captain W. A.
Macbean. Issued by the iTitelligence Division of the War Oflice. London, 1898.
The Industries, Manufactures, and Trade of Russia. Published by the Ministry of
Finance for the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. Editor of the English
translation, J. ]\I. Crawford, United States Consul-General to Russia. Vol. I. and II.,
Manufactures and Trades; Vol. III., Agriculture and Forestry; Vol. IV., Mining and
Afetallurgy ; Vol. V., Siberia and the Great Siberian Railwaj'. St. Petersburg, 1893.
Marine marchand russe. Liste des batiments le 1 Janvier, 1896. Issued by the Depart-
ment of Trade. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London.
Grierson (Captain J. M.), Armed Strength of Russia (with two majis). London, ISSC.
Hertslet (Sir Edward), Foreign Office List. Pu1)lished annually. London, 1894.
Koulibine (S.), Aper^u preliminaire de I'industrie minerale en 1890. St. Petersburg, 1892;
Statistiche Nachrichten liber das Elementar-Schulwesen in Russland im Jahre 1896.
St. Petersburg, 1898.
Stati.stik Arsbok for Finland, utg. afStatistiskaCentralbyran. Annual. Helsingfors.
Statesman's Handbook for Russia. Edited by the Chancery of the Committee of
Ministers. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Guide des Excursions du VII. Congres geologique international, avec une carte"
g^ologique de la Russie d'Europe, A I'^chelle 1 : 6,300,000. St. Petersburg, 1897.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 977
2, NoN- Official Publications.
^feicft (H.), Auskaukasischen Landern. 2 vols. 1S96.
Albrecht (Dr. Max), Kus.sisch Centralasicu. Hamburg, 1S96.
Arniies of To-day, by variou.s writer.s. S. London, 1893.
Bain (R. N.), The PupiLs of Peter the Great, 1697-1740. London, 1897.
Bar (K. E. von) and Helmersen (Gr. von), Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Russischcn Reichs.
25 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-72.
Birkbeck(W. J.), Russia and the English Church during the last Fifty Years. Vol. I.
Correspondence, 1844-.j3. London, 1896.
Browning (Oscar), Peter the Great. London, 1897.
Brzeski, The Debts of the Russian Empire. St. Petersburg, 1884. (Russian.)
Bulletin russe de Statistique financiere et de legislation. 3e annee. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Cajyus (G.), A travers le Royaume de Tamerlane. 8. Paris, 1892.
Cklebowski Slownik geograflczuy Krolewstwa Polskiego i innych krajow slowianskich.
6 vols. Warsaw, 1892-96
Clarke (Sir G. S.), Rus.sia's Sea Power, Past and Present. London, 1898.
Day (W. A.), The Russian Government in Poland. London, 1867.
V. Dolgorukoff, Guide over Siberia. 3rd year. Tomsk, 1898, 549 iip.
Dosujkojf, Income from Custom Duties during the years 1822 to 1890. St. Petersburg:
1892. (Russian.) °
DMW7/ioren(Earl of), The Pamirs. 2 vols. 8. London, 1893.
Elias (N.), ^Editor), The Moghuls of Central Asia. [Trans by E. D. Ross.1 London
1898.
Erman (Georg Adolf), Archiv fiir die wisscnschaftliche Kunde Russlands. 25 vols
Berlin, 1841-68.
Goremykin, Laws relative to the Peasantry issued since 1859. St. Petersburg. 1891.
(Ru.ssian).
Hahn(C.), Kaucaslsclie Rcisen und Studicn, Leipsic, 1S90.
Hare (A. J. C), Studies in J{ussia. London, 18S5.
Hedin (Sven), Through Asia. 2 vols. London, 1S9S.
Howard (B. D.), Life with Trans-Siberian Savages. [The Ainus of Saghalien.l S
London, 1893.
Hyne (C. J. C), Through Arctic Lapland. London, 1898.
nUn (A.), Detailed Atlas of Russia, with plans of chief towns. St. Petersburg, 1SS('.
(Russian.)
Issaeff(A. A.), Emigration and its Importance for the Economy of the Russian Nation
St. Petersburg, 1891. (Russian.)
Jackson (F. G.), The Great Frozen Land. 8. London, 1895.
Jefferson (R. L.), Roughing it in Siberia. London, 1897.
Keane {K.Yi.^, Asia. Vol. I., Northern and Eastern Asia. London, 1896.
.S^en7ia?i (G.), Siberia and the Exile Sj'stem. 4th ed. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Kleinschmidt (A.), Drei Jaluhunderte russischer Geschichte, 159S-1S98' Leipzi" 1898
Knight (E. F.), "Where Three Empires Meet. 8. London, 1893.
Kraniar {T>v. Karel), Die Ru.ssische Valutareform. Wien, 1896.
Kovalevsky (E.), Poinilar Education at the Nijori Novgorod and the Buda Pest Exhi-
bitions. St. Petersburg, 1897.
f,ar<idell{Yi.), Russian Central Asia. London, 1885.
Leger(h.), Russes et Slaves. Pari.s, 1890.— Second Series. Paris, 1S97.
Legros (J.), Au Pays Russe. Paris, 1896.
Lestradcs (Vicomte Combes de), La Russie a I'Avenement de Nicolas II. Paris, 1896
Leroy-Beaulieu (Anatole), L'empire des Tsars et les Russes. 3 vols. Paris, 1882
[English translation. 8. London, 1893-90.]— Etudes russe et europeennes. Paris, i897. "
Logan (J. A.), In Joyful Russia. London, 1897.
Matthaei (Fr.), Die wirtlischaftlichen Hillfsquellen Russlands. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1887.
Michelin (L. H. S.), Finland in the Nineteenth Century. 4. Helsingfors. 1894T
Jl/or/iZ^W. R.), Poland. In Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1893.
Murray's Handbook for Russia. 8. London.
Notovitch (N.), L'Empereur Nicholas II., L'Euipereur Alexandre III. Paris. 1896.
Or/o 1), List of Manufactures in Russia ; in the Asiatic Dominions. 2 vols St Peters
burg. 1894-5. (Russian.)
Ostrovsing, Guide over North Russia. St. Petersburg, 1898.
Pauly (J. N.), Description ethnographi(iue des peiiples de la Russie. S. St. Petersburg
1862. *»
PoZycdo7i08f8ejf(K. P.), Reflections of a Russian Statesman. [Eng. Tiaiis 1 London
1898. '
PopoiDski (J.), The Rival Powers in Central Asia. 8. London, 1893.
Ranibaiid (Alfred), Histoire de la Russie jusqu'au I'annee 1884. 3rd edition. I'aris
[Of tills there is an English translation. 3 vols. S. Loudon].
3 K
978
RUSSIA
Beclus (Elisee), Geograjihie Tiniverselle. Tome V. L'Euvope Scandinave et Eusse,
revised to date in 1885. VI. L'Asie Russe. Paris, 1880-81. And Appendix to the Russian
translation, by MM. Beketoff, Bogdanoff, Woeikoff, and others. St. Petersburg, 1884.
Rottgcr (CarlX Russische Revue. Monatsschrift fllr die Kunde Russlands. 8. St,
Petersburg, 1872'-92.
Roskoschny, Russland, Land und Leute. Leipzig, 1886 ; Die Wolga. Leipzig, 1887.
' Russkiy Kalendar,' published in December each year.
Samson-Hivimelstierna, Russia under Alexander IIL [Translation from the German.]
8. London, 1893.
Schuyler (Eugene), Turkestan : Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkestan, Khokand,
Bukhara, and Kuldja. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
Selvov (Semen), Lettres Russes. [On Social Subjects.] Paris, 1891.
SemenoffCS. P.), The Emancipation of Peasants. Vol. I. St. Petersburg, 1889.
Semenof (P. P.), Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire.
(Russian.) 5 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-84.
Sierochevsl-y (V. A.), Description of Ethnographical Researches. Edited by N. E.
Vesilofsky. St. Petersburg, 1896.
Simpson (J. Y.), Side- Lights on Siberia. Edinburgh, 1898.
Slantieff, Rgview of Hunts for Trade in Russia. Edited by Dep. of Agriculture (2
maps). St. Petersburg, 1891.
Stchapof (A.), The Intellectual Development of the Russian People. (Russian.) 8. St.
Petersburg, 1870.
S<e237Mafc(E.), King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia. 2 vols. London 1896.
Stoddard (C. A.), Across Russia from the Baltic to the Danube. 8. London, 1892.
Strelbitzky (M.), Superficies de I'Europe. St. Petersburg, 1882.
Suvorin(A.), All Russia: a Directory of Industries, Agriculture, and Administration.
(With a good Railway map.) St. Petersburg, 1895. (Russian.)
r/iO)7ij)son (H. M.), Russian Politics London 1895.
Thun, Industrie Central-Russlands
Tifc/iomM-otJ (L. A.), Russia Political and Social. [Translation from the French.] 2nd
edition. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892.
Tweedie (Mr. A.), Through Finland in Carts. London, 1897.
Verstraete (M.), La Russie Industrielle. [Nijiii-Novgorod Exhibition]. Paris, 1897.
Wakefield (G.C.), Future Trade in the Far East. 8. London, 1890.
Waliszewski (K.), Peter the Great. [Eng. Trans.) 2 vols. London, 1897.
Wi7idt (H. de). The New Siberia. [Sakhalin and Eastern Siberia]. London, 1896
Wallace (Mackenzie), Russia. 2 vols. 8. I^ondon, 1877.
Wishaw (F. J.), Out of Doors in Tsarland. S. London, 1893.
Yadrinfsev, Siberia as a Colony. Second edition. St. Petersburg, 1892. (Russian.)
Yanson, Comparative Statistics. Vol. II. St. Petersburg, 1880. Researches into the
Allotments of Peasants. St. Petersburg, 1882. (Russian.)
Zalewski, Historical Development of the Seivitudes, &c., in the Kingdom of Poland.
Warsaw. 1880.
Zhitkoff (S. M.), Short Revrew of Russia's Water-communications. Published by the
Engineering Institute. St. Petersburg, 1892. With maps. (Russian.)
The Jeivs in littssia: —
Report of the Commissioners of Immigration upon the causes which incite immigration
to the United States. [The chapters on the Jews in Russia, by J. B. Weber and W.
Kempster, have been translated into French and issued separately under the title ' La
Situation des Juifs en Russie. 'J 8. Washington, 1892.
Les Juifs de Russie. Recueil d'articles et d'etudes. 8. Paris, 1891.
Bershadsky (S.A.), The Lithuanian Jews. [In Russian.] St, Petersburg, 1883.
Materials for the History of the Jews in Lithuania. [In Russian.] 2 vols. St. Peters-
burg, 1802.
Errera (A.), The Jews in Russia : Emancipation or Extermination. 8. London, 1894.
Frederic (Harold), The New Exodus : a Study of Israel in Russia. 8. London, 1892.
Gradovsky (H. D.), La Situation legale des Israelites in Russie. Traduit du Russe. 8.
Paris, 1890. In progress.
Novikor (Theodor), Das Jiiddische Russland. 8. Berlin, 1892.
Pennell (Joseph), The Jew at Home. 4. London.
Sternherg (H.), Geschichte der Juden in Polen unter den Piasten und den Jagellionen.
8. Leipsic, 1878.
979
SALVADOR.
(Republica del Salvador.)
Constitution and Government.
In 1853 the Central American Federation, which had comprised the States of
Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Kica, was dissolved,
and Salvador became an independent Republic. The Constitution, proclaimed
in 1864, and modified in 1880, 1883, and 1886, vests the legislative power
in a Congress of 70 Deputies, 42 of whom are proprietors. The election is
for one year, and by universal suffrage. The executive is in the hands of
a President, whose tenure of office is limited to four years.
President of the Republic. — General Rafael Antonio Gutierrez, March I,
1895 — 1899. In November, 1898, however, General Tomas Reglado made
himself Dictator, demanding to be recognised as President.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are carried on, under the
President, by a ministry of four members, having charge of the departments
of : — The Exterior, Justice, Worship, and Instruction ; War and Marine ;
Interior and Government ; Finance, Fomento, and Beneficence.
The three Republics of Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, by treaty
ratified September 15, 1896, for the purposes of foreign affairs, constituted
themselves as the Republica Major de Centro-America. But in November,
1898, it was announced that this confederation had collapsed.
The army numbers 4,000 men, and the militia 18,000. There is one
custom-house cruiser.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 7,225 English square miles,
divided into 14 dex^artments. The population, according to a census of
January 1, 1886, was 651,130 (318,329 males and 332,801 females), giving
an average of 89 inhabitants to the square mile, being twenty times that of the
average of the other States of Central America. An official estimate for the
end of 1894 makes the population 803,534. Aboriginal and mixed races con-
stitute the bulk of the population, among whom live about 20,000 whites
or descendants of Europeans. The capital is San Salvador, with 25,000
inhabitants. The city in 1854 was overwhelmed by volcanic disturbances,
and most of the inhabitants erected new dwellings on a neighbouring site,
at present called Nueva San Salvador. The new capital suffered similarly
in 1873, and again in 1879.
Instruction and Justice.
Education is free and obligatory. In 1S93 there were in Salvador 585
primary schools, with 29,427 pupils ; 18 higher schools (including 2 normal
and 3 technical schools) with 1,200 pupils; and a national university
with faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, natural sciences, and engineering,
attended by 180 students.
In the capital is a national library and museum, and in the Republic 13
newspapers are published.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, by several sub-
ordinate courts, and by local justices.
980
SALVADOR
Finance.
The following are the official figures of the revenue and ex|»enditure for
five years : —
—
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
Revpiiuo ....
Expenditure . . .
Dollars
4,151,457
5,442,315
Dollars
7,454,418
7,447,828
Dollars
6,895,703
6,784,529
Dollars
7,133,000
7,153,000
Dollars
8,818,000
8,569,000
For 1896 the estimated revenue was 10,174,000 dollars, and expenditure
9,745,000 dollars. The chief sources of revenue were import duties, 5,144,000
dollars; and brandy excise, 2,524,000 dollars. The expenditure comprised
the Finance Ministry, 2,845,000 dollars ; War, 1,908,000 dollars; Interior,
1,487,000 dollars ; Public Works, 1,417,000 dollars.
In March, 1896, the internal debt was put at 8,000,000 dollars, and the
external debt at 254,000Z. sterling. The London Works Company, Limited,
has undertaken the annortisation of the external debt.
Production and Commerce.
The population of Salvador is largely engaged in agriculture. The chief
produce is : — Coffee, indigo, sugar, tobacco. The mineral wealth of the
Republic includes gold, silver, copper, iron, mercury. The mines and quarries
in operation number 180.
The imports subject to duty and exports have been as follows for five
years : —
— 1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Dollars
Imports . . 2,320,941
Exports . . , 6,838,259
Dollars
1,853,996
7,511,068
Dollars
2,171,000
6,611,000
Dollars
2,890,739
13,847,625
Dollars
3,347,718
7,485,384
The trade is chiefly with the United States, Great Britain, Germany and
France. In 1896 the chief imports Avere cottons, 961,554 pesos; spirits,
371,205 ; iron goods, 183,616 ; flour, 132,438 ; silk goods and yarn, 142,389 ;
coin, 119,199. The chief exports were coff'ee, 5,857,646 pesos (in 1895,
11,754,795 pesos); tobacco, 274,268; indigo, 979,990; balsams, 92,659;
coin, 187,688.
The trade of the United Kingdom with Salvador (according to the Board
of Triide Returns) in five years was : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into U.K. from
Salvador .
Exports of British pro-
duce to Salvador
£
240,336
162,992
£ £
166,674 203,319
278,265 418,318
£
160,408
386,107
£
154,589
262,274
In 1897 the imports into the United Kingdom from Salvador included :-
Coffee, 100,023/. ; dye-stuffs, 53,636Z, Among the exports to Salvador were :-
Cottons, 141,522/. ; cotton yarn, 5,190/. ; iron, 38,399/. ; woollens, 17,745/.
SHIPPING AN1> COiMMUNlCATIOXS 981
Shipping and Communications.
Ill 1896, 338 vessels entered at tlic ports of the Republic, and as many
cleared.
A railway connects the port of Acajutla with the inland towns of Santa
Anna and Ateos Avith San Tecla ; total length, 72 miles. Other railways are
being constructed. There are over 2,000 miles of good road in the Republic.
Salvador joined the postal union in 1879. In 1893 there were 73 principal
receiving offices, and 2,114,785 letters and packets were transmitted. In 1896
there were in Salvador 121 telegraph stations and 1,724 miles of telegraph
wire. There were 660,682 messages transmitted. There are 18 telephone
offices and 597 miles of telephone line.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 centavos, approximate value is., real value 6|
dollars = 1 ^.
In August, 1S97, a law was passed adopting the gold standard.
Weights and Measures,
Libra . . = 1 '014 lb. av.
Qidntal. . = 101*40 lbs. av.
Arroha . . = 25 '35 lb. av.
Fanega . . = 1^ bushel.
In 1885 the metrical system of weights and measures was introduced
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Salvador in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Crisanto Medina.
Secretary of Legation. — T. M. Torres.
Consul -General and Agent. — L, Alexander Campbell.
There are consular agents at London, Falmouth, Southampton, Manchester,
Nottingham, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow.
2. Of Great Britain in Salvador.
Minister and Consul-General, — G. F. B. Jenner.
Consul— ^N. E. Coldwell.
Vice-Consuls at San Miguel and Acajutla.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Salvador.
Constitucion politica de la Republica del Salvador decretada por el Congreso Nacional
Coustituyente el 4 de Diciembre de 18S3.
Directorio Postal de la Republica del Salvador, formado por la direccion General de
Correos. San Salvador, 1896.
Leyes, Ordenes y Resoluciones de los Poderes Legislatives y Ejecutivos en 1889. 8.
San Salvador, 1892.
American Consular Reports for February, August, September, and October, 1893
Washington.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom. Imp. 4. Loudon.
Salvador. No. 58 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of the American Republics. Washing-
ton, 1892.
Gonzalez {Dr. D.), Gcografia de Centro-America. San Salvador, 1S7S.
982 SAMOA
Guzman (D.), Apuntamientos sobre la topografia fisica de la rep. del Salvador. San
Salvador, 1S83.
Laferriere (J.). De Paris a Guatemala, 8. Paris, 1877.
Mar?- (Wilhelin), Reise nacli Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans rAineri(iue centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Reyes (Rafael). Nociones de historia del Salvador. San Salvador, 1880.
Scherzer (Karl Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Preistaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras und Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Sgu«er(E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
SAMOA
(Or Nan^igator Islands).
Reigning King. — Mataafa, recognised as (provisionally) King in succession
to Malietoa Laupepa, who died August 22, 1898. The Chief Justice of Samoa
had declared Malietoa Tauu elected King, but this claimant was overthrown
in battle in January, 1899.
Group of 14 volcanic islands in the South Pacific (about 14° S. and 172° W.),
the chief of which areSavaii, Upolu, and Tutuila. At a Samoan conference at
Berlin in 1889, at which Great Britain, German}^ and the United States were re-
presented, an Act was signed(June 14) guaranteeing the neutrality of the islands
in which the citizens of the three signatory Powers have equal rights of residence,
trade, and personal protection. The three Powers recognise the independence
of the Samoan Government, and the free rights of the natives to elect their
chief or king, and choose the form of government according to their own laws
and customs. A supreme court is established, consisting of one judge, who
is styled Chief Justice of Samoa. To this Court are referred (1) all civil suits
concerning real property situated in Samoa ; (2) all civil suits of any kind be-
tween natives and foreigners, or betw^een foreigners of different nationalities ;
(3) all crimes and offences committed by natives against foreigners, or com-
mitted hy such foreigners as are not subject to any consular jurisdiction.
All future alienation of lands is prohibited, with certain sj)ecified excep-
tions. A local administration is provided for the municij)al district of Apia.
Apia, the only town, in the island of Ui)olu is the capital and centre of
government.
Area, 1,701 square miles ; population, about 34,000, of which 16,600 in
Upolu, 12,500 in Savaii, 3,750 in Tutuila. The natives are Polynesians.
There were in 1895, 203 British subjects, about 120 Germans, 26 Americans,
26 French, 25 of other nationalities. The natives are all nominally
Cliristians (Protestant, Roman Catholic, or Mormon), but the belief in the
personal agency of devils is almost universal. Schools are attached to the
churches. In 1894 the commission appointed to investigate titles to land
alleged to have been purchased from the natives completed its labours.
The commission confirmed to Germans about 75,000 acres, to British 36,000,
and to Americans 21,000, but nuich land has since changed hands. Revenue
from taxes and customs duties in 1894 7,076Z. The taxes till recently have
bsen all contributed by the white residents. In 1898 an attempt was made
to collect the native capitation tax of 4s. per head, with what result is not yet
(August, 1898) known. The trade is in the hands of German, British and
American firms. Imports, 1896, 60,831/. (37,100/. from British Empire);
1897, 65,926/. (34,754/ from British Empire); exports, 1896, 52,729/.;
1897, 47,839/. (5,405/. to British Empire). Chief imports, haberdashery,
kerosene, lumber, galvanised roofing, tinned provisions, and salt beef ; only
SANTO DOMINGO 983
export, copra. During 1892 many acres were planted with cacao, with a view
to export, and the prices obtained in 1898 were good. In 1897, 77 vessels of
81,736 tons (41,527 tons British, 31,729 tons American, and 1,266 tons
German), excluding men-of-war and coasting vessels, entered the port of
Apia. The mail steamers between Sydney, Auckland, and San Francisco
call at Apia each way every four weeks, and the Union Steamship Company
of New Zealand send two steamers monthly, one from Sydney and one from
Auckland. New Zealand is reached in five days, Sydney in eight.
The Berlin Treaty made the American coinage the standard of exchange in
Samoa, but English gold and silver are almost exclusively in circulation at the
rate of 4.s'. to the dollar.
Consul and Deputy Commissioner. — P]rnest G. B. Maxse.
Books of Reference.
Blue Book for Samoa, 1895.
Foreign Office Annual Series. Report on the Trade of Samoa, lSft7.
Papers on Samoa, published by the United States Foreign Office.
Report of the Berlin Conference relating to Samoa. London, 1890.
Bastian (Adolf), Einiges aus Samoa und andern Inseln der Slidsee. 8. Berlin, 1889.
Churchward {\N. B.), My Consulate in Samoa. 8. London, 1887.
Finlaij's South Pacilic Dictionary.
Stair (J. B.), Old Samoa. London, 1897.
Stevenson (R. L.), A Footnote to History : Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. 8.
London, 1892. Vailima Letters. London, 1895.
Turner (Rev. G.), Nineteen Years in Polynesia. London, 1884. Samoa a Hundred
Years Ago and Long Before. 8. London, 1894.
Wallace (A. R.), Australasia.
Williams (Rev. J.), Missionary Enterprise in the South Sea Islands.
SANTO DOMINGO.
(Republica Dominicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Santo Domingo, founded in 1844, is governed under a Con-
stitution bearing date November 18, 1844, re-proclaimed, with changes,
November 14, 1865 (after a revolution which expelled the troops of Spain,
who held possession of the country for the two previous years), and again in
1879, 1880, 1881, and 1887. By the terms of the Constitution the legislative
power of the Republic is vested in a National Congress of 22 deputies. The
members are chosen by direct popular vote, with restricted suffrage, in the
ratio of two for each province and two for each district, for the term of two
years. But the powers of the National Congress only embrace the general
affairs of the Republic.
The executive of the Republic is vested in a President chosen by an
electoral college for the term of four years. During the past few years,
according to the British Consular Reports, the country has been going on
prosperously, and become comparatively quiet.
President of the Republic. — General Ulisses Heureaux, 1897-1900.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are in charge of a ministry
appointed by the President. The Ministry is composed of the heads of the
984 SANTO DOMINGO
departments of the Interior and Police, Finance and Commerce, Justice and
Public Instruction, War and Marine, Public Works and Foreign Affairs.
Each province and district is administered by a governor appointed by
the President. The various communes, cantons, and sections are presided
over by jn-efects or magistrates appointed by the governors. The communes
have municipal corporations elected by the inhabitants.
Area and Population.
The area of Santo Domingo, which embraces the eastern portion of the
island of Haiti — the western division forming the Republic of Haiti — is
estimated at 18,045 English square miles, with a population in 1888 otiicially
estimated at 610,000 inliabitants, or about 34 to the square mile.
The Republic is divided into six provinces and five maritime districts.
The population, unlike that of the neighbouring Haiti, is mainly composed of
a mixed race of the original Spanish inhabitants and the aborigines, of
mulattoes and of negroes, the latter being less in number ; the whites, or
European-descended inhabitants, are comparatively numerous, and owing to
their influence the Spanish language prevails, though in the towns both
French and English are spoken. The capital of Santo Domingo, founded
1494, at the mouth of the river Ozama, has (1892) 14,150 inhabitants;
Puerto Plata, the chief port, has 4,500 inhabitants.
Many immigrants have recently arrived from Cuba, and are encouraged to
settle on the land.
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, other forms of religion being
permitted under certain restrictions. There are 54 parishes.
Primary instruction is gratuitous and obligatory, being supported by the
communes and by central aid. The public or state schools are primary,
superior, technical schools, normal schools, and a professional school with
the character of a university. On December 31, 1884, when the last school
census was taken, there were 201 municipal schools for primary instruction,
with 7,708 pupils. It is estimated that there are now 300 schools with about
10,000 pupils.
There are several literary societies in the capital and other towns ; and in
the Republic there are pul)lishcd about 40 newspapers.
Justice.
The chief judicial power resides in the Supreme Court of Justice, which
consists of a president and 4 justices chosen by Congress, and 1 (ministro fiscal)
appointed by the executive — all these appointments being only for the presi-
dential period. The territory of the Repuldic is divided into 11 judicial
districts, each having its own tribunal or court of first instance, and these
districts are subdivided into communes, each w ith a local justice (alcalde), a
secretary and baililf (alguacil).
Finance.
The revenue, derived mainly from customs duties on imports and exports
amounted, in 1892, to 652,500 dollars gold: in 1893, 1,115,500 dollars;
in 1894, 1,378,450 dollars; in 1895, 1,382,500 dollars; in 1896,
1,545,450 dollars ; in 1897, 1,601,294 dollars. The expenditure in 1895
amounted to 1,351,250 dollars gold. In 1897 the foreign debt of the
Republic was converted into a new Unified Loan of 4,236,750/., consisting of
2,736,750/. in 2^^^ per cent, bonds and 1,500,000/. in 4 per cent, bonds.
Both classes of bonds are secured on customs duties and specially assigned
rOMMEUCE — SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS 985
vcvenues, the collection of which is vested in a Regie, controlled hy the Santo
Domingo Improvement Company of New York.
Defence.
There is a small arm}* of infantry, cavalry, and artiller}', a regiment being
stationed in the capital of each province. There are also reserve corps, and
universal liability to serve in case of foreign war. The naval force consists
of three small gunboats.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area, about 15, 500 square miles is cultivable. Tobacco culture
is declining, while the production of coffee, cocoa, and bananas, as well as of
cane-sugar, is on the increase ; American capital to a considerable amount has
recently been invested in banana-growing land, and .some attention has
recently been given to cattle-raising and dairy produce ; the principal in-
dustries are connected with agriculture and forestry. Large sugar plantations
and factories are in full work in the south and west of the Republic. Iron,
gold, copper, coal, salt, and other minerals are found, but tliere is no mining
industry.
Commerce.
The commerce of the Repulilic is small, owing in part to customs duties
of a prohibitory character. The principal articles of export in their order of
value are tobacco, coffee, cocoa, sugar, mahogany, logwood, hides, goatskins,
and honey.
In 1896 the imports were estimated at the value of 375,000Z., and the
exports at 557,000/. Of the value imported about 45 per cent, came from
the United States, 12 per cent, from the Danish West Indies, 11 per cent,
from Great Britain and British possessions, 8 per cent, from Spain and
Spanish possessions, 7 per cent, from Germany. 7 per cent, from France, and
the remainder from Belgium, the Dutch AVest Indies, Italy, and other
countries. Of the exports the most important were sugar, 86,866,240 lbs. ;
tobacco, 6,332,148 lbs. ; cocoa, 4,308,820 lbs. ; colfee,2,437,400 lbs. ; sugar-
cane honey, 1,777,120 gallons; divi-divi, 1,304,930 lbs.; mahogany,
264,254 ft. ; other woods, 14,740 tons.
In the 'Annual Statement of the Board of Trade,' the exports to and
imports from Great Britain are added to those of Haiti.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1896, 90 steamers and 53 sailing vessels entered the port of Santo
Domingo.
The interior is not well supplied with roads. A railway is completed be-
tween Sanchez on the Bay of Samana and La Vega (62 miles), and is being
carried on to Santiago, and another line is contemplated between I5arahona
and the salt mountain of ' Cerro de Sal.' Total length open, 116 miles.
The Republic entered the Postal Union in 1880. In 1896 there were in
the Republic 23 post offices. The inland letters, printed packets, &c.,
nunibered 333,908 ; and the international 214,092.
The telegraph, in the hands of the Antilles Telegraphic Company, is in
operation between Santo Domingo, Puerto Plata, and Santiago, from Santiago
to Monte Cristi, and along the railway from Sanchez to La Vega ; total length,
over 430 miles. Several other inland lines are in project. The foreign
telegraphic system in operation is that of the French Submarine Telegraphic
Company.
986 SANTO DOMINGO
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The National Bank, in return for cash advances made to the government
has the privilege of selling government stamped paper and postage stamps,
and of collecting 5 per cent, tax on import duties. Its notes circulate freely.
On July 1st, 1894, the silver standard based on the Mexican dollar was
abandoned, and the United States gold dollar was adopted as the standard,
but no national money has yet (September, 1896) been coined in accordance
with this law. To discourage the export of silver, an export duty of three
dollars gold per hundred dollars of silver coin has been established.
Quintal = 4 arrobes:=100 lbs. (of 16 oz ):=46 kilograms.
For liquids the arrobe = 32 cuartilles = 25-498 litres = 4 110 gallons.
The metrical system is coming into use-.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Santo Domingo in Great Britain.
Consul- General. — Miguel Ventura ; appointed July 20, 1876.
There are consular representatives at Cardiff', Glasgow, Leeds, Manchester,
Nottingham.
2. Of Great Britain in Santo Domingo.
Vicc-Consul. — Arthur Tweedy.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Santo
Domingo.
1. Official Publications.
La Republique Doiiiinicaine. Par Francisco Alvarez Leal. Paris, 1888.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
Santo Domingo. Bulletin No. 52 of tlie Bureau of the American Republics. Washington,
1892.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom.' Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abad (Jose Ramon), La Republica Dominicana, rescna general geografico-estadistica. 8.
Santo Domingo, 1889.
Garcia (Jose Gabriel), Compendio de la historia de Santo Domingo, escrito para el uso de
as escuelas de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo, 1879.
JlazartZ (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present; witli a Glance at Haiti. S. ]>p.
511. London, 1873.
Jordan (Wilhelm), Geschichte der Insel Haiti. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1849.
Keim (D. B. Randolph), Santo Domingo. Pen Pictures and Leaves of Travel. 12.
Philadelphia, 1871.
Merino (Padie), Elementos de geografia fisica, pohtica e historica de la Republica Do-
minicana. Santo Domingo, 1889.
Monte y Tejada (Antonio), Historia de Santo Domingo, desde su descubrimiento hasta
nucstros dias. Tomo I. (all published). 8. Habana, 1853.
Report of Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders. Appendix for l,v94.
London, 1895.
Saint Memi, Vie dc Toussaint Louverture. 8. Paris, 1850.
SERVIA.
(Kraljevina Srbiya.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Alexander I., King of Servia, born August 14 (new style),
1876 ; son of Milan I., King of Servia, born August 22, 1854,
the son of Milos Obrenovic, grandson of Yefreni, half-brother of
Prince Milos. King Milan succeeded to the throne as Prince
Milan Obrenovic IV., confirmed by the election of the Servian
National Assembly, after the assassination of his uncle. Prince
Michail Obrenovic III., June 10, 1868 ; was proclaimed King
March 6, 1882; married October 17, 1875, to Natalie, born
1859, daughter of Colonel Keschko, of the Russian Imperial
Army; divorced October 24, 1888. King Milan abdicated
March 6, 1889, and proclaimed his son Alexander King of Servia,
under a regency until he should attain his majority (18 years).
King Alexander, on April 13, 1893, being then in his seventeenth
year, took the royal authority into his own hands.
The present ruler of Servia is the fifth of his dynasty, which
was founded by Milos Todorovic Obrenovic, leader of the Ser-
vians in the war of insurrection to throw off the yoke of Turkey,
which had lasted since 1459. The war lasted from 1815 to 1829,
when the Turkish Government was compelled to grant virtual
independence to Servia. By the terms of the treaty, signed
September 14, 1829, Milos T. Obrenovic was acknowledged
Prince of Servia, and by a subsequent Firman of the Sultan dated
August 15, 1830, the dignity was made hereditary in his family.
The independence of Servia from Turkey was established by
article 34 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, and was
solemnly proclaimed by Prince (afterwards King) Milan at his
capital, August 22, 1878. The King's civil list amounts to
1,200,000 dinars.
Constitution and Government.
By the Constitution voted by the Great National Assembly January 2,
1889 (December 22, 1888, old style), and signed by the King on the 3rd, the
executive power is vested in the King, assisted by a council of eight JSIinisters,
who are, individually and collectively, responsible to the nation. The legis-
lative authority is exercised by the King, in conjunction with the National
Assembly, or ' Narodna-Skupshtina.' The State Council, or Senate, consists
of 16 members, 8 nominated by the King, and 8 chosen by the Assembly ; it
examines and elaborates the projects of laws, and authorises extraordinary
loans for the municipalities. This body is always sitting. The ordinary
National Assembly is composed of deputies elected by the peojtle, indirectly
and by ballot. Each county can elect one depiity to every 4,500 tax-2>aying
males, but should the sur[)lus be over 3,000, this number is also entitled to a
deputy. The voting is Ity scridin dc listc. Each county must \)f represented
by at least two deputies holiling University degrees, and are called the qualified
deputies. Every male Servian 21 years of age, paying 15 dinars in direct
taxes, is entitled to vote ; and every Servian of 30 years, paying 30 dinars in
direct taxes, is eligible to the ordinary National Assciii])ly. The onlinary
Assembly meets each year on November 1, and elections take place every thinl
988
SERVIA
year on September 14. There is also a Great National Asseralily, which meets
when it is necessary. The number of its representatives is double the number
fixed for the ordinary Skupshtina, and the restriction as to University degrees
does not apply. The deputies receive travelling expenses and a salary
of 10 dinars a day. Personal liberty, liberty of the press and conscience are
guaranteed. The legal Constitution having l^een suspended in 1894 by the
King, and the Constitution of 1869 provisionally put in force, a special Com-
mission of leading members of the several political parties is to be called by
the King to draft a new Constitution in accordance with the wishes of the
nation.
Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs. — M. Yladan Georgevitch.
The other ministries are for the Interior, War, Finance, Public Works,
Commerce, Instruction, Justice.
Counties, districts, and municipalities have their own administrative
assemblies. For administrative purposes, according to the new Constitution,
Servia is divided into 15 provinces or counties, 1,290 communes, which
include 4,029 villages and 74 towns or cities.
Area and Population.
The area of the Kingdom of Servia amounts to 19,050 square miles. From
the administrative point of view Servia is divided into 15 provinces, the
capital, Belgrade, and Nisch city, wdiich have their own administration.
The following table shows the area and population of the provinces
according to the census of December 31, 1895
Population
Okrug
Area in
Total
Pop. per
(Province)
sq. ui.
Male
Female
sq. m.
Belgrade City
4
34,455
24,660
59,115
14,725
Valyevo
1,121
62,383
59,328
121,711
109
Vranya
1,620
83,241
78,948
162,189
100
Kraguyevatz .
927
75,933
72,502
148,435
160
Kraina
1,257
47,706
46,244
93,950
74
Kruzhevatz ,
1,256
81,850
78,753
160,603
128
Pirot .
1,214
64,500
61,760
126,260
104
Podrinye
1,300
96,493
93,076
189,569
146
Pozarevatz
1,404
111,409
106,922
218,331
155
Rudnik
2,056
81,994
78,703
160,697
78
Toplitza
1,400
69,357
64,360
133,717
95
Ujitze .
1,676
72,954
72,581
145,535
87
Tzrna Reka .
555
38,060
36,023
74,083
134
Morava
1,200
89,325
85,087
174,412
145
Podunavlye(Danul)e)
1,246
114,441
109,823
224,264
180
Timok .
810
50,254
48,303
98,557
121
Nisch City .
Total .
4
12,239
8,817
21,056
5,262
19,050
1,186,594
1,125,890
2,312,484
121-9
In 1895, 308,673, or 13-3 per cent., lived in towns, and 2,003,811 lived
in the country ; 2,217,393 were born in Servia, and 95,091 in other countries ;
2,083,482 spoke Servian, and 229,002 spoke other languages ; 1,926,494
Avere dependent on agriculture, and 385,990 on other occupations. As to
race, in 1895 there were 2,083,482 Servians (who, according to language, are
Slavonic by ra(^e) ; other Slavs, 3,731 ; 159,510 Roumanians, 46,212 Gipsies,
6,437 Germans, 5,048 Jews, 1,962 Hungarians, and 6,102 others
RELIGION — INSTIIUCTION
989
The principal towns are : Belgrade (the capital) with 59,494 inhabitants ;
Nisch, 21,524 ; Kragouyovatz, 13,870 ; Leskovatz, 13,165 ; Pozarevatz,
11,699 ; Pirot, 9,920 ; Shabatz, 11,689 ; Vranya, 11,553 ; Smederevo, 7,027 ;
Ujitze, 6,618; Valyevo, 6,712; Krouzhevatz, 6,946; Zaichar, 7,234;
Alexinatz, 5,488.
Movement of Population.
^^^^ ing Births
Illegiti-
mate living
Stillborn
Marriages
Deaths
Suri)lus
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
95,232
96,488
101,676
96,752
101,605
953
1,032
946
746
__
23,679
24,963
20,599
20,841
21,157
66,568
63,766
62,184
63,399
63,237
28,664
32,722
39,492
33,353
38,368
There are no trustworthy statistics of emigration and immigiation. For
1894 the nuinber of immigrants is given as 840.
Religion.
The State religion of Servia is Greek-orthodox. According to the census of
1891 there were of the total population : — Greek-orthodox, 2,127,744 ; Roman
Catholics, 11,596; Protestants, 1,149 ; Jews, 4,652 ; Mohammedans, 16,764.
To the last belong, besides the Arnauts and Turks, almost all the gipsies. 1 n
1895, 2,281,018 belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church, and 31,466
belonged to other professions.
The Church is governed by the Synod of Bishops, the Archbishop of
Belgrade as Metropolitan of Servia being president, but all the ecclesiastical
officials are under the control of the Minister of Education and Public
Worship. There is unrestricted liberty of conscience.
Instruction.
Elementary education in Servia is compulsory, and, in all the schools under
the Ministry of Education, including the University, education is free. In
the year 1893-94 the numbers of these schools, and of their teaching staff and
pupils, were as follows : —
Elementary Schools
iliddle Schools :
Lower Gymnasiums .
Hij^her ,,
Technical Schools
High School for Girls.
Normal Schools .
Theological Seminary
Total of Middle Sch.
University :
Philosophical Faculty
Jurisjirudence .
Technical .
Total of University .
The school attendance was, however, considerably less than that indicated
in the table, over 16 per cent, of the children at the elementuiy schools, and
990
SERVIA
about 12 per cent, of the pupils at the middle schools having discontinued
attendance before the end of the year. Of the elementary schools only 63
were girls' schools, but in the villages the girls are taught with the boys. Of
the female teachers, 362 were engaged in boys' schools. On the average there
is in Servia one elementary school for every 2,500 inhabitants, and one en-
rolled pupil for every 31 inhabitants, there being one boy enrolled for every
19 of the male population, and one girl for every 100 of the female population.
Other Government schools are : the Military Academy, the Commercial
School, the School of Wine Culture, the Agricultural School, and the Cadastral
School. There are also several private schools, elementary and other, and an
orphanage supported by voluntary contributions.
The cost of the elementary schools is defrayed partly by the State and
partly by the municipalities, the State paying the teachers' salaries and the
municipalities providing for all other expenditure. The cost of the other
public schools is borne entirely by the State. For the year 1894 the expendi-
ture was as follows : —
Dinars.
Elementary schools, expenditure by the State .... 1,8(38,916
,, ,, ,, from Coinrauual Kates . . 890,428
Total
Middle Schools, Expenditure by the State
University ,, ,,
2,759,344
1,138 216
264,412
Total 4,161,972
In 1874 only 4 per cent, of the population could read and write ; in 1884,
10 per cent. ; in 1890, 14 per cent. In 1895, 321,222 could read and write,
and 1,991,262 were illiterate — that is 14 per cent, could read and write, but
this assigns young children to the illiterates.
There is in Belgrade a national library and museum, and a national theatre
subventioned by the State.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
The judges are appointed by the king. According to the Constitution they
cannot be removed against their will, but in consequence of the suspension
of the Constitution on May 9, 1894, their irremovability has ceased. There
are 23 courts of first instance in Servia, a court of a]>peal, a court of cassation,
and a tribunal of commerce. In all the courts of lirst instance there were in
1890 5,230 criminal cases with 8,464 accused persons ; in 1894 there were
8,455 criminal cases with 12,595 criminals. Of these 3585 were condemned.
There is no pauperism in Servia in the sense in which it is understood in
the West ; the poorest have some sort of freehold property. There are a few
poor people in Belgrade, but neither their property nor their number has
necessitated an institution like a workhouse. There is a free town hospital.
Finance.
For five years the State revenue and expenditure were estimated as follows: —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Dinars
Dinars
1891
57,527,084
57,527,084
1892
60,135,840
60,107,472
1893
70,076,902
72,205,800
1894
59,220,034
64,057,973
1895
63,755,600
63,623,868
FINANCE — D\<: F lONCE
991
The estimated revenue for 1896 was 63,059,720 dinars ; and expenditure,
63,355,607 dinars ; for 1897, revenue, Go,(;59,720 ; expenditure, the same.
For 1898 tlio estimates were : —
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes .
Customs .
Excise
Law courts
Monopolies
Domains, posts, tele-
graphs, &c. .
Railway .
Instruction and Sani-
tary Service Funds
Various .
Dinars
22,035,000
6,000,000
3,850,000
2,500,000
19,461,000
3,034,000
6,200,000
660,000
5,084,000
Branches of Expenditure
Total
68,824,500
Civillist .
Interest on public debt
Dotations, kc. .
National Assembly, &c.
General Credits .
Pensions, &c.
Ministries :
Justice .
Foreign Affairs
Finance
War
Instruction
Interior ,
Public AVorks .
Commerce and Agri-
culture
Various
Total
Dinars
1,200,000
20,762,545
436,810
305,816
341,500
2,714,451
1,722,531
1,644,217
8,227,415
15,754,613
2,927,018
3,353,750
4,764,903
3,227,927-
1,439,010
69,822,569
On January 8, 1898, the public debt of Servia amounted to 409,537,500
dinars. Of this amount the greater part consists of the converted loan of
1895, 353,500,000 dinars.
Defence.
There are fortresses at Belgrade, Semendria, Nisch, Schabatz, Kladovo,
Bela Palanka, and Pirot.
In Servia military service is compulsory from the age of 21 years : 2 years
are spent in the army, 8 in the reserve, 10 in the first ban of the
National militia, and 10 in the second ban. There are 5 territorial
divisions in which permanent cadres of troops are maintained as follows : —
4 battalions of inftmtry of the guard ; 1 regiment of infantry of the guard of
2 battalions ; 15 regiments of infantry, each of 2 battalions; 3 regiments of
cavalry, each of 4 squadrons, and 1 regiment of cavalry of the guard of 2
squadrons ; 5 regiments of field artillery, of which 3 consist of 9 and 2 of 6
mounted batteries, each of the 5 having also 3 mountain batteries of 4 guns
and 1 battery of horse artillery of 6 guns ; 1 regiment of 2 batteries of
fortress artillery ; 2 battalions of engineers ; 1 half-battalion of pontooners ;
5 companies of train ; 5 hospitals; 15 magazines with companies of workmen,
&c. The eff'ective force for which provision was made in 1897 was : infantrj',
661 officers and 14,000 men ; cavalry, 101 officers and 1,400 men ; artillery,
270 officers and 4,000 men; engineers, 65 officers and 1,000 men; train,
sanitary troops, &c., 151 officers and 800 men. On mobilisation the active
army and its reserve consist of 5 divisions, each containing : infantry,
16,512 men, in 4 regiments of 4 battalions ; cavalry, 412 men[in 2 squadrons ;
artillery, 1,635 men in 9 battalions, with 6 guns ; engineers, artificers,
sanitary troops, &c., 3,490 men ; the total strength of each division being
thus 22,049 men, and that of the 5 divisions, 110,245 men. Outside the
divisional formations are a brigade of cavalry of 2,759 men, in 3 regiments of
992 SERVIA
4 squadrons, with one mounted battery and 1 munition column ; 416 men of
the body-guard, in 2 squadrons ; mountain artillerv, 1,158 men, in 2
sections of 3 batteries ; special troops, 2,469 men, in 1 regiment of fortress
and 1 park of siege artillery; 1 munition column, &c., with 2,535 men ;
pioneers, 1,565 men; railway troops, miners, telegraphists, &c., 3,934 men —
in all, 14,863 men. In addition to these, there are the depot troops:
infantry, 31,440 men, in 20 battalions ; cavalry, 1,275 men, in 5 squadrons ;
artillery, engineers, and pioneers, 2,928 men — total, 35,643 men. The total
strength of the mobilised regular army and its reserve is thus 160,751 ;
while in the National militia the first ban contains 126,610 men, and
the second ban 66,005 men. The full war strength of Servia is thus
353,366 men.
The State possesses only one steamer, which is used exclusively for
military purposes.
Production and Industry.
Servia is an agricultural country, Avhere almost every peasant cultivates
liis own freehold. The holdings vary in size from 10 to 30 acres mostly. In
1893 the number of proprietors Avas 322,505, or 85*96 per cent, of the heads
of households in Servia. Of the total area (4,830,260 hectares), 1,214,370
hectares Avere under cereals and other farm crops ; 60,990 hectares under
vines ; 104,066 hectares were orchard ; 599,140 hectares meadows and natural
grass ; 484,172 hectares forest ; 244,330 hectares marsh-land, &c. ; 2,123,191
hectares unproductive. Of the area under cereals, 531,806 hectares yielded
2,374,824 metric quintals of maize ; 317,070 hectares, 2,374,824 quintals of
wheat; 92,121 hectares, 548,211 quintals of barley ; 52,820 hectares, 334,479
quintals of rye; 105,965 hectares, 473,766 quintals of oats. Under tobacco
were 1,432 hectares, yielding 14,931 metric quintals ; hemp, 13,432 hectares,
yielding 49,748 metric quintals; flax, 1,825 hectares, yielding 5,611 metric
quintals. The 60,990 hectares under vines jdelded 420,978 metric quintals
of wine, and the 104,066 hectares under orchard yielded 7,330,719 quintals of
plums and 184,727 quintals of other fruits.
Large numbers of cattle, sheep, and pigs are reared and exported. On
January 1st, 1896, there were in Servia 169,928 horses ; 922,899 head
of cattle ; 3,094,206 sheep ; 904,446 pigs; and 525,991 goats.
The national and communal forests are sujiervised by the administrative
authorities. Cask staves are exported to Austria and France in great
quantities.
Servia has considerable mineral resources, im;luding various kinds of coal,
the total production of coal iu 1893 having l)ceu 64,000 tons. Besides coal
there are iron, lead, silver, zinc, quieksilver, antimony, gold, asbestos, copper,
and oil shales. Many concessions have been made to companies and private
persons for working mines, and mining operations are also carried on by the
State.
In 1893 there were 105 mills which ground 50,813,979 kilogrammes of
flour ; 10 breweries which produced 55,205 hectolitres of beer ; and 26 other
factories which turned out goods valued at 2,177,000 francs.
Commerce.
Tli.j following table shows the value of the imports and exports of Servia
for live years : —
COMMERCE
093
Year
Imports
Exports
Transit.
Dinars
Dinars
Dinars
1893
40,922,584
48,910,435
16,349,000
1894
34,881,000
46,023,000
18,037,363
1895
28,239,715
43,390,451
24,868,872
1896
33,447,859
53,385,969
16,844,038
1897
45,313,824
55,939,981
13,801,020
The following table shows the chief imports and exports in two years : —
Agricultural produce and fruits
Animals and animal produce
Colonial produce
Hides, skins, leather, &c .
Cotton gooils, ifec.
Wool and woollen goods .
Foods and drinks
Metals ....
Apparel ....
Pottery, glass, <fec.
Wood and wood-work
Machinery, &c.
The following table show
in thousands of dinars for thr
Imports
Imports
Exports
1S96
1897
1896
Dinars
Dinars.
Dinars
1,217,296
2,153,258
23,426,711
443,407
1,227,453
22,332,812
3,583,674
3,732,605
1,483
2,558,057
4,259,718
2,952,311
0,9l>0,C32
10,495,004
913,449
3,399,992
5,147,462
150,626
532,283
838,551
2,100,614
2,884,928
3,769,247
373,378
2,332,618
3,036,027
11,131
2,024,897
1,925,685
169,721
1,339,245
1,682,612
624,448
1,129,598
1,249,491
34,732
Exports
1897
Dinars
21,624,590
24,587,307
.S, 256,499
1,116,917
101,690
3,712,813
220,201
22,852
321,79}
596,040
15,557
s the value of the trade with different countries
ee years : —
Coimtries
Austria- Hungary
America
Belgium
Bosnia
Bulgaria
Greece
Great Britain
Italy
Germany .
Rumania .
Russia
Turkey
Fran.e
Switzerland
Other countries .
Imports from
1895
Total
16,624
1,163
181
44
111
19
2,435
397
1,929
1,213
1,341
2,087
363
300
33
1896
19,234
1,428
172
38
107
101
4,122
499
3,550
900
402
1,609
607
572
107
1897
28,240 I 33,448
25,501
1,350
201
34
646
199
6,481
548
4,808
618
450
2,947
784
625
122
Exports to
1895
45,314
38,746
451
533
1,617
185
1,421
427
10
43,390
1S96
1897
47,035 • 49,146
107
609
2,508
676
1,989
437
22
3
136
976
3,738
116
1,488
313
17
10
53,386 I 55,940
Accoi'ling to the Board of Trade Returns the exports of produce and
manufactures of the United Kingdom to Scrvia were as follows: in 1893,
3,015Z. ; 1894, 5,924/. ; 1895, 7,411/. ; 1896, 66,302/. ; 1897, 20,155/. The
chief exports in 1897 were : cottons, 10,232/. ; cotton yarn, 4,135/. ; machineiy,
1,936/. There are no direct iniports into the United Kingdom from Bervia.
3 .s
904 SERVIA
Communications.
Servia has (1897) one principal railway line, Belgrade-Nisch-Vranya,
230 miles in length, and several secondary branches ; Nisch-Pirot, Smederevo-
Velika Plana, Lapovo-Kraguyevatz, total 354 miles. Cost of construction up
to 1894 98,955,980 dinars.
Of highways there are 3,495 miles, many of them in a ruinous condition.
Of rivers only those bordering on Servia are navigable, viz. Danube, 198
miles ; Save, 90 miles ; and Drina, 106 miles. The navigation on the
Danube and Save is mostly in the hands of foreign steam companies ; in
1891 a Servian steam company was formed.
There were 2,522 miles of telegraph line and 5,034 miles of wire, with
134 stations, at the end of 1897. In 1897, 137,870 messages were transmitted.
There were 114 ]>ost-othces in 1897. In 1896 10,174,000 letters were
transmitted. The post and telegraph receipts for 1897 amounted to 1,095,000
dinars, and expenditure to 1,529,000 dinars.
Money and Credit.
Public credit is assisted by various monetary establishments, of which, in
1890, there were 43. The xnincipal jdace is occupied by the first privileged
National Bank of the Kingdom of Servia in Belgrade, with the nominal capital
of 20,000,000 dinars, of which 6,500,000 has been jjaid up. It is entitled
to issue bank notes, of Avhich there were on September 30, 1897, 33,361,000
dinars in circulation, with a metallic reserve of 13,928 dinars. Besides
the National Bank there were in 1894 5 bank establishments, 27 bank
associations, and 28 savings-banks.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The nominal value of the money coined from 1868 to the end of 1897
was; gold, 10,000,000 dinars ; silver, 15,600,000 dinars; bronze, 1,934,645
dinars; nickel, 3,200,000 dinars— total, 30,734,645 dinars.
for
franc. In circulation are gold
coins of 5, 2, 1, and 0*5 dinar; bronze of 10 and 5, and nickel of 20, 10,
and 5 [»aras.
The decimal weights and measures (kilogram, metre, &c.) have been in
practical use only since the commencement of 1883.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Servia in Cheat Britain.
Envoi/ and Minister.— Isl. Chedomil Mijatovitch.
Gonsiil-(}cneralfo'- London.— R. W. Christmas.
There is a Con.sular representative in Manchester.
2. Of Great Britain in Servia.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — W. E. Goschen,
appointed July 1, 1898.
Consul. — R. D. G. Macdonald
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF llEFKUENCE 995
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Servia.
1. Official Publications.
Almanac for 1807 (Servian).
Criminal Statistics, 1888-90. Belgrade, 189fi.
Srpske Noviue (Official Gazette).
Statisticki godisnjak Kraljeviue Srbije. (Annuaire Statistiiiue du Royauiiic de Serbic.)
I. 1894. Belgrade, 1896.
Drzavopis Srbije (Servian Statistics). Vols. I. — XXI. Belgrade, 1803-95.
Deiitsches Handels-Archiv for August and November, 1897. Berlin.
Statistike Kraljevine Srbije. (Statistique du Royaumc de Serine.) Vols. I.— IV. Bel-
grade, 1892-95,
Priloxl ze Statlstick Kraljevine Srbije. (Materiaux pour la Statistique du Royauine de
Serbie.) Part I. Belgrade, 1895.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London.
Handbook of the Ajniies of Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, &c. By Captain Fairliolme and
Captain Count Gleichen. London, 1893.
Recensement de la Terre cultivee en 1893. Belgrade, 1897.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Balme (M.), La principaute de Serbie. 8. Paris, 1880.
Boskovitch (St.), La mission de Serbie dans la question d'Orieut. Florence, 1887.
Coquelle (P.), Le Royaume de Serbie. 12. Paris, 1894.
Coiirriere (C), Histoire de la litterature contemporaine clicz les Slaves. Piiris, 1879.
Cuniherti (F.), La Serbia e la dinastia degli Obrenovitch, 1804-93. Torino, 1893.
"For the King and Fatherland" (in Servian), a semi-official publication, relating tlie
historical events of the 1st and 2nd April, 1893.
Gamhier{3. W., Captain, R. V.), Servia. London, 1878.
Gubernatig (Comte A. de), La Serbie et les Serbes. Paris, 1898.
Holland (Thomas Erskine), The European Concert on the Eastern Question. Oxford, 1885.
Jakchich (Vladimir), Recueil statistique sur les contrees serbes. 8. Belgrade, 1875.
J?'anjf^(F.), Serbien : Historisch-ethnographische Reisestudien aus den Jahren 1859-68.
4. Leipzig, 1868.
Karib(V.), Srbija (a description of the country, people, and state, in Servian). Belgrade,
1888.
Laveleye (Emile de), The Balkan Peninsula. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Leger (L.), La Save, le Danube, et le Balkan. Paris, 1884.
Mackenzie (A. Muir), Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey in Europe. 3rd edition.
2 vols. London, 1887.
Mijatovitch (Elodie Lawton), The History of Modern Serbia. 8. London, 1872.
Milichevich (M. G ), Tlie Principality of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1876.
Milichevich (M. G.), The Kingdom of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1884.
Miller (Vf.), The Balkans. In " Story of the Nations" Series. 8. London, 1896.—
Travels and Politics in the Near East. London, 1898.
Millet (Rene), La Serbie economique et coramerciale. Paris, 1889.
Minchin (J. G. C), The Growth of Freedom in the Balkan Peninsula. London, 1886.
Otadgbina (the Fatherland). Servian Monthly Periodical. Edited by Dr. Vladan
Georgevich since 1875.
Pearson (Miss E. M.) and McLaughlin (Miss L. E.), Service in Servia under the Red
Cross. London, 1S77.
lianke (L. von), The History of Servia and the Servian Revolution. London, 1853,
translated by Mrs. Alex. L. Kerr. Die serbische Revolution. Berlin, 1878.
Reinach (J.), La Serbie et le Montenegro. Paris, 1876.
Right (Dr. Alfred), Adventures in Servia. London, 1884.
Salusbury (Pliili]i H. B.), Two months with Tchcrnajcff in Servia. London, 1877.
Taillandier (Saint-Rene), La Serbie au XIXe siecle. Paris, 1872.
Tuma (A.), Serbien. Hannover, 1894.
Vivian (H.), Servia, the Poor Man's Paradise. London, 1897.
Yovanovich (Vladimir), Les Serbes, &c. Paris, 1870.
3 s 2
996
SIAM.
(Sayam, or Muang-Thai.)
Reigning King.
Chulalongkorn I. (Somdetcli Phra Paramindr Maha), born September 21,
1853; the eldest son of the late King, Maha Mongkut, and of Queen Ramphiiy
(Kroni Somdetcli Pratape Sirindr) ; succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, October 1, 1868.
Children of the King.
Children of II. M. the Queeyi.
I, Princess "Walai-alongkorn, born April 1883,
II. Princess Sirapornsophon, born July 9, 1887.
Children of the Second Queen.
I. Prince Chowfa Maha Vajiravudh, January 1, 1880 (proclaimed
Crown Prince January 17, 1895).
II. Prince Chowfa Chakrapongse Poowanarth, March 3, 1881.
III. Prince Chowfa Asadang Dajarvoot, May 1889 ; and others.
Brothers of the King.
I. Somdetcli Chowfa Chaturant Rasmi, born January 14, 1857.
Title : Krom Pra Chakrapatipongse.
II. Somdetcli Cliowfa Bhanurangsi Swangwongse, born January 13,
1860. Title: Krom Pra Bhanupandhwongse Woiadej.
There are also twenty half-brothers of the king.
The royal dignity is nominally hereditary, but does not descend always
from the father to the eldest son, each sovereign being invested with the
privilege of nominating his own successor. The reigning king has reintro-
duced the practice of nominating the Crown Prince, early in his reign. This
step, taken^in 1887, Avill have the effect of increasing the stability and order
of things, and of establishing the reigning dynasty.
Government.
The executive power is exeiv-ised by the King advised by a Cabinet
(Senabodi) consisting of the heads of the various departments of the
Government : Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice, Finance, Public In-
struction, Public Works, War, Marine, Police, &c. Most of the
portfolios are held by the King's half-brothers. The law of May 8, 1874,
constituting a Council of State, has now been superseded by the Royal Decree
of January 10, 1895, creating a Legislative Council. The latter is composed
of the Ministers of State and others, not less than 12 in number, appointed
by the Crown. The total membership is now 43. In the preamble of the
Royal Decree it is stated that the object of this body is to revise, amend, and
complete the legislation of the kingdom. It is to meet at least once a week,
and it may appoint committees of 3 or 4 members, with the addition of
competent outsiders who must not outnuml)cr the members. An important
article gives the Legislative Council power to promulgate laws without the
Royal assent in the event of any temporary disability of the Crown. At
other times the Royal .signature is indisjjensable. This Council has already
shown considerable legislative activity, but it is feared that the power and
determination to enforce the new laws may prove inadequate.
Kcdah, Patani, Kclantan, and Tringganu, in the Malay Peninsula,
AREA AND POPULATION 007
acknowledge the sovereignty of Siam, and send revenues to Bangkok. The
Laos (Shan) States of Chiengniai, Lakuii, Lam[)oonchi, Nan, Free, and others
stand in a similar position towards the (tovcninicnl in I'angkok.
The trans-iNlekong i)ortion of the State of Lnaiig Praliang is now nnih-r
Freneh jiroteetion. The reinaiiuh-r is stiil Siamese.
The Siamese dominions are divided into 11 ))rovinecs or districts, each
having a Commissioner, deriving authority direct from the King, and having
under him subordinate governors over the various parts of his district. Until
1895 the administration of the country was divided 1)etween the Ministers of
the North, South, and Foreign Affairs. It was then brought under the
single authority of Prince Damrong, as Minister of the Interior, under whose
administration great im]»rovenu'nts have been already made, Severai of the
tributary districts are administered by their own ])rinces ; but of late years
centralisation has greatly increased. Commissioners, chosen by the King, are
now regularly sent from Bangkok to these tributary provinces, both to those
in the north, as Chiengmai, and those in the south, as Singora, and others,
with very full powers.
Area and Population.
The limits of the Kingdom of Siam have varied much at different periods
of its history, most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less
independent. The boundary between IJurma and N.W. Siam was delimited
in 1891 by a Coinmission, and, by the treaty of September, 1893, the Kiver
Mekong was constituted the lioumlary between Siam and the French posses-
sions ; on a 25-kilometre strip on the west .side of the river, France is at
liberty to erect stations. The total area, including the country betw'een the
Mekong and the Annam hills, now acknowledged to belong to France, is
estimated at about 300,000 square miles, about 60,000 square miles being in
the Malay Peninsula. In January, 1896, an arrangement was agreed to between
the British and French Governments, by which they guaranteed to Siam
the integrity of the territory embraced in the basins of the Menam, Meklong,
Pechaburi, and Bangpakong rivers, together with the coast from JMuong Bang
Ta])an to Muong Pase, including also the territory lying to the north of the
Menam basin, between the Anglo-Siame.se border, the Mekong river, and the
eastern watershed of the Me Ing. The territory appiopriated by France in
1893-6 covers about 110,000 s(|uare miles, leaving 200,000 sfpiare miles as the
area which remains to Siam. The numbers of the population are still more
imperfectly known than the extent of territory, and the difficulty of any
correct result is the greater on account of the Oriental custom of numbering
only the men. The latest foreign estimates give the population of the Kingdom,
before the French annexation, as follows, in round numbers : — 2,500,000
Siamese; 1,000,000 Chinese; 2,000,000 Laotians; 1,000,000 Malays; im-
migrant Burmese, Indians, and Cambodians bringing the total up to about
8,000,000. The total population of Siam as it now stands may be estimated
at 5,000,000. The Chinese population is, however, rapidly increasing, and
in 1896 was estimated atrbetween 3 and 4 millions. The most populous region
is the Menam valley. Bangkok, the capital, has over 250,000 inhabitants.
Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai', or Muang-ThaT, which means 'free,' or
*the kingdom of the free.' The word Siam is probably identical with Shan,
applied in Burma to the Lao race, as well as to the Shan proper and the Siamese-
In recent years the results of Western civilisation have to some extent
been introduced, and with the assistance of several Belgian lawyers, great
advance has been made in the administration of ju.stice in the native courts
and in the International Court which tries suits of foreigners against natives.
998 SIAM
The Legal Code is now l)eing entirely remodelled h\ a Japanese lawyer. The
Consular Courts exercise jurisdiction over their nationals.
Religion and Instruction.
Education is making slow progi'ess. The capital possesses the following
Government schools : Normal College for training teachers, established 1892,
thirty-one students ; five Anglo-vernacular schools with over 300 pupils ;
five vernacular schools with 480 pupils ; thirty-three aided vernacular
schools with over 2,000 pupils. A new Code, based on the English Code,
has been introduced and is now in use in all the Government and aided
schools. Trained teachers are being graduallylntroduced into the vernacular
schools, and all the schools are now under the control of an English inspector.
The prevailing religion is Buddhism, and throughout the country education is
chiefly in the hands of the priests. In the whole country there are some
4,701 temples, containing 58,293 priests. Of these priests 3,336 are recorded
as being teachers of Siamese, Avith a total of 23,189 pupils. The Siamese
language is now firmly established as the official language over the whole
country. The Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs has
also under his charge several Government hospitals, which have been lately
established by the King, besides a public museum, and all the royal
monasteries in the capital.
Finance.
The revenue of Siam may be roughly estimated at 17,000,000 dollars, of
which the land tax produces about 600,000 ; the tax on fruit trees and market-
gardens, 150,000 ; spirits, 1,800,000 ; opium, 1,500,000 ; gambling,
3,000,000; customs, 1,800,000; fisheries, 100,000; teak, 500,000; tin,
200,000. Besides these there are numerous taxes of less importance, most of
which are farmed. Spirits, opium, and gambling are under exclusive
monopolies. 'With the assistance of an European financial adviser and several
European finance inspectors, the financial administration is undergoing
reform which, if proceeded with, may be expected to lead to a large exten-
sion of the commerce and revenue of the country. There is no public debt,
and the expenditure keeps within the revenue.
Defence.
The standing army does not exceed 5,000 men actually under arms, lait
is generally reckoned as consisting of 10,000 or 12,000 men who would he
available in a short time. The people generally are liable to be called out as
required, but there is no armed militia. Every male from the age of 18 to
21 years is obliged to serve as a recruit for three years, and afterwards to
serve for three months after every twelve. The following individuals are,
however, exempted : — Members of the priesthood, the Chinese settlers who
pay a commutation tax, slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of one or
more sons liable to service, and those who purchase exemption by a fine of
six ticals a year, or by furnishing a slave or some other person not subject to
the conscription as a substitute. It is stated that the Government possesses
upwards of 80,000 stand of arms, besides a considerable stock of cannon.
The army is in a very crude condition, and more reliance is now placed upon
the newly constituted force of marine infantry mentioned below.
The navy list contains the names of 21 vessels over 100 tons, 10 of these
being over 500 tons. The largest is the cruiser yacht Maha Chakrkri, of
3,000 tons, 300 feet long and 40 feet beam, 15 knots, 4 quick-firing 4*7
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTIIY — COMMERCE 901)
Arinstvong.s, 8 (|uick-firing 6-poundcrs, launched in Scotland, 1892. The
small cruisev Ma hut llachakumar, 14 knots, 650 tons, was bought at Hong-
kong in 1891. JJesides tliese there are 4 gunboats, 1 training ship, 1 torpedo
store sliip, 3 transports, 4 despatch boats, and 5 yachts. Some of the
vessels are mere hulks, one or two having had their engines taken out. A
gunboat recently built at Hong Kong is called NikraUia. Her tonnage is 137 'S.
In this list 40 steamers and launches from 100 tons downwards, for Government
service on the river and along the coast, are not included. There arc 10,000
men available in five shifts for service afloat, besides a reserve of 2,000.
The marine infantry, recruited from the inhabitants of the maritime
provinces, between 22 and 4C years of age, numbers 15,000 in six shifts,
besides a 1st and 2nd reserve of 3,000 and 2,000 respectively.
At the mouth of the Miinam River are the Paknam forts. The bar
prevents ships of more than 13 feet draught from ascending to Bangkok.
Production and Industry.
There is comparatively little industry in the country, mainly owing to tlie
state of serfdom in which the population is kept by the local governors.
Throughout the whole of Siam the natives arc liable to forced labour for a
certain period of the year, varying from one to three months, in conserpience
of which the land, rich in many parts, is badly cultivated. Domestic slavery
is in gradual process of abolition, such slavery as exists being entirely debt
slavery. By an edict of the present King no person born on or after his ]\Iajesty's
accession can be legally held in slavery beyond the age of 21. But free labour is
still very hard to obtain in any quantities. Chinese coolies do the chief part
of both skilled and unskilled labour in the south, especially in the mills and in
mining ; while in the north forest work is confined almost entirely to Burmese,
Karens, and Khamus. At the head of the delta of the j\Ienam many canals
for irrigation have recently been dug, and the region has thus been rendered
fit for rice-growing. The chief produce of the country is rice, which
forms the national food and the staple article of export. Other produce is
pepper, salt, dried fish, cattle, and sesame ; while, for local consumption
only, hemp, tobacco, cotton, and coffee are grown. Fruits are abundant,
including the durian, mangosteen, and mango. Much of Upper Siam is
dense forest, and the cutting of teak is an important industry, almost entirely
in British hands. In 1895, 20,320 logs were exported ; in 1896, 20,409.
In 1896 new forestry regulations were put in force, and, for the next six years
at least, an undiminished output may be expected. Gold is found in many
of the provinces, and concessions have been granted to mining companies.
For tin-mining one concession has been granted. The ruby and sapphire
mines in Chantabun are worked by an English company. The mineral
resources of Siam are extensive and varied, including copper, coal and iron,
zinc, manganese, antimony, probably quicksilver. In some places diamonds
have been found.
Commerce.
Nearly the whole of the trade is in the hands of foreigners, and in recent
years many Chinese, not subject like the natives to forced labour, have settled
in the country. The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital.
In 1896 the imports amounted to 2,104, 432Z. ; in 1897 to 2,484,807Z.
In 1896 the exports amounted to 3,036,29U. ; in 1897 to 3,203,218/. Tho
chief imports and exports in two years wove : —
1000
SIAM
I 111 ports
18P6
1897
Exports
1S90
1897
£
£
£
£
Treasure .
r.54,2ol
874.370
Rice
2,121,145
2,.342,019
Cotton goods .
230,541
237,208
Teak .
264,805
284,012
Silks
88,298
91,519
Treasure
198,369
116,520
Gunny bags .
72,213
75,092
Marine products .
103,638
84,888
j Kerosene.
54,805
75,437
Woods (other than
Miscellaneous piece
teak) .
39,441
39,173
goods .
77,129
08,803
Bullocks
40,029
4,419
Sugar
39,707
62,310
Pepper.
27,074
22,693
1 Opium
99,931
55,055
Other articles
225,190
308,894
j Cotton varn .
40,991
40,016
Hardware and Cut-
lery
35,039
39,938.
Steel, Iron and
Machinery .
30,053
29,974
Other articles .
768,214
829,418
The imports (in order of value) are from Singapore, Hong Kong and
China, Europe, Bombay. The exports (in order of value) are to Hong Kong,
Singapore, Europe, Bombay, Brazil, Saigon, China. There is also a con-
siderable trade on the northern frontiers with the British Shan states and
Yunnan, amounting in 1895, for imports,- to 17,518Z., and for exports to
19,525?.
The trade of the United Kingdom with Siam, according to the Board of
Trade Returns, was as follows during the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports from Siam into
U. K
Exports of British pro-
duce to Siam
£
46,995
85,961
£
115,186
78,245
£
157,994
139,845
£
110,264
136,487
£
246,940
150,380
The chief articles of direct import from Siam into Great Britain in the
year 1897 were rice, valued at 130,133Z. and hewn teak-wood, valued at
il4,619Z. Among the direct exports of British produce to Siam the chief
articles in 1897 were machinery and mill-work, of the value of 24,612Z. ;
iron, wrought and unwrought, 16,651?. ; cottons, 22,624Z. ; railway carnages,
S,105Z. There is a large importation of British piece-goods, transhipped .at
Singapore.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1897, 533 vessels of 453,611 tons (390 of 351,894 tons British) entered,
and 521 of 463,244 tons (386 of 358,452 tons British) cleared at the port of
Jiangkok.
The railway from Bangkok to Paknam (14 miles) was opened in April,
1893. In 1888 a survey for a railway from Bangkok to Chiengmai and other
northern and eastern provinces of Siam was commenced ; a line from Bangkok
to Ban Mai on the Patriew river has been sanctioned ; a railway from
Bangkok to Korat (165 miles), has been completed and is worked regularly
as lar as Hinlap, 98 miles from Bangkok. There is an electric tramway
in Bangkok, worked successfully, and the town is also lighted by electricit}',
a concession for that purpose having been granted to an American Syndicate.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1001
Telcgiaph lines have been completed to the total length of 1,820 miles,
and Bangkok is now iji commnnieation with Korat, Nong-Khai, Sesopone,
Chantabun, and I'ningtaphan (the line to Chiengmai has not been working
for 3'ears, although the repairs required are said to be but trifling) ; with
Moulmein, and Tavoy in Lower Burma ; and with Saigon' in Anam ; the
working of the lines, however, is sul)ject to vexatious delays, communication
with Europe being frequently interrupted.
There is a postal service in I^angkok, and in 1885 Siam joined the
International Postal Union. The mail service down the Malay Peninsula,
and also towards the north of Siam, has been largely developed. Post
offices, 1896, Itio ; letters &c. transmitted, internal 471,295, external 373,704.
In 1890 a parcel post service was established having connection with Singapore
and the international system.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
In Bangkok there are branches of the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Bank,
the Chartered Bank of India, and the Ban que de I'lndo-Chine. Of these the
first two issue notes ; bank-note issue is in nowise regulected by the Siamese
Government.
The legal money of Siam is the tical, a silver coin, weighing 236 grains
troy, -910 fine. Other silver coins from the Siamese mint now current are
the salung and the fuang, the former one-fourth, the latter one-eighth of a
tical. Dollars are accepted in payment at the rate of 3 dollars for 5 ticals.
The Tical, or Bat . = 64 Atts, or 60 cents of a Mexican dollar.
4 Ticals . . = 1 Tamlung.
80 Ticals . , = 1 Oatty : these two last are moneys of account.
1 Chang = 2| lbs. avoirdupois ; 50 Chang - 1 hap. or 133^ lbs. ; 1 Niu
- 1-66 English inch ; 1 Keui) = 12 Niu; I Sok = 2 Keup ; 1 JFah = 2 Sok ;
1 Sen = 20 Wa ; 1 Wah = 80 English inches ; 1 Yot = 400 Sen.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Siam in Giie.^t Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Phya Yisuddha.
Councillor of Legation. — Frederick W. Veruey.
Attache. — Luang Prakicli.
Attache Interpreter. — E. H. Loftus,
2. Or Great Britain in Siam.
Minister Resident and Consul General. — George Greville, C.M.G., ap-
pointed 1896.
Consicl. — W. J. Archer.
Vice-Consuls at Bangkok.— C. E. W, Stringer and J. S. Black.
Consul at Chiengmai. — W. R. D. Beckett.
Consul for Kcdah, kc.—Q. \\. Kynnersley, C.M.G. (acting) (Penang).
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
Foreign Office Reports on the Trade of Bangkok and of Chiengmai. Annual Series.
London.
Trade of Siain with Great Britain in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Conntrie.s and Britisli Pos.session.s.' Annual. London.
Alabaster (Hein-y), Tlie Wheel of the Law. 8. London, 1^71.
Baatian (Adolf), Die Vcilker von listlichen Asien : Stuilien und Rci.seT:. 0 vol.s. 8.
Leipzig, lbC()-lS71.
Baatian (Adolf), Geogia]>hisehe und Ethnologische Bilder. 8. J. Mia, IST-'i.
Bock (Carl), Temi>les and Elephants, 1 vol. 8. liOndon, 1864.
1002
SlAM
Bowring (John), The Kingdom and People of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.
Coit (3Iary L.), Siam, the Heart of Farther India. American Missionary Publication.
New York.
Colquhoun (A. R.), Among the Shans. London, 1885.
Cv-rtw/onZ, Journal of an Embassy to Siam and Cochin-Cliina. 2 vols. 8. 2nd edition,
1830.
Doudart de Lagree, "Voyage d'exploration dans I'Indo-Chine. 2 vols. 4. Paris, 1873.
Qrehan (A.), Le royaume de Siam. 8. Paris, 1868.
La Loubere, Description du royaume de Siam. 12. Paris and Amsterdam, 1691.
La Loubere, A now Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam. Folio. London, 1693.
Leonowens, The English Governess at the Siamese Court. 8. Boston (Mass.), 1870.
Macarthy (J.), Paper on Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, March 1888.
Macgregor (J.), Through the Buffer State. 8. London, 1896.
Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cambodia and Laos,
during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Orleans (Frince Henri d'), Une Excursion en Indo-Chine. Paris, 1892. Around Tonkin
and Siam. London, 1894.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses. [Chapter on Phra-Bat] S. London, 1887.
Pallegoix (D. J.), Description du royaume de Thai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1854.
Reclus (Elisee), Nouvelle geographic universelle. Vol. VHI. L'Inde et I'lndo-Chine.
Paris, 1883.
Satow (E. M.), Essay towards a Bibliography of Siam. Singapore, 1886.
Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichenZustande im Siiden und Osten Asiens. 8.
Stuttgart, 1871.
Smyth (H. W.), Journeys on the Upper Mekong. London, 1895. Journeys in S.-W.
Siam. Geographical Journal. Vol. VI. — Five Years in Siam. 2;Vols. London, 1898.
SommerviUe (M.), Siam on the Meinam. London, 1897.
Thomson (John), The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China, or Ten Years' Travels,
Adventures, and Residence Abroad. 8. London, 1875.
Vincent (Frank), The Land of the White Elephant. New York. 1889.
Yoimg (E.), The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe. London, 1808.
Younghusband (G. J.), Eighteen Hundred Miles in a Burmese Tat, through Burmah,
Siam, and the Eastern Shan States. 8. London.
1003
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC.
Constitution and Government. .
The South African Republic, also kuowii as the Transvaal, was originally
formed by part of the Boers, who left the Cape Colony in 1835 for Natal, but
quitted that colony on its annexation to the British Crown. In 1852 the in-
dependence of the Transvaal was recognised by the British Government, and
the constitution of the State is based on the ' Thirty-Three Articles,' passed
May 23, 1849, and the 'Grondwet,' or Fundamental law of February 13, 1858.
On April 12, 1877, the Transvaal was annexed by the British Govern-
ment, against which in December 1880 the Boers took up arms, and
a treaty of peace was signed March 21, 1881. According to the conven-
tion ratified by the Volksraad, October 26, 1881, self-government was
restored to the Transvaal so far as regards internal affairs, the control
and management of external affairs being reserved to Her Majesty as
suzerain. A British resident was appointed, with functions analogous to
those of a Consul-General and Charge d'Affaires. Another convention with the
Government of Great Britain was signed in London February 27, 1884, ratified
by the Volksraad, August 8, by which the State is to be known as the South
African Reiuiblic, and the British suzerainty restricted to control of foreign
relations. Instead of a Resident the British Government is represented by a
Diplomatic Agent.
The Constitution has been frequently amended down to January 1897.
The supreme legislative authority is vested in a Parliament of two
Chambers, each of 27 members, chosen by the districts. Bills passed by the
second Chamber do not become law until accepted by the first. Members of
both Chambers must be 30 years of age, possess fixed property, profess the
Protestant religion, and never have been convicted of any criminal offence.
The members of the first Chamber are elected from and by the first-class
burghers, those of the second Chamber from and by the first and second-class
burghers conjointly, each for 4 years. First-class burghers comprise all male
whites resident in the Republic before May 29, 1876, or who took an active
part in the war of independence in 1881, the Malaboch war in 1894, the
Jameson Raid in 1895-6, the expedition 1;o Swaziland in 1894, and all the
other tribal wars of the Republic, and the children of such persons from the
age of 16. Second class burghers comprise the naturalized male alien po])ula-
tion and their children from the age of 16. Naturalization may be obtained
after two years' residence, and registration on the books of the Fieldcornet,
oath of allegiance, and payment of 21. The Executive Council has also the
right, in special instances, to invite persons to become naturalised on pay-
ment of 21. Naturalized burghers may by special resolution of the first
Chamber, become first-class burghers 12 years after naturalization. Sons of
aliens, though born in the Republic, have no political rights, but, by registra-
tion at the age of 16, may, at the age of 18, become naturalized Ijurghers,
and may, by special resolution of the first Chamber, be made first-class
burghers 10 years after they are eligilde for the second Chamber, or at the
1004 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC
age of 40. The President and Commandant-General are elected l>y the first-
class bnrghers only : District-Commandants and Ficldcornets hy the t^vo
classes of burghers conjointly. The Executive is vested in a President,
elected for live years, assisted by a council consisting of four official mem-
bers (the State Secretary, the Commandant-General, Sup. of ISTativcs, and tlie
Minute-keeper), and two non-official members. The State Secretary, Sup. of
Natives, the Minute-keepci- and Secretary, and the two non-official members,
are elected by the first Volksraad.
State President. — S. J. Paulus Kriiger, elected for the fourth time
February, 1898.
Vice-President.— GenQV^\ P. J. Joubert, elected May 13, 1896.
Executive Council. — Official members: P.J. Joubert, Com. -Gen. (Vice.
President) ; F. W. Reitz, State Secretary ; Com. P. A. Cronje, Sup. of
Natives ; J. H. M. Kock, Minute Keeper. Non-official : J. M. A. Wolmarans
S. W. Burger.
Area and Population.
The area of the Repuldic is 119,139 square miles, divided into 20 dis-
tricts, and its white population, according to a very incomplete census of
1896, is 245,397, of whom 137,947 are men and 107,450 women ; the native
population in April, 1896, was estimated at 622,500. The State Almanack
for 1898 gives the population as follows : whites, 345,397 (137,947 males and
107,450 females); natives, 748,759 (148,155 men, 183,280 women, and
417,324 children); total population, 1,094,156. The boundaries of the
State are defined in the convention of February 27, 1884 — since altered by a
supplementary convention, by which the former New Republic (Zululand)
was annexed to the South African Republic as a new district, named
Vrijheid, and by the terms of the Convention regarding Swaziland, ratified
by the Volksraad, August 20, 1890, by which Swaziland comes under the
administration of the Transvaal. The seat of government is Pretoria, with
a white population of 10,000. The largest town is Johannesburg, the mining
centre ot Witwatersrand goldfields, witli a population within a radius of 3
miles, according to census of July 15, 1896, of 102,078 (79,315 males and
22,763 females). The population consisted of 50,907 whites, 952 Malays,
4,807 coolies and Chinese, 42,533 Kaffirs, and 2,879 of mixed race. One
third of the population of the Republic are engaged in agriculture.
Religion.
As no census has been taken the following figures must be considered
approximate : —
The United Dutch Reformed Church is the State church, claiming
30,000 (1895) of the population ; other Dutch Churches, 32,760 ; English
Church, 30,000 ; Wesleyans, 10,000 ; Catholic, 5,000 ; Presbyterians, 8,000 ;
other Christian Churches, 5,000 ; Jews, 10,000.
Instruction.
According to the report of the Superintendent of Education for the year
1897, the sum of 140,286/, was spent for the education of 11,552 pupils. In
1896 there were 34 village schools and 395 ward schools, besides a model
school with 284, a gyinnasium with 61, and a girls' school with 210 pupils
at Pretoria. There are many schools in Johannesburg, Pretoria, and other
places belonging to the English ami other denominations not subsidised by
Government.
FINANCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1005
Finance.
The following table shows the ordinary revenue and expenditure for the
last 6 years, exclusive of advances made and refunded, and deposits made
and Avithdrawn : —
Revenue .
Expenditure
1892
£
1,255,829
1,188,765
1893
1894
1895
1,702,684
1,302,054
£ £
2,247,728 3,539,955
1,734,728 2,079,095
1896
£
4,807,513
4,671,393
1897
£
4,480,218
4,394,066
In 1897 the chief sources of revenue were: imi)ort duties, 1,276,319Z. ;
Netherlands railway, 737,366?. ; prospecting licences, 427,230?. ; explosives,
300,000?. ; stamps," 258,396?. ; posts and telegraphs, 215,320?. The chief
hranches of exi)enditure were public works, 1,012,866?. ; salaries, 996,960?. ;
war department, 396,384?. ; purchase of explosives, 271,435?, Of the
Mining Commissions department, Johannesburg, the receipts in 1897
amounted to 896,044?., and expenditure to 101,369?. ; credit balance,
794,675?.
The public debt on Septcm])er 9, 1897, was 2,673,690?., including direct
lia])ilities to the British Crown 146,690?., and Rothschild loan, 2,500,000?.
The State lands were valued in 1884 at 400,000?., but may now be valued
at some millions, as the goldficlds at Barberton are on Government lands.
The debt due to Great Britain bears interest at 3^ per cent., and is to be
extinguished by a sinking fund of 3?. Os. ^d. per cent, in twenty-five years.
Defence.
The Republic has no standing army, with the exception of a small force
of horse artillery of 32 officers, 79 non-commissioned officers, and 289 men,
all able-bodied citizens being called out in case of war. There are 3 foot
and 6 mounted volunteer corps, numbering about 2,000 men, subsidised by
Government. The number of men liable to service iu 1894 was \ 26,299.
Production and Industry.
The South African Republic is specially favourable for agriculture as well
as stock-rearing, though its capacities in this respect are not yet developed.
It is estimated that 50,000 acres arc under cultivation. The agricul-
tural produce, however, is not sufficient for the wants of the population.
There are about 12,245 farms, of which 3,636 belong to Government, 1,612 to
outside owners and companies, and the rest to resident owners and companies.
Gold-mining is carried on to a great extent in tlie various goldtields,
principally Barberton and AVitwatersrand.
The total value of gold production from the year 1884 has been : —
Year
1884
1885 .
1886
1887
1888 .
1889
1890 .
1891 .
£
Year
£
10,096
1892 .
. 4,541,071
6,010
1893 .
. 5,480,498
34,710
1894
. 7,667,152
169,401
1895 .
. 8,569,555
967,416
1896 .
. 8,603,821
1,490,568
1897 .
. 11,476,260
1,869,645
2,924,305
Total .
. 53,810,508
1006 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC
The official returns date from the year 1891. Of the gold output in
1897, 3,034,678 oz. (10,583,616Z.) were from Witwatersrand ; 113,972 oz.
(398,902Z.) from De Kaap ; 50,942 oz. (178,296^. ) from Lydenburg ; 84,781 oz.
(296,733Z.) from Klerksdorp ; 223 oz. (791Z.) from Zoutpansberg ; 5,120 oz.
(17,922Z.) from Swaziland, &c. ; total output of 1897, 3,289,720 oz.
(11,476,260^.). In 1897, according to returns furnished by 72 companies,
the number of whites employed at the mines was 8,060, the amount paid to
them in wages being 2, 521, 603 Z. ; the number of natives employed, according
to these returns, was 50,791, but the total number employed was estimated
at about 70,000. Working for silver, lead, and copper has been suspended
since 1894 ; tin is found in Swaziland. Coal of fair quality is found near
Witwatersrand and other goldfields ; the total output in 3 years has been :
1895, 1,133,466 tons; 1896, 1,437,297 tons; 1897, 1,600,212 tons (value
612,668^.).
Commerce and Communications
The principal exports are gold, wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers,
ivory, and minerals. The value of imports on which dues were charged
amounted in 1894 to 6,440,215/.; in 1895 to 9,816,304/.; in 1896 to
14,088,130/. ; in 1897, 13,563,827/. The import duties amounted in 1896
to 1,355,486/., and in 1897 to 1,289,039/. The total imports in 1897 have
been estimated at 21,515,000/., of which 17,012,000/. were from Great
Britain, 2,747,000/. from the United States, 1,054,226/. from Germany, and
the remainder from Belgium, Holland and France. In the official returns
for 1897 the largest imports were clothing, 1,254,058/. ; machinery,
1,876,391/. ; railway material, 869,443/. ; iron wire, plates, &c., 864,126/.
The various railway lines connect the Eepublic with the Orange Free
State, Cape Colony, Natal, and Portuguese East Africa. The total mileage
open in September, 1898, was 774, imder construction 270, and projected 252.
The Republic is in telegraphic communication Avith the surrounding States
and Colonies as far north as Blantyre, near Lake Nyasa. The lines within the
State extend over 2,000 miles.
Weights and measures are the same as in Cape Colony, the currency is
English money, and Government gold, silver, and bronze coin issued from a
mint established in Pretoria. From 1892 to June 30, 1897, the nominal
value of the coin issued from the mint was : gold, 1,342,415/. ; silver,
288,652/. ; bronze, 389/. ; total, 1,631,456/.
British Agent at Pretoria. — W. Conyngham Greene.
Consiol- General in London. — Montagu White.
Swaziland. — The boundary lietween Swaziland and the South African
Republic on the north, west, and south has been surveyed and beaconed off, but
the whole of the Eastern boundary has not yet been beaconed off. The country
has an area of about 8,500 square^ miles, with a population estimated at
40,000 to 60,000 natives and between 800 and 1,000 whites. During the
winter months this number is increased by trekkers from the South African
Republic. The language spoken is a dialect of Zulu, and the habits and
customs are for the most part identical with those of Zululand.
By the Convention of 1884, between the British Government and the
Government of 'the South African Republic, the independence of the Swazis
was recognised ; by that of 1890, the government of the white i)opulation
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1007
was vested in a 'Swaziland Government Committee'; and by that of
December 10, 1894, ratified by the A''olksraad February 14, 1895, Swaziland is
(subject to certain conditions) under the protection and administration of
the Republic.
In terms of that Convention, the territor}' is not to be incorporated into
the Transvaal, and the natives retain the right to govern themselves accord-
ing to their own laws and customs in so far as they are not inconsistent
with civilised laws and customs, and they retain their lands and grazing
rights. The hut tax and other taxes imposed on Swazis in the Republic have
been levied since August, 1898. British subjects retain all their rights and
privileges, and settlers since April 20, 1893, may obtain all burgher rights.
Equal rights of the Dutch and English languages in the Courts shall be
maintained. The customs dues shall not be higher than those of the
Republic, and the Government of the Republic agrees to prohibit the sale or
supply of intoxicating liquor to the natives. A British consular officer shall
be appointed.
The Paramount Chief Ngwane {alias U'Hili, or U'Bunu), born 1877,
succeeded his father in 1889. His native Council consists of about 44 mem-
bers. The native army contains about 18,000 men. The administration is
carried on by a special Commissioner, a judge and other officials appointed
by the Government of the South African Republic. The mounted police
numbered (in 1898) 300 men. The revenue, which by the taxation of the
natives will now be largely increased, has hitherto been from 2,000Z. to
3,000Z., and a grant in aid by the South African Republic of from 45,000Z. to
48,000/!. has been required to meet expenditure. No customs duties are at
present levied. Gold-mining is carried on. The work of the tin-mining
company has been suspended. A coal-mining company has recently been
floated, and there are indications that other ndneral and agricultural con-
cessions will shortly be worked.
British Consul. — J. Smuts. SjJecial Commissioner. — J. C. Krogh.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
Convention between Her Majesty and the South African Republic. London, 18S4.
Correspondence respecting the Debt due to H.M.'s Government by the Transvaal State.
London, 1882-83.
Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories. London,
1884.
Further Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories
(C. 4,275, 4,432, 4,588). London, 1885. (C. 4,(J43) ISSti.
Correspondence relative to tlie South African Republic. London, 1806.
Local Laws of the South African Republic for 1886-93. In 3 scries. Pretoria, 1888-04.
Reports of Select Committee of British House of Commons on British South Africa,
with Evidence. London, 1897.
Report t>f Select Committee of Cape of Good Hope House of Assembly on the Jameson
Raid. London, 1897.
Staats Almanak der Zuid Afrik. Republiek voor hot jaar 1800. Pretoria, 1809.
Ninth Annual Report of tlie Witwatei-srand Cliamber of Mines for the year ending
December 31, 1897. Johannesburg, 1898.
Nohle (John), Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. 8. Capetown
and London, 1893.
Rapport v. d. Staats Myn Ingenieur over het jaar 1897 (with an English trans-
lation). Pretoria, 1898.
.42/ord (Charles J.), Geological Features of the Transvaal, South Africa. London, 1891.
Argus Annual and South African Directory for 1897. Cajie Town, 1896.
Bigelow (P.), White Man's Africa. Lon<lon. 1897.
Brown (A. S. and G. G.), Guide to South Africa. 6th ed. London, 1898.
Denny (G. A.), The Klcrksdorp Gold Fields. London, 1897.
Distant (W. L.), A Naturalist in the Transvaal. 8. London, 1892.
Dove (Dr. Karl), Das Kliuia des ausscrtropisclicn Sudafrika. Gottingen, 1888.
1008 SPAIN
Fisher (W. E.), The Transvaal and the Boers. London, 1896.
Garett (E.) and Edwards (E. J.), The Story of the African Crisis. London, 1897.
Goldmann (C. S.), South African Mines. 3 vols. London, 1895-96.
Hammond (Mrs. J. H.), A Woman's Part in a Revolution. London, 1897.
Hatch (F. H.), and Chalmers (J. A.), The Gold Mines of the Rand. London, 1895.
Hillier (A. P.), Raid and Reform. London, 1898.
Hohson (Mrs. Carey), At Home in the Transvaal. New ed. 8. London, 1896.
■Jeppe{¥.), Notes on some of the Physical and Geological Features of the Transvaal, in
'Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,' 1877. Local Laws of the South African Re-
public, from 1819-1885, revised by Chief Justice Kotzc. Pretoria, 1887. The Zoutpans-
berg Goldflelds, 'The Geographical Journal.' London, Sei>teajber, 1693.
Keane{A.. H.), Africa, Vol. II. : South Africa. 8. London, 1895.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. 2nd ed. London, 1895.
Kotze (J. G.) (Translator), Documents relating to the Judicial Crisis in the Sutoh
African Republic. London, 1898
Leonard (C), Position of the Uitlandcrs in the Transvaal. London, 1897.
Macfadyen (W. A.) (Translator), The Political Laws of the South African Republic.
London, 1896.
Mackenzie (John), Austral Africa : Losing it or Ruling it. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Mann (A. M.), The Truth from Johannesburg. London, 1897.
MolengraaiT(G. A. T.), Beitrag zar Geologic der Goldfelder in der Sud Afrik. Republic.
Mailer (II. P. N.), Zuid Afrika, Reisherinneringen. Leiden, 1890.
Norris-Newman (C. L.), With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State in
1880-81. London, 1882.
Penning (W. H.), The Geology of the Southern Transvaal. 8. London, 1893.
Procter (J.), Boers and Little Englanders. London, 1897.
Rue (C), Malaboch or Notes from my Diary (m the Boer Cami>aign of 1894. London, 1898.
iiegran (J. J.), Boer and Uitlander. 8. Loudon, 1896.
Saivijer(A. R.), Mining, Geological, and General Guide to theMurchisou Range, London.
Schmeisser, Ueber Vorkommen und Gewinnung der nutzbarcu Mineralien in der Sudafr.
Rejiublik (Transvaal) unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung dcs Goldbergbaus. Berlin, 1894.
Silver's Handbook to South Africa. London, 1891.
6'tot7ia7?i (F. R.) Blacks, Boers and British. 8. London. —Paul Kriiger and his Times.
London, 1898.
Struben (P. P. T.), Notes on the Geological Formation of South Africa and its Mineral
Resources. London, 1897.
Theal (George McCall), History of the Boers in South Africa. London. 1887.
Theal (G. McCall), History of South Africa. 5 vols. London. 1887-93.
Thomas (C. G.), Johannesburg in Arms, 1895-96. London, 1896.
Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa. Johannesburg.
Truscott (S. J.), The Witswatersrand Goldflelds Banket and Mining Practice. London,
1898. '
SPAIN.
(ESPANA.)
Reigning Sovereign and Queen Regent.
Alfonso XIII., son of the late King Alfonso XII. and Maria
Christina, daughter of the late Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of
Austria; born after his father's death, May 17, 1886, succeeding
by his birth, being a male, his eldest sister.
Maria Christina, mother of the King, took oath as Queen
Regent during the minority of her son.
Sisters of the King. — I. Maria-dc-las- Mercedes, Queen till the birth of
her brother, born September 11, 1880. II. Maria Teresa, born November
12, 1882.
Aunts of the King.— ^. Ini^nto. Isabel, born December 20, 1851 ; married,
May 13, 1868, to Gaetan, Count de Girgenti ; widow, November 26, 1871.
THE ROYAL FAMILY
1009
It. Infanta Maria-dc-la-Paz^ born June 23, 18C2 ; married, April 3, 1883, to
i'rinee LuiUvig, eldest son of the late Trince Adalbert of Bavaria. III. Infanta
Eulalia, born February 12, 186-1 ; married to Prineo Antoine, son of Frinec
Antoine d'Orleans, Due de Montpensier, Mareh 6, 1886. (All sisters of
the late King.)
Parents of the late jfiTiwgf.— Queen Isabel, born Oetober 10, 1830 ; the
eldest daughter of King Fernando VII.; ascended the throne at the death of
her father, September 29, 1833 ; assumed the government on Ijeing declared of
age, November 8, 1843 ; exiled September 30, 1868 ; abdicated in favour of
her son, June 25, 1870. Married, October 10, 1846, to her cousin Infante
Francisco, born May 13, 1822.
C0US171 of the late King.
Infante Don Carlos Maria-de-los-Dolores, born March 30, 1848, son of
Prince Juan, and grandson of the Infante Don Carlos, nephew of King Fer-
nando VII. Married (1) February 4, 1867, to Princess Marguerite of Bourbon,
daughter of Duke Carlos III. of Parma ; (2) April 28, 1894, to ^larie Berthe,
Princess de Rohan. Offspring of the hrst union are four daughters and a
son. Prince Jaime, born June 27, 1870.
The King, Alfonso XIII., has a civil list, fixed by the Cortes, 1886, of
7,000,000 pesetas, or 280,000Z., exclusive of allowances to members of the
royal family ; the Queen Regent having the administration and usufruct of the
said sum until the King becomes of age. The annual grant to the Queen, as
mother to the King, was fixed by the Cortes, in 1886, at 250,000 pesetas.
The immediate successor was assigned 500,000 pesetas, and 250,000 to the
second sister, they having been Princesses of Asturias. The parents of the
late King, ex-Queen Isabel and her husband, have an allowance of 1,050,000
pesetas, or 42,000Z. ; and the four Infantas, his sisters, of 800,000 pesetas, or
32,000^. The total amount of the civil list and allowances to the relatives of
the late King was fixed by the Cortes in 1876 at 10,000,000 pesetas, or
400,000Z. ; now it is 9,500,000 pesetas, or 380,000Z.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of Spain, with
dates of their accession, since the foundation of the Spanish Monarchy by the
union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile : —
House of Aragon.
Fernando V., ' The Catholic ' 1512
House of Habshurg.
Carlos 1 1516
Felipe II 1556
Felipe III 1598
Felipe IV 1621
Carlos II 1665
House of Bourbon.
Felipe V 1700
Fernando VI. . . . 1746
Carlos III 1759
Carlos IV 1788
Fernando VII. . . . 1808
House of Bonaparte.
Joseph Bonaparte . . . 1808 '
3 T
House of Bourbon.
Fernando VII., restored
1814
Isabel II
1833
Provisional Government
1868
Marshal Serrano, Regent
1869
Hous^of Savoy.
Amadeo ....
1870
Republic.
Executive of the Cortes .
1873
Estanislao Figueras
1873
Pi y Margall, June 8
1873
Nicolas Salmcron, July 18
1873
Emilio Castelar, September 9 .
1873
Marshal Serrano, January 4. .
1874
House of Bourbon.
Alfonso XII. .
1875
^Maria {pro tern.)
1886
Alfonso XIII.
1886
1010 SPAIN
Government and Constitution
I. Central Government.
The present Constitution of Spain, drawn up by the Govern-
ment and laid before a Cortes Constituventes, elected for its
ratification, March 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It
consists of 89 articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that
Spain shall be a constitutional monarchy, the executive resting
in the King, and the power to make laws ' in the Cortes with the
King.' The Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, equal
in authority. There are three classes of senators — first, senators
by their own right, or Senadores de derecko propio ; secondly,
100 life senators nominated by the Crown — these two categories
not to exceed 180 ; and thirdly, 180 senators, elected by the
Corporations of State — that is, the communal and provincial
states, the church, the universities, academies, &c. — and by the
largest payers of contributions. Senators in their own right are
the sons, if any, of the King and of the immediate heir to the
throne, who have attained their majority; Grandees who are so
in their own right and who can prove an annual renta of 60,000
pesetas, or 2,400^. ; captain-generals of the army ; admirals of
the navy ; the patriarch of the Indias and the archbishops ; the
presidents of the Council of State, of the Supreme Tribunal, of
the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino, and of the Supreme Council
of War and of the Navy, after two years of ofiice. The elective
senators must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by
totality every time the Monarch dissolves that part of the Cortes.
The Congress is formed by deputies ' named in the electoral Juntas
in the form the law determines,' in the proportion of one to every
50,000 souls of the population. According to the law of June 26,
1890, the electoral qualification is held by all male Spaniards, 25
years of age, who enjoy full civil rights, and have been citizens
of a municipality for at least two years. Members of Congress
must be 25 years of age ; they are re-eligible indefinitely, the
elections being for 5 years. Deputies, to the number of 10, are
admitted who, although not elected for any one district, have
obtained a cumulative vote of more than 10,000 in several dis-
tricts. Deputies to the number of 88 are elected by scrutin de
liste in 26 large districts, in which minorities may be duly repre-
sented. There are in all 431 deputies. The deputies cannot
take State office, pensions, and salaries ; but the ministers are
exempted from this law. Both Congress and Senate meet every
year. The Monarch has the power of convoking them, suspending
them, or dissolving them ; but in the latter case a new Cortes must
noVEUNMEKT AND CONSTITUTION lOll
sit within three months. The Monarch appoints the president and
vice-presidents of the Senate from members of the Senate only ;
the Congress elects its own Officials. Tlie Monarch and each of the
legislative chambers can take tlu^ initiative in the laws. The Con-
gress has the right of impeaching the ministers before the Senate.
The Constitution of June 30, 1876, further enacts that the Monarch is
inviolable, but his ministers are respdnsilile, and that all his decrees must
be countersigned by one of them. The Cortes must approve his marriage
before he can contract it, and the King cannot marry any one excluded by
law from the succession to the crdwn. Should the lines of the legitimate
descendants of the late Alphonso XII. become extinct, the succession shall
be in this order — first, to his sisters ; next to his aunt and her legitimate
descendants ; and next to those of his uncles, the brothers of Fernando VII.,
'unless they have been excluded.' If all the lines become extinct, 'the
nation will elect its Monarch. '
The executive is vested, under the Monarch, in a Council of Ministers,
as follows, March 4, 1899 : —
President of the Council. — Senor Silvela.
Minister of Foreign Affairs. — The Marquis Pidal.
Minister of Justice. — Senor Duran.
Minister of Finance. — Senor Villaverde.
Minister of the Interior. — Senor Dato.
Minister of JVar. — General Polavieja.
Minister of Marine. — Admiral Lazaga.
Minister of Agriculture and Commerce and of Public Works. — Senot
Cardenas.
The Ministry of the Colonies was abolished February 10, 1899.
II. Local Government.
The various provinces and communes of Spain are governed by the
provincial and municipal laws. Every commune has its own elected
Ayuntamiento, consisting of from five to thirty-nine Regidores, or Conce-
jales, and presided over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the largel'
to^vns, several Tenientes Alcaldes. The entire municipal government, with
power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamientos. Half the members
are elected every two years, and they appoint the Alcalde, the executive
functionary, from their own body. In the larger towns he may be appointed
by the King. Members cannot be re-elected until after two years. Each
province of Spain has its own Parliament, the Diputacion Provincial, the
members of which are elected by the constituencies. The Diputaciones
Provinciales meet in annual session, and are permanently represented by
the Comission Provincial, a committee elected every year. The Constitution
of 1876 secures to the Diputaciones Provinciales and the Ayuntamientos
the government and administration of the respective provinces and com-
munes. Neither the national executive nor the Cortes have the right
to interfere in the established municipal and provincial administration,
except in the case of the action of the Diputaciones Provinciales and
Ayuntamientos going beyond the locally limited sphere to the injury of
general and permanent interests. In the Basque provinces self-government
has been almost abolished since the last civil war, and they are ruled as
the rest of Spain. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Con.stitution,
pressure is too frequently brought to bear upon the local elections by the
Central Government. '
3 T 2
012
SPAIN
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of each of
the forty-nine provinces into which the Kingdom is divided,
accordina: to the census of 1887 : — -
Area in
Total
Pop.
Area in
Total
Pop.
Province
square
Popula-
per sq.
Province
square
Popula-
per sq.
miles
tion, 1887
mile
miles
tion, 1887
mile
Alava
1,205
92,915
78 i
Logrono .
1,945
181,465
93
Albacete .
5,972
229,102
39 j
Lugo
3,787
432,165
113
Alicante .
2,098
433,050
206
Madrid .
2,997
682,644
228
Alnieria .
3,302
339,452
102
Malaga .
2,824
519,977
183
Avila
2,981
193,093
64
Murcia .
4,478
491,436
109
Badajoz .
i 8,687
481.508
55
Navarra .
6,046
304,122
50
Baleares .
1,860
312,593
168
Orense .
2,739
405,127
147
Barcelona
2,985
902,970
301
Oviedo .
4,091
595,420
145
Burgos .
5,650
338,551
59
42
Palencia .
3,126
188,845
60
Caceres .
8,013
339,793
Pontevedra .
1,739
443,385
254
Cadiz
2,809
429,872
152
Salamanca
4.940
314,472
63
Canarias .
2,808
291,625
102
Santandcr
2,113
244,274
114
(Jastellon dc la
'
Segovia .
2,714
154,443
56
Plana .
2,446
292,437
110
1 Sevilla .
5,295
.544,815
102
Cindad-Real .
7,840
292,291
37
i S6ria
3,836
151,530
39
Coi'doba .
5,190
420,728
81
; Tarragona
2,451
348,579
142
Coruiia .
3,079
613,881
199
Teruel .
5,491
241,865
44
Cuenca .
6,725
242,460
35
i Toledo .
5,586
359,562
64
Gerona .
2,272
306,583
134
1 Valencia .
4,352
733,978
168
Granada .
' 4,937
484,638
98
Valladolid
3,043
267,148
87
Guadalajara .
4,870
201,518
41
Vizcaya .
849
235,659
277
Guipuzcoa
728
181,845
249
Zamora .
4,135
270,072
65
Huelva .
4,122
254.831
61
Zaragoza.
6,607
415,195
62
Huesca .
5,878
255il37
43
N. & W. Coast
Jaen
5,184
437,842
84
of Africa
13
5,280
391
Leon
6,107
380,637
285,417
61
L6rida .
4,775
59
Total
197,670
17,565,632
88
There were in 1887, 8,612,524 males and 8,953,108 females.
The legal population as distinct from the population present was returned
at 17,673,838. The area of continental Spain is 491, 100 square miles, and its
population (1887) 16,945,786.
The population of Ceuta, included in that of Cadiz, is 9,694. Besides
Ceuta, Spain has, on the African Coast, the Port of Peiion de Velez, the
Alhucemas and Chafarinas Islands, and the port of Melilla. These African
possessions are used chiefly as convict stations. According to the census
returns of 1887, there were in Spain at that date 42,395 resident
foreigners — the mass of them in four provinces — namely, Barcelona, Cadiz,
Gerona, and Madrid. The Ba.sques in the North, numbering 440,000, differ
in race and language from the rest of Spain ; there are 60,000 Morescoes in
the South, 50,000 gipsies, and a small number of Jews.
In 1789 tlie jiopulation was estimated to number 10,061,480 ; in 1820 it
was 11,000,000 ; in 1828, 13,698,029 ; in 1846, 12,168,774, and it was at the
census of 1860, 15,658,531. At the census of 1877 the population amounted
to 16,634,345, being an increase of 976,814 in the course of seventeen years,
or at the rate of about 0-35 per cent, per annum ; in 1887 it was 17,565,632,
being an increase of 831,287 in ten years, or at the rate of 0*47 per cent,
per anntim.
The following were the populations of the principal towns in 1887, vi'^. :—
RELIGION
loi;
Town
Population
Town
Population
Madrid
470,283
Pal ma (Baleares)
60,514
Barcelona .
272,481 j
Lorca
58,327
Valencia .
170,763
Valladolid
62,018
Sevilla
143,182
Cordoba .
55,614
Malaga
134,016
Bilbao .
50,772
Miircia
98,538
Oviedo
42,716 1
Zaragojca .
92,407 J
Santander
41,829 '
Granada
73,006
Alicante .
39.638
Oarthagena
84,171
Ahneria .
37,241
Cadiz .
62,531
Coruna
36,200
. Jeres de la Fron-
Burgos
31,301 ;
tera
61,708
1
Statistics published by the Instituto Geographico y Estadlstico of Spain
show that the population according to occupation in 1889 was as follows: —
Agricultural, 4,854,742; industrial (textile and mineral), 243,867; com-
mercial, 194,755 ; arts and trades, 823,310 ; domestic servants, 409,549 ;
merchant marine, 115,764 ; professional (legal, medical, kc), 84,510; publiij
employees, 97,257 ; asylum inmates, &c., 91,226 ; religious (Catholic),
72,077 ; private and railway employees, 49,565 ; teachers, &c., 39,136 ; leisure
classes, 29,918 ; hotel keepers, &c., 14,449 ; pupils at schools and college.',
1,719,955; not stated, 8,728,519; total, 17,568,599.
In 1895, according to official statistics, 145,384 men, 11,879 women,
and 9,006 children, in all 166,269 persons emigrated from Spain. Emigra-
tion from Spain is chiefly to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina,
Religion.
The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the whole
population of the Kingdom adhere to that faith, except (in 1887) 6,654
Protestants, 402 Jews, 9,645 Rationalists, 510 of other religions, and 13,175
of religion not stated. There were in 1884 in Spain 32,435 priests in the
62 dioceses into which the country is divided ; 1,684 monks resident in 161
monastic houses, and 14,592 nuns in 1,027 convents. The number of
cathedrals was 65, of religious colleges 30, of churches 18,564, and of con-
vents, religious houses, sanctuaries, and other buildings of a religious charactrr
11,202. According to Article 12 of the Constitution of 1876, a restricted
liberty of worship is allowed to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in
private, all public announcements of the same being strictly forladden. Tlie
Constitution likewise enacts that 'the nation binds itself to maintain tlie
worship and ministers of the Roman Catholic religion.' Resolutions of
former legislative bodies, not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that
the clergy of the Established Church are to be maintained by the State. On
the other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and
March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed, and their
property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These decrees gave rise to
a long dispute with the head of the Roman Catholic Church, which ended in
the sovereign pontiff conceding the i)rinciple of the measure. By a concordat
with Rome concluded in August 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised
to sell the whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates bearing
interest at the rate of 3 per cent.
VjU
SPAIN
Instruction.
The latest census returns show that a large proportion of the inhabitants
are illiterate. In 1860 20 '0 per cent, of the population could read and write ;
4 '6 per cent, could read only ; and 75 "3 per cent, could neither read nor write.
In 1889, out of a population of 17,552,346 accounted for, 5,004,460 (3,317,855
males, and 1,686,615 females), or 28 '5 percent, could read and write ; 608,005
(221,613 males, and 380,392 females), or 3 '4 per cent, could read only ; and
11,945,871 (5,067,098 males, and 6,878,773 females), or 681 per cent, could
neither read nor write.
By a law of 1857 an elabor£<,te system of primary education was ordained :
education was to be compulsory, there was to be a primary school for every 500
inhabitants, and instruction was to be on a rigidly uniform plan. Compiilsion
has never been enforced, and, partly from political causes and partly from the
wretched pay of most of the elementary teachers (101. to 202. per annum),
education is very inefficient. In 1881, however, several improvements were
introduced. Under the Minister of Public Works there is a Director-General
of Public Instruction, with a council ; there are ten educational districts, with
the universities as centres, 49 inspectoral districts, and numerous local educa-
tional authorities. The public and primary schools are supported mainly by
the municipalities, the total sum spent in each of the last three years on
primary education, including a small contribution by Government, being about
1,000,000Z. Most of the children are educated free. The following table
shows the number of schools in the years 1850, 1870, and 1880 : —
Year
Public
Private
Total
1850
1870
1880
13,334
22,711
23,132
4,100
5,406
6,696
17,434
28,117
29,828
In 1885 (to which the latest issued reports refer) there were 24,529
public and 5,576 private primary schools, or 1 for every 560 inhabitants,
including 1,774 public and private schools for adults and Sunday schools.
In 1885 there were 1,843,183 pupils on the books. Secondary education is
conducted in 'institutions,' or middle-class schools, somewhat like universi-
ties in their organisation ; there must be one of them in every province in
addition to private schools. These are largely attended, but the education
is inefficient. These institutions prepare for the universities, of which
there are ten, attended by 16,000 students. The fees largely cover the
expenses of the universities. Government also supports various special
schools — engineering, agriculture, architecture, fine 9,rts, music, &c. In 1887
the total sum set apart for education in the budget was only 1,868,650
pesetas.
Finance.
The revenue of the Kingdom is raised by a system of direct and indirect
taxation, .stamp duties, Government monopolies, and income from State
property. The direct taxes are imposed on landed jtroperty, houses, live
stock, industry, commerce, registration acts, titles of nobility, mortgages,
and mineral produce. The indirect taxes are derived from foreign imports,
q-rticles of consumption, tolls, bridge and lorry dues.
FINANCE
1015
The ordinary rcvcnuo and expenditure in five financial years have been as
follows : —
Financial Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesetas
Pesetas
1892-93
707,398,172
782,130,858
1893-94
749,563,003
763,219,972
1894-95
754,993,033
780,242,373
1895-96
766,022,872
803,448,751
1896-97
822,411,446
808,955,658
The probable revenue for 1897-98 amounts to 806,258,027 pesetas, and
expenditure to 855,678,622 pesetas. The following are the estimates fop
1898-99 :—
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesetas
Pesetas
Direct taxes on land.
Civil list .
9,250,000
trade, mines. Govern-
Cortes
1,638,085
ment salaries, regis-
Public debt
399,236,678
tration, &c. .
297,360,810
Judicial expenditure .
1,614,651
Indirect taxes, cus-
Indemnities and pen-
toms, excise, &c.
305,273,000
sions
61,749,730
Tobacco monopoly.
Council of Ministers .
980,883
lottery, mint, and
Ministry of Foreign
minor sundries
132,696,024
Affairs .
4,935,919
Revenue from national
,, ,, Justice
54,748,649
property .
24,787,056
,, War.
145,929,521
From the public trea-
,, ,, Marine
25,190,539
sury
105,700,000
,, ,, Interior ,
28,381,198
,, ,, Pub. "Works, 1
&c.
80,728,570 :
,, ,, Finance .
18,659,467
.
Tax collecting .
34,560,528
Fernando Po
875,000
Tntnl
fifiT 816 890
Total .
868,479,417 j
A law of May 17, 1898, provides for an extraordinary expenditure of
209,423,917 pesetas by extraordinary credits as follows : Tobacco Company's
advance, 31,070,232 pesetas ; loan on guarantee of Almaden mines,
90,000,000 pesetas ; from tax on traffic, 88,353,685 pesetas. These
operations are to be sjiread over the six years ending in 1904.
In 1897 the public debt of Si)ain was ai)iiroxiiiiately as follows : — Con-
solidated debt, 183,967,O0OZ. ; redeemable, 66,225,000/. ; treasury debt
(including 18,280,000/. floating debt), 32,854,000/. ; total, 283,046,000/.
The external 'debt in 1898 stood as follow>; :— Quicksilver loan, 348,400/,;
1016 SPAIN
perpetual external, 77,587,613?. : redeemable, 61,P57,600?. — total,
139,893,613?.
Defence.
I. Frontieb.
The Spanish frontiers are defended by the following fortified places : —
On the north and north-west coast, Fuenterrabia, the fortified port of Passages,
and the military ports of Santona and Santander, Ferrol, Coruna, Vigo ; in
the Basque country, between the coast and the Ebro, are Bilboa and Vitoria ;
in the country on the left bank of the Ebro are Pamplona, Tafalla, Jaca,
Venasqua, Monzon, Puycerda, Seo de Urgel, Balagner, and Lerida ; between
the Segre and the Mediterranean are Cardona, Hostalrich, Campredon, Ripoll,
Gerona, Olot, Cartelfollit, Figueras ; on the Mediterranean, Palamos, Bar-
celona, Tarragona, Malaga, Almeria, Carthagena, and Alicante ; on the
Ebro are Logrono, Tudela, Zaragoza, Mequinenza, and Tortosa ; south of the
Ebro are Burgos and Morella, Along the Portuguese frontier are Toro,
Ciudad Rodrigo, Valencia de Alcantara, Albuquerque, and Badajoz ; Tarifa
and Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar, and Cadiz at its entrance.
II. Army.
Under the military law of July 1, 1885, the armed forces of Spain consist
of — 1, A permanent army ; 2. A first or active reserve ; 3. A second or
sedentary reserve. All Spaniards past the age of 19 are liable to be drawn
for the permanent army, in which they have to serve three years ; they then
pass for three years into the first or active reserve, and for six years into the
second reserve. By a payment of 1,500 pesetas any one may purchase
exemption from service. For the colonial army the total period of service is
eight years, four with the colours and four in the second reserve. By in-
creasing the number of depot battalions, assigning to each reserve battalion a
special district, and making it the essential basis of regimental organisation,
both for recruits and for the reserves, it is hoped that in time Spain may be
able easily to mobilise in case of necessity an army of 1,083,595 men.
The regular army of continental Spain is organised in 8 army corps, of
which two contain each 3 divisions of infantry, three contain each 2 divisions,
and three contain 1 division. Of cavalry, three of the army corps have each
1 division, and two have each 1 brigade. In the Balearic Islands, the Canaries
and Ceuta there are altogether 3 divisions of infantry, and at ]\relilla 1
brigade. The regular army is composed as follows : —
Infantry. — 56 regiments and 50 regiments reserve.
Chnsscurs — 5 brigades and 10 battalions reserve.
Cavalry. — 28 regiments and 14 regiments reserve.
Artillery. — 17 regiments of field or mountain artillery, 5 battalions
fortress artillery.
Sappers. — 4 regiments.
There is also' 1 regiment of pontooncrs ; 1 battalion railway troops ; 1
battalion of telegraphists ; 1 brigade for telegrajihic service ; 1 section of
workmen ; 7 artillery depots ; 7 engineer depots ; 16 administrative
companies ; 16 sanitary companies. Not included in the corps formation
are 1 regiment of field artillery and 4 battalions of fortress artillery.
The following is the strength of the regular army in peace and war :—
DEFENCE
1017
—
Peace
War
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
Administration
Sanitary, &c. .
Gendarmerie .
Customs' service .
Men
63,991
14,386
12,063
5,539
1,500
2,197
14,697
14,186
Men
132,000
17,156
12,166
11,027
11,140
483
Total
128,559
183,972
The army is provided with about 14,300 horses and mules, and 590 guns.
The annual contingent of recruits is fixed at 80, 000 men.
There are in Spain 13 military schools and colleges.
III. Navy.
In the war Avith the United States complete disaster overtook the Si>anis]i
fleet. In the battle of Cavite, May 1, 1898, the following vessels of Admiral
Montojo's squadron were lost to Spain, mostly by fire : Reincc Cristina,
Castilla, Antonio de Ulloa, Juan de Austria, Ma de Cuba, Isla de Luzon and
Velaseo, with the transport Mindanao. The Jican, Cuba, and Luzon, have
since been floated, and added to the United States Navy. In the battle oT
Santiago, July 3. the fine armoured cruisers Maria Teresa, Oquendo and
FiscaT/a (sisters of 7,000 tons), and the Oristobol Colon (6,840 tons), bought
from the Italians, were lost. The first-named was floated by the Americans,
but foundered on her way to a United States port. In the same engagement
the destroyers Furor and Pluton perished. In addition the gunboats
Delgado Parayo and Ccntcnella were burned at Manzanillo, on July 20, and
the Jorge Juan was sunk in Nipe Bay, IST.E. Cuba, on July 21. Some small
vessels have returned from Cuba, but a number of the Cuban gunboats ha\-e
fixllen into the hands of the Americans. It has also sanctioned the sale to
the Argentine Government of the armoured cruiser Pcc^ro ci'^rrt^07i, a sister
of the unfortunate Colo}i, which is in hand at Sestri Ponente, in Italy. The
following statement of strength excludes training ships, transports, and non-
effective vessels : —
Launched, February, 1 898 Building
Battleship, 1st class ... 1
Coast Defence Ships ... 2
Cmisers, 1st (dass (armoured) . 4
,, 2nd (dass ... 5
Cruisers, 3rd (dass ... 4 . . 1
Gunboats, &c. . . . 60 . . 1
Torpedo Craft, 1st class . . 20 . . 4
,, ,, 2nd class . . 3 .
,, ,, 3rd class . . 4 .
The single battleship credited to S]>aiH in the above table is the Pelayo,
launched at La Seyne in 1887, and lately reconstructed at the same place.
The following are her principal characteristics :— Displacement, 9,900 ton.s :
length, 330 ft. ; beam, 66 ft. ; draught, 24 ft. 9 in. ; engines, 6,800 nominal
horse-power; speed, 15"8 knots; principal armament, 2 12"5-in., 2 ll-in.,
1018 SPAIN
and 15 quick-firing guns ; protection, steel belt 18 in. maximum thickness,
and 19 in. on the barbettes. The 4 heavy guns are disposed in protected
barbette turrets fore and aft, and in sponsoned barbettes on either broadside.
Of Spanish first-class cruisers three remain and are still in the hands of the
constructors. They are protected by 12-in. steel belts, and the heavy gun
emplacements have 8 -in. steel armouring, and they are named the Catalufia,
Cardenal Gisneros, and Princcsa de Asturias, of 7,000 tons, 364 feet in length,
65 feet beam, 13,000 nominal horse-power, and 20 knots nominal speed.
The Emperador Carlos V., launched in 1892, at Cadiz, is a more powerful
armoured cruiser (9,235 tons) of the Russian PMvik type, with a larger
light armament than the others, and engines of 15,000 horse-power, which
are to give a speed of 20 knots. The old broadside ships Numancia and
Vitoria (dating from 1863 and 1867), have been reboilered, and have
received new armaments. Of smaller vessels Spain possesses 2 remai'kable
new deck-protected cruisers — the sister ships Alfonso XIII., and Lcpanto
(4,800 tons), which have their guns very advantageously placed, and, with
12,000 horse-power, are expected to steam at 20 knots. The third-class
cruisers in the above statement include 3 1,130-ton 14-knot vessels of the
Infanta Isabel class.
The navy of Spain is manned by 1,002 officers, 725 mechanicians and other
employees, and 14,000 sailors. The marines number about 9,000. The navy,
like the army, is recruited by conscription, naval districts for this purpose
being formed along the coast, among the seafaring population. .
Production and Industry.
Of the soil of Spain 79*65 is classed as productive ; of this 33 "8 per cent,
is devoted to agriculture and gardens, 3*7 vineyards, 1*6 olive culture, 19*7
natural grass, 20 '8 fruits. Wheat, rye, barley, maize, esparto, flax, hemp,
and pulse are the leading crops. The vine is the most important culture,
while large quantities of oranges, raisins, grapes, nuts, and olives are
exported.
The soil is subdivided among a very large number of proprietors. Of
3,426,083 recorded assessments to the property tax, there are 624,920
properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666 from 10 to 20 reales ;
642,377 from 20 to 40 reales ; 788,184 from 40 to 100 reales; 416,546 from
100 to 200 reales; 165,202 from 200 to 500 reales; while the rest, to the
number of 279,188, are larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and
upwards. The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the hands of
273,760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.
The number of farm animals in 1895 was estimated as follows : — Horses,
383,113 ; mules and asses, 1,496,703; cattle, 2,071,326 ; sheep, 16,469,308;
goats, 2,820,827 ; pigs, 1,910,368.
Spain is rich in minerals. Iron is abundant in the provinces of Yizcaya,
Santander, Oviedo, Huelva, and Seville ; coal is found in Oviedo, Leon,
Valencia, and Cordoba ; zinc in Santander, Guipuzcoa, and Vizcaya ; cobalt
in Oviedo ; lead in Murcia, Jaen, and Almeria ; quicksilver in Cindad Real ;
silver in Guadalajara ; sulphate of soda in Burgos ; salt in Guadalajara ;
sulphur in Murcia and Almeria ; phosphorus in Caceres and Huelva. The
number of mining concessions is about 2,400, and the workmen employed
nun^ber 62,858. In 1895 to 1896 the mineral output was : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
1019
—
1895
1896
Coal ....
Iron ore
Pig lead .
Tons
1,739,075
5,514,339
160,786
Tods
1,830,771
6,808,000
170,790
Copper ore .
Zinc (calamine) .
Iron pyrites
Manganese
Salt ....
2,800,000
44,000
60,267
10,162
326,320
2,825,000
45,000
200,000
100,000
350,000
Silver .......
Mercury
Kilogrammes
58,546
1,506,000
Kilogrammes
222,900
1,513,999
The smelting works number 132, with 16,310 workmen. The value of
the mineral output is 108,221,668 pesetas ; and of the metallic produce,
141,476,545 pesetas. In addition to the industries connected with
wine, fruits, olives, &c., Spain has considerable manufactures of cotton
goods, employing about 68,300 looms, with 2,614,500 spindles, also paper
works, and manufactures of articles in wood and cork.
Concerning Spanish fisheries, the most recent statistics relate to 1892.
In that year the total number of boats employed was 14,726; fishermen,
67,197 ; weight of fish caught, 82,813,978 kilogrammes of the value of
38,241,093 pesetas. The most important catches are those of sardines,
tunny fish, and cod. In Spain there are 409 factories, with 16,509 work-
men, for the preparation of sardines. The value of their output is about
15,000,000 pesetas annually.
Commerce,
The total imports and exports of Spain (including the precious metals)
wore as follows in five years : —
Year
Imports
Exports
Pesetas
Pesetas
1894
710,543,401
579,929,271
1895
703,792,444
692,635,935
1896
750,479,067
895,338,618
1897
784,196,987
979,545,623
1898
595,925,751
859,747,055
The following table shows the various classes of imports and exports for
1897 and 1898 :—
Description
Imports
1897
Stone, minerals, glassware ami
pottery
Metals and their manufactures
Drugs aTid chemical products.
Cotton and its manufactures .
Other vegetable flbres and manu
factur^s
Pesetas
72,715,632
24,651,056
60,183,616
03,300,414
22,822,432
1898
Exports
1S97
Pesetas
58,120,006
16,850,248
53,239,528
80,831,060
21,848,147
Pesetas
126.508,381
100,230,107
23,861,030
61,877,498
4,098,348
1898
Pesetas
127,217,080
101,303,110
22,291,954
37,948,584
2,564,513
1020
SPAIN
Description
Imports
Exports
1897
1898
1897
1898
Imports and Exports— Co«/^..
Wool and hair and their manufac-
tures
Silk and its manufactures
Paper and its applications
Tiniber and its manufactures .
Animals and their products .
Machinery, vehicles and vessels
Alimentary substances, including
grain, sugar, wine, &c.
Various
Gold and silver (bar and coin)
Other articles (special) .
Pesetas
20,142,415
19,055,231
9,080,978
45,342,129
67,603,885
49,911,624
148,235,985
5,822,002
123,796,122
21,532,866
Pesetas
15,124,126
14,469,342
7,082,525
34,045,202
56,126,566
39,551,263
98,798,401
3,823,346
70,223,934
25,792,057
Pesetas
17,662,758
4,972,237
11,725.116
43,554,124
64,468,590
521,517
334.036,792
15,400,305
170,628,820
Pesetas
19,903,614
4,847,623
8,774,969
46,848,309
63,361,884
1,750,226
399,601,954
1,930,135
21,403,150
Totals ....
784,196,987
595,925,751
979,-545,623
859,747,055
The exports of wine amounted to the value, in 1896, ofl43,471,188 pesetas ;
in 1897, 113,332,700 pesetas. Of the value in 1897, 101,393,600 pesetas
was for common wine; 11,257,440 pesetas for sherry; 681,660 pesetas for
full-bodied Avine. Of the common wine the value of 73,933,360 pesetas
went to France ; of the sherry the value of 3,224,640 pesetas went to France,
and 5,044,680 to England ; most of the full-bodied wine went to America.
The folloAving table shows the distribution of the general commerce of
Spain in 1896 and 1897, in pesetas : —
Imiiorts from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
Pesetas
Pesetas
Pesetas
Pesetas
France
217,713,552
146,856,965
282,464,497
254,459,511
Great Britain
154,708,903
155,076,488
225,716,676
263,643,582
United States
73,399,065
99,408,141
10,845,589
12,265,411
Germany
44,062,611
52,562,999
9,389,820
21,474,318
Belgium
40,522,360
27,544,655
17,650,984
19,207,109
Russia .
40,278,996
49,350,795
946,325
1,140,921
Italy .
21,500,500
22,864,842
10,129,040
10,161,536
Sweden and Nor-
way .
22,852,010
24,025,088
2,710,735
2,211,337
Portugal
41,068,962
37,614,127
41,513,130
34,575,352
Turkey
4,710,332
6,614,168
—
325
Spanish Colonies .
166,096,674
170,881,439
346,549,851
372,327,060
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United Kingdom is
shown in the following table from the Board of Trade Returns : —
Imports into Great Britain
Exports of British produce
to Spain ....
1893
£
10,353,932
3,614,516
1894
£
10,547,295
3,945,037
1895
£
11,314,518
3,638,453
1896
£
11,997,919
3,455,660
1897
£
13,125,660
3,330,747
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
1021
The quantities and value of wine imported into the United Kingdom I'loni
S]iain were as follows in each of the last five years : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Quantities
(gallons)
Value (£)
3,548,304
732,933
3,757,098
753,543
4,057,015
882,167
3,723,299
• 693,621
4,283,054
807,410
Besides wine, the following were the leading imports from Spain into the
United Kingdom in the last two 3'^ears : —
Iron ore .
Fruits
Lead and ore .
Esparto, &c. .
Silver ore
1896
1897
£ \ £
3,117,084 3,621,835
3,026,464: 3,438,604
1,002,640 1,199,024
339,612; 307,699
233,343
234,807
Pyrites
Copper ore,
regulus, kc.
Quicksilver .
Olive oil
Onions
1890
1897
£
966,184
£
933,451
1,193,849| 1,244,534
285,901 332,716
200,018 7,634
219,125 247,861
The chief British exports to Spain in 1897 were linen yarn and linens, of
the value of 167,265Z. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of
200,743/'. ; coal, of the value of 835, 261 ^. ; machiner}-, 393,595Z. ; cotton
yarn and goods, of the value of 220,488^. ; and woollen goods, 108,612Z.
Shipping and Navigation.
The merchant navy of the Kingdom contained in 1898, 436 steamers of
341,951 tons net, and 1,145 sailing vessels of 164,504 tons net ; total, 1,581
vessels of 506,455 tons.
The shipping entered and cleared at Spanish ports in two years was as
follows : —
—
1897
1S98
Entered :
With cargoes ....
In ballast
Total ....
Cleared :
With cargoes ....
In ballast
Total ....
No.
10,705
8,252
Tons
7,874,576
6,641,176
No.
9,706
7,649
Tons
7,265,436
6,012,715
18,957
14,516,752
17,355
13,278,151
15,749
1,732
13,149,055
1,100,607
15,298
1,659
13,013,250
982,670
17,481
14,249,662
16,957
13,995,920
Of the vessels entered in 1898, 8,490 of 5,495,903 tons, and of those
cleared, 7,792 of 5,322,412 tons were Spanish.
Internal Communications.
The length of railways in Spain on December 31, 1897, was 8,020 English
miles open for traffic. The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private
companies, but nearly all have obtained guarantees or subventions from the
Government.
The Post Office carried in 1896, in the inland service, 83,836,000 letters
and post-cards, and 49,106,000 printed papers and samples; in the inter-
1022 SPAIN
national service, 21,569,000 letters and post-cards, and 20,?2?,000, printed
papers and samples. There were 3,010 post-offices.
The length of lines of telegraphs in Spain on January 1, 1895, was
23,636 English miles ; and the length of wire 59,247 English miles. In the
year 1894 the number of inland messages was 3,812,544 ; international,
1,988,300; official, 161,495; total, 5,962,339. The number of telegraph
offices was 1,421.
Money and Credit.
On December 3, 1898, the condition of the Bank of Spain was as
follows :— _ 1,000 Pesetas.
Cash in hand, gold, silver, and bronze . . . 574,862
Portfolio 1,794,738
Public Treasury 37,617
Advance to Treasury 150,00G
Property 14,198
Capital and reserve 165,000
Notes in circulation 1,437,139
Deposits and Accounts current .... 830,195
The nominal value of the money coined in Spain from 1868 to 1898 was :
gold, 1,061,909,270 pesetas; silver, 1,050,291,120 pesetas.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Peseta of 100 Ccntesimos is of the value of a franc, 9^f?., or 25*225
pesetas to the pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 20, 10, and 5-peseta pieces.
Silver coins are 5-peseta and single peseta pieces.
Both gold and silver coins are of the same weight and fineness as the corre-
sponding French coins.
Theoretically, there is a double standard of value, gold and silver, the
ratio being 15^ to 1. But of silver coins only the 5-peseta piece is legal
tender, and the coinage of this is restricted.
On January 1, 1859, the metric system of weights and measures was
introduced in Spain, But, besides these, the old weights and measures are
still largely used. They are : — The Quintal = 101*4 lbs. avoirdupois ; the
Libra =1*014 lbs. avoirdupois ; the Arroba, for wine s 3^ imperial gallons ;
for oil = 2f imperial gallons ; the Square Vara = 1 '09 vara ^ 1 yard ; the
Fanega =1^ imperial bushel.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Spain in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Conde de Rascon.
First Secretary. — Marques de Guirior.
AttacM. — A. Roberts Ferratges.
Military Attachi. — Col. Rivera Lopez.
There are Consular representatives at London (C.G.), Cai'difl", Dublin,
Glasgow, Liverpool, ^N'ewcastle, Aberdeen, Newport, Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Spain,
Ambassador. — Right Hon. Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff", G.C.B., G.C.M.G. ;
Envoy to Persia, 1887 to 1891 ; Envoy to Roumania, 1891-92, Appointed
Ambassador to Spain January 1892,
Secretary. — Charles F. F. Adam.
Military AttaoM.—M.&jor W. L, White, R.A.
There are Consular representatives at Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cadizj
Coruna, Fernando Po, Malaga, Teneriffe.
COLONIES
1023
Colonies.
By the relinqitisliraent of Cuba and the cession of Porto Rico, the
Philippine and Suhi Islands, and Guam, the largest of the Ladronc Lslands,
the colonial possessions of Spain were in 1898 reduced to an area of al)out
244,000 square miles, witli a po[iulation of about 180,000.
Colonial Possessions
Area : English
square miles.
560
50
Populatioa
Possessions in the Pacilic :
Caroline Islands and Palaos
Marianne or Ladrone Islands (except Guam)
Total, Pacific ....
Possessions in Africa :
Rio de Oro and Adrar ....
Ifni (near Cape Nun) ....
Fernando Po, Annabon, Corisco, Elobey,
San Juan ......
Total, Africa
Total Possessions ....
36,000
1,000
610
37,000
243,000
27
850
100,000
6,000
30,000
243,877
136,000
173,000
244,487
For administrative purposes the Canary Islands are considered part of
Spain. Rio de Oro and Adrar are under the governorship of the Canary
Islands, with a sub-governor resident at Rio de Oro. The country on the
V)anks of the rivers Muni and Campo is claimed by Spain, Init disputed by
France ; it has an area of 69,000 square miles and a population of 500,000.
It is stated that negotiations are in progress for the sale of the Caroline
Islands, Palaos, and the Spanish Ladrones to Germany.
Books of Reference concerning Spain and Colonies.
Ani.ario oficial de correos y telegrafos de Espafia. Madrid.
Ani-ario de primera enseflanza. Madrid.
Bolctiu mensual de estadistica deinografico-sanitaria de la peninsula 6 islas adjacentes.
Censo de la poblacion en Esi)afla. 1887. Madrid, 1889.
Estadistica general de comercio exterior de Espafia, con sus provincias de ultraniar y
potencias extrangeras ; foruiada por la Direccion General de Adnanas. Annual. 4. Madrid.
Estado general de la annada para el aflo. Annual. Madrid.
Estadistica dv le administration de justicia en lo criminal durante. Annual. Madrid.
Estadistica mineral de Espafia. Annual. Madrid.
Oaceta de Madrid. 1897.
Lista oflcial de los huques de guerra y mercantes dc. la marina Espaflola. Madrid, 1894.
Memoria sobre las obras publicas. Annual. Madrid.
Movimiento de la poblacion de Espafia. Animal. Madrid.
Situacion de los ferro-carriles. Annual. Madrid.
Presupuestos generales del estado para el afio cconomico 1897-98. Madrid, 1897.
Resena geografica y estadistica de Espafia por la Direccion General del Institute
Geografico y Estadistico. Madrid, 1S88.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. London.
1024 SPAIN
x\niinal Statenieiit of the Trade of the United Kingdom with foreign Countries and
Uritish Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Alcover (Jose). La Lidustria Nacional. S. Madrid, 1SS8.
Amicis (E. de), Spain and the Spaniards. Translated from the Italian. New York, ISSr).
Armstrong (E.)and Hume (M. A. S.), Spain. Cambridge, 1807.
llaedeker's Spain and Portugal. London, 1898.
mack's Guide to Spain and Portugal. 9th ed. 8. London, 1892.
liarrio y Mier (M.), Historia del Derecho espanol. 2 torn. Madrid. 1894.
Jlrotni (A. S.), ]Madeira and the Canary Islands. 8. London, 1894.
Casaho y Patj/s (P.), La Espana judia. Barcelona, 1891.
Delbose (R. V.), Bibliographie des Voyages en Espagne et en Portugal. [From Revue
liispanique for March, July, November, 189(i.] Paris, 1896.
i'liiot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Spain. 2 vols. 8. London, 1884.
Espana sus IMonumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza e Historia. [A series of 21 volumes by
vari )us writers.] 8. Barcelona. 1884-91.
Gadow (H.), In Northern Spain. London, 1897.
Gallenga (A), Iberian Reminiscences. 2 vols. S. London, 1883.
Hare (A. J. C), Wanderings in Spain. London, 187;i.
Jlay (J.), Castilian Days. New ed. London, 1897.
Jacobs (J.), Inquiry into the Sources of the History of the Jews in Spain. London, 1894.
Lavigne (Germond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. S. Paris, 1893.
J.uffman (C. B.), A Vagabond in Spain. 8. London, 1895.
r.Iartinez y Gonzalez (S.), La Crisis de la Agi'iculture. Salamanca, 1893.
Meyrick (F.), The Cluirch in Spain. London, 1892.
Muro Martinez (J.). Coustituciones de Espaiia. 2 vols. Madrid, 1881.
jUwrraj/'s Handbook for Spain. By R. I'ord. 9th edition, 2 vols. London, 1898.
Noyes (H. E.), Church Reform in Spain and Portugal, 1868-96. London, 1897.
O'Shea (H.), Guide to Spain and Portugal. Loudon, 1895.
]'oUn (D. Jose Lopez), Diccionario estadistico municipal de Espana. 4. Madrid, 1863.
i'ooZt! (S. Lane), The Moors in Spain. In the Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1886.
/fechts (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Vol. I. Paris, 1879.
Riano (J. F.), The Industrial Arts in Spain. 8. London.
Routier (G.), L'Espagne en 1897. Paris, 1897.
Salcani (J. T.), Espana a fines del siglo xix. Madrid, 1891.
Stoddard (C. A.), Spanish Cities. London, 1892.
FuiZZier (G.), Les lies Oubliees. [Travel in the Baleariclsles, &c.] Paris, 1893. Eng.
Trans. London, 1896.
Webster (Rev. Weutworth), Spain, in 'Foreign Countries and British Possessions.
Loudon, 1882.
T7i/Zfco7«m (Heinrich Moritz), Das pyreniiische Halbinselland. S. Leiiizig, 1886.
Wood (C. W.), Letters from Majorca. 8. London.
Christian (F. W.), Exploration in the Caroline Islands. Geographical Journal for
Fi'bniary, 1898. London.
Ibanez y Garcia (L. de), Historia de la Islas Marianas. Granada, 1886.
Reparaz (G.), Espana en Africa. Madrid, 1891.
Root (W. J.), Spain and its Colonies. London, 1898.
raylor (A. VV.), Les lies Carolines. Paris, 1890.
Toro (F. Perez del), Enpana en el Noroeste de Africa, 8. Madrid, 1892.
Wood (C. F.), A Yachting Cruise in the South Seas. [Caroline Islands.] London, 187').
1025
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(SVERIGE OCH NORGE.)
Reigning King.
Oscar II., born January 21, 1829; the third son of King
Oscar I., and of Queen Josephine, daughter of Prince Eugene of
Leuchtenberg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his
brother. King Carl XV., Sept. 18, 1872. Married June 6, 1857,
to Queen Sophia, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Duke
Wilhelm of Nassau.
Children of the King,
I. Prince Gustaf, Crown Prince, Duke of Wermland, born
June 16, 1858. Married Sept. 20, 1881, to Princess Victoria,
born Aug. 7, 1862, daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden.
Issue, Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Scania, born Nov. 11, 1882 ;
Prince Carl Wilhelm, Duke of Sodermanland, born June 17,
1884; and Prince Erik Ludvig Albert, Duke of Vestmanland,
born April 20, 1889.
II. Prince Oscar Bernadotte, Count of Wisborg, born Nov.
15, 1859. Renounced his succession to the throne and married
March 15, 1888, Ebba Munck of Fulkila, born Oct. 24, 1858.
III. Prince Carl, Duke of Westergotland, born Feb. 27, 1861.
Married August 27, 1897, to Princess Ingeborg, born Aug. 2,
1878, daughter of the Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark.
IV. Prince Eugen, Duke of Nerike, born Aug. 1, 1865.
King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte
Gorvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte
Corvo, who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by
the Parliament of the Kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the
throne Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He
was succeeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only son Oscar.
The latter died July 8, 1859, and was succeeded by his eldest
son Carl XV., at whose premature death, without male children,
the crown fell to his next surviving brother, the present King.
The royal family of Sweden and Norway have a civil list of
1,320,000 kronor, or 73,340/., from Sweden, and 482,838 kroner,
or 26,882^., from Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an annuity
of 300,000 kronor, or 16,666^., voted to King Carl XIV. and his
successors on the throne of Sweden.
3 u
102G
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden,
with the dates of their accession, from the accession of the House
of Vasa : —
House of Vasa.
Gustaf I.
Eric XIV.
Jolian III.
Sigismund
Carl IX.
Gustaf II Adolf
Christina .
House of Pfaltz.
Carl X.
Carl XI. .
Carl XII. .
Ulrika Eleoiiora .
1521
1560
1568
1592
1599
1611
1632
1654
1660
1697
1718
Fredrik I.
House of Hesse.
1720
House of Holstein-Gottorp.
Adolf Fredrik . . . 1751
Gustaf III 1771
Gustaf IV. Adolf. . .1792
Carl XIII 1809
House of Ponte Corvo.
Carl XIV 1818
Oscar 1 1844
Carl XV 1859
Oscar II 1872
By the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceiU'd to the King of
Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian peo^jle did not recognise
this cession, and declared themselves independent. A Constituent Assembly
met at Eidsvold, and having adopted, on May 17, a Constitution, elected the
Danish Prince Christian Fredrik King of Norway. The Swedish troops, how-
ever, entered Norway without serious resistance, and, the foreign Powers re-
fusing to recognise the newly elected King, the Norwegians were obliged to
conclude, August 14, the Convention of Moss, by which the independency of
Norway in union with Sweden was solemnly proclaimed. An extraordinary
Storthing was then convoked, Avhich adopted the modifications in the Constitu-
tion made necessary by the union with Sweden, and then elected King Carl XIII.
King of Norway, November 4, 1814. The following year was promulgated a
charter, the Riksakt, establishing new fundamental laws on the terms that the
union of the two Kingdoms be indissoluble and irrevocable, without prejudice,
however, to the separate government, constitution, and code of laws of either
Sweden or Norway.
The law of succession is the same in Sweden and Norway. In case of
absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets assemble for the election of the
future sovereign, and should they not be able to agree upon one person, an
equal number of Swedish and Norwegian deputies have to meet at the city of
Karlstad, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nomination to be
absolute. The common affairs are decided upon in a Council of State
composed of Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the
Council of State exercises the sovereign j)ower until a regent or council of
regency is appointed by the united action of the Diets of Sweden and Norway.
1. SWEDEN.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The fundamental laws of the Kingdom of Sweden are : — 1. The
Constitution or Regerings-formen of June 6, 1809 ; 2. The
amended regulations for the formation of the Diet of June 22,
1866 ; 3. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810 ; and
OONSTITLTTION AND GOVERNMENT 102?
4. The law on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812. Accord-
ing to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
Church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His
person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make
peace, after consulting the Council of State. He nominates to
all higher appointments, both military and civil ; concludes
foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the supreme Court
of Justice. The princes of the blood royal, however, are excluded
from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative power
in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
that power is exercised by the Diet in concert with the sovereign,
and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The
right of imposing taxes is, however, vested in the Diet. This
Diet, or Parliament of the realm, consists of two Chambers, both
elected by the people. The First Chamber consists of 150 members.
The election of the members takes place by the ' Landstings,' or
provincial representations, 25 in number, and the municipal cor-
porations of the towns, not already represented in the ' Landstings,'
Stockholm, Cloteborg, Malmo, Norrkoping and Gefle. All members
of the First Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and must have
possessed for at least three years previous to the election either
real property to the taxed value of 80,000 kronor, or 4,444^., or
an annual income of 4,000 kroner, or 223/. They are elected for
the term of nine years, and obtain no payment for their services.
The Second Chamber consists of 230 members, of whom 80 are
elected by the towns and 150 by the rural districts.
All natives of Sweden, aged 21, possessing real property
to the taxed value of 1,000 kroner, or 56/., or farming, for
a period of not less than five years, landed property to the
taxed value of 6,000 kroner, or 333/., or paying income tax
on an annual income of 800 kroner, or 45/., are electors ; and all
natives, aged 25, possessing the same qualifications, may be elected
members of the Second Chamber. The number of qualified
electors to the Second Chamber in 1896 was 309,899, or 6*3 of the
population; only 140,488, or 45"3 of the electors, actually voted.
In the smaller towns and country districts the election may eitlier
be direct or indirect, according to the wish of the majority. The
election is for the term of three years, and the members obtain
salaries for their services, at the rate of 1,200 kroner, or 67/., for
each session of four months, or, in the case of an extra session
10 kroner (Us.) ^ day, besides travelling expenses. The
salaries and travelling expenses of the deputies are paid out of the
public purse. The members of both Chambers are elected by
ballot, both in town and country.
3 u 2
1028 SWEDEN AND NORWAY .'—SWEDEN
The executive power is in the hands of the King, who acts under the advice
of a Council of State, the head of which is the Minister of State. It consists
of ten members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and three
without department, and is composed as follows : —
1. Erik Gustaf ^os^rom. Minister of State ; appointed July 10, 1891.
2. Count Ludvig Yilhelm August Douglas, Minister of Foreign Affairs ;
appointed June 1, 1895.
3. Per Samuel Ludvig Annei'stedt, Minister of Justice ; appointed
Febniary 5, 1896.
4. Baron Axel Emil Eappe, Minister of War ; appointed June 22, 1892.
5. Jarl Casimir Eugene Cliristerson, Minister of Marine ; appointed
December 16, 1892.
6. Julius Edvard von Krusenstjerna, Minister of the Interior ; appointed
October 6, 1896.
7. Count Hans Hansson WacMmeister, Minister of Finance ; appointed
July 16, 1897.
8. Nils Ludwig Alfred Claeson, Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs ; appointed June 22, 1898.
9. Baron Albert Lars Evert AkerMdm ; appointed September 28, 1888.
10. Sven Herman Wikhlad ; appointed October 12, 1889.
All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the acts of
the Government.
II. Local Government.
The provincial administration is entrusted in Stockholm to a Governor-
General, and in each of the 24 governments to a prefect, who is nominated by
the King. As executive officers of the prefects there are 117 baillies (Krono-
fogdar) and 518 sub-officers (Lansmiin). The right of the people to regulate
their own local affairs is based on the communal law of March 21, 1862. Each
rural parish, and each town, forms a commune or municipality in which all
who pay the local taxes are voters. Each commune has a communal or muni-
cipal council. The communal assembly or municipal council decides on all
questions of administration, police and communal economy. Ecclesiastical
affairs and questions relating to primary schools are dealt with by the parish
assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish. Each government has
a general council which regulates the internal aiiairs of the government. The
council meets annually for a few days in September under a president
appoir ted by the King from among its members. The members are elected
by the towns and provincial districts. Towns having a population of at least
l-150th (if the total population of the country and towns already separated
from the 'Landstings,' and where the number of inhabitants is not fallen
below that whicli caused their separation, are administered separately by
their municipal councils : these towns are Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmb,
Norrkoping, and Gefle.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The first census took place in 1749, and it was repeated at
first every third year, and subsequently, after 1775, every fifth
year. At present, a general census is taken every ten years,
beside which there are annual numerations of the people.
The area and population of Sweden, according to the census
AREA AND POPULATION
1029
taken on December 31, 1890, and as estimated on December 31,
1897, are as follows : —
Governments (Liin)
Area: English
square miles
Population
Dec. 31, 1890
Population
Dec. 31,1897
Pop. per
square mile
1897
Stockholm (city)
13
246,454
288,602
22,200-1
Stockholm (rural district)
3,015
152,715
160,999
53-4
Upsala ....
2,051
121,091
124,061
61-9
SodermanlanJ .
2,631
154,991
164,557
62-5
Ostergotland .
4,267
266,619
274,818
64-4
Jonkoping
4,447
193,704
198,623
44-6
Kronoberg
3,825
160,835
159,175
41-6
Kalraar ....
4,443
232,847
227,998
51-3
Gotland ....
1,219
51,337
52,187
42-8
Blekinge . . ...
1,164
142,602
144,666
124-3
Kristiaustad .
2,486
221,691
219,588
88-3
Malmohus
1,866
368,817
393,231
210-7
Hallaud ....
1,900
136,106
140,504
73-9
Goteborg and Bohus
1,948
297,824
322,529
165-6
Elfsborg ....
4,938
275,780
276,969
56-1
Skaraborg
3,280
247,074
243,835
74-3
Vermland
7,435
253,326
253,363
34-1
Orebro ....
3,498
182,557
191,684
54-8
Vestmanland .
2,625
137,453
144,396
55-0
Kopparberg
11,522
197,449
210,790
18-3
Getleborg
7,614
206,924
226,423
29-7
Vesternorrland
9,837
208,763
223,606
22-8
Jemtland
19,712
100,455
107,656
5-4
Yesterbotten .
22,754
122,784
138,061
6-1
Norrbotten
40,870
104,783
121,311
3-0
Lakes Venern, Vetteru,
Malaren, Hjelmaren
Total .
3,516
—
—
—
172,876
4,784,981
5,009,632
28-7
In 1897 there were 2,437,926 males and 2,571,706 females.
The growth of the population has been as follows : —
Year
Population
Increase per ct.
per annum
Year
Population
Increase per ct.
per annum
1800
1820
1840
1850
2,347,303
2,584,690
3,138,887
3,482,541
0-5
1-07
1-09
1860
1870
1880
1890
3,859,728
4,168,525
4,565,668
4,784,981
1-08
0-80
0-95
0-50
With the exception of (1890) 19,505 Finns, 6,846 Laj^ps, and some
thousands others, the Swedish population is entirely of the Scandinavian
branch of the Aryan family.
In 1890 the foreign-born population numbered 24,548, of whom 4,066
were born in Germany, 5,401 in Denmark, 6,287 in Norway, 4,609 in Finland,
1,195 in Russia, 598 in the United Kingdom, and 1,482 in the United States
According to civil condition the i^opulation was divided as follow in
1890 :—
1030
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
—
Male
Female
—
Male
Female
Unmarried
Married
1,431,843
795,463
1,460,664
804,613 ■
Widowed .
Divorced .
88,580
1,301
199,930
2,587
The following table shows the leading occupations of the people in 1890,
including the families and dependents of those directly employed : —
Agriculture, &c. :
Landed and farm proprietors
Fai'mers, overseers, &c.
Planters, &c.
Crofters, cottagers, &c.
Dairy-keepers
Gardeners
Fisheries ....
Mining and metal works .
1,229,601
250,784
400,623
494,421
11,882
15,793
34,246
219,578
Timber works
Various manufactures
Trade and locomotion
Officials and military
Learning and literature
Medicine, &c.
Owners, pensioners, &c.
Mechanics, servants, &c
Various ...
96,323
533,119
309,957
207,276
43,383
18,817
307,550
555,297
56,271
II. Movement of the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
Total living
Births
Of which
lUegitimate-
Stillborn
Marriages
Deaths
exclusive of
Stillborn
Surplus of
Births over
Deaths
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
135,516
129,622
131,729
131,409
134,599
13,718
13,595
13,616
13,958
14,438
3,556
3,363
3,436
3,457
3,535
27,940
27,338
27,219
27,851
28,728
80,603
85,894
81,027
79,444
74,368
54,913
43,728
50,702
51,965
60,231
2. Emigi^ation.
Year
1890
1891
1892
Immi-
grants
Total
Emigrants
To America
Year
Immi-
grants
Total
Emigrants
To America
6.030
6,114
6,511
34,212
42,776
45,504
29,487
36,134
40,990
1893
1894
1895
7,377
10,425
8,528
40,869
13,358
18,955
37,321
9,529
14,982
III. Pkincipal Towns.
The population of Sweden is mainly rural. In 1871 the town population
numbered only 551,106, and in 1896, 1,030,367, showing an increase of
87 per cent., or nearly five times the rate of the general average of the
Kingdom.
The following towns had more than 10,000 inhabitants at the end of
1897 :—
Stockholm
. 288,602
Upsala .
. 22,706
Linkoping
. 13,586
Goteborg .
. 120,552
Jonkoping
. 21,439
Eskilstuna
. 12,971
Malmb . .
. 55,500
Orebro .
. 18,687
Kalmar .
. 12,459
Norrkoping
. 38,354
Lund .
. 15,791
Boras
. 12,371
Gefle . .
. 26,400
Sundsvall
. 17,158
Soderhamn
. 10,775
Karlskrona
. 23,196
Halmstad
. . 17,100
Karlstad .
. 10,511
Helsingborg
. 22,818
Landskrom
1 , 13,481
Kristianstad
. 10,079
RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME 1031
Relig^ion.
The mass of the population adhere to the Lutheran Protestant Church,:
recognised as the State religion. There are 12 bishoprics, and 2,551 parishes
in 1898. At the census of 1890, the number of ' Evangelical Lutherans '
was returned at 4,735,218, the Protestant Dissenters, Baptists, Methodists,
and others numbering 44,378, including 23,307 unbaptized children. Of
other creeds, there were 1,390 Roman Catholics, 46 Greek-Catholics, 313
Irvingites, 3,402 Jews, and 234 Mormons. No civil disabilities attach to
those not of the national religion. The clergy are chiefly supported from
the parishes and the proceeds of the Church lands.
Instruction.
The Kingdom has two universities, at Upsala and Lund, the former
frequented by 1,405 and the latter by 585 students in the spring of 1898.
There are also a state faculty of medicine in Stockholm (268 students) and
private philosophical faculties in Stockholm and Goteborg, Education is
well advanced in Sweden. In 1897 there were 79 public high schools,
with 16,180 pupils ; 28 people's high schools, 1,205 pupils ; 12 normal
schools for elementary schoolteachers, 1,203 pupils ; 2 high and 6 elementary
technical schools ; 10 navigation schools, 592 pupils ; 21 institutions and
schools for deaf mutes and blinds ; besides medical schools, military schools,
veterinary and other special schools. Public elementary instruction is
gratuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under the
supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of having been privately
educated. In 1896 there were 11,342 elementary schools, with 15,155
teachers and 730,259 pupils. In 1896 the expenditure on elementary education
was 16,132,149 kronor, of which more than one-fourth came from the national
funds. Among the recruits (Bevaring) of 1895 only 0*20 per cent, were
unlettered, only 0"65 per cent, unable to write.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is entirely independent of the Government.
Two functionaries, the Justitie-Kansler, or Chancellor of Justice, and the
Justitie-Ombudsman, or Attorney-General, exercise a control over the admin-
istration. The former, appointed by the King, acts also as a counsel for the
Crown ; while the latter, who is appointed by the Diet, has to extend a
general supervision over all the courts of law. The Kingdom, which possesses
one Supreme Court of Judicature, is divided into 3 high court districts and
207 district courts divisions, of which 90 are urban districts and 117 country
districts.
In town these district courts (or courts of first instance) are held by the
burgomaster and his assessors ; in the country by a judge and 12 jurors —
peasant proprietors — the judge alone deciding, unless the jurors unanimously
differ from him, when their decision prevails. In Sweden trial by jury only
exists for affairs of the press.
In 1896, 1,936 men and 262 women were sentenced for serious crimes ; at
the end of 1896, 1,640 hard-labour prisoners.
Pauperism.
Each commune is bound to assist children under 15 years of age, if their
circumstances require it, and all who from age or disease are unable to support
themselves. In other cases the communal poor board decides what course to
take. Each commune and each town (which may be divided) constitutes a
poor district, and in each is a board of public assistance. In 1896 these
districts possessed workhouses and similar establishments to the number of
1,854, capable of lodging 47,377 people.
1032
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
The number of paupers assisted in 1860 was 132,982 ; in 1870, 204,378 ;
in 1880, 219,532 ; in 1896, 252,480. 01' the last 84,168 were in the towns.
Finance.
The budgets of revenue and expenditure for the years 1897
and 1898 were as follows : —
Revenue
1898
1890
Expenditure
— — ■
1898 1899
1
Kronor
Ki-onor
Kronor
Kronor
Domains, railway,
land taxes, &c.\
21,082,000
22,603,000
(a) Ordinary :
Customs
39,000,000
41,000,000
Royal Household
1,820,000
1,320,000
Post .
9,025,000
9,925,000
Justice
3,842,350
3,842,450
Stamps
5,000,000
4,400,000
Foreign Affairs .
606,750
606,750
Impost on spirits,
Army
26.342,985
26,528,460
<&c.
23,500,000
24,500,000
Navy .
7,046,340
7,164,965
Tax on incomes, &c.
6,450,000
6,350,000
Interior
5,738,800
5,756,200
Xet proflt of the
Education an I
State Bank
1,800,000
2,000.000
Ecclesiastical
Surplus from the
Affairs .
13,800,698
14,222,099
previous years .
14,229,000
12,615,000
Finance
18,376,400
19,219,350
Pensions .
(b) Extraordinary .
(c) Expenditure thro'
3,284,450
3,429,450
80,358,773
82,089,724
27,047,127
28,024,076
the Riksgiilds-
kontor :
'
Payment of
loans and Mis-
[
cellaneous
(Diet, &c.)
11,243,800
11,588,507
Carried to floating
capital
86,300
40,693
Fund for insurance
1
against invalidity
1
of workmen .
1,400,000
1,400,000
Fund for insurance
against accidents
Total revenue .
of workmen
Total expenditure .
250,000
120,086,000
123,393,000
120,086,000
123,393,000
Of the extraordinary expenditure in 1899 the army claims 5,431,390 kronor,
the navy 3,569,335 kronor, the interior 4,354,350 kronor, education and
ecclesiastical affairs, 1,945,101 kronor, pensions 1,540,000 kronor. The value
of the land and house property of Sweden is thus returned for 1897 : —
Taxed : Agricultural land iu the country
,, >, in the towns
Other real estate in the country
,, ,, ,, in the towns .
Total (1897) .
Kronor
2,239,891,950
42,741,260
426,076,150
1,323,968,450
4,032,677,810
FINANCE — DEFENCE 1033
Untaxed: National {^^ZZ:^^ [ '. [ ^^mjoo
J^SStierh^^^r^*^^ • • • ^^I'^^^i^^
academies, &c. 3 I^*^^^**^^^'^^ • ' ' _132^025^
Total (1897) .... 479,065,184
Grand total (1897) . . . 4,511,742,994
The expenditure for the Church is chiefly defrayed by the parishes and out of
the revenue of landed estates belonging to the Church, and the amounts do
not appear in the budget estimates. A part of the cost for maintaining
the army Indclta also does not appear in the budget. The expenses for
public instruction are in great part defrayed by the parishes.
On January 1, 1898, the public liabilities of the Kingdom, contracted
entirely for railways, were as follows : —
Kroner
Funded railway loan of 1860 without interest . . 121,111
,, ' ,, 1880 „ 31 ,, . . . 101,821,500
,, 1886 „ 3i ,, . . . 58,670,666
„ 1887 „ 3t% ,, . . . 48,759,500
„ 1888,, 3 ,, . . . 26,666,667
,, 1890 „ 3^ „ . . 33,444,000
Funded railway loan of 1894 with 3 interest . . 18,000,000
Total . . . 287,483,444
All the loans are. paid off gradually by means of sinking funds. The debt
amounts to about 3Z. 8s. per head of the population, and the interest to about
2s. 3c?. ; but as the railway receipts amount to about the whole interest, the
charge per head is nominal.
The income of the communes in 1896 was 74,184,779 kronor, and the
expenditure 74,268,772 kronor. Their assets amounted to 312,691,802
kronor, and their debts to 188,543,622 kronor. The revenue of the provincial
representative bodies was 4,585,691 kronor, and expenditure 4,322,742
kronor ; their assets 14,346,759 kronor, and debts 4,760,238 kronor.
Defence.
The chief fortifications of Sweden are, on the coast, Karlskrona
with Kungsholmen and Westra Hastholmen, Stockholm with
Yaxholm-Oscar-Fredriksborg ; in the interior, Karlsborg, near
Lake Wetter.
The Swedish army is composed of three distinct classes of
troops. They are : —
1. The Vdrfvade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the
royal lifeguards (two infantry and one cavalry regiments), five
regiments of infantry (of these, however, three regiments con-
tain Indelta troops), one battalion of chasseurs, two battalions
of infantry, four regiments of cavalry, the artillery, the engineers,
and the train. The Vdrfvade are in service two or three years.
2. The Indelta^ consisting of 19 regiments and one corps
of infantry, and 3 regiments ot* cavalry. The privates of
1034<
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
cavalry (Indelta) are paid and kept by the Landowners. Every
soldier of the Indelfa has, as a rule, besides a small annual pay, his
torp, or cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his
own during the whole period of service, sometimes extending to
thirty years, but he may instead take money payment. There is
about 200 days' training in two years for recruits in the infantry
and 400 days' in two years in the cavalry, after which they are
annually called out for 22 or 23 days' practice.
3. The Vdrnpligtige, or conscription troops, drawn by annual
levy from the male population between the ages of 21 and 40
years, of which the first 12 classes are called Bevdring, the 8
others Landstorm. The right of purchasing substitutes, which
formerly existed, was abolished by the Diet in 1872. The
Vdrnpligtige are divided among the Vdr/vade and the Indelta
troops, and are mobilised with these. The Bevdring undergoes
90 days' training, which in the navy and also in the cavalry is
completed in the first year ; in the other forces 68 days in the first
year and 22 in the second. The Landstorm is in time of war
formed in separate troops. Bevaring of first year, about 29,000
men; of the 12 years, about 250,000. Landstorm of the 8 years,
about 200,000.
The total peace strength of the armed forces of Sweden (ex-
clusive of the Vdrnpligtige), according to the re-organization
carried out in 1892, consists of : —
Permaueut Army
CO
o
O
9
Non-com-
missioned
Officers
»3
Men (exclu-
sive of
Musicians)
Civil and
CivilMilitarj'
persons
I
CO
3
to
CO
O
W
Generals
9
18
General Staff,
Staflf-College,
&c.
39
2
—
229
270
—
78
Infantry .
1,220
1,133
1,285
23,792
201
27,631
—
241
Cavalry
232
210
152
4,615
60
5,269
5,318
Artillery .
303
255
171
3,307
143
4,179
240
1,022
Engineers .
77
58
21
821
14
991
—
87
Train
Total
QQ
124
24
1,653
522
36
683
772
—
112
1,946
1,782
33,057
39,121
240
6,876
Reserves 1898 .
685
760
75
—
80
1,300
—
56
The Swedish navy is maintained wholly for coast defence. In September
1892, a committee appointed to consider the snbject recommended a con-
siderable increase in the floating strength. The navy consists of the follow-
ing vessels : Armoured coast defence turret ships — First class, 5 ; second
class, 4 ; armoured gunboats, 9 ; steam corvettes, 3 ; gunboats and despatch
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1085
vessels, 16 ; torpedo boats of 65 to 90 tons, 4 ; of 34 to 40 tons, 9 ; vedettes
8, and school and other ships of various types, 12.
The following is a list of the principal armonr-clad ships : —
1
Name
unched
splace-
nt tons
Extreme
armouring
inches
Armament
C M
"2 3
&1
dicated
ie power
ominal
5d knots
CO
Q
c3
1-^
sg
^^
'"' 2 i^
t
John Erics807i
1865
1,500
10-8
2-5-9 in.
—
380 7-5
t
Thordon . .
1866
1,500
10-4
2 9-4 in.
—
380 1 6-7
t
Tirfiuf] . . .
1867
1,500
10-4
,,
—
3S0
6-8
t
Loke . . .
1871
1,600
17-8
,,
—
430
8-5
t
Svea ....
1886
2,900
11-8
2 10 in. 44-7 in. 14 Q.F.
guns of smaller calibre
1
3,640
14-7
t
Qota ....
1891
3,100
11-7
2 10 in. 45-9 in. 13 Q.F.
guns of smaller calibre
3
4,750
16-0
t
Thule . . .
1893
3,150
11-7
2 10 in. 45-9 in. 13 Q.F.
guns of smaller calibre
2
4,740
16-2
t
Oden. . . .
1896
3,300
10-0
2 10 in. 44-7 in. 14 Q.F.
guns of smaller calibre
1
5,330
16-8
t
Niord . . .
1898
3,300
10-0
Do. do.
1
5,330
16 8
t
Thor. . . .
1898
8,300
10-0
Do. do.
1
5,330
16-8
It is proposed to lay down three first-class coast defence armourclads in
1900. Some of the Armoured gunboats are receiving quick-firing guns, and
several torpedo cruisers are nearly ready. A committee has reported upon the
question of fixed defences, and a plan has been laid down to complete, within
ten years, the defences of Karlskrona, Kaiisl)urg, and the Island of Gothland,
to erect new works at Waxholm and Oscar-Frederiksberg for the defence of
Stockholm, and to fortify Boden and Gotlienborg.
The personnel of the Royal Navy is divided into three classes, viz. : 1,
The Active List ; 2. The Reserve ; 3. The Bcvdring. On the active list are
5 fiag-oflicers, 6 captains, 24 commanders, and about 140 lieutenants and
sub-lieutenants, while about 140 commissioned officers belong to the Reserve.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The number of farms in cultivation in 1896 was 333,073 ; of these
there were of 2 hectares and under, 72,020 ; 2 to 20 hectares, 216,650 ; 20 to
100 hectares, 32,463 ; 100 and above, 3,211. Of the total land area of Sweden
8 '4 per cent, is under cultivation, 3 "6 per cent, under natural meadows, and
47*5 per cent, under forests, the products of which form a staple export.
The following table shows, in thousands of hectares, the area under the
chief crops in 1896, and, in thousands of hectolitres, the yield in 1897 : —
Wlieat
Rye
Barley
Oats
Mixed
Grain
Pulse
Potatoes
71-3
1,611 2
407-7
8,316-4
2180
5,040-5
818-7
20,605-9
121-8
3,356-2
50-7
848-3
157-7
19,772-5
The value of all cereal crops in 1897 was estimated at 265*2 million kronor.
At the end of 1896 Sweden had 512,406 horses, 2,554,577 head of cattle.
1,298,732 sheep and lambs, 788,736 pigs. In 1880 34,000 head of cattle and
29,000 sheep were exported, in 1896 respectively, 25,146 and 12,793.
1036
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
II. Mines and Minerals.
Milling is one of the most important departments of Swedish industry, and
the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant progress by the
introduction of new machinery. There were raised in the year 1896, through-
out the Kingdom, 2,038, 094 tons of iron ore. The pig-iron produced amounted
to 487,147 tons; the bar iron to 321,615 tons. Of iron ore in
1895 800,452 tons, and in 1896 1,150,695 tons were exported; of pig-iron,
86,368 tons in 1895, and 71,343 in 1896 ; of bar iron, 177,086 in 1895,
and 180,372 in 1896. There were also raised in 1896 15,381 tons of silver
and lead ore, 27,351 tons of copper ore, 44,041 tons of zinc ore, and 2,056
tons of manganese ore. The gold produced amounted to 114 '53 kilogrammes,
the silver to 2,082, the lead to 1,518,419, the copper to 248,586. There are
not inconsiderable veins of coal in the southern parts of SAveden, giving
225,878 tons of coal in 1896. In 1896 there were 27,994 persons engaged in
mininsr.
Commerce.
The total customs duties levied were in 1895 39,466,186 kronor, in 1896
42,339,086 kronor, and in 1897 43,755,018 kronor. The value of the imports
subject to duty in 1896 was 217,351,729 kronor ; and of duty-free imports,
140,962,989 kronor.
The imports and exports of Sweden have been as follows : —
—
1890
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
Imports .
Exports .
Kronor
377,187,739
304,591,863
Kronor
360,315,855
329,300,154
Kronor
332,689,289
328,271,667
Kronor
351,173,005
298,625,234
Kronor
344,290,247
311,434,290
Kronor
358,314,718
340,283,042
The following were the values of the leading imports and exports for
two years : —
—
Imports
1895
Imports
1896
Exports
1895
Kronor
7,265,867
6,502,983
713,556
1,224,047
10,387,749
13.674,947
65,755,099
4,615,320
33,045,476
139,909,132
7,796,817
20,543,297
Exports
1896
Textile manufactures
Corn and flour
Colonial wares
Raw textile material and yarn
Minerals, of imports mostly coal .
Metal goods, machinery, &c. .
Live animals and animal food .
Hair, hides, and other animal pro-
ducts
Metals, raw and partly wrought
Timber, wrought and unwrought .
Paper and paper manuiactuies
Other articles . - . . .
Total
Kronor
43,394,575
26,284,212
42,849,293
.35.835,101
43,787,064
37,462,115
15,953,946
20,688,201
8,396,101
4,424,663
3,832,457
61,382,519
Kronor
41,671,033
38,248,993
41,851,757
35,466,710
45,114,786
43,941,208
18,668,472
19,897,595
9,527,708
4,512,386
3,909,256
65,468,814
Kronor
8,004,445
5,624,517
652,338
1,287,892
1.3,178,748
16,830,248
64,332,767
5,037,046
35,332,642
152,090,709
8,319,939
22,591,751
344,290,247
358,314,718
811,434,290
340,283,042
The values of imports and exports are calculated according to average prices in
Swedish port, exclusive of Customs duties. For most of these average prices merchants
are consulted by the Board of Trade (Konuners-Kollegium), and the values thus obtained
are published in the Board's annual report on commerce. The quantities in the Customs'
COMMERCE
1037
returns are most exactly given for imports. For the quantities' of exports the state-
ments of exporters are relied on. Imports are recorded as from the country of the last
port of shipment, and exports as to the country which is their immediate destination.
The figures record the special trade. The returns of the trude between Sweden and
Norway may be considered as not corresponding with the real commerce.
The following shows the value of the trade with the principal countries
A\iin wnicn oweaen a
eais : —
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
Country
(1895)
(1896)
(1893)
(1896)
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Great Britain
97,774,831
98,834,090
130,819,647
144,052,618
Germany
116,223,385
117,516,148
42,759,526
43,833,965
Denmark
37,975,650
45,897,752
41,464,029
42,293,111
Norway
28,741,784
29,027,882
18,053,791
19,548,410
Russia (including
Finland) .
19,755,142
23,267,447
11,292,119
13,336,656
France
7,931,912
7,170,442
25,207,694
29,365,472
Spain .
864,330
1,214,017
3,623,999
2,489,179
Netherlands
8,331,267
8,777,465
18,302,375
20,140,466
Belgium
9,628,509
11,689,109
8,898,432
12,075,365
United States
10,642,732
9,091,760
81,809
720,582
Other countries .
6,420,705
5,828,606
358,314,718
10,930,869
12,427,218
Total .
344,290,247
311,434,290
340,283,042
The following table shows the trade between Sweden and the United
Kingdom according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896 1897
Imports into U. K.
from Sweden . . ,
Exports of British pro-
duce to Sweden , .
£
8,416,252
2,699,527
£
8,330,188
2,971,256
£
8,784,256
3,021,811
£
9,524,137
3,206,033
£
9,839,146
3,565,422
The following table shows the chief articles of import into the United
Kingdom from Sweden :-
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
£
£
£
£
£
Wood & timber
3,564,586
3,977,631
3,704,197
4,488,381
5,224,978
Oats
927,936
250,660
312,777
222,823
51,406
Bar iron .
518,209
470,910
490,180
510,511
464,195
Iron and steel
manufactures
268,259
223,619
277,211
253,500
239,721
Pig iron .
159,381
267,627
380,149
323,473
288,324
Butter .
1,452,099
1,413,779
1,644,111
1,664,685
1,515,705
Matches .
204,060
230,509
203,196
204,999
223,834
The leading exports of British home produce to Sweden in 1897 were iron,
wTought and unwrought, of the vahie of 491,058?. ; coals, 1,014,056?. ; cotton
manufactures and yam, 388,286/. ; woollen manufactures and yam, 355,093/.
1088
SWEDEN AND NOKWAY
-SWEDEN
Shipping and Navigation.
The Swedish mercantile marine engaged both in the home and foreign
trade on January 1, 1897, was as follows : —
—
Sailing
Steam.
Total
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
20-100 tons .
100-500 ,, .
500-1,000 ,, . . .
Above 1,000 tons
Total
1,200
733
70
10
60,443
171,667
46,947
11,798
269
349
105
33
13,498
74,007
74,335
44,124
205,964
1,469
1,082
175
43
73,941
245,674
121,282
55,922
2,013
290,855
756
2,769
496,819
The port of Goteborg had the largest shipping in 1896 — namely, 206
vessels of 82,702 tons ; and next to it came Stockholm, possessing 194
vessels of a total burthen of 60,411 tons.
Vessels entered and cleared with cargoes and in ballast in 1896, as follows : —
—
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Entered :
Swedish ....
Foreign ....
7,971
4,302
1,415,929
1,290,228
7,876
12,592
874,009
3,471,258
15,847
16,894
2,289,938
4,761.486
Total entered
12,273
2,706,157
20,468
4,345,267
32,741
7.051,424
Cleared :
Swedish ....
Foreign ....
11,618
9,698
2,041,693
8,149,453
4,271
7,268
288,051
1,589,183
15,884
16,961
2,329,744
4,738,636
Total cleared
Total entered & cleared 1896
„ ,. ,, 1895
,, 1894
21,311
5,191,146
11,534
1,877,234
32,845
7,068,380
33,584
31,125
31,957
7,897,303
7,897,303
7,313,397
32,002
28,271
28,154
6.222,501
5,070,350
4,945,345
65,586
59,396
60,111
14,119,804
12,383,747
12,689,093
of
Internal Communications.
In 1896 88,734 ships and boats passed through the canals of Sweden.
At the end of 1897 the total length of railways in Sweden was 6,350 miles,
which 2,283 miles belonged to the State.' The receipts in 1896 were
65,097,537 kronor, and exjienses 36,471,958 kronor. The total cost of con-
struction for the State railways to the end of 1896 was 324,060,946 kronor,
and for private railways 310,374,351 kronor. The total number of passengers
on the State railways in 1896 was 7,728,919 ; weight of goods carried on State
railways, 4,968,360 tons; private railways 11,364,837 tons of goods, and
12,630,720 passengers.
The length of all the telegraph lines at the end of 1896 was 8,281 miles,
and of wires 25,578 miles. Of the lines, 5,398 miles, and of the Avire, 15,416
miles belonged to the State telegrai)h, and the remainder to the railways.
There were 1,425 telegraph offices. The number of despatches sent in the
year 1896 was 2,213,444, including 258,508 in transit. In 1896 there were
64,895 miles of wire and 49,411 instruments employed in the telephone service.
The Swedish Post Office carried 182,923,354 letters, post-cards, journals,
&c., in the year 1896. The number of post-offices at the end of the year was
2,595. The total receipts of the Post Office in 1896 amounted to 9,035 371
MONEY AND CREDIT
1039
kroiior, ami the total expenditure to 8,016,794 kroner, leaving a surplus of
1,018,577 kronor.
Money and Credit.
The Riksbank, or National Bank of Sweden, belongs entirely to the State
and is managed by directors elected for three years by the Diet, except one,
the president, who is designated by the king. It is a bank of exchange to
regulate financial relations with foreign countries, it accepts and [>ays interest
on deposits of money, and on sufhcient security it lends money for purposes
in which there is no speculative element. The Bank is under the guarantee of
the Diet, its capital and reserve capital are fixed by its constitution, and its
note circulation is limited by the value of its metallic stock and its assets in
current accounts at home and abroad ; but its actual circulation is kept far
within this limit.
The following table gives statistics of the National Bank, private banks,
and joint-stock banks in Sweden for January 1, 1898 : —
Assets
National Bank
Private Banks
Joint-stock
Banks
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Mortgages ....
—
57,963,876
—
Real estate ....
—
5,450,010
3,568,629
Coin and bullion
32,257,248
22,345,981
12,060,231
Accounts with other banks
19,673,635
49,820,620
34,299,040
State notes and bills
21,942,664
35,599,603
22,222,755
Stocks, shares, mortgages, &c. .
—
—
64,364,526
Bills
53,716,569
178,300,580
73,718,235
Loans, public obligations,
shares, &c
42,257,196
190,062,481
117,935,409
Cash credits, &c. . .
Totals ....
8,455,379
95,985,951
49,363,355
178,302,691
635,529,102
377,532,180
Liabilities
Bank notes and bills
70,941,074
89,546,531
7,674,108
Liabilities with other banks
9,464,303
52,664,164
40,839,196
Deposits
3,936,366
264,986,177
90,767,714
Capital
50.000,000
73,252,600
56,582,258
Reserve .....
5,000,000
24,339,612
17,073,109
To be paid out to the public
treasury ....
1,800,000
—
—
Various liabilities
30,285,280
123,174,141
163,263,922
To further disposition
Totals ....
6,875,668
7,565,877
1,331,873
178,302,691
635,529,102
377,532,180
The savings-banks statistics (exclusive of Post Oflfice) are as follows : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
Number of depositors at end of year
Deposits at end of year, kronor
Capital and reserve fund, ditto.
1,111,187
314,653,540
28,557,033
1,119,887
333,078,309
29,998,600
1,124,298
348,441,088
•31,383,447
1,141,469
309,707,290
32,634,284
At the end of 1896 the Post Office Savings Bank had 451,872 depositors
and 49,733,810 kronor of deposits.
1040 SWEDEN AND NORWAY l^-NORWAY.
2. NORWAY.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The Constitution of Norway, called the Grundlov, bears date
May 17, 1814, with several modifications passed at various
times up to 1898. It vests the legislative power of the realm in
the Storthing, or Great Court, the representative of the sovereign
people. The King, however, possesses the right of veto over laws
passed by the Storthing, but only for a limited period. The
royal veto may be exercised twice ; but if the same bill pass three
Storthings formed by separate and subsequent elections, it
becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign.
The King has the command of the land and sea forces, and
makes all appointments, but, except in a few cases, is not allowed
to nominate any but Norwegians to public offices under the crown.
The Storthing assembles every year. New elections take
place every three years. The meetings take place suo jure, and
not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin on
the first weekday after October 10 each year, and must receive
the sanction of the King to sit longer than two months. Every
Norwegian citizen of twenty- five years of age (provided that he
resides and has resided for five years in the country) is entitled
to elect. Under the same conditions citizens thirty years of age,
a,nd having resided in Norway for ten years, are qualified to
be elected. The mode of election is indirect. Towards the end of
every third year the people choose their deputies, at the rate of
one to fifty voters in towns, where the election is administered
by the magistrate, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts,
where they meet in the parish church under the presidency of the
parish minister. The deputies afterwards assemble and elect
among themselves, or from among the other qualified voters of the
district, the Storthing representatives. Former members of the
Council of State can be elected representatives of any district
of the Kingdom without regard to their residence. No new
election takes place for vacancies, which are filled by the persons
already elected for that purpose, or, if not, who received the second
largest number of votes. At the election in 1897 on the old
franchise, the number of electors was 195,956, or 9*79 per
CONSTITUTIOX AND GOVERNMENT 104)1
cent, of total population, while 167,207 votes, or 85*33 per
cent, of the whole number, were recorded. Of the total male
population, 45 per cent, are 25 years of age and above.
The Storthing has 114 members — 38 from towns, 76 from rural
districts.
The Storthing, when assembled, divides itself into two houses, the
' Lagthing ' and the ' Odelsthing.' The former is composed of one-fourth of
the members of the Storthing, and the other of the remaining three-fourths.
The Thing nominates its own presidents. The principal ordinary business
of the Storthing is to enact or repeal laws, to impose taxes, to supervise the
financial alfairs of the kingdom, to vote the amounts required for the public
expenditure, and to examine treaties concluded with foreign Powers. Ques-
tions relating to laws must be considered by each liouse separately. The
inspection of public accounts and the revision of the Government, and
impeachment before the Rigsret, belong exclusively to the Odelsthing.
All other matters are settled by both houses in common sitting. The Storthing
elects five delegates, wdiose duty it is to revise the public accounts. All
new laws must first be laid before the Odelsthing, from which they
pass into the Lagthing to be either accepted or rejected. If the Odelstliing
and Lagthing do not agree, the two houses assemble in common sitting
to deliberate, and the final decision is given by a majority of two-thirds
of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the
Constitution. The Lagthing and the ordinary members of the supreme court
of justice {Hoicstcret) form a high court of justice (the Rigsret) for the
impeachment and trial of Ministers, members of the Hoiesteret, and members
of the Storthing. "While in session, every member of the Storthing has an
allowance of twelve kroner {\2>s. ^d.) a day, besides travelling expenses.
The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority
through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers of State and at least
seven Councillors. Two of the Councillors, who change every year, together
with one of the Ministers, form a delegation of the Council of State, residing
at Stockholm, near the King. Ministers and Councillors of State are entitled
to be present in the Siorthing and to take part in the discussions, when
public, but without a vote. The following are the members of the Council of
State, February 16, 1898 :—
(1.) Council of State at Kristiania.
Minister of State. — Johannes Wilhelm Christian Stecn.
Department of Education and Ecclcsiadiad Affairs. — Yilhclm Andreas
AVexelsen.
Department of Justice. — Ole Anton Qvam.
Department of the IiUerior. — Georg August Tliilcscn.
Department of Public Works. — Jorgen Gunderson Lovland.
Department of Finance and Customs. — Ellas Sunde.
Department of Defence. — Colonel Peter Theodor Hoist.
Revision of Public Accounts Department. — J. W. C. Stecn, Minister of
State.
(2.) Delegation of tJie Council at Stockholm.
(3tto Albert Jjlehr, Minister of State.
Hans Hein Theodor Nysom.
liiuar L'Ochen.
3 X
1042
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
II. Local Government.
The admiuistrative division of tlie country is into twenty districts, each
governed by a chief executive functionary (Amtmand), viz., the towns of
Kristiania and Bergen, and 18 'Amts' (counties). They are subdivided
into 39 towns and 56 Togderier,' the latter comprising 22 'Ladesteder'
(ports). There are 525 rural communes (Herreder), mostly parishes or sub-
parishes (wards). The government of the Herred is vested in a council and a
body of representatives. The members (from three to nine) of the former (the
' Formaend ') are elected from the different wards within the Herred. The
representatives, who vote the exj)enditure of the Herred, are three times the
number of the Formsend, These bodies elect conjointly every year from among
the ' Formajnd ' a chairman and a deputy chairman. All the chairmen of an
Amt form with the Amtmand and the Fogder (sheriffs) the ' Amtsformandskab '
or ' Amtsthing ' (county diet), which meets yearly to settle the budget of the
Amt. The Amtmand is the chairman of the diet. The towns and the ports
form 59 communes, also governed by a council (4 to 12, Kristiania 15), and
representatives (three times the size of the council). The members of both
local governing bodies are elected, in towns and rural communes, by voters
for the Storthing.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
Norway has an area of 124,445 English square miles; at the
census of January 1, 1891, the population amounted to 1,988,674
present, and 2,000,917 domiciled inhabitants.
The area and population of the twenty districts (Amter) are as follows : —
A.iiiL6r.
Area : English
Population
Densitj^ per
square miles
Jan. 1, 1891
square mile
Kristiania (town) .
6
151,239
25,206-5
Akershus
2,055
99,111
48-2
Smaaleneue
1,600
120,360
75-2
Hedemarken .
10,621
119,129
11-2
Kristians
9,793
108,076
11-0
Buskerud
5,790
104,769
181
Jarlsberg og Larvik
896
100,957
112-7
Bratsberg
5,865
92,034
15-7
Nedenes .
3,609
81,043
22-4
Lister og Mandal
2,805
78,738
28-1
Stavanger
3,532
117,008
33 1
Sondre Bergenhus
6,026
128,213
21-3
Bergen (town)
5
53,684
10,736-8
Nordre Bergenhus
7,132
87,552
12-3
Romsdal
5,788
127,806
22-1
Sondre Trondhjem
7,184
123,817
17-2
Nordre Trondhjem
8,791
81,236
9-2
Nordland
14,517
131,850
9-1
Tromso .
10,134
65,125
6-4
Finmarken
18,296
29,170
1-6
Total .
124,445
2,000,917
16-1
1
ARExY AND TOPULATION 1043
There were 965,911 males, and 1,035,006 females.
Conjugal condition of the domiciled population, 1891 :—_
—
UnmaiTied
Man'ied
Widowed
Divorced
Not stated
Males .
Females
602,962
627,498
323,935
325,952
37,660
80,263
308
426
1,046
867
Of the total population in 1891, 1,526,788 (76 3 per cent.)
were domiciled in rural districts, and 474,129 (23*7 per cent.) in
towns.
Of the total population in 1891, 1,940,726 were born in Nor-
way, 38,017 in Sweden, 2,475 in Denmark, 2,661 in Finland,
1,738 in Germany, 655 in Great Britain or Ireland. In 1891
the number of Laps was 20,786, and of Fins, 9,378.
In 1891 the population was divided according to occupation as follows : —
Employ-
ers, &c.
Clerks,
Workmen
Dependents
Occupatiou
overseers.
and
of families,
Total
&c.
women
&c.
Administrative and f Male
professional . . I Female
4,368
12,148
2,949
16,162
35,627
1,684
3,972
1,830
15,769
23,255
Agriculture, &c. . {f^^^^,^
112,143
3,231
126,217
166,774
408,365
11,216
512
74,346
161.477
247,551
Fisheries . . . {^'^^^^^
41,072
188
14,455
33,687
89,402
297
1
748
32,053
33,099
Mines, metal works, ( Male
and other industries \ Female
34,998
5,269
87,089
85,204
212,560
29,731
304
20,120
84,844
134,999
Commerce . . {f^^^^^
13,991
6,199
10,648
4,798
9,923
2,942
M. 55,284
131,360
Transport . . { J^^^j,
3,575
302
11,667
475
26,272
465
1 F. 56,745
71,926
Domestic work. . [l'^^^^^^
305,2671
42
13,077
10,843
137,1132
2,593
2,585
13,478
458,042
Occupation not stated | pg^„^^ig
170:5
2593
79
38
4,782
3,654
4,204
3,910
9,235
7,861
Living on private for- ( Male
tune, annuitants, &c. l Female
26,612
—
—
3,951
30,563
31,109
—
—
4,555
35,664
Charity, public or /Male
private . . . \ Female
Male and female .
—
—
—
20,700
20,700
—
—
24,987
24,987
236,929
43,272
282,530
388,559
951,290
386,064
23,177
241,218
386,925
1,037,384
622,993
66,449
523,748
775,484
1,988,674
1 Married women in tlieir own households.
2 Comprising servants, children, &c., living in the house.
3 Social condition unknown.
3x2
1044
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — NORWAY
II. Movement of the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Tear
Maniages
Births
(exc. still-
born)
1
Stillborn
Illegiti-
mate,
living
Deaths
(exc. still-
born)
Excess of
Births
23,661
29,003
26,095 !
30,743 \
31,734
1892
j 1893
1894
1895
1896
12,742
12,974
12,966
13,339
13,962
59,430
61,918
60,450
62,932
63,308
1,707
1,844
1,719
1,634
1,632
4,266
4,428
4,332
4,464
4,598
35,769
32,915
34,355
32,189
31,574
2. Emigration.
Place of Des ination
1891
1892
1893
1894
1
1S95 1 1896
1897
United States .
British North America .
Other countries
Total .
1
13,249
79
13
16,814
223
12
18,690
75
13
5,591
22
29"
6,153
6
48
6,584
22
73
4,580
3
86
13,841
17,049
18,778
5,642
6,207
6,679
4,669
III. Principal Towns.
At the census taken January 1, 1891, the number of towns
with a population of above 100,000 was one, above 20,000
four, above 10,000 five, above 5,000 nine. The population of
the principal towns, January 1, 1891, was : —
Kristiania
. 151,239
Fredrikstad .
12,451
(January 1, 1898
) . 203,337
Larvik .
11,261
Bergen ,
. 53,684
Fredrikshald .
11,217
Trondhjem
. 29,162
Kristiansund .
10,381
Stavanger
. 23,899
Skien
8,979
Dramnien
. 20,687
Aalesand
8,40G
Kristiansand .
. 12,813
Moss
8,051
Religion and Instruction.
The evangelical Lutheran religion is the national Church and the only
one endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. All other
Christian sects (excei)t Jesuits) as well as the Jews are tolerated, and free
to exercise their religion within tlie limits prescribed by the law and public
order. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 6 bishoprics, 83 Provstier
(provostships, or archdeaconries), 478 Prcestegjcld (clerical districts). In 189:^
there were 30,685 dissenters, including 1,004 Roman Catholics, 8,187
Methodists, 4,228 Baptists, 348 Mormons, 231 Quakers.
Education is comi)ulsoiy, the school age being from six and a half in towns
and seven in the count^-y to fourteen. In 1894 (the latest date for which.
RELirxION — JUSTICE AND CRIME 1045
there are statistics) there were in the country 5,983 imblie chMneiitary schools
with 248,906 pupils, and in towns 2,001 classes with 62,440 pupils ; the
amount expended on both being 8,319,282 kroner, of which 1,949,822 kroner
was granted by the State, the rest being provided in towns by the towns
themselves, in rural districts partly by the separate parish communes, partly
by the county (;ommunes {Amtskommnner). There are 83 secondary schools :
14 public, 42 communal, 27 private. Of the secondary schools 19 have a
higher department for classics, or mathematics, or both, viz. 14 public, 1
communal, 4 private. Most of the .secondary .schools are mixed, 15 are for
girls alone : 1 communal, 14 private. Tlie number of pupils in the secondary
schools in 1894 was 11,325. Besides the.se, 75 communal and private schools
have 3,629 pupils more or less advanced. There were in 1894, 6 public
normal schools and 3 private, with 478 students. Kristiania has a University,
attended in 1897 by 1,220 students. In the financial year 1897-8 it has,
besides its own incomes amounting to 295,400 kroner, a .subsidy of 497,493
kroner from the State.
Justice and Crime.
For civil justice Norway is divided into 119 districts, each with an
inferior court. Of these 82 are rural courts, diviiled into 447 circuits. The
other courts are in towns. There are 3 su[>erior courts, having each one
chief justice and two other justices, and one supreme court for the whole
kingdom [Hoiestcrct) , consisting of 1 president and at least 6 other justices.
There is a court of mediation {Fori igelscskommiss ion) in each town dindHcrred
(district), consisting of two men chosen by the electors, before which, as a
rule, civil cases must first be brought.
According to the law of criminal })rocedure of July 1, 1887, all criminal
cases (not military, or coming under the Rigsret — the court for impeachments)
shall be tried either by jury {Lagmandsret), or Meddomaret.
The Lagmandsret consists of three judges (1 Lagmand, or president), and
10 jiirors {Lagrettonand). The Kingdom is divided into 5 jury districts
{Lagdommer), each having its chief judge {Lagmand). Each district is
divided into circuits, corresponding, as a rule, to the counties {Amter), in
which courts are held at fixed times. The Meddomsret consists of the judge
and is held in the district of the inferior court, and 2 assistant judges (not
professional) summoned for each case. The Lagmandsret takes cognisance of
the higher classes of offences. The Meddomsret is for the trial of other
otfences, and is also a court of first instance.
The prosecutions are directed by the State advocates {Statsadvokater),
13 in number, subordinate to one Rigsadvokat.
The number of persons convicted of crimes was : in 1894, 2,948 ; in 1893,
2,949 ; in 1892, 3,026 ; in 1891, 2,548 ; in 1890, 2,603. For ofiences against
public order and police, penalties were, in 1894, inflicted upon 28,825 persons.
There are four convict prisons (1 a penitentiary) ; inmates, June 30, 1896,
657 (565 were males and 92 females).
There are, besides, 55 district prisons, in which, in 1895, 10,915 persons
were detained. There are 3 reformatories for young offenders between 10 and
15 years.
The police force of Kristiania numbers 439 men, including 15 superior
functionaries.
Pauperism.
In Norway the relief of the poor is mostly provided for by local taxation,
but certain expenditure is also borne by the Amter (counties) and by the State.
1046
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
The number of persons receiving relief amounted to 78,439 in 1895, 80,749
in 1894, 80,924 m 1893, 78,681 in 1892, 76,613 in-1891. In 189i; 12,335,
1894 10,275, 1893 9,572, 1892 9,471, M891 9,938, persons are included who
have onl}' been medically relieved.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for each of the
last five years in thousands of kroner : —
1 Revenue
Expenditure
Years
ending
June 30
Direct
Taxes
Indirect
Taxes
Other
Sources
Total
Defence
Debt
Public
"Works
General
Total
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1,000 kr.
3,310
3,198
3,343
4,529
4,634
1,000 kr,
28,518
28,861
30,170
31,249
35,792
1,000 kr.
20,716
21,566
21,290
22,764
25,150
1,000 kr.
52,544
53,625
57,3851
71,9322
69,0473
1,000 kr.
10,913
10,495
12,006
17,635
22,651
1,000 kr.
4,557
4,890
4,937
5,500
6,882
1,000 kr.
10,481
11,515
11,490
16,465
16,553
1,000 kr.
26,824
28,045
28,223
29,563
30,644
1,000 kr.
52,775
54,945
56,656
69,163
56,730
1 Including 2,582,000 kroner raised by loans.
2 ,, 13,390,000 ,, .,
3 „ 3,471,200
The following table shows the principal heads of the budget for two
years ending June 30 : —
Sources of Revenue
1898
1899
Branches of Expendi-
ture
1S9S
1899
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Income Tax
4,000,000
4,000,000
Civil list .
361,466
482,838
Customs .
29,200,000
31,900,000
Storthing .
665,500
646,550
Excise on spirit
3,000,000
3,500,000
The Ministries .
1,331,983
1,319,872
,, ,, malt
3,700,000
3,500,000
Church & education .
7,552,663
8,582,878
Succession tax .
550,000
550,000
Justice
6,109,571
6,390,790
Stamps
715,000
805,000
Interior .
2,820,218
3,190,256
Judicial fees
1,000,000
850,000
Post, telegraphs, &c.
6,758,959
8,697,200
Mines
463,300
459,800 .
State railways .
13,399,331
14,444,717
Post Office
4,000,000
4,350,000
Roads, canals, ports.
Telegraphs
1,530,000
1,770,000
&c.
4,316,248
4,549,763
State property .
2,886,354
3,055,704
Finance and customs
3,423,682
3,711,288
Railways .
9,701,300
10,139,400
Mines
572,000
585,450
Miscellaneous
6,179,874
6,463,789
Amortisation of debt
1,222,679
1,521,960
Balance
3,937,503
—
Interest ,, ,, .
5,965,722
5,796,378
Loans for Defence
Army . . .
9,975,220
15,824,000
and Railways.
—
15,188,054
Navy
3,704,500
3,018,300
Foreign affairs .
769,651
773,590
Miscellaneous .
1,913,938
2,056,007
■ ' d '^iIS.. '
Balance .
■ ■
•~~
—
70,863,331
86,591,837
70,868,331
86,591,837
■ThiJ following table shows the amortisation, growth, and interest of the
public debt for the years named, ending June 30 : —
FINANCE — DEFENCE
1047
Years ending
June 30
Amortisation Growth
Interest
Amount at the
end of the year
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Kroner ' Kroner
591,160 —
681,948 39,675,733^
19,630,351 —
532,407 13,572.000
1,458,582 25,444,233
1
Kroner
3,959,330
4,201,574
4,430,230
4,957,772
5,894,671
Kroner
124,950,005
163,943,791
144,313,440
157,353,033
181,338,684
1 Of this amount 19,131,5(50 kroner were applied to the redemption of a former loan.
The unredeemable debt, 10,837,410 in 1885, is now 245,472 kroner.
The taxation for conmiunal purposes amounted for the rural communes
to 11,967,620 kroner, and for the towns to 11,813,513 kroner in 1896.
Defence.
The most important fortresses of Norway are Oscarsborg
and the new fortresses by Agdenes, Bergen, Tonsberg, and
Christianssand S. ; the other fortresses, Fredriksstad, Fredrik-
sten, Carljohansvaern, Akershiis in Kristiania, Trondhjem, and
Yardo, are of little importance.
The troops of the Kingdom are raised mainly by conscription,
and to a small extent by enlistment. By the terms of three laws
voted by the Storthing in 1866, 1876, and 1885, the land forces
are divided into the troops of the Line, the Landvaern, the Land-
storm or final levy. All young men past the twenty-second year of
age are liable to the conscription. The young men in the line raised
by conscription have to go through a first training in the school
of recruits, extending over 48 days in the infantry, in the fortress
and mountain artillery, 50 days in the engineers, and 70 days in
the field artillery and cavalry. They are then put into the bat-
talions, which in the second, third, and fourth year in the artillery,
cavalry, and engineers, and the second and third year in the
infantry and train, under ordinary circumstances, have an annual
practice of 24 days, after which the men are sent on furlough,
with obligation to meet when ordered. The Landvaern of the
sixth year has a 18 days' practice, in which also the recruits
take part. The train has a school of recruits, extending
over 50 days for the engineers, and 18 days in the other arms.
The nominal term of service is 13 years, divided between 5 years
in the Line, 4 years in the Landvaern, and 4 years in the
Landstorm. The Landvaern and Landstorm is only liable to
service within the frontiers of the Kingdom. Every man
capable of bearing arms, and not placed in one of the said cate-
1048 SWEDEN AND NORWAY : NORWAY.
gories, is in time of war liable to do service in the reserve of
the Landstorm, from the eighteenth to the fiftieth year of age.
On January 1, 1894, the troops of the line numbered about 30,000 men,
with 900 officers. The number of troops of the line actually under arms
can never exceed, even in war, 18,000 men without the consent of the
Storthing. The King has permission to transfer, for the purpose of common
military exercises, a number of men not exceeding 3.000, from Norwaj'- to
Sweden and from Sweden to Norway, but only for (at most) six weeks
annually.
The infantry consists of 5 brigades of 4 battalions of Line, Landvaern, and
Landstorm, of 4 companies. For each brigade there is a school of sub-officers.
His Majesty's guard consists of 2 companies of riflemen.
Cavalry. — 3 corps of Line, Landvaern and Landstorm, each consisting of
3 (1 corps 2) squadrons of mounted riflemen.
Jn addition, 1 orderly-squadron of Line, Landvaern and Landstorm.
Besides there is a school of sub-officers, " The school-squadron."
Artillery. — 3 battalions of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 3 batteries
of 6 pieces, and 1 company of equipage field artillery per battalion ; 1
battalion of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 2 companies of fortress
artillery and two batteries of 6 pieces mountain artillery. There are 2 schools
of sub-officers, one for the field artillery and one for the fortress artillery.
Engineers. — 1 battalion of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 2 companies
of sappers, 1 company of pontooneers, 1 company of telegraphists, and 1 com-
pany of ecj[uipage. Besides there is a school of sub-officers.
Like the Swedish navy, that of Norway is maintained solely for coast
defence, It consists of 2 modern armourclads built at Elswick ; 4 ironclad
monitors ; 1 wooden corvette launched in 1862 ; 4 unarmoured gun-vessels of
640, 1,000 and 1,113, and 1,371 tons, built 1877-96; 1 of 1,371 tons
{Frithjof) ; 4 older gunboats between 190 and 280 tons, 8 between 230 and
390 tons, and 16 smaller (60 tons), besides a small torpedo flotilla (26 torpedo
boats and 1 torpedo division boat).
These ships call for little description. The monitors, Skorpioncn, Thrud'
vang, and 3Jj6lner (1,447 and 1,515 tons) were built in 1866-68. They have
5-inch armour-belts, andl2-iiich plating on their turrets, Avhich carry severally
two 4-7-in. Q. F., and four 2-4-in. Q.F" The Thor, launched in 1872, is a
little larger (2,003 tons), has 14^-inch turret-plating, and carries two 4"7-in.
Q.F., and four 2'4-in. t^.F. guns. Of unarmoured ships the deck-protected
gun-vessel Viking (1,113 tons) is steel-built, with a cellulose belt, is 203 ft.
6 in. in length, and has 30 ft. beam, engines of 2,000 LH.P., and steamed
15 knots at her trials. Her armament consists of two 5'9-in. guns, and
four 2"4-in. and four smaller quick-firers. A new vessel of the Viking type is
the Frithjof {\,2>11 tons), aimed with two 4 7-in. Q.F., 4"3-in. Q.F., and four
smaller quick-lirers, and having a speed of 1.') knots. The torpedo division
boat Valkyrien (385 tons), armed with two o-in. Q.F. , and four smaller quick-
firers, steamed 23 knots at her trials.
The turret ships Harold Haarfagrc and Tordenskjold have lately been
built on the Tyne. They displace 3,500 tons, and are protected by a belt of
armour on the side, and by an armoured deck curved down to the lower edge
of the belt. The thickness of the belt is 7 in. and of the armour in the
barbettes, 7'9-in. (Harveyed steel). The armament consists of two 8 2-in.
Q. F., in barbettes, six 4'7-in. Q. F., six 3-in. Q. F., and six smaller quick-firers.
The speed is 16iV knots. They are remarkably powerful vessels for their size,
and two others of the class have been ordered at Elswick.
The despatch-vessel, Heimdal (630 tons), armed with foin- 2-4-iii.
DRFENCK — PIlODlJCrrON AND INDUSTRY 104>0
quick-firing glins, steamed 12 knots at lior trials. The gunl)oat jE(jir (400
tons), is armed with one 82 in. gnn, one 27 in. Q. F., two l"9 in. Q.F.,
and two smaller Q. F.
The navy numbers 96 officers on active service and 65 in the reserve
and abont 700 petty officers and seamen on permanent engagement. All
seafaring men between the ages of twenty-two and thirty-five are en-
rolled on the lists of the active fleet, and are liable to the maritime con-
scription. V>\ a law^ passed in 1892, they all go through a first training of
at least 70 thiys.
Production and Industry.
I. ArxRICULTURE.
Of the total area, 75 ])er cent, is unproductive, 22 per cent, forest, and 3
per cent, under cultivation. At the end of 1890 there were 146,355 real
estates separately registered (not including Finmarken), and the number of
farms was 236,286. The 146,355 real estates were classified as follows
according to the official valuation in cadaster-marks (each representing an
average purchase value of about £100 sterling) : —
Up to 0*50 mark 27,549 estates or 18 "8 per cent, of the whole.
,, 14-0
,, 34-8
,, 14-8
,, 11'6 ,, ,,
,, 4-4 ,,
1*4
.1 0-1
» 0-02 ,,
As to the classification of the estates according to their area, no returns
have been collected since 1865. (See Statesman's Year Book for 1896,
p. 987.)
The latest agricultural statistics are for 1890, when the area under cereals was
185,605 hectares, potatoes 39,122 hectares. The estimated yield of cereals was
5,962,353 hectolitres, of potatoes 8,441,403 hectolitres. 'The total value of the
produce w^as lor cereals 38,262,761 kroner, for potatoes 24,807,136 kroner.
The average annual produce in hectolitres per 10 acres for 1886-90 was : wheat,
2-12 ; rye, 2-43 ; barley, 2-87 ; mixed corn,' 3-57 ; oats, 3-53 ; peas, 2-18 ;
potatoes, 21 56 hectolitres.
On January 1, 1891, there were :— Horses, 150,898; cattle, 1,006,499;
sheep, 1,417,524 ; goats, 272,458 ; swine, 121,057 ; reindeer, 170,134.
The value of cereals imported (including flour) was 37,792,700 kroner in
1897 ; the principal article being rye, 17,029,600 kroner. The import of
butter amounted to 1,132,000 kroner, and of bacon and meat to 5,477,900
kroner. The export of agricultural produce is insignificant.
II. Forestry.
The total area covered with forests is estimated at 26,320 square miles, of
which 73 per cent, is under pine trees. The State forests occupy 3,870 square
miles, administered by a forest stalf under the supervision of the Ministry of
the Interior. Tlie value of nnwrought or partly wrought timl>er exported
from Norway in 1897 was 42,212,400 kroner, and of wrought timber 19,461,900
kroner.
III. Mines and Minerals.
The mining and metal industry of Norway is unimportant.
The total value of mineral products in 1896 was 2,887,600 kroner
4,013,300 in 1890); of furnace products, 1,264,000 (1,315,400 in 1890)
0-51— 1-00 ,,
20,524
1-01— 3-00 ,,
50,956
3-01— 5-00
2U691
5-01— 10 00 ,,
16,954
10-01— 20-00 .,
6,441
20-01—50-00 ,,
2,022
50-01—100-00 ,,
183
101 or more ,,
35
1050
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAV
kroner ; of bar iron and steel, 78,000 kroner. The chief mineral products are
silver, 400,000 kroner in 1896 (621,000 in 1890) ; copper ore, 1,136,100 kroner,
I)yrites, 970,000 kroner; nickel, 20,000 kroner (1,565,000 in 1876); apatite,
640,000 kroner (1,000,700 in 1890); felspar, 202,000 kroner (213,300 in
1890). Of the smelting products in 1896 silver was valued at 377,000
kroner ; copper, 843,000 kroner ; nickel, 30,000 kroner. At the end of 1896
there existed 27 mining establishments; employing 1,987 workpeople, and 5
smelting furnaces with 251 workpeople,
IV. Fisheries.
The number of persons in 1896 engaged in cod fishery was 93,277 ; in
herring fishery, 17,606 ; and in mackerel fishery 2,344.
The value of the fisheries in kroner in 1896 was cod, 14,332,606 ; herring,
2,648,514 ; mackerel, 194,453 ; salmon and sea trout, 801,300 ; other
fisheries, 3,333,742; lobster, 397,710; oysters, 5,928 ; total, 21,714,253.
The total value was in 1895, 22,210,157 kroner ; in 1894, 22,900,229 kroner ;
in 1893, 23,616,945 kroner ; in 1892, 24,793,715 kroner; in 1891, 25,966,599.
Other fisheries are the mackerel fisheries in the North Sea, the bank
fisheries off" the coast, and the whale, walrus, seal, and shark fisheries in the
northern seas, which in 1896 produced a total of about 4,000,000 kroner.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Norway with different
countries in 1897 : —
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
Imports
Exports
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Sweden .
42,277,800
25,724,300
Spain
1,685,100
9,602,100
Denmark, Iceland,
1
i Italy . . .
2,001,300
2,789,800
and Faeroe .
14,429,000
7,935,700
' Austria and Hungary
49,500
212,800
Russia and Finland
24,079,200
4,461,400
i Turkey, and Rou-
Germany .
71,348,300
21,918,500
mania .
IS, 300
—
Switzerland .
390,000
—
Africa
700
2,737,200
Netherlands .
9,624,400
8,934,100
Asia
24,300
362,700
Belgium .
11,790,700
6,527,100
Australia
100
1,908,900
Great Britain and
America .
11,988,700
853,300
Ireland
67,560.400
65,387,000
Not stated
1,556,600
265,600
4,057,500
836,100
.7, 358, 500-
717,700
Portugal and Madeira
Total
263,718,200
167,696,700
The total amount of the import duties collected in 1897 was about 28
millions of kroner (about one-tenth in value of the total imports), divided
among the principal articles as follows: — Breadstuffs, 3,423,000 kroner;
coff'ee, 2,924,000 kroner; tea, 220,000 kroner; sugar, 5,345,000 kroner;
Tlie recorded values are calculated according to information supplied by Exchange
Committees and merchants. Those of imports include tlie invoice price, freight, jiacking,
and insurance, but not duty ; those of exjiorts give the i)rice free on board in Norwegian
port, excluding freight and insurance, but including ])acking and Norwegian commercial
l>rofit. The returns of quantities are compiled from the officially controlled declarations
of importers and exporters. These declarations state the countries from which the articles
are directly imported and to which they are directly exported. An article coming, for
example, from the East Indies via London is recorded as coming from England. The
recorded imports include all articles imported, whether for consumj^tion inland or for re-
exportation. The exports are divided into exports of Norwegian articles (special trade)
and exports of foreign articles (transit, warehousing on credit, duty-paid and duty-free
articles). A considerable ])art of the export and also of the import (mostly duty-free)
trade over the land frontier between Norway and Sweden escapes the control of the
Customs' authorities.
COMMERCE
1051
tobacco, 3,299,000 kroner ; spirits and wines, 2,084,000 kroner ; mannfactured
goods, 3,376,000 kroner. The value of imports suhject to duty (1897) was
162,675,200 kroner, and of duty-free 101,043,000 kroner.
Total imports and exports of Norwegian and foreign goods in the last
five years : —
1893
Kroner
Imports (foreign) . . 204,568,000
Exports (Norwegian) . 126,718,800
„ (foreign) . 9,367,800
1894
Kroner
205,989,800
124,031,500
7,963,600
1895
1890
Kroner Kroner
222,310,200 240,217,500
128,408,400 137,755,700
8,871,700 10,015,500
1897
Kroner
263,718,200
159,678,700
8,018,000
Values of imports and e
xports, divided into classes, for 1895-1897 : —
Classes of Goods
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
of Foreign
Norwegian
of Foreign
Norwegian
of Foreign
Norwegian
Goods
Goods
Goods
Goods
Goods
Goods
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Animals, living .
2,083,000
812,700
2,484,300
657,000
2,009,100
306,700
Animal prodnce
(inaltv food) .
12,922,500
44,854,500
14,043,500
40,309,000
11,367,300
53,831,600
Breadstuff's .
32,194,700
285,800
35,743,300
294,100
38,265,300
259,600
Groceries .
26,047,200
17,900
20,415,700
21,700
24,175,200
12,700
Fruits, plants, <fcc.
3,321,200
205,800
3,780,200
63,100
3,943,100
38,400
Spirits, (fee. .
4,721,400
148,300
6,155,200
263,100
6,705,400
415,300
Yarn, rope, &c. .
12,332,900
656,100
13,005,700
801,300
14,056,200
539,200
Textile manufac-
tures, (fee.
26,.S65,600
5,643,100
29,282,900
5,688,200
32,576,700
6,272,100
Hair, skins, &c. .
8,510,000
6,638,300
9,955,700
6,581,000
10,723,700
6,742,300
Tallow, oils, tar.
&c. .
12,085,700
6,513,200
13,669,300
7,981,200
14,169,200
6,606,500
Timber & wooden
goods
8,875,000
43,610,800
10,189,100
52,055,000
12,525,000
61,674,300
Dye stuff's .
1,137,400
166,400
1,098,400
144,100
1,205,000
370,700
Diff'erent vege-
table produce .
3,759,000
1,099,200
3,706,200
1,505,200
3,696,300
1,487,900
Paper and paper
manufactures .
2,018,600
5,961,000
2,317,700
7,199,900
2,942,500
7,699,400
Minerals, un-
wrought .
18,200,600
2,643,300
18,888,600
3,993,400
22,307,300
3,517,400
Minerals, manu-
factured .
3,012,000
1,774,200
3,447,700
2,290,700
4,532,800
2,402,400
Metals, un-
wrouglit or
partly wrought
7,979,600
1,404,400
8,522,700
1,154,600
10,383,800
1,099,600
Metals, manu-
factured .
11,447,100
3,203,500
11,621,200
3,361,800
19,372,500
2,780,100
Vessels, carriages,
machinery, (Sic.
Total .
25,296,700
2,769,300
25,290,100
3,891,300
28,701,800
3,622,500
222,310,200
128,408,400
240,217,500
137,755,700
263,718,200
159,678,700
Re-exports .
Grand total .
8,871,700
10,015 500
8,0]8,000t
137,280,100
1
147,771,200
167,696,700
1052
SWEDEN AND NORWAY :— NORWAY
The values of imports and exports to and from the principal Norwegian
])orts in the last three years were : —
Imports
Exports
18P5 1 1896
1
1897
1S95
1896
1897
Kristiania .
Bergen
Trondhjem .
Kroner
117,448,800
37,725,400
16,017,300
Kroner
132,432,700
36,509,300
17,887,500
Kroner
144, -231, 100
40,015,700
18,378,400
Kroner
31,713,600
23,656,700
8,658,100
Kroner
33,935,500
•20,364,100
9,423,900
Kroner
33,655,100
24,707,200
10,840,000
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United Kingdom,
according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table, for
each of the last five years : —
1S93
£
Imports into U.K. from Norway . 3,570,592
Exports of British prodnce to j
Norway j 1,756,813
1894
&
3,657,595
1,916,566
1895
1896
1897
£
3,831,727
£ ! £
4,312,106 j 4,995,461
1,895,889 I 1,?88,554 2,250,734
In 1897 the imports of timber from Norway into the United Kingdom
amounted to 1,866, 550^.; fish, 612,522^. ; paper-making materials, 988,371^.;
paper, &c., 443,123^.; ice, 248,671/.; butter, 138,199/. The minor imports
into Great Britain compiise train oil, matches, and small quantities of iron
manufactures. The chief British exports to Norway in the year 1897 were
iron, wrought and unwronght, 371,800/. ; cotton manufactures and yarns
323,966/,; coals, 497,994/.; and woollens and worsteds and yarn, 168,172/.;
machinery, 128,142/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The total Norwegian mercantile marine on January 1, 1898, was a3
follows : —
—
Sailing
Steam
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
4-100 tons.
100-500 tons .
500-1,000 ,, .
1,000-2,000 tons
Above 2,000 ,,
Total .
In Foreign Trade
4,096
1,226
610
206
5
118,404
363,078
423,990
252,237
11,373
389
349
160
93
13
11,850
98,994
115,298
128,939
28,039
4,485
1,575
770
299
18
130,254
462,072
539,288
381,173
39,412
6,143
1,169,079
1,004
383,120
7,147
1,552,199
3,109
1,090,100
591
361,653
3,700
1,451,753
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
1051
The vessels entered and cleared at Norwegian ports in 1896 were as
follows : —
~
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
No.
Tonnage No.
Tonnage
747,281
270,549
No. Tonnage
Entered
Norwegian ....
Foreign
Total entered
Cleared
Norwe^'ian
Foreign
Total cleared
Total entered and cleared 1806
1895 .
1894 .
4,189
2,394
1,190,673
700.443
2,653
3,965
6,842
6,359
1,937,954
970,992
6,583
1,891,116
1,666,590
707,805
6,618
677
729
1,017,830
13,201
2,908,946
6,138
5,608
308,777
258,669
6,815
6,337
1,975,367
966,474
11,746
2,374,395
1,406
567,446
1,585, -^76
1,418,161
1,612,511
13,152
2,941,841
18,329
16,608
16,430
4,265,511
3,921,089
3,866,501
8,024
7,158
7,504
26,353
23,766
23,934
5,850,787
5,339,250
5,479,012
ir 1 - J. .. J 1 1 1 .
Vessels entered and cleared in 1896 at the following ports :—
. —
Number
Tonnage
Nuinber(
Tonnage
Kristiania
Trondlijeni
Entered
2,403
920,080
Entered
360 1
190,621
Cleared
1,532
610,912
Cleared
355
181,568
Bergen
Frederiksstad
Entered
638
323,486
Entered .
1,767
188,368
Cleared
677
333,882
Cleared
3,521
258,471
Internal Communications.
The total length of State Railways in 1897 was 1,120 miles, and a length
of 93 miles worked by five companies ; total 1,213 miles.
Total receipts 1896-97, State railways, 9,542,058 kroner; companies,
2,154,590 kroner. Total expenses 1896-97, State railways, 7,159,992 kroner ;
companies, 1,167,676 kroner. Goods carried 1896-97, State railways, 1,451,773
tons (of 1,000 kilogs.) ; companies, 728,575. Passengers carried 1896-97
(including season-ticket holders). State railways, 6,796,515 ; companies,
777,371. The State railways have been constructed partly by subscription
in the districts interested and ]>artly at the expense of Government.
Tlie following are the jiostal statistics : —
—
1895
1896
1897
Letters ....
Post-cards
Registered letters .
Journals
Other printed matter
Samples and parcels
35,852.500
3,268,300
658,000
37,539,700
6,107,300
690,900
-
38,630,800
3,493,300
714,900
38,889,100
5,285,700
773,500
41,496,300
3,916,000
790,300
•13,165,900
5,771,900 ;
856,900
1054 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
Length of telegraph lines and Avires in 1897 : —
Belonging to the State 5,474 miles of line, 15,009 miles of wires,
railways 1,172 ,, ,, 2,172 ,,
Total . 6,646 „ ,, 17,181 „
The number of paid messages in the year 1897 was on the State lines
1,940,840, on the railway lines 71,254, total, 2,012,094, of which 1,221,934
(on the lines of the railways, 71,254) were internal, 332,350 sent abroad,
and 386,556 received from abroad. Number of telephone conversations on
trunk lines, 361,760. The number of telegraph offices in 1897 was : — 244
belonging to the State, 239 to the railways, total 483. Receipts : State tele-
graphs 1,650,599 kroner, railways 54,680 kroner, total 1,705,279 kroner.
Expenses: — State telegraphs 1,454,587 kroner, railways 213,902 kroner,
total 1,668,489 kroner.
Money and Credit.
On December 31, 1897, the Norwegian coins in circulation (the coinage
after the monetary reform deducting the coins melted down) were : —
Gold coin ..... 15,858,490 kroner
Silver coin .... 8,215,842 ,,
Bronze coin .... 629,218 ,,
Total . . . 24,703,550 „
There exists no Government paper money.
The value of income and property assessed for taxes in 1897 was : —
Income. Property.
The towns 179*2 millions of kroner 658*3 millions of kroner
The rural districts 206-4 ,, ,, 1,069-8 ,, ,,
The whole kingdom 385-6 ,, ,, 1,755*1 ,, ,,
There are two State banks, the ' Norges Bank ' (Bank of Norway) and
the ' Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank. '
The ' Norges Bank ' is a joint-stock bank, of which, however, a considerable
part is owned by the State. The bank is, besides, governed by laws enacted
by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storthing, except the presi-
dent of the head office, who is nominated by the King. There is a head
office at Kristiania, and 12 branch offices. It is the only bank in Norway
that is authorised to issue bank notes for circulation. The balance-sheets of
the bank for 1897 show the following figures : — Assets at the end of the year-
bullion, 47,607,599 kroner ; outstanding capital, mortgaged estates, foreign
bills, &c., 40,703,170 kroner ; total, 88,310,769 kroner. Liabilities — notes in
circulation, 59,311,592 ; the issue of notes allowed was 71,607,599 kroner;
deposits, cheques, unclaimed dividends, unsettled losses, &c. , 9,482,203
kroner (of which the deposits amounted to 8,893,226 kroner) ; dividends
payable for the year, 1,590,820 kroner ; total, 70,384,615 ; balance, 17,926,154.
The 'Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank' was established in 1852 by the
State to meet the demand for loans on mortgage. Tlie capital of the bank
is furnished by the State, and amounted to 15,000,000 kroner in 1897. The
bank has besides a reserve fund amounting in 1897 to 1,000,000 kroner. At
the end of 1897 the total amount of bonds issued was 110, 180,000 kroner. The
loans on mortgage amounted to 117,210,739 kroner.
There were, at the end of 1896, 38 private joint-stock banks, with a
collective subscribed capital of 44,430,260 kroner, and a paid-up capital of
17,940,287. The reserve fund amounted to 9,397,784. The deposits and
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 1055
withdrawals in the course of the year amounted to 506,962,481 kroner and
501,079,770 kroner respectively. Deposits at the end of the year 153,428,547
kroner, of which 10,345,713 kroner deiiosits on demand, and 143,082,834
kroner on other accounts.
All savings-banks must be chartered by royal permission. Their operations
are regulated, to a considerable extent, by the law, and controlled by the
Ministry of Finance. In 1897 their number was 394; depositors 586,606,
with 251,614,947 kroner to their credit at the end of the year. In 1896 the
banks numbered 380 ; depositors 561,257 with 234,690,760 kroner to their
credit at end of year.
Sweden and Norway.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
By a treaty signed May 27, 1873, with additional treaty of October 16,
1875, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark adopted the same monetary sj^stem.
The Swedish Xrona and the Norwegian Krone, each of 100 ore, is of the
value of Is. l^d., or about 18 kronor to the pound sterling.
The gold 20-kronor piece weighs 8-960572 grammes, '900 fine containing
8 "0645 grammes of fine gold, and the silver krona weighs 7 "5 grammes, "800
fine, containing 6 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is gold. In Sweden National Bank notes for 5, 10,
50, 100, and 1000 kronor are legal means of payment, and the Bank is bound
to exchange them for gold on presentation. The case is the same in Norway,
where there are also notes for 500 kroner.
The Swedish Skdlpiind = 100 ort = 0 '937 lb. avoirdupois.
,, ,, Fot = 10 tu7u = 117 English inches.
,, ,, Kanna = lAO kubiktum = 4 6 imperial pints.
Mil = 360 re/ = 6 "64 English miles.
The metric system of weights and measures (see France) was introduced
in 1879, and became obligatory in Sweden in 1889, in Norway on July 1,
1882.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Sweden and Norway in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Count C. Lewcnhaupt.
Secretary. — G. de Stride.
Attache. — Count von Rosen.
Consul-General in London. — Carl Juhlin Daunfelt.
There are Consular representatives at the following places : — Belfast,
Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow,
Hartlepool, Hull, Leith, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Southampton, and
many other places.
2. Of Great Britain in Sweden and Norway.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Francis J. Pakenham, appointed Envoy Extra-
ordinary and ilinister Plenipotentiary to Sweden and Norway' FebruaiT 1
1896.
Secretary. — Arthur Herbert.
Consicl at Stockholm. —
Consul-General at Christiania. — Hon. C. S. Dundas.
There are also Consular representatives at Gothenburg, Christiansand
Bergen, Tromso, Trondhjem, Hammerfest, Yardo, &c.
1056 SWEDEN AND NORWAY
References concerning^ Sweden and Norway.
1. Official Publications.
Bidrag till Sveviges ofiRciela statistik : A. Befolknings-statistik. B. Rattsvasendet.
C. Bei'gshandtering. D. Fabriker och manufakturer. E. Sjofart. F. Handel. G.
Fangvardeu. H. K. Majestats befallningshafvandes femarsberattelser. I.^Telegrafvasendet.
K. Helso- och s.jukvarden. L. Statens jernvagstrafik. M. Postverket. N. Jordbruk
och buskapsskotsel. O. Landtmateriet. P. Undervisningsvaseudet. Q. Statens domaner.
R. Valstatistik. S. AUmanna arbeten. T. Lots- och fyi-inrattriingen samt lifriiddningsan-
stalterna a rikets kuster. U. Koramunernas fattigvard och fiuanser. V. Branvins
tillverkning och forsaljning saint hvitbetssockertillverkningen. X. Aflonings- och
ponsionsstatistik. Y. Sparbanksstatistik. 4. Stockholm, 1857-98.
Norges officielle Statistik : Arbeidslonninger ; Bergv«rksdrift ; Den alniindelige Brandfor-
sikringsindretning ; Civilretsstatistik ; Distriktsfajngsler ; Fabrikanlseg ; Faste Eiendoiume ;
Fattigstatistik ; Femaarsberetningei- oni Aniternes okonomiske Tilstand ; Statskassens
Finantser ; Fiskerier ; Folkemeengdens Bevajgel.se, Folketajlling ; Handel ; De otfentlige
Jernbaner ; Jordbrug ; Kommunale Finantser; Kriminalstatistik ; Sr.ndhedstilstanden og
ftfedicinalforholdene ; Postvaesen ; Rekruteringsstatistik ; Rigstelegraf ; Sindssygeasylenie ;
Skibsfai't; Skiftfvsesen ; Skolevaesen; Socialstatistik ; Sparebanker; Si-iedalske ; Strafar-
beidsanstalter ; Valgstatistik ; Veterinservsesen. 4. Fra 1881-8. Kristiania, 1870-98.
Sveriges statskalender for ar 1898. Utgifven efter Kongl. Majestats nadigste forordnandc
af dess Vetenskaps-Akademi. 8. Stockholm, 1898.
Sveriges officiela statistik i sammandrag, 1898. Stockholm, 1898.
Statistisk Aarbog for Kongeriget Norge. (Annuaire statistique de la Norvege.) 17de
Aargang, 1897. Udgivet af det Statistiske Centralbureau. Kristiania, 1897.
Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1898. Efter offentlig Foranstaltning redigeret af N. R.
Bull. 8. Kristiania, 1897.
Statistisk tidskrift, utgifven af Kongl. Statistiska Central-Byriin. Stockholm, 1862-98.
Oversigt over Kongeriget Norges civile, geistlige og judicielle Inddeling. Udgiven af det
Statistiske Centralbureau. 8. Kristiania, 1893.
Meddelelser fra det Statistiske Centralbureau. I. — XV. 8. Kristiania, 188-3-98
Norges Land og Folk. I. Smaalenenes Amt. IL Akershus Amt. V. Buskeruds Amt.
XL Stavanger Amt. XIL Sondre Bergenhus Amt. Kristiania, 18S5-97.
Reports on Sweden, Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London, 1894.
The 'Gothenburg' Licensing System in Sweden, No. 274, and in Norway, No. 279,
Foreign Office Rejiorts, Miscellaneous Series. London, 1893.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baedeker's Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Cth ed. London, 1895.
Bain (R. N.), Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries. 2 vols. Loudon, 1894.
Charles XII. and the Collaijse of the Swedish Empire iu "Heroes of the Nations" series.
London, 1895.
Bennett (T.), Handbook for Travellers in Norway. 8. Christiania, 1896,
Bradshaw (J.), Norway, its Fjords, Fjeld.s, and Fosses. London, 1896.
Cook(T,), Guide to Norway, Sweden, and Denmark London, 1893.
Carlson (F. F.), Geschichte Schweden's. 8 vols. Gotha, 1832-75.
Chapman (A.) Wild Norway. London, 1897.
Dm Chaillu (P. B.), The Land of the Midnight Sun. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Dyring (Joh.), Kougeri^^et Norge, dets Geografi, Samfundsindretninger og Nseringsveie,
Anden Udgave. 8. Porsgrund, 1891.
Homwiar (A.), Historiskt, geografiskt och statistiskt lexicon ofver Sverige. 8 vols. 8,
Stockholm, 1859-70.
JTo'«» (M.), Konungarikft Sverige, en tojiografisk-statistisk beskrifning med historiska
anmarkningar. 8. Stockliolm, 1875-83.
Hyne (C. J. C), Tlirough Artie Lapland. London, 1898.
Keary (C. F.), Norway and the Norwegians. 8. London, 1892.
Kiaer (A. N.), Indtaigts og formuesforhold i Norge. 8. Kristiania, 1892-1893.
Lofstrdm (S. A.), Sweden, Statistics. (World's Columbian Exposition 1893, Chicago).
8. Stockhobn, 1893.
Mttrray'g Handbook for Norway. 9tli ed. London, 1897.
Nielsen (Dr. Yngvar), Keiseliaandbog over Norge. Ottende Oplag. Kristiania, 1896.
Nielsen {Br. Yngvar), Handbook for Travellers in Norway. With Majjs. Kristiania, 1893.
Otic (E. C), Scandinavian History. 8. London.
Piosmberg (C. M.), Ny rcsohandbok ofver Sverige. 8. Stockholm, 1887.
l{udbeck(3. G.), Fiirsok till beskrifning ofver Sveriges sliider i historiskt, topographisUt
och statistiskt hanseende. 3 vols. 8. Slockliolin, 1855-6L
JUidforis (A.), Konung Oskar II. och Sweriges Folk. Stockliolni, ]S',t7,
Sedgwick (C. S.), Tlie Story of Norway. London, 1885.
Willson (T. B.j, Guide to Norway. 4th ed, London, IS'JS.
1057
SWITZERLAND.
(ScHWEiz. — Suisse. )
Constitution and Government.
I. Central.
On August 1, 1291, the men of Uii, Schwyz, and Lower Unter-
vvalden, entered into a defensive League. In 135.'> the League
inchided eight cantons, and in 1513, thirteen. Various associated
and protected territories were acquired, but no addition was
made to the number of cantons forming the League till 1798.
In that year, under the influence of France, the Helvetic
Republic was formed, with a regular constitution. This failed
to satisfy the cantons, and in 1803 Napoleon, in the A.ct of
Mediation, gave a new constitution and increased the number of
cantons to nineteen. In 1815, the perpetual neutrahty of
Switzerland and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed
by Austria, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, and Russia, and
the Federal Pact which had been drawn up at Zurich, and which
included three new cantons, was accepted by the Congress of
Vienna. The Pact remained in force till 1848, when a new
constitution, prepared without foreign interference, was accepted
by general consent. This, in turn, was, on May 29, 1871,
superseded by the constitution which is now in force.
The constitution of the Swiss Confederation may be re-
vised either in the ordinary forms of Federal legislation, with
compulsory referendum, or by direct popular vote, a majority
both of the citizens voting and of the cantons being required,
and the latter method may be adopted on the demand (called
the -popular initiative) of 50,000 citizens with the right to
vote. The Federal Government is supreme in matters of peace,
war, and treaties ; it regulates the army, the postal and tele-
graph system, the coining of money, the issue and repayment of
bank notes, and the weights and measures of the Republic. It
provides for the revenue in general, and especially decides on the
import and export duties in accordance with principles embodied
in the constitution. It legislates in matters of civil capacity,
copyright, bankruptcy, patents, sanitary police in dangerous
epidemics, and it may create and subsidise, besides the Polytechnic
School at Zurich, a Federal University and other higher educa-
tional institutions. There has also been entrusted to it the
authority to decide concerning public works for the whole or
great part of Switzerland, such as those relating to rivers,
forests, and the construction of railways.
The supreme legislation and executive authority are vested
in a parliament of two chambers, ^ '•■ Stiinderath,' or State
3 T
1058
SWITZERLAND
Council, and a ' Nationalrath/ or National Council. The first is
composed of forty-four membeis, chosen and paid by the twenty-
two cantons of the Confederation, tw^o for each canton. The
mode of their election and the term of membership depend
entirely on the canton. Three of the cantons are politically
divided — Basel into Stadt and Land ; Appenzell into Ausser
Ehoden and Inner Rhoden ; and Unterwald into Obwald and
Nidwald. Each of these parts of cantons sends one member to
the State Council, so that there are two members to the divided as
w^ell as to the undivided cantons. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of
147 representatives of the Swiss people, chosen in direct election,
at the rate of one deputy for every 20,000 souls. The members
are paid from Federal funds at the rate of 20 francs for each
day on which they are present, with travelling expenses, at the
rate of 20 centimes (2d.) per kilometre, to and from the capital.
On the basis of the general census of 1888, the cantons are
represented in the National Council as follows : —
Canton
Number of
Represen-
tatives
Canton
Number of
Represen-
tatives
Bern
Ziirich
Vaud (Waadt) .
Aargau .
St. Gallen
Luzern (Lucerne)
Ticino (Tessin)
Fribourg (Freiburg) .
Basel — town and country
Graublinden (Grisons)
A^alais (Wallis)
Thurgau .
Neuchatel (Neuenburg)
Geneve (Genf) .
27
17
12
10
11
7
6
6
7
5
5
5
5
5
Solothurn
Appenzell — Exterior and
Interior
Glarus ....
Schaffliausen .
Schwyz ....
Unterwald — Upper and
Lower ....
Uri
Zug ....
Total of representatives in\
the National Council /
4
4
2
2
3
2
1
1
147
A general election of representatives takes place by ballot
every three years. Every citizen of the Kepublic who has
entered on his twenty-first year is entitled to a vote ; and any
voter, not a clergyman, may be elected a deputy. Both chambers
united are called the ' Bundes-Yersammlung,' or Federal Assembly,
and as such represent the supreme Government of the Republic.
The finest step towards legislative action may be taken by means of
the 2yo2)ulao^ initiative, and laws passed by the Federal Assembly may
be vetoed by the popular voice. Whenever a petition demanding
the revision or annulment of a measure passed by the Legislature
is presented by 30,000 citizens, or the alteration is demanded by
eight cantons, the law in question must be submitted to the direct
vote of the nation. This principle, called the referendum, is fre-
GOVERNMENT 1059
quently acted on. The chief executive authority is deputed to a
' Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven members,
elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The members
of this council must not hold any other office in the Confedera-
tion or cantons, nor engage in any calling or business. It is
only through this executive body that legislative measures are
introduced in the deliberative councils, and its members are
present at, and take part in their proceedings, but do not vote.
Every citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible
for becoming a member of the executive.
The President of the Confederation and the Vice-President of the Federal
Council are the first magistrates of the Confederation. Both are elected by the
Federal Assembly in joint session of the National and State councils for the
term of one year, January 1 to December 31, and are not re-eligible to the
same offices till after the expiration of another year. The Vice-President,
however, may be and usually is, elected to succeed the out-going President.
President for 1899. — Edouard Milllcr, of Nidau (Bern).
Vice-President for 1899. — Walther Hauser, of Wadensweil (Ziirich) and
St. Gall.
The seven members of the Federal Council— each of whom has a salary of
480'. per annum, while the President has 540Z, — act as ministers, or chiefs of
the seven administrative departments of the Republic. These departments
are: — 1. Foreign Affairs. 2. Interior. 3. Justice and Police. 4. Military.
5. Finance and Customs. 6. Agriculture and Industry. 7. Posts and Rail-
ways. The city of Bern is the seat of the Federal Council and the central
administrative authorities.
II. Local Government.
Each of the cantons and demi-cantons of Switzerland is ' souverain, ' so
far as its independence and legislative powers are not restricted by the federal
constitution ; each has its local government, different in its organisation in
most instances, but all based on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the
people. In a few of the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers
direct, without the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male
citizens of full age assembling together in the open air, at stated periods,
making laws and appointing their administrators. Such assemblies, known as the
Landsgemeinden, exist in Appenzell, Glarus, Unterwald, and Uri, In all the
larger cantons, there is a body chosen by universal suffrage, called der Grosse
Rath, which exercises all the functions of the Landsgemeinden. In all the
cantonal constitutions, however, except that of Freiburg and those of the
cantons which have a Landsgemeinde, the referendum has a place. This
principle is most fully developed in Zurich, where all laws and concordats, or
agreements with other cantons, and the chief matters of finance, as well as all
revision of the constitution, must be submitted to the popular vote. In many
of the cantons, the popular initiative has also been introduced. The members
of the cantonal councils, as well as most of the magistrates, are either
lionorary servants of their fellow-citizens, or receive a merely nominal salary.
In each canton there are districts (Amtsbezirke) consisting of a number of
communes grouped together, each district having a Prefect (Regieruugstatt-
halter) representing the canton. In the larger communes, for local affairs,
there is an Asseml)ly (legislative) and a Council (executive) with a president,
maire or syndic, and not less than 4 other members. In the smaller com-
munes there is a council only, with its proper officials.
3 Y 2
1060
SWITZERLAND
Area and Population
I. Progress and Present Condition.
A general census of the population of Switzerland was taken
on December 1, 1888, when the ordinary resident population was
found to be 2,917,740, the whole population, in fact, being
2,933,334 (1,427,057 males, 1,506,277 females), showing an in-
crease since the previous census of 0*375 per cent, per annum.
At the census taken December 1, 1880, the people numbered
2,846,102, of whom 1,394,626 were males and 1,451,476 females.
At- the preceding census, taken December 1, 1870, the population
numbered 2,669,138, showing an increase of 176,964 inhabitants
during the ten years, or 0*64 per cent, per annum.
The following table gives the area and estimated population
of each of the cantons and parts of cantons in the middle of 1897,
and also the census population of December 1, 1888. The
cantons are given in the official order, and the year of the
entrance of each into the league or confederation is stated : —
Area :
Population
Pop.
Canton
sq. miles
per square
mile, 1888
June, 1897
Dec. 1, 1888
Ziirich (Zurich) (1351) .
G6Q
392,945
337,183
506-3
\ Bern (Berne) (1353) .
2,657
548,061
536,679
201-9
1 Liizern (Lucerne) (1332) .
579
136.056
135,360
233-6
Uri (1291) ....
415
17,249
17,249
41-5
Schwyz (1291) ....
351
50,728
50,307
143-0
OLwalden (TJnterwalden-le-
Haut)(1291)
183
14,734
15,043
82-2
Nidwalden (Unterwalden-le-
Bas) (1291) ....
112
13,139
12,538
111-9
Glarus (Claris) (1352)
267
33,379
33,825
126-7
Zug (Zoug) (1352) .
92
23,242
23,029
250-3
Fribourg (Freiburg) (1481)
644
123,618
119,155
185-0
Solotlmrn (Soleure) (1481)
302
91,261
85,621
283-5
Basel-Stadt (Bale-V.) (1501) .
14
96,391
73,749
5,267-8
Basel-Land (Bale-C.) (1501) .
163
64,911
61,941
380-0
Schaflliausen (Schaffliouse) (1501)
114
37,294
37,783
331-4
Appenzell A.-Rh. (Ext.) (1573)
101
56,426
54,109
535-7
AppenzellL-Rh. (Int.) (1573) .
61
12,905
12,888
211-3
St. Gallen (St. Gall) (1803)
779
247,276
228,174
292-9
Graubiinden (Grisons) (1803)
2,773
95,823
94,810
34-2
Aargau (Argovie) (1803) .
542
188,455
193,580
357-1
Thurgau (Thurgovie) (1803)
381
110,523
104,678
274-7
Ticino (Tessin) (1803)
1,088
128,579
126,751
116-4
Yaud (Waadt) (1803)
1,244
264,325
247,655
199-1
Valais (WalHs) (1815)
2,027
103,908
101,985
50-3
Neuchatel (Neuenburg) (1815) ,
312
119,329
108,153
346-6
Geneve (Genf) (1815)
Total
108
111,732
105,509
976-9
15,976
3,082,989
2,917,754
182-6
AREA AND POPULATION
lOGl
The German languago is spoken by the majority of inlialjitants in fifteen
cantons, the French in live, tlie Italian in one (Tessin), and the Ronmansch
in one (tlie Grisons). In 1888 2,083,097 spoke German, 634,613 French,
155,130 Italian, and 38,357 Ronmansch. The number of foreigners resident
in Switzerland at the date of the census was 229,650, of whom 112,342
were German, 53,627 French, 41,881 Italian, 13,737 Austrian, 2,577 British.
1,354 Russian.
The chief occupations of the population in 1888, with the numbers em-
ployed, their families and domestic servants, were : —
Occupation
Men
Women
Men and
Women
Members
of Family
Domestic
Servants
16,357
Total
Agi-iculture .
388,467
92,566
481,033
609,040
1,106,430
Jliniug, sylviculture, Ac.
10,682
28
10,710
16,482
243
27,435
Food manufacture .
37,363
6,752
44,115
52,531
4,703
101,349
Dress, dkc.
40,666
67,534
108,200
76,456
2,041
186,697
Building and furniture .
105,747
1,620
107,367
162.353
3,763
273,483
Textiles ....
61,087
106,435
167,522
99,723
2.901
270,146
Machinery
66,897
15,075
81,972
113,256
3,274
198,502
Chemicals, bookbinding,
(fee
15,873
2,743
18,616
24,449
1,347
44,412
Tra<le ....
54,037
38,256
92,293
103,484
17,730
213,507
Transport
45,689
2,307
47,996
77,825
2,175
127,996
Public officials, sciences,
(fee
35,817
14,836
50,653
64,084
12,689
127,426
Not determinable .
6,608
8,261
14,869
12,416
1,254
28,539
No relation to occupation
Total .
12,679
36.022
48,701
151,304
11,827
211,832
881,612
392,435
1,274,047
1,563,403
80,304
2,917,754
II. Movement of Population.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in live years : —
Years
Total Births
Stillbirths
jrarriages
Deaths
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
88,100
87,317
88,184
91,673
93,369
3,203
3,175
3,211
3,246
3,291
21,884
22,188
22,682
23,784
24,954
61,059
61,885
59,747
56,096
59,690
23,838
22,257
25,226
32,331
33,679
In 1897 the illegitimate births numbered 4,424, or 4 7 per cent. The
number of divorces was 1,012, or 2"13 per thousand of existing marriages.
The number of cmigi-ants in five years was : — 1894, 3,849 ; 1895, 4,268 ;
1896, 3,330 ; 1897, 2,508 ; 1898, 2,288. In 1896 the most numerous class
of emigrants was that of those employed in agricultuie, 977 ; domestic
servants, 284 ; those in trade, 263 ; innkeepers^ 178 ; tailors, 129. Of
the whole number, 2,007 were males, of whom 415 were married, and
1,323 were females, of whom 369 were married. The cantons which supplied
the largest contingents of emigi-ants in 1897, were Bern, 470 ; Zurich
1062 SWITZERLAND
344 ; Ticino, 303 ; Bale (town), 189 ; St. Gall, 149. Of the whole number
in 1897, 2,149 went to the United States, 313 to Central and South America,
7 to Australia, 3 to Asia, 33 to Africa.
III. Principal Towns.
The population dwell chiefly in small towns, hamlets, and villages. In
1897 the populations (communal) of the following towns were — Geneva,
86,535, including suburbs ; Basel, 89,687 ; Berne, 49,030 ; Lausanne, 40,671 ;
Zurich, 151,994, with suburbs; Chaux-de-Fonds, 31,157; St. Gallen,
34,025 ; Luzern, 23,060 ; Neuchatel, 19,022 ; Bienne, 19,237.
Religion.
According to the Constitution of 1874 there is complete and absolute
liberty of conscience and of creed. No one can incur any penalties whatso-
ever on account of his religious opinions. No one is bound to pay taxes
specially appropriated to defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does
not belong. No bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the
approbation of the Confederation. The order of Jesuits and its affiliated
societies cannot be received in any part of Switzerland ; all functions clerical
and scholastic are forbidden to its members, and the interdiction can be
extended to any other religious orders whose action is dangerous to the State,
or interferes with the peace of different creeds. The foundation of new con-
vents or religious orders is forbidden.
The population of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism and
Roman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants adhering to the
former, and 40 per cent, to the latter. According to the census of Decem-
ber 1, 1888, the number of Protestants amounted to 1,716,548, of Roman
Catholics to 1,183,828, and of Jews to 8,069. The Roman Catholic priests
are much more numerous than the Protestant clergy, the former comprising
more than 6, 000 regular and secular priests. They are under five bishops, of
Basel, Chur, St. Gall, Lausanne, and Sion, and an Apostolic administrator in
the canton of Tessin. The government of the Protestant Church, Calvin istic
in doctrine and Presbyterian in form, is under the supervision of the magis-
trates of the various cantons, to whom is also entrusted, in the Protestant
districts, the superintendence of public instruction.
Instruction.
In the educational administration of Switzerland there is no centralization.
Before the year 1848 most of the cantons had organized a system of primary
schools, and since that year elementary education has steadily advanced. In
1874 it was made obligatory (the school age varying in the different cantons),
and placed under the civil authority. In some cantons the cost falls almost
entirely on the communes, in others it is divided between the canton and com-
munes. In all the cantons primary instruction is free. In the north-eastern
cantons, where the inhabitants are mostly Protestant, the proportion of the
school-attending children to the whole population is as one to five ; while in the
half- Protestant and half-Roman Catholic cantons it is as one to seven ; and in
the entirely Roman Catholic cantons as one to nine. The compulsory law has
hitherto not always been enforced in the Roman Catholic cantons, but is rigidly
carried out in those where the Protestants form the majority of inhabitants.
In every district there are primary schools, and secondary schools for youths
of from twelve to fifteen. Of the contingent for military service in 1897,
•29 per cent, could not read, and 1 '02 per cent, could not Write.
INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
1063
The following are the statistics of the various classes of educational insti-
tutions for 1896 :—
—
Schools
Teachers
Pupils
Infant schools .....
671
914
32,419
Primary schools .....
4,396
9,664
470,677
Secondary schools ....
484
1,293
33,451
Middle schools (preparatoiy)
32
759
9,284
Middle schools (not preparatory)
46
304
5,177
Normal schools (public and private) .
38
411
2,453
Professional and industrial schools
212
—
—
There were also improvement schools for recruits with 71,069 pupils,
private schools with 14,393, schools for girls with 3,887, gymnasia with
7,611, and higher schools with 5,662 pupils. At industrial schools in 1896
there were 4,244 pupils; at trade schools, 1,038; at agricultural, 508; at
technical, 1,446 ; at veterinary, 96. The expenditure on instruction in
1896 was: by the State, 18,925,875 francs; by the communes, 21,655,274
francs; total, 40,591,149 francs.
There are five universities in Switzerland. Basel has a university, founded
in 1460, and since 1832 universities have been established in Bern, Ziirich,
and Geneva (1878). The academy at Lausanne was formed into a university in
1891. These universities are organised on the model of those of Germany,
governed by a rector and a senate, and divided into four ' faculties ' of theology,
jurisprudence, philosophy, and medicine. There is a Polytechnic School,
maintained by the Federal Government, at Ziirich, with 841 regular pupils in
1896-97, 356 being foreigners. There are also academies with faculties
similar to those of the Universities at Fribourg and Neuchatel. The follow-
ing table shows the number of matriculated students in the various branches
of study in each of the five universities and in the academies of Fribourg
and Neuchatel in 1897 : —
—
Tlieology
Law
Medicine
Philosophy
Total
Teacliiiig
Start-
Basel
Ziirich
Bern
Geneva .
Lausanne .
Fribourg ,
Neuchatel
49
23
29
66
38
132
18
44
81
149
118
151
70
14
152
317
195
248
111
199
267
276
275
147
99
63
444
688
649
707
447
301
95
85
99
88
79
47
33
355
627
1,023
1,326
3,331
431
Of the total> 1,526 students were foreigners. These numbers are exclusive
of 542 'listeners.'
Justice and Crime.
The 'Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal, which sits at Lausanne, con»
sists of 14 members, with 9 supplementary judges, appointed by the
Federal Assembly for six years, the President and V'ice- President, as such
for two years. The President has a salary of 13,000 francs a year, and the
other members 12,000 francs. Tlie Tribunal has two sections, to each of
which is assigned the trial of suits in accordance with regulations framed by
1004
SWITZERLAND
the Tribunal itself. It has original and final jurisdiction in suits between the
Confederation aud cantons ; between cantons and cantons ; between the Con-
federation or cantons and corporations or individuals, the value in dispute
being not less than 3,000 francs ; between parties who refer their case to it,
the value in dispute being at least 3,000 francs ; and also in such suits as the
constitution or legislation of cantons places within its authority. There are
also many classes of railway suits which it is called on to decide. It is a
Court of Appeal against decisions of other Federal authorities, and of can-
tonal authorities applying Federal laws. The Tribunal also tries persons
accused of treason or other offences against the Confederation. For this pur-
pose it is divided into four chambers : the Chamber of Accusation, the
Criminal Chamber (Cour d'Assises), the Federal Penal Court, and the Court of
Cassation. The jurors who serve in the Assize Courts are elected by the
people, and are paid ten francs a day Avhen serving.
Each canton has its own judicial system for ordinary civil and criminal
trials.
On December 31, 1896, the prison population (condemned) of Switzerland
consisted of 4,177, of Avhom 650 were women.
Capital punishment exists in Appenzell-I.-Eh., Obwalden, Uri, Schwyz,
Zug, St. Gallen, Luzern, Valais, Schafiliausen, and Freiburg.
Finance.
The Confederation has no power to levy direct taxes ; its chief
source of revenue is the customs. In extraordinary cases it may
levy a rate upon the various cantons according to a settled
scale. A considerable income is derived from the postal
and telegraph establishments, but part of the postal revenue,
as well as of the customs dues, has to be paid over to the cantonal
administrations, in compensation for the loss of such sources of
former income. The entire proceeds of the Federal alcohol
monopoly (6,306,668 francs in 1897) are divided among the
cantons, and they have to expend one-tenth of the amount
received in combating alcoholism in its causes and effects.
Various Federal manufactories yield considerable revenue. Of
the proceeds of the tax for exemption from military service,
levied through the cantons, one-half (1,565,413 francs in 1897)
goes to the Confederation and the other to the cantons.
The following table gives the total revenue and expenditure
of the Confederation for five years : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
Francs
1893
78,226,526
86,301,439
1894
84,047,312
83,675,812
1895
81,005,586
76,402,631
1896
87,262,389
79,559,657
1897
91,556,543
87,317,364
For 1898, the revenue was estimated at 91,375,000 francs
and expenditure 89,340,000 francs.
FINANCE
1065
The following table gives the budget estimates for 1899 : —
Source of Revenue
Francs
Branch of Expenditure
Francs
Real Property
652,364 i
Interest and Sinking
Capital invested .
2,055,210 '
Fund . . .
4,243,265
General administration
54,100
General administration
1,182,800
Departments : —
Departments : —
Political .
31,500
Political
657,900
Interior
5,700
Interior
12,695,501
Justice and Police
412,500
Justice and Police
453,200
Military-
2,692,950
Military
27,015,924
Financial : —
Financial : —
Finance .
220,000
Finance .
360,400
Customs .
47,000,000
Customs .
4,828,200
Commerce, Industry, \
and Agriculture . J
551,300
Commerce, Industry,
and Agriculture : —
Posts and Railways : —
Industry .
1,225,100
Railways .
234,400
Agriculture
2,850,075
Posts
32,499,000
Commerce
818,000
Telegraphs
9,484,000
Assay Office .
21,600
Miscellaneous
31,976
Posts and Railways : —
Railways
400,650
Posts
31,933,000
Telegraphs
9,484,000
Miscellaneous
40,385
Total .
95,925,000
Total .
98,210,000
The public debt of the Confederation amounted, on January 1, 1898, to
83,891,688 francs, mostly at 3| per cent. At the same date the 'Federal
Fortune,' or State property, was : real property, 40,995,314 francs ; stock, &c.,
39,881,994 francs ; works producing interest, 22,334,089 francs ; stores not pro-
ducing interest, 19,675,900 francs ; various debts, 500,707 francs ; inventory,
82,422,214 francs; cash, 6,044,609 francs; total, 161,854,827 francs, the
net Fortune being thus 77,693,140 francs.
Local Finance.
The various cantons of Switzerland have their own local administrations
and their own budgets of revenue and expenditure. In 1890 their combined
revenue was 79,152,000 francs, and expenditure 80,178,000 francs. The
cantonal revenues are derived partly from direct taxes on income and property
(on varying scales, and olten with progressive rates for the diflerent classes),
and partly from indirect duties, stamps, &c. Several cantons have only
indirect taxation ; and over the whole about 58 per cent, of the revenue is
raised m this form. Most of them have public debts of inconsiderabe,
amount, and abundantly covered, in eveiy instance, by cantonal propertly
chiefly in land. In 1890 their combined debts amounted to 259,483,000
1066 SWITZERLAND
francs. The debt of Berne Canton was 50,789,000 francs; of Zurich,
30,412,000 francs ; while Bale-C, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell-A. -Rh. were
free of debt. In most of the towns and parishes heavy municipal duties exist.
Defence.
There are fortifications on the south frontier for the defence
of the Gothard ; others have been constructed at St. Maurice on
the west side of the Canton of Valais, and it is proposed to erect
also defensive works at Martigny.
The fundamental laws of the JRepublic forbid the maintenance
of a standing army within the limits of the Confederation. The
Federal army consists of all men liable to mihtary service, and
both the army and the war material are at the disposal of the
Confederation. In cases of emergency the Confederation has also
the exclusive and undivided right of disposing of the men who do
not belong to the Federal army, and of all the other military
forces of the cantons. The cantons dispose of the defensive force
of their respective territories in so far as their power to do so is
not limited by the constitutional or legal regulations of the Con-
federation. The Confederation enacts all laws relative to the
army, and watches over their due execution ; it also provides for
the education of the troops, and bears the cost of all military
expenditure which is not provided for by the Legislatures of the
cantons. To provide for the defence of the country, every citizen
has to bear arms, in the use of which the children are instructed
at school, from the age of eight, passing through annual exercises
and reviews. Such military instruction is voluntary on the part
of the children, but is participated in by the greater number of
pupils at the upper and middle-class schools.
Every citizen of the Republic of military age, not exempt on account of
bodily defect or other reason, is liable to military service. On January 1,
1897, the number thus liable to serve was 527,074, and the number actually
incorporated was 242,529. Those who are lial)le but do not perform personal
service are subject to a tax, half the amount of which goes to the Confederation.
The contingent of recruits in 1898 numbered 18,339. Recruits are primarily
liable to serve in the ini'antry, the best fitted physically and by education and
pecuniary means being selected for other arms. In the first year of service
every man undergoes a recruit's course of training, which lasts from 42 to 80
days, and during the remainder of his service in the Elite, he is called up
every other year for 16 days' training; rifle practice and cavalry exercise
being, however, annual. The Landwehr forces are also called together
periodically for inspection and exercise, and once or twice a year the troops of
a number of cantons assemble in general muster.
The troops of the Republic are divided into three classes, viz. : —
1. The Elite (Auszug), consisting in general of all men able to bear arms,
trom the age of 20 to 32.
DEFENCE
10G7
2. Tlie Laiulwehr, comprising all men from the 33r(l to the completed 44th
year.
3. The Landsturm, which can only be called out in time of war, consisting
of all citizens not otherwise serving, between the ages of 17 and 50, or (in the
case of ex-officers) 55.
For military purposes Switzerland is divided into 8 divisional districts of
approximately equal population, and the Elite is organised in 4 army corps each
of 2 divisions, which are mainly raised each in its OAvn divisional district. The
Landwehr is not grouped in divisions, but classified in the 8 divisional districts
to which the divisions of the Elite belong. Each army division has 2 brigades
of infantry, 1 battalion of carabiniers, 1 regiment of dragoons, 1 company of
guides, 1 brigade of artillery, 1 battalion of train, 1 battalion of engineers, 1
field hospital, 1 administrative company, the normal total of all ranks (in-
cluding 91 officers and 118 horses of the Landwehr train) being 12,808, with
2,284 horses, 42 guns, and 343 other carriages. Comprised in the Elite are the
forces assigned for the defence of the Gothard and of St. ]\Iaurice, numbering
5,217 men, 2,776 being infantry, and 2,331 artillerymen. The 8 divisions are,
by a law of June 26, 1891, formed into 4 army corps, each with its own staff",
and troops corresponding with those of the united divisions. The Landwehr
is normally of the same strength in infantry, cavalry, and engineers as the
Elite, but the cavalry consists of personnel only. The eftective strength of the
Swiss army on January 1, 1898, is as follows :-
—
Elite
Landwehr
Landsturm
staff of army and Ry. Sections
66
42
—
Infantry ....
108,309
58,528
50,606
Cavalry ....
4,245
3,292
—
Artillery ....
21,355
12,812
2,865
Engineers ....
5,915
3,894
—
Pioneers (unarmed)
—
—
104.072
Auxiliary troops (unarmed) ,
—
114,237
Sanitary troo])s
5,127
3,707
—
Administrative troops .
1,607
927
1
Velocip., Judicial officers, &c.
Total ....
567
81
147,191
83,283
271,780
The whole army is composed of two classes of troops, those of the Con-
federation, and those of the cantons. The Confederation troops are of the
Elite and Landwehr— in cavalry, the guide companies ; in artillery, the park
columns, artificer companies, and train battalions ; all the engineers, and
sanitary and administrative troops. The remainder, consisting of all the
infantry and the bulk of the cavalry and artillery, l)oth of Elite and Land-
wehr, and the whole of the Landsturm, are cantonal troops, and are at the
disposjil of the cantons except in so far as is othenvise jnovided by statute.
In accordance with this arrangement, officers are appointed by the cantons for
the units of tlie cantonal troops (i.e., up to the rank of captain), and by the
Federal Council for troo])S of the Confederation and for combined cori)S. In time
of peace the highest commands are held by colonels. When moliilisation is
contemplated, one of the colonels is appointed commander-in-chief and is
styled general, but on demobilisation he reverts to his former rank.
For the defence of the Gothard, Andermatt, Airolo, and Oberalp, there is a
standing force of cadres (skeleton), and 2 battalions of fusiliers.
1068 SWITZERLAND
Production and Industry.
The soil of the country is very equally divided among the population, it
being estimated that there are nearly 300,000 peasant proprietors, representing
a population of about 2,000,000.
Of the total area 28*4 per cent, is unproductive ; of the productive area
35 '8 per cent, is under grass and meadows, 29 per cent, under forest, 187 per
cent, under fruit, 16 '4 per cent, under crops and gardens. Rye, oats, and
potatoes are the chief crops, but the bulk of food crops consumed in the
country is imported. The chief agricultural industries are the manufacture of
cheese and condensed milk. The export of cheese (1897^ amounts to 232,002
quintals, and of condensed milk to 202,266 quintals. In 1896 there were
in Switzerland 108,969 horses, 4,851 mules and asses, 1,306,696 cattle,
271,901 sheep, 566,974 pigs, 415,817 goats.
The Swiss Confederation has the right of supervision over the police of the
forests, and of framing regulations for their maintenance. The entire forest
area of Switzerland is 3,206 square miles, or 2,051,670 acres in extent. The
district over which the Federal supervision extends lies to the south and east of
a tolerably straight line from the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva to the
northern end of the Lake of Constance. It comprises about 1.119,270 acres,
and the Federal forest laws apply to all cantonal, communal, and municipal
forests within this area, those belonging to private persons being exempt, except
when from their position they are necessary for protection against climatic
influences. In 1876 it was enacted that this forest area should never
be reduced ; servitudes over it, such as rights of way, of gathering
firewood, &c., should be bought up ; public forests should be surveyed, and
new wood j)lanted where required, subventions for the purpose being sanc-
tioned. Up to the end of 1897 the cadastration of 262,940 acres of
forest had been executed, and in the year 1897, 9,784,084 trees were planted.
The free forest districts comprise 1,477 square miles.
There were, in 1897, 139 establishments for pisciculture, which produced
fry of various species to the number of 23,512,300.
Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with a strong
tendency to manufacturing industry. There are 5 salt-mining districts ; that
at Bex (Vaud) belongs to the Canton, but is worked by a private company ;
that at Schweizk^rhalle (Basel) is worked by the Glenck family ; those at
Eheinfelden, Ryburg, and Kaiscraugst (Aargau) are worked by a' joint-stock
company, in virtue of a concession from the Canton. The output of salt of
all kinds in 1896 reached 472,929 quintals. From the various cement works
the output in 1896 amounted to 417,085 tons. In 1895, there were altogether
in Switzerland 4,933 factories of various kinds, subject to the factory law, em-
ploying workpeople to the number of 200,002, and machinery of 152,718
horse-power, half of which was derived from water-power. The chief
industries were the various textile industries, 1,793 establishments, employ-
ing 91,454 hands ; leather, caoutchouc, kc, 126 establishments, with 8,365
hands ; articles of food, 537, with 14,004 hands ; chemical products, 167,
with 4,058 hands; wood industry, 7,528, with 11,347 hands; metals, 234,
with 9,936 hands; paper, 417, with 11,062 hands; watches, jewellery, &c.,
488, with 16,334 hands. Also 275 breweries produced in 1896, 1,879,567
hectolitres of beer. The Federal alcohol regie in the year 1897 sold 65,376
metric quintals of drinkable spirits, and 42,081 metric quintals of medicated
spirits. In Switzerland there are about 1,400 hotels, employing about 16,000
persons, the receipts of the hotels amounting annually to about 3,500,000^.
COMMERCE
1069
Commerce.
The special coinmerce, including precious metals, was as follows in five
vears : —
—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports
Exports
Francs
872,400,629
695,146,799
Francs
880,845,540
673,004,524
Francs
980,116,675
704,428,088
Francs
1,061,832,021
738,650,985
Francs
1,114,442,097
747,336,486
What is known as the effective imports (not including direct transit)
amounted to 1,127,426,955 francs in 1897, and effective exports to 757,754,682
francs. The following table shows the value of special commerce in two years: —
.
Imports
Imports
Exports
Exports
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Cottons ....
63,336,589
60,007,813
135,003,417
124,979,907
Silk .
120,513.885
135,790,935
199,580,212
203,941,306
Wools .
54,246,214
51,373,801
18,244,948
16,710,547
Linen .
11,9(54,860
11,722,677
2,851,308
1,748,172
Useful metals .
80,290,324
80,417,953
9,153,147
10,026,442
Mineral substances
67,020,356
65,412,431
3,169,472
3,166,163
Animals
52,273,576
52,110,035
14,264,191
15,795,749
Animal products
9,355,208
9,232,801
9,808,414
10,327,847
Leather and boots
22,231,431
26,585,835
7,815,431
7,605,805
Food stufls, tobacco.
spirits, &c.
274,808,165
285,186,588
80,349,316
81,218,336
Chemicals, drugs
23,109,508
24,399,287
8,043,985
8,473,167
Timber
30,789,971
32,999,027
4,077,575
4,867,423
Clocks and watches
I 2,849,304
3,182,386
100,363,493
103,765,315
Machinery, carriages
1 27,717,923
33,232,371
30,408,775
34,337,939
Oils and fats
; 8,831,945
8,446,563
317,754
284,299
Agricultural products
: 5,167,391
5,916,754
329,704
327,373
Science and art ,
16,039,569
18,440,427
7,819,044
8,773,191
Paper
6,821,841
7,296,937
2,491,356
2,578,630
Glass and pottery
11,391,602
11,477,705
827,233
909,906
Manures, &c.
10,287,017
11,583,515
2,346,750
2,541,609
Clothing
23,915,326
25,345,635
9,331,015
8,899,106
Colours
7,711,957
7,698,788
14,605,821
17,314,394
Various
15,687,320
15,367,686
14,506,125
14,230,890
' Total merchandise
946,361,282
983,317,950
676,308,486
682,823,517
Frecious metals, not coined
47,497,903
47,901,605
11,952,549
10,349,536
„ „ coined
67,972,836
83,222,542
50,554,678
54,263,433
Total
1
! 1,061,832,021
1
1,114,442,097
738,815,713
747,436,486
In 1897 wheat was imported to the value of 77,057,000 francs, and flour
to the value of 8,923,136 francs; cheese was exported to the value of 38,364,024
francs, and condensed milk to the value of 19,775,211 francs.
In Switzerland, for tlie majority of imports, the values are fixed by a commission of
Exports nominated by the CustomsVlepartment. Up to 1891 a single value was fixed for
each class of goods, but the Commission now takes into account the ditferencc of prices in
different countries of origin. For values of exports declarations are, in general, considered
sulficient. Returns show the net weight, though the gr(jss weight also is declared. It is
sought to record as the country of origin the country of production, and as the country of
destination that where the goods are to be consumed. When exact information is not
available, the most distant known points of transit are recorded. In accordance with this
1070
SWITZERLAND
system, Swiss returns show, as far as can be ascertained, the trade between the Con-
federation and Great Britain, though, since direct commercial intercourse is imjiossible, the
name of Switzerland does not occur in the trade returns of the United Kingdom.
- .The following table shows the distribution of the special trade of Switzer-
land (including bullion but not coin). Much of the trade with the frontier
countries is really of the nature of transit trade : —
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Germany .
30-4,970,622
306,370,949
172,260,751
175,566,627
France
177,612,458
192,416,315
81,016,009
83,648,498
Italy .
137,297,605
149,840,651
39,163,498
38,975,283
Austria-Hungary
71,412,602
66,848,406
40,413,159
41,274,346
Great Britain
51,706,813
54,043,646
147,008,247
146,070,952
Belgium .
24,169,525
24,561,248
11,354,102
13,048,465
Russia
65,150,838
66,915,219
24,394,400
24,451,336
Holland
3,452,670
3,123,370
4,670,222
4,876,044
Rest of Europe .
Total Europe.
40,676,838
33,699,511
31,484,418
32,647,887
876.422,971
[897,819,315
551,764,806
560,559,438
Africa
15,607,634
12,895,438
5,585,323
6,020,733
Asia .
31,736,585
38,480,101
31,201,614
29,915,769
America
65,269,624
77,001,063
93,336,428
90,400,383
Australia .
4,822,371
5,023,638
2,492,846
2,930,422
Not stated
Total .
—
—
3,907,018
3,346,308
993,859,185
1,031,219,555
688,261,035
693,173,053
Internal Communications.
In January, 1897. 2,351 miles of railway were open for traffic. The cost
of construction of the lines, rolling stock, &c., up to the end of 1896 was
1,176,294,358 francs. The receipts in 1896 amounted to 118,393,713 francs,
and expenses to 70,514,275 francs. In 1897 there were carried 12,568,109
tons of goods, and 46,231,354 passengers, the receipts from both amounting
to 111,155,255 francs. On February 20, 1898, it was finally decided that the
railways should be acquired by the State, but the transfer of the lines will
not take place before May, 1903.
In 1897 there were in Switzerland 1,501 post-offices and 1,939 letter-
boxes ; 3,157 higher functionaries, and 5,702 employes (letter carriers, &c.).
By the internal service there were forwarded 84,436,307 letters, 18,592,127
post-cards, 29,943,463 packets of printed matter, 100,968,631 newspapers,
and 3,421,280 sample and other parcels. In the foreign postal service there
were transmitted 18,107,540 letters, 8,001,027 post-cards, 7,431,619 packets
of printed matter, and 1,952,106 samples and other parcels. Internal post-
office orders were sent to the amount of 521,947,514 francs, and international
sent and received to the amount of 44,863,910 francs. Receipts, 1897,
29,117,203 francs; expenditure, 27,464,177 francs.
Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which, excepting
wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of the State. In 1897
the length of State telegraph lines was 4,410 miles ; the total length of wire
being 12,823 miles. Railway and private telegraph lines have a length of
1,204 miles, with 8,065 miles of wire. There were transmitted 1,665,333
inland telegrams, 1,487,793 international, and 576,068 in transit through
MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES
1071
Switzerland. Number of offices, 1,997. In the telephone service there were
276 exchanges, 28,846 subscribers, 7,368 miles of line, and 47,564 miles of
wire. The receipts of the telegraph and telephone services amounted (1897)
to 7,887,190 francs, and the expenses to 7,512,741 francs.
Money and Credit.
From 1850 to 1894 the coins issued by the Swiss Confederation were of
the nominal value of 65,245,766 francs, 23,000,000 francs being in 20-franc
gold pieces, 10,630,000 francs in 5-franc silver pieces, and 25,000,000 francs
in fractional silver pieces, while 6,615,766 francs Avere in nickel and copper
coin. In 1897 the issue was of the nominal value of 8,190,000 francs,
8,000,000 francs being in 20-franc gold pieces, and the remainder in nickel
and bronze coin.
On December 31, 1897, there were 34 banks with a paid-up capital of
164,275,000 francs, and note issue of 222,450,000 francs. For 1897 the
average of their general monthly balances was : —
Assets
Francs
Liabilities
Francs
Cash and notes
Short-dated debts .
Bills of exchange .
Other debts ....
Investments ....
Capital not paid up
Total ■. . . .
120,370,557
28,277,624
212,592,411
904,169,495
11,511,666
10,375,187
Note issue ....
Short dated debts .
Bills of exchange .
Other debts ....
Paid-up capital, reserves, &c.
Capital not paid up
Total ....
208,282,237
128,691,643
24,009,999
726,218,451
189,719,423
10,375,187
1,287,296,940
1,287,296,940
Banks of issue are subject to Federal inspection ; the notes of 20 banks
(cantonal) are secured by the cantons ; of 9 banks, by deposit of securities ; of
4 banks (of limited operation), by portfolio.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The Franc, of 10 Batzen, and 100 Happen or Centimes.
Average rate of exchange, 25'22i francs — £1 sterling.
The 20-franc piece is '900 fine, the 5-franc silver piece is '900 fine, the
silver 2 -franc, franc, and half-franc are "835 fine, Switzerland belongs to the
Latin Monetary Union.
The Centner, of 50 Kilogixtmmes and 100 Pfuncl = 110 lbs. avoirdupois.
The Quintal — 100 Kilogrammes = 220 lbs. avoirdupois. The Arpent (Land)
= 8-9ths of an acre.
The Pfund, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal
Grammes, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quar-
ters, named Halbpfand, and Vicrtelpfund.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Switzerland in Great Britain.
Minister Resident. — Charles D. Bourcart.
Secretary. — F. de Salis.
2. Of Great Britain in Switzerland.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Fred. R. St. John,
appointed January 1, 1893.
Consul-General at Zurich ; Consuls at Berne and Geneva ; Vice-Consul at
Lausanne.
1072
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland.
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire Statistique de la Suisse. Berne.
Bibliographie der Schweizerischen Landeskunde. Bern. In progress.
Eidgenossische Volkszahlung vom 1. December, 1888, 4. Bern, 1892.
Feuille federale suisse. Bern.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. 8. London.
Geschaftsberichte des Schweizerisclien Bundesraths an die Bundesversammlung,
Berne. 1897.
Resultats du compte d'etat de la Confederation suisse pour I'annee 1897. 4. Berne, 1898.
Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegebeu vom Statistischeu Bureau des Eidgenoss.
Departments des Innern. Bern, 1897.
Statistique du commerce de la Suisse avec I'etranger. Beme. Annual.
Statistisch.es Jahrbuch der Schweiz. Bern. Annual.
Vorauschlag der Schweizerischen Eidgenosseuschaft flir das Jahr 1897. Bern, 1898.
The Armed Strength of Switzerland, by Colonel C. W. Bowdler Bell ; issued by the
Intelligence Division of the War Office. London, 1889.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adavis (Sir F. 0.), and Cunningham (C. D.), The Swiss Confederation. 1889.
Almanach federal suisse pour 189(3. Berne, 1896.
Baedeker's Handbook for Switzerland. 17th edition. 8. Leipsic, 1897.
Baker (Grenfell), The Model Republic : a History of the Rise and Progress of the Swiss
People. London, 1895.
Bericht Uber Handel und Industrie der Schweiz. Erstattet vom Vorort des Schweiz.
Handels-und-Industrie Vereins. (Annual.) Zurich.
Blumer-Heer (J. J.), Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechtes. 2 vols. 8.
Schaflliausen, 1863-64. §taats und Rechtsgeschichte der schweizerischen Deniokratien. 2
parts. 8. St. Galien, 1850.59.
Conway (Sir W. M.), The Alps from End to End. London, 1895.
Conivay (Sir W. M.) and CooUdge (W. A. B.), Climbers' Guides. London, 1892, &c.
Coolidge and Ball (J.), Alpine Guide : the Wtstern Alps. London, 1S98.
CooUdge (W. A. B.), Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide Books. S. London, 1893.
Curti (E.), Geschichte der schweizerischen Volksgesetzgebung. 2nd ed. Zurich, 1885.
Daendliker (Carl), Geschichte der Schweiz. 2 vols. Zurich, 1892. [Condensed Eng.
Trans, by E. Salisbury. London, 1898.]
Dawson (W. S.), Social Switzerland. London, 1697.
Dent (C. T.), Mountaineering. 4. London, 1892.
Dt'pZojpe (S.), Le Referendum en Suisse. 8. Brussels, 1892. [Eng. Trans. London, 1898.]
Duhs (Jacob), Das oeflentliche Recht der schweizereien Eidgenosseuschaft. 2 pts. 8.
Zurich, 1878. ^
James (E, J.) (Translator), The Federal Constitution of Switzerland. 8. Philadelphia,
1890. ^
Jay (Raoul), Etudes sur la question ouvriere en Suisse. 8. Paris, 1893.
MacCrackan (W. D.), The Rise of the Swiss Republic. 8. London, 1892.
Magnenat (J.), Abrege de I'Histoire de la Suisse. 2nd Ed. 8. Lausanne, 1878.
Murray's Handbook for Sv/itzerland. 18th ed. 8. London, 1898.
Muydin (B. van), Histoire de la Nation Suisse. 2 vols. Lausanne, 189(3-97.
Oechsli (W.), Die Anfange der schweizerischen Eidgenosseuschaft. 8. Zurich, 1891.
Bead (Meredith), Historic Studies in Vaud, Berne, and Savoy. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Beclus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographic Universelle. Vol. III. 8. Paris, 1878.
Reymond (H.), Etudes sur les Institutions civiles de la Suisse. 8. Geneva, 1885.
b-ichman (I. B.), Appenzell: Pure Democracy and Pastoral Life in Inner-Rhoden
London, 1895.
Billiet (Albert), Les Origines de la Confed(2ration Suisse— Histoire et Legende. 8.
Geneva and Bale, 1868. Histoire de la Restauration de la Republique de Geneve. 8. Geneva,
Seippel (P.) (Editor), La Suisse au XIX^^ Si^cle. Lausanne, 1898.
Sowerby (J.), The Forest Cantons of Switzerland. 8. London, 1892.
Stead (R.)and Hug (L.), Switzerland. In ' Story of the Nations ' Series. 8. Loudon, 1890
Stephen (L.), The Playground of Eiirni)e. London, 1894.
Vmluuft {¥.), Tlie Alps. Translated by L. Brough. 8. London, 1889.
ViJicent (J. M.), State and Federal Government in Switzerland. 8. Baltimore, 1891.
Vtilhemin (L.), Histoire de la Confcideration Suisse. 2 vols. Lausanne 1879
Tt^'y»iper(E.), Scrambles amoii}:st the Alps, 1860-69. London, 189^.— Chamounix and
the Range of Mount Blanc. 2nd ed. London, 1897.— Zermatt and the Matterhorn.
London, 1897.
,.„ J^'jf^'i (Max), Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz. Im Verein mit eegen
1871 1875^'^"''^^ Gelehiten und Staatsmanneru heiauegegebeu. 3 vols. 8. ZiTrich,
1073
TONGA.
King. — George II., born June 18, 1874 ; succeeded his great grandfather,
George Tubou, in 1893.
There is a Legislative Assembly which meets every two years, composed
one half of hereditary nobles, who hold their office subject to good behaviour,
and half of representatives elected for three years by the people, every adult
male who has paid his taxes and is not criminally incapacitated being qualified
to vote.
Treaties of friendship and trade have been concluded with Great Britain,
Germany, and the United States.
The kingdom consists of 3 groups of islands, called respectively, Tonga,
Haapai, and Vavau, and lies between 15° and 23'^ 30' south, and 173" and 177"
west, its western boundary being the eastern boundary of Fiji. Area, 374
square miles ; population, 1893, 17,500, including 250 foreigners, mostly
British. Capital, Nukualofa. The revenue, chiefly from customs, a poll tax
and leases (no land being sold), is estimated at 20,000Z., or 100,000 dollars
annually ; the expenditure is regulated so as to leave a small surplus.
Native produce consists mostly of copra, mats, tapa, a textile from bark,
combs, and fishing nets. Imports, 1896, 90,915/. ; 1897, 74,561Z. ; exports,
1896, 94,398/. ; 1897, 64,891/. The imports included drapery, 20,563/. ;
bread stufi's, 8,334/. ; timber, 4,901/. ; and the exports, copra, 54,601/. ;
green fruit, 2,885/. ; fungus, 176/., in 1897. Of the imports there came
from Auckland, 27,241/. ; from Sydney, 42,336/. ; from Samoa, 2,651/. ; from
other Pacific islands, 2,330/. Of the exports there went to Auckland,
4,697/. ; to Sydney, 13,285/. ; to the Azores, 21,935/. ; to Ponta Delgada,
22,189/. Tonnage entered, 1896, 89,702 tons; 1897, 81,400 tons. In 1897,
of the tonnage entered, 70,798 tons were British, 7,895 tons Norwegian,
2,260 tons Swedish, and 447 Danish. The returns for 1897 have been
injuriously aff'ected by the murrain in 1896 and a severe drought in 1897.
Gold and silver coins of Great Britain, United States, and Germany are
legal tender. The weights and measures are the same as in Great Britain.
Accounts are kept in dollars, shillings, and pence.
H.B.M. Hi<ih Commissioner and Consul-General for the IVestern Pacific. —
SirG. T. M. O'Brien, K.C.M.G.
Deputy -Commissioner and Vice-Consul atTonga. — R. B. Leefe.
Foreign Office Reports on the Trade of Tonga. Annual Series. London.
The Criminal and Civil Code of the Kingdom of Tonga. 8. Auckland, 1801.
Monfat{\.), Les Tonga, ou Archipel des Amis. 8. Lyon, 1893.
3 Z
1074
TURKEY
AND TRIBUTARY STATES.
(Ottoman Empire.)
Reigning Sultan.
AbduMIamid II., born September 22, 1842 (15 Shaban
1245), the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid; succeeded to the
thi'one on the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan Murad V.,
August 31, 1876.
Children of the Sultan.
1. Mehemmed-Selim Effendi, born January 11, 1870. II.
Zekie Sultana, born Ja,nuary 12, 1871. III. Ndime Sultana,
born August 5, 1876. lY. Ahdid-Kadii- Effendi, born February
23, 1878. Y. Ahmed Effendi, born March 14, 1878. YI.
JSfaile Sultana, born January 8, 1884. YII. Mehemmed Burhan
Eddin Effendi, born December 19, 1885.
Brothers and Sisters of the Sultan.
I. Mohammed Murad EjBfendi, born September 21, 1840 ; proclaimed
Sultan of Turkey on tlie deposition of his uncle, Sultan Abdul-Azi2, May
30, 1876 ; declared by the Council of Ministers to be suffering from idiocy,
and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876.
II. DjemiU Sultana, born August 18, 1843 ; married, June 3, 1858, to
Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha ; widow.
III. Mehemmed- llcshad Eifendi, born November 3, 1844 ; heir-apparent
to the throne.
IV. Senili6 Sultana, born November 21, 1851 ; married to the late
Mahmud Pasha, son of Halil Paslia.
V. Medihe Sultana, born 1857 ; married (1) 1879, to Nedjib Pasha ;
widow 1885 ; (2) April 30, 1886, to Ferid Pasha.
VI. Wahid-Uddin Eflendi, born 1860.
VII. Sideiman Effcndi, born January 12, 1861.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-fourth, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and
the twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople.
By the law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the
crown is inherited according to seniority by the male descendants
of Othman, sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is
considered a permanent State institution. All childi-en born in
the Harem, whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are
legitimate and of equal lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1075
eldest son, but only in case there are no uncles or cousins of
greater ag^.
It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some centuries
to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Harem come, by pur^
chase or free will, mostly from districts beyond the limits of the empire, the
majority from Circassia. From among these inmates the Sultan designates a
certain numberj generally seven, to be ' Kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the
rest, called ' Odalik, ' remaining under them as servants. The superintendent
of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the Palace, and bearing the title of
' Haznadar-Kadyn,' has to keep up intercourse with the outer world through
the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called ' Kyzlar- Agassi,' has the same rank
as the Grand Vizier, but has the precedence if present on state occasions.
We first hear of the Turks in the year 844 a.d., when they migrated from
Tartaiy into Armenia, but they only came into prominence about 1030 A.D»
Under Othman, the founder of the present dynasty, they, under the name
of Othman, or Ottoman Turks, made themselves masters of several places
in Asia, captured Nicea, and made Broussa their capital (1326). Their
first appearance in Europe was in 1080, when a body of 2,000 crossed
the Bosphorus to assist the Emperor Botoniates against his rival. By
the end of the fourteenth century they had reduced Thessaly, Macedonia, and
Bulgaria, and were the acknowledged rulers of nearly all Western Asia.
Constantinople was first besieged by the Turks in 1392, but was not taken till
1453. It has since been the capital of the Turkish Empire. Mohammed XL,
its conqueror, subdued Trebizond, Wallachia, Bosnia, lllyria, and the Morea.
Under Bajazet II. and Selim I. Egypt was totally subdued, and Syria,
Circassia, and ]Moldavia passed under Turkish rule. In 1522 Solyman L
subdued Rhodes, and in 1525 invaded Hungary and invested Vienna. This
siege had to be raised, and was followed by a series of reverses. The territory
under Turkish rule in Europe alone then extended over 230,000 square miles.
Ever since, the glory of the empire has waned. In 1595 the Turks were
driven out of Upper Hungary and Transylvania, and for a time out of
Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1769 war broke out against Russia, ending in
the expulsion of the Turks from the Crimea, the extension of the Russian
frontier to the Bug and Dnieper, the partial independence of the Danubian
principalities, and the acquisition by Russia of the right of a free passage for
their fleet through the Dardanelles. In 1806 war with Russia was again re-
sumed, and resulted in the extension of the Russian frontier to the Pruth
(1812). The Greek war for independence (1822-28) ended, owing to the inter*
ference of the foreign Powers, in the loss of that kingdom. In 1833 Russia
was successful in arresting the progress of Mehemet Ali Pasha of Egypt, but
the hold of Turkey over Egypt was from that time nominal. By the Treaty
of 1841, Turkey was virtually placed under the protection of the Great
Powers, who guaranteed its integrity and independence. The Russo-
Turkish war of 1854-56, in which Turkey was assisted by Great Britain and
_ France, resulted in the abolition of the Russian protectorate over the Danu-
bian principalities and the exclusion (up to 1870) of Russian vessels of war
from the Black Sea. In 1858 Aloldavia and Wallachia united to declare what
was practically their independence. The war against Russia in 1876 resulted
in the loss of Bulgaria, Eastern Roumelia, Thessaly, and a strip of Eastern
Armenia, also in the entire independence of Roumania, Servia, and Monte-
negro, and in the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria and
of Cypiiis by England.
The following is a list of the names, with date of accession, of the thirty •<
four sovereigns who ruled Turkey since the foundation of the empire and of
the reigning house : —
3 z 2
1076
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
House of Othman.
Othman .... 1299
Orclian . . .1326
Murad 1 1359
Bajazet I., 'The Thunder-
bolt' .... 1389
Interregnum . . . 1402
Mohammed I. . . 1413
Murad II 1421
Mohammed II., Conqueror
of Constantinople . . 1451
Bajazet II. ... 1481
Selim 1 1512
Solyman I., 'The Magni-
ficent' .... 1520
Selim II 1566
Murad III. . . . 1574
Mohammed III. . . 1595
Ahmet 1 1603
Mustapha I. . . .1617
Othman II. .
Murad lY., 'The Intre^
Ibrahim
Mohammed lY.
Solyman II. .
Ahmet II.
Mustapha II.
Ahmet III. .
Mahmoud I. .
Othman III..
Mustapha III.
Abdul Hamid I.
Selim III. .
Mustapha lY.
Mahmoud II,
Abdul-Medjid
Abdul-Aziz .
Murad Y.
Abdul-Hamid II
id'
1618
1623
1640
1648
1687
1691
1695
1703
1730
1754
1757
1773
1789
1807
1808
1839
1861
1876
1876
The civil list of the Sultan is variously reported at from one to two millions
sterling. To the Imperial family belong a great number of crown domains,
the income from which contributes to the revenue. The amount charged to
the Budget of 1897-98 was £T882 550.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the
precepts of the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so
far as it is not in opposition to the accepted truths of the
Mahometan religion as laid down in the sacred book of the
Prophet. Next to the Koran, the laws of the ' Multeka,' a code
formed of the supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, and
the sentences and decisions of his immediate successors, are
binding upon the Sovereign as well as his subjects. Another
code of laws, the ' Cahon nameh,' formed by Sultan Solyman the
Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sherift's,' or decrees,
issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general obedience,
but merely as an emanation of human authority.
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under
the supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the
Sadr-azam,' or Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal Govern-
ment, and the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' the head of the Church. Both
are appointed by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal
concurrence of the ' Ulema,' a body comprising the clergy and
chief functionaries of the law, over which the * Sheik-ul-Islam '
presides, although he himself does not exercise priestly functions.
Connected with the ' Ulema ' are the ' Mufti,' the interpreters of
CONSTITU'lION AND GOVERNMENT 1077
the Koran. The Ulema comprise all the great judges, theo-
logians, and jurists, and the great teachers of literature and
science who may be summoned by the Mufti. The principal
civic functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, or Pasha.
Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European
States, were drawn up at various periods by successive Ottoman
Governments, the first of them embodied in the ' Hatti-Humii-
youn' of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856,
and the most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul- Hamid II., of
November, 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of
reform appears entirely impossible in the present condition of
the Ottoman Empire.
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representa-
tive of the Sovereign, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy
Council, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. The
Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following members: — 1. The
Grand Vizier ; 2. The Sheik-ul-Islam ; 3. The Minister of the
Interior; 4. The Minister of War; 5. The Minister of Evkaf
(Worship); 6. The Minister of Public Instruction; 7. The
Minister of Public Works ; 8. President of Council of State ;
9. Minister of Foreign Affairs; 10. Minister of Finance;
11. Minister of Marine; 12. Minister of Justice; 13. Minister
of Civil List.
The whole of the empire is divided into thirty Vilayets,
or governments, and subdivided into Sanjaks, or provinces,
Kazas, or districts, Nahies, or subdistricts, and Karies, or
communities. A Vali, or governor-general, who is held to
represent the Sultan, and is assisted by a provincial council, is
placed at the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, districts, &c.,
are subjected to inferior authorities (Mutesarifs, Caimakams,
Mudirs and Muktars) under the superintendence of the principal
governor. The division of the country into Vilayets has been
frequently modified of late for political reasons. For similar
reasons six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed by
Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan, and are known as
Mutessarifats. All subjects, however humble their origin, are
eligible to, and may fill, the highest offices in the State.
Under the capitulations foreigners residing in Turkey are
under the laws of their respective countries, and are amenable
for trial (in cases in which Turkish subjects are not concerned)
to a tribunal presided over by their consul. Foreigners who own
real property are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in ques-
tions relative to their landed property. Cases between foreign
and Tuj'kish subjects are tried in the Ottoman courts, a di-ago-
1078
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
man of the foreign consulate being present to see that the trial
be according to the law ; the carrying out of the sentence, if
against the foreigner, to be through his consulate. Cases between
two foreign subjects of different nationalities are tried in the
court of the defendant.
Grand Vizier. — Khalil Rifaat Pasha, appointed November 7,
1895.
Sheik-ul-Islam.—Jemalledi'n Effendi, appointed September,
1891.
Minister of Interior. — Memduh Pasha.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. — Tewfk Pasha, appointed
November 7, 1895.
Minister for War. — Biza Pasha.
Minister of Marine. — Hassan Veoihsi.
Minister of Finance. — Reshad Bey.
Minister of Justice. — Ahdurrahma^i Pasha, appointed November
7, 1895.
Public Works and Commerce. — Zihni Pasha {cid interim).
Public Instruction. — Zuhdi Pasha.
President of the Council of State. — So/id Pasha, appointed
November 7, 1895.
Area and Population.
The total area of the Ottoman Empire (including States
nominally subject) may be estimated at 1,576,700 square miles,
and its total population at about 38,791,000, viz. : —
Square Miles
Population
Immediate possessions : —
Europe .......
Asia
Africa . .
Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) au-
tonomous ......
Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novibazar —
under Austria-Hungary ....
Crete
Samos — tributary principality
Egypt (1897)
62,744
650,097
398,900
5,711,000
16,823,500
1,300,000
1,111,741
23,834,500
37,860
23,570
3,326
180
400,000
3,309,816
1,568,092
294,190
49,733
9,734,405
Total ....
464,936
14,956,236
1,576,677
38,790,736
AREA AND POPULATION
1079
The area and population by Vilayets, according to recent
estimates, are as follows : —
vilayets
Area
Sq. Miles
Population
Pop.
per Sq.
Mile
1
Europe : —
Constantinople . , . .
2,702
1,136,000
420
Adrianople
15,015
1,000,000
73
Salonica ....
13,684
1,200,000
88
]\Ionastir ....
7,643
600,000
78
Servia (Mutessarifat)
2,895
150,000
52
Kossova ....
9,264
750,000
80
Scutari (Albania)
4,516
225,000
54
Janina ....
7,025
650,000
85
Total (Europe) .
Asia : —
62,744
5,711,000
88
Asia Minor : —
Isniid (Mutessarifat) .
4,323
222,800
52
Broussa
28,486
1,626,900
57
Biglia (Mutessarifat)
2,625
129,400
49
Archipelago
2,744
325,900
119
Smyrna
20,844
1,396,500
67
Castamouni
19,184
1,018,900
52
Angora
26,055
892,900
31
Konia
39,681
1,088,000
26
Adana
14,359
403,400
28
Sivas
24,241
1,086,500
44
Trebizond .
11,850
1,047,700
88
Total (Asia Minor)
Armenia and Khurdistan : —
194,392
9,238,900
47
Erzerouni .....
19,686
597,000
31
Mamouret-iil-Aziz
13,240
575,300
44
Diarbekir .
13,703
471,500
36
Bitlis
10,345
398,600
39
Van .
15,517
430,000
28
Total (Armenia) .
Mesopotamia : —
72,491
2,472,400
34
Mossul
29,220
300,300
10
Bagdad .....
54,503
850,000
16
Basso ra .....
16,482
200,000
13
Total (jNIesopotamia) .
100,205
1,350,300
13
1080
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Vilaj'ets
Area
Sq. Miles
Population
Pop.
per Sq.
Mile
Syria : —
Aleppo
Zor
Syria
Beyrouth .....
Jerusalem (Mutessarifat) .
Lebanon (privileged Province) .
30,340
32,849
23,816
11,773
8,222
2,509
995,800
100,000
350,000
533.600
333,000
399,500
31
3
16
44
41
158
Total (Syria)
Arabia : —
Hedjaz (approximate)
Yemen ,, . .
109,509
2,711,900
25
96,500
77,200
300,000
750,000
3
14
Total (Arabia)
173,700
1,050,000
6
Total (Asia) .
Africa : —
Tripoli (approximate) . )
Benghazi ,, , \
650,097
16,823,500
26
398,900
800,000
500,000
} ^
Total (Africa)
398,900
1,300,000
3
Total ....
1,111,741
23,834,500
21
1
Accurate ethnological statistics of the population do not exist. In the
European provinces under immediate Turkish rule, Turks (of Finno-Tataric
race), Greeks, and Albanians are almost eq[ually numerous, and constitute 70
per cent, of the population. Other races represented are Serbs, Bulgarians,
Roumanians, Armenians, Magyars, Gipsies, Jews, Circassians. In Asiatic
Turkey there is a large Turkish element, with some four million Arabs, besides
Greeks, Syrians, Kurds, Circassians, Armenians, Jews, and numerous otlier races.
In 1885 the population of Constantinople was 873,565. The estimated
populations of the other largest towns are as follows : — Salonica, 150,000 ;
Adrianople, 70,886; Monastir, 45,000 ; Scutari, 30,000; Janina, 20,000;
Smyrna, 200,000 ; Damascus, 150,000 ; Bagdad, 145,000 ; Aleppo, 127,000 ;
Beyrout, 120,000; P^rzcroum, 60,000; Kaisarieh, 72,000; Keibela, 65,000;
Mossul, 61,000 ; Arta, 55,000; Sivas, 43,000; Mecca, 60,000; Trebizond,
35,000; Adana, 45,000; Diarbekir, 35,000; Broussa, 76,000; Angora,
28,000; Van, 30,000; Jedda, 30,000; Jerusalem, 41,000; Konieh, 45,000;
Bitlis, 39,000 ; Tripoli, 30,000.
The Lel)anon is governed Ijy a Mutessarif (Christian), and has a special
government. Its population is reckoned at 245,000 or about 111 per square
mile.
Religion and Education.
Mahometans form the vast majority of the pojiulation in
Asiatic Turkey, but only one-half of the population in European
RELIGION AND EDUCATION 1081
Turkey. Recognised by the Turkish Government are the
adherents of seven non-Mahometan creeds — namely: 1. Latins,
Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of
the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the
empire, and proselytes among Armenians ; Bulgarians, and others ;
2. Greeks ; 3. Armenians ; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans ;
5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon ;
6. Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly among the Armeni-
ans ; 7. Jews. These seven religious denominations are invested
with the privilege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule.
The Bishops and Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and
the * Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in
consequence of those functions, considerable influence.
The following shows the population of Constantinople (1885),
arranged in order of religious beliefs, viz. : Mussulmans, 384,910 ;
Greeks, 152,741; Armenians, 149,590; Bulgarians, 4,377;
Roman Catholics (native), 6,442; Greek Latins, 1,082; Pro-
testants (native), 819; Jews, 44,361; Foreigners, 129,243.
Total, 873,565. In the Turkish Islands of the ^gean Sea
the population is mostly Christian : 296,800 Christians to
27,200 Mussulmans. In various parts of Asiatic Turkey
the estimates are: Asia Minor, Mussulmans, 7,179,900
Armenians, 576,200; other Christians, 972,300; Jews, &c.,
184,600 ; Armenia, Mussulmans, 1,795,800 ; Armenians, 480,700;
other Christians, 165,200; Jews, etc., 30,700; Aleppo, Mussul-
mans, 792,500 ; Armenians, 49,000 ; other Christians, 134,300 ;
Jews, &c., 20,000 ; Beyrout, Mussulmans, 230,200 ; Armenians,
6,100 ; other Christians, 160,400 ; Jews, &c., 136,900 ; Lebanon,
Mu.ssulmans, 30,400; Christians, 319,300; Jews, &c., 49,800.
The Mahometan clergy are subordinate to the Sheik-ul-Islam.
Their offices are hereditary, and they can only be removed by
Imperial irade. A priesthood, however, in the strict sense of
a separate class, to whom alone the right of officiating in religious
services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey.
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as
a consequence, public schools have been long established in most
considerable Turkish towns ; wliile ' medresses,' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the prin-
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited.
The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, of which 379 are
in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with tlie
mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied gratis. The
private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was
30,200,000 piastres (251,000Z.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to
1082
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
20,000,000 piastres (166, 000?. )• The expenses are reckoned at 15,000,000
piastres (125,000Z.), The stipend of the sheik-ul-Islam 7,031,520 piastres
(59,000/.), and those of the Naibs and Muftis 7,876,646 piastres (66,000/.), are
paid by the State. The principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the
sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, and which is known
under the name of Vacouf. Three-fourths of the urban property of the
Empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this
description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die
without direct heirs the projierty reverts to the Church.
Finance.
A general view of the various sources of the public revenue of Turkey and
of the branches of expenditure is given in the following tables, in which the
average revenue and expenditure (including supplementary credits) for the
years 1308-1310 (1892-93 to 1894-95) are shown, together with the oflEicial
estimates for the year 1313 (ending February 28, 1898) : —
Sources of Revenue.
Average.
1897-98
Direct :
£T
£T
Tithes
4,332,338
4,100,000
Verghis (land and property tax)
2,511,924
2,511,924
Temettu (income tax) ,
742,135
500,000
Exemption from military service .
886,210
886,210
Aghnams (tax on sheep, &c. )
1,737,849
1,937,849
Various
321,273
321,273
Indirect :
Customs . . , . .
2,165,784
2,000,000
Various 1
2,571,146
2,571,146
Administrative :
Military departments .
532,793
532,793
Civil ,, ...
1,938,202
1,962,036
Share in Tobacco Regie profits
51,775
51,775
Tribute revenues various ^
Total
1,136,316
1,136,316
18,927,745
18,511,322
1 Salt, tobacco, spirits, stamps, fisheries,
silk and other sourc
es niostlj' assigned to
the Ottoman Debt Administration,
2 Including those assigned to the Debt Administration.
Branches of Expenditure.
Average.
1897-98
£T
£T
Civil List
932,550
882,550
Public debt :
Tributary debt ....
\
750,059
Loans under Debt Administration.
2,661,991
Other loans
1,204,839
Floating debt ....
r 6,483,253
523,523
Railway guarantees
868,894
War indemnity to Russia
450,000
Pious foundations, &c. .
795,490
749,484
Military departments :
War
5,296,953
4,489,698
FINANCE
1083
Branches of Expenditure.
Average.
1897-98
Military departments {continued) :
iET
;£T
Gendarmerie . , . . ,
1,254,174
1,013,944
Marine ......
653,170
546,209
Artillery .....
552,122
462,177
Civil departments :
Grand Vizierate, State Council,
Interior ....
901,853
989,322
Finance .....
583,939
668,011
Justice
450,541
461,441
Other departments
Total ....
1,892,137
1,707,269
19,796,182
18,429,411
The estimates for the year 1897-98 thus show a surplus of £T81,912. The
estimated expenditure presupposes retrenchment, esjiecially in the military
department. No provision is made for extraordinary expenditure. On the other
hand, revenues to be derived from monopolies and the increase of customs re-
ceipts consequent on new commercial treaties have not been taken into account.
The Report on Turkish finance presented to the Sultan by Sir Edgar Vin-
cent in December, 1896, (leaving out of account the revenues assigned to the
Debt Administration and the corresponding expenditure) puts the revenue
under the control of the Ministry of Finance in the year 1306 (1890-91) at
£T14,368,700 and the ordinary expenditure at £T14,137,940, showing a sur-
plus of £T230,760 on the ordinary budget. In that year, however, the extra-
ordinary expenditure, chielly for military pur})0ses, amounted to £T779,000,
so that on the whole there was a deficit of £T548,200. For succeeding years
up to 1311 (1895-96) the annual deficit is put at £T1, 000,000 which was
met by loans less, however, in amount than the sums which went towards
the sinking fund. On the basis of these results, the normal revenue for
future years at the disposal of the Ministry of Finance is estimated at
£T13,961,700, and the corresponding expenditure at £T15,354,000, the prob-
able deficit being £T1,392,300, a deficit which by administrative and financial
reforms may, it is stated, be easily avoided. The customs revenue for
1894-95 amounted to £T2,123,580 ; for 1895-96, £T1, 876,416.
The following table shows the course of Turkish indebtedness : —
Year of
Original
Converted
Year of
Original
Inter-
Purpose
Issue
Amount
into
Issue
Amount
est
£
£
Pr. cent
1854
5,000,000
1S94. 3Jl 1..C.
1885
930,000
7
Railway
1SJ5
5,000,000
1886
5,909,080
5
Bank Payni.
1858
5,000,000
1881. A.
1888
1,500,000
5
18G0
2,037,220
— B.
1890
7,827,240
4
Convei'sion
1862
8,000,000
— A.
1890
4,545,000
4
Consolid.
1803^
6,000,000
— B.
1891
0,316,920
4
Conversion
1865
6,000,000
— C.
1894
900,000
4
Tunibeki Co.
1865
87,200,0001
— D.
1894
8,212,340
H
Conversion
1869
2,480,000
1894
1,600,000
4
liailway
1869
22,177,220
1S81. C.
1896
2,975,200
0
Financial
1871
5,700,000
1894. 3i l-.c.
1870-72
32,000,0001
1881. D.
1872
11,126,200
— B.
1873
27,777,780
- C
1877 ■
5,000,000
1891. 4 1I.C.
1878
7,427,260
1890. 4i).c.
1 Approximate.
1084
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
The loans of 1854, 1871, and 1877 were secured on the Egyptian tribute ;
that of 1878 (issued to consolidate advances by Galata bankers) at first on the
Customs but afterwards by a first charge on the indirect contributions con-
ceded to the bondholders. The loan of 1855 was guaranteed by France and
England, and that of 1869 of 2,480,000Z. was redeemed by October, 1873.
The Ottoman Government being unable to meet its liabilities, made an
arrangement with its creditors, confirmed by the Trade of December 8/20, 1881.
All the loans then outstanding (with the exceptions mentioned) were with the
arrears of interest reduced and converted into the four series denoted by the
letters A, B, C, D. A Council of Administration at Constantinople was
appointed, and to it were handed over for distribution among the bondholders
the funds derived from the excise duties, from the Bulgarian, Eastern
Roumelian, and Cyprus tribute, and from the tax on Persian tobacco. The
sum of 536,363^. was to be deducted for the service of the debt of 1878, and
the balance was to be applied to the service of the four series, four- fifths to
interest and one- fifth to amortisation. The interest was never to exceed 4 per
cent., and any surplus was to be handed over to the government The interest
paid has only been 1 per cent, but the reserve fund has accumulated to
308,260^. The Council of Administration now undertakes the service of all
the Turkish loans except those secured on the Egyptian tribute, the guaran-
teed loan of 1855, the loan of 1886 secured on the Customs, and the Tumbeki
loan of 1894 (900,000Z.).
The amounts collected by the Council of Administration in two years
have been : —
Salt .
Spirits
Stamps
Fisheries .
Silk .
Tobacco duties
,, tenth
Resie
1S96-97
1897-98
£T
£T
787,003
261,235
207,941
47,832
784,780
261,283
201,774
42,865
59,164
1,913
48,135
2,280
' 91,062
768,771
96,628
701,609
Cyprus tribute .
Tumbeki .
Eastern Rumelia
Various
Total .
Expenses .
Net revenue
1896-97
£T
102,596
50,000
38,007
47
2,415,571
830,535
2,085,036
1897-98
£T
102,596
50,000
139,357
2,123
2,433,430
336,126
2,097,304
The condition of the Turkish debt was as follows in the middle of
1898 :—
Series A. B. C. D. outstanding .
Various loans 1888-94
Lottery bonds ....
Five jjer cent, customs loan, 1886
Four per cent. Tombac bonds, 1894
Five per cent, loan, 1896
Total loans .
78,303,942
28,304,620
13,045,084
4,892,471
859,600
2,945,200
128,350,917
Of debts which are not loans, the sum, in 1896, according to Sir Edgar
Vincent's Report, was £T31,551,958, including £T31,228,464, the outstand-
ing amount^f th«; Russian War Indemnity, £T50,000 of indemnity to Russian
subjects, and £1273,494 to tlie Damascus Serghis Railway.
DEFENCE 1085
Defence.
I. Frontiers.
Turkey occupies the South-Eastern cornei of Europe and the
Western portion of Asia.
The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified
of late years. European Turkey has for fi-ontier States in the
north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Eastern
Roumelia. The frontiers are mountainovis towards the east, but
at many points passage is easy.
The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by the
Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by
Thessaly, the ^gean Sea, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora,
and the Bosphorus, the shores of which are strongly fortified.
Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea,
the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles.
The boundaries to the west are the Archipelago, the Medi-
terranean, Arabia Petrea, and the Red Sea. Its limits to the
south are Central Arabia and the Persian Gulf, those to the east
Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold near the
Russian frontier being Erzeroum.
II. Army.
In Turkey all Mussulmans over 20 years of age are liable to military ser-
vice, and this liability continues for 20 years. Non-Mahometans are not
liable, but pay an exemption tax of about six shillings per head, levied on
males of all ages. Nomad Arabs, though liable, furnish no recruits, and
many nomad Kurds evade service. The army consists of (1) the Nizam, or
Regular AiTuy, and its reserves ; (2) the Redif or Landwehr ; and (3) the
Mustahjuz or Landsturm. Conscripts are divided into the first and second
levies. The former serve 6 years in the Nizam — 4 with the colours and 2 in
the reserve ; 8 years in the Redif — 4 in the first ban and 4 in the second ; and
6 years in the Mustahfuz ; 20 years in all. The latter consist of those not
drawn for the contingent. They form what is called the Tcrtih Sani and the
Mainsiz; they constitute part of the reserve, undergoing from 6 to 9 months' drill
in the first year of .service, and 30 days' drill at their homes in subsequent years.
The whole empire is divided into 7 army districts, with which are associated
7 corps d'annce called Orchcs, with their headquarters respectively at : — 1,
Constantinople ; 2, Adrianople ; 3, Monastir ; 4, Erzinjan ; 5, Damascus ; 6,
Baghdad ; 7, Sanaa (the Yemen). The troops of the 7th district are recruited
chiefly from the 4 th and 5th districts, while the garrisons of Crete and Tripoli
are recruited from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th districts.
The Nizam infantry is organised in companies, battalions, regiments,
1086 tUPxKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
brigades, and divisions. It contains 66 regiments of the line, each with 4
battalions, except three which have 3 battalions ; 2 regiments of Zouaves
of 2 battalions each ; 1 regiment of firemen of 4 battalions ; and 15 battalions
of rifles. There are also 12 battalions of Tripolitan militia for local service.
Each battalion of the line, Zouaves and rifles, consists of 4 companies. Two
line regiments form a brigade, 2 brigades and a rifle battalion form an infantry-
division, and 2 divisions form an ordu. Each line and rifle battalion, on a
war footing, has 24 oflScers, 62 non-commissioned ofiicers, and 836 men, the
total being 922 men of all ranks, with 51 horses. The peace strength varies
from 250 to 550, according to the locality. The total war establishment of a
regiment of 4 battalions is 3,764 men of all ranks, with 207 horses. The
infantry are armed with the Martini-Peabody rifle. There are 220,000 Mauser
magazine rifles ('37) in store, but none have been issued. A small-bore
Mauser ( "3) is being supplied.
The Redif is organised in two bans. (An enactment for their fusion into
one has as yet been only partially applied, ) The first ban consists of 48
regiments ; 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first 6 ordu districts. The
second ban consists of 40 regiments, 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first
5 ordu districts. On a war footing the establishments of the Redif are intended
to be the same as those of the Nizam, but battalions are often 1,200 strong.
The Nizam cavalry consists of 38 regiments of the line, 2 regiments of the
guard, and 2 squadrons of mounted infantry (at Yemen). There is no Redif
cavalry organised. The line and guard regiments each consist of 5 squadrons,
the fifth being a depot. The guard regiments are quartered at Constantinople,
and belong to the first ordu. Of the line regiments, 36 are formed into 6
cavalry divisions, one to each ordu, and 2 other regiments belong to the
garrison at Tripoli. There are thus 202 squadrons of cavalry, of which 40
are depot squadrons. The war establishment of a regiment consists of 39
ofiicers and 647 men, 686 in all, or, adding the depot squadrons, 854 of all
ranks. Each regiment has 880 horses, inclusive of train. It is proposed to
form in the fourth, fifth, and sixth ordu districts 48 regiments of militia or
Hamadieh cavalry, commanded by tribal leaders, and associated with the
regular army. The tribes will find the men, horses, and equipment, and the
Government the armament. Each regiment will have from 512 to 1,152 men
in from 4 to 6 squadrons.
The field artillery is being reorganised in accordance with a scheme
sanctioned in 1891, whereby the force will be considerably strengthened. It
is intended that each of the first 5 ordus shall have one battalion with 3
batteries of horse artillery, and six regiments of field and mountain artillery,
comprising 30 batteries of field and 6 batteries of mountain artillery, each
battery having, on war footing, 6 guns. Each of these groups of 6 regiments
will form 3 brigades of which one will be attached to the Nizam, another to
the first ban, and the third to the second ban of their respective ordus. The
sixth ordu will have two regiments of artillery with, altogether, 12 field and
2 mountain batteries. The seventh ordu will have 3 field and 4 mountain
batteries. Crete will have 4 mountain batteries, and Tripoli 4 field and 2
mountain batteries. Turkey will thus have, in all, 15 batteries of horse
artillery, 169 field and 42 mountain batteries with a total of 1,356 guns. To
the first ordu there are two ammunition trains, to the other five only one ■
The transport consists generally of pack animals. On a war footing, the
establishment of a field battery consists of about 137 ofiicers and men with 100
horses. Of fortress artillery there are 38 battalions, of which 18 belong to the
ordus, located chiefly at Constantinople and Erzeroum, and 20 to the
Ordnance Department. Of these, 12 companies are in the Bosphorus bat-
teries, 8 in the Bulair lines, and the remainder in Mediterranean fortresses.
DEFENCE
1087
There are 19 engineer companies (pioneers), and 4 telegraph companies
distributed among the 7 ordus, the second ordu having, besides, a pontoon
train. There are also 12 engineer companies and 4 torpedo companies belong-
ing to the Ordnance Department. The train service, so far as it exists, consists
of 13 companies. The supply service is almost entirely staff ; extraneous
transport would be rc([nire(l for commissariat supplies. The medical service
consists only of meilieal olUceis and apothecaries ; there are no bearers nor
cadres for field hospitals. There are 117 battalions of gendarmerie, a military
organisation under civil control in time of peace.
The following is a summary of the effective combatant services of the
Turkish Army :—
Infantry 648 battalions 583,200 men
Cavalry 202 sciuadrons 55,300 ,,
Artillery 1,356 guns 54,720 ,,
Engineers 39 companies 7,400 ,,
Total
700,620
The war strength of the army, permanent, territorial, and reserve, in 1897
was about 900,000 men.
III. Navy.
There has lately been a rumour that an effort was to bo made to increase
the Ottoman fleet, and overtures have been made to shipbuilding firms in this
country and in Germany. There is not, however, any evidence of real
progress. A survey of the navy reveals it as mainly an obsolescent, and
in great part already an obsolete fighting force. The ships are of such
small displacement or were built so long ago (1864-65) as to belong now to the
class local defence vessels.
Information concerning the state of the Turkish navy is not readily
accessible, but the following talde is based upon such information as is avail-
able. It excludes transports, training ships, and non-effective vessels. On
the whole it errs by giving a picture too favourable. ^Many of the smaller
vessels are probably useless.
Coast Defence Ships
Cruisers, 2nd class .
Cruisers, 3rd class
Gunboats, &c.
Launched
BuUd-
Dec. 1898
ing
12
2
—
4
—
6
Torpedo craft, 1st class.
,, 2nd ,,
,1 11 orcl ,,
Launched Build-
Dec. 1897 ing !
19
The table which follows is of the Turkish arinourclad fleet. Abbrevia-
tions : — a.rj.b. armoured gunboat; bar., barbette; c.b., central batteiy;^.,
turret ; Q.F., quick-firing. In the column of armaments, light and machine
guns are not given.
1088
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Name
a. g.h. Feth-el- Islam
a. g. b., Memdoiiiyeh
bar. j Aziziyeh
I
bar. j Mahmoudiyeh
bar. I Osmaniyeh .
bar. I Orkaniyeh .
c. b. j Mesoudiyeh
c. b.
bar
e. b.
e. b.
c. b.
t.
e. b.
c. b.
Hamidlyeh .
Abdul Kader
(Unfinished)
Assar-i-SheJket ,
Nedjim-i-Shcjket .
Assar-i-Tevfik
Hufzi-i-Rahman .
Avni-Illah
Idjlaliyeh
c. b. Feth-i-Boulend .
e. b. j Mouin-i-Zaper .
c. b. Moukadem-i-Hdir
i
Displace-
ment
1864
330
1
3 1
1864
330
3 1
1 1864
6,400
5i
1864
1864
6,400
6,400
5i
Si 1
1865
6,400
H
1874
8,990
12
1885
^6,700
9
8,000
14
i 1868
! 1868
2,050
2,050
6
6
^ 1868
4,600
8
1868
2,500
5i
1
1869
2,310
6
1870
2,240
6
1870
1869
2,720
2,330
I
1872
2,680
»
Armament,
2 7in. (Armstrong) .
Ditto . . . .
2 11in. ; 8 5-9in. ; 6 3-9in.
(Krupp) ....
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
12 lOin. (18-ton, Arm.,
muz.) ; 3 5'9in. (Krui)p).
10 10-2in.; 2 6-6in.(Krupp)
4llin.; 6 5-9in. (Krupp),
lOQ.F
1 9in. ; 4 7in. (Armstrong)
Ditto
8 9-4in.; 2 8-2in. (Krupp) .
2 9in.; 2 7in.(Arm.); I'p'in
(Krupp).
4 9in. (Armstrong) .
2 9in. ; 2 7in. (Arm.); 1
5-9in. (K.)
4 9in. (Armstrong) .
4 9in. (Arm.); 1 4'7in.
(Krupp) ....
Ditto
■a
290
290
8-01
8-0 I
3,740 12-0
3,740 12-0 i
3,740 il2-0!
3,740 12-0 ;
7,800
6,800
10 11,500
1,750
... 1,900
... ! 3,560
... : 200
nominal
1 2,200
1,800
1 i 4,200
2,200
1301
13 0
li'-s
11-8,
13-3 I
12-0 I
12-2;
11-0 I
14-0
12-5
3,000 12-5
The old sister battleships, now coast-defence vessels, Aziziyeh,
Mahmoudiyeh, Orkaniyeh, and Osmaniyeh (6,400 tons), are being, or have
been, transformed by having barbette turrets placed at each end of their
batteries for the heavy Krupp guns (the hope being to fit them for something
more than local defence). An armourclad of 6,700 tons, the Eamidiyeh, was
launched at Constantinople in 1885, and is said, after long delays, to have
made her trials, but it is believed that not all her guns are even now mounted.
This vessel, the Mesoudiyeh, and the unfinished armoured barbette cruiser
Abdul Kader, are the largest ships in the Turkish navy. The Mesoudiyeh
is 332 feet long, with extreme beam of 59 feet. She is constructed on the
central battery principle, resembling our own Hercules, and has on the main
deck a 12-gun battery of 18-ton muzzle-loading Armstrongs, and side plating
12 inches thick at the water-line. The chief armament will be 4 11 inch guns.
The Jff?mf?cw?^fZ^■Q'^^V^r is a deck-protected cruiser of 4,050 tons, intended to
steam 12 knots.
For the navy of Turkey the crews are raised in the same manner as the
land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary enlistment. The
time of service in the navy is twelve years, five in active service, three in the
reserve, and four in the Redif. The nominal strength of the navy is 6 vice-
admirals, 11 rear-admirals, 208 captains, 289 commanders, 228 lieutenants,
187 ensigns, and 30,000 sailors, besides about 9,000 marines.
Production and Industry.
Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure — namely,
1st, as 'Miri,' or Crown lands; 2nd, as 'Vacouf,' or pious foundations;
3rd, as 'Mulikaneh,' or Crown grants; and 4th, as 'Miilk,' or freehold
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1080
property. The first description, the 'miri,' or Crown lands, which form the
hargest portion of the territory of the Sultan, are held direct from the Crown.
The Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the
payment of certain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over
the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner
neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to the Crown.
The second form of tenure, the 'vacouf,' was instituted originally to provide
for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection
of mosques and schools ; but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for
several generations, and the 'vacouf lands have mostly been seized by
Government officials. The third class of landed property, the 'mulikaneh,'
was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recompense for the
military service reciuired of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes.
The fourth form of tenure, the 'miilk,' or freehold property, does not exist
to a great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the
neighbourhood of villages, is 'miilk,' which the peasants purchase from time
to time from the Government.
Only a small proportion of arable land is under cultivation, owing prin-
cipally to the want of roads and means of conveyance, which preclude the
possibility of remunerative exportation.
The system of levying a tithe on all produce leaves no inducement to the
farmer to grow more than is re(iuired for his own use, or in his immediate
l)roximity. The agricultural development of the country is further crippled
by custom dues for the exportation of produce from one ]»rovince to another.
The svstem of agriculture is most primitive. The soil for the most part is
very fertile ; the principal products are tobacco, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs,
nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits. Coffee, madder, opium,
gums are largely exported. It is estimated that 44 million acres of the Empire
in Europe and Asia are under cultivation. The forest laws of the empire are
based on those of France, but restrictive regulations are not enforced, and
the country is being rapidly deprived ot its timber. About 21 million acres
are under forest, of which 3^ million acres are in European Turkey. Turkey
is a wine-growing country, the total production being estimated at about a
million hectolitres annuall}'. Of this amount about 160,000 hectolitres are
exported — chielly for mixing. The culture of silkworms, which had fallen
off considerably, owing to disease among the worms, is again becoming im-
portant. In the provinces of Broussa, Pandemia, and Ismidt the production
of cocoons in 1895 was equivalent to 3,439,984 kilogrammes of fresh cocoons,
valued at 45,495,044 piastres ; in 1896, 5,386,119 kilogrammes, valued at
58,568,561 piastres ; in 1897, 4,500,000 kilogrammes. Most of the silk
produced is exported, but some is used in the manufacturing of native dress
juaterial. The quantity of opium produced in 1896 was estimated at about
4,000 chests of 50 to 60 okes ; in 1897, about 8,000 chests ; in 1898, about
3,500 chests. The production of oil of roses in 1895 was about 500,000
metikal (208 metikal = 1 kilogramme) ; in 1896, about 780,000 metikal ; in
1897, about 500,000 metikal; in 1898, about 400,000 metikal, or 2,000
kilogrammes.
The mining laws of the empire are restrictive, though the country is
rich in minerals, coal, copper, lead, silver, iron, manganese, chrome, bitumen,
sulphur, salt, alum ; coal especially is abundant, but hardly worked. A royalty
of 20 per cent, is paid on all nnnerals exported. There is a good deal of
brass-turning and beating of copper into utensils for household purposes.
Concessions have also been granted for glass manufactories, paper mills,
and textile looms. Carpets, which constitute a considerable article of export
4 A
1090
T[JRKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
(about 150,000Z.), are made on hand-looms, and so also nve a number of light
materials for dress. The fisheries of Turkey are important ; the fisheries of the
Bosphorus alone represent a value of upwards of 250,000/. The coast of the
Mediterranean produces excellent sponges, the Red Sea mother-of-pearl,, and
the Persian Gulf pearls.
Commerce.
All articles of import into Turkey are taxed 8 per cent, ad valorem, except
tobacco and salt, which are monopolies ; there is also an export duty of
1 per cent, on native produce, except cereals, sent abroad, but of 8 per cent, if
sent from one part of the empire to another. The total trade of Turkey for
six years (estimates for 1896 and 1898) has been as follows :
Years
1892
1893
1894
Imports
Exports
Years
1895
1896
1898
Imports
Exports
£T
24,553,940
24,466,985
24,108,660
£T
15,370,050
15,725,542
13,262,416
£T
24,075,490
17,130,000
24,070,000
£T
13,753,805
18,448,000 1
13,750,000 .
The following has been the value of the trade for two years (March 13
to March 12) according to countries : —
Imports
Exports
Country
1
1893-94
1894-95
1893-94
1894-95
Piastres
Piastres
Piastres
Piastres
Great Britain
905,498,045
931,522,445
573,598,326
595,391,442
Austria .
516,353,625
486,296,695
132,865,218
131,698,998
France .
274,104,933
274,221,001
355,825,665
382,251,220 1
Russia ,
150,443,029
165,133,901
33,520,887
40,054,555 {
Italy .
62,448,131
65,589,206
46,985,993
47,559,109
Bulgaria
123,128,685
103,352,846
36,144,328
38,089,776
Persia .
76,158,290
70,376,500
1,719,897
1,344,009
Greece ,
42,814,503
44,452,057
23,384,116
21,827,111
Belgium
66,579,456
66,414,986
5,864,333
4,955,220
Roumania
71,488,618
75,338,085
23,866,442
19,908,444
United States
2,050,929
7,294,999
15,032,666
22,352,998
Tunis .
2,041,918
1,893,807
40,681
24,971
Servia .
6,614,693
5,859,058
6,729,556
7,358,333 '
Holland
13,795,237
16,868,403
39,683,780
33,076,778
Germany
28,170,281
30,712,513
29,466,222
27,750,998
Egypt .
68,356,273
53,961,841
—
—
Sweden .
5,293,986
5,845,833
444
—
Montenegro .
1,246,241
620,516
482,125
56,208
Samos .
30,082
15,139
—
361
Denmark
25,429
246,430
10,111
1,557,888
j Spain .
—
222
1,019,666
115,000
; Japan .
3,223,694
1,559,486
1,111
7,111
2,410,866,078
2,407,548,969
1,326,241,567
1,375,380,530 !
COMMERCE
1091
Tobacco pxportod abroad is not iuohuled in this table ; the quantity
exported in 1886-87 amounted to 11,688,052 kilos. ; in 1887-88, 10,373,217
kilos. ; in 1889-90, 10,454,427 kilos. ; in 1891-92, 10,237,490,250 kilos. ;
in 1892-93, 13,826,021 kilos.
The principal iin[iorts and exports in 189 J -95 were : —
Imiiorh
Coal
Sugar
Linen clotli
Quilts .
Cotton yarn
Coffee ^ .
Rice
Cereals (vaiious)
AVoollens.
Flour
Madapolams .
Skins .
Cashmeres
Petroleum
Iron
Clotli
Timber .
Hides .
Hardware
Cotton &woollengoods
Sheep and goats
Carpets .
Instruments, &c.
Drugs
Silk goods
Sacks
Clothes .
Copper plates, kc.
Hats, f»'Z.
Paper
Linen goods .
Barley .
Alcoholic liquors
Butter .
Packing cloth .
Exports
Piastres
27,011,402
157,582,667
181,570,890
136,690,986
95,992,731
102,706.931
78,847,445
62,262,364
64,132,883
78,301,433
69,50.5,237
15,834,358
41,802,292
56,290,181
40,630,348
31,533,583
36,461,430
31,162.845
31,894,789
35,197,209
31,927,130
26,181,594
30,157,738
22,754,251
27,720,631
18,829,714
24,478,473
17,393,028
20,959,047
20,699,178
22,228,370
16.299,8C3
16,728,361
19,916,122
17,602,792
Piastres
: Crapes .
177,520,428
Silk
135,819,112
Cotton .
48,028,125
jMohair .
64,810,222
Barley .
47,574,372
Cocoons .
46,642,889
Oi)ium .
61,527,556
Valonia .
57,761,156 '
! Cotiee
29,756,667 !
: Ores
47,098,889 '
i Pul.se kc.
24,494,181 1
Olive oil .
62,745.989 '
; AVool
46,904,025
1 l^^igs
67,814,416
Goat skins, kc
34,744,030
Sesame .
31,887,666
Dates
19,402,103
Maize
27,370,967
1 Drugs
23,103,743 i
Carpets .
21,769,689
' Grains, various
14,828,501
Xuts, hazel
17,725,222
Oats
12,164,000
Horses and mules
8,145,584
Fish, salted, &c.
10,075,667
Olives
6,712,555
Seeds, various .
11,365,680
Gum
7,194,777
Sponges .
8,190,222
Gall nuts
12,184,381
Kcrcrs
10,452,639
Cattle .
6.665,569
Hilte
6,306,444
Oranges and lemons
13,594,977
Wax .
5,352,475
Pipe lulees
4,689,000
The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish
Empire, in Europe and Asia, and Great Britain during the last five years,
according to the Boanl of Trade Returns, is shown in the following table : —
4 .\ 2
1092
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Imports into U. X. from
Turkey
Exports of British pro-
duce to Turkey .
1893
£
4,978,721
1694
4,899,815
j5,768,747|6,520,15]
lS9c
1896
1897
5,751,537 5,316,686 6,253,209
i I
5,347,785 5,033,853,6,538,406'
Among the articles of import into the United Kingdom from Turkey are
wheat, 604,485/. in 1896; 653,697/. in 1897; barley, 994,714/. in 1896;
973,633/. in 1897; wool and goats' hair, 814,710/. in''l896 ; 1,448,441/. in
1897 ; valonia (dye stuff), 296,079/. in 1896; 261,846/. in 1897; opium,
198,222/. in 1892"; 124,360/. in 1893 ; 179,763/. in 1894 ; 183,291/. in 1895 ;
185,860/. in 1896; 165,484/. in 1897; fruit, chiefly raisins and figs,
818,977/. in 1896 ; 1,100,002/. iu 1897.
The most important article exported from Great Britain to Turkey is manu-
factured cotton. The exports of cotton goods amounted to 3,387,654/. in 1895 ;
3,211,842/. in 1896 ; 4,264,559/. in 1897 ; cotton yarn, 599,471/. in 1896 ;
787,122/. in 1897; woollens, 268,989/. in 1896; 387,368/. in 1897; iron,
wrought and unwrought, 127,227/. in 1896 ; 177,175/. in 1897 ; copper,
wrought and \inwrought, 92,741 in 1896 ; 114,502/. in 1897 ; coal, 234,570/.
in 1896 ; 268,869/. in 1897 ; machinery, 64,792/. in 1896 ; 78,800/. in 1897.
The value of the trade at various Turkish towns in Asia and Africa in
1897 was : —
Imports
1
Exports ;
£
- - -
Import.s
£
Exports
£
£
1 Trebizornl :
Bey rut
1,588,072
780,640
Anatolian trade
792,280
443,600
Mosul
563,323
223,335
Transit (Peisian) trade
554,600
215,590
Kerassund
89,560
138,360
, SMinsun
438,700
b00,440
Lattakia .
09,000
98,000
1 Jalla ....
300,630
309,389
Tripoli (S\ rian)
481,089
590,540
1 Aleppo (Alexandretta)
•2.015,217
1,136,399
Tripoli (African)
351,080
363,167 ;
Basrali ....
719,433
1,020,250
; Btiiglia/i .
210.495
324,531
Shipping and Navigation.
The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire in 1898 consisted of 87
steamers of 46,498 tons, and 1,349 sailing vessels of 252,947 tons. In 1895-96
(March to February) there entered and cleared at all the ports of Turkey
188,033 vessels of 38,409,144 tons. The total shipping entered and cleare'd
at Constantinople in 1897 consisted of 14,753 vessels of 11,456,178 tons. Of
this number, 11,146 of 11,183,508 tons were engaged in foreign and the
remainder in coasting trade. Of those engaged in foreign trade, 2,667 of
316,126 tons were .sailing vessels, and 8,479 of 10,867,382 tons were steamers,
including 1,696 of 2,006,222 tons belonging to nine shipping companies.
The number of British vessels was 4,567 of 6,505,925 tons.
Internal Communications.
Since the summer of 1888 Turkey has been in diiect railway communication
with the rest of Europe. The main lines start Irom Constalitinople and from
Salonica. From this latter port is now the shortest route to Egypt.
MOMEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES lOQS
Below is a list of the vaiious lines in Europe ami Asia wliicli were open for
traffic oil August 13, 1897 : —
Lines of Railwjiv Miles open
Oonstantinoplo-Aiulrianople-Moustafa-Pacha . . . 222
Salouica-Usku])-Mitrovitza 227
Dedeagati'h-Audriauople ....... 92
Uskub-Zibsftchti ........ 53
Salonica — Constantinople Junction, with l)ranclies . . 316
Salonica-Monastiv . . . . . , . .136
Sniyrnri-l^iner witli ])rauches ... . . 324
Sniyri-.a-Allashehr with branches ..... 284
Moudania-liroussa .... ... 26
Mersina-Adana ........ 40
Jaffa- Jerusalem . ...... 54
Haidar- Pacha Angora ....... 360
Beyrouth -Damascus- Hauran . . . . . .132
Eski-shehr-Konieh ........ 276
Total 2,542
The amount of guarantee paid by the State to different companies was
about £T650. 000.
There are 1,649 Turkish ])ost-oflices in the Eni]>ire. In the year 1892-93
the inland service transmitted 8,165,000 letters and postcards, and 2,297,000
samples and printed papers ; the international service transmitted 2,666,000
letters and ])ost-cards, and 1,080,000 samples and printed papers.
The length of telegrapli lines in Turkey is about 21,800 miles, and the
length of wire about 33,760 miles. There are 1,649 telegiapli offices in Europe
ami Asia. Annual receipts, 21,359,000 piastres; expenditure, 7,237,000
piastres.
Money, Weights, and Measures of Turkey.
On September 30, 1898, the situation of the Imperial Ottoman Bank was
as follows : —
£T
Cash in hand 2,180,000
Note circulation 817,000
Private accounts current ..... 6,729,000
Treasury accounts current ..... 1,436,000
Portfolio 1,775,000
Advances 4,226,000
The gold coinage of Turkey issued since 1891 amounts to the nominal
valu'" of 179,044,000 ])iastres, including the recoinage of Turkish pounds,
10,220,000 piastres, and of English sovereigns, 146,^909,000 piastres. The
silver coinage since 1891 amounts to the nominal value of 51,261,810
piastres.
£ s.
d.
0 IS
0 064
0 0
216
The Turkish Liia, or gold Medjidic .
Piastre, 100 to the Lira .....
,, ,, beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
averaging 105 to the Lira . . . . 0 0 206
Large accounts are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set down in
' purses ' of 500 Med jidie piastres, or 5 Turki.sh liras. The ' jmrse ' is calculated
as worth 4Z. 10s. sterling. The gold Z,i/Yt weighs 7 '216 grammes "916 fine,
1094 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
and thus contains 6 "6147 grammes of fine gold. The silver 20-piastre
piece weighs 24 '055 grammes '830 fine, and therefore contains 19 '965
grammes of fine silver. There exists a large amount of debased silver
currency — which, however, it is stated, is being gradually withdrawn — to
which were added, during the years 1876 to 1881, 600,000,000 piastres of paper
money, known as cairn e ; but being refused by the Government, owing to its
depreciation, it became in the end of merely nominal value, and altogether
refused in commercial intercourse. The copper currency was likewise re-
pudiated, owing to its depreciation. The beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
was reduced by decree to half its coined value. The former is now being
called in (1889). Silver is in excess of the re(|uirements of trade, and is
generally at 8 per cent, discount. This depreciation is further accounted for
by the fact that the balance of trade is against Turkey, and by the large
amounts of gold which have to be yearly exported for the payment of the
funded debt and the purchase of warlike ammunition.
The Okc, of 400 drams. . . = 2*8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Almud . . , . = 1 "151 imperial gallon.
,, Kileli . . . . . = 0*9120 imperial bushel.
44 Okcs = 1 Cantar or Kintal . = 125 lbs. avoirdupois.
39*44 Okcs = 1 cwt.
1^0 Okes ^ \ Tchcke . . . = 511*380 pounds.
1 Kilch = 20 Okcs . . . = 0*36 imperial quarter.
816 Kilehs . . . . . = 100 imperial quarters.
The Ayidnzt (cloth measure). , = 27 inches.
,, ArsJmi (land measure) . . := 30 inches.
,, D'dnum (land measure) . . =: 40 square paces.
The kileh is the chief measure for gram, the lower measures being definite
weights rather than measures. 100 kilehs are equal to 12*128 British imperial
quarters, or 35 '266 hectolitres.
In March 1882 Turkish weights and measures were assimilated to the metric
system, but under the old names, leading to much confusion ; they have not
been generally adopted in practice. Oke — kilogramme, batman ==10 kilo-
grammes, cantar— 100 kilogrammes, tcheki = l,000 kilogranjmes, shinik —
decalitre, kileh = hectolitre (2*75 bushels), evlek — are, djeril — hectare (2*47
acres), arshin — metre, nul = kilometre, farsang — 10 kilometres.
In 1889 the metric system of weights was made obligatory for cereals ;
metric weights were decreed obligatory in January 1892, but the decree is not
yet enforced.
TRIBUTARY STATES.
BULGARIA.
Reigning Prince.
Ferdinand, youngest son of the late rrime Augustus of Saxe-Coburg
and Gotha, and Princess Clementine of Bourbun-Orleans (daughter of King
Louis Philippe), born Feb. 26, 1861, was elected Prince of 13ulgaria by unani-
mous vote of the National Assembly, July 7, 1887 ; assumed the government
August 14, 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who abdicated Sept. 7,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1095
1886. His election was confirmed l)y the Porte and the Great Powers in
March, 1896. On April 20, 1893, he was married to Marie Louise (born
January 17, 1870 ; died January 31, 1899), eldest daughter of Duke Robert
of Parma ; issue, Bori.s, born January 30, 1894 ; Cyril, born November 17,
189;'* ; Eudoxie, born January 17, 1898 ; Clementine, born January 30, 1899.
The Prince must reside permanently in the principality. The princely
title is hereditary. In May, 1893, the Grand Sobranje confirmed the title of
" Koyal Highness " to the Prince and his heir, and this style was recognised
by the Porte and by Russia in April, 1896. The Prince retains the Roman
Catliolic faith, but his heir was on February 14, 1896, received into the
Drthodox Greek Church.
Constitution and Government.
The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed
ally 13, 1878. It was ordered by the Treaty that Bulgaria should be con-
.tituted an autonoinous and tributary Principality under the suzerainty of His
imperial ]\lajesty the Sultan with a Christian Government and a national
nilitia. The Prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the population
aid confirmed by the Sublime Porte, with the consent of the Powers, but
10 member of any of the reigning Houses of the Great European Powers
should be elected.
Eastern Rumelia (since its union with Bulgaria also known as Southern
liulgaria) was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878. It was
to remain under the direct political and military authority of the Sultan, under
conditions of administrative autonomy, with a Governor-General nominated
by the Porte. On September 18, 1885, the Government was overthrown by
a revolution, and the union of the province with Bulgaria proclaimed. As
the result of the Conference held at Constantinople by the representatives
of the signatory Powers of the Berlin Treaty during the latter months of 1885,
the Sultan, by imperial firman, April 6, 1886, agreed that the government of
Eastern Rumelia should be confided to the Prince of Bulgaria as Governor-
General, the Mussulman districts of Kirjali and the Rupchus (Rhodope) being
re-cedetl to the Porte. The rectification of the Organic Statute — chiefly as
concerned the questions of the tribute and the customs — was undertaken by
a Turco-Bulgarian connnission sitting at Sofia, but its labours were abruptly
brought to a close by the events which overthrew Prince Alexander on the
night of August 20, 1886. The province I'or all purposes forms part of Bul-
garia. It is under the administration at Sofia, which is now the only recog-
nised capital, Philip[)oi)olis being merely the centre of a prefecture.
By the Constitution of 1879, amended May, 1893, the legislative authority
was vested in a single Chamber, called the Sobranje or National Assembly. The
iiicmljers of it are elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rate of one
member to every 20,000 of the population. Those residing in the city
where the National Assembly sits receive 15 francs (12s.) a day during
session; others, 20 francs (166-.) a day with travelling expenses. All over
30 years of age who can read and write are eligilile as representatives. The
duration of the Assembly is five years, but it may ])e dissolved at any time by
the Prince, when new elections n\ust take place within four months. Laws
])assed by the Sobranje re(|uirc the assent of the Prince. Questions
concerning the ac([uisiti()n or cession of territory, changes in the constitution,
a vacancy on the throne, nv the appointment of a regent have to be decided
by a Grand Sobranje, elected for the special purpose in a manner similar to
that in which the ordinary Sobranje is elected.
'J'he executive power is vested in a Council of eight ministers nominated
by the Prince — namely, 1. ^Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public Worship ;
1096 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES :— BULGARIA
2. Minister of the Interior ; 3. Minister of Public Instruction ; 4. Minister
of Finance ; 5. Minister of Justice ; 6. Minister of War ; 7. Minister for
Commerce and Agriculture ; 8. JSlinister of Public Works, Ways and Means.
Ministers need not be members of the Sobranje, but have the right to take
part in its debates.
Tliere is an Imperial Ottoman Commissioner resident in Bulgaria.
Area and Population.
The estimated area of the Principality of Bulgaria proper is 24,380 English
sij^uare miles, and of South Bulgaria (or Eastern Kumelia) 13,700 si^itare miles.
By a census taken on January 1, 1893, the population of the whole Principality
was ascertained to be 3,310,713; the population of Eastern Rumelia being
998,431. Bulgaria has been redivided into 22 districts (including the six
districts of Eastern Rumelia). The population, divided according to
language, was as follows in 1893 : 2,504,336 were Bulgars, 569,728 Ttirks,
62,628 Rumanians, 58,518 Greeks, 52,132 Gipsies, 27,531 Spanish speaking
Jews, 16,290 Tartars, 6,445 Armenians, 3,620 Germans and Austrians, l,22i
Albanians, 928 Russians, 905 Czechs, 818 Servians, 803 Italians, and 3,820
spoke other languages. The present capital of the Principality is the city of
Sotia, with a population of 46, 593. The other principal towns are Philippopolis
(capital of Rumelia), 41,068; Rtistchuk, 37,174; Varna, 28, 174 ; Tirnovo
(the ancient capital of Bulgaria), 25,295 ; Gornia Orehovitza, 25,013 ; Slivna,
23,210; Plevna, 23,178; Tatar-Pazarjik, 22,056; Razgrad, 21,551; Vidin,
20,944 ; Orehovo, 20,054. The movement of population in the principality
in five years has been : —
1
Years
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
Marriages
Living
birtlis
Still-
births
Deaths
Surplus of j
births 1
29,658
27,553
21,967
26,640
31,230
126,924
117,883
116,319
127,516
138,338
368
321
612
690
767
86,817
103,550
91,829
92,037
90,210
40,107
14,333
24,490
35,479
. 48,128
Keligion and Instruction.
The national faith is that of the Orthodox Greek Church, though, in 1870,
in consequence of its demand for and acceptance of religious autonomy, the
Bulgarian Clmrcli was declared by the I'atiiarch of Constantinople to be
outside the Orthodox communion. The church is governed by the Synod
of Bishops. An Exarch, resident at Constantinople, chosen by the Sj-nod
with the approval of the Sultan, dispenses ecclesiastical patronage as
directed by the Synod and the parishes of the various dioceses, the approval
of the Government being required for each nomination. There are 12
Eparchies or Bishoprics. The clergy, both Orthodox and of other religicus
bodies, are paid by the State and also receive fees for services at buiials,
marriages, &c. Of the poj)ulation in 1 893, 2,606,786 belonged to the Orthodox
Greek Church, 643,528 were Maliometans, 28,307 were Jews, 22,617 were
Catliolics, 6,643 Armenian Gregorians, 2,384 Protestants.
There is a university at Soiia, with three faculties — History and Philology,
Physics and Mathematics, and Law. In 1896 it was attended by 408
students. In Bulgaria in 1896 there were 16 gymnasia (including 7 for
FINANCE — DEFENCE 1097
girls), with 10,020 pupils ; Vol lower iniddlc-class scliools (including 46 for
girls), with 17,365 pupils ; 4,585 elementary schools (including 1,445 private
schools), with 8,273 teachers (1,422 female) and 347,605 i»upils (101,194
girls) ; and IS special and technical schools (2 for gills), with 5,186
pupils. For education the State grants a yearly subvention which
provides for half the cost, the remainder heing provided in townh by the
municipalities and in villages by the communal authorities. Education is
free and nominally obligatory for a ])eriod of four years (8-12). The jichcr
parents arc, however, ic([uired to jtay 20 levs (16sh.)a year for each of their
children atteniling the higher schools. There is a free public library at Sofia.
Finance.
The budget estimates for 1898 were : revenue, 84,445,713 francs ;
exjienditure, 84,487,975 francs. For 1899 the}^ were: revenue, 84,097,195
francs ; expenditure, 84,035,514 francs. For 1899 the chief sources of
revenue are : direct taxes, 33,836,000 Irancs ; indirect taxes, 32,451,000.
The chief branches of expenditure are: Fublic Debt, 20,934,146; War,
22,623,224 ; Interior, 7,860,501 ; Instruction, 7,548,555 ; Public Works,
6,731,693. The public debt consists of a loan of 46,777,500 in 1888
for the purchase of the Varna Kustchuk railway (41,290,000 francs
outstandijig in 1898); a loan of 30,000,000 Irancs in 1889 (26,975,000
francs outstanding) ; a loan of 142,780,000 francs in 1892, ol' which however
only 93,980,000 Irancs have been issued to date, the outstanding balance
being 88,825,640 francs ; there has also been received an advance of
10,000,000 francs on account of a further issue of this loan ; the Russian
occupation del»t, of which the outstanding balance is 9,699,256 francs ; the
East Kumelian tribute, for which no capital value has yet been iixed ; a
debt to the Ottoman (.Jovernnient now amounting to 5,826,875 francs.
The Bulgarian tribute, aufl tlie share of the Turkish debt, have never been
determined. In Deceml)er, 1898, the government w^as authorised to convert
the whole national debt into a 5 per cent, debt, and to effect this a new loan
of the nominal amount of 290,000,000 francs will be issued.
Defence.
The northern frontier of Bulgaria is formed by the Danube, wdiich, ex-
cept on the east (bordering on the Dobruja), separates it irom lUimania ;
here are the three fortresses of Yidin, Rustchuk, and Silistria. Varna is
a fortress on the Black Sea, and Shumla westward in the interior. These
formerly important fortresses have not been maintained, but Sofia and A'idin
are each defended by a circle of modern forts. On the west liulgaria is
bordered by Servia, anil in the south-west and south by Turkey Proper.
^Military service is obligatory from the age of 20, but iMussulmans may buy
themselves ofi'. Persons exenii)ted on account of bodily infirmity pay a
special tax for ten years. About 40,000 are annually liable to be drafted,
but of these, only about 16,000, as decided by lot, are called under arms.
They serve either 2 years in the infantry, or 3 years in other ar)ns. The
auuy, including the Eastern Kumelian forces, is organised as follows : —
Infantry : on peace footing, 24 regiments of 2 battalions and train ; on war
footing, 24 regiments of 4 battalions, besides 24 reserve regiments of 3
battalions. On a war footing the battalion numbers 1,050 officers and men.
Cavalry : the Prince's bodyguard squadron, peace and war strength, 353 ;
3 regiments of 4 squadrons, and 2 legiments of 5 squadrons, peace and war
strength. Artillery : 6 regiments of 9 batteries of, on peace strength, 4 guns;,
1098 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
on war strength, 6 guns ; 3 battalions of fortress artillery, and 3 mountain
batteries. Engineers : 3 battalions of 4 companies, besides 3 companies for
telegraph, railway, &c., service. The infantry is armed with the Mannlicher
repeating rifle. The Bulgarian cannot be sent out of the country except in
time of war. There is a military academy at Sofia. The floating strength
of Bulgaria consists of the Prince's yacht Alexander I. (800 tons), the steam
ships Asen (400 tons), Krum (650 tons), and Simeon Veliky (600 tons),
besides seven very small steamltoats, and others are building. One torpedo
gunboat, Nadicjda (715 tons), was launched at Bordeaux, September 1898.
There are two armoured gunboats for the defence of the Danube building
abroad. ,
Production and Industry.
In Bulgaria the State is theoretically the owner of the land ; the land-
holder has a perpetual lease descending to heirs, and pays one-tenth of the
produce by way of rent (paid still, to a great extent, in kind). Tlie coni-
nmnes hold pasture-land and wood-land in perpetuity and pay no rent, and
over such lands the members of the comnmnes have grazing and wood-cutting
rights. According to recent statistics the surface of Bulgaria is subdivided
as follows : —
Description of surface
Hectares
Percentage
Pasture ... ...
Arable laud and market garden .
Forest and heath ....
Prairie ......
Vineyards ......
Water, dwellings, roads, &c.
Total .
4,587,838
2,435,900
1,676,250
312,000
' 113,512
445,000
47-89
25-50
17-50 1
3-26
1-20
4-65
9,570,500
100-00
Aliout flve-scvcnths of tlie po]»ulation arc engaged in agriculture, most of
them Indng small proprietors holding from one to six acres. The princii)al
agrii'ultural product is wheat, which is largely exported. Wine, tobacco and
silk are also produced, and attar of roses largely manufactured. In 1893
there were in Bulgaria 7,220,256 sheep, 1,263,772 goats, 1,767,974 head of
cattle, and 461,725 pigs.
All nunerals belong by law to the State, and coal mines at Pernik are
worked by the Government. About 1,000,000 cubic metres of stone arc
quarried annually. Iron is found in large quantities ; gold, silver, manganese
and cojiper also exist in the country. The salines near Bourgas yielded
12,000 tons of salt in 1896. The chief manufactures arc woollen goods,
cottons, cord, cigars and cigaicttes ; there arc also wool-carding works, saAv
mills, llax works, tanneries, distilleries and breweries.
Commerce.
Trade is largely in the hands of (Jrceks, Auslrians, and Rumanians.
The principal article of trade is wheat. Other exports are live stock, woollens,
essence of roses, skins, clieese, eggs, cocoons, timber, tobacco. The principal
imports arc textile manufactures, metal goods, machinery, colonial wares,
petroleum, paper, coal, salt, flsh. The value of the imports of the whole
COMMERCE — MONEY AND CREDIT
1099
I'riiu'ipality, in 1895, was 69,020,29;') levs ; ('Xi»orts, 77,685,546 lcvs ; in 1
imports, 76,530,278; exports, 108,739,977; in 1897, imports, 83,994,^
exj)orts, 59,790,511.
The following table shows the trade by countries lor 1897 : —
896,
236 ;
i
j Country
Imports
from
Exports '
to
Lcvs
Country
Imports*
from
Lcvs
Exports
to
■
Lcvs
Lcvs
United King-
1
Belgium
2,367,679
5,128,891 !
dom .
23,077,913
17,293,824
Switzerland.
936,301
7,000
Austria.
21,614,362
3,600,351
Servia.
1,085,954
256,351
; Turkey.
9,488,518
10,935,194
' United States
328,525
17,354
i France .
4,117,603
8,505,413
Greece
468,086
1,042,851
Russia .
4,209,018
74,684
Other coun-
CJcrmany
10,623,657
7,784,811
tries .
281,274
4,024,198
Rumania
2,236,595
365,898
Italy .
3,158,751
753,691
Total.
83,994,236 59,790,511
The chid" imports in 1897 were textiles, 32,078,812 levs ; colonial goods,
5,382,087 ; metals and metal goods, 9,499,726 ; machinery, 4,319,623 ;
timber and lurniture, 3,791,974 levs. The chief articles of exjiort were
grain 46,418,601 levs to England, Germany, France, and Turkey ; live stock,
2,375,793.
According to the Board of Trade Returns the imjiorts from Bulgaria into
Great Britain in 1897 were valued at 396,832/., and ex]»orts from Great
liritain of British produce, at 385, 90H. ; the imports into Great Britain were
wheat, 388,976/. ; barley 7,856/. ; and the principal exports from Great
Britain to Bulgaria were cottons, valued at 183,558/., iron, co}»per, and tin,
57,349/.
Shipping and Communications.
The number of vessels entered at the ports of Bulgaria in 1897 was 8,306
of 2,432,282 tons (185 of 227,799 tons British), and 8,298 of 2,434,875 tons
(187 of 230,356 tons British) i-leared. 'J'hc chief ports arc Varna and Bourgas.
Bulgaria (including Eastern Rumelia) had 612 miles of railway ojien and
457 miles under construction in 1898. Railways connect Solia with Gonstauti-
iioplc on the one hand, and 13clgradc and the general European system on
the otluir. There were in 1897 3,250 miles of State telegraph lines with
6,910 miles of wire, the number of messages (1897) was 2,316,826. There are
1,028 miles of teleithone line. There were 1,981 post and telegraph offices,
and the nund)er of letters, newspapers, kc, carried was 18,783,017. Receipts
from posts and telegraphs (1897), 3,013,003 levs ; expenditure, 3,352,259
lcvs.
Money and Credit.
There is a National Dank of Bulgaria, with hcadijuarters at Sofia and
brandies at rhilip]>op(jlis, Rustehuk, Varna, Bourgas and Tirnovo ; its
capital is 10,000,000 levs. provided by thi; State, a reserve fund of 3,333,333
levs, and notes in iMiTulation to the value of 1,956,875 levs (December,
1897). The Impciial Ottoman Bank has l)ianehes at Sotia, Philippojtolis
ami Rustehuk. 'i'heie are 85 agricultural banks for making advances on
1»ersonal security, with an aggregate eapital of 26,680,663 levs and power to
borrow from the National Bank. 'J'herc are a few Bulgarian gold coins, of
the value of 100, 40, 20, and 10 francs, but the gold circulation is supplied
1100 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES; — CRETE
by foreign 10 and 20 franc pieces. There are silver coins of h, 1, 2, and
5 levs (francs) ; nickel coins of 21, 5, 10, and 20 centime jneces ; copper coins
of 5 and 10 centime pieces ; the notes of the National Bank circulate at par.
BrUisJo Agent and Consul-G-eneral at Sofia. — F. E. H. Elliot.
There are Vice-Consuls at Sofia, Philippopolis, Rustchuk and Yarna, and
an acting Consular Agent at Bourgas.
Books of Reference concerning Sulgaria.
Foreign Oftice Reports. Annual iSeries. S. London.
Handbook of the Armies of Bul;,^aria, Greece, Montenegro, Rumania, and Servia. By
Capt .W. E. Fairholme and Capt. Count Gleichen. London, 1895.
Commerce de la Principaute de Bulgarie avec les Pays etrangers. Annual. Sofia.
Mouvement de la Population de la Principaute de Bulgarie. Annual. Sofia.
Statistique des Ecoles dans la Principaute de Bulgarie, 1894-95. Sofia, 1897.
Bulgarien und der bnlgarisclie Fiirstenhof. Yon einem Uiploinaten. Berlin, 1S9G.
Bath (Marquis of), Observations on Bulgarian Affairs. S. London, 1880.
Beaman (A. H.)> M. Stambuloff. [In series of 'Public Men of to-day.] London, 1895. —
Twenty Years in the ^.sear East. London, 1898.
Cholet (Count A. P. de), Etude sur la Guerre bulgaro-serbe. Paris, 1891.
Dicey (E.), The Peasant State : An Account of Bulgaria in 1894. 8. London, 1894.
Drandar (A. G.), Les Evenements politiques en Bulgarie depuis 1876jusqu' a nos jours.
Paris, 1896.
Huhn (Major A. von). The Struggle of the Balkans for National Independence under
Prince Alexander. London, 188(5.
Ivantchotf(T.), iVrticle ''Bulgarie" in " Dictionnaire du Commerce, de I'lndustrie, et de
la Banque." Paris, 1898.
Jirecek {C), Das Flirstenthum Bulgarien. AVien, 1891.
Kanitz (¥.), Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan, 1800-75. .3 vols. 4. Leipzig, 1875-79.
Lamourhe (L.), La Bulgarie dans le passe et le present. Paris, 1892.
Lefier(lj.), La Save, le Danube, et le Balkan. Paris, 1S84.
Miller (\\.), The Balkans. In -'Story of the Nations" Series. 8. London, 1896.— Travels
and Politics in the Near East. London, 1S98.
Minchin (J. G. C), Tlie Growth of Freedom in the Balkan Peninsula. 8. London, 1886
Eegenspursk]/ (C), Die Kampfe bei Slivnitza, 1885. Wien, 1895.
Samuelson (J.), Bulgaria Past and Present. 8. London, 188S.
St. Clair (S. G. B.)and Brophy (C. A.), Twelve Years' Study of the Eastern Questiou
in Bulgaria. 8. London. 1877.
CRETE.
The Island of Crete, taken by Turkey in 1669, was held as an Asiatic
vilayet under direct Turkish rule until 1897, when, after 80 years of almost
continuous insurrection, an agreement was made between the intervening
Powers and the Porte that autonomous government shoidd be granted to the
Island imder the suzerainty of the Porte. For the preservation of order the
l>orts have, since 1896, been occupied by the naval and military forces of Great
Britain, Fi-ance, Russia, and Italy (Germany and Austria having withdrawn),
but, by November, 1898, the Tuikish forces had left the island, a ])rovisional
scheme of administration had been put in force, and a governor with the title
of High Commissioner had been appointed. The disarmament of the
inhabitants is now proceeding ; the National Assembly comftrises representa-
tives of all parties, and the Council, constituted in Januaiy, 1899, consists of
16 membeis (12 Christian and 4 ^Moslem). The Cretan Constitution, which
has been drafted, provides that the Chamber shall consist of deputies elected
by the inhabitants, with ten members nominated by the Higii Conmiissioner,
and will be convoked every two years. The executive ])Ower will be vested
in the High Commissioner assisted by responsible councillors. All religious
beliefs are to l)e ecpially protected. Service in tlie Municipal (luard is to be
compulsory. The oliicial language; will be Greek.
Hii/h Cominissioner. — Piince George of Greece, son of tlif King of the
Hellenes, born June 24, 1869 ; assumed office December 21, 1898.
The Island is about 160 miles in length, and from 6 to 35 miles in breadth,
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1101
the total area being 3,326 squiuc milos, and pojuilation 294,190. The gi'eat
majority of tlie inhabitants are Christians, the nunibci' of M(jlunnmedans
being about 88,000. The cliicf towns arc Cauea, tlie present cajtital, with a
population of 22,000 : Camlia, the former capital, with 14,000 inhabitants;
Kethymo, with 10,000.
The Island is mountainous, but, in the lower grounds, i'ertile. the products
being fruits, the gra])e, tobacco, cotton, silk, &c.
British. Consul-Geiieral, at Cauea. — Sir Alfred Biliotti, K.C. M.C, C. B.
There are British Vice-Consuls at Candia and Rethymo.
Books of Reference concerning Crete.
Ardaillon (E.), Kcpaitiliuii iles chivtieiis et des iiuisulinans dans I'ilc Crete. In Annales
GeOiiraphiqueK. il (ISit?), pp. "i'lrj-iyT. Paris.
Bick/ordSmith (R. A. H.), Cretan Sketches. London, 1897.
Conibend'.), L'lle de Crete. Paris, 1897.
Dillon (E. J.), Crete and the Cretans. In Furtn^ghtly Review for May, 1897.
Freest {i. H.), A Short Popular History of Crete. Loudon, 1897.
Luroche (Cli.), La Crete aneienne et nioderne. Paris, 1898.
Mitchfll (O.), The Greek, the Cretan, and tlie Turk. London, 1897.
liejiort by J. Biiwrinj,' on E;^ypt and Candia. London, 1840. — Report by Consul Long-
worth on the Causes of the Insurrection in IS'iS. — Reports. Correspondence, and further
Correspondence respecting Crete, 186t)-b8, 1877-79, 18SS-91, lS9.')-98.
SAMOS.
An island off the coast of A.sia Minor, forming a princi{)ality under the
sovereignty of Turkey, under the guarantee of France, Great Britain, and
Russia, December 11, 1832,
Area 180 .square miles ; population (1898) 51,745. There are besides,
13,500 natives living on the coast of Asia Minor. There are 619 foreigners,
of whom 565 aie Greeks. In 1897 there were 392 marriages, 1,757 births,
737 deaths.
The religion is the Greek Orthodox, all, except 36, of the inhabitants
professing it.
The estimated revenue for 1897-98 was 3,538,698 piastres, and expendi-
ture the same. Theie is no public debt.
The exports for 1897 were valued at 18,547,718 piastres, and imports
19,264,302 piastres. The chief exports were wines, grapes, hides, oil. The
chief imports were spirits, cereals, tissues.
In 1897, 4,639 vessels of 362,877 tons entered the [port of Bathy : the
vessels were mostly Turkish, Greek, and Austrian, The vessels belonging to
the island were 3,069 of 3,691 tons.
In 1897, 76,730 letters pa.ssed through the Po.st OfKce, and 9,641
])ackets of }»rinted matter. The numlier of telegraphic despatches was
5,518.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of TUilKEY IX GUEAT BUITAIN.
Ambassador. — Costaki Anthopoulo Pasha.
Cmnicillor uf Emhctssy. — Abdul Hak Hamid Bey,
First Secretary. — A. Rustem Bey.
Second Secretary. — Fa id Be}'.
There are Con.sular repie.sentatives of Turkey at the following places : —
Consul-Gcneral at Liveryiool, Kianul Efiendi.
Co7istih or ]'icc-Consiih. — Birmingham, Dul)liii, Jersey, Xewca.stle-on-
Tyne, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hartlepool, Hull, Leith, Manchester, Southampton,
Sunderland, Swansea, ic.
1102 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
2. Of Great Britain in Turkey.
Ambassador. — Riglit Hon. Sir N. O'Conor, K.C.B., C.M.G.
Secretary. — M. W. E. de Bunsen, C. B.
Militarii Attache. — Colonel J. G. Ponsonby,
Consul. — H. C. A. E3n'es.
There are also British Consular Representatives at the following places : —
Consuls-General . — Bagdad, Beyrout, . Bosna Serai, Salonica, Tripoli.
Consuls or Vice-Gonsitls. — Benghazi (Tripoli), Adrianople, Bassora, Da-
mascus, Jeddah, Jerusalem, P^rzeroum, Samos, Smyrna, Trebizond, Brussa,
Dardanelles, Gallipoli, Scutari, Adana, Antioch, Candia, Van, Rhodes, Scala
Nuova, Kharput, Sivas, Monastir, Diarbekir.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications.
Turkey in Europe.
Salnaiae 1308. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire. S. Constantinople, 1807.
Report of the Health Office, published annually.
Report by Mr. Godfrey Blunt on the Finances of Turkej', in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
cf Embassy.' Part I. 1884.
Callwell (Captain C. E.), Handbook of the Turkish Army. Prepared in the Intelligence
Division of the War Office. London, 1892.
Constitution Ottomane promulguee le 7 Zilhidje (11/23 decembre, 1876). 8. Constanti-
nople, 1891.
Deutsches Handels-Archiv. for March, 1895. [Contains an account of the trade of Con-
stantinople.] Berlin, 1895.
Special Report on the Ottoman Public Debt. By Sir Vincent Caillard. London, 1897.
Treaty between Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for
the settlement of affairs in the East. Signed at Berlin, July 13, 1878. Fol. London, 1878.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports from Turkey and Possessions for 1894, London, 1895.
Hertslet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1891.
Ottoman I^and Code. Tr. by F. Ongley, revised by H. E. Miller. 8. London, 1892.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. Londcjn.
Turkey in Asia and Africa.
Correspondence and Further Correspondence respecting the Introduction of Reforms
in the Armennia Provinces of Asiatic Turkey. London, 1896-97
Correspondence respecting the condition of the population of Asiatic Turkey, 1888-89.
C-5,723 fol. London, 1889.
Reports on the Trade, &c., of Tripoli, Palestine, Aleppo, Smyrna, Damascus, Jeddah,
BejTOut, Baghdad, and Bussorah, in Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Turkey in Europe.
Annual Rejiort of the British Chamber of Commerce, Constantinople.
Amicis (E. de), Constantinople. [Translated from the Italian.] S. New York, 1896.
Rarkley (H. C), Between the Danube and the Black Sea. S. London.
Bartlett (Sir E. A.), The Battlefields of Thessaly. London, 1897.
Bhard\\.). La Macedoine. — lia Politique du Sultan. —La Turquie et THellenisme Paris,
1897.
Bujham (C), With the Turkish Army in Thessaly. London, 1897.
Bovrl:e R.), Turkish Debt. Report by Rt. Hon. Robert Bourke, M.P., to the English
and Dutcli Bondholders. London, January 1S82.
Campbell (Hon. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. S. London, 1877.
Clark (Edson L.), The Races of p]uropean Turkey: their History, Condition, and Pro-
spects. 8. New York, 1879.
Clement (C. E \ Constantinople : The City of the Sultans. London, 1895.
Creasy (Sir Edward Shepherd), History of the Ottoman Turks. [Founded on Von
Hammer, but continued to 1876.] New ed. 8. ].,ondon. 1882.
Davey (R.), The Sultan and his Subjects. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Elliot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Constantinoiile. 8. London, 1893.
Fazy (E.), Les Tures d'Aujour d'hui. Paris, 1898.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1103
Freeman (Etlwanl A.), The Ottoman Power in Euroite : its Nature, its Growth, and its
Decline. S. London, 1877.
Garnett (Lucy), Tlie Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore. London, 1890.
Georgiadt St {(}.), La Turquie ac+uelle. S. Paris, 1S92.
Goehlert(.}. V.), Die Bevtilkorung der europiiischen Turkey. 8. Wien, 18(Jti.
Grosvenor {E. A), Constantinople. 'J vols. London, 189').
Guide Joamie, Ue Paris a Constantinople. Paris, ISOiJ.
Hafiz Hus:ieijn (Effendi), Iladikat-ul-dschevami. Description of the Mosques, High
Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1804-00.
Hamtner-Purgntall (J von), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches, &c. Isted. 10 vols.
S. Pesth, 1827-;^5. 2nd ed. (iinprove<l), 4 vols. 8. Pesth, 1834-30.
Hertslet (Sir E.), Treaties and Tariffs between Great Britain an<l Turkey.
Holland (Thomti^ Erskine), The European Concert in the Eastern Question, a Collection
of Treaties, &c. O.xford, 1897.
Journal de la Ckainbre de Commerce di Constantinople. Constantinople. Weekly.
Kinglake (Alexander William), The Invasion of the Crimea. S. Edinburgh and London,
1803-75.
Launay (L. de), Chez les Grecs de Turquie. Paiis, 1897.
Laveleye (E. A.), The Balkan Peninsula. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Le Jean (Guillaume), Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Europe. [In French and German.
-IfacCoZi (Malcolm), The Sultan and the Powers. London, 1890.
In Mittheilungen aus J. Perthes' Geogr. Austalt. Ergiinzungsheft No. 4. 4. Gotha, 1801
Medjelle, or Ottoman Civil Law. Nicosia, 1895.
Miller (W.), Travels and Politics in the Near East. London, 1S9S.
AfwZZer (Mrs. Max), Letters from Constantinople. London 1897.
Perris{G. H.), The Eastern Crisis in 1897 and British Policy in the Near East. London,
1S97.
Philippson (A.), Tlies.salien und Epirus. Berlin, 1897.
Pisco (J.), Skanderbeg. Wien, 1897.
Poole (Staidey Lane-), The People of Turkey : Twenty Years' Residence among Bulga-
rians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians. By a Consul's Daughter. 2 vols. 8
London, 1878.
Poole (Stanley Lane-), Turkey. In Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1S8S.
Reclus (Elisee), Geographic Universelle. Vol. I. Paris, 1870.
Rosen (G.), Geschichte der Tlirkei neuester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1800-07.
Salmone (H. A.), The Fall and Resurrection of Turkey. London, 1890.
Spry (W. J. J.), Life on the Bosphorus. London, 1890.
Steevenx (G. W.), With the Conquering Turk. London, 1897.
Tarring (C. J.), British Consular Jurisdiction in the East. London, 1888.
Thomson (H. C), The Outgoing Turk. London, 1897.
Tozer(H. F.), The Highlands of Turkey. London, 1809.
Vambhy (A.), Das Turkenvolk. Leipzig, 18S5. — Die Stellung der Tiirken in Europa. In
Geogr. Zeitsehrift 3 (1807), pp. 249-25t).
Walker (Mary A.), Old TracKS and New Landmarks : Sketches in Crete, Macedonia, &c.
London, 1898.
Wilson (Sir C. W.), Handbook (Murray's) fcr Constantinople, Brusa, and the Troad.
8. London, 1893.
Zinkeisen{^. W.), Geschichte des Osmanisclien Reichs in Europa. 7 vols. 8. Gotha,
1840-03.
Elf Jahre Balkan-Erinnerungen eines Preussischen Ofiiciers aus den Jahren 1870 bis
1SS7. J. U. Kern's Verlag. Breslau, 1889.
Turkey in Asia and Africa.
Baedeker's Palestine an<l Syria. 2nd. edition. 12. London, 1S94.
Htniibiis (\\.). I'uliistina, Land nnd Leute. Le\\)/.i^, 1.S98.
Barkley (H. C), A Riile through Asia-Minor and Armenia. S. London, 1801.
Bigliiim(C), A Ride through Western Asia. London, 1897.
Bishop (J. ij.). Journeys in Kurdistan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1891.
Bliss (E. M.), Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities. London, 1890.
Briuton (J.), Tour in Palestine and Syria. London, 1893.
iJri/ce (James), Trans-Caucasia and Ararat. 4th ed. 8. London, 1890.
Burton (Sir R. F.) and Drake (C. F. T.), Unexplored Syria. 2 vols. 8. London, 1872.
ChauvinCV.), Bibliographie des Ouvrages arabes on relatifs aiix Arabes (lSlO-85). 8.
Liege, 1892.
Cowper(H. S ), Through Turkish Arabia. 8. London, 1894.— The Hill of the Graces.
[In Tripoli.] London, 1897.
Cuin^t (Vital), La 'Turquie d'Asie. Geographie administrative, Ac. 4 vols. Paris, 1S91-4.
Syrie, Liban et Palestine. Pari.s, 1890-98.
/^^^(E.), Life in Asiatic Turkey. London, 1879.
1104 EGYPT
Deschamps (G.), Sur les Routes d'Asie. Paris, 1S94.
Fellows (sii- C), Travels and Researches in Asia Minor and Syria. S. London, 1839.
Geary (Grattan), Asiatic Turkey. 2 vols. 8. London, 187S.
(iregorCiS!. Ter), History of Armenia. London, 1897.
Harris (J. R. and H. B.), Letters from the Scenes of the Recent Massacres in Armenia.
London, 1897.
Harris (W. B.), A Journey through Yemen. 8. London, 1893.
Hepworth(G. H.), Through Armenia on Horseback. London, 1898.
Hirsch (L.), Reisen in Siid-Arabien, Mahra-Land, uud Hadramiit. Leiden, 1897.
Historical Sketch of Armenia and the Armenians. By an Old Indian. London, 1896.
Hodgetts (E. A. B.), Round about Armenia. 8. London, 1890.
Hogarth (D. G.), A Wandering Scholar in the Levant. 2nd ed. London, 1897.
Huma7in (C), Reisen in Kleinen Asien und Nordsyrien. 8. Berlin, 1890.
Isaverdentz (H.), Histoire de I'Armenie. Fol. Venice, 1888.
Keane (A. H.) and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.
Kaunenberg (K.), Kleinasiens Naturschiitze. Berlin, 1897.
Leake (W. M.), Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor. 8. London, 1824.
Lepsius (J.), Armenia and Eurojte : An Indictment. London, 1897.
MacCoan (J. C), Our New Protectorate. [Turkey in Asia.] 2 vols. S. London, 1879.
jVacdona?d (A.), The Land of Ararat. 8. Loudon, 1893.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses or Scenes and Studies in Many Lands. 8. London, 1887.
Paterson (J. G.), From Bombay through Babylonia [Missionary Travels.] Glasgow, 1896.
Pertius (Comte de), Le Desert de Syi-ie. Paris, 1896.
Peters (J. P.), Nippur : Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. Vol. I. London,
1897.
Ramsay (W. M.), The Cities and Bishopricks of Phrygia. 2 vols. Oxford, 1897. — Historical
Geography of Asia Minor. London, 1890. — Impressions of Tm-key during Twelve Years'
Wanderings. London, 1^97. — Also, Every-day Life in Turkey, by Mrs. Ramsay. London,
1897.
iJecZus(Elisee),Nouvelle Geographic Universelle. Vols. IX and XL 8. Paris, 1884 and 1886.
Rohlfs (Gerhard), Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien, 1868-69. 2 vols. 8. Bremen, 1871.
Reise vom Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra. 8. Leipzig, 1881.
Rossi (G. B.), Nei Paesi d'lslani in Barberia, in Egitto, (fee. Rome, 1897.
Schwarz (Dr. B.), Quer durch Bithynien. 8. Berlin. 1889.
Smith (G. A.), Historical Geography of the Holy Land. New ed. London, 1897.
Thompson (G. E.), Life in Tripoli, with a peep at Ancient Carthage. 8. Liverpool, 1894.
Tozer (H. F.), Turkish xVrmenia and Eastern Asia Minor. S. London, 1881.
Warkworth (Lord), Notes from a Diarv in Asiatic Turkey. London, 1898.
Warner (C. D.), In the Levant. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892.
Wilson (Sir C. W.), Handbook (Murray's) for Travellers in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia
Persia, &c. London, 1S95.
EGYPT.
(Kemi — MiSR.)
Reigning Khedive.
Abbas Hilmi, born July 14, 1874; son of Mohamed Tewfik ;
succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 7,
1892; married Princess Ikbal Hanem ; offspring: Princess
Emina Hanem, born February 12, 1895; Princess Atiatou-llah,
born June 9, 1896 ; Princess Fathieh Hanem, born December
1897; Prince , born February 20, 1899. He has
one brother, Mohamed Aly, born October 28, 1875, and two
sisters, Khadija Hanem, born May 2, 1879, and Nimet-Hanem,
born Nov. 6, 1881.
The present sovereign of Egypt is the seventh ruler of the dynasty of Mehe-
niet Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 1806, who made himself, in 1811,
Died
Reigned
1849
1811-48
1848
June— Nov. 1848
1854
1848-54
1863
1854-63
1895
1863-79
1892
1879-92
CONSTITITTION AND GOVERNMENT 1105
absolute master of the country by force of anus. The [lositiou of his
grandfather, Ismail I. — forced to abdicatej under pressure of the British
and French Governments, in 1879 — was recognised by the Imperial Hatti-
Sheriff of February 13^ 1841, issued under the guarantee of the five great
European Powersj which establislied tlie hereditary succession to the throne of
Egypt under the same rules and regulations as those to the throne of Turkey.
The title given to jMehemet 7\.li and his immediate successors was the Turkish
one of ' Vali,' or Viceroy ; but this was changc-d by an Im[)erial hrman of
May 21, 1866 into the Persian-Arabic of ■ KhTdewi-Alisr, ' or, as more commonly
called, Khedive. By the same tirman of May 27, 1866, obtained on the con-
dition of the sovereign of Egypt raising his annual tribute to the Sultan's civil
list from 376,000^. to 720,000^., the succession to the throne of Egypt was
made direct from father to son, instead of descending, after the Turkish law,
to the eldest heir. By a firman issued June 8, 1873, the Sultan granted to
Ismail I. the hitherto withheld rights of concluding commercial treaties with
foreign Bowers, ami of maintaining armies.
The predecessors of the present ruler of Egypt were —
Born
Mehemet Ali, founder of the dynasty 1769
Ibrahim, step-son of Mehemet . . 1789
Abl^as, grandson of Mehemet. . . 1813
Said, son of Mehemet 1822
Ismail, son of Ibrahim .... 1830
Mohamed Tewtik, son of Ismail . . 1852
The present Khedive of Egypt has an anjiual allowance of lOO.OOOZ.
Government and Constitution.
The administration of Egypt is carried on by native Ministers,
subject to the ruling of the Khedive. From 1879 to 1883 two
Controllers-General, appointed by France and England, had con-
siderable powers in the direction of the affairs of the country
Khedivial Decree, November 10, 1879). In the summer of 1882,
in consequence of a military rebellion, England intervened, sub-
dued the rising, and restored the authority of the Khedive. In
this intervention England was not joined by France, and as a
result, on January 18, 1883, the Khedive signed a decree abolish-
ing the joint control of England and France. In the place of
the Control, the Khedive, on the recommendation of England,
appointed an English financial adviser, without whose concurrence
no financial decision can be taken. The financial adviser has a
right to a seat in the Council of Ministers, but he is not an
executive officer.
The Egyptian Ministry is at present composed of six members, among
wliom the (lejiartmental work is distributed as follows : — 1. President — Interior";
2. Finance ; 3. Justice ; 4. War ; 5. Public Works and Public Instruction ;
6. Foreign Allairs.
On May 1, 1883, an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creating
i B
1106
TURKfiY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
a liuiuber of representative institutions, including a Legislative Council, a
General Assembly, and provincial boards. Tlie Legislative Council is a con-
sultative body, consisting of 30 members, of whom 14 are nominated by the
Goveinment. It meets once a month and examines the budget and all pro-
posed administrative laws, but it cannot initiate legislation and the Govern-
ment is not obliged to act on its advice. Of its members, 15 residing in
Cairo receive an allowance of 90/. a year for carriage expenses, and 15, being
delegates from the provinces and provincial towns, receive 250Z. a year for
residential expenses in Cairo, besides travelling expenses to and from Cairo
once a month. The General Assembly, which consists of the members of the
Legislative Council with the addition of the 6 ministers and 46 members
popularly elected, has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal or
land tax can be imposed without its consent. It has to be summoned at least
once every two years. The members, when convoked, receive an eight days'
allowance at II. a, day, with railway expenses. The council of ministers with
the Khedive is the ultimate legislative authority. Since 1887 an Ottoman
High Commissioner has resided in Cairo.
Egy})t Proper is administratively divided into 6 governorships (moafzas)
of princi[)al towns, and 14 mudiriehs, or provinces, subdivided into districts
or kisms.
Govenwrsliips.
1. Cairo.
2. Alexandria.
3. Damietta.
4. Suez Canal, with the towns
of Tort Said and Ismai-
lieh.
5. Suez and Sinai peninsula.
6. El Arish.
Mudiriehs.
Lower Egypt : — Upper Egypt : —
1. Kalioubieh. 1. Guizeh.
2.
JMenoutieh.
2.
Minieh.
3!
Gharbieh.
l».
Beni Souel,
4.
Charkieh.
4.
Fayoum.
5.
Dakahlieh.
5.
Assiout.
(5.
lichera.
6.
Guerga.
7.
Kena.
8.
Nubia
Area and Population.
Tlie total area of Kgypt proper, incdudiiig the Oases in the
l^ibyan Desert, the region between the Nile and the Reel Sea,
and El-Ai'ish in Syria, but exeluding the Sudan, is about 400,000
square miles ; but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile
Valley and Delta, covers only 12,976 square miles. Canajs,
roads, date plantations, Arc, cover 1,900 square miles; 2,850
square miles are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes,
lakes, and desert. Kgypt is divided into two great districts —
* Masr-el-Bahri,' or Lower Egypt, and * Kl-Said,' or Upper Egypt.
The following table gives the area of tlie settled land surface,
and the results of the census of June, 1897 : —
AREA AND POPULATION
1107
Area in
Egyptians
PnvpifnpTs
Total
1
Top.
sq. m.
Sedentary
Nomad
X \JL\jk^kL\^X 1?
l»er sq. 111.
. Govcrnorats :
Cairo .
6
533,336
1,345
35,381
570,062
95,010
Alexandria .
70
268,669
4,984
46,113
319,766
4,568
Port 8a ill
4^
ami Canal
{ loi
36,729
—
13,450
50,179
—
^>^
Suez .
15,439
6,757
2,774
24,970
—
-^1
Daniietta .
^i
43,512
—
239
43,751
9,722
o
El-Arisli
1
5
4,080
12,910
1
16,991
84,955
Provhiccs :
Behura
932
535,021
94,953
1,251
631,225
677
1-^
Cliarkieh .
905
661, H58
85,015
2,567
749,130
828
Dakahlieh .
931
719,676
14,624
2,408
736,708
791
Ciliailiieh .
2,340
1,246,752
47,463
3,441
1,297,656
554
Kaloiiltii'h
352
335,470
35,402
593
371,465
1,055
Meiioutieli .
639
846,512
16,666
1,028
864,206
1,352
1 Provinces :
t. ' Beni-Souef .
501
282,513
31,645
296
314,454
627
^ Fayouiu
493
312,757
57,947
302
371,006
752
^ Ginzeh
370
368,472
32,736
426
401,634
1,085
t Miiiieh
772
511,746
36,217
669
548.632
711
:r^
Assiout
840
752,233
30,048
439
782,720
932
£"
Ouerga
631
677,151
10,649
211
688,011
1,090
Kena .
544
679,517
31,325
615
711,457
1,308
Xubia,
216,662
23,288
432
240,382
—
'
Total
9,047,905
573,974
112,526
9,734,405
—
Kccent arrangements lor the atl ministration of the Egyptian Sudan
involve modilications in the government of the southern jnovinces of Upper
Egypt.
Of the total [.opulation, 4,947,850 -svcrc males and 4,786,555 females. Xot
included in the table an- the jtoimlations of Siwa (Wahat), consisting of 5,000
sedentary Egyptians ; Dongola (Governorat), 53,037 sedentary and 3,389
nomadie ; total, 56.426; Souakin, 15,378 .sedentaiy Egyptians and 335
foreigners; total, 15,713.
The foreign population, 112,526 in all, comprised 38,175 Greeks, 24,467
Italians, 19,557 British, 14,155 French, 7,117 Austro- Hungarians, 3,193
Russians, 1,277 Germans, 1,301 Persians, and 3,284 of other nationalities.
The growth of the general population of the country is exhibited by the
following fijnires : —
1882 (Census) 6,813,919
1897 (Census) 9,734,405
1800 (French estimate) . 2,460,000
1821 (Mehemet Aly). . 2,536,400
1846 (Census) .... 4,476,440 ,
The average annual increase from 1846 to 1882 was 1*25 per cent. ; from
1882 to 1897, 2-76 ]ter cent.
The princijial town.s, with their jiopulations in 1897, are : — Cairo, 570,062 ;
Alexandria, 319,766; Tantah, 57,289; Port Said, 42,095; Assiout, 42,012;
Zagazig, 35,715 ; Mansourah, 34,997 ; Daniietta, 31,288 ; Fayoum, 31,262.
3 B 2
1108 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Religion and Instruction.
In 1897 the population consisted of 8,978,775 Moslems; 730,162 Chris-
tians (608,446 Copts, 53,479 Orthodox, 56,343 Roman Catholics, and 11,894
Protestants); 25,200 Jews; and 268 others. Thus Moslems formed 92-23
per cent, of the population ; Christians, 7 '50 per cent. ; Jews, 0*26 per cent. ;
others, O'Ol percent. The highest religious and judicial authorities among
the Moslems are the Sheikh ul Islam appointed by the Khedive and chosen
from among the learned class of Oolemas, and the Grand Cadee nominated
by the Sultan, and chosen from amongst the learned Oolemas of Stamboul.
The principal seat of Koranic learning is the Mosque and University of El
Azhar at Cairo, founded alwut a thousand years ago, but the sciences taught
and the modes oi' teaching them have not changed since its foundation.
There are in Egypt lai'ge numbers of native Christians connected with the
various Oriental churches ; of these, the largest and most influential are the
Copts, the descendants of the ancient Egyptians ; their creed is
Orthodox (Jacobite), and was adopted in the first century of the
Christian era. Its head is the Patriarch of Alexandria as the successor
of St. Mark. There are three metropolitans and twelve bishops in
Egypt, one metropolitan and two bishops in Abyssinia, and one bishoj) for
Khartoum ; there are also arch-priests, priests, deacons, and monks. Priests
must be married before ordination, but celibacy is imposed on monks and
high dignitaries. In a.d. 328 the Copts christianised Abyssinia, and pushed
Christianity almost to the Ecpiator. The Abyssinian Church is ruled by a
metropolitan and bisho})S chosen from amongst the Egyptian Coptic
ecclesiastics, nor can the coronation of the King of Abyssinia take place until
he has been anointed by the metropolitan, and this only after authorisa-
tion by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Tlie Copts use the Diocletian (or
Martyrs') calendar, which diflers by 284 years from the Gregorian calendar.
In 1897, of the entire population 467,886, or 4*8 per cent., could
read and Avrite, while 9,266,519, or 95 '2 per cent., were illiterate.
In 1898 there were in all about 10,000 schools with 17,000 teachers and
228,000 pupils. Seven-eighths of these schools are elementary, the education
being confined to reading, writing, and the rudiments of arithmetic. The
Government has, under its immediate direction, 55 primary schools of the
lowest grade ('kuttabs'), and 36 of the higher grade, 3 secondary,. 2 girls'
schools, and 10 schools for higher or jirofessional education — the School of
Law, School of Medicine (including the Pharmaceutical School and the
training school for nurses and midwives. Polytechnic (Civil Engineering)
School, 3 training colleges for schoolmasters. School of Agriculture, 2 technical
schools, and the military school. In addition to the schools belonging to the
Ministry of Public Instruction there are, under the inspection of that
Department (1898), 11 })rimary schools of the higher grade, with an attend-
ance of 1,492, and 301 primary schools of the lowest grade ('kuttabs'), with
499 teachers and an attendance of 5,734 pupils. There are 108 schools
attached to various Protestant and Catholic missions, and 43 European
private schools. The Mosque of El Azhar has 198 teachers and 7,676
students.
The Coptic community sup}>ort 1,000 schools for elementary education,
22 primary — boys and girls, and one college. The teaching of the Coptic
language in the .schools is now comi)ulsory ; the subjects taught, and the
methods of teaching them, are the same as those in vogue in other countries ;
50 per cent, of the Coptic male community can read and write.
The following statistics of schools in Egypt have been mainly comi)iled
from returns corrected, so far as practicable, up to December 31, 1898 : —
RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION
1109
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1110 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Justice and Crime.
In Egypt there are 4 judicial systems : that of the MeTchemehs or courts of
the religious laAv, concerned mainly with questions of personal status of
Mohammedans ; the mixed courts, instituted in 1875, dealing with civil
actions between persons of different nationalities, and to some extent with
criminal offences of foreigners ; the consular courts Avhere foreigners accused
of crime are tried ; the native courts for civil actions between natives, or
crimes by natives. The native courts, instituted 1884-89, with both foreign
and native judges, now consist of 6 courts of first instance, an appeal court at
Cairo, and 42 summary courts for cases of moderate importance. With special
reference to these tribunals a British judicial adviser was appointed in 1891.
A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of the courts of first
instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by letters and discussion, to
maintain purity and sound law.
There is an Egyptian Procureur General, who, with other duties, is entrusted
with criminal prosecutions. The police service which has been subject to
frequent modification was, in 1895, put under the orders of the Ministry of the
Interior to which an English adviser and English inspectors are attached. The
provincial police is under the direction of the local authorities the mvdirs or
governors of provinces, and the omdcJis or village head-men. To the latter,
who are responsible for the good order of the villages, a limited criminal
jurisdiction has been entrusted.
Finance.
On April 5, 1 880, the Khedive issued a decree appointing an international
commission of liquidation to examine the financial situation of Egypt, and to
draft a law regulating the relations between Egypt and her creditors, and also
between the Daira Sanieh and the Daira Xhassa and their creditors. That
commission, in concert with the Egyptian Government, estimated the annual
income of the country as follows : —
—
lSSO-81 18S2 and after
£E3,463,734 £E3,513,734
4,897,888 4,897,888
8,361,622 8,411,622
Revenues assigned to the Debt ^
,, ,, to the Government .
Total
- £E equals £1 0«. M.
The commissioners assigned (1) to the service of the rrivilegcd Del it the
railway and telegraph income and the port dues of Alexandria ; and (2) to the
service of tlic Unified Stock the customs revenue and the taxes of four pro-
vinces. The charge for the Privileged Debt was a fixed annuity, la'oviding
interest at 5 per cent., and sinking fund calculated to extinguish the debt by
1941. Should the revenues assigned to the Privileged Debt ])rove insufficient
to meet the annuity, the deficit was to become a first charge on the revenues
assigned to the Unified Debt. The interest of the latter debt was fixed at
4 percent., guaranteed by the Government in case the assigned revenues were
insufficient. The sur])lus of the revenues assigned to the debt was to go to the
redemption of the Unified by purchase of stock in the market. In September
1884 a portion of this surplus was a]>propriated by the Government.
Their estimate of the liabilities of Egvpt was : —
Government :— Tribute, 681,486/. ; Moukabalah annuity, 150,000/. ; In-
terest to England on Suez Canal .shares, 193,858/. ; Daira Kha.s.sa, 34,000/. ;
Administrative expenses, 3,641,544/.; Unforeseen expenditure, 197,000/.;
total, 4,897,888/.
FINANCE
nil
Debt —Privileged Stock, 1,157,718/.; Unified, 2,263,6SG/. ; total,
3,421,404/
The total floating debt at tlie end of 1884 was about £E8, 000, 000. In
Maivh 1885 tlie representatives of Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France,
Italy, Russia, aiul Turkey signed a Convention according to wliich they agreed
to guarantee a new loan of 9,000,000/. Tliis sum was to provide for the settle-
numt of the floating debt and the Alexantlria Indemnities, with a surplus of
1,000,000/. to be applied to irrigation works. The jirincipal stipulations of
the Convention were : — Rate of interest on the guaranteed loan not to exceed
3^ per cent. ; its service to be a fixed annuity of 315,000/., which is a first
charge on the assigned revenues, and the surplus of the annuity after payment
of interest to V<e used for redemption. Tlie coupons of the other Egyptian
loans to be taxed in 1885-86 to the extent of 5 per cent. ; the surplus ot
revenue over expenditure to be divided ])etween the Government and the
sinking fund.
Tile tax on the coupons was repaid in 1887, the tax discontinued, and a
reserve fund established, which at the present time amounts to nearly
£E3,040,997. In the early i>art of 1888 — an arrangement having been come
to with the ex- Khedive Ismail Pasha and certain members of his family for
the commutation of their allocations on the civil list for Domains, and it being
considered desirable to redeem pensions in a similar manner — a loan of
£E2,300, 000 was issued in ]\Iay 1888 to provide for these commutations by
paying off the mortgages on the Domains lands required. A fixed annuity of
£E130,000 was assigned for the service of the new 4=^ per cent, loan, but, as
an e([uivalent sum was economized through the reduction of the civil list and
of the pension budget, and the considerable diminution in the interest on the
Domains Loan, the annual burden on Egypt was not increased by the new
issue ; while, as a large sinking fund provides for the rapid extinction of the
4-^ l»er cent, loan, a temporary charge has been substituted for a permanent one.
A Khedivial decree was issued on June 6, 1890, with the consent of the
Powers, authorizing the conversion of the 5 per cent. Privileged Loan, of
the Daira Sanieh Loan, and of the Domains Loan, and the reimbursement of
the 4i ])er cent. Loan of 1888. A new privileged loan was is.sued in which was
included the 5 per cent. Privileged Loan, the 4^ per cent. Loan, and a sum of
1,333,333/ to be enqdoyed on irrigation works, and in the exchange of pen-
sions for land. This new privileged loan bears interest at 3^ ])er cent., and
was issued at 91/. per 100/. of capital. A new 4 per cent. Daira Sanieh Loan
was issued at par. The capital of the old loan was calculated at 85/. for 100.
of nominal capital in accordance with the decree of June 6, 1890. The new
Domains Loan converted at par, 25tli March, 1893, bears interest at 4^ per
cent. The new loans issued enjoy the same privileges and guarantees as the
loans for which they were substituted.
Table showing the amount of the Egyptian debt and the debt charge in
January, 1898 : —
Debt
Charge
Guaranteed Loan, 3 per cent.
Privileged Debt, 3.^ per cent.
Unified Del it, 4 per cent.
Daira Sanieh Loan, 4 per cent.
Domains Loan, 41 percent. .
Total
£
8,558,100
29,393,580
55,971,960
6,431,500
3,508,800
103,863,940
£
256,743
1,028,775
2,238,378
257,260
149,124
3,930,280
1112
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The budgets fixed upon for 1898" and 1899 are set forth in the tahle
below : —
Revenue
189S
£E
1899
£E
Expenditure
1898
1899
£E
£E
Direct taxes :
Civil List of the Kliedive,&c.
253,801
253,861
Land tax
4,872,700
4,001,300
Cost of Administration and
Otliei" direct
Collection :
taxes .
137,300
132,700
Council of Ministers .
3,972
4,122
Indirect taxes :
Legislative Council .
8,270
8,456
Customs .
850,000
900,000
Ministry of Foreign Atlairs.
11,116
ll,il6
Tobacco .
1.000,000
1,000,000
Ministry of Finance .
86,056
87,147
Octrois .
204,000
210,000
Ministry of Public Instruc-
Salt
180,000
183,000
tion ....
105,220
107,964 i
Fisheries
75,000
60,000
Ministry of Interior .
391,281
394.195 1
Navigation
Ministry of Justice .
.391,973
395; 623 !
dues .
70,000
57,000
Ministry of Public Works.
630,069
637,903 '
Stamps and
General expenses of Minis-
legistration
tries ....
107,458
100,678 i
fees
38,000
38,000
Provincial Administrations!
319,022
321,790
Sundry duties.
30,000
32,000
Cost of Collection . ./
Administration
Customs ....
75,752
77,246
of receipts :
Coast Guard
88,076
96.143
Railways
1,800,000
1,920,000
Octrois ....
34,210
27; 295 1
Telegrajilis
47,000
47,000
Salt, &c
47,068
46,810 i
Port of Alexan-
Fisheries ....
1,400
1,400
dria
130,000
145,000
Navigation dues
3,130
2,297
Other ports
2,000
2,000
Ex]ienses of adniiiiistration
Post Office and
of receipts :
Postal
Railways
907,138
956,726
Steamers .
191,000
110,000
Telegraphs ....
42,000
44,000
Lighthouses .
08,000
70,000
Port of Alexandria
28,000
31,716 :
Gold Assay
Other ports.
3,099
3,565
Office .
6,O0C
6,000
Post Office and steumei's .
178,975
107,589
Receipt of Ad-
Lighthouses
27,192
27,676 '
ministrative
Gold Assay Office
2,597
2,597 I
services :
Public security :
1
Justice .
420,000
480,000
Ministry of War
439,570
439,570
Sundry Minis-
Army of Occupation
84,825
84,825 1
tries .
20,000
25,000
Government of Suakin :
120,517
120,.517 i
Exemption
Pensions, &c. :
439,000
439,000 i
from mili-
Tribute and Public IVbt :
i
tary service.
100,000
100,000
Turkish tribule .
005,041
065,041 1
Interest on de-
Daira Kliassa
.•!4,000
34,000 '
l)osits ,
30,000
30,000
Moukabala
150,000
150,000 1
Government
Interest and J^xrhangt;
28,457
20,866
property
90,000
95,000
Domains deficit .
100,000
60,000
Suakin .
13.000
12,000
Caisse de la Dette exjien.ses
34,000
35,000
Deductionfrom
Serviceof Consolidated Debt:
salaries for
(luaranteed Loan
307,125
307,125
Pension Fund
00,000
02,000
Preference Debt
1,003,056
1.003,056
Drawn from
Unified Debt
2,182,906
2,182,906
reserve fund
Sup])ression of the Coi'vee.
250,000
250,000
to cover re-
Unforeseen expenses
32,000
32,000
duction of
Economy from conversion
land tax . .
216,000
of Privileged DeT)t
Government .share of re-
ceipts in excess of exi>en-
205,037
265,037
diture.
343,931
415,887
1
1
1
Sudan deficit
213,000
317,255
j Total ordinary
1 receipts
10,440,000
10,600,000
10,440,000
10,560,000
DEFENCE 1118
The charges on account of debts of all kinds (including tribute), as
shewn in the estimates for 1899, amount to i:E4, 723,031 or 4,845,800/.
sterling.
The linal accounts for the yeai 1897 showed the financial result of the
year to be as follows : —
£E
Receipts 11,092,564
Expenditure 10,659,257
Surplus .... 433,307
At the beginning of the year 1898 the Reserve Funds .stood as follows : —
£E
Economies from Conversions ....... 2,767,262
General Reserve Fund 3,831,749
Special Reserve ?'und ........ —
Total Reserves . . . 6,599,011
The whole of the extraordinary expenditure necessitated by the recon-
t[uest uf the Sudan was charged against the Special Reserve Fund. In
l)e<eml)er, 1898, the fund showed a deficit of £E336,000, with outstanding
charcres amountiiiij to ;f E330.000.
Defence.
• Army.
On September 19, 1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was
disbanded by Khedivial decree. In December of the same year
the organisation of a new army^ was entrusted to a British general
officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. The present Sirdar
is Major-General Lord Kitchener of Khartoum, K.C.B.,
K.C.M.G. There are about 100 English officers serving at present
in the Egyptian army. The army has a total strength of
18,000.
Since the rebellion in 1882 an English army of occupation has
remained in Egypt. Its strength is 5,553. To meet the cost
of this army, the Egyptian Government contributes 87,000/.
annually.
Egypt has now no efficient warships.
1114
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
-EGYPT
Production and Industry.
The total area, land and water, of Egypt is a])out 8,000,000 feddans
(1 feddan=^l-03 acre), and of this 5,022,000 was cultivated in 1891. Of the
total area cultivated, nearly three-fourths, called Kliaraji lands, are, theoreti-
call)'-, held in life tenancy, the State being the ultimate proprietor. The tax
(in reality rent) on these lands is une(pially imposed, Init averages about
22 sh. per feddan. Other lands, nearly one-fourth of the whole are called
Usimri, or tithe-paying. These lands, otherwise called "privileged," were
originally granted in fee and are subject to an imjiost or quit-rent averaging
about 7 sh. ]»er feddan. The JFakf lands, originally assigned to mosques for
•religious or charita])le purposes, are let by the mosques at moderate rent ; the
lease may descend to heirs or be sold, but, on failure of successors, it passes
again to the mosque to be again let. In addition to tax or rent, holders of
land are subject to charges of about 4 sh. ]ier feddan for the mateiials necessary
for keeping up the irrigation system, andnlthough i\\Q corvee, or forced laboui',
has for other purposes been aliolished, the inliabitants are still called out to
guard or repair the Xile lianks in flood Xm\o, and are also liable in any sudden
emergency. The agricultural population (Fellaheen) forms about 61 per cent.
of the whole. A large proportion of thetn arc small land-holders with about
.50 feddans, while others, almost or altogether landless, are laliourers, the
relation between the employers and the employed being mostly hereditary.
A considerable proportion of the land is under mortgage. The following table
shows, for 1894, the number of land-holders, the areas mortgaged, and the
amount of the debt. Besides the debt here stated there is a ceitain amount
unregistered, due notably by small proprietors : —
Extent of lidldiiigs.
Number of
Totals of
Areas niuloi-
Amount of
lanclholdei's.
Areas.
mortgage.
de]»t.
Feildaiis.
Feddans.
£E.
T) fi'ddans and undei'
513,080
933,700
21,400
573,300
5-10 feddans .
75,130
552,700
16,000
392.200
10-20 ,, . . .
39,620
5(!0,30()
20,400
407,700
20-30 ,, . . .
13,140
326,100
19,600
307,200
30 50 ,, . . .
8,980
347,800
25,900
409,900
: Over 50 ,,
i
11,430
2,000,700
292,300
5,233,000
t
1 Total
661,380
4,721,300
395,600
7,323,300
The Egyptian agricultuial year includes three seasons or crops. The
leading winter crops, sown in Novemlier and harvested in May and June, are
cereal produce of all kinds ; the ]»rincipal summer crops, sown in March and
harvested in Octo))er and November, are cotton, sugai', and rice ; the autumn
crops, sown in July and gathered in Sejjtemlwr and October, are rice, sorgho
(a sort of maize), and vegetaltles generally. In Lower Egypt where perennial
irrigation is effected by means of a network of canals tap[»ing the Nile and
traversing the Delta in every direction, the chief crops are cotton, sugar-cane,
rice, Indian corn, wheat, barley, clover, cucumber ; in Upper Egypt where
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
lllo
the basin system of irrigation, i.e. sul)ni(;rsion at high Nih^. is generally
atlliered to, cereals and vegetables are produced, Init in .snnnner cotton and
sngar-cane are grown in the Fayuni and Ibrahiniia canal tracts. Where there
is perennial irrigation two or three cro])s are sccnred annnally ; lands irrigated
in th>od oidy are nnder millet, or if low-lying are drained when the flood goes
nlf, and then produce the winter crop of wheat, l)eans, or clover.
'Die following table refers to the cultivation of cotton : —
Year
Area cultivated
Fedtlans
Yield
' Produce per feddan
Kantars
Kantars
1888
1,021,250
2,900,000
2-84
1889
852,829
8,158,000
3-7
1890
864,400
4,160,000
4-8
1891
851,000
4,765,000
5-5
1892
864,000
4,987,500
5-8
In 1886, 2,444 villages were occupied in the culture of cotton out of a
total of 3,781; in 1889 the number was 2,685; in 1896 the cotton cro]>
amounted to 5,879,479 kantars. In 1897 the sugar crop amounted to
72,918,250 kantars (kantar = 99 lbs. ).
In the following talde the agricultural condition of each of the provinces
in Lower and Upper Egypt is indicated : —
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. of
No; of
No. of
Villages
Feddaiis
cultivated
Farm
Animals
Per 100
Slieep and
Goats
Per 100
FruitTrees
Per 100
Date, Trees
Per 100
Lower Egvpt :
ft'ddaiis
leddans
feddans
feddans
Behera
403
467,662
12
13
23
22
Charkieh
451
434,982
12
9
24
116
Dakahlieh .
449
462,367
11
13
13
27
Gharbieh
552
840,089
17
16
16
25
Kalioubieh ,
166
187,180
17
19
325
70
Menoulieh .
338
351,710
33
18
43
8
2,359
2,743,990
17
14
42
40
Upper Egypt :
Assiout
292
419,100
10
30
21
84
Beni Souef .
174
231,610
15
16
8
46
Fayoum
87
231,045
8
13
54
105
Guizeh
168
181,176
19
36
9
195
^linia ,
268
397,240
6
9
17
54
Esna .
195
150,459
18
11
i
348
Guerga
110
325,915
16
51
9
96
Kena .
126
280,927
10
34
' 10
92
1,420
2,217,472
13
25
17
106 '
Total, Egypt .
3,779
4,961,462
14
20
, '^ ,
69
1116 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The total niimljer of date trees which yield fruit or seed is about
3,452,674. Cattle and farm animals, ineludinir horses and camels, number
1,668,860.
The lollowini^ table shows (in feddans) the area of the several crops in
1890 and 1891 :—
—
1890
1891
—
1890
1891
Feddans
Feddans
Feddans
Feddans
Wheat, .
1,165,676
1,215,841
Water - melons,
Maize and durrah .
1,559,906
1,530,983
melons.
44,012
43,180
Clover
875,761
820,263
, Lupins, smut .
13,141
17,355
Cotton
864,302
871,241
Tobacco .
860
—
Beans
628,211
643,751
Peas, &c.
8,819
7,169
Barley
456,075
460,330
Flax, henna, indigo
6,050
5,829
Lentils
77,216
75,75(i
j Castor plant, sesame
14,133
9,664
Rice
' Helbe ' (Fenugreek)
148,095
167,164
'
133,484
139,560
Vegetables, iiotatoes
37,244
34.542
Total crops
6,130,701
6,145,849
Sugar-cane
65,505
64,539
Area cultivated
5,022,701
' Guilbane ' (Chick-
ling vetch) .
32,211
38,702
Double cultivation .
1
1,108,000
—
Commerce.
The exterior com
kinds of merchandise
inerce of Egypt, comprising imports and exports
, is given at the following figures for live years : —
of all
Year
Imports
Exports
£E
Totals
£E
1893
8,718,735
12,789,687
21,508,422
1894
9,266,116
11,892,875
21,158,991
1895
8,389.933
12,632,450
21,022,383
1896
9,828,604
13,232,108
23,060,712
1897
10,603,672
12,321,220
22,924,892
The movement of specie during the same period has been —
Year
1
Imports
Exports
1
£E
£E
1893 1
2,946,674
3,517,152
1894 I
1,995,676
1,816,256
1895
4,319,265
2,322,190
1896
3,720,425
1,826,160 i
1897
2,921,722
2,369,479 i
i
The following table shows the value of the commercial intercourse of
Egypt (exclusive of tobacco imports) with different foreign countries foy three
years ; —
COMMERCE
1117
—
Imports from
Exports to
1895
1896
1897
£E
1895
1896
1897
£E
£E
£E
£E
Great Britain
2,641,773
3,055,830
3,536,425
7,312,610
6,972,681
5,932,078
Britisli Colonies in the
Mediterranean
128,085
109,051
114,518
8,815
8,926
8,407
British Colonies in the
Extreme East
496,549
523,668
496,572
91,852
68,674
64,248
Gt'rmany .
216,391
281,826
299,551
394,916
325,928
418,600
America
46,133
79,497
118,072
469,365
927,874
970,620
Austria-Hungary
635,331
701,884
752,433
527,519
610,931
459,208
Belgium
339,629
458,048
500,282
46,194
25,972
/27,624
Ciiina and Extreme
East
56,046
78,124
99,295
10,432
—
26,258
France and Algeria .
—
1.324,495
1,237,115
—
1,215,978
1,119,370 1
Greece
58,008
83,853
37,678
9,326
15,326
21,414 '
Italv ....
303,034
333,172
417,129
437,599
370,905
417,676
Morocco
23,909
30,321
49,541
1,661
—
—
Persia
73,544
58,914
29,137
—
—
1,442
Russia
360,667
371,162
378,462
1,S52,854
1,473,080
1,732,913
Turkey
1,672,915
1,988,814
1,534,535
344,450
385,561
362,481
Spain
1,401
—
2,488
249,684
295,472
274,217
Other countries .
Total .
378,474
349,945
478,921
436,861
534,800
484,664
8,389,933
9,828,604
10,082,154
12,632,450
13,232,108
12,321,220
The value of the leading exports and imports of Egypt during the last three
years is shown in the following table : —
Merchandise
Animals & animal
Imports
Expoi-ts
1895
£E
1896
'£E" ~
1897
1895
1896
1
1897
£E
£E
£E
food products .
Skins and leather
340,844
337,251
374,848
22,878
42,841
49,081
goods .
Other animal pro-
140,323
158,550
174,132
102,515
92,558
89,244 j
ducts .
Cereals, vegetables,
«sic. , . .
Provisions <fc drugs
Spirits, oils, &c. .
Rags, pajter, books
Wood <fc coal, cane
62,046
779,258
362,055
541,626
120,727
69,900
1,291,854
410,954
589,918
132,055
64,611
1,196,409
389,673
636,303
145,573
25,523
2,272,963
489,808
5,026
16,573
26,681
2,082,922
779,326
7,256
11,465
35,014
2,389,630 1
645,928 1
14,308 i
14,592 ;
work, &c. .
Stone, lime, glass.
1,073,868
1,047,115
1,178,954
17,374
19,215
18,700 ■
&c.
Dyeing materials,
<bc. .
Chemical products
Textiles,' mainlv
174,426
240 348
188,259
197,189
233,668
214,464
235,238
253,872
252,212
1,168
13,211
9,639
1,464
16.817
5,719
1,463
13,750
8,715
1
raw cotton
Metals and metal
2,583,017
:{,071,952
3,526,666
9,531,974
10,076,418
8,989,445 i
goods .
Sundries
Tobacco
Total .
866,845
415,469
510,822
8,389,933
1,122,203
440,023
511,508
9,828,604
1,128,897
524,766
521,518
1 94,300
29,498
12,632,450
39,938
2'.>,488
26,172
25,177
10,603,672
13,232,108
12,321,219
1
' lu 1597 ll.e cotton tissues imported auiounted to £E1. 798,600 ; and the raw cotton
exported, to £E8,915,640.
1118
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The receipts from tobacco were
£E1, 006,526; in 1897, £E1,044,780.
in 1895, £E968,576; in 1896,
Goods imported into Egypt are examined Ijy experts, who determine their value either
according to the purchase price in their original country as indicated on the invoices, plus
the cost of transport, freiglit, insurance, &c., or according to the wholesale price at the
port of disembarkation, minus a discount of 10 per cent, in urder, however, to facilitate
custoins operations, the administration, in communication with the merchants interested,
establishes, on the same basis as above, periodical tiiritts for such articles of importation as
cotton-goods, indigo, coal, petroleum, rice, flour, metals, sugar, <iic. In the statistics of the
Custom House, the values are estimated according to the estimated price which served as
the basis for the payment of duty now fixed at 8 i>er cent, ad valorem, withont taking into
account the amount of that duty. As regards exports, there are tariffs for nearly all of
them, estimated monthly for some of them, quarterly for others, in the same manner as
the tarifls of imports are established.
The quantities recorded in statistics are those declared by the merchants and controlled
by the Customs.
The origin of imports and destination of exports are declared by importers and exporters,
and controlled, as much as possible, by the searchers and appraisers of the Custom House.
The statistics of the Customs only give general commerce. In order to know the amount
of special trade deduction must be made from the total of imports of the value of
goods re-exported, which, however, has only an inconsiderable importance. In fact tlie value
of these goods amounts to about three or four hundred thousand pounds, one half of which
is due to tobacco re-exported in the form of cigarettes. The transit trade is of no imjiort-
ance. At the utmost its value amo ;nts to 600,000L per annum, nine-tenths of which
represents the value of coal imported at Port Said to be re-exported on payment of a duty
of 1 per cent, ad valorem. Goods temporarily deposited or re-shipped are not included
in the "transit."
From the efforts made by the Customs authorities to ensure accuracy, and from the
method of valuation employed, the .commercial statistics of Egypt may be regarded as
comparatively exact.
The subjoined statement shows the total vahie of the imports from Egypt
into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British produce and
manufactures to Egypt, in live years, according to the Board of Trade
returns : —
— 1893
1894
1895
•1896
1897
£
Imports from Egypt into U. K. 8,845,426
Exports of British produce to
Egypt . . : . . j 3,364,718
£
9,284,801
3,996,656
£
9,524,507
3,349,162
£
9,659,376
■
3,777,966
£
9,294,240
4,435,101
The following table shows the values of the principal imports into the
United Kingdom from Egypt, and of the principal exports from the United
Kingdom to Egypt : —
Year
British Imports from Egypt
Exports of British Produce to Egypt
1
1
Raw
Cotton
Cotton
Seeds
Sugar
Beans
Cotton
Goods
Coal
£
755,237
945,854
763,568
835 369
899,005
Iron
£
174,303
161,034
143, 34C)
248,132
409,172
Machi-
nery
£
141,880 \
158,167
146,138
151,011
249,479 1
i 1893
i 1894
1 1895
1896
1896
£ £
5,:J64,S17 1 2,043,725
5,785,538 ! 1,832,725
6,420,971 1,591,006
6,833,315 1,590,429
6,484,450 1,801,079
1
£
255,381
190,382
264,055
221,147
94,829
£
571,007
74!»,92S
482,317
342,538
227,716
£
1,569,176
1,743,409
1,491,791
1,520,708
1,722,955
The imports of wheat from Egy]jt, 352,005Z. in 1891, amounted to only
8,73H. in 1897.
SUEZ CANAL
1119
Shipping and Navigation.
The lollowiiiij; taMes .show llio nationality and tonnage of vessels aniviii^
and clearing at Alexandria. Great laeilities have heen alibrded to steamers
since the eoin[)letion ol" the docks, wharfs, and qnays ; and in order to still
further facilitate navigation the Government have constructed a new pass,
300 feet wide, to enable vessels, which have often l)een delayed off the
jtort during stormy weather, to make a direct run into harbour. The new
[)ass, 30 feet deep, was opened to navigation in July 1894.
Arrivals and clearances of commercial vessels at Alexandria in five years : —
Year
.^
Lirivals
Clearances
Vessels
2,271
2,375
2,393
2,132
2,203
Tons
2,033,060
2,221,145
2,206,667
2,123,591
2,267,120
Vessels
2,233
2,397
2,339
2,105
2,143
Tons
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
2,025,433
2,201,885
2,194,964
2,094,684
2,270,836
The following table shows the nationality of commercial vessels arrived
and cleared in 1897 : —
Nationality
l^ritish
French
Austrian .
Turkish .
Russian .
Italian
Greek
Swedish and Norwegian
German .
Other, countries
Total for 1897 .
Arrivals
CI
uarances
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
657
1,034,019
663
1,046,886
139
280,359
139
278,333
140
242,252
141
243,921
777
126,456
714
111,704
83
179,049
86
185,572
100
204,087
119
206,927
184
82,166
184
85,449
19
33,365
17
29,317
35
61,369
35
59,946
49
15,998
45
22,781
2,203 I 2,267,120 2,143 2,270,836
Suez Canal.
The following table shows the number and gross tonnage of vessels of all
nationalities that passed through the canal in 1897 : —
1120
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Country-
No.
Gross
Tonnage
1 Country
No.
1
Gross
Tonnage
Great Britain .
1,905
7,389,237
Portugal .
366
Germany
325
1,194,106
Egypt .
3
5,344
France
202
807,995
America .
3
6,627
Italy
71
198,161
China
3
5,916
Holland .
■206
532,272
Sweden
1
1,648
Austria- Huijgarv
78
265,231
Denmark .
2
1,954
Spain
. 48
199,695
Siam
2
4,457
Russia
44
218,514
Mexico
1
891
Norway .
Turkey
48
7
117,794
7,770
Total .
2,986
11,123,403
Japan
36
165,425
The number and gross tonnage of vessels that have ]>assed through the
Suez Canal, and the gross iecei})ts of the company, have been as follows in
six years : —
Year
1892
1893
1894
No. of
Vessels
3,550
3,341
3,352
T^nnSe ^'^''^'^
Year
No. of
Vessels
Gross
Tonnage
11,833,637
12,039,850
11,123,403
!
Receipts
&
■10,866,401 2,078,097
10,753,798 2,826,694
11,283,855 2,951,073
1895
1896
1897
3,434
3,409
2,986
1
£ 1
3,124,149 ;
3,182,800 1
2,913,222 '
The number of passengers who went through the canal in 1897 was
191,224, as against 308,241 in 1896.
The Suez Canal is 87 miles long, 66 actual canal and 21 miles lakes,
connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation
November 17, 1869.
The state of the capital account as regards bonds in circulation and re-
deemed was as follows, on December 31, 1897 : —
Capital, 400,000 shares at 500 francs . .
Consolidation of unpaid coupons, 400,000
bonds at 85 francs ....
Loan (1867-68), 333,333 obligations at 300
francs
Loan (1871), 120,000 30-year bonds at 100
francs
Loan (1880), 73,026 3 per cent, obligations,
various prices
Loan (1887), 195,000 3 per cent, obligations
Francs Francs
I .■590,599 in circulation 195,290,500 \ „
\ 9,401 redeemed
( 394,434 in circulation
I 5,566 redeemed
( 231,844 in circulation
I 101,480 redeemed .
f 31,600 in circulation
I 88,400 redeemed
3,779 redeemed
1,793 redeemed
4,700,-500 i-'^*^'^^<^''^0"
33,526,890 \
473,110 i
69,553,200 )
30,446,700)
3,160,000 \
8,840,000)
34,000,000
99,999,900
12,000,000
Revenues ajiplied to improvement of canal
— 26,999,962
— 90,120,877
463,120,739
. 151,174,307
614,295,046
There were besides, 100,000 founders' shares, with right to participate in
surplus profit under certain conditions. In 1897 the net protits amounted
to 39,315,531 francs, and the total amount distributed among the share-
holders was 40,913,803 francs.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
1121
Internal Communications.
On January 1, 1899, there were in Egypt 1,166 miles of railways belong-
ing to and worked by the State, and 72 miles of companies' railways : in all
1,238 miles ; 825 miles being in the Delta, and 413 miles in Upper Egypt,
exclusive of the military railway in the Sudan, and the agricultural railways
of 390 miles on the Daira Sanieh estates. There were 290 miles under
construction, 64 miles being companies' railways. Besides, the Government
has granted concessions for the constmction of 230 miles of narrow-gauge
railways in the Delta.
The following table shows for the last five years the length of line of the
State Railways, the number of passengers and weight of goods carried, and the
net receipts : —
Year
Line
Number of r^ ^ • j
Passengers ; G^ods earned
i
Net receipts
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Miles
1,080
1,087
1,098
1,143
1,166
9,301,081
9,827,813
9,518,000
9,854,000
10,742,546
Tons
2,113,002
2,391,868
2,398,000
2,498,000
2,796,096
£E
918,587
1,007,070
994,000
1,033,000
1,123,360
The working expenses, £E859,523 in 1897, represent an average of about
43 per cent, of the gross receipts, which were £E1,982,883.
The telegraphs belonging to the Egyptian Government were, at the end of
1897, of a total length of 2,058 miles, the length of the wire being 8,770 miles.
The Government have given concessions to a telephone company for urban
telephone lines. The Eastern Telegraph Company, also by concessions, have
telegraph lilies across Egypt from Alexandra vid Cairo to Suez, and from Port
Said to Suez, connecting their cables to England and India. Number of tele-
grams, 2,498,834, as against 2,392,036, in 1896, not including telegrams
sent by the Eastern Telegraph.
There are 275 post-offices in the towns of Egypt, 25 travelling offices, and
451 localities where the rural post has been established. The Egyptian post-
office now transacts all the services which exist in the post-offices of other
countries forming the Postal Union.
The following table gives the number of letters, post-cards, newspapers, &c.,
which passed through the Egyptian Post Office in the year 1897 : —
Inland
Foreign
Total
Letters and Post-Cards
Newspapers ....
Parcels
Total . . .
11,300,000
7,000,000
173,000
2,250,000
980,000
56,000
13,550,000
7,980,000
229,000
18,473,000
3,286,000
21,759,000
Post office orders and remittances through the post office numbered
509,500 and amounted to the value of £E16,922,000.
Thirty per cent, of the total foreign correspondence was with Great
Britain.
4 c
1122 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money,
10 Milliemcs
Piastre Tarif (written P.T.).
£1 Egyptian.
97^ P.T.
774% P.T.
ammes '875 fine, and therefore contains
1,000 Millicmes or 100 P.T.
£1 sterling ....
Napoleon, gold piece of 20 francs
The Egyptian pound weighs 8 "5 grj
7 '4375 grammes of fine gold.
The 10-piastre silver piece weighs 12*5 grammes "900 fine, and therefore
contains 11 "25 grammes of fine silver.
A thorough reform was eH"ected of the Egyptian silver coinage during
1885 and 1886, when 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20-piastre pieces were issued, which are
legal tender up to £E2. Previously the coins of nearly all the countries of
Europe were freelj' used, but now foreign silver cannot be passed except at a
heavy discount.
By a decree of the Khedive, dated August 1, 1875, the metrical system
of weights and measures was ordered to be introduced into Egypt on the
1st of Januar}-, 1876, compulsory only at first in all public and adminis-
trative transactions.
Dry Measure.
The Arcleh is used as the unit in all transactions in grain, &c., and is
equal to 5 "44739 bushels.
The approximate weight of the ardeb is as follows : — Wheat, 315
rottles ; beans, 320 rottles ; barley, 250 rottles ; maize, 315 rottles ; cotton
seed, 270.
Weights.
Okieh . . . . = 1-3206 ounce.
Eottle . . . . = -99049 lb.
Oke . . . . = 2-7513 lbs.
Cantar {^^" ^3^^^ g°*^f « °^j = 99-0492 lbs.
Length Measures
Inches
Diraa Baladi {town) ..... = 22-8350
Diraa Mimari for building, &c. . . . = 29 5281
^as5«&a^ = 3 -88 yards . . . . = 139-7663
Measures of Surface.
Feddan, the unit of measure for land, == 333g sq. kassabahs = 1 "03808 acre.
Square Pic. — This measure is generally used for the measuring of
building sites, gardens, and other small plots of ground, and is equal to
about 6 square feet and 7 inches.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Cairo. — Her Majesty^ s Agent and Gonsul-General in Egypt, Minister
Plenipotentiary.— NiscoxmiCvomQx, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., CLE.
Secretary. — Rennell Rodd, C.M.G.
Consul at Alexandria. — E. B. Gould.
Consul in Cairo. — Raphael Borg, C.M.G.
There are also Consular representatives at Tantah, Zagazig, Port Said,
Suez, Suakin.
EGYPTIAN SUDAN 1123
EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
The rule of Egypt in the Sudan, after liaving gradually extended during
the course ot 60 years, was interrupted in 1882 by the revolt of the Mahdi,
who, with his successor, as the Khu,lifa, held the country for about sixteen
years under a desolating tyranny. In 1897 the Anglo-Egyptian army com-
menced operations for the recovery of the lost provinces, and on September
2, 1898, the overthrow of the Khalifa was completed.
A convention between the British and Egyptian Governments, signed at
Cairo, January 19, 1899, provides for the administration of the territory
south of the 22nd parallel of latitude by a Ciovernor-General, appointed by
Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, and declares the general principles in
accordance with which the administration shall be carried on. The British
and Egyptian flags shall be used together ; laws shall be made by proclama-
tion ; no duties shall be levied on imports from Egypt, and duties on imports
from other countries shall not exceed those levied in Egypt ; the mixed
tribunals shall have jurisdiction only in Suakim ; the import and export of
slaves is prohibited, and special attention shall be paid to the Brussels Act
of 1890 respecting the import and export of arms, ammunition, and spirits.
The Sudan has been divided into ibur rtrst-class districts, viz. : Omdurman
(extending to Abu Haras on the Blue Nile, and to Abu Hasa on the White
Nile), Senair, Kassala, and Fashoda ; and into three second-class districts,
Assuan, Wady Haifa, and Suakim ; and six military governors have been
appointed. The cost of administration must for a time be largely borne by
Egypt. For 1899 the receipts to be collected in the Sudan are estimated at
£E39,000, and the expenditure at £Ea56,755, leaving a balance of £E317,355
to be made up by Egypt.
Extending southwards from the frontier of Egypt to Lake Albert Nyanza,
a distance of about 1,400 miles, and stretching from the Red Sea to the
contines of Wadai in Central Africa (though the western limit is undefined),
the subject territory has an area of about 950,000 square miles, and, before
the revolt, the population was estimated at about 10,000,000. The provinces
of which it consists are Dongola, Khartum, Suakim, Senaar, Kordofan,
Darfur, and the Equatorial Province with Fazogli and Bahr-el-Ghazal,
Massawa, which was formerly Egyptian, now belongs to the Italian Eed Sea
Colony ; Harrar was, bj' agreement, made over to Abyssiijia ; while Zaila
and Berbera now belong to British Somaliland. The chief towns are
Khartum, the capital, reduced to ruins by the Dervishes, but now being
restored ; Omdurman, recently the Dervish capital ; Wady Haifa, New
Dongola, El Obeid, Senaar, Kassala, and Suakim.
Before the Dervish revolt a considerable trade was carried on with Egypt,
the chief exports being gold-dust, ostrich feathers, gitms, hides, and skins,
while the imports consisted of various European and Oriental wares.
Governor-General. — Lord Kitchener of Khartttm
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Egypt
and the Egyptian Sudan.
1. Official Publications.
Administration. CoiTespondence respecting tlie Reorganisation of Egypt. London,
1883. Reports by Mr. Villiers Stuart respecting Reorganisation of Egypt. London, 1883
and 1895. Despatch from Lord DufTerin forwarding the Decree constituting the new
Political Institutions of Egypt. London, 1883. Reports on the State of Et,'ypt and the
Progress "f Administrative Reforms. London, 1885. Reports by SirH. D. Wolff on the Ad-
ministration of EgjTt. London, 1887. Annual Report by Lord Cromer on the Finances,
Administration and Condition of Egypt, and the Progress of Reforms. London, 1898.
4 C 2
1124 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Agriculture. Essai de statistique agricole, 1887 and 1888. By Boinet Bey. Cairo, 1888
and 1889. Despatch from Sir Evelyn Baring inclosing Report on the Condition of the
Agricultural Population in Egypt. London, 1888. Notes on Egyptian Crops. Cairo, 1896.
Manures and Soil Exhaustion in Egypt. Cairo, 1896.
Finance. Correspondence respecting the State Domains of Egypt. London, 1883.
Memorandum on the Land Tax of Egypt. Cairo, 1884. Report on the Financial Position
of Egypt. Cairo, 1884. Reports on the Finances of Egypt, 1884-87. Cairo. Statement
of the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the Egyptian Bonds
and the Charges for their Services. London, 1885. Report on the Finances of Egypt.
London, 1888-95. L'administration financiere 1884-87 et la modification du regime fiscal
des tabacs en Egypte. 1887. Convention between the Governments of Great Britain,
Germany, Austria-Hungar) , France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Finance of
Egypt, signed at London, March 18, 1885. London, 18S5. Con-espondence respecting the
Settlement of the Claims of the ex-Khedive Ismail and his Family. London, 1888.— La
Propri6t6 fonciere en Egypte, by Yacoub Artin Pasha. Boulaq, 1884 [Translated into
Arabic by Amoon, and into English by Van Dyck].— Compte General de 1' Administration
des Finances. Annual. Cairo.
Handbook of the Sudan. By Captain Count Gleichen. Compiled in the Intelligence
Division of the War Office. London, 1898.
Instruction. L'Instruction publique en Egypte, by Yacoub Artin Pasha. Paris, 1889.
—Considerations sur I'Instruction publique en Egypte, by the same. Cairo, 1894.
Judicial. Correspondence respecting the Mixed Courts and Judicial Reforms. London,
1884.
Monetary. La R^forme Mon^taire en Egj-pt«. Cairo, 1886. Note on the Currency of
Egypt. Cairo, 1885. Not« on the Proposed Monetary Law. By Sir E. Vincent, Cairo,
1885.
Population. Rencensement G6n6ral de I'Egypte. Tomes I. and II. Cairo, 1885.
Report on the Nile and Country between Dongola, Suakin, Kassala, and Omdurman.
2nd ed. London, 1898.
Sudan. Report on the Egyptian Provinces of the Soudan, Red Sea, and Equator.
Compiled in the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster-General's Department, Horse
Guards, War Office. London, 1884. Report on the Soudan, by Lieut -Colonel Stewart.
London, 1883.
Suez Canal. Report by the British Directors on the provisional Agreement with M. de
Lesseps. London, 1883. Correspondence respecting the proposed International Convention
for securing the free Navigation of the Suez Canal. London, 1888. Le Canal de Suez,
published every ten days. Paris. Returns of Shipping and Tonnage. Annual. London.
Trade. Le Commerce Exterieur de I'Egypt. Annual. Alexandria. — Bulletin Mensuel
du Comnierce Exterieur de I'Egypte. Alexandria. — Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, &c. London.
War Office Library Catalogue. Wingate Bey. London, 1894.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Alford (H. S.) and Sword (W. D.), The Egyptian Sudan : Its Loss and Recovery. Lon-
Atteridge (A. H.), Towards Khartoum, the Soudan War of 1896. London, 1897.
Baedefccr's Lower Egypt. 4th edit, 1898. Upper Egypt 8. London, 1892.
Ball (E. A. R.), Cairo of To-Day. [Guide-Book]. London, 1897.
Barr^ (P.), Fachoda et le Bahr-el-Ghazal. Paris, 1898.
Boulger (D. C), Life of Gordon. London, 1897.
Bourguet'(A.), La France et I'Angleterre en Egypte. Paris, 1897.
Butcher (E. T.), The Story of the Church of Egypt. 2 vols. London, 1897.
Broderick (Miss) and Sayce (Prof.), Handbook for Egypt (Murray's). 8. London, 1896.
Brown (R. H.), Faytm and Lake Moeris. 4. London, 1892. History of tlie Barrage.
Cairo 1896.
Brugsch-Bey (Henri), Histoire d'Egypte. 2nd edit. Leipzig, 1875.
Burleigh (B.), Sirdar and Kiialifa. London, 1898. Khartoum Campaign, 1898. London,
99.
Cameron (D. A.), Egypt in the Nineteenth Century. London, 1898.
Casati (G.), Ten Years in Equatoria. New Ed. London, 1898.
Chilu (A), Le Nil, le Soudan, I'Egypte. Paris, 1891
Duff-Oordon (Lady), Last Letters from Egypt 8. London, 1875.
Ebers (Georg), Aegypten in Bild und Wort. Fol. Stuttgart, 1879. Egypt.'Eescriptive,
Historical, and Picturesque. [Translation by Clara Bell.] 2 vols. London.
Egyptian Institute. Khedivial Geographical Society. Monthly Reports. Cairo.
Ftrcks (A. F. von), .ffigypten, 1894 ; Staatsrechtliche Verhaltnisse, <6c. 2 pts. Berlin,
1896.
dessi (F.), Setti anni nil Sudan egiziano. Milan, 1891.
Hake (A. E.), Gordon in China and the Soudan. London, 1886.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1125
Ibrahim-Hilmy (Prince), The Literature of Egypt and the Soudan. 2 vols. London,
1886-8S.
Knight (E. F.), Letters from the Sudan. 8. London, 1897.
La?»e(E. W.), An Account of the Modern Egyptians. 5th ed. 2 vols. London, 1871
Lesseps (Ferdinand de), Le Canal de Suez. 8. Paris, 1875.
Malosse (L.), Impressions d'Egypte. Paris, 1896.
Milner(A.), England in Egypt. 5th ed. London, 1894.
flfo6erIi/-B««(C. F.), Khedives and Paslias. London, 1879. Egyptian Finance. London,
1886. From Pharaoh to Fellah. London, 1887.
McCoan (J. C), Egypt as it is. London, 1877. Egypt under Ismail. London, 1889.
Malortie (Baron de), Egypt: Native Rulers and Foreign Interference. London, 188S.
Molyneux (General W. C. F.), Campaigning in South Africa and Egypt. London, 1896.
M'V/lZ6ac?^ (L.), Reisebriefe aus Aegypten. 2 vols. 8. Jena, 1871.
Pollard (J.), The Land of the Monuments, London, 1896.
Poole (S. Lane), Egypt. In 'Foreign Countries and British Colonies' Series. 8.
London, ISSl.— Social Life iu Egypt. 4. London, 1884.— Cairo, 3rd ed. London, 1897.
Rabino (Joseph), Some Statistics of Egypt. Statistical Society. London, 1884. De la
progression de la dette ^gvptienne. Boulac, 1889.
Rae (W. F.), Egypt To-day. London, 1892.
The Statistical Story of the Suez Canal. 'Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,'
June, 1887.
Schu-eitzer (G.), Emin Pasha : His Life and Work. 2 vols. London, 1898. [German
Edition. Berlin, 1897.]
St. John (Bayle). Village Life in Egypt. 2 vols. London, 1852.
Slatin Pasha. Feuer und Schwert im Sudan. Leipzig, 1895. [English Translation by
Major Wingate. London and New York, 1895.]
St-evens (G. W.), Witli Kitchener to Khartum. Edinburgh, 1898.— Egypt in 1898.
Edinburgh, 1898.
Stuhlmann (F.), Mit Emin Pasha ins Herz von Afrika. Berlin, 1894.
Traill (H. D.), From Cairo to the Soudan Frontier. 8. Loudon, 1896.- Lord Cromer, a
Biography. London, 1897.
Wallace (D. Mackenzie), Egypt and the Egyptian Question. London, 1883.
White (A. S.), From Sphinx to Oracle. London, 1898.
Wilkinson (Sir Gardner), Modern Egypt and Thebes. 2 vols. London, 1843.
Willcocks (W.), Egyptian Irrigation. London, 1889. Report (Official) on Perennial
Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt. 4. Cairo, 1894.
Wilson (C. T.), and Felkin (R. W.), Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan. London, 1882.
Wilson (Sir C. W.), From Korti to Khartum. 8. Edinburgh, 1886.
Wingate (Lt.-Col., C.B.), Mahdiism and the Sudan, 1881-90. London, 1891. Ten Years
in the Mahdi's Camp (from the original MS. of Father Ohrwalder). London, 1892. England,
Bgypt, and the Sudan. London, 1896.
Wood (H. P.), Egypt under the British. 8. London, 1896.
Wylde (A. B.), '83 to '87 in the Soudan. 2 vols. London, 1888.
Zincke (F. B.), Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 8 London, 1872.
1126
URUGUAY.
(Republica Oriental del Uruguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the viceroyalty of
Spain, and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its inde-
pendence August 25, 1825, which was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The Constitution of the
Republic was sworn July 18, 1830. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament, composed of two Houses,
the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in
annual session, extending from February 15 to July 15. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators
and five members of the Lower House assume the legislative
power, as well as the general control of the administration. The
representatives are chosen for three years, in the proportion of 1
to every 3,000 inhabitants of male adults who can read and
write. The senators are chosen by an Electoral College, whose
members are directly elected by the people ; there is one senator
for each department, chosen for six years, one-third retiring
every two years. There are (1893) 69 representatives and 19
senators.
The executive is given by the Constitution to the President of
the Republic, elected for the term of four years.
President of the Republic. — Juan L. Cuestas, formerly Yice-
President ; assumed the duties of President on the assassination of
Senor Idiarte Borda, August 25, 1897 ; elected President,
March 1, 1899.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a
council of ministers divided into five departments, namely, that
of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War and Marine, and
Instruction and Public Works.
Area and Population.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 72,110 English square
miles, with a population estimated in 1898 at 840,725. The
estimated population in 1879 was 438,245. No regular census has
ever been taken. The country is divided into 19 departments,
of which 6 have been formed since 1880.
AREA AND POPULATION
1127
Tho following table shows the estimated area and population of the various
provinces on December 31, 1897 : —
Estimated
Population
Departments
Area, square
Poi)ulation
per
1897
square mile
Montevideo ....
256
264,838
1034-5
Can^lones
1,833
68,553
37-3
Colonia
2,192
41,021
18-7
Salto .
4,863
37,586
7-7
Soriano
3,560
36,369
10-2
Paysandu
5,115
40,431
7-9
San Jose
2,687
34,441
12-8
Florida .
4,673
36,024
7-4
Durazno
5,525
30,064
5-4
Ceno-Largo .
5,753
29,909
5-2
Tacuarembo .
8,074
27,929
3-4
Minas .
4,844
28,401
5-8
Rocha .
4,280
25,976
6-0
Maldouado .
1,584
23,086
14-5
Artigas
4,392
21,716
4-9
Treinta y Tres
3,686
22,615
6 1
Rivera .
3,790
18,767
4-9
Rio Negro .
3,269
24,369
7-4
Flores .
1,744
15,390
8-7
11-4
Total
72,110
827,485
To the total, the official estimate adds 13,240 for omissions in the number
of immigrants, the population of the Republic being thus put at 840,725,
or 117 per square mile. Of the population 52 per cent, are male, and 48 per
cent, female. Seventy per cent, of the population is native-born. Of the
remainder the gi-eater number are Spaniards, Italians, French, Brazilians, and
Argentines. The number of English and Germans is small. The Spaniards
and French are mostly Basques. Montevideo, the capital, has a population
of about 249,251.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and marriages
for five years. The births and deaths include still births : —
Years
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Total Births
28,119
29,292
31,158
31,895
27,763
Still-Births Marriages > Deaths
731
806
755
894
791
3,394
3,852
4,154
4,073
2,746
13,282
14,649
12,874
13,670
13,013
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
14,837
14,642
18,284
18,225
14,750
Of the total births in 1897, 6,094, or 22-6 per cent., were illegitimate.
1128
URUGUAY
In 1873 the number of immigrants was 243,391.
arrivals and departures at Montevideo were : —
For five years the
Immigrants .
Emigrants
1893
1S94
1895
189G
1897
9,543
6,339
11,875
6,106
9,158
6,387
10,505
5,918
9,140
Of the immigrants landing at Montevideo in 1897, 3,651 were Italian ;
2,552 Spanish; 672 Brazilian; 483 French; 287 German; and 226
English.
^ Religion and Instruction.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is complete tolera-
tion. In November, 1889 (census), there were in the Department of Monte-
video 179,468 Catholics, 10,982 Protestants, and 23,911 not declared, &c.
Primary education is obligatory. There were in 1896 533 public ele-
mentary schools, with 1,041 teachers, of whom 783 were female, and 51,312
enrolled pupils. The number of private schools was 379, with 949 teachers
and 22,689 pupils. The cost of primary education defrayed by the State is
about 677,000 dollars. The statistics show that there was 1 school, public
or private, for every 897 inhabitants, 1 teacher for every 411 inhabitants,
and 1 pupil for every 11 inhabitants. There are at Montevideo a university
and other establishments for secondary and higher education. In 1896 the
university had 87 professors and 587 students. There are normal schools for
males and for females. There is a school of arts and trades supported by
the State where 198 pupils receive instruction gratuitously. At the military
college, with 8 professors, there are 41 pupils. There are also many religious
seminaries throughout the Republic with a considerable number of pupils.
The national library contains over 27,000 volumes and more than 2,500
manuscripts, maps, &c. There is also a national museum, with more than
33,490 objects. There are over 126 periodicals published in the Republic,
120 in Spanish, 2 in English, and 2 in Italian.
In 1896, 162 criminals were conveyed to the Penitentiary and 966 to the
Correctional Prison at Montevideo
Finance.
The revenue for five years is stated as follows
1893-94
1894-95
1895-96
There is
1898-99 the
estimates : —
Dollars
15,376,614
15,120,941
16,052,133
1896-97
1897-98
Dollars
14,257,723
14,257,722 (approx.)
no authoritative statement of expenditure,
executive has signed and promulgated
For the year
the following
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1129
Revenue
Dollars
Expenditure
Dollars
Customs ....
10,061,487
Legislature ....
341,114
Property tax
1,831,689
Presidency ....
67,242
Trade licences
890,650
Ministry Foreign Affairs .
131,968
Factorj' taxes
470,595
,, Government
2,365,086
Tobacco tax
463,936
,, Finance
961,160 '■
Instruction receipts
427,457
,, Foments
1,124,672
Stamped paper .
369,668
,, War and Marine .
1,918,031 !
Bank protits
350,000
Public Debt
5,640,743 1
Post and telegraph
260,000
Railway guarantees .
945,636
Other receipts
848,064
Pensions ....
•1,416,407
Various ....
Total ....
887,173
Total .
15,973,546
15,799,231 !
The municipality of Montevideo has its own Budget, and is not included
in these estimates. The amount of the public debt on December 31, 1897.
is officially stated as follows :
Dollars
External 100,490,512
International 4,327,575
Internal 15,947,010
Total 120,765,097
In October, 1898, the debt was increased by 7,500,000 dollars, bringing
the total up to 128,265,097 dollars.
According to the Report of the Committee of the Council of Foreign Bond-
holders, the amount of the foreign debt outstanding in the middle of 1898 was
21,380,960^.
The total value of the real property of the Republic in 1896 was 280,945,721
dollars. Of this the department of Montevideo is credited with 128,809,060
dollars, the next richest provinces being Paysandu, Soriano, and Salto with
14,831,178 and 12,872,480 dollars respectively.
Defence.
The permanent army of Uruguay is officially reported to consist of 233
officers and 3,222 men, including 4 battalions of infantry, 4 regiments of
cavalry, 1 of artillery. The soldiers are armed with Remington rifles, and
there are 67 pieces of artillery. There is besides an armed police force
of 3,200 men. The national guard numbers about 20,000. In recent years
there has been an excessive expenditure for the maintenance of an increased
military force. Uruguay has three gunboats and one small steamer, with a
complement of about 184 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
The rearing of cattle and sheep is the chief industry of Uruguay. The
pastoral establishments in 1896, according to declarations made for fiscal pur-
poses, contained 5,881,402 head of cattle, 392,246 horses, 15,589 mules, and
16,397,484 sheep. The total value of the flocks and herds in Uruguay is
estimated at 73,038,000 dollars. In Uruguay and Montevideo in 1896,
703,900 ; in 1897, 670,900 head of cattle were slaughtered. In 1897 the wool
1130
URUGUAY
clip reached 33,000 tons. Agricultural industries are 'said to have advanced
recently. In 1894, the area under wheat was 203,796 hectares ; under
maize, 125,731 hectares. The estimated wheat yield in 1897 was 300,000 tons.
Tobacco, olives, and the vine are also cultivated. The acquisition of land is
facilitated by public companies. There are 21,045 farmers, of whom 10,853
cultivate their own land. In the northern Departments several gold mines
are worked, and silver, copper, lead, magnesium, and lignite coal are found.
In the department of Rivera, during the eleven years 1885-95, the gold yield
was 1,118,220 grammes; in 1895, 61,126 grammes; in 1896, 55,998
grammes ; in 1897, 87,336 grammes,
•
Commerce.
The special trade (merchandise only) was as follows in dollars'
gold :—
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports .
Exports .
Dollars
19,672,000
27,682,000
Dollars
23,800,370
33,479,511
Dollars
25,386,106
32,543,644
Dollars
25,530,184
30,403,083
Dollars
19,512,216
29,319,573
Of the imports in 1897 the value of 17,537,660 dollars was subject to
duty ; of the exports, 27,826,109 dollars.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Uruguay in 1896 and
1897, with the countries with which she mainly deals : —
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
Country
(1896)
(1897)
(1896)
(1897)
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Great Britain .
7,277,372
4,843,937
1,983,264
1,754,995
France
2,489,784
1,959,204
5,040,443
4,970,588
Germany .
2,750,292
1,828,556
2,479,913
3,064,853
Spain
1,959,374
1,689,333
677,587
396,799
Italy
2,283,357
1,696,561
477,166
721,243
Brazil
1,444,901
1,620,627
7,243,034
5,939,256
United States
1,776,255
1,505,156
1,713,613
2,886,792
Belgium .
1,711,026
1,123,636
5,377,848
4,982,136
Argentine Republic ,
3,523,764
2,950,657
4,895,172
4,015,771
The following are the various classes of imports for three j'-ears :-
—
1895
1896
Dollars
1897
Dollars
Dollars
Foods and drinks
7,399,084
7,041,486
6,869,612
Tobacco
218,629
250,723
184,728
Textiles
4,856,114
4,704,799
3,359,980
Apparel and haberdashery
1,380,871
1,446,237
974,124
Raw materials and machinery .
6,428,994
6,613,786
5,058,497
Various . . . , .
Total ....
5,102,414
5,473,153
25,530,184
3,065,275
25,386,106
19,512,216
SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS
1131
The following are the various classes of exports for three years :-
—
1895
Dollars
1,004,479
27,474,987
3,735,776
328,402
1896
1897
Living animals
Animal products
Agricultural products
Other products ....
Dollars
1,490,528
26,418,596
2,018,985
474,975
Dollars
781,778
26,884,575
1,202,674
450,546
Totals ....
32,543,644
30,403,083
29,319,573
The following table gives the principal exports for three years : —
Year
Jerked
Beef
Extract of
Beef
Hides and
Skins
Tallow
Wool
1
1895
1896
1897
Dollars
4,921,524
4,561,799
4,312,904
Dollars
2,029,272
2,104,041
1,182,810
Dollars
7,290,477
6,707,130
6,633,981
Dollars
1,843,598
1,647,469
1,299,130
Dollars
10,252,492
10,284,055
12,402,802
The imports of coin in 1896 amounted to 8,918,521 dollars ; exports,
7,791,020 dollars; in 1897, imports, 3,035,679 dollars ; exports, 3,116,877
dollars.
Of the total imports in 1897, 17,028,773 dollars passed through Monte-
video, and 20,168,047 dollars exports.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United Kingdom is
exhibited in the following tabular statement, according to the Board of Trade
Returns for each of the last five years : —
—
1893
£
131,362
1,499,030
1894
£
267,101
1,488,433
1895
£
460,946
1,348,626
1896 1897
Imports into U. K. from Uru-
guay
Exjiorts of British produce to
Uruguay ....
£ £
316,109 ^ 339,904
1,434,956 ' 796,616
The chief articles of import from Uruguay into the United Kingdom
in 1897 were hides, of the value of 69,707Z. ; tallow, 35,234Z. ; preserved
meat, 30,514Z. ; wheat, 22,668Z. (192,928^. in 1895) ; wool, 93,220Z. ; caout-
chouc, 29,468Z. The exports from the United Kingdom into Uruguay were
cotton goods, value 261,928Z. ; woollens, 96,930Z. ; coal, 125,4807.; iron.
wrought and unwrought, 68,059Z. ; and machinery, 18,441Z.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1895 Uruguay had 19 steamers of a total net tonnage of 4,608 tons,
and 45*sailing vessels of a total net tonnage of 13,171 tons.
There entered at the port of Montevideo in 1897 from abroad 1,126 sea-
1132 URUGUAY
going vessels of 1,904,626 tons, and cleared 1,024 vessels of 1,796,529 tons.
In the river and coasting trade there entered 2,439 vessels of 621,406 tons,
and cleared 2,447 vessels of 621,244 tons.
There are (1896) 1,026 English miles of railway open for traffic, and 190
miles under construction. There are 89 miles of tramway in operation The
principal telegraph lines in operation in 1897 were of a total length of 4,380
miles, of which 982 miles belonged to the railways. There were 97 offices,
and 342,800 telegrams were conveyed.
In 1897 the post office transmitted 9,426,946 letters, 64,596 post-cards,
and 21,342,976 printed papers and other packets. There were 636 post-
offices.
Money and Credit.
The nominal value of the silver coinage issued in the Republic from 1877
to 1896 was 4,045,857 pesos, coined at Paris, Santiago, and Buenos Ayres.
In 1896 the Bank of the Republic was established with an effective capital of
10,000,000 pesos, represented by shares of a nominal value of 12,000,000
pesos. The bank has the right, ultimately exclusive, to issue bank notes
which may amount to half the value of the capital subscribed, and are pay-
able either in gold or silver at the discretion of the bank. The president and
directors are appointed by the Government. On August 31, 1898, its note
circulation amounted to 3,062,879 dollars, and its cash in hand to 3,124,964
dollars. At the same date the note circulation of the Bank of London and
the River Plate amounted to 2,353,910 dollars, and cash in hand to 4,983,022
dollars; the Italian Bank's note circulation, 623,870 dollars, and cash in
hand 1,148,841 dollars. The total note circulation was thus to the amount
of 6,040,659 dollars, and the cash in the banks 9,256,827 dollars. State
notes are being withdrawn ; their amount in circulation in 1897 was
166,659 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
There isuo Uruguayan gold coin in circulation, but the monetary standard
is gold, the theoretical gold coin being the peso nacional, weighing 1 697
grammes, "917 fine. The law of June 23, 1862, authorised the coinage of
the doblon, or 10-peso gold piece, but, as yet, only foreign gold is in
circulation.
The silver peso or dollar weighs 25 grammes, '900 fine. Other silver
pieces are half, fifth, and tenth of a peso. Bronze coins are 4, 2, and 1
centesimo pieces. The metric system of weights and measures has been
officially adopted. The chief denominations of the old system are as
follows : —
The Quintal — 101 "40 lbs avoirdupois.
Arroha = 25*35 ,, ,,
Fanega = 30 gallons.
Lineal league = 5 '64 English yards. ,
Quadra of land = 73 hectare = 1 "8 English acre. '
Square league = 10| English square miles.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1183
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Uruguay in Great Britain.
Charge d' Affaires. — Alfonso de Zumaran.
Consul- General in London — E, C. Abella.
2. Of Great Britain in Uruguay,
Minister Resident and Consul-General. — Walter Baring, appointed June
1893.
Consul. —
Vice-Consuls at Colonia, Maldonado, Paysandu, and Salto.
Books of Reference concerning Uruguay.
Agricola Estadistica de la Republica en el ano 1896. Montevideo.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. Imp. 4. London.
Anuario demografico de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay. Montevideo.
Anuario estadistico de la Rejn'iblica Oriental del Uruguay. Montevideo.
Comercio exterior de la Repiiblica Oriental del Uruguav, 1895. Montevideo, annual.
Diario oficial. 1897.
Estadistica Escolar de la Republica. Montevideo, annual.
Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London.
Handbook of Uruguay. Bulletin No. 61 of the Bureau of the American Republics,
Washington. 1892.
La Repi'iblica Oriental del Uruguay. For Ramon Lopez Lomba. Montevideo, 1884.
Roiistan (Honore), and Pena (C. M. de), La Republica Oriental del Uruguay en la Expo
sicion Universal Colombiano de Chicago. Montevideo, 1893.
The Uruguay Republic: Territory and Conditions. Reprinted by authority of the
Consul-General of Uruguay. London, 1888.
Bauza (Francisco), Hist6ria de la dominacion espanola en el Uruguav. Montevideo
1880.
Memoria por el Inspector Nacional de Instruccion Priraaria. Montevideo. 1896.
Mulhall{}/L. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. S. London, 1885.
Murray (Rev. J. H.), Travels in Uruguay, S. America. S. London, 1871.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses [chapter entitled 'From Montevideo to Paraguay']. 8.
London, 1687.
Review of the River Plate. Weekly. Buenos Aires.
Rumbold (Sir H.), The Great Silver River. London, 1888
Uruguay : its Geography, History, Industries, <fec. [Author not named]. Liverpool, 1897.
Ftnc€n* (Frank), Round and About South America. New York 1890.
1134
VENEZUELA.
(Etados XJnidos de Venezuela.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession from the other
members of the Free State founded by Simon Bolivar within the limits of the
Spanish colony of New Granada The charter of fundamental laws actually
in force, dating from 1830, and re-proclaimed, with alterations, on March 28,
1864, and April 1881, is designed on the model of the Constitution of the
United States of America, but with considerably m.ore independence secured
to provincial and local government. At the head of the central executive
government is the President, elected for the term of two years, exercising his
functions through six ministers, and a Federal Council of 19 members. The
Federal Council is appointed by the Congress every two years ; the Council
from its own members, choose a President, who is also President of the Republic.
Neither the President nor members of the Federal Council can be re-elected for
the following period. The President has no veto power. The legislation for
the whole Republic is vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate
(three senators for each of the eight States and the Federal District), and the
House of Representatives (one to every 35, 000 of population). The Senators are
elected for four years by the Legislature of each State, and the Representatives
for a like period by ' popular, direct, and public election. ' The Congresses of
States are elected by universal suffrage. There are 24 Senators and 52
Representatives. A revised Constitution has been presented, June 1891, by
the two Chambers to the Legislative Assemblies of the States for their
consideration.
President of the Republic. — General Andrade.
The- provinces, or States, of the Republic have each their own legislature
and executive, as well as their own budgets and judicial officers, and the
main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. The administration
of the territories and colonies is entrusted to the government of the Federation.
Area and Population.
Until 1881 Venezuela was divided into twenty-one States and their terri-
tories ; but in that year a re-division was made into eight large States, each
subdivided into sections or districts, corresponding to the old States, besides
the Federal District, two national settlements, and eight territories. The
following table gives the area and population of each of the new States and
territories according to the census of 1891 : —
State, &c.
Area
Population,
Population per
square miles
1891
sq. mile, 1891
Federal District
45
89,133
1,980-7
Miranda
33,969
484,509
14-2
Carabobo
2,984
198,021
60-6
Bermudez
32,243
300,597
9-3
Zamora
25,212
246,676
9-6
Lara
9,296
246,760
26-5
Los Andes
14,719
336,146
22-8
Falcon and Zulia
36,212
224,566
6-2
Bolivar
88,701
50,289
0-6
RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION
1135
State, &c.
Area
square miles
Population,
1891
Population per ,
sq. mile, 1891 !
Territories :
Goajira ....
Alto Orinoco , ,
Amazonas ....
Colon
Yuruari^ ....
Caura .....
Armisticio ....
Delta
Total ....
3,608
119,780\
90,928/
166
81,123
22,564)
7,046 i
25,347
65,990
45,197
129
22,392
In adjoining
States
7,222
18-3 1
0-2 :
01
0-2
0-3
593,943
2,323,527
3-9
1 Reincorporated with the State of Bolivar in 1891.
The area and population of Venezuela here stated are those oflScially put
forth in Venezuelan statistics, but of the Delta Territory about one-third, i.nd
of the Yuruari Territory more than half arc claimed by Great Britain as
forming part of the Colony of British Guiana. The British claim was taken
over from the Dutch when the colony was c6ded by them in 1814, and the
Venezuelans on securing their independence in 1821 succeeded to the territorial
claims put forth by Spain. Disputes regarding the frontier line arose with
Great Britain, and negotiations for a settlement Avere carried on intermittently
from 1841 to 1896. At the request of the Venezuelan Government, the
Government of the United States intervened, and a treaty between Great Britain
and Venezuela was ratified at "Washington on June 14, 1897, wherebv 4
arbitrators were appointed (2 for Great Britain and 2 for Venezuela), these
four being required to choose a fifth as president, who, if not appointed Avithin
three months of the date of the ratification of the treaty, should be selected
by the King of Sweden and Norway. In December, 1897, Professor Martens
of St. Petersburg was appointed president. The delegates held a preliminary
meeting at Paris on January 25, and adjourned until May 25, 1899, when the
business of the Commission Avill be begun.
The population in 1891 consisted of 1,137,139 males and 1,186,388 females.
According to the census of 1881 the population was 2,075,245. This
showed an increase in the population over the census of 1873, of 291,051.
The native Indian population in 1890 numbered 326,000, of whom 66,000
independent, 20,000 submitted, 240,000 civilized. In 1889 the number of
marriages was 6,705; of births 76,187 ; of deaths, 55,218. The immigra-
tion (1,555 in 1890) and emigration nearly balance each other. Since 1896
several contracts have been made for the introduction of immigrants for the
purpose of establishing colonies on the public lands ; but up to July, 1898,
few colonists had been introduced.
The population of Caracas, the capital, in 1888 was 70,466 (72,429 in 1891),
Valencia 38,654, Maracaibo 34,284, Barquisimeto 31,476, Ciudad de Cura
12,198, Barcelone 12,785, Ciudad Bolivar 11,686, Guanare 10,880.
Religion and Instruction.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is toleration of all
others, though they are not permitted any external manifestations. In 1894
the Protestants numbered 3,575 ; Jews, 411 ; without profession, 5,906 ;
the remaind?r were Catholics.
1136
VENEZUELA
In 1870 education was made free and compulsory ; at that time only 10 per
cent, of the adult population were able to read and write. In 1891 there
were, for primary instruction, 1,415 Federal and 151 State schools. The
number of pupils receiving elementary instruction in 1889 was 100,026. The
sum expended in 1890 on Federal schools was 2,503,797 bolivars. Besides
these there are 9 barrack schools, 4 normal schools, and one school of arts and
trades. Higher education is given in 2 universities, 22 Federal colleges, 11
national colleges for girls, 1 school for fine arts, others for music, 1 poly-
technic school, 26 private colleges and 1 nautical school. These institutions
have 436 professors and 4,882 students. The cost of the Federal schools
(primary and higher) to the nation in 1890 was 3,345,720 bolivars.
In Caracas is the national library, with 32,000 volumes, and the national
museum.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Federal Court and the Supreme
Court of Appeal, by special local courts for civil and criminal cases separately,
and by district, borough, and municipal judges.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure, in the years ending June 30, have been : —
Revenue .
Expenditure
1893-4
1894-5
1895-6
1895-7
Bolivars
51,421,875
51,919,795
Bolivars
48,656,797
43,891,525
Bolivars
51,459,947
65,959,787
Bolivars
48,313,540
103,904,780
The revenue and expenditure for 1897-98 were estimated to balance at
40,150,000 bolivars.
For 1898-99 the sanctioned estimates were as follows : —
Revenue
Bolivars
Expenditure
'Bolivars
Import duties .
Stamps
Transit duties .
Consulates
Caracas Waterworks .
Salt tax .
Various .
Total
24,838,000
3,196,000
3,290,000
800,000
501,000
900,000
1,017,000
Administration.
Internal credit .
External credit .
Venezuela loan .
Foreign claims .
Public works .
State subsidies .
Total
16,736,200
5,057,100
2,135,200
3,000,000
1,113,500
2,250,000
4,250,000
34,542,000
34,542,000
The foreign debt of Venezuela began with its assumption of its share of
the old Columbian debt in 1834, amounting to 1,888,396?., and 906,400Z.
arrears of interest; total, 2,794,796?. The arrangement at present in force
was adopted in 1881, when new consolidated bonds were issued to the amount
of 2,750,000Z. for the conversion of the external debt.
On July 1, 1897, the outstanding amount of this debt was 2,638,200?.,
while the 5 per cent, loan of 1896 for the settlement of arrears ot railway
guarantees amounted to 50,000,000 bolivars, or about 1,949,742?.; total
foreign debt, 4,587,942?. The coupons due February, 1898, on the debt of
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1137
1881, and July, 1898, on the loan of 1896 were unpaid. The outstandiuc'
internal debt, December 31, 1897, amounted to 131,292,120 bolivars. "
Defence.
In 1898 the permanent army consisted of about 3,600 men organised in
10 battalions. The army is dispersed in 20 towns of the Republic, and in
Federal garrisons and shij)s.
Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in which every
citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must be enrolled. In
times of civil war this force has been increased to 60,000 men. The number
of citizens able for military service according to law was 250,000 in 1889.
Venezuela has three steamers and two sailing vessels with some small
river gunboats.
Production and Industry.
The surface of Venezuela is naturally divided into 3 distinct zones — the
agricultural, the pastoral, and the forest zone. In the first are grown sugar-
cane, coffee, cocoa, cereals, &c. ; the second affords runs for cattle ; and in
the third tropical products, such as caoutchouc, tonga beans, copaiba, vanilla,
growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. The area under cofiee is esti-
mated at from 180,000 to 200,000 acres, and about 49,000 tons of coffee are
annually shipped abroad. The coffee estates number about 33,000, and those
of cocoa 5,000. There are about 11,000 sugar estates, Avhich flourished while
sugar importation was prohibited, but the prohibition was recently removed.
Efforts are being made to introduce improved methods and machinery
in agriculture. All lands within the bounds of the Republic without a
lawful owner (corporate or private) are considered public lands, and are
managed by the Federal executive, who, under certain regulations, have
power to sell or to make grants therefrom for the purpose of agricultural or
mining settlements or to properly certified immigrants, in the proportion of
2^ acres to every member of the family.
One-fifth of the population is engaged in agriculture. In 1888 there were
stated to be in Venezuela 8,476,300 cattle, 5,727,500 sheep and goats,
1,92(9,700 swine, 387,650 horses, 300,560 mules, and 858,970 asses. The
generally accepted estimate of the number of cattle (1895) is from 4,000,000
to 5,000,000. In the agricultural and cattle industries about 60,000 labourers
are employed.
Venezuela is rich in metals and other minerals. Gold is found chiefly in
the Yumari Territory. The quantity sent from that district in 1884 was
233,935 oz. ; in 1885 172,037 oz. ; in 1886, 217,135 oz, ; in 1887, 95,352 oz. ;
and in 1888, 71,594 oz. ; in 1889, 88,834 oz. ; in 1890, 85,531 oz. ; in 1891,
49,050 oz. ; in 1892, 46,560 oz. ; in 1893, 47,950 oz. ; in 1894, 52,925 oz. ;
in 1895, 47,588 oz. ; in 1896, 60,674 oz. ; in 1897, 43,500 oz. There are silver
mines in the States of Bermudez, Lara, and Los Andes. Copper and iron are
abundant, while sulphur, coal, asphalt, lead, kaolin, and tin are also found.
In 1890, copper to the value of 97,990Z. was exported; in 1894 none was
exported. The salt mines in various States, 'under Government administration,
produced in 1893-94 a revenue of 1,727,490, bolivars. Petroleum is found
in Tachira, but capital is wanting for its exploitation.
Venezuela has practically no industries, all manufactured materials required
being imported, even the sacking necessary for the export of Venezuelan
produce.
4 D
1138
VENEZUELA
Commerce.
Nearly six-sevenths in value of the imports are subject to duty,
following table shows the progress of Venezuela commerce in bolivars : —
The
■ —
1889-90
1890-91
1892-93
1893-94
1895-96
Imports
Exports
83,614,411
100,917,338
118,952,508
86,420,615
107,655,694
111,455,143
The staple export is coffee, which goes mainly to France, Germany, the
United States, and Italy. In the year 1896-97 the chief exports Avere coffee :
from La Guaira, 7,946 tons ; from *Puerto Cabello, 10,979 tons ; from
Maracaibo, 25,486 tons; from Ciudad Bolivar, 256 tons. Cocoa: from La
Guaira, 3,766 tons ; from Puerto Cabello, 232 tons ; from Maracaibo, 40 tons ;
from Ciudad Bolivar, 9 tons ; hides and skins to the number of 3,440,109 ;
mbber, 339 tons ; quina bark, 31,044 kilogrammes ; other exports being
copaiba, tonga beans, feathers, fustic, divi-divi, and fish sounds. Gold in bars
was exported to the amount of 1,353 kilogrammes. The chief imports are
provisions, dry goods, hardware, coal, kerosene, cement, timber, and
machinery.
The value of the trade between Venezuela and the United Kingdom during
the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, was : —
—
1«93
1894
1895
1896
1897
Imports into United King-
dom fiom Venezuela
Exports of British produce
to Venezuela
£
89,684
919,261
£
145,212
679,043
£
53,410
802,964
£.
57,426
789,767
£
63,382
564,697
The chief articles of import from Venezuela into Great Britain in 1897
were cocoa, 1,885?.; coffee (in 1880, 15,553?.) 7,330Z. ; furniture wood,
2,361?.; ornamental feathers, 36,881?.; caoutchouc, 12,182?. The exports
from Great Britain to Venezuela comprise cotton and linen manufactures,
the former of the value of 370,337?.; and the latter of 23,232/., in the year
1897 ; besides woollens, 29,344?.; jute goods, 24,879?. ; iron, wrought and
un wrought, 28,014?. ; machinery, 13,000?.
Shipping and Communications.
At La Guaira in 1897 there entered and cleared 312 vessels of 676,500 tons
(97 of 191,950 tons British) ; at Maracaibo 285 of 78,620 tons entered and
cleared; at Ciudad Bolivar 133 of 58,367 tons entered and cleared.
Venezuela had in 1898, 11 steamers, with total net tonnage of 2,185 tons,
and 17 sailing vessels, with total tonnage of 2,760 tons.
There are (1898) 505 miles of railway in operation, and 1,000 miles under
consideration. In May, 1896, a contract was made for the establishment of
regular steamship lines on the Lake of Valencia, and for the construction of
branch railways and tramways connecting with the main line. Lake naviga-
tion steadily increases in importance. In 1898 there were 214 post-offices.
In 1898 there were 3,882 miles of telegraph lines and 113 telegraph offices ;
expenses (1895) 968,382 l)olivars. There are two telephone companies.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1139
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The principal bank of issue is the Bank of Venezuela (capital 15,000,000
bolivars), which by contract made in April, 1897, for 5 years, collects and
disburses the revenue (receiving 2 per cent, commission on receipts and pay-
ments), and credits the Government on current account to the extent of
6,000,000 bolivars at 8 per cent, interest. In April, 1897, a contract was
made for the establishment of a new bank of issue, the Bolivar Bank, with a
capital of 20,000,000 bolivars, to administer the salt deposits, receiving
10 per cent, of the net salt revenue ; to credit the Government to the extent
of 6,000,000 bolivars at 8 per cent, interest ; and to lend 10,000,000 bolivars
to Venezuelan farmers and cattle-breeders.
In July, 1896, it was enacted that the issue of paper money by the State
should cease, and that no more silver or nickel money should be coined with-
out legislative enactment. The intention was to issue in future only gold
coin and certificates representing gold in hand. The currency in 1896 was
stated to consist of 12,000,000 bolivars in gold, and 8,000,000 bolivars in
silver.
The Bolivar, approximately equal to 1 fr.
The old Spanish weights and measures in general use, but the legal ones
are those of the metric system.
Diplomatic and Consular Hepresentatives.
1. Of Venezuela in Great Britain.
Mini'Stc'r in London. — General Pietri.
Secretary. — Seuor B, Planas.
Consul-General. — C. A. Villanueva,
Consul. — N. G. Burch.
There are Consular representatives at Birmingham, Cardiff, Dundee,
Glasgow, Grimsby, Liverpool, Manchester, Nottingham, Queenstown,
Southampton, Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Venezuela.
Minister and President. — W. H. D. Haggard, appointed July 1, 1897.
Consul at Bolivar. — C. H. de Lemos.
There are vice-consuls at Barcelona, Bolivar, La Guayra, Maracaibo, Puerto
Cabello.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Venezuela.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries. 4.
London.
Documents and correspondence respecting the Question of the Boundary of British
Guiana and Veneznela. Also Maps and Errata. Nos. C. 7972, 7072.1, 8012, and 8106.
London, 1806.
Deutsches Handels-Archiv for ^lay, 1896. 4. Berlin.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. 8. London.
Statistical Annuarj' of the United States of Venezuela. Caracas, 1893.
Venezuela Bulletin No. 34 of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington, 1892.
1140 VENEZUELA
2 Non-Official Publications.
-42)/)uh(C. F.), Unter den Tropen. Vol.1. Venezuela. S. Jena, 1871.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Curtis (W. E.), Venezuela. S. London, 1896.
Dance (C. D.), Four Years in Venezuela. 8. London, 1876.
Davies (R. H.), Three Gringos in Venezuela and Central America. 8. London, 1896.
Ernst (Dr. A.), Les produits de Venezuela. S. Bremen, 1874.
Macpherson (T. A.), Vocabulario historico, geographico, &c., del Estado Carabobo. 2 pts.
4. Caracas, 1890-91. Diccionario historico, geogi-aphico, estadistico, &c., del Estado
Miranda. S. Caracas. 1891.
Meulemans (Auguste), La republique de Venezuela. 8. Bruxelles, 1872.
Mombello (G. Orsi de), Venezuela y sus Riquezas. 8. Caracas, 1890.
Scruggs(W. L.)and Storrow (J. J.), The Brief for Venezuela. [Boundary dispute.] London,
1896.
Spence{J. M.), The Land of Bolivar: Adventui-es in Venezuela. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Strickland (J.), Documents and Maps of the Boundary Question between Venezuela and
British Guiana. London, 1896.
Thirion (C), Les etats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.
Tejera (Miguel), Venezuela pintoresca e ilustrada. S. Paris, 1875.
Tejera (Miguel), Mapa fisico y politico de los Estados Uuidos de Venezuela. Paris, 1877
Three Gringos in Venezuela and Central America. London.
Wood (W. E.), Venezuela : Two Years on the Spanish Main. London.
INDEX
4 E
INDEX
This Index contains no reference to tlie Introductory Tables which pre-
sent a summary of tlie Finance and Commerce of tlie United Kingdom,
British India, tlie British Colonies, the various countries of Europe, the
United States of America, and Japan.
AAC
AACHEN, 580, 660
Aalborg, 490
Aalesund, 1044
Aargau, 1058, 1060
Aarhaus, 490
Abaco (Bahamas), 244
Abbas Hilmi, Khedive, 1104
Abdul-Haraid II., 1074
Abdur Rahman Khan, 338
Abercorn (Cent. Africa), 192
Aberdeen, 22 ; University, 34
Aberystwith College, 34
Abeshr (Wadai), 343
Abo (W. Africa), 210
Abo (Finland), 916
Abomey, 563
Abruzzi, 720
Abu Said (of Wadai), 343
Abyssinia, 336
Abyssinian Church, 336
Abuna (Coptic), 336
Acarnania, 693
Accra, 215
Achaia, 693
Acklin's Island, 244
Aconcagua, 436
Adamawa, 210
Adaua (town), 1080
— (Vilayet), 1079
Addo, 208
Adelaide, 297 ; University, 298
Aden, 108, 129
Adis Abeba, 336, 757
Admiralty Island (W. Pacific), 615
Adolf, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, 783
Adrar, 800, 1023
AFR
Adrianople (town), 1080
— (Vilayet), 1079
Adua, 336
MtolisL, 693
Afghanistan, area, 338
— army, 339
— books of reference, 341
— currency, 341
— exports, 340
— government, 338
— horticulture, 340
— imports, 340
— justice, 339
— land cultivation, 340
— manufactures, 340
— mining, 340
— origin of the Afghans, 338
— population, 339
— reigning sovereign, 338
— revenue, 393
— trade, 340
— trade routes, 340
Africa, Central, 341
(British), 192
protectorate, 193
— East (British), 194
(German), 613
Italian, 757
Portuguese, 892
— South (British), 212
— South- West (German), 612
— (Turkish), 1080
— West (British), 215
(French), 546
German, 610, 611
— colonies in, British, 180
4 £
1144
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1399
AFR
Africa, colonies in, French, ri40
German, 610
Italian, 757
Portuguese, 890
Spanish, 1023
Agra, 135
Agram (Zagrah), 388, 391 ; Univer-
sity, 393
Aguascalientes, 785, 786
Ahmadabad, 135
Aimaks (tribe), 338, 339
Airolo, 1067
Aitulaki Island, 332
Aix 515
Ajmere, 129, 136, 147 ; town, 135
Akamagaseki, 764
Akassa, 210
Aksum, 336
Alagoas, 436
Alajuela, 482
Albert, King (Saxony), 676
Albert, Prince (Monaco), 794
Alberta (Canada), 223
Albrecht, Prince (Brunswick), 632
Al])ury (N.S.W.), 260
Al(lal)ra Island, 202
Alderney, government 14 ; i)opula-
tion, 26
Alemtejo 880
Aleppo, 1080, 1092
Alessandria, 725
Alexander I. (Servia), 987
— (Prince) Lippe, 642
Alexandria, 1107, 1119
Alcxandrojiol, 916
Alexinatz, 989
Alfonso XIII. (Spain), 1008
Alfred, Duke (Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha), 3, 671
Algarve, 880
Algeria, agriculture, 552
— area, 551
— books of reference, 555
— commerce, 553
— crime, 551
— defence, 552
— exports, 553, 554
— finance, 552
— government, 550
— imports, 553, 554
— industry, 552
— instruction, 551
— mining, 553
— money, weights, and measures, 555
AND
Algeria, population, 551
— posts and telegraphs, 554
— railways, 554
— religion, 551
— shipping, 554
— telegraphs, 554
Algiers, 551
Alhucenas Islands, 1012
Alicante, 1013
Aligarh, 135
Allahabad, 135 ; University, 137
Almeria, 1013
Alost, population, 414
Alsace-Lonaine, area, 617
— constitution, 616
— finance, 618
— instruction, 617
— justice and crime, 617
— population, 617
— production and industry, 618
— railway, 618
— religion, 617
— representatives in the Bundesratli,
574
— Statthalter, 616
Altenburg, 670
Altona, 580, 660
Alwar, 134 ; town, 135
Amapala, 712
Amatongaland, 204
Amazonas, 436
Ambala, 135
Amba-Mariam, 336
Ambato, 500
Ambriz, 892
America, British colonies in, 219
— French colonies in, 546, 568
Amhara, 336
Amiens, 513
Amritsar, 135
Amoy, 465
Amsterdam, 811, 824 ; university,
812
— Island, 562
Amur region, 912
— schools, 921
— shipping, 961
Anchorite Island (West Pacific), 615
Ancona, 725
Ancud, 446
Andaman Islands, 129, 170
Andermatt, 1067
Andijan, 916
AndoiTa, 545
INDEX
1145
AND
Audros Island, 244
Angdaphoiang (Rhutau), 428
Angeles (Chile), 446
Angers, 513
Angol, 446
Angola, 892
Angora (own), 1080
— (Vilayet), 1079
Angouleme, 513
Angra, 880
Angra Pequena, 612
Anguilla, 247
Anhalt, area, 619
— constitution, 619
— finance, 620
— population, 619
— reigning duke, 618
Ankobar, 336
Annabon, 1023
Annani, 545-548
Antalo, 336
Antananarivo, 558, 559
Antigua, 247, 248, 250, 251
Antioquia (Colombia), 472
Antipodes Island (N.Z.), 287, 332
Antivari, 796, 797
Antofagasta, 446, 452
Antsirame, 561
Antwerp, province, 412
— town, 414
Apia (Samoa), 982
Appenzell (cantons), 1058, 1060
Apulia, 720
Aqua-town (Kamerun), 612
Aquila degli Abruzzi, 725
Arabia, 1080
Arad, 391
Aral Lake, 912
Arauco, 446
Arcadia, 693
Archipelago (Turkish), 1079
Arequipa, 868 ; University, 870
Arezzo, 725
Argentine Republic, agriculture, 350
— area, 345
— army, 348
— banks, 353
— books of reference, 354
— cattle industry, 350
— commerce, 350
— constitution, 344
— currency and credit, 353
— defence, 348
— diplomatic representatives, 354
ATA
Argentine Republic, emigration, 346
— exports, 351, 352
— linance, 347
— government, 344
local, 344
— immigration, 346
— imports, 351, 352
— instruction, 346, 347
— Jewish Colony, 350
— justice, 347
— land under cultivation, 350
— money, weights, and measures, 354
— navy, 349
— population, 345
— posts and telegraphs, 353
— president, 344
— production and industry, 350
— railways, 353
— religion, 346
— revenue and expenditure, 347, 348
— shipping and navigation, 353
— Welsh Colony (Chubut), 350
Argolis, 693
Arica, 869
Armenia, 1079
Arnhem, 811
Arnstadt, 684
Arolsen, 685
Arta, 693, 1080
Artigas (Uruguay), 1127
Aruba Island (W. Indies), 839
Aruwimi, 478
Asaba, 210
Ascension Island, 180
Ascoli Piceno, 725
Ashanti (W. Africa), 215
Asia, Central (Russian), 912-914
— British colonies in, 108
— French colonies in, 546-550
— Portuguese colonies in, 890
— Russian dependencies in, 972
Asia Minor, 1079
Asmar, 338
Assab, 757
Assam, 129, 136, 143, 147
Assiniboia, 223
Assinic, 563
Assiout, 1107
Assuan, 1123
Assumption Island, 202
Astrakhan, 915
Asuncion, 852-854
Atacama, 446
Atakpame, 611
1146
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
ATA
Atani, 211
Athens, 694 ; University, 694
Atjeh (Sumatra), 830
Attica, 693
Atui Island, 332
Auckland Islands, 287
Auckland, KZ., 275, 276
— trade, 285, 286
— University College, 277
Augsburg, 580, 627
Aulad-Sliman (Arabs), 343
Aussig, 373
Australia {see under Queensland,
South Australia, Victoria, &c.)
Australasia and Oceania, 253
— French colonies in, 546, 570
Australasian federation, 328
— books of reference, 330
Australian defence, 327
Austria, agriculture, 379
— area, 371
— army, 361
— banks, 385-386
— births, deaths, and marriages, 372
— books of reference, 404-406
— breweries, 383
— commerce, 365-366
— constitution, 368
with respect to Hungary, 358
— currency and credit, 385
— customs valuation, 365
— debt, 360, 379
— emigi-ation, 373
— exports, 365-366
— finance, 360, 378, 379
— forestry, 381
— government, 358
'■ central, 368
local, 370
— — provincial, 370
— imports, 365-366
— instruction, 374-376
— justice and crime, 376-377
— manufactures, 382
— mining and minerals, 381, 382
— ministry, (Austria-Hungary), 359;
(Austria), 369
— money, weights, and measures, 367
— occupation of the people, 372
— pauperism, 377
— population, 371
— posts and telegraphs, 384, 385
— 1 ail ways, 384
— Keich.srath, 368
BAD
Austria, reigning sovereign, 356
— religion, 373
— revenue and expenditure, 360,
378-379
— rivers and canals, 383-384
— royal family, 356
— schools, &c., 374-376
— sea fisheries, 382
— shipping and navigation, 383
— sovereigns since 1282, 357
— towns, 373
— universities, 375-376
Austria -Hungary, 356 (see also undei-
Austria, and Hungary.)
— army, 361-363
— Bank of, 367
— books of reference, 404, 405
— commerce, 365, 366
— constitution, 358
— customs valuation, 365
— debt, 360
— defence, frontier, 361
army, 361-363
navy, 363-365
— diplomatic representatives, 402,
403
— exports, 365-366
— finance, 359-360 ^
— government, 358-359
— imports, 365-366
— ministry, 369
— money, weights, and measures,
367, 368
— navy, 363-365
— reigning sovereign, 356
— royal family, 356-357
Avellino, 725
Avignon, 513
Awagi Islands (Japan), 763
Azores, 880
Azov, Sea of, 912
Azuay (Ecuador), 500
Azumiiii, 209
BADAKSHAN, 339, 340
Baden, area, 623
— constitution, 621
— finance, 623
— instruction, 622
— navigation, 624
— population, 621
— ])roduction and industry, 623
— railways, 024
INDEX
1147
BAD
Baik'ii, reigning grand-duke, 620
— religion, &22
— reigning family, 620
— towns, 622
Baden (town), 622
Bafoulabc (W. Africa), 563
Bagamoyo (Germ. K. Africa), 613
Bagdad (town), 1080
— (vilayet), 1079
Bagh, 167
Bagida (Togoland), 610
Bagirmi, 342, 546, 556
Bahamas, 244, 250-251
Bahawulpur, 132
Bahia, 436
Baliour, 547
Bahr-el-Gazal (Sudan), 1123
Bahrein Islands, 109
Bajaur, 338, 340
Bakana, 209
Bakhmut coal, 950
Baku, 916
Bakundi, 211
Bali (E. Indies), 830
Ballarat, 312
Baltic (provinces of Russia), 910
Baluchistan, 166
— books of reference, 168
— British population, 130
Bamberg, 627
Banana, 478
Banca (East Indies), 829, 830 ; tin
mines, 835
Bandawe, 193
Bangala, 478
Bangalore, 135
Bangkok, 997, 1000
Bangor College, 34
Banjaluka, 403
Barbados, 244, 250-251
— troops at, 104
Barbuda, 247
Barcelona, 1013
Barcelone, 1135
Bareilly, 135
Barfurush, 859
Bari, 725
Barmen, 580, 660
Barnaul, 916
]5aroda, area and [(opiilation, 130,
131
— religion, 136
— revenue, 131
— town, 135
BEH
Barotselaud, 192
Barquisimeto, 1135
Barranquilla, 472
Barrawa, 209, 562
Barrow-in-Furness, 18
Basel (cantons), 1058, 1060
Basel (city), 1062 ; university, 1063
Bassac. 548
Bassari, 611
Basseterre (St. Kitts). 248
Basse-Terre (Guadeloupe), 568
Bassora (town), 1092
— (vilayet). 1079
Bastar, 131
Basutoland, 180-181
Batavia (Java), 831, 832
Bath, 18
Bathurst (Gambia), 216
Bathurst(N.S.W.), 260
Batum, 916
Bautzen, 678, 679
Bavaria, agriculture, 630
— area, 626
— army, 629
— beer brewing, 630
— births, marriages, and deaths,
628
— books of reference, 630
— constitution, 625
— debt, 629
— emigi'ation, 627
— finance, 629
— government, 625
— instruction, 629
— justice and crime, 628
— king, 624
— lead mining, 630
— pauperism, 628
— population, 626, 627
— railways, 630
— regent, 624
— religion, 628
— royal family, 624
— towns, 627
Bavaria, Upi)er and Lower, 626, 628
Baxa (Bhutan), 428
Bayreuth, 627
Beaconsfield (Cape Colony), 184
Bechuanaland (Colony), 184
Bechuanaland Protectorate (British),
181, 182
— railway company, 213
Bedford College, London, 35
Bchar Judia), 129
1148
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
BEI
Beira (Portugal), 880
— (E. Africa), 892, 893
— railway, 213, 893
Bekes-Csaba, 391
Bela, 167
Belem, 436
Belfast, 25 ; Queen's College, 34
— port, 90
Belfort P.C., 536
Belgium, agriculture, 419
— area, 412
— army, 419
— banks, 425, 426
— births, deaths, and marriages,
413
— books of reference, 426
— budget, 417
— Chamber of Representatives, 410
^ commerce, 421
— constitution, 409
— currency and credit, 425
— customs valuation, 422
— debt, 418
— defence, 418
— diplomatic representatives, 426
— emigration, 413
— exports, 421, 423
— finance, state, 417 ; local, 418
— frontier, 418
— government, 409
local, 411
— immigration, 413
— imports, 421, 423
— • instruction, 414
— justice and crime, 416
— king, 408
— mining and metals, 420, 421
— ministry, 411
— money, weights, and measures,
426
— occupation of the people, 413
— pauperism, 416
— population, 412
— posts and telegraphs, 425
— railways, 425
— religion, 414
— revenue and expenditure, 417
— royal family, 408
— schools, &c. , 415
— Senate, 409
— shipping and navigation, 424
— sugar works, 421
— towns, 414
— universities, 415
BIE
Belgrade, 988, 989 ; University, 989
Bellary, 135
Bell Island (Newfoundland), 243
Bell-town (Kamerun), 612
Belluno, 725
Benadii", 757
Benares, 135
Bender i Gez, 862
Bendigo, 312
Benevento, 725
Bengal, province, government, 127,
139
— area and jtopulation, 129, 136
— army, 145
— revenue, 143
— native states, 131
Benghazi, 1080, 1092
Benguella, 892
Beni (Bolivia), 429
Benin, 208, 209
— settlement, 564
Beni-Shangul (Abyssinia), 336
Benkulen (East Indies), 830
Berar, 129, 136, 148, 149
Berbera, 108, 1123
Berbice, 239, 838
Berdicheff, 915
Bergamo, 725
Bergen, 1044, 1052, 1053
Berlad, 897
Berlin, 580, 660 ; University, 583
— province, area and po^ndation, 658
crime, 663
emigration, 660
religion, 661
Berlinhafen (W. Pacific), 614
Bermudas, 219 ; troops at, 104
Bermudez (Venezuela), 1134, 1137
Bern (canton), 1058, 1060
— (city), 1062 ; University, 1063
Besan(;on,513, 515
Besso, 336
Bessungen, 640
Beyrouth, 1080, 1092
Beziers, 513
Bhagalpur, 135
Bhartpur, state, 131 ; town, 135
Bhaunagar, 135
Bhopal, state, 131 ; town, 135
Bhutan, 427, 428
Biaka (Bhutan), 428
Bibundi (Kamerun), 612
Bida, 210
Bienne, 1062
INDEX
1149
BIG
liigha, 1079
Hijagoz Is. (Poll, (luiiica), 891
llikauir State, 131
— town, 135
Bilbao, 1018
Billiton (East Indies), 829, 830, 835
Bini, 208
Bio- Bio, 446
Birkenfeld, Principality of, 650
Birkcnliead, population, 18
Biimal, 338
Birniinghani, 18 ; College, 34
Birncy Island, 332
Birni (Central Africa), 342
Bismarck Archipelago, 615
Bisniarckburg, 611
Bitlis, 1079, 1080
Bizerta, 565
Bjorneborg, 968
Blackburn, population, 18
Black Forest, 687
Blantyre (Central Africa), 193
lilidah, 551
Bloemfontein, 848, 851
Bluefields (Nicaragua), 843
Blutr Harbour trade, 286
Bobruisk, 916
Boclium, 660
Bocotia, 693
Bogota, 472
Bohemia, 370, 371
Bois-le-Duc, 811
Bokhara, 948, 972
Bolama (Port. Guinea), 891
Bolan road, 341
Bolivar (Colombia), 472
— (Eucador), 500
Bolivia, area, 429
— banks, 432
— books of reference, 433
— commerce, 431
— communications, 431
— constitution, 429
— consular representative, 432
— defence, 430
— exports, 431
— finance, 430
— government, 429
— imports, 431
— industry, 431
— instruction, 430
— justice, 430
— mines and minerals, 431
— money, weights, and measures, 432
BRA
Bolivia, population, 429
— posts and telegraphs, 432
— president, 429
— production, 431
— railways, 431
— religion, 430
Bologna, 725 ; University, 735
Bolton, population, 18
Boma, 478
Bombay, presidency, 129
army, 145
religion, 138
revenue and expenditure 143
— province, area and population,
129
— states, 131
— town, 135 ; trade, 157
— University, 137
Bonaire Island, 839
]>onavista (Newfoundland), 242
Bone, 551
Bonin Islands (Jay)an), 763
Bonn University, 583
Bonny, 209
Bootle, population, 18
Bora-Bora, 571
Boras, 1030
Bordeaux, 513, 515, 536
Borgu, 210
Borneo, British North, 110
— Dutch, 829, 830 ; coal mines, 835
Bornu, 342
Borsari (Bornu), 342
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 360, 403
— books of reference, 407
Botosani, 897
Bougainville Island (W. Pacific),
615
Boulogne, 513, 536
Boulogne-sur-Seine, 513
Bounty Island (N.Z.), 287, 332
Bourgas, 1099
Bourges, 513
Bowditch Islands, 332
Boyaca, 472
Brabant (North), 809, 811
Bradford, population, 18
Braga, 880, 881
Braila, 897
Brandenburg, area and population,
658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
1150
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
BRA
Brass, 209
Biasso (Kroustadt), 391
Brava, 195
Brazil, area, 436
— army, 439
— books of reference, 444
— commerce, 441
— constitution, 434
— cotton mills, 441
— currency and credit, 442
— debt, 439
— defence, 439
— diplomatic represcntativ(3S, 443
— exports, 441
— finance, 438
— gold mines, 440
— government, 434, 435
local, 436
— immigration, 437
— imports, 441
— instruction, 437
— justice and crime, 438
— money, weights, and measures, 443
— navy, 439
— population, 436
— posts and telegraphs, 442
— president, 435
— production and industry, 440
— railways, 442
— religion, 437
— revenue and expenditure, 438
— shipping and navigation, 442
Brazzaville, 556
Breda, 811
Bremen, area, 631
— books of reference, 632
— commerce, 632
— constitution, 631
— finance, 632
— justice and crime, 631
— population, 580, 631
— religion, 631
— shipping, 632
Brescia, 725
Brcslau, 580, 660 ; University,
583
Brest, 513, 526
Brest-Litovsk, 915
Bridgetown (Barbados), 245
Brighton, population, 18
Brisliane, 290
Bristol, 18 ; College, 34
— port, 90
British Columbia, 223, 225, 228
BUL
British Central Africa, 192
— Central Africa Protectorate, 193
— East Africa, 194
British Empire (see Great Britain,
England, Ireland, Scotland,
&c.).
British Guiana, 239-240
— Honduras, 240
— New Guinea, 256
— North Borneo, 110
— South Africa, 212
— South Africa Company, 212, 213
— West India Islands, 244
Broken Hill (N.S.W.), 260
Broussa, 1079, 1080
Bruchsal, 622
Bruges, population, 414
Brunei, 111
Briinn, 373
Brunswick, agriculture, 634
— area, 633
— books of reference, 634
— constitution, 633
— finance, 634
— mining, 634
— population, 633
— production and industry, 634
— railways, &c., 634
— regent, 632
— town, 580, 633
Brussels, 414 ; University, 415
Bucaramanga, 472
Buchanan (Liberia), 781
Bucharest, 897 ; University, 897
Buckeburg, 682
Budapest, 391 ; University, 393
Budweis, 373
Buea (Kamerun), 612
Buenos Ayres, province, 345
— city, 345, 346 ; University, 347
Bukowina, 370, 371
Buguma, 209
Bulawayo, 213
Bulgaria, area, 1096
— books of reference, 1100
— commerce, 1098
— constitution, 1095
— currency and credit, 1099
— defence, 1097
— exports, 1099
— finance, 1097
— government, 1095
— imports, 1099
— instruction, 1096
INDEX
1151
BUL
Bulgaria, population, 1096
— posts and telegraphs, 109i»
— prince of, 1094
— production and industry, 1098
— railways, 1099
— religion, 1096
— shipping, 1099
Bulhar, 108
Bunder Abbas, 863
Bundi (Central Africa), 342
Burgos, 1013
Burma (Upper and Lower), area and
population, 129
— religion, 136
— revenue, 141, 143
Burnley, population, 18
Bury, 18
Bushire, 863
Bussang, 210
Buu Lam (of Annam), 548
Byelostok, 915
CABINDA, 892
Cadiz, 1013
Cagliari, 725 ; University, 735
Caen, 513, 515
Caicos Island, 245, 246
Cairo, 1107
Calabar, Old and New, 209
Calabria, 720
Calais, 513, 536
Calamata, 694
Calcutta, 135 ; trade, 157 ; Uni-
versity, 137
California, Lower, 785
Calicut, 135
Callao, 868, 872
Caltanisetta, 725
Cambodia, 545-548
Cambridge University, 34
Camerino University, 735
Camorta Island, 170
Campania, 720
Campeche, 785
Campbell Island (N.Z.), -87, 332
Campo (Kamerun), 612
Campobasso, 725
Canada, agriculture, 229
— area, 223
— army, 228
— banks, 235, 236
— books of reference, 236-238
— coal, 229
CAP
Canada, commerce, 230-234
— commissioner, 236
— constitution, 220
— crime, 225
— currency and credit, 235, 236
— customs valuation, 230
— deaths, 224
— debt, 227, 228
— defence, 228
— education, 225
— expenditure, 226-228
— exports, 230-234
— finance, 226
— fisheries, 229
— gold, 229
— government, 220-222
provincial, 222
— governor-general, 221
— House of Commons, 221
— immigration, 224
— imports, 230-234
— instruction, 225
— internal communications, 234
— • justice and crime, 225
-T- mining, 229
— ministry, 221, 222
— money, weights, and measures, 236
— navy, 229
— parliament, 220, 221
— population, 222, 223
— posts, 235
— production and industry, 229
— Queen's Privy Council, 222
— railways, 234, 235
— religion, 224
— revenue, 226-228
— Senate, 220
— shipping and navigation, 234
— telegraphs, 235
— troops in, 104
Canar (Ecuador), 500
Canary Islands, 1012
Candia, 1101
Canea, 1101
Canelones (Uruguay), 1127
Cannstatt, 688
Canterbury, 18
Canterbury (N, Z.), 275 *
— College, Christchurch (N.Z.), 277
Canton (China), 465
Cape Coast Castle, 215
Cape of Good Hope ; agriculture, 187
— area, 184
— banks, 190
1152
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
CAP
Cape of Good Hope, books of refer-
ence, 191, 192
— commerce, 188
— communications, 190
— constitution and government, 182,
183
— customs valuation, 188
— debt, 187
— defence, 187
— expenditure and revenue, 186
— exports, 188, 189
— finance, 186
— governor, 183
— imports, 188, 189
— instruction, 185
— justice and crime, 186
— money, weights, and measures, 191
— pauperism, 186
— population, 184
— posts and telegraphs, 190
— production and industry, 187
— railways and tramways, 190
— religion, 185
— shipping and navigation, 190
— troops at, 104
— University, 185
— and the Dutch, 838
Cape Haiti, 709, 710
Cape Town, 184; University, 185
Cape Verde Islands, 890, 891
Caracas, 1135
Carbonear, 242
Carchi (Ecuador), 500
Cardenas, 1171
Cardiff, 18 ; College, 34 ; Port, 75, 90
Cargados Islands, 202
Carinthia, 370, 371
Carl Alexander (Saxe- Weimar), 674
Carlos I. (Portugal), 877
Carniola, 370, 371
Carol I. (Rumania), 895
Caroline Island, 332
— Islands, 1023
Carriacou, 249
Cartagena, 472
Cartago (Costa Rica), 482
Carthagena, 1013
Casa Bianca (Dar-al-Baida), 800
Caserta, 725
Caspian Sea, 912, 950, 960, 961
Castamouni, 1079
Castlemaine, 312
Castries (S. Lucia), 249
Catamarca, 345
CHA
Catania, 725 ; University, 735
Catanzaro, 725
Cauca, 472
Caucasus, 911-921, 947, 949, 951, 963
Cauquenes, 446
Cautin, 446
Cawnpur, 135
Cayenne (Guiana), 569
Cayman Islands, 247
Ceara, 436
Celebes, Island of, 829, 830
Central Africa (British), 192
Central Africa Protectorate (British),
193
Central Asia, 912-915
Central India, Native States, area,
&c., 131
Central Provinces (India), area, kc,
129
religion, 136
revenue and expenditure, 143
Central Sudan States, 342
Cephalonia, 693
Cerro de Pasco mines, 872, 873
Cerro Largo (Uruguay), 1127
Cette, 513, 536
Cettinje, 796-798
Ceuta, 801, 1012
Ceylon, area, 113
— banks, 117 ; books of reference, 118
— commerce, 116
— communications, 117
— constitution and government, 112
— customs valuation, 116
— defence, 115
— dependency (Maldive Islands), 118
— exports and imports, 116
— finance, 115
— governor, 112
— immigration, 113
— industry, 116
— instruction, 114
— justice and crime, 115
— military expenditure, 104, 115
— money, weights, and measures, 118
— pauperism, 115
— population, 113
— production, 116
— railways, 117
— religion, 114
— shipping, 117
— towns, 114
— troops in, 104
Chaco, 345
INDEX
1153
CHA
Chafarinas Islands, 1012
Ohagos Islands, 202
Chamba, 132
Chambezi (C. Africa), 192
Channel Islands, area and population,
14, 25, 26
— books of reference, 103
— government, 14
Chapra, 135
Charjui, 973
Charleroy, population, 414
Charlestown (West Indies), 248
Cliarlottenburg, 580, 660
Chatham Islands, 276, 287
Chaux-de-Fonds, 1062
Chehkiang, 458
Chemnitz, 580, 679
Chemulpo, 779, 780
Cherbourg, 513, 526
Cherkassy, 916
Chester, 18
Chesterfield Islands, 570
Chiapas, 786
Chiengmai, 997
Chieti, 725
Chilas, 338
Chifu, 465
Chihuahua, 785
Chikwawa, 193
Chile, agriculture, 450
— area, 446
— army, 449
— books of reference, 454
— births, deaths, and marriages, 447
— commerce, 451
— constitution and government, 445
— currency and credit, 453
— debt, 449
— defence, 449
— diplomatic representatives, 454
— exports, 451-452
— finance, 448
— government, 445
local, 446
— imports, 451-452
— industry, 450
— instruction, 447
— justice and crime, 448
— money, weights, measures, 454
— navy, 449
— nitrate fields, 450
— population, 446
— posts and telegraphs, 453
— president, 445
CHU
Chile, railways, 453
— religion, 447
— revenue and expenditure, 448
— shipping and navigation, 453
Chili (China), 458
Chilian (Chile), 446
Chiloe, 446
Chimbo, 502
Chimborazo (Ecuador), 500
Chimbote, 872
Chimoio, 213
Chimulpo or Inch 'yen, 777, 779,
780
China, area, 457
— army, 462
— books of reference, 469
— coal mines, 463
— commerce, 463
— customs valuation, 463
— diplomatic representatives, 469
— exports, 463-466
— finance, 460
— government, 456
— imports, 463-466
— instruction, 459
— leases of territory, 458
— mines and minerals, 463
— money, weights, and measures, 467,
468
— navy, 462
— population, 457
— post and telegraphs, 467
— production and industry, 463
— railways, 467
— reigning emperor, 456
— religion, 459
— shipping and navigation, 466
— tea, 464
Chinde, 193, 892, 893
Chinkiang, 465
Chinnampo, 779
Chiromo, 193
Chitral, 338
Cliota Nagpur, 129
Choiseul Island (W. Pacific), 615
Christchurch, N.Z., 276; College,
276
Christian IX. (Denmark), 486
Christmas Island, 178, 332
Chubut, 345 ; colony at, 350
Chudskoya navigation,. 961
Chulalongkorn I. (Siam), 996
Chungking, 465
Chuquisaca (Bolivia), 429
1154
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
CIU
Ciudad Bolivar, 1135, 1138
Ciudad de Cura, 1135
Clermont-Ferrand, 513, 515
Clichy, 513
Coahuila, 785
Coban, 704
Coburg, 672
Cochabamba, 429 ; town, 430
Cochin, 131
Cochin-China (French), 545, 546, 548
Cocos Islands, 171, 178
Codrington College (Barbados), 245
Coimbra, 880 ; University, 882
Colchagua, 446
Colima (Mexico), 785, 786
College de France, 515
Colmar, 618
Coloane (Macao), 891
Cologne, 580, 660
Colombia, area, 471, 472
— books of reference, 476
— commerce, 474
— constitution, 471
— ■ currency and credit, 475
— defence, 473
— diplomatic representatives, 476
— education, 472
— exports, 474
— finance, 472, 473
— government, 471
— imports, 474
— • mines and minerals, 473
— money, weights, and measures,
475-476
— Panama Canal, 475
— population, 472
— posts and telegraphs, 475
— - president, 471
— production, 473
— railways, 475
— religion, 472
— shipping, 474
Colombo, 114
Colon ia (Uruguay), 1127
Combaconum, 135
Commerson Island (W. Pacific), 615
Como, 725
Comoro Isles, 546, 561
Conakry, 563
Concepcion (Paraguay), 852
— (Chile), 446
Condamine, 794
Congo Independent State, 479-481
— French, 546, 556
CRA
Congo, Portuguese, 892
Connaught, province, population, 23
— agricultural holdings, 71, 72
Constantine, 551
Constantinople, 1079, 1080, 1092
Cook's Islands, 332
Coorg, area, &c., 129
— religion, 136
Copenhagen, 489, 490, 495 ; Univer-
sity, 491
Copiapo, 446
Copts, 336, 1108
Coquimbo, 446, 452
Cordoba province, 345
— town (Arg. Rep.), 346
— University, 347
Cordoba (Spain), 1013
Corfu, 693, 694
Corinth, 693
Corinto, 845
Corisco, 1023
Cork, 25 ; Queen's College, 34
Coronel (Chile), 452
Corrientes, 345 ; town, 346
Comna, 1013
Cosenza, 725
Cosme Colony (Paraguay), 854
Cosmoledo Islands, 202
Cossack, schools, 920 ; soldiers, 937
Costa Rica, area, 482
— books of reference, 485
— constitution, 482
— defence, 483
— diplomatic representatives, 485
— exports, 483
— finance, 483
— government, 482
— imports, 483
— industry and commerce, 483
— instruction, 482
— justice, 483
— money, weights, and measures,
484'
— population, 482
— posts and telegraphs, 484
— president, 482
— railways, 484
— religion, 482
— shipping, 484
Courtrai, population, 414
Coventry, 18
Covilha, 880
Crab Island (W. I.), 248
Cracow, 373 ; University, 376
INDEX
1155
CRA
Crndock (Cape Colony), 184
Craiova, 897
Creek Town, 209
Cremona, 725
Crete, 1100
Criniinitschaii, 679
Croatia-Slavouia, 387, 388, 389
Cronstadt (Russia), 908, 915
Croydon, 18
Crooked Island, 244
Cucuta, 472
Cuenca, 500
Cundinanuirea, 472
Cuneo, 725
Cura9ao, 839
Curico, 446
Cutch, 131
Cuzco, 868 ; University, 870
Cyclades, 693
Cyprus, 118, 120
— troops at, 104
Czenstocliowo, 916
Czernowitz, 373 ; University, 376
DACCA, 135
Dadar, 167
Dahlak Archipelago, 757
Dahomey, 563, 56^4
Dakar, 562, 563
Dalmatia, 370, 371
Damao, 890, 891
Damaraland, 612
Damascus, 1080
Daraietta, 1107
Dampier Island, 614
Danger Islands, 332
Danilograd, 796
Danube (province), 687
Danube, R. navigation of, 901
Danzig, 580, 660
Dar al Baida, 800
Dar-Banda, 342
Darbhangah, 135
Dar-es-Salaara (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Darfur, 1123
Darmstadt, 640
Deb Raja (of Bhutan), 428
Debra Tabor, 336
Debreczin, 391
Deep Bay (Cent. Africa), 193
Degana (W. Africa), 209
De Kaap Goldfield, 1006
Delagoa Bay Railway, 893
DEU
Delft, 811
Delhi, 135
Demerara, 239, 838
Denmark, agriculture, 494
— area, 489
— army, 493
— banks, 496
— births, deaths, and marriages, 490
— books of reference, 498
— colonies, 497
— commerce, 494
— constitution, 487
— crime, 491
— currency and credit, 496
— customs valuation, 495
— debt, 492
— defence, 493
— diplomatic and other representa-
tives, 497
— distilleries, 494
— emigration, 490
— expenditure, 491, 492
— exports, 494-496
— finance, 491
— Folkething, 488
— government, 487
local, 489
— imports, 494-496
— instruction, 490
— justice, 491
— kings of, since 1448, 487
— Landsthing, 488
— ministry, 488
— money, weights, and measures, 497
— navy, 493
— occupation of the people, 490
— population, 489
— posts and telegraphs, 496
— production and industry, 494
— railways, 496
— reigning king, 486
— religion, 490
— reserve fund, 492
— revenue, 491, 492
— Rigsdag, 488
— royal family, 486
— shipping and navigation, 496
D'Entrecasteaux Islands, 256
Derby, 18
Ddsirade Island, 568
Dessau, 619
Detmold, 642
Deutsch-Damaraland, 612
Deutsch-Naraaland, 612
1156
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
DEV
Deventer, 811
Devonport, 18
Dharm Raja (of Bhutan), 428
Dhiraj Pirthivi Bir Bikraiu (Nepal),
803
Dholpur, 131
Diarbekir, 1079, 1080
Diego Garcia Island, 202
Diego-Suarez, 557, 561
Dieppe, 536
Dijon, 513, 515
Din, 890
Diwangiri (Bhutan), 428
Dnieper navigation, 961
Dniester navigation, 961
Dobrogea (Dobruja), 896
Dolnia Tuzla, 403, 404
Doloo (Bornu), 342
Dominica, 247, 248, 250, 251
Don (Russia), navigation, 961
Donga (W. Africa), 211
Dongola, 1123
Dordrecht, 811
Dorpat, 910, 916
Dort, 811
Dortmund, 580, 660
Douai, 513
Draa (Northern), 800
Drammen, 1044
Drenthe Province, 809, 811
Dresden, 580, 678, 679
Dublin, 25 ; University, 34
Ducie Island, 332
Dudley, 18
Dudoza Island, 332
Duff Islands, 332
Duisburg, 660
Duke Town (W. Africa), 209
Duke of Clarence Islands, 332
Duke of York Islands, 332
Duku, 210
Dulcigno, 796-797
Diinaburg, 915
Dundee, 22 ; College, 34
— port, 90
Dunedin, N.Z., 276; College, 277
trade, 285, 286
Dunkerque, 513, 536
Duran, 502
Durango, 785, 786
Durazno (Uruguay), 1127
Durban, 204
Durham University, 34
Diisseldorf, 580, 660
ECU
Dutch East Indies, agriculture, 834
— area, 830
— army, defence, and navy, 833
— births, deaths, and marriages, 830
— books of reference, 841
— cinchona culture, 835
— coffee culture, 834
— commerce, 835
— constitution and government, 828
— consular representatives, 837
— currency and credit, 837
— exports and imports, 836
— finance, 832
— governor-general, 829
— instruction, 831
— justice and crime, 832
— mining, 835
— money, weights, and measures,
837
— population, 830, 831
— posts and telegraphs, 837
— production and industry, 834, 835
— railways, 837
— religion, 831
— revenue and expenditure, 832, 833
— shipping and communications, 836
— sugar culture, 834
— tobacco culture, 835
Dutch Guiana (Surinam), 837
— West Indies, 837
— Curacao, 839
— Surinam, 837
Dvina navigation, 961
EAGLE Islands, 202
East Africa (British), 194
East Africa (German), 613
East Africa (Portuguese), 890, 892
East Indies (British) {see India,
British)
East Indies (Dutch), 828 {sec Dutch
East Indies)
East London (Cape Colony), 184
East Prussia, 658, 663
Echegheh (Coptic), 336
Ecuador, area, 499
— banks, 503
— books of reference, 504
— commerce, -501
— constitution, 499
— currency and credit, 503
— defence, 501
— diplomatic representatives, 504
INDEX
1157
ECU
Ecuador, exports, 501, 502
— linaucf, 500
— government, 499
— imports, 501, 502
— instniction, 500
— internal communications, 502
— justice and crime, 500
— money, weiglits, and measures, 503
— population, 499, 500
— posts and telegraphs, 502
— president, 499
— railways, 502
— religion, 500
— sliip])ing and navigation, 502
Eder, 685
Edina, 781
Edinburgh, 22 ; University, 34
Egga (W. Africa), 211
Egypt, agriculture, 1114
— area, 1106
— army, 1113
— books of reference, 1123
— budgets, 1112
— commerce, 1116
— constitution, 1105
— customs valuation, 1118
— debt, 1110
— diplomatic representatives, 1122
— exports, 1116-1118
— finance, 1110
— government, 1105
— governorships, 1106
— imports, 1116-1118
— instruction, 1108
— justice and crime, 1110
— Khedive, 1104
— ministry, 1105
— money, weights, and measures, 1122
— mudiriehs, 1106
— population, 1107
— posts and telegraphs, 1121
— production and industry, 1114
— ■ railways, 1121
— religion, 1108
— revenue and expenditure, 1112
— schools, 1108, 1109
— shii)ping and navigation, 1119
— Suez Canal, 1119
— troops in, 104, 1113
Egyptian Sudan, 1123
Eisenach, 675
Eisenberge, 685
Ekaterinburg, 916
Ekaterinodar, 916
BNG
Ekaterinoslav, 915, 950
El Azhar, Cairo, 1108
Elba, 743
Elberfeld, 580, 660
Eleuthera (Bahamas), 244
Elis, 693
Elisabethgrad, 915
Elisabethpol, 916
Elksar, 801
Ellice Islands, 332
Elmina, 215
El-Obeid (Sudan), 1123
Elobey, 1023
Ely, Isle of, 16
Emerald Island, 332
Emilia, 720
Enderbury Island, 332
England and Wales, agriculture, 67
et seq.
— agricultural holdings, 70, 71
— area, 14-20
— army, 55
— banks, chartered, 96
joint-stock, 96, 97
post-ofl&ce, 97
trustee, 98
births, deaths, and maniages,
26
— canals, 92
— cities and towns, 18, 19
— coal produce, 74
— commerce, 79
— counties, administrative, 16
— county boroughs, 18, 19
— criminals, 39, 41
— customs revenue, 52
— education, elementary, 37, 38
— — medical, 34
— — middle-class, 35
universities, 34
— electorate, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 72, 73
— illiterates, 8, 33
— immigi'ation, 27, 28
— imports and exports, 81
— income-tax, 50
— justice and crime, 39-41
— local government, 12
— metropolis, 20
— navigation, 88-90
— occupation of the i)cople, 20
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 40, 41
4 F
1158
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
ENG
England and Wales, police force, 42
— population, 14-20
— property assessed, 51
— posts and telegraphs, 93-95
— railways, 91
— religion, 28
— taxation, imperial, 50 ; local, 55
— textile factories, 77
— towns and cities, 18
— universities, 34
Enkeldoorn, 213
Entre Minlio e Douro, 880
Entre Kios (Arg. Rep.), 345
Enzeli, 862
Equator (Congo State), 479
Equatorial Province (Sudan), 1123
Erfurt, 580, 660
Eritrea, 757
Erivan, 916
Erlangen University, 583
Ernst, Duke (Saxe-Altenburg), 670
Ernst Ludwig Grand-Duke (Hesse),
638
Erzeroum, 1079, 1080
Eskilstuna, 1030
Esmeraldas (Ecuador), 500
Espirito Santo (Brazil), 436
Essen, 580, 660
Essene (W. Africa), 209
Essequibo, 239, 838
Esslingen, 688
Estremadura, 880
Eten (Peru), 872
Ethiopia, 336
Euboca, 963
Europe, British colonies in, 105
Evora, 880, 881
Exeter, 18
Exuma (Bahamas) 244
FAEROE ISLANDS, 489
Fakaafo Islands, 332
Faizabad, 135
Falashas (of Abyssinia), 336
Falkland Islands, 238
Falls, the (Congo State), 478
Falmouth (Jamaica), 246
Famagusta, 119
Fanning Island, 332
Faridkot, 132
Farukhabad, 135
Fashoda, 1123
Fayoum, 1107
FLI
Fazogli (Sudan), 1123
Felegyhaza, 391
Ferdinand, Prince (Bulgaria), 1094
Ferencz Canal, 400
Fernando Po, 1023
Ferrara, 725 ; University, 735
Fez, 799, 800, 801
Fezzan, 341
Fife (Central Africa), 192
Fiji, area, 253
— births and deaths, 253
— books of reference, 256
— commerce, 255
— communications, 256
— constitution and government, 253
— customs valuation, 255
— exports, 255 '^
— finance, 254
— governor, 253
— imports, 255
— instruction, 254
— money, weights, and ineasures, 256
— ■ population, 253
— production and iudustr}^, 254
— religion, 254
— shipping, 256
— sugar mills, 254
Finland, 907, 909, 912, 968
— agriculture, 969
— area, 912
— army, 938
— births, deaths, and marriages,
914, 969
— commerce, 970
— crime, 969
— exports and imports, 971
— finance, 969
— government, 909
— industry, 969
— instruction, 969
— iron, 970
— money, weights, and measures,
972
— pauperism, 969
— population, 912, 968
— posts and telegraphs, 972
— railways, 971
— shipping and navigation, 971
— university, 969
Finschhafen (W. Pacific), 614
Firozpur, 135
Fiunie, 389, 391, 400
Flanders, 412
Flint Island (Pacific), 332
INDEX
1159
FLO
Florence, 725
Flores (Uruguay) 1127
Florida (Uruguay), 1127
.Flushing, 824
Focsani," 897
Foggia, 725
Forli, 725
Formosa (Island of), 458, 763
Formosa (Arg. Rep. )> 345
Fort Goldie, 210
Fourah Bay College, 216
France, agriculture, 430
— area, 509
— army, 523-525
— banks, 541
— births, marriages, and deaths, 512
— books of reference, 542
— budget, 519-520
— • canals, 539
— Chamber of Deputies, 506
— colonies and dependencies, 545
et seq.
trade of, 545
Africa, 550
— America, 568
Asia, 547
Australasia, 570
Oceania, 576
— ■ commerce, external, 534
with United Kingdom, 536,537
— Conseil d'Etat, 507
— constitution, 505
— cotton industries, 533
— crime, 517
— currency and credit, 540
— customs valuation, 534
— defence, 522
army, 523-525
frontier and fortresses, 522
land, 522
navy, 525-530
— deficit, 521
— departments, 509
— diplomatic representatives, 542
— emigration, 513
— expenditure, 519, 520
— exports, 534-537
— finance, local, 522
state, 518
— fisheries, 534
— foreigners residing in, 512
— government, central, 505
— — local, 508
— illegitimacy, 512
FRE
France, imports, 534-537
— instruction, 515
— internal communications, 539
— justice, 517
— land defences, 522
— Latin Monetary Union, 541
— live stock statistics, 532
— manufactures, 533
— mercantile navy, 537
— mining and minerals, 532
— ministry, 505
— • money, weights, and measures, 541
— national debt, 521
— navigation, 537
— • navy, 525-530
— occupation of the people, 512
— Paris, revenue, expenditure, and
debt, 522
— pauperism, 518
— population, 509
departments, 509
towns, 513
— posts and telegraphs, 539, 540
— President, 505
— production and industry, 530
— protectorates, 545, 546
— railways and rivers, 539
— religion, 514
— revenue, 519, 520
— schools, 515, 516
— Senate, 507
— shipping and navigation, 537
— silk industries, 533
— sovereigns and governments from
1589, 506
— sugar works, 533, 534
— textile industries, 533
— towns, 513
— tramways, 539
— universities, 515
— wine statistics, 532
— woollen industries, 533
Franconia, 626, 628
Frankfort-on-Main, 580, 660
Frankfort-on-Oder, 660
Franklin (Canada), 223
Franz Josef I. (Austria- Hungary),
356
Fredrikshald, 1044
Frcdrikstad, 1044, 1053
Freetown (Sierra Leone), 216
Freiberg (Saxony), 679
Freiburg (Baden), 622
— University, 583
4 F 2
1160
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
FRE
Fremantle (W. Australia), 322
French Congo, 556
— Guinea, 563
— India, 545, 546, 547
— Indo-China, 547
— Soudan, 563
Fribourg (canton), 1058, 1060
Fribourg (town), 1063
Friedrich, Duke (Anhalt), 618
Friedrich I., Grand-Duke (Baden),
620
Friedrich, Prince (Waldeck), 685
Friedrich Franz III., Grand-Duke
(Mecklenburg-Schwerin), 645
Friedrich Wilhelm I., Grand-Duke
(Mecklenburg-Strelitz), 647
Friedrich-Wilhelmshafen(W. Pacific),
614
Friesland, 809, 811
Fuchau, 465
Fukien, 458
Fukui, 764
Fukuoka, 764
Fulah Empire, 210 i
Funchal, 880
Fiinfkirchen, 391
Fiirth, 627
Fusan, 779, 780
GABUN-CONGO, 556
Gafsa (Tunis), 566
Galapagos, or Tortoise Islands, 499,
500
Galatz, 897, 901
Galicia (Austria), 370, 371
Gallaland, 336
Galle, 114
Galway, Queen's College, 34
Gambia, 216-218
Gambler Island, 546, 571
Gamtak, 169
Ganagana, 211
Gandava, 167
Gando, 210
Ganges Canal, 150
Garden Island (Sydney), 265
Gardner Island (Pacific), 332
Garhwal, 132
Gateshead, 18
(J ay a, 135
(Jcelong, 312
Gefle, 1030 ; local government at,
1028
GER
Geneva (canton), 1058, 1060
Geneva, 1062 ; University, 1063
Genoa, 725, 754 ; University, 735
Georg II. , Duke (Saxe- Meiningen), 673
Georg, Prince(Schaumburg-Lippe), 682
George II. (Tonga), 1073
Georgetown (Guiana), 239
Georgios I. (Greece), 691
Gera, 669
Gerki, 210
German East Africa, 613
German, South-West Africa, 612
German Empire, agriculture, 594
— area, 576
— army, 588-590
— banks, 607
— beer brewed, 598
— births, deaths, and marriages, 579
— books of reference, 608
— Bundesrath, 574, 575
— canals and navigations, 605
— colonies and dependencies, 610
— commerce, 598
— constitution and government, 573
— crops, 595
— currency and credit, 607
— customs valuation, 599
— debt, 587
— defence and fortresses, 587
— — frontier, 587
army, 588
— defence, navy, 590
— diplomatic representatives, 608
— education, 581
— emigi-ation, 579
— emperor and king, 572
— emperors since 800, 572, 573
— exports and imports, 599-602
— finance, 585
— fisheries, 597
— foreign dependencies, 610
— foreigners resident in, 578
— forestry, 596
— illegitimacy, 579
— inhabited houses, 577
— instruction, 581
— justice and crime, 583
— manufactures, 597
— marriages, 579
— Matricular Beitriige, 586
— mining and minerals, 596, 597
— money, weights, and measures, 607
— navigation, 602
— navy, 590-593
INDEX
1161
GBR
German Empire, occupation census,
1895, 578
— pauperism, 584
— population, 576 ct scq.
conjugal condition, 577
of states, 576
of towns, 580
— postal statistics, 605, 606
— production and industry, 594
— railways, 604
— Reichstag, 574, 575
— religion, 580
— religious censuses, 581
— revenue and expenditure, 585, 586
— royal family, 572
— secretaries of state, 575
— schools, 581, 582
— shipping, 602
— states, 574
population, 576
— sugar manufacture, 598
— telegraphs, 605, 606
— towns, 580
— universities, 583
German New Guinea Company, 614
Germany, states of, 616 et seq.
Ghardaia, 551
Ghazni, 340
Ghent, 414 ; University. 415
Ghilzais (tribe), 339
Gibeon (S.W. Africa), 012
Gibraltar, 105
— troops at, 104
Giessen, 640 ; University, 538
Gilbert Islands, 332
Girgenti, 725
Girton College, Cambridge, 34
Glarus (canton), 1058, 1060
Glasgow, 22 ; University, 34
— port, 75, 90
— technical college, 34
Glauchau, 679
Glorieuse Archipelago, 561
Gloucester, 18
Gmiind, 688
Goa, 890, 891
Gobabis (S.W. Africa), 612
Gojam (Abyssinia), 336
Gold Coast, 215-218
Gomel, 916
Gondar, 336
Goole, 75
Goppingen, 688
Gorakhpur, 135
ORE
Goree (Island), 563
Gorlitz, 660
Gornia Orehovitza (Bulgaria), 1096
Gorz, 370
G6tel)org, 1030, 1038 ; local govern-
ment at, 1028
Gbttingen, University, 583
Gotha, 672
Gothard, 1067
Goulburn (N.S.W.), 260
Goyaz (Brazil), 436
Gozo Island, 106
Graaf-Reinet, 184
Gradisca, 370
Graham's Town, 184
Granada (Spain) 1013
— (Nicaragua), 845
Grand Bassam, 563
Grand Cayman, 247
Grand Lahou, 563
Grand Popo, 563
Grande Comore, 561
Grande-Terre Island, 568
Grangemouth, 75, 90
Gratz, 373 ; University, 376
Graubiinden (Grisons), 1058, 1000
Great Bahama, 244
Great Britain and Ireland, agricul-
ture, 67
Great Britain, agricultural holdings,
69-71
— area, 14
cultivable, 67
— army, 55
distribution, 57
from 1820-1898, 57
— — estimates, 47
— army in India, 57, 58
regular, 1899, 56
in colonies and Egypt, 57
— banks, chartered, 96
joint-stock, 96
post-office, 97
trustees, 98
— barley produce, 1894-1898, 68
— births, deaths, and marriages, 26
— books of reference, 99
— budgets, 44
— cabinet, 9
— canals, 92
annual value, 51
— census, 14
— Civil Service estimates, 49
— Civil List, 5
1162
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
GRE
Great Britain, coal raised, 1893-1897,
74
exports, 74
ports, 75
— colonies and dependencies, 104
et seq.
— commerce, 79
— Commons, House of, 7
— consolidated fund, 5, 4G
— constitution, 6
— corn and green crops, 68
— cotton exports, 76
imports, 76
— Councils, county, 12
district, 12
parish, 12
— credit, 95
— crime, 39
— crops, description and produce, 68,
69
— Crown lands revenue, 46
— customs, 45
valuation, 80, note
— deaths, 26
— debt, 52-54
— defence, 55
— education, 33
— electors, registered, 8
— estimates, 43-47
— emigration, 27
— excise, 45
— expenditure, 44
— exports, 80-87
average per head, 80
coal, &c., 74, 75
cotton, 76, 78, 86
foreign and colonial, 80
gold and silver, 83
principal articles, 85
wool, 77
— farm holdings, 69-71
— finance, 43
— fish trafiic, 72
— fisheries, 72
— gas works, annual value, 51
— gold bullion imports and exports, 83
— government, imperial and cen-
tral, 6
executive, 9
local, 11-13
— heir-apparent, income of, 5
— house-duty revenue, 45
— - illiteracy, 8, 33
— immigration, 28
GRE
Great Britain, imports, 80-87
average per head; 80
cotton, 76
flour, 85
food, 85
per head, 87
foreign and colonial, 81-83
gold and silver, 83
iron, 75
metals and minerals, 76
principal articles, 85
tea, 85
wheat, 84, 85
wool, 78
— income, 43
tax, 45, 50
— industry, 67
— inhabited houses, 19
— instruction, 33
— iron imports, 75
— iron ore production, 75
works, 75
— judicial system, 39
— justice and crime, 39
— land distriliution, 67
tax, 45
— live stock, 68
— Local Government, 12
taxation, 54
— Lords, House of, 7
— marriages, 26
— metal imports, 75, 76
— militar}'- expenditure, colonial con-
tribution, 104
— military districts, 58
— minerals, 73-76
— mines, 73 ; value, 51
— ministries since 1835, 11
— ministry, 9
— money, 95-98
— money, weights, and measures, 98
— municipal corporations, 13
— national debt, 52-54
— navigation, 88-91
— navy, 59-67
actual strength, 60
Board of Admiralty, 59
estimates, 49
number of soamon and marines,
59-60
— — reserved merchant cruisers, 62
■ tabulated list of vessels, 63 ; of
first-class cruisers, 64
in foreigni^service, 62
INDEX
1163
ORE
Great Britain, oats prodnoe, 69
— occupations of the people, 20, 2:^>
— parliaments : duration, 9
— pauperism, 42, 43
— police force, 42
— population, 14
counties, 16, 17, 21, 24
county boroughs, 18, 10
divisions of United Kingdom,
14
towns, 18, 22
— postal statistics, 46, 93-95
— production, 67
— t[uarries, annual value, 51
— Queen and Empress, 3
— railways, 91
value, 51
— registered electors, 8
— Redistribution of Seats Act,
1885, 8
— Reform Bill, 1832, 7, 1867-1868,
8, and 1884, 8
— religion, 28
— revenue and expenditure, 43
— royal family, 3, 4
grants, 5
— salt works, 74
— schools, middle-class, 35, 36
voluntary and board, 36, 37
— Science and Art Department, 36
— shipping, 88-91
— silver bullion imports and ex[)orts,
83
— sovereigns, list of, 6
— stamps (revenue), 45
— taxation, 50
local, 55
— technical education, 35
— telegraphs, 46, 47, 95
— textile industry, 77-79
— tonnage entered and cleared, 90 ;
registered ditto, sailing and
steam, 88, 89
— tramways, 92
— universities, 34
— watenvorks, annual value of, 51
— wheat produce, 68, 69
— wool, exported, importoil, and
home consumption, 77
Great Inagua, 244
Great Windhoek, 612
Greece, agriculture, 699
— area, 693
— army, 697
QUA
Greece, books of reference, 703
— commerce, 699
— constitution, 692
— currency and credit, 701
— customs valuation, 700
— diplomatic representatives, 702
— exports, 699-700
— finance, 695-697
— government, 692
— imports, 699-700
— instruction, 694
— land ownership, 699
— mining, 699
— ministry, 692
— money, weights, and measures, 702
— navigation, 701
— navy, 698
— population, 693
— posts and telegraphs, 701
— railways, 701
— reigning king, 691
— religion, 694
— royal family, 691
— shipping, 701
— towns, 694
Greenland, 498
Greenock, population, 22
Greenville, 781
Greifswald University, 583
Greiz, 668
Grenada, 249-251
Grenadines, the, 249
Grenoble, 513
Grimsby, 18, 75, 90
Griqualand, East and West, 184
Grodno, 916
Groningen (province), 809, 811
Groningen (town), 811 ; university,
812
Grosseto, 725
Grosswardein, 391
Guadalajara, 786
Guadalcanar Island, 332
Guadeloupe and dejtendencies, 546.
568
Guanacaste, 482
Guanajuato, 785, 786
Guanare, 1135
Guatemala, area and population, 704
— banks, 707
— books of reference, 707
— commerce, 706
— constitution, 704
— crime, 704
1164
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
GUA
Guatemala, defence, 705
— diplomatic representatives, 707
— finance, 705
— government, 704
— instruction, 704
— minerals, 705
— money, weights, and measures, 707
— posts and telegraphs, 707
— president, 704
— production and industry, 705
— railways, 706
— religion, 704
— shipping, 706
Guatemala la Nueva, 704
Guayaquil, 500, 501, 502
Guayas (Ecuador), 500
Guelders, 809, 811
Guernsey, Herm, and Jethou, popula-
tion, 25, 26
Guernsey, government, 14
Guerrero, 786
Guiana (British), 239
— (Dutch), 837
— (French), 546, 569
Guinea (French), 563, 564
— (Portuguese), 890, 891
Gummel (Bornu), 342
Giinther, Prince (Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt), 683
Gurin, 210
Gurkhas (race), 803
Glistrow, 646
Gwalior, 131 ; town, 135
Gwelo, 213
Gympie (Queensland), 290
HAAPAI (Tonga), 1073
Haarlem, 811
Hague, the, 811
Haidarahad, area and population, 130
— religion, 136
— revenue, 131
— town, 135
— (Sind), 135
Hainaut, 412
Haiphong, 549
Haiti, 708-711
Hakodate, 764 ; port, 771
Halifax, 18
— troops at, 104
— Nova Scotia, 223
Hall Island (Pacific), 332
Hall (Wurttemberg), 688
HEL
Halle-on-Saale, 580, 660
— University, 583
Halmstad, 1030
Hamadan, 859
Hamasen, 757
Hamburg, 580
— agriculture, 591
— area, 635
— births, deaths, and marriages, 636
— books of reference, 638
— commerce, 636
— constitution, 634
— emigration, 635
— exports and imports, 636, 637
— finance, 636
— justice and crime, 636
— marine trade, 636
— population, 635
— religion, 636
— shipping, 636, 637, 638
Hamilton (Bermudas), 219
— (Ontario), 223
Ham Kyeng (Korea), 779
Hamoud bin Mahomed bin Said, Sul-
tan of Zanzibar, 197
Hangchau, 465
Hankau, 465
Hanley, 18
Hanoi, 549
Hanover, 580, 660
— province, area and population, 658
crime, 663
emigration, 660
religion, 661
Harar or Harrar, 336, 337
Harbour Grace, 242
Harbour Island, 244
Harper (Liberia), 781
Hartlepool, 90
Harrar (Sudan), 336, 337, 1123
Hastings, 18
Hawkes Bay, 275
Hazar Asp, 974 j
Hazaras (tribe), 339
Hedjaz, 1080
Heidelberg, 622
— University, 583
Heilbronn, 688
Heinrich, XIV. (Reuss), 668
Heinrich XXII. (Reuss), 668
Helder, 811
Heligoland, 658
Helsingborg, 1030
Helsingfors, 916, 968
INDEX
1165
HER
Herat, 339, 340
Heredia, 482
Hermit Island (W. Pacilin), 61 f)
Hermopolis, 694
s'Hertogenbosch, 811
Hervey Islands, 332
Herzegovina, 403
Hesse, area and jiopulation, 639
— books of reference, 642
— constitution, 639
— finance, 640
— grand-duke, 638
— instruction, 640
— production and industry, 641
— railways, 641
— religion, 640
Hesse, Upper, 639
— Rhenish, 639
Hesse-Nassau, area, kc, 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Hidalgo (Mexico), 78f>
Hill Tipperah, 131
Hirosaki, 764
Hiroshima, 764
Hissar, 973
Hobart (Tasmania), 304
Hod-Mezo Vasdrhely, 391
Hof, 627
Hohenzollern, area, kc, 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Hokkaido (Japan), 764
Holland (K and S.), 809, 811
Holland, parts of, 17
Honan, 458
Honduras, area and population, 712
— books of reference, 714
— commerce, 713
— constitution and government, 712
— crime, 712
— diplomatic representatives, 714
— finance, 712
— instruction, 712
— money, weights, and measures, 713
— posts and telegraphs, 713
— president, 712
— production and industry, 713
— railway, 713
Honduras, British, 240
Hongay (Tonquin), 549
Hong Kong, administration, 120
HUN
Hong Kong, area, 121
— births, 122
— books of reference, 124
— commerce, 123
— constitution and government, 120
— currency and credit, 124
— deaths, 122
— debt, 123
— defence, 123
— emigration, 122
— exports and imports, 124
— finance, 122
— governor, 121
— instruction, 122
— justice and crime, 122
— lease of territory, 121
— military expenditure, 104
— money, weights, and measures, 124
— population, 121
— revenue and expenditure, 122
— shipping, 124
— troops at, 104
Honshiu, 763, 764
Horsens, 490
Howrah, 135
Huahine Island, 571
Huanillos (Peru), 871
Hubli, 135
Huddersfield, population, 18
Hue, 548
Hull, 18, 75, 90
Humphry Island, 332
Hunan, 458
Hungary Proper, 389
Hungary, agriculture, 396
— area, 389
— army, 361-363
— banks, 402
— births, deaths, and marriages, 390
— books of reference, 404, 406, 407
— breweries, 398
— commerce, 399
— constitution, 387
— with respect to Austria, 358
— currency and credit, 401, 402
— customs valuation, 399
— debt (Austro-Hungarian), 360 ;
(Hungarian), 395
— emigration, 391
— exports, 399
— finance (Austro-Hungarian), 359 ;
(Hungarian), 394, 395
— forestry, 397, 398
— government, 387
1166
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
HUN
Hungary, government, local, 388
provincial, 388
— imports, 399
— instruction, 392, 393
— justice and crime, 394
— manufactures, 398
— mining and minerals, 398
— ministry (Austria-Hungary), 359 ;
(Hungary), 388
— money, weights, and measures,
367, 368
— occupations of the people, 390
— parliament, 387
— pauperism, 394
— population, 389
— post and telegraphs, 401
— railways, 401
— reigning sovereign, 356
— religion, 391, 392
— revenue and expenditure (Austro-
Hungarian), 360 ; (Hungarian),
395
— rivers and canals, 400
— royal familj^, 356
— schools, &c., 392, 393
— shipping and navigation, 399, 400
; — towns, 391
— universities, 393
Huon Islands, 570
Hupeh, 458
TBAGUE, 472
± Ibi, 211
Ibo, 892
Ibrahim, Sultan of Jahore, 178
Iceland, 498
Ichang, 465
Idah, 211
Ifni, 1023
Illorin, 210
Imbambura (Ecuador), 500
Inch'yen (Chemulpo), 779
India (British), agriculture, 140
— area, 129 ct seq.
— army expenditure, 142
European, 57, 104, 144
native, 144
of feudatory states, 146
— l)anks, railway, forest officers,
post-office, and militaiy, 163
— birtlis, 134
-- books of reference, 164
— canals, 156
IND
India, capital of joint-stock com-
panies, 151
— central, 136
— collieries, 151
— commerce, 151
— constitution, 125
— cotton mills, 150
— council, 126
— council of Governor-General 127
— crime, 138
— currency and credit, 162
— customs valuation, 152
— deaths, 134
— debt, 142
— defence, 143-146
— dependent states, 166 ct scq.
— emigration, 134
— executive authority, 126
— expenditure, 104, 139, 140, 143
— exports, bullion and specie, 153
merchandise, 151-157
treasure, 152
— finance, 139
— forest ground, 148, 150
revenue, 140
— government, 125
local, 128
— governor-general, 126
— governors-general, list of, 127
— Imperial service troops, 146
— imports, bullion and specie, 153
merchandise, 152-157
— instruction, 137
medical colleges, 137
normal schools, 137
technical schools, 137
universities, 137
— internal communications, 156
— justice and crime, 138
— land, cultivated and uncultivated,
148
irrigated, 149-150
— land revenue, 140, 141
— tenure, 147
— languages, 133
— money, weights, measures, 1 63, 164
— municipal government, 128
— native states, 131
— occupations of the peo])Ie, 134
— opium revenue, 140, 142
— police, 139
— ])opulation, 128 ct scq.
British tenitory, 129
civil condition, 182
INDEX
1167
IND
India, population, presidencies, pro-
vin(^es, and divisions, 129, 130
native states, 131
according to race, 133
population, British born, dis-
tribution of, 133
occupations of, 134
of towns, 135
distribution according to re-
ligion, 136
— posts and telegraphs, 161
— production and industry, 146
— provinces, 127, 129
— railways, 160
— religion, 135
— revenue, 139, 140, 141, 142
— salt revenue, 140, 141
— Secretary of State, 126
— shipping and navigation, 157
■ — tenure of land, 147
— towns, 135
— trans-irontier land trade, 157
— Upper Burma, 129
India (French), 547
— (Portuguese), 890
Indo-China, French, 546, 547
— Customs Union, 548
Indore, 131 ; town, 135
Inhambane, 892
Innsbruck university, 376
Intermediate Education (England), 35
(Scotland), 36
(Wales), 36
Ipswich, 18
Ipswich (Queensland), 290
Iqnique, 446, 452
Ireland, agriculture, 68 ct seq.
holdings, 71, 72
— area, 14-16, 23-25
— army, 57
— banks, joint-stock, 96, 97
post-office, 97
— trustees' savings banks, 98
— births, deaths, and marriages, 27
— canals, 92
— • Catholic university, 34
— cities and towns, 25
— coal produce, 74
— commerce, 81
— criminals, 41
— customs revenue, 52
— education, intermediate, 36
— education, primary, 38
universities, 34
ITA
Ireland, electorate, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 72, 73
— illiterates, 8, 33
— imports and exports, 81
— justice and crime, 40, 41
— live stock, 68
— local government, 13
— occupations of the people, 25
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 43
— police force, 42
— population, 14-1 6, 23-25; towns, 25
provinces, 23
— posts and telegraphs, 93-95
— property assessed, 51
— railways, 91
— religion, 32
— taxation imperial, 52 ; lo(>al, 55
— textile factories, 77
— trade, 81
— universities, 34
Irkutsk, 916
Isabel Island (W. Pacific), 615
Isle of Man, area and population, 14,
25, 26 ; government, 14
— books of reference, 103
Isle of Pines, 570
Ismid, 1079
Ispahan, 859, 862
Istria, 370
Italy, agi'iculture, 748, 749
— area, 720-722
— army, 743
African, 745
mobile militia, 744
— — permanent, 744
territorial militia, 744
— banks, 755-766
— births, deaths, and marriages,
724
— books of reference, 75S
' — • commerce, 751
— constitution, 716
— crime, 736
— currency and credit, 755
— customs valuation, 752
— debt, 741
' — defence, army, 743
I frontier, 742
navy, 746
I — diplomatic representatives, 756
— oMiigration, 724, 725
I — expenditure, 738-741
1168
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1899
ITA
Italy, exports, 751-753
— finance, local, 742
public property, 742
state, 737
— fisheries, 750
— foreign dependencies, 757
books of reference, 760
— forestry, 750
— government, 716 ; local, 718
— illiterates, 734
— imports, 751-753
— instruction, 733
— justice and crime, 735
— land proprietors, 724
— mines and minerals, 750
— ministry, 718
— mone)% weights, and measures, 756
— navigation, 753
— navy, 746
— occupation of people, 723
— pauperism, 736
— periodicals, 735
— Popes of Rome from 1417, 728
— population, 719
provinces, 720-722
— posts and telegraphs, 754
— prisons, 736
— provinces, 720
— • railways, 754
— reigning king, 715
— revenue, 738-741
— religion, 726
— royal family, 715
— schools, 733, 734
— See & Church of Rome, 727 et seq.
— shipping, 753
— silk culture, 749
— towns, 725
— universities, 735
Ivanoff-Voznesensk, 915
Ivory Coast (French), 561, 563, 564
Izmail, 916
JABALPUR, 135
Jackville (W. Africa), 563
Jacmel (Haiti), 710
Jaffa, 1092
Jaffna, 114
Jagst, 687
Jaipur, 131 ; town, 135
Jalandhar, 135
Jalapa (Mexico), 786
Jalisco, 785
JEW
Jaluit Island, 615
Jamaica, 245, 250-251
— troops at, 104
Janina, 1079, 1080
Japan, agriculture, 770
— area, 763
— army, 768
— banks, 774
— books of reference, 775
— births, deaths, and marriages, 764
— budget, 766-767
— commerce, 771
— constitution, 761
— currency and credit, 773
— customs valuation, 771
— debt, 767
— defence, 768
— diplomatic representatives, 775
— exports, 771, 772
— finance imperial, 766
local, 767
— government, 761
local, 763
— Imperial Diet, 762
— imports, 771-772
— instruction, 765
— justice and crime, 765
— manufactures, 770
— Mikado, 761
— minerals, 770
— money, weights, and measures, 774
— navy, 768-770
— pauperism, 766
— population, 763
— posts and telegraphs, 773
— production and industry, 770
— railways, 773
— religion, 765
— shipping and navigation, 771, 772
— towns, 764
— University, 765
Jarvis Island, 332
J assy, 897
— University, 897
Java, 829-831 ; coal mines, 835
Jedda, 1080
Jelalabad, 339, 340
Jelebu state, 172, 173
Jena University, 583
Jeres de la Frontera, 1013
Jersey, area and population, 25, 26
— government, 14
Jerusalem, 1080
Jewish Colonisation Association, 350
INDEX
1169
JHA
Jhalawar, 131
Jhausi, 135
Jind, 132
Jitomir, 915
Jodhpur, state, 131
— ■ town, 135
Johannesburg, 1004
John II. (Liechtenstein), 386
Johol, state, 172
Johorc Bahru, 178
Johore, the State of (Straits Settle-
ments), 173, 178
Jonkoping, 1030
Jujuy (Arg. Rep.), 345
Jungaria, 457
Jutland, 489
KABUL, 339, 340
Kafa, 336
Kafiristan, 338
Kagoshima, 764
Kaisarieh, 1080
Kaiserslautern, 627
Kaiser "Wilhelm Canal, 605
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, 614
Kalmar, 1030
Kalsia, 132
Kaluga, 916
Karaaran Island, 170
Kamenets Podolsk, 916
Kanierun, 610
Kanierun (town), 612
Kampala, 196
Kampot, 548
Kanasawa, 764
Kandahar, 339, 340
Kandy, 114
Kan em, 343
Kano, 210
Kansu, 458
Kanuri (tribe), 342
Kapurthala, 132
Karachi, 135 ; trade, 157
Karagwe (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Karakul, 973
Karam (Somaliland), 108
Karical, 547
Karl Alexander (Saxe- Weimar), 674
Karl Giinther, Prince (Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen), 684
Karlstad, 1030
Karlskrona, 1030
Karlsruhe, 580, 622
KIA
Karonga, 193
Kars, 916
Karshi, 973
Kashan, 859
Kashmir, area and population, 130,
131
— religion, 136
— revenue, 131
Kassa (Hungary), 391
Kassai (Congo State), 478
Kassala, 757, 1123
Kassel, 580, 660
Katmandu (Nepal), 803
Katsena, 210
Katunga, 193
Kaulung, 121
Kayes, 563
Kazan, 915
Kazvin, 859, 865
Kebbi, 210
Kebao (Tonquin), 549
Kecskemet, 391
Kedah (Malay Peninsula), 996
Keeling Islands, 178
Keetmanshoop (S.W. Africa), 612
Keewatin, District of (Canada), 223
Kej, 167
Kelantan, 996
Kerassund, 1092
Kerbela, 1080
Kerguelen Island, 562
Kermadec Islands, 276, 287
Kerman, 859
Kermine, 973
Kertch-Yenikale, 908, 916
Kesteven, 17
Keui Yi, Emperor of Koreii, 777
Khaibar road, 341
Khaipur (Sind), 131
Kharkoff, 93 5 ; coal, 950
Khatmandu, 803
Khartum, 1123 ; the church, 1108
Khelat, 168
— Khans of, 167
Kherson, 915
Khiva, 973
Khojent, 916
Kholapur, 131
Khorassan, 862, 863
Khost (Baluchistan), coal, 168
Khsach-Kandal (Cambodia), 548
Khurdistan, 1079
Khuzar, 973
Kiangsi, 458
1170
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
KIA
Kiaugsu, 458
Kiau-chau, 458, 610, 614
Kiefi; 915
Kiel, 580, 660 ; University, 583
Kilimane (Qiiiliinane), 892
Kilmarnock, 22
Kilwa (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Kimberley, 184
King's College, London, 34
Kingston (Jamaica), 246
Kingston-upon-Hull, 18, 90
Kingstown (St. Vincent), 249
King William's Town (Cape Colony)
184
Kioto, 764
Kirkcaldy, 75, 90
Kisliineff", 915
Kismayu, 195, 196
Kiukiang, 465
Kiungchau, 465
Kiushiu, 763, 764
Klausenburg, 391 ; University, 393
Klerksdorp goldlield, 1006
Kobe, 764 ; port, 771
Kochi, 764
Kofu, 764
Kokand, 916
Kolhapur, 131
Kolomea, 373
Kolozsvar (Klausenburg), 391
— University, 393
Kom, 859
Kong Kingdom, 561, 563
Kongmun, 465
Konia, or Konieli, 1079, 1080
KiJnigsberg, 580,660 ; University,
583
Konstantinhafen (W. Pacific), 614
Konstanz, 621, 622]
Kordofan, 1123
Korea, area, 777
— books of" reference, 780
— commerce, 779
— defence, 778
— finance, 778
— government, 777
— instruction, 778
— money, 780
— population, 777
— production, 778
— religion, 778
Kossova, 1079
Kostroma, 916
Kotali, 131
LAG
Kotakota, 193
Kotei of Japan, 761
Kotonou, 563
Kovno, 915
Kozdar, 167
Kozlov, 916
Kpando (Togoland), 611
Kraguyevatz, 989
Krakau, or Cracow, 373 ; University,
376
Krasnoyarsk, 916
Kratji (Togoland), 611
Krefeld, 580, 660
Krementcliug, 915
Kristiania, 1044 ; University, 1045
Kristiansand, 1044
Kristianstad, 1030
Kristiansund, 1044
Kronstadt (Brasso), 391
Krootown (Liberia), 781
Krouslievatz, 989
Ktima, 119
Kuch Behar, 131
Kuching, 111
Kuka, 210, 342
Kumamoto, 764
Kumasi (Aslianti), 215
Kumcliuk, 465
Kungrad, 974
Kunsan, 779
Kuopio, 968
Kuria Muria Islands, 109
Kursk, 915
Kutais, 916
Kvvang-chau-wan, Bay of, 458
Kwango Oriental, 478
Kwangsi, 458
Kwangtung, 458
Kweicliau, 458
Kwitta, 215
Kyrenia, 119
T ABRADOR, 241
Jj Labuan, 110, 170
Laccadivc Islands, 170
La Ceiba (Honduras), 712
Laconia, 693
Ladario de Matto G rosso, 440
Ladrone Islands, 1023
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, 34
Lagoon Islands, 332
Lagos, 215-218^
La Grande Aldee, 547
INDEX
1171
LAO
La Guaira, 1138
Lahore, 135
Lahr, 622
Laibach, 373
Lake Leopold IL, 178
Lakon, 997
Lampeter College, 34
Lampoonchi, 997
Lampongs (L of Sumatra), 830
Lamu, 195, 196
Laiidskroua, 1030
Laos (French), 549 ; (Siamese), 997
La Pimienta (Honduras), 713
La Paz, 429 ; town, 430
La Plata, 346 ; University, 347
Lara (Venezuela), 1134, 1136
Luraiche, 800, 801
Larissa, 693, 694
Larnaca, 119
Larvik, 1044
Latacunga, 500
Latin Monetary Union, 541, 755
Lattakia, 1092
Launceston (Tasmania), 304
Lauriuni, 999
Lausanne, 1062 ; University, 1063
La Vega, 984
Leaba, 210
Lebanon, 1080
Lebu (Chile), 446
Lccce, 725
Leeds, 18 ; College, 34
Leeuwarde, 811
Leeward Islands, 247, 250, 251
Leghorn, 725, 754
Le Havre, 513, 536
Leicester, population, 18
Le Creusot, 513
Leiden, 811 ; University, 812
Leinster province, population, 23
— agricultural holdings, 71, 72
Leipzig, 580, 678, 679
— University, 583
.Leith, 22, 75, 90
Le Mans, 513
Lcmberg, 373
— University, 376
Leon (Ecuador), 500
Leon (Mexico), 786
Leon (Nicaragua), 843
Leone XIIL (Pope), 727
Leopold IL (Belgium), 408
Leopoldville (Congo State), 480
Les Cayes (Haiti),^ 709, 710
LOA
Leskovatz, 989
Les Saintes Islands, 568
Levallois Perret, 513
Levuka (Fiji), 254, 256
Lia Lui, 192
Libau, 915
Liberia, area, 781
— books of reference, 782
— commerce, 781
— constitution, 780
— diplomatic representatives, 782
— finance, 781
— government, 780
— money, weights, and measures,
782
— population, 781
— president, 781
Liechtenstein, 386
Liege, province, 412
— town, 414 ; University, 415
Liegnitz, 660
Li-Heui (Heui Yi), Emperor of Kurui,
777
Liguria, 720
Likoma, 193
Lille, 513, 515
Lima, 868 ; University, 870
Limasol, 119
Limburg, 412
— province, 809, 811
— coal mines, 820
Limerick, 25
Limoges, 513
Limon, 482, 484
Linares, 446
Lincoln, 18
Lindi (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Lindsey, 17
Liugah, 863
Linkijping, 1030
Linz, 373
Lippe, 642
Lisbon, 880, 881
Little Cayman, 247
Little Popo (Togoland), 610
Liukiu Islands, 763
Liu Kung Island, 179
Liverpool, 18 ; College, 34
— port, 90
Livingston ia, 193
Liwonde, 193
Llanquihue, 446
Ltianda, 892
Luangwu (C. Africa), 192
1172
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1899
LOB
Lobos de Afuera (Peru), 871
Lodz, 915
Logon- Karnali (Bornu), 342
Loja, 500
Loko, 211
Lokoja, 210
Lombardy, 720
Lombok (E. Indies), 830
Lome (Togoland), 610
Lomja, 908
London, population of, 20 ; divisiony,
20 ; night and day population, 20
— City and Guilds Technical Insti-
tute, 35
— County Council, 12, 55
— King's College, 34
— port, 90
— University, 34
London (Ontario), 223
Londonderry, 25
Long Island (Bahamas), 244
Long Island (W. Pacific), 614
Lorca, 1013
Lord Howe Island, 272
Lorient, 513, 526
Los Andes (Venezuela), 1134, 1136
Los Islands, 563
Lothringen, 617
Louisiade Islands, 256, 257
Lourenco Marques, 892, 893
Louvain, 414 ; University, 415
Lower Austria, 370, 371
Lower Bavaria, 626, 628
Lower Franconia, 626, 628
Loyalty Archipelago, 570
Lualaba (Congo State), 479
Luang-Prabang, 997
Luajnila (C. Africa), 192
Liibeck, area and poimlation, 643
— births, deaths, and marriages, 643
— books of reference, 645
— commerce and shipping, 644
— constitution, 643
— finance, 644
— justice, 644
— pauperism, 644
— religion and instruction, 644
Liibeck (Principality), 650
Lublin, 916
Lucca, 725
Lucknow, 135
Liideritz Bay, 612
Ludwigsburg, 688
Ludwigshafen, 627
MAG
Lugansk, coal, 950
Lund, 1030 ; University, 1031
Lunda, 892
Lungchau, 465
Luque, 852
Lus Bela, 168
Luxembourg (Netherlands), 412
Luxemburg, 783
Luzern (canton), 1058, 1060
Luzern, 1062
Lydenburg goldfield, 1006
Lynx Island, 332
Lyon, 513
Lyttelton, trade, 285, 286
MABAS (Wadai Negroes), 343
Macao, 466, 890, 891
Macerata, 725 ; University, 735
Machakos (E. Africa), 195
Mackean Island, 332
Mackenzie District (Canada), 223
Macquarie Island, 303, 332
Madagascar, area, 557
— bank, 560
— books of reference, 560
— commerce, 559
— consular representatives, 560
— currency, 560
— defence, 558
— education, 558
— finance, 558
— government, 556, 557
— justice, 558
— population, 557
— posts and telegraphs, 559
— production and industry, 559
— religion, 558
— shipping, 559
Madeira, 880
Madras, 129
— army, 145 •
— religion, 136
— province, government, 127, 130 •
— states, 131
— revenue, 143
— town, 135 ; trade, 157
— university, 137
Madrid, 1013
Madura (Dutch East Indies), 830, 831
Madura (Madras Presidency), 135
Maestricht, 811
Mafeking, 181, 190
-Magallanes (Chile), 446
INDEX
1173
MAG
Magdala, 336
Magdalena, 472
Magdeburg, 580, 660
Magomi (tribe), 342
Maiiaga Island (W. Pacific), 615
Mahdera -Maria m, 336
Mahe, 547
Mai (Bornu), 342
Maikop, 916
Mainz, 580, 640
Maitland(KS.W.), 260
Majunga (Madagascar), 558, 559
Makalle, 336
Makassar, 832
Mako, 391
Malacca (Straits Settlements), 172-
176
Malaga, 1013
Malaita Island, 332
Malay Protected States, Federation
of, 171
— area and population, 173
— ^^ commerce, 176
— finance, 174
— production, 175
Maiden Island, 332
Maldive Islands, 118
Maldonado, 1179
Maler Kotla, 132
Malleco, 446
Malmo, 1030 ; local government at,
1028
Malta, 106
— military expenditure, 104
— troops at, 104
Mamouret-iil-Aziz, 1079
Manabi (Ecuador), 500
Managua, 843, 845
Manameh (Bahrein), 109
Manchester, 18 ; College, 34; port, 90
Manchester Ship Canal, 92
Manchuria, 457
Mand, 195
Mandalay, 135
Mandara State, 342
Mandi, 132
Mangaia Island, 332
Manica District (Portuguese), 892,
893
Manihiki Islands, 332
Manitoba, population, 223, 225, 228
Mannheim, 580, 622
Mansourah, 1107
Mantova (Mantua), 725
MAU
Mao (Kanem), 343
Maoris, 276
Maracaibo, 1135, 1138
Maranhao, 436
I\Iarl)urg University, 583
Marches (Italy), 720
Marghelan, 916
Maria Christina (Spain), 1008
jMarianne Islands, 1023
Maria-Theresiopol (Szabadka), 391
Mariapol, 916
Marie-Galante Island, 568
Marlborough (N.Z.), 275
Marmagao (India), 891
Marquesas Islands, 546, 571
Marseille, 513, 536
Marshall Islands, 615
Martinique, 546, 569
Mary Island, 332
Maryborough (Queensland), 290
Masanpo, 779, 780
Masaya (Nicaragua), 844, 845
Maseru, 180
Mashena (Bornu), 342
Mashonaland, 212-213
— Raihvay Company, 213
Massa, 725
Massenia (Bagirmi), 556
Massowah, or Massawah, 757, 1123
Mastang, 168
Mataafa, King (Samoa), 982
Matabeleland, 212-213
Matadi (Congo State), 478
Matsuyama, 764
Matsuye, 764
Matto Grosso, 436
Matupi (W. Pacific), 615
:Mauki island, 332
Maule, 446
^laulmain, 135
Mauritius, area, 200
— books of reference, 202, 203
— commerce, 201, 202
— constitution and government, 200
— customs valuation, 201
— defence, 201
— dependencies, 202
— education, 200
— exports, 201, 202
— finance, 201
— governor, 200
— imports, 201, 202
— military expenditure, 104
— money, weights, and measures, 202
4 G
1174
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
MAU
Mauritius, population, 200
— religion, 200
— shipping and communications, 202
— troops at, 104
Mayaguana Island (Bahamas), 244
Mayence (Mainz), 640
Mayotte Island, 546, 561
Mazagan, 800
Mazar-i-Sharif, 339
Mecca, 1080
Mechlin, population, 414
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, area and
population, 646
— constitution, 645
— grand-duke, 645
— finance, 647
— justice and crime, 646
— pauperism, 646
— production, 647
■ — railways, 647
— religion and instruction, 646
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, area and popu-
lation, 648
— constitution, 648
— finance, 648
— grand-duke, 647
— railway, 649
Medellin, 472
Meerane, 679
Meerut, 135
Meester Cornells, 833
Jkleetia Island, 571
Meiningen, 673
Melbourne, 311 ; University, 312
Melilla, 801, 1012
Melsetter, 213
Menado (E. Indies), 830
Mendoza, province, 345 ; town, 346
Menelek J I. (Abyssinia), 336
Mengo, 196
Mengtsz, 465
Merida (Mexico), 786
,\ierka, 195
Meshed, 859, 862, 863
Mesopotamia, 1079
Messenia, 693
Messina, 725, 754 ; University, 735
Metz, 617
Mexico, agriculture, 789
— area and population, 785
— army, 788
— - banks, 792
• - books of reference, 793
— commerce, 790
MOL
Mexico, constitution, 784
— currency and credit, 791
— debt, 788
— defence, 788
— diplomatic representatives, 792
— finance, state, 787
local, 788
— government, 784
local, 785
— instruction, 786
— justice, 787
— manufactures, 790
— mines and minerals, 789
— money, weights, and measures, 792
— navy, 788
— posts and telegi-aphs, 791
— president, 784
— production and industry, 789
— railways, 791
— religion, 786
— revenue and expenditure, 787
— shipping, 791
— silver production, 789
— towns, 786
Mexico (City), 786
Michoacan (Mexico), 786
Middle Franconia, 626, 628
Middle Island (N.Z.), 275, 276
Middlesborough, 18, 90
Mikado of Japan, 761
Mikindani (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Milan, 725
Minas (Uruguay), 1127
Minas Geraes, 436, 440
Minsk, 916
Miquelon Island, 546, 569
Mir Mahmud Khan of Khelat, 167
Mirzapur, 135
Misahiihe, 610
Misiones (Arg. Rep. ), 345
Miskolcz, 391
^litau, 916
Mitchell Islands, 332
Mitiero Island, 332
Mito, 764
Modena, 725 ; University, 735
Mogadischo, 195
:\Ioga(lor, 800
i\loghilev, 916
Mohnmmarali, 863
Moharek. 109
— Island, 109
Mokpo (Korea), 779, 780
Moldavia, 896
INDEX
1175
MOL
]\rolise, 720
Mollendo, 431, 872
Molucca Islands, 829, 830
Mombasa, 195, 196
Monaco, 794
Monastir, 1079, 1080
Mongliyr, 135
Mongolia, 457
Monluyon, 513
Monrovia, 781
Mons, population, 414
Monte Carlo, 794
Montego Bay (Jamaica), 246
Montenegro, agriculture, 797
— area and population, 796
— books of reference, 798
— commerce, 798
— communications, 798
— defence, 797
— finance, 797
— government, 795
— instruction, 796
— justice and crime, 797
— money, 798
— pauperism, 797
— Petrovic dynasty, 795
— production and industry, 797
— reigning prince, 795
— religion, 796
Monterey (Mexico), 786
Montevideo, 1127 ; University, 1128
Montpellier, 513, 515
Montreal, 223
Montserrat, 247, 248, 250, 251
Moorea, 571
Moradabad, 135
Morant Cays, 245, 246
Moravia, 370, 371
.Morelia, 786
Morelos (Mexico), 785
Morioka, 764
Morocco, area, 799
— army, 800
— books of reference, 802
— commerce, 800
— defence, 800
— dij>lomatic representatives, 802
— exports, 800, 801
— government, 799
— imports, 800, 801
— money, weights, and measures, 801
— population, 799
— post, 801
— religion, 800
NAT
Morocco, Sultan, 799
Morocco city, 800
Moscow, 915 ; coal, 950
^Mosquito Reserve, 843, 844
Moss, 1044
Mossamedes, 892
Mossul, 1079, 1080
:\Iostar, 403
Mozambique, 892, 893
Mpinibi, 193
Mueru (C. Africa), 192
Mulai-Abd-el-Aziz (Morocco), 799
Miilhausen, 580, 617
Multan, 135
Miinchen Gladbach, 660
Munich, 580, 627 ; University, 583
Munster yn-ovince, })opulation, 23
— agricultural holdings, 71, 72
Miinster, 660 ; University, 583
Murcia, 1013
Muscat, 847
Mustapha, 551
Mutsuhito, Mikado of Japan, 761
Muttra, 135
Muzatier-ed-din, Shah of Persia, 857
Mysore, area and population, 130
— religion, 136
— revenue, 131
— town, 135
My the, 548
NABA, 764
Nabha, 132
Nagano, 764
Nagasaki, 764 ; port, 771
Nagoya, 764
Nagpur, 135
Nagyvarad (Grosswardein), 391
Nakhichevan, 916
Namaland, 612
Namangan, 916
Naraur, province, 412 ; town, 414
Nan (Siam), 997
Nancowry, 170
Nancy, 513, 515
Nanking (China), 465
Nantes, 513
Naples, 725, 754 ; University, 735
Narova navigation, 961
Nassau (Bahamas), 244
Nassau Islands (Pacific), 332
Natal, area, 204
— books of reference, 207, 208
4 o2
1176
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
NAT
Natal, coal fields, 206
— commerce, 206
— constitution and government, 203,
204
— defence, 205
— exports, 206
— finance, 205
— governor, 204
— imports, 206
— industry, 206
— instruction, 205
— live stock, 206
— military expenditure, 104
— population, 204
— railways, 207
— • shipping, 207
— troops at, 104
Navigator Islands, 982
Navua (Fiji), 256
Neckar, 687
Nedounkadou, 547
Negapatam, 135
Negri Sembilan, 171, 172 ; area and
population, 173
— finance, 174
Negus Negust of Ethiopia, 336
Nelson (N.Z.), 275
Nepal, 803
Netherland Island, 332
Netherlands, agriculture, 818
— area, 809
— army, 816
— banks, 826-827
— births, deaths, and marriages, 810
— books of reference, 840
— budget, 814, 815
— canals, 824
— colonies, 815, 828
— commerce, 820
— constitution, 806
— crime, 813
— currency and credit, 826
— customs valuation, 823
— de4)t, 815
— defence, army, 816
— — frontier, 816
navy, 817
— diplomatic representatives, 828
— emigration, 810
— exports, 821-823
— finance, 814
— fisheries, 820
— government, central, 806
local, 808
NEW
Netherlands, imports, 821-823
— instruction, 811
— justice, 813
— manufactures, 820
— mining, 820
— ministry, 807
— money, weights, and measures, 827
— navy, 817
— pauperism, 813
— population, 809
— posts and telegraphs, 825
— production and industry, 818
— railways, 825
— reigning sovereign, 805
— religion, 811
— revenue and expenditure, 814
— royal family, 805
— schools, 811
— shipping and navigation, 823
— towns, 811
— tramways, 824
— Universities, 812
Neuchatel (canton), 1058, 1060
Neuchatel, 1062 ; Academy, 1063
Neuilly, 513
Neu Lauenburg Island (W. Pacific),
615
Neu Mecklenburg Island (W. Pacific),
615
Neu Pommern Island (W. Pacific),
615
Neuquen (Arg. Rep.), 345
Neustadt, 675
Neu Strelitz, 648
Neva navigation, 961
Nevis (Island), 247, 248, 250, 251
New Brunswick, population, 223,
225, 228
New Calabar, 209
New Caledonia, 546, 570
— prison, population, 518
Newcastle (N.S.W.), 260, 270
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 18, 75, 90
— College, 34
Newchwang, 465
New Dongola, 1123
Newfoundland and Labrador, 241-244
New Guinea, British, 256 ; Dutch,
829, -830
New Guinea Company, German, 615
New Hannover (Island), 615
Newnham College, Cambridge, 34
Newport (Mon.), 18, 75, 90
New Providence Island, 244
INDEX
1177
NEW
New Soutli Wales, aborigines, 260
— agriculture, 265-267
— area, 259
— army, 264
— banks, 271-272
— births, deaths, and marriages, 261
— books of reference, 272
— Chinese poll-tax, 261
— commerce, 268-270
— constitution, 258
— currency and credit, 271, 272
— customs valuation, 269
— debt, 263, 264
— defence, 264, 265
— emigrants, 261
— expenditure, 263
— exports, 268-270
— finance, 263
— forestry, 267
— government, 258
local, 259
— governor, 259
— illegitimacy, 261
— immigrants, 261
— imports, 268-270
— instruction, 262
— justice and crime, 262, 263
— manufactures, 268
— mines and minerals, 267
— ministry, 259
— nav'}', 265
— occupation of people, 260
— population, 260
— posts and telegraphs, 271
— production and industry, 265
— railways, 270
— religion, 261, 262
— revenue, 263
— roads, 270
— schools, 262
— shipping and navigation, 270
— taxation, 263
— tramways, 271
— wealth, ^264
— wool export, 270
New Urgenj, 974
New Zealand, agriculture, 281
— area, 275
— banks, 287
— births, deaths, and marriages, 276
— books of reference, 287, 288
— commerce, 283
— constitution, 273
— credit, 287
NID
New Zealand, customs valuation, 283
— defence, 281
— emigration, 276
— expenditure, 279
— exports, 283, 284
— finance, 279
local, 280
— government, 273, 274
local, 274
— governor, 274
— immigration, 276
— imports, 283, 284
— instruction, 277, 278
— justice and crime, 278
— legislative council, 273
— manufactures, 282
— mines and minerals, 283
— ministry, 274
— money, 287
— occupation of people, 276, 282
— pauperism, 279
— population, 275-276
— posts and telegraphs, 286, 287
— production and industry, 281
— railways, 286
— religion, 277
— revenue, 279
— schools, 277, 278
— shipping and navigation, 285, 286
— University, 277
Nganhwei, 458
Ngwane, Chief of Swaziland, 1007
Nho-Lam (Annani), 548
Nicaragita, area, 843
— books of reference, 846
— canal, 845
— commerce, 845
— communications, 845
— constitution and government, 843
— diplomatic representatives, 846
— finance, 844
— industry, 844
— instruction, 843
— money, weights, and measures, 845
— population, 843
— posts and telegraphs, 845
— railway, 845
Nice, 509, 513
Nicholas I. (Prince of Montenegro), 795
Nicholas II. (Russia), 903
Nicobar Islands, 170
Nicolaievsk, 908, 960
Nicosia, 119
Nidwalden (canton), 1058, 1060
1178
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
NIG
Niger Coast Protectorate, 208
Xiger Territories, 209
Niigata, 764 ; i)ort, 771
Nijni-NovgoroJ, 915 ; fair, 959
Nikolaievsk, 908, 960
Nikolaieff, 915
Mkolaistad, 968
Niksic, 796
Ximeguen, 811
Ximes, 513
Ningpo, 465
Nippon, 763, 764
Nisch City (Servia), 989
Njimi (Kanem), 343
Nkata, 193
Norfolk Island, 272
Norodam (of Cambodia), 548
Norrkof)ing, 1030 ; local government
at, 1028
Northampton, 18
Northern Territory (S. Australia), 297
North Island (N.Z.), 275, 276
North Shields, 75, 90
North-West Provinces (India), 129
religion, 136
revenue, 143
states, 132
Norway, agriculture, 1049
— area, 1042
— armv, 1047
— banks, 1054
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1044
— books of reference, 1056
— commerce, 1050
— constitution, 1040
— council of state, 1041
— currency and credit, 1054
— customs valuation, 1050
— defence, 1047
— emigration, 1044
— exports, 1050-1052
— finance, 1046
— fisheries, 1050
— forestry, 1049
— government, central, 1040
local, 1042
— Grundlov, the, 1040
— imports, 1050-1 052
— instruction, 1044
— justice and crime, 1045
— mines and minerals, 1049
— money, weights, and measures, 1055
— navy, 1048
— occupation of people, 1043
OKA
Norway, pauperism, 1045
— population, 1042
— posts and telegraphs, 1054
— railways, 1053
— religion, 1044
— revenue and expenditure, 1046
— shipping and navigation, 1052
— Storthing, the, 1040
— towns, 1044
— (See also Sweden)
Norwich, population, 18
Nossi-Be Island, 546, 561
Nottingham, 18 ; College, 34
Noumea, 570
Novara, 725
Nova Scotia, population, 223, 225,
228
Novi-Bazar, 403
Novo Redondo, 892
Novotcherkask, 915
Nubia, 1107
Nuble, 446
Nueva San Salvador, 979
Nuevo Leon, 785
Nukha, 916
Nukufetau (Pacific), 332
Nukulaelae Islands, 332
Nukunono Islands, 332
Nuremberg, 580, 627
Nyasalaud, 193
N3'asa District (Portuguese), 892
Nyeman navigation, 961
Nyezhin, 961
AATAFU Islands, 332
\ / Oaxaca (Mexico), 786
Obbia, 767
Obeid, 1123
Oberalp, 1067
Ober-Elsass, 617
Obock, 546, 562
Obwalden (canton), 1058, 1060
Oceania, 332, French colonics in, 546,
570
Odeni (^V. Africa), 211
Odense, 490
Odessa, 908, 915
Offenbach, 640
Ogogo (W. Africa), 209
Ohau, 663
Ohumbela, 209
Oil Islands, 202
Okayama, 764
INDEX
1179
OKI
Oki Islands, 763
Okrika, 209
Old Calabar, 209
Oldenburg, area and population,
650
— books of ttsference, 651
— constitution, 650
— grand-duke, 649
— instruction, 651
— justice anil erinie, 651
— railways, 651
— religion, 661
— revenue, 650
— town of, 650
Oldham, population, 18
Old ^targhelan, 916
Oman, 847
Omdurman, 1123
Omoa (Honduras), 712
Omsk, 916
Ontario, population, 223, 225, 228
Opobo, 209
Oporto, 880
Oran, 551, 553
Orange Free State, area, 848
— Viooks of reference, 851
— commerce, 850
— communications, 851
— constitution and government, 848
— defence, 850
— diamonds and precious stones,
850
— tinance, 850
— instruction, 849
— justice, 849
— population, 848
— president, 848
— production and industry, 850
— religion, 849
— revenue ami expenditure, 850
Orebro, 1030
Orehovo (Bulgaria), 1096
Orel, 915
Orenburg, 915
Oriente (Ecuador), 500
Orissa (India), 129
Orleans, 513
Ormond College, Melbourne, 313
Oro (Ecuador), 500
Oruro, 429 ; town, 430
— mines, 431
Osaka, 764 ; port, 771
Oscar II. (Sweden and Norway), 1025
Osh, 916
TAR
Ostend, population, 414
Ostrog, 796
Otago, 275 ; University, Dunedin, 277
Otaru, 764
Otjimbingue (S.W. Africa), 012
Otsu, 764
Ottawa, 223
Otto Wilhelm Luitpold (Bavaria), 624
Oulgaret, 547
Oudh, 129
Ouro Preto, 436
Ovar, 880
Overyssel, 809, 811
Oviedo, 1013
Oxford, 18 ; University, 34
PAARL (Cape Colony), 184
Pabellon de Pica (Peru), 871
Pacliuca (Mexico), 786
Pacific Islands, 332
Pacific, Western (German), 610, 614
Padang, 832
— high commissioner, 333
Padua, 725 ; University, 735
Pahang, 171, 172
— area and population, 173
— finance, 174
Paisley, population, 22
Paita, 872
Pakhoi, 465
Paknam, 1000
Palachwe, 181, 213
Palaos, 1023
Palapye, or Palachwe, 213
Palatinate, 626, 628
— Upper and Lower, 626, 628
Palembang, 830
Palermo, 725, 754; University, 735
Palma (Balcares), 1013
Palmerston Islands, 332
Palmyra Island, 332
Pampa ( Arg. Rep. ), 345
Panama, 472 ; Canal, 475
Pangani (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Panjin (Goa), 890
Papeete, 571
Papho, 119
Para, 436
Paraguay, area, 852
— books of reference, 855
— commerce, 854
— communications, 855
— constitution and government, 852
1180
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
PAR
Paraguay, currency and credit, 855
— defence, 854
— diplomatic representatives, 855
— finance, 853
— instruction, 853
— justice, 853
— minerals, 854
— money, Weights, and measures,
855
— population, 852
— president, 852
— production and industry, 854
— railways, 855
— religion, 853
Parahyba, 436
Paramaribo, 838
Parana (Arg. Rep.), 346
— (Brazil), 436
Parchim, 646
Paris, 513, 515, 536
— local government, 508
— revenue, expenditure and debt, 522
Parma, 725 ; University, 735
Paro (Bhutan), 428
Parramatta (N.S.AV.), 260
Patani, 996
Patiala, state, 132
— town, 135
Patna, 135
Patras, 694
Patta, 195
Pan, 513
Pavia, 725 ; University, 735
Paysandu, 1127
Pecs (Fiinfkirchen), 391
Pedro Cays, 245, 246
Peloponnesus, 693
Pelotas, 436
Penaba Island, 197
Penang, 172, 176
Pefion de Velez, 1012
Penza, 915
Penrhyn Island, 332
Perak, 171, 172
— area and population, 173
— finance, 174
P^rene District (Peru), 871
Perigueux, 513
Perim, 108
Perm, 916 ; coal, 950
Pernambuco, 436
Perpignan, 513
Persia, area, 859
— books of reference, 867
PHO
Persia, cities, 859
— commerce, 862-864
— currency and credit, 864
— defence, 861
— diplomatic representatives, 866
— exports, 863, 864
— finance, 860
— government, 858
— imports, 863, 864
— instruction, 860
— justice, 860
— money, weights, and measures, 864
— population, 859
— posts and telegraphs, 865
— production and industry, 861
— railways, 864
— religion, 859
— royal family, 857
— Shah, 857
Perth (W. Australia), 322
— (Scotland), population, 22
Peru, area, 868
— army, 871
— books of reference, 875
— commerce, 872
— constitution and government, 868
— debt, 871
— defence, 871
— diplomatic representatives, 875
— exports, 872
— finance, 870
— imports, 872
— industry, 871
— instruction, 869
— mines, 872
— money, weights, and measures, 874
— navy, 871
— population, 868
— posts, 873
— president, 868
— railways, 873
— religion, 869
— revenue and expenditure, 870
— shipping and navigation, 873
— telegraphs, 873
Perugia, 725 ; University, 735
Pesaro, 725
Pescadores, Islands, 763
Peshawur, 135
Peter I. (Oldenburg), 649
Pforzheim, 622
Philippopolis, 1095, 1096
Phoenix groun of islands, 332
Phocis, 693 '
INDEX
1181
PHT
Phtliiotis, 693
Piacenza, 725
Piauliy (Bi'Jizilian State), 436
Pichinolii (Ecuador), 500
Piedmont, 720
Pietermaritzburg, 204
Pilsen, 373
Pines, Isle of, 570
Ping Yang (Korea), 777, 779
Piotrkov, 916
Pirreus, 694, 701
Pirinasens, 627
Pirot, 989
Pisa, 725 ; University, 735
Pisagua, 452
Pisco, 872
Pitcairn Island, 272, 332
Plauen, 679
Plevna, 1096
Plock, 908
Ploesti, 897
Plymouth, population, 18
Plymouth (Montserrat), 248
Pnom-Penh, 548
Podgoritza, 796
Pointe-a-Pitre (Guadeloupe), 568
Pointe des Galets, 562
Poitiers, 513
Pola, 373
Poland, government, 910
— agriculture, 947
— area, 911
— justice, 922
— manufactures, 951
— mining, 950
— population, 911
— religion, 917
— schools, 921
— {See also Russia)
Poltava, 915
Pomerania, area and population, 658
— crime, 663
— emigi'ation, 660
— religion, 661
Pondicherv, 547
Pondoland, 184
Pongwe (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Ponta Delgada (Azores), 880
Poona, 135
Popayan, 472
Popo, Little, 610
Port Alexander (W. Africa), 892
Port Alice (E. Africa), 196
Port Arthur, 458, 974
roR
Port-au-Prince, 708, 710
Port Blair (Andamans), 170
Port Campbell (Andamans), 170
Port Cornwallis (Andamans), 170
Port Elizabeth, 184
Port Louis (Mauritius), 200
Port Moresby (N. Guinea), 257
Porto Alegre, 436
Port of Spain (Trinidad), 248
Porto ]\[aurizio, 725
Porto Novo (W. Africa), 563
Port Said, 1107
Porto Seguro (Togoland), 610
Portsmouth, population, 18
Portugal, agriculture, 885
— area, 879
— army, 884
— banks, 889
— births and deaths, 881
— books of reference, 893
— colonies, 890
— commerce, 886
— constitution, 878
— crime, 882
— currency and credit, 889
— customs valuation, 888
— debt, 884
— defence, 884
— diplomatic representatives, 890
— emigrants, 881
— exports, 887, 888
— finance, 883
— government, 878
— imports, 887, 888
— instruction, 882
— justice, 882
— king, 877
— marriages, 881
— mines, 886
— ministers, 879
— money, weights, and measures, 88
— navy, 885
— population, 879
— posts and telegrajihs, 889
— production and industry, 885
— railways, 889
— religion, 881
— revenue and expenditure, 883
— royal family, 877
— shijiping and navigation, 888
— sovereigns since 1097, 878
— towns, 881
— wine exports, 888
Port Victoria (E. Africa), 196
1182
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1899
POS
Posen, 580, 660
— province, area and population, 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Potenza, 725
Potosi,429 ; town, 430
Potsdam, 660
Povoa de Varzim, 880
Pozarevatz, 989
Pozsony (Pressburg), 391
Prague, 373 ; University, 376
Praia (Cape Yerde Islands), 891
Pree (Siam), 997
Pressburg, 391
Preston, population, 18
Pretoria, 1004
Prince Edward Island, 223, 225, 228
Prince's Island, 890, 891
Principe Island, 890, 891
Prussia, agi"iculture, 666
— area, 658
— army, 665
— births, deaths, and marriages, 660
— books of reference, 6Q7
— breweries, 666
— commerce, 667
— constitution, 654
— debt, 665
— distilleries, 66Q
— educational statistics, 662
— emigi-ation, 660
— expenditure, 664
— finance, 663
— foreigners, 659
— government, 654
local, 657
— instruction, 661
— justice and crime, 663
— king, 652
— kings from 1701, 654
— Landtag, 655
— minerals, 666
— ministry, 656
— population, 658
conjugal condition, 659
— railways, 667
— religion, 661
— revenue, 664
— royal family, 652
— schools, 661
— sugar manufacture, 666
-:- towns, 660
— universities, 662
QUE
Prussia, East and West, 658-663
Przemysl, 373
Pskov, 916 ; lake, 961
Puebla, 785, 786
Puerto Cabello, 1138
Puerto Cortes, 712, 713
Puerto Montt, 446
Puerto Plata, 984
Pulo Cambing (Timor), 891
Punakha, 428
Punjab, the, area, population, 129,
— army, 143
— religion, 136
— revenue, 141
— states, 132
— University, 137
Punta Arenas (Chile), 446
Punta Lobos (Peru), 871
Puntarenas (Costa Rica), 482, 484
Pyrgos, 694
Pynnont, 685
QUA Eboe (W. Africa), 209
Quebec, province, 223,225,228 ;
town, 223
Queen's College, Belfast, 34
Cork, 34
Galway, 34
Melbourne, 313
Queensland, agriculture, 292, 293
— area, 289
— banks, 295
— births, deaths, and marriages, 290
— books of reference, 295
— commerce, 293
— constitution, 288
— customs valuation, 294
— defence, 292
— emigration, 290
— exports, 293, 294
— finance, 291
— gold, 293
— government, 288, 289
— governor, 288
— immigi'ation, 290
— imports, 293, 294
— instruction, 291
— justice and crime, 291
— mines and minerals, 293
— ministry, 288, 289
— occupations of the people, 290,
— pauperism, 291
— population, 289
INDEX
us:
QUE
Queensland, posts and telegraphs,
•295
— production and industry, 292
— railways, 295
— religion, 290
— shipping and navigation, 294
Queretaro, 785, 786
Quetta, 129, 168
Quezaltenango, 704
Quiliniane (E. Africa), 892
Qui-Xhon, 548
Quito, 50
RABAT, 800
Raiatea Island, 571
Raj])utana, area and population, 130
— native states, 131
— religion, 136
— revenue, 131
Rakoango Island, 332
Ralick Islands, 615
Ram pur, 132 ; town, 135
Ranavalona, Queen (Madagascar),
557
Rancagua, 446
Randers, 490
Rangoon, 135 ; trade, 157
Raratonga Island, 332
Rasgrad, 1096
Rastatt, 622
Ratack Islands, 615
Ratisbon, 627
Ravenna, 725'
Ravensburg, 688
Rawal Pindi, 135
Reading, 18
Redonda Island, 247
Reggio di Cal, 725
Reggie nell' Emilia, 725
Reichenbach, 679
Reichenberg, 373
Reims, 513
Reirson Island, 332
Rembau, 172
Rennes, 513
Resht, 859, 863
Rethymo, 1101
Reunion Island, 545, 546, 561
Reuss (elder branch), 668
— (younger branch), 668-669
Reuss-Greiz, 668
Reutlingen, 668
Rcval, 915
ROU
Rcwa(Fiji), 256
Rewa (India), 131
Rhine, province, area, kc, 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Rhodesia, Northern, 192
— vSouthern, 212, 213
Riau-Lingga Islands, 829, 830
— tin mines, 835
Rifu, 193
Riga, 915
Riobamba, 500
Rio de Janeiro, 436, 441, 442
Rio de Oro, 1023
Rio Grande do Norte, 436
Rio Grande do Sul, 436
Rioja (Arg. Rep. ), 345
Rio Negro (Arg. Rep.), 345
— (Uruguay), 1127
Rios (Ecuador), 500
Rivera (Uruguay), 1127, 1130
Rivieres du Sud, 563
Roadtown (W.I.), 248
Roanne, 513
Roatan, 712
Robertsport, 781
Rocha (Uruguay), 1127
Rochdale, 18
Rochefort, 513, 526
Rockhampton (Queensland), 290
Rocky Island (Paeific), 332
Rodrigues, 202
Roko Tui (Fiji titlej), 253
Rome, population, 725
— archbishoprics, 731
— bishoprics, 732
— cardinal bishops, 729
priests, 729
deacons, 731
— patriarchates, 731
— Pope, election of, 727
~ Popes from 1417, 728
— Sacred College, 728
— See and Church, 727
— Supreme Pontiff, 727
— University, 735
Rosario, 346
Rostock, 646 ; University, 583
Rostoff-on-Don, 915
Rottenburg, 688
Rotterdam, 811, 824
Rotumah Island, 253
Roubaix, 513
1184
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
ROU
Rouen, 513, 536
Rovigo, 725
Royal Company Island, 332
Royal Holloway College, Egham, 35
Royal Niger Company, 209
Rudolstadt, 683
Rufisque, 562, 563
Rumania, agriculture, 899
— area, 896
— army, 898
— births, deaths, and marriages, 897
— books of reference, 902
— budget, 898
— commerce, 900
— constitution, 895
— debt, 898
— defence, 898
— diplomatic representatives, 901
— exports, 900, 901
— finance, 897
— government, 895
local, 896
— imports, 900, 901
— instruction, 897
— king, 895
— money, weights, and measures, 901
— navy, 899
— population, 896
— posts and telegraphs, 901
— production and industry, 899
— railways, 901
— religion, 897
— revenue and expenditure, 898
— shipping, 901
Rumelia, Eastern, 1095
Russia, agriculture, 946
— area, 910-912
— army, 936
— banks, 965-967
— births, deaths, and marriages, 914
— budget, 929
■ — books of reference, 975
— commerce, 952
— constitution, 905
— Council of the State, 905
— crime, 922
— crops, 947
— currency and credit, 965
— customs valuation, 953
— debt, 931-934
— defence, army, 936
frontier, 935
navy, 941
— dependencies in Asia, 972
ST.
Russia, diplomatic representatives,
967
— emperor, 903
— exports, 952-959
— finance, state, 923
local, 935
— forests, 949
— government, 905
local, 907
— Holy Synod, 906
— imports, 952-959
— instruction, 918
— iron and steel produce, 949
— justice and crime, 921
— land ownership, 946
— loans, 932
— manufactures, 951
— mines and minerals, 949
— ministry, 907
— money, weights, and me;isures,
967
— naphtha export, 954
— navy, 941
— population, 910-9] 5
— posts and telegraphs, 964
— I)ress, 921
— primary education, 920
— prisons, 922
— production and industry, 946
— railways, 961
— religion, 9] 6
— revenue and expenditure, 924-930'
— rivers and canals, 961
— royal family, 903
— Ruling Senate, 906
— schools, 918-921
— shipping and navigation, 959
— state finance, 923
— sugar Avorks, 952
— tobacco, 948
— towns, 915
— Tsars and' emperors from 1613, 905-
Rustchuk, 1096
Ryazan, 916
SAADANI (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Saba Island, 839
Sado Islands (Japan), 763
Saffi, 800
Sahara, French protectorate, 562
Saharanpur, 135
Saigon, 548, 549
St. Andrews University, 34
INDEX
1185
ST.
St, Barthelemy (Guadeloupe), 568
St. Benoit (Reunion), 562
St. Brandon Islands, 202
St. Christopher, 247, 248, 250, 251
St. Croix (W.I.), 498
St. Denis, 513
Ste. Marie, 546, 561
St. Etienne, 513
St. Eustache (Island), 839
St. Gallen (canton), 1058, 1060
St. Gallen, 1062
St. George's (Grenada), 249
St. Helena, 214 ; troops at, 104
St. Helens, 18
St. John (New Brunswick), 223
St. John (Antigua), 248
St. John (Danish W.I.), 498
St. John's (Newfoundland), 242
St. Kitts, 247, 248, 250, 251
St. Louis (Senegal), 562, 563
St. Lucia, 249-251
— troops at,^104
St. ^lartin Island (Gaudeloupe), 568
St. :Martin (Island), 839
St. Mary (Island), 216
St. Nazaire, 513
St. Nicolas, population, 414
St. Ouen, 513
St. Paul Island, 562
St. Petersburg, 908, 915
St. Pierre, 569
— (Martinique), 569
— (Reunion), 562
St. Quintin, 513
St. Salvador (Bahamas), 244
St. Thomas (W.I.), 498
St. Thomas I. (AV. Africa), 890, 891
St. Vincent, 249-251
Sakai, 764
Sakhalin Island, 856, 912, 923
Salaverry, 872
Salem, 135
Salerno, 725
Salford, popidation, 18
Salisbury (South Africa), 213
Salonica, 1079
Salta, 345 ; town, 346
Salto (Uruguay), 1127
Saltpond (W. Africa), 215
Salvador, area, 979
— books of reference, 981
— commerce, 980
— constitution, 979
— diplomatic representatives, 981
SAN
Salvador, exports and imports, 980
— finance, 980
— government, 979
— industries, 980
— instruction, 979
— justice, 979
— money, weights, and measures, 981
— population, 979
— posts and telegraphs, 981
— president, 979
— production, 980
— railways, 981
— shipping, 981
Salzburg, 370, 371 ; town, 373
Samara, 915
Samarang (E. Indies), 831, 832
Samarcand, 916
Samoa, 982
Samory's Kingdom, 563
Samos, 1101
Samshui, 465
Samsun, 1092
Sanchez, 984
Sandakan, 111
Sandhurst Royal Military and Staff
Colleges, 56, 59
Sandhurst (Victoria), 312
Sandwich Islands, 1168
Sandwich Harbour (S.AV. Africa), 612
San Felipe (Chile), 446
San Fernando (Chile), 446
San Jose, 482
San Jose (Uruguay), 1179
San Juan (Arg. Rep, ), 345 ; town, 346
San Juan (Spanish Africa), 1023
San Juan Bautista, 786
San Juan del Norte (Nicaragua), 843
San Luis, 345 ; town, 346
San Luis Potosi (Mexico), 785, 786
San Marino, 726
— books of reference, 760
San Paulo, 436
San Paulo de Loanda, 892
San Pedro (Paraguay), 852
San Pedro (Guatemala), 704
San Salvador, 979
Sansanne-Mangu (Togoland), 610
Santa Catharina, 436
Santa Cruz (Arg. Rep. ), 345
Santa Cruz (Bolivia), 429, 430
Santa Cruz Islands, 332
Santa Cruz de Mar de Pequena, 801
Santa Fe, 345 ; town, 346
Santa Marta, 472
1186
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
SAN
Santander (Colombia), 472
Santaiider (Spain), 1013
Santa Rosa, 353
San Thome Island, 890, 891
Santiago, 446, 447
Santiago del Estero (Arg. Rep.),
345
Santo Domingo, 708, 710 ; area, 984
— books of reference, 986
— commerce, 985
— constitution, 983
— defence, 985
— diplomatic representatives, 986
— finance, 984
— government, 983
— instruction, 984
— justice, 984
— money, weights, and measures,
986
— population, 984
— posts and telegraphs, 985
— president, 983
— production and industry, 985
— railways, 985
— religion, 984
— shipping, 985
San Domingo (City), 984
Sapele (W. Africa), 209
Sapporo (Japan), 764
Sarajevo, 403
Saratoff, 915
Sarawak, 111
Sardinia, 720
Sark and Brechou, population, 26
— government, 14
Saskatchewan District (Canada), 223
Sassari, 725 ; University, 735
Savaii (Samoa), 982
Savanna la Mar, 246
Savoie, 509
Saxe-Altenburg, 670-671
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 671-672
Saxe-Meiningen, 673-674
Saxe-Weimar, 674-676
Saxony, area and population, 678
— distilleries, 681
— emigration, 679
— finance, 680
— government, 677
— instruction, 680
— justice and crime, 680
— king, 676
— mining, 681
— production and industry, 680-681
SCO
Saxony, railways, 682
— religion, 679, 680
— royal family, 676
— towns, 679
Saxony (Prussian), 658-663
Sayid Abdul Ahad (Bokhara), 972
Schaffhausen (canton), 1058, 1060
Schaumberg-Lippe, 682-683
Schiedam, 811
Schleswig-Holstein, area, &c., 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 683
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 684
Schwarzwald, 687
Schwyz (canton), 1058, 1060
Schwerin, 646
Scotland, agricultural holdings, 70
— agriculture, 68 et seq.
— area, 14-16, 20-22
— army, 57
— banks, joint- stock, 96
post-office, 97
trustee, 98
— births, deaths, and marriages, 27
— canals, 92
— coal produce, 74
— commerce, 81
— counties, 21
— criminals, 41
— customs revenue, 52
— education, middle-class, 36
primary, 38
universities, 34
— electorate, 8
— emigration, 28
— fisheries, 72, 73
— illiterates, 8, 33
— imports and exports, 81
— income-tax assessment, 51
— justice and crime, 40, 41
— local government, 13
— occupations of the people, 23
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 42, 43
— police force, 42
— population, 14-16, 20-23
counties, 21
— posts and telegraphs, 93-95
— property assessed, 51
— railways, 91
— religion, 31
— taxation. Imperial, 52
INDEX
11S7
SCO
Scotland, taxation, local, 55
— textile factories, 77
— towns, 22
— trade, 81
— universities, 34
Scutari, 1079, 1080
Sebastopol, 908, 915
Segelmesa, 799
Selangor, 171, 172
— area and population, 173
— finance, 174
Semipalatinsk, 916
Senaar, 1123
Sendai, 764
Senegal, 546, 562
Seoul (Korea), 778, 779
Seraing, population, 414
Serena, 446
Sergipe (Brazil), 436
Servia, agriculture, 992
— area, 988
— army, 991
— births, deaths, and marriages,
989
— books of reference, 995
— budget, 991
— commerce, 992
— constitution, 987
— currency and credit, 994
— defence, 991
— diplomatic representatives, 994
— exports, 993
— finance, 990
— forests, 992
— government, 987
— imports, 993
— instruction, 989
— justice and crime, 990
— manufactures, 992
— mining, 992
— money, weights, and measures,
994
— pauperism, 990
— population, 988
— posts and telegraphs, 994
— production and industry, 992
— railways, 994
— religion, 989
— revenue and expenditure, 990-991
— sovereign, 987
Servia (Turkish), 1079
Setubal, 880
Sevilla, 1013
Seychelles, 202
SIL
Seyd Mohamed Eahim Khan (Khiva)»
974
Seyyid Feysal bin Turki (Oman), 847
Sfax (Tunis), 565, 566
Shabatz, 989
Shahjahanpur, 135
Shahr i Sabz, 973
Shandernagar, 547
Shanghai, 465
Shansi, 458
Shantung, 458
Shan States, area an<l poj)ulation,
130, 131
— religion, 136
Sheffield, 18 ; College, 34
Shasi, 465
Shensi, 458
Shidzuoka, 764
Shields, N. and S., 75, 90
Shikiku (Japan), 763
Shiraz, 859
Shire Highlands, 193
Shoa, 336
Sholapur, 135
Shusha, 916
Sialkot, 135
Siam, area, 997
— books of ref^ence, 1001
— commerce, 999
— defence, 998
— diplomatic representatives, 1001
— finance, 998
— government, 996
— instruction, 998
— King, 996
— money, weights, and measures,
1001
— population, 997
— posts and telegraphs, 1001
— production and industry, 999
— railways, 1000
— religion, 998
— royal family, 996
— serfdom, 999
— shipping, 1000
Siberia, 909, 912-921, 923, 947
— manufactures, 951
— railway, 962 ; shipping, 961
Sicily, 720
Sidi Ali (Bey of Tunis), 564
Siena, 725 ; University, 735
Sierra Leone, 216-218
Sikkim, 130, 131, 169
Silesia (Austrian), 370, 371
1188
THE STATESMAN S YEAR BOOK, 1899
SIL
Silesia (Prussian), area, &c., 658
— crime, 663
— emigration, 660
— religion, 661
Simbirsk, 916
Simpheropol, 916
Sinaloa (Mexico), 785
Sind (India), 129
Singapore, 173
Singora (Siam), 997
Sinoe (Liberia), 781
Siracusa, 725
Sirhind Canal, 150
Sirmur (Nahan), 132
•Sivas, 1079, 1080
Skien, 1044
Slivno, 1096
Smederevo, 989
Smolensk, 916
Smyrna, 1079, 1080
Society Islands, 571
Soderhamn, 1030
Soerabaya (Java), 831, 832
Sofala (district), 892
Sofia, 1096 ; university, 1096
Sokoto, 210, 336
Sokotra Island, 109
Solomon Islands, 332 »
Solomon Islands (German), 615
.Solothurn (Soleure), 1058, 1060
Somali Coast (Italian), 758
— protectorate (French), 562
Somaliland (British), 108, 336, 1123
— Italian, 757
Sombrero Island, 248
Somerville Hall, Oxford, 34
Song Chin (Korea), 779
Sonmiani, 167
Sondershausen, 684
Sondrio, 725
Sonora (Mexico), 785
Sophia Island, 332
Soriano (Uruguay), 1127
Soudan, French, 563
South Africa (British), 212
South African Republic, agriculture
1005
— area, 1004
— books of reference, 1007
— commerce, 1006
— constitution, 1003
— currency, 1006
— defence, 1005
— finance, 1005
SPA
South African Republic, gold output,
1005
— government, 1003
— instruction, 1004
— mining, 1005
— population, 1004
— post and telegraphs, 1006
— president, 1004
— production and industry, 1005
— railways, 1006
— religion, 1004
Southampton, 18, 90
South Australia, agriculture, 299
— area, 297
— banks, 301
— births, deaths, and marriages,
297
— books of reference, 302
— commerce, 299-301
— constitution, 296
— customs valuation, 300
— debt, 299
— defence, 298
— emigration, 298
— exports, 300, 301
— factories, 299
— finance, 298
— government, 296
local, 296
— governor, 296
— immigration, 298
— imports, 300, 301
— instruction, 298
— justice and crime, 298
— mines, 299
— population, 297
— posts and telegraphs, 301
— production and industry, 299
— railways, 301
— religion, 298
— shipping and navigation, 301
South BrislDane (Queensland), 290
South Georgia Island, 238
South Island (N.Z.), 275
South Shields, 18, 75, 90
South-West Africa (German), 610,
612
Spain, agriculture, 1018
— area, 1012
— army, 1016
— books of reference, 1023
— colonies, 1023
— commerce, 1019
— constitution, 1009
iNbEX
189
SPA
Sixain, Cortes, 1010
— cuvrencv and credit, 1022
— debt, 1010
— defence, annv, 1016
frontier, 1016
navy, 1017
— diplomatic representatives, 1022
— exports, 1019-1021
— linance, 1014
— goverinnent, centra], 1009
local, 1011
— imports, 1019-1021
— instruction, 1014
— mining and minerals, 1018
— ministry, 1011
- — money, weights, and measures, 1022
— navy, 1017
— po}»ulation, 1012
— posts and telegraplis, 1021, 1022
— production and industry, 1018
— queen regent, 1008
— railways, 1021
— religion, 1013
— revenue and expenditure, 1015
— royal family, 1008
— schools, 1014
— shipping and navigation, 1021
— sovereign, 1008
— sovereigns since 1512, 1009
— towns, 1013
— wines, 1020
Spandau, 660
Spanish Town, Jamaica, 246
vSpeightstown, 245
Sporades, 693
Sri Menanti, 172
Sri'nagar, 135
Stanley (Falkland Islands), 238
Stanley Falls, 479
Stanley Pool, 478
Starhuck Island, 332
Starkeuburg, 639
Stavanger, 1044
Stavropol, 916
Stawell, 312
Steiermark, 370, 371
Stephansort (W. Pacific), 614
Stettin, 580, 660
Stevenson Road (Central Africa), 192,
613
Stewart Island (N.Z.), 275, 276
Stockholm, 1030 ; local governnunt
at, 1028
Stockport, 18
SVE
Straits Settlements, area, 172
— books of reference, 178
— commerce, 175-177
— communications, 177
— constitution, 171
— currency, 177
— customs valuation, 176
— defence, 175
— exports, 175-177
— Federated States, 172
— finance, 174
— government, 171
— governor, 171
— im}iorts, 175-177
— instruction, 173
— justice and crime, 174
— military expenditure, 104
— money, weights, and measures,
177
— navigtion, 177
— population, 172-173
— production and industry, 175
— railways, 177
— shipping, 177
— troops at, 104
Strassburg, 580, 617
— University, 583
Stuttgart, 580, 688
Styria, 370, 371
Suabia, 626, 628
Suakim, 1123
Suchau, 465
Sucre (Bolivia), 430
Sudan (French), 563
Sudan States, Central, 342
— Egyptian, 1123
Suez Canal, 1119
Suket, 132
Sulina, 901
Sumatra, 829, 930
— coal mines, 835
Sunda Islands, 829
Sunderland, 18, 75, 90
Sundsvall, 1030
Sungei Ujong, 172 ; area and po[>ula-
tion, 173
Surat, 135
Surinam, 837
Surrikolo (Bornu), 342
Sus, 799
Suva (Fiji), 253, 254, 256
Suvarof Islands, 332
Sveaborg, 968
Svyeteusk, 962
4 II
iiyo
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
SWA
Swakopiimud (S.W. Africa), 612
Swansea, 18, 75, 90
Swat, 338
Swatau, 465
Swaziland, 1006
Sweden, agriculture, 1035
— area, 1028
— army, 1033
— banks, 1039
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1030
— Iwoks of reference, 1056
— commerce, 1036
— constitution, 1026
— council of state, 1028
— crime, 1031
— currency and credit, 1039
— customs valuatioji, 1036
— defence, 1033
— Diet, the, 1027
— emigration, 1030
— exports, 1036-1037
— finance, 1032
— government, central, 1026
local, 1028
— imports, 1036-1037
— instruction, 1031
— justice, 1031
— mines and minerals, 1036
— money, weights, and measures,
1055
— navy, 1034
— occupation of the people, 1030
^— pauperism, 1031
— population, 1028
— • posts and telegraphs, 1038
— railways, 1038
— religion, 1031
— revenue and expenditure, 1032
— shipping and navigation, 1038
— towns, 1030
Sweden and Norway, books of refer-
ence, 1056
— diplomatic representatives, 1055
— kings and queens since 1521, 1026
— money, weights, and measures,
1055
— reigning king, 1025
— royal family, 1025
— {see also Norway).
■ — [sec also Sweden).
Switzerland, agriculture, 1068
— area, 1060
— army, 1066
— banks, 1071
TAI
Switzerland, book of reference, 1072
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1061
— budget, 1065
— Bundesrath, the, 1059
— commerce, 1069
— constitution, 1057
— crime, 1063
— currency and credit, 1071
— customs valuation, 1069
— defence, 1066
— diplomatic representatives, 1071
— emigration, 1061
— exports, 1069, 1070
— finance, 1064
local, 1065
— forestry, 1068
— government, central, 1057
local, 1059
— imports, 1069, 1070
— instruction, 1062
— justice and crime, 1063
— money, weights, and measures,
1071
— Nationalrath, the, 1058
— occupations of the people, 1061
— population, 1060
— posts and telegraphs, 1070
— president, 1059
— production and industry, 1068
— railways, 1070
— religion, 1062
— revenue and expenditure, 1064
— schools, &c., 1062
— towns, 1062
Sydney as a naval station, 327
— population, 260 ; University, 262
Sydney Island (Pacific), 332
Syria, 1080
Syzran, 916
Szabadka, 391
Szechuen, 458
Szeged, 391
Szemao, 465
Szentes, 391
TABASCO, 785
Tabriz, 859, 860, 862, 863
Tacna, 446
Tacuarembo (Uruguay), 1127
Tafilet, 799
Taganrog, 908, 916
Tahiti, 546, 571
Taipa (Macao), 891
INDEX
191
TAJ
Tajiks (tribe), 339
Takamatsu, 764
Takaungu (E. Africa), 196
Takutea Islam], 332
Talca, 446
Talcahuano, 452
Talieii-wan, 458, 974
Taltal, 452
Tamatavo, 558, 559
Tuiiiaulipas, 785
Tambov, 916
Tammcvfors, 916, 968
Tarn pin, 172
Tain worth (N.S.W.), 260
Tanga (Germ. E. Africa), 613
Tanganyika (C. Africa), 192
Tangier, 800, 801
Tanjore, 135
Tantah, 1107
Taranaki, 275
Tarapaca, 446
Tarija (Bolivia) 429 ; town, 430
Tarnopol, 373
Tarapaca, 869
Tashkend, 916
Tasichozong (Bhutan), 428
Tasmania, agriculture, 306
— area, 303
— births, deaths, and marriages, 304
— books of reference, 309
— commerce, 307
— constitution, 302
— customs valuation, 308
— debt, 305
— defence, 306
— emigration, 304
— exports, 307, 308
— government, 302
— governor, 303
— liorticulture, 306
— immigration, 304
— imports, 307, 308
— instruction, 304
— justice and crime, 305
— mines and minerals, 307
— occupations of the people, 303
— pauperism, 305
— population, 303
— posts and telegraphs, 308, 309
— production and industry, 306
— railways, 308
— religion, 304
— revenue and expenditure, 305
— shipping and navigation, 308
rou
Tatar Pazarjik, 1096
Tavira, 880
Tchelyabinsk, 962
Tebessa, 553
Tegucigalpa, 712
Teheran, 859, 860, 862, 865
Teml)uland, 184
Temesvar, 391
Temuco, 446
Tepic (Ter. ), 785
Teramo, 725
Tessawa, 210
Tetiaroa Islands, 571
Tetuan, 800
Thanh Thai' (of Annam), 54 S
Thessaly, 693
Thurgau (canton), 1058, 1000
Tibesti, 341
Tibet, 457
Ticino (canton), 1058, lOGO
Tieba's Kingdom, 563
Tient-sin, 465
Tierra del Fuego, 345
Tiflis, 916
Tigre, 336
Tilburg, 811
Timor (Dutch), 830 ; (Portuguese),
890, 891
Tirnova, 1096
Tizi-Ouzou, 551
Tlaxcala (Mexico), 785
TleuKj'en, 551
Tobago, 248-251
Tobolsk, 916
Togo (Togoland), 611
Togoland, 610
Tokelau Islands, 332
Tokio, 764
Tokusima, 764
Tolima, 472
Toluca, 786
Tombo Island, 563
Tomsk, 916
Tonga, 1073
Tongarewa Island, 332
Tonk, 131
Tonkin, 545-547, 549
Toronto, 223
Tortoise Islands, 499, 500
Tortola Island, 248
Totonicapan, 704
Toulon, 513, 526
Toulouse, 513, 515
Tourcoing, 513, 53G
1192
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1899
TOU
Tom-nai, population, 414
Tours, 513
Townsville (Queensland), 290
Toyama, 764
Transcaspian railways, 962
Transcaucasia, 912, 947-949
Transkei, 184
Transvaal, 1003 {Sec South African
Republic)
Trapani, 725
Tras OS Montes, 880
Travancore, 131
Trebizond, 1079, 1080, 1092
Treinta-y-Tres (Uruguay), 1127
Treviso, 725
Trichiuopoli, 135
Trieste, 370, 373, 383
Trikkala, 693, 694
Trincomalee, 114, 115
Tringganu, 996
Trinidad, 248, 250, 251
Trinity College, Melbourne, 313
Tripoli (City), 1080, 1092
— (Province^, 1080
Tripolitza, 694
Tristan Da Cuuha, 215
Trois Freres Islands, 202
Trondhjem, 1044, 1052, 1053
Troyes, 513
Trujillo, 712, 713
Tsait'ien (Emperor of China), 456
Tsaritsyn, 916
Tsoakkaukiuund (S.W. Africa), 612
Tsushima Islands, 763
Tua-Motu Island, 546, 571
Tubingen, 688 ; University, 583, 688
Tubuai Islands, 571
Tubuai-Manu, 571
Tucuman, 345 ; town, 346
Tula, 916
Tumlong, 169
Tungurahua (Ecuador), 500
Tunis, 546, 564-568
— city, 565, 566
Tunja, 472
Turane, 548
Turin, 725 ; Universitj^, 735
Turkestan, East, 457
Turkey, agriculture, 1089
— area, 1078
— army, 1085
— books of reference, 1102
— commerce, 1090
• coiistitntion, 1076
ULM
Turkey, debt, 1083
— defence, army, 1085
frontier, 1085
— navy, 1087
— diplomatic representatives, 1101
— education, 1080
— exports, 1090-1092
— finance, 1082
— government, 1076
— Grand Vizier, 1077
— imports, 1090-1092
— land tenure, 1088
— loans, 1083, 1084
— mining, 1089
— ministry, 1078
— money, weights,and measures, 1093
— navy, 1087
— population, 1078
— posts and telegraphs, 1093
— privy council, 1077
— production and industry, 1088
— railways, 1093
— Sultan, 1074
— religion, 1080
— revenues, 1082
— royal family, 1074
— shipping and navigation, 1092
— sovereigns from 1299, 1076
— tributary states, 1094
— vilayets, 1079
Turkestan (Russian), 921, 948, 949,
951
Turkistan (Afghanistan), 339
Turks Island, 245, 246, 250, 251
Tuscany, 720
Tuticorin, trade, 157
Tuttlingen, 688
Tutuila Island (S. Pacific), 982
Tver, 916
Twillingate, 242
Twiste, 685
Tyrol, 370, 371
Tyumen, 916, 923, 962
UBANGI, 479
Udaipur, 131
Udine, 725
Ufa, 916
Uganda (British Protectorate), 196
Uitenhage, 184
U)itze, 989
U'leaborg, 968
Uhn, 688
INDEX
1198
ULS
Ulster province, population, 23
— agricultural hokling.s, 71, 72
Umber to I., 715
Unitali (S. AiVica), 213
Uugava District (Canada), 223
Union, or Tokelau grou[) ol" islaiuls,
332
University College, London, 34
Unter-Elsass, 017
Unyoro, 19(3
Upolu Island (S. Pacilic), 982
Upper Austria, 370, 371
Upsala, 1030 ; University, 1031
Uial, navigation, 9(J1 ; mining,
950
Uralsk, 916
Urbino University, 735
Urgel, Bishop, 545
Uri (canton), 1058, lOGO
Uruguay, area, 1126
— births, deaths, and marriages,
1127
— books of reference, 1133
— commerce, 1130
— constitution, 1126
— currency and credit, 1132
— debt, 1129
— defence, 1129
— diplomatic representatives, 1133
— emigration, 1128
— exports, 1130-1131
— finance, 1128
-government, 1126
— immigration, 1128
— imi)orts, 1130-1131
— instruction, 1128
— money, weights, anil measures,
1132
— population, 1126
— posts and telegraphs, 1132
— president, 1126
— production and industry, 1129
— railways, 1132
— religion, 1128
— shipping and navigation, 1131
Usbegs (tribe), 339
Ushitze, 989
Usoga, 196
Usora, sugar factory, at, 404
Utah, 1130, 1135
Utrecht, province, 809, 811
— town, 811 ; university, 812
Utsomomiya, 764
VIC
VADUZ, 386
Viiitupu Island, 332
Valais (canton), 1058, 1060
Valdivia, 446, 452
Valencia (Spain), 1013
— (Venezuela), 1135
Vak'tta (iMalta), 106
Valladolid, 1013
Valparaiso, 446, 452
Valyevo, 989
Van, 1079, 1080
Vancouver, 223
Vanga (E. Africa), 196
Vanua Levu Island, 253
Varna, 1096
Varoshia, 119
Vatui Island, 332
Vaud (canton), 1058, 1060
Vavau (Tonga), 1073
Venezuela, agriculture, 1137
— area, 1134
— books of reference, 1139
— Boundary Commission, 1135
— commerce, 1138
— constitution, 1134
— debt, 1136
— defence, 1137
— diplomatic representatives, 1139
— e.vports, 1138
— finance, 1136
— government, 1134
— ini[)orts, 1138
— instruction, 1136
— justice and crime, 1136
— mines and minerals, 1137
— money, weights, and measures,
1139
— population, 1134
— posts and telegraphs, 1138
— president, 1134
— production and industry, 1137
— railways, 1138
— religion, 1135
— shipping, 1138
Venice, 725, 735
Vera Cruz, 785, 786
Verona, 725
Versailles, 513
Verviers, po])ulation, 414
Viltorg, 916
Vicenza, 725
Victoria, agriculture, 315
— area, 311
1194
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1899
VIC
Victoria, banks, 320
— births, deaths, and marriages,
312
— books of reference, 320
— commerce, 316
— constitution, 309
— crops, 315
— currency and credit, 320
— customs valuation, 317, 318
— debt, 314
— defence, 315
— emigiution, 312
— exports, 316-318
— finance, 314
— gold production, 316
— government, 309
local, 310
— ■ governor, 310
— immigration, 312
— imports, 316-318
— instniction, 312
— justice and crime, 513
— manufactures, 316
— mining, 316
— ministry, 310
— occupations of the people, 311
— population, 311
— posts and telegraphs, 320
— production and industrj^, 315
— railways, 319
— religion, 312
— revenue and expenditure, 314
— schools and colleges, 312, 313
— ship]iing and navigation, 319
— wealth, 315
— wool export, 318
Victoria, (British Columbia), 223
Victoria (Kamerun), 612
Victoria (Hong Kong), 121
Victoria Island, 332^
Victoria (Labuan), 171
Victoria, Queen and Empress, 3
Victoria (S. Africa), 213
Victoria University, 34
Vidin, 1096
Vienna, 373
— University, 376
Villa Rica (Paraguay), 852
Villenour, 547
Vilna, 915
Vinh-Long, 548
Virgin Islands, 247, 248, 250, 251
A'^istula, navigation, 961
WES
Vitebsk, 915
Viti Levu Island, 253
Vladikavkaz, 916
Vladivostok, 908, 916, 960
Volga, navigation, 961
Volo, 694
Vorarlberg, 370
Voronezh, 915
Vostok Island, 332
Vranya, 989
Vrijheid (S. Africa), 1004
Vryburg, 213
Vyernyi, 916
WADAl, 341-343
Wady Haifa, 1123
Wakayama, 764
Waldeck, 685-686
Wales, area and population, 14
— agricultural holdings, 70
— coal raised, 74
— middle- class education, 36
— trustee savings banks^ 98
— University, 34
{See also England and Wales)
Walfish Bay (S. W. Africa), 184, 612
Wallachia, 896
Wallega (Abyssinia), 337
Wallis Archipelago, 571
Walsall, 19
Warri (West Africa), 209
Warrnambool, 312
Warsaw, 908, 915
Warsheikh, 195
— Island, 332
Waterford, 25
Watling's Island, 244
Waziristan, 338
Wei Hai Wei, 179, 458, 462
Weimar, 675
Welle (Congo State), 479
Wellingto^l (N.Z.), 275, 276
— trade, 285, 286
Wenchau, 465
Wensan (Wonsan), 778, 780
West African Colonies, British, 215
— customs valuation, 217
— troops at, 104
West Bromwich, 19
Western Australia, agriculture, 324
— area, 322
— banks, 326
IKDEX
1195
WES
Western Australia, births, 322
— books of reference, 327
— commerce, 325
— constitntion, 321
— currency and credit, 326
— customs valuation, 325
— debt, 324
— defence, 324
— exports, 322
— emigration, 325
— finance, 324
— gold exports, 325
— government, 321
— governor, 321
— immigration, 322
— imports, 325
— instruction, 323
— justice and crime, 323
— pauperism, 323
— population, 322
— posts and telegraphs, 326
— production and industry, 324
— railways, 326
— religion, 312
— schools, 323
— shipping, 326
Western Pacific (German dependencies
in), 610, 614
West Ham, 19
West Indies, 244 ; statistics, 250, 252
— Danish, 498
— Dutch, 837
Westland(N.Z.), 275
Westphalia, area and population, 658
— crime, 663
— emigi'ation, 660
— religion, 661
West Prussia, 658-663
Whvdah, 563, 564
Wiekliam(N.S.W.),^260
Wiener-Neustadt, 373
Wiesbaden, 580, 660
Wigan, 19
Wiju, 779
Wilborg, 968
Wilhelm II., German Emperor, 572
King of Prussia, 652
Wilhelm II. (Wiirttemlierg), 686
Wilhelmina Helena Pauline (Nether-
lands), 805
Wilson Islands, 332
Windhoek (S.W. Africa), 612
Windward Islands, 249-251
YOL
Winneba (W. Alrica), 215
Winnipeg, 223
Wismar, 646
Witu, 195
Witwatersrand goldfields, 1006
Wolverhampton, population, 19
Wonsan (Korea), 778-780
Woodlark Is. (N. Guinea), 257
Woolwich, Royal Military Academy,
56, 59
Worcester, 19
Worcester (Cape Good Hope, 184)
Worms, 640
Wuchnu, 465
Wuha, 465
Wiirttemlierg, agriculture, 690
— area, 687
— anny, 690
— births, deaths, and marriages,
687
— books of reference, 690
— breweries, 690
— constitution, 686
— crime, 689
— emigration, 688
— finance, 689
— government, 686
— industry, 690
— instruction, 688
— pauperism, 689
— population, 687
— railways, 690
— reigning king, 686
- religion, G^S
— revenue, 689
— royal family, 686
— towns, 688
Wiirzburg, 627 ; University, 583
V UAN DAY (Aunam), 548
YAKOBA, 210
Yamagata, 764
Yanaon, 547
Yarmouth, Gt, 19
Varoslav, 915
Yeisk, 916
Yelets, 916
Yemen, 1080
Yezd, 859
Yokohama, 764 ; port, 771
Yola, 210
1196
THE statesman's V ear book, 1899
YOR
York, 19
Vorul)a, 216
Yukon District (Canada), 223
Yunnan, 458, 463
Yurie V (Dorpat), 910, 916
Yuruari, 1187, 1189
ZACATECAS, 785, 786
Zagazig, 1107
Ziigral) (Agram), 388, 391 ; univer-
sity, 393
Zaicliar, 989
Zaila, or Zeila, 108, 1123
Zambesia (Portuguese), 892
Zante, or Zantlie, 693, 694
Zanzibar, area, 197
— army, 198
— books of reference, 199
— commerce, 198
— currency, 199
zwo
Zanzibar, finance, 198
— government, 197
— justice, 197
— population, 197
— religion, 197
— Sultan, 197
— town, 197
Zaragoza, 1013
Zealand, 809, 811
Zhitomir (Jitomir), 915
Zittau, 679
Zoniba, 193
Zor, 1080
Zoutpansberg goldfield, 1006
Zug (canton), 1058, 1060
Zululand (province), 204, 205
Ziirich (Canton), 1058, 1060
— (city), 1062 ; University, 1063
Zwickau, 678, 679
Zwolle, 811
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