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THE
STATESMAT^S TEAR-BOOK
1867
THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
A STATISTICAL, GENEALOGICAL, AND HISTORICAL
ACCOUNT OF THE STATES AND SOVEREIGNS
OF THE CIVILISED WORLD
lOR THE TEAM
1867
BY FREDERICK MARTIN
FOURTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
UTonbon
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1867
Tiu Riffht of Tran§lation anil Reproduction U reierced
Man sagt oft: Zalilen regieren die Welt
Das uber ist gewiss, Zahlen zeigcn wie sie rogiert wirJ.
Goethe.
LOKDOK
PRIXTED Br SP'OltlSWOOSK AND CO.
yEW"STEKET SQUAEB
CONTENTS.
iNTROpUCTION.
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
The Sovereigns of Europe in
1867 ....
European Political Changes of
half a century
General Territorial Changes of
half a century
Density of Population of the
Principal States and Territo-
rial Divisions of the World .
Population and Revenue of
the Principal States of the
World xvii
Decennial Progress of British
Commerce: Imports . . xviii
Decennial Progress of British
Commerce : Exports . . xix
The Mercantile Navies of the
Principal States . . , xx
Part I.
THE STATES OF EUROPE.
AUSTRIA.:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Army and Navy
Population
Trade and Industry .
Railways ....
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
BEIiGIUM:—
Reigning
Family
Sovereign and
Belgium : —
Constitution and Govern-
3
ment
31
Church and Education
3.')
6
Revenue and Expenditure
37
9
Army and Navy
39
11
Population
40
16
Trade and Industry .
43
21
Railways .
44
25
Money, Weights, and Mea-
27
sures .
Statistical and other Books
45
28
of Reference .
. 46
29
30
DENMARK:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . . 48
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .50
Church and ^^ducatiou 62
VI
CONTEXTS.
Denmabk: —
Rerenue and Expenditure . 63
Army and Navy . . 55
Population ... 56
Trade and Industry . . 58
Colonies .... 58
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 59
Statistical and other Books
of Reference ... 59
FRANCE:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .61
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 63
Church and Education . 68
Revenue and Expenditure . 72
Public Debt ... 76
Army .... 77
Navy .... 81
Population ... 87
Soil and Division of Land . 92
Trade and Industry . . 93
Railways . . . .96
Colonies . . . .97
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 99
Statistical and other Books
of Reference ... 99
GERMANY:—
Constitution . . . 102
Population . . .105
States of Nobth Germany : —
1. Prussia: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .106
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .109
Church and Education . 113
Revenue and Expenditure . 116
Army and Navy . .120
Area and PopiUation . . 125
Trade and Industry . .131
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 135
Books of Reference . .136
2. Saxony: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 137
Saxony : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .138
Revenue and Expenditure . 1 39
Army ... . . 140
Population . . .141
3. Mecklenburg-Schwerin : —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .143
Constitution, Revenue, and
^ Population . . .144
Commerce. . . 146
4. Oldenburg: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 147
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population . . .148
Commerce . . . .149
5. Brunswick: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 150
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population . . .151
6. Saxe-Weim€ur: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .152
Constitution, Revenue, and
Population . . . 153
7. Mecklenburg-Strelitz . . loo
8. Saxe-Meiningen . .157
9. Anhalt . . . .158
10. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . .160
11. Saxe-Altenburg. . . 1G3
12. Waldeck .... 165
13. Lippe-Detmold . . .167
14. Schwarzburg-Rudolsfadt . 168
15. Schwarzburg - Sondershau-
sen . . . . 169
16. Reuss-Schleiz . . .171
17. Schaumburg-Lippe . .172
18. Hamburg . . .173
19. Liibeck . . . .179
20. Bremen .... 182
States of South Gekmany: —
1. Bavaria: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .185
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .187
Church and Education . 188
Revenue and Expenditure . 189
CONTENTS!.
Vll
Bavaria : —
Great Britain : —
Army ....
190
Emigration .
284
Population
191
Wealth of the Pojmla
2. Wiirtemberg: —
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
193
tion .
Commerce and Trade —
Imports and Exports
. 283
. 289
Constitution and Govern-
Shipping
. 296
ment ....
Church and Education
195
197
Cotton Trade .
Mines and Minerals
Colonies
300
302
Revenue and Expenditure .
198
304
Army ....
199
GREECE:—
Population
200
Reigning Sovereign .
yio
3. Baden:—
Constitution and Govern-
Reigning Sovereign and
ment
311
Family ....
201
Church and Education
314
Constitution and Govern-
Revenue and Expenditure
315
ment . " .
203
Army and Navy
317
Revenue and Expenditure .
205
Population . .
318
Army and Population
206
Trade
320
4. Hesse-Darmstadt: —
Money, Weights, and Mea-
Reigning Sovereign and
sures
320
Family ....
207
Statistical and other Bookfc
Constitution and Revenue .
208
of Reference .
321
Army and Population
210
ITALY:—
0. Reuss-Greiz
6. Lichtenstein
211
212
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
323
Separate State of Germany :-
-
Luxembtu^ and Limburg
Money, Weights, and Measures .
215
ment
325
217
Church and Education
326
Books of Reference concerning
Revenue and Expenditure .
329
Germany . . : .
217
Public Debt
331
Army and Navy
333
GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-
Population
336
LAND:—
Trade and Industry .
341
Reigning Sovereign and
Papal States : —
Family ....
219
Reigning Sovereign .
345
Constitution and Govern-
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
222
ment ....
347
Church and Education
235
Ecclesiastical Administra-
Revenue and Expendi-
tion
350
ture ....
245
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
National Debt .
252
lation
351
Army ....
254
Trade ....
353
Navy ....
261
Money, Weights, and Measures
Iron-dad Navy .
266
of Italy .
354
Population —
Statistical and other Books of
England and Wales
270
Reference .
354
Scotland
275
Ireland ....
277
NETHERLANDS:—
Islands in the British
Reigning Sovereign and
Seas .
283
Family ....
3.:6
Vlil
CONTEKTS.
Netherlands : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 357
Chnrch and Education , 359
Revenue and Expenditure . 360
Army and Navy . . 364
Population . . .366
Trade and Industry . 367
Colonies .... 369
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 371
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . . 372
PORTUGAL:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .373
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 375
Church and Education . 376
Revenue and Expenditure . 377
Army and Navy . .381
Population .... 382
Trade and Industry . . 383
Colonies .... 384
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 385
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .386
RUSSIA:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .387
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .389
Church and Education . 394
Revenue and Expcnditiire . 397
National Debt . . .401
Army . . . .403
Navy 408
Population . .410
Trade and Industry . .416
Finland: —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 419
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .... 420
Trade and Commerce . .421
Poland : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 422
Revenue and Population . 424
Trade and Industry . 426
Rrssu. : —
Money, Weights, and Measures
of Russia . . . .427
Statistical and other Books of
Reference . . . .427
SPAIN:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .430
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .432
Church and Education 435
Revenue and Expenditun* . 437
National Debt . . . 440
Army and Navy . 441
Population . .414
Trade and Industry . .447
Railways . .448
Colonies . . .450
Money, Weights, and Plea-
sures . . . .453
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .453
SWEDEN and NORWAY :—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .
Sweden : —
Constitution and Govern
ment
Revenue an \ Expenditure
Army and Navy
Population
Trade and Industry .
Colony
Money, Weights, and Mea
sures
NOBWAY : —
Constitution and Ck)vem
ment
Revenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
Population
Trad&*and Industry .
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures
Statistical and other Books of
Reference
SWITZERLAND :—
Constitution and Gt)vem-
ment ....
Church and Education
455
457
459
461
462
464
467
467
468
470
470
471
472
474
475
476
477
CONTENTS.
IX
SWITZEBIAND : —
Keyenue and Expenditure .
Army . . . .
Population
Trade and Industry .
PAGE
478
482
483
485
Railways . . ' . .486
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 487
Statistical and other Books
of Beference . , . 487
TURKEY and TRIBUTARY
STATES:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family . . . .488
Constitution and Gk>vem-
ment . . . .489
Religion and Education . 491
Revenue and Expenditure . 493
Army and Navy . . 497
Turkey : —
Population
600
Trade and Commerce
604
Egypt i—See Part II. Africa.
ROXJMANIA. : —
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
606
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation ....
608
Trade and Commerce .
509
Sbbvia : —
Government . .
609
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation ....
610
Trade
511
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures of Turkey
511
Statistical and other Books of
Reference ....
612
Part the Second.
THE PRINCIPAL STATES NOT IN EUROPE.
T. AMERICA.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 616
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation . . . .616
Trade and Industry . .617
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 619
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .619
BRAZIL:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 520
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 521
Revenue and Expenditure . 623
Army and Navy . . 626
Population . . . 626
Trade and Commerce . . 527
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 629
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .529
CANADA and BRITISH
NORTH AMERICA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . . 631
Church and Education . 533
Revenue and Expenditure . 634
Army .... 636
Population . . .637
Trade and Industry . .539
Confederation op British
North America. . .541
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .542
CHILI :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
643
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation ....
544
Trade and Industry .
545
Railways ....
646
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures
546
CONTENTS.
Chili : —
Statistical and other Books
of Keference .
MEXICO:—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Government and Revenue .
Public Debt
Army and Navy
Area and Popiilation .
Trade and Industry .
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
PARAGUAY:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Population, Revenue, and
CJommerce
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
PERU:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation ....
547
548
548
550
551
552
554
555
555
556
556
658
558 i
559
560
Peru : —
Trade and Industry .
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
UNITED STATES:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Expenditure .
Public Debt
Army ....
Navy ....
Population
Immigration
Trade and Industry .
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
URUGUAY :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .
Trade and Industry
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures
PAGE
561
562
563
564
571
573
675
578
681
584
691
594
595
597
697
598
599
ALGERIA:—
Government, Revenue, and
Army ....
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population
Trade and Commerce
EGYPT:—
Government
AFRICA.
, Egypt: —
Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation .
Trade and Commerce
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Statistical and other Books
of Reference .
LIBERIA:—
Constitution and Grovem-
ment ....
Population, Revenue, and
Trade ....
NATAL:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Expenditure .
Population
611 Trade and Commerce
600
601
601
603
603
605
606
607
608
Gil
612
614
614
615
616
617
617
618
619
CO:STENTS.
XI
3. ASIA.
CEYLON :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 620
Revenue and Expenditure 620
Population . . .621
Trade and Commerce . 621
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . .624
CHmA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 625
Revenue and Population . 626
Trade and Commerce . 628
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 635
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . . 635
HONG KONG:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 637
Revenue and Expenditure . 637
Area and Population . . 639
Trade and Commerce . 640
INDIA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 644
Revenue and Expenditure . 646
Land Tax. . . . 650
Army .... 655
Population . . . 657
Trade and Commerce . 659
Railways . . . .663
India: — *
Money, "Weights, and Mea-
670
JAPAN:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 671
Area and Population . .678
Trade and Commerce . 680
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 682
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . . 682
JAVA:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 684
Revenue and Expenditure 685
Army and Navy . 687
Area and Population . .688
Trade and Commerce . 689
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures . . . .692
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . . 692
SIAM:—
Government, Revenue, and
Army .... 693
Area and Population . . 694
Trade and Commerce . 695
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures .... 697
Statistical and other Books
of Reference . . . 697
4. AUSTRALASIA.
NEW SOUTH WALES :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Mineral Productions .
NEW ZEALAND :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Expenditure .
698
699
699
701
704
706
707
New Zealand : —
Area and Population . .709
Trade and Industry . .711
Shipping . . . .713
QUEENSLAND:—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 714
Revenue and Expenditure . 714
Area and Population . . 715
Trade and Industry . .716
xii
C0:?TENT5.
PACK
VHOK
SOUTH AUSTRALIA:—
Victoria: —
Constitution and Govern-
Revenue and Expenditure
733
ment . . . .
720
Area and Population .
735
Revenue and Expenditure .
721
Religious Divisions .
737
Area and Population .
722
Immigration
738
Trade and Industry .
724
Trade and Commerce
739
Mines and Mineral Produc-
Mining Industry
742
tions . . . .
726
Railways .
743
TASMANIA:—
WESTERN AUSTRALIA:—
Constitution and Govern-
Constitution and Govern
ment . . . .
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
728
728
729
731
ment
Revenue and Expenditure
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce
. 744
. 744
. 740
. 746
VICTORIA:—
Statistical and other Books of
Constitution and Govern-
Reference concerning Aus
ment . . . .
732
iralasia
. 747
INDEX .
. 749
xm
THE SOVEREIGNS OP EtJROPE IN 1S6T,
Btaium
Title
Age
Hdt-App»rttit
Agt
AUiTBlA . . - .
Pcauflis Jos, I,
Emperor
37
Son
9
BaOXH^TK . * . .
Jjeopold n.
King
32
If
B
DfiNMAAK , , . ,
Chrii^tian JX.
It
49
II
24
FaAKfGft , , . .
Napoleon III.
Emperor
S9
it
11
GEHMlirr, NOIITH
PrBBSia ....
Willkm I.
King
,70
Son
36 1;
Soiqnj . , , .
Joliftun I,
ii
B6
39
! Mecklcntrarg-ScIi-fferm .
FTdk. Francis II,
Grand^dule
^
Tt
16
Olden bm^
FelerL
it
iO
t +
15
BmnHwick
William I.
Dudco
€1
Kin*^ of Prusfsift
70 1
S*i£wWoiinw .
Cbai^les Alex. I.
Gxand-diike
49
Sob
23
HBcklfnbu3ig-Stt¥litz
FrcdmclvWm.L
48
tt
19
Siixe-Metnujgfjn
Georgt* U.
Duke
41
11
16
Auhalt , . . .
Lrapqld IV.
?*
73
ti
36!
Saxe-CobiLpg-Got b u
Ernest II.
If
49
Nephew
23
Saxe-AlteiiLurg
Eruest I.
JI
41
Brother
38
Waldeck
Gfiorge Victor L
Pnnee
36
■ji
34
Lippe-Dotmold
Lipoid II.
n
,46
n
43
Bchwarzburg-Rudolstudt
Giintlier VI,
ti
74
J*
69
Schwa rzburg-SondcTa*
hivusen
GiintberIL
T1
Ofi
Son
37
Eenss-ScMeiz
Henrj LXVII.
il
■7fi
«1
35
SdwiimibTiig-Lippo .
Adolphus L
M
50
fj
21
GmiKAJTY^ SoUTtt
Bavuria . * . .
Ludwig II,
King
2^2
Brother
19
Wiirterabei^ .
Charles 1.
n
44
Consin
'69
Baden , , , .
Frederick I.
Grand-duke
41
aon
10
Hesse-Darmstiidt .
Lndwig m
*r
61
BroOier
'58
Beufis-Greiz .
Henrj SXII.
IMnce
21
Cousin
78
Lichtenstein ,
Johann II.
tT
27
Brcithpr
14
Grkat BarrAm & IbkM-XU
Viet^Drial
<Jueen
4S
Son
26 :
Geeecb ^ . . 1
GeoTg** I,
King
22
Brother
9
23
Itai.y ....
VktorEmanl.II
*r
47
Son
Netkeklaj^ds .
wflUiim m.
J*
50
tt
27
POBTUCIAL
Luis I.
»i
29
il
4
Russia ....
Alejuuider IL
Emperor
4&
*»
22
Sfaix ....
laahfiUs* JI.
Queen
37
t*
10
SwElJEllf AKU NORTVAY
Charles XV.
King
41
Brother
38
TUKXET , . . .
Abdul- Aziz I.
Siiltan
37
Nephfifw
27
XIV
EUROPEAN POLITICAL CHANGES OF HALF A CENTURY.
Thb Sovereigns and Republics of Eubopr.
Tear 1817
13
12
2| Ehperors. — Austria, Russia.
14 Kings or Queens. — ^Bavaria, Denmark,
France, Great Britain and Ireland,
Hanover, Netherlands, Portugal,
Prussia, Sardinia, Saxony, Spain,
Tivo Sicilies, Sweden and Norway,
Wiirtemberg.
Grand-dukes. — ^Baden, Hesse-Darm-
stadt, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Saze-
Weimar, Tuscany.
Dukes. — Anhalt - Bemhurg, Anhalt-
Cothen, Anhalt-Dessau, Brunswick,
Lucca, Modena, Nassau, Parnia,
Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-
Gotha, Saxe-Hildburghausen, Saxe-
Meiningen.
Pbincbs. — Hesse - Homhurg, Hohen -
zollem - Hechingen, Hohenzollem-
Signmringen, Lichtenstein, Lippe-
Detmold, Monaco, Reuss - Greiz,
Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumburg-Lippe,
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarz-
burg- Sondershausen, Waldeck.
Elector. — Hesse- Cassel.
Pope. — Rome.
Sultan. — Turkey.
Republics. — Andorra, Bremen, Cra-
cow, Frankfort, Hamburg, Liibeck,
San- Marino, Switzerland.
Year 1867
Emperors. — Austria,Franc«,Russia.
Kings or Queens, — Bavaria, Bei'
gium, Denmark, Great Britain and
Ireland, Greece, Italy, Netherlands,
Portugal, Prussia, Saxony, Spain, '
Sweden and Norway, Wiirtemberg. ,
Grand-dukes. — ^Baden,Hesse-Darm- \\
stadt, Mecklenburg • Schwerin,
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenberg, „
Saxe-Weimar. ;.
I
I'
(31 Dukes. — ^Anhalt-Dessau, Brunswick, i
Saxe - Altenburg, Saxe - Coburg,
Saxe-Meiningen. ,
Princes. — Lichtenstein, Lippe-Det-
mold, Reuss- Greiz, Ileuss-Schleiz,
Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sonders-
hausen, Waldeck.
PoPB. — ^Rome. t
Sultan. — Turkey. |
Republics. — Bremen, Hamburg, Lii- 1
beck, Switzerland. i
59 Sovereigns and Republics.
41 Sovereigns and Republics.
Summary.
Three extinct Kingdoms. — Hanover, Sardinia, Two Sicilies.
One „ Grand-duchy. — Tuscany.
Eight „ Duchies. — ^Anhalt-Bemburg, Anhalt-Cothen, Lucca, Modena, Nas-
sau, Parma, Saxe-Grotha, Saxe-Hildburghausen.
Four „ Principalities. — ^Hesse-Homburg, HohenzoUem-Hechingen, Ho-
henzollem-Sigmaringen, Monaco.
One „ Electorate. — Hesse-Cassel.
Four „ Republics.— Andorra, Cracow, Frankfort, San Marino.
Three new Kingdoms. — ^Belgium, Greece, Italy.
Conversion of Kingdom into Empire. — France.
XV
GENERAL TERRITORIAL CHANGES OF HALF A CENTURY.
Abea of the Principal States of the World.
1
Year 1817 Eng!^ mUes ' ^^^ 1867
Area !
Eng. sq. miles
Russia
7,046,610
Russia
7,612,874
Brazil.
3,100,104
Brazil
3,100,104 j
United Sta:cs .
851,802
United States .
2,819,811
Turkey
1,830,948
Turkey
1,812,048
British India
663,000
British India
1,004,616
Mexico
1,626,679
Mexico
846,616 1
Peru ....
602,670
Peru ....
602,760
Sweden and Norway .
291,903
Sweden and Norway .
291,903 1
Chili . . ,
177,186
ChiU .
249,962 :
Austria
243,279
Austria
227,234 ;
France
207,232
France
211,862 1
Spain ....
182,768
Spain ....
182,758 ;
Pkissia
107,286
Prussia
137,066
Great Britain and Ire-
Great Britain and Ire-
land
120,879
land .. .
120,879 !
Sardinia
24,920
Italy ....
107,961 i
Portugal
36,619
Portugal
36,510
Bavaria
29,617
Bavaria
29,617
Greece
19,941
Switzerland .
14,963
Switzerland
15,233
I Denmark .
21,907
Denmark
14,493
Belgium
Netherlands
11,313
Netherlands
22,218
10,906
Wiirtemberg
7,840
Wiirtemberg
7,676
Saxony
6,777
Saxony
6,777
1
Summary.
Eng. square miles
Increase of Russia 567,364
United States .... 1,968,009
„ British India 461,616
„ France 4,620
Prussia 29,781
Sardinia— Italy .... 83,041
Decrease of Turkey 18,900
„ Mexico 680,064
„ Austria 16,046
„ Denmark 7,414
Netherlands 11,313
XVI
1
DENSITY OF POPULATION
OF THE PRINCIPAL
STATES
AND TKHBITOBIM. DIVISION8 OF TH
m WORLD.
Area
Eng. sq. mileR
States
Date of
enumera-
tion
Popnlation
Population per
square mile <
Belgium
1863
4,893,021
11,313
432
; England and Wales
1361
20,066,224
68,320
347
1 Saxony
1861
2,225,240
6,777
328
' Netbeiiaiids
1861
8,372.652
10,905
309
i China ....
1812
»67,632,907
1,297,999
288
1 Great Britain and Ire-
1 land . . .
1861
2M21,2«8
120,879
253
Baden ....
1861
1,369,291
6,904
2S4
1 Italy . . . .
1866
24,149,766
107.961
233 1
Wiirtemberg
1866
1,720,708
7.676
219
Ireland
1861
6,798,967
31.874
181
France
1861
37,472,732
211,852
177
Prussia
1866
22,769,436
137.066
166
Bavaria
1861
4,689,837
29,617
168 ,
Switzerland .
1860
2,534,242
15,233
167 '
Austria
1866
34,670,677
227,234
152
Britii^ India
1862
135,634,244
933.722
146 1
Denmark
1860
1,600,551
14,493
110 1
Scotland
1861
3,062,294
30,685
101 1
Portugal
1858
3,584,677
36,510
98 i,
Spain ....
1867
16,301,860
182,768
90 :
Greece
1 1861
1,332,508
19,941
66
Turkey
i 1844
35,360,000
1.812,048
20 1
1
Sweden and Norway
1861
6,361,073
291,903
18 1
United States
! 1860
31,446,089
2,819,811
11
Bussia
1868
73,992,373
7,612,874
10
Mexico
1866
8,218,080 .
846,615
9
Peru ....
i 1860
2,866,000
502,760
4
i Brazil . . .
1856
7,677,800
8,100,104
2
XVll
}
; POPULATION AND REVENUE OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES
i
1
OP THE WOBLD
•
States
Population
Reyenue
Rcvenne per head
of population
; Russia ....
73,992,373
£
60,164,219
£ s. d.
0 16 1
; France ....
37,472,732
80,243,417
2 2 9
Turkey ....
36,360,000
14,737,231
0 8 4
: Austria ....
34,670,577
49,085,000
1 9 5
, Ubited States .
31,446,089
42,471,567
1 7 2
; Great Britain and Ireland .
29,321,288
67,013,000
2 8 9
i Italy
24,149,766
26,777,660
1 2 3
Prussia ....
22,769,436
27,148,000
1 4 1
Spain
16,301,850
26,275,932
1 12 3
Mexico ....
8,218,080
4,000,000
0 9 11
Brazil ....
7,677,800
6,737,600
0 14 10
Sweden and Norway .
6,351,073
7,290,271
1 7 3
Belgium ....
4,893,021
6,313,612
1 6 10
1 Bavaria . .
4,689,837
3,893,383
0 16 6
' Portugal ....
3,684,677
3,416,367
0 19 1
; Netherlands
3,372,662
8,644,412
2 11 3
Peru
2,866,000
4,249,167
1 9 10
Switzerland
2,634,242
824,862
0 6 6
Canada ....
2,607,667
2,996,366
1 4 1
Saxony ....
2,226,240
1,853,462
0 16 8
Wurtemberg
1,720,708
1,267,808
0 14 9
Chili
1,076,243
1,252,833
0 14 11
Denmark ....
1,600,661
2,086,998
1 6 1
Baden ....
1,369,291
1,428,349 .
1 0 10
Ghreece ....
1,332,608
833,881
0 12 6
Argentine Republic .
1,171,800
750,268
0 12 10
XVlll
DECENNIAL PEOGRERS OF BRITISH COMMEBCE.
L Imports into thb United Kthoi>oii tst 1S5S and in Iflft/S,
1
Itoe1aj¥d Yiila« 1
OnJ»of
Order of j
JHCipOJU D^OEQ
nifjortuicv
iaHWfi
inlaw
lafi*
1M&
£
t
India ....
12,668,732
37.395,372
3
1
France
9.14M1B
31,646,210
4
2
Egypt
3,674,683
21,773,250
12
3
United Statps
25,741,752
21,549,281
I
4
Ruesia
473.169 '
17,383,395
32
k
Germany .
16,417.476
16,611,668
2
6
Neth<*rli4iids
6,460,932
12,451,466
6
7
China
8,746,6i>U
10,673,960
6
8
Anstralaaift
4,500,200
10.283.113
9
9
Belgium .
2,633,732
7,379,893
16
10
Brazil
a,273,819
6.797.271
20
11
Britijfh North Ameri*^
a
4,693,085
6,350,148
a
. 12
Turkey
2,462,460
5,845,753
16
13
1 Sweden and Norway
3,9^4.813
5,654,314
11
14
British West Indies
4,221,458
1 6,159,833
10
15
Cuba and Porto Eico
2.332,753
6,08,%025
18
16
Spain
4,933,167
6,008,617
7
17
Peru .
3,484,288
4,002,150
13
18
' Chili.
1.925,271
3,798,643
21
19
CeyloD
1,474,251
3,707;615
24
20
Mexico
230,791
3,216,924
35
21
Portugal .
2,293,493
2,848,731
19
22
It^ily . ,
2,381,3+5
2,486,963
17
23
Denmark .
3,086,979
2.284,287
14
24
1 Cape of Good Hops
949,640
2.218,948
28
25
Singapore ,
615,738
2,169,056
31
26
British Giimna .
1,248,754
1,707,437
25
27
New Granada ,
440,492
1,674,802
33
28
Wofttem Africa .
1,516,729
i,346,B98
23
20
Uruguay »
430,292
1,256,000
34
30
Philippine lelftuds
619,179
1,2p^>3,904
30
31
Mauritina ,
1,723,807
1,246.299
22
32
Austria
1,019,028
1,160,886
27
33
Greece
1 731,615
1,071,645
29
34
Argentina Republic
1,053,033
1,014,600
26
36
Tot
d ,
143,542,850
271,134,969
XIX
PECENNliX PROGRESS OF BRITISH COMMERCE,
2. Kx PORTS OF BiimsH and Irish PBOOtrcM aitd Makutactukb* \
Df 1855 4KD IN
1865.
Dectarvd to1u&
Bxportito
J
OftScrof
Ordetat
lfi3$
lae*
inJ85fl
iffliaos
£
£
1 United StMw . . ' .
17.318,086
21,236,790
1
1
India
9,949,154
18,254,-')70
2
2
Germany .
9J87.&03
17,87S.213
3
3
AiistnikBiii
6,27S.0fla
13,352,357
5
4
France
6,012.0r')S
9,034,883
6
5
Nptherlandsi
4Jj58/210
8,111,022
7
6
Turkey .
6,631,839
7.151.550
4
7
Egypt
l,464,a7l
5,085,087
13
8
Brazil
3,312J2S
5,668.089
8
9
Italy"
2,542,456
6,376.886
10
10
Britiah 'Surth America
2,885.331
4,705,079
9
11
China, ex. Hong Eoog
6S8,679
3,609,301
20
12
Russia . . , ,
54,301
2,021.4^6
34
13
Belgium .
I707»693
2,921,300
a
14
N«w Grftnada
1,258,815
2,427,861
17
15
1 588,935
2,372,497
27
16
Portugal ,
3.*74,713
2,216,900
12
17
Cuba and Porto Rico
1,059,606
2,207.511
18
IS
Ar;f»ertme Eppmblic
742,443
1,951,048
24
10
British West Indipi
1,346,148
1,945,466
14
20
MfXlL-O
d85,RSa.
1,898,056
28
21
Chili
1,330.385
1,003,753
15
£2
Si^^eden and Norwrty
1,032,784
1,578,417
10
23
Hotig Kong
389,265
1,561,851
32
24
Jupon
—
1,520,895
—
25
Cap? of Good HojM*
788,165
1,454,540
22
26
Singwpora .
672.964
1,442,450
26
27
Denmark .
7S9,658
1,263,053
23
28
Peru .
1,285,160
1,193,335
16
29
Foreign West Indies
568,321
1,157,960
20
30
Gibr^ tar .
829,354
1,116,659
21
31
Greece
222,460
1,020,489
33
32
1 Philippine Islands
398.037
945,624
31
33
Java
529,815
928,642
30
34
Auatria
717,713
877.325
25
35 !
ToXi
il ,
95,688,085
166,862,402
zx
' " 1
THE MEHCANTHJE NAVIES OF THE PKINCIPAL STATES. |
L MBBCiKTU* Saippurti
»fiI^3tOJ»&
TO »4CH CorJTTET.
! OQtmtrls
T*rtiil
y«r
tonna^ of
VOHb
Tosi
Grant Britain and Iri^
land
1865
21,620
5,408,451
250
Unite*i SUteB
1864 ;
—
4,986,401
—
Gormany
1806
7,167
1,336,719
186
FrsniiQ
1S64
16.184
998,619
65
Ibily , . , .
Jfl6+
13,323
078,698
51
1 Norway
1864
S,fl78
634,910
111
Netherkads
1 1863
2,231
639,844
241
Spnin , - . '
1863
4,869
395,270
81
AtiHtritt
1864
3,280
314,048
96
Sweden
1863
3,236
302,414
93
Greece
1863
4,462
262,631
69
Rndsiii ei. Finland ^ .
1862
1,927
206,769
106
Finknd
1868
532
160,131
301
Denmurk
18fl3
3,740
138,960
50 1
Chili . . . .
1863
209
69,739
232
Bplginm
1864
107
34,977
327
2. ToTAt or Shtffimo Estrhb»
iND ClKAJU
U) IK Tvm FofiKiajr Tr^di ||
or KULC
E Co^WTRT.
Tatal
1 Ccmntria
Yciir
of DsUoaal
perutit.
Yewlfl
1 TqM
Great Britain and Ire-
land
18S5
108,968
28,897,092
66
tJnired Stfttca
1804
46,7^7
13,369,732
40
Germany
1804
56,896
10,282,633
36
Franca
1864
64,088
9,813,381
41
Italy . . . .
1804
43,204
7,034,042
33
AuBtrift
1864
137,663
6,909,7^0
85
Notherlunds
1803
17.007
3,403,628
37
SpHin . , . .
1863
20,317
3,272,075
37
Kuflak ex* Finland
1803
16,972
3,193,673
18
Norway
1804
22,676
2,422,832
^1
GrcftCB
1S03
18,891
2,ti04,4l9
— .
Chili . , * .
1864
6,641
2,006,886
25
Sweden
1863
14,304
1,803,497
33
Bulginm
1864
8,346
'1,673,819
11
Denmark
1863
20.561
1,143,296
45
Finljuid
1864
4,664
653,894
70
PAET I.
EUROPEAN STATES.
AUSTRIA.
Seigning Sovereign and Family.
Fran<^ Joseph I., Emperor of Austria, and King of Bohemia
and Hungary, bom August 18, 1830, the son of Archduke Francis
Charles and of Archduchess Sophia, Princess of Bavaria ; educated
imder the care of his mother, by Count Henry Bombelles, the
descendant of an ancient family of French emigrants. Appointed
Crovemor of Bohemia, April 5, 1848 ; took part in the battle of Santa-
Lucia, near Verona, May 6, 1848 ; declared of age, December 1, 1848 ;
proclaimed Emperor and King, in consequence of the abdication of
his uncle, Ferdinand I., and the renunciation of his iather, Francis
Charles, Decembef 2, 1848 ; commanding a Eussian division in the
battle of Hochstrass, near Eaab, Hungary, May 28,. 1849 ; com-
mander-in-chief of the Austrian army in the Italian campaign,
1859. Married April 24, 1854, to
Elizabeth, Empress of Austria, and Princess in Bavaria, bom
December 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria.
Offspring of the union are two children : 1. Gisela, Archduchess
of Austria, born July 12, 1856; 2. Rudolph, Archduke of Austria,
and heir-apparent. Imperial Prince of Hungary and Bohemia, bom
August 21, 1858.
Brothers of the Emperor,'-^!. Archduke Maximilian ; bom July 6,
1832 ; elected Emperor of Mexico by the * Asamtlea de Notables,*
July 10, 18j63 ; assumed, the reins of government,. June 12, 1864,
Married July 27, 1857, to Princess Charlotte, born June 7, 1840,
daughter of King Leopold I. of the Belgians. 2., Archduke Charles^
field-marshal in the Imperial army, bom July 30, 1833^; married,
Oct. 21, 1862, to Princess Annunciata, born March 24, 1843,
daughter of the late King Ferdinand II. of Naples. 3^ Archduke
Ludwig, colonel in the Imperial army, bom May 15, 1842.
Parents of the Emperor. — Archduke Francis Charles, born Dec. 7,
1802, son of the late Emperor Francis I., from his second marriage
with a daughter of King Ferdinand I. of Naples. Renounced
the throne in favour of his eldest son, Dec. 2, 1848 ; married Nov. 4,
1824, to Princess Sophia, born Jan. 27, 1805, daughter of the late
King Maximilian I. of Bavaria.
Uncle and Aunt of the Emperor, — 1. Emperor Ferdinand /.,
bom April 19, 1793, eldest son of the late Emperor Francis I. \
B 2
4 AUSTBIA.
Bucceeded his father March 2, 1835 ; crowned King of Hungary
and Bohemia, Sept. 7, 1836 ; abdicated the throne in favour of his
nephew, after previous renunciation of his brother, Dec. 2, 1848;
man-ied Feb. 27, 1831, to Empress Anna, bom Sept. 19, 1803,
daughter of the late King Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia.
2. Princess Maria Clementina^ bom March 1, 1798; married,
July 28, 1816, to Leopold, Prince of Salerno, royal Prince of
Naples; widow March 10, 1851.
Step-grandmother of the Emperor. — Empress Caroline^ bom
Feb. 8, 1792, daughter of the late King Maximilian of Bavaria ,
married, in fourth nuptials, to the late Emperor Francis I., Nov. 10,
1816 ; crowned Queen of Hungary, Sept. 25, 1825 ; widow March 2,
1835.
Other Relations of the Emperor, — 1. Archduke Albert^ bom Aug. 3,
1817, son of the late Archduke Charles, the celebrated general ; com-
mander-in-chief of the army of the South in the war against Italy,
June-July, 1866 ; married, in 1 844, to Princess Hildegarde of Bavaria,
who died April 2, 1864. Offspring of the union are two daughters,
Maria Theresa, bom July 15, 1845, and Mathilda* born January 25,
1849. 2. Archduke Charles Ferdinand ^ conmaander-in-chief of the
4th corps d'armde, and commanding-general in Moravia and Silesia,
bom July 29, 1818, brother of the preceding Archduke Albert ;
married, in 1854, to Archduchess Elizabeth of Austria, bom Jan. 17,
1831, offspring of which imion are two sons, Frederick, bom June 4,
1856, and Charles, bom Sept. 5, 1860, and one daughter, Maria
Christina, bom July 21, 1858. 3. Archduke William, governor
of the fortress, of May ence, bom April 21, 1827, brother of the
two preceding archdukes. 4. Archduke Stephen, field-marshal-lieu-
tenant in the Imperial service, bom Sept. 14, 1817, the son of Arch-
duke Joseph, second brother of the Emperor Francis I. ; married, in
1819, to Prijicess Maria of Wurtemberg, who died in 1855, leaving
One son, Joseph, bom March 2, 1833, and married May 10, 1864,
to Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; and two daughters,
Elizabeth, bom Jan. 17, 1831, married to the above-named Arch-
duke Charles Ferdinand, and Maria, born Aug. 23, 1836, married
to Duke l^eopold of Brabant, heir-apparent of tiie throne of Belgium.
5. Archduke Leopold, inspector-general of the Imperial corps of
Engineers, bom June 6, 1823, the son of Archduke Rainer, fifth
brother of the Emperor Francis I. 6. Archduke Ernest, commander
of the 3rd corps d'arm^e, bom Aug. 8, 1824, the brother of the
preceding Archduke Leopold. 7. Archduke Sigismond, commander
of the 45th regiment of Imperial infantry, bom Jan. 7, 1826, the
brother of the two preceding archdukes. 8. Archduke Rainer,
President of the Imperial Privy Coimcil, bom Jan. 11, 1827, brother
of the three preceding archdukes; married, in 1852, to Arch-
KEIGNINa SOViSRBIGN AND FAMILT.
duchess Maria Caroline, daughter of the late Archduke Charles of
Austria. 9. Archduke Henry, major-general in the Imperial army,
bom May 9, 1828, brother of the four preceding archdukes.
The Imperial family of Austria descend from Rudolph of Haps-
burg, a German Count, bom 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the
Holy Eoman empire in 1273. The male line died out in 1740 with
Emperor Charles VI., whose only daughter, Maria Theresa, gave
her hand to Duke Francis I. of Tuscany, of the House of Lorraine,
who thereby became the founder of the new line of Hapsburg-
Lorraine. Maria Theresa was succeeded, in 1780, by her son
Joseph II., who, dying in 1790, left the Crown to his brother
Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his son Francis I. ascended the
throne, who reigned tiU 1835, and having been married four times,
left a large family, the members of which and their descendants
£>rm the present Imperial House. Francis was the first sovereign
wha assumed the title of * Emperor of Austria,' after having been
compelled hj Napoleon to renounce the Imperial Crown ©f Germany,
for more than five centuries in the Hapsburg family. The assump-
tion of the title of Kaiser of Austria took place on August 11,
1804. Francis I. was succeeded by his son, the still living Emperor
Ferdinand, on whose abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the Crown fell t)a
his nephew Francis Joseph I«, the fifth Emperor of Austria of the
house of Hapsburg-Lorraine.
The following is a list of the sovereigns of Austria, descendant»of
Rudolph of Hapsburg, with the date of their accession : —
House of Hafsburg.
Kudolphl. .
1278
Matthias
. 1611
Albert!
1291
Ferdinand II. . .
. 1619
Frederick * the Handsome '
. 1308
Ferdinand HI.
. 1637
Albert n.
1313
Leopold I.
. 1667
RadolphIL .
1358
Joseph L
. 1706
Albert TTT .
1365
Charles n. 'the 6th'
. . 1711
Albert IV. .
1395
Maria Theresa
. 1740
Albert V.
1404
Frederick 11, .
1439
House of Hiapsbur
^-Lorraine.
1493
Joseph II.
. 1780
Charles L 'the 6th'
1519
Leopold IL .
. 1790
Ferdinand I. .
1556
Francis I.
. 1792
Maximilian II.
1564
Ferdinand
. 1835
KudolphH. .
1576
Francis Joseph
. 1848
The average reign of the above twenty-six sovereigns of the House
of Hapsburg, who ruled over Austria for nearly six centuries, com-
prixses a term of twenty -two years.
6 AVSTBIA*
Constitutioii and Oovermnent.
Austria has become a constitutional monarchy since the jear
1849. The first Constitution — Verfassftnga- Urkunde — of Mardi 4,
1849, was, however, repealed by an Imperial decree of Dec. 31,
1851, which substituted a more absolute form of government ;
and, during the following years, new edicts altered the public
charter. Finally, by an Imperial diploma, dated Oct. 20, 1860,
followed by a decree, or * Patent* of February 26, 1861, the Consti-
tution of the Empire, in existence till 1865, but temporarily suspended
on the 20th of September that year, was established. Its main features
are a tripartite L^slature, consisting, first, of the Provincial Diets,
representing the various states of the monarchy ; secondly, a Central
Diet, called the Reichsrath, or Council of the Empire ; and, thirdly,
a reduced form of the latter, entitled Enger Reichsrathj or Partial
Council of the Empire.
There are seventeen Provincial Diets — namely, for Hungary,
Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia, Galicia, Higher Austria,
Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Camiola, Bukowina,
Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Transylvania, Istria
and Trieste. The Diets of all these provinces are formed in
nearly the same manner, only differing in the number o^ deputies.
Each consists of only one assembly, composed, 1st, of the archlnshop
and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Oriental Greek Church and the
chancellors of imiversities ; 2nd, of the representatives of great
estates, elected by all landowners paying not less than 100 florins,
or 10/., taxes ; 3rd, of liie representatives of towns, elected by
those citizens who possess mimicipal rights ; 4th, of the representa-
tives of boards of commerce and trade-unions, chosen by the respect-
ive members ; and 5th, of the representatives of rural communes,
elected by such inhabitants as pay a small amount of direct taxation.
The Provincial Dieta are competent to make laws concerning local
administration, particularly those affecting coimty taxation, the
cultivation of the soil, educational, church, and charitable institu-
tions, and public works executed at the public expense. Himgary,
Croatia, and Transylvania have separate constitutions, aUowing
somewhat greater latitude of self-government. The Diet of Tran-
sylvania, convoked for the year 1865, consisted of 165 mem-
bers, of which number 125 were elected by the people, and 40
nominated by the Crown. In the elections, every man has a
vote who has attained the age of twenty-four, and pays direct taxes
to the amoimt of 8 florins, or 15s. ; and capable of being elected are
all citizens of the age of thirty who * are of irreproachable character.'
The Reichsrath, or CoimcH of the Empire, consists of an Upper
and a Lower House. The Upper House is formed, 1st, of the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVBRNMENT. ^
princes of the Imperial family, who are of age; 2nd, of a number of
nobles — sixty-two in the present Beichsrath — ^possessing large landed
property, on whom the emperor may confer the dignity of state-
councillors ; 3rd, of the archbishops and bishops who are of princely
rank; and 4th, of any other life-members nominated by the emperor,
on account of being distinguished in art or science, or who haye
rendered signal services to Church or State — forty-seven in
the present Reichsrath. The Lower House is composed of 323
members, elected by the seventeen Provincial Diets of the empire
in the following proportions ; Hungary, 85 ; Bohemia, 54 ;
Dalmatia, 5; Croatia and Slavonia, 9; Galicia, 38; Higher Austria,
10 ; Lower Austria, 18 ; Salzburg, 3 ; Styria, 13 ; Carinthia, 5 ;
Carniola, 6; Bukowina, 5; Moravia, 22; Silesia, 6; Tyrol and
Vorarlberg, 12 ; Transylvania, 26 ; and Istria and Trieste, 6.
The election for the Lower House of the Reichsrath is made in
the assembled Provincial Diets, the elected deputies to be members
of such Diets. The emperor has the right, however, to order the
elections to take place directly by the various constituencies of the
provincial representatives, should the Diets refiise or neglect to send
members to die Reichsrath.
The emperor nominates the presidents and vice-presidents of
both Chambers of the Reichsrath, the remaining functionaries being
chosen by the members of the two Houses. It is incumbent upon
the head of the State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The
rights which, in consequence of the diploma of Oct. 20, 1860, and
the * Patent ' of Feb. 26, 1861, are conferred upon the Reichsrath,
are as follows : — 1st, Consent to all laws relating to military duty ;
2nd, Co-operation in the legislature on trade and commerce, customs,
banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters ; 3rd, Examination
of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; of the
bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds ; and
general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills passed by
the Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as
the sanction of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper
and the Lower House have the right to propose new laws on subjects
within the competence of the Reichsrath ; but in aU other matters
the initiative belongs solely to the Government.
The eastern provinces of the empire, especially Hungary and
Croatia, have never sent representatives to the Reichsrath, thus re-
using to acknowledge the Constitution of 1860-61. To come to an
understanding with these important divisions of the monarchy, the
emperor issued a decree, dated September 20, 1865, temporarily sus-
pending the working of the Charter, in order * to propose to the Hun-
garian and Croatian Diets to accept the diploma of the 20th October,
1860, and the fundamental law relative to the representation of the
& AU8TBU.
empire which was publiBhed with the Patent Law of the 2Cth of Febm-
9irjy 1861; it being legally impos»ible to make one and the same
ordinance an object of discussion in the one part of the empire,
while it is recognised as a binding law in the other parts/
The executive of the empire consists, under the emperor, of the
following branches of administration : —
1. The Ministry of State. — Count Richard Belcredi, bom Feb.
12, 1823 ; President of the Civil Administration of Silesia, 1862-68 ;
Vice-President of the Bohemian Government, 1863-64; Governor
of Bohemia, May 27, 1864, to July 27, 1865 ; appointed Minister of
State and President of the Council of Ministers, July 27, 1865.
2. The Ministry of Finance — Baron Koch, appointed Minister
of Finance August 11, 1866.
3. The Ministry of Commerce. — Baron von Wullerstorf-Urbair \
appointed Minister of Conmierce and of Political Economy, or Volks-
wirthschaft, Oct. 3, 1865.
4. The Ministry of War. — Baron Francis von John, chief of the
staff of the Southern Army in the Italian war, June-July, 1866 ;
appointed Minister of War, Sept. 8, 1866.
5. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Count Mensdorff-Pouilly^
bom 1813 ; entered the Austrian army, 1830, and rose to the rank
of General J 1849 ; Ambassador at the Court of St. Petersburg,
1854-60 ; Governor of Galicia, 1862-64. Appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs and President of the Council of Ministers, Oct. 27,
1864 ; resigned the Presidency of the Council, July 27, 1865.
The above five ministries extend their jurisdiction over the whole
empire.
6. The Ministry of Police. — ^Chevalier Paul von Schaefer ; ap-
pointed Minister of Police, Sept. 7, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Justice.— Chevalier Von Komers ; appointed
Minister of Justice, July 27, 1865.
The two last ministries extend their jurisdiction only over the
provinces represented in the Enger Eeichsrath.
8. The Ministry of the Court of Hungary. — Count Majlath,
appointed Chancellor of the Court of Hungary July 18, 1865 ; Count
Jj&^sl^y Karoltje, appointed Vice- Chancellor of the Court of Hungary,
Dec. 20, 1861 ; Count Esterhazy^ appointed Minister of the Court
of Hungary, without portfolio, July 19, 1861.
9. The Ministry of the Court of Croatia and Slavonia. — Privy
Councillor John Mazuranic ; appointed Chancellor of the Court of
Croatia and Slavonia, Feb. 3, 1862.
10. The Ministry of the Court of Transylvania. — Coimt Haller ;
appointed Chancellor of the Court of Transylvania July 27, 1865.
The last three ministries extend their jurisdiction only over the
particular provinces which they represent.
CHUKCH AND EDUCATION,
Churcli and Education.
The State religion of Austria is the Eoman Catholic, and next in
importance stands the Greek Church. Calvinism and Lutheran-
ism are also professed by large numbers of the people ; the former
mostly in Hungary and Transylvania, the latter in the German pro-
vinces and in Galicia. The number of members of the various
religious persuasions is as follows, according to the census of
October 81, 1857, deduction being made of the provinces ceded
in 1859 and m 1866 : —
Catholics
Greek Church
United Greeks
Lutherans
21,968,686
3,694,896
3,118,605
1,286,799
Calvinists . , . 2,161,766
Unitarians . . . 50,541
Jews . . . . 1,049,871
Other sects . . . 2,350
The ecclesiastical hierarchy of Austria comprises 11 Eoman
Catholic archbishops, 1 Greek archbishop, 1 Greek schismatic
archbishop, and 1 Armenian archbishop. The Roman Church
has further 57 bishops, with chapters and consistories, and 43
abbots of ancient endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria, Illyria,
Bohemia, and Moravia. Hungary has 22 abbots with endow-
ments, 124 titular abbots, 41 endowed, 29 titular prebendaries,
and 3 college foundations. Transylvania has 3 titular abbots,
and upwards of 150 monasteries and convents; and Galicia 70
monasteries. The Greek United Church has 1 archbishop and
1 bishop in Galicia, and 5 bishops in Himgary. The Armenian
Catholic Church has an archbishop at Lemberg. The Archbishop of
Carlowitz is head of the Greek Church, with 10 bishops and 60
protopapas, or deans. Protestants in a great part of the empire are
only tolerated, not being allowed to build churches with steeples,
to use bells, or keep parish registers independent of the Catholic
parish clergy ; they are placed under ten superintendents for the
Lutherans, and nine superintendents for the Calvinists. In Hun-
gary and Transylvania, however, they enjoy equal rights with the
Roman Catholics.
, The extent of landed property in Austria belonging to the Catholic
Church is very considerable. Though reduced in number within
the last half century, there are still nearly 300 abbeys, and above
500 convents in the empire. Some of the Roman Catholic prelates
have very large incomes, as the archbishop of Prague, the revenues
of whose see amount to 150,000 florins, or 12,500/. The Pro-
testants have no endowed churches out of Hungary and Transyl-
vania, the clergy being chosen and supported by their congrega-
tions.
The total number of educational estabUahments, of professors and
10
AUSTBIA.
teachers, and of scholars in the Austrian empire, in each of the
years 1851 and 1857, was as follows: —
Number
Number of
Number of
of
Professors and
Students and
If fttmre of
Teachers
Scholars
1
1851
1857
1851
1857
1851
1857
Superior institutions .
206
266
1,716
1,782
25,359
23,128
Middle schools . .
388
442
3,320
4,500
60,569
72,646
Militaiy schools . .
63
53
1,297
3,274
5,520
7,075
Other schools : >
For boys. . . .
564
147
1,724
910
17,352
11,384
„ girls. . . .
1,084
408
3.647
2,700
38,580
23,463
Mixed ....
28
37
170
176
1,811
1,696
National schools . .
Total . .
41,860
47,270
55,431
58,385
3,196,422
3,693,604
44,193
48,616
67,304
71,730
3,346,613
3,732,862
There are 8 universities in the empire, at Vienna, Prague, Pesth,
Gratz, Cracow, Innspruck, Lemberg, and Linz. The number of
students attending these universities amounted, in 1860, to 8,256,
about one-fourth of which number were at Vienna. Next in rank to
the universities stand the theological seminaries, 129 in number,
with 4,051 pupils ; and the Polytechnic schools, 7 in number, with
2,672 pupils. The German-speaking population of the empire is
most advanced in general education ; and least the people of the pro-
vinces of Slavonia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. At the conscription of
1857, it was found that of 2,649 recruits in the archduchy of
Austria, 2,323 were able to read and write ; while in Bohemia there
were among 11,213 recruits only 6,597 able to read and write; and,
finally, in Dalmatia, among 928 conscripts, only 9 were possessed of
the rudiments of education.
There are 362 journals issued in Austria, among which number
134 are political. Of the latter, 89 are German, 6 Czechish, 4 Polish,
2 Serbian, 2 Croatian, 1 lUyrian, 2 Ruthenian, 14 Italian, 16
Hungarian, 3 Humenian, 2 Greek, 1 Slavonian, 2 Hebrew, and 1
French. The non -political papers comprise 190 German, 13 Czechish,
14 Polish, 7 Serbian, 4 Slavonic, 6 Croatian, 28 Italian, 57 Hun-
garian, 2 Ruthenian, 1 Greek, 1 French, and 2 Hebrew. The
number of books and pamphlets published throughout the empire
in the year 1863, amounted to 2,570. Of these publications, 1,093
were in the German language, 582 in Hungarian, 526 in the various
Slavonian dialects, 347 in Italian, 14 in Latin, and 8 in French. It
will be seen that, next to the German, the Himgarian element is the
most influential in Austria. The final separation of the Italian na-
tionality from tlie empire, in 1866, necessarily increased this influence.
BSYENUB AND BXPENDITUKB,
II
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The total net revenue of the empire in each of the fourteen years
from 1850 to 1863 was as follows : —
Year
Bevenue
Year
Bevenue
Florins
£
Florins
£
1850
197,443,372
19,744,337
1857
317,396,986
31,739,698
1851
225,005,350
22,500,635
1868
315,188,86^
31,618,886
1852
230,110,271
23,011,027
1869
260,829,196
24,778,774
1853
238,383,665
23,838,366
1860
301,589,455
28,650,998
1854
250,094,22
25,009,422
1861
318,608,316
30,267,790
1855
282,722,005
28,272,200
1862
307,481,296
29,210,723
1856
290,189,337
29,018,933
1863
319,653,292
30,367,063
During the same period, the annual expenditure and the accom-
panying deficit were as follows : —
Year
Expenditure
Deficit
Florins
£
Florins
£
1851
296,299,502
29,629,960
71,294,152
7,129,415
1852
309,731,167
30,973,167
79,620,896
7,962,089
1853
321,442,245
32,144,224
83,068,580
8,305,858
1854
407,243,105
40,724,310
167,148,885
15,714,888
1855
441,041,905
44,104,190
168,319,900
16,831,990
1866
371,212,314
37,121,231
81,022,977
8,102,297
1867
370,866,437
37,086,643
53,459,461
6,346,945
1868
367,052,684
36,706,268
61,863,819
5,186,382
1859
517,467,633
49,159,425
266,638,437
24,380,661
1860
344,554,316
32,732,660
42,964,861
4,081,662
1861
367,851,818
34,946,922
49,243,502
4,678,132
1862
387,017,143
36,766,629
79,636.847
7,665,906
1863
394,612,448
37,488,182
74,968,151
7,121,119
The Austrian budget was settled, up to the year 1863, from the
first of November to the last day of October every year. A change
was introduced in 1863, when it was arranged that for the fiiture
the financial accounts of the empire should run current with the
ordinary year. To accomplish the change, the budget estimates for
1863-64 werefor fourteen months, from November 1, 1863, to the last
day of December 1864. The gross revenue for this period of fourteen
months was estimated at 570,047,335 florins, and the expenditure
at 609,447,289 florins, leaving a deficit of 39,399,954 florins.—
In the budget for the year 1865 — accepted by the Lower House
of the Reichsrath, May 8, 1865 — the gross revenue was estimated at
514,905,453 florins, and the expenditure at 522,888,222 florins,
leaving a deficit of 7,982,769 florins. Finally, in the budget for the
year 1866— published, during the suspension of the Charter, by
12
AUSTBIA.
Imperial decree, in the * Wiener Zeitung/ under date of January 1,
1866 — the revenue was estimated at 491,134,735 florins, or about
49,085,000/., and the expenditure at 531,273,881 florins, or
53,000,000/., leaving a deficit of 40,139,146 iloTin^, or o,nl5,tmu^.
The estimated revenue ibr the year 1866 consisted of the follow
ing main hranches — the sums reduced to English money, in round
fig area : —
BnuKbeeof Kerenoe
I^nd tait .
Trade ,| .
Inrame „ .
iNHrRECT Taxes: —
BpirituouB liquors
Wine , . , .
Beer - * . . .
MtMlt. . , , ,
Sugar ...
Excise , . .
Stamp duty
Duty on legal proceedings
liOttfilJ , . .
Customs . * .
Jhiti^ tanned -
Sundries . . ,
Monopolies ; —
Salt .
Tobacco
PMceids of domain B
Woods and faraate
State establishmfinta :^
Factoriea *
Mi DBS
Mint.
Beceipts of Ministry of Commere^
War
Eitraopdi naiy repources anticipnted:—
Sale of KtiLtu property
UnBold bonds, English loan 5 per<^nt*
BnJajices of loans tecently concliud^ ,
Total estimated Tevenne
6,480,000
2,305,000
1JOO,OIK)
2,065,000
50,000
1,396,000
600,000
1,690,000
550,000
895,000
1,420,000
1,656,000
3,645,000
1,990,000
325,000
615,000
190,000
3,900,000
6,630,000
385,000
1,075,000
110,000
2,720,000
2,240,000
1,580,000
875,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
2,100,000
12,000,000
13,970,000
26,970,000
9,530,000
6,530,000
2,455,000
44j485,0OO
4,600,000
49,085,000
RBYENFB AND EXPENDITURE.
13
Besides the public sources of revenue above enumerated, several
branches of the administration, among them the departments of the
army, of the navy, and those of education and ecclesiastical affairs,
under the Ministry of the Interior, have special funds at their own
disposal, arising from what may be called endowments. These
consist chiefly in landed property ; but also in capital laid out in
mortgage, in rights connected with the soil, and ceitain other pecu-
niary privileges. All these sources of revenue are not treated in the
budget as receipts, but merely deducted from the amoimt demanded
by each department.
The estimated expenditure for the year 1866, as given in the
budget, was divided in l^e following principal branches : —
1 Branches of Expenditure
£
£
Imperial Court
Interest on public debt ....
Army
Navy
Cabinet and Ministerial Council
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
State
„ Commerce ....
„ Justice
Boards of Control and Account*
Management of Finances .
„ various treasuries .
Collection of Taxes
Management of State domains .
„ Confiscated property
„ State factories
„ Woods and Forests .
„ Mines ....
Mint ....
Subventions to industrial undertakings and
railways
Payment of State Bonds given to land-
owners for loss sustain^ by the aboli-
tion of villainage ....
Sundries
Interest on temporary loans .
8,875,000
785,000
880,000
12,500,000
9,660,000
7,525,000
7,580,000
6,155,000
570,000
1,110,000
420,000
60,000
220,000
4,460,000
1,460,000
975,000
350,000
1,750,000
250,000
6,580,000
375,000
20,000
50,000
850,000
2,610,000
2,250,000
46,400,000
6,600,000
53,000,000
AUSTRIA.
The largest item of expenditure, as will be seen from the above
statement, is the interest on the public debt. This debt has grown up
gradually since the middle of the last century. At the end of tl^
Seven Years' War, in 1763, Austria had a debt of 150,000,000
florins, or 15,000,000/., which grew to 288,000,000 florins, or
28,300,000Z., in 1781, and at the commencement of the French Re-
volution, in 1789, had risen to 849,000,000 florins, or 34,900,00W.
From this period the debt grew in extraordinary proportions ; rising
to 825,000,000 florins, or 82,500,000/., in 1815; to 987,000,000
florins, or 98,700,000/., in 1820; to 1,084,000,000 florins, or
108,000,000/., in 1830 ; and to 1,2 50,000,000 florins, or 125,000,000/.,
in 1848. From 1789 until the present time, there was not a single
year in which the revenue of the State came up to the ex-
penditure.
The following was the amount of the public debt of Austria on
the 1st of January 1866 : —
Description of Debt
Amount of Debt
(Consolidated Debt : Old ... .
New ....
Floating Debt
Lombardo-Venetian Debt : Consolidated
„ „ Floating .
Capital reserved for Indemnities .
Total . . . . { ^°"7
Florins
41,326,844
2,326,928,640
162,060,360
2,620,304,844
66,003,609
793,626
14,892,491
2,600,994,469
247,094,474
The war against Prussia and Italy, in the summer of 1866,
increased the public debt by about 300,000,000 florins; but, on
the other hand, freed Austria from the Louibardo-Venetian Debt,
which, by the terms of the Peace of Prague, of August 23, 1866,
was transferred to the kingdom of Italy.
To cover the ever-growing indebtedness of the state, recourse was
had, in the year 1866, to a series of new loans, mostly concluded on
very onerous terms. By Imperial decree of November 23, 1865,
the Minister of Finance was authorised to issue bonds to the amoimt
of 90,000,000 florins in silver, * in such a way as shall be least
burdensome to the state exchequer,' and to be repaid by a lottery.
The bonds of this loan, though guaranteed on the state domains,
were only partly taken up, and in December, 1865, the Austrian
KEVENFB AND EXPENDITFKE. 1$
Government entered into arrangements with the banking-houses of
Eothschild, Baring, and Hope, for a loan of 6,000,000/. at eight per
cent, interest. The proceeds of the latter loan having been ex-
hausted, an Imperial decree, dated April 27, 1866, empowered the
Minister of Finance to raise money for the public expenditure by a
fresh mortgage of landed property belonging to the State. A loan
of 60,000,000 florins was contracted, in pursuance of this order,
with the * Hypothecar Credit Institut,' on the security of mortgage
bonds. But this operation likewise proved but a very slight relief
to the finances of the State, and it was followed immediately by
another Imperial decree, which established a forced paper currency.
By the terms of this decree, dated Vienna, May 5, 1866, the one
and ^ve florin notes of the Austrian National Bank are declared to
be State notes, and until they are withdrawn from circulation they
must be taken at the public treasuries at their full nominal worth,
except in those cases in which it is legalJy ordained that the pay-
ments shall be made in hard cash. They must also be taken when-
ever the State has payments to make, unless it is expressly agreed
that the payments are to be made in hard cash. Further, everyone
without exception is bound to take the one and ^ve florin notes at
their full nominal value.
The Imperial decree of May 5, 1866, was accompanied by an
official article in the * Wiener Zeitung,' offering the following ex-
planation of the important step taken by the Government. * Self-
preservation is the first duty of the State, and urgent necessity has
led to the promulgation of the foregoing law. Austria, while
striving hard to settle her internal affairs and to develop the
resources of the State, is suddenly and imexpectedly menaced on
two sides. The Imperial Government is bound to prepare for
defence, and in order that it may be able to do so an extraordinary
supply of money must be had. In the present state of the European
money-market a loan cannot be negotiated, and the state of affairs
in the monarchy precludes the possibility of an increase of taxation.
Under such circumstances the Government had no choice but to
increase the amount of the paper currency. The bank notes in
circulation are of the value of 343,597,316 fiorins. Among these
are one and five florin notes to the amount of 112,000,000 florins.
Thus the notes now in circulation are 343,597,316 florins on account
of the Bank, and 112,000,000 florins on account of the State.
However, the latter can, in case of need, have one and five florin
notes in circulation to the value of 150,000,000 florins. The
Finance Department is well aware that au augmentation of the
paper currency will lead to a deterioration of it, but by circum-
stances it has been forced to have recourse to a measure which it
deeply deplores.' The amount of State paper actually issued far
16
AUSTRIA.
gurpassed the original calculation of the Government, for, in order
to meet the expenses of the war against Pruss^ia and Italy, notes to
the nominal value of 300 millions of florins had to be given out, in
addition to the sums previouslv fixed, in August and September,
1866.
By the terms of the Peace of Prague, Austria was bound to pay
the expenses incurred by the Prussians in the war of 1866, to
the amount of 40,000,000 thalers. From this sum, however,
15,000,000 thalers were deducted in payment for Schleswig-
Holstein, and 5,000,000 thalers for the maintenance of Prussian
troops in the Austrian States, The remaining 20 million thalers
were paid by the Austrian Government in two instalments, on the
80.th of August and the 15th September, 1866.
Army and Navy.
According to official returns, Austria possessed, on the peace-
footing, at the commencement of 1866, an army of 269,103 men,
rank and file, with 42,201 horses. Official papers, furnished by
the War Office, describe the troops of the empire as constituted
in the following manner : —
Troops
Peace
footing
each
80 regiments of infantry of the line, each of 3 bat-
talions, with 6 companies . . . . .
1 regiment Kaiserjager, of 8 battalions, with 4
companies
32 battalions of Feldjager, of 6 companies each
14 regiments of frontier infantry
10 companies of * sanitary troops '
Total of infantry
12 regiments of cuirassiers, of 6 squadrons
2 „ of dragoons, of 6 squadrons „
24 „ of hussars and uklars of 6 squadrons „
3 „ of volunteer hussars and uklars, 8 „
Total of cavalry .
12 regiments of field-artillery, of 10 batteries, with
4 companies
1 regiment of coast-artiUery, of 3 batteries, with
4 companies
1 regiment of raketeurs, of 12 batteries, with 3
companies
2 regiments of engineers, of 4 battalions .
6 battalions of pioneers
124,590
3,974
23,200
8,640
1,914
162,318
11,376
3,120
23,400
2.448
40,344
^32,875
5,998
3,797
War
footing
330,430
7,939
41,760
59,016
2.858
442,003
14,172
5,680
27,210
5,697
57,759
54,881
8,968
6,416
The rest of the army of 269,103 men, on the peace footing,
according to the Government tables, consists of the transport service,
AKMY AND NAYY. 1 7
the gendarmerie, and various irregular troops in Transylvania and
the border provinces.
The Austrian army is formed by conscription, to which every man
is liable who has reached his 20th year. In times of peace, the
Government undertakes to furnish substitutes, at the average price
of 1,200 florins, or 123Z. each. The term of service is eight years,
afler which the soldier is liable to serve two years longer in the army
of reserve. During peace, a large proportion of the troops are sent
home regularly on furlough. It is part of the military policy of the
Government to encourage, by all possible means, the re-enlistment of
old soldiers, for which purpose the fund contributed by those who
seek substitutes is distributed in the shape of bounties. The pay of
the troops, privates as well as officers, is smaller in the Austrian
army tlian that of any other country in Europe, except Eussia. A
large proportion of the officers are noblemen. In 1861, there were
103 princes, 590 counts, 898 barons, 570 knights, and 2,826 imtitled
nobles in the army ; the largest number proportionately in the
cavalry, and the smallest in the artillery and the engineers. The
upper hierarchy consisted, in 1866, of 3 field-marshals, 14 Feld-
zeugmeister and generals of cavalry, 77 field-marshal-lieutenants, and
125 general-majors, in active service, besides 337 field-marshal -
lieutenants and generals on half-pay.
It is estimated that in the war against Prussia and Italy, in 1866,
Austria lost 120,000 men, in prisoners, wounded,, and killed ;
90,000 against Prussia, and 30,000 against Italy. At the final
exchange of prisoners between Prussia and Austria, which took
place at Oderberg, August 27, 1866, there were released 523
Austrian officers and 85,036 rank and file, while about 13,000
Austrian prisoners were left behind in the Prussian hospitals, their
wounds not allowing removal. On the other side, Austria had to
give up but seven Prussian officers and 450 non-commissioned
officers and men, while about 120, severely wounded, remained be-
hind in hospital. Thus the proportion of Austrian prisoners to
Prussian was as 83 to 1. The number of Austrians killed in the
war against Prussia, or who had perished of their wounds, till the
end of August, 1866, was computed at 18,000. (For the loss of the
enemy, see Prussia),
Austria has 24 fortresses of the first and second rank, namely,
Comom, Carlsburg, Temesvar, Peterwardein, Eszek, Brod, Carl-
stadt, Canove, Arrat, Munkacz, Cracow, Gradisca, Olmiitz,
Leopoldstadt, Prague, Brixen, Theresienstadt, Kufstein, Linz,
Salzburg, Buda, Eagusa, Zara, and Pola. The last-named is the
chief naval fortress of the empire.
The navy of Austria consisted, in August 1866, of 39 steamers,
with 639 guns and 11,730 horse-power, and 20 sailing vessels with
145 gutas. ^ c
V
18
AUSTBIA.
The following is the list of the men-of-war : —
Description and name of Ship
SCBBW LINB-OF-BATTLB (Iron-clad).
First class :
Kaiser
Ferdinand Max
Hapsburg ....
Second class :
Kaiser Max ....
Prinz Eugen
Juan d' Austria
Third class:
Drache ....
Salamander ....
Fbioates.
First class:
Schwarzenberg
Novara ....
Third class:
Eadetzky ... *
Adria
Donau
CoUVJClTJtS.
Second class :
Friedrich ....
Dandolo ....
Dalmat ....
Hum
Velebich ....
Seehund ....
Streiter ....
Gunboats.
Beka
WaU
Third dass:
Gemse
Grille
Sansego ....
Kerka
Marenta ....
Move
Carried forward .
i
I
1
1
^1
—
2
16
74
—
92
32
32
800
800
800
16
15
_
31
650
16
15
^^
—
31
650
16
15
—
—
—
31
650
10
18
.
_
_
28
500
10
18
"^
—
~~~'
28
500
4
4
40
50
400
—
3
6
44
—
51
500
3
4
24
__
31
300
—
3
4
24
—
31
300
—
3
4
24
■~~
31
300
2
4
16
22
230
—
2
4
16
22
230
2
2
—
—
—
4
230
2
2
—
—
—
4
230
2
2
—
—
—
4
230
2
2
—
—
—
4
230
2
2
—
—
»
4
230
2
2
__
__
^
4
230
2
2
—
—
—
4
230
2
_
_
_
2
4
90
2
—
—
—
2
4
90
2
—
—
—
2
4
90
—
2
—
4
—
6
90
—
2
—
4
—
6
90
—
2
—
—
—
2
50
88
123
46
270
6
597
9,320
ABUT AND NAYT.
»9
I>aKffliJtlon and nezne 0* Ship
,1
S8
123
46
270
ii
6
597
9,320
Brmighi forward
YACH-ra (Paddle-wheel).
Greif
—
1
—
2
—
S
300
FantMie
—
—
—
—
2
2
120
&I3AKKE9 Airo Daai-iTCH EoiTS.
Eliziib«th
^^
2
—
4
—
6
360
Lucia
—
2
—
4
—
a
300
Aodreas Hofer . - » .
—
1
—
3
— .
4
X&O
Curtntone
—
I
—
3
—
4
IflO
Vdcau * . * , .
—
S
— '
—
—
3
120
TauriM
—
—
—
1
4
6
100
Triest
— .
.^
- —
— -
4
4
220
Pimnei
—
^-.
-^
—
2
2
120
Hfflitd
—
■ —
—
—
4
4
40
88
X32
46
287
22
639
11,730
In addition to the above there are 20 sailing ships of different
classes, carrying a total of 145 guns — yiz, frigates — the Bellona, 35,
and the Venus (school-ship). Corvettes — the Carolina, 20; the
Diana, 20 ; The Minerva, 10. Brigs — the Hussar, 12 ; the Mon-
tecuccoli, 16. Schooners — the Saida, 8; the Arthemisia, 10; the
Arethusa, 10. Transports — the Pylades (brig), 4; with four
schooners and five trabuccoli. At the naval encounter with the
Italian fleet in the Adriatic, off Lissa, July 19, 1866, the Austrian
squadron was composed, according to oflicial returns, of the following
vessels, all steamers : —
Deecription and name of Ship
Tons
Horse-
power
No. of
Guns
Crew
Ibon-clads.
Ferdinand Max
Hapsburg
Juan d' Austria
Prinz Eugen .
Kaiser Max .
Salamander .
Drache .
Ship-of-the-ld
Kaiser . . .
4,600
4,600
3,800
3,800
3,800
3,400
3,400
3,700
800
800
660
650
660
600
600
800
16
16
32
32
28
26
26
92
612
492
400
400
380
360
360
980
c 2
20
AUSTBIA.
Descriptioii and name of Ship
Frigates.
Schwarzenberg
Novara .
Badetzky
Adria . . .
Donau .
Friedrich
COBVBTTE.
Gunboats.
Hum ....
Velebich
Seehund
Streiter ....
Dalmat ....
Reka ....
WaU ....
Marenta
Kerka ....
Paddle Steamers.
Elizabeth
Greif ....
Andreas Hofer
Tons
Horse-
power
2,700
460
2,800
450
2,000
360
2,000
360
2,000
350
1,600
230
860
260
850
250
850
250
850
250
860
250
860
250
850
260
700
90
700
90
1,400
350
1,000
350
600
250
No. of
Oans
48
54
31
31
31
22
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2
4
Crew
620
660
390
390
390
260
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
120
120
200
158
120
The navy of Austria is commanded and manned by 2 vice-admirals,*
3 rear-admirals, 1 major-general of the marine, 10 captains of ships-
of-the-line, 25 captains of frigates, 84 lieutenants, 315 ensigns and
cadets, and 13,991 sailors and marines. The navy is recruited, like
the army, by conscription, from among the seafaring population of the
empire. A large number, however, is obtained besides by voluntary
enlistment, particularly in the province of Dalmatia, which enjoys
peculiar privileges in respect to the number of sailors which it has to
fiimish to the imperial navy. The term of service in the navy is eight
years, after which the men are liable to remain two years longer in
the navy of reserve. The pay of the navy is higher than that of
the army, in respect to officers as well as to sailors and marines.
Austria has two harbours of war, Pola and Trieste. A description
of the former is given by a military correspondent of the Times j in
a letter dated Pola, August 4, 1866. * The harbour of Pola, Austria's
chief naval port, can be approached from two directions — on the
north through the Channel of Fasana, on the south-west from the
Adriatic itself; but ships attempting the latter entrance must be
furnished with skilfiil pilots, for the strip of deep water is narrow
and tortuous. Numerous land batteries, tpo, crown the rocky islands
and occupy every commanding position on the points of the main-
land, frimished with guns and mortars sufficient to carry terrible
danger to the fleet which should dare to trust itself within reach of
POPULATIOiJ.
21
their grinning teeth. The circular fort of Lniggio stands at the
point running out from the south of Pola, sweeping round to the
west, and bars the way with its 90 pieces of ordnance, crossing their
fire with that of other batteries weaker in number of guns, but
formidable enough to make the entrance too hot to be attempted by
any but the strongest iron-clads. The channel of Fasana, running
a little to the west of north from Pola harbour, is broad and deep,
but at its mouth and along its sides bristle guns numbering, wiQi
those nearer the harbour, about a thousand. The telegraph connects
the whole and brings them within speech of each other.' — (The
TimeSj August 14, 1866.) Great efforts have been made, within
the last few years, to raise the Imperial navy to a ^state of high
efficiency, by the substitution of steam for sailing vessels, and the
gradual formation of an iron-clad fleet of war.
Population.
The Austrian empire is divided into nineteen provinces, the
area of which, and total population, according to the census of
October 31, 1857, is shown in the subjoined table. Deducted from
the statement are the Lombardo -Venetian provinces ceded to Italy
in 1859 and 1866:—
Ihpovinces
Area
in Austrian
square miles
Population
Total
Average per
square mile
Lower Austria .
344-49
1,681,697
4,882
Upper „ . . .
Salzburg ....
208-47
707,450
3,394
124-52
146,769
1,179
Styria .
39019
1,056,773
2,708
Carinthia
180-26
332,456
1,844
Carniola ....
173-67
461,941
2,604
Coast land
138-82
520,978
3,763
Tyrol and Vorarlberg
509-00
851,016
1,672
Bohemia ....
902-85
4,705,525
5,212
Moravia ....
386-29
1,867,094
4,833
Silesia ....
89-45
443,912
4,963
Galieia ....
1,364-06
4,597,470
3,370
Bukowina
181-69
456,920
2,515
Dalmatia.
222-30
404,499
1,820
Hungary . . . ^
Servia and Temesvar /
3,727-67
9,900,785
2,656
Croatia and Slavonia
33500
876,009
2,615
Transylvania .
954-33
1,926,797
2,019
Military frontier .
Total
583-00
1,064,92^
1,827
10,815-96
32,573,003
3,012
English
per English
square miles
square mile
227,234
144
22
AUSTRIA.
The subjoined tabular statement ahows the area of the Austrian
empire at different periods since the death of the Empress Maiia
Theresa in 1780:—
Perioda
ProvinoeB
EngUsh
sq. milee
1780
Austrian district
1,766-92
37,105
Suabian district
—
149-50
3,140
Burgundian district ....
—
47900
10,058
Falkenstein district ....
—
200
42
Bohemia
—
902-85
18,960
Moravia
—
386-29
8,112
Silesia
—
89-45
1,879
Eastern G^alicia
—
1,420-50
29,831
Bucowina
—
181-69
3,815
Milan, Mantua, Castiglione, and Sabio- (
netta J
—
124-60
2,617
Hungary
—
3,62713
76,170
Croatia and Slavonia ....
—
329-00
6,909
Transylvania
—
954-27
20,039
Military frontier
Total in 1780
—
682-00
14.322
—
11,095-20
232,999
SuBSBQinBNT AxTEBATIONS
1782
Acquired by Emperor Joseph II., by
Treaty, in the Inn district .
400
—
—
1791
Acquired by Emperor Leopold, in Alt-
Ostrova and Unna district .
Total at the beginning of the reign of
1-60
—
—
Emperor Francis I., March 1792
—
11,100-80
233,117
1796
Acquired by the third division of
Poland (Western Galicia) .
883-40
—
—
1797
(Peace of Campo Formio), by which
Austria ceded Belgium, Lombardy,
and Breisgau ....
64500
—
—
And received in return Venice, Istria
Dalmatia, and Albania
Total in 1797
64300
—
—
—
11,982-20
251,626
1801
(Peace of Luneville) ceded Etsch, Falken-
stein, and Frickthal ....
33-00
—
1803
Ceded Ortenau
Acquired Trient and Brixen .
8-00
—
—
4100
8900
.»
1804
Bought Blumeneck,Lindau, and Eothen-
fels
Total at the assumption of the title of
10-50
—
—
Emperor of Austria on the 11th
August^ 1804
—
12,040-70
252,856
FOPDIATION.
23
Periods
Provinces
Anstxian square miles
Bnglish
sq. miles
1805
1807
1809
1810
1814
181)
1S16
1835
1846
1848
1859
1866
(Peace of Presburg), ceded Venice, Venet
Istzia, Dalmatia, Albania, Tyrol, and
Vorarlberg, and all possessions in
Suabia
1,196-60
Acquired Salzburg, Berchtesgaden, Ma-
trei-Ziller, and Brixenthal .
(Treaty of Fontainebleau), ceded Mon-
falcone
186-52
6-94
Total in 1807
(Peace of Vienna), ceded Salzburg, Bre-
chtesgaden, Matrei-Ziller and Brixen-
thal. Inn, and half district of Hans-
ruck, Villach, Carniola, Gorz, Qradisca,
Aust.-Istria, Trieste, Fiume, half of
Croatia, Western Q-alicia, and Za-
mosk
(Treaty with Russia), ceded Tamopol
and Czortkow
Total in 1810
(Treaty of Paris, June 3), recovered
North Tyrol, and Vorariberg
(Vienna Congress), acquired and re-
covered Lombardo- Venetian Elingdom,
Gorz, Gradisca, Trieste, the whole of
Istria, Dalmatia, Ragusa, Venet. -
Albania, Carniola^ Fiume, Croatia,
South Tyrol, Malrei-Thal, Villach,
Tarnopol, and Czortkow .
Total in 1816
(Treaty of Munich, April 14), recovered
Salzburg, Inn, half of Hansruck,
Ziller, and Brixenthal
Total at accession of Emperor 1^
Ferdinand I. . . .J
(Treaty with Russia and Prussia), in-
corporated Cracow and district .
Total at accession of Emperor")^
Francis Joseph I. . . j
(Peace of Zurich), ceded the greatest
part of Lombardy ....
Total in 1859
(Peace of Prague), ceded Venetia and the
rest of Lombardy ....
Total area, at the end of 1866 .
1,851-45
13017
213-91
2,116-72
11,023-68
231,497
9,04206
212-02.
21-33
353-16
436-92
11,372-69
189,883
238,827
11,584-71
11,60604
11,252-88
10,816-96
243,279
243,727
236,311
227,234
24
AUSTKIA.
The census of 1857 showed the population to amount to 37,389,913
souls. By the cession of its Italian provinces, in 1859 and 1866,
the empire lost 4,766,910 inhabitants, reducing the population to
32,573,003, according to the census returns. But the natural
increase of the population had raised the number to 34,670,577 at
the end of 1866, according to the calculation of the registry of births
and deaths. On this basis, the number of inhabitants of the different
provinces was as follows, at the end of 1866 : —
ProTinoee
Population
1,945,800
Provinces
Population
686,408
Lower Austria .
Silesia
Upper Austria .
716,072
Galioia
6,001.568
Salzburg .
146,930
Bukowina .
501,038
Styria
1,280,196
Dalmatia .
43r.788
Carinthia .
340,202
Hungary .
10,56^690
Camiola .
468,918
Croatia and Slavonia .
94,630
Trieste and Coast land
557,366
Trannylvania
2,05i,292
Tyrol and Vorarlberg
873,316
Militaiy frontier
1,111,014
Bohemia .
5,059,125
-
Moravia . ...
1,983,324
Total
34,670^77
The next census of the population of Austria is to take plaje in
1867.
More than two-thirds of the population of the empire are
engaged in husbandry. In Bohemia, however, and in Lower Austria
and Moravia, where the chief efforts for fostering a manufactuing
interest are made, about one-half of the population is withdiawn
from the cultivation of the soil.
The population is divided with respect to race and language iito
the following nationalities, according to an official estimate : —
Germans ....
8,200,000
Servians .... 1,470,000
Bohemians, Moravians and
Bulgarians . . 25,010
Slovacks
6,600,000
Magyars .... 5,050,0t0
Poles ....
2,200,000
Italians (inclusive of Latins
Eussians
2,800,000
andFriauls). . . 1,050,00^
Slovenians
1,210,000
Eastern-Romans . . 2,700,000
Croats ....
1,360,000
Members of other races . 1,430,000
From an enumeration made at the end of 1865, it appears that
there were, at that period, 1,049,871 Jews in the empire, of whom
448,973 were in the province of Galicia. There were likewise, at
that time, 146,100 'Zigeimer,' or gypsies. According to the last
census, the number of noblemen in the Austrian States amounts to
250,000. Hungary possesses the greatest number, having 163,000,
among whom are mentioned four princely families, 84 with the
TBADB AND INDUSTRY.
25
title of count, 76 of baron, and 300 simple nobles. Galicia has
24,900 noblemen ; Bohemia only 2,260, which are divided into 14
princely families, 172 counts, and 80 barons.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Austria with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small ; and it appears in the official returns even
smaller than it is in reality, owing to the geographical position of the
empire, which necessitates the transit of many Austrian goods des-
tined for the British market, and vice versa, through other countries,
as the exports or imports of which they come to figure. In the
Board of Trade returns, therefore, only the direct imports and
exports, by way of the Austrian seaboard, Venetia, Ulyria, Croatia,
and Dalmatia, are given. The value of these in the five years
1861-65 was as follows : —
Years
Imi)orts from Austria into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Austria
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
1,246,046
1,179,844
879,467
881,308
1,160,836
£
967,901
787,068
1,001,929
931,625
877,325
The chief commodities imported into the United Kingdom from
Austria are corn and flour, hemp, tallow, glass beads, olive oil,
quicksilver, currants, cream of tartar, lard, seed, shumac, sponge,
wood, and wool.
The principal exports of British and Irish produce. to Austria
are cotton manufactures, the average value of which in the ^ye
years 1861-65 was rather above 300,000/. per annum. Next in
importance to cotton are woollen manufactures, of an averse value
of 51,000/. per annum.
The mineral riches of Austria are very great, but explored as yet
only to a small extent. The following table gives the quantities of
the principal metals and minerals produced in Austria in each of the
years 1862 and 1863, and their average value at the place of pro-
duction in 1863 : —
26
AUSTBIA.
Value at the
Metals and Minerals
Quantities
Average Price, at
Place of Prodnctkm
1862
1863
1868
Fiorina
Gold . . . Pfund
3,459
3,027
2,043,588
Silver .
»»
63,239
70,635
3,177,923
Quicksilver
. Centner
3,819
4,451
628,616
Tin
Zinc
25,630
I 606
\ 23,779
44,115
242,182
Copper .
Lead and litharge
,
48,070
46,718
2,668,721
»
131,664
136,079
1,726.667
Iron, raw and cast
»
6,218,627
6,367,663
21.616.787
Graphite
»
98,696
130,339
89,734
Stone coal
t
46,167,796
45,566,852
8,864,986
The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and
specie, to and &om all countries, in the five years 1860-64, was as
follows: —
Years
Imports
Exports
Florins
£
Florins
£
1860
257,226,000
24,436,470
307,064,000
29,171,080
1861
272,278,000
26,866,410
308,659,000
29,322,606
1862
263,067,000
24,991,365
326,671,000
30,929.246
1863
284,807,000
26,066,666
321,726,000
30,663,970
1864
272,637,000
25,891,016
351,319,000
33,376,306
The exports and imports of the province of Dalmatia, which enjoys
commercial freedom, are not included in the above statement.
Subjoined is a table showing the number and tonnage of vessels
which entered at the principal ports of Austria in each of the years
1863 and 1864 :—
Ports
1868
1864 1
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Porte Levante .
496
19,463
314
11,962
Venice
3,274
316,254
3,092
305,934
Grado .
1,000
11,300
883
8,764
Dnino
318
8.106
300
7,313
Trieste .
10,578
725,674
10,148
772.996
Capo d»Istria
1,267
17,424
1,149
19,276
Pirano .
2,789
123,127
2,660
114,647
Eovigno .
1,260
24,637
1,209
40.834
PoU
2,460
101,787
1,974
113,746
Fiume
6,614
124,940
6,539
116,679
Zengg .
1,858
66,939
1,290
36,828
Zara
1,636
89,352
1,483
101,302
Sebenico .
847
82,557
963
93,906
Spalato .
2,504
76,347
1,901
73,991
Gravosa .
823
123,878
791
126,798
TBADE AND INDUSTRY.
27
The following tabular statement shows the strength 6f the com-
mercial marine of Austria. It gives the number, tonnage, and
crews of all the vessels belonging to Austrian subjects on iSie 31st
of December, 1864 : —
Vessels engaged in
Vessels
Tons
Crews
Long voyages
Coasting trade, long voyages
short „ .
Fishing smacks .
Bark and lighter ships
Steamers ....
Total
527
348
2,358
2,482
3,869
59
205,085
37,031
45,127
10,396
12,280
21,368
5,847
2,112 *
7,666
8,256
8,397
1,699
9,643
331,287
33,977
Of great importance for the commerce of the empire is the
* Gesellschaft des oesterreJchischen Lloyd,' a trading ^ciety esta-
blished at Trieste in 1833, and which commenced in 1836 to run
regular lines of steamers to the chief ports of Turkey, Egypt, and
Greece. The company possessed in 1865 a fleet of 74 steamers, of
12,500 horse-power.
Austria possessed, in Jime 1864, a network of railways of the
length of 3,450 English miles, constructed at an expense of
748,627,030 florins. Of this sum, 417,346,319 florins was sub-
scribed in ordinary shares, and the rest was obtained in the form of
loans. The Government has guaranteed an interest of 5y% per cent,
on rather more than one-half of the whole capital, represented by
the shares of ^ve companies, the Southern, Theiss, Galicia, Eeichen-
bach-Pardubitz, West Bohemian, West Elizabeth, and State
railways, with a total capital of 461,260,478 florins.
Subjoined is a tabular statement showing the length and cost of
construction of the chief lines of railways in Austria in the year
1864 :—
Emperor Ferdinand, North Line .
Lines of the Company for the Southern \
States, Lombardo-Venetian, and Central \
Italy ^
Lines of the Company of the Austrian States \
Eailways J"
Vienna, Salzburg, Passau; Branch Line )
Lambach, Gmunden . . . .1
82-50
246-50
174-50
73-ftO
Florins
77,209,929
213,917,674
136,384,792
28
BELGIUM.
Lines
I^nfrth
(AnHtrian
mUes)
I
Gratz, Koflach
South North-German junction ....
Zittau, Reichenberg
Kralup, Kladno
Prag-Lana
Bohemian, West Line
Aussig-Teplitz
Brunn Kossitz
Oalician Carl Ludwig
Pressbupg-Tyrnau
Theiss
Funf kirchen, Mohaetz
T/^foi ( AuBtrian miles
^^^^ \ EngHsh miles
5-30
25-88
2-87
3-43
7-50
2.V58
2-40
310
47-50
8-42
76-99
802
79419
3,772-39
C<Mt0f
oonstruction
Florins
2,717.391
20,978,178
2,232,415
807,516
24,000.000
3,363,208
2,652,444
39,190,973
42,114,266
6,780,436
653,746,605
£ 65,374,660
Money^ Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Austria, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Florin (Convention Money)
„ „ (Austrian Standard)
Average rate of Exchange 2*.
Equal to about Is. 10}<f.
Weights and Measures.
The Centner .
„ Mark (Gold and Silver)
„ EiTner .
„ Joch
„ Metze
„ Klafter .
= 123 J lbs. avoirdupois.
« 9oz8. troy.
= 14*94 wine gallons.
•" 1*43 acre.
= 1*7 imperial bushel.
= 67 cubic feet.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Anstria.
1. Officiai. Publications.
Tafeln zur Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchie, zusammengestellt von
der Direction der administrativen Statistik. Folio, Vienna, 1841-66.
Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der Statistik, herausgegeben von der
Direction der administrativen Statistik. 8. Vienna, 1850-66.
Ausweise iiber den auswartigen Handel Oesterreichs im Sonnen-Jahre 1864.
Zusammenpestellt und herausgegeben von der k.k. Statistischen Central-Com-
mission. XXIII. Jahrgang. Folio. Vienna, 1866.
Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8. Vienna,
1866.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 29
Keports by Mr. Fane, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the General Resources
and the Commerce of Austria, dated Vienna, Dec. 31, 1862, and Feb. 16, 1863 ;
in * Reports of Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VI. London, 1863.
Reports by Mr. Fane, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Commerce and
Agriculture of Austria, dated Vienna, Dec. 31, 1863, and May 10, 1864; in
* Reports of Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VU. London, 1864.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
Treaty of Commerce between Her Majesty and the Emperor of Austria.
Signed at Vienna, Dec. 16, 1865. London, 1866.
Tariff of Import Duties upon the principal articles of British produce and
manufactures. London, 1866.
2. NoN-OFFiciAii Publications.
Annuario Marittimo per I'Anno 1866, compilato dal Lloyd austriaco coll' ap-
provazione dell' eccelso i. r. govemo centrale marittimo. XVL Annata. 8.
Trieste, 1866.
Arenstein (Dr. Jos.) Oesterreich in der Weltausstellung. 8. Vienna, 1862.
Austria. Wochenschrift fiir Volkswirthschafl und Statistik. Red.: L.
Stein. 4. 17. Jahrgang. Vienna, 1866.
Blumenhach (W. C. W.) Gemalde der Oesterreichischen Monarchie, 3 vols. 8.
Vienna, 1866.
BracheUi (H. F.) Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarfiiie. 8. Vienna,
1865.
Czoemig (K. Freiherr von) Statistisches Handbiichlein der Oesterreichischen
Monarchie. 8. Vienna, 1866.
Czoemig (K. Freiherr von) Vergleich des Oesterreichischen Budgets mit
denen der vorziiglicheren andern Europaischen Staaten. 8. Vienna, 1866.
Czoemig (K. Freiherr von) Ethnographie der Oesterreichischen Monarchie.
5 vols. 4. Vienna, 1855-63.
Friese (F.) Uebersicht der Oesterreichischen Bergwerksproduction. 4.
Vienna, 1865.
Jarosch (J. A.) Topographisches Universal-Lexicon des Oesterreichischen
Kaiserstaats. 8. 3 vols. Ohniitz, 1857-62.
Meynert (H.) Handbuch der Geographie und Staatskunde von Oesterreich.
8. Vienna, 1863.
Movimento della Navigazione e Commercio in Trieste. 8. Trieste, 1866.
Petrossi (Ferd.) Das Heerwesen des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaates. 2 vols.
8. Vienna, 1866.
JPrasch (V.) Handbuch der Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaats. 8.
Briinn, 1860.
Eapporto sulla situazione sfavorevole dell' Austria nel commercio mondiale e
sui mezzi per porvi rimedio fatto dal comitato istituito a sovrano rescritto del
9. Febbr 1864. 8. Trieste, 1866.
Schmidt (A.) Das Kaiserthum Oesterreich: geographisch-statistisch-topo-
graphisch dargestellt. 8. Vienna, 1861.
Schubert (Fr. W.) Handbuch der aUgemeinen Staatenkunde des Kaiser-
thums Oesterreich. 8. Konigsberg, 1860.
Schwab (Dr. E.) Land und Leute in Ungam. Natur-, Cultur und Reise-
bilder. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
Stvhenratich (M. vcn) Statistische Darstellung des Vereinswesens im Kaiser-
thum Oesterreich. 8. ' Vienna, 1862.
Ungewitter (F. H.) Die Oesterreichische Monarchie, geographiseh-statistisck-
topographisch und lustorisch dargestellt. 8. Briinn, IB64.
30
BELGIUM.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Leopold II., King of the Belgians, born April 9, 1835, the son of
King Leopold I., former Duke of Saxe-Coburg, and of Princess
Louise, daughter of King Louis Philippe of the French ; educated
for the military career; ascended the throne at the death of his
fether, Dec. 10, 1865 ; married Aug. 22, 1853, to
MariCy Queen of the Belgians, and Archduchess of Austria, born
Aug. 23, 1836, the daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria,
Offspring of the union are three children : — 1. Princess Louise,
bom Feb. 18, 1858; 2. Prince Leopold, Count of Hainault, and
heir-apparent, bom June 12, 1859 ; 3. Princess Marie, bom
May 21, 1864.*
Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Philip, Count of Flanders,
born March 24, 1837, second son of King Leopold I. and of Princess
Louise, daughter of King Louis Philippe of the French ; major-
general in the service of Belgium ; 2. Princess Charlotte, only
daughter of King Leopold I. and of Princess Louise, daughter of
King Louis Philippe of the French, bora June 7, 1840 ; married
July 27, 1857, to Archduke Maximilian of Austria, elected
Emperor of Mexico July 10, 1863.
King Leopold II. is the second sovereign of Belgium, the
yoimgest kingdom in Europe. Leopold IL has a civil list of
2,751,000 francs, or 110,040/. An additional sum of 1,450,390
financs, or 58,016/., is granted for court expenses and dotations
to members of the royal house, making the sum total allowed by
the country to the sovereign &mily 4,201,390 francs, or 168,056/.
The kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent state
in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands. The
secession was decreed on tie 4th of October, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, established in consequence of a revolution which broke
out at Bmssels on the 25th of August, 1830. A National Congress
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king of the Belgians on the
4th of June, 1831 ; the prince accepted tibe dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. The Crown had previously been
offered to, but was refused by, the Duke de Nemours, second son of
King Louis Philippe of the French. It was not until the year 1839,
after the treaty of peace concluded between King Leopold I. and the
sovereign of the Netherlands, that all the States of Europe recognised
the new kingdom of Belgium.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 3 1
Constitntion and OoYemment.
According to the charter of 1831, Belgium is * a constitutional,
representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legislative power
is vested in the King, the Chamber of Representatives, and the
Senate. The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order
of primogeniture. The king's person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government. No
act of the king can have effect imless countersigned by one of his
ministers, who thus becomes responsible for it. The king convokes,
prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers, and makes rules and orders
necessary for the execution of the laws ; but he has no power
to suspend, or dispense with the execution of the laws themselves.
He nominates to civil and military oflGices, and commands the sea
and land forces. He declares war, and concludes treaties of peace,
of alliance, and of commerce, communicating the same to the
Chambers as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of
the State. Those treaties which may be injurious to the State, or to
the individual interests of the people, can only have effect after
obtaining the sanction of the Chambers. No surrender, exchange,
or addition of territory can be made except when authorised by a
law passed by the Chambers. In no case can the secret articles of a
treaty be destructive or contrary to the public clauses. The king
sanctions and promulgates the laws. He has the power of remitting
or reducing the pimishment pronoimced by the judges, except in the
case of his ministers, to whom he can extend pardon only at the
request of one of the Chambers. He has the power of coining
money according to law, and also of conferring titles of nobility,
but without the power of attaching to them any privileges. In
defeult of male heirs, the king may nominate his successor with
the consent of the Chambers. On the death of the king, the
Chambers assemble without convocation, at latest on the tenth day
after his decease. From the date of the king's death to the ad-
ministration of the oath to his successor, or to the regent, the consti-
tutional powers of the king are exercised in the name of the people,
by the ministers assembled in council, and on their own responsibi-
lity. The regency can only be conferred upon one person, and no
change in the constitution can be made during the regency. The
successor to the throne or the regent can only enter upon his duties
after having taken an oath in presence of the assembled Chambers
to observe the laws and the constitution, to maintain the independence
of the nations and the integrity of its territory. If the successor
be imder eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of
majority, the two Chambers meet together for the purpose oC TisstKv-
nating a regent during the minori^. In. tlie ca^ oi a 'n^^^as^^'^ <^^
32 BELGIUM.
the throne, the two Chambers, deliberating together, nominate pro-
visionally to the regency. They are then dissolved, and within two
months the new Chambers must assemble, which provide definitively
for the succession .
The power of making laws is vested in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, the members of both houses being chosen
by the people. The sittings are public, and by the decision of the
majority either Chamber may form itself into a private committee.
No person can at the same time be a member of both Chambers, and
no member can retain his seat after obtaining a salaried office under
the Government, except on being re-elected. No member can be
called to accoimt for any votes or opinions he may have given in
the performance of his duties. No member can be prosecuted or
arrested during the session without the consent of the Chamber of
which he is a member, except in the case of being taken in Jlagranti
crimine. Each Chamber determines the manner of exercising its
own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-pre-
sident, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented per-
sonally, and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority,
except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the
members are required for its acceptance ; in the case of an equality
of votes the proposition is thrown out. The Chambers meet annually
in the month of November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but
the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occa-
sions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately.
In the latter case a new election must take place within forty days,
and a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjourn-
ment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers.
The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen
directly by all citizens paying a small amoimt of direct taxes. The
number of deputies is fixed according to the population, and cannot
exceed one member for every 40,000 inhabitants. In the year
1864 they amounted to 116, elected in 41 electoral districts. The
members represent the nation generally, and not merely the pro-
vince or division by which they are nominated. To be eligible as
a member, it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth, or to have re-
ceived the * grande naturalisation ; ' to be in possession of the civil
and political rights of the kingdom ; to have attained the age of
twenty-five years, and to be resident in Belgium. The members
not residing in the town where the Chamber sits receive, during
the session, an indemnity of 430 fi*ancs, or 171. 5s. each per month.
The members are elected for four years, one-half going out every
two years, except in the case of a dissolution, when a general election
takes place. The Chamber has the parliamentary initiative and the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
33
preliminary vote in all cases relating to the receipts and expenses
of the State and the contingent of the army.
According to official returns made by the Government, and pre-
sented to the Chambers in 1865, there were, in that year, 13,152
persons possessed of the electoral franchise in Brussels, and 113,717
in the whole kingdom, including the capital. These electors were
divided among the following classes : —
Electors
Farmers and agriculturists .
Manufacturers and mill-owners
Butchers
Bakers and pastry-cooks
Brewers
Millers
Contractors, masons, joiners,
Goldsmiths, jewellers, and w
Printers and booksellers
Other tradesmen .
and painters
ktchmakers
Innkeepers ,
Retail shopkeepers
Spirit dealers
Merchants and shipowners
Bankers and money-dealers
Civil service functionaries of the State .
Civil service functionaries of the provinces
and communes
Judges and magistrates
Barristers and attorneys
Notaries
Ministers of religion of all denominations
Professors and teachers
Physicians and surgeons
Apothecaries and druggists .
Literary men and journalists
Artists, sculptors, and architects .
Military officers
Landed proprietors and life-renters
Others not classified ....
Total ....
BmsaelB
1,181
120
268
378
141
122
494
99
68
1,520
101
1,655
1,609
853
31
404
210
80
204
68
194
115
215
105
15
248
95
1,582
967
13,152
Kingdom
25,200
3,164
1,420
2,299
1,818
2,190
2,362
452
328
5,338
1,654
9,819
11,425
5,515
334
2,076
2,517
391
956
916
2,332
704
1,566
758
57
622
268
10,414
6,832
113,717
It will be seen that half the voters for the kingdom come under
four classes, in the following order : — 25,200 farmers and agri-
culturists; 11,425 spirit dealers; 10,414 landed proprietors, and
life-renters ; and 9,819 retail shopkeepers.
The Senate is composed of exactly one-half the number of mem-
bers comprising the Chamber of Eepresentatiyes, and the senators
34 BELGIUM.
are elected by the same citizens who appoint the deputies. The
senators are chosen for eight years; they retire in one moiety
every four years; but in case of dissolution the election must
comprise the whole number of which the Senate is composed.
The qualifications necessary for a senator are, that he must be a
Belgian by birth or naturalisation ; in full possession of all political
and civil rights ; resident within the kingdom ; at least forty years
of age ; and paying in direct taxes not less than 84/. sterling.
In those provinces where the list of citizens who possess this last-
mentioned qualification does not reach to the proportion of one in
6,000 of the population, that list is enlarged by the admission into
it of those citizens who pay the greatest amount of direct taxes, so
that the list shall always contain at least one person who is eligible
to the Senate for every 6,000 inhabitants of the province. The
senators do not receive any pay. The presumptive heir to the throne
is of right a senator at the age of eighteen, but he has no voice
in the proceedings until twenty-five years of age. All the proceed-
ings of the Senate during the time when the Chamber of Represen-
tatives is not sitting are without force.
Personal fi*eedom and liberty of conscience are guaranteed to every
citizen by the (institution in the fullest sense ; all are amenable to
the laws, and all are placed equally under their protection.
Judges receive their appointments directly from the king, and
hold them for life, so that they cannot be suspended but by their
own consent,. or by a judgment pronounced in open court and for
reasons publicly declared on that occasion. The trial by jury is
established for all criminal and political charges, and for offences of
the press. The law is administered by a tribunal de paix in each
canton, a tribunal de premiere instance in each arrondissementy and
courts of appeal in Brussels, Ghent, and Li^ge. Tribunals of com-
merce for the settlement of commercial differences are established in
all the principal commercial towns.
The Executive Government consists of —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Charles Rogier^ bom at
St. Quentin, France, Aug. 12, 1800 ; studied law at Li^ge, and
became editor and co-proprietor of the journal * Le Politique ; '
organised, in the revolution of 1830, a battalion of 300 volunteers,
with which he entered Brussels on Sept. 19, taking possession of
the Hotel de Ville ; nominated member of the Provisional Govern-
ment, October 1830 ; appointed Governor of Antwerp, June, 1881,
till 1832 ; Minister of Home Affairs, 1832-35 ; Governor of the
Province of Antwerp, 1835-40 ; Minister of Public Works,
1840-41 ; Minister of the Interior and of War, 1847-52. Ap-
pointed President of the Council and Minister of Foreign AjOSeuts,
Oct 26, 1861.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 35
2. The Ministry of Justice. — Jules Bara, appointed Minister
of Justice, Nov. 14, 1865.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Hubert J. W. Frere-Orban, bom
at Li^ge, April 24, 1812 ; studied^ law and, after 1830, entered the
journalistic career ; elected member of the Chamber of Deputies,
for Liege, June, 1847 ; Minister of Finance in 1847, and, again,
1848-1852; Minister of PubHc Works, 1847-48. Appointed
Minister of Finance, Oct. 26, 1861.
4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Jules E. Van der SticheleUy
appointed Minister of Public Works, Jan. 14, 1859.
5. The Ministry of War. — Baron Peter E. T. Chazal, bom at
Tarbes, France, in 1808, the son of an exiled * conventionnel ; '
educated at Brussels for the military career ; took a leading mili-
tary part in the Eevolution of 1830; nominated General in 1831 ;
Minister of War, 1847-48; Ambassador-extraordinary to St. Peters-
burg, 1856. Appointed Minister of War, April 6, 1859.
6. The Ministry of the Interior, — Alphonse Van den Peerehoom,
appointed Minister of the Interior, Oct. 26, 1861.
Besides the above responsible heads of departments the executive
consists of fourteen ministers of State without portfolio, forming a
privy council called together on special occasions by the sovereign.
Church and Education.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the endre
population of Belgium. The Protestants do not amount to 13,000,
while the Jews number scarcely 2,000. The fullest liberty is allowed
in the expression of religious opinions and the choice of modes of
worship. Part of the income of the ministers of all denomina*
tions is derived from the national treasury. The amount thus paid
by the State in 1865, was, to the Catholics, 3,628,130 francs, or
143,636/.; to the Protestants, 45,099 francs, or 1,785Z.; to the
Jews, 9,500 francs, or 376/. ; and to the Episcopal Church, 10,300
francs, or 407/.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses,
namely, the Archbishopric of Malines and the Bishoprics of Bruges,
Ghent, Li^ge, Namur, and Toumay. The archbishopric has t^ee
vicars-general and a chapter of twelve canons, and each of the
bishoprics two vicars-general and a chapter of eight canons. In
each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary. There was formerly one
rectory in each justice-of-peace canton, but the number of the latter
having been reduced, the rectories now outnumber the cantons by
25, and amoimt in all to 229, being 86 of the first class, and 143 of
the seoond. Chapels-of-ease are established throughout the country
D 2
36
BELGIUM.
where necessary ; these amounted in 1861 to 2,640. The number
of public chapels established as secondary chapels-of-ease, and at
first imendowed, but of which the chaplains are placed on the same
footing as yicars, was 148, and of vicariates, 1,555. The salaries
paid by the State are as foUows : —
Francs
£
Of the archbishop
21,000
831
„ bishops .
14,700
582
Vicars-general of the archbishop
3,600
142
bishops
3.200
126
Canons of the archbishop .
2,400
95
„ bishops .
2,000
79
Rectors „ first dass .
2,047
81
„ „ second class
1.366
54
Officiates in the chapels-of-ease
787
31
Chaplains and vicars .
500
20
These incomes are mostly augmented by the voluntary contribu-
tions of the communes. The amoimt gathered for that purpose by
the communes in 1865 was 520,845 francs, or 20,617/. This, how-
ever, included the sum given for the support of the ecclesiastical
edifices. There are 333 convents in Belgium, 42 for men, and 291
for women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church is under a synod composed of
the clergymen of the body, and a representative from each of the
churches. It sits in Brussels once a year, when each member is
required to be present, or to delegate his powers to another member.
Included in the sum of 1,785/., given by the State to Protestant
pastors, are certain sums granted to the families of such clergymen.
Each child is allowed the sum of 25 florins per annum, or about 2/.,
till attaining the age of twenty-one years. A donation of 25 florins
is given to each child attending a Latin school, or receiving private
lessons in that language ; anolJher of 50 florins to each attending a
imiversity or athenaeum ; and one of 200 florins to each studying
theology.
The English Episcopal Church has six ministers, and as many
chapels, in Belgium — two in Brussels, and one in each of the towns
of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, and Spa.
The Jews have a central synagogue in Brussels ; three branch
synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent and Li^ge, and one
of the second class at Arlon. The high priest receives from the public
treasury 96/. per annum, and each of the rabbis 50/. The B6-
guinage or convent of the B^guin nims of Ghent is of great extent,
and contains 600 of the sisterhood.
Education is &x from being generally diffused among the people,
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
37
although much progress towards it has been made within the last
ten years. It appears from an examination of the National Guards
that the number of educated men is increasing. The following is
the proportion in the nine provinces: — Antwerp, 4,260 National
Guards, of whom 1,085 illiterate; Brabant, 7,329— 2,190; Western
Flanders, 5,787— -1,904; Eastern Flanders, 7,343— 2,870 ; Hainaut,
7,817—3,057; Liege,- 5,105—1,207; Limbourg, 1,941—539;
Luxembourg, 2,089— 133; Namur, 2,752 — 415;— showing 13,400
illiterate men to 44,423 educated. If the figures 13,400 accurately
represented those not knowing how to read and write, the proportion
would be 30 per c^nt.
Education, which was compulsory under the Dutch Government,
has ceased to be so since 1830. In the budget of 1864, the siun
set down for public education amounted to 4,500,000 francs, or
180,000/. It was placed to the credit of the minister of the interior.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The public income and expenditure of Belgium has averaged for
the last few years the sum of 150 millions of francs, or 6 millions
sterling. In the thirty years 1831 to 1860, the total expenditure
of the state amounted to 3,769,601,475 francs, or 150,784,059/.;
making an average expenditure of 128,875,264 francs, or 5,155,010/.,
per annum. The lowest expenditure was in 1835, when it amounted
to only 87,104,005 francs, or 3,484,160/.
The gross revenue and expenditure of Belgium for each of the
seven years 1858-64 is given in the subjoined table : —
Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
__.
£
£
1858
6,235,230
5,789,800
1859
6,333,986
6,115,587
1860
6,788,369
6,361,015
1861
5,945,167
5,671,059
1862
6,128,579
5.807,055
1863
6,237,871
6,004,813
1864
6,313,512
6,099,321
The subjoined table gives the gross revenue for each of the
years 1862 to 1864 :—
38
BELGIUM.
Bmmftmof B^treowi
FfAnCfl
leil
1844
FnwKJi
Wrmnm
landtaxps , . . .
18,888,290
18.886.290
18,e8a^200
Aiiseastrd Uj^ba
10,506,000
l0.848,mK)
10,760,000
Trader flod (X't'upationj! .
4,01fj,0O0
4,016,000
1 4,070,000
Mines
514,700
450,000
400,000
C^at^mft . . * - _ .
14,375.000
14,405,000
13,515,000
Excise on conffomption of Bpirits
1,200,000
1,226.000
1,250,000
„ tobacco
200,000
200.000
2100OD
ftiilfc . , .
5,100,000
5,200,000
5,400,000
foNtign wiupb .
1,820,000
2,100,000
2,100,000
„ brandj .
100,000
IW^OflO
85,000
nfttire br&ndy .
5,800.000
5,860,000
6.055,000
„ bew and TiDt^gar
8,6flr^000
8730,000
8,580,000
sugmr
3,865,000
3,920.000
3,000,0(H}
RcgiBtmtioti tuid flnw -
3O,33(>,O00
30,665,000
31,520,000
Domains ....
4,480,000
4,450.000
4,40(^000
Post
2,960,000
3,07 1,000
3460,000
Eailwajfl , , . .
29,585,000
31,100,000
32,350,000
Packet-ljcat* InjtweuD Dover and
OfltismI , . . ,
110,000
110,000
225,000
MisTOllaneoufl
10,708,500
10.828,500
10,816,000
Toul. . l'^""'^
153,214,490
155.946,790
157,682,780
6,128,579
6,237p871
6,307,311
The gross expenditure, in the same three years, was as
follows : —
Brtoi^isi of EipeMiltiirB
IBGS
isca imi
lutercat on pablic debt ,
CiTintst . . . ,
MiniBb7 of Justice
„ Foreign Aflfsirs ■
„ Int^rioi'
Public Works
War . . .
„ FJDnnce
MisceIlaa#oua
Total, . {^"^"J
FnuHS
40,422,010
4,201,390
13,280,117
3,356803
9,482,S80
25,759.809
33.292,131
12.775.050
2 608.200
TwKam
40,533,114
4,212,063
13,633,379
2.987.787
10,344.073
26,29,V221
36,775,825
13,461 964
2,876,918
150,120,344
8,004,813
40,660,200
4.237.980
I4.62r>,756
2.976,188
10,603,899
26,453,005
36,988,010
14,423,900
976.200
150,943,138
6,037,725
145,176,390
6,807,065
The budget for 1865, as voted by the Chambers, amounted to an
estimated income of 159,012,790 francs, or 6,360,512/., being an
increase of 47,000Z. over the preceding year. The expenditure
ARMY AND NAVT.
39
for 1865 was set down in the budget at 154,375,271 francs, or
6,175,011/., amounting to an increase of 75,790/.
The following was the total amount and rate of interest of the
public debt of Belgium on May 1, 1865 : —
Description of Debt
Nominal Capital
Rates of
Interest
Part of Dutch debt |
Canals, roads, and railways ....
Eailways, original amount . . 50,860,800
Town of Brussels
Conversion of 6% of 1832 and treasury bonds
Keimbursement to Holland of a nominal capi- \
tal of 169,312,000 at 2§ % . . . ;
Conversion of the 6 % loans of 1840, 1842, i
1848 and of treasury bonds . . . j
Conversion of 6% loan of 1862, and issue of )
46,000,000 fr. loan for public works . . i
Total .|^^*°2
Francs
16,931,200
220,105,632
16,016,000
30,775,333
6,000,000
71,767,682
74,577,600
160,433,700
68,879.000
l:'er cent.
6
I'
3
3
5
44
4i
665,486,047
26,219,442
The debt is paid off gradually by the surplus of income over
expenditure, and the operation of the sinking fund, or *caisse
d'amortissement.' From the 1st of May, 1865, to the 30th of April,
1866, the total debt had been reduced by nearly 7,000,000 francs,
or 280,000/. It is calculated that in the year 1884, the net income
of the state railways will be sufficient to pay the entire interest of
the debt. See * Trade and Industry : ' — pp. 42-3. Belgium has
no floating debt.
Army and Navy.
According to the law of June 8, 1853, the standing army of
Belgium is to consist of 100,000 men, distributed over 16
regiments of infantry, 7 regiments of cavalry, and 4 regiments of
artillery. The actual number of soldiers imder arms, in 1866,
amounted to 73,718 rank and file, comprising 56,550 infantry,
8,202 cavalry, 6,700 artillery, 1,690 engineers, and 576 train. The
artillery was possessed of 152 pieces of ordnance.
The army is formed by conscription, to which every able man
who has completed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution is per-
40
BELaiUM.
mitted. The legal period of service is eight years, of which, however,
one-half is allowed, as a rule, on furlough. A comparatively large
number of men are on service in the eleven fortresses of the kingdom,
Antwerp, Mons, Charleroi, Philippeville, Tirlemont, Ash, Toumay,
Menin, Ypres, Ghent, and Namur.
The navy of Belgium consists of seven vessels, namely, a brig of
20 guns, a sloop of 12, and two gunboats of 5 guns each, with three
transport steamers.
Population.
Belgium has an area of 11,313 square miles, or 7,363,982 English
acres. The kingdom is divided into nine provinces, the area and
population of which were as follows in the two official enumerations,
of Dec. 31, 1856, and Dec. 31, 1863 :—
Populfttion
Provinoea
Area
1866
18«S
Hectares
Antwerp
283,310
434,485
471.908
Brabant
328,322
748,840
839,301
Flanders |jj^^
323,449
624,912
652,372
299,787
776,960
816.232
Hainanlt
372,206
769,065
845,961
Li^ge .
289,319
503,662
564,739
Limburg
241,316
191,708
199,242
Luxemburg .
. 441,704
193,753
206,291
Namur
366,181
286,175
306.975
'
2,945,593
1
Total .
Eng. acres.
7,363,982
U,529,560
4,893,021
More recent calculations, made on the basis of the etat-civil, or
registry of births and deaths, state the numbers of the population
on the 1st of January, 1865, at 4,894,971. This gives 440 souls to
the square mile, proving Belgium to be the densest inhabited country
in Europe. About two and a half millions of the inhabitants are
Flemish, the rest Walloon and French.
The population of Belgium has increased very steadily since the
establishment of the kingdom in 1830. The following table ehows
the annual state of the population on December 31, together with the
births and deaths during the year, and the density of population per
square kilometre : —
POPITLATION.
41
Density of
Year. Dec. 31
Population
Births
Deaths
Population per
square kilometre
1830
4,064,235
131,676
104,229
118
1831
4,089,620
135,050
98,088
119
1832
4,103,661
129,070
114,910
120
1833
4,131,881
137,792
111,302
120
j 1834
4,166,953
139,762
116,673
121
1835
4,208,814
142,917
101,143
123
1836
4,242,598
144,198
101,231
124
1837
4,273,176
142,648
118,142
125
1838
4,317,944
152,170
109,950
126
1839
4,028,677
1J?6,010
106,446
136
1840
4,073,162
138,162
103,902
138
1841
4,138.382
138,135
97.108
140
1842
4,172,706
135,027
103,068
141
1843
4,213,863
132,911
97,066
143
1844
4,258,426
133,976
94,911
144
1846
4,298,662
137,012
97,783
146
1846
4,337,048
119,610
107,835
147
1847
4,338,447
118,106
120,168
147
1848
4,369,090
120,383
108,287
148
1849
4,380,239
133,105
128,462
149
1850
4,426,202
131,416
92,820
150
1851
4,473,165
134,248
94,699
151
1862
4,516,361
134,397
96,971
153
1863
4,548,507
127,728
100,333
154
1854
4,684,822
131,837
103,266
166
1856
4,607,066
126,956
112,716
167
1856
4,629,461
134,187
97,396
164
1857
4,677,236
143,291
103,468
165
1858
4,623,197
146,074
107,910
157
1859
4,671,226
149,812
111,650
169
1860
4,731,957
144,668
92,871
161
1861
4,782,256
147,233
106,381
162
1862
4,836,566
146,568
100,124
164
1863
4,893,021
155,664
107,095
166
The decrease of population shown in 1839 and following years,
was occasioned by the separation of one-half of the province of
Limbnrg and one-third of the province of Luxemburg from Belgium,
and the annexation of this territory to the Netherlands. The popula-
tion thus lost to Belgium amounted to 359,500 souls. The separation
took place in conformity with the Treaty of London, signed April 19,
1839, and ratified on Jime 8 following, which definitely settled the
limits of the kingdom.
The occupations of the people of Belgium, as returned in the
census of 1856, are shown in the following tabular statement: —
4*
BELQIUH.
OocapationB
HalM
Females
Totid
Agricultural ....
709,214
362,901
1,062,116
Industrtat. —
Mines and quames
62,902
10,390
73,292
Metals
65,164
3,493
68,667
Glass and earthenware .
6,514
498
6,012
Linen and hempen fabrics
86,663
113,116
199,779
Woollen jEabrics .
13,883
8,161
22,044
Cotton
12,362
12,394
24,746
Silk
4,016
470
4,486
Leather &c.
29,861
170
30,021
Alimentation
42,130
3,016
46,146
Apparel
Building
68,995
183,522
252,617
107,322
1,096
108,418
Furniture and decoration
15,883
284
16,167
Chemical products
1,634
168
1,792
Printing, engraving, and pho-
tography ....
Other trades ....
7,391
914
8,305
15,285
280
16,665
COMMEECIAL —
Provisions, beverages .
48,523
37.894
86,417
Clothing, furs, skins
6,137
3,288
8,426
Materials for building and
furniture ....
2,079
490
2,669
Libraries, music, works of art
1,205
269
1,464
Bankers, money-changers
6.690
2,270
8,960
Transport ....
25,793
1,104
26,897
Other branches of commerce .
16,736
6,336
22,071
Administration, LrrsRATURB,
SciENCB, AND ArTS —
Administration, general .
15,853
36
16,888
„ of justice
9,100
—
9,170
„ of worship
10,194
12,266
22,460
„ of public instruction
6,082
2,923
9,005
„ of health
3,800
1,406
6,206
„ of literature, fine arts
6,566
296
6,862
Army
36,106
—
36,106
Landed proprietors, pensioners .
22,426
27,888
60,314
Domestic servants .
19,130
67,844
86,974
Persons without a profession
799.166
2,271,783
1,403,626
2,202,790
Total .
2,267,777
4,629,660
The extraordinary large number of * persons without a profession/
amounting to one- half of the population, ia not explained in the
official returns. It appears probable that about one-fourth of the
population of Belgium is engaged in agricultural pursuits ; another
fourth in trade and manufactures, chiefly the great staple industries,
the iron and coal trades; and the remaining two-fourths belong
to the unproductiye classes.
Jhe tendency visible in most European countries, of an agglome-
TEADE AND INDUSTBT.
43
ration of the people in the larger towns, is also apparent in Belgium,
Of this Brussels is the most striking example. There were, in 1800,
only 66,297 inhabitants in the town, and 10,129 in the suburbs of
Brussels, while the number at the end of 1863 amounted to above
300,000. The subjoined table shows the increase of population in
the town and suburbs since the year 1830: —
Year. Dec. 31
Total
SuburbB
Total population
of Brussels
1830
1840
1850
1860
1863
98,279
106,143
142,289
175,829
186,982
22,702
38,478
80,135
99,119
114,357
120,981
144,621
222,424
273,948
300,341
Besides Brussels, there were, on the 31st December, 1863, eleven
towns in Belgium with a population of above 20,000 inhabitants,
namely, Ghent, 122,134; Antwerp, 120,669; Li^ge, 108,710;
Bruges, 50,986 ; Malines, 34,855 ; Louvain, 32,526 ; Tournay,
31,172; Verviers, 29,691; Mons, 26,999; Namur, 26,204; and
Courtray, 23,497 inhabitants.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Belgium with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, giving the total imports
from Belgium, and the total exports to that country of the produce
of manufactures ol Great Britain and Ireland, in the five years
1861-65 :—
Years
Imports from Belgium
into the United Kingdom
EzportB of Home Product
from the United Kingdom
into Belgium.
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
3,817,800
4,876,212
5,174,221
6,410,959
7,379,893
£
1,925,852
1,828,622
2,107,332
2,301,291
2,921,300
The chief imports from Belgium are — silk manufactures, to the
value of nearly 1,000,000/. per annum ; flax, to the amount of
500,000/. ; yam, to the value of about 350,000/. ; and butter, to the
average value of 300,000/. per annum. The exports of home produce
irom the United Kingdom chiefly consist in woollen manufactures,
of the average amount of 250,000/., and of machinery, of the value
of 180,000/. per annum.
BELGITM.
The intematioiial commerce of the kingdom is chieflj carried on
hj foreigners; and the quantity of sliipping belonging to natives is
cromporativelj small, and is moreover declining. On the 31st of
J>ecember, 1861, the merchant navy consisted of 111 vessels of about
an aggregate tonnage of 31,736; while the total number of vessels
at the end of 1864 was 108, and 13 were naturalised during 1865,
making the total 121. But of those, three were wrecked in the course
< f the year, five sold, and one broken up ; so that the total at the end
of December 1865 was 112, or four more than at the end of 1864.
The increase of tonnage during the year 1865 amounted to 4,263 tons.
There entered, in the year 1864, at Belgian ports, 4,130 vessels,
of an aggr^ate burden of 794,596 tons, and there cleared 4,116
vesselB of 779,223 tons burden. Of the vessels which entered, but
863 of 87,358 tons were under the Belgian flag, and of those which
i-leared, 866 of 91,918 tons. In the year 1863, there entered at
Belgian ports 3,093 vessels of 712,373 tons, and there cleared 3,949
vessels of 723,975 tons. Of the 712,373 tons which entered, only
62,525 belonged to Belgian shipping ; and of the 723,975 which
cleared, but 65,728 were owned in the kingdom.
In Belgium the State is a great railway proprietor, and the State
liailway is the largest source of national revenue. It was the first
work of the kind ever undertaken by a Government, or on so great
a scale by any proprietary. The act by which it was decreed passed
in 1834, and in 1835 the line was open from Brussels to Maliues.
In 1844, the entire length — 560 kilometres — was completed. It
jnroduced to the State a gross revenue in 1863 of 31,750,000 francs,
or 1,270,000/., and a net revenue of 16,000,000 francs, or 640,000/.
Other lines have been leased by the State ; and there are altogether
open 1,906 kilometres, equal to 1,191 English miles, of which 748
kilometres, or 467 English miles, are in the hands of the State, and
the residue worked by companies. The subjoined tabular statement
Hhows the length of railways open in Belgium in 1866 : —
lines built and worked by the State
„ pnrehased, Mons-Manage
Lines belonging to Companies, but leased
I by the ."-tate :—
i Toumai-Jnrbise ....
I Dendre et Waes ....
Kilometres Kilometres
6583
32-7
47-5
109-6
Total of State Roseau
Lines worked by Companies .
Total lines open . . |
rKil.
I Miles
Kil.
Miles
1 691-6
{157-1
748-7
467
1,345-2
2,0U3-9
1,301
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 45
The cost of the permanent way and buildings of the State Rail-
way amounted to 18,280Z. per mile. The gross receipts of the
748 kilometres administered by the State amounted in 1865 to
43,478 francs per kilometre, or 2,862/. per mile, of which sum
about 57 per cent, was produced by the goods traflSc, and 38 per
cent, by passengers. It is mentioned, to the credit of the State
Railway, that not one passenger was killed for some years ; and
that of 100,000,000 passengers carried since 1835, only six were
killed by accidents resulting from the service. The net revenue has
doubled within the last 10 years, and has now risen to a sum equal to
1,508/. per mile. Nearly all the lines conceded by the Government
were constructed between 1840 and 1850 by English companies.
Private lines that compete in the slightest degree with that of the
State are subjected to very onerous terms. They are for the most
part branch lines, and although costing less than the State Railway,
which includes the principal trunk lines of the country, they produce
a much smaller net revenue. The law obliges the State Railway
to redeem itself with its own capital ; in other words, to purchase
itself with its own surplus revenue. The year 1861 was the first year
which showed an actual profit on the whole operations from the
commencement, irrespectively of the charge for the redemption of
the debt. It is expected that the State Railway will have bought
itself up in the year 1884, by which time it is calculated the net
revenue will amount to 24,000,000 francs, or 960,000/. per annum,
or enough to pay the then reduced — through the sinking fund
— interest of the national debt. As each conceded railway lapses
gratuitously to the State in 90 years from the period of its construc-
tion, the entire system will, by the efflux of time, become national
property.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Belgium, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Franc Average rate of exchange, 26 to £1 sterling.
Weights and Measxtbes.
The KilograTrvme . . . = 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tmneau . . . . = 2,200 „ „
„ Hectare . . . . = 2-47 English acres
TT * VI 0 i ^^ measure « 2*75 imperial bushels.
„ aecioiMre ^ ij^^;^ measure « 22 imperial gallons.
„ M&/re = 3-28 feet.
„ Mhtre Cube ... - 36-31 cubic feet.
„ KilonUtre , . . . « 1,093 yards.
46 BKLQim.
Statiftieal and otiier Books of Bef erence eoneaming BdgiDSL
1. Official PcBucATioKa.
41ttfi*^i»ii Boral Offieiel de Belgiqae, contenant les attributions et !• per-
Mmiel de tou I'es serrices pablics darojanroe. Annee 1866. Bnizellfs, 1S66.
Doeomects Statistiqaes, pablies par le depart, de riDterieor, avec leconooais
d/E; la commisaoo centrali' de statibtiqne. VoL 8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Sutistique generale de la Belgiqae, pabli^ par le depart, de rint^enr. 4 to]&
Bmxelles, 1864-65.
DictioDDaire des Commmies, Hameanx, Chit«aiix, Fermes, Hants Foaineanz,
Charbonnagcs, etc., da Boyaimie de Bel^nqne ; oaTrage rMig^ d*a{»^ le reoense-
ment g^o^ral da 31 deeembre 1856, di«tribu^ par le gouTememeat aox eoon
ettriboTMinT ft aax bnrpaax deposte. Bmxelles, 1858.
Reports by Mr. Harries, H. it's Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce of
Belgiom, datpd Jane 20, 1861, and Jan. 26^ 1862 ; in ' Reports of Secretaries
of Embassy,' &c No. V. London, 1862.
Reports of Messr& Henries and Barron, H. M.*8 Seeretaries of Legation, on
the Commerce, Finance, Agricaltore, and Mining and Metallurgical Indastijof
Belgium, dated Marrh 15, April 15, and July 10, 1862 ; and Jan. 31 and Feb.
25, 1863 ; in * Reports of Swretaries of Embassy,* &c No. VI. London,
1863.
Report by Mr. Barron, H. M.*s Secretary of Legation, on the Stat« of
Finance and Public Credit of Belgium, dated March 26, 1864 ; in * Reports of
Secretaries of Embassy,' &c No. VII. London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Barron, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce of
Belgium with Great Britain, dated Feb. 26, 1865 ; in • Reports of Secretaries
of Embassy,' &c No. VIIL London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Barron, H. M 's Secretary of Legation, on the Cattle Plagoe
in Belgium, dated Jan, 22, 1866; in 'Reports of Secretaries of Rmba^,'
No. XIII. London, 1866.
Report of Mr. Consul Crattan on the Trade of Antwerp during the year
1865 ; in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Report of Mr. Consul Grattan on the Trade of Antwerp during the Years
1862 and 1863; in 'Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Barron, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Arms Trade of
Belgium, dated April 9, 1865 ; in ' Reports of Secretaries of Embassy,' &c.
No. IX. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Annales des Travaux Publics de Belgique. Documents scientifiques, indus-
triels et adminuftrati& concemant I'art des constructions, les voies de commu-
nication et rindustrie min^rale. T. 20 (1862-63). Bruxelles, 1864.
Annuaire de I'lndustrie, du Commerce et de la Banque en Belgique, r^dig^
d'apr^ des documents officiels. Dixi^me ann^e. 12. Bruxelles, 1866.
Annuaire financier de la Belgique. 8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Dauby (J.) Les Classes Ouvri^res en Belgique. ParalUle entre leur con-
dition d'antrefois et celle d'aujourd'hui ; alimentation, vAtement, logement^ mo-
bilier, salaire, conditions de travail, instruction^ niveau moral, etc. 2nd ed. 12.
Bruxelles, 1864.
JanMms (Eug.) Annuaire de la mortality, ou tableau statistique des causes de
dkek§ et du mouvement de la p(^lati<Mi. 8. BroxeUes^ 1866.
BOOKS OF KEFERENCE. , 47
Lavdeye (Emile de) Essai sur TEconomie Eurale de la Belgique. 2nd ed. 8.
Paris,^1865.
L'Economiste Beige: organe des intirfets de rindustrie et du commerce.
Directeur-g^rant, M. G-. de Molinari. 4. Bi-mensuel. Ann^e 11 : 1865.
Bmxelles, 1865.
Malou (J.) Notice Historique sur la Soci^t^ G^n^rale pour favoriser I'ln-
dustme Nationale, ^tablie a Bruxelles. (1823 k 1862.) 8. Bmxelles, 1864.
Meidemans (Aug.) La Belgique, sea ressources agricoles, industrielles ot
commerciales. 8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Eapport g^n^ral pr^sent^ par la commission d' agriculture sur la situation
agricole du grand-duch^ de Luxembourg en 1861. 4. Luxembourg, 1862.
Revue de I'lnstruction Publique en Belgique. Mensuelle. 8. Nouvelle
s^ie. T. 8. Bruges, 1865.
Scheler (Dr. Aug ) Annuaire Statistique et Historique Beige. Treizi^me ann6e.
12. Bruxelles, 1866.
Tarlier (Jides) Description G^graphique de la Belgique. 3 vols. 12.
Bruxelles, 1852-54.
Tarlier (Jules) et Wauters (A.) La Belgique Ancienne et Moderne: g^-
graphie et bistoire des communes Beiges. 4 vols. 8. Bruxelles, 1860-66.
Van Bruyssd (Ernest) Histoire du Commerce et de la Marine en Belgique.
2 vols. 8. Bruxelles, 1864.
48
DENMABK.
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Christian IX., King of Denmark, born April 8, 1818, the fourth
son of the late Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
GlUcksburg, and of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to
the succession of the Crown of Denmark by the protocol of London,
signed on May 8, 1852, by the representatives of Great BriUun,
France, Kussia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden and Denmark. Succeeded
to the throne on the death of King Frederick VIL, November 15,
1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to
Louise^ Queen of Denmark, born Sept. 7, 1817, the daughter of
Landgrave William of Hesse-Cassel. Issue of the union are : — 1.
Prince Frederick^ born June 3, 1843, general in the Danish army.
2. Princess ^ tea wrfra, born Dec. 1, 1844 ; married, March 10, 1863,
to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 3. Prince William^ bom Dec.
24, 1845 ; midshipman in the Danish navy, 1860 63; elected King
of Greece, under the title of George I., by the Hellenic National
Assembly, March 31, 1863. 4. Princess Maria Dagmar, bom Nov.
26, 1847 ; married, Nov. 26, 1866, to Grand-duke Alexander, heir-
apparent of Russia. 5. Princess Thyra^ bom Sept. 29, 1853. 6.
Prince Waldemar^ bom Oct. 27, 1858.
Brothers and Sisters of the King.- — 1. Prince Charles, bora Sept
30, 1813 ; married. May 19, 1838, to Princess Wilhelmina, daughter
of the late King Frederick VL of Denmark. 2. Princess Marte,
born Oct. 23, 1810; married. May 19, 1837, to Baron Laspei^,
colonel in the service of Anhalt ; widow May 9, 1843 ; married in
second nuptials to Coimt Hohenthal, chamberlain at Dresden;
widow Nov. 16, 1860. 3. Princess Frederica, bom Oct. 9, 1811;
married, Oct. 30, 1834, to Duke Alexander of Anhalt Bemburg;
widow Aug. 19, 1863. 4. Prince Fredeiick, bom Oct. 23, 1814;
married, Oct. 16, 1841, to Princess Adelaide of Schaumburg-Lippe,
of which union there are issue two sons and three daughters. 5.
Prince William, bom April 10, 1816; field-marshal-lieutenant in
the service of Austria, and proprietor of the Imperial 80th regiment
of infantry of the line. 6. Princess Lmnse, bom Nov. 18, 1820;
nominated abbess of the convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, Aug. 3, 1860.
7. Prince Julius, bom Oct. 14, 1824 ; major in the Prussian army.
8. Prince Johann, bom Dec. 5, 1825, major in the Prussian army.
RBIGNINa SOVEREIGN AND FAMILY. 49
Mother of the King. — Duchess Louise, bom Sept. 28, 1789, the
daughter of Landgrave Charles of Hesse-Cassel ; married, Jan. 26,
1810, to Duke WiJliain of Schleswig-Holstein-Sbnderburg-Glucks-
burg; widow Feb. 17, 1831.
The Crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. At
periods it became hereditary, by usage, in certain families, but
seldom long up to the fifteenth century. At the latter part of this
period, in 1448, after the death of ^e last scion of the princely
House of Skiold, the Danish Di€t elected to the throne Christian I.,
Count of Oldenburg, in whose family the royal dignity remained for
more than four centuries,. The direct male line of the House of
Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king, Frederick VII.,
on November 16, 1868. In view of the death of the king without
direct heirs, the great powers of Europe, * taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish monarchy, as
connected with the general interests of the balance of power in
Europe, is of high importance to the preservation of peace,* signed a
treaty at London on May 8, 1852, by the terms of which the suc-
cession to the Crown of Denmark was made over to Prince Christian
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glu-cksburgj to the exclusion of
several other collateral relations.
This agreement was rendered void, as fkr as the duchies of
Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, former dependencies of the
Crown of Denmark, were concerned, by the invasion of the duchies
by Austria and Prussia, followed by the Treaty of Vienna, signed
by the plenipotentiaries of Denmark, Austria, and Prussia, Oct. 30,
1864. According to the first paragraph of this treaty, * His Majesty
the King of Denmark renounces all his rights to the duchies of
Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg in favour of their Majesties the
King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, engaging to recognise
the arrangements their said Majesties shall make in respect of those
duchies.'
A civil list of 680,000 rixdoHarSj or 70,000Z., was settled upon
King Christian IX., * for the period of his Majesty's natural life,' by
vote of the Higsraad, of Dec. 7, 1863. The heir-apparent of the
Crown has, in addition, an allowance of 25,000 rixdoUars, or 2,800/.,
settled by the same vote.
Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —
House of Oldenburg,
Christian L .
John . . ^
ChiistianIL .
Frederic L •
A.D.
. 1448
. 1481
. 1513
. 1523
Christian in.
Frederic II. .
Christian IV. .
Frederic 111, •
. 1533
. 1558
so
DISXABK.
A.©.
▲.D.
Christian V. .
. 1670
Christian VIL
. 1766
Frederic IV. .
. 1699
Frederic VI.
. 1808
Christian VL
• 1730
Christian VIII. .
. 1839
Frederic V. .
• 1746
Frederic VII.
. 1848
House of Schlegwig-Holgtein-Sonderhurg'Gluckshurg.
Christian IX., 1863.
The sixteen members of the House of Oldenburg, who filled the
throne of Denmark for 415 years^ had an average reign of 26
years.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the charter
of June 5, 1849, which was modified in some imp(H*tant respects
in October 1863, but i^ain restored, with but few alterations, by
vote of the representatives of the people, in Sept^nber, 1865.
According to this charter, the executive power is in the king and
his responsible ministers, and the right of making and amending
laws in the Rigsdag^ or Diet, acting in conjunction with the sove-
reign. The king must be a member of the evangelical Lixtheran
Church, which is declared to be the religion of the State. The
Rigsdag consists of the Landsthtng and the Folksihing^ the former
being a Senate or Upper House, and the latter a House of Com-
mons. The Landsthtng consists of 59 members. Of these, 12
are nominated by the Crown, and the rest are elected. To the
Landsthtng any male subject is eligible who is forty -one years of
age, who does not labour imder mental incapacity, and who either
pays 200 rixdollars, or 22Z. 145. 2d. direct taxes, or has a yearly
income of 1,200 rixdollars, or 136Z. 55. To the Folksthing, con-
ffisting of 101 members, any householder twenty-five years of age
is eligible, provided he does not labour under any incapacity which
would deprive him of the right of voting. This right belongs to
every citizen who has reached his thirtielii year, who is not in the
actual receipt of public diarity, or who, if he has at any former
time been in receipt of it, has repaid the sums so received, and
who does not labour under mental incapacity. The elected man-
bers of the Landsthtng hold their seats for eight, and those of the
Folksthing for three years. The Rigsdag must meet every two years,
on the first Monday of October. The Landsthtng, assisted by nine of
the superior judges, constitutes the Supreme Court of the Eealm,
and tries parliamentary impeachments. To the Folksthing all
money bills are in the first instance submitted by the Government.
The ministers have fi^e access to both of the Things, but can only
vote in that Chamber of which they are members.
At the side of the Parliament is placed a peculiar institution, called
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 5I
the Eigsraadj or Supi-eme Council of the Nation. It consists of 47
members, appointed as follows :^-
Nominated by tbe Crown .... 12
Elected by the Landflthing ... 6
Elected by the Folksthing ... 12
Elected by the qualified yoters in different
districts 17
Total 47
The Rigsraad sits every second year for two months. It may be
prorogued once in two years for a period not exceeding four months;
and the king can dissolve it at his pleasure. If dissolved it must be
reassembled within four months, and more than two dissolutions
cannot take place within a period of two years. The qualifications
for a seat in this council are — complete citizenship (that is, the
possession of all rights and privileges to which a native-born subject
is, as such, entitled), an unblemished personal character, and the
absence of any legal claim upon such property as the candidate may
possess. The qualification for the direct electoral franchise is, in
addition to the first above-named condition — thirty years of age,
and the annual payment of 200 rixdollars, or about 25/. in direct
taxes; or, an annual income of 1,200 rixdollars, equal to 135/.
Private members of the Rigsraad cannot introduce bills, but can
petition the Crown for their introduction. The ministers take part
in the debates of this body in virtue of their ofiide, but cannot vote
unle^ they are members.
The executive, acting under the king as president, and called the
Eoyal Privy Council, consists of the following seven ministries : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, — Christian Albert Bluhme,
born at Copenhagen, Dec. 27, 1794 ; studied jurisprudence, and was
nominated, in 1822, Judge of the Court of Appeal ; member of the
Colonial Board of the Danish East-India possessions, 1823-25 ;
Dii-ector-generalofthe Customs, 1843; Minister of Commerce, March
to December, 1848; Minister of the Interior, Nov. 1851 ; President of
the Council of Ministers, Jan. 12, 1852, to April 20, 1853 ; appointed
Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Council of Ministers,
July 11, 1864.
2. The Ministry of the Inferior and of Justice. — Privy Councillor
TUlisch, appomted July 11, 1864.
3. The Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Herr Helzen^ appointed July 11, 1864.
4. The Ministry of Marine. — Captain O. Luihen, appointed Dec.
SO, 1863.
5. The Ministry of War. — General Hansen^ i^pointed July 11,
b2 .
52 DENMARK.
6. The Ministry of Finance. — Nathan David^ bom at Copenhagen,
Jan. 16, 1793, the son of a Jewish merchant; studied philosophy at
the University of Copenhagen, and, in 1818, embraced the Christian
religion, established the journal Faedrelandet, 1834 ; elected member
of the Bigsdag, 1848, and again 1853 ; chief of the statistical office,
1856 ; appointed Minister of Finance, July 11, 1864.
In addition to the above, there are two ministers * without port-
folio,' Count Charles MoltkCy born Nov. 15, 1800, former Minister for
Schleswig, and Herr von QuaddCy ambassador at the Court of Berlin
from 1860 to 1864. Both were appointed * ministers without
portfolio,' July 11, 1864.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland,
is divided, for administrative purposes, into three Jiordnungs or
districts; these are again divided into si/ssels or sheriffdoms— -a
sysselman being a magistrate and receiver of the king's taxes in
each of them. The governor-general is called stijlamtman, ap-
pointed by the king for five years, and resides at Keikjavik. He
has under him two amtmanns, or deputy-governors — one for the
western, and the other for the northern and eastern districts. The
a£^rs of the island are regulated by the althing^ a council composed
of 20 members — one for the town of Reikjavik, and one for each of
the 19 syssels.
Church and Education.
The established religion in Denmark is the Lutheran, which was
introduced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that
time seized and retained by the Crown. The affairs of the national
Church are under the superintendence of the eight bishops of
Seeland, Laaland, Fiinen, Ribe Aarhuns, Yiborg, Als, and Aalborg.
At present the nomination of the bishops is vested in the king.
The bishops have no political character ; they inspect the conduct
of the subordinate clergy, confer holy orders, and enjoy nearly all
the privileges of episcopal dignitaries in Great Britain, except that of
voting in the legislature. Complete religious toleration is extended to
every sect. It is enacted, by Art. 79 of the Constitution, that ' all
citizens may worship God according to their own fashion, provided
they do not offend morality or public order.' No citizen is boimd
to contribute to the support of a form of worship of which he is not
a member. No man (Art. 82) can be deprived of his civil and
political rights on the score of religion, or be exempted from the
performance of his duties as a citizen.
Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attend-
ance at school being obligatory from the age of seven to fourteen.
In conformity with Art. 88 of the Constitution, education is
afforded gratuitously in the public schools to children whose parents
cannot afford to pay for their teaching. The system of mutual in-
BETENITE AKD EXPBITSITITBE.
53
struction, introduced in 1820, was generally adopted in 1840.
Besides the university of Copenhagen, there are gymnasia, or colleges,
at Loroe and Aalborg, together with grammar-schools, academies, and
normal schools, in all the considerable towns. The number of
parochial schools, in which the children of the poor are educated at
the public expense, is above four thousand.
Bevenne and Expenditure.
The total revenue and expenditure of th6 DaYiish monarchy —
including the duchies, now separated from the kingdom — amounted
to the following sums in each of the five years ending March 31,
1859 to 1863:—
Years,
ending March 81
Revenue
Ext>enditnre
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
£
2,926,969
2,964,746
2,976.430
3,197,389
3,049,168
£
2,846,663
2,462,660
2,462,606
3,361,008
2,678,991
The subjoined tabular statements give the details of the actual
income and expenditure of Denmark in the financial year ending
March 31, 1863, and the estimated income and expenditure for the
year ending March 31, 1866; thus showing the financial state of the
country before and after the war, or before and after the loss of the
duchies: —
Income.
Aoconnt ended
Estimate in Budget,
March 81,
1868
Haich 81, 1866
BixdoUars
c.
Direct taxes . . * .
6,117,927
JSi
4,034,125 0
Customs and Excise (net) .
7,779,789
5,762,370 0
Crown lands (net) .
2,018,270
75
454,261 61
Indirect taxes (stamps, inherit-
ance, &c.) .
2,095,746
90^
1,382,160 0
Post and telegraph office (net) .
133,931
92
58,428 64
Lottery (net) ....
138,534
82
100,000 0
Interest on funds and payment .
2,473,113
34
2,346,976 27
Miscellaneous receipts
1,483,018
88^
456,172 62
Extraordinary receipts (for the
construction of railroads) .
4,863,351
87
2,735,000 0
Cash from the duchies, accord-
ing to the terms of the Peace
ofOctober30, 1864 .
•
•
1,223,500 0
27,103,686
81
18,641,983 22
£3,049,168
£2,085,998
5+
snntASK.
£XFBH1I1TU<B.
Civil list of the king
„ of the royal family
National debt .
Pensions .
Army
Navy
Civil services .
Legislative assemblies
]Vfis<*^]lan€K>H8 expenses
Kailroads
Aooonnt ended
March 81, 186S
Bizdollara
800.000
386,737
4,612,671
1,651,428
4,388,981
2,638,794
4,786,628
164,891
1,302,961
2.391,376
c
0
76
12*
18
63
83
21
73i
87
22,924,371
£2,678,991
Hi
Kutimalie in Budget,
endioc
Mait^81,18M
RlzdolUnrs
600,000
176,272
6,684,200
1,166,260
3,399,800
1,696,737
3,048,002
120.000
803,693
2,733,800
a
0
0
0
0
0
38
16J
0
16
0
20,126,664
£2,264,248
64i
The budget for the financial year, ending March 31, 1867, shows
a slightly larger income than that of the previous annual period, and
a considerably larger expenditure. The estimates, as passed by the
Rigsdag, were as follows : —
ESTDCATBD KbVBNUB FOB 1866-67.
Rixdollan
From pnblic domains 960,876
From West Indian colonies 62,600
Interest on funds held by the State 3,643,887
Customs, tonnage, stamps, and spirit duties . . . 6,776,000
Post-office and telegraphs 1,446,400
State lottery 110,000
Miscellaneous 328,993
Payments from duchies under Treaty of Vienna . 1.748,748
Tzeasuiy bonds 4,000.000
Total revenua 18,967,404
Estimated Exfbnditubb fob 1866-67.
RbcdoUan
Civil list of the king 600,000
„ of the royal family 264,860
Expenses of Privy Council 64,400
Interest of debt and sinking fund 11,486,300
Pensions on ordinary list 1,676,800
Mmistiy of Foreign Af&irs 187,268
„ War 3,261,986
Marine 1,813,944
Finance 2,881,698
Military pensions and maintenance of invalids . . 331,370
Miscellaneous 384,446
Provisional increase to officers of Bigsraad . . . . 436,060
Extraordinary pensions 360,000
Total expenditure 23,629,021
ARMT AHD MBLTT.
55
According to these estimates, there will be a deficit, in the financial
year 1866-67, of 4,551,617 rixdollars, or 512,056/. The deficit was
to be covered by the produce of various new taxes.
The public debt of the kingdom was as follows at the undermen*
tioned< peariods : —
Yeara,
ending March 81
Amount
1860
1861
1862
1863
Bixdollara
102,974,389
98,261,793
96,322,665
96,734,767
11,684,618
11,064,451
10,836,299
10,770,169
A portion of the public debt, formerly much larger, was paid off.
in 1856, by the capital, amounting to 80,476,325 rixdollars, or
3,324,632Z., given to Denmark in purchase of the Sound dues.
To this sum Great Britain contributed the principal share, amount-
ing to exactly one-third. To the debt above enumerated was added,
in January 1864, a new loan of 1,200,000/. — issued at 93 — to cover
the cost of the war against Germany.
Army and Navy.
The army of the Danish monarchy is to consist, according to law,
on the peace-footing, of 23 battalions of infantry, comprising 16,630
men ; 25 squadrons of cavalry, with 2,895 men ; and 2 regiments
of artillery, with 2,560 men and 96. pieces of ordnance. This total
of 22,900 men, which on the war^footing is to be doubled, has,
however, been seldom reached of late years, when, to diminidi the
already large wax-budget, the standing army has been kept down to
about 12,000 men. During the war with Austria and Prussia,
1863-64, there were in the field 49,300 infantry, 10,600 cavah-y,
and 9,000 artillery, with 144 gims, or more than three times the
average number of troops maintained during the years 1864-66.
The Danish army is formed by conscription, to which every man,
in good health, who has reached his twenty-second year, is liable. The
legal time of service is eight years ; but de facto the recruits are not
kept longer than about ten months under arms, and afterwards sent
home on furlough, and called up for annual exercise. At the end of
the first period of service, the men are inscribed on the * first call ' of the
army bf reserve ; and at the end of another eight years on the * second
call.' The military liability ceases only with the forty-fiflh year.
The maritime forces of Denmark consisted, in September, 1866,
of three frigates and one floating battery, iron-cased, carrying a total
of 44 gims ; one steam ship of the line, 64 guns ; four steam frigates^
56
BEXICABK.
with an aggregate armament ci 162 gnnK; three steam correttea,
with 44 guns; four corvettes, mounting 12 guns; six paddle-wheel
vessels, carrying together 38 guns ; and seven iron gunboats, with an
aggr^ate of 13 guns. Of sailing vessels Denmark posaesjted, at the
same date, two ships of the line, of 84 guns each ; one frigate, of 48 ;
one oorvette, of 20; and one brig, of 16 ; besides a receiving ship,
transports, and a flotilla of row boats. The chief iron-clad vessels of
the Danish navy are the Esbem Snares the Absalom, and the Rolf
Krake. The Rolf KrakCj built by Napier, of Glasgow, is plated
with 4^inch iron, and has two turrets, which carry four 68-pomider8;
it is of 1,200 tons burthen, and draws but 16 feet of water. The
Esbem Snare and Absalom are smaller iron-clad vessels, converted
from wooden ships.
The navy is manned by about one thousand men, officered by
one vice-admiral, one rear-admiral, and twenty captains.
PopnlatidL
The area and population of Denmark, according to the census of
February 1, 1860, and deduction being made of the territories
detached by the Treaty of Vienna, of October 30, 1864, is as
follows : —
ProTutocs
Area.
Bngllsh sq. m.
Seeland and Moen
Bomhoim ...••.•
Funen and Langeland
LoUand-Falster
Jutland
Tot^l
2,793
221
1,302
640
9,697
574,811
29,304
217.244
86,797
699,939
lf653
1,608,096
Denmark is a purely agricultural country, the fer greater number
of the people being occupied in the cultivation of &e land, and in
the simple employments necessary to meet the more inmiediate wants
of the agricultural districts. The town and country population of
the monarchy is divided as fellows : in the towns, 359,206 ; in the
country, 1,241,345. There being no coal, and but little water-
power in the country, the manufactories of any description are but
few in number, and of small extent.
The proportionate increase in the population of Denmark for the
last ten years has been larger in the towns than in the country
districts. In Copenhagen it has been 8*05 per cent., in the other
commercial towns together 10*29 per cent., whilst in the ocmntry
districts it has only been 5*99 per cent. The following was the
POMLATION. 57
population of the four chief towns at the enumeration of 1855 and
of 1860 :—
Chief Towns
l^opnlation
18d5
Copenhagen .
Odense
Aarhuus
Aalburg
143,691
12,932
8,891
9,102
166,143
14,256
11,009
10,069
•There is very little visible poverty either in the towns or the
country. According to Art. 87 of the Constitution, any person not
able to support himself or his family, and who has no one else to
provide for him, has the right to claim support from the State.
The titles of nobility in the kingdom of Denmark are only two.
Count, or Earl, and Baron ; but there is a large untitled noble^sCy
consisting of the most ancient families in the country, which rank
higher in public estimation than many of the modem houses
ennobled by the Crown. The soil of Denmark is greatly subdi-
vided, owing partly to the state of the law, which interdict>s the
imion of small farms into larger estates, but eDCourages, in various
ways, the parcelling out of landed property. In consequence, the
number of small proprietors is increasing from year to year, and
the number of great landowners decreasing in proportion. Of the
latter class, there were 7,959 in 1834, and only 5,790 in 1860,
while of the former the nimibers were — 87,867 in 1834, and
135,933 in 1860.
The occupations of the people are stated as follows in the last cen-
sus. Out of an average of 1,000 people, 395 live exclusively by
agriculture; 228 by manufactures and trades; 187 are day labourers;
53 are commercial men ; 29 mariners; 20 paupers; 16 ministers and
schoolmasters, or connected with education ; 15 pensioners, or people
living on * aftagt' (an allowance to those who cede their farms from
old age, &c.) ; 13 servants ; between 11 and 12 hold appointments in
the civil ofBces ; 9 are commissioned and nour commissioned officers
in the army and navy ; 9 capitalists ; 7 follow scientific and literary
pursuits (including students at the Universities) ; about 5 have no
fixed means of living ; and a little over 1 are in prison for crimes
or misdemeanours. The increase in the population by births has,
on an average, been at the rate of 165 children to every 1,000
women between 20 and 50 years of age. Out of the above number
of children, 1 in every 10 or 11 has been illegitimate, and between
4 and 5 per cent, still-bom.
58
DJBNHABX*
Tracto and Indnitry.
The commercial intercourse between Denmark and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, exhibiting
the value of the total imports from Denmark, aside with the exports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures to Denmark, in the
five years 1861 to 1865 :—
Tears
Imports from Denmark into
the United Kingdom
Exporti of Homt Ptodmce from
the United Kingdom to Denmark
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
2,665,837
2,165,040
2,425,959
2,242,300
2,284,287
£
912,807
941,771
1,004,904
1,190,609
1,263,953
The imports of Denmark into the United Kingdom consist entirely
of agricultural produce; the principal being oats and barley,
averaging together 1,000,000/., and animals, chiefly oxen and bulls,
averaging 500,000/. per annum. In 1865, the Danish imports into
the United Kmgdom included 5,892,3171bs. of butter, 5,658,347 lbs.
of bacon and hams, 2,829,435 lbs. of flour, 1,777,170 lbs. of hides
and skins, 3,085,960 lbs. of oilcake, 39,617 head of cattle, sheep,
and pigs. The cattle come chiefly from Jutland, the great cattle-
breeding province of the kingdom. Of British exports to Denmark,
the principal are coals and iron, each to the average amount of about
225,000/. per annum.
The commercial marine of the kingdom consisted, exclusive of the
duchies, on December 31, 1863, of 3,140 sailing vessels, of a
total burthen of 69,472 lasts, or 138,944 tons. There were, be-
sides, 47 steamers of a total burthen of 4,376 tons, and of 2,706
horse-power.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of the islands of
Faroe, Iceland, and Greenland in Europe ; the first-named — 17 in
number— having a population of 8,651 ; Iceland of 64,603 ; and
Greenland of 9,892 souls. The West India possessions, St. Croix,
St Thomas, and St. John, with a number of smaller islands, have a
population of 37,137, according to the census of 1860. The estab-
lishments on the coast of Guinea, forts Christianborg, Fredensborg,
and various other places, were ceded to Great Britain, by purchasey
in 1850. The town of Tranquebar with the surroimding district,
on the Cloromandel coast, ceded to Denmark by the rajah of
BOOKS OF BSFBEIKCE. 59
Tanjore, in 1620, and th6 small territMy of Serampore — Danish
FrederikRnagor — in Bengal, founded by the Danish East India
Company in 1755, were transferred to Great Britain in 1846. The
Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, were taken possession of by
the Danish Government in 1756, and for some time were in a flourish-
ing state, the population amounting to above 6,000 in the year 1840.
Eight years later,' however, in 1848, they were abandoned as useless,
nominally on account of their insalubrity.
Money, Weights, and Keasures,
The money, weights, and measures of Denmark, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
MONBT.
The i?ir Bank Dollar .... Average rate of exchange, 2s. Zd.
WmoHTS AND Measures.
The Lod = 227 grains troy, or about 9J dwts.
„ Pound =» I'lOl avoirdupois, or about lOOlbs.
to the cwt.
,, 8hip Last =2 tons.
„ TorndSf or Barrel of Gbrain and Salt « 3*8 Imperial bushels.
„ Coal . . = 4-7
„ Fot>t =1-03 English feet.
„ Viertel =1*7 Imperial gallon.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Official Publications.
Kongelig Bansk Hof og Statscalender. Kjobenhavn, 1866.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Ny Eaekke. Udgi vet af det Statistiske Bureau. 1866.
Report by Mr. Manley, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade of Danish
Possessions, dated July 1, 1861; in 'Beports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy.' No. V. London, 1862.
Reports by Mr. Lytton, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Constitution
and Financial State of Denmark, dated July 1, 1863, and Jan. 1, 1864 ; in
* Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. VIL London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Petre, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on Danish Exporte to
Grreat Britidn, dated Feb. 20, 1866; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy.' No. XIII. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Petre, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Foreign Trade of
Denmark, dated April 1865 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.'
No. IX. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul Rainals, on the Navigation, Trade, Agriculture, &c. of
the Danish West Indies in the Year 1864 ; in ' Commercial Reports received at
the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
6o DENlfABK.
2. Now-Official Publicatiows.
Baggesen (A.) Den Danske Stat i Aaret 1860. Fremstillet geographUk og
BtatistUk, tiUige fra et militairt SUndpimkt. 2 toIs. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1860-63.
Bergso (A. F.) DenDanske Stats Statistisk. 3 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1853-68.
Erslev (R) Den Danske Stat, geographisk Skildriog for Folket. 8. Kjoben-
havn, 1859-60.
Fetersen (C. P. N.) Love og andre offentlige Knndgjorelser, kongelige Resk-
ripter og Rcaolntioner, Kolle^al- og Ministenal-Skrivelser, vedkommende Land-
vaesenet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1865.
Tisserand (Eugene) l^tudes ^conomiqnes sur le Danemark, le Holstein et le
Sleswig. 4. Paris, 1866.
Trap (J. P.) Statistisk-topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark.
4 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1867-63.
Winkler (G. Or.) Island, seine Bewohner, Landesbildong und vnlkanische
Natnr. 8. Braunschweig, 1862.
fPi^id^n (Edm. von) Studien iiber Jutland. 8. Berlin, 1866.
6i
PRANCE.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
NapoUon III., Charles Louis, Emperor of the French, bom
April 20, 1808, the third son of Louis Napoleon, formerly King
of Holland, and of Queen Hortense, daughter of the Empress
Josephine of France, by her first husband. Viscount Beauharnais.
Educated, under the supervision of his mother, by the Abb6
Bertrand and M. Philippe Le Bas, at Arenenberg, Switzerland,
and at the grammar-school of Augsburg; studied military science
at Thun, Switzerland, under the direction of General Dufour ; took
part in the revolt of the CJarbonari, in the Pontifical States, March
1831 ; attempted to raise an insurrection at Strasbourg, October 30,
1836 ; detained prisoner at Strasbourg till November 9, 1836, and,
transported to Lorieni, sent in exile to America; returned to
Europe in September 1837, and was present at the death of his
mother, at Arenenberg, October 3, 1837 ; landed at Boulogne to
raise an insurrection, August 6, 1840; tried by the High Court of
Justice of the Chamber of Peers, and condemned to perpetual im-
prisonment, October 9, 1840 ; escaped from the fortress of Ham, by
the aid of Dr. Conneau, May 24, 1846 ; elected member of the
Constituent Assembly, in five departments, August 1848; returned
to France, September 21, 1848 ; elected President of the French
Republic for four years, by 5,562,834 votes, December 10, 1848 ;
took the oath on die Constitution, December 20, 1848; dissolved
the National Assembly by a coup d'etat ^ December 2, 1851 ;
elected President of the Kepublic for ten years, by 7,439,216 votes,
December 20-21, 1851; chosen hereditary Emperor by a * ple-
biscite ' of 7,864,189 votes against 231,145 votes, November 21-22,
1852 ; accepted the imperial dignity and assmned the title * Napo-
leon in.. Emperor of the French,' December 1, 1852. Married,
January 29, 1853, to
Eugenie Marie de Montigo, Empress of the French, born at
Granada, Spain, May 5, 1826, the second daughter of Coimt de
Montigo, grandee of Spain, and of Maxie Manuela Kirkpatrick de
Closebum, the descendant of a Roman Catholic Scotch family.
Educated in France and England, and on travels through Euxck^^
1836-50; married to the Emperor NapoIeoH) 3^iSi\xa.T^.^^^ Y^'^*^^
62 FRANCE.
Offspring of the union is Napoleon Eugene Louis, Prince Imperial^
bom March 16, 1856. . ,
Cousins of the Emperor. — I. Princess Mathtlde^ bom May 27,
1820, the daughter of Jerome, youngest brother of Napoleon I., and
of Princess Catherine of Wurtemberg ; married at Florence, Octo-
ber 10, 1841, to the Ku&sian Prince Anatole Demidoff* de San
Donato; separated, by mutual agreement, in 1845. 2. Prince
Napoleon Joseph, bom September 9, 1822, the son of Jerome,
youngest brother of Napoleon I., and of Princess Catherine of
Wurtemberg; married January 80, 1859, to Clotilde, bom March 2,
1843, the eldest daughter of Victor Emmanuel II., King of Italy.
Offspring of the union are two sons, namely. Napoleon Victor
Jerome, bom July 18, 1862, and Louis Joseph Jerome, bom
July 16, 1864.
The Emperor of the French is the only one of the crowned heads
of Europe whose claim to sovereign power is based both on the
vox populi of national election, and on the vox Dei of dynastic
right. Napoleon III. has a larger civil list than any other
monarch of Europe. Besides a fixed annual revenue of 25,000,000
francs, or 1,000,000/. sterling, his Imperial Majesty has the income
of the Crown domains, amounting to about 12,000,000 francs, or
480,000/., and the free possession of a number of palaces, parks,
forests, and mansions, kept at the expense of the State. The Crown
domains include a considerable portion of the estates of the Orleans
family, confiscated by Imperial decree of January 22, 1852. It is
calculated that the total revenue of Napoleon III. reaches the
sum of 42,000,000 francs, or 1,680,000/. a-year, which income,
however, has been surpassed of late by the annual expenditure.
The debts on the Imperial civil list are stated to amount to
80,000,000 francs, or 3,200,000/.
The succession to the throne of France is regulated by the
Senatus-consulte of November 7, 1852. According to this decree,
the Imperial dignity is hereditary in the male and legitimate
descendants of the present emperor, in the order of primogeniture.
In default of male children, Napoleon III. has the right to adopt
any of the male descendants of the brothers of Napoleon I. ; but
this privilege of adoption does not belong to the successors of the
present emperor. Should the emperor leave no children, nor no-
minate a successor, the members of the Council of State, together
with the Presidents of the Senate and the Legislative Chambers, have
to elect a sovereign, the election to be ratified by the vote of
the people. By a feither decree of December 18, 1852, Napoleon HI.
nominated to the succession of the throne of France his uncle, Jerome
Napoleon Bonaparte, and the male and legitimate descendants of his
union with the Princess Catherine of WUrtembei^, provided no
legitimate or adopted descendants should be lefl at the death of
CONSTITUTION AND OOVERNMENT.
63
the emperor. It was ordered, likewise, that the descendant* of
Jerome Napoleon were alone to be included in the * Imperial
femily,' leaving aU the descendants of the other brothers of Napo-
leon I. to be placed in the * iamilj of the emperor,' with precedence
of the high dignitaries of State, but otherwise simple subjects of
the sovereign.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and Governments of France,
with date of accession, from the time of Henri IV., first of the Bour-
bons :*— '
House of Bourbon.
Louis XVIII 1814
Charles X 1824
Hotise of Bourbon,
Henri rV. .... 1589
Louis XIII 1610
Louis XIV 1643
Louis XV 1715
Louis XVI 1774
Convention
Directoire
Consulate
Republic.
1792
1794
1799
House of Bourbon- Orleans.
Louis Philippe . . .1830
Republic,
Provisional GK)Yemment .
President
House of Bonaparte,
Napoleon III. .
1848
1848
House of Bonaparte.
Napoleon 1 1804 NapoWon III. . . ' . . 1862
The average duration of the above fifteen sovereigns and govern-
ments of France, during a period of 2| centuries, amounted to
eighteen years.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The present Constitution of France was decreed *in virtue of
the powers delegated by the French people to Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte, by the vote of the 20th and 21st of December, 1851.'
It bears date of January 14, 1852 ; was promulgated January 22,
1852, and subsequently modified by the Senatus-consulte of Novem-
ber 7, 1852, the Imperial decree of December 2, 1852, the
* Organic decree* of December 18, 1852, the Senatus-consulte of
December 25, 1852, of February 2, 1861, and of December 31,
1861. These statutes recognise &ye powers in the State — ^namely
(as cited in the preamble of the constitution of January 14,
1852)—
1. The Executive power, represented by the Emperor.
2. The Ministers, nominated solely by the Emperor.
3. A Council of State, preparing laws under the direction of
the ministers.
4. A Legislative Body, nominated by imiversal suffrage, ' dis-
cussing and voting laws.'
6. A * Second Assembly, formed of eminent men, acting as a
moderating power — pouvoir ponderateur'^fhe guardian
of the Constitution and of the liberties of the nation,'
64 FBANGE,
The emperor is irresponsible, and his person is inviolable. He
appoints and discharges his ministers, has tlie right to pardon
criminals, and is the fountain of all honours and dignities in the
State. He commands in chief the armies and navies; has the right
to make peace and to declare war ; to enter into commercial, offensive,
and defensive alliances with other sovereigns and nations, and to
nominate to all charges, appointments, and offices whatsoever in the
realm. He has the sole initiative in legislation, and justice is ren-
dered in his name. No law is valid unless sanctioned by the
emperor, and no person can hold any employ without taking the
oath of fidelity to his Majesty.
The ministers are appointed solely by the emperor, and hold
office at his pleasure. They are responsible to the nation, but only
for their individual acts. There is no community of action between
them, each directing the affiiirs only of his own department. The
Senate alone can bring a bill of accusation against the ministers.
The Council of State is composed of from forty to fifty mem-
bers, nominated by the emperor, and liable to be dismissed by
him. The duty of the Council of State consists in preparing, under
the direction of the sovereign and his ministers, such projects of
law as are to be laid before 3ie Legislative Body, and * to solve any
difficulties which may arise in administrative matters*— cfo reaoudre
les difficultes qui s^elevent en matiere d^ administration. The
Council of State has to defend before the Senate and the Legislative
Body the laws proposed by the Government, a number of membei*s
being appointed for this particular purpose every session by the
emperor. Each member of the Council of State has a salary of
25,000 francs, or 1,000/. per annum. The ministers take part, ex
officio, in the deliberations of the Council of State.
The members of the Legislative Body are elected by universal
suffrage, at the rate of one member to every 35,000 electors. The
number of electors inscribed on the lists at the general election of
1863 amounted to 10,004,028, and the number of actual voters, at
the same election, was 7,290,170. At the general election of 1857,
the number of electors inscribed on the lists was 9,836,043, and
that of voters 6,222,983 ; and at the general election of 1852, the
number of registered electors was 9,495,955, while the number who
recorded their votes amounted to 6,136,664. The members of the
Legislative Body are chosen for six years, and receive a salary of
2,500 francs, or 100/., a month during the period of each session,
whether ordinary or extraordinary. It is the duty of the Legislative
Body to discuss and vote any laws set before it by the Council of
State, as well as the annual budget of income and expenditure pre-
sented by the Government. The ordinary session of the L^slative
Body lasts six months, and the sittings are public ; but on the demand
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 65
of five members, the public may be excluded. The President and
Vice-president of the Legislative Body are nominated by the emperor
for the period of a year. The Legislative Body cannot receive petitions.
The emperor summons, prorogues, and dissolves the Legislative Body ;
but, in case of dissolution, new elections must take place within six
months.
The following are the numbers of deputies of which the French
representative bodies consisted at different periods since 1789. The
Constituent Assembly of 1789 numbered 1,200 ; and the Legislative
Assembly of 1791, 750 members.. The Convention maintained the
same number, which was reduced by the Constitution of the year of
the Republic-Ill. to 500. That figure was again reduced to 300 by the
Constitution of the year VIII. Napoleon raised the number to 629,
which, under the Restoration, was brought down to 430. Under the
monarchy of July the number-was 459 ; the Constituent Assembly
of 1848 consisted of 900, and the Legislative Assembly of 1849 of
750. The Legislative Body of 1863 consisted of 376 members.
The * Second Assembly,' cited in the preamble of the Constitution
' formed of eminent men, acting as a moderating power,' is called
the Seitate. The Assembly is composed of the- cardinals, marshals,
and admirals of the realm, and a number o£ other members, not
exceeding 150, nominated by the emperor. Each senator has a
salary of 30,000 francs or 1,200Z; per annum. The dignity is
irrevocable and for life; the members, of the Senate, however, are
allowed to resign their post. No vote of the Legislative Assembly
is effective without the sanction of the Senate, and the latter alone
has the right to receive petitions. Changes in the fimdamental laws
of the realm may be proposed by the Senate, with the concurrence
of the ministers ; and,, should such modifigations be approved of by
the emperorj they are called Senatus-consulte. The President and
Vice-president of the Senate are nominated by the emperor for the
period of one year. It is the special duty of the Senate to oppose the
promulgation of all laws contrary to the Constitution, religion, public
morals, firoedom of conscience, individual liberty, and equality of
all citizens before the law; The Senate is summoned, and the dura-
tion of its sittings fixed by Imperial decree.
There are eleven Bunisterial departments. According to an
Imperial decree, promulgated in the * Moniteur ' of Dee. 21, 1860,
the ministers take rank according to the length of time during which
they have been members of the Coimcil, with the exception of the
Minister of State, who has the precedence of all the rest
1. The Ministry of State. — ^Eug^ne Bouhery bom in 1813 ; studied
jurisprudence and was admitted, in 1838, to the bar of Riom ; elected
member of the Constituent Assembly for the Department of Puy-
de-D6me in 1848 ; Deputy to the Legislative Assembly for the same
66 FBANCE.
department, 1849 ; appointed Minister of Justice, Oct. 31, 1849 ;
resigned July 18, 1851 ; Minister of Justice, Dec. 2, 1851, to Jan.
22, 1852 ; Vice-president of the Council of State, 1852 ; nominated
Senator, June 18, 1856 ; appointed Minister and Secretary of State
of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Feb. 3, 1865 ; nomi-
nated Minister of State, Oct. 19, 1863.
2. The Ministry of Justice and department of the Great Seal. —
Peter Jules Baroche, bom at Paris, Nov. 8, 1802, the son of
a merchant ; studied jurisprudence, and became advocate in 1823 ;
nominated hdtonnier of the bar of Paris, 1846 ; elected deputy for
Eochefort, 1847 ; Deputy to the Constituent Assembly for the
department of Charente-inf^rieure, 1848 ; appointed Procureur-
general of the Republic, 1849 ; Minister of the Interior, 1850-51 ;
Minister of Foreign Affairs, April 10 to Oct. 14, 1851 ; appointed
President of the Council of State and Minister, 1861 ; nominated
Minister of Justice and Keeper of the Great Seal (Garde des Sceaux),
June 24, 1863.
3. The Ministry of Finance.— Achille Fauld, bom at Paris, Oct.
13, 1800, the son of a -wealthy Jewish banker ; received a commercial
education in his Other's establishment, and subsequently travelled in
Italy, Turkey, and Palestine ; elected Deputy for Tarbes, 1842 ;
elected member of the Constituent Assembly for the Department de la
Seme, 1848 ; Minister of Fmance, Dec. 2, 1851, to Jan. 25, 1852 ;
nominated Senator, 1852 ; Minister ai State and of the Imperial
House, 1852-60 ; appointed Minister of Finance, Nov. 14, 1861.
4. The Ministry of the Imperial House. — Count John B. Vaillantj
bom at Dijon, Dec. 6, 1790 ; studied military science at the Poly-
technic School of Paris and at Metz, and entered the army, as
lieutenant, in 1809 ; taken prisoner in the Russian campaign, Aug.
30, 1813 ; took part in the battle of Waterloo ; promoted to a
captaincy in 1816, and to a colonelcy in 1833; appointed com-
mander of the Polytechnic School, 1839, and director of the forti-
fications of Paris, 1840 ; promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general,
1 845 ; commander in second of the army of expedition to Rome,
1849 ; appointed Marshal of France, Dec. 11, 1851 ; received the
title of Count, 1852 ; Minister of War, 1854-60 ; appointed Governor
of the Prince Imperial, Aug. 23, 1860 ; Minister of the Imperial
House, Nov. 14, 1861.
5. Presidency of the Council of State. — Adolphe Vuitn/y bom at
Sens, in 1812, the son of a deputy to the National Assembly; studied
jurisprudence at Paris ; appointed head of a department in the
Ministry of Justice, 1841 ; nominated Maitre des requetes in the
Council of State, 1846 ; Under-Secretaary of State in the Ministry of
Finance, 1851 ; appointed Minister-President of the Council of
State, Sept. 29, 1864.
CONSTITUTION AND aOVERNMENT. 67
6. The Ministry of War. — ^Marshal Count Eandon, bom at Greno-
ble, of Protestant parents, March 25, 1796 ; entered the armv in
1810, taking part in the campaign of Russia ; appointed lieutenant in
1812, and captain in 1813 ; nominated lieutenant-colonel 1830,
colonel 1838, and lieutenant-general, 1847; Minister of Algeria,
March — June, 1848 ; Secretary of State for War, Jan. 24 to Oct.
26, 1851 ; Governor-general of Algeria ; nominated Senator, Dec.
81, 1852 ; Marshal of France, March 10, 1856 ; Governor-general
of Algeria, 1852-58; appointed Minister Secretary of State for the
War Department, May 5, 1859.
7. The Ministry for the Marine and the Colonies. — Count
de Chasseloup'Laubat, bom at Alexandria, Piedmont, March 29,
1805 ; educated for the Civil Service ; aide-de-camp of General
Lafayette, 1830 ; elected Deputy for the Department of Charente-
inf^rieure, 1837 ; nominated Councillor of State, 1838; member of
the Legislative Assembly, 1849 ; appointed Secretary of State for
Algeria and the Colonies, March 24, 1 859 ; nominated Minister of
State for the Marine and the Colonies, Nov. 24, 1860.
8. The Ministry for Foreign A£&irs. — Leonel marquis de
Moustier, bom 1815, the eldest son of Marquis Clement Edouard
de Moustier ; educated for the diplomatic career ; elected member of
the Legislative Assembly for the department Doubs, May 13, 1849;
ambassador at the Court of Berlin, March, 1853, to November, 1859 :
ambassador at Vienna, December, 1859, to August, 1861 ; Ambassador
at Constantinople, August, 1861, to September, 1866 ; appointed
Minister Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, September 1, 1866.
9. The Ministry of the Interior. — Marquis de La Valette, bom
1810; entered the diplomatic career, 1837; Consul-general at
Alexandria, 1841-5; Minister at Cassel, 1846-49; Ambassador
Extraordinary at Constantinople, 1851 53; Ambassador Extraordi-
nary at Kome, 1862-3; appointed Minister of the Interior, March 29,
1865.
10. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — ^Victor Durut/j bom at
Paris in 1811, of Protestant parents; studied at the College Eollin
and the Ecole Normale, 1825-30 ; Professor of History at the Col-
lege Henri IV., 1833-60 ; Inspector- General of Schools, 1861 ;
appointed Minister of Public Instruction, June 24, 1863.
11. The Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works.
— ^Armand Behic, formerly merchant and director of the steamboat
company of the Messageries Imp^riales; appointed Minister of
Agricultiu-e, Commerce, and Public Works, June 24, 1863.
The duties of the various ministers have been strictly defined by
a number of Imperial decrees, by which new spheres of action have
been created in some cases, and in others the former jurisdiction
of the respective departments has been entirely ^Y^iXvajE^t^. '^LX^fe
p 2
68 FRANCE.
Minister of State, who acts as premier, is the medium of communi-
cation between the emperor and the other ministers, as well as witlf
the Council of State, the Senate, and the Legislative Body ; he has,
besides, the exclusive direction of the official part of the ' Moniteur.'
The Minister of the Imperial House has the chief administration of
the revenues of the Crown, and also the arrangement and superin-
tendence of the general budget of income and expenditure, as laid
before the Legislative Bodj and the Senate. He acts, in some other
respects, as * First Lord of the Treasury.* The Ministries of State
and of the Lnperial House have been at various times combined in
one person. The Ministries of Marine and of the Colonies were,
tmtil recently, separated ; the latter forming an independent depart-
ment of * Algeria and the Colonies,* created in favour of Prince
Napoleon by Lnperial decree of June 24, 1858. Of most recent
date has been the appointment of ministers without portfolio,
having no fixed duties, but forming part of the Cabinet Council.
The office of these * speaking ministers ' was, however, provisionally
suspended by Imperial decree of Jime 24, 1863, which ordered
that, for a time, the Minister of State and the Minister-President of
the Coimcil of State should undertake ^to explain and defend
questions placed before the Senate and the Legislative Assembly.'
France is largely represented by ambassadors and other diplomatic
envoys in foreign countries. The following are the salaries of
Ambassadors and Ministers Plenipotentiary, as returned in the
Budget of 1867 : — St. Petersburg, 12,000/. ; London, 11,000Z. ;
Vienna, 8,000/. ; Madrid, 6,000/. ; Rome, 5,600/. ; Constantinople,
5,600/.; Pekin, 4,800/.; Berlin, 4,400/.; Florence, 4,400/.; Brussels,
3,200/. ; Rio de Janeiro, 3,200/. ; Washington, 8,200/. ; Mexico,
3,200/. ; Teheran, 2,800/. ; the Hague, 2,800/. ; Buenos Ayres,
2,800/. ; Athens, 2,400/. ; Munich, 2,400/. ; Lisbon, 2,200/. ;
Copenhagen, 2,000/. ; Dresden, 2,000/. ; Stuttgart, 2,000/. ; Stock-
holm, 2,000/. ; Carlsruhe, 1,800/.; Hamburg, 1,800/.; Bogoto, 1,600/.;
Tangiers, 1,300/. ; Darmstadt, 1,200/. ; Weimar, 1,200/. These
salaries express, to some extent, the relative importance of the
diplomatic relations of France.
Cliiirch and Education.
The population of France, on January 1, 1862, consisted
of 35,734,667 Roman Catholics, 1,561,250 Protestants, 156,000
Jews, and 20,815 members of other sects and forms of belief.
In Algeria there were, besides, 2,778,281 Mahometans. In regard
to Protestants, this official statement is somewhat at variance with
that of the Synods and Consistories, the heads of which estimate
CHUBCH AND BDUCATIOK. 69
the members of the Reformed Church at 1,300,000, and those of
the Lutheran Church at 700,000. All religions are recognised by
the State, but only the Roman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews,
are noticed in the budget ; the latter only since 1831. In the budget
of 1862 the allowances to the Roman Catholic clergy amoimt to
49,819,936 francs, or very nearly 2,000,000^. sterling ; and those
to the Protestant Church, 1,493,436 francs, or 59,737Z. The whole
income of the Roman Catholic clergy, from public and private
sources, is computed to amoimt to above 100,000,000 francs, or
4,000,000/.- sterling ; and that of the Protestant ministers at about
150,000Z. There are eighty-four prelates of the Roman Catholic
Church — namely, seventeen archbishops and sixty-seven bishops.
The Archbishop of Paris has a salary of 60,000 francs, or 2,000/. >
and each of the other archbishops of 20,000 francs, or 800^. ; while
the sixty-seven bishops have an income of 15,000 francs, or 600/.
each. An extra allowance of 10,000 francs, or 400/», is made to
six of these prelates, on account of their being cardinals, and, as all
cardinals are ex-officio senators, the fiirther sum of 3,000 francs*
or 1,200/., is ftirther due to them in this capacity. The otJier
Roman Catholic clergy comprise 178 vicars-gener^, with salaries of
from 1,500 to 2,500 francs, or 60/. to 100/. ; 669 canons, with allow-
ances varying from 1,600 to 2,400 francs, or 64/. to 96/.; 3,426
cures, or incumbents with incomes ranging from 1,200 to 1,600
francs, or 48/. to 64/. ; and 30,243 desservants, or curates, with
stipends of from 900 to 1,200 francs, or 36/. to 4^. The Protest-
ants of the Augsburg Confession, or Lutherans, are, in their reli-
gious affairs, governed by a General Consistory, established at Stras*
bourg; while the members of the Reformed Church, also called
Calvinists, are under a council of administration, the seat of which
is at Paris. The Jewish priesthood consists of ten high rabbis,
with salaries of from 3,500 to 7,000 francs, or 140/. to 240/. ;
fifty-one rabbis, with incomes ranging from 8OO to 1,500 francs, or
32/. to 60/. ; and sixty-two precentors, with cdlowances from 500
to 2,000 francs, or 20/. to 80/.
The Lutherans have a seminary and a feculty of theology at
Strasbourg, with fifty-three churches ; and the Calvinists have con-
sistorial churches in fifty-nine departments : they meet occasionally
in synod, and have a faculty of theology at Montauban. When
Calvin foimded the Reformed Church in France, he confided the
government of each parish to a Presbyteral Council, or Consistory,
taken from among the general assembly of the members. This was
strictly adhered to till the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The
Edict of 1787 restored to the Protestants the civil rights they had
been deprived of a century before, but it made no regulations as tci
their religious organisation, which was only deletmvcia^ ^ XlCifc ^ass^^
70 nuNCs.
time as that of the Catholic Church in its relations to the State, by
the law of 18 Grerminal, year X., known as the ^ Organic Artidee
of the Protestant Worship.' By that law the administration of each
of the Eeformed parishes was intrusted to a Consistory, composed of
the pastor or pastors serving the church, and of elders chosen from
the principal laymen in each district. The members of the Council
thus established were at first named by the Government : half of
them were subject to re-election every two years, and the elections
were held by the elders actually in office, who named for that pur-
pose an equal number of citizens who were heads of families. This
organisation was again changed on the 26th of March, 1852, by a Dic-
tatorial Decree of Prince Louis Napoleon, President of the Republic,
on the ground, *that the laws which regulated the Reibrmed
Churches had always been deemed insufficient, and that it was of
the utmost importance to complete them in the interests of re-
ligion, and of administrative and political order.' The decree of the
26th of March charges with the government of each parish a Pres-
by teral Coimcil, consisting of pastors and of laics, one-half of whom
are subject to re-election every three years. The election is by
universal suffrage ; and all the members of the Protestant faith in-
scribed on the parish register are electors. The Preabyteral Council
is placed under the authority of the Consistory, which is composed
of the Presbjrteral Council of the chief town of the Consistorial
district, augmented by all the pastors of the district, and 10 lay
delegates from each of the other Presby teral Coimcils.
Public education has made great progress in France within the
last generation, according to a voluminous report issued by the
Minister of Public Instruction in March 1865.* The report gives a
comparative statement of the numbers who attended primary schools
in 1832, 1847, and 1863 respectively; from which it appears that in
1832 there were 59 pupils per 1,000 of the population, 99*8 in 1847,
and 116 in 1863. As regards the number of children who are not
known to go to any school, the report states that between 1847 and
1863, 8,566 public schools were opened with a gain of 806,233
pupils, averaging 59,000 per annum. There are still 818 communes
without schools, but in most of these places the children are sent to
schools in the vicinity. There appears to be a deficit of 884,887
children between seven and thirteen who ought to be at the primary
schools, but some receive instruction at home or in the elementary
classes of secondary establishments. The duration of school life is
regulated by the religion of the scholar. Catholics rarely visit school
afber eleven or twelve, the age at which they receive their first com-
mimion ; Protestants commonly remaining imtil about sixteen. As
* * Moniteur/ March 6, 1865.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 7 1
£ir as can be ascertained, the number of children over eight and
under eleven who have never been to school does not exceed 200,000.
Of the children who left school in 1868, 60 per cent, coiild read,
write, and cast acooiints fidrly ; the remaining 40 per cent, had
either passed through school uselessly, or left it with such imperfect
knowledge that it was obvious they must soon forget what they had
been taught.
According to official returns, there were, in October 1863, in
France 82,135 establishments of primary instruction, or 16,136
more than in 1848 ; and the scholastie population, which at this last
period was only 3,771,597, had risen in 1862 to 4,731,946, giving
an augmentation of nearly a million, or a quarter of the whole. The
36,499 commimes provided, in October 1868, with means of instruc-
tion, comprised 41,426 public and free schools, special for youths or
mixed as to the sexes, of which 37,895, numbering 2,145,420 pupils,
were directed by laics, and 3,581, numbering 482,008 pupils, had
* congregationist ' masters. Of the 2,627,428 children in these
schools, 922,820, or more than one-third, were admitted gratuitously.
The number of schools for girls, in October 1868, amounted to
26,592; of which 13,491 were directed by laics provided with
diplomas of capacity, and 18,101 by religious sisters, of whom 12,885
had only the * letter of obedience.' These schools received 1,609,218
pupils, of whom rather more than a third, or 604,247, were in the
lay schools, and 1,059,966 in the congregationist establishments.
One quarter of those pupils were admitted gratuitously — ^viz.
130,210 in the lay, and 490,094 in the congregationist schools;
total 620,804. The . emoluments of the female public teachers
amounted to 9,169,080 francs, giving an average annual salary of
655 francs, or 26/. per head.
The amount of general education of the French people may be
judged to some extent from the military statistics. According
to a report of the Minister of War, published in 1866, the number
of conscripts imable to read amounts to 80 out of every himdred,
for the whole of France. But the degree of education varies greatly
in different parts of the empire, instmction being far more general
in the eastern and northern than in the southern districts. Among
the 89 departments, there are 14 in which, out of every hundred
conscripts, from 90 to 96 can read. The departments so distinguished
are the Doubs, Haute-Marne, Mouse, Bas-Khin, Meurthe, Jura,
MoseUe, Vosges, Aube, Seine, Haut-Rhin, Haute-Saone, Cote, d'Or,
and Hautes-Alpes. The next are the Marne, Ardennes, Seine-et-
Oise, Rlione, Seine-et-Marne, Manche, Oise, Calvados, Haute- Savoie,
Yonne, Eure-et-Loir, Isere, Ome, Hautes-Pyrenees, or 14 depart-
ments in which from 80 to 90 out of 100 conscripts can read.
Those which show fix)m 70 to 79 per cent, wbo c^ai^a.^ ^x^ %^^ feoai.^
72
FBANCE.
Somme, Aisne, Savoy, Eure, Herault, Gard, Drome, BasAes-Alpes,
Charente-Inferieure, Bouches-du- Rhone, Deux-Sevres, Loiret,
Aveyron, Pas-de- Calais, and Gironde. The departments with from
60 to 69 per cent, who can read, are Cantal, Seine-Inferienre,
Vaucluse, Lozere, Gers, Saone-et-Loire, Aude, Basses-Pyrenees,
Lot-et-Garonne, Nord, Haute-Garonne, Var, Charente, Afaine-et-
Loire, Corsica, Loir-et-Cher, Mayenne, Sarthe, and Creuse. Twelve
departments — ^nameiy, the Lot, Loire-Inferieure, Ardeche, Indre-et-
Loire, llle-et-Vilaine, Puy-de-D6me, Tam-et-Garonne, Alpes-
Maritimes, Vendue, Tarn, Pyrenees -Orientales, and Vienne show
from 60 to 58 per oent. of conscripts not quite illiterate. The list
closes with the Ni^vre, Haute-Loire, Landes, Ariege, Dordogne,
Cher, Morbihan, Indre, Cotes-du-Nord, Corr^ze, Finisterre, Haute-
Vienne, and Allier, where the proportion of the conscripts who can
read varies from 34 to 49 per cent. It is calculated that another
generation will be required to extend the benefits of education to
the whole population of France.
Bevenne and Expenditnre.
The actual revenue and expenditure of the French Government
in each of the years 1860 and 1861 — last budgets definitif a laid before
the Legislative Body — ^were as follows :—
ACTUAI. RBVBNtTB, 1860, 1861.
Branches of Revenue
I860
1861
Ordinary Revenue.
Direct taxes : —
Tjandtax "|
Special funds of the departmefits V
and communes . . .J
Woods and fisheries .
Domains
Indirect taxes ....
Miscellaneous
Total Ordinary .
Extraordinary Retfentie,
Sinking fond
Now loans
Miscellaneous
Total Extraordinary .
Total Eevenue {^'^"^
Francs
480,881,810
42,016,964
13,494,413
1,074,384,626
111,577,826
Franca
[302,040,110
1 191,478,708
45,996,667
13,010.323
1,106,657,733
121,410,484
1,722,306,637
1,779,694.025
121,036,382
118,866,597
139,636,899
86,966,619
239,892,979
226,491,418
1,962,198,616
78,487,944
2,006,085,443
80,248,417
BETENDE AND EXFENDITUBE.
73
ACTUAX EXFBNDITUBB
1860, 1861.
Branches of Expenditure
I860
1861
Ordinary Expendittire.
Francs
Francs
Ministry of State ....
19,631,607
23,113,070
„ of Justice ....
37,703,079
30,301,871
„ of Foreign Affairs .
13,404,199
17,623,149
Ministry of Finance : —
PubUcdebt ....
660,184,408
680,626,233
Endowments ....
44,288,061
44,169,026
General service ....
23,77^141
26,713,^538
Administration and -collection of
revenue
196,083,^74
199,283,918
Repayments and premiums .
Total of Finance
Ministry of War
134,606,067
116,911,134
967,937,241
966,693,849
443,668,023
440,976,814
„ of Marine ....
202,666,199
230,001,184
Ministry of Public Instruction and
Worship : —
Public Instruction
20,867,979
21,332,239
Public Worship
60,008,643
62,102,124
Ministry of the Interior
170,946,060
191,614,819
„ of Agriculture, Commerce, and
Public Works
73,636,022
76,479,167
Ministry of Algeria and the Colonies .
Total Ordinaiy/^^^^^
41,626,686
21,729,647
2,021,764,626
80,870,681
2,071,866,823
82,874,272
Extraordinary Expenditure.
Ministry of State ....
3,038,460
•^,134,680
„ of Agriculture, Commerce, and
Public Works
Total Extraordinary .
Total of Ordinary and Ex- f Francs
traordinary Expenditure \ £
69,288,366
96,997,204
62,326,806
99,131,784
2,084,091,364
2,170,988,607
83,363,664
86,839,644
The Senatus-Consultum of December 31, 1861, inaugurated the
system by which the budgets of the French Government are at
present regulated. Under this system, the Minister of Finance
distinguishes between three classes of income — ^namely, ordinary,
extraordinary, and special revenue ; and he also recognises three sorts
of expenditure — ^viz., ordinary, extraordinary, and supplementary.
It is the practice to lay before the Legislative Body in the first
instance the budget of ordinary income and expenditure ; when this
has been voted, after a lapse of time more or less considerable, the
extraordinary budget is submitted to the Chamber, and, finally, the
special budget.
74
nAJUCR.
The subjoined statement gives the budgets for each of the years
1864 and 1865, as sanctioned by the Legislative Body : —
EsmiATSD Rbvknl'b fob 1864 and 1865.
Branches of Revenue
1864
1865
Ordinary,
1
Taxes:—
Francs
FrmnoB !
Land tax
167,600.000
168,800,000
Personal and movable property .
47,619,000
48.438.000
Door and window tax . . .
34,971,600
36,361,200
Patents ......
67,362,400
59,007,200
Horses and carriages ....
2,700,000
2,700,000 i
Advertisements
Kegistration duties
665,000
665,000
310,808,000
315,361,400
334,388,000
319,222,000
Stamps
75,681,000
76,278,000
Domains ......
6,296,000
6,264,000
Sale of movable articles belonging to
the Ministries
6,068,800
6,600,000
Produce of Imperial or State Establish-
ments
1,436,416
1,426,416
Forests and fisheries ....
39,921,500
40,266,600
Customs : —
Import duties on various merchandise
81,363.000
^2,196,000
„ „ Sugar, Colonial
39,680,000
35,293,000
„ Foreign
36,494.000
11,426,000
Export duties
410,000
410,000
Navigation dues ....
4,408,000
4,163,000
Other customs revenues .
1,598,000
1,390,000
Consumption duties on salt received
within the Customs Lines
23,420,000
187.373,000
22,648,000
147,425,000
BCT-era|2:ee, chjefly fermented liquors
203,709,000
213,427,000
ConEumptioii dutiefl on salt received with-
out the CiiHtoiTB Lines
10,443,000
8,415,000
Mauufacture of indigenous sugar .
68,816,000
68,930,000
Miiicellaneoue
53,951,000
67,998,000
Sale of Tobacco . . . . ;
220,376,000
226,478,000
„ Gunpowder
14,183,000
12,764,000
Poet Office
69,233,000
72,410,000
Various receipts
Total of Ordinary ....
187,914,270
190,891,746
1,780,487,986
1,762,036,062
Extraordinary and Special .
Total Revenue ./^'^^J
108,015,236
119,350,011
1,888,503,222
1,871,386,078
76,640,128
74,855,443
REVENUE AND EXPENDITUBE. 75
ESTIMATBD EZPBMDirUBB FOB 1864 AlTD 1865.
Branches of Expenditure
1864
1865
Ordinary,
Francs
Francs
Ministry of Finance ....
987,260,390
965,774,903
»
State
17,095,900
15,426,600
>»
Justice ....
33,167,610
33,217,210
»
Foreign Affairs .
12,534,200
12,597,200
>»
Interior ....
51,109,006
51,295,845
>»
War and Algeria .
384,490,053
382,218,633
n
Navy and Colonies
163,242,332
151,092,332
3t
Public Instruction and Wor-
ship ....
64,533,257
67,299,107
ft
Agriculture, Commerce, and
Public Works .
Total of Ordinary
71,711,253
71,370,753
1,775,144,001
1,750,922,583
„ Extraordinary
Total Expenditure . [ ^'^^
108,015,000
118,862,000
1,883,159,001
75,326,360
1,869,774.583
74,790,983
When submitting the budget for the year 1865 to the Legislative
Body, the Minister of Finance stated that the extraordinary expenses
occasioned by the war in Mexico, in the years 1862 and 1863,
amounted to 210,000,000 francs, and the war expenses in Cochin-
China, and other pai-ts of Asia, to 60,000,000 francs, which, added
to a deficit of 75,000,000 francs incurred in 1862-63, made the
total deficit amount to 195,000,000 francs, or 7,800,000Z.
According to a semi-ofl&cial statement, the wars and warlike
operations of France, since the accession of Napoleon III., have cost
the following sums: —
Crimean War
Italian „
Chinese „ . . . .
Occupation of Eome ....
„ Syria ....
Supplementary expenses ....
Total
Francs
1,348,000,000
345,000,000
166,000,000
50,000,000
28,000,000
89,000,000
£
53,920,000
13,800,000
6,640,000
2,000,000
1,120,000
3,560,000
2,026,000,000
81,040,000
The Mexican war, it will be noticed, is not included in this
calculation. The cost of the Mexican expedition, up to the end of
June, 1866, amounted to 500,000,000 fiancs, or 20,000,000/. This
brings the total cost of recent French wars to 2,526 millions of
francs, or about 101 millions sterling.
76
FRANCE.
The public debt of France was as follows, on January I, of
each of the years 1862, 1863, and 1864 :—
Description of Debt
1862
1863
1864
Funded Debt •
Floating Debt .
Francs
9,924,874,218
1,349,204,120
FranoB
12,080,235,183
1,022,499,255
Francs
12,316,946,794
1,161,277.858
11,274,078,338
450,963,134
13,102,734,438
524,109,378
13,477,224,647
539,088,985
The system of raising loans from the population at large, instead
of from a few large capitalists, which the present French Government
inaugurated, has been very successful. Five loans of this nature,
specified in the following statement, have thus been created : —
Nominal
capital
1
1
1
CO
t
c.
65
25
66
25
65
25
60
50
66
30
I*
Capital sub-
soibedfor
Nomber
of sab-
scribers
First loan, March 14,
(Crimean war) .
Second loan, Jan. 3,
(Crimean war) .
Third loan, July 18,
(Crimean war) .
Fourth loan, May 7,
(Italian war) .
Fifth loan, Jan. 12,
(consolidation of
floating debt) .
18541
1855 1
1856^
1B591
18641
the I
FranoB
250,000,000
500,000,000
750,000,000
500,000,000
300,000,000
f. -c.
92 50
92 0
Francs
463,315,400
2,198,356,170
92 0 3,652,724,125
90 6
None
issued
2,509,639,193
4,847,000,000
99,224
180,480
316,976
690,230
542,061
The funded debt of France has increased in the following pro-
portions since the year 1851. It amounted, on January 1st,
1851 to 5,345,637,360 francs, or £213,825,494
1852
If
5,516,194,600
ti
220,647.784
1853
6,577,504,587
11
223,160,183
1854
»»
5,669,655,012
»»
226,786,201
1855
jy
6,082,877,852
11
243,315,114
1856
it
7,558,040,822
It
302,321,633
1857
8,031,992,466
11
321,279,698
1858
>»
8,422,096,777
It
336,883,871
1859
»»
8,693,288,155
n
343,731,526
1860
»»
9,334,012,006
11
373,360,481
1861
»»
9,719,176,913
It
388,767,076
1862
>i
9.924,874,218
It
396,994,968
1863
»>
12,080,236,183
It
483,209,404
1864
if
12,315,946,794
ft
492,637,872
AKMT AND NAYT.
77
The amount of annual interest payable on each description of the
public debt of France was as follows in each of the years 1864-
1866 :—
OonsoUdated Debt
1864
1865
1866
Stock 4 j per Cent.^ Old , . \
New ./
4 per Cent. .
8 „ ...
Total . .
Sinking fund
Loans for canals, &c. .
Floating debt . ^ .
Securities, (cautionnement)
Sound dues ....
Scheldt dues. . . .
Payment to Spain .
Pensions, &c
Total. .{^^'^^
PrancB
89,759,628
478,081
345,699,838
Francs
39,273,109
472,386
367,961,379
Francs
37;753,635
446,096
303,072,160
385,937,547
407,706,874
341,271,891
118,022.745
17,547,785
34,000,000
8,600,000
248,832
12,000
76,607,931
118,022,745
17,096,925
23,700,000
8,500,000-
248,832
13,000
78,071,821
127,681,576
15,695,185
23,500,000'
8>500,00O
248,832
340,504
20,000.
80,873,574
640,876,840
25,635,073-
653,360,197
26,134,407
598,131,562
23,925,262
In consequence of the recently promulgated law of rent conver-
sion, by which the holders of 4^ per cent, stock are enabled to
exchange it for 3 per cent., the floating debt of France has of late
been considerably lessened. On the other hand, the amount of
perpetual charges, of the same nature aa the interest on the public
debt, such as life-rents and pensions, is continually augmenting. In
the budget for 1864, the number of State pensioners was set down
at 130,544, and in that of 1865, at 133,212, the life-rents and
Crown pensions amounting to 73,279,.350 francs, or 2,931,174/.,
representing a capita) of 733,000,000 francs, or 29,320,000/.
Army and Havy.
1. Army,.
The army of France ifl formed by conscription, to which every
man, who has reached the age of 21, is liable. An annual decree
fixes the number of men to be drauglUed during the year. Formerly
the normal number was 80,000 ; but during the Ori«ii\a!L ^«x^ \s\
78 ntlNCE.
the years 1853 to 1855, the amount was raised to 140,000, and in
1857 it was settled to be 100,000. At the outbreak of the Italian
war, it was again raised to 140,000, and remained so till 1861, when
100,000 was once more settled to be the annual niunber of men to
be draughted for the army. The average number of young men
called on to draw annually is 310,000. Of this number 100,000 are
nominally required to serve, but about 27,000 are usually left at
home, so that 73,000 only, including volunteers, are each year liable
to be incorporated with the army. The legal time of service is
seven years ; but the soldiers are kept seldom longer than six years
under arms, and are often sent home much earlier, to form, together
Yrith the young recruits, the army of reserve Only a portion of
the annual contingent of recruits are incorporated with the standing
army, and the rest are drilled for six months in the departmental
depots. This period of six months may be, and is mostly, extended
over three years ; so that the anniuil exercises last but two months
on the average. In this manner some 32,000 recruits are drilled
regularly every year. The method was established by Imperial
decree in 1860, being a finiit of the personal experiences ci
Napoleon III. in Switzerland.
Every man drawn for conscription has the right to buy a substi-
tute. Such substitutes were procured formerly through private
agencies; but an Imperial decree of April 26, 1855, organised a
new system, making the right to furnish substitutes a Government
monopoly. According to this system, the re-enlistment of old
soldiers is greatly encouraged, so as to give the army a standing
nucleus of experienced troops, who have made the military service
their life-profession. The Government annually fixes the price to be
paid for substitutes. It was fixed, in 1855, at 2,800 francs, or
112Z., was lowered, in 1857, to 1,800 francs, or 72/., and was sub-
sequently raised again to 2,800 francs, or 112/. In 1865, the
pay for a substitute was settled by the Minister of War at 2,300
francs, or 92/. This sum, increased by various other items,
enumerated below, is thrown into an army-ftmd, out of which the
substitutes are paid a certain amount at the time of enlistment,
besides receiving an increase of pay at the end of seven years,
another increase at the end of fourteen, and a pension of one franc,
or tenpence, a day, after a service of forty-five years. Soldiers
are allowed to re-enlist as long as they are fit for service. According
to an official report addressed by the Minister of War to the em-
peror, in November, 1863, the receipts and expenses of the army-
fund during the years 1855 to 1862 give the following total : —
Receipts : from young conscripts, 352,778,900 francs ; by soldiers
serving, 49,618,856 francs; interest on rente, 37,327,930 firancs;
ARMr AND NAVY. 79
additional interest by the Gaisse des depots et Consignations,
4,474,487 francs ; donations and legacies, 16,796 francs; sundries,
289,501 francs ;— total, 444,605,969 francs, or 17,780,238/. The
general total of expenses amounted to 430,405,150 francs, or
17,216,206Z.
The number of volunteers for the army — without bounty — is on
the decrease. Before the year 1852, there were, on the average,
ten thousand volunteers per anniun ; in 1853, there were 8,600 ; in
1854 they rose to 16,676; in 1855 they reached the number of
21,955; in 1856, they declined to 19,546; in 1857, to 6,828; in
1858 to 11,845 ; in 1859, to 2,244 ; in 1860, to 2,192 ; and in 1865,
to 2,085. The total number of voluntary enlistments, and of re-
enlistments at'ter discharge, amounted to 227,368 in the ten years
from the 1st of May, 1855, to the 35th of April, 1865, giving a
yearly average of 22,736 men who entered the army without legal
compulsion. The non-commissioned officers in the infantty are
chiefly drawn from the ranks of those who re-enlist. A large
number of volimteers engage for the artillery ; very few for the
cavalry. Advancement to the highest rank of military hierarchy
being open to every French soldier, the volunteers, as a rule, make
their way rapidly in the army, being distinguished, in the majority
of cases, by a superior education.
From a report * on the state of the army up to the Ist of March,
1865,' laid before the Legislative Assembly in the session of 1865, it
appears that the nominal strength of the whole army of France, in-
cluding gendarmes and administrative troops, amounted at that
period to 404,192 men and 86,368 horses, on the peace footing,
inclusive of a staff of 1,773 men with 160 horses.
The details of the organisation of the French army are as fol-
lows : —
INFANTRY.
3 regiments of
Imperial Grenadier Guards
6,600
*
Voltigeurs
8,800
100
Infantry of the Line
198,871
7
Chasseurs
16,103
4
Zouaves
9,746
1
African Light Infantry
1,659
1
Foreign Legion .
2,577
3
Tirailleurs of Algeria .
6,000
1
Veterans, and other troops .
2,296
Total 124 regiments of Infentry, with .... 252,652 men.
On the war-footing the Infantry consists of 515,937 men.
8o
FKANCB,
CAVALRY.
\ squadfonof CentrGards .
221
2 regiments
of Carbineers .
1,764
12 „
Cuirawders .
. 10,916
13
Dragoons .
11,631
9
Uhlans
8,103
13
Mounted Chasseurs
11,876
\
Imperial Guides .
1,047
8
Hussars
7,646
3
Chasseurs d*Afrique
3,381
3
Spahis ....
3.489
'^
Remonte and CaTahry school
. 2,826
Total' Ci6 regis, and one squadron of Cavaliy, with 62,798 men, 48,143 horses.
On the war-footing, the Cavaliy is raised to 100,221 men and
65,000 horses.
ARTILLERY.
6 regiments ef Foot Artillery 1
16 „ Horse Artillery J
2 „ Artificers
3 „ Train Artillery .
2. M Armourers and Ghinmakers
32,860
1,639
3,709
1,684
Total 29 regiments of Artillery, 16.646 horses, with 39,882 men, 1,362 goxiB,
On the war-footing, the Artillery consists of 66,132 men, with
49,838 horses.
The army of France is. completed by several regiments of engi-
neers, by the gendarmerie, and the troops of the administration : &e
latter consist of 1,174 staff-officers; 819 chaplains, surgeons, and
apothecaries ; 370 veterinary surgeons ; five companies of mechanics
and engineers ; 2,576 officers and privates of the Invalides ; 2,480
officers and pupils of the military schools; 2,894 men of the Garde
de Paris; 1,298 Pompiers, and various other troops, amounting
altogether to 16,066 men, with 5,442 horses, on the peace-footing,
and 33,365 men, with 12,000 horses, on the war-footing.
Snininary of the French Army
Fenoe-footing
War-lootiiig
Men
Horses
Men
Horses
Staff ....
1,773
160
1,841
200
In&ntry .
262,652
324
515,937
450
Cavalry .
62,798
48,143
100,221
65,000
Artillery.
•
39,882
16,646
66.132
49,838
Engineers
7,486
884
15,443
1,400
Gendarmes
•
24,535
14,769
25,688
15,000
Troops of the Administration
15,066
5,442
33,365
12,000
Tot
b1 .
404,192
86,368
757.727
148,238
ARMY Am> NAVT. 8 1
The effective force of the army was fixed for the year 1866 as for
1865 at 400,000 men, of whom 345,000 were stationed at home, and
55,000 in Algeria, with 85,705 horses, of which 15,596 were em-
ployed in Algeria. Official returns relating to the years 1859, 1860,
1861, and 1862, comprising the period of the campaign in Italy,
show that in 1859 the effective force of the army was 540,035 men,
and the deaths 16,497. The proportion of deaths was consequently
3 5-lOOth per cent, during the war in Italy. Of these 16,497 men,
5,979 died in France, 2,439 in Algeria, and 6,957 in Italy, not in-
cluding 530 of the division occupying Rome, and 792 at Milan after the
campaign. There are further 321 officers to be added to the 6,957
soldiers, which gives a total of 7,278 deaths, of which 3,782 only
fell before the enemy. In 1860 the effective force of the army was
474,095 men. The deaths amounted to 6,832, being 1 44-lOOth
per cent. In 1861 the effective force of the army was 467,579 men,
and the deaths 5,488^, ok 1 17-lOOth per cent. In 1862, the effec-
tive force of the army was 432,352 men, and the deaths, 5,017, or
1 14-1 00th per cent.
The whole of France is divided into six *Arrondissements militaires,*
or corps d'arm^e, each commanded by a field-marshal. These again
are separated in military divisions and sub-divisions, the latter of
the same circumference as the departments.
France has 119 fortresses, of which 8 are of the first rank — Paris,
Lyons, Strasbourg, Metz, Lille, Toulon, Brest, and Cherbourg — 12
of the second rank; 23 of the third; and 76 of the fourth rank.
The fortification of Paris is stated to have cost 200 millions of fi-ancs,
or 8,000,000^., while 170 millions, or 6,800,000/., has. been spent on
Cherbourg.
2. Navy,.
The French navy is governed by the Minister of Marine and the
Colonies ; who has a salary of 4,000/: per annum. His office estab-
lishment consists of 239 persons, including 5 directors, 1 chief of
the cabinet, 55 sub- directors and clerks. He has under him a
Council of Admiralty, consisting' of four vice-admirals, each with a.
salary of 20,000frs., or 800/. per annum; one rear-admiral, a
director of naval construction, and a commissary-general, each with*
600/. per annum. At this council two captains of the navy of the
first-class have seats with 200/. per annum and lodging money each.
The minister has also the assistance of a Coimcil of Works, consisting
of a vice-admiral, as president, two rear-admirals, one captain first-
class, and two chief-engineers for naval construction. The in-
spectorates of artillery, engineers, and infentry of hydraulic works,
and the medical department, are under him ; there are also \<S
designers or draughtsmen, 48 agents, and 21 offic^x^\i«^sya!^"^ V^.
G
82 FBAKCS.
the inspectorates ; in all 318 persons, besides the councillors. The
total cost of the French Admiralty; in 1866, amounted to 73,086/.
The navy of France is at present in a state of transition. In the
year 1855, a conmiission of scientific and naval authorities was ap-
pointed by the emperor to consider the actual state and future
organisation of the navy, and their report having been accepted and
sanctioned by the Grovemment, a gigantic series of works for the in-
crease and im}»t)vement of the fleet of war was commenced forth-
with. The conclusions of the programme of 1 857 were as follows : —
There should be constructed — 1st, a transition fleet, composed of
sailing vessels capable of being transformed ; 2nd, a swift fleet of war,
composed of 40 ships of the highest type, 20 ordinary frigates for
distant expeditions, 90 vessels of inferior rank, in all 150 bottoms;
3rd, a transport fleet to carry 40,000 men and 12,000 horses— 75
bottoms ; 4th, a flotilla of small crafl — about 125. Lastly, there
should be special vessels, about 80, for the defence of the ports.
This would give a total of 380 vessels; and, adding 20 sailii^
vessels still kept for cheap transports, the number reaches the
figure of 400. The expense had been estimated at 214,000,000
francs, or 8,560,000/., for the fleet, and 48,000,000 francs, or
1,920,000/., for ihe ports, and the Coimcil of State recommended the
execution of the works in 15 years, starting from January 1, 1857,
by means of annuities of 17,000,000 frs., to be paid according to the
resources of the budget. The transition fleet was finished in the
summer of 1864. At the same period, of the fleet of swifl war-
vessels, 93 were finished out of 150; and of the 57 that remained,
22 were either in dock or in course of completion afloat. The 93
finished comprL<»e 6 iron-clad frigates, 13 swifl ships, 17 non-
cuirassed frigates, and 57 vessels of inferior rank. Of the small
flotilla, 101 bottoms were ready in the summer of 1866. Altogether,
at this period, 330 steam-ships were finished, 45 in dock, and 104
sailing vessels still remaining of the old fleet.
The French navy was composed, on the 31st of July, 1866, of
491 vessels afloat, and 18 on the stocks, classed as follows :-*-Iron-
plated steam vessels — 2 ships of the line afloat, none building; 11
frigates afloat, 3 on the stocks ; 1 corvette on the stocks, none afloat ;
1 coast-guard on the stocks, none afloat ; 12 floating batteries, and 4
on the stocks ; 11 batteries, capable of being taken to pieces, afloat,
and none on the stocks. Screw steamers not iron-plated — 36 ships-
(^-the-line afk>at^ none building ; 23 frigates afloat, and 1 on the
stocks ; 11 corvettes afloat, and 3 on the stocks; 43 cutters afloat,
and none on the stodra ; 11 vessels for constituting a flotilla ; 58
gun-brigs afloat, and one on the stodES ; 46 transports afloat, and 3
on the stocks ; 4 vessels afloat for ^)ecial service. Paddle- wheeled
steamers, not iron-j^ted — ^26 frigates and 61 cotters afloat. Sailing
ARMY AND NAVY.
83
vessels — 1 ship-of-the-line, 19 frigates, 9 corvettes, 12 brigs, 6Q
floating vessels for the conveyauce of troops and stores, and 29
transports all afloat, with one transport on the stocks. These vessels
cany altogether 6,899 guns, and their steam power is equal to that
of 103,292 horses. France possesses, moreover, 245 sailing vessels
capable of being armed with cannon in case of war.
The following list gives the names, strength in guns, and nominal
horse-power, of the vessels of the French iron-clad navy : —
Name of Vessel
Guns
Horse-
power
Name of Vessel
arms
Horse-
power
Magenta.
62
1,000
Devastation .
16
226
Solferino
52
1,000
Lave .
16
226
Couronne
40
900
Foudioyante .
16
226
Normandie
36
900
Congreve
16
225
Invincible
36
900
Saigon .
14
300
Gloire .
36
900
Palestro.
14
300
Provence
36
900
Peiho .
14
300
Heroine .
36
900
Paixhans
14
300
Savoie .
36
900
Protectrice
150
Revanche
36
900
Impregnable
160
Surveillante
36
900
Embuscade
160
Flandre .
36
900
Refuge .
150
Guyenne
36
900
Arrogante
160
Gtiuloise .
36
900
Implacable
150
ValeureuBe
36
900
Opiniatre
160
Magnanime
36
900
Taureau (cupola) .
1
600
Total, 33 .
777
18,676
Tonnante
16
225
The most remarkable among the above men-of-war, and patterns,
more or less, of the whole of them, are the six iron-clads, Magenta,
SolfeHno, Couronne^ Normandte, Invincible^ and the cupola ship
Taureau, The Magenta and Solferino are twin ships, having been
built on the same lines at Lorient, where they were launched in 1861 .
They both have wooden hulls, with plates varying from 11 to 1 2 centi-
metres in thickness (from 4 to 4^ inches). Their length is 86 metres ;
breadth, 17 m, 30 c, and their engines 1,000 horse-power nominal.
Their armament consists of 52 rifled breech-loading guns of the calibre
30 Ccorresponding to the Armstrong 100-pounder), furnished with 1 55
roimds each. They are classed as frigates, but in reality they are
two-deckers, carrying two tiers of guns, 26 in the lower, and 24 in
the upper, with two chase-guns mounted on the upper deck. Both
vessels are not completely protected. They are iron-cased at the
Waterline and over the whole of the spar deck ; but beyond this it iM
only their guns that are protected. Their distinguishing feature ih
that they have a ram or spur, which, like a hatchet, ^to^^\»» \W!i$L^t
water from the line of armour plates of w\i\c\i \l fctrcka ^t\.. 'YSx^
g2
84 FBANCE,
ram is made of steel, and its weight is 12,000 kilogrammes: it
projects about six metres, or nearly 20 feet in the form of a hollow
cone, with two long pieces like the neck pieces of a helmet, which fit
the bows. No part of this spur-like prow is less than 12 centimetres,
or 4^ inches, thick.
The Couronne is a 40-gun frigate of a peculiar model Her form
and dimensions differ from those of the preceding iron-clads, being
more rounded at both ends, and more shapely to the eye. Her
length is 80 metres; breath 16 m. 70 c. ; her average draught, 7 m.
60 c. ; displacement, 6,076 tons; height of her tier of gims, 1 m,
98 c. ; her engines, 900 horse-power. She carries 650 tons of coal,
which maybe increased to 1,000. What distinguislies the Couronne
is that her hull is of iron, constructed of plates 2 c. thick. The
armour plating is fastened on the side by ribs and angle plates, the
spaces between being filled with teak of 28 c, upon which rests
a thickness of iron of 34 mm., itself separated by a teak backing
of 10 c. from the armour plates, which have a thickness of 10 c.
at the water-line, and 8 upon the top sides. The defensive armour
thus consists of a double thickness of wood of 38 c, and a triple
thickness of iron at the water-line of 13^ c, including the skin of
the ship. The system of protection was tried at Vincennes in 1857,
and gave satisfactory results as to its solidity.
The Normandie is similar in construction to the Couronne, She
is the first iron- clad that ever crossed the Atlantic, having been to
Mexico in 1862. The dimensions of the Normandie are — length at
the load line, 253 feet 6 inches ; breadth, 55 feet 3 inches ; draught,
22 feet 9 inches ; height of battery, 5 feet 8 inches ; displacement,
5,600 tons. The length of the ship is therefore less than five times the
breadth. The Normandie is armoured round and round on the wood
plank and frame of the ships with 4^-inch plates. The Normandie
carries an armament of 36 cast-iron rifled 32-pounders, or 4 guns
less than the Couronne,
The Invincible is an exact reproduction of the Normandie. She
is, like the former, a 36-gun frigate, her guns being of the calibre 30,
which corresponds to the 100-pounder of Sir William Armstrong.
Her engines are 900 horse-power nominal. Her length at the water-
line is 78 metres ; breadth, 17 ; she draws 7 m. 75 c, the height of
her lower tier being 1 m. 82 c. ; and she is provided with 155
rounds in place of 110, the number allotted to the old vessels.
Her rig, with the sails and masts, is rather heavier than that of
the Normandie,
The Taureau, laimched at Toulon on the 10th of Jime, 1865, is one
of the most remarkable among the French iron-clads. The Taureau
is a steam-ram, of peculiar construction, drawing but little water,
nd rising but a few feet above the waves. Her prow terminates in
point, and this point is armed with a kind of massive bronze cone
ARMY AND NAVY. 85
vrhich serves as her spur. It is with this spur that the Taureau^
driven at a speed of 12 to 14 knots an hour by machinery of 500-
horse power, can strike and split a ship. The Taureau is, moreover,
supplied with two screws, which enable her to turn in a very small
space and with the greatest facility. She carries but a single gun,
which weighs twenty tons, and has but one deck, which is plated
with iron from one end to the other. The sides of the hull are like-
wise plated with iron the full length, from 3 ieet under the water-
line to the deck. The deck and the sides form, as it were, an iron
box, safe from any shot that may be fired at it. It is in this iron box
that the machinery is placed, and the entire crew during an action,
except those in the tower. The deck of the Tmireau is covered over
its entire length with a cylindrical ball-proof dome. The surface of
the dome is so inclined that it is impossible to walk on it ; it is held
to be impossible to capture it by boarding.
Between January and June, 1861, the most comprehensive
measure towards the creation of an iron-clad fleet was taken in laying
down ten improved frigatesin the yards of Brest, Cherbourg, Rochefort,
Lorient, and Toulon. Nine of these, the Flandre, Gauloise, Guienne,
Magnanime, Provence, Revanche, Savoie, Surveillante, and Valeur-
euse, have wooden hulls, cased with armour. The tenth vessel, the
Heroine, is of iron throughout. All have a length of hull at the
water-line of 262fl. 5in., with a breadth inside their armour-plating
of 55fb. 9in. They have a mean draught of water, at deep draught, of
26ft. 3in., at a displacement of 5,711 tons. Their engines have a
nominal power of 1,000 horse, and their speed over the trial ground
ranges between 14*2 and 15 knots. Their armour is 4'7in. in thickness
all round, and their armament consists, for each, of, on main deck, 10
50-pounder smooth -bore and 16 66-poimder rifled guns. On the upper
deck two 50-pounder smooth-bores and two 66-pounder rifled guns.
The remainder of the French iron-clads afloat are vessels destined
for the attack and defence of coasts, roadsteads, or harbours. They
comprise, besides the floating batteries built for the Russian and
Italian wars, the Paixhans, Palestro, Peiho, Saigon, Embuscade, Im-
pregnable, Protectrice, Reflige, Arrogante, Implacable, and OpiniS,tre.
These eleven iron-clads are vessels varying in their displacement
irom 1,550 to 1,220 tons; in their draught of water, from 8fl. 6in
to 9fl. lOin. ; in length, from 156ft. to 129ft. ; in breadth, from 51ft.
to 47ft.; and in their deep-water draught from 10ft. 6in. to 8ft. 9in.
Seven out of the eleven are iron-built, and have armour-plating of
5*5in., the remaining four are wooden-built, and have 4*5in. All
are fitted with 150-horse power engines, and their maximum rate of
speed, imder the most &,vourable circimistances, is seven knots.
The French navy is manned by conscription, like th^ ^tkcj . '^^v^
marine conscription, however, is of much older da\fc \)aaxi \3ftaX. o^ ^^
land forces, having been introduced as early aa t\ve ^eax Y^*^^- ^"^
86 FBANGH.
the navy lists ar6 inscribed the names of aJl male individuals of the
* maritime population ; ' that is, men and youths devoted to a sea-
faring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age. The number of
men thus inscribed are stated variously, from 90,000 to 150,000
men. Though all are liable to service, the administration, as a
rule, dispenses from taking men over forty and under twenty, as
well as pilots, captains, the fathers of large families, and able sea-
men who have signed for long voyages. On the 1st July 1866,
the actual number of recruits on tiie navy list amounted to 54,000
men. The law of maritime conscription was modified by an Imperial
decree of October 21, 1863. The decree was intended to give greater
encouragement to voluntary engagements, by allowing youths from
16 to 21 to enlist for four years in order to make themselves sailors,
and those of more than 16 and less than 23 to engage for seven years
as apprentice seamen. Every one whose name stands on the mari-
time inscription continues, as before, to be liable to conscription at
the age of 20, unless he can furnish legal claims to exemption.
Formerly the custom was to keep sailors on board for an obliga-
tory period, which was generally three years, after which they re-
turned to their homes. Many, however, finding the advantage of
immediately fulfilling tjieir iuU period of six years, re-engaged, in
order that at the expiration of their full term they might be no longer
liable to be called on, unless by an extraordinary decree. This plan
is to be continued, but with the modification that during the six
years renewable furloughs will be given, with or without pay, ac-
cording to the occupations in which the men may employ themselves
during such leave of absence. They are at liberty to enter into any
kind of seafaring pursuit, but those who engage in coasting or home
fishery will only receive the quarter part of the pay allowed them
when on shore by way of pay, * en disponibiltte?
According to the budget of the Minister of Marine and the Colonies
for the year 1866, the French navy was oflicered by 2 admirals ;
12 vice-admirals in active service, and 14 on the reserve list ; 24
rear-admirals in active service, and 20 on the reserve list; 130 cap-
tains of first-class men of war ; 270 captains of frigates ; 750 lieu-
tenants; 600 ensigns; 300 midshipmen, or * aspirants;' 270 under-
midshipmen, or * pupils ; ' and 75 lieutenants with fixed residence-
altogether 2,467 oflicers. Tlie sailors niunbered 32,854, which, to-
gether with engineers, navy-surgeons, chaplains, and other personnel^
brought the grand total of men engaged in the service of the Imperial
fieet up to 39,254. On the war-footing, the number of men is to
be raised to 66,535. In laying the budget before the Legislative
Body, the Minister of Marine and the Colonies stated that, in case of
urgency, the Government would be able to raise 170,000 men for the
service of the fleet.
POPULATION.
87
From the forgoing statement are excluded the marines, as well as
the colonial troops, amounting, according to the budget for 1866, to
23,756 men, including 9 generals, 4 in active service and 5 on
the reserved list; 326 staff-officers, and 4,539 engineers and ar-
tillerymen. Added to this number must be the troops of the coast-
guard, counting 25,501 men, rank and file, on the peace-footing,
and 27,511 on 3ie war-footing.
Together with the increase of the French navy, an extensive
system of marine fortifications has been imdertaken by the Govern-
ment. The approaches to the French coasts are to be defended by
344 batteries and 27 forts; of which 298 batteries and 19 forts were
completed in the summer of 1865. It is stated that the whole
system will be complete in the year 1870, by which time also the
transformation of the navy is to be accomplished.
The progress of the French navy in the course of nearly a century
is represented in the following figiu-es ; — In 1780 the fleet of war
consisted of 60 first-class ships, 24 second-class, and 182 smaller
vessels — altogethex 266 ships, with 13,300 guns, and 78,000 sailors.
In 1790, the niunber had decreased to 246 ships, with 51,000 sailors ;
and less than 10,000 guns; while at the battle of Trafalgar, 1805,
in which the greater part of the Imperial naval force was engaged,
there were only 18 French men-of-war, with 1,352 guns^ In 1844,
the navy amoimted to 226 sailing vessels, and 47 steamers, with
8,639 guns, and 24,513 sailors; and this strength was not increased
till the year 1855, when a naval commission was appointed by the
emperor to plan the new organisation of the fleet of war, which is
now in course of execution.
Fopulation,
France is divided into 89 departments — 86 previous to the an-
nexation of Savoy and Nice — with 373 arrondissements, 2^938 cantons,
and 37,510 communes. According to the census of 1861, the popu-
lation of the 89 departments amounted to 37,472,732 souls, inclusive
of a nxmiber of troops stationed in Syria and at Rome, and counted
in the regimental lists. The following table shows the distribution
of the population as well as the increase, during the last decennium: —
Departments
Old Provinces
English
sq. m.
Populiition
in 1851
Population
in 1861
Seine . . \
Seine-etrOise .
Seine-et-Mame
Aisne
lOise . . 1
lie de France
181
2,223
2,335
2,936
2,280
1,422,065
471,554
345,076
558,989
403,857
1,953,660
513,073
352,312
564,597
401,417 l^^
88
. FBAKCE.
Departments
Old Proyinoes
English
sq. m.
Population
in 1851
Population
in 1861
^Somme .
• Picardie
2,368
670,641
672,646
Pas-de-Calais
Artois
2,624
692,994
724,338
Nord .
. Flandre
2,278
1,168,285
1,303,380
Ardennes
2,000
331,296
329,111
Mame
3,214
373,302
386,498
Aube
. Champagne .
2,393
266,247
262,785
Haute Mame
2,482
268,398
264,413
Yonne
2,824
381,133
370,306
.
Vosges
2,304
427,409
416,486
W .
Meurthe
- Lorraine
2,466
460,423
428,643
^
Meuse
2,369
328,667
300,540
MoseUe
2,391
469,684
446,467
Bas Ehin
1 Alsace
1,635
687,434
677,674
Haut Ehin
1,602
494,147
616,802
Doubs
Franche
Comte
2,120
296,679
296,280
Jura
1,940
313,361
298,953
Haute Saone
1,792
347,469
317,183
Sa6ne-et-Loire
1 Bourgogne .
3,321
674,720
682,137
^C6te d'Op
3,380
400,297
384,140
''Seine-Inferieu]
•e
2,300
762,039
789,988
Eure
2,014
416,777
398,601
Orne
2,497
439,884
423,350
Calvados
I Normandie .
2,200
491,210
480,992
Manche .
2,617
600,882
691,421
Ille^et-Vikine
2,641
674,618
584,930
C6tes-du-Nord
/
2,870
632,613
628,676
Finistorre
. Bretagne
2,690
617,710
627,304
In fire- et- Loire
Touraine
2,400
316,641
323,672
Eure-et-Loire
I Orleanois .
2,361
294,892
290,455
Loire-et-Cher
2,363
261,892
269,029
Loiret .
. j
2,646
341,423
352,757
N.
Ni^vre
Nivemois
2,691
327,161
332,814
Allier .
. Bourbonnais
2,908
336,768
356,432
^
Cher
2,863
306,261
323,393
Indre
• Berry
2.749
271,938
270,954
Morbihan
2,640
478,172
486,604
Loire-Inferieu]
re j
2,736
636,664
580,207
) ] Anjou
2,784
616,462
526,012
Mayenne
Maine et
2,010
374,666
375,163
Sarthe
j Perche
2,475
473,071
466,165
Creuse
. Marche
2,244
287.076
270,055
Haute Vienne
Limousin
2,187
319,379
319,595
Deux-S6vres
)
2,267
323,616
328,817 1
Vendee
y Poitou
2,616
383,734
395,695
Vienne
J
2,669
316,738
322,028
^Charente-Inf^i
ieure . Aunis
2,763
469,992
481,060
POPULATION.
89
DepartmentB
Old Provinces
English
sq. m.
Population
in 1851
Population
in 1861
rOironde . '^
4,193
614,387
667,193
Dordogne
rS-niPTiTiA
3,479
505,789
501,667
Tam-et-Gkironne
\jr uLcuuo •
1,373
237,553
332,561
Aveyron .
3,417
394,183
396,025
Gharente
Angoumois .
3,270
382,912
379,081
Correze
2,290
320,864
310,118
Lot . . .
1,530
296,224
296,542
Lot'et-GaroDno
1,858
341,345
332,065
Landes
Gascogne
3,486
302,196
300,839
Hautes Pyr6n^es
1,800
250,934
240,179
OQ
Gers
2,416
307,479
484,081
Basses Pyr^D^es
Beame
2,928
446,997
436,628
Hnute Chit^nne
2,488
481,610
409,391
Aude . .
Languedoc .
2,246
289,747
353,633
H^rault .
2,444
389,286
409,391
Tarn . . )
2,234
363,073
363,633
Ari^e .
Foix .
2,061
267,435
251,850
^Pyr^n^es Orientales
Roussillon
1,593
181,955
181,763
-RMne . \
Loire . J
Lyonais
1,047
574,745
662,493
1,921
472,588
617,603
Puy-de-D6me )
Cantal . . /
Auvergne »
2,253
2,200
596,897
253,329
676,409
240,523
Haute Loire . \
1,920
304,616
306,621
Ardiche . 1
2,130
386,559
388,529
Gard . . f
2,323
408,163
422,107
Lozfere . . J
1,973
144,705
137,367
w.
Ain . . .
Bourgogne .
2,264
372,939
369,767
<3Q
Iflire . . )
3,258
603,497
577,748
Hautes Alpes \
Dauphine
2,144
132,038
126,100
Drome . . j
2,618
326,846
320,684
Vaucluse
Venaissin .
1,306
264,618
268,255
Bouches du Ehone |
2,331
428,989
507,112
Basses Alpes .
Provence
2,870
152,070
146,368
Var . . .
2,825
357,967
315,626
Corsica (island)
Total .
3,798
236,261
252,889
207,232
36,783,059
36,713,166
The newly-aDnexed depai
•tments : —
Alpes-Maritimes .
1,104
.
194,678
Savoie
. , ,
2,231
.
274,039
Haute Savoie
Total .
1,285
267,496
General
211,852
35,783,059
37,472,732
90
FRANOB.
The increase of population in France within the last century
and a half has been comparatively less than in any other State
of Western Europe, as exhibited in the following table. It must
be remarked, however, that the numbers given under the first
four periods are not the result of an actual census, but of ofiicial
calculations, more or less imcertain. The population of 1700,
when Corsica and the provinces of Lorraine, and Venaissin, or
Avignon, did not belong to France, is made up after returns
of the royal comptroller of finances, and is, probably, the least
trustworthy; the counting of 1762 was undertaken with more
accuracy, and is believed to be tolerably correct, as well as that
of 1772 ; but the numerical calculation of 1784, made by order
of Necker, was again nothing but a rough estimate. Necker went
upon the system of counting 25-^ inhabitants to every birth which
had taken place during the preceding twelve months. The subse-
quent numbers are the proceeds of regular census returns : —
The result of the sanguinary wars of the first empire is singularly
visible in the annexed table, and would have been so to even greater
extent, if the period from 1806 to 1821 did not include many years
of subsequent peace. The Crimean expedition likewise is well
marked in the census returns : —
Year
Population
Increase during
tiie period
Annual average
of increase
1700
19,669,320
1762
21,769,163
2,099,843
55,259
1772
22,672,000
902,837
90,283
1784
24,800,000
2,128,000
177,333
1801
27,349,003
2,549,003
149,941
1806
29,107,425
1.758,422
351.685
1821
30,461,875
1,334.450
90,295
1826
31,858.937
1,397,062
279.412
1831
32,569,223
710,286
142,057
1836
33,540,910
971,687
194,337
1841
34,230,178
676,809
135,362
1846
35,400,486
1,170,308
254,062
1861
35,783,170
382,684
75,537
1856
36,039,364
256,194
51,238
1861
37,472,732 |
764,309
736,113*
152,862
The number of births in the city of Paris during the year 1862
was 52,312, of which 26,505 were boys, and 25,507 girls. Of the
whole number, 14,501, or nearly 30 per cent., were illegitimate. In
1836 the deaths in Paris were 1 in 36 ; in 1865 they were only 1
* Increase through annezatiofi.
POPUIATION. , 9 J
in 40. The total popnlation of Paris on the Ist of August, 1865, was
calculated to amount to 1,667,841, exclusive of the garrison, or
1,696,141 inclusive of troops.
From a report of the Minister of Justice, giving a general account
of the administration of criminal justice in France during the year
1863, it appears that the total number of cases submitted to the jury
in 1863 was 3,614, of which 1,673 were for offences against the per-
son, and 1,941 against property. The total in 1862 was 3,906, and,
in 1861, 3,842. The report for the year 1864, like that of 1863,
shows a considerable diminution in the number of criminal cases
sent for trial before juries — the decrease is about 12 per cent. — but
it must be observed .that by a law enacted the 13th of May 1863, a
number of cases which had been sent to the courts of assize are now
tried by the police courts. The diminution applies chiefly to crimes
against property. The number of cases of murder, infanticide,
poisoning, rape, and assault with criminal intent increased in the
year 1864 £x)m 1,673 to 1,703 ; the poisoning cases increased from
13 to 30. The result of the trials is generally the same every year.
One-flflh of the accused were acquitted, in 1864, two thirds found
guilty, and in 199 cases out of 3,447 the capital charge was rejected
and the accused found guilty of the minor offence. The jury, more-
over, granted the accused the benefit of extenuating circumstances
in the proportion of 76 in 100. It is to be noted that crime has
diminished chiefly in the department of the Seine. There is an
increase in the departments of Cantal, the Landes, Loir- et- Cher,
Eure-et-Loir, and Corsica. The general average is one accused to
to 8,793 inhabitants, and Corsica presents one in 3,774. The number
of accused, which declined in that island in 1863 from 80 to 38, rose
again in 1864 to 67 per cent. With regard to the sexes, the pro-
portion remains nearly the same— 18 women to 82 men. There
were nine capital convictions by the courts of assize in 1864, of
which four were commuted to hard labour for life. There were
139,803 cases tried before the police-courts in 1864, against 135,817
in 1863. The increase is in minor offences, and there is a decrease
in more serious cases, such as a removal from the residence assigned
by the police, vagrancy, mendicity, assaults on the police, robbery,
swindlmg, and simple bankruptcy. According to a law which
passed the legislature in May, 1863, a criminal caught in the fact
may be either forthwith placed before the bar of the police-court or
after a short imprisonment. There were 14,665 cases tried under
this law in 18Q4, in place of 7,800 in 1863. The tribunals of simple
police delivered 402,782 judgments, in 1864, being an increase of
10,000 as compared with the preceding year. The increase is
chiefly in the department of the Seine. The progressive increase
in the number of accidental deaths continued in 1^^4:. Te^k^
92 TRANCE.
amounted that year to 12,378, against 12,233 in 1863. Suicides,
on the contrary, diminished by 92. They amounted in 1864 to
4,521.
France has 85 million acres of land under culture, 20 million of
wood and forest, 20 millions in waste, and 7^ millions on which no
land-tax is raised. Of the 85 million acres under cultiu-e, 65
millions are arable, 10 millions grass and meadow land, 5 millions
vineyards, and 5 millions garden and orchards.
The rural population is about 21 millions, and the non-rural 15
millions. This is exclusive of the new provinces Nice and Savoy.
There are 9 million families in France, 1 million of which are
in easy circumstances. Of the 8 millions belonging to the industrial
and working classes, 3 millions are inhabitants of towns. Whereas
the town population of England is computed at four-fifths of the
whole, in France it is about two-fifths of the whole.
The computed value of the real property in France is 80,000
millions of francs, or 3,200 millions sterling. The rural properties
are valued at 50,000 millions, or 2,000 millions sterling, and the
town properties and buildings are computed at 30,000 millions, or
1,200 millions sterling.
The debts registered against this real property are 14,000 millions
of francs ; but allowing for double registries, the actual indebtedness
of the empire is computed at 8,000 millions of francs, or 320 millions
sterling, being an average of 10 per cent of the gross capital value.
The town properties, valued at 1,200 millions sterling, owe 220
millions sterling, leaving the 2,000 millions sterling of rural pro-
perties with an indebtedness of only 100 millions, or 5 per cent,
of their value. The average interest due on these debts — * creances
hypothecaires * — is 6 per cent.
It appears from official returns that there are, in round numbers,
3,000,000 horses in the 89 departments of France, 400,000 asses,
330,000 mules, 10,200,000 homed cattle, of which 300,000 are bulls,
2,000,000 oxen, 5,800,000 cows, 2,100,000 yearHngs, 4,000,000
calves, 35,000,000 sheep and lambs, of which 26,000,000 are merinos
or half-bred; goats and kids, 1,400,000; hogs above one year old,
1,400,000; sucking pigs, 3,900,000.
There are fully 6 million houses in France, the greater number
of them cottages with small plots of land. Nearly the whole of these
are freeholds belonging to their occupiers.
Official documents recently published show that from 1836 to
1851 — that is to say, a period of 25 years — the rural, population has
undergone a diminution of 1*18 per cent., while that of the towns
has constantly increased, but in very different proportions. In the
towns of from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, the augmentation is on
the wane, while it is more than 60 per cent, in the towns of more than
TBADE AND INDUSTHT.
93
20,000 souls. Tbe following is the progressive increase in the
population of the four principal towns of France, from 1820 to 1861,
date of the last census : —
Town
I Popalation in 1820.
Paris
Lyons .
ManeiUes
Bordeaux
713,766
115,841
101,217
92,376
Population in 1861
1,696,141
318,803
260,916
162,760
In 1846 the population of France was distnbuted as follows: —
Eural, 75*58 per cent. ; urban, 24*42 per cent. In 1861 the pro-
portion was — Rural, 71*14 per cent ; urban, 28*86 per cent. This
movement still continues.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of France is officially divided into * general
commerce,' including the sum-total of all commercial transactions,
and ' special commerce,' descriptive of such imports as kre consimied
in France, and such exports as have been manufactured within the
country. The following table gives the real value of the imports
and exports of merchandise, exclusive of specie, during the years
1861—65, which are classed under the head of special commerce : —
Year
Imports
Exports
Total
Francs
Francs
Francs
1861 .
2,442,327,567
1,926,259,768
4,368,587,326
1862 .
2,198,666,480
2,242,681,241
4,440,236,721
1863 .
2,426,379,000
2,642,669,000
6,068,938,000
1864 .
2,480,214,000
2,909,439,000
6,389,663,000
1866 .
2,782,000,000
3,184,648,000
6,966,648,000
It will be seen that the value of merchandise imported into France
in the year 1865 amounted to 2,782,000,000 francs, exceeding by
more than 254,000,000 francs the imports of the year 1864. The
exports during the same period exceeded those of the previous year
by 275,000,000 francs. The merchandise exported in the year
1861 amounted to only 1,926,260,000 francs, but reached nearly
3,200,000,000 francs in 1865, showing an increase of 1,273,000,000
francs within five years. The importation of precious metals into
France in the year 1865 exceeded the exports by more than
223,000,000 francs.
The relative importance of the general and the special comm^TO,^ oti
94
FBANO£.
France is seen in the following table, which gives the value of the
im'ports and the exports, both by sea and land, distinguishing home
consumption and home produce, in each of the years 1862 to 1864: —
1862
1863
1864
IliPOBTS
BySea. . .j^~°-
By Land . .{^""^
Total . .j^«"2
Entered for Home J Francs
Consumption . i £
ExPOBTS
By Sea . . .{^«^^
By Land . .(^«^^^J
Total . .{^^'^^J
French Produce .j^^^^^^J
1,927,000,000
77,080,000
972,000,000
38,880,000
2,028,000,000
80,920,000
1,213,000,000
48,620,000
!
2,243,000,000
89,720,000
1,164.400,000
46,576,000
2,899,000,000
115,960,000
3,236,000,000
129,440,000
3,407,400,000
136,296,000
2,198,555,480
87,942,219
2,199,000,000
87,960,000
860,000,000
34,000,000
2,426,000,000
97,040,000
2,637,000,000
105,480,000
889,000,000
35,660,000
2,528,100,000
101,124,000
2,892,300,000
115,692,000
1,028,900,000
41,156,000
3,049,000,000
121,960.000
3,526,000,000
141,040,000
3,921,200,000
156,848,000
2,242,681,241
89,707,249
2,642,000,000
105,680,000
2,924,100,000
116,964,000
The subjoined tabular statement shows the real value, in pounds
sterling, of the total imports from France into the United Kingdom,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
France, in each of the ten years 1856 to 1865: —
Years
Imports from France
into the
United Kingdom
Export of Home Pro-
duce from the
United Kingdom
to France
£
£
1866
10,386,622
6,432,650
1857
11,966,407
6,213,368
1868
13,271,890
4,863,131 .
1859
16,870,868
4,754,364
1860
17,774,037
6,249,980
1861
17,826,646
8,896,588
1862
21,676,616
9,209.367
1863
24,026,717
8,673,309
1864
25,640,761
8,187,361
1865
31,645,210
9,034,883
TRADE A1(D INDUSTRY.
95
It will be seen at a glance that the exports of British produce and
manufactures to France during the ten years have not kept pace with
the immense increase of imports from France.
The strength of the French mercantile navy is shown in the fol-
lowing table, which gives the number and tonnage of the vessels,
claflsed according to tonnage, on December 31st, 1862 and 1863 : —
1862.—
Dec. 31
1868.—
Deo. 81
1
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Of 800 tons and upwards .
35
39,984
43
48,670
„ 700 to 800 tons .
30
22,042
30
22,114
„ 600 to 700 „
44
28,598
46
29,839
„ 500 to 600 „
116
63,351
113
61,897
„ 400 to 600 „
233
104,108
253
112,943
„ 300 to 400 „
300
106,193
305
107,648
„ 200 to 300 „
645
157,585
626
151,763
„ 100 to 200 „
1,345
191,228
1,300
183,474
„ 60 to 100 „
1,633
125,257
1,685
121,361
„ 80 to 60 „
1.687
67,644
1,607
68,370
^ 20 to 30 „
942
23,122
966
23,707
„ 10 to 20 „
1,590
22,953
1,585
22,915
TTnder 10 .
Total
6,632
30,506
6,633
30,644
15,132
982,671
15,092
985,236
Among the mercantile navy of December 31st, 1863, there were
345 steamers, of a total burthen of 84,918 tons. On December
31st, 1862, there were 338 steamers, of 78,981 tons.
The following table gives the niraiber and tonnage of merchant
vessels which belonged to the principal ports of France on Decem-
ber 81st, 1862 and 1863 :—
Ports
1862,
Dec. 81
.1863,
Dec. 81
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Dunkirk
Havre ....
Nantes . ^ . .
Bordeaux
Marseilles
Other ports •
Total .
326
387
678
432
855
12,454
36,226
104,468
112,241
124,896
155,961
448,789
327
350
665
446
855
12,449
35,164
102,602
112,460
132,171
159,782
443,167
15,132
982,571
15,092
985,235
The growth of the railway system of France dates from the year
1840, previous to which there were only few lines in France. For
a time, the idea was entertained of making aU the railways whiclv
96 FRANCE.
were to be built State property ; but in the end it was determined,
and settled by the law of June 1 1th, 1842— modified in 1858, 1859,
and 1863 — that the work should be left to private companies, super-
intended, however, and, if necessaiy, assisted in their operations, by
the State. The French railways at present are almost entirely— the
exception being to the amount of less than 200 miles — in the hands
of six great companies. The length of lines held by each of these
companies on January 1st, 1865, was as follows : — Paris, Lyons,
and Mediterranean, 1,994| miles; Eastern of France, l,559f miles;
Orleans, l,829f miles ; Western of France, 1,051 J miles; Northern
of France, 728^ miles ; and Southern of France, 827^ miles. The
six systems combined had thus, in 1865, an aggregate of 7,989f
miles in operation.
The conventions agreed on between the Government and the rail-
way companies in the years 1858, 1859, and 1863 were carried into
effect on January 1st, 1865. By these conventions the Government
guarantees 4 per cent, interest and 65c. for a sinking fund, altogether
4f. 65c. per cent, on the capital expended in the construction of a cer-
tain number of lines classed under the collective title of new work
( nouveau reseau). The sum to be expended by the six great companies
was estimated at 7,100,000,000 francs, and the works executed and
grantsmadeby the Government as 1,640,000,000 francs, being in round
numbers about nine milliards of francs, of which there remain only
about 2,500,000,000f. to be expended. Private enterprise abandoned
to its own resources, it is believed, could not have constructed the
principal lines, although they pay a fair interest, and the Government
alone could not have procured nine milliards. It was ascertained in
the year 1857 that the railway companies could not undertake the
construction of additional lines without injury to the shareholders,
unless the Government would give them a sufficient guarantee. It
was at that period that a distinction was first made between the lines
of which the concession was given previous to the year 1857, and
those given afler that period. At present the whole of the lines of
which a concession has been made to the great companies, with the
exception of the Northern, which has not required any guarantee
from the Government, comprise about 18,000 kilometres, of which
the expense to their account is estimated at six and a half milliards.
The following are the phases through which the pecuniaiy relations
between the Government and the companies will have to pass: —
During the first stage, the guarantee being called for in consequence
of the deficiency in the receipts of certain companies, the treasury
will be called on to advance a sum estimated at from 31,000,000f. to
35,000,000f. annually. As it is expected the commerce and in-
dustry of the country will gradually improve, the receipts of the
railway companies will increase in a corresponding ratio, and the
COLONIES.
97
sninB to be advanced to them according to the guarantee will diminish
in proportion as the receipts on the railways increase. At a later
period it is calculated that the receipts will enable the companies to
repay the sums adranced by the government. It is hoped that at a
BtUl later period the companies will be able to divide their surplus
receipts with the government, and, finally, at the expiration of the
leases granted to the railway companies, the railways will become
the property of the State, which will gratuitously receive the total
amount of the receipts, which, if estimated at only from 350,000,000f.
to 400,000,000f., will pay the full amount of the interest on the
national debt.
Colonies.
The colonies and foreign dependencies of France are, — 1. In
America^ the islands of Martinique, Guadaloupe, Marie- Galante,
Defdrade, Saintes, a part of St. Martin in the Antilles, French
Guiana and Cayenne ; St. Pierre and Miquelon, near Newfoundland,
at the mouth of the St. Lawrence ; forming a total area of 80,000
square miles, with 301,323 inhabitants. 2. In Africa^ Algeria,
Senegal, and Goree on the W. coast, and the islands Bourbon and
St. Marie in the Indian Ocean, certain portions of Madagascar, and,
since 1843, the islands Mayotta and Nossi-B(^. In 1843, France
also took possession of Assinie at the W. of the gold coast of Guinea.
The total possessions in Africa cover an area of 95,700 square miles,
with a population of 447,428 souls. 3. In Asia, Pondicherry and
Karikal on the Coromandel coast, ]\Iahe on the coast of Malabar,
Yanaon in Orissa, and Chandemagore in Bengal, altogether, 10,800
square miles, with 2,219,878 inhabitants. 4. In the Pacific Ocean,
the two groups of the Marquesas and Tahiti, taken possession of in
1841, and the island of New Caledonia in 1854, the whole forming an
area of 9,560 square miles, with 9,946 inhabitants. The colonies are
subjected to special laws. In 1845 an ordonnance was passed, having
for its object the amelioration of slavery in the French colonies,
and in 1848 the Provisional Government decreed its total abolition.
In the official returns, the colonies of France are divided —
Algeria excepted, which has a separate government — in eight
groups, the population of which was as follows at the census
of 1861 :—
Colonies
1861
Ck>lonie8
1861
Guadaloupe and Depen-
dencies
Guiana ....
Reunion ....
135,991
138,069
19,559
183,491
Senegal and Dependencies
Settlements in India
Mayotte and Dependencies
St. Pierre and Miquelon .
113,398
220,478
22,570
2,385
98
TRANCE.
Giiiana is the chief penal colony of France. The number of
transported offenders at Guiana, in 1865, amounted to 6,225, of
which number there were — convicts, 4,248 ; men condemned a second
time, 1,116 ; liberated prisoners, with a fixed residence assigned to
them, 613; colonial prisoners, 101; liberated without fixed resi-
dence, 37 ; expelled foreigners, 8 ; women, 102. The government
in 1852 selected Guiana as a place to found a penitentiary colony in
conformity with the prescriptions of the decree of December 8, 1851.
Transportation at present does not comprise any but convicts from
the bagnes, dangerous characters condemned for breaking their ban,
and colonial prisoners of AMcan or Asiatic origin. The offenders
transported are employed on useful works. A certain number dis-
tinguished for good conduct have obtained concessions of land which
they cultivate for their own profit. The establishments of those
men are situated at Saint-Louis, on the banks of the Maroni. The
government, thinking that family ties are the best means of reform-
ing the convicts, has sent to Cayenne, during the last few years, a
nmnber of female prisoners disposed to marry. The system is
stated to have succeeded, and numerous unions have taken place.
The naval department also grants a free passage and pecimiary
assistance to such fiimilies of convicts as may wish to join their
relatives.
The total official value of the imports into and exports from the
several French colonies, exclusive of Algeria, in the years 1862 and
1863, is given in the subjoined table : —
Colonies
Imports
Exports
Martinique
Guadaloupe
Guiana .
E6union .
S^n^al (St.
Louis) .
S^n^gal (Oor^e)
St. Pierre and
Miquelon
French posses-
sions in India
29,759,269
1,190,730
24,937,670
997,506
8,994,515
369,780
49,616,034
1,984,601
8,839,834
353,693
7,178,021
287,120
3,528,763
141,150
7,692,968
307,718
25,513,179
1,020,527
23,287,367
931,493
8,061,281
322,451
38,355,309
1,534,212
10,366,009
414,640
8,277,888
331,116
3,880,103
155,204
8,432,071
337,282
22,111,648
884,465
22,912,530
916,501
1,391,986
55,679
50,606,522
2,024,260
7,446,594
297,863
8,331,452
333,258
5,267,998
210,719
29,380,600
1,175,224
25,156,745
1,006,2^9
21,376,899
855,075
725,776
29,031
55,706,960
2,228,278
7,174,312
286,972
7,325,481
293,019
5,326,014
213,040
18,944,575
757,783
More important, from a political as well as commercial point of
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 99
riew, than the "whole of the above colonies combined, is the colony
of Algeria, for an account of which, see Africa — Algeria,
Koney, Weights, and Kearares.
The money, weights, and measures of France, and the British
equivalents, are —
MONST.
Thd Frane . • . . Average rate of exchange, 25 to £1 sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Gramme = 15*434 grains troy.
>B 2'20 lbs. avoirdupois.
- 220 „
= 2200 „
= 0-22 Imperial gallon.
- 22
n 2'75 Imperial bushels.
« 3-28 feet or 39*37 inches.
« 1093 yards.
= 35*31 cubic feet
Kilogramme
Quintal Mitrique
Tanneau ....
IMre^ Liquid Measure
mtre
KUomHre
Mitre Cube\
Sthe J '
Hectare .
KUomHre Carrk
2*47 acres.
0*386 square mile.
(2*59 kil. carr^ = 1 sq.mile).
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning
France.
1. Official Publications.
AnnTiaire du Minist^re de I'Agriculture, du Commerce et des Travaux
Publics, pour I'Ann^e 1866. Paris, 1866.
Annuaire Militaire de TEmpire Fran^ais, pour TAnn^e 1866, public par le
Hinist^re de la Ghierre. 8. Paris, 1866.
Bulletin des Lois. Imprim. Imp^riale. Paris, 1866.
Bulletin Administratif de rinstmction Pubb'que. Paris, 1866.
Bulletin annot6 des Lois, D^crets et Ordonnances. Paris, 1866.
Bulletin de Tlntendance et des Services administratifs de TArm^e de terre.
Paris, 1866.
Bulletin officiel du Ministfere de I'lntirieur. Paris, 1866.
Circulaires et Instructions officielles relatives a I'lnstruction Publique. 8. .
Paris, 1866.
Compte G^n^ral de TAdministration de la Justice criminelle en France pen-
dant FAnn^e 1864, pr^sent^ a Sa Majeste I'Empereur par le Garde des iSceaux,
ministre de la justice. 4. Paris, 1866.
Commerce de la France. Documents statistiques r^nnis par I'Administration
des Douanes. 4. Paris, 1866.
h2
100 FRAlilCB.
Expos^ de la Situation de rEmpire, dintribu^ a HH. les Membres dn Corps
L^gislatif, le 17 F^vrier, 1866. Paris, 1866.
Minist^re des Finances : Comptes G-^n^raux de 1' Administration des Finances.
Paris, 1866.
Minist^re de TAgricnlture, du Commerce et des Travanx Publics : Archives
statistiques. Paris, 1866.
Moniteur Universel : Journal officiel de I'Empire Francais. Paris, 1860-66.
Recueil General des Lois et Arrets, de 1859 a 1866. Paris, 1866.
Eecueil G^n^ral des^Lois, D^crettf et Arrets, depuis le 2 D^cembre 1852.
Paris, 1866. ^
Situation Economique et Commerciale de la France. Expos6 comparatif pour
les quinze annees de la p^riode 1850-1864. Paris, 1866.
Tableau da Commerce G^n^ral de la France, avec ses Colonies et les Puis-
sances Etrangferes, pendant I'Ann^e 1864. 4. Imp. Imp^riale. Paris, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Grey, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Commerce and
Financial State of France, dated August ai, 1862, and Feb. 20, 1863 ; in 'Re-
ports of H.M.*s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VI. London, 1863.
Reports by Mr. Grey, HJil.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Trade, Commerce,
and Navigation of France, dated July 1863, and February 15, 1864 ; in 'Re-
ports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VII. London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Grey, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Commerce and
Industry of France, dated May 1865; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy.' No. XI. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. NoN-OfFIOAL PUBLICATIOITS.
Annuaire de 1' Administration Fran9aise', par -Maurice Block. 9^me ann^e,
1866. 12. Paris, 1866.
Annuaire de TEconomie Politique et de la Statisque pour 1866. 23^me ann^e
de la collection. 16. Paris, 1866.
Annuaire de I'lnstruction Publique pour r Ann 6e 1866. 12. Paris, 1866.
Annuaire Militaire de I'Empire Fran9ais pour I'Ann^e 1866, publi6 sur les
documents communiques par le Minist^ de la Guerre. 12. Strasbourg, 1866.
Annuaire de la Gendarmerie Imp^riale, public sur les documents communi-
ques par le Minist^re de la Guerre, et comprenant la gendarmerie maritime.
Paris, 1866.
Blanc (Hippolyte). Etude sur le Recrutement de rArm^e. 8. Strasbourg,
1865.
Clapier (A.). Pr^is Historique sur le Commerce de Marseille. 8. Paris,
1865.
Conquet (P.). Annuaire de rAdministradon de I'Enregistrement et des
Domaines. 12. Paris, 1866.
Darhoy (Mgr., Archev^ue de Paris). Traits de I'Administration temporelle
des Paroisses, suivi d'une table chronologique renfermant le texte des princi-
pales lois et de nombreux d^crets et avis du Conseil d'Etat 8. Paris, 1865.
Flachat (Eugene). Les Chemins de Fer en 1862 et en 1863. 8. Paris, 1864.
France Ecclesiastique : Almanaeh duClerg^ pour I'An de grAce 1866. 16^me
ann^e. 12. Paris, 1866.
Huard (Adrien). Etude comparative des Legislations Fran9aises et Etrang^res
en mati^re de propriety industrielle, artistique et litt^raire. 8. Paris, 1865.
Joanne (Adolphe). Dictionnaire des Communes de la France. 8. Paris,
1864.
Lahotdaye (Edouard). L'Etat et ses limites, suivi d'essais politiques sur
I'instruction publique, les finances, le droit de petition, etc Paris,. 1865.
BOOKS OF BBFEBENCE. 10 I
Layrmt (A.). Annnaire de la Marine Marehande pour 1866, publio avec
rautorisation du Ministre de la Marine et d(«s Colonics. 8. Paris, 1 866.
Legoyt (A.). La France et I'^fetranger, Etudes de statistique comparee. 2e
Mition. 8. Strasbourg, 1866.
lAon (M.). De TAccroissement de la population en France et de la Doctrine
de Malthus. 8. Paris, 1866.
Materi (P. Francesco). Studii economici ed amministrativi intomo all'
assistenza pubblica in Francia. 8. Napoli, 1866, tip. del Fibreno.
Nerw (De). Les Finances Fran9aises sous I'ancienne Monarchie, la R^pu-
blique, le Consulat et i'Empire. 2 toIs. 8. Paris, 1864.
Parieu (Esquirou de). Trait6 des Impots, consider^s sous le rapport histo-
rique, ioonomique et politique en France et k TEtranger. 8. Paris, 1865.
PMer (Casimir). Les Finances et la Politique. De Tinfluence des institu-
tions politiques et de la legislation financi^re sur la fortune publique. Paris,
1864.
Pmdain (E.). Production du Coton dans nos Colonics. 8. Paris, 1865.
Rapports des D^Ugu^s de la Commission ouvri^re a I'Exposition universeUe
de 1862. Paris, 1865.
Be^fmand (Xavier). Les Marines de la France et de TAngleterre (1815-
1868). 8. Paris, 1864.
Bitfei (F.). Des Eapports du Droit et de la Legislation avec I'Economie
politique. 8. Paris, 1865.
Sobert (Ch.). De I'lgnorance des Populations ouvri^res et rurales de la
Fraaoe, et des Causes qui tendent k la perp^tuer. 8. Montbeliard, 1865.
Saint-Fargeau (A. Girault de). Dictionnaire, etc., de toutes les Communes
de la France. Paris, 1864.
Sehnitzhr (J. H.). Statistique Gdn^rale de la France. Paris, 1866.
9er8 (Le Baron Louis). Elflezions sur les Budgets D^partementaux. 12.
Mets, 1865.
SiuckU (H.). Le Commerce de la France avec le Soudan. 18. Paris, 1865.
Terwangne (Adolpbe). Union commercial et maritime entre le nord de la
France, TAngleten-e et la Hollande. 8. Paris, 1866.
Traite de Commerce entre la France, la Prusse et les Etats du ZoUverein,
avec Tarifis communs applicables k lAngleterre, k la Belgique, a I'ltalie, k la
Snkle et & la Norv^ge. 8. Paris, 1865.
Tripier (J.). Code de la Comptabilit6 Publique. 8. Poitiers, 1864.
Vitu (H.). Guide Financier, Repertoire G^n^ral des Valeurs Financi^res et
Indufltrielles. 18. Paris, 1866.
102
GERMANY.
Constitution and Population.
The ancient Germanic Empire, dissolved in 1806, and reconstituted
as a confederacy of thirty-nine states, in 1815, is verging again
towards unity in consequence of the war of 1866 between Austria
and Prussia, which ended in the expulsion of the former from the
Confederation, leaving the latter as the ruling power in Germany.
Pending their final union under one government, the old states of
the Confederation are ranged, provisionally, under two groups, as
North Germany, and SouSi Germany. North Germany, consisting
of twenty states, is under the absolute and entire leadership of
Prussia, while South Germany, numbering six states, forms a loosely
connected group imder the ascendancy of Bavaria. The ultimate
union of this group with the former is held to be unavoidable, and
merely a question of time.
The treaty, upon the basis of which the confederacy of North
Germany was formed, was signed at Berlin on the 18th of August,
and the ratifications exchanged in the same city on the 8th and
10th of September, 1866. After the usual preamble, the text runs
as follows : —
Art. 1. The governments of Prussia, Saxe-Weimar, Oldenburp, Brunswick,
Saxe-Altenbnrg, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen, Schwarzbiirg-Eudolstadt, WaJdeck, Reuss-Schleiz, Schaumburg-
Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, have concluded by this
treaty an offensive and defensive alliance for the preservation of the integrity
and independence, as well as the inner and outer safety of their respective
states, and enter immediately on the joint defence of their present possessions,
which they guarantee each other by this treaty.
Art 2. The objects of this alliance shall be ensured by a federal constitution,
based on the fundamental principles laid down by Prussia on the 10th June,
1866, and with the co-operation of a national Parliament, to be convened jointly
by the allied powers.
Art. 8. All treaties and conventions existing between the allies remain in
full force if not specially modified by this treaty.
Art. 4. The military forces of the allied governments are placed under the
supreme command of His Majesty the King of Prussia, and their several ser-
vices in time of war shall be regulated by special agreement.
Art 6. The allied governments engage to make the needful arrangements
in their separate states for the election of members of Parliament, in accordance
with the stipulations of the electoral law of April 12, 1849, and convene them
at the same period that Prussia does. At the same time they promise to send
CONSTITUTION AND POPULATION. IO3
to Berlin oommissioners armed with full powers to make a draft of the federal
constitution, according to the fundamental principles of June 10, to be laid be-
fore the Parliament for their discussion and approval.
ArL 6. This treaty is to remain in force till the settlement of the new federal
relations, eventually for a year, should the new Act of confederation not be
definitiyely settled before tiie lapse of that period.
The foregoing treaty was signed by the representatives of the
seventeen states of North Germany, mentioned in the first article,
and adhered to, conditionally, by three others, namely, Saxony,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Mecklenburg- Strelitz.
The law for the election of representatives for the North German
Parliament was passed on the 12th of September 1866, by the
Chamber of Deputies, and confirmed on the 18th of September by
the Upper House of Prussia. The law is in seventeen articles,
as follows : —
1. A Parliament is to be assembled for the consideration of the constitution
and of the regulations of the North German Confederation.
2. Every man blameless in the eye of the law who is a citizen of one of the
G^erman States united in the Confederation is to be a voter as soon as he has
attained the age of. 25.
3. From the right of voting are excluded — (1.) Persons who are under
snardianshijp or trusteeship. (2.) Persons against whose property rules of
bankruptcy have been granted, during the term of such bankruptcy. (3.) Per-
sons who obtain support as paupers from the funds of the State or of their
district, or who have obtained such support during the year preceding the
election.
4. As criminals, and therefore excluded from the right of voting, shall be
considered those from whom the full and perfect enjoyment of their rights as
citizens has been withdrawn by legal sentence, as long as these rights are not
restored to them.
5. Any man entitled to vote who has belonged for at least three years to
one of the states forming the Confederation may be elected as deputy. Penalties
for political offences which have been undergone or remitted do not exclude
from election.
6. Persons who occupy a public office require no permission from Government
to enter Parliament.
7. One deputy is to be elected for every 100,000 souls of the population, as
shown in the last census. A surplus of 50,000 souls, or more, in the total
population of a state is to be reckoned as equal to 100,000 souls. Ea.eh deputy
is to be elected in a special elective department.
8. The elective departments will be divided, for the purpose of voting, into
smaller districts.
9. Whoever wishes to exercise his right of voting in a particular district must
have his residence, at the time of the poll, in that district. No elector can
vote in more than one place.
10. In every district Usts will be opened in which the Christian and surnames
of those entitled to vote, with their ages, professions, and dwelling-places, will
be enteied. These hsts shall be open to everyone's inspection at the latest four
vedcs before the day appointed for the election, and this is to be publicly
advertised. Objections to the lists are to be made within eight days of the
appearance of the public advertisement to the authority by whom the adver-
104 GBBHANY,
tisement has been published, and are to be settled within the next 14 days,
whereupon the list will be closed. Only those are entitled to vote who have
their names inscribed on the lists.
11. Voting is to be in public ; all members of the community are to take part
in it who hold no direct oflBce under government. The vote is to be given in
person by means of a voting card, without signature, which is to be enclosed in
an envelope, and so placed in an urn.
12. The voting is to be direct. Election is to be dependent upon the abso-
lute m^'ority of all the votes given in one department. Should there not be an
absolute majority the votes are to be taken over again, but only to decide be-
tween the two candidates who have the greatest number of votes.
1 3. Representatives of the deputies are not to vote.
14. The polls are to take place at the same time in the whole of the state.
15. The elective departments and districts, the directors and the proceedings
of the elections, in so far as they are not determined by the present bill, are to
be settled by the government.
16. The new Parliament will examine the privileges of its tnembers, and
decide upon their execution. It will also regulate the order of its business,
and its discipline.
17. No member of the Parliament can at any time be prosecuted in a court
of justice or a police-court on account of his vote, or for any utterances made
in the exercise of his ofiSce, or be otherwise rendered responsible for his actions
as a member of the assembly.
The terms upon which Austria, former head of the German
Confederation, acknowledged the leadership of Prussia in the new
Confederacy, were embodied in Art. IV. and Art. VI. of the Treaty
of Prague, of August 23, 1866, as follows: —
Art. IV. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria recognises the dissolution of
the late German Bund, and gives his consent to a new formation of Germany,
in which the Imperial State of Austria shall take no part. Moreover, His
Majesty promises to recognise the closer Federal relations which His Majesty
the King of Prussia is about to establish north of the line of the Main, and
idso agrees that the German States to the south of this line shall form an
union, the national connection of which with the Northern Confederacy is
reserved for a more defined agreement between both parties, and which is to
maintain an international independent exist/ence.
Art. VI. At the desire of His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, His Majesty
the King of Prussia declares himself willing, on the approaching changes in
Germany, to allow the territory of the Kingdom of Saxony to remain within
its present limits, reserving to himself the right of settling in a separate
Xreaty of Peace with the King of Saxony the share to be contributed by
Saxony towards the expenses of the war, and the position henceforth to be
held by the Kingdom of Saxory within the North German Confederation. On
the other hand. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria promises to recognise the
changes about to be made in North Germany by His Majesty the King of
Prussia, territorial changes included.
The following table gives the area and population of the various
States of North Germany and South Germany, according to the
CONSTITDTION AND POFUIATIOX.
105
census of December 3, 1861, with rectification of the territorial
dianges made in consequence of the war of 18G6 : —
Names of States
Area,
English sq. miles
Population
NoxTH GBRXAirr: —
1. Prussia
137,066
22,769,436
2. Saxony.
6,777
2,225,240
3. Mecklenburg-Schwerin
4,834
548,449
4. Oldenburg ,
2,417
295,242
6. Brunswick .
1,526
282,400
6. Saxe-Weimar
1,421
273,252
7. Mecklenburg-Strelitz
997
99,060
8. Saze-Meiningen .
933
172,341
9. Anhalt .
869
181,824
10. 8axe-Cob\irg-Gotha
816
159,431
11. Saxe-Altenbnrg .
509
137,883
12. Waldeck .
466
58,604
13. Lippe-Detmold .
445
108,513
14. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
340
71.913
15. Scliwarzburg-Sondenhausen
318
64,895
16. Reuss-Schleiz
297
83,360
17. Scbaumburg-Lippe
212
30,774
18. Hambuig
148
229,941
19. Liibeck
127
87,518
20. Bremen
106
98,576
27,978,651
Total of North Germany
160,624
SotJTH Gbrmany: —
1. Bavaria
29,347
4,657,367
2. Wiirtemberg
7,675
1,720,708
3. Baden .
5,851
1,369,291
4. Hesse-Darmstadt .
2,866
810,302
6. Renss-Oreiz .
148
42,130
6. Lichtenstein .
64
7,160
Total of South Germany
45,951
8,606,948
Total of the whole of Ger
many
•
206,576
36,585,599
Not included either in North or South Germany, but nominally
still belonging to the Germanic empire, are the duchies of Luxem-
burg and Limburg, of an area of 1,88G English square miles, and a
population of 413,831. With the addition of these territories, the
total area of Germany amounts to 208,461 English square miles, and
the total population to 36,999,430, being equal to 177 individuals
per square mile — a density of population exactly the same as tliat of
France.
io6
THE STATES OP NORTH GERMANY.
I. PETISSIA.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
William I., King of Prussia, bom March 22, 1797, the second
son of King Frederick William III. and of Princess Louise of Meck-^
lenburg-Strelitz ; educated for the military career, and took part in
the campaigns of 1813 and 1815 against France ; appointed Governor
of the province of Pomerania, 1840; fled from Prussia to England,
March 20, 1848 ; elected member of the Constituent Assembly for
Wiesitz, Posen, May 15, 1848 ; returned to Berlin and took seat in
the Assembly, Jime 8, 1848; Commander-in-chief of the Prussian
troops against the revolutionary ai-my of Baden, June 1 849 ; appointed
Military Governor of the Khine provinces, Oct. 1, 1849 ; appointed
Regent of the kingdom during the mental illness of his brother,
Oct. 9, 1858 ; ascended the throne at the death of his brother,
Jan. 2, 1861. Married June 11, 1829, to
AiLgustay Queen of Prussia, bom Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter of
the late Grand-Duke Charles Frederick of Saxe- Weimar. Offspring
of the imion are a son and a daughter: — 1. Prince Frederick
William, heir-apparent, bom Oct. 18, 1831 ; lieutenant-general in
the Prussian army, and commander of the second corps d'arm^e in
the war against Austria, June-July, 1866 ; married Jan. 25, 1858,
to Victoria, Princess Royal of Great Britain, of which marriage
there are issue four children, namely, Frederick William, bom
Jan. 27, 1859 ; Charlotte, bom July 24, 1860 ; Henry, bom Aug.
14, 1862 ; and Victoria, bom April 12, 1866. 2. Princess Louise,
born Dec. 3, 1838, married Sept. 20, 1856, to Grand-Duke Frederick
of Baden.
Brothers and Sisters of the King, — 1. Prince Charles, bom June 29,.
1801 ; Commander-in-chief of the Prussian artillery ; and com-
mander of the first corps d'arm^e in the war against Austria,
June-July, 1866 ; married. May 26, 1827, to Princess Marie of
Saxe- Weimar, of which imion there are three children, namely,
Prince Frederick Charles, bom March 20, 1828, and married,
Nov. 29, 1854, to Princess Maria of Anhalt-Dessau, by whom he
has three daughters ; Princess Louise, bom March 1, 1829, and
BEIGNDVa SOYBBEiaN AND FAMILT. IO7
married, June 27, 1854, to the Landgrave Alexis of Hesse-
Pldlippsthal, from whom she was divorced March 6, 1861; and
Princess Anna, bom May 17, 1836, who married, May 26, 1853,
Prince Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. 2. Princess Alexandrine^ born
Feb. 23, 1803; married, May 25, 1822, to Grand-Duke Paid
Frederick of Mecklenburg- Schwerin ; widow, March 7, 1842.
3. Princess Louisej bom Feb. 1, 1808; married, May 21, 1825,
to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. 4. Prince Albert^ bom
Oct. 4, 1809; general of cavalry; married, Sept. 14, 1830, to
Princess Marianne of the Netherlands; divorced, March 28, 1849;
re-married Jime 13, 1853, to Rosalie von Hohenau, bom Aug. 29,
1820. Ofl^)ring of the first tmion are two children, Albert, bom
May 8, 1837, and Alexandrine, bora Feb. 1, 1842.
Queen Dowager, — Queen Elizabeth, horn November 13, 1801, the
daughter of the late king Maximilian I. of Bavaria ; married to
Prince Frederick William, then heir-apparent of Prussia, November
29, 1823 ; widow, January 2, 1861.
Cousins of the King, — 1. Prince Alexander, bom June 21,
1820, the son of the late Prince Frederick of Prussia. 2. Prince
Charge, brother of the preceding, bom February 12, 1826. 3. Prince
Adalbert, bom October 29, 1811, the son of the late Prince
William of Prussia ; admiral in the Prussian navy ; married, April
20, 1850, to Miss Theresa Elssler, bom at Vienna, in 1806. 4. Princess
Elizabeth, sister of the preceding, bom June 18, 1815; married,
October 22, 1836, to Prince Charles of Hesse-Darmstadt. 5. Prin-
cess Marie, sister of the preceding, bora October 15, 1825 ; married,
October 12,, 1842, to the late King Maximilian 11. of Bavaria ;
widow, March 10, 1864.
The kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count ThassUo, of
Zollem, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor, Count
Frederick I., built the family-castle of HohenzoUern, near the
Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or HohenzoUern,
Frederick III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of the Holy
Roman Empire, in 1273, and received tlie Burgraviate of Nurem-
berg in fief; and his great grandson, Frederick VI., was invested by
Kaiser Sigismund, in 1411, with the province of Brandenburg, and
obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A century after, in 1511, the
Teutonic knights, owners of the large province of Prussia, on the
Baltic, elected Margrave Albert, a yoimger son of the family of
HohenzoUern, to the post of Grand- Master, and he, afler a while,
declared himself hereditary prince. The early extinction of Albert's
line brought the province of Prussia to the Electors of Brandenburg,
whose own territories meanwhile had been greatly enlarged by the
valour and wisdom of Frederick Wilhelm * the Great Elector,'
under whose fostering care arose the first standing army in central
I08 NORTH «EBMANT — PRUSSIA.
Europe. The Great Elector, dying in 1688, left a country of one
and a half millions, a vast treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops,
to his son, Frederick I., who put the kingly crown on his head at
Konigsberg, on the 18th of January, 1701. The first king of Prussia
did not much to increase the territory left him by the Great
Elector ; but his successor, Frederick William I., acquired a treasure
of nine millions of thalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling,
bought family domains to the amount of five millions thalers, and
raised the annual income of the country to six millions, three-fourths
of which sum, however, had to be spent on the army. After adding
part of Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son
and successor, Frederick U., called *the Great,' a state of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half millions inhabitants. Frederick II.
added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a quarter
million of souls; and this, and the large territory gained in the
first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square miles,
with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants. Under the
reign of Frederick's successor, Frederick William II., the State was
enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of Anspach and
Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in another partition
of Poland, which raised its area to the extent of nearly 100,000
square miles, with about nine millions of souls. Under Frederick
William HI., nearly one half of this state and population was taken
by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna not only restored the
loss, but added part of the kingdom of Saxony, the Rhinelands, and
Swedish Pomerania, moulding Prussia into two separate pieces of
territory, of a total area of 107,300 square miles. This was shaped
into a compact state of 137,066 square miles, with a population of
22,769,436, by the war of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the kings of Prussia enjoyed the
whole income of their domains, amounting to about a million
sterling per annum. Since the establishment of the new constitution,
however, this arrangement has been changed, and the domains
have become paitly public property, in so far as a certain amount of
the income is paid into the pubHc exchequer. Nevertheless, the
civil list of the sovereign does only partly figure in the budget a sum
of 2,573,000 thalers, or 384,640/., being deducted directly from the
produce of the domains, under the name of * Krondotation,' or Crown
allowance. From recent explanations of the ministers, it appears
that the total amount of the * Krondotation,' at present, reaches the
sum of 3,073,099 thalers, or 460,964/., exclusive of the cost of build-
ing and repairs of royal palaces, and similar items of expenditure.
•
Dating from Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg, who, on
January 18, 1701, placed t^e royal orown upon his bead, calling
CONSTITUTION AND GOYEBNMENT. IO9
himflelf King Frederick I. of Prussia, there have been the following
independent
SOYBBBIOKS OF THE HoUfiE OF HOHBNZOLLEBN.
Frederick 1 1701
Frederick William 1 1713
Frederick II., called* the Great* 1740
Frederick William II 1786
Rederick Waiiam III 1797
Frederick William IV 1840
William 1 1861
The average reign of the seven kings of the House of Hohen-
aollem, including the present monarch, amounted to 23 years.
Constitution and Ctovemment
The present constitution of Prussia, granted by King Frederick
William IV., in consequence of the revolutionary events of 1848,
bears date January 31, 1850; but has been considerably modified
by royal decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 ;
May 7 and May 24, 1853; June 10 and October 12, 1854; May
30, 1855; and May 15, 1857. These fundamental laws vest the
executive and part of the legislative authority in a king of the
House of Hohenzollem, who attains his majority upon accomplishing
his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in the male line
only, according to the rights of primogeniture. In the exercise of
the government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers,
appointed and dismissed by royal decree. The legislative authority
the king shares with a representative assembly, composed of two
Ghambens, the first called the * Herrenhaus,' or House of Lords, and
the second the *Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies. The
assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite for all laws.
Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted to the
second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected * en bloc ' by
the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in the
king and in both Chambers. Projects of law rejected by either
Chamber or by the king cannot be reproduced during the same
session. The first Chamber, according to the original draft of con-
Btitution, was to consist of princes of the royal family of age, and
of the heads of Prussian houses deriving directly from the former
empire, as well as of the heads of those families who, by royal
ordinance, would be appointed to seats and votes in the Chamber,
according to the rights of primogeniture and lineal descent. Besides
these hereditary members, there were to be ninety deputies directly
elected by electoral districts, consisting of a number of electors who
110 NOBTH OBBMANT — ^PEUSSIA.
pay the highest taxes to the State ; and, in addition, other thirty
members elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
towns. This original composition of the * House of Lords' was
greatly modified by the royal decree of October 12, 1854, which
brought into life the Upper Chamber in its present form. It is
composed of, first, the princes of the royal family who are of age,
including the scions of the formerly sovereign families of Hohen-
zoUem-Hechingen and HohenzpUern-Sigmaringen ; secondly, the
chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress
of Vienna, to the nimiber of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads
of the territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some
fifty members ; fourthly, a number of life peers, chosen by the king
among the class of rich landowners, great manufacturers, and * national
celebrities ; ' fifthly, eight titled noblemen elected in the eight pro-
vinces of Prussia by the resident landowners of all degrees ; sixthly,
the representatives of the universities, the heads of * chapters,' and
the burgomastei's of towns with above ^fty thousand inhabitants ;
and, seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by the
king for life, or for a more or less limited period.
The second Chamber consists of 350 members. Every Prussian
who has attained his twenty-fifth year, and is qualified to vote for
the municipal elections of his place of domicile, is eligible to vote
as indirect elector. Persons who are entitled to vote for municipal
elections in several parishes, can only exercise the right of indirect
elector, or *urwahler,' in one. One direct elector, or ^wahlmann,' is
elected firom every complete number of 250 souls. The indirect
electors are divided into three classes, according to the respective
amount of direct taxes paid by each ; arranged in such manner, that
each category pays one-third of the whole amount of direct taxes
levied on the whole. The first category consist of all electors who
pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole.
The second, of those who pay the next highest amount down to the
limits of the second third. The third of all the lowest taxed, who,
together, complete the last class. Each class may be divided into
several electoral circles, none of which must, however, exceed 500
* urwahler.' Direct electors may be nominated in each division of
the circle from the number of persons entitled to vote indirectly,
without regard to special divisions. The representatives are chosen
by the direct electors. The legislative period of the second Chamber
is limited to three years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a member
of the second Chamber who has accomplished his thirtieth year,
who has not forfeited the enjoyment of ftiU civic rights through
judicial sentence, and who has paid taxes during three years to the
State. The Chamber must be re-elected within six months of the
expiration of their legislative period, or after being dissolved. In.
CONSTITUTION AND GOYERNHENT. Ill
either case former members are re-eligible. The Chambers are to
be regularly convoked by the king during the month of November ;
and in extraordinary session, as oilen as circumstances may require.
The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by the
king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Bodi Chambers
are to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously.
Each Chamber has to prove the qualification of its members, and
to decide thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of
bnsineaa and discipline, and elect their own presidents, vice-pre-
ndentSy and secretaries. Functionaries do not require leave of
absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member accepts paid func-
tions, or a higher office connected with increased salary, he vacates
his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the same by a
new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The sit-
tings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the propo-
sition of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret
deliberation. Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the
l^al majority of its members is not present. Each Chamber has a
right to present addresses to the king. No one can deliver a peti-
tion or address to the Chambers, or to either of them in person.
Each Chamber can refer documents addressed to it to the ministers,
and demand explanations relative to complaints contained therein.
Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions of investigation
of &ct8 for their own information. The members of both Chambers
are held to be representatives of the whole population. They vote
according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescrip-
tions or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for
their votes, or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No
member of the Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to
examination or arrest for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless
seized in the act, or within twenty-four hours of the same. Similar
proceedings are necessary in case of arrest for debt. All criminal
proceedings against members of the Chambers, and all examination
or civil arrest, must be suspended during the session, should the
Chamber whom it may concern so demand. Members of the second
■ Chamber receive travelling expenses and diet money from the State,
according to a scale fixed by law amounting to three dollars, or nine
shillings, per day. Refusal of the same is not allowed.
The executive government is carried on, under the king, by an
irresponsible * Staatsrath,' or Council of State, and a nominally
responsible council of ministers. The former consists of all the
princes of the royal family who are above eighteen years of age,
and of an unlimited number of * servants of the State ' appointed by
the sovereign. The Council of Ministers, or Cabinet, is divided into
nine departments, which are :•—
112 HOSIH OTKMANTr— PRUSSIA.
1. The Ministry of Foreign Af^irs. — Count Otto von Bismarck^
Schdnhausen, bom in 1813, the son of a landowner in the pro-
vince of Saxony ; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and Gottingen ;
elected member of the Constituent Assembly, 1848; Minister
Plenipotentiary at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ; Ambas-
sador to the Court of St. Petersburg, 1859-62; Ambassador to
the Emperor of the French, May 1862; appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs, and chief of the Cabinet, September 28, 1862.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Ernest von Bodelschwingh- Velmede,
bom November 26, 1794, at Velmede, near Hamm, Westphalia ;
studied jurisprudence at Berlin and Gottingen ; entered the army as
volunteer, 1813, and, receiving a severe wound in the breast, retired
in 1815 ; employ^ in the Ministry of the Interior, 1820-25 ; Pre-
sident of the Government of the Rhine Province, 1834-42 ; Minis-
ter of Finance, April 5, 1842 ; Minister of the Interior, July 13,
1844, to March 18, 1848 ; elected Member of the Second Chamber
of the Constituent Assembly, 1849 ; appointed Minister of Finance,
September 28, 1862.
3. The Ministry of the Royal House. — Baron Alexander von
Schleinitz, bom 1807 ; entered the diplomatic career, and appointed
Councillor in the Department of Foreign Affairs, 1832; Ambassador
at the Court of Hanover ; Envoy Extraordinary to conclude the
peace with Denmark, June 1849 ; Minister of Foreign Affairs, July
29, 1849, to September 26, 1850, and November 6, 1858, to October
12, 1861 ; appointed Minister of the Royal House, October 12,
1861.
4. The Ministry of War and of the Navy. — General Freiherr von
jSoo/i, appointed Minister of War, December 5, 1859, and of the
Marine, April 16, 1861.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — Privy Councillor Count zu
Eulenburg, bom 1827 ; nominated Chief of the Prussian Expedition
to China and Japan, and Ambassador at the Court of Pekin, June 2,
1860 ; appointed Minister of the Interior, December 9, 1862.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Count Leopold zur Lippe, appointed
Minister of Justice, March 18, 1 862.
7. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Herr von MUhler^ appointed Minister, March 18, 1862.
8. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Privy Councillor von SelchoWy
appointed Minister of Agriculture, December 9, 1862.
9. The Ministry of Commerce. — Count Henry von ItzenplitZy
Minister of Agriculture, March 18, 1862 ; appointed Minister of
Commerce, December 9, 1862.
Each of the provinces of the kingdom is placed under the
superintendence of an * Oberprasident,' or governor, who has a
salary of 6,000 thalers, or 857L Each province has also a military
CHUBGH AND EDUCATION. II3
oommandant, a superior court of justice, a director of taxes, and a
consistorj, all appointed by the king. The last is divided into three
sections — one having the superintendence of schools, another of
ecclesiastical affiurs, and another of the public health. The provinces
are subdivided into r^encies or counties, and these again into * kreise,'
or circles, and the latter into * gemeinden,' or parishes. Each regency
has a president and an administrative board or council; and the
further subdivisions have also their local authorities. The municipal
organisation of the towns is more complicated than that of the com-
munes. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the elections
must be confirmed by the king or the authorities. The system of
law principally in force in the eastern states of the Prussian monarchy
is embodied in a well-digested code entitled *Landrecht fur die
Preussischen Staaten,' which received the royal sanction in 1791, and
became law in 1794 ; but it is occasionally modified by custom ; and
Polish, Swedish, and German laws are still in force in certain parts
of the monarchy. The Rhenish provinces follow, with some excep-
tions, the rules laid down in the * Code Napoleon.' The primary
proceedings in judicial matters take place before local courts esta-
blished in the circles and towns ; thence they may be carried before
the provincial courts, or * oberlandes gerichte ; ' and in the last resort
before the supreme tribunals at Berlin. The judges are independent
of the Grovemment. Juries are employed in the Hhenish provinces,
but not in the other parts of the monarchy.
Clinrcli and Education.
The royal family belongs to the Reformed or Calvinist faith ;
but all denominations of Christians enjoy the same privileges, and are
equally eligible to places of trust or emolument. In 1861, the popu-
lation of Prussia, as then constituted, consisted of 11,273,730
Protestants, 6,867,574 Catholics, 13,718 Mennonites, 14,166 other
Christian sects, and 252,592 Jews. The Protestants predominate
largely in Brandenburg, JPomerania, Saxony, and Eastern Prussia ;
while the Catholics predominate in the Rhine province and West-
phalia, in the regency of Oppeln, in Silesia, and in Posen. When
Silesia was acquired by Prussia, the mass of the population were
Catholics ; but at present the Protestants form the majority in the
two most important provinces, the regencies of Breslau and Liegnitz.
The great majority of the inhabitants of the former kingdom of
Hanover are members of the Lutheran Church. The census of
1861 showed 1,555,448 Lutherans; 97,018 members of the
Reformed Church, or Calvinists ; 221,576 Roman Catholics; 1,943
Christians of other sects, chiefiy Mennonites and Moravians ; and
I
XI4 NOBTH GEBIIANT— PB17S8U.
12,085 Jews. Compared with the preceding census of 1858, the
increase has been comparatively greatest in the Lutheran Church,
and least among the Roman Catholics and Jews.
The Protestant Chiurch is governed by * consistories,' or boards
appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, but no general synod has yet
been held. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the
various provinces. In the Rhenish provinces it is fixed by the con-
cordat entered into between the Government and Pope Pius VII.
But in every other part of the monarchy, the Crown has reserved to
itself a control over the election of bishops and priests. In the entire
kingdom, there are 5,740 ordained Protestant clergymen, and 140
assistant ministers, besides 3,510 Catholic priests, and 2,033 vicars,
chaplains, and curates ; so that the proportion of Catholic clergymen
rather exceeds that of Protestants. The incomes of the clergy differ
greatly. The higher Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the arch-
bishop of Breslau receiving 1,700Z. a-year, and the other bishops
about 1,1 35Z. The incomes of the parochial clergy, of both sects,
mostly arise from endowments. In general, Government does not
guarantee the stipend either of Protestant or Catholic clergymen ;
but in some parishes the clergy enjoy a public provision from the
State. This is peculiarly the case in the Rhenish provinces, in virtue
of the concordat with Rome. Prosely tism, or the attempting to induce
a person to change religion, whether by force or by persuasion, is
prohibited by law.
The 15th to 19th articles of the constitution of 1850 pro-
vide as follows regarding religious affairs: — The Evangelic and
Roman Catholic Chmrch, as well as all other reHgious associations,
regulate and administer their affairs independently, and remain in
possession and enjoyment of their establishments, ^undations, and
funds destined for religious, educational, and charitable purposes.
Intercourse between religious associations and their superiors is un-
impeded. The publication of ecclesiastical ordinances is only subject
to such restrictions as affect all other publications. But all nomina-
tions to, proposals £3r, elections and confirmations of, and possessions
of ecclesiastical functions, independent of the State, and not arising
from special patronage or le^ titles, are abolished. The intro-
duction of civil marriage in Prussia took place according to a special
law, appended to the Constitution of 1850, which also regulated the
management of the civil registers.
The system of public education in force in Prussia is held to be
a more perfect one than any other on the continent of Europe. The
main feature of it is that attendance at school is enforced by law. Every
child, whether male or female, rich or poor, must attend a public
CHUBCH AI^ EDUCATION. II5
school from the age of ^ve years complete, till such time as the
clergyman of the parish affirms that the child has acquired all the
education prescribed by law for an individual in its station : generally
speaking, the school time extends from six to fourteen years com-
]iete. Sbould a child not attend, its parents or guardians must
mtisfy the public authorities that it is receiving an appropriate edu-
cation at home or in a private seminary. The school tees are exceed-
ingly moderate ; and tibe children of poor persons who are imable
to pay them, are instructed gratuitously at the public expense.
The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia are under
the more or less immediate control of the Minister of Public Instruc-
and Ecclesiastical Affairs. He is assisted by an Under-Secretary of
State, and his office is divided into several sections. The special
section for educational affairs consists of eight members of Council
— B^erungsrath — and a staff of lower officials.
In 1815, &e Prussian monarchy, as then constituted, was divided
into ten provinces, a number afterwards reduced to eight. The
administration of each of these provinces is vested in a President,
who i» the head both of the Civil Government — Regierung — and of
the GonsiBtorium, which was intended to manage tibe ecclesiastical
and ednxattional afi^s of each province. The original plan was
that the Civil Government should be responsible for the external,
the Consistorium for the internal affairs of churches and schools, a
diyieion which is still kept up, but which it is practically impossible
to carry out in every instance. Each Consistorium is subdivided
again into two sections, one for purely ecclesiastical, the other for
educational affairs. It is this latter section which in each province
goes by the name of Provincial Schul- Collegium, or of Provincial
School Commission, and which in each province forms the highest
oonrt of appeal in all matters referring to schools. As a general
mle, the administration of school funds provided by the State is
under the control of the Civil Government, which likewise takes
upon itself nearly the whole management of the lower and elemen-
tary schools, while the Schul-CoDegium is responsible for the higher
schools, for itie general system, of instruction and discipline, the proper
selection of sdiool books, the examination and appointment of
masters, and the examination of those who leave school with a view
to matriculation at one of the Universities.
Schools are divided into two classes. Higher and Lower Schools.
The Higher Schools comprise 'Gymnasia,' * Progymnasia,' ^Real
Schools,' and the higher * Town Schools.' The Lower Schools com-
prise the elementary and middle schools. There are besides niune-
rous special schools, such as military, naval, and commercial
achools.
i2
ii6
NOBTH GERMANY — PKUSSIA.
. According to the constitution of 1850, everyone is at liberty to
teach, or to form establishments for instruction, provided he can
prove to the competent authorities his moral, scientific, and technical
qualifications. But all private as well as public estalDlishments for
instruction and education are placed under the superintendence of
the Minister of Public Instruction, and all public teachers are con-
sidered .servants of the State. Confessional relations are taken into
consideration in organising public schools for the people. Religious
instruction in schools for the people is administered by the various
religious commimities. The management of the schools for the
people belongs to parishes, and the Government appoints teachers to
these schools from a list of qualified persons, with the concurrence
of the parishes.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
By the terms of the Constitution, the amount of public revenue
and expenditure is to be settled annually by the Abgeordneten
House, or Chamber of Deputies, in concert with the Herrenhaus, or
Chamber of Lords, and the Crown. During the years 1862-65 the
constitutional prerogative of Parliament was overruled by the
executive, and the budget estimates were fixed by royal decree.
The illegality was condoned by the newly-elected Chamber of
Deputies in the session of 1866, when a reconciliation took place
between the executive and the representatives of the nation, and
the latter passed a vote of indemnity, adopting the whole of the
arbitrarily-passed financial estimates of previous years.
The following statement gives the revenue and expenditure for
the year 1864 :—
Revbnub fob the Yeab 1B64.
Ministry of Finance
„ of Commerce
„ of Justice .
„ of the Interior .
„ of Agriculture .
„ of Public Instruction
ofWar .
„ of Marine
„ of Foreign Affiiirs
Principality of Hohenzollem
Total pevenue
Thalers
86,912,212
38,063,379
10,160,300
681,416
1,167,944
96,343
413,486
19,882
12,340
242,286
.' 137,744,169
;g20,211,103
BEYENUE AND EXFENDIT1TBE.
117
EZFENDITUSE FOB THB
Year 1864.
1. Ordinary Expenditure : — Thalers
Ministiy of Finance 12,554,263
„ of Commerce
. 29,951,902
CiTil list and dotations
. 16,960,976
Ministry of State
277,360
„ of Foreign Affairs .
398,595
„ of Finance .
. 6,624,956
,, of Commerce
. 5,794,457
„ of Justice
. 11,388,905
„ of the Interior
. 5,521,968
„ of Agriculture
. 1,848,657
„ of Public Instruction
. 4,055,865
„ of War.
. 37,354,002
„ of Marine
. 1,130,163
Principality of Hohenzollem
229,886
Total ordinary expenditure
. 133,591,355
£19,604,135
2. Extraordinary expenditure : —
Ministry of State 870
„ of Foreign Affairs .
10,000
„ of Finance .
498,530
„ of Commerce
2,438,916
„ of Justice
260,000
„ of the Interior
111,069
„ of Agriculture
218,500
„ of Public Instruction .
430,000
„ of War.
1,111,948
„ of Marine .
1,150,000
Principality of Hohenzollem
16,971
Total extraordinary expenditure
6,252,804
£937,920
Total expenditure, ordinary and extra- 1
,^«^i,.«^u«x^, vxvxx..c«jr a^^^ «^u*»- . 139 844,159
£20,542,066
According to the Government estimates, the revenue for the year
1865 was to amount to 150,714,036 thalers, and the expenditure to
151,821,653 thalers, leaving a deficit of 1,107,617 thalers. In the
budget for 1866 — laid before the Chamber of Deputies, January 19,
1866 — the revenue and expenditure for the year were each estimated
at 157,237,199 thalers; 9,304,956 thalers being for current, and the
remainder for permanent expenses. As compared with 1865, a net
increase was shown of 3,674,831 thalers, arising chiefly from a sur-
plus in the administration of forests of 1,174,332 thalers, in the
mining department of 503,671 thalers, and in the receipts of the
Cologne and Minden State Railway of 1,735,940 thalers. The
Crown lands and forests, which are more profitable in Prussia than
ii8
KOBTH GEBKANY — PBU8SIA.
in any other country in Europe, were estimated in 1866 to yield
nearly 16,000,000 thalers, against less than 15,000,000 thalers in
1865.
The revenue of the former kingdom of B[anover, henceforth to be
added to that of Prussia, amoimts to nearly three millions sterling,
while the other States newly annexed to the Prussian monarchy
produce about the same amount of revenue between them. The
various branches of public income and expenditure of the former
kingdom of Hanover, in the financial year 1863-64, were as
follows : —
Income fob the Yeab 1863-64.
Produce of public domains
Taxes and custom duties .
Mines and forests in the Upper Harz
Mines in the Lower Harz
Coal mines
Saline and other works .
Shipping dues
Post-office
State railways and telegraphs
Tolls on roads and bridges
Profit on public lotteries .
Miscellaneous items
Total
Thalers
1,990,625
7,448,000
2,282,099
262,910
354,226
87,624
392,800
1,029,500
4,950,000
190,000
68,000
551,472
19,627,506
£2,944,125
EXFENDITUBE FOB THE YeAB 1863-64.
Ministry of State
Chamber of representatives and provincial Diets .
Ministry of Foreign Affairs ....
of War
of Justice
of Education and Ecclesiastical Affidrs.
of the Interior
of Commerce
of Finances
Salaries and pensions
Miscellaneous and extraoidinaiy expenses .
Total .
Thalers
225,497
65,130
121,700
2,626,500
1,054,120
255,286
5,257,902
32,426
5,841,007
3,201,714
1,177.078
, 19,858,359
;g2.978,753
The public debt of the old kingdom, according to the official report
laid before the House of Deputies in the session of 1862, was as
follows on January 1, 1862 : —
BBVENUJI AND SXPENBinTBI. 1 19
1. NatMHud debt bearing interest :— Thalen
C(ui8olidated debt of May 2, 1842 (Staatschtddscheine) 82,722,200
Voluntary loan of the year 1848 5,074,670
Ijoan of 1850 14,447,900
„ of 1852 14,002,300
„ of 1853 4,504,000
„ of 1854 13,761,800
Preference loan of * 1855 13,560,000
Kailway „ of 1855 7,267,300
Loan of 1856 15,917,800
• „ of 1857 7,680,000
First loan of 1859, at 5 per cent 30,000,000
Second loan of 1859 „ ..... 18,400,000
Deposited securities 5,600,000
Debt to anny-widows-ftmd 890,400
Total debt, bearing interest . . 234,828,370
£33,546,910
2. National debt, not bearing interest : — Thalers
-Banknotes, called 'Kassen-Anweisungen' . . . 15,842,347
£2,263,192
3. Provincial and railway debt : — Thalers
Prorincial loans . 4,316,623
Loans for State railways . . . . . . 19,355,025
Total of provincial and railway debt 21,671,648
£3,095,949
Total debt of the kingdom in 1862 . 274,342,365
£39,191,795
To this debt there were added three new loans in 1864, 1865, and
1866. The loan of 1864 amounted to 17,000,000 thalers, that of
1865 to 10,000,000 thalers, and that of 1866— sanctioned by the
Chamber of Deputies, August, 1866— to 40,000,000 thalers; so that
the total public debt of the kingdom, at the end of 1866, was
341,342,365 thalers, or 48,878,500Z.
The public debt of the former kingdom of Hanover has been
increasing for many years, chiefly through the establishment of a
network of State railways. On January 1, 1866, the debt amounted
to-
Old debt . . 15,721,760 thalers, or £2,858,264
Kailway debt . 30,623,075 „ or 4,593,460
Total . 46,344,835 thalers, or £6,951,724
The gross receipts of the Hanoverian State railways in the
financial year 1864 amounted to 6,112,340 thalers, and the expenses
to 2,973,840 thalers, leaving a net sum of 3,138,500 thalers as
120 NOBTH GEBMANY — PBUSSIA.
surplus, of which 999,268 thalers were devoted to the payment of
interest and amortisation on the loans raised for the construction of
the railways, and the rest applied to the general service of the
Government.
The national debt of Prussia dates from the reign of Frederick
William II. King Frederick 11., called * the Great,' left at his death
a treasure of 72 millions thalers, which not only was spent during
the eleven years' reign of his successor, but a debt incurred of
50 millions. King Frederick William HI. at first succeeded in re-
ducing this debt to less than 30 millions ; but the subsequent wars
with Napoleon I. again increased the national liabilities. The debt
amounted to 53,494,914 thalers, or 7,642,130/., in the year 1805,
and had risen to 217,975,517 thalers, or 31,139,359/., in 1813. The
French Government had to pay 145 millions of francs to Prussia for
war expenses, according to the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris,
and by these means, and subsequent large reductions in the expendi-
ture, the national liabilities were reduced to 82,722,200 thalers, or
11,817,457/., which sum was formed into a Consolidated Debt by
the law of May 2, 1842. The further progress of the national debt
is seen in the table on the preceding page.
Army and Navy.
1. Army,
The military organisation of the kingdom, dating from the year
1814, is based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing
arms, shall receive military instruction and enter the army for a
certain number of years. There are, practically, some excep-
tions from military service, though no substitution whatever is
allowed. Every Prussian subject is enrolled as a soldier as soon as
he has completed his twentieth year. He has to be in service during
seven years, of which three years — from 20 to 23 — must be spent in the
regular army, and the remaining four years — from 23 to 27 — in the
army of reserve. At the end of this term, the soldier enters the
* Landwehr,' or miUtia, for nine years, with liability to be called upon
for annual practice, and to be incorporated in the regular army in time
of war. Leaving the 'Landwehr,' the soldier is finally enrolled,
till the age of ^itj, in the * Landsturm,' which body is only called
upon for service, within the frontiers of the country, in case of
invasion. There are various exemptions from this law of military
service, in favoxir of the nobility, clergy, and some other classes of
the population. A certain amount of education and fortune consti-
tutes also a partial exemption, inasmuch as young men of twenty,
who pay for their own equipment and can pass a light examination,
ABMT AND NAVY. 121
have to serve only one year in the regular army, instead of three.
But in this case, the liability to service in the army of reserve— the
* Landwehr ' and the * Landsturm,' remains the same. Altogether,
setting aside a few exceptions, the whole male population of Prussia
may be said to be trained for arms — ready for offensive warfare,
either in the army or the * Landwehr,* from the age of 20 to that of
86 ; and for defensive warfiure, witiiin the country, till the age
of 50.
The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, bat-
talions, r^ments, and corps d'arm^e. The strength of a Pnissian
battalion in peace is 518 men, raised in war to 1,002 by calling in
part of the reserves : it is divided into four companies, each of which
in war consists of 250 men. During peace each regiment of infantry
consists of three battalions ; each brigade of two regiments ; each
infantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of
the divisional general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of
artillery, each of six guns, and either a battalion of riflemen, or a
battalion of pioneers are attached. The corps d'arm^e is con-
sidered a unit which is independent in itself, and includes not only
troops of all three arms, but a portion of all the stores and appli-
ances which are required by a whole army. Each corps d'arm^e
consists of two divisions of in&ntry, a cavalry division of four regi-
ments, with two horse artillery batteries attached, besides the two
cavaliy regiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve
of artUlery of four field batteries and two mounted batteries. The
corps d'arm^e are locally distributed through the monarchy, with
the exception of the first corps, that of the guards. Previous to the
war of 1866, Prussia had, besides the guards, eight corps d'arm^e,
distributed through and called after the eight provinces of the king-
dom, as follows: — 1, Prussia; 2, Pomerania; 3, Brandenburg;
4, Saxony ; 5, Posen ; 6, Silesia ; 7, Westphalia ; 8, Rhenish Pro-
vinces.
The strength of an ordinary battalion on active service consists of
one field oflicer, four captains, four first lieutenants, nine second
lieutenants, one surgeon, one assistant- surgeon, one paymaster, one
quarter-master, 1,002 non-commissioned officers and privates.
When a war is imminent, the Government decrees the mobiliza-
tion of the whole army, or of such a portion as may be deemed
necessary. In preparing for the campaign in 18GG, the whole field
army and the first levy of Landwehr were mobilised in about two
weeks. Every commanding general mobilises his own corps
d'armee, and the commandants of those fortresses which are
ordered to be placed in a state of defence take their own measures
for strengthening the fortifications, and for obtaining firom the
artillery depots the gims . necessary for the armament of their
122
NORTH OURKANT — PRUSSIA.
parapets. All orders are sent by telegraph wherever there exists
telegraphic communication. The process of the mobilisation may
be classed under the following five heads : — 1, The filling in of the
field troops to their war strength ; 2, the formation of depot troops ;
3, the formation of garrison troops and the arming of the fortresses ;
4, the mobilisation of the field administration ; 5, the formation of
the head, quarter staffs, who are to remain in the different districts
to supply the places of those who march to the seat of war. The
completion of the rank and file of the field troops to war strength is
effected by drawing in some of the reserve soldiers, who supply
half the total war strength of the in&ntry, one-third of that of the
artillery, and one twenty-fifth of that of the cavalry.
The organisation of lie army was as follows, in 1866 : —
Field troops — Guard-infantry, 9 regiments .
Line-cavaliy, 72 „
Chasseurs and rifles, 10 bat-
talions ....
Total of infantry .
Guard-cavaliy, 8 regiments .
Line-cayalry, 40 „
Tiandwehr-cavalry, 12 reg.
Total of cavahy .
Artillery — 9 brigades
Gruns
Pioneers, 9 battalions .
Train, 9 battalions
Total field-troops .
Garrison teoope— Infantry, 36 regiments
Cavalry ....
Artillery ....
Pioneers ....
Total ....
Total strength of the army
Nmnberof
men on
peace-footing
Kumberof
men on
war-footing
16,991
116,208
6,340
27,064
216,432
10,020
138,539
4,813
24,000
216
263,606
4,813
24,000
7,200
29,049
18,194
432
6,400
2,097
36,013
42,602
864
9,018
29,034
193,259
1,972
4,996
350
370,073
116,282
800
16,200
1,960
7,817
136,182
208,676
609,669
ESSEBYB TbOOPS.
81 reserve battalions ....
10 companies Jager reserves
60 reserve squadrons ....
9 companies pioneer service
Total reserves
8,162 men
1,692 „
12,000 „
2,226 „
104,414 men
▲BMY AND NAYT. 1 23
The pay of the troops, officers as well as men, is very low. It
amounts on the ayerage, including officei^s and staff, to 9/. 9^. 2d, per
annum in the infantry ; to 12/. 8^. a year in the cavalry ; and to
8S/. Is. in the artillery. Though every man is a soldier in Prussia,
there are not many men among the privates who make soldiering a
profession, and re-enlistments are not very numerous, nor much
encouraged. If a man wishes to re-enlist afler the completion of
his three years' term of service he is allowed to do so, provided the
general commanding his brigade approves him ; but he only re~
enlists for one year, at the end of which either party can break off
the engagement, or, if both consent to continue, a re-enlistment
can be effected for another year, and so on. In time of war the
soldier cannot break off his engagement at the end of the year, but
jnnst continue it till the war is over. At^any time he can be dis-
charged for misbehaviour. A man who re-enlists, generally, if well
- educated, becomes a non-commissioned officer, but neither the pay
nor position of a non-commissioned officer is high enough to induce
men to stay long in the army under ordinary circumstances. But
an inducement which is found quite powerfid enough to keep men
sufficient to form all the non-commissioned officers of the Prussian
army is afforded by the fact, that afler a man has served 12 years,
during nine of which he has been a non-commissioned officer, he
is certain of obtaining a good civil appointment ; for all vacancies
among railway and telegraph officials, Government clerks, overseers
of the public forests, gendarmes, non-commissioned officers of police,
pbst-office clerks, and gaolers, are filled from the ranks of the non-
commissioned officers whose times of service in the army have
expired.
Official returns state that in no other European army is the
mortality so small as in that of Prussia. During the ten years fi'om
1829 to 1838, the average of deaths was one out of every 76. Since
then a great improvement has taken place, for in 1865 only one died
out of every 150, being 70 in every 10,000 men. This in-
cludes suicides, accidents, and invalids. Without the two former
classes the mortality was one in 166, and, deducting also the invalids,
one in 187, or less than 54 in every 10,000 men.
The total loss of the Prussian army during the war of 1866 was
officially reported as having amounted to 19,875 men, of which
number there were 3,892 killed in battle, and the rest, more or less,
severely wounded. But the report did not include those who died
of disease and other casualties.
Though Prussia has a large Roman Catholic population, the Pro-
testant element preponderates in the army. The religious statistics
of the year 1862 show that there are 11,298,276 Protestants, of
whom 184,767 are in the army ; 6,907,000 Roman Catholics, of
124 NOKTH GERMANY— PKUSSIA.
whom 82,345 are in the army ; 1,202 members of the Greek Church,
of whom 6 are soldiers ; 13,716 Anabaptists, of whom 8 are soldiers ;
16,233 Dissenters, of whom 63 are scJldiers; and 254,785 Jews, of
whom 1,328 are in the army. This great preponderance of Pro-
testants among the military is partly owing to the fact that out of
nearly 8,000 officers in the active army, there are only a few hundred
Catholics. In the military schools, out of 1,300 pupils, there are
only from sixty to seventy Catholics.
There axe 27 fortresses in the kingdom, of which five are of the
first rank. They are garrisoned by 7,317 men in time of peace,
and 135,182 during war, or preparation for war — * Kriegs bereit-
schaft.* According to a statement of the Minister of War, laid
before the second Chamber in the session of 1863, it is intended to
strengthen and enlarge the whole of these fortifications. Only some
old fortresses of minor importance in the interior of the country will
provisionally remain without alteration ; but eventually and by de-
grees they also will be completed with the current means at the
disposal of the military administration. It is considered that the
other fortresses, especially those on the frontier, urgently require
strengthening. It is also stated that the powder magazines used in
time of war are almost everywhere more or less exposed to the fire
of the improved artillery of the present day ; that there is an urgent
need for the completion as speedily as possible of the works now in
progress at the fortifications of Konigsberg, Fort Boyen, Posen, and
Spandau ; that, at least, the fortresses of strategic importance should
be completely armed with rifled guns, and that the others, according
to their importance, should be half or partly armed with such
weapons, and that to this end some guns intended for places indi-
cated will be transferred elsewhere ; and lastly, that for the present
the security of the great harbours and mouths of rivers — such as
Memel, Pillau, Dantzic, and Peenemunde — must be considered to
be of paramount importance, in order to secure the places of
commercial importance and the parts of the coast liable to the
landing of an enemy. The execution of these measures will require
the expenditure of the sum of 8,990,000 thalers, or 1,284,300/., to be
thus distributed : — For the building operations and the necessary
strengthening of the more important of the old fortresses, 3,000,000
thalers ; for the security of the exposed powder magazines in the
fortresses against improved artillery, 240,000 thalers ; for the exten-
sion of the works of fortification at Konigsberg, Fort Boyen, Posen,
and Spandau, 2,450,000 thalers ; for providing rifled guns for the
speedy arming of the fortresses, 2,790,000 thalers; and, lastly, for
the defence of the coasts, 450,000 thalers.
The formation of a navy for the kingdom dates from the year
1848. According to a return made by the Government in April,
ABEA AND POPULATION.
125
1865, the fleet of war at that period consisted of four heavy corvettes,
each with 33 guns and 400-horse power ; four flush-deck corvettes,
two of 17 guns and 200-horse power, the other two of 14 guns ; three
avisos ; six gunboats of the first class, and fifteen of the second. The
whole steam-fleet amounted to thirty-two vessels carrying 251 guns,
most of them lying in the harbours of Schleswig-Holstein.
According to a report of the Minister of War and of the Navy, made
in April 1865, the Prussian fleet is to be .gradually raised to the
following eflTective : — 10 iron-cased frigates with 250 guns, 10
cupola ships and rams with 40 guns, eight heavy corvettes with 224
guns, six light corvettes with 93 guns, six iron avisos with 12 guns,
and four transports with six guns. The total expense of these con-
structions is estimated at 46,665,000 thalers, or 6,676,430Z. Out of
this sum 23,280,000 thalers have been already expended for the
frigates * Arcona,* * Gazelle,* the corvettes * Herta * and * Vineta,' four
lai^ gun-boats, and fifteen smaller vessels. In September, 1864, the
Grovemment purchased two men-of-war, built in France for the
former Confederate States of America. They were of 500 horse-
power, each carrying 14 rifled 48-puunder8, and named the
* Victoria * and * Augusta.*
Area and Population.
The total area of Prussia amounts to 137,066 English square
miles, with a population of 22,769,436. The area and population
of the various states composing the monarchy is as follows, on the
basis of the German census of December 3, 1861 : —
Kaznee of States
Area
English sq. mUes
Population
Prussia, as before the war of 1866 .
107,757
18,497,458
Former kingdom of Hanover ....
14,846
1,888,070
„ duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and
Lauenburg
7,414
1,004,473
„ electorate of Hesse-Cassel .
4,430
738,454
„ duchy of Nassau ....
1,802
457,571
„ landgraviatc of Heese-Homburg .
106
26,817
„ free city of Frankfort
43
87,518
Detached portions of Bavaria ....
291
32,470
„ „ „ Hesse-Darmstadt .
Total
377
46,605
137,066
22,769,436
The old kingdom of Prussia, without the annexed States, is
divided, for administrative purposes, into eight provinces, which
again are subdivided into twenty-six districts. The following
table gives the population, civil and military, of these provinces and
districts, according to the census of December 3, 1861 : —
126
NOBTH GEEMAirr— PRIISSIi.
Pn)TdTi*)i«iini3 Dlstrifltft ,
CiTil
Miiltn^ Total
L ProTiDCfi of Pmsaia :—
1, Konigsbepg
2. GuTttbmnen
3. DiHEJg ,
4, Marifiowerder .
t
972,031
692,654
464,&.'i6
706,148
10,867
3,818
11,466
6,683 ,
982.898
606,472
476,321
712,831
Total
IL pMea— 5. Poeen
6, Bromberg ,
2,835,688
959,702
516,973
32,834
12,812
5.134
2,868,522
972,614
622,107
Total
III, Pomeraxiin — 7. Btettin
8. Koaiin
9, Stralsund
1,476,675
642,378
618,261
207,659
17,946
12,668
6,193
3,009
1,494,621
654,046
523,454
210,668
Total
IV, Sflesia^lO- Breslau *
11, Oppein ,
12, Leigniti.
1,368,298
1,278.199
1,126,323
946,082
20,770
17,895
11,574
11,731
i,389,oas
1,296,094
1,137,897
956,813
Total .
V. Bcandenburg— 13. Berlin
14. Fotedam
16, Fraokfor
a, 349,604
522,974
923.740
961,386
41,200
23,346
21,339
11J31
3,390,804
945,079
973,117
Total
VI. SaxOEj— 16, Magdeburg .
17. Meraebui^ .
18, Erfurt ,
2,408,100
766,610
819,a65
359,043
55,415
13,124
11,690
6,600
2,463,516
779,734
831,555
304,643
Total
VIL WeBtphi^ia~19. Munster
20. Minden,
21. AjToaberg
1,946,518
: 437,004
i 466,105
701,179
30,414
6,380
6,977
2,077
1,976,932
442,384
472,082
703,266
Total
VTTl, Rhine primnce—
22, Koln
23, Diisseldorf
24, Coblents .
26. Trier
26. Aachen .
1,603,288
667,311
1,106,580
620,989
637.152
454,674
14,434
10,134
10,446
1 8,829
7,076
3,768
1,617,722
567,43*^
1,117,025
529,818
644,228
458,442
Tolid
Principality of HobenzolleTn .
JAhdegebiot ....
3,176,706
64,408
950
40,242
253
3,216,948
64,661
960
Total . ,
ia,229,2S6
253,608
13,482,743
▲BSA AND POPULATION.
Popnlation — conHntted,
127
PzoTinoeB and Districts
Civil
MiUtary
Total
Pnusian troops of occupation
in Frankfort-on-the-Maine,
Lnzemborg, Mayee, and
Bastadt ....
Total population of the\
kingdom . /
14,715
14,715
18,229,235
268,223
18,497,458
The subjoined table gives the area of the eight provinces, in
geographical and English square miles: —
FxoTinoes and Districts
Area in Greog.
sq. miles
AreainEng.
sq. miles
Province of Prussia — Konigsberg
Gumbinnen
Danzig .
Marienwerder
Total.
Posen — ^Posen
Bromberg .
Total .
Pomerania — Stettin
Coslin .
Stralsund .
Total .
Silesiar— Breslau .
Oppeln
Liegnitz .
Total .
Brandenburg— Potsdam and Berlin .
Frankfort
Total .
Saxony — ^Magdeburg
Meraebuig
xlrfurt • • . •
Total .
Westphalia— Miinster .
Minden
Amsberg •
40813
29821
152-28
319-41
24,880
11,330
12,130
15,666
15,505
9,729
7,771
1178-3
321-68
214-83
536-51
236-88
258-43
79-02
574-33
248-14
243-06
250-54
741-74
382-51
851-63
734-14
210-13
188-76
61-74
460-63
18217
95-68
140-11
Total . 1
367-96
128
NOBTH aEBMANT — ^PBUSSU.
ProvinceR and Districts
AreainGeog.
sq. miles
Area in Bug.
sq. miles
Rhine province — Cologne
Diisseldorf .
Coblentz
Treves .
Aix-la-Chapelle .
Total area .
72-40
98-32
109-64
131-13
75-65
10,289
487-14
5,080-48
107,300
To the above is to be added the principality of Hohenzollern,
comprising 452 English square miles, and the * Jahdegebiet ' of five
square miles, making the total area of the old kingdom 107,757
English square miles.
The former kingdom of Hanover is divided into seven Land-
drosteien, or administrative divisions superintended bj a Landdrost,
or high-bailiff. The seventh of these districts, however, the mining
district of the Harz, is not under a Landdrost, but a Berghauptmann,
or captain of the mountain. The area of the provinces and popu-
lation, according to the census" of 1852 and of Dec. 1861, is as
follows : —
Landdrosteien
Area in
Eng. sq. m.
Population
1862
1861
Hanover
2,332
349,958
368,973
Hildesheim ....
1,726
367,883
366,766
Liinebnrg
4,344
338,764
367,669
Stade
2,629
279,834
296,626
Osnabriick ....
2,il6
261,965
262,316
Anrich
1,154
185,129
192,829
Mining District
Total .
244
35,720
33,391
14,846
1,819,253
1,888,070
The area and population of. the former duchies of Schleswig,
Holstein, and Lauenburg, is as follows : —
Duchies
Area in Eng.
sq. miles
Population
Schleswig
Holstein . . . ...
Lauenburg . . . . .
Total ....
3,704
3,255
455
409,907
544,419
50,147
7,414
1,004,473
ABEl AND POPULATIOK.
129
The former electorate of Hesse-Cassel is diyided, hr administratiye
purposes, into four provinces, of the following area and population,
according to the census of 1858 and of 1861 : —
ProvinoM
AieainSng.
aq. miles
Population
IS6B
1861
Lower Hesse ....
F^^"" : : : :
Hanan
Total
2,085
875
887
583
350,648
118,950
135,506
121,582
358,806
119,493
136,572
123,583
4,430
726,686
738,464
The foUowing is a list of the chief towns in the old kingdom of
Prussia: —
Towns
Population in 1861
Civil
ICmtary
Total
Berlin
524,945
22,626
547,671
Breslau .
138,651
6,938
145,589
Ck>)ogDe (Coin)
113,083
7,486
120,668
Konksberg .
Magdeburg .
87,092
7,487
94,579
78,665
7,636
86,301
Danidg •
72,280
10,486
82,766
Aix-li^Chapelle (Aachen
) ^
58,553
1,388
69,941
Stettin .
58,487
5,944
64,431
Elbcrfeld
56,293
14
66,307
Crefeld .
50,562
22
60,684
Barmen .
49,772
15
49,787
Posen .
43,879
7,363
51,232
Halle .
41,507
1,469
42,976
Biisseldorf
37,916
3,376
41,292
Potsdam
34,869
6,956
41,824
Frankfort-on-the-Oder
34,253
2,304
36,667
Erfurt .
32,546
4,46&
37,012
Ooilits .
26,534
1,449
27,983
Elbing .
25,091
448
25,539
23,348
24
23,372
Miinster
23,336
3,996
27,332
Coblents
22,715
5,810
28,625
Stralsnnd
21,936
2,278
24,214
Halberstodt .
21,674
1,136
22,810
Brandenburg
21,647
2,180
23,727
Essen ....
20,766
46
20,811
Bromberg
20,524
1,960
22,474
Bonn ....
19,139
857
19,996
Treves (Trier)
17,769
3,466
21,216
Nordbansen .
17,496
24
17,620
Memel ....
17,490
100
17,690
130
NOBTS GBBMANT — PBUSSIA.
The chief towns of the former kingdom of Hanover, according to
enumerations made in 1861 and in 1864, are : —
Chief Towns
Hanover .
Hildesheim
Osnabriick
Liineburg .
ZeU .
Emden
Grottingen .
Harburg .
Population
1S61
1864
71.170
79,649
17,134
17,988
16,180
18,083
14,411
15,691
14,139
14,922
12,139
12,053
12,452
12,674
12,243
13,480
According to the census of December 3, 1861, there were in the
old Prussian monarchy 2,480,609 inhabitants, or nearly one-seventh
of the whole population, not belonging to the German race, or not
making use of the German language in daily and familiar conversa-
tion. Disregarding the distinction between Low and High German,
there are as many as ten different languages spoken in the old
kingdom. 15,718,600 Prussians speak German as their native
tongue ; 1,973,880 speak Polish (in the provinces of Prussia, Posen,
and Silesia) ; 233,341 speak Massuric (near Gumbinnen and Konigs-
berg) ; 7,652 Kassubic (near Marienwerder, Konigsberg, and Coslin);
Lithuanian is spoken by 136^90 persons (in the districts of Gum-
binnen and Konigsberg, where likewise 414 persons still speak the
old Kuric or Kurish language) ; the Wendish is spoken by 82,232
persons (in the provinces of Prussia and Silesia); Bohemian by
10,317 persons (in Silesia) ; Moravian by 48,554 persons (in the
district of Oppeln). Finally, "Walloon is spoken by 10,502 persons,
chiefly in the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle.
The census of 1861 gives the average density of the population
at about 156 per English square mile. The variation, however, is
considerable — the density being highest in the manufacturing dis-
trict of Diisseldorf, where it is nearly four times the average, and
smallest in the district of Ciislin, where it amounts but to three-fifths
of the average. The number of families amounts to 3,613,856, and
therefore rather more than 20 per cent, of the population, giving
nearly five persons to a family. The deaf and dumb numbered
14,223, of which 7,855 were men, 6,368 women ; 10,524 were totally
blind, 5,496 being men, and 5,028 women. There is therefore, on
an average, one deaf and dumb person to every 1,211, and one blind
in 1,731 of the population of Prussia.
About nine millions of the population of the old kingdom are
engaged in agriculture, as sole or chief occupation. Of these
TRADE AND INDUSTBT.
131
2,070,157 are proprietors of land, possessing from three to 400 acres,
and more. The owners of three acres and less number 1,052,126;
those of from three to 18 acres are 598,134; from 18 to 160 acres
887,741 ; from 160 to 400 acres, 17,675 ; and above 400 acres,
14,481. As a rule, the least populated provinces contain the largest
estates. It is stated that land is getting out of the hands of the
nobility into those of the middle classes. The number of nobles, in
1861, amounted to 177,525 individuals, united in 7,093 noble
houses, or families.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of the old kingdom of Prussia with
the United Kingdom is exhibited in the subjoined tabular statement,
showing the value of the imports from Prussia into the United
Kingdom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce to Prussia
in the ^ve years 1861 to 1865 :—
Imports from Prnasia
Exports of Home Produce
Years
into the
United Kingdom
to Prussia
1861
6,440,895
£
2,493,976
1862
7,833,927
2,045,079^
1863
6,231,603
1,917,346
1864
6,862,916
1,136,416
1866
6,126,206
2,102,714
The imports from Prussia into the United Kingdom consist almost
entirely of agricultural produce. The chief articles are wheat, to
the amount of from 3,000,000/. to 4,000,000/. per anniun ; other
kinds of com to the value of 1,000,000/. ; and wood and timber to .
the average amount of 1,000,000/. per annum. The chief items of
British exports to Prussia are iron, wrought and unwrought, to the
value of 300,000/.; herrings in barrels, to the average value of
250,000/. ; and cotton yarn, to the average value of 240,000/. per
xn-nnm.
The commercial intercourse between the former kingdom of
Hanover and the United Kingdom is exhibited in the subjoined
tabular statement, which shows the value of the total imports from
Hanover into the United Kingdom, and of the total exports of
British and Irish produce and manufactures to Hanover, in the five
years 1861-65 :—
k2
132
NORTH OBBMANT — PRUSSIA.
Tears
Imports from Hanover into the
United Kingdom
Exports of ffomf Produce from the
United SLingdom to Hanover
1861
1862
1863
1864
1866
£
284,984
276,263
189,643
196,294
243,024
£
1,029,293
758,334
668,337
689,904
399,933
The imports from the former kingdom of Hanover into the United
Kingdom consisted abnost entirely of agricidtural produce, chiefly
oats and beans; while the exports to Hanover were of a miscellaneous
kind.
The number and tonnage of vessels of the mercantile navy of
the old kingdom of Prussia was as follows on the 1st of January
1865, and 1864 :—
Ports or Places
where the
Managing Owners reside
Total, Jan. 1st, 1865.
Total, Jan. Ist, 1864.
Number of
Vessels
Lasts,
of 2 tons
Kmnber of
Vessels
Lasts,
of 2 tons
Danzig .
Stettin .
Stralsund.
Memel
Minor Ports .
Chinese Ports .
Total 1865 .
Total 1864 .
130
216
169
97
823
9
33,400
29,564
21,551
21,131
79,162
2,500
139
214
170
90
821
7
34,817
29,441
21,898
19,664
78,426
2,760
1,443
187,308
1,441
187,006
1,441
187,006
—
—
The average burthen of Prussian vessels, as shown in the above
*table, is 130 tons. The tonnage of the mercantile navy of the old
kingdom of Prussia, in 1864, was larger than that of Austria, but
only two-thirds that of the Netherlands.
The commercial navy of the former kingdom of Hanover consisted,
on the 1st of January, 1864, of 841 vessels, of an aggregate burthen
of 60,143 lasts, or 120,286 tons.
Subjoined is a comparative table of the capital, receipts, and ex-
penditure of railways in the old kingdom of Prussia, for each of the
years 1861, and 1862:—
TRADE AND INDITSIBT.
133
DcBcriiitioii
Total length of lines .
„ ,, double lines |
r German miles
t English M
Capital authorised bj r
GoTemment . . t
Capital authorised in t
original shares . t
Capital expended . |
G^erman „
English yt
Thalers
£ sterling
Thalers
£ sterling
Thalers
£ sterling
ATerage cost per G-erman mile ( Thalers
,, „ English mile I £ sterling
Boiling stock: number of Locomotives .
„ „ Passenger carriages .
» »» Waggons of all kinds
yelled by trains
{
English
Coke and* coal : consumption of, per )
G^erman mile, &c . . . lbs. )
Passengers conveyed : number of 1st class
2nd „
3rd „
4th „
Total number of all classes, inclusive of j^
military i
Receipts from passengers, in- / Thalers
eluding charges for excess ^ ^^j.
lu lugya^u . . . ^ "^
Bec^ipts &om passengers, average per
Germun mile . . . Thalers
Receipts from goods, cattle, r „
and carringo of vehicles . t £ sterling
Receipts miscellaneous . { /^^
... . • M 11 ( Thalers
Total receipts from all sources | £g|. gpii^g
Ajcrage receipts per G-erman mile Thalers
„ „ English mile ^sterling
762-641
799-843
3,608
3,679
238*949
241-729
1,099
1,111
308,443,400
46,266,510
142,959,950
21,443,992
373,044,736
65,956,709
486,444
15,951
1,440
2,167
26,928
3,466,795
15,947,257
174-18
422,375
3,933,820
11,927,469
6,485,831
23,367,218
13,813,309
2,071,995
36,234
27,147,894
4,072,183
2,624,712
393,706
43,585,915
6,537,886
57,119
1,863
1863
346,370,800
51,955,620
144,259,950
21,638,992
410,535,432
61,580,314
516,607
16,738
1,513
2,359
31,339
3,997,272
18,387,451
171-68
469,090
4,329,173
12,427,745
8,122,381
25,928,393
16,065,740
2,268,361
40,479
32,088,669
4,813,299
3,279,958
491,992
50,424,367
7,563,654
63,271
2,056
.134
NOBIS aBSUAHT— ^FBUaSIA.
Description
1861
1862
Working expenditoe . . {^^J^h^
Working expenditure per Ger- ) 7«v,aift«s
man mile . . . i -'■"*^®"
Workmg expenditure per En- > ^ ^^^^
ghsh mile . . . / ^
Working expenditure defrayed r Thalers
from the Eeserve Fund . t £ sterling
Eate per cent, of expenses
upon the Gross Revenue .
KetBevenue . . . {^-^^g
„ per German mile . Thalers
„ per English „ . £ sterling
Dividend upon original andl ^^^ ^^^^ f
preferential sha^s . .P^"" '^®''** \
Amount of reserve and renewal f Thalers
fund at the end of each year 1 £ sterling
Bate per cent, upon the capital
22,098,558
3,314,782
29,495
945
3,824,120
573,618
24,637,367
3,695,604
31,103
1,004
4,102,329
615,348
50-70
48-86
21,487,357
3,323,102
28,745
918
25,787,300
3,868,050
32,631
1,051
607 (5-29 in-
cluding Guaran-
teed Loans.)
4-85 (5-40 in-
cluding Guaran-
teed Loans.)
8,620,120
1,293,018
2-31
10,609,623
1,591,428
2-68
Of the Prussian railways, six lines — the most important that from
Frankfort-on-the-Oder to Konigsberg and the Eussian frontier, 101
German miles long — are State property ; seven others are under
government control, having been partly constructed by State loans or
subventions ; and the rest — about two-thirds of the whole — in the
hands of private companies. The State railways form an important
source of public revenue. In the financial estimates for the year
1865, the general receipts of the State railways were stated at
14,197,000 thalers, and the expenditure at 7,386,300 thalers, show-
ing a surplus of 6,360,700 thalers, of which latter the sum of
467,700 thalers was derived from the Lower Silesian Eailway ;
4,000 thalers from the Berlin Jimction ; 566,600 thalers fi^m ihe
Eastern; 294,500 thalers from the Westphalian; and 256,700
thalers from the Saarbruck.. From the above surplus of 6,360,700
thalers the sum of 4,889,257 thalers was deducted to pay off loans
and debts contracted for railway purposes, leaving a net balance of
1,471,443 thalers towards defraying the general expenses of the
State.
The total length of railways in the former kingdom of Hanover
amounted to 550 English miles in 1863. The gross receipts of the
same, in the year ending July 1, 1863, was 838,085/., and the net
revenue 419,754Z. The whole of these lines are State property.
BOOKS OF BBFX&ENCE.
^35
Honey, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights^ and measures of Prussia, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Momnr.
The J%alerj 3(^ Silver Ghroschen . » ATerage rate of exchange Zs,
Weiohts and Measubss,
The CaUner «... a 113^ lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Mark =B 3,608 grains troy, about 7J ozs.
„ Skip Last ..,.=. About 2 tons,
„ Za«^ of Grain . . =» „ 11 imperial quarters.
„ „ Salt . . . . » 3^43 lbs. avoirdupois, about 1^ ton.
B 1^ imperial bushel, or 5^ to the im-
perial quarter
n 4f English miles.
» 60 pieces.
= 2,270 lbs. avoirdupois.
B 6 bushels.
B 226 grains troy, about 9^ dwts.
« 0.65 acre,
a 16 gallons.
Cferman MUe
Sckoek
TimnA i 'Weight
lonne | Measure of coals
IMk ....
Morgen
Mtner ....
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Pmssia.
1; Official Fukligations.
Koniglich Preussischer Staats-Kalender fiir 1866. 8. Berlin, 1866.
Preussische Statistik, herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau in Berlin. Vols.
I.— VIII. fol. Berlin, 1866.
Jahrbuch fur die amtliehe Statistik des Preussischen Staates. Herausge-
geben vom Konigl. Statistisehen Bureau. 8. Berlin, 1866.
Staatshaushalts-Etat fiir das Jahr 1866. 4. Berlin, 1866.
Allgemeiner Bencht itber den Entwurf zum Staatshaushalts-Etat pro 1866.
Haus der Abgeordneten. No. 80. Berlin, 1866.
Die Preussische Handels-Marine im Anfange des J. 1864. Zusammenge-
stellt von den Experten der Stettin er See-Assecuradeurs. Stettin, 1866.
Uebersicht des Flachenraums und der Einwohnerzahl des Preussischen Staats,
und alphabetisches Verzeichniss der Stadte in demselben, mit Angabe der Civil-
Euiwohnerzahl am Schlusse des J. 1861. 8. Berlin, 1862.
Die Berliner Volkszahlung vom 3. December 1861. Bericht der stadtischen
Central-Commission fiir die Volkszahlung iiber die Mitwirkung der Commune an
der Zahlungs-Ausfiihruiig und deren Besultate. 2 vols. Pol. Berlin, 1862.
Statistische Nachrichten von den Preussischen Eisenbahnen. Bearbeitet von
dem Technischen Bureau des Konigl. Ministerium fiir Handel. 4. Berlin, 1866.
Das hohere Schulwesen in Preussen. Historisch-statistische Darstellung, im
Auftrage des Ministers der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und Medicinal- Angelegen-
heiten. Berlin, 1864.
Be|)ort hyllLt. Lowther, H. M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on Trade and Finance,
dated July 16, 1863, and Jan. 27, 18^6; m *Beports of H. M.'b Secretaries of
Embssity/ No.VU. London, 1864.
136 KOBTH aSBMANT — SAXONT.
Beport by Mr. Lowther, H. M.'s Secretaiy of Embassy, on Trade and Com-
merce, dated July 28, 1864 ; in ' Beports of H. M/s Secretaries of Embassy.'
No. Vin. London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. Lowther, H.M.'8 Secretaiy of Embassy, on the trade, industry,
and manufactures of Prussia, dated July 13, 1865; in 'Beports of H.M.'8
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XI. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Banning (Emile), Bapport sur TOrganisation et I'Enseignement de rUni-
Tersit^ de Berlin, pr^sent^ k M. le Ministre de I'lnt^ieur, le 26 Oct. 1861. 8.
Bruxelles, 1862.
Bockh (Bich.), Die geschichtliche Entwickelung der amtlichen Statistik des
Preussischen Staates. 4. Berlin, .1864.
Dteterid (C. T. W.), Handbuch der Statistik des Preussischen Staats. Parts
I.— IX, 8. Berlin, 1858-63.
Engd (Dr. Ernst), Land und Leute des Preussischen Staats und seiner Pro-
vinzen nach den statistischen Aufhahmen Ende 1861 xmd Anfang 1862. 8.
Berlin, 1863.
Engcl (Dr. Ernst), Zeitschriit des Koniglich Preussisdien Statistischen
Bureau. 4. Berlin, 1860-65.
Frantz (Adolf), Der Preussische Staat : Handbuch der Statistik, Yerfassimg,
und Gesetzgebung Preussens. 2 vols. 8. Quedlinburg, 1855.
Hofkcdender^ Oothaischer, genealogischer, nehst diplomatisch-statistischem
Jahrbuche auf das Jahr 1866. 32. 103 Jahrgang. Grotha, 1866.
Kdler (Ft. E J.), Der Preussische Staat. Ein Handbuch der Vaterlandskunde.
2 vols. -8. Minden, 1864.
Kraatz (L.), Topographisch-statistisches Handbuch des Preussischen Staats.
4. Berlin, 1866.
Meyer (B. G. A.), Archiy fiir Landeskunde fiir das Konigreich Preussen. 8.
Berlin, 1865.
Bonne (L. von). Das Staatsrecht der Preussischen Monarchic. 2 yoIs. 8.
Leipzig, 1857-60.
Toppen (Dr. M.), Historisch-comparatiye Geographic von Preussen. 8.
Gotha, 1865,
Ungeufitter (T. H.), Die Preussische Monarchie, geographisch-statistisch und
historisch dargestellt 8. Berlin, 1861.
Viehdhn (G. von), Statistik des Zollvereinten und Nordlichen Deutschlanda.
8. Berlin, 1866.
11. SAXONY.
Seigning Sovereign and Family.
Johann I., King of Saxony, bom Dec. 12, 1801, second son of
Duke Maximilian of Saxony and of Princess Caroline of Parma.
Studied jurisprudence, and, in 1822, entered the Ministry of
Finance, of which he was nominated president in 1830. Com-
mander-in-Chief of the national guards of the kingdom, 1831-1846.
Trayelled in Italy, and published, under the name of ' Philalethes,'
BBiaimra soYEBsiaN and taxilt. 137
a German translation of Dante's 'Divina Commedia,' 3 vols.
Leipzig, 1839-49. Sncceeded to the throne, at the death of his
brother, King Frederick Augustus U., Aug. 9, 1854. Married
Noir. 21, 1822, to
AmeHOy Queen of Saxony, bom Nov. 13, 1801, the daughter of
tlie late King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. Offspring of the union
are four children, namely: — 1. Albert^ Duke of Saxony and
heir-apparent, bom April 23, 1828; married June 18, 1853,
to Prmcess Caroline, bom Aug. 5, 1833, daughter of the Prince
Gustavus of Vasa. 2. Elizabeth^ bom Feb. 4, 1830; num*ied,
in 1850, to Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia, and widow since 1855.
8. Georgey Duke of Saxony, bom August 8, 1832 ; married
May 11, 1859, to In&nta Maria Anna, bom July 21, 1843,
daughter of King Ferdinand of Portugal 4. Sophia, bom March
15, 1845.
Stater of the King. — Princess Amalia, bom Aug. 10, 1794.
The royal house of Saxony counts among the oldest reigning
iamilies in Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early as
the b^inning of the tenth century; but the house subsequently
spread into numerous branches, the elder of which, called the
Ernestine line, is represented at this moment by the ducal ^umilies
of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-
Weimar-Eisenach, while the younger, the Albertine line, flourishes
in the rulers of the kingdom of Saxony, who, to gain the crown of
Poland, became Roman Catholic in 1697, and have remained so
ever since. The formerly electoral lands were elevated into a
kingdom, by the will of Napoleon, Dec. 20, 1806 ; but the attach-
ment of the first King, Frederick Augustus, to the French emperor
cost him nearly one-half of his territory, which was given to Prussia
at the Congress of Vienna. Frederick Augustus left the crown, in
1827, to his brother Anthony, who was compelled, by the revolu-
tionary movements of 1830, to nominate his nephew, Frederick
Augustus n., as co-regent. The latter ascended the throne at the
death of Anthony, in 1836 ; leaving, in 1854, the crown to his
brother, the present King.
King Johann I. has a civil list of 863,575 thalers, or 128,000/.
per annum ; which includes a grant to the queen of 30,000 thalers,
and the dotations of the princes and princesses, amounting to 235,000
thalers, or 35,250Z. Originally, by the terms of the Constitution
of 1831, the civil list of the King was fixed at 500,000 thalers,
including all other items ; but this was found to be insufi&cient, and
the Chambers, afW some discussion, raised the royal income to the
present amount. The formerly royaJ domains, consisting chiefiy in
eztenaiTe forests, valued at above 25,000,000 thalers, became, in
1880, the property of the State.
I3B KOBTK a£fiMAinr«-fiAXONT.
Constitution and Oovemment
The present Constitution of Saxony dates from Sept. 4, 1831 ; but
has undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of March 31^
1849 ; May 5, 1851 ; November 27, 1860 ; and October 19, 1861.
According to the terms of the Constitution, the crown is hereditary
in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in the
female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth
year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes
the regency. In the hands of the King is the sole executive power^
which he exercises through responsible ministers. The legislature
is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two
chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of fiie blood
royal ; the proprietors of eight baronial domains ; twelve deputies
elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates; ten noble proprietors
nominated by the King for life; the burgomasters of eight towns;
and the superintendents and deputies of five collegiate institutions,
of the university of Leipzig, and of the Roman Catholic chapter of
St. Pftter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of twenty
deputies of landed proprietors; twenty-five of towns and city cor-
porations ; twenty-five of peasants and communes ; and ^ve repre-
sentatives of commerce and manufacturing industry. The qualifica^
tion for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election to
the same, is the possession of a landed estate, worth at least 1,000
thalers a year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the
ex officio deputies of chapters and universities. To be a. member of
the Lower House, no fixed income is required ; and electors are all
men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes, or contribute in
any way to the public burdens. A salary is attached to the per-
formance of the legislative functions ; the members of the Upper
House being allowed seven thalers, or about a guinea a day, during
the sittings of Parliament, and the deputies to the second chamber
three thalers, or 9^. Both houses have the right to make proposi-
tions for new laws, the bills for which, however, must come from
the ministry. No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the
sanction of both Chambers.
The executive is in the King and a Council of Ministers, con-
sisting of five members, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — ^Freiheix von Weissenhacky
appointed * ad interim,' on the resignation of Baron von Beust,
Aug. 20, 1866.
2. The Ministry of Justice.— Dr. J. H. August von Behr, ap-
pointed November 1858.
3. The Ministry of War.— General Bemhard von Eabenhorstj
appointed March 8, 1849.
BXYXNUB AND IXPBNBITIIBE. 1 39
4. The Ministry of Edncation and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr.
Johann Paid von Falkenstein, appointed March 1855.
5. The Ministry of Finance. — Freiherr Eichard von FrieseUy
appointed November 1858.
Clmrcl^ and Education.
Although the royal femily profess the Roman Catholic religion,
the vast majority of the inhabitants are Protestants. According to the
last census, of December 1861, the population of Saxony was com-
posed of 2,175,892 Lutherans ; 4,515 Calvinists; 233 members of
the Episcopal Church ; 41,363 Roman Catholics ; 1,722 Drntsch-
Eatholikeriy or German Catholics; 460 members of the Greek Church ;
and 1,555 Jews. There are very nearly 1,400 Protestant churches
in the kingdom. The clergy are chiefly paid out of local rates and
from endowments, the budget contribution of the State to the de-
partment of ecclesiastical a£^s amoimting to but 85,593 thalers, or
about 12,830Z., chiefly spent in administrative salaries. The govern-
ment of the Protestant Church is entrusted to the Landes-Corms-
tarium^ or National Consistory, presided over by the Minister of
Ecclesiastical AJ^drs ; while the Roman Catholic congregations are
under the supervision of a Papal delegate. Dr. Forwerk, Bishop of
Leontopolis in partibus. Public education has reached the highest
point in Saxony, every child, without exception, partaking of its
benefits. By the law of June 6, 1835, attendance at school, or under
prcmerly qualified teachers, has become compulsory, for Roman
Cauolics as well as Protestants. On the average, 95 of every 100
children capable of instruction are in attendance at school.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The budget of Saxony is voted for triennial periods. The actual
expenditure — the income was larger — amounted, during the period
1849 to 1861 to 7,600,669 thalers, or £1,140,100 annually.
1862 „ 1864 „ 8,281,728 „ or 1,242,264
1866 „ 1867 „ 9,040,902 „ or 1,366,140
1868 „ 1860 „ 9,366,243 „ or 1,404,786
1861 „ 1863 „ 12,366,362 „ or 1,863,452 „
The budget for the financial period of 1861 to 1863 was ratified
by the Chambers in the following proportions : —
Annual Incomb. Thalers
Domains and other state property .
Reyenue of railways, canals, and post^-office
Interest on money lent, fees and fines
Ordinary direct taxes
r indirect taxes .
r taxes
Total annual income
1,246,763
2,789,333
1,082,028
2,093,000
2,686,300
2,460,928
12,366,362 or :£l,863,462
140 NORTH aERMANT — SAXONT.
The details of the annual expenditure are : —
Civil list of the King and Queen, dotation of the Thalew
princes, and repair of royal residences . . 863,845
Interest on pnbUc debt 2,834,000
Ministry of Justice 384,703
of Interior 850,495
of Finances 474,395
of War 2,175,096
of Public Instruction and Ecclesiast Affairs 390,833
of Foreign Affairs 94,445
Contribution to the expenses of the G«nnan Diet . 35,000
Pensions 690,336
PubUc works 3,339,461
Fund of reserve 323,743
Total annual expenditure . . 12,356,352 or ^61,853,452
For the last few years there has been a gradually increasing
surplus of income over expenditure, which is collected in a * fund
of reserve,' and made use of for the reduction of the public debt.
The greater part of the railways of Saxony are State property, and
a very considerable revenue, varying from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000
thalers, is derived from this source. The length of State railways,
at the beginning of 1862, was 252 miles, built at an expense of
42,657,000 thalers, or 6,398,550Z. The value of the public domains,
chiefly forests, was estimated, at the same date, at 25,241,393 thalers,
or 3,786,210Z.
The public debt amoimted, in 1861, to 61,725,499 thalers, or
9,258,825Z. The greater part of it is of ancient date, created by the
connection of the electors of Saxony with the throne of Poland.
The debt amounted, in 1764, to 29,028,425 thalers ; it had fallen, in
1806, to 14,932,885 thalers ; but risen again, at the end of the
Napoleonic wars, in 1815, to 22,857,626 thalers. It was settled at
the Congress of Vienna, when about one half of the territory of
Saxony was made over to Prussia, that the latter should also take a
portion of the public debt. The amount left to Saxony was
16,660,771 thalers. This debt had increased, in 1830, to 18,762,050
thalers, and henceforth augmented in still larger propoiiions, owing
mainly to the establishment of a network of State railways, built at
a cost of 42,657,000 thalers. A portion of the public debt —
7,000,000 thalers, or somewhat above one million sterling — con-
sists in notes, called Cassen-Billets, bearing no interest.
Army.
The troops are raised by conscription, to which every citizen
above twenty-one is liable. Substitution, however, is permitted in
times of peace, on payment of a sum of 300 thalers to the State. A
POPUIATIOH.
141
Teij considerable number of young men of the npper and middle
danes avail themselves annually of this permission. The period oi
service is six years, with further two years' conscription among the
troopa of reserve ; but for at least one-half of this period, the men
are generally sent home on furlough. In the budget of 1862, the
strength of tibe army was set down as follows : —
8 regimentB of infantiy of the line
4 battalions of Jager .
2 regiments of cayaliy
2 bi^gades of artilleiy
Total .
16,748 men
4,006 „
3,206 „
2,440 „ and 50 gnns
26,400 men, with 60 guns
To which is to be added the army of reserve, consisting, nominally,
of about 10,000 men, but only a small proportion of which are ready
hr active service.
The military power of Saxony has greatly declined since 1815,
when one half of the kingdom had to be ceded to Prussia. In 1783,
the electors had a force of 30,000 men imder arms ; and during the
Napoleonic campaigns the contingent furnished to the French
emperor confdsted of 28,000 men. Of late years, the military
efficiency of the population has also sunk very considerably. In
1834, only 40 per cent, of the young men drawn for conscription
were fit for service ; and in 1856 only 22 per cent. Official
reports mention that, within the last few years, up to 1862, this
state of things has somewhat improved.
Fopulation.
The kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, of the follow-
ing area and population, according to the census of 1852, and of
December 1861 :—
Gindes
Area
insq.m.
Population
1852
1861
3>pe8den
Leiprig
Zwickaa
Bantcen
Total .
1,674
1,342
1,790
971
607,705
446,826
735,567
297,744
683,213
606,294
827,245
308,488
6,777
1,987,832
2,226,240
The increase of population— 237,408 in nine years, or 26,378 per
annum — ^is inferior to that of most other European states. The sexes,
aooording to the census of 1861, are in the usual proportion, there
being 1,088,933 male, and 1,136,307 female inhabitants. At the
142 NORTH UBHAKT — SAXONT.
same period, 819,621 persons lived in the 142 towns of the
kingdom — some of these towns with a population of less than
600 ^^ and 1,405,619 persons in the country. The increase in the
latter districts has been for many years considerably greater than in
the former.
The population of the chief towns, according to the census of
December 1861, was as follows: —
Chief Towns Population
Dresden 128,162
Leipzig 78,495
Chemnitz 46,432
Zwickau 20,492
Freiberg 17,488
Glauchau 16,586
Planen 16,166
Meerane 13,626
Zittau 13,068
The criminal statistics of the kingdom have been imfavourable for
the last twenty years. The number of convicts varied from 1,093
to 1,271 during the years 1840-49, and in 1850 rose to 1,382 ; in
1851 to 1,623, and in 1857 to 2,315. A number of these, how-
ever— 137 in the year 1851 — were political criminals. In 1858,
the number of convicts fell to 2,253 ; in 1859, to 2,071 ; and on
the Ist pf July, 1861, consisted of 1,986. Taking the average of
five years, there was—
One convict to 1,453 inhabitants in the period from 1840 to 1844
to 1,657 „ „ „ 1846 to 1849
to 1,008 „ „ „ 1865 to 1859
This gives an increase of 41 per cent, during the latter period.
The number of criminals under sixteen years of age increased even
61^ per cent.
The number of illegitimate children bom annually amounted to
12-97 per cent, in 1834 ; to 14*08 per cent, in 1840 ; and to 15*33
per cent, in 1849, but has been on the decrease since the latter
period.
Statistical and other Books of Beference conceming Saxony.
1. Official Publications.
Staatshandbnch fiir das Konigreich Sachsen. Dresden, 1 866.
Zeitschrift des Statistischen Bureaus des Eoniglich Sachsischen Ministerium
des Innem. Dresden, 1866.
Report by Mr. Barnard, H. M.*s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and
Commerce of Saxony, dated Jan. 1, 1863 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy,* &c. No. VI. London, 1868.
JCOBTH GBBICANY — MXGKLSlYBnRfihSCHWSBIN. I43
Beporta by Mr. Barnard, H. M.'8 Secretary of Legation, on the State of
Kdncation, T^»de, and Industry in Saxony, dated Jan. 1, and July 1, 1864 ;
in *Beports of H. M.'8 Secretaries of Embassy/ &c. No. VII. London,
1864.
Beport by Mr. Barnard, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Textile
Mann&ctures of Saxony, dated January, 1865; in 'Eeports of H. M.'sSecre-
taricfi oi Embassy,' &c. No. VIII. London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. Consul-General Crowe on the Trade of Leipzig during the
year 1864; in ' Commercial Beports received at the Foreign Office. London,
1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Enffd (£.) Jahrbuch fiir Statistik und Staatswissenschaft des Konigreichs
Sachsen. 8. Dresden, 1866.
Leu/poJd (H.) Wanderbuch durch Sachsen und die Nachbarlande. 2 vols.
8. Dresden, 1863.
Biekter (E. W.) Beschreibung des Konigreichs Sachsen in geographischer,
•tatistischer and topographischer Hinsicht. 3 vols. 8. Freiberg, 1866.
in.— MECEXEHBUBO-SCHWEBIir.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Frederick Francis n., Grand-dnke of Mecklenbnrg-Schwerin,
bom February 28, 1823, the son of Grand-duke Paul Frederick and
Princess Alexandrine of Prussia. Studied philosophy and theology
at the University of Bonn, 1840-42 ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, March 7, 1842. Married, November 3, 1849, to
Ptincess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz, who died March 3, 1862.
Married, in second nuptials, May 12, 1864, to Princess Anna,
daughter of the late Grand-duke Ludwig U. of Hesse-Darmstadt,
who died April 15, 1865.
Issue of ihe first marriage are : — 1. Prince Frederick Francis,
heir-apparent, bom March 19, 1851. 2. Prince Paul Frederick,
bom September 19, 1852. 3. Princess Marie, bom May 14, 1854.
4. Prince Johann Albert, bom December 8, 1857.
Brother of the Grand-duke, — Prince William, born March 5,
1827 ; colonel in the service of Prussia, and commander of the 6th
r^ment of Cuirassiers.
Mother of the Chrand-^uke. — Grand-duchess Alexandrine, bom
February 23, 1803, daughter of the late King Frederick William
III. of Prussia; married. May 25, 1822, to Grand-duke Paul
Frederick ; widow, March 7, 1842.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning
&mily in Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest
aoyereign-house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-
dukes style themselves Princes of the Vandals ; and they trace their
144 NORTH GBRMANT — MECKLENBUBa-SCETWEBIN.
descent to Grenseric, King of the Vandals, who ravaged Spain and
Portugal in the fifth century, and, going over to Africa, took Carthage
in 439. Genseric, who died in 477, was succeeded by his son Hun-
neric, whose offspring settled on the southern shores of the Baltic as
rulers of Mecklenburg. One of their descendants, Burewin, obtained
the hand of Matilda, daughter of Henry the Lion, and through the
influence of the latter, was enrolled among the princes of the Holy
Roman Empire. These princes received the ducal title from the
Emperor Charles IV. in 1340, and assumed that of Grand-duke by
permission of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815. Previous to 1701,
Mecklenburg- Schwerin and Mecklenburg- Strelitz formed but one
State; but at that date the separation of the latter took place, in
fevour of a younger son of the reigning duke.
The Grand-duke has no civil list, or any other grant from the
country. His income consists of a large part of the revenues of the
State domains, and is valued at above 120,000/. per annum. The
Grand-duke is also sole proprietor of a line of railway, 55 miles long,
frx)m GUstrow to Neu-Brandenburg, which in great part runs through
his own property. The court expenditure amounts to above 550,000
thalers, or considerably more than the cost of the whole civil admi-
nistration of the State. The crown estates altogether comprise
nearly one-fifth of the territory of the duchy, and are valu«i at
80,000,000 thalers, or nearly 12,000,000Z. They are looked upon,
in all respects, as the private property of the duke.
Constitution, Sevenne, and Population.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The frmdamental laws are embodied in the * Union ' of
1523, the * Reversales' of 1572 and 1622, and the charters of 1755 and
Nov. 28, 1817. Nearly the whole legislative power and part of the
executive is in the hands of the proprietors of Ritterguter, or knight's
estates, numbering 624. Seldom more than one-fourth of these, how-
ever, exert their privileges and take their seats in the Diet. To these
representatives of their own property are joined thirty-nine mem-
bers, nearly all burgomasters, delegated by the municipalities and
corporate bodies of a like number of towns. The great bulk of the
population is without political rights. The Diet is permanent, being
represented, if not in actual session, by a committee of twelve mem-
bers, presided over by three marshals of the nobility, whose oflSce
is hereditary in their families. It is part of the prerogative of the
conmiittee to examine the working of the administration, as also to
nominate a number of judges at the chief courts of justice. The
Diet meets in annual session, alternately at the towns of Sternberg
and Malchin, and every two years forms a joint assembly with the
ooHsrrnrnoN, beyenub, and population, 145
I of a part of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, in common legislation for
both dnchies.
The executive is represented in a ministry appointed hj and
responsible alone to the Grand-duke. There are three departments,
namelj: —
1. The Ministry of the Grand-ducal House, of the Interior and
of Foreign Affairs Jaspar J. B. W. von Oertzen, appointed June
29, 1858.
2. The Ministry of Justice, of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affidrs. — ^Dr. A. von Schrdter, appointed June 29, 1858.
8. The Ministry of Finances. — Theodore D. von Levetzou, ap-
pointed June 29, 1858.
No official budget has ever been published. The statements of public
income and expenditure made by statistical writers are grounded on
mere supposition, and vary from 388,599 thalers, or 58,285/. per
annum, to 3,404,030 thalers, or 510,604Z. The expenditure, pro-
bably, amounts to about 125,000/. per annum, to judge from inci-
dental remarks of the Grand-ducal commissary in the Diet, from which
it appears that the cost of the general administration in 1859 was
476,000 thalers, or 71,400Z. a year, while the interest of the public
debt amounted to 352,650 thalers, or 52,897/. The total amoimt of
the debt in 1860 was 8,843,944 thalers, or 1,326,591/. The liabili-
ties are classified as ' Debt of the country,' 1,468,944 thalers ; ' Debt
of the Grand-duke,' 7,200,000 thalers; and *Debt of the Diet,'
175,000 thalers.
To the army of the dissolved Confederation, Mecklenburg- Schwerin
contributed 5,967 men, of which 4,693 were infimtry, 747 cavalry,
and 527 artillery. By an agreement with the Government of Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz, the latter ftimished part of the infantry, in return for
getting its own quota of cavalry and artiDery. The actual force kept
tmder arms amounted, in 1866, to one regiment of grenadiers, and
two of the line, numbering 4,216 men ; one regiment of dragoons,
with 672 men, and two companies of artillery, of 482 men, with 16
guns. The troops are raised by conscription, and the purchase of
substitutes is permitted. Six years is the nominal period of service,
of which two-thirds are allowed on furlough.
The population of the Grand-duchy amounted to 548,449 in 1861,
living on an area of 4,834 English square nules. Although the
country is but thinly populated, emigration is carrying off large
numbers of the inhabitants, and the population is actually decreasing.
In 1852, nearly 8,000 left the Grand-duchy ; in 1853, above 8,500 ;
and in 1854, the number rose to 9,453. Subsequentiy, up to 1858,
the amount fell to between three and four thousand. The ownership
of the soil is divided between the sovereign, who possesses about
two-tenths of the land ; the titled and untitled nobility, who possess
L
146 NORTH GERHANT — HBGKLBNBUBGHSCHWEBIN.
seven-tentlis, aad various corporations and monastic institutions
for Protestant noble ladies, who possess one-tenth. The agricultural
population are little removed from the condition of serfs. At the
meeting of the Diet, in April, 1864, a bill was passed investing all
landed proprietors with power to condemn the labourers on their
estates for simple * neglect of service ' to a week's imprisonment, and,
besides, * twenty-five blows with a stick.* The bill became law in
May, 1864.
There are numerous restrictions on marriage, in consequence of
which the proportion of iD^timate children is greater than in any
other part of Germany, and is, moreover, increasing from year to
year. In 1820, one out of every ten children was illegitimate; in
1830, one out of nine ; in 1840, one out of seven ; in 1845, one
out of 5'7 ; in 1852, one^out of 4*7 ; in 1859, one out of 4; and in
1860^ one out of 3'8. In the year 1851, there were 260 towns and
villages in which one-third of all the births were illegitimate ; 209
other places in which this was the case with one-half, and 79 places
in which none but illegitimate children were bom. In education,
also, the Grand-duchy is belund all other states of the Confederation.
Of the 865 recruits which were raised in the year 1857, only 430
were able to read printed matter, only 245 could read manuscript,
and only 136 were able to write. According to the census of 1858,
the inhabitants were divided into 537,986 Lutherans, 168 Refor-
mers, or Calvinists, 882 Roman Catholics, and 3,112 Jews.
The latter are not allowed to settle in many parts of the Grand-
duchy.
Commerce.
The exports of Mecklenburg- Schwerin consist chiefly of agri-
cultural produce. It. amounts annually at an average to —
30,000 lasts of com .
120,000 stones of wool .
Cattle— swine, 60,000 .
horses 2,500 .
sheep, 250,000
gattw 60,000 ewt
Hides, lags, bones, and timber
value £600.000
„ 170,000
„ 143,000
„ 104,000
7,000
„ 160,000
72,000
The subjoined tabtdar statement shows the value of the importa
from Mecklenbiug^ Schwerin into the United Kingdom, and of the
exports of British and Irish produce to the same, in each of the five
years 1860 to 1865.
KOBIH eBBHANT— OLDINBUBe.
H7
Yean
Imports from Mecklenbnrg-
Schwerin into the United Kingclom
Bxporta of Home Produce from
the United Kingdom into
Mecklenbarg-Sohwerin
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
496,609
412,431
260,977
219,505
324,564
£
61,346
86,353
81,841
72,429
61,252
The commercial navy of Mecklenburg- Schwerin consisted, on
Dec 31, 1864, of 419 vessels, of a total burthen of 151,740 tons.
The greater number of these vessels, namely 372, of a tonnage of
135y612, belonged to the port of Rostock.
17. OLDEHTBUBO.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, bom July 8, 1827, the son
of Gmnd-duke Augustus, and of Princess Ida of Anhalt-Bemburg ;
saooeeded to the throne at the death of his fe-ther, Feb. 27, 1853 ;
married, Feb. 10, 1852, to
Elizabeth, Grand-duchess of Oldenburg, bom March 26, 1826,
daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg. Issue of the union
are : — 1. Prince Frederick Augustus, heir-apparent, bom Nov. 16,
1652. 2. Prince George Louis, bom June 27, 1855.
Brother and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess AmaUa, bom
Dec. 21, 1818 ; married, Nov. 22, 1836, to Prince Otho of Bavaria,
King of Greece 1832-62. 2. Princess Frederica, bom June 8, 1820,
married, Aug. 15, 1855, to Freiherr M. von Washington. 3. Prince
Elimar, bom Jan. 23, 1844, lieutenant in the service of Eussia.
Cousin of the Grand-duke, — Prince Peter, bom Aug. 26, 1812,
the son of Prince George, brother of the late Grand-duke Augustus
of Oldenburg, and of Princess Cathraine, daughter of the late Czar
Paul of Russia ; general of in&ntry in the service of Russia, and
President of the department of Ecclesiastical Atildrs in the Imperial
Senate ; married, April 23, 1887, to Princess Therese of Nassau,
bom April 17, 1815. Issue of the union are : — 1. Princess Alex-
andra, horn June 2, 1838; mamed, Feb. 6, 1856, to Grand-duke
Nicholas, brother of Czar Alexander II. of Russia. 2. Prince
Nicholas, born May 9, 1840, captain in the service of Russia ; mar-
ried Sept. 5, 1863, to Marie von Ostemburg, 8. 'Prince Alexander,
bom June 2, 1844. 4. Princess Catharine, bom Sept. 21, 184j6.
L 2
148 NOBTH GERMANY — OLDENBURG.
5. Prince Georgeyhom April 17, 1848. 6. Prince Constantine, born
May 9, 1850. 7. Princess Theresa, bom March 30, 1852.
The ancie^it house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to
Denmark, Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from
Wittekind, the celebrated leader of the heathen Saxons against
Charlemagne. In the fifteenth century, a scion of the House of Olden-
burg, Coimt Christian VIII., was elected King of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway. The main line became extinguished with Coimt Gunther,
in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to the King of
Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paulof Eussia, in exchange
for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-duke
then gave Oldenburg to his cousin. Prince Frederick Augustus of
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December
1810, when Napoleon incorporated it with the kingdom of West-
phalia. But the Congress of Vienna not only gave the country
back to its former sovereign, but, at the urgent demand of Czar
Alexander I., added to it a territory of nearly 400 square miles,
with 50,000 inhabitants, bestowing at the same time upon the prince
the title of Grand-duke. Part of the new territory consisted of the
principality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine, close to
the French frontier, and some three hundred miles distant from
Oldenburg. In 1854, Grand-duke Peter sold a district of 5,000
Morgen, or 3,154 acres, on the North Sea, with the harbour of Jahde,
destined for a naval port, to Prussia, for the sum of 500,000 thalers,
or 74,800Z. The Grand-duke has a civil list of 85,000 thalers,
or 12,750Z., besides an allowance of 85,000 thalers from the public
domains, making his total income 25,500/. He draws, moreover, a
revenue of nearly 6,000Z. from private estates of the family in
Holstein.
ConstitiLtioii, Sevenne, and Population.
A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy Feb. 18, 1849,
which, * revised,* in a conservative sense, by a decree of Nov.
22, 1852, remains still in force. It grants liberty of the press, trial
by jury, and equality of all citizens in political and social matters.
The legislative power is exercised by a Landtag, or Diet, elected for
three years, by the vote of all citizens paying taxes, and not con-
demned for felony by a court of justice. The mode of election is
indirect. Every 300 electors choose a delegate, and the delegates of
twenty districts, representing 6,000 electors^ appoint one deputy.
No property qualification is required to become a member of the
Diet.
The executive is vested in a responsible ministry of four depart-
ments, namely :
TRADE. 149
1. The Ministry of tihe Grand-ducal House, of Justice, of Edu-
cation, and of Foreign Affairs. — Peter F. L. von Rdssing,
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Freiherr C. von Berg,
3. The Ministry of Finances. — Christian Zedelius,
4. The Ministry of Military Affairs. — Ck)unt F. W. von Wedel.
The budget, according to the terms of the Constitution, must be
granted by the Diet from year to year. For the year 1865, the
public revenue amounted to 2,387,231 thalers, or 358,084/., and
the expenditure to 2,386,110 thalers, or 357,916/., leaving a surplus
of 1,121 thalers. The chief item of revenue is from customs, and
next to it, from the produce of State property ; while in expenditure
the army, the civil fist, and the interest of the public debt cost the
laigest sums. The debt amoimted, at the beginning of 1866, to
4,265,300 thalers, or 639,795/.
The troops are raised by conscription ; it being permitted to pur-
chase substitutes. The nominal term of service is six years, with
two years' more inscription in the army of reserve ; but in time
of peace, the men have only to practice drill for a year and a
half, after which they are sent home on ftirlough. A number of
recruits are usually at once entered in the army of reserve, and in
this case have but six months* active service to perform. To the
troops of the dissolved Confederation, Oldenburg contributed 2,910
in&ntry, 460 cavalry, and 370 artillery, or altogether 3,740 men.
By a military convention with the free cities of Bremen and LUbeck
the Grand-duchy also furnished the artillery of these two states,
consisting of two batteries of twelve pieces of ordnance.
The area of Oldenburg embraces 2,417 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of Dec. 3, 1861, of 295,242
inhabitants. Of these, 191,877 are Lutherans; 1,369 members of
the Reformed Church, or Calvinists ; 25,916 * United Evangelicals * —
these mostly in the separated territory of Birkenfeld, on the left
bank of the Ehine — 72,939 Roman Catholics; and 1,497 Jews.
Exceptionally, the male population is larger than the female, the
former amounting to 148,618, and the latter to 146,592 souls. Emi-
gration carried off 2,073 persons in the year 1862. The increase of
population amoimted to 10,016 in the course of eight years.
Trade.
Though the Grand-duchy is favourably situated for maritime
commerce, it has but a small seafaring population, and its trade is
principally confined to a coasting traffic with tiie neighbouring
countries on the North Sea. In the year 1864, the chief export
articles to England, Holland, and Belgium, were rape-seed, beans,
oats, barley, and wheat. The total value of the imports from Olden-
150 NOKTH OERMANI — BRUNSWICK.
b^rg into the United Kingdom was 36,479Z. in 1861 ; 20,952Z. in
1862; and 34,656Z. in 1863. The total value of the exports of
British and Irish produce to Oldenburg amounted to 77,148Z. in
1861; 49,710Z. in 1862; 54,838/. in 1863; and 33,199/. in 1864.
The imports into the United Kingdom, in 1863, included 5,268 head
of cattle, and 3,399 sheeip.
The commercial navy of Oldenburg consisted, in 1863, of 637
vessels, of a total burthen of 33,899 lasts, or 67,798 tons.
V. BBTOrSWICK
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
William I., Duke of Brunswick, bom April 25, 1806, the second
90D. of Duke Frederick "William of Brunswick, and of Princess
Marie of 3aden. Undertook provisionally the Government of
Binmswick in consequence of the insurrection of September 7, 1830,
and subsequent flight of his brother, the reigning Duke, October 12,
1830 ; ascended tJie throne, April 25, 1831.
Brother of the Duke.— Duke Charles, bom October 30, 1804, the
eldest son of Duke Frederick William of Brunswick; succeeded his
faifeef , under the guardianship of the Prince-Regent, afterwards
King George IV. of Great Britain, June 16, 1815; ascended the
throne October 30, 1823. Fled the duchy on the breaking out of
a riot at the city of Brunswick, September 8, 1830 ; was declared
* pegierungsimf ajiig,' or *imfit to govern,' by a resolution of the
German Diet, Decenaber 2, 1330.
The ducal house of Brunswick, which is now on the point of
becoming extinct, the itwo only representatives of the family being
immarried and sexagenarians, is one of the most ancient and illus-
trious of the Germanic Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion,
possessed, in t^ twelfth century, the imited duchies of Bavaria and
Saxopy, with other territories in the north of Germany; but
having refused to aid the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in his
wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived of
the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial
domains, the principalities of Brunswick and Luneburg. Their pos-
sessions were, on the death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between
the tw;o sons of the IjEitter, who became the foimders of the lines of
Brunawickr'W^olfenbuttel and Brunswick-LUneburg, the former of
which is i:epp:esented at present in the ducal house of Brunswick,
and the fitter in the royal family of Gr^at Britain.
The Duke of Brunswick is one of the wealthiest of German sove-
reignsi being in po8sessio^ of immense private estates, including the
CONSnTUTION, BBVENUK, AND POPULATION. Ijl
principalitj of Oels, in Silesia, and large domains in the district of
Giatz, in Prusida. It is believed that the Duke has bequeathed the
whole of these estates to the Emperor of Austria. The Duke's
civil list, amounting to 220,722 tlialers, or 33,108/., is not set do^vn
in ihe budget, being paid out of a special fund, the *' Kammercasse/
the revenues of which are derived from the State domains. Th©
ex-duke, Charles, residing chiefly at ParL<«, has also a large private
income, amoimting, it is stated, to above 200,000/. per annum.
Constitation, Bevenne, and Population.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1832, but was
modified by the fundamental law of November 22, 1851. The legis-
lative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting of forty-three
members. Of these, nine are elected by the highest-taxed landed
proprietors ; ten by the magistrates of the chief towns ; three by the
Protestant clergy ; ten by the inhabitants of towns, and eleven by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and
the deputies hold their mandate for two sessions.
The executive is represented by a responsible Ministry, consisting
of two departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Ferdinand von
(7a/npe, appointed April 1862.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Privy Coimcillor J. C. W. SchulZy
appointed April 1862.
The Ministry of the Interior is sub-divided into five administra-
tive departments, each under the direction of a committee of three
members. A consistory of four clergymen, appointed by the
Government, has the management of all religious affairs.
The budget is voted for the period of three years. The public
revenue Ibr the three years 1861-63 has been fixed at 4,983,000
thalers, or 747,450/., and the expenditure at the same amount,
giving an annual income and expenditure of 249,150/. Not included
in the budget is the veiy large revenue from the State domains, out
of whicb the civil list of the Duke, and a variety of subventions to
educational establishments, are paid. The surplus of this fund only
is paid into the general exchequer, and is set down at 432,000 thalers,
or 64,300/., for the period 1861-63.
The military organisation of the duchy is on the Prussian system
of general liability to the service of arms. Practically, however,
no more men are raised by conscription than are required for garrison
service at the capital and ducal residences. Nominally, the troops
amount to one regiment of infentry, numbering 2,000 men; one
battalion of life-guards, some seven hundred strong ; one regiment
of light dragoons, of 437 men ; and one brigade of artillery, with 301
152 NORTH GEBMANY — SAXB-WBIMAB.
rank and file. In former times the army of the duchy was fat
more numerous. During the Seven Years' War Brunswick had
never less than 12,000 men under arms. In the war of 1813-14
the country raised above 10,000 troops.
The duchy has an area of 1,526 square miles, with a population
of 282,400 inhabitants, according to the census of 1861. The
population nimibered 209,527 in 1814; had risen to 253,232 in
1834 ; to 269,228 in 1846 ; and to 273,394 in 1858. Of the births,
in the year 1860, no less than 20*3 per cent., or more than one-fifth,
were illegitimate. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants are members
of the Lutheran Church, with the exception of 1,107 Calvinists;
2,458 Roman Catholics ; 88 members of other Christian sects, and
1,078 Jews. The latter enjoy perfect equality with the other in-
habitants.
TI. SAZE-WEIMAB.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Charles Alexander, Grand-duke of Saxe- Weimar, bom Jime 24,
1818, the son of Grand-duke Charles Frederick and of Grand-duchess
Marie, daughter of the late Czar Paul I. of Russia. Succeeded his
father, July 8, 1853 ; married, October 8, 1842, to
Sophie^ Grand-duchess of Saxe- Weimar; bom April 8, 1824,
the daughter of the late King William II. of the Netherlands. Issue
of the imion are : — 1. Prince Charles Augustus^ heir-apparent, bom
July 31, 1844. 2. Princess Marie, bom January 20, 1849. 3.
Princess Elizahethj bom February 28, 1854.
Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess Marie, bom February 3,
1808 ; married. May 26, 1827, to Prince Charles of Pmssia. 2.
Princess Augusta, bom September 30, 1811 ; married, June 11,
1829, to Prince William, now King William I. of Prussia.
Cousins of the Grand-duke, — 1. Prince Edward, born October 11,
1823, the son of the late Duke Bemhard of Saxe- Weimar, brother
of Grsmd-duke Charles Frederick; entered the British army as
ensign, Jime 1, 1841; captain. May 19, 1846; major, June 20, 1854;
lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards and aide-de-camp to the
Queen, May 18, 1855; married, November 27, 1851, to Lady
Augusta Catherine, bom January 14, 1827, the daughter of the late
Charles Gordon-Lennox, Duke of Richmond. 2. Prince Hermann,
bom August 4, 1825, brother of the preceding ; married, June 17,
1851, to Princess Augusta, bom October 4, 1826, youngest daughter
of King William I. of WUrtemberg. Issue of ^e union are one
CONSTITUTION, BEVENTJE, AND POPULATION. I53
daughter and four sons, namely, Pauline, bom July 25, 1852;
Wilhelm, bom December 31, 1853; Bemard, bom October 10,
1855 ; Alexander, bom June 22, 1857 ; and Ernest, bom August
9, 1859. 3. Prince Gustavus, bom June 28, 1827, brother of the
poeoeding ; colonel in the Austrian army. 4. Princess Anna, bom
September 9, 1828 ; sister of the preceding. 5. Princess Amalia,
bom May 20, 1830; married, May 19, 1853, to Prince Henry
of Orange-Nassau, brother of King William III. of the Nether-
lands.
The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine
or elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-
Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, while the
yoxmger, or Albertine line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony.
Saxe- Weimar was formed into an independent duchy towards the
end of the sixteenth century, when Elector Johann Wilhelm of
Saxony divided his territory between his two sons, Frederick Wilhelm
and Johann, giving the former Saxe-Altenburg and the latter Saxe-
Weimar. • There were frequent divisions subsequently, until, by the
extinction of branch lines, the original family estates were again
obtained. At the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of
territory, together with the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to
Duke Charles Augustus, the celebrated patron of Grerman literature,
and friend of Gothe and Schiller.
The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of which he
obtained in dowry with his consort, Princess Sophie of the Nether-
lands. He has also a civil list of 280,000 thalers, or about 41,000/.,
amounting to about one-sixth of the revenues of Saxe- Weimar.
Constitntion, Bevenne, and Population.
The constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816 ;
but slightly altered by the law of October 15, 1849. According to
this charter the legislative power is vested in a House of Parliament
represented by one Chamber. It is composed of 31 members, of
whom ten are chosen by the proprietors of nobiliar estates ; ten by
the towns ; ten others by the inhabitants of rural districts, and one
by the Senate of the University of Jena. At the general election,
which takes place every seventh year, not only the representatives
themselves are chosen, but likewise a substitute for every member,
who has to take his place in case of illness, death, or prolonged absence.
The ten members for the nobility are elected directly by all proprietors
of RittergUter, or noble estates ; even ladies being allowed to vote.
In the representation of towns and rural districts the mode of election
is indirect. The whole body of voters in a town choose a certain
number of delegates, in the proportion of one to every fifty houses.
154 KOBTH aERHANT — SAXE*HSININGEK.
and these deputies elect the member for the place. To be a member
for a town a property qualification of about 50Z. per annum is
requisite, whidi rises to 75/. in the case of the two cities of Weimar
and Eisenach. The election of members for the rural districts takes
place in the same manner as that for the towns ; but the choice of
members is limited, inasmuch as they must belong to the same class
as the electors. Neither two brothers, nor father and son, are capable
of sitting in the Chamber at the same time. The President of the Cham-
ber is an Earl-Marshal, elected by the deputies of the nobility, who is
assisted by two Vice-Presidents, chosen by and from among the
representatives 'of towns and rural districts. The Chamber meets
every three years, and a standing committee of nine members continues
to sit during the adjournment. During the session, the members
have an allowance of four thalers, or 11 «. 8c?. per day, besides a
moderate sum for travelling expenses. The powers of the Chamber
extend to all the branches of legislation, and its consent is in-
dispensable to the validity of all orders and decrees of the Govern-
ment.
The Ministry, acting under the orders of the Grand-duke, but
responsible to the representatives of the coimtry, is divided into three
departments, which are : —
1. The Ministry of the Grand-ducal House, of the Interior, and
of Foreign Affairs. — Dr. C. B. von Watzdorfy President of the
Ministry.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Councillor Gustav Thon,
3. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Philipp
von Wintzingerode.
The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period of three years.
That from 1863 to 1865 comprises an annual income of 1,658,668
thalers, or 248,808Z., and an annual expenditure of 1,654,558 thalers,
or 248,189/., leaving a surplus of 4,110 thalers, or 619/., for the
year. The chief items of revenue are per annimi : — Indirect taxes,
445,115 thalers; income-tax, 250,610 thalers; and domains and
forests, 428,230 thalers. Under expenditure, the largest simis go
for—Civil list of the Grand-duke, 280,000 thalers; public debt,
230,917 thalers; and army, 203,186 thalers. The public debt
amounted to 4,560,000 thalers, or 684,000/., on January 1, 1866.
Saxe- Weimar formerly contributed 3,350 troops — 3,316 infentry
and 34 artillerymen — to the army of the Confederation. The number,
however, was seldom kept in ftdl force. A Leibwache, or company of
horse-guards, numbering 37 men, is kept by the Grand-duke out of
his private funds. The troops are enrolled by conscription, with
allowed substitution agaifist payment of a fixed sum. Six years is
the nominal term of service, with two years additional in the army
of reserve.
NOBTH 0BBMANT — MECKLENBTTBOHSTRELITZ.
155
The Grand-duchy ig divided into three Kreise, or circles, of the
follawing area and population, according to the census of 1858, and
of December 8, 1861 :—
Circles
AreainEng.
aq. miles
Population
1858
1861
Weimar
Eisenach
Kenstadt
Total
693
486
243
137,216
81,338
48,669
140,772
82,444
60,036
1,421
267,112
273,262
The population has been increasing, since 1820, at the rate of
about one per cent, per annum. Emigration carries off about 2,000
per annum, on the average. The census of December 3, 1861,
showed the following religious division of the inhabitants : — ^Pro-
testants, 262,272 ; Roman Catholics, 9,824 ; Greek Catholics, 57 ;
Mennonites, 5 ; other Christian sects, 6 ; Jews, 1,088.
Vn. MECELEITBTTSGwSTBELITZ.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Frederick William I., Grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, born
Oct. 17, 1819, the son of Grand-duke George and of Princess
Marie of Hease-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Sept. 6, 1860; married, June 24, 1843, to
Augusta, Grand-duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, bom July 19,
1822, the daughter of the late Duke Adolphus of Cambridge. Off-
spring of the union is Prince Adolphus Frederick, heir-apparent, born
July 22, 1848,
Brother and Sister of the Grand-duke, — 1. Princess Caroline, born
Jan. 10, 1821 ; married, June 10, 1841, to Crown-prince Frederick,
ailerwards King Frederick VII. of Denmark ; divorced Sept. 30,
1846. 2. Prince George, bom Jan. 11, 1824; married, Feb. 16,
1851, to Princess Catharine, born Aug. 16, 1827, the daughter of
the late Grand-duke Michael of Russia. Issue of the imion are three
children, namely, Helena, born Jan. 16, 1857 ; George Alexander,
born June 6, 1859 ; and Charles Michael, bom June 17, 1863.
Mother of the Grand-duke. — Grand-duchess ilfane, bom Jan. 21,
1796, daughter of the late Landgrave Frederick of Hesse-Cassel ;
married to Grand-duke George, Aug. 12, 1817 ; widow, Sept. 6,
1860.
156 NORTH GERMANY — MBCKLENBURGf-STRELITZ.
The reigning house of Mecklenburg- Strelitz was founded, in
1701, by Duke Adolphus Frederick II., youngest son of Duke
Adolphus Frederick II., of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. There being no
law of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was unable to prevent the
division of the country, which was protested against by subsequent
Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Congress of Vienna per-
mitted Duke Charles Frederick of Mecklenburg- Strelitz to adopt
the title of Grand-duke, notwithstanding the exceedingly limited
extent of his territory. He is, however, one of the wealthiest of
German sovereigns, more than one-half of the coimtry being his own
private property. A territory of seven square miles, with 10,000
souls, which was added to the newly created Grand-duchy in 1815,
was sold by the late Grand-duke George to Prussia, on May 21,
1819, for the sum of 1,000,000 thalers, or * 100 thalers per soul.'
It is calculated that the income of the Grand-ducal family amounts
at present to at least 230,000^. a year.
Constitntion, Bevenue, and Population.
The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of
which, Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners, while the
second, Ratzeburg, has no representative institutions whatever. The
Stargard Diet periodically joins the legislative assembly of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin. Only the possession of a Rittergut or knight's
estate, gives right to a seat in the Diet, to which neither the towns
nor rural popidations send any deputies. There are sixty-two such
proprietors in the province of Stargard, only a small niunber of
which, however, choose to take their seats.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is
exercised by him through one * Minister of State,' which appointment
is held since Nov. 17, 1862, by Freiherr Bemhard von Billow.
Previously, the post was vacant for several years.
The Grand-duchy has never known a budget. The whole of the
public revenue goes to the civil-list of the Grand-duke.
Mecklenburg- Strelitz fonnerly contributed 1,197 men, including
200 artillery, to the army of the Germanic Confederation ; but by
an arrangement with the Grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the
latter undertook to furnish the artillery, in return for twice the
number of foot-soldiers. The troops were raised by conscription,
and had to serve for a period of six years.
The population, which, according to the census of 1861, numbered
99,060, is decreasing. The loss, amoimting to 690 in eight years, is
caused by a strong tide of emigration, which carried off nearly 8,000
inhabitants during the same period. The area of the country is
997 English square miles, the ownership of which territory is
N0B8H GEBMANY — SAXE-MBININGBN. 1 57
divided between the sovereign, the feudal proprietors, and the corpo-
rations of certain towns, in the following manner : — 527 square miles
belong to the Grand-duke ; 353 to the titled and untitled nobles, and
117 to the town corporations. Nearly one-fourth of the Grand-
ducal property consists of forest lands.
L^ii :: vin. sAXE-MEnrarGEN.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
George n., Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, bom April 2, 1826, the son
of Duke Bemhard I. Succeeded, on the abdication of his father,
September 20, 1866. Married, May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte
of Prussia, who died March 30, 1855. Offspring of this union are
a 8on and a daughter: — Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ; and Marie
Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853. Married, in second nuptials,
October 23, 1858, to Princess Theodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg,
bom July 7, 1839. Offspring of this second marriage are two sons :— .
Ernest, bom September 27, 1859, and Frederick, bom October 12,
1 86 1 . Sister of the Duke, — Princess Augusta, bom August 6, 1 843 ;
married, October 15, 1862, to Prince Moritz of Saxe-Altenburg.
Parents of the Duke. — ^Duke Bemhardy bom December 17, 1800 ;
succeeded, as a minor, December 24, 1803 ; abdicated, September 20,
1866. Married to Duchess Marie, born September 6, 1804, daughter
of the late Elector William 11. of Hesse- Cassel.
The line of Saxe-Meiningen was founded by Duke Bemhard, third
son of Ernest I. of Saxony, sumamed the Pious, the friend and com-
panion in arms of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The duchy
was only one- third its present size up to the year 1826, when, by
the extinction of the ancient family of Saxe-Gotha, the territories of
Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the present duke. He has a
civil list of 225,000 florins, or 18,750Z., paid out of the produce of
the State domains. The ex-Duke Bernhard was nominated a
Knight of the Order of the Garter by King William IV., in 1831.
Constitntion, Eevenue, and Population.
The charter of the duchy bears date August 23, 1829. It provides
for a legislative organisation, consisting of one Chamber of twenty-
four representatives. Eight of these are elected by the proprietors
of nobiliar estates ; eight by the inhabitants of towns, and eight by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and
new elections take place every six. A small property qualification
is requisite to become a member.
158 NOKTH GERMANY— AKHALT.
The ministry, which is responsible to the Chamber, consists of
four departments, namely: —
1. The Ministry of the Ducal House and of Foreign Affairs. —
Freiherr von Erosigk.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — ^Albert O. Giseke.
3. The Ministry of Finances. — Ludwig Blomeyer.
4. The Ministry of Justice, of Education, and of Ecclesiastical
Affairs. — Dr. von Uttenhoven.
The budget is voted for the term of three years. For the period
1862 to 1865, the public income is settled at 1,928,292 florins, or
160,691Z.; and the expenditure at 1,845,042 florins, or 153,752/.,
leaving a surplus of 83,250 florins, or 6,939Z. Nearly one-half of
the public revenue is drawn from State domains, formerly belonging
to the ducal family. The chief items of expenditure are the interest
of the public debt, amounting to 176,365 florins, or 14,697/., and
the army, which coats 150,180 florins, or 12,515/. The debt was
4,594,017 florins, or 382,835/., on April 1, 1862. The State,
besides, has guaranteed the interest of four millions of thalers
employed in the construction of a line of railway through the
duchy.
The troops which Sax€-Meiningen formerly furnished to the army
of the Ck)nfederation w^-e raised by conscription ; the term of service
being six years, with two more in the reserve. Only a small portion
of the required contingent — 1,918 men — was kept permanently
linder arms.
The area of the duchy extends over 933 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of 1861, of 172,341
inhabitants. The whole of them are Protestants, with the exception
of 872 Roman Catholics, 72 Mennonitesj and 1,530 Jews.
IX. ABSALT.
Beigning Sovereign and Faniiily.
Leopold, Duke of Anhalt, born Oct. 1, 1794, the son of
Prince Frederick of Anhalt- Dessau, and of Princess Amalia of
Hesse-Homburg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his
grandfather, Duke Leopold Frederick, Aug. 9, 1817; married,
April 18, 1818, to Princess Frederica of Prussiaj who died Jan. 1,
1850. Issue of the union are: — 1. Princess ^^C5, bom June 24,
]824 ; married, April 28, 1853, to Duke Ernest of Saxe-Altenburg.
2: Prince Frederick, heir-apparent, bom April 29, 1831 ; married,
April 22, 1854, to Princess Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg. Offspring
coxsrrnmoN, kbvei^itb, and population, 159
of tlie mamage are three sons and one daughter, namely, Leopold,
bom July 18, 1855; Frederick, bom Aug. 19, 1856; Elizabeth,
bom Sept. 7, 1857 ; and Edward, bom April 18, 1861. 3. Princess
Maria^ bom Sept. 14, 1837 ; married, Nov. 29, 1854, to Prince
Frederick Charles of Prussia.
Brothers of the Duke. — 1. Prince George^ bom Feb. 21, 1796 ;
married, in first nuptials, in 1825, to Princess Caroline of Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt, who died in 1829, and, secondly, in 1831, to
Theresa von Ermannsdorf, who died in 1848. Issue of the first
marriage is one child. Princess Louise, bom June 22, 1826 ; while of
the second union there are three sons and three daughters, bearing
the titles of Counts and Countesses von Heina. The eldest daughter,
Mathilda, born Oct. 7, 1833, married. May 19, 1859, Otho von
KSnneritz, director of the ro3ral theatre at Dresden. 2. Prince
Frederick^ bora Sept. 23, 1799 ; married, Sept. 11, 1832, to Princess
Marie of Hesse-Cassel. Issue of the union are three daughters,
namely, Adelheid bom Dec. 25, 1833; married, April 23, 1851,
to Duke Adolphus of Nassau ; Bathildis, bom Dec. 29, 1837 ;
married, May 30, 1862, to Prince William of Schaumburg-Lippe ;
and Hilda, bom Dec. 13. 1839.
The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernard, son of the
celebrated Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg, who died in
1211. The family, in the course of time, split into numerous
branches, now reduced to the present line. At the establishment of
the Germanic Confederation, in 1815, there were three reigning Dukes
of Anhalt, namely of Anhalt- Cothen, Anhalt-Bemburg, and Anhalt-
Dessau. The first of these lines became extinct in 1847 ; and the
second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former house of Anhalt-
Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806, the Princes
of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt has a civil list of 198,250 thalers,
or 29,737/., including the allowances to the younger members of
the house. The family has, besides, very large private estates
in Saxony, Eastern Prussia, and the Crimea, embracing an area
of more than 200 square miles.
Constitntion, Eevenue, and PopulatioiL
On Oct. 29, 1848, a charter was given to the duchy, which
•was repealed by decree of the sovereign of Nov. 4, 1851. A
new constitution, proclaimed Sept. 17, 1859, allows merely a
nominal representation of the people, leaving nearly the whole
legislative, as well as the executive, power in the hands of the
Government.
l60 NORTH aBBMANY— SAXB-COBUBa-GOTHA.
The Ministry consists of three departments, as follows : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Justice. — Dr. Sintents,
President of the Council.
2. The Ministry of the Interior and of Finance. — ^Dr. von Zerhst,
3. The Ministry of Military Affairs. — General A. Stockmarr.
The financial statement for the year 1863, as published by the
Government, shows a public income of 1,889,492 thalers, or
284,902/., and an expenditure of 1,851,183 thalers, or 277,676Z.
More than a third of die revenue is derived from State property, and
the rest chiefly from indirect taxes. The largest item in the expen-
diture is the civil list of the ducal house. The public debt amoimted,
on Jan. 1, 1861, to 2,168,210 thalers, or 325,231/.
To the army of the Confederation the duchy of Anhalt formerly
contributed 2,038 men, only one- third of which number were
actually kept under arms. The troops were raised by conscription
for a term of six years.
The duchy comprises an area of 869 English square miles, with a
population of 181,824, according to the census of 1861. Nearly the
whole of the inhabitants belong to the Protestant Church. The
increase of population is at the rate of rather more than one per
cent, per annum.
X. SAXE-COBTTEOOOTHA.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Ernest n., Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, bom Jime 21, 1818,
the son of Duke Ernest I. of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, and of Princess
Louise of Saxe-Altenburg. Studied philosophy and political
economy at the University of Bonn, 1834-36 ; entered into the
military service of Saxony, 1836; travelled in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and Northern Africa, 1838-40. Succeeded to the throne, at
the death of his father, Jan. 29, 1844. Composer of numerous
musical pieces, and of the operas * Zaire,' * Casilda,' and * Santa-
Chiara,* the latter represented at Paris, 1855. Married, May 3,
1842, to
Alexandrine^ Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, bom Dec. 6, 1820,
the daughter of the late Grand-duke Leopold of Baden.
Nephew of the Duke, — Prince Alfred^ heir-apparent of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, bom Aug. 6, 1844, the son of Prince Albert of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and of Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain.
Cousin of the Duke, — Leopold IL, King of the Belgians, born
April 9, 1835, grandson of Duke Francis of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg.
-BSIGNING SOYEBEIGN AND FAMILT. l6l
Cousins of the Duke,— 1. Ferdinand^ King of Portugal, born Oct.
29, 1816, the son of Prince Ferdinand, and grandson of Duke
FranciB of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg. 2. Prince Augustus^ bom June
18, 1818, brother of the preceding ; married, April 20, 1843, to
Pnncess Clementine, bom June 3, 1817, the daughter of the late
King Louis Philippe of the French. Issue of the imion are — 1.
Prince Philippe, bom March 28, 1844, lieutenant in the service of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 2. Pidnce Augustus, born Aug. 9, 1845,
midshipman in the Austrian navy. 3. Princess Clotilde, bom
July 8, 1846; married May 10, 1864, to Archduke Joseph of
Austria, eldest son of Archduke Stephen, cousin of the Emperor.
4. Princess Amalia, born Oct. 23, 1848. 5. Prince Ferdinand,
bom Feb. 26, 1861 3. Prince Leopold, bom Jan. 31, 1824,
brother of the preceding ; married, April 23, 1861, to Constance
Geiger, the daughter of a teacher of music at Vienna, who was
subsequently elevated to the rank and title of Baroness von Eut-
tenstein.
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-
€rotha, formerly called Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, and previously Saxe-
Coburg, was Prince Albrecht, second son of Duke Ernest, sumamed
the Pious, who died in 1699. A dispute about his heritage lasted
through three generations, and was only settled, towards the end of
the eighteenth century, by a re-distribution of the territories of the
Saxon princes. A new division took place in 1826, on the extinction of
the line of Saxe-Gotha, and it was then that the house of Saxe-Saalfeld-
Coburg exchanged its name for that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The
&mily is in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly
by Duke Ernest I. of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, whom the Congress of
Vienna made a present of the principality of Lichtenberg, in return for
his services as commander of the fifth corps d^armee in the year 1813.
This principality he sold, Sept. 22, 1834, to the King of Prussia, for
a sum of two million thalers, and other advantages. Besides a
rich private income, Duke Ernest II. has a comparatively large civil
list. It is paid out of the revenue of the domains, and amounts to
100,000 thalers, or 15,000Z., at a minimum, and more in case these
estates produce above 134,079 thalers, or 20,112/. a year. The
proprietorship of these domains, which, according to the decision
of the highest legal authorities in Germany, belong to the State
and not to the reigning family, has given rise recently to ani-
mated disputes between the Government and the legislature of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. A compromise was finally arrived at, by the
terms of which the reigning Duke has a civil list of 100,000 thalers
out of the income of t£e domains, and the surplus of 34,079 thalexs
is paid into the public exchequer, while the rest is divided between
the Duke and the State.
l6& NOitetH GBBMANY — SAXBMJOBUBG-^OTHA,
Constitntioii, Bevenne, and PopulatioiL.
The Staatflgnindgesetz, or ftindamental law of the duchy, was
proclaimed May 3, 1852. The crown is vested in Duke Ernest II.
and his descendants, or failing these, the children of his brother
Albert, late Prince Consort of Great Britain. Excluded from the
throne, however, are the sovereign as well as the heir-apparent of
Great Britain. The legislative power is vested in two separate
assemblies, one for the province of Coburg and the other for the
province of Gotha. The Cobjurg Chamber consists of eleven, and
that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as many electoral
divisions, by the direct vote of all the inhabitants. Every man above
the age of twenty-five, who pays taxes, has a vote, and any citizen
above thirty may be elected a deputy. New elections take place
every four years. The two assemblies meet separately every year ; and
every second year they imite into one Chamber, to which the Coburg
Diet deputes seven, and that of Gotha fourteen members. The
* United Parliament ' meets alternately at the town of Coburg
and at Gotha, and has to dedde all legislative measures bearing
upon questions affecting tlie whole duchy, while the provinci^
itssemblies occupy themselves with affairs of a more local nature.
The budget is voted for the term of four years ; the last from July 1 ,
1861, to June 80, 1865. In the financial accoimts, a distinction is
made between Crown-revenue from the domains, and State-revenue.
The annual income of the former, during this period, is to be
559,500 thalers, or 83,925Z., and the expenditure 385,669 thalers,
or 57,851Z., leaving an annual surplus of 173,831 thalers, or
26,074Z., which is to be distributed between the Duke and the
public exchequer, in the proportion of His Highness obtaining 120,121
thalers, or 18,022Z., and the country 53,680 thalers, or 8,052/. The
State-revenue for the period 1861-65 is settled at 606,500 thalers, or
90,975Z. annually, and the public expenditure at the same sum.
Among the expenses, the general administration of the duchy
amounts to the largest item, 227,305 thalers, and, next to it, the
interest and redemption fund of the public debt, 92,022 thalers.
The debt amoimted, January 1, 1862, to 1,235,687 thalers, or
185,353Z.
The military organisation of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is based, in
theory, upon that of Prussia, devolving the duty upon every man to
serve in the army. As, however, the finances of the duchy do not
allow the maintenance of a large force, the troops required for actual
service are drawn by conscription, in the form of ballot. The
purchase of substitutes is Hot allowed. To the former army of the
Confedtoation the duchy contributed nominally 1,860 men, only a
portion of which were actually kept. In consequence of a treaty
irOBTH OEBKANT — SAXE-ALTKHBUBa. 1 63
made witih Prussia, in 1861, the Government of the latter country
undertook to maintain the necessary number of troops against a
payment of 80,000 thalers, or 11,500/., per annum in times of peace,
ttid 148,000 thalers, or 21,700/., during war.
The duchy is divided into two provinces, of the following area
ttid population : —
ProTinoM
Area in Eng.
sq. miles
Popfolatlon in
Dec. 1861
Cobuig
Gotha
Total
230
586
47,014
112,417
816
169,431
The population of the duchy is increasing at the rate of rather
more than one per cent, per annum. It amounted to 134,665 in
1884; to 149,753' in 1849; to 150,878 in 1855; and to 153,879
in 1858. The whole of the inhabitants are Protestant, with the ex-
ception— according to the census of 1861 — of 851 Roman Catholics,
and of 1,578 Jews.
XI. SAXE-ALTESTBTJEO.
Eeig^ning Sovereign and Family.
Ernest I., Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, bom September 16, 1826,
the son of Duke George of Saxe-Altenburg and Princess Marie of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his fiith^r, August 3, 1853 ; married, April 28, 1853, to
Agnes J Duchess of Saxe-Altenburg, bom Jime 24, 1824, the
daughter of Duke Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau. Issue of the union is
a daughter, Princess Marie, bom August 2, 1854.
Brother of the Duke, — Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829 ;
married, October 15, 1862, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen.
Uncles of the Duke, — 1. Prince Joseph, bom August 27, 1789,
the eldest son of Duke Frederick of Saxe-Altenburg ; succeeded hia
£ither, September 29, 1834 ; abdicated in fevour of his brother, Duke
George, November 30, 1848 ; general of infantry in the service of
Prussia. Married, April 24, 1817, to Princess Amalia of Wiirtem-
burg, who died November 28, 1848. Ofispring of the union are
four daughters:— Princesis Marie, bom April 14, 1818, and married
to ex-ELing George V. of Hanover ; Princess Therese, bom October
9i, 1823 ; Princess Elizabeth, born March 26, 1826, and married to
Grand-duke Peter of Oldenburg; and Princess Alexandra, bom
July 8, 1830, and married to Grand-di&e Constsmtin of Kusaia.
x2
164 NORTH GEB^IANT — SAXE-ALTENBUBG.
2. Prince Frederick, born October 4, 1801, brother of the preceding;
colonel in the service of Bavaria.
Cousins of the Duke, — 1. Princess Therese, bom Dec. 21, 1836,
daughter of the late Prince Edward of Saxe-Altenburg. 2. Princess
Antoinette, born April 17, 1838, sister of the preceding; married,
April 22, ] 854, to Prince Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau. 3. Prince
Albert, born April 14, 1843, brother of the preceding ; lieutenant
in the service of Prussia. 4. Princess Marie, born June 28, 1845,
youngest daughter of the late Prince Edward of Saxe-Altenburg.
The reigning family of Saxe-Altenburg, formerly called Saxe-
Hildburghausen, dates its origin- from the year 1482, when the
separation took place between the Ernestine and Albertine lines of
Saxony. Up to the year 1826, Sax^-Altenburg formed part of
Saxe-Gotha, and was then, by a general exchange of territories
among the Saxon princes, made over to the Hildburghausen family.
The Duke has a civil list of 143,000 thalers, or 21,450Z., amounting
to above one-sixth of the revenue of the whole countiy. On
December 20, 1862, the Chamber raised the ducal income to this
sum — from 128,000 thalers, or 19,200/., which it had been previously
— on condition that the whole of the domains, formerly belonging to
the reigning family, should be made over definitely to the State.
Constitution, Bevenne, and Population.
The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831 ; but was somewhat
altered at subsequent periods ; the last time May 1, 1857. It vests
the legislative authority in a Chamber composed of twenty-four
representatives, of which eight are chosen by the Ritt^rschaft, or
nobility, eight by the inhabitants of towns, and eight by those
of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and the
deputies are elected for two sessions.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Ducal House, of Education, and Ecclesi-
astical Affairs. — Dr. Alfred von Larisch, appointed Feb. 2, 1853.
2. The Ministry of the Interior and of Justice. — Charles Pierer,
appointed Feb. 2, 1853.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Charles Victor Sonnenkalh, appointed
Feb. 2, 1853.
The budget is voted for three years, the last period settled by the
Chamber being 1862 to 1864. The annual income during this term
is to be 823,326 thalers, or 123,498/., and the annual expenditure
800,343 thalers, or 120,051/., leaving a surplus of 22,983 thalers, or
3,447/. a year. Very nearly one-half of the revenue is contributed
by the State domains, and about one-third by indirect taxes. The
public debt, at the commencement of 1862, amounted to 1,047,352
NOBTH GEKMANT — VTALDECK. 1 65
llmIers,or 157,103?., a moiety of which consisted in notes, not bearing
interest.
The 1,621 infantry, with 17 artillerymen, which Saxe-Altenburg
Ibrmerly contributed to the army of the Confederation, were raised
partly by conscription and partly by enlistment. According to the
terms of a military convention concluded with Prussia in 1862, the
Government of the latter country has the appointment of all the
officers in the army of the duchy.
' Saxe-Altenburg has an area of 509 English square miles, with a
popniation, according to the census of Dec. 3, 1861, of 137,883
inhabitants. With the exception of about three hundred Roman
Catholics, they are all Protestant. There are no settled Jews. The
inhabitants of the duchy are of Slavonic origin, and the customs and
dress of the nationality are still prevailing in the rural districts,
although the Slavonic dialect has disappeared since the middle of the
sixteenth century. The peasants are reputed to be more wealthy
than in any other part of Germany, and the rule prevails among
them of the youngest son becoming the heir to the landed property
of the father. Estates are kept for generations in the same family,
and seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has been
declining in nimibers for the last twenty years.
XII. WALDECK
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Oeorge Victor, Prince of Waldeck, bom Jan. 14, 1831, the son
of Prince George Frederick and Princess Emma of Anhalt-Bern-
burg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, under the
guardianship of his mother, May 14, 1845; married, Sept. 26,
1853, to
Helena, Princess of Waldeck, born Aug. 12, 1831, daughter of
the late Duke William of Nassau. Offspring of the imion are five
daughters, namely: — 1. Princess Sophie, born July 27, 1854.
2. Princess Pauline, born Oct. 19, 1855. 3. Princess Marie, born
May 23, 1857. 4. Princess Emma, born Aug. 2, 1858. 5.
Princess Helena, bom Feb. 17, 1861.
Brother and Sisters of the Prince. — 1. Princess Augusta, born
July 21, 1824; married, June 15, 1848, to Count Alfred von
Stolberg-Stolberg. 2. Princess Hermina, born Sept. 29, 1827 ;
married, Oct. 25, 1844, to Prince Adolphus of Schaumburg-Lippe.
3. Prince Wolrad, heir-apparent, born Jan. 24, 1833.
Uncle and Aunt of the Prince. — 1. Princess Ida, bom Sept. 26,
1796 ; married, June 23, 1816, to Prince George of Schaiunburg-
Lippe; widow, Nov. 21, 1860. 2. Prince Hermann, bom Oct. 12,
l66 NOBTH GEBMANY — WALDBCX^
1809; married, Sept. 2, 1833, to Agnes, bom Oct. 2, 1814,
daughter of Count Francis of Teleki-Sz6k.
Cousins of the Prince. — 1. Prince Albert, bom Dec. 11, 1841 ;
married, May 2, 1864, to Dora Gage, youngest daughter of the late
Eev. Eobert Gage, of Rathlin, co. Antrim, Ireland. 2. Prince Erichy
bom Dec. 20, 1842. 3. Prince Henry, bora May 20, 1844.
The family of Waldeck was enrolled by the Congress of Vienna
among the sovereign houses of Europe on account of the distin-
guished services rendered by field-marshal Prince George of Wal-
deck in the wars against France. The present sovereign has a
civil list of 245,000 thalers, or 36,735Z., being considerably more
than one half of the revenue of the principality.
Constitution, Eevenne, and Population.
The charter of the principality was granted Aug. 17, 1852. It
provides for a legislative assembly of forty-one members, of which
number eighteen are chosen by the nobility, thirteen by the in-
habitants of towns, and ten by the people of the rural districts.
The Chamber meets at irregular and often distant periods, leaving
the exercise of its power, the voting of supplies, and framing of laws
to a committee of six members, consisting of two representatives
of the nobility, three of towns, and one of the rural population.
The executive is in two departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of Justice and of Foreign Affairs. — Councillor
Winterherg.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — ^N. Klapp.
In the year 1862 the public revenue amounted to 435,475 thalers,
or 65,3 lOZ., and the expenditure to 443,825 thalers, or 66,573Z.,
leaving a deficit of 1,263/. A considerable part of the revenue is
derived fi-om the sale of mineral waters, and the profits of the gaming-
tables at Pyrmont. The public debt amoimted, in 1861, to 1,960,000
thalers, or 293,850Z.
Waldeck had to contribute 866 men to the former army of the
Confederation, but not more than one-half of tiie number were
actually trained. Previous to the French revolution, the reigning
prince constantly kept a body of troops of from 2,000 to 3,000 men
under arms. During the .Ajnerican war of independence, 1,225 of
these men were sold to the British Government at a fixed sum per
head ; three- fourths of the number never returned.
The principality embraces an area of 466 English square miles,
inhabited, according to the census of 1861, by 58,604 souls. From
1848 to 1858 there was a rapid decrease in the population, which
ceased, however, after this period. Of the inhabitants, 55,676 are
Protestants, 1,071 Roman Catholics, 853 Jews, and the rest Christian
dissenters, chiefly Mennonites.
KO»rH GBBMANY — LIPPE-DBTMOLD. lb J
Xm. LIPPE-BETMOLB.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Leopold n., Prince of Lippe-Detmold, bom Sept. 1, 1821, the
son of Prince Leopold, and of Princess Emily of Schwarzburg-Son-
dershansen ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
Jan. 1, 1851 ; married, April 17, 1852, to
Elizabeth J Princess of Lippe-Detmold, bom Oct. 1, 1833,
daughter of Prince Albert of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
Brothers and Sisters of the Prince, — 1. Princess Louise^ bom
Nov. 9, 1822; Abbess of the Protestant convent of Lemgo.
2. Prince Waldemar, bom April 18, 1824 ; married, Nov. 9, 1858,
to Princess Sophia of Baden. 3. Princess Frederica^ bom Dec. 1,
1825. 4. Princess Hermann, born July 4, 1829. 5. Prince
Alexander, bom Jan. 16, 1831 ; captain in the service of Hanover.
6. Princess Pauline, bom Oct 2, 1834.
Mother of the Prince. — Princess Emily, bom April 23, 1800,
daughter of Prince GUnther of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ;
iparried to Prince Leopold I., April 23, 1820; widow, Jan. 1,
1851.
The house of Lippe-Detmold is a younger branch of the family
of Lippe, the ancestor of the line being Count Simon VII., who
flourished in the latter part of the sixteenth century. A third
line, Lippe-Brake, became extinct in 1709, and its territorial
possessions, after a long struggle of arms, and a suit before the
Imperial Aulic Council extending over a century, were divided
between the two remaining houses, the greater share falling to
Detmold. The Prince of Lippe-Detmold has a civil list amoimting
to about 10,000Z., which is declared to be insufficient for the ex-
penses of a rather sumptuous court, including among its dignitaries
a Lord-chamberlain, a Master of the Horse, and a Schlosshauptmann,
or captain of the palace. Owing to financial distress, the late Prince,
on May 17, 1850, sold a part of his territory, the Lippstadt, to
Prussia, for a life-rent of 9,000 thalers, or about 1,300/.
Constitution, Eevenne, and Population.
A charter was granted to Lippe-Detmold by decree of July 6,
1836. It includes a representative organisation ; but nearly the whole
legislative as well as executive power remains in the hands of the
Prince. The Chamber of Deputies consists of fourteen members, one-
half of which are elected by the territorial noblesse, and the other
half by the inhabitants of towns and rural districts. The discussions
are kept secret. To the Chamber belongs the right of voting, in
1 68 NOBTH aSSMANT — SCHWABZBUBG-BUDOLSTADT.
part, the supplies; otherwise its functions are consultative. The
Prince governs through one irresponsible minister, under whom are
six presidents of departments.
The budget for the year 1862 consisted of a revenue of 221,745
thalers, or 33,152/., and an expenditure of very nearly the same
amount. The public debt, in 1862, was about half a million thalers.
Lippe-Detmold had to contribute 1,202 men to the army of the
Confederation, including 240 troops of the reserve. The men were
raised by conscription, and had to serve four years, of which,
generally, two were spent on furlough.
The population, by the census of 1861, amounted to 108,513
souls, living on an area of 445 English square miles. The surface
is partly covered by the Teutoburger-Wald, where Hermann, or
Arminius, exterminated the Romans under Varus.
XI7. SCHWAEZBUBG'ETJSOLSTADT.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Otintlier, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, bom Nov. 6, 1793 ;
succeeded his fether. Prince Louis Frederick, April 28, 1807 ;
married, in first nuptials, 1816, to Princess Augusta of Anhalt-
Dessau, who died in 1854; married, secondly, in 1855, to Helena
von Stolzenberg, adopted daughter of Prince William of Anhalt,
who died June 6, 1860 ; married, thirdly, Sept. 24, 1861, to
Marie Schulz, born at Konigsberg, Prussia, Oct. 22, 1840 ;
created Baroness von Brockenburg, Sept. 25, 1861. Issue of the
second marriage are two children, namely, Helena, bom June 2,
1860, and Gunther, bom June 3, 1860. These children bear the
title of Princess and Prince of Leutenberg.
Brother of the Prince, — Prince Albert, bom April 30, 1798;
general in the service of Prussia; married, July 26, 1827, to Princess
Augusta of Solms-Braunfels, Offspring of the union are : — 1.
Princess Elizabeth, bora Oct. 1, 1833 ; married, April 17, 1852, to
Prince Leopold of Lippe-Detmold. 2. Prince George, born Nov.
23, 1838, lieutenant in the service of Prussia.
Cousin of the Pnnce.— Prince Adolphus, bom Sept. 27, 1801 ;
retired field-marshal in the service of Austria ; married, Sept. 27,
1847, to Princess Mathilda of Schonburg-Waldenburg. There are
issue: — 1. Princess Marie, bom Jan. 29, 1850. 2. Prince GUnther
Victor, bom Aug. 21, 1852. 3. Princess Thecla, born Aug. 12,
1859. 4. Princess Louise, bom Jan. 5, 1862.
The Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt line is a younger branch of the
house of Schwarzburg, being descended firom Johann GUnther, who
KOBTH GEBMANY — SCHWARZBURG-80NDBESHAFSEN. 1 69
Jied in the middle of tlie seTenteenth century. The present
sovereign has a civil list of 145,300 florins, or 12,108Z., exclusive of
the revenue of the State domains, which have been declared the
property of the reigning family. Doubts prevail regarding the
succession to the throne, in the event of tie decease of Prince
Gtinther. His only son is the offspring of a * morganatic ' marriage,
and as such, by the princely law of Germany, unfit to succeed;
though one case has occurred * in which such succession has taken
place. The claims of the next heir-at-law, the brother of the Prince,
have never been recognised by the latter, who is supposed to use all
his endeavoiurs for securing the throne to his son.
Constitution, Bevenue, and Population.
The fundamental law of the principality is the constitution of
April 21, 1821, which underwent several alterations in 1848, and
again in 1854. For all legislative measures the Prince has to obtain
the consent of a Chamber of Representatives of fifteen members, ^yq
of which are elected by the nobility, five by the inhabitants of
towns, and five by the rural population. The deputies meet every
three years, and their mandate expires at the end of two sessions.
The executive is exercised, under direction of the Prince, by a
department called
The Ministry of State. — Dr. Herman von Bertrdb,
There are triennial budgets. For the period 1861-63, the public
income was settled at 2,462,401 florins, or 205,200/., and the expendi-
ture for the three years amoimts to very nearly the same sum.
There is a debt of 1,848,000 florins, or 154,000/.
To the former army of the Confederation the contribution
amounted to 899 men. About one-fifth of these were actually
maintained. The troops were drawn by conscription, with permitted
substitution.
The population numbered 71,913 in the year 1861, living on an
area of 340 English square miles. The whole of the inhabitants are
Lutherans, with the exception of 73 Roman Catholics and 169 Jews.
X7. SCHWABZBUBO-SONDEESHAirSEir.
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Otinther II., Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, born Sept.
24, 1801 ; succeeded to the throne, in consequence of the abdication
of his fether. Prince GUnther I., Aug. 19, 1835 ; married, in first
nuptials^ in 1827, to Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
* See * Baden : * Reigning Sovereign and Family.
J TO NOBTH QSBKAOT--«CHWAJtZBUBCHSONI>]&BSHAUSEK.
who died in 1833 ; and, secondly, in 1835, to Princess Mathilda of
Hohenlohe-Oehringen, from whom he was divorced in 1852.
Issue of the first marriage are: — 1. Princess Elizabeth^ bom
March 22, 1829. 2. Prince Charles^ heir-apparent, born Aug. 7,
1830; major in the service of Prussia. 3. Prince Leopold^ bom
July 2, 1832. Of the second marriage there are offspring — 1.
Princess Marie, bom Jime 14, 1837. 2. Prince Hugon, born April
13, 1839 ; lieutenant in the Prussian navy.
Sister of the Prince. — Princess Emily, bom April 23, 1800 ;
widow of Prince Leopold of Lippe-Detmold.
Niece of the Prince, — Princess Charlotte, bom Sept. 7, 1816 ;
married, Feb. 26, 1856, to Hans von Jud!, officer in the Swiss
artillery.
The princes of the House of Schwarzburg belong to a very ancient
and wealthy family, which gave an emperor to Germany in the four-
teenth century. It was partly on account of this lineage that the
small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the Congress of
Vienna, instead of being * mediatised/ like that of a number of other
formerly sovereign princes. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarz-
burg-Sondershausen amounts to 150,000 thalers, or 22,340/., being
nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the coimtry. The Prince is,
moreover, in possession of very large income from private estates in
Bohemia and Mecklenburg, purchased mostly by the late sovereign,
Gunther I., who exercised the trade of brewer as a monopoly in his
dominions.
Constitation, Eevenue, and Population.
The government is an unlimited monarchy, a charter, granted in
1849, having been, after many changes, finally abolished in 1857.
The Prince exercises his authority through an executive divided into
three departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of State. — Gustavus Keyser,
2. The Ministry of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Gustavus
Bley.
3. The Ministry of Finances. — Eudolf von Wolffersdorff,
Since the repeal of the charter of 1849, no official budget has
been published. The last account, for the year 1857, showed a
revenue of 644,678 thalers, or 96,701 Z., and an expenditure of
616,733 thalers, or 92,511Z., leaving a surplus of 4,190Z. It is
presumed that both income and expenditure are much larger at the
present moment. The civil list of the Prince, which amounted pre-
viously to 140,000 thalers, was raised to 150,000 in the year 1860.
There is a considerable public debt, the amount of which is not
accurately known.
NOBTH aSBMAirr — BXUSS-SOHLEIZ. 171
To the army of the old Confederation, the principality had to con-
tribute 751 men, about one-half which number were actually main-
tained. The time of service was six years, with two additional yeara
in the reserve ; freedom from conscription could be obtained, how-
ever, by payment of a fixed sum to the Government.
The area of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen embraces 318 English
square miles, containing a population, in 1861, of 64,895 souls.
Tlie increase is leas than one per cent, per annum.
XVI. REirSS-SCHLEIZ.
Xeigning Sovereign and Family.
Henry LXVII, Prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born Oct. 20, 1789, the
Bon of Prince Henry LXII., and of Princess Caroline ; succeeded to
the throne at the death of his brother, Prince Henry LXVI., June
19, 1854 ; married, April 18, 1820, to
Adelaide^ Princess of Reuss-Schleiz, bom May 28, 1800, the
daughter of Prince Henry LI. of Reuss-Schleiz-Ebersdorf. There
are issue: — 1. Princess Anne^ born Dec. 16, 1822; married,
March 7, 1843, to Prince Adolphus of Bentheim-Tecklenburg,
major-general in the service of Prussia. 2. Prince Henry ^ heir-
apparent, born May 28, 1832 ; married, Feb. 6, 1858, to Princess
Ivouise of Wurtemberg. Offspring of the marriage are two children,
Henry, born Nov. 10, 1858 ; and Elizabeth, born Oct. 27, 1859.
The reigning house of Reuss-Schleiz forms a younger branch of
the princely Reuss family. By the extinction of several other
closely related lines, the house of Schleiz obtained a large increase
of territory at the end of the latter and the commencement of the
present century. The civil list of the Prince amounts to about
20,000/. per annum. As in Reuss-Greiz, the greater part of the
territory of the principality is the private property of the reigning
&mily. Princess Adelaide, consort of Henry LXVII., possesses
in her own right various extensive estates in Saxony and
Pmssia, derived from the extinct line of Ebersdorf. The head of
the * mediatised ' branch line of Reuss-Schleiz-Kostritz, Henry
LXIX., is married to a daughter of the late General John Locke.
Constitation, Revenue, and Population.
A charter of liberal tendencies was granted by the Prince to his
subjects, Nov. 30, 1849, but modified April 14, 1852, and again,
Jime 20, 1856; its principal enactments have been destroyed. The
chief prerogative of a Chamber of Representatives which has been
172 NORTH GERMANY— SCHAUMBURCt-LIPPE.
left to exist, is the right of petition to the sovereign. The latter has
the whole legislative and executive power, as well as the appoint-
ment of all public functionaries. In the administration of the State
a cabinet of three members acts imder his direction.
Some of the facts connected with public income and expenditure
are published at irregular intervals by the Government. It is stated
that during the year 1860, the latest of which accounts are given,
the public income amounted to 285,664 thalers, or 42,820/., and the
expenditure to 278,400 thalers, or 41,695/. The expenses for
troops in the same year amoimted to 55,129 thalers, while public
education received 11,729 thalers. A debt of 719,236 thalers, or
107,385/., existed at the end of the year 1861.
The principality had to contribute 907 men to the army of the
Confederation, nearly one-half of which number were actually
maintained. The troops were raised by conscription.
The census of 1861 gave a population of 83,360, on an area of
297 English square miles. For a period of ten years the increase
has been rather less than one-half per cent, per annimi. Almost all
the inhabitants are Lutherans.
XVII. SCHATTMBIIBG-LIPPE.
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Adolphns, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, born Aug. 1, 1817,
the son of Prince George and of Princess Ida of Waldeck ; succeeded
to the throne at the death of liis father, Nov. 21, 1860; married,
Oct. 25, 1844, to
Hermina, Princess of Schaumburg-Lippe, bom Sept. 29, 1827,
daughter of the late Prince George of Waldeck. There are
offspring: — 1. Princess Hermina, bom Oct. 5, 1845. 2. Prince
George, heir-apparent, bom Oct. 10, 1846. 3. Prince Hermann,
born May 19, 1848. 4. Princess Ida, bom July 28, 1852.
5. Prince Otho, born Sept. 13, 1854. 6. Prince Adolphus, born
July 20, 1859.
Brother and Sisters, — 1. VrmcQ^ Mathilda, bom Sept. 11, 1818;
married, July 15, 1843, to Prince Eugene of Wiirtemberg.
2. Princess Adelaide, bom March 9, 1821 ; married, Oct. 16, 1841,
to Prince Frederick of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg.
3. Princess Ida, bom May 26, 1824. 4. Prince William, bom
Dec. 12, 1834 ; married. May 30, 1862, to Princess Bathilde of
Anhalt-Dessau. 5. Princess Elizabeth, bom March 5, 1841.
Mother of the Prince, — ^Princess Ida., bom Sept. 26, 1796,
daughter of Prince George of Waldeck ; married to Prince George,
June 23, 1816 ; widow, Nov. 21, 1860.
NOBTH GBKMANY — EAMBVtiGtr 1 73
The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a count of the
same name, who lived in the sixteenth century, acquiring some
small territorial possessions in Westphalia. It was only in 1807
that the two counts of Schaimiburg-Lippe and Lippe-Detmold were
elevated to the rank of princes, and became independent rulers of
iheir estates, by espousing the cause of Napoleon, as members of the
Eheinbund. They would have been struck from the list of sovereigns
by the Congress of Vienna, but for the protection of Prince Metter-
nich, who preferred having two crowned heads more in Europe to
giving their territories to Prussia. The civil list of the reigning
Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe amounts to 25,000/., or about three-
fourths of the revenue of the whole principality, notwithstanding which
the court is known to be deeply in debt. The Crown domains are
mortgaged to the extent of 2,980,000 thalers, or about half a
million sterling.
Constitution, Eevenue, and Population.
Representative institutions of a very limited character were given
to Schaumburg-Lippe in 1816. They comprise Landstande, or a
Diet composed of all the noble landed proprietors, with four deputies
of towns and six of the rural districts. The functions of this Diet
are chiefly consultative, and to the Prince belongs the whole
legislative and executive authority. He acts through a minister,
called the President of the Government.
The budget, as far as it is known through statements laid at
intervals before the Diet, comprises an annual revenue of 228,000
thalers, or 34,050/., and an expenditure of the like amoimt. There
exists a comparatively large public debt, particulars of which,
however, are not published.
To the army of the old Confederation a contribution of 350 men
had nominally to be made, but only about 100 men were kept under
arms. They were raised by conscription, and had to serve four years
and a half. Exemption from service was granted by payment to the
Government.
The last census, of 1861, gave a population of 30,774 souls, on
an area of 212 square miles.
XVIII. HAMBITBG.
Constitution, Revenue, and Expenditure.
The present constitution of the State and Free City of Hamburg
was published on the 28th September, 1860, and came in force on
the 1st of January, 1861, According, to the terms of this frmda-
mental law, the govemmqit — Staatsgewalt — is intrusted, in common^
17+
NORTH GBBMANT-— HAMSURd.
to two cliarabers of representatives, tlie Senate, and the Burgerscliaft,
or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises chiefly, but
not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen members,
one-half of which number must have studied jurisprudence, while
seven out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants.
The members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of
Burgesses ; but a senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years,
A first and second burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot,
preside over the meetings of the Senate. No burgomaster can be
in office longer than two years ; and no member of the Senate is
allowed to hold any public office whatever. The House of
Burgesses consists of 192 members, 84 of which are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax-paying citizens. Of the remaining 108
members, 48 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house pro-
perty in the city valued at 3,000 marks, or 187Z., over and above the
amount for which they are taxed ; while the other 60 members are
deputed by various guilds, corporations, and courts of justice. All
the members of the House of Burgesses are chosen for six years, in
BUch a manner that every three years new elections take place for
one-half the number. The House of Burgesses is represented, in
permanence, by a Burger- Ausschuss, or committee of the house, con-
fflsting of twenty deputies, of which no more than five are allowed to
be members of the legal profession. It is the special duty of the
committee to watch the proceedings of the Senate, and the general
execution of the articles of the constitution including the laws voted
by the House of Burgesses. In all matters of legislation, except
taxation, the Senate has a veto ; and, in case of a constitutional
conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen in
equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses.
The budgets of Hamburg, in the years 1860 — 62, amotmted to : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1860
1861
1862
Marks Banco
10,064,155
10,260,287
10,648,660
£
754,811
768,771
798,649
Marks Banco
10,164,155
10,250,287
10,648,660
£
762,311
768,771
798,649
The details of revenue and expenditure, in the year 1861, were as
follows: — __ ,
Betbntte. Marks
Domains and State property . . . 1,482,600
Taxes and duties
Law fees .
Fines
Extraordinaries
Transitoiy receipts
Total
6,037,900
586,600
14,400
20,000
2,108,787
10,260,287 OP ;e76«,771
ABHT AND POPVIATIOK. I75
ExfeKDITUBB. Marks
Senate and Burgership .... 478,760
Foreign Afl&irs 72,000
Finances (including interest of debt) . 2,319,180
Jnstice 277,280
Education 115,760
Army 918,918
Buildings . ... . . . 1,029,200
Commerce and navigation .... 957,540
PoHce . ' 736,710
Charitable institutions . • . . 697,900
Suburbs and rural districts . . . 157,610
Extraordinaries 382,280
Transitory expenses 2,108,840
Total . . 10,250,287 or jfi768,771
The public debt of Hamburg on the 1st of January, 1862, was as
follows : —
Description of Debt Marks Banco
Old debt 23,985,366
Loan from fire insurance .... 27,576,000
State bonds 7,575,000
mxi (Marks Banco 59,136,366
^^^^ • • 1 £ 4,435,228
A considerable part of this debt, — namely, 27,576,000 marks
— was incurred after the great fire in 1842, and spent in rebuild-
ing the city on a new and improved plan. The whole damage
caused by iLe conflagration — which laid more than Bye thousand
buildings in ashes — ^was estimated at the time at 90,000,000 thalera,
or nearly 36,000,000/. sterling.
Army and Popnlatioii.
The troops in the service of the State are divided into two classes,
namely, the standing army and the Burgermilitar, or militia of bur-
gesses. The first-named, which is formed by enlistment for periods of
six years, consists of two battalions of infantry, numbering 1,686
men ; one company of Jagers, of 120 men ; a detachment of pioneers,
of about 50, and two companies of dragoons, of 386 men. These
formed the sum total of troops which Hamburg had to contribute to
the army of the old Confederation. The militia of burgesses amounts
to more than ten thousand men, divided into nine battalions of in-
fentry ; one battalion of Jagers ; two troops of cavalry, and three
companies of artillery. Every citizen, not exempt on accoimt of bad
health, is liable to service, from the twenty-first to the fortieth year.
The state embraces a territory of 148 English square miles, with
a population, according to the census of 1858, of 210,973 inhabitants.
At file end of 1861, the number, from the returns of births and
176
NOBTH GEBMANY— HAMBUBG.
deaths, was calculated to amount to 229,941. The population of the
city proper, including the two suburbs of St. George and St. Paul,
amounted, at the latter period, .to 178,841 souls; while the moiety
of the town of Bergedorf— the other half possessed by Lubeck — had
51,100 inhabitants. Nearly all are Lutherans, with the exception of
some 2,000 Calvinists, 4,000 Roman Catholics, and above 7,000
Jews. The latter are among the wealthiest and most active mem-
bers of the community.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of the United Kingdom with Ham-
burg is very important. There is no separate account of the im-
ports and exports of Hamburg in the Board of Trade returns, and
the commerce of this city is thrown together with that of Bremen
and Lubeck, under * Hanse Towns.' The subjoined tabular state-
ment gives the total value of the imports from the Hanse Towns into
the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures to the Hanse Towns, in each of the five years
1861-65:—
Years
Imports from the Hanse Towhb
into the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce from the
United Kingdom to the Hanse
Tovms
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
6,058,490
6,957,260
6,946,235
7,922,853
8,837,585
£
9,298,463
9,740,336
10,806,092
13,373,131
15,091,373
The imports from the Hanse Towns into the United Kingdom con-
sist mainly of the agricultural and other home produce of Germany,
such as wheat, barley, flour, butter, and live animals. The staple
exports of the United Kingdom to the Hanse Towns are cotton and
woollen manufactures, the value of the former averaging 1,200,000Z.,
and of the latter above 4,000,000/. per annimi.
The total value of the imports of Hamburg, in each of the years
1862 and 1863, was as follows:—
Imports of Hamburg
1862
1868
By sea
By land and river
and specie . . /
Total of specie only .
Marks Banco
331,832,930
309,009,030
£
24,887,470
23,175,677
Marks Banco
398,238,370
340,427,140
£
29,867,877
25,532,036
640,841,960
104,085,210
48,063,147
7,806,390
738,665,510
136,281,130
55,399,912
10,221,084
TKADE AND COMMEBGX.
177
The total mimber both of sailing vessels and of steamers, which
arrived in the port of Hamburg in each of the four years 1860-63,
is shown in the following table : —
Years
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Vessels
Lasts of
3 Tons
Crews
Vessels
Lasts of
8 tons
Crews
1860
1861
1862
1863
3,814
4,012
3,854
4,110
227,831
243,709
230,374
242,672
24,016
25,492
24,096
24,605
1,215
1,207
1,229
1,433
192,682
197,366
202,900
238,544
25,775
26,388
27,149
30,620
The. total burthen of both sailing vessels and steamers, which
arrived in the port in 1863, amoimted to 481,216 lasts. Considerably
more than one-half of this shipping belonged to the United Kingdom,
and one-half of this British tonnage represented colliers. The total
shipping of the United Elingdom which entered the port of Hamburg
in 1863, amounted to 262,929 lasts (of 3 tons), of which 108,948
lasts was of vessels carrying only coals.
The total number and tonnage of the merchant vessels which
belonged to the port of Hamburg, at the commencement and end
of each of the years 1862 and 1863, is shown in the subjoined
table :—
MercantUe Nayy of Hamburg
1862
1863
Vessels
Lasts of
3 tons
Vessels
Lasts of
3 tons
Effective on January 1st
Increase,
Home bnilt
Foreign bnilt ....
Bought
Becrease,
Wrecked, &c
Broken up
Sold
Effective on 31st December .
491
65,401
506
69,374
9
32
36
1,266
4,410
4,450
14
29
62
2,226
5,029
12,526
31
31
2,762
3,391
80
45
3,607
5,726
506
69,374
536
79,922
The mercantile navy of Hamburg is more than eight times as
large as that of the kingdom of Belgium, and nearly double, in
tonnage, to that of Denmark and Belgium together.
178 NOBTH GERlfAKT — HAXBUBG.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Hamburg, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mark Current . . . . « 1«. *l\d,
„ Mark Banco » . . = l«. 6rf.
Weights and Measures.
ThA Centner « 120 lbs. avoirdupois.
Last of coal = about 2 Tons.
,, of grain . . . . » 11 imperial quarters.
Stechkanne aa 4| „ gallons.
Oxhoft - 48 „
Viertel = IJ „
Statistical and other Books of Xeference concerning Hamburg
and the Hanse Towns.
1. Official Pxtbugations.
Hamburgischer Staatskalender auf das Jahr 1866. 4. Hamburg, 1866.
Staatskalender der freien Hansestadt Bremen auf das Jahr 1866. 8. Bre-
men, 1866.
Liibeckischer Staatskalender auf das Jahr 1866. Rathsbuchdruck. 4.
Liibeck, 1866.
Tabellarische TJebersichten des Hamburgischen Handels im Jahre 1864. 4.
Hamburg, 1865.
Tabellarische Uebersicht des Bremischen Handels im Jahre 1864. 4. Bre-
men, 1865.
Tabellarische TJebersichten des Liibeckischen Handels im Jahre 1864. 4.
Lubeck, 1865.
Beitiiige zur Statistik Hamburgs. 4. Hamburg, 1866.
Zur Statistik des Bremischen Staats. 4. Bremen, 1866.
Statistisches Jahrbuch der freien und Hansestadt Lubeck fiir das Jahr 1863.
Liibeck, 1864.
Reports by Mr. Consul-Q-eneral "Ward on the trade of Hamburg, of Mr. Vice-
Consul Sch«roon on the trade of Bremen, and of Mr. Vice-Consul Behncke on the
trode of Lubeck ; in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1864.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Bultz on the trade of Hamburg, of Mr. Vice-
Consul Schwoon on the trade of Bremen, and of Mr. Vice-Consul Behncke on
the trade of Lubeck ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1865.
2. Non-Officiai, Publications.
Behrens (H. L.) Topographie und Statistik von Lubeck. 8. Liibeck, 1864.
Bttchenau (Ft.) Die freie Hansestadt Bremen und ihr Gebiet. 8. Bremen,
1863.
Bencke (£.)I>ie freie und Hansestadt Liibeck. 16. Liibeck, 1862.
Loser (R.) Hamburg und Liibeck, die freien und Hansestadte. 2 vols. 8.
Miinchen, 1858-9.
Neddermeyer (F. H.) Zur Statistik und Topographie der freien und Hanse-
stadt Hamburg und deren Gebiet. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1860.
Wichman (£. H.) Topographisohe, historische und statistische Beschreibung
Ton Hamburg. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
NOBTH GEBMANT — LUBBCK.
179
ZIX. LUBECK
Constitiition, Bevenue, and Population.
The free city and state of Lubeck is governed according to the
constitution of Dec. 29, 1851. The main features of this charter
are two representative bodies, the Senate, exercising the executive,
and the BUrgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising the legislative
authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen members, elected for
life, and presided over by two burgomasters, who hold office for two
years each, and retire in rotation. There are 120 members in the
House of Burgesses, chosen by all citizens who are members of any
of the twelve colleges, or guilds of the town. A committee of thirty
burgesses, presided over by a chairman elected for two years, has
the duty of representing the legislative assembly in the intervals of
the or£nary sessions, and of carrying on all active business. The
House of Burgesses has the initiative in all measures relative to the
public expenditure, foreign treaties, and general legislation ; while
the Senate, entrusted chiefly with the executive government, has
also to give its sanction to the passing of every mew law.
The high court of appeal for the four Free Cities of Germany —
remnant of the old Hanseatic League — is established at Lilbeck. It
is composed of a President, nominated by the Houses of Senators of
the four cities, and six councillors chosen by the fom* Houses of
Burgesses ; the first four by each city in rotation ; the fifth
alternately by Frankfort and Bremen; and the sixth twice by
Hamburg and once by Lubeck.
The budgets ol* Lubeck were as follows, for each of the six year^
1868 to 1863 :—
Years
ReyeBae
Ezpendknre
1868
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
Ifarks CuTKnt
1,076,000
1,096,600
1,101,660
1,293,700
1,309,000
1,334,460
67,260
68,476
68,847
80,866
81,812
83,403
Marks Current
1,076,000
1,096,600
1,101,660
1,293,700
1,309,000
1,300,214
£
67,260
68,476
68,847
80,866
81,812
81,263
Nearly one-third of the revenues are derived from public domains^
chiefly iforests ; another third from excise duties, and the rest mostly
from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-half goes for the
interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting to
x2
i8o
NOKTH GEKMANT — ^LUBECE.
about four millions and a half marks, or 264,700/. The greater
part of this debt dates from the period of the French occupation, in
1806 and following years.
To the army of tibe ex-Confederation Lubeck had to contribute 679
men, namely 536 infantry, 85 cavalry, and 58 artillery. By a
military convention with Oldenburg, of Feb. 26, 1861, the latter
country furnished the artillery against an annual subsidy. The
troops were raised partly by conscription and partly by enlistment,
substitution being allowed in all cases. The time of service was two
years, with eighteen months' additional inscription among the troops
of the reserve.
There exists a militia of burgesses, in which all citizens between
the ages of twenty-two and thirty-five are enrolled. The troops
thus formed possess, however, but slight military organisation.
According to tlie census of 1861, the state comprises a territory of
109^ square miles, with a population of 44,357. They are all
Lutherans, with the exception of about 400 Calvinists, 200 Roman
Catholics, and 500 Jews. The State is divided into three districts,
namely, first, the city itself; secondly, the suburbs ; and thirdly,
the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of territory
surrounded by Hoist ein and Mecklenburg. The population of
each of these districts was as follows at the enumerations of
1857 and 1861 :—
Districts
1857
1862
Maljs
Females
Total
Total
City ....
Suburbs
Kural Distriets
Total .
12,338
1,910
6,240
14,334
2,135
6,268
26,672
4,045
12,508
27,249
4,649
12,459
20.488
22,737
43,225
44,357
The state of Lubeck, as at present constituted, was mapped out by
the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, after having formed part of the
French department called Bouches de I'Elbe.
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of imports, inclusive i^ecie, into LUbeck, from
various countries, in each of the years 1862 and 1863, was as
follows:-—
UONIir, TnSIOHTS, AND HEASCBES.
l8l
Ckjontries
By Sea,
Belgium
Denmark Proper
Sleswick
Holstein
Ghreat Britain . . . .
France
Bremen
Holland
Mecklenburg . . . .
Norway
Prussia
Bussia and Finland .
Sweden . ' .
Total .
By Land and River,
KaU
Other conveyances by land
River
1862
1863
Total
f Marks
1 £
Marks Current
89,370
496,225
148,280
921,392
1,741,247
1,019,664
337,356
97,079
107,217
69,944
742,280
11,827,005
3,865,899
21,462,947
38,624,129
4,491,230
814,356
65,392,662
4,087,041
Marks Current
87,304
346,164
206,741
1,089,078
1,960,451
1,573,118
199,976
180,916
146,762
86,891
355,134
10,116,085
4,021,188
20,368,798
40,010,811
4,326,035
1,262,701
65,958,345
4,122,396
Lubeck possessed, at the commencement of 1862, fifty-seven
sea-going vessels, among them thirteen steamers. Particulars of
the commerce of the fi*ee city with England will be fbiind under
the head of * Hamburg,' the chief of the Hanse Towns.
Money, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Lubeck, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mark Current . . . . « 1«. 3d
Weights and Measubes.
l!hePfund = 1*07 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonne = 3J bushels.
„ „ of coals ....== 305 lbs. ayoirdupois.
„ Viertd « 1 J gallons.
1 82 NORTH 6ERKANT — ^BRBliEN.
YY BBEMEN.
Constitation, Eevenne, and Popnlatioii.
The Free City of Bremen is governed by a Senate of thirty members,
acting imder the legislative authority of the General Assembly of
citizens, sitting under the name of the BUrgerconvent, or Convent of
Burgesses. The Convent is divided into committees, and presided
over by members of the College of Aldermen, in whom is vested a
portion of the executive power. Two burgomasters, the first elected
for six years and a half, and the second for four years, direct the
afiairs of the Senate, through a Ministry divided into eight depart-
ments, namely. Foreign Affairs, Church and Education, Justice,
Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary Administration, Military
Affairs, and Commerce and Shipping. All the ministers are
senators.
The pubUc revenue for the year, 1864 amounted to 1,876,644
thalers, or 302,174/., and the expenditure to 1,849,799 thalers, or
297,724/. Very nearly one-half the revenue is raised by indirect
taxes ; while about the same amount is expended for interest and
reduction of the public debt. The latter amoimted, in 1862, to
11,734,165 thalers, or 1,760,124Z. This sum includes a railway
loan of four million of thalers, at 4^ per cent., negotiated in 1859.
A peculiarity of Bremen is the payment of the income tax, assessed
at 1 per cent, of the income on all property above 500 thalers, or
75/. per annum. Only the first five thalers, or fifteen shillings, are
paid publicly to the tax-gatherer ; and whatever sum is due above
this amount, the tax-payer has to throw secretly into a close box
with a slit on the top, in such a manner that it is impossible to
discover what each individual has actually paid. Notwithstanding
this facility for firaud, it is found that the sums annually paid for
income tax surpass considerably the Government estimates.
To the army of the dissolved Confederation Bremen contributed
748 men, of which 101 are cavalry. The whole of the troops of the
infentry were enlisted for a term of five years, at a bounty of 200
thalers, or 30Z., with an annual pay of 40 thalers, or 6Z., besides
board. The cavalry was contributed, according to the terms of a
military convention, by Oldenburg, which state also fiimished most
of the commissioned officers.
The population amoimted, in 1858, to 89,836 souls, and, after
the calculations of the registrar-general of births and deaths, had
risen, in the year 1862, to 98,575. The state comprises an area
of 106 Englidi square miles, divided into the city proper, with
67,217 inhabitants — according to the returns of 1861; the rural
TBADE AND COMMERCE.
183
districts, with 20,923 ; the township of Vegesack, with 3,942 ; and
the port and city of Bremerhayen, with 6,493 inhabitants.
The female population of Bremen exceeds the male by about
1,000 souls. The inhabitants, according to their religious confessions,
are: — Lutherans about 63,000, Reformed about 30,000, Catholics
about 4,000, Christians of other denominations and Jews about 1,600.
Jews have but recently begun to have their domicile in Bremen, as
it was only after 1849 that equal rights were accorded to them, in
pursuance of the new constitution introduced in that year. However,
even at present, no Jew can become a Bremen citizen without the
special permission of the Senate.
The territory of Bremerhaven was bought from the Hanoverian
Government in the year 1827, for the simi of 77,200 thalers, and has
proved of great advantage to the State as a seaport.
Trade and Commerce.
Bremen has a very important transit trade. The subjoined table
gives the number of sea-going ships which entered and cleared in
each of the seven years 1857-63 : —
Entered
Cleared
Yeais
Number of Ships
Lasts (of 4,000 lbs.
each)
Number of Ships
Lasts (of 4,000 lbs.
each)
1858
2,929
269,674
3,043
280,837
1869
2,798
282,624
3,100
289,546
1860
2,922
284,158
3,459
305,893
1861
3,J61
290,142
3,100
299,199
1862
2,775
269,803
3,146
286,343
1863
2,947
282,119
3,437
308,566
The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to Bremen
in each of the years 1858-63, was as follows : —
Years
Sailing and Steam Vessels
Steamers
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
279
262
267
253
277
302
181,204
164,892
164,750
165,736
181,870
206,324
11
9
8
9
9
10
19,618
11,870
11,310
16,744
16,780
19,608
184 NOBTH GBKMANY— BREMBN,
The value of the imports into Bremen in 1863 was 67,145,146
dollars, and that of the exports 60,406,456 dollars, which, compared
with the year 1862, was an increase of 144,283 dollars in the im-
ports, and a decrease of 968,260 dollars in the exports.
Money, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Bremen, and the British
eqidvalents, are : —
Money.
The Thaler, or Dollar , . = 35. id,
Weights and Measuees.
The Pfund . . . = 1*10 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Last of grain . . = lOi imperial quarters.
„ „ of coal . . a 2 tons.
„ Tonne of train oil . = 25 imperial gallons.
„ „ of herrings . = barrel containing from 800 to 900
herrings.
„ „ ofhnseed . =*= 3| bushels.
i8s
THE STATES OP SOUTH GERMANY.
I. BAVAEIA.
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Lndwig II., King of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine,
bom August 25, 1845, the son of Eling Maximilian 11. and his
consort, Queen Maria, daughter of the late Prince William
of Prussia ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
March 10, 1864.
Brother of the King. — Prince Otho, bom April 27, 1848.
Mother of the King. — Maria^ Queen of Bavaria, bom October 15,
1825, second daughter of the late Prince William of Prussia, imcle
of King William I.
Uncles and Aunts of the King. — 1. Prince Otho, born Jime 1,
1815 ; elected King of Greece, October 5, 1832 ; deposed by decree
of the Greek National Assembly, February 4, 1863 ; married No-
vember 22, 1836, to Princess Amalia of Oldenburg, bom December
21, 1818. 2. Prince Luitpold^ born March 12, 1821, General in the
Bavarian army ; married April 15, 1844, to Archduchess Augusta of
Austria, born April 1, 1825. Offspring of the imion are three sons :
Ludwig, bom January 7, 1845 ; Leopold, born February 9, 1846 ;
and Amulph, bom July 6, 1852 : and one daughter, Theresa, bom
November 12, 1850. 3. Princess ^c?eZ^wwc?a, bom March 19, 1823;
married March 30, 1842, to the Archduke of Austria-Este, late
reigning Duke of Modena, Francis V. 5. Princess Alexandra, bom
August 26, 1826. 6. Prince Adelhert, bom July 19, 1828, Major-
General in the Bavarian army ; married August 25, 1856, to Princess
Amalia, Infanta of Spain, bom October 12, 18*34. Issue of the
marriage are two sons and one daughter, namely, Ludwig Fer*
dinand, bom at Madrid, October 22, 1859 ; Alfonso, bom January
24, 1862 ; and Isabella, bom August 31, 1863.
Grandfather of the King. — Bang Ludwig, bom August 25, 1786 ;
succeeded his fether, King Maximilian Joseph, October 13, 1825 ;
abdicated the throne in fiivour of his eldest son, Maximilian, March
21, 1848 ; married, in 1810, to Princess Therese of Saxe-Altenburg,
who died in 1854. Author of a volume of poems, * Gedichte,' 4 vols.,
1 86 SOUTH GBRMANT— BATARU.
Munich, 1829 ; third edition, 1839 ; and of a work in prose, * Wal-
Lalla's Genossen,' ih, 1843.
Cheat- Uncles and Chreat- Aunts of the King, — 1. Empress Char^
lotte, bom February 8, 1792, widow of the late Emperor Francis I.
of Austria. 2. Prince Charles, bom July 7, 1795, field-marshal in
the Bavarian service ; married, in 1808, to Mdlle. BoUey, who died
in 1838; married, in second nuptials. May 11, 1859, to Mdlle.
Henrietta von Frankenburg. 3. Queen Elizabeth, born November
13, 1801, widow of the late Kling Frederick William of Prussia. The
Queen is twin-sister of 4. Queen Anialia, bom November 13, 1801 ;
married November 21, 1822, to King Johann of Saxony. 5. Princess
Sophia, bora January 27, 1805; married November 4, 1824, to
Archduke Francis Charles of Austria. The princess is twin-sister of
6. Queen Maria, born January 27, 1805, widow of the late King
Frederick Augustus of Saxony. 7. Princess i^w«?omca, bom August
30, 1808; married, September 9, 1828, to Duke Maximilian in
Bavaria.
United with the Royal Family of Bavaria is the branch line
of the Dukes in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Deux-Ponts-
Birkenfeld. The head of this house is
Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, bom December 4, 1808, General
of Cavalry in the Bavarian service ; married September 9, 1828, to
Princess Ludovica of Bavaria. Issue of the marriage are three sons
and five daughters, namely, 1. Prince Ladwig, bom Jime 21, 1831.
2. Princess Helena, bom April 4, 1834, married August 24, 1858,
to Prince Maximilian of Thum-und-Taxis. 3. Empress Elizabeth,
bom December 24, 1837, married April 24, 1854, to Francis Joseph
I., Emperor of Austria. 4. Prince Theodore, bom August 9, 1839.
6. Princess Maria, bom October 4, 1841, married February 3,
1859, to the then King of the Two Sicilies, Francis of Bourbon. 6.
Princess Mathilde, born September 30, 1843, married Jime 5,
1861, to Louis of Bourbon, Coimt di Trani. 7. Princess Charlotte,
bom February 22, 1847. 8. Prince Maximilian, bom December 7,
1849.
The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants, in
the female line, of the ancient Counts of "Wittelsbach, who flourished
in the twelfiih century. Duke Maximilian I. of Bavaria was elevated
to the rank of Elector of the Holy Eoman Empire, in the Thirty-
Years' War, in recompense for his opposition to Protestantism ; and
Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised to the rank of king by
Napoleon I. in 1806. The latter title was acknowledged by all the
European Powers in 1815, at the Congress of Vienna.
The large income of the sovereigns of Bavaria, from private domains,
and other sources, has been extensively curtailed of late, under the
constitutional government. The civil Hat of the king and the other
CONSTITUTION AND OOYEBNIOBNT. 1 87
members of the royal family amoimts at present to 249,633/., and
strict supervision is exercised by the Chamber of Representatives that
this amomit be not exceeded. In 1849, it was discovered that ex-
Eling Ludwig had taken sums amounting to 1,629,000 florins, or
127,400/., from the public exchequer without accounting for them ;
whereupon the Chamber demanded the restitution of the money,
which His Majesty was forced to give from his private purse. Some
details of distribution of the civil list are given under liie particulars
of the budget of the kingdom.
ConstitatioiL and Ooyemment
The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 25, 1818 ;
but various modifications were introduced in 1848-9. The Crown
is hereditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole
executive power; but his ministers are responsible for all his acts.
The legislative ftmctions are exercised jointly by the king and Par-
liament, the latter consisting of an Upper and a Lower House. The
Upper House — Chamber of Eeicksrdthe, or councillors of the realm
— ^is formed of the princes of the royal femily, the crown dignitaries,
the archbishops, and the heads of certain old noble families, all these
being hereditary members ; to which are added a Roman Catholic
bishop and a Protestant clergyman nominated by the king, and an
unlimited number of other members appointed by the Crown. The
Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies of
towns and universities, and various religious corporations. To be a
deputy, it is necessary to be past thirty, and to be in possession of an
assured income, from ftinds, a trade, or profession ; to be on the
electoral lists, it is required to be twenty -five years of age, and to
be rated at a minimmn of ten florins, or I65. 8c?. per annum. The
representation of the country is calculated at the rate of one
deputy to 7,000 families, or about 35,000 souls, of the whole popu-
lation.
The executive is carried on, in the name of the king, by a
Staatsrath, or Coimcil of State, consisting of seven members, besides
three princes of the blood-royal ; and the Ministry of State, divided
into seven departments, namely: —
1. The Ministry of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs.—
Louis, Baron von der PfordteUy appointed December 4, 1864.
2. The Ministry of Justice. — ^Edward von Bomhard^ appointed
August 1, 1864.
3. The Ministry of the Interior. — ^Max von Neumayr^ appointed
May 1, 1859.
4. The Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Nicolaus
von Kochy appointed August 1, 1864.
l88 SOUTH aBKMANY — BATAJtlA.
5. The Ministry of Finance. — Benno von Pfeufer, appointed July
1, 1859.
6. The Ministry of Commerce and Public "Works. — Adolf von
Pfretzscher, appointed January 1, 1865.
7. The War Department. — Colonel Edward Luz, appointed
August 12, 1863.
Church and Edncation.
Rather more than two-thirds of the population of Bavaria are
Roman Catholics. In the census of 1861, as well as the pre-
ceding one of 1858, the religious persuasion of the inhabitants is not
stated ; and in the last in which this has been the case, that of 1852,
the numbers stand as follows : — Catholics, 3,176,333 ; Protestants,
1,233,894 — subdivided into Lutherans, 906,386 ; Calvinists, 2,431 ;
and Unitarians, 325,077 — Mennonites* and Greek Catholics, 5,560 ;
and Jews, 56,033. The kingdom is divided into 2 Roman Catholic
archbishoprics, those of Munich and Bamberg; 6 bishoprics; 171
deaneries ; and 2,756 parishes. The administration of the Protestant
Church is under a General Consistory — Oher-consistonum — and four
provincial consistories. Of the three universities of the kingdom, two, at
Mimich and "Wiirzbui'g, are Roman Catholic, and one, at Erlangen,
Protestant. Among the Roman Catholics there is one clergyman to
464 souls; among the Protestants, one to 1,013. The Roman
Catholic Church is richly endowed, possessing, according to semi-
official statements, property amounting to above 100 millions of
florins, or 8,500,000/. A large proportion of this wealth consists of
landed estates, which are annually increasing in value. Thus, the
property was stated to be worth 79 millions of florins in 1838,
and 92 millions in 1851. The State, besides, pays 1,562,000
florins, or 130,000/., annually to the clergy. The Archbishop of
Munich has a Government salary of 20,000 florins, or 1,667/., and
the Archbishop of "Wurzburg, 15,000 florins, or 1,250/. Three ot
the bishops have an allowance of 10,000 florins, and the other
three of 8,000, exclusive of episcopal residences. The Constitution
guarantees complete religious liberty to all inhabitants of the State,
and Protestants as well as other dissenters enjoy imrestricted freedom
of worship, and are eligible to all civil offices and military appoint-
ments.
In the year 1861 there were in the kingdom 7,126 schools, with
8,205 teachers. . Elementary schools — Volks-schulen — exist in all
parishes, and attendance on them is compulsory for all children till
the age of fourteen.
* Mennonites are the peaceable and well-to-do descendants of the once fierce
Anabaptists.
BETENUE AND EXPENDITUBE.
189
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The budget of the kingdom is calculated for the lengthened
term of six years, which counts as a financial period. The annual
revenue, as stated in the budgets for each of the two periods, 1856-
60, and 1861-67, was as follows:—
Branches
Annual Revenue
1856-60
1861-67
Direct taxes
Indirect „
Public dues and establishment
Domains
Miscellaneous
Total . {^""^J
Florins
7,317,421
15,810,000
7,612,887
8,137,412
719,695
Florins
9,333,037
18,260,343
9,204,791
9,722,426
200,000
39,597,415
3,299,784
46,720,957
3,893,383
The annual expenditure for the same two periods is given in the
subjoined statement: —
Branches
Public debt
Civil list
Council of State
Diet
Minister of Foreign Af&irs .
„ Justice ....
„ Interior and "Worship .
Courts of justice
Minister of Commerce and Public "Works
Minister of Finance ....
State establishments, education* &c.
District funds
Army
Agriculture
Pensions for widows and orphans
Eeserve fand
Organisation
Total
(Florins
1 £
Annnfti Expenditure
1866-60
Florins
12,719,300
2,982,272
72,963
69,000
460,000
1,578,738
1,074,226
1,681,036
226,663
816,860
7,751,078
486,046
9,076,900
624,393
626,000
676,000
689,489
41,396,862
3,449,733
1861-67
Florins
13,666,376
3,996,604
74,906
76,000
472,712
3,373,192
1,799,037
262,846
879,712
8,399,036
503,900
11,415,000
774,003
716,000
1,008,274
475,000
46,720,597
3,893,383
190
SOUTH GERMANT — ^BAVAKIA.
The subjoined table gives the total amount of the public debt of
the kingdom from 1851 to 1862 ;—
Years
Public Debt
BaUwaj Debt
Total
Florins
Florins
Florins
£
1851
136,995,620
—
136,996,620
11,416,302
1853
131,418,168
63,743,000
185,161,668
16,430,130
1854
129,386,602
66,703,700
196,090,302
16,340,858
1855
134,045,964
72,369,700
206,416,664
17,201,305
1858
122,839,496
88,643,834
211,483,529
17,623,629
1859
123,280,680
90,913,134
316,493,364
26,374,447
1862
136,293,375
104,735,659
342,903,514
28,576,292
The greater number of the railways in Bavaria, constructed at a
cost of 104 million florins, are, as already stated — under Germany —
the property of the State.
Army.
The armed force of the kingdom comprises the permanent army,
the army of reserve, and the Landwehr, or militia. All men, from
the age of 21, are liable to serve, with the exception of the upper
nobility — hohe Adel — who are entirely free from conscription ; while
the sons of the lower nobility and superior employes in the service
of the State have the privilege of entering the military school of
cadets. The period of service is six years. The purchase of sub-
stitutes is permitted by law, and takes place very extensively.
During the years 1851-61, the troops of the kingdom amounted to
the fixed number of 84,708 men, of whom 61,509 were in the per-
manent army, and 23,199 men in the army of reserve. This nimi-
ber was largely increased in 1861 : the Chambers, after long and
stormy debates, having granted ftmds for the maintenance of 105,757
troops, namely, 81,337 for the permanent army, and 24,420 for the
army of reserve. These ti*oops comprise : —
Permanent
Army of
Total
16 Kegiments of infantry .
Army
Beserve
68,667
13,360
72,017
6 Battalions of Jager
6,130
744
6,874
2 Regiments of heavy cavalry .
2,146
464
2,610
6 „ light
6,433
1,392
7,826
4 „ artillery .
7,653
4,835
12,388
1 „ engineers.
1,418
423
1,841
StaflS garrison, troops, &c
Total . ,.
—
3,202
3,202
8i;337
24,420
106,767
POPULATION.
191
The law requires the existence of a Landwehr all over the
kingdom: but practically it is to be found only in a few of
the larger towns of the kingdom, and very indifferently organised.
It is acknowledged by the Government that the force is left to
decay.
The nobility is more strongly represented in the army of Bavaria
than in almost any other German State. According to a semi-official
statement, the troops of the kingdom were officered, at the end of
1862, by 7 princes, 8 dukes, 9 FUrsten, 95 counts, 329 barons, and 362
simple nobles— bearing the title von — altogether 805 nobles against
1,529 untitled officers. This list leaves quite iDut of account the
junior lieutenants, ensigns, and officers of lower degree, in the ranks
of which the nobility is still more numerous, filling above a moiety
of the places. Among the titular owners of regiments are 2
emperors, 5 kings, 1 queen, 5 reigning princes, 1 duke, and 1 grand-
duke.
Population.
The kingdom is divided, for administrative purposes, into eight
Kreise, or circles, of the following extent and population, accordLig
to the census returns of December, 1861, and of December,
1864 :—
Circles
Area in
English
flqnare miles
Population
in 1861
Population
in 18M
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria .
Palatinate
Upper Palatinate
XJpper Franconia
Middle Franconia
Lower Franconia
Snabia .
6,614
4,113
2,206
4,198
2,226
2,798
3,604
3,868
778,659
675,338
608,069
485,895
616,743
646,285
601,768
578,190
818,486
683,969
626,167
490,292
627,647
662,826
617,819
681,266
Total
.
•
29,617
4,689,837
4,807,440
There were detached iiom Bavaria and annexed to Prussia, in
consequence of the war of 1866, several small districts north of th^
river Maine, embracing a territory of 291 English square miles, with
a population of 32,470.
The increase of population in the kingdom has been comparatively
192
SOUTH aERMANT— BATAKIA.
Bmall within the last half-century, as shown in the subjoined
table : —
Population
Circles
1818
1865
1858
1861
Upper Bavaria .
685,467
744,151
767,989
778,659
Lower Bavaria ,
460,895
654,013
667,001
675,338
Palatinate
446,168
687,334
695,129
608,069
Upper Palatinate
403,481
471,900
479,341
485,896
Upper Franconia
394,964
499,913
609,770
616,743
Middle Franconia
437,838
633,587
637,492
545,285
Lower Franconia
501,212
589,076
698,634
601,758
Suabia
487,961
661,676
670,492
678,190
Total
•
3,707,966
4,641,466
4,616,748
4,689,837
The soil of the kingdom is divided among 947,010 proprietors :
the division being greatest in the Palatinate, namely, 228,976, and
smallest in Upper Bavaria, viz. 109,195. It is stated, on official
authority, that the industrial population of the kingdom has been
decreasing very nearly nine per cent, within the last ten years. This
is ascribed to the system of industrial protection prevailing to the
present day, nearly all trades being united in guilds, possessing great
privileges and monopolies.
The occupations of the people were, according to the same source,
in every thousand inhabitants, during two periods : —
Agriculture
Lidustry and commerce
Civil service, fund-holders, &c
Military service .
Paupers, on public charity .
1840
657
267
64
14
18
1852
679
227
55
19
20
The population of the principal towns of the kingdom was as
follows at the end of each of the years 1858 and 1861 : —
M\mich
Niiremberg
Augsburg
Wiirzburg
Eatisbon
Bamberg
Population
1858
1861
137,095
148,201
69,177
62,797
43,616
45,389
36,052
36,119
25,856
27,875
23,466
23,542
SOUTH GERMANY— WUKTBMBBRG. I93
The number of illegitimate births is very large. They amounted
in 1861 to nearly 10 per cent, in the Palatinate, and from 20 to 25
per cent, in the other provinces. In the city of Munich the number
of illegitimate births has, in many years, surpassed that of children
borA in wedlock. Of late years, the emigration has been very
large from Bavaria: during the years 1851 to 1861, nearly 10,000
persons, on the average, left the coimtry annually.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bavaria.
1. Officiaii Publications.
Hof- Qnd Staats-Handbuch des Konigreichs Bajern. 8. Miinclien, 1866.
Die Yolkszahlung im Konigreiche Bayem von December 1864. Heraus-
gegeben vom k. statistischen Bureau. Munehen, 1865.
Report by Mr. Bonar, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Agriculture,
Bail ways, and Postal Administration of Bavaria, dated July 15, 1862 ; in
* Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Legation Embassy,' &c. No. VI. London,
1863.
BepOTts by Mr. Bonar, H. M.'8 Secretary of Legation, on the Agriculture,
Commerce, Industry, and Finance of Bavaria, dated July 15, 1863, and Jan.
16, 1864; in * Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VII.
London, 1864.
Non-Official Publications.
Grubel (Reg.-Fimktionar J. V.) Greographisch-statistisches Hand-Lexikou
uber das Konigreich Bayern. Nach den zuverlassigsten Quellen bearbeitet.
8. Wupzburg, 1864.
Hermann (Dr. von) Beitrage zur Statistik von Bayem. 8. Miinchen,
1850-64.
Kdlner (Aug.) Statistisches Amts-Handbuch f. den k. bayerischen Regie-
rongsbezirk Schwaben und Neuburg. 8. Augsburg 1862.
Ursprung (J. C.) Topographisches Lexicon des Konigreichs Bayem,
eingetheilt nach den sammtlichen acht Regierungsbezirken. 8. Wiiizburg,
1864.
II. WTTBTEMBEBG.
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Charles, King of Wurtemberg, born March 6, 1823 ; ascended
the throne at the death of his fkther, King William I., June 25,
1864. Married, July 13, 1846, to Grand-duchess Olga of Russia,
daughter of Czar Nicholas I.
Sisters of the King, — 1. Princess Catharine, bom Aug. 24, 1821 ;
married Nov. 20, 1845, to her cousin, Prince Frederick of Wurtem-
berg. 2. Princess Augusta, bom Oct. 4, 1826, married June 17,
1851, to Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar, major-general in the
service of Wurtemberg.
0
J 94 SOUTH GEBMANT — WnRTEMBEKG.
Half Sisters of the King, — Offspring of the second marriage of
King William L, with Grand-duchess Cafliarine of Russia — 1. Princess
Maria, bom Oct. 30, 1816 ; married March 19, 1840, to Count
Alfred von Neipperg, eldest son of Count Adam Neipperg, and of
Archduchess Maria Louise of Austria, Duchess of Parma, former
consort of the Emperor Napoleon I. 2. Princess Sophia, bom
June 17, 1818 ; married June 18, 1839, to King William III. of
the Netherlands.
Cousins of the King. — 1. Prince Frederick, bom Feb. 21, 1808,
the son of Duke Paul of WurtjBmberg, uncle of the king, and of
Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg ; married Nov. 20, 1845, to
his cousin, Princess Catharine, daughter of King William I. Issue
of the union is a son, Prince William, bom Feb. 25, 1848. 2.
Prince Augustus, brother of the preceding, bom Jan. 24, 1813,
general of cavalry in the service of Wurtemberg. 3. Princess
Charlotte, sister of the preceding, bom Jan. 9, 1807; married,
Feb. 20, 1824, to Grand-duke Michael of Russia ; widow, Sept. 9,
1849.
Other Relatives of the King, — 1. Princess Elizabeth, bom Feb. 17,
1802, the daughter of Duke Loids of Wurtemberg, uncle of the
king; married Oct. 16, 1830, to Margrave William of Baden;
widow, Oct. 11, 1859. 2. Prince Alexander, brother of the pre-
ceding, bom Sept. 9, 1804; married May 2, 1835, to Claudine,
daughter of Count Rh^day of Transylvania, created at the marriage
Countess von Hohenstein; widower, Oct. 1, 1841. Issue of the
union are one son and two daughters, namely, Francis, bom Aug.
27, 1837, created Prince von Teck Dec. 1, 1863, and married to
Princess Mary of Cambridge June 12, 1866 ; Claudine, born Feb.
11, 1836 ; and Amelia, bom Nov. 12, 1838, and married in 1863
to Baron von Hugel, captain in the Austrian cavalry. 3. Princess
Maria, bom March 25, 1818, daughter of Duke Eugene of Wurtem-
berg, nephew of the king; married Oct. 9, 1845, to Landgrave Charles
of Hesse-Philippsthal. 4. Prince Eugene, brother of the preceding,
bom Dec. 25, 1820 ; married, July 15, 1843, to Princess Mathilde of
Schaumburg-Lippe. Issue of the imion are one son and two daugh-
ters, namely, Wilhelmine, bom 1844, Eugene, bom 1846, and Pauline,
bom 1854. 5. Prince William, brother of the preceding, bom July
20, 1828 ; colonel of infantry in the service of Austria. 6. Princess
Alexandrine, sister of the preceding, bom Dec. 16, 1829. 7. Prince
Nicholas, brother of the preceding, bom March 1, 1833 ; major in
the Austrian army. 8. Princess Louise, sister of the preceding,
born Oct. 13, 1835 ; married Feb. 6, 1858, to Prince Henry XIV.
of Reuss-Schleiz. 9. Prince Eberhard, bom May 25, 1833, the
son of Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg, nephew of King William I.
10. Princess Wilhelmina, sister of the preceding, bom July 24, 1834.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 1 95
11. Princess Pauline^ sister of the preceding, bom Aug. 8, 1836 ;
married April 25, 1857, to Maximilian von Wuthenau, lieutenant in
the service of Saxony. 12. Prince Charles Alexander^ brother of
the preceding, bom March 29, 1839. 13. Prince -Pre(]?encife Williamj
bom July 6, 1810, son of Duke Eugene of Wurtemberg, uncle of
King William I.; married, in 1841, to Duchess Theodolinde von
Leuchtenberg ; widower, April 1, 1857. Issue of the union are four
daughters, bearing the title of Countesses von Leuchtenberg. 14.
Princess Frederica Maria^ sister of the preceding, bom May 29,
1815 ; married Sept. 17, 1842, to Count Taubenheim, master of the
horse at the court of Wurtemberg. 15. Prince William Alexander ,
bom Dec. 20, 1804, the son of Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg,
uncle of King William I. ; married Oct. 17, 1837, to Princess Maria
of Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe, Kling of the French ;
widower, Jan. 2, 1839. Issue of the union is one son. Prince Philip,
bom July 30, 1838, major of the 7th regiment of dragoons in the
service of Austria.
The former duchy of Wurtemberg was erected into a kingdom by
the Emperor Napoleon, by decree of Jan. 1, 1806 ; having been
enlai^ed previously by the annexation of the territories of a number
of small princes and ecclesiastical dignitaries. The congress of
Vienna acknowledged the change, in consideration of the timely
transference of the troops of King Frederick I. to the army of the
Allies. William I., the second king, soon after his accession gained
the goodwill of his subjects by the grant of a constitution, as well as
the satisfactory settlement of the question of right in the royal
domains, or property of the crown. The civil list of the king was
fixed at a sum of 882,400 florins, or 73,566/., with an additional
amount for the other members of the royal femily, according to
number.
The dukes of Wurtemberg were among the first German princes
to embrace Protestantism ; the reigning house, however, in 1776,
became Roman Catholic, but subsequently returned to the creed of
Luther. King William I. adheres to Protestantism, while some ol*
the members of his family, allied to Eussia, have gone over to the
Greek faith, and others have become converts to the Church of
Rome.
Constitation and Ooyemment.
The constitution of Wurtemberg bears date Sept. 25, 1819. The
charter provides for absolute jfreedom of person and of property ;
liberty of conscience and of speech, and limited Uberty of the press.
All citizens are to be equal before the law, and no privileges and no
monopolies of rank and birth are allowed to exist. In the king rests the
02
196 SOUTH GERMANY — WURTEMBERG.
sole executive power, but which has to be exercised through ministers
responsible to the country. The legislative power is given jointly to
the king and the representatives of the people, and the mutual consent
of both parties is requisite to give decrees of either the head of State or
the Chambers the force of law. The Parliament, or Landtag, consists
of two Houses, called together every three years, or oftener if ne-
cessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is composed
of the members of the royal family, the heads of the piincipal noble
iamilies of the coimtry, the representatives of certain territories
and estates possessing formerly a vote in the German Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king for life, such number,
however, not to exceed one-third of that of the whole House. The
second Chamber, or House of Deputies — Abgeordneten — consists of
13 members of the nobility, elected by the Ritterschaft, or noblesse
of the kingdom ; 6 superintendents of the Protestant Church ; one
Roman Catholic bishop ; two other representatives of Roman Catholic
bodies ; the chancellor of the university of Tubingen ; and 71 deputies
of towns and rural districts. AU the members of the second Chamber
are chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; pro-
perty qualification is not necessary. To be a member of the first
Chamber it is suflicient to be of age. The president of both Houses
is appointed by the king ; for the Upper House without restriction
of person, and for the lower, from among three members elected by
the deputies. The debates of the second Chamber are public,
and have to be printed and distributed among the various consti-
tuencies. Whenever Parliament is not sitting, it is represented by a
committee of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both
Chambers, two members of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House.
A special court of justice, called the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed
guardian of the constitution and rights and privileges of the
Houses of Parliament. It is composed of a president and twelve
members, six of which, together with the president, are nominated
by the king, while the other six are elected by the combined
Chambers.
The executive of the kingdom consists of six ministerial depart-
ments, presided over by the king, or a member of the royal femily
nominated by his majesty. The departments are : —
1. The Ministry of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs. —
FreiheiT von VarnbUhler, appointed Sept. 24, 1864.
2. The Ministiy of Justice. — ^Freiherr von Neurath, appointed
Oct. 6, 1864.
3. The Ministry of the Interior. — Herr von Gessler, appointed
Sept. 24, 1864.
4. The Ministry of Education and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr.
Ooltherj appointed April 5, 1861.
CHITKCH AND EDUCATION. 1 97
5. The Ministry of Finance. — Herr von Rentier ^ appointed Oct. 6,
1864.
6. The Ministry of War. — General Oscar von Hardegg, appointed
May 7, 1866.
Not quite in accordance with the spirit of the constitution, the
king exercises the executive functions at times through a Geheimes
Cabinet, or secret cabinet, the chief of which, independent of the
ministry, and in reality above it, is Freiherr von Maucler, royal
chamberlain.
Church and Education.
The last census of Wurtemberg, of Dec. 3, 1861, states the reli-
gious creed of the inhabitants as follows : — ^Evangelical Protestants,
1,179,814 ; Roman Catholics, 527,057 ; Dissenters of various
denominations, 2,499 ; and Jews, 11,388. The 'Evangelical Pro-
testant ' Church of Wurtemberg was formed in 1823, by a imion of
the Lutherans and the Calvinists, or Reformers. The administration
of the Protestant Church is in the hands of six general superinten-
dents, at Ulm, Ludwigsburg, Reutlingen, Hall, Heilbronn, and
Tubingen. In the king is vested, according to the constitution, the
supreme direction as well as the guardianship' — obersthoheitliche
Schutz imd Aufsichtsrecht — of the Evangelical Protestant Church,
which is considered, though not formally declared, the religion of the
State. The Roman Catholics are under a bishop, who has his seat at
Rotenburg, but who, in all important matters, has to act in conjunc-
tion with a Catholic church-coimcil— Kirchenrath — appointed by
the government. The Jews likewise are under a special board,
nominated by the minister of ecclesiastical affairs. Most independent
of the State are the small number of Christian Dissenters, including
a very singular sect called the Komthaler.
Education stands very high in Wurtemberg. It was ascertained
irom official returns, in 1840, that there was not an individual in
the kingdom, above the age of ten, unable to read and write. There
are above 2,500 elementary schools, besides numerous seminaries
for imparting a classical education ; four Protestant and two Roman
Catholic training establishments for ministers, and seven coUeges, at
Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm, Ellwangen, Ludwigsburg, Hall, and
Rottweil. The whole educational system is centred in the imiver-
sity of Tubingen, founded in 1477, which is attended, on the average,
by nearly a thousand students.
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The Chambers grant the budget for the term of three years, com-
mencing on the first of July. The last budget embraces the period
beginning July 1, 1861, and ending June 30, 1864. For this
198 SOUTH GERMANY — WUBTBMBERa.
financial period of three years, the income amounted to 47,182,643
florins, or 3,931,887/., and the expenditure to the same sum. The
accounts of public income and expenditure are made out in a very
comprehensive manner, distinguishing between gross revenue and
net income. For the year 1861-2, the figures were as follows,
according to the published statements : —
Gross inoome for the year 1861-8 Ket income for the year 1861-2
Florins Florins
From the crown lands . 1,264,285 795,072
forests 4,715,156 2,411,300
„ pnblic mines and
fimiaces . . 2,925,527 359,500
„ pnblicsaltworks,&c 1,598,585 904,000
„ state-railways . 5,617,763 1,891,010
„ post-office and tele-
graphs . . 1,746,100 236,000
„ steamer on the lake
ofCk>nstance . 184,635 24,165
,, steamers on the
river Neckar . 20,200 2,750
Customs and indirect
taxes . . . 5,057,955 4,505,035
Direct taxes . . 4,753,007 3,974,889
Miscellaneons income . . . 120,000
Total. . 27,883,213, or £2,323,601 15,213,701, or £1,267,808
Ezpenditnre fbr the year 1861-2
Florins
Civil list of the king 882,400
Allowances to other members of the royal family . 244,792
Public debt 3,527,665
Salaries and pensions 940,130
Department of foreign affairs 213,866
„ of justice 1,068,685
„ of the interior 1,752,968
„ of education and ecclesiastical affairs . 1,947,019
,» of war 3,586,249
„ of finance 811,270
Parliamentary representation 178,687
Miscellaneous 70,065
Total 16,223,786, or £1,268,649
Deficit for the year, 10,085 florins, or 841Z.
The public debt of Wurtemberg has more than doubled within the
last twenty years, owing chiefly to the establishment of the railway
lines of the kingdom, the whole of which, without exception, are
State property. According to an official return, published Jtme BOy
1860, there had been expended at that period, both fbr railways and
ABMT. 199
Steamers, a smn of 42,824,956 florins, or 3,568,746/. As the capital
was borrowed at from 3^ to 4^ per cent., and the net income of the
railways, all expenses deducted, and making allowance for wear and
tear, amounted to between six and seven per cent., the investment so
made contributed considerably towards lightening the burthens of
the tax-payers. The length of lines given to the traffic amoimted
on October 15, 1861, to 266 English miles; but this did not com-
plete the whole network of railways, which is expected to be finished
by the end of 1867.
On February 8, 1862, the public debt consisted in-
Old debt, at 6 per cent, interest
Xiew „ 45- „ „ •
»» »» * >» If •
>f »» "J If tf •
f» f» ^a If »i •
Paper money, Bearing no interest
Florins
515,920
30,402,800
21,313,800
15,517,600
4,172
3,000,000
Total .... 70,753,792, or £5,896,149
With the exception of the old debt at 5 per cent., and a small
portion of the new debt at 4^ per cent., the whole of these liabilities
of the State have been incurred since the year 1842.
Army.
The army is formed by conscription, to which all healthy men who
have passed the age of twenty-one are liable. Substitution is allowed.
The nimiber of recruits to be raised is determined every three years
by a special law passed by the Chambers. For the period 1861-4 it
amoimted to 4,600 men annually. The period of service is six years ;
but, as a rule, the, men are sent home on furlough, in the infantry, at
the end of eighteen months, and in the cavalry, at the end of two years,
and they are liable only to be called upon afterwards for occasional
military practice. At the end of six years the active army has no
more claim upon the soldier ; but his name is entered next upon the
register of the Landwehr, or militia for the defence of the country.
Previous to the year 185^, this branch of the military organisation
of the country was completely neglected, and, in feet, existed only
upon paper ; but since that period, regular annual exercises of a
portion of the Landwehr — seldom more than a thousand — ^have been
ordered to take place.
According to official documents laid before the Chambers in the
200
SOUTH GERMANY — ^BAVABIA.
session of 1865, the army of TVurtemberg consisted at that period ol
the following troops: —
8 regiments of infantiy
4 „ of cavalry .
6 companies of artillery
Quartermaster's staff
Total
6,745 men
2,010 „
1,362 „
254 „
10,371 men
This is the * peace-footing,' and represents, as nearly as possible, the
actual number of troops under arms. On the * war-footing * the
number is raised to 25,065 men.
The army of Wurtemberg has decreased while the State has
increased. The old Dukes of Wurtemberg, ruling considerably less
than one-half the territory of the present king, mostly upheld an
army of from 12,000 to 15,000 men — not less than 14,000 during
the Seven Years' War. To Napoleon's *grande armee' the country
had to furnish 12,000. The present organisation of the army dates
from the year 1813 ; but the actual strength of the troops is always
kept at the lowest limit allowed by the laws of the Germanic Diet.
Population.
The kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, of the following
area and population, according to the census of December 3, 1858,
and December 3, 1861 : —
Circles
AreainEng.
sq. miles
Population
1858
1861
Neckar . .
Black Forest ....
Bannbe . . .
Jaxt
Total .
1,306
1,861
2,549
2,124
486,700
425,390
369,006
409,802
497,375
431,676
376,753
414,904
7,840
1,690,898
1,720,708
The increase in population is very slow ; little more than 1^ per
cent, during the three years from 1858 to 1861. It was still less at
former periods, and twice within recent times the census even showed
a decline of population. The numbers were, at the census of
Dec 1849 1,744,595
„ 1852 1,733,263
„ 1855 1,669,720
The results of the census of 1861 given above show that the popida-
tion is still below, in numbers, to 1849, as well as to the enume-»
ration of 1852.
SOUTH GERMANT — BADEN. 201
Emigration draws off a considerable number of the inhabitants.
During the ten years from December 3, 1842, to December 3, 1852,
the country lost from this source 54,285 persons, or 5,428 annually.
In 1853 the number increased largely, and in 1854 it rose to the
extreme amount of 21,144 souls. Failure of the precarious wine
harvest, and so-called * over-population,' are generally assigned as
the causes of this extraordinary exodus.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concenLing
Wurtemberg.
1. Officia.Ii Publications.
Koniglich Wurttembergisches Hof- und Staats-Handbnch, heransgeg. von
dem Konigl. statistisch-topographischen Bureau. 8. Stuttgart, 1866.
. Beschreibung des Konigreich's Wiirttemberg, herausgegeben von dem
Konigl. statistisch-topographischen Bureau. 8. Stuttgart, 1847-64.
Report by Mr. Baillie, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, Agri-
culture, and Finance of Wurtemberg, dated Jan. 31, 1863; in 'Reports of
H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. 6. London, 1863.
Report by Mr. Baillie, H. M.*s Secretary of Legation, on the Manufacturing
Industry of Wurtemberg, dated July, 1863 ; in * Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy,' &c. No. VII. London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Baillie, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and
Manufectures of Wurtemberg, dated Feb. 15, 1866; in 'Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VIII. London, 1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Beger (Th.) Industrie- Gteographie von Wiirttemberg und Baden. 8. Stutt-
gart, 1862.
(r^^^ ( J. P.) Land und Leute Wiirttembergs. 2 vols. 8. Stuttgart, 1861.
Hoek (Dr. Carl Frhr. v.) Die oflfentlichen Abgaben und Schulden. 8. Stutt-
gart, 1864.
Jahrbuchtr fiir vaterlandische Geschichte, Geographic, Statistik, und Topo-
graphic. Herausgeg. vom statistisch-topographischen Bureau. 8. Stuttgart,
1864-66.
Mohl (R von) Das Staatsrecht des Konigreichs Wiirttemberg. 2d. ed. 2
vols. 8. Tiibingen, 1840.
WiJUwarth-Lauterburg (Freiherr Wilh. v.) Der neueste Stand der Wiirttem-
beigischen Ablosungsgesetzgebung. 8. Stuttgart, 1865.
m. BABEK.
Seigning Soveteign and Family.
Frederick I., Grand-duke of Baden, bom September 9, 1826 ;
second son of Grand-dnke Leopold I., and of Princess Sopbia of
Sweden. Ascended the throne of Baden at the death of his father,
April 24) 1852, under the title of * Regent' — ^his elder brother^
202 SOUTH GEBMANY — ^BADEN.
Ludwig, suffering under mental disease, having the nominal honours
and title of Grand-duke allowed to him. Assuming, by patent, the
title of * Grand-duke of Baden,' September 5, 1856. Married, Sep-
tember 20, 1856, to
Louise, Grand-duchess of Baden, bom December 3, 1838, the
daughter of King William I. of Prussia. Offspring of the imion are :
— 1. Frederick TFVZZiam, heir-apparent, bom July 9, 1857. 2. Sophia,
bora August 7, 1862.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke 1. Trinceas Alexandrine,
bom December 6, 1820 ; married, May 3, 1842, to Duke Ernest of
Saxe-Coburg-Grotha. 2. Prince Wilhelm, bora December 18, 1829 :
married, February 11, 1863, to Princess Maria Romanovska, bom
October 16, 1841, daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuch-
tenberg. 3. Prince Charles, born March 9, 1832. 4. .Princess
Marie, horn November 20, 1834; married, September 11, 1858, to
Prince Ernest of Leiningen. 5. Princess Cecilia, bora September 20,
1839 ; married, August 28, 1857, to Grand-duke Michael of Russia,
and, on becoming a conv^*t to the Greek &ith, adopting the name
of Olga Feodorowna.
Mother of the Grand-duke. — Sophia, Grand-duchess of Baden,
bora May 21, 1801, the daughter of King Gustavus TV. Adolphus
of Sweden — who had to quit his country in 1809, and died as
* Colonel Gustavson,' at Lausanne, Switzerland, September 25, 1826
— married to Grand-duke Leopold of Baden, July 15, 1819; widow,
April 24, 1852.
Other Relatives of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess Sophia, bora
August 7, 1834, daughter of the late Margrave Wilhelm of Baden ;
married, November 9, 1858, to Prince Waldemar of Lippe. 2.
Princess Elizabeth, born December 18, 1835, sister of the preceding.
3. Princess Leopoldine, bora February 22, 1887 ; married, September
24, 1862, to Prince Hermann of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. 4. Princess
Josephine, bora October 21, 1813, the daughter of the late Grand-
duke Charles of Baden and Stephanie, adopted daughter of the
Emperor Napoleon I. ; married, October 21, 1834, to Prince Charles
of Hohenzollem-Hechingen. 5. Princess Marie, bom October 11,
1818, sister of the preceding; married, February 23, 1843, to William,
Duke of Hamilton and Brandon ; widow, July 15, 1863.
The title of Grand-duke was given by Napoleon I. to Margrave
Charles Frederick of Baden in 1806, on the occasion of the alliance
of the heir-appar^it of Baden with Stephanie Beauhamais. The
simultaneous addition of several considerable provinces, taken from
Austria and various ^ mediatised ' princes, increased the coimtry
to more than four times its former size, whereby it was raised from
a very small to a second-class power in the German Confederatioii^
, In thcf present reigning House of Baden is the only modem instance
CONSTITUTION AND GOVEBNMENT. 203
— ^in Germany — of the scions of a 'morganatic' marriage having
lurriTed at the throne. With Grand-dnke Ludwig, who died in 1880,
the ' legitimate ' line of the ancient princes of Baden came to an end,
and the reigning family of Bavaria^ the next of kin, were on the
point of taking possession of the land, when Leopold, offspring of a
morganatic alliance of the preceding grand-duke, Charles Frederick,
with a Madame von Geyersberg, came forward and proclaimed him-
self grand-duke. Bavaria threatened war, and a considerable army
actually arrived at the frontier ; but was stopped in its aggressive
movements by the outbreak of the French Revolution of July 1830,
which was followed by attempts at insurrection in many parts of
Grermany. The people of Baden firmly took the part of their non-
l^timate sovereign, and at length King Ludwig of Bavaria withdrew
his troops, contenting himself with entering a solemn protest against
the flo-called usurpation of the crown. However, the reigning family
of Baden have never since been disturbed in their occupation of the
throne by any measures of the princes of Germany.
The very extensive landed property formerly belonging to the
reigning family, and valued at about 50 million florins, or 4, 166,000/.,
has been made over to the State, and the grand-duke is in the
receipt of a civil list of 752,490 florins, or 62,700Z., which includes
the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the
Grand-duke, and the legislative authority in a House of Parliament
composed of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning line who are of age ; the heads of ten noble
£unilies; the proprietors of hereditary landed estates worth 300,000
florins, or 25,000/. ; the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Freiburg ;
the superintendent of the Protestant Church ; two deputies of
Universities; and eight members nominated by the grand-duke,
without regard to rank or birth. The second Chamber is composed
of 63 representatives of the people, 22 of which are elected by
burgesses of towns, and 41 by the inhabitants of rural districts.
Eveiy citizen not convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has
a vote in the elections. To be a deputy, it is necessary to possess
tax-paying property to the amount of 10,000 florins, or 833^. ; or
to hold a public office with a salary of not less than 1,500 florins,
or 125Z. The elections are indirect ; the citizens nominating the
WahlmSnner, or deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives.
The members of the second Chamber are elected for eight years.
The Chambers have to be called together at least once every two
years.
204 SOUTH GERMANY — ^BADEN.
The ministry is composed of six departments, headed by the
' Secret Cabinet of the Grand-duke/ of which Freiherr von Ungem-
Sternberg was appointed director in June, 1861. The departments
are : —
1. The Ministry of the Grand-ducal House and of Foreign
Affairs. — Freiherr von Roggenbach, appointed May 2, 1861.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Dr. Augustus Lamey^ appointed
April 2, 1860.
3. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Anthony Stabel, appointed
April 2, 1860.
4. The Ministry of Commerce. — ^Dr. Gideon Wetzel, appointed
June, 1860.
5. The Ministry of Finances. — Dr. V. VogelmanUy appointed
April 2, 1860.
6. The Ministry of War. — General Damian Ludwig, appointed
June, 1860.
Churcli and EducatioiL
Although the reigning family are Protestant, the Roman Catholics
form the great majority of the inhabitants of Baden. The census of
1861 showed 896,683 Roman Catholics; 445,539 Protestants; 1,221
Mennonites; 1,749 other Christian Dissenters; and 24,099 Jews.
The ecclesiastical affairs of the Roman Catholic Church are under
the supreme management of the Archbishop of Freiburg, who is
appointed by the Pope, and quite independent of the Grand-ducal
government. Frequent disputes and conflicts between Rome and
the Badish ministry have been the result of this anomalous position.
The management of the Lutheran Church is under a council of
seven persons, called the Oberkirchenrath, which is nominated by
the Grand-duke. A new constitution of the Protestant Church
of Baden has been prepared by a synod which met at
Carlsruhe in June 1861, and the resolutions of which have
obtained the sanction of the sovereign. This new charter secures
all but complete self-government to the various congregations of
Protestants.
Education is compidsory in Baden ; and parents are compelled by
strictly enforced penalties to send their children to school. It is
prohibited also to employ children in factories, until they have
completed their eleventh year. In 1861, there was one school for
every 530 of the population. The university of Heidelberg has a
faculty for Lutheran, and Freiburg one for Roman Catholic theological
students. The former had, in 1860, 63 professont and 937 students;*
and the latter, 215 students.
BEVBNUE AND BXPENDITUBE. 205
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The budgets are granted for the term of two years. According to
a report of the Minister of Finance of Nov. 22, 1861, the public
income for the two years 1862 and 1863 was estimated at 34,280,384
florins, or 2,856,699/.— about 1,428,350/. for each year— -while
the expenditure was very nearly the same. The actual budget for
1862 has been ratified by the Chambers in the following propor-
tions : —
Incomb fob the Yeab 1862. Florins
Produce of Crown lands 1,346,724
Eorests and mines 2,552,921
Direct taxes 7,084,942
Salt monopoly 1,439,563
Customs 3,038,959
Pees and fines . 733,943
Mint 822,069
Miscellaneous income 122,071
Total 17,140,192 or £1,428,349
EXPBNDITUBB FOB THE YeAB 1862, Florins
Civil Ust 752,490
Ministay of Foreign Affiiirs 117,200
of Justice 1,311,398
of the Interior 2,134,489
of Commerce 1,335,680
of Finances 706,524
of War 2,918,318
PubUcdebt 1,322,348
General cost of administration .... 5,564,733
Miscellaneous expenses 247,992
Total 16,411,072 or €1,367,589
Which leaves a surplus of 729,120 florins, or 60,7601.
Besides the ordinary, there is an extraordinary budget for 1862
and 1863, amounting, for the two years, to 2,236,040 florins, or
186,337Z.
The public debt of Baden consisted, on Jan. 1, 1861, of —
Dehtf secured on the Crown lands, &c., bearing Florins
no interest 15,878,761
Interest-bearing debt 24,625,408
Bailwaj debt (of which 3,262,559 bearing no inte-
rest) 65,780,202
Total 96,284,371 or £8,023,698
The value of the Crown lands is estimated at 50,000,000 of
florins; that of the State railways at 90,000,000. All the lines
of Baden are property of the State, giving a dividend, on the
206 SOUTH GBBMANY— BADEN.
capital expended, of above 15 per cent. In the year 1862, the
gross income from railways amounted to 6,027,637 florins ; and the
expenditure to 3,646,238 florins, leaving a surplus of 2,381,399
florins, or 191,691Z. The accounts of the income and expenditure
of the State railways, as well as of the Post-office, are not entered
in the general budget, but form a special fund.
The military insurrection of 1849 cost Baden the sum of
10,564,067 florins, or 880,339Z. The loss of the public exchequer
amounted to 2,988,115 florins; the communes claimed losses of
above 3,000,000 florins ; while the Prussian Government sent in a
bill * for assisting to suppress the rebellion,' of 4,575,952 florins, or
381,163Z.
Army.
The army is formed by conscription. Substitution, however, is
allowed ; the Government undertaking the charge of the same at
a fixed cost. In 1862, the price was fixed by the Minister
of War at 550 florins, or 46/., for the troops of the infantry ;
and to 600 florins, or 601., for the cavalry and artillery. The time
of service is six years in the active army, and two years further
inscription among the troops of the reserve. But, as a rule, about
three-fourths of the time is allowed to be passed on furlough.
The nominal strength of the army consisted, in 1862, of —
5 regiments of infantry
2 „ of dragoons
1 „ of artillery
Staff, &c
Total
10,907 men
1,870 „
2,077 „ with 38 guna
65 „
14,919 men, with 38 guns
The actual number of men under arms, ' on the peace-footing,'
seldom amoimts to more than between 7,000 and 8,000. In the
year 1859, when the German Diet ordered the * war-footing,' the
army mustered, on an inspection, 20,722 men, with 5,209 horses
and 57 pieces of ordnance.
Population.
The Grand-duchy, stretching longitudinally from the lake of Con-
stance along the right bank of the Rhine, is divided, in accordance
with these geographical features, into four Kreise, or circles, with
the following area and population : —
SOUTH GEBHANT — HESSE-DABMSTADT.
207
Cizdes
AreainEng.
sq. miles
Population
1808
1861
Lake
Upper Khine ....
Middle Ehine ....
Lower Bhine ....
Total .
1,803
1,654
1,633
1,314
195,249
836,465
457,327
346,911
198,160
345,918
469,782
355,436
5,904
1,335,952
1,369,291
The population of Baden has not greatly increased since the year
1816, when it amounted to 1,005,899. The numbers augmented at
a rate of rather less than 10,000 souls annually, till the year 1846,
when there was a period of decrease, extending till 1855. From
1846 till 1849, the decrease amounted to 4,712 ; from 1849 to 1852,
to 8,282 ; and from 1852 to 1855, to the large number of 42,105,
or 14,035 per annum. Since 1855, there has been again a gradual
increase.
The decline of population has been chiefly owing to emigration.
Prom 1840 to 1849, the number of emigrants was 23,966, and from
1850 to 1855, it rose to 62,444. In the year 1852, no less than
14,366 people left the country ; in 1853, the numbers were 12,932,
and in 1854 they rose to 2 1 ,5 6 1 . Most of the emigrants were families
possessed of some property. It was ascertained that the emigrants of
1853 carried with them property amoimting to 1,923,903 florins, or
rather more than 100 florins — 81. la, — per head. The great
majority of the emigrants went to North America ; but about two
per cent, were induced, previous to 1856, to go to the French settle-
ments in Algeria. The result of this Algerian emigration proved so
disastrous that it has been discontinued.
IV. HESSE-DABMSTABT.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Lndwig III., Grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, bom Jime 9,
1806, the son of Grand-duke Ludwig 11; and of Princess Wilhel-
mine of Baden. Appointed co-Regent of Hesse-Darmstadt, in con-
sequence of an attempt at insurrection, March 5, 1848 ; succeeded
to the throne at the death of his father, June 16, 1848. Married,
Dec. 26, 1833, to Princess Mathilde, daughter of King Ludwig of
Bavaria ; widower May 25, 1862.
Brothers and Sisters of the Cfrand-duke, — 1. Prince Charles j
bom April 23, 1809 ; married, Oct. 22, 1836, to Princess Elizabeth of
208 SOUTH &ERMAKY— HESSE-DARMSTADT.
Prussia, bom June 18, 1815. Offspring of the union are — (1.) Prince
I/udvng, bom Sept. 12, 1837 ; married, July 1, 1862, to Princess
Alice of Great Britain ; issue, two daughters, Victoria, born April
5, 1863, and Alice, born Nov. 1, 1864. (2.) Prince Henry^ bom
Nov. 28, 1838. (3.) Princess Anna, bom May 25, 1843 ; married.
May 12, 1864, to Grand-duke Frederick Francis II. of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin. (4.) Prince Wilhelmy- horn Nov. 16, 1845. —
2. Prince Alexander, bom July 15, 1823 ; field-marshal lieutenant
in the service of Austria; married, Oct: 16, 1851, to Countess
Julia von Hanke, born Nov. 12, 1825, on whom the title of Princess
of Battenberg has been conferred. Offspring of the union are three
sons and one daughter, called Princes and Princesses of Battenberg.
8. Princess Maria, bom Aug. 8, 1824 ; married, April 28, 1841,
to Grand-duke Alexander of Russia, now Czar Alexander II.
The former Landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt had the title of Grand-
duke given them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable
increase of territory. At the congress of Vienna this grant was
confirmed, after some negotiations. The reigning family are not
possessed of much private property, and dependent almost entirely
upon the grant of the civil list. The late grand-duke, Ludwig II.,
found his aUowance of 581,000 florins, or 48,417/., quite insufficient
for his wants, and for many years there was a struggle between the
Government and the representatives of the country about the pay-
ment of the grand-ducal debts. These were ultimately discharged
out of the public funds ; but, in 1855, the civil list was found to be
in debt agam to the amount of 1,100,000 florins, or 91,666/. The
Chambers refused to pay this new debt ; but afler long debates it
was agreed on ultimately to discharge the amoimt provisionally,
deducting it gradually fix)m the grants of the civil list. The latter
was raised, at the same time, to 625,000 florins, or 52,083/., besides
allowances to the princes and the grand-ducal court, amoimting
altogether to 751,800 florins, or 62,650/.
In the reigning family of Hesse-Darmstadt, all the divisions of
the Christian faith are represented. The grand-duke is a Lutheran,
his eldest brother a Calvinist; his second brother and wife are
Roman Catholics ; his youngest sister, the Empress of Russia, is a
member of the Greek Church; and the consort of his nephew.
Princess Alice, a member of the Church of England.
Constitution and Bevenue.
The constitution bears date, Dec. 17, 1820 ; but was somewhat
modified in 1848, and again in 1856. The legislative power is
vested, in part, in two Chambers, called the Upper and the Lower
House of Representatives. The former is composed of the princes
CONSTITUTION AND BETENUB.
209
of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble houses, the
Koman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University of Giessen, and a number of life-
members, not exceeding ten, nominated by the Grand-duke. The
Lower House consists of 6 deputies of noble landowners ; 10 deputies
of towns ; and 34 representatives of villages and rural districts. The
latter are chosen in a tripartite mode of election — ^the original voters
first polling the * electors ; ' these, in their turn, choosing ' deputies,'
and these again the final representatives. The Chambers have to meet
at least once every three years. On certain occasions, both Houses
vote together, as when a proposition of the Government has been
accepted by one House and refused by the other, and a fijial
decision is to be arrived at.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four de-
partments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Grand-ducal House, of the Interior and of
Foreign Afikirs. — Freiherr von Dalvngk, appointed July 1, 1850.
2. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Frederick von Lindelofy ap-
pointed June 5, 1860.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Freiherr Schenk zu Sckweinsberg,
appointed July 1, 1850.
4. The Ministry of War. — General Fr. von Wachter, appointed
July 1, 1850.
The budget is granted for the term of three years ; the last was for
the period 1860-62. The items for the year 1862 were : —
Incomb fob the Yeab 1862. Florins
State property 2,080,625
Direct taxes 2,756,038
Indirect taxes 3,935,737
Miscellaneous revenue 324,264
Total
.
9,096,644 i
ExPBNDrruEB FOR THE Ybae 1862.
Florins
Civil list and Grrand-ducal court .
. 751,800
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
121,142
„ „ the Interior
1,310,594
„ Justice .
550,839
„ „ Finances .
2,844,698
,, War
1,660,689
Interest on public debt
969,574
Pensions and annuities
450,160
Miscellaneous expenses
907,300
Total
9,066,796 or £755,566
The public debt amounted, at the commencement of 1862, to
15,245,000 florins, or 1,270,000/., the greater part of which was
incurred for the establishment of a net^'ork of State railways.
210
SQUXH eSBHAinr — ^HESSB-PABH6TADT.
Army and Population.
The army is formed by conscription; the men serving for a
nominal term of six years, of which two are in the reserve. The
actual number of soldiers imder arms does not amount to more than
six or seven thousand, but in theory the following troops are sup-
posed to exist on the * peace-footing : ' —
4 regiments of infantry . . . .8,851 men
2 „ of cavalry 1,420 „ with 1,616 horses
1 brigade of artillery 1,239 „ with 1,076 „
Total
11,510 men, with 2,692 horses
Previous to the French revolution, the Landgraves had never more
than 4,000 men in their service, which number they increased
to 9,000, after having obtained the title of grand-duke.
The country is divided into three provinces ; the area and popula-
tion, according to the census of 1858 and of Dec. 3, 1861, is as
follows : —
AreainEng.
sq. miles.
Population
1858
1861
Upper Hesse ....
Starkenberg ....
Rhenish Hesse ....
Total.
1,670
1,146
626
300,261
318,422
226,888
298,704
322,903
234,643
3,240
846,671
852,260
There were detached from the grand duchy and annexed to
Prussia, in consequence of the war of 1866, followed by a treaty,
dated Sept. 15, 1866, several districts north of the river Maine,
comprising a total area of 377 English square miles, with a popida-
tion of 46,605.
According to the census of 1861, the members of the Lutheran
Church number 398,807; the Calvinists, 29,200; the 'United
Evangelicals,' 167,534 ; the Roman Catholics, 217,405 ; the Men-
nonites and other Christian sects, 3,925 ; and the Jews, 28,759.
Three Protestant superintendents and a Roman Catholic bishop
direct the ecclesiastical affairs of the population.
SOUTH GERMANY — RBUSS-GBHZ. 211
v.— BEUSS-OBEIZ.
Beigpung Sovereign and Family.
Henry XXII., Prince of Reuss-Greiz, born March 28, 1846, the
son of Prince Henry XXI., and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-Hom-
burg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his Either, under the
guardianship of his mother, Nov. 8, 1859.
Mother of the Prince. — Princess .CaroZme, Regent of Reuss-Grreiz,
bom March 19, 1819, daughter of the late Landgrave Gustavus of
Hesse-Homburg; married Oct. 1, 1839, to Prince Henry XXI.;
widow, Nov. 8, 1859.
Sisters of the Prince, — 1. Princess Hermina, bom Dec. 25, 1840;
married, April 29, 1862, to Prince Hugo of Schonburg-Waldenburg,
major in liie Prussian army. 2. Princess Marie, born March 19,
1855.
Cousin of the Prince, — ^Princess Louise, bom Dec. 3, 1822 ;
married, first, in 1842, to Prince Edward of Saxe-Altenburg, who
died in 1852 ; married, secondly, Dec. 27, 1854, to Prince Henry
of Reuss-Schleiz-Kostritz.
The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the Emperor
Henry I. of Germany, sumamed the Fowler, who died in 936. All
the heads of the house, ever since the conmaencement of the eleventh
century, have been called Henry. At first the succeeding genera-
tions were distinguished by descriptive appellations, such as * The
Bich^' * The Stout,' * The Valiant/ and so forth ; but subsequently
they adopted numbers. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a fiunily
coimcil, that the figures should not run higher than a hundred,
b^inning afterwards again at one. Previous to 1814 there were
three reigning houses of Reuss ; but the Congress of Vienna * me-
diatised ' the branch of Schleiz-Kbstritz. The present sovereign of
Reuss-Greiz has a civil list of 23,200Z. He is, moreover, very
wealthy, the greater part of the territory over which he reigns
being his private property.
Constitution, Bevenne, and Population.
The whole legislative and executive power is vested in the prince,
who is uncontrolled in his actions, and irresponsible for his deeds.
By an enactment of the Germanic Diet, appeal from the courts of
the principality lies to the Senate of the University of Jena. The
prince has one minister, who also performs the functions of private
secretary.
p 2
212 SOUTH GERMANY — LICHTENSTBIN.
The revenue is estimated at 200,000 thalers, or 29,500/. ; but
nothing accurate is known regarding the details of income or ex-
penditure.
To the army of the dissolved Confederation, Reuss-Greiz contri-
buted 334 men, who were levied by conscription. Freedom from
military service could be purchased by payment of either a fixed
sum, or an annual tax to the prince.
The population of the principality amounted, in 1861, to 42,130
souls, living on an area of 148 English square miles. Nearly all are
members of the Lutheran Church.
VI — ^LICHTENSTEIir.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Johann II., Prince of Lichtenstein, bom Oct. 5, 1840, the son of
Prince Aloys and Princess Francisca, daughter of Count Kinsky ;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his lather, Nov. 12, 1858.
Brother and Sisters of the Prince. — 1. Princess -Mane, bom Sept.
20, 1834 ; married, Oct. 29, 1860, to Count Ferdinand von Trautt-
mansdorf. 2. Princess Caroline^ bom Feb. 27, 1836 ; married,
June 3, 1855, to Prince Alexander von Schonburg-Hartenstein,
chamberlain of the Emperor of Austria. 3. Princess Sophie^ born
July 11, 1837; married. May 4, 1863, to Prince Charles von
Lowenstein. 4. Princess JEeloise, bom Aug. 13, 1838. 5. Princess
Ida, born Sept. 17, 1839; married, June 4, 1857, to Prince
Adolphus of Schwarzenberg, major in the service of Austria.
6. Princess Henrietta, bom June 6, 1843. 7. Princess Anne, bom
Feb. 27, 1846. 8. Princess Theresa, born July 28, 1850.
9. Prince Francis, heir-apparent, bom Aug. 28, 1853.
Mother of the Prince. — Princess Francisca, bom Aug. 8, 1813,
the daughter of Count Kinsky; married, Aug. 8, 1831, to Prince
Aloys of Lichtenstein ; widow, Nov. 12, 1858.
Uncles and Aunts of the Prince. — 1. Princess Sophie, bom Sept.
5, 1798 ; married, Aug. 4, 1817, to Count Vincent d'Esterhdzy ;
widow, Oct. 19, 1835. 2. Princess Marie, bom Jan. 11, 1800.
3. Prince Francis, bom Feb. 25, 1802; married, June 3, 1841, to
Julia, Countess Potocka, of which union there are three sons.
4. Prince Charles, bom June 14, 1803 ; married, in 1832, to
Kosalie, Countess-dowager von Schonfeld ; widow, April 20, 1841.
5. Princess Henrietta, born April 1, 1806 ; married, Oct. 1, 1825,
to Count Joseph Huniady. 6. Prince Frederick, born Sept. 21,
1807 ; married. Sept 15, 1848, to Mddle. Sophie Loewe, actress,
CONSTITUTION, KBTENITE, AND POPULATION. 213
torn March 24, 1815. 7. Prince Edward, bom Feb. 22, 1809 ;
married, Oct. 15, 1839, to Honorine, Countess-dowager Kownacka,
bom Aug. 1, 1813. 8. Prince Augustus, bom April 22, 1810 ;
major in the service of Austria. 9. Princess Ida, bom Sept. 12,
1811 ; married, July 30, 1830, to Prince Charles von Paar, privy-
councillor of the Emperor of Austria.
The princely family of Lichtenstein is said to derive its origin
— ^together with the reigning houses of Great Britain and of
Brunswick — ^from the Longobard Marquis d'Este, who married
Cunizza, a Suabian heiress, at the commencement of the eleventh
century. Partly on account of this antiquity of the family, and
partly because of its immense wealth, the Congress of Vienna, which
sequestrated, or * mediatised,' territories of much larger extent, left
the principality of Lichtenstein a sovereign state, governed by its
hereditary rulers. This diplomatic verdict, however, has not been
ratified by the royal families of Europe, from whose circle the
princes of Lichtenstein have hitherto been excluded. There are no
blood alliances between any German or other reigning houses and
the sovereign family of Lichtenstein. The members of the latter,
all of them strict Roman Catholics, have allied themselves almost
exclusively with the upper nobility of Austria, in which empire,
and chiefly in the province of Moravia, the immense private es-
tates of the family are situated. They embrace an area of over
2,200 English square miles, with 350,000 inhabitants — or thirty-
four times the extent, and forty-eight times the population of the
principality of Lichtenstein — and yield an annual revenue of two
millions and a half of Austrian florins, or 250,000Z. From the
principality itself the prince derives no income, but has been fre-
quently under the necessity of advancing money to his subjects ;
lie last time in 1847, when he made the State a loan of 36,000
florins. Formerly, the reigning prince resided entirely at Vienna,
or at his castle of Eisgrub in Moravia ; but the present ruler
has consented to reside part of the year at Vaduz, the capital of
Lichtenstein.
Constitution, Bevenne, and Population.
A new constitution was given to the principality on Oct. 15, 1862,
in consequence of some popular agitation ; the old charter of Nov. 9,
1818 — providing for a legislature consisting of an Upper and a Lower
House of Parliament, the former numbering three life peers, elected
by the clergy ; the latter with eleven deputies — having given rise to
much discontent. By the terms of the new fundamental law, the
whole legislative power is vested in one House of Representatives,
comprising fifteen members, three to be chosen by the x^\^Kffv^
214 SOUTH GEBKANT — LIGHTENSTEIN.
prince, and the other twelve by the people in public election. A
vote is given to all inhabitants who can read and write ; but to
become a deputy a small property qualification is required. The
Chamber assembles every year in regular session, without being
summoned by the prince. The latter is bound by the constitution
to reside in the country for part of the year, and to appoint a
governor in his absence.
The executive is vested in the prince, or his representative,
called the Landesverweser. — Charles H. von Hansen,
There exists no public budget, all taxation being of a local kind.
The total revenue for 1862 amoimted to 55,000 florins, or
5,500Z., and the expenditure to very nearly the same. Lichtenstein
has no public debt.
To the army of the dissolved Confederation the principality contri-
buted 91 foot soldiers; but no troops were kept under arms. The
population, according to the last census, numbered 7,150 souls,
living on an area of 64 English square miles. The principality is
the smallest sovereign State in Europe.
215
SEPARATE STATE OF GERMANY.
LTJXEMBUBO AITD LIHBUBO.
Seigning Sovereign and Family.
William III., Grand-duke of Luxemburg and Duke of Limburg
—King of the Netherlands — ^bom Feb. 19, 1817, the son of King
William 11. of the Netherlands; succeeded his fether as Grand-
duke of Luxemburg and Duke of Limburg, March 17, 1849.
Brother of the Chrand-duke, — Prince Henry ^ bom Jime 13, 1820 ;
appointed Governor-General of the Grand-duchy of Luxemburg,
Feb. 5, 1850.
For further details see * Netherlands,^
Constitution, Bevenue, and Population.
The grand-duchy of Luxemburg, formerly a part of the Austrian
Netherlands, was, at the Congress of Vienna, incorporated with the
Germanic Confederation, imder the sovereignty of the yoimger line
of the House of Orange-Nassau, also filling the throne of the
Netherlands. However, at the Belgian revolution of 1830, the
whole of the grand-duchy, with the exception of the fortress of
Luxemburg, joined cause with the insurrection ; and it was not
imtil 1839 that, by diplomatic negotiations, a part of the country
was again brought back to its allegiance to the Confederation and the
Eling-Grand-duke. Under the new arrangement, about one-half of
the former province was again united to the Confederation, to
which was added, nominally, the duchy of Limburg. But the latter
part of the treaty has never been carried out, and the duchy of Lim-
burg has remained to the present moment an integral part of the
kingdom of the Netherlands, neither politically nor socially connef ted
wit£ Luxemburg, or with the Germanic Confederation.
The constitution of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg dates from
1815 ; but was altered by decree of July 9, 1848. The executive
is in the hands of the Governor-General, Prince Henry, who has a
salary of 60,000 francs, or 2,400Z., and is assisted by a secretary for
2l6
GEBMANT— LVZEMBUBa AND UHfiUBG.
the affairs of the grand-duchy, residing at the Hague. A Chamber
of Deputies, elected under the same conditions as the Parliament of
the Netherlands, exercises the legislative power. The ministry is
divided into three departments, namely —
1. The Ministry of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Baron V. von
Tornaco, appointed February 5, 1860.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — ^Privy Councillor J. Ulveling.
3. The Ministry of the Interior and of Justice. — Dr. M. Jonas,
The post of * Secretary for the affairs of the Grand-duchy ' is filled
by Count (TOUmart
The ecclesiastical government of the grand-duchy is under a
Roman Catholic bishop, whose see embraces 13 archdeaconries, 231
rectories, 84 vicarages, and 93 chaplaincies.
The budget of Luxemburg is granted by the Chamber from year
to year. The income for 1862 amoimted to 3,029,100 francs, or
121,164Z., and the expenditure, for the same year, to 3,042,300 francs,
or 121,689/., leaving a deficit of 13,200 francs, or 525/. The chief
items of public expenditure for 1862 were — Civil list of the grand-
duke, 200,000 francs, or 8,000/. ; army, 480,000 francs, or 19,200/. ;
education, 915,100 francs, or 36,604/.
The army is incorporated with that of the Netherlands, and
formed in the san^e manner, partly by enlistment and partly by con-
scription. To the troops of the dissolved Confederation Luxemburg
and Limburg contributed 2,706 men, of which 1,739 were infantry,
arid 967 cavalry. They formed the second section of the ninth corps
cTarmeey and were destined chiefly to garrison the federal fortress of
Luxemburg — occupied by Prussia, in the name of the new North
Grerman Confederacy, after the war of 1866.
The area and population, according to the census of 1860, are as
follows : —
Duchies
Area in Eng.
sq. miles
Population in
1860
Luxemburg ......
Limburg
Total
990
896
197,281
216,550
1,886
413,831
TBie part of Luxemburg torn off from the Germanic Con-
federation by the revolution of 1830, and incorporated with
Belgium according to the international treaties of 1839, com-
prises an area of 1,695 square English miles, with a population
of 187,978.
BOOKS OF BEFEBENCE. 21 7
The population of the duchies has increased at the following rate
since 1840: —
Luxemburg ....
Limburg ....
1840
1849
1858
169,730
196,719
189,783
205,202
195,028
217,217
The whole of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, with the
exception of 4,853 Protestants of various denominations, and 1,618
Jews.
Money, Weights, and Measnres.
The money, weights, and measures most generally in use through-
out the whole of Germany, and their British equivalents, are —
Monet.
The Thaler . . . . = Average rate of exchange, Za.
Weights and Measvbes.
The Centner . . . = 110|lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Ship Lastf of timber . = About 80 cubic feet.
„ Scheffel . . . « 1| Imperial bushel, or about
5| to the Imperial quarter.
„ Klafter . . . = 6 feet
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Germany.
1. Official Publications.
Statistische TJebersichten iiber Waarenverkehr und Zollertrag im Beutschen
ZoUvereine fiip d. J. 1864. FoUo. 1865.
Treaty of Commerce between Her Majesty and the Zollverein, signed at
Berlin, May 30, 1865. Presented to both Houses of Parliament. London,
1865.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Ward on the Eevenue and Trade of the German
Zollverein; in * Abstract of Reports of the Trade of various Countries/ &c.
No. XI. London, 1862.
Report by Mr. Lowther, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and
Finances of the Zollverein, dated Jan. 23, 1862 ; in • Reports of H. M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy,' &c. No. V. London, 1862.
Report by Mr. Lowther, H. M.*s Secretary of Legation, on the Revenues of
the Zollverein, dated Jan. 20, 1863 ; in * Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy,* &c. No. VI. London, 1863.
Reports by Mr. Lowther, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, Navi-
gation, Industry, and Finance of the ZoUverein, dated July 15, 1863, and Jan.
27, 1864; in 'Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VII.
London, 1864.
2l8 GEBMANT — ^LUXEMBURa AND UMBURG.
Eeports by Mr. Lowther, H. M/s Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce
and Kevenues of the Zollverein, dated July 28, 1864: in ' Beports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy,* &c No. VIII, London, 1865.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. Grerman Union.
London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
BracheUi (H. F.) Handbuch der Statistik des Beutschen Bundes und seiner
Staaten. 2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1862-4.
Dieterici (C. T. W.) Statistische Uebersicht der wichtigsten G^egenstande des
Verkehrs und Verbrauchs im Deutschen Zollvereine. 8. Berlin, 1865.
Gothaischer genealogischer Hofkalender auf das Jahr 1866. 32. Gotha,
1866.
Hubner (0.) Jahrbuch fur Volkswissenschaft und Statistik. Leipzig,
1862-64.
Huhn (Dr. E. H. Th.) Vergleichende Darstellung der Macht und Kulturver-
haltnisse aller Staaten der Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
KeUner (Dr. Wilhelm) Handbuch der Staatskunde. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
Ktuber (J. L.) Oeffentliches Becht des Deutschen Bundes und der Bundes-
staaten. 8. Frankfort-on-the-Maine, 1860.
Kolb (G-. Fr.) Handbuch der vergleichenden Statistik, der Volkerzustands-
und Staatenkunde. Fiir den allgemeinen praktischen G^brauch. 4th ed. 8.
Leipzig, 1865.
idahlmann (H.) StatistischesWorterbuchvon Deutschland. 4. Berlin, 1853.
Michadia (J.) Deutschlands Eisenbahnen. 8. Leipzig, 1863.
Bedm (F. W. Freiherr von) Handbuch der Boden-, Bevolkerungs-,
Erwerbs- und Verkehrs-Statistik etc 8. Wiesbaden, 1864.
Bitter (Karl) Geographisch-statiBtisches Lexikoniiber die Erdtheile, Lander,
Meere, Staaten, Stadte, Flecken, Dorfer etc 5th ed. Vols. I. 11. 8.
Leipzig, 1865.
Schlieben (W. E. A. von) Gemalde der Deutschen Bundesstaaten. 2 vols. 8.
Vienna, 1854.
Winderlich (K.) Das Deutsche Land und seine Bewohner. 8. Leipzig, 1861.
Zacharid (R A.) Deutsches Staats- und Bundesrecht. 2nded. 8. Gottingen,
1856.
219
GREAT BBITAIN AND IBELAND.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, bom at Ken-
sington Palace, London, May 24, 1819, the daughter of Edward,
Di^e of Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Vic-
toria of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich of Leiningen.
Ascended the throne at the death of her uncle. Bang William IV.,
June 20, 1837 ; crowned at Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1838.
Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ;
widow, Dec. 14, 1861. Issue of the imion are: — 1. Princess Vic-
toria, bom Nov. 21, 1840; married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Fre-
derick William, eldest son of King William I. of Prussia. There
are offspring three sons and a daughter, namely, Frederick William,
bom 1859; Charlotte, born 1860; Henry, bom 1862, and Albert,
bom 1864. 2. Prince Albert Edward, heir-apparent, bom Nov. 9,
1841; married, March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest
daughter of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Glucksburg, present King of Denmark. Issue, two sons, Albert Victor,
bom Jan. 8, 1864, and George, bom June 3, 1865. 3. Princess
Alice, bom April 25, 1843 ; married, July 1, 1862, to Prince Lud-
wig of Hesse-Darmstadt. Issue, two daughters, Victoria, bom
April 5, 1863, and Elizabeth, bom November 1, 1864. 4. Prince
Alfred, bom Aug. 6, 1844 ; entered the royal navy, Aug. 31, 1858 ;
created earl of Kent, earl of Ulster, and duke of Edinburgh, by
letters patent of May 24, 1866. 5. Princess Helena, bom May 25,
1846 ; married, July 5, 1866, to Prince Christian of .Schleswig-
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, bom Jan. 22, 1831, captain in
the 3rd Regiment of Lancers of die Prussian army. 6. Princess
Louise, bom March 18, 1848. 7. Prince Arthur, bom May 1,
1850. 8. Prince Leopold, bom April 7, 1853. 9. Princess
Beatrice, bom April 14, 1857.
Cousins of the Queen, — 1. George V., ex-King of Hanover, bom at
London, May 27, 1819, the son of Duke Ernest Augustus of Cumber-
land, fifth son of King George IH. 2. Prince George, Duke of
Cambridge, bom at Hanover, March 26, 1819, the son of Duke
Adolphus of Cambridge, sixth son of King George HI. 3. Princess
Augusta, sister of the preceding, bom at Hanover, July 19, 1822 ;
220 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
married, June 28, 1843, to Grand-duke Frederick William of Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz. 4. Princess Mary^ sister of the preceding, born
at Hanover, Nov. 27, 1833; married, June 12, 1866, to Prince
Francis von Teck, born Aug. 27, 1837, son of Prince Alexander of
Wurtemberg, and of Claudine Rh^day, countess von Hohenstein.
(See Wurtemberg, p. 194.)
Aunt of the Queen. — Princess Augusta^ bom at Cassel, July 25,
1797, the daughter of Landgrave Frederick of Hesse-Cassel; married,
May 7, 1818, to Duke Adolphus of Cambridge, youngest son of
King George III. ; widow, July 8, 1850.
The queen reigns in her own right, holding the crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. HI. c. 3, by which the succession to the crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled, on the death of King William
and Queen Anne, without issue, on the Princess Sophia of Hanover,
and tiie * heirs of her body, being Protestants.' The inheritance
thus limited descended to George I., son and heir of Princess Sophia,
she having died before Queen Anne ; and it has ever since continued
in a regular course of descent.
The civil list of the queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the income of previous sove-
reigns. By the Revolution of 1688, the duty of the king to bear
the expenses of government out of the State income allotted to him
was abolished, and certain portions of the income of the country
were assigned to the king to meet the expenses of the royal house-
hold. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to 1,000,000^.
sterling. If it did not reach 800,000/. the deficiency was covered
by Parliament. In 1777, the civil list of the king was fixed at
900,000/., and the income over and above that sum from the here-
ditary possessions of the Crown passed to the Treasury. But at this
period the king had to pay from the civil list the salaries of the
judges and ambassadors, and other high-placed oflicials. Under
William IV. the civil list was relieved of many burthens, and
fixed at 510,000/. By 39-40 Geo. HI. c. 88, it was settled that
the king might have a private and separate estate. It is esta-
blished by 1-2 Vic. c. 2, that as long as Queen Victoria lives, all the
revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Consolidated Fund, but
that a civil list shall be assigned to the queen. In virtue of this
Act, which received the royal sanction Dec. 23, 1837, the queen has
granted to her an annual allowance of 385,000/. * for the support of
Her Majesty's household, and of the honour and dignity of the Crown
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' By the same
statute, the application of this allowance is limited in a prescribed
form. The Lords of the Treasury are directed to pay yearly 60,000/.
into Her Majesty's Privy Purse; to set aside 231,260/. for the
REXGNINa SOVEREIQN AND FAHILT. 221
salaries of the royal household ; 44,240/. for retiiing allowances and
pensions to servants ; and 13,200Z. for royal bounty, alms, and spe-
cial services. This would leave an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/.,
which may be applied in aid of the general expenditure of Her
Majesty's Court. It is provided, however, that whenever the civil
list charges in any year exceed the total sum of 400,000/., an account
of the expenditure, with ftdl particulars, shall be laid before Parlia-
ment within thirty days. The annual grant of 385,000/. to Her
Majesty is paid out of the Consolidated Fund, on which are charged
likewise the following sums allowed to members of the royal family :
namely, 15,000/. a year to Prince Alfred; 8,000/. to Princess
Frederick William of Prussia; 6,000/. to Princess Ludwig of
Hesse-Darmstadt ; 6,000/. to Princess Christian of Schleswig-
Holstein ; 6,000/. to the Duchess of Cambridge ; 3,000/. to her
daughter, the Grand-duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; 5,000/. to
Princess Teck, formerly Princess Mary of Cambridge, and 12,000/.
to Duke Greorge of Cambridge.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/. The Prince of Wales has besides
as income the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall. Previous to the
year 1840, these revenues amounted to between 11,000/. and 16,000/.
per annum ; but since that period they have greatly risen. The
income of the Duchy of Cornwall for 1864 amoimted to 68,411/.,
the salaries and other expenses to 15,699/., and the sum of 50,000/.
was paid over for the use of the Prince of Wales. Only a small
portion of this income has been expended since the birth of the
present Prince of Wales ; and the yearly accumulations amoimt
to above 500,000/.* The Princess of Wales has settled upon
her by Parliament the annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to
30,000/. in case of widowhood. Both the annuities of the Prince
and Princess of Wales are charged on the Consolidated Fund.
The following is a list of the soyereigns and sovereign rulers of
Great Britain with date of their accession, from the union of the
crowns of England and Scotland : —
Home of StuotrUOraThge.
■William and Mary . . . 1689
William III 1694:
House of Stuart
Anne 1702
House of Hanover^
George 1 1714
George II 1727
George III 1760
George IV 1820
William IV. .... 1830
Victoria .... 183T
Hottae of Sttiart.
James 1 1603
Charles 1 1625
Convmonwealth.
Parliamentary Executive . 1649
Protectorate .... 1653
House of Stuart.
Charles II 1660
James IL .... 1685
* Duke of Newcastle, in the House of Lords, June 5» I8da.
222 GBBAT BBITAIN AND IBBLAND.
The average duration of lihe reigns of the sovereigns of Great
Britain, exclusive of lihe period of the Commonwealth, but including
the actual reign of her present majesty — amounting in the aggregate
to two centuries and a half — ^has been twenty years.
Constitution and Oovemment
The supreme l^slative power of the British empire is by its
constitution given to Parliament. * The power and jurisdiction of
Parliament,' says Sir Edward Coke, * is so transcendent and absolute
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within
any bounds.' And, repeating the words, Sir William Blackstone
adds, that it is * the place where that absolute despotic power, which
must in all governments reside somewhere, is entrusted by the con-
stitution of these kingdoms.' The sovereign is not only the head,
but also the beginning and the end— capw<, principium, et finis — of
Parliament; he alone can summon Parliament; and no Parliament,
save on the demise of a sovereign, can assemble of its own accord.
Parliament is summoned by a writ of the sovereign issued out of
Chancery, by advice of the privy council, at least thirty-five days
previous to its assembling. If a new Parliament is to be elected,
the chancellor sends his warrant to the clerk of the crown in Chan-
cery, the latter issues writs to the sheriff to procure the election of
* knights ' and * burgesses.' On a vacancy occurring whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
after motion in the House. If the vacancy occur during the proro-
gation, and it be occasioned by death, the writ is issued at the
instance of the Speaker.- By 4 Edw. III. c. 14, it was enacted, * It
is accorded that Parliament shall be holden every year once or more
often if need be.' Also by 36 Edw. HI. c. 10, it was directed, * that
a Parliament be holden every year if need be.' By 16 Chas. L c. 1,
it was enacted, that if the king neglected to call a Parliament for
three years, the chancellor or keeper of the great seal might issue
writs for summoning the peers and for the election of the commons ;
that if the chancellor or keeper should neglect to do it, any twelve
of the peers might summon l3ie Parliament ; that if the peers should
neglect to issue the necessary summons, the sheriffs of the counties
and other magistrates respectively might proceed to the election ;
and should they refuse them, that the freeholders of each county
might elect their members, and that the members so chosen should
be obliged, under severe penalties, to attend. This Act was deemed
such an invasipn of the prerogative, that it was repealed on the
Restoration by 16 Chas. 11. c. 1. But the latter Act contains a
gonshtution and ootbbrhint. 223
providoQ that Parliament eliall not in future be intermitted for above
three years at the most. By 1 Will, and Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, it was
enacted, * that Parliaments shall be holden frequently.' As, how-
ever, the Mutiny Act and the Budget are only granted for a
year, the Crown, since the Revolution, is compelled to summon a
Parliament annually.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in annual
session, extending over tiie first six months of the year. Every
session must end with a prorogation, and by it aU bills which have
not been brought to a conclusion fell to the ground. Both Houses
of legislature must be prorogued at the same time ; but before this
can be done, one bill at least must have become an * Act of Parlia-
ment.' The prorogation takes place either by the sovereign in
person, or by commission from the Crown, or by proclamation. The
Lower House appears at the bar, and if the sovereign be not present,
the speaker reports upon the labours of the session ; the royal assent
is then given to bills of the closing session, and a speech from the
sovereign is read ; thereupon the chancellor prorogues the Parlia-
ment to a certain day. Parliament resumes business, however, as
soon as it is summoned by royal proclamation on a certain day,
which may be at a date earlier than the original date of prorogation
appointed. Should the term of prorogation elapse, and no procla-
mation be issued. Parliament cannot assemble of its own accord.
The royal proclamation which summons Parliament in order to
proceed to business must be issued fourteen days before the time
of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament ; it may
occur by the will of the sovereign, expressed in person or by com-
missioners, and even, as in 1806, during the * recess' by proclama-
tion or by lapse of time.* Formerly, on the demise of the sovereign,
Parliament was dissolved ipso facto, but the calling of a new Par-
liament immediately on the inauguration of the successor being found
inconvenient, it was enacted by the statutes 7 & 8 Will. HI. c. 15,
6 Anne, c. 7, and 37 Geo. HI. c. 127, that the Parliament in being
shall continue for six months after the demise of any king or queen,
unless sooner prorogued or dissolved by the successor ; that if, at
the time of the demise, the Parliament be adjourned or prorogued,
it shall immediately assemble ; that, in the case of the demise of the
sovereign between the dissolution of a Parliament and the day
appointed by the writs of summons for the meeting of a new one,
the last preceding Parliament shall immediately convene for six
months, unless sooner prorogued or dissolved by the successor ; and
that in the event of the sovereign's demise, on or after the day
appointed for the assembling of tibe new Parliament, but before it
* A Jh^itcHcdl Treatise on the Law, ^c, of Parliament, by Thomas Erskine May.
224 GBBAT BRITAIN AND IBELAND.
has assembled, then the new Parliament shall in like manner convene
for six months, unless sooner prorogued or dissolved.
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses of
legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the time of
Edward II. Instances of the stispension of this established form
occurred during the Interregnum, and after the abdication of
James II. ; but, excepting these irregularities, it has been a funda-
mental principle of the English constitution, that every lawful Par-
liament shall consist of an Upper and a Lower House of legislature.
The Upper House consists of peers who hold their seats —
1st. By virtue of hereditary right;
2nd. By summons from the Crown ;
3rd. By virtue of their office — ^bishops ;
4th. By being elected for life — Irish peers ;
5th. By being delegated for the duration of a Parliament —
Scottish peers.
Formerly every peerage was at the same time a feudal barony, or
* Barone par tenure,'^ To be qualified to appear, however, in the
national assembly of the Plantagenets a special summons was neces-
sary, and thus were created the * Barone par wriV According to
Camden, after the battle of Evesham every baron was expressly
forbidden, without such special writ, to appear in Parliament. Any
one affording proof that his ancestor was called by * writ of sum-
mons ' has the right to sit as hereditary peer. The claim may like-
wise be based on prescription. Whoever is called by writ of summons
must actually take his seat in order to acquire the fiill rights of a
peer ; the eldest sons of dukes, marquesses, and earls are sometimes
called by writ to the Upper House imder a special title. The creation
by patent is at the present day the ordinary form employed, the peer
being thereby summoned * ad consulendum et defendendum regem-^
and the peerage rights are acquired whether the individual sum-
moned take his seat in the Upper House or not. Should a question
arise as to the legal capacity of a peer to be admitted to the sittings
of the Upper House, the sovereign is prayed for a writ through a
secretary of state; the attorney -general supports the petition, and, if
willing to allow it, it is ordinarily complied with. If the matter is
doubtftd, he recommends it to be referred to the Upper House; which
resolves itself into a committee of privilege. Upon a report to the
House the latter declares its opinion by way of address . Hereditary
peers may, by a * standing order ' of the Upper House, take their
seat without further preliminary ; peers newly created or summoned
have to be * introduced.'
The Crown is unrestricted in its power of creating peers, and this
CONSTITUTION AND GOYEBNMENT. 225
privilege has been largely used by succeeding kings, chiefly modern
sovereigns. George I. created 60 and George U. 90 new peers;
from 1761 down to 1821, 388 persons were elevated to the peerage ;
and from 1700 down to the year 1821, the number was 667.
George rV. created 59, William IV. 55, and Queen Victoria, up to
1862, created 83 new peers. In consequence of expressions used in
the Act of Union — 5 Anne, c. 8 — limiting the right of election of
the Scotch representative peers to the then existing peers of Scot-
land, it is understood that the sovereign cannot create a new
Scotch peerage ; and such peerages are in fact never created except in
the case of the younger branches of the royal femily, though extinct
peerages may be revived or forfeited peerages restored. By the Irish
Act of Union — 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 — the sovereign is restricted
to the creation of one new Irish peerage on the extinction of three
of the existing peerages ; but when the Irish peers are reduced to
100, then on the extinction of one peerage another may be created.
The following is a summary of the members of the House of
Lords, as composed in the session of 1864 : —
Peers of the Blood Royal 3
Archbishops 2
Dukes 20
Marquesses 19
Earls 110
Viscounts 22
Bishops 24, one a Temporal Peer 23
Barons 209
Scotch Representative Peers 16
Irish Representative Peers 28, one a Peer of United Kingdom 27
Irish Spiritual Peers 4
Total . . 456
Of whom 17 are minors, making the actual number of the House
of Peers 428.
The Lower House of legislature, by a constitutional fiction, is held
to represent all the * Commons of England.' Since 49 Hen. HI. the
House has consisted of knights of the shire, or representatives of
counties; citizens, or representatives of cities; and burgesses, or
representatives of boroughs, all of whom sit and vote together. For
a long time after knights, citizens, and burgesses obtained the privi-
lege of being called to the Parliaments, they were elected only * ad
faciendum quod de communi concilio ordinabitur,^ whereas the peers
were summoned * locuturi et super prcedictis negotiis tractaturi,^
Since the enactment of the statute 7 Hen. IV. c. 15, in the year
1406, regulating the election of knights of the shire, numerous Acts
Q
226 (tik.sui^ i>iUiAlN AND TBSLASB*
have been passed for the election of members of Parliament. Pre-
vious to that statute, the Crown had a very large and absolute power
in limiting and prescribing, by royal writs, the nimibers and quali-
fications of the persons to be elected, as well as of the constituencies.
However, the distribution of the fianchise in counties has always
been far less variable and irregular than in boroughs, in nearly all
cases two members being elected for every county. For cities and
boroughs the constituencies varied greatiy from time to time, and in
incorporated boroughs depended chiefly on ancient customs and
the terms of old charters and privileges. The number of cities and
boroughs for which writs were issued in the time of Edward I., and
thence to Edward IV., appears to have been 170. At the acces-
sion of Henry VIH., the total nimiber of constituencies, including
counties, had become reduced to 147. In that reign the number
was considerably increased, chiefly by the addition of representatives
for Wales. In all the following reigns, up to the Restoration, large
additions to the borough franchises were made. Previous to this
period, members of Parliament had to be paid by their consti-
tuencies ; but the practice growing up of members bearing their
own expenses, many ancient boroughs, which had formerly been
exempted from the returns on account of their poverty, became
desirous of resuming their franchises. To the 147 constituencies,
returning 296 members, which existed at the accession of Henry VIII.,
there were —
Constitaeiicies Members
Added in the reign of Heniy VIII.
Edward VL
„ „ Mary
„ „ Elizabeth .
„ yf James I.
„ „ Charles I. .
„ „ Charles II.
„ „ Anne
„ „ George III.
Total of members, inclusive of the 296 of Heniy VIH.'s time 661
The number of members in 1817 was 658. The additions fix)m
Edward VI. to Charles I. were almost entirely of borough members.
In the fourth Parliament of Charles I., the number of places in
England and Wales for which returns were njade, exclusive of coun-
ties, amounted to 210 ; and in the time of the Stuarts, the total number
of members of the House of Commons was about 500. The number
of members was not materially altered from that time until the union
with Scotland, in the reign of Queen Anne, when 45 representatives
of Scotland were added. The next considerable change was at the
tmion with Ireland, at the commencement of the present century,
32
38
22
44
14
26
31
62
14
27
9
18
3
6
—
45
—
»)0
CONSTITUTION AND GOTERNMBNT.
227
when the House of Commons was increased, as shown in the above
table, by 100 Irish representatives. The number of members of the
House has remained nearly the same ever since ; but at the passing
of the Eeform Acts, extensive alterations were made as to the places
represented.
By the statute of 2 Will. IV. c. 45, commonly called the Reform
Bill of 1832, the English county constituencies were increased from
52 to 82, by dividing several coimties into separate electoral divi-
sions, and the number of county members was augmented from 94
to 159. In Scotland and Ireland, the county representation remained
the same as before. By the Reform Act, 56 English boroughs, con-
taining a population, in 1831, of less than 2,000 each, were totally
disfranchised; they had returned 111 members collectively. Jn
thirty boroughs, containing a population of less than 4,000 each, the
fr^mchise was reduced to the sending one member instead of two
each. To twenty-two new boroughs, containing each 25,000 persons
and upwards, the franchise of returning two members each was given.
To twenty-one new boroughs, containing each 12,000 persons and
upwards, the franchise of returning one member each was given. In
Scotland, the town representatives were increased from fifteen to
twenty-three, so that tibe nimiber of representatives became eight
more than the number (forty- five) assigned, to Scotland at the union
with that country. In Ireland no new boroughs were created, nor
were any disfranchisements enacted; but two members each, instead
of one, were assigned to forty-five large towns and the University of
Dublin. Since the Reform of 1832, two towns in England, Sudbury
and St. Albans, have been disfranchised for bribery. Four seats
were thus vacated ; this number of vacancies haa been supplied by
additions to the borough and county franchise, two more members
being given to Yorkshire, one to Lancashire, and one to the new
borough of Birkenhead.
The total number of representatives in the House of Commons was
as follows, in the session of 1864 : —
Of Counties
Of Cities and
Boroughs
Total
England ......
Scotland
Ireland
Total .
162
30
64
338
23
41
600
53
105
256
402
668
The property qualification for members was not disturbed by the
Reform Bill, it amoimted to 600Z. for the knights, and 3001, for the
q2
22& GfifiAT BBITAIN AND IBSLAND.
burgesses, but it has been abolished by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 26, of June
28, 1858. The other grounds of exclusion have remained, and
have even been partially increased. No one can sit or vote in Par-
liament who has not attained the age of twenty-one years. No
excise, custom, stamp, or other revenue officer is eligible. Since
1840, the judge of the Admiralty Court is excluded from being
elected ; the same holds good with respect to all the later judges.
The master of the rolls alone is eligible. No English or Scotch
peer can be elected to the House of Commons, but an Irish peer
may; finally, foreigners, even when naturalised, unless the right
be conceded in express terms, as well as persons who have been
convicted of treason or felony, are ineligible.
To possess the franchise in a borough, a person must occupy, as
owner or tenant, a house of the clear yearly value of not less than
101, The rights of the old burgesses or freemen to vote have been
preserved. All persons who as burgesses or as fi'eemen would have
been entitled to vote if the Reform Bill had not been passed, are still
permitted to exercise the firanchise. If a person have property which
would qualify him as a borough elector, he cannot, instead of be-
coming a borough elector, choose in respect of that property to
qualify as a county elector. The qualifying estate for the county
must be either — ^first, a freehold of inheritance of the clear yearly
value of not less than forty shillings ; secondly, a fi-eehold for life of
the same value, provided it is in the actual and bond fide occupation
of the party claiming to vote, or shall have been acquired by mar-
riage, marriage settlement, devise, or promotion to any benefice or
office. If the freeholder for life is not in actual occupation, or shall
have acquired his estate otherwise than in the mode above men-
tioned, his freehold must be of the clear yearly value of not less than
lOZ. per annimi. Before the Eeform Act all who held freehold pro-
perty for life of the clear yearly value of forty shillings, were entitled
to vote irrespective of the manner of its acquisition, and without the
necessity of occupation. Persons so qualified to vote at the time of
the Reform Act are still permitted to exercise the franchise so long
as they continue seized of the same fi-eehold. Thirdly, copyhold or
other property not of freehold tenure, provided the interest be for
life, or for any larger estate of the clear annual value of not less than
lOZ. Fourthly, leaseholds, of the clear yearly value of lOZ., if the
term was originally not less than sixty years, and of the clear yearly
value of 50Z. or upwards, if the term was originally not less than
twenty years. Fifthly, by the occupation of any lands or tenements
for which the tenant pays a yearly rent of not less than 50/. This
latter qualification was introduced by the so-called Chandos clause.
The o^er legal requirements for electors have continued in force.
CONSTITITTION AND GOVERNMENT.
229
AKens, persons under twenty-one years of age, or of unsound mind,
in receipt of parochial relief or convicted of certain offences, are
incapable of voting. No one can vote who possesses a freehold con-
veyed to him merely for the purpose of empowering him to vote.
The judges, constables, and many officers who are concerned in the
collection of the revenue, are disqualified.
The subjoined tabular statement gives, after a parliamentary
return issued in the session of 1865, the number of registered electors
in boroughs, in England and Wales, their proportion to the popula-
tion, and the aggregate number of county and borough electors in
England and Wales, in each of the two years, 1832 — ante Reform
BiU— and 1864 :—
Number of Registered Parlia-
mentary Electors in Boroughs
Percentage of Registered
in Boroughs to the Popu-
lation in Boroughs
Aggregate Number of
Ck)unty and Borough Bleotors
Registered
1832
1864
Increase
percent.
1832
1864
Decrease
percent.
1832
1864
Increase
percent.
286,077
491,229
72-3
6-5
6-4
01
665,466
1,027,017
66-7
The total number of electors in counties in England and Wales,
in 1864, was 535,788, and in Scotland, 49,109. In cities and
boroughs in England and Wales, 491,229, and in Scotland, 52,628 ;
making a total of 1,128,754, in 1864.
To preserve the independence of members of the House of Com-
mons, it was enacted, by statute 6 Anne, that, if any member shall
accept any office of profit from the Crown, his election shall be void,
and a new writ issue, but he is eligible for re-election. This pro-
vision has been made the means of relieving a member from his
trust, which he cannot resign, by his acceptance of the Stewardship
of the Chiltem Hundreds, a nominal office in the gift of the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer. The practice began only about the year
1750, and has since been generally acquiesced in from its conve-
nience to all parties, though it is open to question how far the office
can now be strictly deemed within the disqualifying words of the
statute of Anne. In the construction of this Act the resignation of
office has not been held to be complete until the appointment
of a successor, and the resumption of office, no appointment
intervening, not to vacate a seat. Further, that a first commission
in the army or navy vacates a seat ; but subsequent commissions
do not.
230
GBSAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom, from the period of the Union : —
Reign
Parliament
When met
When dlaaolved
Existed
T. U. D.
George III. .
Ist
27 Sept 1796
29 Jan. 1802
6 11 18
„
2nd
31 Aug. 1802
24 Oct 1806
4 1 26
»»
3rd
16 Dec. 1806
29 Apr. 1807
0 4 16
»»
4th
22 June 1807
24 Sept 1812
6 3 7
6th
24 Nov. 1812
10 June 1818
6 6 16
It
6th
4 Aug. 1818
29 Feb. 1820
1 6 26
George IV.
7th
23 Apr. 1820
2 June 1826
6 1 9
,,
8th
14 Nov. 1826
24 July 1830
3 8 10
William rV'
9th
26 Oct. 1830
22 Apr. 1831
0 6 28
))
10th
14 June 1831
3 Dec 1832
1 6 20
u
nth
29 Jan. 1833
30 Dec. 1834
1 11 1
))
12th
19 Feb. 1836
18 July 1837
2 6 0
Victoria
13th
14 Nov. 1837
23 June 1841
3 7 9
„
14th
11 Aug. 1841
23 July 1847
6 11 6
>»
16th
21 Sept 1847
1 July 1862
4 11 9
)}
16th
4 Nov. 1862
20 Mar. 1867
4 4 16
17th
30 Apr. 1867
23 Apr. 1869
1 11 23
M
18th
31 May 1869
6 July 1865
6 1 6
»»
19th
6 Feb. 1866
—
_
The union of Ireland with England was carried into effect January
1, 1800, and the Parliament which sat the same month, and which
included the members from Ireland, is styled the first Imperial
Parliament. The Parliament which assembled January 29, 1838,
is generally styled the first Reformed Parliament.
The powers of Parliament are politically omnipotent within the
United Kingdom and its colonies and dependencies. It can make
new laws, and enlarge, alter, or repeal those existing. Its authority
extends to all ecclesiastical, temporal, civil, or military matters, and
its powers to altering or changing its own constitution. It is the
highest Court, over which no other has jurisdiction.
The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested
nominally in the Crown ; but practically in the coimcil of ministers,
commonly caUed the Cabinet. The Cabinet exists only so long as it
can command the confidence of Parliament, particularly the House of
Commons ; and as its acts are liable to be questioned in Parliament,
and to require prompt explanation, it is essential that the heads of
the chief departments of the State should have seats in either the
Upper or the Lower House, where they become identified with the
general policy and acts of the Government.
The Privy Council is of great antiquity— it consists of such
officers of State who, at the pleasure of the Crown, are sworn mem-
bers of the * Privy Council,' and who as such assume the title of
CONSTITUTION AND GOYEBNMENT. 23 1
' Bight Honourable.' Their duties are to advise the Sovereign in
the acts of his government. They have also judicial and executive
fiinctions. Parliaments formerly met but seldom. In the absence
of the Parliament the government of the coimtry was carried on by
the Crown, assisted by the Privy Coimcil — much the same as in
Normandy. The Duke and his Coimcil governed, and the States
were only assembled on extraordinary occasions, such as changing
the laws of the duchy or voting extraordinary subsidies. The
Sovereign in Coimcil exercises original jurisdiction on the principles
of feudal sovereignty on appeals from ^e Channel Islands and from
the Colonies.
The member of the Cabinet who fills the situation of First Lord of
the Treasury, and combined with it sometimes that of Chancellor of
the Exchequer, is the chief of the ministry, and therefore of the
Cabinet. It is at his recommendation that his colleagues are
appointed; and he dispenses, with hardly an exception, the pa-
tronage of the Crown. Every Cabinet includes the following high
officers: — The First Lord of the Treasury, the Lord Chancellor,
the Lord President of the Council, the Lord Privy Seal, the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, and the Secretaries of State. Several other
ministerial functionaries, however, have seats in the Cabinet ; never
less than three, and rarely as many as seven or eight of this latter
class, are called to that station. Their offices are as follows: —
Commissioner of Works and Buildings, Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster, First Lord of the Admiralty, President of the Board of
Trade, Master of the Mint, Judge Advocate- General, Postmaster-
General, Chief Secretary for Ireland, President of the Poor Law Board,
Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench. The selection usually falls upon
those amongst the latter mentioned functionaries whose rank, talents,
reputation, and political weight, render them the most useful auxi-
liiuies, or whose services, while in opposition, may have created the
strongest claims to become members of the Cabinet. It has occasion-
ally happened that a statesman possessing high character and infiuence
accepts a seat in the Cabinet without undertaking the labours and
responsibility of any particular oflice. Although the Cabinet has been
r^arded during several generations as an essential part of the institu-
tions of Great Britain, yet it continues to be unknown to the law.
The names of the noblemen and gentlemen who compose it are
never officially annoimced to the public. No record is kept of its
resolutions or meetings, nor has its existence ever been recognised
by any Act of Parliament.
The present Cabinet, which was appointed on the 6th of July,
1866, consists of the following fifteen members : —
1. First Lord of the Treasury, — ^Earl of Derby j bom March 29,
1799, eldest son of the thirteenth Earl of Derby ; educated at Eton,
232 GBEAT BRITADT AND IBELAKD.
and at Christ Church, Oxford ; sat as M.P. for Stockbridge, 1820—
26; M.P. for Preston, 1826-30; M.P. for Windsor, 1830-32;
M.P. for North Lancashire, 1832—46 ; summoned to the Upper
House as Lord Stanley of Bickerstaffe, 1846 ; Chief Secretary for
Ireland, 1830-33 ; Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1833-34,
and again 1841-45 ; succeeded to the earldom, 1851 ; First Lord
of the Treasury from March to December, 1852, and again from
February 26, 1858, to June 18, 1859 ; appointed, for the third
time. First Lord of the Treasury, July 5, 1866.
2. Lord High Chancellor, — Lord Chelmsford^ bom July 14,
1794, youngest son of Charles Thesiger, Esq., Collector of Customs
in the island of St. Vincent ; entered the Royal Navy, as midship-
man, 1807 ; called to the Bar at Gray's Inn, 1818 ; King's Council
and Leader of the Inner Temple, 1834 ; Solicitor- General, April,
1844, to July, 1845 ; Attorney-General, July, 1845, to July, 1846,
and again March, 1852, to December, 1852 ; sat as M.P. for Wood-
stock, 1840-44; M.P. for Abingdon, 1844-52 ; M.P. for Stamford,
1852-58 ; appointed Lord Chancellor, with the title of Lord Chelms-
ford, February 26, 1858, and resigned Jime 18, 1859 ; appointed,
for the second time. Lord Chancellor, July 6, 1866.
3. Lord President of the Council, — Duke of Buckingham^ bom
1823, only son of the second Duke of Buckingham ; educated at
Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford; sat as M.P. for Buckingham,
1846-57 ; Keeper of the Privy Seal to the Prince of Wales, 1852;
Chairman of the London and North- Western Eailway Company,
1853-61 ; succeeded to the dukedom, July, 1861 ; appointed Lord
President of the Council, July 6, 1866.
4. Lord Privy Seal. — Earl of Malmesbun/, bom 1807, eldest son
of the second Earl of Malmesbury ; educated at Eton, and Oriel
College, Oxford ; sat as M.P. for Wilton in July, 1841 ; succeeded
to the earldom, August, 1841 ; Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs from February to December, 1852, and from February,
1858, to June, 1859 ; appointed Lord Privy Seal, July 6, 1866.
5. Chancellor of the Exchequer, — Right Hon. Benjamin Disraeliy
bom December 31, 1805, eldest son of Isaac Disraeli, author ;
articled as a solicitor's clerk, and subsequently devoted himself to
to literature; sat as M.P. for Maidstone, 1837-41, and for
Shrewsbury, 1841-47 ; returned for Buckinghamshire at the
elections from 1847 to 1865 ; Chancellor of the Exchequer from
February to December, 1852, and from February, 1858, to June,
1859 ; appointed, for the third time, Chancellor of the Exchequer,
July 6, 1866.
6. Secretary of State for the Ho^ne Department. — Right Hon.
Spencer Horatio Walpohj bom 1806 ; educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge ; studied law, and called to the Bar in 1831 ; sat as M.P.
for Midhurst, 1846-^6 ; Secretary of State for the Home Depart-
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 233.
«
ment from February to December, 1852, and from February, 1858,
to June 1 859 ; Chairman of the Great Western Railway Company,
1853-57; elected M.P. for the University of Cambridge, 1856,
1859, and 1865 ; appointed, for the third time, Secretary of State
for the Home Department, July 6, 1866.
7. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, — Lord Stanley, bom
1826, eldest son of the Earl of Derby ; educated at Rugby, and
Trinity College, Cambridge; elected M.P. for Lynn Regis, 1848,
1852, 1857, 1859, and 1865 ; Under-Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs from February to December, 1852 ; Secretary of State for
the Colonies from February to May, 1858 ; Secretary of State for
India, May, 1858, to Jime, 1859 ; appointed Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, July 6, 1866.
8. Secretary of State for the Colonies, — Earl of Carnarvon, bom
1831, eldest son of the third Earl of Carnarvon ; educated at Eton,
and Christ Church, Oxford; succeeded to the earldom, 1849; Under-
Secretary of State for the Colonies from February, 1858, to June,
1859 ; appointed Secretary of State for the Colonies, July 6, 1866.
9. Secretary of State for War. — General the Right Hon.
Jonathan Peel, born 1799, fifth son of the first Sir Robert Peel;
entered the army 1816 ; Surveyor- General of the Ordnance, 1841-
46 ; Secretary of State for War from February, 1858, to June, 1859 ;
returned M.P. for Huntingdon at the elections from 1831 to 1865 ;
appointed Secretary of State for War, July 6, 1866.
10. Secretary of State for India, — Viscoimt Cranbome, bom
1830, eldest son of the second Marquis of Salisbury ; educated at
Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford ; returned M.P. for Stamford at
the elections of 1853 to 1865 ; appointed Secretary of State for
India, July 6, 1866.
11. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Right Hon. Sir John
Pakington, born 1799, son of William Russell, Esq., of Powick
Court, Worcestershire ; educated at Eton, and Oriel College, Oxford ;
assumed the name of Pakington, 1831 ; created baronet, 1837 ;
Secretary of State for the Colonies from March to December, 1852 ;
First Lord of the Admiralty from March, 1858, to June, 1859; re-
turned M.P. for Droitwich in the elections from 1837 to 1865 ;
appointed, for the second time. First Lord of the Admiralty, July 6,
1866.
12. President of the Board of Trade. — Sir Stafford Northcote,
horn 1818, son of H. S. Northcote, Esq. ; educated at Eton, and
Balliol College, Oxford ; called to the Bar, 1847 ; created baronet,
1851 ; sat as M.P. for Dudley, 1855-57 ; Financial Secretary of the
Treasury from January to June, 1859 ; returned M.P. for Stamford
at the elections from 1858 to 1865 ; appointed President of Board
ofTrade, July 6, 1866. .
13. Postmaster' General. — ^Duke of Jlfontro8€, boxn Vl^^^ ^^<^>85^
^34
GBSAT BBITAIN AND ISSLAND.
aon of the third Duke of Montrose ; educated at the University of
Glasgow ; sat as M.P. for Cambridge, 1826-30; entered the House
of Lords as Earl Graham, 1836 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lan-
caster from March, 1858, to June, 1859 ; appointed Postmaster-
General, July 6, 1866.
14. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, — ^Earl of Devon, bom
1807, eldest son of the tenth Earl of Devon ; educated at Christ
Church, Oxford ; sat as M.P. for South Devonshire, 1841-48 ;
Secretary to the Poor-Law Board, 1850-59 ; succeeded to the earl-
dom, 1859 ; appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, July 6,
1866.
15. President of the Poor-Law Board. — Eight Hon. Gathome
Hardy, bom 1814, educated at Shrewsbury, and Oriel College,
Oxford ; called to the Bar, 1840 ; M.P. for Leominster, 1858 ;
Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1858-59 ; re-
turned M.P. for Oxford University, 1865 ; appointed President of
the Poor-Law Board, July 6, 1866.
The following is a list of the various administrations for the
last 150 years :—
Robert Walpole
James Stanhope
Earl of Sunderland
Sir Robert Walpole
Earl of Wilmmgton
Henry Pelham
Duke of Newcastle
Earl of Bute .
George (Jrenville
Marquis of Rockingham
Duke of Grafton .
Lord North .
Marquis of Rockingham
Earl of Shelbume .
Duke of Portland .
William Pitt .
H. Addington .
William Pitt .
Lord Grenville
Duke of Portland .
Spencer Perceval .
Earl of Liverpool .
George Canning
Viscount Qoderich .
Duke of Wellington
Earl Grey
Lord Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Lord Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Lord John Russell .
Oct.
1716
April
1717
March
1718
April
1720
Feb.
1742
Aug.
1743
Apnl
1764
May
1762
April
1763
July
1766
Aug.
1766
Jan.
1770
March
1782
July
1782
April
1783
Dec.
1783
March
1801
May
1804
Jan, '
1806
March
1807
June
1810
Jime
1812
April
1827
Aug.
1827
July
1828
Nov.
1830
Aug.
1834
Nov.
1834
April
1836
Sept.
1841
June
1846
OHUBCH AND EDUCATION.
Earl of Derby
Feb.
1862
Earl of Aberdeen .
. . Dec.
1852
Viscount Palmerston
Feb.
1866
Earl of Derby
Feb.
1868
Viscount Palmerston
June
1869
EarlEussell ....
Oct.
1866
Earl of Derby.
. . July
1866
235
The list shows the average duration of each Ministry to be of
three years and eight months, or about the same as the average dura-
tion of Parliaments.
Church and EdncatioiL
The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal. Its
fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-nine
Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised and finally
settled in 1571. These Articles are chiefly compiled firom others
drawn up shortly after the Reformation in 1552, in the reign of
Edward VI. But though the Episcopal be the State religion, all
others are tolerated under certain restrictions ; and civil disabilities
do not attach to any class of British subjects.
The Queen is the supreme governor of the Church. Her Majesty
has the right, regulated by the 4th section of the statute 25 Hen. VIH.
c. 20, to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the
form being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the
royal licence, or conge d'elire, to proceed to the election, accompanied
by the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and after-
wards the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is
signified under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the
sees of old foundation ; the bishoprics of Gloucester and Bristol,
Chester, Peterboro', and Oxford, created by Henry VHI., have
always been conferred by letters patent fix)m the Crown ; and the
recently created bishoprics of Ripon and Manchester were conferred
in the same manner. The Queen also appoints to such deaneries,
prebendaries, and canonries as are in her gift., under the Great Seal,
and presents to Crown livings by a sign manual letter.
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the Primate of all England. He
has within his province the bishoprics of Canterbury, Rochester,
London, Winchester, Norwich, Lincoln, Ely, Chichester, Salisbury,
Exeter, Bath and Welk, Worcester, Lichfield, Hereford, Llandaff,
St. David's, Bangor, St. Asaph, Gloucester and Bristol, Peterboro'
and Oxford. He has the privilege of crowning the Kings of England.
He is the usual channel of communication with the Crown or the
Ministers on constitutional questions affecting the interests of the
Church. The Archbishop of York's province consists of the six
northern counties, with Cheshire and Nottinghamshire ; and includes
236 GBEAT BRITAIN AKD IRELAND.
the bishoprics of York, Chester, Durham, Carlisle, Ripon, Manchester,
and the Isle of Man. He has the privilege to crown the Queen
Consort, and to be her perpetual chaplain. The archbishops are
the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have within them the
inspection of the bi^ops, as well as of the inferior clergy, for which
purpose they make their visitations, which are now, however, practi-
cally episcopal, not archiepiscopal, and made only as bishops within
their own dioceses. They have, assisted by at least two other
bishops, the confirmation and consecration of the bishops. They
have also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise
episcopal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, jurisdic-
tion. As superior ecclesiastical judges, all appeals from inferior
jurisdictions within their provinces lie to them. They have also each
a court of original jurisdiction. They have power, by stat. 25 Hen.
VIII. c. 21, but now only exercise it upon accustomed occasions, of
granting dispensations. This power is the foundation for the grant
of special licences to marry, to sanction the holding of two livings,
now restricted to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Bishop is the
chief of the clergy in his diocese. He has the power of ordaining
priests and deacons, of consecrating churches, of confirming the bap-
tised, of granting licences to marry, and of visiting and inspecting
the manners of his clergy and people. The bishop is also an eccle-
siastical judge ; but he appoints a chancellor to hold his court for
him, and assist him in matters of ecclesiastical law. In case of com-
plaint against a clerk in holy orders, he is empowered by the Church
Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) to hold a court in his own person,
assisted by three assessors. Afler the archbishops, the Bishops of
London, Durham, and Winchester have respectively precedence;
and then the bishops of both provinces, according to their seniority
of consecration, or translation to an English see from that of Sodor
and Man, which ranks lowest. Colonial Bishops of the Established
Church have been appointed by the Crown in forty-two of the
principal British colonies. By stat. 59 Geo. III. c. 60, the Arch-
bishops of Canterbury and York and the Bishop of London are per-
mitted to ordain persons specially to reside and officiate in the British
Colonies.
For the management of ecclesiastical afKiirs, the provinces have
each a council, or convocation, consisting of the iDishops, archdeacons,
and deans, in person, and of a certain number of proctors, as the
representatives of the inferior clergy; each chapter, in both provinces,
sending one ; and the parochial clergy of each diocese in the province
of Canterbury, and of each archdeaconry in the province of York,
sending two. These coimcils are summoned by the respective arch-
bishops, in pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled,
they must also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate ;
as well as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they
. CHUKCH AND EDUCATIOK. 237
are binding on the clergy. In the province of Canterbury, the Con-
TOcation forms two Houses; the archbishop and bishops sitting
together in the Upper House, and the inferior clergy in the Lower.
In the province of York, all sit together in one.
All the bishops, excepting Sodor and Man, have a chapter of their
own, at the head whereof is a dean, who ranks immediately after the
bishop, and constitutes, in certain cases, * a corporation sole.' The
chapter nominally elects the Bishops, and, together with the dean,
has to give its assent to many acts of the Bishop, such as the granting
of leases and nomination to various offices.
England is distributed into 200 extra-parochial places, and
about 12,000 parishes. In every parish there is a parish church,
presided over by a rector, who holds the living. Whoever is in ftdl
possession of all the rights of such parish church is called * parson' —
persona ecclesice — and constitutes a jural person. During his life he
has the freehold of the parsonage, the glebe-lands, the tithes, and
other dues. Occasionally these dues are * appropriated;' that is,
the benefice is perpetually annexed to some spiritual corporation,
either sole or aggregate, being the patron of the living. Such cor-
poration appoints a vicar, to whom the spiritual duty belongs, in the
same manner as, in parsonages not appropriated, to the rector. The
patronage — advocatio, advowson — is ranked under the head of real
property. Advowsons are either appendant or in gross ; appendant
when annexed to the possession of a manor, and will pass by a grant
of the manor only, without adding any other word. But when the
advowson has been once separated from the property of the manor,
it is called advowson in gross. The owner of the advowson is
invested with the same privileges as in other lands. When an alien
purchases a right of presentation, the CrowU shall present; if a
Catholic, it is exercised by either university in turn. Since 1835
the right of presentation of corporate towns has been abolished.
Besides the right of presentation pertaining to the Queen, the Lord
Chancellor, the Prince of Wales, the higher clergy, the chapters, and
the universities, there are about 3,850 lords, gentlemen, and gentle-
women in the enjoyment of private patronage.
No information regarding the number of persons belonging to the
Episcopal Church and those adhering to other religious creeds in
England is given in the last official census. It appears, however,
irom the returns of the Registrar-General that, in the year 1861, out
of a total number of 163,706 marriages, 130,697 were solemnised
according to the rites of the Established Church. Of the latter
number 102,955 were after publication of banns ; 20,090 by licence ;
4,048 by superintendent registrar's certificate ; and 16 by special
licence. But this statement does not represent the real numbers with
perfect accuracy, as 3,588 marriages were not distinguished in the re-
gisters in respect to these particulars. The number of maxxva^^g^^^^-
238
GREAT BBITAIN AND IBELAND.
formed otherwise than agreeably to the forms of the Established Church
was 33,009. Eoman Catholic marriages were, 7,782 ; those in the
registered chapels of other religious denominations, 13,182 ; those of
Jews, 262 ; of Quakers, 58 ; while marriages contracted in superin-
tendent registrars' offices were, 11,725. In 1851 the maniages in the
Established Church were about 131,000; and in 1861 they were
nearly the same number. In 1851 those not performed in the
Established Church were about 23,000; in 1861 they were 33,000.
It appears from these figures that an increase of 9,000, which the
total marriages in 1861 exhibited, as compared with those in 1851,
was appropriated by persons who married according to other rites
than those of the Established Church.
In 1861 there were in England and Wales 4,564 buildings be-
longing to Eoman Catholics and Dissenting denominations, and
registered for the solemnisation of marriages. A third part of that
number belonged to Independents, 1,000 to Baptists, 895 to Wesleyan
Methodists, 551 to Eoman Catholics, 193 to Calvinistic Methodists,
152 to Unitarians, 137 to Scottish Presbyterians, and 141 to various
other bodies who have not yet acquired numerical importance.
The number of Eoman Catholics in England has greatly increased
within the last thirty years. It is stated * that, in the year 1830,
there were, in England and Wales, 434 priests; in 1863 there were
1,242. In 1830 the churches were 410 ; in 1863 they were 872.
There were 16 convents in 1830, the number has arisen in 1863 to
162. In 1830 there were no houses for religious men, but in 1850
there were 11. In 1863 the number amounted to 53. Another
report ^ gives the following statistics regarding the number of Eoman
Catholic priests, churches, and communities in Great Britain : —
18M
1864
Increase
Eoman Catholic clergy in England •
Scotland .
Total ....
Churches and stations in England
Scotland .
Total ....
Commnnities of men in England
Convents in England ....
„ Scotland ....
Total ....
Commissioned army chaplains .
922
134
1,267
178
345
44
1,066
1,446
389
678
134
907
191
229
67
812
1,098
286
17
84
56
173
13
39
89
13
84
186
102
—
18
18
* Address of Cardinal Wiseman at the Congress of Malines, August 25, 1863.
t Catholic Directory, London, 1864.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 239
The present Roman Catholic population of Great Britain is esti-
mated at 2,000,000.
The Church of Scotland differs in many and important respects
from the Episcopal Church of England. The Scotch Church is a
perfect democracy, all the members being equal, none of them having
power or pre-eminence of any kind over another. There is in each
parish a parochial tribunal, called a kirk session, consisting of the
minister, who is always resident, and of a greater or smaller nimiber
of individuals, of whom, however, there must always be two selected
as elders. The principal duty of the latter is to superintend the
affairs of the poor, and to assist in visiting the sick. The session
interferes in certain cases of scandal, calls parties before it, aiid
inflicts ecclesiastical penalties. But parties who consider themselves
aggrieved may appeal from the decisions of the kirk session to the
presbytery in which it is situated, the next highest tribunal in the
church. The General Assembly, which consists partly of clerical
and partly of lay members, chosen by the different presbyteries,
boroughs, and universities, comprises 386 members, and meets
annually in May, and sits for ten days ; but it has been the custom
to appoint a commission, to take up and determine any matters it may
have left undecided. The Assembly is honoured during its sittings
with the presence of the representative of the sovereign, who bears
the title of Lord High Commissioner. He cannot, however, interfere
in. any way with its proceedings. All matters brought before the
Assembly are decided, after debate, by a vote.
The stipends of the Scotch clergy are principally derived from the
wreck of the tithes and other property that belonged to the Eoman
Catholic Church, which was principally seized upon at the Reforma-
tion by the nobility and gentry. The Court of Session, as commis-
sioners of tithes, have power from time to time to augment, as they
may think fit, the livings of such clergymen as may not be already in
the receipt of the whole disposable tithes of their respective parishes.
But in many parishes the tithes have been wholly taken up or ex-
hausted ; and in 1812 an Act was passed to raise, at the public
expense, the incomes of such clergymen as had less than 150/. a year,
exclusive of glebes and houses, to that sum. The average income
of the clergy of the Church of Scotland, exclusive of the ministers
of qvA)ad sacra parishes, amoimts to about 200Z. a year, over and
above their glebes and houses.
The dissenters from the Church are very numerous, and are
variously estimated as comprising from one-half to two-thirds of the
entire population. The largest body is the Free Church formed from
a secession in 1843. Next is the United Presbyterian Church, re-
cently formed from the amalgamation of several bodies of seceders,
some dating as far back as 1741. The Established, the Free, and
the United Presbyterian Churches may be said to dividfc \Jcifc ^Q5i\Jc\jScL
240
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IBBLAND.
nation among them. In doctrine they are identical, and only differ
as to the propriety of relation to the State. The junction of the
Free and United Presbyterian Churches ia at present under con-
sideration. There are congregations of Baptists, Independents,
Methodists, and Morrisonians in the chief towns, and a few Quakers
and Unitarians here and there. The Roman Catholics have in-
creased largely of late years, but solely from the influx of Irish.
There is an Episcopal Church which includes a large portion of
the nobility and gentry, and is said to be growing. Its members
were estimated, in 1863, at 22,000.
The proportion of the members of the various religious denomina-
tions in Scotland may be judged from the returns of marriages. In
the year 1863, there were altogether 21,201 marriages celebrated in
Scotland, of which number 9,769 were contracted according to the
rites of the Established Church; 4,861 according to those of the
Free Church ; 2,936 according to those of the United Presbyterian
Church ; 1,822 according to those of the Roman Catholic Church ;
378 according to those of the Episcopalian Church; and the rest
according to the rites of the smaller religious denominations. To
judge from these returns, it would appear that 46 per cent, of the
population of Scotland are attached to the Established Church ; 23
per cent, to the Free Church ; nearly 14 per cent, to the United
Presbyterian Church ; 8^ per cent, to the Roman Catholic Church ;
littie more than 1^ per cent, to the Episcopal Church : and 5^ per
cent, to all other denominations.
The census of Ireland in 1861 stated that there were 4,505,265
Roman Catholics, 693,357 persons belonging to the Established
Church, 523,291 Presbyterians, 45,399 Methodists, 4,532 Inde-
pendents, 4,237 Baptists, 3,695 Quakers, 393 Jews, and 15,666 of
various other persuasions.
The Established Church of Ireland is governed by two archbishops,
of Armagh and Dublin, and these two ecclesiastical provinces are
divided into twelve bishoprics.
The following parliamentary return, issued during the session of
1863, shows the population and income of the several Irish dio-
ceses : —
Dioceses
Number of Members
of the
Established Church in
Revenues of the
Established
Church in eanh
Diocese in
1834
1861
1861
Armagh and Clogher .
Dublin and Kildare .
Meath
Derry and Raphoe
Down, Connor, and Dromore
207,371
120,506
25,626
83,857
136,660
160,386
112,766
16,321
66,603
162,722
£82.930
65,103
34,828
66,163
44,786
CHUBCH ABD SDrCATIOy.
241
Diooeeea
Nmnber of Members
of the
Established Church in
Bevennes of the
Established
Church in each
Diocese in
1834
1861
1861
Kilmore, Elphin, and Ardagh .
Tuam, KiUaia, and Achonry
Osfiory, Ferns, and Leighlin
Cashel, Emily, Waterford, andl
lismore .... J
Cork, Cloyne, and Ross
Killaloe, Kilfenora, Clonfert,1
and Kilmacduagh . . /
limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe .
Total ....
81,046
22,765
57,424
19,307
55,156
24,801
18,651
53,165
17,156
35,663
13,853
43,228
15,906
15,103
£47,410
27,539
62,248
43,093
65,423
28,789
32,117
853,160
691,872
£580,418
Another parliamentary return, ordered by the House of Commons,
on the 6th of May, 1863, shows the number of Roman Catholics
in Ireland in the years 1834 and 1861 ; the number of members of
the Established Church in Ireland in the years 1834 and 1861 ; and
the proportion of Roman Catholics to members of the Established
Church' in 1834 and in 1861. It appears from this return that the
number of Roman Catholics in Ireland was —
In 1834 6,436,060
In 1861 4,505,265
The number of members in the Established Church of Ireland
was— -
In 1834 853.160
In 1861 691,872
Consequently, the proportion of Roman Catholics to members of
the Established Church was —
In 1834, 100 Roman Catholics to 13-26 Members of the Established Church
In 1861, 100 RomM Catholics to 16-35 Members of the Established Church
The Roman Catholic Church is under four archbishops, of Armagh,
Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three bishops. Eight of the
bishops — Ardagh, Clogher, Derry, Down and Connor, Dromore,
Kilmore, Meath, and Raphoe — are suffragan to Armagh. Dublin
has but three suffragans — Kildare and Leighlin united. Ferns and
Ossory. Six are suffragan to Cashel, namely Ardfert and Aghadoe
(usually called the Bi^op of Kerry, Cloyne, and Ross), Cork,
Killaloe, Limerick, Waterford, and Lismore. Tuam has four suffi^-
gans — Achonry, ('lonfert, Killala, and Galway. The bishop of the
imited dioceses of Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora is alternately suffragan
to the archbishops of Tuam and Cashel. The wardenship of Galway,
B
942 GBSAT BBITAIN AND ntELAlTD.
formerly an exempt jurisdiction, subject only to the triennial visita-
tion of the archbishop of Tuam, has been lately erected into a
bishopric, under its former archiepiscopal jurisdiction. On the
death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese elect a vicar-capitular,
who exercises spiritual jurisdiction during the vacancy. They
also nominate one of their own body, or sometimes a stranger, as
successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postulate or petition
the Pope. The bishops of the province also present the names of
two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The new bishop is
generally chosen from among this latter number ; but the appoint-
ment virtually rests with the cardinals, who constitute the congregation
de propaganda fide. Their nomination is submitted to the Pope, by
whom it is usually confirmed. In cases of old age or infirmity, the
bishop nominates a coadjutor, to discharge the episcopal duties in his
stead ; and his recommendation is almost invariably attended to.
The emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, &c., and from the
cathedraticum. The last is an annual sum, varying from 21, to
lOZ., according to the value of the parish, paid by the incumbent, in
aid of the maintenance of the episcopal dignity. The parochial
clergy are nominated exclusively by the bishop. The inoqmes of
all descriptions of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland arise partly
from fees on the celebration of births, marriages, and masses ; and
partly, and principally, perhaps, from Christmas and Easter dues,
and other voluntary offerings. All places of worship are built by
subscription. There are numerous monasteries and convents.
PubUc education has made vast progress in Great Britain within
the last twenty years. A recent, report of the R^istrar- General
shows that 327 per cent, of the male minors who married in 1841
were obliged to sign the register with marks. This proportion
diminished year by year till 1862, when it was 23*7. The progress
of education among women has been still greater. In 1841 48*8 per
cent, of minors were unable to write their names ; J?ut in 1862 there
were only 28*5 per cent. In the whole twenty years, from 1842 till
1862, the proportion of men who write has risen from being only
two-thirds to be three-fourths, and of women from being a half to be
nearly two-thirds, which may be expressed with tolerable accuracy
by saying that where four persons had to * make their mark ' then,
only three do so now. This is for all England ; but the rate of
progress has not been the same in every part of the United King-
dom. From a report of the Army Medical Department, giving an
aocoimt of the state of education among the recruits in the British
army, it appears that of every 1,000 recruits examined in the year
1864, in English districts, 239 were unable to read or write, 37 able
CHtmCH AND EDUCATION.
243
to read only, and 724 able to read and write. In Scotch districts
the numbers were respectively 163, 157, and 680. In Irish districts
the result appears as 318, 104, and 578. Compared with the results
for 1861, there is a decrease in the proportion of uneducated in
England, but scarcely any difference in Scotland and Ireland.
£1 the year 1862, the number of school-houses built in connection
with Church of England schools was 101, and the number enlarged
or improved was 72. The total amount awarded out of parliamentary
grants was 50,237Z. ; the total amount subscribed by itie promoters
was 142,925Z. ; aad the total expended was 193,320Z. The number
of additional children accommodated by the new buildings was
28,139, and accommodation was also afforded for 2,370 children by
the enlargement of previously existing schools ; making an aggregate
of 30,509. These statistics apply only to cases in which Government
aid was sought, but there were probably only a few exceptional
instances in which it was not desired and obtained. The number of
new school-houses bidlt in the year 1862 with the assistance of the
Committee of Council on Education by the Wesleyan, Eoman Catholic,
and other bodies was 28, and the number enlarged or improved was 20.
The total amount awarded out of parliamentary grants was 13,751/.;
the total amoimt subscribed by the promoters was 32,430Z. ; and the
total amount expended was 46,181Z. The nimiber of additional
children accommodated by the new buildings was 7,233, and accom-
modation was also afforded for 873 children by the enlargement of
previously existing schools; making an aggregate of 8,106. These
figures refer to England and Scotland only.
The following official return, relating to the Primary Schools in
Great Britain, will give a view of the progress of education within
the years 1857-65 :—
Number of
Number of Chil-
Average number
Years ended 31st August
Schools
dren who can be
of Children in
inspected
accommodated
attendance
England and Wales (including Isle of Man and
1867 .
Boman Catholic Schools for Great Britain)
4,438
841,216
631,210
1868 .
6,436
1,001,097
636,048
1869 .
6,631
1,064,813
674,602
1860 .
6,012
1,168,827
761,326
1861 .
6,259
1,215,782
773,831
1862 .
6,113
1,292,660
813,860
1863 .
6,227
1,316,988
84(5,805
1864 .
6.470
1,332,653
862,817
1866 .
6,867
1,470,473
901,760
b2
244
OBBAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Knmber of
Number of Chil-
Average number
Years ended Slst Augnst
Schools
dren who can be
of Children in
•
inspected
attendance
1867 .
Scotland, exclusive of Roman CathoUc Schools
960
113,356
95,486
1858 .
1,206
154,867
124,979
1859 .
1,055
154,228
126,799
1860 .
1,260
161,421
132,909
1861 .
1,446
180,701
146,104
1862 .
1,456
183,680
160,999
1863 .
1,512
196,794
162,120
1864 .
1,421
188,904
148,317
1865 .
1857 .
1,673
207,335
155,995
Total for Great Britain
5,398
964,671
626,696
1868 .
6,641
1,155,964
761,027
1859 .
6,686
1,209,041
801,401
1860 .
7,272
1,320,248
884,234
1861 .
7,705
1,396,483
919,965
1862 .
7,669
1,476,240
964,849
1863 .
7,739
1,512,782
1,008,925
1864 .
7,891
1,521,467
1,011,134
1865 .
8,438
1,677,808
1,057,745
The animal -parliamentary grants to popular education, which
amounted to 30,000Z. in 1840, rose to 83,406Z. in 1848 ; to 180,110Z.
in 1850; to 326,436Z. in 1854; to 668,873Z. in 1858; to
774,743Z. in 1862, and to 1,018,661Z. in 1865. The grant voted
for the financial year 1866-7 was 694,530Z. for Great Britain, and
336,130Z. for Ireland. The former sum was 1,452Z. more than the
vote of 1865, and the vote for Ireland was increased by 10,547/.,
the increase being in the item of salaries to teachers. The expen-
diture in England in the year 1865 was 360,636Z. on schools con-
nected with the Church of England, 59,771Z. on schools connected
with the British and Foreign School Society, 28,156Z. on Wesleyan
schools, and 26,930/. on Homan Catholic schools. The number of
day scholars above six years of age individually examined in
England and Wales in the year ending the 31st August, 1865, was
561,326, or 66*19 per cent, of the average number attending the
schools visited ; and grants were allowed without individual exami-
nation on 146,660 day scholars under six years of age. The num-
ber of night scholars, each of whom more than 12 years old,
individually examined was 23,860, out of 33,904 attending, or
70*38 per cent. The result of the examination of the 561,326 day
scholars may be stated as follows : — the percentage of children over
KBVBNUB AND EXPBNDITTJBB. 245
10 to those of six years of age was 39*82 upon the whole number
examined ; but the children who, being over 10, were presented for
examination were only 19*77 per cent., and who passed without
&ilure 12*96 per cent, of the whole number examined.
From a detailed report laid before Parliament in the session
of 1863, it appears that the public expenditure for education
grants^ from the year 1839 to December 31, 1862, amoimted to
6,710,862/. 14s. 10c?. The proportions of this amount granted
to various religious commimities were as follows: — To Church
of England schools, 4,039,333Z. 5*. lid.; to schools of the British
and Foreign School Society, 587,278Z. lbs.; to Wesleyan schools,
308,112Z. 17s. 6d.; to Roman Catholic schools in England and
Wales, 228,110Z. 65.; to Parochial Union schools, 75,676/. 14«. 9^.;
to schools connected with the Established Church .of Scotland,
406,184/. 135. 5^.; to the Free Church of Scotland, 322,777/. 145. Sd.;
to the Episcopal Church of Scotland, 34,363/. 145. lOd.; to Roman
Catholic schools in Scotland, 18,793/. 85. 6(Z.; and to other schools,
189/. 145. lOd.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The details of the gross revenue for the financial year ending
March 31st, 1866, were as follows : —
£ s. d.
Customs 21,276,000 0 0
Excise * . . . . 19,788,000 0 0
Stamps 9,560,000 0 0
Taxes (Land and Assessed) . . . . . . 3,350,000 0 0
Property Tax 6,390,000 0 0
Post Office . 4,250,000 0 0
Crown Lands (Net) 320,000 0 0
Miscellaneous: —
Produce of the Sale of Old Stores, £ 9. d.
and other Military and Naval extra
Beceipts 584,628 10 1
Amount received from the Bevenues
of India on account of the effective
and non>effective charges of British
Troops serving in that country . 867,500 0 0
Ditto ditto Arrears . . 254,324 17 3
Allowance out of Profits of issue
received from the Bank of England,
per Act 24 Vict c 3 . . . 131,678 0 0
Miscellaneous Beceipts, including
Imprest and other Moneys . . 617,548 17 2
China War Indemnity . . . 422,712 0 0
r 2,878,292 4 6
Total Bevenue . • . £67.812,292 4 ^
246 GBSAT BRITAIN AND IBELAND.
The various items of the gross expenditure for the financial year
ending March dlst, 1866, were as follows :— -
Interest and Management of the F^etma- £ s. d, £ s, d,
nentDebt 23,642,693 15 II
Terminable Annuities. . . . 2,361,894 4 9
Interest of Exchequer Bonds . . 64,760 0 0
Interest of Exchequer Bills . . 264,409 18 3
26,233,287 18 11
Ohabgbs on Consolidatbd Fund:
Civil List . . . . . . 406,498 6 1
Annuities and Pensions . , • 296,311 12 8
Salaries and Allowances ... 156,830 13 0
Diplomatic Salaries and Pensions . 172,441 0 0
Courts of Justice . . . . 669,072 6 10
Hflisoellaneous Charges . . • 182,511 5 8
1,883,676 2 3
SxTPFLT Sebticbs:
Army 13,804,449 19 I
Navy 10,269,788 1 4
New Zealand War .... 764,829 0 0
Miscellaneous Civil Services . . 7,620,986 0 4
Salaries, Superannuations, &c., of Cus-
toms and Inland Eevenue . . 2,499,603 8 1
Ditto - - ditto of Post Office 2,102,338 10 3
Post Office Packet Service . . . 846,403 13 0
37,797,393 12 1
Total Ordinary Expenditure . . . £66,914,356 13 3
Expenses of Fortifications provided, for by Money raised
per Acts 26 & 27 Vict. a. 80, and 27 and 28 Vict-c. 109 - 560,000 0 0
Total Expenditure . . £66,474,366 13^ ^3
Excess of Income over Ordinary Expen- ....
diture in the year ended 31st March
1866 . ...... 1,897,936 11 8
Deduct — ^Expenses of Fortifica-
tions, as above . . . 660,000 0 0
1,387,986 11 3
£67,812,292 4 6
The total gross revenue of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland in the year ended March 31, 1866, amounted to
66,812,292Z. The total gross expenditure was 66,474,357/., showing
an excess of income over expenditure of 1,897,985Z. But the cost of
fortifications, provided for by the creation of sumuities, and amounting
to 560,000Z., reduced this surplus to 1,337,935/. The baknce in the
Exchequer on March 31, 1866, consisted of the sum of 5,851, 314Z.
The budget estimates for the financial year 1866-67 — ^laid by the
Chancellor of the Exchequer before the House of Conunons on
May 3rd, 1866 — ^were as follows :-<-<
. KBVJBHUK AND BZFEMDiTUn.
247
E, 1866-67.
20,923,000
ESTDCATBD KxFBNDmJSB, 1866-^7.
Customs
Interest and repayment £
Bsoise ...
. 19,750,000
of debt . . 26,642,000
Stamps .
. 9,460,000
Consolidated Fund
. 3,315,000
Charges . . . 1,880,000
Income t&z .
6,700,000
Army .... 14,095,000
Crown lands .
325,000
Navy .... 10,400,000
Post-office
4,460,000
Collection of Kevenue . 6,003,000
k
Packet Service . . 821,000
indenmitj .
3,100,000
Miscellaneous Estimates 7,886,000
£67,013,000
£66,727,000
According to these estimates, there will be a surplus of 286,000/.
in the financial year ending March 3 1st, 1867.
The following table shows the total amount of the estimated and
actual revenue for the last fifteen years, with the difference between
the estimated and actual amounts. In accordance with the system
upon which the budget estimates have been fi'amed, the financial
period up to the year 1854 ended on the 5th of April, and sub-
sequently on the last day of March. The net amounts of revenue
are given up to the end of the financial year 1855-56, and the
ffroas amoimts after that period :-—
Team ended
Revenue
Estimated
Actual receipts
More (+)
in the
at the
orlessC-)
Budgets
Bxchequer
thivn Budget
Ket aznountB
£
£
£
Aprils,
1862 .
61,172,000
62,468,319
+ 1,296,319
»t
1863 .
51,626,000
63,243,218
+ S,618,218
_ »»
1864 .
62,678,000
54,774,906
+ 2,196,906
MarchSJ, 1866 .
69,496,000
69,496,154
+ 154
11
1866 .
1867 ...
67,139,000
66,704,491
-1,434,609
Qrosa amonnts
71,740,000
72,334,062
+ 694,062
>»
1868 .
66,365,000
67,881,613
+ 1,516,513
n
1869 .
. 63,920,000
66,477,284
+ 1,667,284
>f
1860 .
69,460,000
71,089,669
+ 1,629,669
tt
1861 .
t2,248,000
70,283,674
-1,964,326
»*
1862 .
70,283,000
69,674,479
- 608,621
u
1663 .
70,060,000
70,603,661
+ 568,661
ii
1864 .
68,171,000
70,208,964
+ 2,037,964
n
1866 .
67,128,000
70,313,436
+ 3,186,436
it
1866 .
66,392,000
67,812,292
+ 1,420,292
248
aSXAT BBITAIN AND IBELAIO).
The following table shows the total amount of the estimated and
actual expenditure for the last fifteen years, with the difference
between flie calculated and real expenses, and the surplus or de-
ficiency of income. As in the preceding table, and in accordance
with" liie system upon which the budget is firamed, the financial
period of the first four years ended on the 5th of April, and subse-
quently on the 8 1st of March. As stated in the table, the first
six years give the net^ and the other nine years, more correctly,
the gross amounts: —
EXFENDirURB
Surplus (+)
or deficiency (-)
Years ended
Estimated
Actual pay-
More (+)
in the
ments out of
orlessC-)
of Income
Budgets
the £xcheQuer
than Budget
Aprils, 1852 .
Net amounts
£
50,247,171
£
50,291,323
£
+ 44,162
£
+ 2,176,996
„ 1853 .
51,164,000
50,782,476
- 381,524
+ 2,460,742
„ 1854 .
52,083,000
51,250,120
- 832,880
+ 3,524,786
March31,1865 .
63,039,000
65,692,962
+ 2,653,962
- 6,196,808
„ 1856 .
1857 .
86,034,000
88,428,345
+ 2,394,345
-22,723,864
Gross amounts
81,113,000
75,588,667
-6,524,333
- 3,264,606
„ 1858 .
65,434,000
68,128,859
+ 2,694,859
- 247,346
1859 .
63,610,000
64,663,882
+ 1,063,882
+ 813,402
1860 .
69,207,000
69,502,289
+ 296,289
+ 1,687,380
1861 .
73,534,000
72,792,059
- 741,941
- 2,608,386
„ 1862 .
69,875,000
71,116,486
+ 1,241,485
- 1,442,006
„ 1863 .
70,040,000
69,302,008
- 737,992
+ 1,301,663
„ 1864 .
68,283,000
67,056,286
-1,226,714
+ 3,152,678
„ 1865 .
67,249,000
66,462,206
- 786,794
+ 3,851,230
„ 1866 .
67,349,000
66,914,367
-1,434,643
+ 1,897,936
The expenditure for 1859-60 includes 858,057Z. for military ope-
rations in China, not provided for in the budget estimates ; and the
expenditure for the six years 1860-66 is irrespective of the amount
paid for fortifications, provided for by annuities, under the Acts 23,
24, 25, and 26 Vict., and not estimated in the budgets.
It wiU be seen from the above table that, as regards the six last
financial periods, in each of the two years ending March 31st, 1861
and 1862 respectively, there was a deficiency of revenue, the amount
of such deficiency being 2,508,385/. in 1861, and 1,442,006/. in
1862; and that in each of the four subsequent years there was ^
BKVlfiNUE AND EXPENDITUBX. 249
large surplus— viz., 1,301,553/. in 1863, 3,152,678/. in 1864,
3,851,230/. in 1865, and 1,897,935/. in the year ending March 31,
1866, Nevertheless, during the whole of the latter period there
has been an uninterrupted reduction of taxation. The details of
the changes made in taxation in the six years from March 3l8t,
1860, to March 3l8t, 1866, were as follows :—
£
Taxes repealed or reduced in the six years . . . . . 19,299,863
Taxes imposed . . . • . . . ... 3,263,215
Net reduction 16,036,648
Taxes Befbalbd ob Keducbd, Ybab Endikg Mabch 31, 1861.
Duties repealed under the French Treaty, on butter, £ £
cheese, eggs, oranges, &c., rice, tallow, silk manu-
factures, &c. ; duties reduced on wine, spirits,.
, wood, fruits, &c . 2,840,931
Hop duty reduced . . ' . ' . . " . , 106,000
2,945,931
1862;
Duties on paper, books, &c, repealed; duties on wine
and hops reduced 1,629,558
Income-tax reduced to 9d • 1,060,000
2,689,658
1863.
Hop duty repealed 348,671
Stajnps reduced . . . . . . • • 6,000
353,671
1864.
Duty reduced on tea from Is. 6d. to Is. per lb., and
charges on bills of lading, &c., repealed. . . . 1,896,319
Income-tax reduced to 7(2. 2,760,000
4,646,319
1866.
Duty on sugar, molasses, &c., reduced . . . 1,744,384
Fire insurance, duty reduced 256,000
Tea licences reduced ....... 16,000
Income-tax reduced to Sd, , . . . . . 1,230,000
3,244,384
1866.
Duty on tea reduced from Is. to 6d. per lb. . . . 2,300,000
Fire insurance duty reduced 620,000
Income-tax reduced to 4(2 2,600,000
5,420,000
£19,299,863
250 aBEAT BBITAIN AKD IKELAJXD.
Taxbs Imposed.
1861. £ £
Income-tax increased to 10<^. . . . . . 1,060,000
British colonial spirits, charges on bills of lading, &c. . 677,904
Spirits and chicory, licences to refreshment-house
keepers, &c 1,090,000
Stamp duties 168,000
2,890,904
1862.
Chicory and licences 20,000
Stamp duties .... . . • . 60,000
80,000
1863.
Brewers' licentes, &c . . . . . . 232,000
Stamp duties 20,500
262,600
1864.
Chicory ......... 6,811
Stage carriages, beer retaUers' licences, &c. . • 24,000
30,811
1866.
Duty on Sugar used in brewing, and on chicory in-
creased, &c. ..... . , • . ' 9,000
1866.
Kone —
£3,263,216
A return moved for in Parliament in the. session of 1863, shows
that in 1801 the gross revenue collected in Great Britain, excluding
miscellaneous receipts, amounted to 35,218,525/., and in Ireland to
2,919,217Z. Iii the financial year 1861-62, the amount was
61,360,749Z. received of Oreat Britain-, and 6,792,606Z. of Ireland.
Therefore, in 1801 the gross revenue received in Great Britain
amounted to SI. Is. per head of population, and in Ireland, lis. 2d. ;
while, half a century later, in 1861-62, the amount per head was
21. 135. in Great Britain, and 1?. 35. hd. in Ireland.
The following tabular' statement gives both the gross and net
amounts of the revenue of the United Kingdom in each of the years
1830-31, 1840^1, 1850-51, and 1860-61, showing the cost of col-
lecting the revenue at each of those periods, and also in what pro-
portions the revenue was derived jfrom each of the following
sources : — customs, excise, stamps^ ordinary taxes, income tax, post*
office, CJrown lands, and miscellaneous items. The table, in further
illustration, gives the amount per head of the gross revenue accord-
ing to the census returns of the population in the years 1831, 1841,
1851, and 1861 :—
1UITBII0E iJHD IZFBNDIIUBl.
251
Customs .
Excise
Stamps
Ordinaiy taxes
Post-office.
Crown lands
31iscellaneofis
1830-31.
Gross revenney Not revenney
after after
dedaoting deduoting
drawbacks, charges
&0. of oollectioii
£19,627,101 £18,231,912
19,817,382 18,606,220
7,316,010 7,116,967
6,347,222 6,063,991
2,212,206 1,617,962
363,742 336,771
227.662 226,668
£64,811,826 £61.097.381
Population of the United Kingdom .
Amount of gross revenue per ^ad of population
1840-41.
Customs .
Excise
Stamps
Ordinary taxes
Post-office .
Crown lands
Miscellaneous
24,392,486
£2 4 11^
£22,066,460
13,762,337
7,123,724
3,966,731
496,913
444,836
296,600
£23,341,813
14,786,696
7,287.823
4,167,764
1,342,604
482,421
296,600
£61,693,610 £48.144.600
Population of the United Kingdom .... 27,036,460
Amount of gross revenue per head of population • £1 18 2}
1860-61. ^^-^^
Customs £22,01§;784 £20,736,979
Excise 16,260,640 14,897,976
Stamps 6,706,761 6,666,916
Ordinaiy taxes 4,640,664 1 97.29900
Income tax ..... 6,610,860/ ^./^fi^.y^y
Post-office 2,261,262 823,362
Crown lands 366,810 318,682
Miscellaneous . . . . ' . ' 766,116 766,116
£67,481,797 £63,327,838
Population of the United Kingdom ....
Amount of gross revenue per head of population
1860-61.
Customs £23,278,260
Excise . . . . . . 19,648,1831
Stamps . . , . . . 8,368,870 I
Ordinary taxes 3,146,070 (
Income tax
Post-office .
Crown lands
Miscellaneous
10,967,060 J
3,407,063
412,461
1,463,101
£70,669,998
Population of the United Kingdom .
Amount of gross revenue per head of population
27,724,849
£2 1 6
£22,263,870
40,472,228
1,400,769
369,294
1,453.101
£66,969,282
29,346,098
£2 8 li
152
GBBAT BBTTAIN AND IBBLAKB.
In the fifteen years, 1851 to 1865, the total expenditure of the
United Kingdom, after deducting charges of collection, increased
fix)m 50,507,599/. (year ending January 5, 1851) to 61,855,736/.
(year ending March 31, 1865). This increase was entirely caused
by an augmentation of the charges for the army and navy. The
expenditure for the army rose from 8,955,061/. in 1850-51, to
18,013,896/. in 1860-61, but sank to 14,382,672/. in 1864-5. The
charge for the navy was 6,437,883/. in 1850-51, and rose to
13,331,668/. in 1860-61, sinkmg to 10,898,253/. in 1864-5. On
the other hand, the charge for the interest and management of the
national debt, which amoimtedto 28,117,584/. in 1850-51, declined
gradually to 26,369,398/. in 1864-5.
The national debt of Great Britain, the interest on which con-
simies more than one-third of the revenues of the United Kingdom,
dates from the time of the Revolution, and from that period has
been increasing in the following proportions : —
NaUonal Debt
Principal
funded and
unfunded
Interest
and manage-
ment
Debt at the revolution, in 1689 ' .
Excess of debt contracted during the reign
of William UI. above debt paid off
Debt atthe accession of Queen Anne, in 1702
Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign
Debt at the accession of George I., in 1714
Debt paid off during the reign of Greorge
I., above debt contracted . .
Debt at the accession of George IL, in 1727
Debt con tractedfrom the accession of Greorge
II. till the peace of Paris in 1763, three
years after the accession of George TTT.
Debtinl763 . . . . . .
Paid during peace, from 1763 to 1775
Debt at the commencement of the American
war, in 1776 . . .
Debt contracted during thiB American war
Debt at the conclusion of the American war,
in 1784
Paid during peace from 1784 to 1793 .
664,263
16,730,439
£
39,865
1,271,087
16,394,702
37,760,661
1,310,942
2,040,416
64,145,363 .
2,063,126
3,361,368
1,133,807
62,092,238
86,773,192
2,217,561
2,634,600
138,865,430
10,281,796
4,862,051
380,480
128,683,635
121,267,993
4,471,671
4,980,201
249,861,628
10,601,380
9,451,772
243,277
-
VXWSVZ AND EZPENDITVBH.
*53
National Debt
Principal
funded and
unfunded
Interest
and manage-
ment
Debt at the comTnencement of the French
war, in 1793
Debt contracted during the French war .
Total funded and unfunded debt on the 1st
of February, 1817, when the English and
Irish exchequers were consolidated
Debt cancelled from the 1st of February,
1817, to 5th of January, 1836
Debt, and charge thereon 6th of January,
1836
Debt, and charge thereon Slst of March,
1865
£
239,360,148
601,500,343
£
9,208,495
22,829,696
840,850,491
32,038,191
53,211,676
2,894,674
787,638,816
29,143,517
786,610,795
26,369,398
The state of the national debt for the sixteen years, from 1852
to 1866, has been as follows : —
Description of debt
'Rinn.nrnA.l Team ended
Funded
Unfunded
Total
£
£
£
Aprils, 1861 .
769,272,562
17,766,600
787,029,162
1852 . .
765,126,682
17,742,800
782,869,382
1853 .
761,622,704
17,742,600
779,365,804
1864 .
755,311,701
16,024,100
771,336,801
March31,1855 .
762,064,119
23,161,400
775,216,519
1866 .
776,730,994
28,182,700
803,913,694
1867 . .
780,119,722
27,989,000
808,108,722
1858 . .
779,226,495
25,911,600
806,136,996
1859 . .
786,801,164
18,277,400
805,078,664
1860 . .
785,962,000
16,228,300
802,190,300
1861 . .
785,119,609
16,689,000
801,808,609
1862 . .
784,262,338
16,617,900
800,770,238
1863 . .
783,306,739
16,495,400
799,802,139
1864 . .
777,429,224
13,136,000
790,666,224
1866 . .
776,768,296
10,742,600
786,510,795
1866 .
773,313,229
8,187,700
781,500,929
In 1864 the sum of 5,000,000Z. of the unredeemed funded debt
was cancelled, and a terminable annuity created in lieu thereof,
under the 26th Vict. cap. 25, sect. 2.
^54
GBEAT BRITAIN AND IBELAND.
The balance in the Exchequer for the sixteen years' 1851-66
amounted to : —
nnandftT Yeais ended
Financial Yean ended
Amount
April 6, 1851 .
9,245,^76
March 31, 1859 .
£
7,789,083
1862 .
8,381,637
1860 .
7,972,864
1863 .
8,841,822
1861 .
6,672,132
1864 .
4,485,230
1862 .
5,288,676
March 31, 1866 .
3,949,-776
1863 .
7,263,839
1866 .
5,600,621
1864 .
7,352,548
1857 .
8,668,371
1865 .
7,690,922
1868 .
6,657,502
1866 .
5,851,314
Taking the population of the United Kingdom according to the
census of 1861, the share of each individual in the capital of the
national debt amounted, in 1866, to 27L 15s. 2d., while that in the
annual interest was 175. Sd,
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The maintenance of a standing army, in time of peace, without the
consent of Parliament, is prohibited by the Bill of Rights of 1690.
From that time to the present, the number of troops which the
security of the kingdom and its possessions render it necessary to
maintain, as well as the cost of the different branches of the service
in detail, have been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House of
Commons. The amount of the military force to be maintained for
the year is always a matter for the decision of the Cabinet. The
question is annually brought under consideration by a letter from the
Commander-in-Chief addressed to the Secretary of State for War,
who makes known the decision of the Cabinet in an official com-
mimication. The amount being thus determined, it is the duty of
the Commander-in-Chief to submit to the Queen a statement of the
description of force within the numbers sanctioned, upon which Her
Majesty's written approval is signified. He then transmits this state-
ment to the Secretary at War, who upon it frames the annual estimates
of expense, submitting them to the votes of the- House of Commons.
Parliament exercises another important means of control over the
army. In time of war or rebellion troops are subject to martial law,
and might be punished for mutiny or desertion. But as soon as
armies began to be maintained in time of peace, questions of discipline
arose. The conamon law, which then alone prevailed, knew of no
distinction between a citizen and a soldier ; so that, if the soldier
deserted, he could only be punished for breach of contract ; if he
struck his officer, he was only liable to an indictment for the assault.
ABUT.
255
♦ Such questions soon came before tlie tribunals, and Chief Justice
Holt, when Recorder of London, decided that, although the King
may, by his prerogative, enlist soldiers, even in time of peace, still,
if there was no statute passed to punish mutiny and to subject them
to a particular discipline, they could not be punished for any military
offence, and they were only amenable to the same laws as the rest
of the King's subjects. Hence the authority of Parliament became
necessary to the maintenance of military discipline. Parliament
granted this in an Act, limited in its duration to one year, which
Act was subsequently passed at the commencement of every session
under the name of the * Mutiny Act,* investing the Crown with large
powers to make regulations for the good government of the army,
and to frame the Articles of War, which form the military code.
Subject to such restrictions, the army has now become a recognised
part of the constitution. Parliament nevertheless retains the power
to make any reduction in its numbers, or even to terminate its legal
existence by a single vote.
According to the army estimates laid before the House of Commons
in the session of 1866, the total force of the United Kingdom, during
the year 186 6-7 , is to consist of 1 38 , 1 1 7 men. This force is composed
of the following regiments, depots, and training establishments : —
Tears 1866-«7
Officers
Officebs oir thb Generai. Staff
Eeoiments:
Boyal horse artillery
Life guards and horse guards
Cavahy of the line
Boyal artillery
Kiding establiisliment
Koyal engineers ' , I
Military train
Foot guards ....
Infantry of the line
Army hospital corps
Commissariat staff corps .
West India regiments
Colonial corps
Total
Dbp6ts of Indian Ebodcbnts
Royal horse artillery
CaTahy
Koyal artillery
In&ntiy ....
Total
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,
and
drummers
93
86
99
578
799
7
398
92
267
3,740
1
1
196
167
6,412
11
44
26
367
437
132
192
1,036
1,712
13
374
183
446
6,914
220
112
271
326
11,961
34
143
69
728
Bank and
file
1,720
1,029
8,416
14,250
206
8,918
1,621
6,260
66,510
779
488
3,000
3,686
10t,839
404
627
1,341
6,200
974. \ 1M^ \
2s6
GBEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Tears 1866-67.
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
tarumpeters,
and
drtunmers
Rank and
file
BBCBUITINa Am) OTHEB ESTABLISHMENTS :
Cavalry depots
Infantry dep6ts
Becruiting establishments
Instruction in gunnery ....
„ engineering
„ musketry ....
Total
Tbaintng Schools:
Cadet company, Woolwich
Eoyal military college, Sandhurst .
Eegimental schools ....
Total
Ebcafitulation :
Total, general staff ....
„ regiments ....
„ depots of Indian regiments
„ recruiting and other establish- 1
ments .... J
„ training schools . . , .
. Total force, the cost of which is defrayed 1
from Army Grants . . . .J
13
109
29
1
26
12
118
53
25
14
56
54
38
178
278
92
10
12
8
21
36
184
10
30 1 241
10
93
6,412
437
178
30
11,961
974
278
241
109,839
7,572
92
10
7,160
13,454
117,513
—
—
138,117
The year 1866-7 shows a reduction in the army of 4,360 men
over the previous year. The number of men provided for in the
parliamentary grants of 1865-6 was 142,477. The reduction em-
braced all departments of the service, but chiefly the infantry of
the line, the rank and file of which was 4,410 less in 1866-7 than
in 1865-6.
The British forces in India, exclusive of depots in this country,
comprise the following troops, granted by Parliament for the year
1866-7 :— .
Troops
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,
and drummers
Rank and
file
Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Royal artillery
Infantry of the line .
Total .
200
352
. 1,035
2,028
249
603
790
3,664
2,680
4,466
8,140
41,080
3,615
5,306
56,366
ABMT. 257
The total force of the British army in India amounts, consequently,
to 65,287 men. The niunber is a decrease of 5,757 over the
year 1865-6.
The troops here enumerated do not constitute the whole army of
the United Kingdom ; but the army estimates for 1866-7, as well
as the preceding years, contain votes of money for four classes of
auxiliary forces. The army estimates provide 842,600Z. for the
disembodied militia in the year 1866-7. The number to be called
up for twenty-one days' training is stated at 128,971, but a deduc-
tion is made from the amount of pay required to the extent of one-
fourth for vacant pay of officers and men not enrolled or absent.
The vote for the volunteer corps is 348,100/.. — an increase of 13,200/.,
owing to the numbers reported efficient proving larger than was an-
ticipated. The capitation grants to the volunteers are calculated at
189,700Z.--namely, to the artillery, at 30s., 30,000Z. ; to the light
horse, engineers, and rifles, at 20s., 108,700/. ; extra capitation grant,
at 10s., 31,100/. ; and at 4s. for administrative battalions, 9,600/.
The vote for enrolled pensioners and army reserve force is 45,000/.,
and for yeomanry 85,200/. These four votes, representing the cost
of * auxiliary forces,' amount together to 1,320,900/.
The returns made up in April, 1865, show the enrolled strength
of the volunteer force in the several counties of England, as follows : —
Bedfordshire, 449 ; Berkshire, 1,250 ; Buckinghamshire, 404^
Cambridgeshire, 1,251 ; Cheshire, 3,612 ; Cinque Ports, 1,332 ;
Cornwall, 2,062 ; Cumberland, 1,252 ; Derbyshire, 1,366 ; Devon-
shire, 4,358; Dorset, 1,114; Durham, 3,186; Essex, 3,120;
Gloucestershire, 2,802 ; Hampshire, 2,730 ; Herefordshire, 546 ;
Hertfordshire, 974 ; Huntingdonshire, 304 ; Isle of Man, 283 ;
Meof Wight, 527; Kent, 5,672 ; Lancashire, 17,146; Leicester-
shire, 636 ; Lincolnshire, 1,852 ; London, 3,051 ; Middlesex,
16,505 ; Monmouthshire, 1,739 ; Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1,041 ; Nor-
folk, 2,047 ; Northamptonshire, 956 ; Northumberland, 1,628 ;
Nottinghamshire, 1,482 ;. Oxfordshire, 1,070 ; Shropshire, 1,350 ;
Somerset, 2,282; Staffordshire, 3,474; Suffolk, 1,802; Surrey,
4,425; Sussex, 2,087; Tower Hamlets, 2,693; Warwickshire,
1,725 ; Westmoreland, 402 ; Wiltshire, 1,494 ; Worcestershire,
1,680; Yorkshire -East Riding, 1,692; North Riding, 1,545;
West Riding, 6,777. The total force enrolled in the whole of
Great Britain was 119,283 in April, 1860, 161,400 in 1^861, and
162,681 in 1865 ; this last number being composed of 662 light
horse, 23,363 artillery, 2,904 engineers, 656 mounted rifles, and
134,096 rifle volunteers. It will be noticed that the last return
shows no falling off, but a small increase on 1861, in the volunteer
force.
The total cost of the British army, as voted by Parliament for the
258
OBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
year 1866-7, is to amount to 14,095,000/., while in 1865-6 the
votes were for 14,348,447/. The following is an abstract of the
particular votes for 1866-7, with the corresponding sums of the
year 1865-6 : —
1866-7
I. Rbgtilab Forcbs-
General staff and regimental pay, allowances, and £
charges 5,362,400
Commissariat establishment, services, and move-
ment of troops 1,134,800
Clothing establi&braentfl, services, and supplies . 454,400
Barrack estabUahment, services, and supplies . 603,300
Divine senri^e 41,100
llurtidkw 22,000
Medical establishment, services, and supplies . 246,500
II. AiTznJABT FoBCxs:
Disembodied militia 842,600
Yeomanry •••••••• 86,200
Volunteers 348,100
Enrolled pensioners and army reserve force . 45,000
in. Stobbs:
Manufacttiriiig departments .... 966,800
Warlike stores" 428,000
IV. WOBKS AND BmLDINGS:
Superintending establishment of, and expenditure
for, works, bmldings, and repairs, at home and
abroad 842,200
V. Otheb Sebvicsbs:
Military education 162,400
Surveys of the United Kingdom, and topogra-
phical depiirtTOent ,
MiscfUaneous fiervicee
Administxationof the army ....
Total effective services ....
VL l?oiT-KrTKc*tTYB Sbbvigbs :
Bewards for military Bemee ....
Pay of pfeneral officers . . • •
Pay of reilu(>^d and retired officers .
Widows' pt^uHions and ts^mpassionatc allowances
Pensions and allowances to wounded officers
In-pension
Out-pension
SupemTintiiition allowances ....
Disembodied militia ....
Totel iioTi-e£fectiv© services .
IRBCAPlTtrLATIOlff V
Effective services
Non-effective services;
Total effective and non-effective services .
1865-6
£
5,434,567
1,205,800
574,256
609,900
44,335
26,300
246,644
786,400
91,000
334,900
46,000
972,900
485,000
811,400
163,500
88,300
88,346
94,800
107,700
212,800
212,800
11,979,700
12,241,647
26,100
26,100
72,600
74,200
467,200
456,000
161,300
162,100
26,700
28,200
34,600
33,200
1,173,900
1,168,000
135,900
131,000
27,000
29,000
2,116,300
2,106,800
11,979,700
12,241,647
2,116,300
2,106,800
14,095,000
14,348,447
AKMT. 259
It will be seen that the estimates for 1866-7 show a net decrease
of 253,447/. as compared with the previous year's vote; the amoimt
of the vote in 1865-6 having been 14,348,447 Z., and the amount
of the estimate for 1866-7 being 14,095,000^. The approximate
amount to be paid into the exchequer, as extra receipts during the
year 1866-7 is 1,456,400/., as compared with 1,703,440/., the
amount paid in during 1865-6. The total force was reduced
from 142,477 in 1865-66 to 138,117 in 1866-67— a reduction of
4,360.
The following statement shows the distribution of the infentry
battalions on the 1st of April in various years, the Indian local
European aimy, and the embodied militia at home, in the colonies,
in India, and in the Crimea. The foot guards and colonial corps
are not included. In 1843 the total nimiber of battalions of
infentry was 103, of which 32 were at home, 48 in the colonies, and
23 in iidia ; there were 6 European local regiments in India. In
1853, 35 battalions were at home, 44 in the colonies, 24 in India,
and there were still 6 local regiments in India. In 1855 only 10
battalions were at home, 31 in the colonies, 22 in India, and 40 in
the Crimea; there were 9 local regiments in India, and 113 regi-
ments of embodied militia at home, and 3 in the Mediterranean.
Next year there were 49 infentry battalions in the Crimea. In
1857, the Crimean war being over, there were 36 battalions at
home, 47 in the colonies, 22 in India, where also were 9 local regi-
ments. In 1859 the number of battalions had increased to 131 —
36 at home, 29 in the colonies, 66 in India, besides 12 European
local regiments ; there were also 29 regiments of embodied militia
at home. In 1861 the battalions were 132 — 44 at home, 39 in the
colonies, 49 in India, besides 11 local regiments. In 1866 the
estimate was 141 battalions — 41 at home, 45 in the colonies, and 55 in
India.
To guard against invasion of the kingdom, the House of Com-
mons voted in 1860 a sum of 2,000,000/, for new fortifications ; in
1861 another sum of 1,200,000/. ; and subsequently, from 1862 to
1866, exactly 2,000,000/. more. From a return laid before
Parliament in the session of 1866, it appears that sums amounting
to 4,050,000/. have been raised by the creation of annuities of
272,375/., expiring in April, 1855, the annuities being calculated at
3| per cent. The purchase of land had absorbed 1,008,338/. in
April, 1866, and the works 2,934,062/. The expenditure at Ports-
mouth had reached, at the same date, 1,562,230/. ; at Plymouth,
930,595/. The amoimt still to be raised in 1866 was 1,100,000/.
From a return made to the House of Commons, at the end of the
session of 1864, it appears that, in April, 1864, there were 109,760
non-commissioned officers and men in Her Majesty's land forces who
8 2
26o GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
declared themselves Episcopalians, 20,798 Presbyterians, 5,290 other
Protestants, and 58,508 Roman Catholics. The number of Episco-
palians is rather decreasing. The Roman Catholics in the artillery-
increase; in 1861 they were but 3,344, but by April, 1864, they
had increased to 8,161. Out of the 58,508 Roman Catholics in the
army, 46,348 were in the infantry ; of the 135,848 Protestants, only
82,518. In the royal marines there were in the first quarter of
1864, 12,398 Episcopalians, 416 Presbyterians, 2,379 other Protes-
tants, and 1,448 Roman Catholics.
Returns, issued in 1866, including 182,932 soldiers in the
British army, show 6*80 per cent, with a superior education, and a
iui*ther 63*67 per cent, able to read and write. Of the remaining
29'52 per cent., 16*55 could read but not write, and 12*97 could
neither read nor write. In the infantry of the line the proportion
of uneducated men, or men not found able both to read and write,
was 45*62 per cent, in 1860, but only 35*71 in 1865.
In round numbers, every soldier of the British army costs the
country lOOZ. per annum. But this sum includes all extraneous
military expenses, as well as the disbursement for the non-effective
services. From a return on the cost of the army made by the War-
office, showing the amount allowed each soldier for pay, beer money,
clothing, fire, forage, and other allowances, it appears that the
annual cost of a gunner, sapper, or private in the following corps is
— royal horse artillery, 55Z. Qs. l^c?. ; life guards, 68Z. 16s. Sid.;
horse guards, 63Z. 14«. 2^d, ; cavalry of the line, 52Z. 1 Is. 3|c?. ;
royal foot artillery, 32/. ^s. ll^e?. ; royal engineers, 31Z. 5s. 3|c?.,
military train, 31Z. 15s. 9^d. ; foot guards, 2SL 17s. 7|d ; and
infantry of the line, 261. 3s. 5^.
The militia establishment in 1866 comprised 124,622 privates,
and 85,850 were present at training on the day of inspection. Of
the residue the bulk were not all absentees, but numbers wanting to
complete the full establishment. There were absent from training
on the day of inspection 449 oflScers with leave, 25 oflSicers without
leave, 52 non-commissioned oflScers with leave, six non-commis-
sioned oflScers without leave, 1,810 privates with leave, and 6,719
privates without leave. There were wanting to complete 1,734
oflicers, 474 non-commissioned oflicers, and 30,307 privates. In a
note to the return from which these figures are derived, it is stated,
in explanation of the large number of VoflScers wanting to complete,'
that the ftill establishment of oflScers has been given, whereas all
appointments of ensigns have been suspended since July, 1860, two
supernumerary oflicers, in lieu thereof, being allowed to each
regiment. The large number of * privates wanting to complete ' is
stated to have been chiefly caused by the reduction made in August,
NAVY 261
1864, in the effective strength of all regiments whose establish-
m^its exceed 600 privates.
It appears from a War-office return, issued in 1866, that during
the four years 1862-6, there were 33,242 recruits raised for the army,
21,619 being enlisted by recruiting parties of the line, and 11,623
by pensioners. In the same period, 7,579 men were discharged
from the militia for the purpose of being enlisted for the regular
army.
A return of the enlistments for the army at the several recruiting
districts in the United Kingdom in the four years 1860-3 shows a
great variation in numbers ; but enlistments are mainly regulated
by the wants of the army. In 1860 there were 21,664 men enlisted ;
8,188 in 1861 ; 4,642 in 1862 ; and 6,294 in 1863. The number
enlisted in 1863, therefore, was rather less than a third of the number
in 1860, but the proportion did not fall equally in each of the three
divisions of the kingdom. In 1860 there were 16,602 men enlisted
in England, but in 1863 only 3,766 ; in Scotland 1,779 in I860,
and only 1,114 in 1863; in Ireland 4,283 in 1860, and but 2,044
in 1863. One-half the number of persons who offered themselves
at the head-quarters of the recruiting districts of the United
Kingdom in tie year 1863 were labourers, husbandmen, and ser-
vants. Of this class 394 in 1,000 were rejected on inspection ; of
mechanics employed in occupations favourable to physical develop-
ment, such as carpenters, smiths, masons, 396 in 1,000 were rejected;
of manufacturing artisans, as clothworkers, weavers, lacemakers, 465 ;
and of shopmen and clerks, 445. These figures show the relative
proportions, but the absolute number of rejections was larger, as
more than a fourth of the men had been previously passed by army
or civilian surgeons, and were therefore picked men before this
inspection.
2. Navy,
The navy is governed by a Board of Admiralty, at the head of
which is a cabinet minister, who is called First Lord, with a salary
of 4,500Z. per annum ; associated with him are four other members,
called Lords by courtesy, three with salaries of 1,000/. per annum,
and one with 1,200Z. The first secretary has 2,000Z., and the
second secretary 1,500Z. per annum. Under the Board are five
great departments : — Controller of the Navy, Accountant-General,
Storekeeper-General, Controller of Victualling, and Director-Gene-
ral of the Medical Department. The total establishment, in 1866,
consisted of 451 persons.
The navy of the United ' Kingdom is a perpetual establishment,
and the statutes and orders by which it is governed and its discipline
262
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
maintained — ^unlike the military laws, which the Sovereign has
absolute power to frame under the authority of an Act of Parlia-
ment— ^have been permanently established and defined with great
precision by the legislature. The distinction also prevails in the
mode of voting the charge for these two forces. For the army, the
first vote sanctions the number of men to be maintained ; the second,
the charge for their pay and maintenance. For the navy, no vote
is taken for the number of men ; the first vote is for the wages of
the stated number of men and boys to be maintained ; and though
the result may be the same, this distinction exists both in practice
and principle.
The power of the Government to impress seamen for the fleet
is of such ancient date that it is said to be part of the common law.
It has no direct statutory sanction, though the preamble of the stat.
2 Rich. II. c. 4, by its recital of the arrest and retention of mariners
for the king's service, shows that it was at that time a well-known
practice, and its existence has also been incidentally recognised by
several later statutes. The continuance of the practice has been
warranted by the necessities of the service, to enable the admiralty
to man a fleet with speed on an emergency. The authority of
Parliament in the control of the navy was first exercised in 1661,
by an enactment of 18 Charles II., passed to regulate the govern-
ment of the fleet. This Act was repealed by the 22 Geo. II. c. 23,
which was explained and amended by the 19 Geo. III. c. 17.
These two latter statutes contain the articles of war and the
rules for holding naval courts martial, and form the permanent code
under which the navy is governed. The laws relating to the pay of
the navy were consolidated and amended by stat. 11 Geo. IV. c. 20.
According to the naval estimates granted by Parliament in the
session of 1866, the total expenditure for the navy, for the year
ending March 31, 1867, will be 10,388,153Z. as compared with
10,392,224/. voted for the year 1865-6, or a decrease of 4,071/.
The following is an abstract of the estimates for 1866-7 as com-
pared with the votes for 1865-6 : —
1866-7 1865-6
£ £
Wages to seamen and marines .... 2,862,704 2,945,006
Victuals and clothing for ditto .... 1,236,188 1,325,694
Admiralty office 173,665 176,967
Coastguard service, royal naval coast volunteers,
and royal naval reserve 274,119 284,395
Scientific branch 63,958 70,042
Dockyards and naval yards at home and abroad 1,361,971 1,304,195
Yictoalling yards and transport establishments at
home and abroad 86,624 84,712
Medical establishments at home and abroad . 67,668 66,347
Marine divisions 16,660 14,133
NAVY.
263
Nayal stores for the building, repair, and outfit
of the fleet and coastguard ; steam machinery,
and ships built by contract :
Storekeeper-G-eneral of the nftvy .
Controller of the navy ....
New works, building, machinery, and repairs
Medicines and medical stores ....
Martial law and law chaiges ....
Miscellaneous services
Total for the effective service
Half-pay, reserved half-pay, and retired pay to
ofl&cers of the navy and royal marines
Military pensions and allowances • .
Civil pensions and allowances ....
Total for the naval service ....
Fob the Sebvicb of otheb Bbpabtmbnts of Govebnment.
1866-7
1865-6
£
£
1,003,601
1,134,672
318,000
664,700
892,865
627,986
75,664
64,800
20,605
2,742
105,800
103,925
8,563,672
8,668,206
689,052
698,196
528,904
607,211
213,837
208,033
9,986,366
10,071,644
402,788
320,680
Army department (conveyance of troops) .
Grand total .... 10,388,163 |"lO, 392,224
It will be seen that under the various heads there are items of
increase and decrease. The most important items of decrease in
1866-7 are — Wages to seamen and marines, 82,302?. ; victuals and
clothing for do., 90,506Z. ; and naval stores, 377,771Z. The most
important items of increase in 1866-7 are — Dockyards, 64,776/.';
new works, building, machinery, and repairs, 364,880/. ; and army
department conveyance of troops, 82,208/.
The extra receipts and repayments in the year 1865-6 were
157,591/., and they were estimated for 1866-7 at 149,163/.—
diminishing the expenditure to that amotmt.
There has been of late a scarcity of seamen for the navy. The
number of seamen voted for the financial year 1865-6 was 62,000,
including 17,000 marines, and 3,000 boys for training, but the
number of all classes actually serving averaged but from 60,000 to
61,000 during the year. The following table shows the actual
number borne on ships' books during each of the nine months April
to December, 1865 : — •
Tear 1865
Officers and
Seamen
Boys, in-
cluding those
for training
Total
•
Total of .
Marines
Total of
h11 nlftflfwe
Months
April .
May .
Jime .
Jnly .
August.
September .
October
November .
Pecember .
37,791
38,064
37,888
38,008
37,891
37,705
37,399
37,584
37,269
6,478
6,602
6,759
6,721
6,801
6,705
6,764
6,720
6,626
44,269
44,666
44,647
44,729
. 44,692
44,410
44,163
44,304
43,895
16,830
16,756
16,728
16,668
16,595
16,501
16,451
16,386
16,262
61,099
61,421
61,376
61,397
61,287
60,911
60,614
60,690
60,157
\
264
GBEAT BBTTAIN AND IRELAND.
Not included in the above numbers are the seamen on the coast-
guard service, numbering — ^in the estimates — 7,000, of whom 3,000
afloat and 4,000 on shore. The numbers actually borne on the books
in 1865 were larger by from one to two hundred than those voted in
the estimates.
The votes for the financial year 1866-7 were as follows : —
Fob thb Fleet :
Fob thb Coastquabd :
£
£
£
£
Seamen .... 87,800
Afloat, Seamen . . . 2,680
BojB, induding 3,000 for
„ Boys ... 820
training .... 7,000
8,000
44,800
HarineB, afloat . . . 8,000
On shore, officers and men.
4,000
„ onshore . . 8,4U0
16,400
Total. .
7,000
Total . . 60,700
The number of cadets, 1st class, admitted into the navy in the
year 1865 was 176, while in the year 1864 it was 169.
Together with the navy estimates for 1866-7, there was laid
before Parliament the following comparative statement, showing the
number of ships and vessels in commission on 1st December, 1864,
and on 1st December, 1865 : —
Ships and Vessels in Commission
1 December, 1864
1 December, 1865
Sailing
Steam
Sailing
Steam
Sea-going :
Line of battle ships
Iron-cased ships ....
Frigates and corvettes .
Sloops and small vessels
Total effective, for generals
service . . . /
Gtmnery, and training ships
Stationary, receiving, and dep6t)
ships, including royal yachts J
Surveying vessels ....
Troop ships
Store ships
Drill ships (royal naval reserve)
Tenders
Total fleet, including tenders
Guard ships of the coastguard
Tenders, including cruisers .
Total fleet and coastguard,)
including tenders . J
—
9
9
38
95
—
7
12
38
91
8
22
8
8
151
6
4
5
7
33
8
21
8
8
148
6
4
4
7
33
46
46
205
11
17
45
45
202
10
18
92
233
90
230
NAvr.
265
The actual strength of the navy of the United Kingdom is shown
in the subjoined official return, giving the number of steam ships
afloat and building, together wi3i the number of effective sailing
ships, on the Ist February 1866 : —
Stbam
Effect
sailii
ship
afloG
ive Total
ig steam
s and
tt sailing
0188868 of Ships
Afloat
Building
Total
Armour-plated ships, iron, 3rd rates, screw
8
1
9
9
, „ „ 4th rates „
2
2
2
. ,
, „ wood, 3rd rates „
7
7
7
„ 4th rates „
1
1
1
, cupola ships, 4th rates „
4
4
4
, corvettes, wood, 6th rates „
2
2
2
, sloops, wood . . „
2
2
2
, gun boats, iron .
• »»
2
1*
3
3
, floating batteries
iron „
3
3
3
, floating batteries,
wood „
1
1
1
Ships of the line .
• »»
55
3*
68
' 1
59
Frigates
»
38
38
IC
.48
>» • r •
paddle
5
5
6
Block ships .
screw
2
2
2
Corvettes .
* ))
25
25
26
Sloops.
,, . . •
• »»
paddle
32
14
e'
38
14
1
39
14
Small vessels
• »»
12
12
12
Despatch vessels .
• »»
4
4
4
Gun vessels .
.screw
33
3'
36
36
Gun boats .
• >»
96
4
100
100
Tenders and tugs .
• • »»
8
8
8
>» • . .
paddle
39
2'
41
41
Mortar ships
.screw
2
2
2
Troop and store ships
' • >»
16
5
20
20
>» • •
paddle
1
1
1
Yachts
. screw
1
1
1
»> . . •
paddle
5
6
6
Surveying vessels .
.screw
,
2'
2
2
Mortar vessels and floats
Total screw
•
• •
• •
• •
38
38
339
26
365
„ paddle
•
80
2
82
—
—
Grand tots
d
•
419
28
447
50
497
266
GREAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
The armour-clad fleet of war consisted, according to a return of
the Admiralty, dated June 13, 1865, of 31 ships, 4 of them under
construction, and 5 floating batteries. The following is the list of
this fleet : —
Date
-Hoiae-
when launched,
Names
Guns
Tons
power
or probable time
ABi£OUB-rT.AT> Shifs :
Black Prince . . :
41
6,109
1,250
Feb. 27, 1861
Warrior
40
6,109
1,250
Dec. 29, 1860
Eoyal Oak
35
4,066
800
Sept. 10, 1862
Prince Consort .
3d
4,045
1,000
June 26, „
Caledonia .
30
4,125
1,000
Oct. 24, „
Ocean
23
4,047
1,000
Mar. 19, 1863
Eoyal Alfred .
18
4,068
800
Oct. 16, 1864
Valiant .
24
4,076
800
Oct. 14, 1863
Minotanr •
26
6,621
1,350
Mar. 28, 1866
Agincourt .
26
6,621
1,360
Mar. 27, 1866
Northumberland
26
6,621
1,360
Dec. 1866
Hector
20
4,089
800
Sept. 26, 1862
Lord Clyde
24
4,067
1,000
Oct. 13, 1864
Lord Warden .
24
4,080
1,000
May 27, 1866
Achilles .
26
6,121
1,260
Dec. 24, 1863
Zealous
26
3,716
800
March 7, 1864
Defence
18
3,720
600
April24,1861
Besistanoe
18
3,710
600
» 11, »
Bellerophon
16
4,270
1,000
March 1866
Favourite .
10
2,194
400
July 5, 1864
Pallaa
6
2,126
600
Mar. 14, 1865
Eoyal Sovereign
(conv
erted'
) '•
5
3,766
800
Mar. 8. 1864
Prince Albert
4
2,611
500
May 23, 1864
Eesearch .
4
1,263
200
Aug. 15, 1863
Enterprise
4
993
160
Feb. 9, 1864
Viper
4
737
160
Dec. 1866
Vixen
4
754
160
It ft
Penelope
10
2,947
600
Jan. 1866
Wivem
4
1,867
360
Aug. 29, 1863
Scorpion
4
1,857
350
July 4,1863
Waterwitch
4
777
167
Aug. 1866
Erebus
16
1,954
200
April 19, 1856
Terror
•
. •
16
1,971
200
„ 26, „
Thunderbolt
,
,
• •
16
1,973
200
» 22, „
iEtna
,
,
. •
16
1,588
150
M 5» ».
Thunder .
•
14 1,469
150
„ 17,1856
NAVY. 267
It will be seen from the preceding list that, at the end of the
year 1866, there was a fleet of 36 armour-plated vessels actually
completed and fit for sea. Of these 18 are ships of the line, di-
visible into three classes. In the first class are the Warrior, the
Black Prince, the Achilles, and the Bellerophon. The vessels of
this class are all iron-built, and of great speed ; but their driaught of
water is great also; so that they could not be docked out of the
coimtry. To improve upon them, a new class of vessels was designed,
represented in the Minotaur, Agincourt, and Northumberland. The
Minotaurs, as they are generally called, are all of 6,621 tons, no less
than 400ft. long by 59ft. beam, plated with 5^in. annour on a
lOin. backing, carrying 36 protected guns, and propelled by screw
engines of 1,350 horse-power. All the Minotaurs are built on the
ram system, having what is termed the swan-breasted beak pro-
truding under water. The stem of this portion, which would have
to resist the first blow of the shock, is a gigantic forging, as is also
the stem fi:ame. Every part of the vessel is of iron, even to the spar
deck, though the plating here, which is about three-quarters of an
inch thick, is covered with wood. In the second class of vessels,
drawing less water, but possessing less speed, are the Koyal Oak, the
Prince Consort, the Ocean, the Caledonia, the Royal Alfred, the
Lord Clyde, and the Lord Warden. The first five of these are line-
of-battle ships converted ; the last two are new ships, built with
wooden firames. In the third class are the Hector, the Valiant, the
Defence, and the Resistance — four of the earliest British Ironclad*—
and the Zealous. These are lighter again than the vessels of the
second class, but slower also, and with them the list of ships of the
line is complete. Then follows a class of smaller Ironclads— corvettes
or gunboats — including the Favourite, the Enterprise, the Research,
the Pallas, the Viper, the Vixen, and the Waterwitch. These are
succeeded by a class consisting of vessels distinctly characterised by
the Admiralty as valuable for * coast defences ' only. In this category
are placed the Royal Sovereign, and also the steam rams, the Scorpion
and the Wivem, built by private enterprise for the former
Confederate States, and subsequently purchased into the British
Navy.
The following is a list of the iron-clad fleet afloat and in com-
mission in the summer of 1866, with specification of the total
length, length of beam, thickness of armour, and thickness of
backing of each vessel. It may be stated that it has been shown by
numerous gunnery experiments — particularly by those carried on at
Shoeburyness — ^that the amount of resistance of armour to shot
depends generally less upon the thickness of the plate than tibe
thickness and system of the backing :—
268
OBEAT BBITAIM ASO IBELAND.
Name
Length
Beam
Thickness of
Armour
Thickness of
ft.
ft.
inches
inches
Achilles .
380
68
H
18
Black Prince .
380
58
4}
18
Warrior .
380
68
4
18
Agincourt
S^notaur
400
69
^i
10
400
59
5
10
Nortihumberland
400
69
6|
10
Hector .
280
66
H
18
Valiant .
28
66
H
18
Defence .
280
64
H
18
Besistance
280
54
^
18
Wood ship,
Caledonia .
273
59
4J .
side 29* in.
thick.
Ocean
273
58
H
ditto 29J
Prince Ck)nsort .
273
68
4
ditto 29|
Koyal Alfred .
273
58
6 and 4}
ditto 29 J
Koyal Oak
273
68
4J
ditto 29}
Lord Clyde
280
69
r4jand5j1
\ and 6 in. /
ditto 31^
Lord Warden .
280
59
r4iand5H
\ and 6 m./
ditto 31}
Zealous .
262
69
4J
ditto 30}
Bellerophon
300
66
6
10
Wood ship,
Pallas .
225
56
H {
side 22 in.
thick.
Favourite .
226
47
4j
ditto 26
Besearch .
196
38
4;
ditto 19
Enterprise
190
36
4i
ditto 19}
Viper
160
32
4
10
Vixen . .
160
32
4
10
Waterwitch
162
32
4
10
Prince Albert .
240
48
4
18
*
Wood ship,
Boyal Sovereign
240
62
H
side 36 in.
thick.
Scorpion '.
220
42
4iand3
4 and 3
9
Wivem .
220
42
9
The cost of some of the principal iron-clad vessels is given in the
subjoined tabular statement :-^
Kame of ship
HnU
Engines
- MantRand
rigging
Fittings and
alterations
Total cost
Black Prince .
Besistance .
Defence .
A^ncourt
Hinotaur
£
264,729
188,971
188,971
343,547
349,322
£
74,449
34,684
34,668
80,137
76,036
£
18,367
14,939
16,623
£
26,304
19,354
13,846
£
373,899
267,848
262,898
423,684
426,368
NAVY. 269
The classification, or rating of ships of the royal navy, according
to a regulation issued in 1816, is as follows : —
First Rate. — ^All three- decked ships.
Second Rate. — One of Her Majesty's yachts, and all two-decked
ships, whose war complements consist of 700 men and upwards.
Third Rate. — Her Majesty's other yachts, and all such yachts as
may bear the flag or pendant of an admiral or captain superintend-
ing one of Her Majesty's dockyards ; and all ships whose comple-
ments are under 700, and not less than 600.
Fourth Rate. — Ships whose complements are imder 600, and not
less than 400.
Fifth Rate. — Ships whose complements are under 400, and not
less than 250.
Sixth Rate. — Ships under 250.
Ships of the 1st rate carry 100 guns and upwards ; those of the
2nd rate, 80 and upwards ; the 3rd rate, from 70 to 80 ; the 4th
rate, from 50 to 70 ; the 5th rate, from 36 to 50 ; and the 6th rate,
from 24 to 36.
The naval force, like the army of the United Kingdom, is recruited
by voluntary enlistment. Any person may enter the navy as a
common seaman, on application to the commanding oflSicer of one of
Her Majesty's ships in commission, provided he be approved by
the examining surgeon, and have not previously been * discharged
from the service with disgrace.' Persons who have never been at
sea are rated as landsmen, and seafaring men are rated as * ordinary'
or * able * seamen, besides numerous gradations of petty officers to
which they are rated at the discretion of the commanding officer.
Seamen are also obtained for the navy at the breaking out of a war,
or on any other emergency, by the practice of impressment. The
antiquity and legality of this practice cannot be questioned; but
very great and serious doubts have been entertained as to its
expediency. Foreigners are the only persons exempted at common
law from impressment ; but other exemptions have been created by
Acts of Parliament in fevour of various classes, as landsmen,
apprentices, seamen employed in the fisheries, watermen in the
service of fire insurance companies, and some other occupations.
At Midsummer 1865, an educational and religious census was
taken of a number approaching 30,000 of the petty officers, men,
and boys serving in Her Majesty's Fleet. It was found that of the
petty officers 16 per cent, could only read indifferently, and more
than 5 per cent, could not read at all ; 23 per cent, could write only
indifferently, and 7 per cent, could not write at all. Of the seamen
26 per cent, read indifferently, and 11 per cent, could not read at all ;
33 per cent, wrote indifferently, and nearly 14 per cent, could not
write at alL Of marines 26 per cent, read indifferently^ and *2.?> ^-t
cent, could not read at all ; 32 per cent, wrote mdi^eteaXN.^ ^ ^^A*^
270
0IIB4T BRITAIK AND IBELAKD.
per cent, could not write at all. Of boys 30 per cent, read indif-
ferently, and not quite 2 per cent, could not read at all ; 37 per
cent, wrote indifferently, and more than 2 per cent, could not write
at all. The percentages not thus accounted for read and wrote well.
Taking all these classes together, exclusive, however, of boys, 72
per cent, described themselves as belonging to the Church of England,
16 per cent, were Eoman Catholics, 4 per cent, were Presbyterians,
and 8 per cent, belonged to other Protestant denominations.
Fopnlatioii.
The population was thus distributed over the four divisions of the
United Kingdom in the year 1861 : —
Total
population
Population, ex-
cluding army,
navy, and mer-
phftnt. seamen
abroad
Proportion of
population
in four divi-
sions of the
Kingdom
United Kingdom .
29,321,288
29,070,932
1000
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Islands in the British Seas .
20,228,497
3,096,808
6,850,309
146,674
20,066,224
3,062,294
6,798,967
143,447
691
10-6
19-9
•5
Out of ten parts of the population of the coimtry, nearly seven
belong to England and Wales, two to Ireland, one to Scotland, and
a small j&action to the Channel Islands.
1. England and Wales.
England and Wales, taken by themselves, are more densely popu-
lated than any other country in Europe, except Belgium. On an
area of 58,320 square miles, or 37,324,883 acres, there lived, on the
8th of April 1861, according to the census, 20,066,224 inhabitants,
or 347 individuals per square mile. The number of inhabited
houses, at the same date, was 3,739,505. The following table
shows the area, in statute acres, number of inhabited houses, and
population of each of the 52 coimties of England and Wales
the population exclusive of the army, navy, and merchant seamen
abroad — according to the official returns : —
fOPULATIOK.
271
^^mm.^^,,^ ^mm 0V2..J»
Area in
Inhabited houses.
Population,
oonntieB or siiiTeB
Btatnte acres
April 8, 1861
April 8, 1861
England,
Bedford .
295,582
27,422
135,287
Berks
461,210
35,761
176,256
Buckingham
466,932
34,909
167,998
Cambridge .
525,182
37,634
176,016
Chester
707,078
97,874
505,428
ComwaU .
873,600
72,954
369,390
Cumberland
1,001,273
40,532
205,276
Derby
658,803
69,262
339,327
Devon
1,657,180
101,263
684,373
Dorset
632,025
37,709
188,789
Durham
622,476
84,807
508,666
Essex
1,060,549
81,261
404,851
Gloucester .
805,102
92,831
485,770
Hereford .
534,823
25,314
123,712
Hertford .
391,141
34,893
173,280
Huntingdon
229,544
13,704
64,260
Kent .
1,039,419
126,221
733,887
1,219,221
438,603
2,429,440
Leicester .
514,164
51,894
237,412
Lincoln
1,775,467
86,626
412,246
Middlesex .
180,136
279,153
2,206,485
Monmouth .
368,399
33,077
174,633
Norfolk .
1,354,301
96,672
434,798
Northampton
630,368
48,531
227,704
Northumberland
1,249,299
65,565
343,025
Nottingham
626,076
62,519
293,867
Oxford .
472,717
36,034
170,944
KuUand .
96,805
4,641
21,861
Salop .
826,066
48,391
240,969
Somerset .
1,047,220
87,456
444,873
1,070,216
86,428
481,815
Stafford .
728,468
147,105
746,943
Suffolk
947,681
72,975
337,070
Surrey
478,792
130,362
831,093
Sussex
936,911
66,578
363,735
Warwick .
563,946
116,361
661,865
Westmoreland
485,432
11,793
60,817
wats.
865,092
53,059
249,311
Worcester .
472,165
63,126
307,397
York (East Riding) .
768,419
49,109
240,227
„ (Citt/) . .
2,720
8,242
40,433
„ {North Riding) .
1,350,121
50,178
245,154
„ {West Riding) .
Total of England .
1,709,307
315,722
1,507,796
32,590,397
3,513,431
18,954,444
W(des,
Anglesey .
193,453
12,328
64,609
Brecon
460,168
12,913
61,627
Cardigan .
443,387
16,724
72,245
Carmarthen
•
606,331
28,070
\
\
272
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
Counties or Shires
Area in
statute acres
Inhabited houses,
April 8, 1861
Population
April 8, 1861
Woks,
Carnarvon .
Denbigh .
FUnt .
Glamorgan .
Merioneth .
Montgomery
Pembroke .
Radnor
370,273
386,052
184,905
547,494
385,291
483,323
401,691
272,128
20,256
21,310
16,113
59,254
8,499
13,501
19,418
4,688
95,694
100,778
69,737
317,752
38,963
66,919
96,278
25,382
Total of Wales
4,734,486
226,074
1,111,780
Total of Engli
and Wale
rnd'
8 J
37,324,883
3,739,605
20,066,224
The general classification of the population enumerated in England
and Wales at the census of 1851 and that of 1861 was as
follows : —
1. Professional class ....
2. Domestic „ . . . .
3. Commercial „ . . . .
4. Agricultural
5. Industrial „ . * . .
6. Indefinite „ . . . .
1851
1861
•376,434
10,010,343
628,599
2,084,153
4,143,293
784,787
481,957
11,426,720
632,710
2,010,454
4,828,399
694,984
17,927,609
20,066,224
It will be seen that, of the five classes into which the population
of England and Wales is divided by the Registrar-General, the agri-
cultural class is the only one which has decreased in the ten years
from 1851 to 1861. The decrease is chiefly under the head of
indoor fann servants, the number of which is stated to have declined
from 288,272 in 1851 to 204,962 in 1861. In Essex the men are
stated to have decreased from 1,530 in 1851 to 587 in 1861, and the
females from 2,343 to 525 ; in Suffolk the men from 2,845 to 959,
and the females from 3,640 to 1,215. The number of farmers them-
selves, 249,735, is almost precisely the same in 1861 as in 1851.
With regard to agricultural statistics, the information in the census
returns is not given for all England, but only for 10 agricultural
counties, and it would appear from these that the size of farms has
increased in the 10 years from 1851 to 1861. The farms of less
than 100 acres declined from 31,583 to 26,567, so that 4,016 were
amalgamated to form other farms of larger acreage.
POPULATION.
?73
The population of England and Wales amounted to 9,156,171 in
the year 1801, so that it has more than doubled in the course of half
a century. The decennial rates of increase amounted to 14 per
cent, from 1801 to 1811; to 16 per cent, from 1811 to 1821; to
15 per cent, from 1821 to 1831 ; to 14 per cent, from 1831 to 1841 ;
to 13 per cent, from 1841 to 1851 ; and to 12 per cent.- from 1851
to 1861. The progress of population for the last quarter of a century
may be stated roundly in the fact that each quinquennial period
added about a million to the account. Thus, in 1836—40 the popu-
lation was rising through its sixteenth million; in 1841-45
through its seventeenth ; in 1846-50 through its eighteenth ; in
1851-55, through its nineteenth; and in 1856-60, through its
twentieth million.
Subjoined is the birth and death rate of the population of England
and Wales, for the last fifteen years, after the returns of the Registrar-
General. The estimated population is for the middle of the year,
and including army, navy, and merchant seamen at home, belonging
to England and Wales : —
Yeare
Estimated
population
Births
Deaths
1851 .
17,983,000
615,865
395,174
1852 .
18,205,000
624,171
407,938
1853
18,403,000
612,391
421,097
1854
18,618,000
634,506
438,239
1855
18,787,000
635,123
426,242
1856
19,045,000
657,704
391,369
1857
19,305,000
663,071
■ 419,815
1858
19,523,000
655,481
449,656
1859
19,746,000
689,881
• 441,790
1860
19,902,918
684,048
422,721
1861
20,119,496
696,406
435,114
1862
20,336,614
711,691
436,573
1863
20,554,137
729,399
473,837
1864
20,772,308
740,275
495,520
1865
20,990,946
747,870
491,360
The proportion of male to female children bom in England is as
104,811 to 100,000. But as the former suffer from a higher rate
of mortality than the latter, the equilibrium between the sexes is
restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally changed, by
emigration, war, and perilous male occupations, to the extent that
there are 100,000 women, of all ages, to 95,008 men in England.
The number of paupers in receipt of relief in the several unions
and parishes, constituted under boards of guardians in England and
Wales, was as follows, on the first day of January, for the fifteeo.
years from 1852 to 1866 :—
T
274
GREAT BBITAIN AND IBELANO.
Jan. 1
Number
of unions
and
parishes
Adult
able-bodied
paupers
All other
paupers
Total
1852 . \
608
/ 137,318
\ 126,220
697,106
834,424
1853
. ./
672,602
798,822
1854
620
136,277
682,060
818,337
1855
624
144,500
706,869
851,369
1856
624
152,174
725,593
877,767
1857
624
139,130
704,676
843,806
1858
629
166,604
741,582
908,186
1859
642
137,418
723,052
860,470
1860
646
136,761
714,259
851,020
1861
646
160,526
739,897
890,423
1862 .
649
167,646
778,520
946,166
1863 .
653
253,499
889,125
1,142,624
1864 .
656
186,750
822,539
1,009,289
1865 .
655
170,136
801,297
971,433
1866 .
655
149,320
771,024
920,344
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial, convicted,
and acquitted, in England and Wales, was as follows for the last
fifteen years : —
Tears
Committed
for trial
Convicted"
Acquitted
1851 .
27,960
21,579
6,359
1852 .
27,519
21,304
. 6,176
1853 .
27,057
20,756
6,265
1854 .
29,359
23,047
6,274
1855 .
25,972
19,971.
5,967
1856 .
19,437
14,734.
4,672
1857 .
20,269
15,307
4,927
1858 .
17,855
13,246
4,576
1859 .
16,674
12,470
. 4,175
1860 .
15,999
12,068
3,907
1861 .
18,326
13,879
4,423
1862 .
20,001
15,312
4,651
1863 .
20,818
15,799
4,986
1864 .
19,606
14,726
4,753
1865 .
19,614
14,740
4,842
The decrease in the number of persons committed for trial in
England and Wales, since 1855, is partly to be attributed to the
operation of the Criminal Justice Act of 1855, which authorises
Justices to pas9 sentences for short periods, with the consent of the
prisoners, instead of committing for trial to the sessions.
POPULAHON.
275
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 30,685 square miles, with a population, in
1861, of 3,062,294 souls, giving 101 inhabitants to the square mile.
The 33 counties into which Scotland is divided, are of very unequal
size, some of them containing only four or five parishes, and some
above seventy. In the following table, the number of parishes in
each coimty, the area of each in square miles, and the numbers of
the population are given. The numbers of population include the
military in barracks and the seamen on board Vessels in the harbours
and creeks of Scotland on the 8th of April, 1861 : —
Counties
Aberdeen
ArgyU
Ayr
Banff .
Berwick
Bute .
Caithness
Clackmannan
Dumbarton .
BumMes
Edinburgh .
Elgin or Moray .
Fife .
Forfar .
Haddington .
Inverness
Kincardine .
Kinross
Kirkcudbright
Lanark
Linlithgow .
Nairn .
Orkney and Shetland
Peebles
Perth .
Renfrew
Ross and Cromarty
Roxburgh
Selkirk
Stirling
Sutherland .
Wigtown
Total.
Number
of
parishes
82
34
46
23
32
6
10
5
12
43
31
20
62
63
24
31
19
4
28
41
13
4
32
14
73
17
33
32
5
24
13
17
Area in
square
1,970
3,255
1,149
686
473
171
712
46
320
1,098
367
531
613
889
280
4,255
394
78
964
889
127
215
935
356
2,834
247
3,161
670
260
462
1,886
512
Population
April 8, 1861
221,569
79,724
198,971
69,215
36,613
16,331
41,111
21,450
52,034
75,878
273,997
42,695
154,770
204,425
37,634
88,888
34,466
7,977
42,495
631,566
38,645
10,065
64,065
11,408
133,500
177,661
81,406
54,119
10,449
91,926
25,246
42,095
883
30,686
3,062,294
t2
276
GRILiT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The following table exhibits the numbers of the population of
Scotland at the dates of the several censuses, together with the actual
increase between each census, and the percentage of decennial increase.
Dates of Ennmeration
Population
Increase
Percentage
of Decennial
Increase.
March 10, 1801
May 17, 1811
May 28, 1821
May 29, 1831
June 7, 1841
March 31, 1851
Apnl 8, 1861
1,608,420
1,806,864
2,091,621
2,364,386
2,620,184
2,888,742
3,062,294
197,444
285,657
272,865
255,798
268,558
173,552
12-27
15-82
1304
10-82
10-25
600
Increase in sixty years
1,453,874
90-32
The division of the population into five classes, after the same
method as that adopted in England and Wales, presents the follow-
ing result : —
1861
1861
1. Professional class ....
2. Domestic „ . . . .
3. Commercial „ . . . .
4. Agricultural „ . . . .
6. Industrial „ . . . .
6. Indefinite „ . . . .
42,001
1,731,279
74,766
388,203
543,662
108,841
52,516
1,734,296
84,338
378,609
694,074
118,463
2,888,742
3,062,294
In 1861, therefore, of every 100,000 persons in Scotland 1,715 be-
longed to the professional class, 2,754 to the commerical, 12,364 to
the agricultural, 22,665 to the industrial ; 56,634 are classed only
as domestic, and 3,868 are undefined, or ill-defined.
The following table of births and deaths in Scotland, for the
years 1858-65, with the estimated population for the middle of each
year, is compiled from the returns of the Eegistrar-General : —
Years
Estimated
population
Births
Deaths
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1866
3,093,870
3,123,174
3,044,070
3,062,294
3,079,650
8,101,006
3,118,701
3,136,067
104,196
106,732
106,704
107,036
107,138
109,326
112,446
113,126
63,532
61,754
68,056
62,287
67,159
71,421
74,303
70,821
POPULATION.
277
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive
of casual poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland,
on the 14Ui of May in each year, is shown in the subjoined table :—
MayU
Number of
parishes
Paupers
Dependents
Total
1852
882
75,111
1853
882
75,437
1854
883
78,929
1855
1856
883
883
79,887
79,973
■ (Cannot be
specified.)
1857
883
79,217
1858
883
79,199
1859
883
78,501
1860
883
77,306
36,903
114,209
1861
883
78,433
38,680
117,113
1862
884
78,724
40.204
118,924
1863
884
78,717
41,567
120,284
1864
884
78,682
42,023
120.705
1865
884
77,895
43,499
121,394
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial, convicted,
and acquitted, was as follows for the fourteen years, 1852-65 :—
Years
Committed
1 for trial
Convicted
Acquitted
1862
4,027
3,018
975
1863
3,766
2,821
907
1854
3,994
2,989
979
1865
3,630
2,689
902
1856
3,713
2,723
951
1857
3,840
2,920
898
1868
3,782
2,850
891
1869
3,472
2,689
880
1860
3,287
2,441
846
1861
3,229
2,428
800
1862
3,630
2,702
928
1863
3,404
2.451
953
1864
3,212
2,379
833
1865
2,667
2,360
207
It will be seen from the above table that the criminal offenders in
Scotland in 1865 show a decrease over the number of 1864.
3. Ireland.
Ireland has an area of 31,874 square miles, inhabited, in 1861, by
5,798,967 souls. This gives a density of population of 181 inhabi-
tants per square mile, diowing that Ireland is more thickly popu-
lated than France, but slightly less than Germany.
178
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The total population of Ireland enumerated on April 8, I86I,
amounted to 787,842 less than that returned for March 31, 1851,
being a decrease of 12*20 per cent, during these ten years. The
numbers given in the subjoined table, according to the census returns,
do not include the men of the army and navy serving in Ireland on
the night of the 7th and 8th of April, but include the wives and
families of such persons, and also soldiers on furlough. The following
is the summary of the two last enimierations : —
Provinces
Population
1861
Decrease per
cent, from 1841
tol851
1861
Decrease per
cent, from 1851
to 1861
Leinstep .
Munster .
Ulster
Connaught
Total of Ireland
1,672,738
1,857,736
2,011,880
1,010,031
15-25
22-47
15-69
28-81
1,439,596
1,503,200
1,910,408
911,339
13-94
19-08
5-04
9-77
6,552,385
19-85
5,764,543
12-02
The last decennial decrease has been most apparent in the city of
Eolkenny and town of Galway, and the counties of Tipperary, Clare,
Meath, Kilkenny, King's, Wexford, Waterford, and Cork. The only
localities in which an increase of population has taken place were
Dublin Coimty and the towns of Carrickfergus and Belfast, in which
latter locality it amounted to 18,941, or 18*88 per cent, from 1851
to 1861.
The Irish census of 1861 distributes the people of Ireland into ten
classes : — Landed proprietors, 8,412 ; agriculturists, 969,636 ; en-
gaged in commerce, manufactures, and mechanical trades, 815,356 ;
learned professions, 11,695 ; other liberal professions, 1,066 ; en-
gaged in teaching, 19,346 ; civil service, 20,564; military and naval
services, 30,328; miscellaneous, 829,138; without specified occu-
pation, 3,092,630— total, 5,798,967. Or again thus: — Ministering
to food, 1,053,031 ; to clothing, 490,540 ; to lodging, furniture,
and machinery, 463,547 ; to conveyance and travelling, 68,793 ;
to banking and agency, 4,555 ; to literature and education, 40,840 ;
to religion, 10,625 ; to charity and benevolence, 982 ; to health,
6,733 ; to justice and government, 55,083 ; to amusement, 2,840 ;
to science and art, 757 ; residue unclassified, 3,600,338.
From the returns of the emigration commissioners it appears that
of the 2,249,355 emigrants who sailed from ports in the United
Bangdom, between March 31, 1851, and April 8, 1861, no Jess
tban 1,230,986 were Irish ; and from the returns obtained by the
Registrar- General for Ireland, through the constabulary agents at
Irish ports, during the like period, it is seen that as many as
POPULATION.
279
1,174,179 persons were set down as permanent emigrants. The
number of emigrants who left Ireland in the year 1864 was
115,428, of whom 35,814 sailed from Ireland direct, principally
from Cork, and the rest chiefly from Liverpool. The total extent
of emigration from May 1, 1851, when the enumeration of the
several ports commenced, till July 31, 1864, amounted to 1,499,642
persons. (For ftirther details, see ^Emigration from the United
Kingdom; pp. 284-6.)
By a special provision, inserted in the Act 23rd and 24th
Vic, cap. 62, for taking the census of Ireland upon April 8, 1861, it
was ordered that there should be an enquiry into the religious creed
of the population. It was the first occasion on which this subject
formed a portion of the decennial census ; nevertheless, it is stated to
have given rise to few, if any, complaints and objections. The return,
therefore, may be admitted as tolerably correct. The following table
gives an abstract of this religious enumeration, according to the lists
published by the Irish Eegistrar-GeneraL Not included in the table
are 322 Jews ; namely, 266 inLeinster, one in Munster, 54 in Ulster,
and one in Connaught, who are stated to have formed the whole
Jewish population of Ireland at the date of the census.
Provinces
BeligioQS Persuasions
Komaa
CathoUcs
Bstablished
Cliurch
Protestant
Dissenters
Leinster ....
Munster ....
Ulfiter ....
Connaught ....
Total .
1,246,253
1,416,171
963,68^
864,472
171,234
76,692
390.130
40,605
19,889
9,558
651,095
6,021
4,490,583
678,661
586,563
The table shows that on April 8, 1861, the members of the
Roman Catholic Church amounted to 4,490,583 ; those of the
Established Church to 678,661 ; and the Protestant Dissenters to
586,563. Among the latter the members of the Presbyterian Church
niunbered 528,992, Methodists 44,532, Independents 5,062, Baptists .
4,165, and the Society of Friends 3,812.. The returns, not included
in the above table, enumerate besides under the head of * all other
persuasions,' 8,414 persons denominating themselves * Eeformed
Presbyterians,' * Separatists,' * Christian Brethren,' * Christians,'
' Covenanters,' * Seceders,' and members of the Moravian Church.
This class also included all those travellers, temporary lodgers, and
mendicants from whom the emunerators were imable to obtain the
necessary information.
The census returns show that the number oi BTQa^\vj^^^fl:^''vs^
iSo
GREAT BBITAIK AND IRELAND.
Ireland, above one and up to five acres, was reduced from 310,436 in
1841, to 85,469 in 1861, or 72-5 per cent. Holdings from five to
fifteen acres decreased frwn 252,799 in 1841 to 183, 931 in 1861, or
27*2 per cent. The farms above fifteen acres increased in number ;
those between fifteen and thirty acres, 79,342 in 1841 were 141,251 in
1861, an increase of 78 per cent. ; and the holdings above thirty acres,
from 48,625 in 1841 to 157,833 in 1861, or 109*208 per cent. These
changes were substantially made between 1841 and 1851 ; the changes
in the next ten years have been comparatively trifling. This state-
ment does not show the number of landholders in Ireland, but the
number of distinct holdings, the enumerator having to account for
the total acreage of every townland. There was another return made,
for the first time, in the census of 1861 . The enumerators of the census
of 1861 were instructed to obtain an account treating all farms held
by one person as one holding, whether the lands adjoined or not.
This reduced the return of the total number of holdings in 1861 from
610,045 to 553,664. It showed that 39,210 persons held land in Ire-
land not exceeding one acre; 75,141 held above one and not exceed-
ing two acres; 164,006 from five to fifteen acres; 127,899 from fiflieen
to thirty ; 65,896 from thirty to ^fiy; 49,654 from fifty to 100; 20,375
from 100 to 200; 9,046 from 200 to 500; and 2,437 held above 500
acres. The return being novel, is approximate rather than precisely
accurate ; the tendency of corrections would be to reduce the num-
bers, but it would not be to any great extent.
From the returns of the Eegistrar- General it appears that the
total area of land under cultivation in Ireland in the year 1865 was
5,648,103 acres, against 5,676,321 acres in 1864. The following
table shows the area under the several crops in each of the years
1863, 1864, and 1865 :—
Crops
Wheat .
Oats
Barley .
Bere and rye
Beans and pease
Potatoes
Turnips
Mangel and beet root
Cabbage
Carrots, parsnips, and
green crops
Vetches and rape ,
Flax
Meadow and clover
other
1863
acres
260,311
1,953,883
171,892
8,659
15,153
1,023,414
351,436
16,434
34,125
22,505
29,938
214,099
1,560,638
1864
acres
276,483
1,814,886
172,700
8,894
16,090
1,039,724
337,355
14,128
31,821
23,149
29.829
301,693
1,609,569
1865
acres
268,073
1,744,261
177,207
10,132
16,930
1,065,894
333,951
14,429
33,512
24,465
29,176
251,534
1,678,539
POPULATION.
281
. The following is the total extent of flax grown in Ireland in each
year jfrom 1851 to 1866, both inclusive : — 1851, 140,536 acres ;
1852, 137,008 acres; 1853, 174,579 acres; 1854, 151,403 acres;
1855, 97,075 acres; 1856, 106,311 acres; 1857, 97,721 acres;
1858, 91,646 acres; 1859, 136,282 acres; 1860, 128,595 acres;
1861, 147,957 acres; 1862, 150,070 acres; 1863, 214,099 acres;
1864, 301,693 acres ; 1865, 251,534 acres; 1866, 263,419 acres.
The number of scoutching-mills in Ireland, by provinces, in each
of the five years 1861-65 was as follows : —
Provinces
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
Increase
between
1861 & 1865
Ulster .
Leinster .
Munster .
Connaugbt
Ireland
1,013
13
7
4
1,037
13
7
3
1,066
12
10
3
1,116
16
13
4
1,314
44
42
26
301
31
35
22
1,037
1,060
1,080
1,148
1,426
389
The total number of cattle in Ireland in the year 1864 was
3,257,309, being an increase of 113,078 over 1863 ; number of
sheep, 3,363,068, being an increase of 54,864. In horses there was
a decrease in 1864, the total number being 564,361 which was
18,617 less than in 1863 ; and pigs also decreased, the number
amounting to 1,056,245, being 11,209 less than in 1863. The
returns of live stock for 1865 compared with 1864 show an increase
in the number of cattle of 231,120 ; of sheep, 321,801 ; and of pigs,
241,413 ; and a decrease in horses of 14,291.
The following are the numbers for each year from 1 855 to 1865 : —
Years
Number of
Horses
Number of
Cattie
Number of
Sheep
Number of
Pigs
1855
1866
1857
1868
1869
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
556,287
673,408
699,782
611,321
629,076
619,811
614,232
602,894
579,978
562,168
647,867
3,564,400
3,687,858
3,620,964
3,667,304
3,816,598
3,606,374
3,471,688
3,264,890
3,144,231
3,262,294
3,493,414
3,602,342
3,694,294
3,462,252
3,494,993
3,692,804
3,542,080
3,556,050
3,466,132
3,308,204
3,366,941
3,688,742
1,177,605
918,625
1,255,186
1,409,883
1,265,761
1,271,072
1,102,042
1,154,324
1,067,458
1,058,480
1,299,893
Differenc
numbers be
1864 and U
e in
tween
J66 .
Decrease
14,291
Increase
231,120
Increase
321,801
Increase
241,413
\
182
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
The total estimated value of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs in 1865,
was 32,772,609/., being an increase of two million and a half com-
pared with 1864. The total value of live stock in Ireland in the
year 1864 was computed at 30,085,082Z. In 1859 its value was
35,368,259/., showing a falling off to the extent of nearly 3,000,000/.
within a period of six years, from 1859 to 1865.
Civil registration, which began in England in 1837, and in Scot-
land in 1855, was not introduced into Ireland till the year 1864.
The subjoined table gives the number of paupers in receipt of
relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week of January
in each year : —
Years
Indoor Paupers
Outdoor Paupers
Total
1861
206,468
2,719
209,187
1852
168,248
3,170
171,418
1853
138,764
3,058
141,822
1854
104,604
2,198
106,802
1855
85,296
1,523
86,819
1856
72,247
836
73,083
1857
55,183
911
56,094
1858
49,308
1,274
50,582
1859
43,599
1,267
44,866
1860
43,218
1,711
44,929
1861
47,352
3,331
50,683
1862
55,168
4,373
59,541
1863
60,038
5,809
66,847
1864
59,867
7,753
68,136
1865
59,498
9,182
69,217
1866
54,435
10,163
66,067
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial, and either
convicted or acquitted, was as follows during the fourteen years
from 1852 to 1865 :—
Years
Committed for trial
Convicted
Acquitted
1862
17,678
10,464
•7,206
1863
16,144
8,714
6,390
1854
11,788
7,061
4,711
1856
9,012
5,220
3,777
1866
7,099
4,024
3,064
1867
7,210
3,926
3,273
1858
6,308
3,350
2,940
1859
5,866
2,735
3,109
1860
6,386
2,979
2,383
1861
5,586
3,271
2,292
1862
6,666
3,796
2,846
1863
6,078
3,286
2,773
1864
6,086
3,000
2,068
1866
4,667
2,663
1,966
POPULATION,
283
The tmexampled decrease, amounting to more than 600 per cent.,
in the number of persons committed for trial in Ireland, in the course
of fourteen years, is, probably, partly due to the improvement of the
police and judicial organisation ; yet it is, nevertheless, a sign of vast
social progress.
4. Islands in the British Seas,
The population of the Islands in the British Seas, forming part of
Great Britain, was as follows according to the census of March 31,
1851, and of April 8, 1861 :—
Islands in the British Seas .
Isle of Man . ...
Island of Jersey
„ Guernsey, with Herm
and Jethou .
„ Aldemey .
„ Serk ....
1861
1861
143,126
143,447
52,387
57,020
29,806
3,333
580
52,039
56,076
29,846
4,933
583
Between 1831 and 1841 the population of the islands collectively
increased about 18 per cent., and between 1841 and 1851 about
15 per cent. Between 1851 and 1861 a decrease took place in the
Lsle of Man and in Jersey ; while Guernsey would also have shown
a decrease but for the circumstance of military force in that island as
well as in Aldemey having been larger in 1861 than at the previous
census.
5. Emigration from the United Kingdom,
Official returns state the number of emigrants who left the United
Kingdom during the last fifteen years to be more than three millions
and a half. The following table gives the number and destination of
emigrants for each of the fifteen years, 1851 to 1865, the last column
including all individuals not enumerated under the three great
outlets of British emigration, namely, the United States, the North
American^ and the Australasian colonies.
284
OBEA.T BBITAIB AND IBELAND.
Years
To the North
American Colonies
To the United
States
To the Australian
Colonies and New
2^ealand
Total
1851
42,605
267,357
21,532
335,966
1862
32,873
244,261
87,881
368,764
1853
34,522
230,885
61,401
329,937
1854
43,761
193,065
83,237
323,429
1855
17,966
103,414
52,309
176,807
1856
16,378
111,837
44,584
176,564
1857
21,001
126,905
61,248
212,875
1858
9,704
59,716
39,295
113,972
1859
6,689
70,303
31,013
120,432
1860
9,786
87,500
24,302
128,469
1861
12,707
49,764
23,738
91,770
1862
15,522
58,706
41,843
121,214
1863
18,083
146,813
53,054
223,758
1864
12,721
147,042
40,942
208,900
1865
17,211
147,258
37,283
209,801
It appears fi'om the official returns that in the year 1865, there
emigrated 1,856 agricultural labourers, gardeners, carters, &c. ; of
these 235 went to the United States, 54 to British North America,
1,525 to Australasia, and 42 to * aU other places.' The number of
bakers, confectioners, &c., amounted to 330 ; of these 251 settled in
the United States, 21 in British North America, 56 in Australasia,
and 2 in *aU other places.' Blacksmiths and farriers numbered
319 ; of this number 125 went to the United States, 10 to British
North America, 180 to Australasia, and 4 to * all other places.'
Bookbinders and stationers, 27 : 14 to the United States, 2 to British
North America, and 11 to Australasia. Boot and shoe makers, 726
— yIz., to the before-named places respectively, 418, 155, 152, and
1; braziers, tinsmiths, whitesmiths, &c., 411 — 375, 13, and 23;
brick and tile makers, potters, &c., 37 — 22, 4, and 11 ; bricklayers,
plasterers, masons, slaters, &c., 1,272 — 956, 67, 245, and 4 ; builders,
126—102, 2, 12, and 10 ; butchers, poulterers, &c., 156—89, 10,
52, and 5 ; cabinetmakers and upholsterers, 32 — 6, 1, and 25 ; car-
penters and joiners, 2,334 — 1,425, 487, 415, and 7; carvers and
gilders, 47—38, 1, and 8 ; clerks, 1,619—838, 422, 196, and 163;
clock and watch makers, 152 — 88, 55, 10, and 2 ; coachmakers and
trimmers, 19 — viz., 6 to the United States and 13 to Australasia ;
coal miners, 484 — 455, 26, and 3 ; coopers, 183 — 147, 24, 11, and
1 ; cutlers, 60, all to the United States ; domestic servants, 232 —
111, 24, 63, and 34 ; dyers, 52 — 47, 1, 3, and 1 ; engine-drivers,
stokers, &c., 41—21, 3, 11, and 6 ; engineers, 339—207, 28, 67, and
37 ; engravers, 27—25, 1, and 1 ; farmers, 6,334—4,460, 1,073, 669,
and 132 ; gentlemen, professional men, merchants, &c., 6,195 — 2,960,
1,157, 1,258, and 820 ; jewellers and silversmiths, 79—72, 3, 3, and
POPULATION. 285
1 ; labourers, general, 53,966—41,994, 3,449, 8,287, and 236 ; lock-
smiths, gunsmiths, &c., 15 — 10 to the United States, 1 to British
North America, 4 to Australasia, and to * all other places ' 1 ; millers,
maltsters, &c., 116 — 89, 8, and 19 ; millwrights, 51 — 46, 1, and 4 ;
miners and quarry-men, 5,643 — 3,962, 771, 821, and 89 ; painters,
paperhangers, plumbers, and glaziers, 440 — 338, 37, 64, and 1 ; pen-
sioners, 11 — 5, 1, and 5 ; printers, 164 — 119, 18, 24, and 3 ; rope-
jnakers, 6 — ^viz., to the United States 3, and to British North
America 3 ; saddlers and harness-makers, 73, 51, 3, and 19 ; sail-
makers, 6 — 3 to the United States and 3 to Australasia ; sawyers,
70—14, 8, and 48; seamen, 356—214, 91, 43, and 8 ; shipwrights,
36 — 9, 6, 18, and 3 ; shopkeepers, shopmen, &c., 532 — 304, 72, 114,
and 42 ; smiths, general, 903 — 778, 31, 92, and 2 ; spinners and
weavers, 764 — 66Q, 79, and 19 ; sugar-bakers, boilers, &c., 49 — ^viz.,
46 to the United States, 2 to Australasia, and 1 to * all other places;'
surveyors, 13—3, 1, 8, and 1 ; tailors, 2,619—2,037, 525, 54, and
3 ; tallow-chandlers and soap-makers, 1 — viz., to Australasia; tan-
ners and curriers, 55 — 22, 4, 17, and 2 ; turners, 39 — 36, 2, and 1.;
wheelwrights, 51 — 12, 1, and 38 ; woolcombers and sorters, 4 — viz.,
2 to the United States and 2 to Australasia. Trades and professions
not before specified, 4,322—2,734, 611, 908, and 69. Not distin-
guished, 9,725— viz., 4,493 to the United States, 421 to British
North America, 2,149 to Australasia, and 2,662 to *aU other places.'
As regards the other six, 9,900 were returned last year as domestic
and farm servants, nurses, &c.; of this number 5,459 emigrated to
the United States, 198 to British North America, 4,057 to Australasia,
and 186 to * all other places ;' 784 were returned as gentlewomen
and governesses — viz., to the before-named places respectively, 369,
138, 197, and 80. Milliners, dressmakers, and needlewomen num-
bered 919—810, 15, 91, and 3; married women, 23,959—15,725,
1,984, 5,179, and 1,071. Shopwomen, 9 — ^viz., 5 to the United
States, none to British North America, 3 to Australasia, and 1 to
* all other places.' Trades and professions not before specified, 72
—50, 3, and 19. Not distinguished, 27,021—21,608-1,863,
2,880, and 670. The number of boys under 12 taken abroad in
1865 was 15,719 — ^viz., to the United States, 11,009, to British
North America, 1,285, to Australasia, 3,054, and to * all other places,'
371. The number of girls was 14,307 — viz., to the before-named
places respectively, 10,084, 1,055, 2,814, and 354 ; male infants,
4,036, 3,048, 321, 598, and 69 ; female infants, 3,836, 2,847, 338,
604, and 47. The number of male children not distinguished as to
age was 3,664 ; of this niunber 2,866 were taken to the United States,
177 to British North America, none to Australasia, and 621 to * all
other places. The number of female children not distinguished as to
age was 2,066 ; 1,825 were taken to the United States, ^^ \a "^^^^
286 GBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
North America, and 181 to * all other places.' The total emigra-
tion in 1865 was 209,801— viz., to the United States, 147,258 ; to
British North America, 17,211 ; to Australasia, 37,283 ; and to ' all
other places,' 8,049 ; 61,345 were English, 12,870 Scotch, 100,676
Irish, 28,619 foreigners, and 6,291 not distinguished. The Irish
emigrants formed 47*91 percent, of the whole emigration, and 55*74
per cent, of the emigrants who went to the United States. There
were among the Irish who went to the United States 31,943 single
men, being in the proportion of 38*9 to the whole Irish emigration.
' Of the 164,469 emigrants who went in the year 1865 to the United
States and British North America 120,923, or 73^ per cent., pro-
ceeded in steam vessels, and 43,546 in sailing vessels. The propor-
tion of those who went in steam vessels was much larger than in any
previous year, and as the average price of passage in those vessels
was from 30 to 50 per cent, higher than in sailing vessels, the extent
to which they were resorted to is a proof that there was no pecuniary
distress among the emigrants. The resort to steam vessels is now so
general that from the Clyde there were no sailing vessels carrying
emigrants in 1865, nor from Liverpool were there any such vessels
to British North America. The mortality, as far as the emigration
commissioners obtained returns, amounted in steam vessels to '04
per cent., in sailing ships to '19 per cent.
Of the 208,900 emigrants who left the United Kingdom in th6
year 1864, there were— English, 56,618 ; Scotch, 15,035 ; Irish,
115,428; foreigners, 16,942; not distinguished, 4,877.
In the last twenty-three years 276,837 emigrants have been sent
out to Australia by the Government Emigration Board ; 38,420 of
them were nominated in virtue of contributions in the colony from
private sources, amounting to 164,290/. The total passage money
was 3,669,088/.
The only colonies which at present promote emigration from the
United Kingdom by means of their public ftmds, and through the
instrumentality of the emigration commissioners, are Victoria,
New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, the Cape of Good
Hope, Natal, Tasmania, and some of the provinces of New Zealand.
The system on which assistance is afforded varies in each colony.
Emigration into the colony of Victoria, at the expense of the
colonial fund, is governed by regulations issued by the local govern-
ment, dated Melbourne, the 10th of July 1865. The emigration
commissioners grant free passages to single female domestic servants
of good character between 18 and 35 years of age ; also to a few
married agricidtural labourers and their wives imder 40 years of
age, having, if any, not more than two children under twelve years
of age. The eligible candidates must have been accustomed to work
for wages in their respective callings, and must produce satis&ctory
POPULATION. 287
certificates of good character. The entire cost of the passage in these
cases is defrayed by the commissioners out of colonial funds, and
partial assistance in the shape of railway and steamboat passes is also
granted to single women to enable them to reach the port of em-
barkation. All candidates must provide their own outfit, and before
their embarkation orders are issued, pay to the commissioners the
following deposits towards the cost of bedding and mess utensils
supplied to them on board ship — viz., married couples and their
children, 11. per statute adult; and single women, IO5. each.
Assisted passages are also granted by the commissioners to a few
other married couples with not more than two children under 12
years of age upon payment of 2Z. for each male under 12 ; 12 and
under 40 years of age, 5Z. ; 40 years of age and upwards, 8Z. ; and
for each woman imder 12, IZ.; 12 and tmder 40, 2Z. ; 40 years of
age and upwards, 5Z. Kesidents in the colony, by making payments
of IZ. to 8Z. to the Colonial Government, may obtain what are called
* passage warrants ' for the introduction of their relatives and
fnends ; the passage warrants are valid for nine months only after
the date of their issue in the colony, and in certain cases are trans-
ferable, with the previous sanction of the emigration commissioners.
The commissioners cannot extend the duration of warrants, nor
sanction the transfer to men of warrants issued for women. Money
paid to the colonial authorities for these warrants is not in any case
returnable, but in certain cases the warrants may be exchanged in
the colony. To Natal no fi*ee passages are now granted. Persons
resident in Natal can, however, nominate their relations and friends
for passages in the commissioners' ships, on giving to the Colonial
Government a guarantee for the repayment of the passages, at the
rate of lOZ. per statute adult, within 12 months after the landing of
the emigrants; married persons with the members of their families
under 12 years of age, are required to repay the advance at the rate
of lOZ. per annimi. Any excess of passage money beyond the lOZ.
is paid out of colonial funds. The emigration commissioners are
also authorised to provide passages to Natal to persons having rela-
tions in the colony, upon payment before embarkation of the sum of
11 Z. each. In consequence of the recommendation of the Legislative
Council in their last session, the Colonial Government have it in
contemplation to adopt measures for the further encouragement of
emigration in the colony. To Western Austraha there are no
colonial funds appropriated for emigration ; it is only occasionally,
when authorised by the Secretary of State, that the commissioners
can select emigrants for passages to this colony, at the expense of
Imperial funds. On these occasions the emigrants are required to
be for the most part unmarried women of good character, and a few
married agricultural labourers, having not more than tvro ^^'vrsi'^
288
6BEAT BBTTAIN AND IRELAND.
children. The emigration commissioners cannot select any emi
grants for free or assisted passages to the Cape of Good Hope. The
only persons who can be sent out are the nominees of settlers in the
colony, who, after inquiry by the commissioners, may be found
eligible under the colonial r^ulations. To North America there is
no free or assisted emigration.
6. Wealth of the Population.
The assumed value of real property in the United Kingdom is
shown in a Parliamentary return issued in the session of 1864. The
information, extending over the five years, 1857 to 1862, is gathered
from Schedule A of the income-tax returns. The gross annual value
in 1857 of real property in England was 103,496,253Z. It had in-
creased in 1862 to 120,069,963/. As respects Scotland the figures
were, in 1857, 12,582,749Z. ; and in 1862, 15,128,538Z. ; and as re-
gards Ireland, in 1857, 11,915,286Z.; and in 1862, 13,400,546Z.
The following return, published in pursuance to an order of the
House of Commons of June 30, 1863, shows the population, the
gross receipt of the revenue, after deducting repayments, allowances,
discounts, drawbacks, and bounties of the nature of drawbacks, and
excluding therefrom miscellaneous receipts, and the rate per head of
the population of such revenue ; also the amount of property and
profits assessed for the income tax, the amount of income per head
of the population, and the poimdage of said taxation on such income,
for Great Britain and Ireland in the year ending the 31st day of
March 1862 :—
Population
Great Britain
Ireland
23,128,518
5,798,967
Gross revenue ....
£61,360,749
£6,792,606
Amount of gross revenue per head
of population ....
£2 13«.
£1 38. 5d.
Amount of property and profits
assessed to income tax
£301,380,730
£21,638,975
Amount of income per head of
population
£13 08. 7id.
£3 Us. 7id.
Amount of revenue for each £ of
income
48. Oid.
68. Zid.
The following table, compiled from returns issued in August
1866, shows the number of persons charged with income tax in
Great Britain and Ireland imder Schedule D., that is, income de-
POPULATION.
289
riyed £rom trades and professions, in the financial years ending the
5th of April 1864 and 1865.
Income
Great Britam
Ireland
186>-4
18«4-5
186S-4
1864r«
Under £100 a year .
£100 and under £200
£200 „ £300
£300 „ £400
£400 „ £500
£500 „ £600
£600 „ £700
£700 „ £800
£800 „ £900
£900 „ £1,000
£1,000 „ £2,000
£2,000 „ £3,000
£3,000 „ £4,000
£4,000 „ £6,000
£6,000 „ £10,000
£10,000 „ £50,000
£50,000 and upwards
Amount of income "^
charged with tax j
66,682
153,120
41,592
18,278
9,313
7,097
4,026
2,549
2,231
944
6,862
2,108
1,100
657
1,140
731
91
67,587
169,709
44,488
19,171
9,973
7,428
4,293
2,754
2,359
1,070
7,374
2,204
1,138
627
1,283
866
107
6,016
6,934
2.346
1,100
623
419
246
137
142
69
316
112
46
19
30
23
3
4,703
7,826
2,285
1,145
628
400
262
137
134
66
342
103
50
28
44
26
3
308,416 332,431
£95,844,222 £106,436,787
17,467
£4,368,610
18,081
£4,669,976
Another Parliamentary return states that in Great Britain the
annual ayerage amount of property and income tax. contributed per
head of population in the quinquennial period ending March 31,
1858, was 10«. 4^., and in Ireland 2«. 10|rf. The annual ayerage
in Great Britain in the quinquennial period ending March 31, 1863,
was 78, 1 l^c?., and in Ireland 2«. A]^d,
Commeroe and Trade.
1. Imports and Exports,
The declared real yalue of the total imports and exports of mer-
chandise into and from the United Kingdom for the years 1863,
1864, and 1865, is shown in the following tabl^ : — .
Imports
r British produce
Exports • Foreign and Colonial
I Total
Total of mports and exports .
1868
1864 I 1865
£
248,919,020
£
274.952,172
£
271,184,969
146,602,342
60,300,067
160,449,053
62,170,561
165,862,402
52,996,914
196,902,409
212,619,614
218.868,316
446,821,429
487,671,786
489,993,286
290
GBEAT BBITAIN AKD IBELAND.
The following table shows the relative division of the imports
from British colonies and foreign countries into the United Kingdom
in 1865, compared with the previous year. Each country is placed
in the order in which it ranks According to the magnitude of the
supplies it sent to the United Kingdom in 1865. The total of 1865
shows a slight diminution from that of 1864, owing entirely to the
reduction in value of the cotton consignments from India, which
caused a heavy falling off in the aggregate amount of imports from
British possessions, while in the quantities of goods taken from
foreign coimtries there took place a considerable increase.
ImPOBTS IIWO THE UlOTBD KiNODOM.
Year 1864
Year 1865
From British Possessions : —
£
£
India .
. 62,295,699
37,396,372
Australasia .
. 10,039,332
10,283,113
British North America
. 6,860,730
6,350,148
British West Indies
. 7,156,236
6,169,833
Ceylon
. 3,173,820
3,707,616
Cape of Good Hope
. 1,726,972
2,218,948
Singapore
British Ghiiana
2,069,838
2,169,066
1,911,185
1,707,437
Mauritius
1,589,769
1,246,299
Hongkong .
2,881,929
773,068
Channel Islands .
836,466
417,888
Western Africa .
296,386
402,692
Bermudas .
1,998,727
269,964
BeUze . . . .
372,223
244,786
Natal . . . .
234,949
201,293
Gibraltar
117,069
149,729
Malta . . . .
128,013
83,993
St. Helena .
10,677
47,500
Caf&aria
13,962
26,244
Falkland Islands .
14,887
21,081
Ascension
8
18
Ionian Islands
18,870
Heligoland .
803
' —
Aden . . . .
75
—
Total from British Possessionj
From Foreign Countries : —
t f)^ TAA 4^i
79 ftfti? Aft7
France .
26,640,733
31,645,210
Egypt . . .
19,602,236
21,773,250
United States
17,923,648
21,649,281
Kussia .
14,712,630
17,383,396
Germany: —
Hanse Towns ,
7,923,039
. 8,837,686.
Prussia .
6,862,919
6,126,205
Schleswig-Holfltein
814,097
1,016,230
Mecklenbuig
340,198
346,402
Hanover .
196,280
243,024
Oldenburg
13,347
44,222
Total from Germany
16,149,880
16,611,668
COMMERCE AND TBADE.
291
YearlWi
Tear 1865
From Foreign Countries: —
£
£
Ketheriands .
11,660,180
12,461,466
China ....
12,792,001
10,673,960
Belgium
6,410,964
7,379,893
Brazil ....
7,021,121
6,797,271
Turkey.
6,306,316
6,846,763
Sweden and Norway .
6,099,370
6,664,314
Cuba and Porto Kico .
6,306,736
6,086,026
Spain ...»
6,007,142
6,008,617
Peru ....
2,666,431
4,002,160
; ChiU . . ► .
3,162,241
5,798,643
Mexico ....
3,129,334
3,216,924
Portugal
2,661,819
2,848,731
Italy ....
2,178,638
2,486,963
Denmark . . . .
1,728,203
2,284,287
New Granada
1,684,720
1,674,892
Western Africa .
1,064,173
1,346,998
Uruguay
1,099,271
1,266,000
Philippine Islands
864,435
1,253,904
Austria . . . .
881,30^
1,160,886
Greece
910,924
1,071,646
Argentine Republic
1,186,216
1,014,600
Central America .
427.394
694,245
Japan • » . •
1,423,819
614,743
Foreign West Indies .
461,606
447,903
Morocco
272,243
412,889
Venezuela .
180,964
221,331
Bolivia ....
164,044
161,026
Northern whale fishery .
79,778
133,872
Eastern Africa
73,236
121,667
Algeria
137,467
90,606
Borneo ....
66,630
55,438
French' Possessions in India
117,987
43,633
Equador
26,965
40,716
Islands in the Pacific .
18,210
26,830
Papal States .
2,461
23,921
Siam ....
14,622
9,372
Tunis ....
3,112
5,492
Persia ....
—
517
Java
16,749
226
Cape Verd Islands
—
1
Cochin China
2,043
—
4
—
Total of imports .
£274,962,172
£271,134,969
The following table shows the relative division of the exports of
home produce from the United Kingdom to British Colonies and
foreign states, the list of the yarious coTin tries being arranged ac-
cording to the value of the exports which they received in 1865.
The total value of British and Irish produce and manufactures
exported in 1866 was 165,862,402/. against 1 60,449 ,0^^l,\xi\^^V^
u2
292
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IBELAND.
or an increase of nearly 3^ per cent, over the total obtained in this
year. The amount taken in 1865 by British possessions was 29 per ,
cent, of the whole, but this was a falling off from the year 1864,
when it was 32^ per cent., the alteration being attributable to the
diminution in the demand for Indian cotton, the cessation of the
shipments to the Bermudas, and a general slackness in the trade
wiUi Canada, the West Indies, the Cape of Good Hope, and Natal,
which was but partially made up by a considerable improvement in
the amount of the consignments to Australia. The total to the
United States in consequence of the termination of the war increased
from 16,708,505Z. in 1864 to 21,235,790/. in 1865, a difference of
about 27 per cent. The trade with Germany continued to exhibit,
in 1865, the rapid development shown in preceding years. Among
the other coimtries that show a fair increase are the Netherlands,
China, Eussia, Belgium, Sweden and Norway, Peru, Java, and the
Philippine Islands, Among those that show a decrease are Italy,
Spain, Portugal, and the Austrian territories.
EXPOBTS OF HOMB PeODUCB FROM THE UNirBD KiNODOM.
Tear 1864
Year 1865
To British Possessions: —
£
£
India . . . ,
19,951.637
18,^54,570
Australasia .
11,857,213
13,352,357
British North America
5,595,591
4,705,079
West Indies .
2,649,539
1,945,466
Hongkong .
1,618,867
1,561,851
Cape of Good Hope
1,814,319
1,454,540
Singapore
. 1,181,680
1,442,450
Gibraltar .'
1,206,168
1,116,659
Channel Islands .
1,015,985
752,048
British Guiana
795,831
740,553
Ceylon . . . .
826,333
685,308
^alta .
753,113
633,887
Mauritius
655,852
596,848
Western Africa
272,896
403,383
Natal .
427,885
223,420
Belize .
204,625
160,446
Bermudas .
657,045
62,659^
St. Helena .
35,766
46,103
Aden .
31,757
45,595
Caffraria
29,412
22,196
Falkland Islands .
12,832
9,308
Ascension
9,808
7,811
Heligoland .
15
326
Ionian Islands
110,249
—
TotAJ to British Possessions
To Foreign Countries : —
51,714,418
United States
16,708,505
2
Germany: —
Hanse Towns .
. 13,418,826
15,091,373
TrxumA .
1,134,899
2,102,714
48,222,862
21,236,790
COKMEBCE AND TBASE.
*93
• Year 1864
Yearl865
To Foreign CoimtrieB : —
Ctermany : —
£
£
Hinover .
689,978
899,938
SflhieflWig-Holstein .
14^,030
147,818
Jlecklenburg .
61,261
76,993
Oldenburg
33,199
69,887
Total of Germany
1 K A*rt% HOQ
1*9 Of9Q tit 9
Franc? .
8,187,861
9,034,883
Netherlands .
6,884,937
8,111,022
Turkey.
7,603,988
7,161,669
Egypt . . . ,
6,061,680
6,986,087
Brazil .
6,249,260
6,668,089
Italy .. .
6,597,496
6,376,886
China .
3,092,611
3,609,301
Eussia .
2,846,409
2,921,496
Belgium
2,301,291 •
2,921,300
Spain .
New Granada
3,229,612
2,427,861
2,068,843
2,372,497
Portugal
2,269,781
2,216,900
Cuba .
3,002,026
2,207,611
Argentine Eepublic
1,767,467
1,961,048
Mexico . . . ■
1,809,763 .
1,898,066
ChiU .
1,683,680
1,603,763
Sweden and Norway .
1,60^389
1,678,417
Japan .
627,383
1,620,896
Denmark
1,162,767
1,263,953
Peru .
1,331,692
1,193,336
Foreign West Indies ,
1,370,941
1,167,960
Greece .
743,971
1,020,489
Philippine Islands
766,719
946,624
Java .
796,860
928,642
Austria
931,626
877,326
Uruguay
993,961
813,448
Western Africa .
666,962
642,467
Venezuela
482,988
367,032
Morocco
162,682
272,184
Central America .
221,794
137,666
Tunis . . • .
1,686
102,117
Eastern Africa
26,444
61,828
Siam . . , ,
16,130
36,943
Islands in the Pacific .
184.616
36,329
Equador
2,746
28,676
Cape Yerd Islands
24,486
21,642
Persia . • . .
630
16,237
Papal States. . • .
72,689
12,708
Algeria
12,229
10,916
Bolivia.
3,610
997
Arabia
808
306
Patagonia .
—
66
Madagascar .
30,884
—
Whale fisheries .
1.191
—
Total exports of home produce
) £160,449,063
£166,862,402
294
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
The five principal articles imported into the United Eangdom are
cotton, com, wool, tea, and silk. The five principal articles of home
produce exported are cotton manufactures; woollen and worsted
manufactures ; metals, iron and steel ; linen manufiictures ; and
haberdashery and millinery. In the subjoined tables the declared
real value of these ten great articles of British commerce, imported
and exported in the years 1863, 1864, and 1865, is exhibited: —
The Fivb pbincipai* Abticlks of Import.
Articles imported
1863
1864
1866
1. Cotton, raw .
2. Com, wheat .
„ other kinds .
„ flour, of wheat
„ „ of other kinds
Total of corn .
3. Wool ....
4. Tea
6. Silk, raw . . .
£
56,277,953
£
78,203,729
£
66,032,193
12,015,006
10,411,745
3,522,931
6,257
10,674,654
4,371,366
2,832,200
2,941
9,775,616
8,321,446
2,622,888
4,165
25,955,939
19,881,161
20,724,115
11,884,672
15,503,483
14,930,430
10,666,017
9,438,760
10,044,462-
9,380,758
6,336,903
10,184,865
The Fdtb pbikcipal Abticles of Expobt.
Articles exported
1863
1. Cotton manufactures :
Piece goods, white or plain
„ printed, checked, or dyed
„ of other kinds
Cotton yam
Total of cotton manufactures
2. Woollen and worsted manufactures :
Cloths, coatings, &c., unmixed andl
mixed j
Flannels, blankets, blanketing, audi
baizes J
Worsted stuflfe, unmixed and mixed .
Carpets and druggets
Of all other sorts ....
Total of woollen and worsted!
manufactures . . . J
£ . I £ I £
23,291,484 26,823,536 27,670,202
14,250,001 17,062,661 17,190,037
1,882,526 1,873,893 2,048,657
8,019,954 9,096,209 10,361,049
47,443,964 64,856,289 67,254,845
4,006,0121 4,546,064
1,411,560 1,504,552
8,327,729 10,801,854
810,319, 872,698
963,222 841,020
4,062,382
1,203,167
13,321,856
861,664
668,301
15,618,842 18,566,078 20,102,269
COMHEBCE AMD TBADX.
Z95
The Five principal Articles of "ExipoTt— continued.
Articles exported
1868
1864
1865
S. Metals:
£
£
£
l2X)ii, pig and puddled
1,296,361
1,411,513
1,591,063
„ bar, angle, bolt, and rod .
„ railroad, of all sorts .
2,560,237
2,559,009
2,213,123
3,290,319
3,260,781
3,541,296
» ^«^e
390,983
. 396,757
450,689
» cast
732,253
. 656,085
771,124
„ hoops, sheet and boiler plates .
1,682,685
1,780,355
1,597,604
„ wrought, of all sorts.
2,171,119
2,237,038
2,494,371
„ old, for re-manufacture
51,614
31,253
12,688
„ steel, unwrought
Total of iron and steel .
4. Linen manufactures :
935,906
881,503
779,487
13,111,477
13,214,29413,451,445
5,329,101
6,700,348
7,558,140
Printed, checked, or dyed .
264,269
503,861
587,679
Sailcloth
327,938
387,326
378,146
Of other sorts
Total of linen manufactures .
5. Haberdashery and millinery
588.662
567.010
631,393
6.509,970
8,158,545 9,155,358
4,362,319
4,786,899| 5,013,757
It will be seen from these tables that the value of imported
raw cotton, in 1865, was much larger than that of the exports of
manuikctured cotton goods, showing the vast consumption of these
articles within the United Kingdom. On the other hand, the value
of the exports of woollen and worsted manufactures was greater, in
each of the years 1863, 1864, and 1865, than the imports of wool.
But the total exports of woollen and worsted manufactures are far
from sufficient to pay for the imports of com; nor do the total
exports of linen manufactures pay more than a fraction of the
imports of tea. Other comparisons between principal imports and
exports exhibit notable results.
Subjoined is a statement of the customs receipts for the year
11865, distinguishing the principal articles subject to duty compared
with the receipts of the preceding year.
Increase or Decrease
Years
in 1866, as compared with
Articles
1864
1864
1865
Increase
Decrease
£
£
£
£
Chicory
129,104
127,933
—
1,171
Cocoa and chocolate
19,654
20,071
417
—
Coffee ....
394,879
384,302
—
10,577
Com ....
625.232
647,099
21,867
—
Currants
260,047
280,749
20,702
...
Eiga, plums, and prunes .
30,725
31,728
1,003
—
Pepper • . . .
120,426
124,399
3,973
—
k
Baisins ....
102,943
103,404
[ ^^\\ ^
29^^
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IBSLAND.
Statement of Customs Beceipts — continued.
Increase or Decrease
Years
in 1865, as compared with
Articles
1864
1864
1866
Increase
Decrease
£
£
£
£
Spirits: Bum .
1,896,328
1,879,908
. —
16,420
„ Brandy .
1,206,768
1,388,733
182,966
—
„ Geneva and other
sorts
138.793
198,689
69,896
—
Sugar ....
6,314,043
6,362,907
48,864
—
„ Molasses
90,617
94,639
4,122
—
Tea ....
4,481^867
3,189,269
—
1,242,698
Tobacco and snufT .
6,091,727
6,246,489
163,762
—
Wine ....
1,319,261
1,374.859
56,698
—
"Wood and timber .
292,723
320,040
27,317
—
Other articles
Aggregate gross
34,173
25,764
—
8,419
receipt
22,498,210
21,799,972
—
698,238
Deduct drawbacks and
repayments
Aggregate nett
204,707
225,106
20,399
—
receipt .
22,293,503
21,674,866
—
718,637
The great decrease in the customs receipts on tea, in the year 1865,
was owing entirely to the reduction of duty. The loss arising there-
from was estimated at 2,214,981Z., but amounted only to 1,242,598^.,
through the vast increase of consumption.
2. Shipping.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels of the United
Kingdom engaged in the home trade, with the men employed thereon
—exclusive of masters — was as follows from 1852 till 1865 : —
Home Trade
SaUlng Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1852
8,776
701,803
36,793
1863
8,477
689,342
36,051
1864
8,638
694,712
34,610
1865
8,333
691,128
31,670
1866
9,390
719,860
33,879
1857
9,676
767.926
37,138
1868
10,313
788,113
37,971
1869
10,036
777,422
35,545
1860
10,848
821,079
39,163
1861
11,060
832,771
39,626
1862
10,481
771,326
36,614
1863
10,677
762,689
86,720
1804
11,003
789,108
37,748.
1865
11,160
795,434
37,631.
OOlOfSBOS AKD TBADB.
297
The number of steam vessels employed in the home trade during
each of the fourteen years, from 1852 to 1865, was as follows : —
Home Trade
Steam Yessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1852
358
66,606
5,182
1853
374
85,471
6,689
1854
240
54,002
3,840
1855
257
57,415
8,906
1856
317
67,616
4,786
1857
388
92,481
6,462
1858
372
90,739
6,215
1859
374
90,867
6,377
1860
402
192,254
6,416
1861
448
102,795
7,024
1862
434
104,020
6,892
1863
456
107,003
7,095
1864
510
125,808
7,858
1865
552
134,776
8,189
The number of sailing vessels engaged partly in the home and
partly in the foreign trade— the expression * home trade * signif3mig
the coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest ' — was, in each of the fourteen years, from
1852 to 1865 :—
Partly Home and
partly
Sailing Vessels
Foreign Trade
Tears
Number
Tons
Men
1852
1,063
147,867
6,875
1853
970
156,800
7,134
1854
1,166
202.124
8,099
1855
1,234
210,114
8,330
1856
970
162,488
6,483
1857
1,098
162,112
7,007
1858
897
138,699
5,594
1859
848
132,768
5,229
1860
1,366
226,556
8,700
1861
1,326
219,522
8,443
1862
1,483
246,479
9,388
1863
1,720
284,413
10,831
1864
1,624
268,125
10,039
1865
1,663
282,295
10,457
298
GBSAiT BBITAIN AND IBBLAND.
The number of steamers employed alternately in home and foreign
trade amounted to : —
Partly Home and
partly
BteamVeMfiU
Forelgii Trade
T«*t«
Kutnbar
Toaii
Mm
1S62
42
15,244
944
1863
28
7,250
560
1854
45
19,1 S5
1,328
1855
47
12.662
998
1856
42
16.102
^&5
1857
66
20,869
1,200
1858
62
20,604
1,141
1B69
&S
21,123
1,202
1860
80
29,803
1,731
1861
72
24,924
1,256
1862
89
29.463
1,664
1863
90
33,647
1,693
1864
92
3a.944
1,787
1865
111
43,225
2,005
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels engaged in
the foreign trade alone, with the men employed — exclusive of masters
~-was as follows during the last fourteen years :—
Employed In the
FordgB ll-ade
Samug VttBda
Te«Ti
Kumber
Tom
Mffli
1852
7,431
2,366,996
103,618
1853
8.120
2,666,686
111,821
1864
7,165
2,619,620
103.913
1855
7,507
2,799,972
107,388
1856
8,059
2,942,674
110.71a
1867
7,656
2.900,082
107.289
1868
7,999
3.029,226
109,090
1859
7.792
2.969,402
105,434
1860
6,876
2.804,610
97.624
1861
6,902
2,866,218
96,880
1862
7>095
2,993,696
100,146
1863
7,360
3,246,626
106,100
1864
7.657
3,532,242
110,489
1805
7,384
3,629,023
110,601
COMMEBCE AND TBADE.
299
The number of steamers employed in the foreign trade amounted
to:—
Employed in the
Foreign Trade
Steam Yeesels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1867
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
149
237
253
450
492
445
428
462
447
477
510
574
727
756
83,367
125,539
139,500
218,979
247,337
268,023
257,861
277,527
277,437
313,465
328,310
371,201
456,241
523,698
7,151
10,270
10,726
16,345
17,087
17,291
17,821
18,719
17,958
18,729
19,260
22,288
27,835
28,860
The total number and tonnage of sailing vessels and steamers of
the United Kingdom employed in the home and the foreign trade,
inclusiye of those engaged partly at home and partly abroad, is
shown in the following table : —
Years
Total
Years
Total
Clumber of
Yeesels
Tons
Men
Number of
vessels
Tons
Men
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
17,819
18,206
17,407
17,828
19,270
19,328
20,071
3,380,884
3,730,087
3,729,093
3,990,170
4,156,077
4,211,482
4,325,242
159,563
172,525
162,416
168,537
173,918
176,387
177,832
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
19,570
20,019
20,285
20,092
20,877
21,513
21,626
4,269,109
4,251,739
4,359,695
4,473,294
4,795,279
5,208,468
5,408,451
172,506
171,592
171,957
173,863
184,727
195,756
197,643
The above lists include vessels of the Channel Islands, but not
those of the British possessions.
The total tonnage of British and foreign vessels, both sailing and
steam, which entered and cleared at ports of the United Kingdom,
either with cargoes or in ballast, during the fifteen years 1851-65,
is shown in the subjoined table : —
300
GBSAT BBITAIN AND IBELAND.
Years
Total
British
Foreign
Total
tons
tons
tons
1861
9,820,876
6,169,322
15,980,198
1852
9,985,969
6,144,180
16,130,149
1853
10,268,323
8,121,887
18,390,210
1854
10,744,849
7,924,238
18,669,087
1856
10,919,732
7,669,738
18,489,470
1856
12.945,771
8,643,278
21,589,049
1857
13,694,107
9,484,686
23,178,792
1858
12,891,405
9,418,576
22,309,981
1869
13,811,843
9,692,416
22,904,269
1860
13,914,923
10,774,369
24,689,292
1861
15,420,632
11,175,109
26,695,641
1862
16,946,860
10,688,679
26,635,439
1863
17,019,392
9,719,341
26,738,733
1864
18,201,676
9,002,834
27,204,609
1865
19,358,965
9,638,137
28,897,092
The Registrar-Greneral of Shipping reports that in the year 1865
there were 21,626 British registered vessels — exclnsive of river
steamers and colonial vessels — employed in the home and foreign
trade of the United Kingdom, not reckoning repeated voyages. The
tonnage was 5,408,451, and the number of men employed 197,643.
The crews are classified according to capacity, thus : — Mates, 24,292;
petty officers, 13,546; able seamen, 72,058; ordinary seamen,
19,221 ; apprentices and boys, 20,063 ; other persons, 16,241 ;
engineers, 3,178 ; firemen, 8,724 ; foreigners, 20,280 ; Lascdrs, 40.
Comparing these figures with those of the year 1864, they show an
increase of 113 ships, 199,983 tons, and 1,887 men.
3. The Cotton Trade.
The receipts of raw cotton in the year 1865 amounted to
977,978,2881b., as compared with 893,304,7201b. in 1864;
669,583,2641b. in 1863; 523,973,2961b. in 1862; 1,256,984,7361b.
in 1861; 1,390,938,7521b. in 1860; l,225,989,072Ib. in 1859;
1,034,342,1761b. in 1858; 969,318,8961b. in 1857; 1,023,886,3041b.
in 1856; and 891,751,9521b. in 1855. The great year in the cotton
trade was 1860, and comparing 1862 with 1860, it is seen that the
supplies declined to the extent of 866,965,4561b., while comparing
1865 with 1862, there is a recovery of 369,331,4241b. The
receipts of 1865 were still, however, below the level of 1860 by
412,960,4641b., although they were in excess of those of 1855,
when no special influence depressed the imports. The exports
of cotton fi:om the United Eangdom have very greatly increased
of late years, having aiAounted to 302,908,9281b. in 1865;
COMMEBGE AUD TRADE.
301
244,702,3041b. in 1864; 241,352,4961b. in 1863; 214,714,5281b.
in 1862; 298,287,9201b. in 1861; 250,339,0401b. in 1860;
175,143,1361b. in 1859 ; 149,609,6001b. in 1858 ; 131,927,6001b.
in 1857 ; 146,660,8641b. in 1856; and 124,368,1601b. in 1855. It
will be Been that the exports of cotton have very materially expanded
since the ordinary course of the trade was disturbed by the civil war
in the United States.
The following table gives some statistics of factories for cotton
goods, extracted from a return laid before Parliament in 1861 : —
Ck>tton Factories
Number of
factories
Number of
spindles
Number of
operatiyes
England:
Lancaater .
1,979
21,530,532
315,627
York .
369
2,4U,898
27,810
Chester
212
3,373,113
40,860
Derby .
79
682,008
12,965
Cumberland
15
136,212
3,281
Middlesex
10
5,834
323
Stafford
8
81,116
1,982
Leicester
3
4,408
219
Nottingham
26
36,000
2,183
Flint .
1
21,800
190
Sufiblk.
1
—
52
Warwick
7
—
445
Surrey.
2
—
53
Gloucester
1
66,004
1,514
Norfolk
2
—
94
ScoTLAin):
2,716
28,351,925
407,598
Aberdeen
2
66,276
770
Bute .
4
52,148
976
Dumbarton ,
4
75,296
758
Dumfries
1
16,308
112
Lanark
83
1,138,602
27,065
Linlithgow
1
19,800
121
Perth .
3
57,796
1,069
Renfrew
32
408,742
8,749
Stirling
6
50,190
528
Ayr .
3
30,240
1,089
Ibbland:
138
1,915,398
41,237
Antrim
3
72,884
639
Dublin
2
li;668
492
Londonderry
1
—
77
Tyrone
1
—
18
Waterford .
1
30,292
1,412
"Wexford .
1
5,100
96
9
119,944
2,734
Total, United I
[ingd
om .
2.862 •
30,387,267
^ 46L,6ft^
I.
302
GBEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
It appears from the above return that each cotton factory in
England has, on the average, 10,000 spindles and 150 operatives,
while in Scotland and Ireland there are 13,000 spindles and 300
workers to every factory. Consequently, in England there is one
operative to 67, and in Scotland and Ireland one to 43 spindles
The total amount of raw cotton imported into the United King-
dom during the years 1851 to 1865, with the total exported, and
excess of imports over exports, is shown in the subjoined table : —
Years
Total imported
Exported
Excess of imports
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1851
757,379,749
111,980,394
645,399,355
1852
929,782,448
111,884,321
817,898,127
1853
895,278,749
148,569,721
746,709,028
1854
887,333,149
123,326,112
764,007,037
1855
891,761,952
124,368,160
767,383,792
1856
1,023,886,304
146,660,864
877,225,440
1857
969,318,896
131,927,600
837.391,296
1858
1,034,342,176
149,609.600
884,732,576
1859
1,225.986,072
175.143,136
1,050,845,936
1860
1,390,938,752
250,339,040
1,140,699,712
1861
1,266,984,736
298,287,920
958,696,816
1862
623,973,296
214.714,528
309,258,768
1863
669,583,264
241,362,496
428,230,768
1864
893,304.720
244,702,304
648,602,416
1865
977,978,288
302,908,928
675,069,360
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom in
1815 am'ounted to only 99,000,000 pounds; it rose to 152,000,000
in 1820; to 229,000,000 in 1825; to 264,000,000 in 1830; to
364,000,000 in 1835 ; to 592,000,000 in 1840 ; to 722,000,000 in
1845 ; and to 663,576,861 pounds in 1850. The subsequent in-
crease and fluctuations of imports are exhibited in the preceding
tabular view.
4. Mines and Minerals.
The mineral wealth of the United Kingdom is represented in the
following estimated number of mines : —
Coal mines .
3,500
employing
307,000 persona
IroD mines .
,,
33,000
Copper mines
167
»
22,000
Tin mines
148
a
15,500
Lead mines .
390
»»
21,500 „
Zinc and others .
—
)»
1,000 „
Making an estimated total of . . 400,000 persons
According to the report of Mr. Eobert Hunt, keeper of mining
COMHEBCS AND TBADE. 303
•
records in the Museum of Practical Geology, the mineral statistics
for the year 1864 were as follows :—
Coal. — There were at work during 1865, wholly or in part, 3,268
collieries in Great Britain and Ireland. In 1853 there appear to have
been only 2,397. The quantity of coal raised, sold, and used during
the year 1865 from all these works was 98,150,587 tons, against
92,787,873 tons in 1864, The largest quantities were produced
from the following coalfields : —
Tons
Durham and Northumberland. . . . 25,032,694
Scotland 12,660,000
Lancashire 11,962,000
Staffordshire and Worcestershire . . . 12,200,989
South Wales and Monmouthshire . . . 12,036,607
Yorkshire 9,366,100
There was an increase in the exportations of coal to foreign ports
in 1865 of 370,057 tons, the quantity exported in 1865 being
9,170,477 tons, against 8,800,420 tons in 1864. The coal retained
for home consumption amounted to 59,197,058 tons in 1863, and to
55,137,526 tons in 1864, being at the rate of 2 tons 9 cwt. per head
of population in the former, and of 2 tons 6 cwt. in the latter year.
2. Iron. — The extension of iron manufacture, and the increasing
development of iron ore -producing districts is shown every year in
the returns. In 1865 there were obtained 9,910,045 tons of iron
ore. This was employed to feed 656 blast furnaces, which pro-
duced 4,819,254 tons of pig iron. Of this amount, 543,018 tons
were exportedj and upon the remainder 6,407 puddling furnaces and
730 rolling mills were employed to convert it into finished iron.
3. Gold. — During 1865 gold was obtained from five mines in
Merionethshire ; 2,U00 tons of auriferous quartz were crushed and
treated by the amalgamating processes. From this there were
obtained 1,663 ounces of gold. The quantity was considerably less
than in previous year, for in 1864 there were obtained 2,336 oimces
of gold, and in 1862 the amount was 5,299 ounces.
4. Tin. — The tin obtained from the mines of Cornwall and Devon-
shire in 1865, was in excess of that ever before procured, although
the tin mines and stream works of this district have been worked
for more than 2,000 years. There were raised 15,686 tons of tin
ore in 1865, the largest quantity from very deep mines. This pro-
duced of metallic tin 10,039 tons. The value of the ore sold was
867,435/.
5. Copper. — From 192 mines in South-Western England, and
about 30 distributed over other parts of the United Kingdom,
198,298 tons of copper ore, producing 11,888 tons of metallic copper,
were obtained in 1865.
6. Lead and Silver. — There were 90,452 tons of lead ore, prin-
304 ailEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND.
cipally galena, dressed, sold, and smelted, in 1865. lliis produced
67,181 tons of lead, and gave 724,856 oz. of silver.
7. Zinc, — Of zinc ores, nearly all being the sulphide of zinc,
17,842 tons were mined in 1865, producing 4,460 tons of metal.
Of iron pyrites — ores used for the sulphur they contain in sulphuric
acid and soda works — there were procured 114,195 tons.
The total value, at the place of production, of the minerals ob-
tained in 1865 (exclusive of building stones, bricks, and the like)
was 32,359,080Z. The value of the metal smelted from the metalli-
ferous ores was 15,773,287/., so that if this is added to the value of
coals at the pit's mouth, 24,537,621/., and 1,434,496/. the estimated
value of the earthy minerals, it gives an aggregate value of mineral
wealth of 41,745,404/.
The coal raised in 1865 amounted to about one ton per working
day for each of the 307,000 male persons employed. 867 lives
were lost in the year 1864 by accidents — that is to say, one in every
354 men employed, or one to every 109,715 tons of coal raised. Large
as was this loss of life, it was satisfactory by comparison. In the five
years 1856-60 the quantity of coal raised avei-aged little more than
75,000,000 tons a year, but the deaths averaged above 1,000 a
year, one to about 73,400 tons of coal raised. In the three years
1861-63, the deaths averaged 994 a year. The following is a sum-
mary of the lives lost in the coal mines of the United Kingdom for
the ten years ending 1860 : —
Years Liyesloit
1857 1,119
1858 931
1859 904
1860 1,108
Total Hves lost in ten years 9,090
The number of collieries at work increased from 2,397 in 1853
to 3,180 in 1863, and 3,268 in 1865.
Colonies.
The colonies and dependencies of Great Britain embrace about
one-third of the surface of the globe, and nearly a fourth of its
population. Official returns state the area of these possessions to be
4,346,996 square miles, or more than thirty times the extent of the
United Kingdom. Of this vast dominion, above a million square
miles are in India, more than a million and a half in Australasia,
and more than half a million in North America. The population,
according to the latest returns, was 152,774,672, or more than five
times the population of the United Kingdom. Of this number
143,271,210 are the presumed population of British India. The
following table gives the estimateid area and population according to
the returns of tJie year 1862 : —
Years lives lost
1861 1,062
1862 671
1863 676
1864 779
1866 728
1866 1,033
COLOKIES.
30s
FoEECSBioilE 1
Ajea
Populat!tm
Bq. m^^
K umber
India ,
1,004,6 16
143,271,210
Canada * * • » .
210,03f>
2,507,657
I?ew Brunswick
27,037
262,047
Nora Scotm . . ♦ ,
18,671
330,So7
Prinee Edward laknd ,
2,173
80,867
Newfoundland
40,200
122,838
British Columbia ,
Total Jforth American 1
Coloniflfl , , J
Bermuda . , , . ,
Honduras
200,000
4,296
498,101
3,298,362
24
11,451
13,500
25,635
! Btthiitnau , . , .
2,921
35,437
Turks Islands ,
—
4,372
Jamaica , . . . .
MOO
441,264
Virgin Isliinds
St, Chmtophsr
67
6,051
103
24,303
NenB
60
tf,322
Antigua .
183
37,125
Moiit§orrat
47
7,645
Dominica
291
25,666
St, Lucia
260
27,480
St, Vincent
131
31,765
Biirbadoes
166
152,727
Grenada .
133
32,984
Tobago .
Trinidad
»7
15,410
l,7iJ4
84,438
EHtiali Guiana • .
Total West Indies
PaLkknd Inliuid^ . ,
76,000
166,026
S8,683
1,001,565
7,600
624
' New South Wales .
478,861
348,646
Victim . * . , .
86,944
640,322
South Austmlifl
300,000
126,830
Western Auatralia ,
45,000
15.693
Tasmania . , ^ .
22,620
89,977
New Zealand ....
95,000
139,968
Qu«QUsland ....
559,000
30ai5
i Total of Aufl
trala^a .
1,637*434
1,201,361
3o6
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
Statistics of the Colonies — eontimted.
Poflsessions
Area
Population
Hongkong
Labuan
Ceylon
Manritius
Natal
Cape of Good Hope .
St. Helena
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone ....
Gambia
Gibraltar
Malta
General total ....
Sq. miles
29
45
24,700
708
14,397
104,931
47
6,000
468
20
„;»
Number
123,611
3,345
2,079.881
322,517
340,102
267,096
6,860
151,346
41,806
6,939
16,643
143,970
4,346,996
452,774,672
Some of the figures in the above table, particularly those relating
to the extent of the various colonial possessions, are, for obvious
reasons, only approximative, and differ from the statements of another
official return, printed pursuant to an order of the House of Com-
mons, of March 27, 1863. According to the latter return, the popu-
lation, white and coloured, of the British colonies and dependencies,
inclusive of the Indian empire, amounted, in the year 1862, to
144,743,966, living on an area of 4,290,042 square miles.
The total values of the exports, including bullion and specie, sent
from the United Kingdom to the various colonial possessions, and of
the imports received therefrom, in the year 1863 — as regards India
for each of the two years, ending 30th' April 1863-4 — are given in
the subjoined table :—
Colonial PossessionB
Sxports from
the United Kingdom
Importa into
the United Kingdom
India J"^®*' ®°^®^ ^^^^ ^P^ ^^^^
* I )) » 1864
£
19,676,197
23,213,689
£
27,544,284
44,971,263
NoBTH Amhbica :
Canada
New Brunswick .
Nova Scotia
Prince Edward Island
Newfoundland .
British Columbia
Vancouver's Island .
4,203,661
640,682
776,139
122,880
460,938
267,217
3,638,275
601,767
64,068
21,949
405,365
Total for North American Co
onies
6,360,517
4,731,424
COLONIES.
Imports and Exports — continued.
307
Exporta from
thBUDttdd Kingdom
Impcirtii Into
ih& Untied Kingdom
B^rmGdA
Honduras
West liOHEs:
78,334
£ 1
20,319
147,S09
235/205
Bahamas
1,054.775
' 2,124.539
Turks Island , , . -
1,M8
^^
Jamuicft
582,227
845,496
Virgin Islands , • , -
—
^
Si Cbnstophfijf , . . .
59,779
148,929
Ne^ifl
8,429
36,087
Antigua
69,94fi
219.207
MontBeFTftt
1,138
5,613
Dominica .
16,771
62,241
St L\icia
17,6fl3
73,804
St. Vincent
41,777
133,925
Barbadoes
304,175
629,257
Gi^natk
36,944
102,702
Tobago
11,S16
44,910
Trinidad
294,754
621,946
Total for West Indies ,
Pslkland Ifllanda . . p .
AuSTBAJ.A-StA :
602,348
1,421,06*
3,062,410
6,469,720
28,63&
18,416
New SoQth Wales
4,641,485
2,287,357
Victoria . , - . *
8,861,159
6,222.242
Soxitli Aufiftralia , p , .
1,177,706
935,880
Western AustrsiLi
99,237
93,006
Tasmania . , - - .
371,062
400,025
NeTPZ^and ....
2,604.864
1,508.164
Queensland * . , -
total for Australflsia -
IfiliuauL
365,093
233,392
18,111,206
11,680,066
9,299
^
Ceylon
i,oii,ai5
2,407,578
Matititius
569,(^84
1.189.772
Natal
308,147
113,520
Oapp of Gk)od Hope * . . *
1,427,088
1,345.067
St. Helena
44,370
11,070
Gold Coaat
No Tetnrns recei
Tediince 1861
Sierra Leane
144,081
39,433
Gambia
93.570
27,372
Gibralliir
1,700,041
170,737
Malta
38,916
1,777J85
QmiefA
1 total .
56,349,140
75,209,846
x2
3o8
GBEAT BBITAIN AND IBSLAND.
At the close of the year 1864, the colonies and possessions of the
United Kingdom had 12,146 vessels of 1,458,487 tons registered at
their ports — an increase over the previous year of above 1,700
vessels and above 160,000 tons. The North American colonies had,
at the close of the year 1864, 7,567 vessels of 883,189 tons. India
and the Asiatic colonies had 218,847 tons, and the Australasian
colonies 174,417 tons.
The growth of the colonial empire of Great Britain, the result of
three centuries of peaceful and warlike enterprise, is illustrated
in the subjoined table : — .
CJolonies and dependencies
Date and mode of aoquigltion
Eubgfb:
Gibraltar ....
Capture ...
1704
Heligoland ....
Cession
1814
MaXtBL and Gozo
Capture ...
1800
Arta :
Ceybn . .
Capitulation
1796
Bengal . . . . ^
Bombay ....
Settlement and conquest
Madras ....
at various periods from
K.W. Provinces .
1625
to 1849
Puigaub . . • . ^
Hongkong . . . •
Treaty.
1843
Labuan
Cession . ,
1846
Afbioa:
Cape of Good Hope
Capitulation
1806
Gambia
Settlement .
1631
Gold Coast ....
i» • . .
1661
Katal
1838
St Helena ....
), ...
1661
Sierra Leone ....
1787
Manritins • • • •
Capitulation
1810
Amebica:
Bermuda ....
Settlement .
1609
British Columbia .
»» ...
Canada, Lower , . "1
Canada, Upper , . J
Capitulation and cession
ri759
\1763
New Brunswick , . \
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia .
Settiement .
1497
Prince Edward Island . J
Guiana, British
Capitulation
1803
Falkland Islands .
Cession
1837
West Imdqs :
Antigua . • • • •
Settiement ...
1632
Bahamas • • • •
>» ...
1629
Barbadoes ....
■ »» • • • •
1605
COLONIES. 309^
Growth of the Colonial Empire of Great Britain — continued.
Colonies and dependencies
Date and mode of acquisition
West Indies — continued:
Dominica ....
Cession . . . 1763
Grenada
»» •
1763
Honduras
. '* . *
1670
Capitulation
1666
Montserrat
Settlement .
1632
Nevis
»i •
1628
St Kitts
>i •
. 1623, 1660
St Lucia
Capitulation
1803
St Vincent .
Cession
1763
Tobago .
»» •
1763
Tortola, &c
Settlement .
1666
Trinidad
Capitulation
1797
Turks Island ,
Settlement .
1629
AUSTBAI.ASTA :
Australia, South
Settlement . . . 1836
Australia, West
»i •
1829
New South Wales
If •
1787
Queensland .
i» •
1869
New Zealand .
»i •
1839
Tasmania .
»» •
1803
Victoria .
»» •
1836
For further details concerning the Constitution and Government,
Revenue and Expenditure, Population, and Trade and Commerce of
the principal colonies and dependencies of the United Kingdom, see
Part n. of the StatesmarCs Year-Book,
310
GREECE.
Beigning Sovereign.
Oeorge I., King of the Hellenes, born Dec. 24, 1845, the second
son of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderbnrg-Gliicks-
burg, present Eang of Denmark ; elected King of the Hellenes by
the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30th), 1863 ; accepted
the crown, through his father and the King of Denmark, acting
as his guardians, Jime 4, 1863 ; declared of age by decree of the
National Assembly, June 27, 1863 ; landed in Greece, Nov. 2, 1863.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863, a
civil list of 1,200,000 drachmas, or 42,860/., was settled on King
George I., to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and
Eussia added 4,000/. each, making the total income of the new
sovereign of Greece 54,860/. per annum. By decree of the National
Assembly of March 18, 1863, the legitimate successors of King
George I. must. profess the tenets of the orthodox Church of the
East. The election of the King took place under the sanction
and guarantee of the three great European Powers, embodied in
the protocol of a conference held at the British Foreign Office,
June 5, 1863, of which the following are the most important
points : —
* The Plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain, and Russia
announced the adhesion of their Courts to the acts in virtue of
which Prince William of Denmark, with the consent of His Majesty
the King of Denmark, and of his father Prince Christian, is called to
the Hellenic throne under the title of George I., King of the Greeks.
Desiring to facilitate the realisation of the wishes of the Greek
nation, the Courts of France, Great Britain, and Eussia have
authorised their representatives to set forth the following resolu-
tions : —
' Sect. 1. The Principal Secretary of Her Britannic Majesty
declared that if the imion of the Ionian Islands to the Hellenic
kingdom, after having been found to be in accordance with the
wi^es of the Ionian Parliament, should obtain the assent of the
Courts of Austria, France, Prussia, and Eussia, Her Britannic
Majesty would recommend to the Government of the United States
of the Ionian Islands to appropriate annually a siun of 10,000/.
sterling for the purpose of augmenting the civil list of His Majesty
George I., King of the Greeks.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 31I
* Sect. 2. The Plenipotentiaries of France, Great Britain, and
Bussia declared that each of the three Courts was disposed to give
up, in favour of Prince William, 4,000Z. sterling a year, out of the
Bums which the Greek Treasury has engaged itself to pay annually
to each of them in pursuance of the arrangement proposed at Athens
by the representatives of the three Powers, and accepted by the
Greek Government, with the concurrence of the Chambers in the
month of Jime 1860. It is expressly understood that these three
sums, forming a total of 12,000/. annually, shall be destined to con-
stitute a personal dotation of His Majesty the King, in addition to
the civil list fixed by the law of the State.
* Sect. 3. In conformity with the principles of the Hellenic con-
stitution recognised by the treaty signed at London on the 20th of
November 1852, and proclaimed by the decree of the National
Assembly of the 18th (30th) of March 1863, the legitimate successors
of King George I. must profess the tenets of the orthodox Church of
llie East.
* Sect. 4. In no case shall the Crown of Greece and the Crown of
Denmark be imited on the same head.
* Sect. 6. The Courts of France, Great Britain, and Russia shall
from this moment use their influence in order to procure the
recognition of Prince William as King of the Greeks, under the
name of George I., by all the sovereigns and States with whom they
have relations.'
Constitiition and Ooyemment.
The present Constitution of Greece — elaborated by a Constituent
Assembly, elected in December 1863 — was adopted, Oct. 29, 1864.
It vesta the whole legislative power in a single chamber of repre-
sentatives, called the Boule, elected by universal suffrage. The
elections must take place by ballot, and each candidate must be put
in nomination by the requisition of at least one-thirtieth of the
voters of an electoral district. The voting takes place in a peculiar
manner, by means of ballot-boxes, into which balls are dropped ;
there being one box for each candidate, and every voter being at
liberty to give his vote either for or against each, so that the voter has
as many votes as there are candidates in his district. The Boule
must meet annually for not less than three, nor more than six
months. No sitting is valid unless at least one-half of the members
of the Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into law without
an absolute majority of members. Every measure, before adopted,
must be discussed and voted, article by article, thrice, and
on three separate days. But the Legislative Assembly has no
power to alter the Constitution itself; particular provisions may
312 6BEECE.
be reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the exception of
*■ fundamental principles.'
The executive is vested in the King and his responsible ministersy
assisted by a CJouncil of State. To the Council of State all Bills
must be referred from the Chamber of Deputies, and returned witii
observations or amendments within ten days ; but this term may
be prolonged by resolution of the Chamber to 15 days more. In
case the Council of State make no report at the expiry of the time
fixed, the Chamber of Deputies may vote the law and send it up to
the king. The Council of State must not consist of less than 15
nor more than 25 members, who are to receive 7,000 drachmas of
annual salary. The members are named by the Crown at the
recommendation of the ministers, and hold office for ten years.
The whole of Greece is divided into ten nomarchies, or prefec-
tures ; these ten nomarchies represent thirty-five eparchies, or sub-
prefectures; and these eparchies are each, again, made up of
demarchies, or commimes, to one of which every member of the
State must belong for himself and femily. These communes are
distributed into three classes : —
Class 1, contaming a population of 10,000 and upwards.
2 „ „ from 2,000 to 10,000.
3 „ „ less than 2000.
Every town or village numbering 300 inhabitants and upwards
can claim to be constituted into a distinct commune, or ^rjfiOQ.
Towns or villages of which the population falls in amount under this
figure belong to the nearest commtme in their vicinity. The niunber
of demoi in Greece is, —
Of the 1st class 7
„ 2nd class 217
„ 3rd dass • 56
280
Each demos has a communal council composed of eighteen mem-
bers, if in the first class, twelve members if in the second class, and
six members if in the third. Every demos is presided over by a
demarch, or mayor, whose ofiice is nominally honorary, but who,
nevertheless, receives from the commune certain fiinds for the pay-
ment of persons whom he employsj as well as extraordinary personal
remuneration under various heads. Every commime is provided, —
If of the 1st class, with 6 assessors or aldermen {vdpedpoi),
2nd „ 4 „
3rd „ 4 „ „
The corporative privileges of a commune exist chiefly in the
inviolability of municipal property, the right to contract loans, levy
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 3I3
local taxes, and elect — hj universal suffrage and ballot — ^the com-
munal magistrates. The corporative obligations are, the payment
of Government taxes upon mimicipal property, the remuneration of
its own officials, as well as an indemnification to the mayor for the
expenses of his official position, the support of elementary schools,
the expenses of elections, the repairs and maintenance of public
buildings, roads, bridges, and wells. The income of the communes,
apart firom the interest on municipal property, is derived from
indirect imposts on consumption, road and bridge tolls, and
the lease of public places. When these sources of income fall
short of the expenses the magistracy is empowered to levy direct
taxes.
The King, according to Act 49 of the Constitution, attains his ma-
jority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before he ascends the
throne he must take the oath to the constitution in the presence of
the ministers, the sacred synod, the deputies then in the metropolis,
and the higher officials of the realm. Within two months at the
most, the King must convoke the Chamber. If the successor to the
throne is either a minor or absent at the time of the King's decease,
and no Regent has been appointed, the Chamber has to assemble of
its own accord within, at the most, ten days after the occurrence of
that event. The constitutional royal authority in this case has to
be exercised by the ministerial council until the choice of a regent
or the arrival of the successor to the throne. .
The ministerial council is divided into six departments, namely, the
ministries of foreign affairs, of the interior, of finance, of justice, of
public worship, and of war. A president of the council superin-
tends the deliberations of the ministry, as chief functionary of the
Government. The following heads of departments were appointed
on the 23rd of June 1866 :—
Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Council . M. Deligeorgis.
Minister of the Interior M. Bulgaris.
Minister of Finance M. Christides.
Minister of Public Worship M. Kehaya.
Minister of the Marine M. Drossos.
Minister for War M. Artemis.
There were nineteen changes of ministry from the accession of
King George I. till the end of June 1866, so that the average dura-
tion of each administration during this period amounted to less
than two months. At the expulsion of King Otho there were 84
ex-ministers. The interregnmn added 22 to the number, and the
reign of King George 49 more. So that there were altogether 155
ex-ministers in June 1866, of whom upwards of 40 have held the
portfolio of Foreign Affaira
314 GREECE.
Church and Education.
The ecclesiastical government of the Greek Church is under eleven
archbishops and thirteen bishops, of whom four archbishops and as
many bishops are on the continent, six archbishops and six bishops
in the Peloponnesus, and one archbishop and three bishops in the
Islands. They meet in annual synod, presided over by the metro-
politan of Athens.
The whole of the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of
Constantinople. The Patriarch is elected by the votes of the bishops
and optimates subject to the Sultan; his jurisdiction nominally ex-
tends over Thrace and other countries, including Wallachia and
Moldavia, as well as Greece and the Greek islands, and the greater
part of Asia Minor.
The Orthodox Greek Church differs from the Church of Rome as
to the honour given to the later General Councils, the number of
sacraments, the use of both kinds by the laity in the eucharist, the
time of observing Easter, the doctrine of Purgatory, the mode of
making the sign of the Cross, the celibacy of the clergy, and the use
of the Scriptures by the laity. While differing from the Church of
Rome on all these points, the Greek Church agrees with it in the
doctrine of Transubstantiation, in praying to the Virgin and saints,
in the worship of pictures, in priestly absolution, and the efficacy of
the sacraments.
The administration of the Roman Catholic Church is under the
archbishop of Naxos, and the bishops of Andros, Santorin, and Syra.
The Greek Church possesses vast property in many parts of the
kingdom, particularly in the Morea. In the latter province there
were, in the year 1863, no less than 2,680 priests and monks, form-
ing nearly one-fifth of the whole population. There is imiversal
toleration for all creeds ; but the established religion is the Greek
Church, to which more than nine-tenths of the population belong, and
which acknowledges the King as its temporal head.
Public schools in Greece are divided into four classes. The
commimal schools form the first class, the ancient Greek schools the
second class, the gymnasium the third class, and the university the
fourth class. The educational returns for 1864 give the number of
professors and teachers in the public and private schools at about 500,
with 64,061 pupils, 6,250 of whom are females. There were 42
superintendents, male and female, of schools on the mutual instruc-
tion system, 2,880 pupils, and 300 infant schools, with 10,000 pupils.
There were also eight gymnasia, with 50 masters and 1,124 scholars,
four medical schools, one theological, one military, one agricultural,
and one school of arts. The pupils and masters of these last are
not included in the numbers given above. The State expenses for
BSYENUE Ain) EXPENDITUBE.
315
education amounted to 158,789 draclimas in 1864, while the church
and schools together were set down in the budget at 1,227,806
drachmas, or 43,850/.
Berenue and Expenditure.
The finances of the kingdom are at present in a most dis-
ordered state. At the time of King Otho\s departure fi:om Greece,
the exchequer exhibited a deficit of 6,000,000 drachmas. Of this
sum, 2,000,000 was due to the three protecting Powers on account
of the loan of 60,000,000, according to the terms of the last con-
vention between the Powers and Greece. There were 2,500,000
drachmas owing to the Bank, and secured upon stock and mortgages
of national property, 500,000 drachmas were due to the Steam
Navigation Company, and 1,000,000 was due to private individuals
for the restitution to the exchequer of certain deposits. The con-
dition of the treasury became worse after the Revolution, for the
revenue was sensibly diminished, and extraordinary expenses had
been incurred for the maintenance of public order.
The following is a statement, drawn up after ofiicial reports, of
the Greek budgets, for each of the years 1862, 1863, and 1864 : —
Sources of Revenue
1862
1863
1864
Direct taxes ....
Indirect taxes ....
Public establishments .
National domain and property
Sales of national property .
Sundries
Ecclesiastical revenues .
Receipts fjx>m past financial years
Payments of arrears .
Total |I>«^^
drachmas
11,753,250
7,240,000
562,700
2,686,422
467,691
473,899
263,800
1,560,000
drachmas
11,136,200
5,869,700
604,700
2,453,810
286,100
450,415
262,900
310,000
300,000
drachmas
10,492,000
7,410,000
621,700
2,506,760
2,258,000
412,025
294,200
315,000
300,000
24.996,762
892,741
21,763,825
777,279
23,348,685
833,881
Items of Expenditure
1862
1868
1864
Public debt
Civil list . ...
Indemnities to the Legislative body
Expenses of the public service
Administrative expenses
Sundries
Tot^ . { ^^^^
drachmas
2,848,889
1,000,000
960,000
16,846,672
2,442,076
690,000
drachmas
3,743,229
8,520
17,835,127
1,913,786
638,380
drachmas
4,106,642
840,000
8,620
14,923,821
1,679,235
675,000
24,787,537
885,269
24,139,042
862,108
22,233,118
794,Qa^
k
yb GBEEGE.
The actual expenditure is believed to have been much larger than
that given in the budget estimates ; but the official returns on the
subject have not been published. To the budget of Greece there
was added, for the first time, that of the Ionian Islands, in 1865.
According to the Government estimates, the islands were to con-
tribute t3,648,911 drachmas, or 130,318/., to the revenue of the
kingdom, with an expenditure, however, of nearly twice the amount.
But these estimates were avowedly conjectural, and in the absence
of any returns regarding the actual revenue and expenditure, there
is no basis for judging whether the Ionian Islands will offer in the
future a source of additional revenue or of increased expenditure to
Greece.
Since the establishment of Greece as an independent kingdom,
there have been few financial terms without a deficit The latter
amounted to above 28,000,000 drachmas, or 1,000,OOOZ., in the five
years 1856-60. The deficit of the Greek budget on April 1, 1865,
was estimated at 14 millions of drachmas, or 500,000/. On Sep-
tember 25, 1865, the King announced his intention of dispensing
with a third of the civil list, in order to relieve the embarrassments
of the Treasury.
The public debt of Greece amounted, in July 1865, to 10,707,364/.,
including the unpaid interest due in 1863, and is made up chiefly of
a five per cent, loan taken in 1824 by Messrs. Andrew Loughnan and
Co. at 59, and of another of 2,000,000/. taken in the following year by
Messrs. J. and S. Eicardo and Co. at 56^. On the former the divi-
dends have been wholly unpaid since July 1826, and on the latter
since January 1827, a period of about thirty -three years. The loan
guaranteed by England, France, and Eussia upon the elevation of
Prince Otho of Bavaria to the throne was for 2,343,750/., and was con-
ducted by Messrs. Eothschild. Upon this the dividends have been re-
gularly paid, but only fi:om reserved funds of the loan itself in the first
instance, and since then chiefly from the treasuries of the guaranteeing
Powers, who are now, therefore, in each case heavy claimants upon
the Greek Government. The guarantee is not by the Powers jointly,
but is distinct in each case for a third of the loan. A parliamentary
return issued in February 1863, shows that between 1843 and 1862
inclusive the British Government has advanced to Greece in annual
payments a sum of 929,997/., of which the Greek Government repaid
in 1847, 23,343/.; in 1848, 7,740/.; and in 1861, 3,944/; total,
35,029/., leaving a total still to be repaid of 894,968/. Another
addition to the public debt of Greece was made in December 1862,
when the Provisional Government empowered the Treasury to con-
tract a home loan of 6,000,000 drachmas, or 214,286/., in shares of
100 drachmas each, and bearing 6 per cent, interest. These shares
KEVBNUB AND EXPENDITURE. 317
are to be reimbursable by a sinking fund, and are to bear a premium
of from 5,000 to 500, distributed by lottery, which shall be paid out
of the lOOth-part of the gross capital of the loan.
Besides its funded debt, Greece has a floating debt which, accord-
ing to official returns, amounted to 12,360,000 drachmas on the 1st of
January 1866. To pay the arrears of interest on this debt, as well
as to meet the growing deficits of the budget, the Government con-
cluded, in January 1866, a new loan of 15,000,000 drachmas, on the
guarantee of the customs receipts of the kingdom. It was stated at
the time when this loan was negotiated, that, to meet the most urgent
necessities of the state, a sum of at least 20,000,000 drachmas was
required, but that there were only 700,000 drachmas in cash in the
Treasury— besides 2,181,000 of good debts and 12,227,000 drachmas
of bad debts. — (Letter of Times' coirespondent, dated Athens, De-
cember 29, 1865.)
Concerning the chief portion of the Greek debt, the loan of the three
Powers, the following clause is embodied in the protocol of a conference
held at the Foreign Office on June 26, 1863, and signed by the
plenipotentiaries of England, France, and Eussia : — * With regard
to the financial obligations which Greece has contracted towards the
three protecting Powers on account of the loan, in virtue of Article
XII. of the Convention of May 7, 1832, it is understood that the
Courts of France, Great Britain, and Eussia will in concert watch
over the strict execution of the engagement proposed at Athens by
the representatives of the three Powers, and accepted by the Greek
Government, with the concurrence of the Chambers, in die month of
June 1860. The representatives of the three Powers in Greece
shall for this purpose receive instructions prepared in the same
spirit to serve as the rule for their conduct. The three Courts shall
conamimicate to each other those instructions, destined to protect
their interests by united efforts. — Baron Gros, Eussell, Brunnow.'
The meaning of this doubtless is that the three Powers will see that
Greece shall in future provide the 36,000Z. per annum which she
has agreed to pay, and out of which the Powers have engaged to
give the new King of Greece 12,000/. per annum. The Bavarian
Government also claims a debt of 1,529,333 florins, or 127,445/.
from Greece, the balance of a sum of eight millions of francs, and
interest, lent to King Otho in the years 1832, 1835, 1836, and
1837, But the Greek Government, afler the Bevolution of 1843,
disputed- the validity of this claim, making, at the same time,
counter demands of a still larger amount against Bavaria. Taking
the estimates of the Greek Government, laid before the Legislative
Assembly in the session of 18i66, the total public debt of Greece may
be roughly stated at 13,000,000/. sterling.
3i8
crIuSBCE*
Army and ITavy.
A report of the Minister of Wax, of June 1866, stated the army
of the kingdom to consist of the following troops : —
with 280 officers and 6,980 men
23
))
381 ,
26
))
466 ,
4
It
92 ,
4
it
127 ,
43
M
31 ,
10 battalions of infantry
4 squadrons of cavalry „
6 companies of artillery „
1 company of sappers and miners
1 „ „ artillery workmen
Staflf . . . .
Total . . .380 officers and 8,077 men
To which are to be added a body of gendarmerie, of 542 officers,
with 9,547 men, employed for military as well as civil purposes, and
Tmder the orders of the Minister of War. The army, more recently,
has been re-organised, but not increased.
The navy consisted, at the commencement of 1866, of a frigate of
50 guns, two corvettes of 26 and 22 guns ; one paddle-steamer of
120 horse-power, with 6 guns; six screw-steamers of 36 horse-
power each, with altogether 10 guns ; and twenty-two smaller vessels
and gimboats. The navy is manned by conscription from the
inhabitants of the sea-coast ; but volunteering is greatly encouraged
by the Government.
Population.
The kingdom of Greece, inclusive of the Ionian Islands, annexed
in 1864, has the following area and population, according to the
census of 1861 : —
Administrative Diyisions
Area
Square milffl
Population
1861
NOMARCHIBS : —
Attica and Boeotia
Enboea .
Phthiotis and Phocis
Acamania and iBtolia
Argolis and Corinth
Achaia and Elis .
Arcadia
Messenia
Laconia
Cydades
•-
18,900
116,024
72,368
102,291
109,392
138,249
113,719
96,546
117,181
112,910
118,180
POPULATION.
Area and Population of the Ionian iBiandB-^continvedf
319
Administrative DiTlalonB
Area
Population
Square miles
1861
227
70,124
311
73,671
161
39,693
156
20,797
44
11,940
116
14,664
26
6,009
19,941
1,332,508
loNiAK Islands : —
Corfu .
Cephalonia .
Zante .
Santa Maura
Ithaca .
Cerigo .
Paxo .
Total
This shows an average density of population of 66 per square
xoile, or considerably less than that of European Turkey. Previous
to the year 1864, there were only 58 inhabitants to the square mile,
but the annexation of the Ionian Islands, with a dense population
-»— 226 per square mile — served to raise the figure, contributing fax
more to the population than to the area of the kingdom.
The census of 1861 distributes the population of Greece, ex-
clusive of the Ionian Islands, as follows, in trades and professions : —
A^cultnrista . . . 147,507
Sailors of the Eoyal Navy
610
Shepherds . . . 38,935
Sailors
. 19,303
Mechanics . . . 19,692
Government employes
Communal employes .
3,553
Persons engaged in indus-
6,199
trial pursuits . . 32,801
Teachers and professors
1,176
Landowners . . . 16,122
Lawyers .
394
Male servants . . . 12,651
Journalists
68
Female servants . . 7,724
Doctors .
398
Carriage and horse keepers 2,307
Apothecaries .
161
Artists .... 1,346
Midwives
832
Ecclesiastics . . . 6,102
Boys attending schools
42,680
Petty tradesmen . . 9,452
Girls ditto
9,035
Merchants ... 793
The large number of * artists ' here enumerated, is explained by the
census commissioners in the fact that many carpenters and masons
claimed to be such.
The nationality of the inhabitants of the kingdom is very mixed.
The Albanian race occupies a considerable portion of the soil of
ancient Grreece, both within, as well as without, the frontiers of the
new kingdom. With the exception of the two capital towns, Athens
and Megara, it monopolises the whole of Attica and JMessenia, and is
in possession of the greater part of BcBotia, and a small part of
Locris. The south of Euboea, the north of Andros, part of Egina,
and the whole of Sakmis, are also peopled by Albanians. In the
320 GREECE.
Peloponnesus the Albanian element occupies the whole of Corinthia
and Argolis, the north of Arcadia, the east of Achaia ; and stretching
in Laconia, down the slopes of Taygetus towards the plain of
Helos, it crosses the Eurotas, and holds possession of a large district
round Monemvasia. However, in the kingdom its numerical
strength, amounting to about 250,000 souLs, is less noteworthy than
the superiority in social activity and command. The Albanian race
furnishes to the Greek soil the greatest number of cultivators, and
to the maritime population of Greece its most enterprising element.
Only one-seventh of the area of Greece is under cultivation ; the
rest, diough in greater part good for agricultural purposes, lies
waste. The whole superficies of Greece has been estimated at
45,699,248 stremmas, or about 15 millions of acres. Of these
45,699,248 stremmas, which comprise in extent the whole soil of
the kingdom, with .the exception of the Ionian Islands, 11,748,000
stremmas are said to be unfit for cultivation ; 18,599,240 stremmas
consist of rock and mountain; 5,419,660 stremmas consist of forest;
833,448 of marsh; and 1,653,000 of rivers, roads, cities, and vil-
lages. In all, therefore, there are 38,253,000 stremmas of un-
cultivated land, leaving 7,435,900 stremmas of land in cultivation.
The ground is chiefly in the hands of a few proprietors; but
many of the peasants hold small patches of land of their own.
Others cultivate farms on the metayer system, the owner of the
land providing the farm-house, agricultural implements, and seed;
the produce, after deducting the seed, is divided in cei-tain propor-
tions between the cultivator and the owner of the land. A great part
of the ground is national property, and the cultivator of it pays to the
Government as rent 15 per cent, of the produce. According to
Article 101 of the Constitution of 1864, provision is to be made
for the disposal and distribution of the national lands. The Govern-
ment proposed to the Legislative Assembly, in the session of 1865,
to pass a law by which one-half this national property is to serve for
the establishment of 50,000 families who are now in possession and
cultivate the lands, and the other half is to be allotted under cer-
tain conditions to other cultivators. The Government hope to
create by these concessions an annual revenue of 3^ million drach-
mas (about 125,000/.) without interfering with the dimes tax. By
Article 22 of the proposed law it is declared that * all sums arising
from the sales of the national lands are to be exclusively applied to
the payment of the public debt.'
Trade.
The commercial intercourse of Greece "with the United Kingdom
is exhibited in the subjoined tabular statement, showing the value of
BOOKS OF BEFERENGE.
321
the total imports from Greece into the United Kingdom, and of the
exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Greece,
in the five years 1861-5. Both the imports from and the exports
to Greece, in 1864, include the trade of the Ionian Islands, com-
mencing with June 2, 1864.
Imports from Greece
Years
into the United
from the United King-
KingdoQk
dom to Greeoe.
£
£
1861
789,644
286,393
1862
797,068
248,223
1863
980,435
341,991
1864
910,924
744.975
1865
1,071,645
1,020,489
The chief article of imports from Greece is currants, the average
value of which, 1861-5, amounted to 700,000/. Of the exports
from the United Kingdom to Greece, ftdl one-half are manufactured
cotton goods, and the rest miscellaneous articles of British manu-
£tcture.
Money, Weights, and Meaanres.
The- money, weights, and measures of Greece, and their English
equivalents, are :^
Monet.
The Drachma
The Oke
„ Cantar .
„ Livre
„ BarU (wine)
„ KUo .
„ Pike .
„ Stremma
__ ^ Average rate of exchange, 8 Jt?., op
~ ^ 28 drachma&s'^l sterling.
WUGHTS AND HbASUBES.
2*80 lbs. avoirdupois.
123-20 „
106 „ „
16*33 Imperial gallons.
0*114 Imperial quarter.
"■ of an English yard.
„ acre.
Statistical and other Books of Eeferenoe concerning Oreece.
1. Official Publications.
Le Moniteur Grec. Ath^nes, 1866.
Report by Mr. Rumbold, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Popidation,
Trade, and Industry of Greece, dated July 10, 1863 ; in * Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. VIII. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Farquhar, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Situation and State of Agriculture of Greece, dated Nov. 28, 1864 ; in * Reports
of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy. No. X. London, 1865.*
Y
322 GBEBCB.
Eeport by Mr. Lytton, H. M/s Secretaiy of Legation, on the GoTemment,
Educational Progress, Trade, and Industry of Greece; dated Jan. 20, 1865;
in ' Eeports of H. M/s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. X. London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. Consvd Ongley on the Trade of Patras and Western Greece for
the year 1864 ; in ■* Commercial Eepoits receired at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul Neale on the trade of Continental Greece for the year
1864; in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul C. S. Devertz on the Trade and Commerce of Cepha-
lonia for the year 1864; in * Comidercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.' London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Pi»slicatiok8.
Ansted (Prof. D. T.) The loniap Islands in the year 1868. 8. London, 1865.
Appert (B.) Voyage en Gr^ce. 8. Ath^nes, 1856.
Baird (H. M.) Modem Greece. 8. New York, 1860.
Cusani (F.) Memorie storico-statistique sulla Dalmazia, sulle isole lonie e
tulla Greeia. 2 vols. 8. Milano, 1862.
Dora <riatria (Mme.) Excursions en Roum^lie et en Mor^. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1865.
Kirkwall (Viscount) Four Years in the Ionian Islands : their Political and
Social Condition, with a History of the British Protectorate. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1864.
KouUmriotea (A. J.) Ghreece : by a native of Athens. 8. London, 1863.
Lacroix (E.) Isles de la Gr^. 8. Paris, 1861.
Leconte (C.) Etude ^conomique de la Grece. 6. Paris, 1849.
Maitrer (G. L. von) Bas Giiechische Volk in ofientlicher und privatrecht-
li(^er Beziehimg. 3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.
Perdicaris (N.) The Greece of the Greeks. 2 vols. 8. New York, 1845.
PouqueviUe (Franc.) La Grice. 8. Francfort-on-the-Main, 1888.
Boss (L.) Erinnerungen und Mittheilimgen aus Griechenland. Mit Voiw
wort Ton Jahn. 8^ Berlin, 1864.
Strickland (Edw.) Greece, its condition and resources. London, 1863,
Yemenif (E.) Voyage daiis le Royaume de Qr&ce. 8. Paris, 1362.
3^3
ITALY.
Seigning Sovereign and Family.
Victor Emmannel II., King of Italy, born March 14, 1820, the
eldest son of King Charles Albert of Sardinia and Archduchess
Theresia of Austria. Succeeded to the throne of Sardinia on the
abdication of his father, March 23, 1849 ; proclaimed King of Italy,
by vote of the Italian Parliament, March 17, 1861. Married,
April 12, 1842, to Archduchess Adelaide of Austria; widower, Jan.
20, 1855. Offspring of the union are : — 1. Princess Olotkilde, born
March 2, 1843 ; married, Jan. 80, 1859, to Prince Napoleon, cousin
of the Emperor of the French. 2. Prince Humbert, heir-apparent
and Prince of Piedmont, bom March 14, 1844 ; major-general in
the Italian army, and commander of the 2nd regiment of cavalry.
3. Prince Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, bom May 30, 1845 ; captain in
the Italian army. 4. Princess Fta, bom Oct. 16, 1847; married,
Oct. 6, 1862, to King Louis I. of Portugal.
Sister-in-law of the King. — Princess Elizabeth, bom Feb. 4, 1830,
the daughter of King Johann of Saxony; married, April 22, 1850,
to Prince Ferdinand of Piedmont, Duke of Genoa, second son of
King Charles Albert of Sardinia ; widow, Feb. 10, 1856. Issue of
the union are: — 1. Princess Margherita, bom Nov. 20, 1851.
2. Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Genoa, born Feb. 6, 1854.
Other Relatives of the King. — 1. Princess Theresia, bom Sept. 19,
1803, the daughter of King Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia ; married,
Aug. 15, 1820, to Charles II., Duke of Parma, who abdicated April
19, 1848. 2. Princess Anna, twin-sister of the preceding, bom
Sept. 19, 1803; married, Feb. 27, 1831, to Emperor Ferdinand I. of
Austria, who abdicated Dec. 2, 1848. 3. Princess Maria, bom
Sept. 29, 1814, the daughter of Prince Joseph of Savoy-Carignano ;
married, June 16, 1837, to Prince Leopold of Naples, Count of
Syracuse ; widow, Dec. 4, 1860. 4. Prince Eugene, brother of the
preceding, bom April 14, 1816; obtained the title of Prince Savoy-
Carignano by royal decree of April 24, 1834 ; admiral of the Italian
navy.
The origin of the House of Savoy is not historically established ;
but most genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, who, in
the eleventh century, established himself on the western slope of the
Alps, between Mont Blanc and Lake Leman. In 1 III hi% d»aic:Rsc\.«
t2
324 ITALY.
dants were enrolled among the Counts of the Holy Eoman Empire.
Count Amadeus, in 1383, founded a law of primogeniture which
greatly strengthened the family, leading to the immediate acquisi-
tion of the territory of Nice. In 1416, the Counts of Savoy adopted
the title of Duke; and, in 1418, they acquired the principality of
Piedmont. Taking part in the great wars between Fmnce and the
Holy Eoman Empire, now on the one side, and then on the other,
as policy dictated, the Princes of Savoy increased their possessions
in all directions, but chiefly towards the south ; and at the Peace of
Utrecht, in 1713, they obtained the island of Sicily, with the title
of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of Sar-
dinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached.
Genoa and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian
Crown at the peace of 1815. The direct male line of the House of
Savoy died out with King Charles Felix, in 1831, and the existing
Salic law prohibiting the accession of females, the crown fell to
Prince Charles Albert, of the House of Savoy-Carignano. The
latter branch — taking its name from a small town in the province of
Turin — ^was founded by Thomas Francis, bom in 1596, a younger
son of Duke Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy. King Charles Albert,
the first of the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne,
March 23, 1849, in fevour of his son, the present king. By the
Treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and the Peace of Zurich, Nov.
10, 1859, King Victor Emmanuel EL obtained western Lombardy,
part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena,
while the remaining districts of Lombardy with Venetia were added
to his dominions by the Peace of Prague, of Aug. 23, 1866, followed
by the Treaty of Vienna, signed Oct. 3, and ratified Oct. 12, 1866.
The * Dotazione della Corona,' or civil list of the King, has been
settled at 16,250,000 lire, or 650,000Z. However, to assist the
State in the present financial crisis, the King, in November 1864,
voluntarily abandoned 120,000Z. of the civil list. The cousin of the
King, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Genoa, has an * Appannaggio,* or
State allowance, of 300,000 lire, or 12,000/. ; and Prince Eugene of
Savoy-Carignano, an allowance of 200,000 lire, or 8,000/. To the
latter sum are added 100,000 lire, or 4,000/., under the name of
* Spese di rappresentanza,' making the * Appannaggio ' of Prince
Eugene the same as that of Prince Albert Victor. Extraordinary
expenses of the Court, such as the journey of the King into the
Southern provinces of Italy, in 1861^ — which cost 850,000 lire, or
34,000/. — are paid out of the public exchequer, the same as the
cost of building and repairing the royal residences. The large
private domains of the reigning fiimily were given up to the State in
1848, and eleven oilier royal residenctfs — ^palaces of the banished
rulers of Italy— in 1864,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 325
Constitution and Oovemment.
The present constitution of Italy is an expansion of the * Statuto
fondamentale del Eegno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by King
Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to tiiis charter,
the executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the sove-
reign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers ; while
the legislative authority rests conjointly in the King and Parliament,
the latter consisting of two Chambers, an upper one, the Senato, and
a lower one, called the * Camera de' Deputati/ The Senate is com-
posed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an
unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are
nominated by the King for life. The deputies of the lower house
are elected by a majority of all citizens who are twenty-one years
of age, and pay taxes to the amount of 40 lire, or IZ. 12s. For this
purpose the whole of the population is divided into electoral colleges,
or districts. No deputy can be returned to Parliament unless at
least one-third of the inscribed electors appear at the poll, A
deputy must be thirty years old, and have the requisites demanded
by the electoral law, among them a slight property qualification.
Neither senators nor deputies receive any salary or other indem-
nity. The duration of Parliaments is five years; but the King
has the power to dissolve the lower house at any time, being
bound only to order new elections, and convoke a new meeting
within four months. It is incumbent upon the executive to call the
Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers has the right
of introducing new bills, the same as the Grovemment ; but all money
bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers h^ve
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower
house ; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sit-
tings of both Chambers are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an
absolute majority of the members are present. The Camera de*
Deputati, in the session of 1866, numbered 443 members, being the
prescribed rate of one deputy to 49,000 souls. By royal decree
of July 30, 1866, the Italian constitution was introduced into the
newly acquired — ^but not actually occupied — ^Lombardo- Venetian
provinces, which are to add fif^ members to the Chamber of
Deputies.
The executive is divided into the following nine departments : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Baron Bettino JUicasoli, bom at
Florence, March 9, 1809 ; devoted for many years to agricultural
pursuits ; member of the Executive Commission for the grand duchy
of Tuscany, July 1849 ; dictator of Tuscany, August 1859; elected
deputy to the first Italian Parliament by three constituencies, Sep-
tember 1860 ; prime minister of Italy, as successor of Count Cavour,
326 ITALY.
June 1861 to March 1862 ; appointed Minister of the Interior, and
President of the Council of Ministers, June 16, 1866.
2. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Signore Giuseppe Berti,
appointed Jan. 2, 1866.
3. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Count Emilio Vtsconti-
Venosta, bom at Valteline, Milan, in 1828 ; sent on a diplomatic
Af&irs, March 1863 to September 1864 ; re-appointed Minister of
mission to Paris and London, January 1860 ; Minister of Foreign
Foreign Affiiirs, June 16, 1866.
4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Chevalier Steiano Jacini,
bom at Milan, 1825 ; engaged in literature, and one of the founders
of the journal * La Perseveranza ; ' Minister of Public Works in
the Cabinet of Count Cavour, July 21, 1860, to June 12, 1861 ;
re-appointed Minister of Public Works, September 30, 1864.
6. The Ministry of War. — General Cugia ; appointed September
1, 1866.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Chevalier Brochetti ] appointed
June 16, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture.—
Signore Mordini^ appointed September 1, 1866.
8. The Ministry of Finance. — Signore Antonio Scialoja, bom at
Goduccio, near Naples, in 1817 ; studied law, and was advocate at
the Court of Cassation at Naples, 1840-5 ; professor of political
economy at Turin, 1845-8 ; Minister of Agriculture and Commerce
for the kingdom of Naples, July 1848 to January 1849 ; political
prisoner at Naples, 1850-9 ; elected Deputy of Moncalvo to the
first Italian Parliament, September 1860 ; appointed Minister of
Finance, January 2, 1866.
9. The Ministry of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Signore
Defalco, appointed January 2, 1866.
In each of the 59 provinces into which the kingdom of Italy is
divided — to be increased to 65 on the annexation and organisation of
the Lombardo- Venetian territories, ceded by Austria under the terms
of the Treaty of Vienna, of Oct. 12, 1866 — ^the executive power of
the Government is intrusted to a prefect appointed by the ministry.
Church and Education.
The first article of the royal decree granting the * Statuto fonda-
mentale del Regno,' ordains : — ^ The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman
religion is the sole religion of the State ; but the other forms of
public worship at present existing are tolerated in conformity witii
the laws.' The Roman Catholic hierarchy consists of 45 arch-
bishops and 198 bishops. All these dignitaries of the Church are
appointed by the Pope, on the advice of a council of Cardinals^ the
CHUBCH AND BPUCATION. 327
congregation ' De propaganda iide.' But the royal consent is neces-
sary to the installation of a bishop or archbishop, and this having
been frequently withheld of late years, there were constantly a large
number of vacant sees. On the death or removal of a bishop, the
clergy of the diocese elect a vicar- eapittdaar, who exercises spiritual
jurisdiction during the vacancy. Li ease of old age or infirmity,
the bishcp nominates a coadjutor to discharge the episcopal duties
in his stead. His recommendation is almost invariably attended to
by the Pope, and the bishop-coadjutor is appointed and consecrated,
and takes his title from some oriental diocese not actually existing,
which he relinquishes on succeeding to a bishopric. As long as he
retains the oriental title, he is styled a bishop * in partibus infidelium,'
or, as usimlly abridged, a bishop ^ in partibus.' Each diocese has
its own independent administration, consisting of the bishop, as
president, and two canons, who are elected by the chapter of the
diocese.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has been greatly re-
duced since the year 1850, when the bill of Siccardi, annihilating
ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the privileges of the clergy, passed the
Sardinian chambers. This law was extended, in 1861, over the
whole of the kingdom of Italy. By a royj^ decree of May 25,
1855, there were confiscated, in the kingdom of Sardinia, the fol-
lowing establishments of the Church of Home :~^
Aimaal income
Lire
66 monasteries on tlie continent; Tidth 772 monks and 770,000
46 „ „ „ „ 1,086 nnns „ 692,000
40 „ „ Island of Sardinia,, 489 monks and nnns 369,000
182 alms-seeMng conventis „ 3,145 monks —
65 chapters . . . . „ 680 priests and 550,000
1,700 eceiesiastical Benefices . . „ 1,700 clergy 1,370,000
2,099 clerical establudmients, with 7,871 indi7idnals,and 3,641,000
or, 145,640/. annual income.
It appears from an official return laid before the Chamber of De-
puties in the session of 1865, that there were still, at that period,
2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for men, and
876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of whom
14,807 were men, and 14,184 women. The Mendicant order num-
bered 8,229 persons, comprised in the above mentioned total. A
project of law, brought in by the Government, for the entire suppres-
sion of all religious houses throughout the kingdom, was adopted
by the Chamber of Representatives in the session of 1866. Art. 1
of this law provides that all religious corporations shall cease to exist
from the nioment of the promulgation of the law, and their property
devolve to the State, ^^jii. 2 grants civil and political lights to all
328 ITALY.
the members of the corporations thus dissolved. By Art. 3, all
monks and nnns having taken r^ular vows before the 18th of Janu-
ary 1864, are entitled to a pension of 500 lire, or 20Z. each ; lay
brethren and sisters to 250 lire, or 101. each ; and servants 60 years
old and upwards, having served at least 10 years in a monastery,
may receive a pension of 120 lire, or a little less than bl. By Art.
5, several monasteries are set aside for the reception of such monks
or nuns as may wish to continue their monastic Hfe ; but there must
not be fewer than six in one monastery. Mendicant friars may
continue to ask alms under certain restrictions. By Art. 6, eJl
chapters of collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not
attached to parishes, lay benefices, and all brotherhoods and founda-
tions to which an ecclesiastical service is annexed, are suppressed.
Arts. 7 and 8 regulate the interests of present holders of such bene-
fices. Art. 9 regulates the transfer of ecclesiastical property to the
State. Art. 10 excepts fi:om this transfer all property liable to re-
version to third parties ; also that of lay or ecclesiastical benefices
in the gift of lay patrons, the property of which reverts to the patron
on condition of his paying the holder of the benefice the annual
revenue of the property, leaving one-third of the revenue for the
execution of the ecclesiastical duties attached to the benefice on the
holder's demise. The other articles of the law of 1866 are of local
or minor importance.
When the monastic orders were partially suppressed in the former
kingdom of the Two Sicilies, in February 1861, the number of reli-
gious establishments for men was found to be 1,020, containing
13,611 inmates, of which number 8,899 lived entirely upon alms.
The remaining 4,712 monks possessed an annual revenue of
4,555,968 lire, or 967 lire, equal to 39/. per head. Of ntmneries
there were 272, with 8,001 inmates, possessing an income of
4,772,794 lire, or 24Z. per head. A previous return, of the year
1834, showed that there were in the kingdom of Naples 14 arch-
• bishops, 66 bishops, 26,800 ordained priests, 11,730 monks, and
9,520 nuns.
Under the new Italian Government, a great part of the property
confiscated fix)m the monastic establishments has been devoted to
the cause of public education, for which, besides, an annual credit
of 15,000,000 lire, or 600,000/., is voted by the Parliament. Smce
the commencement of the year 1860, there were opened, through-
out the kingdom, thirty-three great model schools, of which ten in the
Sardinian states, six in Lombardy, four in the Emilia, six in the
Marches and Umbria, two in Tuscany, and five in the Southern
Provinces. In the former kingdom of the Two Sicilies, public edu-
cation stood very low prior to 1860. From an examination made
by the n^w Government, it appeared that there were 3,094 1^'ge
BEYENTTE AND EXPENBITUBE. 329
parishes which had no schools whatever, and 920 others in which
the public instructors were individuals themselves devoid of the
most elementary knowledge. The administration immediately set
to work to apply a remedy to this state of things, and before the end
of 1861 — that is, in the course of little more than a year — 1,054
elementary boys' schools were established in the ex-kingdom of
Naples, exclusive of the central province of Naples itself. These
were frequented by 23,569 pupils. The elementary girls' schools
founded during the same period of time were 778, with 18,912
pupils. To these must be added eighteen evening schools, fre-
quented by 911 persons. In 1862 the 1,054 boys' schools rose to
tiie number of 1,603 ; the pupils, instead of 23,569, became 60,250.
The girls' schools were no longer 778, but 922 ; the pupils, not
18,912, but 30,567. The evening schools increased from 18 to 234;
their frequenters from 911 to 9,804. Notwithstanding these great
aids to instruction, education stands still very low in the kingdom.
According to the census of 1864, out of a total population of
21,703,710 souls, there were 3,884,245 who could read and write
(2,623,605 men and 1,260,640 women) ; 893,588 who could only
read (of these the women were as more than 5 to 4 of the men),
and 16,999,701 who could neither read nor write — 7,889,238 men
and 9,110,463 women. Piedmont and the Basilicata occupy the
first and last place on the register of knowledge. In the former
province, out of every 1,000 inhabitants 573 cannot read or write ;
in the latter out of the same number 912 are in the same ignorant
state. Next to Piedmont is Lombardy, which has 599 untaught out
of' 1,000, and then Liguria, 708 in 1,000. Tuscany and ^Emilia
are about the average of the whole coimtry — 778 and 803 in the
1,000 ; Umbria, the Marches, Puglia, and the Abruzzi are rather
better. In the Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, and Sardinia, more than
nine-tenths of the inhabitants can neither read nor write.
There are thirteen universities in Italy, including the Roman
States. These are — Bologna, founded in the year 1119; Naples,
founded in 1244; Padua, in 1228; Rome, in 1244; Perugia, in
1320; Pisa, in 1329; Siena, in 1349; Pavia, said to have been
established by Charlemagne in 774, reorganised in 1390; Turin,
foimded in 1412; Parma, in 1422; Florence, in 1443; Catania, in
1445 ; Cagliari, in 1764 ; and Genoa, in 1783. To these may be
added the high schools of Palermo, Camerino, and Macerata.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The financial accounts laid before the Italian Parliament divide
both the revenue and expenditure into an ordinary and extraordinary
part, or * Parte ordinaria,' and * Parte straordinaria.' The folLo^NYDi%
330
ITALY.
is an abstract of the official budgets for the years 1864-6, the sums
being given in thousands of lire : —
Keceifts.
1864
1865
1866
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
Land tax
112,010
124,630
139,827
Tax on movable property
13,930
67,200
63,466
Tax on the transfer of property
69,256
76,600
78,000
Customs and maritime dues .
63,200
60,700
60,200
Octroi duties ....
22,826
32,000
28,100
Gk)yemment monopolies (salt, to-
bacco, powder) ....
111,300
96,200
136,500
Lottery
40,042
40,000
40,000
Rents of State property .
19,222
12,217
48,422
Revenue of public service (railway)
26,166
20,000
28,663
Post-office
16,000
13,600
—
Telegraph
3,170
6,600
—
Miscellaneous ....
Extraordinary receipts, chiefly de-
26,892
622,012
24,618
17,628
664,066
636,606
rived from sale of domains
Total ordinaiy and extraordinary
124,107
61,437
33,838
receipts
Total receipts . . . £
646,119
625,603
669,439
26,844,760
25,020,120
26,777,660
EXFENDITUBB.
Bxpenditurs
1864
1865
1866
Extra-
ordinary
Ordinary
Bxtra-
ordinary
Ordinary
Bztxa-
ordinary
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
1,000 Ure
Ministry of Finance
384,300
11,880
391,060
17,183
397,273
10,331
Ministry of Justice
and Ecclesiastical
Affairs
29,561
1,114
29,366
830
29,158
872
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
3,317
159
3,660
176
3,610
116
Ministry of Public
Instruction .
14,692
977
13,666
647
14,423
458
Ministry of the In-
terior .
48,627
15,090
38,885
7,626
49,420
7,224
Ministry of Public
Works.
59.487
27,430
38,960
26,019
97,487
18,464
Ministry of War .
191,613
42,922
185,055
36,393
175,667
16,739
Ministry of Marine
41,344
21,719
42,175
16,729
86,999
11,614
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry, and
Commerce .
3,412
2,816
4,532
1,977
3,176
1,616
BEYENUE AND EXPENBITUBE.
Expenditure — continued.
33<
Expenditure
1864
1865
1866
Ordinary
Eztra-
ordinflry
Ordinary
Extra-
ordinary
Ordinary
Extra-
ordinary
Total ordinary ex-
penditure
Total extraordinary
expenditure .
Total expenditure .
Deficit .
Deficit . . £
1,000 lire
776,253
124,107
1,003 lire
124,107
1,000 lire
747,349
106,470
1,000 lire
106,470
1,000 lire
806,212
67,424
1,000 lire
67,424
880,360
234,241
9,369,640
—
853,819
228,316
9,132,660
—
893,636
204,197
8,1670,88
—
Official returns state the actual deficit of each year from 1860 to
1865 as follows :—
1860 ....
1861 ....
1862 ....
1863 ....
1864 ....
1865 ....
Deficit in 1,000 lire
£
16,656,760
20,177,720
14,037,400
12,123,040
9,369,640
9,132,640
416,419
504,443
350,935
320,576
234,241
228,316
2,054,930
82,197,200
The deficit of 1866 was calculated to amount to not less than 800
millions lire, or 32 millions sterling, the excess over previous years
being due entirely to the immense war expenditure necessitated in
the contest with Austria, including also an indemnity for property
in Venetia, amounting to 88 millions of lire, which the Italian
Grovemment had to pay over to Austria on the day of ratification of
the Treaty of Vienna, Oct. 12, 1866. To cover a part of the war
expenditure, the Government concluded, on May 2, 1866, an
arrangement with the Bank of Italy, for the temporary advance of
250,000,000 lire, and three months after, on the 2nd of August
1866, a royal decree was issued, ordering a national loan of
350,000,000 lire. The issue price was fixed at 95 per cent., and the
loan was made payable in six instalments, extending from the 8th of
October 1866, until the 1st of April 1867. The loan is to bear
interest on the nominal value at the rate of 6 per cent., of which
5 per cent, will be paid by coupon and 1 per cent, in prizes. The
interest will be payable every six months, the first payment falling
due on the 1st of April 1867. The first drawing for prizes wiU
take place in October 1870, and the prizes will range from 100 to
100,000 lire. Simultaneously with the decree for tixia Voaxi^ «5ir-
332t
ITALY.
other was published, ordering a forced currency for the notes of the
National Bank throughout the whole of the kingdom, including the
Venetian provinces.
To cover former annual deficits, the Italian Government has had
recourse, at various times, to loans of a considerable amount. The
State railways were also sold, in 1864, for a sum of 200,000,000 lire,
or 8,000,000Z., payable, in four instalments. The sale of other State
property, including the formerly ecclesiastical domains, valued at
423,000,000 lire, or 16,920,000/., is proceeding gradually, as will be
seen by reference to the budgets of 1864-6.
The total amount of the public debt of the various provinces of
the kingdom, in the year 1860, amounted to : —
Lire
£
Sardinian States .
1,159,970,595
46,398,823
Lombardy ....
145,412,988
5,816,519
Emilia ....
42,000,000
1,680,000
Tuscany ....
209,000.000
8,360,000
Naples and Sicily
Total .
550,000,000
22,000,000
2,106,383,583
84,255,342
By a law of June 1861, all these obligations were ordered to
be inscribed into a ' Great Book,* and to be united into a national
debt of the kingdom of Italy, the whole to bear interest at the
rates of 3 and 5 per cent. Various loans were subsequently added to
this national debt. In July 1861, a loan of 500 millions of lire was
contracted, and by a parliamentary vote of March 6, 1863 — sanc-
tioned by royal decree of March 12 — a further loan of 700 millions
of lire was ordered to be issued, to be paid in ten instalments, the
last upon March 20, 1864. On the 1st January, 1865, the public
debt stood as follows : —
Debt consolidated at 3 and
5 per cent. .
Debt inscribed separately
in the Great Book
Debt to be inscribed
Redemption, charges, &c
Total interest for 1865
Capital of
Debt
Interest
Capital of
Debt
£
160,069,120
11,227,480
4,928,440
Interest
1,000 lire
4,001,728
280,687
128,211
1,000 lire
195,992
12,704
6,054
£
7,839,680
608,160
242,160
4,405,626
214,750
12,155
176,226,040
8,690,000
486,200
—
226,905
—
9,076,200
ABMT AND NAVY. 333
The above debt was increased, April 25, 1865, by a loan of
425,000,000 lire, or 17,000,000/., to which were added, in 1866, the
two loans, already mentioned, of 250,000,000 and of 350,000,000
lire. The total ftinded debt of Italy consequently amounted, in
August 1866, to 5,430,626,000 lire, or 217,225,200/., exclusive of
the Lombardo- Venetian debt of alDout 8 millions sterling. (See
Austria, p. 14.)
Army and Navy.
The Sardinian law of conscription forms the basis of the military
organisation of the kingdom of Italy. According to it, a certain
portion of all the young men of the age of twenty-one — ^the nimiber
amoimted to 50,000 in 1866, but only to 30,000 in the preceding
year — is levied annually for the standing army, while the rest are
entered in the army reserve, which has to practise annually for forty
days, but can be cjdled permanently under arms only at the outbreak
of a war.
By a royal decree of January 24, 1862, the standing army of
Italy is divided- into six corps d'arm^e, each corps consisting of three
divisions, and each division of two brigades ; four or six battalions of
* bersagliere,' or riflemen, two regiments of cavalry, and from six to
nine companies of artillery. Eeduced into practice, the formation of
the army would be as follows : —
Infantry Men
6 regiments of grenadiers 17,946
6 „ „ infantry of the line . . . 186,442
42 battalions of 'bersagliere' .... 24,288
Total infantry 227,796
Cavalry Men
4 regiments of cuirassiers . , . . \
6 „ „ light dragoons . . I 14,688
6 „ „ lancers . . . . j
1 „ „ 'guides' 1,064
Total of cavalry .... 16,920
ArtiUery Men
9 regiments or 72 companies of foot artillery . 25,340
2 „ of sappers and miners . . . 6,006
3 „ „ horse artillery and train . . 9,240
Total artillery and train . . . 40,586
The standing army is completed by fourteen legions of ' carabi-
nieri,' or gendarmes^ under the orders of the Minister of War^
334 iT^Y.
ntLmbering 18,461 men, and a staff of 210 men ; which brings the
total of the forces of the kingdom of Italy, as liiey ought to exist
according to the military organisation, up to 303,048. In the army
estimates of 1864, laid before the Italian Parliament by the Minister
of War, the following troops were accounted for : —
Men
Infantry of the line . . 111,267
Bersaglieri 17,508
Cava^ 16,536
Artillery 17,362
Engineers 4,397
Train of artillery .... 2,486
Troops of the a(hnim8tration . 2,755
Carabinieri 18,516
Veterans 4,879
Sanitary troops .... 395
Total standing army . . 196,100
The number of troops here enumerated being held insufficient for
the security of the kingdom, a new organisation of the army was
decided on by the Government, and came into operation on January
1, 1865. Under this organisation, the Italian army is composed
as follows : —
Infantry of the line (80 regi-
ments, 8 of which are grena-
diers)
Bersaglieri (40 battalions)
Cavalry (4 regiments of the
line, 7 of lancers, 7 light
horse, and 1 of guides =115
squadrons) ....
ArtUlery (1 regiment of ponton-
nires, 3 foot, 5 mounted, with
80 batteries)
Six artisan companies, also at-
tached to the artilleiy .
Two regiments of sappers of
the engineers (36 companies) .
Three regiments of train corps
(24 companies)
One administratiye corps (7 com-
panies) ....
One disciplinarian corps
Totals
Peace Footing
War Footing.
Men
128,020
16,165
Horses
Men
245,680
26,495
Honni
18,167
13,569
19,000
14,102
9,646
4,260
16,086
11,234
1,174
1,589
4,132
48
6,793
396
2,460
960
9,240
11,340
3,173
Undecided.
Undecided.
if
189,541
19,027
335,870
87,562
If ihe stafb and corps not on an actire Bervice are added to the
ABMT AND NAYT.
335
above, the total force consists of more than 200,000 men on a peace
footing, and rather less than 350,000 on a war establishment.
The navy of the kingdom of Italy consisted, at the commence-
ment of 1866, of 106 vessels of war, armed with 1,468 guns. They
were classed as follows : —
Nmnber of Veasels
Screw Steam Vessels:
1 ship of the line, 1st elaAS
9 frigates, 1st class .
7 „ 2nd „ .
6 iron-clad fingates, 1st class
. 10 „ „ 2nd „
4 iron-clad gunboats, 1st class
4 » „ 2nd „
19 gunboats (transports) .
60 screw steamers
Paddle-wheel Steamers:
14 corvettes, 1st dass
20 smaller vesselfi and transports
34 paddle-wheel steamers .
94 total steamers
12 „ frigates, brigs, &c
106 total vessels of war armed with
Horse-power
450
460 to 600
300 „ 600
800 „ 900
400 „ 700
200 „ 300
74 „ 100
120 „ 300
180 to 400
100 „ 600
Gans
64
440
134
216
200
32
8
68
1,162
100
46
146
1,298
170
1,468
The following table gives the names, the horse-power, number of
guns, of crew, and the tonnage, of all the ships of the Italian fleet
taking part in the engagement oflf Lissa, July 19, 1866 : —
Names of Ships
Horse-
power
Onns
Tonnage
1st Squadbon — Ironolads : —
Ke dTtAlia (flagship) .
Ke di Portogallo
Ancona
Begina Maria Pia
Castelfidaido ....
St. Martmo ....
Affondatore ....
Messagiere (aviso)
2nd Squadbon— 1«* Class Frigates:-^
Maria Adelaide ....
Buca di Gtenova ....
800
800
700
700
700
700
700
360
600
600
36
30
26
26
26
26
2
2
32
60
600
660
484
484
484
484
290
103
660
660
5,700
6,700
4,260
4,260
4,260
4,260
4,070
1,000
3,469
3,616
336
ITALY.
Names of Ships — continued.
Names of Ships
Horse-
power
Guns
Crews
Tonnage
Carlo Alberto . . . .
400
60
680
3,200
Vittorio Emamiele
600
49
680
3,415
Garibaldi
450
61
680
3,680
Principe Umberto
600
50
680
3,601
Gaeta
460
61
680
3,980
St. Giovanni (corvette)
220
20
346
1,780
Govemolo (paddle steamer)
460
12
260
1,700
Guiscardo (aviso)
300
6
190
1,400
Ettore Fieramosca (aviso) .
300
6
190
1,400
Third Squadbon : —
Principe Carignano
700
22
440
4,086
Terrible
400
20
366
2,000
Formidabile ....
400
20
366
2,700
Palestro
300
4
260
2,700
Varese
300
4
260
2,000
Esploratore (aviso)
350
2
108
1,000
Sirena (aviso) ....
120
3
63
364
Included in the above list are three iron-clads lost in and after the
naval engagement off Lissa, July 19, 1866. In this battle, the Aus-
trians destroyed the Re cT Italia and Palestro men-of-war, and not
long after the cupola ship Affondatore sank at the entrance of the
port of Ancona. At the end of 1866, the Italian fleet was reduced
to twelve iron-clads, eight frigates, four gunboats, and four paddle
steamers. The navy was manned,* in 1866, by 11,193 sailors, and
660 engineers and working men, with 673 officers, of whom 2 were
admirals, 3 vice-admirals, 10 rear-admirals, 22 captains of vessels,
36 captains of frigates first-class, 60 lieutenants of first-class, 90
lieutenants of second-class, and 150 sub-lieutenants. The marines
consisted of two regiments, comprising 192 officers and 5,688
soldiers.
Population.
The kingdom of Italy, according to an enumeration made in the
spring of 1864, has a population of 21,703,710 souls, on an area of
255,617 square chUos, or 98,784 English square miles. By a political
division, made in 1863, the kingdom is divided into 59 provinces,
the area and population of which are shown in the following
table : —
POPUIATION.
337
ProYinces and Prefectures.
Superficies
in square cbilos
Population
Population
per square cbilo
1. Alessandria.
6,052-96
637,629
126-10
2. Ancona
1,14016
267,122
224-73
3. Aquila
6,644*44
339,656
51-87
4. Arezzo
3,309-20
222,664
67-28
5. Ascoli.
2,095-79
202,398
96-57
6. Avellino
3,040-54
383,936
127-71
7. Ban .
8,978-49
574,660
96-10
8. Benevento .
1,158-38
238,260
205-68
9. Bergamo
2,587-88
346,660
133-91
10. Bologna
3,474-64
396,970
113-96
11. Breseia
4,867-22
475,945
97-76
12. Cagliari
13,629-92
363,212
26-84
13. Caltasinetta
3,885-45
184,692
47-60
14. Campobasso
4,946-06
366,905
74-18
15. Catania
4,325-64
408,637
94-44
16. Caserta
6,719-37
643,830
95-81
17. Catanzaro .
3,951-36
401,016
101-48
18. Chieti.
3,731-84
337,364
90-40
19. Como .
2,46707
454,651
184-32
20. Cozenza
7,398-51
476,759
64-30
21. Cremona .
2,046-99
334,146
163-23
22. Cuneo.
7,136-65
606,933
86-05
23. Ferrara
2,266-34
194,961
85-67
24. Firenze
5,818-35
701,702
120-60
26. Foggia
8,091-37
302,393
37-37
26. Forli .
1,771-48
218,433
123-30
27. Genova
4,112-81
643,380
156-43
28. Girgenti
3,290-46
252,763
76-81
29. Grosseto .
4,396-97
82,540
18-77
30. Lecce .
8,688-72
448,465
49-88
31. Liyomo
315-39
113,309
327-55
32. Lucca .
1,450-34
242,642
167-23
33. Macerata .
3,136-28
239,411
76^33
34. Massa
1,177-58
147,838
125-26
36. Messina
4,158-08
378,003
90-90
36. Milano
2,944-67
899,174
306-85
37. Modena
3,03210
266,803
87-66
38. NapoU.
1,250-60
877,120
730-62
39. Noto .
3,720-84
263,664
68-17
40. Novara
6,498-08
578,392
88-24
41. Palermo .
4,202-67
538,519
128-13
42. Parma.
3,244-68
258,602
79-67
43. Pavia .
3,326-86
410,146
123-28
44. Perugia
9,239-39
492,829
63-33
46. Pesaro.
3,650-91
204,039
56-88
46. Piacenza
2,502-32
210,134
83-97
47. Pisa .
3,062-37
235,613
75-54
48. Porto Manrizio
1,19719
121,020
101-08
49. Potenza
11,624-80
320,789
45-18
50. BaTATina
1,864-23
206,018
110-51
338
ITALT.
ProTinoes and Pref eotnrea
Superficies
in square chilos
Population
Population
per square chik)
51. Reggio (Cal
52. Reggio (Em
53. Salemo
54. Sassari
55. Sienna
56. Sondrio • .
57. Teramo
58. Torino
59. Trapani
)
•)
6,026-51
2,215-84
5,865-30
10,720-26
3,728-66
3,160-57
3,347-68
8,789-69
2,599-45
255,617-29
332,942
230,246
577,589
209,903
193,883
105,922
240,035
924,209
205,556
53-58
103-90
98-47
19-58
51-99
33-31
71-70
105*14
79-07
To
tal
21,703,710
84-90
To the above must be added the Lombardo- Venetian provinces,
ceded to Italy in 1866. The territory, according to the Austrian
census of October 31, 1857, has an area of 9,177 English square
miles, with a population of 2,446,056, which, after the returns of
the registrars of births and deaths, had risen to 2,576,185 at the
commencement of 1864. Thus the total population of the kingdom,
at the end of 1866, was 24,149,766, Hving on an area of 107,961
English square miles, or 233 inhabitants per square mile.
The extent and population of the ancient political divisions of
Italy, previous to the formation of the kingdom, is shown in the
following table : —
Provincea
Eng. sq. miles
Population
Continental Sardinian States .
L^and of Sardinia •
Lombardy ....
Emilia .....
Umbria and the Marches
Tuscany
NeapoHtan States .
Island of Sicily
Total .
15,373
9,547
7,765
8,821
5,997
9,150
31,621
10,510
3,780,967
573,115
2,764,912
2,044,108
1.393,824
1,812,253
7,029,273
2,302,168
98,784
21,703,710
It will be seen from the preceding table that the population is
most crowded in Lombardy and the Island of Sicily ; and that it is
least numerous in the Island of Sardinia. Lombardy and Sicily are
the provinces in which the population has increased most rapidly
of late years. Sardinia and the Neapolitan provinces come next.
The increase of population has been much slower in Piedmont.
It is calculated that only two-thirds of the area of the kingdom,
POPULATION.
339
capable of production, are cultivated, and that the rest lies waste.
The average value of cultivated land is seventy-eight lire, or 3Z. 2«. per
hectare, and in some parts of the northern provinces 125 lire, or 5Z.
The yearly income derived from real estate is estimated at 40,320,000/.
There is a mortgage debt upon this amount, capitalised at 4 per
cent., of 187,779,824/., bearing an interest of from 3 to 24 per
cent., or on an average of 7 per cent. Property in Piedmont is
mortgaged to the value of 1,985,892,382 lire, or 79,435,695/. In
the province of Milan alone it amounts to 287,519,738 lire, or
11,500,789/., and in the province of Pavia to 609,155,652 lire, or
24,366,226/.
The great mass of the people in Italy are devoted to agricultural
pursuits, and the town population is comparatively small. The
number of inhabitants of the principal towns was as follows, accord-
ing to the enumeration of 1864 : —
Principal Towns
Population
Principal Towns
Population
Naples
447,065
Florence
114,363
Turin
204,715
Bologna
109,395
Milan
196,109
Messina
103,324
Corpi Santi
46,348
Leghorn
96,471
Palermo
194,463
Catania
68,810
Grenoa
127,986
Ferrara
67,988
The population of the city of Venice and its dependent islands,
inscribed on the registers of the municipality on the 31st December
1864, amounted to 122,942 inhabitants, composed of
Native Males, present 54,212
„ Females „ . 59,072
„ Males, absent 1.521
„ Females „ 913
Strangers
Total
115,718
7,224
122,942
The seat of government was transferred, in the spring of 1865 —
according to the treaty of September 15, 1864, between the Em-
peror of the French and the King of Italy — from Turin to Florence,
which latter town thereby obtained an increase of about 20,000
inhabitants.
According to official returns made at the commencement of 1866,
there were 372 newspapers published at that time in the kingdom of
Italy. Of these, 41 were published in Genoa, 42 in Florence, 44 in
Turin, 44 in Naples, and 51 in Milan, the others in smaller towns.
The above figures, taken in connection with the population returns,
z2
340 ITALY.
give one paper to 93 inhabitants in Milan ; one to 111 in Florence,
one to 120 in Naples, one to 136 in Genoa, and one to 171 in
Turin.
The niimber of persons possessing incomes derived from real
property is estimated as follows : —
Sardinian States .... 1,000,000
Lombardy 622,000
Parma 780,000
Modena 100,000
Tuscany 135,000
Romagna 88,000
Marches 236,000
Naples 1,400,000
Sicaly 600,000
Total . 4,861,000
The charges on real property amount to nearly half of the annual
rent.
The subjoined table shows the amoimt of income derived from
real property in each province of the kingdom of Italy : —
Provinces
Amonnt derived
from real property
Ponnds sterling
lire
£
Sardinian States .
195,600,000
7,820,000
Lombardy .
160,500,000
6,020,000
Modena
30,500,000
1,220,000
Parma.
26,600,000
1,060,000
Tuscany
86,000,000
?,420,000
Bomagna
65,000,000
2,200,000
Marches
40,000,000
1,600,000
Umbria
25,000,000
1,000,000
Naples.
300,000,000
12,000,000
Sicily ....
100,000,000
4,000,000
To
tal .
1,008,000,000
40,400,000
The increase of wealth in most of the Italian States has been much
more rapid within the last century than the increase of population.
This has been the case even in one of the most neglected provinces,
the Island of Sicily, ruled by an oligarchy of sixty-one dukes, 117
princes, 217 marquises, above 1,000 barons, and about 2,000 other
noblemen. An official report states that the net rental of the
8ur&ce of the island is vsJued at about two millions and three-
quarters sterling, and that of the underground at a quarter of a
million. The sum total of three millions is divided in the ratios of
two, thirteen, seventy-five, and 910 parts of a thousand among the
TBADB AND INDUSTKY. 34I
Crown, the conummes, the Church, and the landlords generally, in
699,000 lots, each averaging 4Z. per annum. In 1811, the net rental of
the country was declared by the landowners to be somewhat less than
a million sterling per annum — a sum divided unequally among two
thousand families. The number of landlords among whom the surfece
is now divided is about twenty thousand; and that of mine-owners one
thousand. This change of persons is o,wing to various measures, the
principal of which are the abolition of entails, the equal division of the
half of all properties, and the assignment to creditors of encumbered
estates. During the last century and a half the growth of wealth in
Sicily, as already stated, has outstripped the march of population. In
1716 the number of inhabitants was 1,200,000, and the value of pro-
perty about 6,000,000/. sterling ; in 1748 the population had risen to
1,300,000 souls, and the public wealth to ]2,000,000Z. sterling. In
1811 the number of inhabitants was 1,800,000, and the value of
property 18,000,000/. ; in 1857 the population was 2,200,000, and
the amount of wealth 60,000,000/. Population has therefore only
doubled itself, whereas the increase of wealth has been nearly ten-
fold ; or, deducting one-third for the decreased value of gold, seven-
fold in the course of one hundred and fifty years.
The population of the States comprising the present kingdom of
Italy, with the exception of Venetia, amounted to, in the year
1788 :—
Sardinian States 3,200,000
Lombardy 1,100,000
Tuscany .* . 1,000,000
Parma and Modena 570,000
Komagna 140,000
Umbria and the Marches 620,000
Naples and Sicily 6,000,000
Total . 12,630,000
The above figures are only estimates, drawn, however, fi:om the
best authenticated sources. They show that the population of Italy,
under previous administrations, has not even doubled during a period
of three quarters of a century, giving a lesser increase than any other
State in Southern Europe.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Italy is chiefly with four countries,
France, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Switzerland. The im-
ports from France average eight millions sterling per annum, and
the exports very nearly the same. Next in order of importance are
the commercial transactions with the United Kindom, and after that,
but far below, those of Austria and Switzerland, TKe <iQ\rcax<et^^ ^1
343t
ITALY.
Italy with the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular
statement, which gives the value of the imports from Italy into the
United Kingdom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures to Italy, in each of the &ye years 1861—5-
Tears
Imports from Italy
Into the
United Kingdom
Exports of home pro-
duce from the
United Kingdom
to Italy
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
2,480,064
2,618,311
2,368,208
2,181,107
2,510,884
6,781,069
6,103,320
6,927,980
6,673,634
6,312,760
The subjoined tables show the relative commercial importance of
the old territorial divisions of Italy, both as regards their imports into
the United Kingdom, and the exports to them, in each of the ^ve
years 1861-5.
Imports from Italy into the United Kingdom.
Adriatic Porte
of Anoona and the
Years
Two SidUes
Sardinia
Tuscany
Bomagna, and
Papal Ports on the
Mediterranean
£
£
£
£
1861
1,540,453
260,344
660,917
118,360
1862
1,865,239
263,198
441,088
48,786
1863
1,448,218
281,191
558,471
70,328
1864
1,622,463
227,512
388,722
42,410
1865
1,688,208
222,516
660,096
50,065
Ktpprts of home produce from the United Kingdom to Italy,
Adriatic Ports
of Ancona and the
Years
Two SidUes
Sardinia
Tuscany
Romagna, and
Papal Ports on the
Mediterranean
£
£
£
£
1861
2,071,521
2,198,948
1,062,881
447,719
1862
1,628,904
2,143,772
936,426
495,218
1863
2,309,273
2,114,380
1,073,669
430,658
1864
2,458,100
1.908,295
963,243
353,896
1865
2,344,066
1,629,138
1,130,762
321,683
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
343
The chief articles of import from the Two Sicilies are olive oil
and brimstone, the first averaging 500,000/., and the second 300,000Z.
per annum. From Sardinia and the Adriatic and Papal ports, the
imports are miscellaneous, not one of them averaging 50,000/. per
annum ; while the only article of importance from Tuscany is olive
oil, averaging 90,000/. per annum in value. Cotton goods form the
staple export of the United Kingdom to Italy. The Two Sicilies
take nearly 500,000/. per annum; Sardinia 400,000/.; Tuscany
350,000; and the Adriatic ports of Ancona and the Eomagna
200,000/. With the Papal States, the intercourse is very slight,
the total British exports thereto not amounting to more than
26,868/. in 1863.
The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to the
kingdom, on the 3l8t December, 1865, was as follows : —
Steam and Sailing
Tonnage of Vessels
Number
Tons
Above 900 tons
1
1,076
From 801 to 900 tons
1
814
„ 701 „ 800 „
7
6,162
„ 601 „ 700 „
13
8,460
„ 501 „ 600 „
26
14,073
„ 401 „ 600 „
96
42.469
„ 301 „ 400 „
381
130,832
„ 201 „ 300 „
665
168,226
„ 101 „ 200 „
734
107,264
„ 61 „ 100 „
782
60,823
„ 31 „ 60 „
1,369
69,029
,, 21 „ 30 „ ,
743
17,947
„ 11 „ 20 „
1,863
26,796
1 M 10 „ . .
3,583
17,673
Total .
10,264
660,622
The commerce of Venice — on the decline for many years — was of
the total value, taking the aggregate of imports and exports, of
7,234,140/. in 1865, being half a million sterling less than in the
preceding year. The total shipping of 1865, coasters included, con-
sisted of 6,179 vessels, of 585,873 tons, which was a decline of 37
vessels and 21,300 tons over the year 1864; In 1865, there arrived
at Venice 68 vessels from Great Britain, among which were 18
steamers with manufactures and general merchandise from Liverpool,
12 with colonials fi'om London, and one with iron from Glasgow ; 30
sailing vessels with coals, from the north of England and Glasgow.^
344
ITALY.
three with pilchards from Cornwall, and three with herrings from
Great Yarmouth. The direct trade of Venice with Great Britain,
both imports and exports, amounted to 810,435/. in 1865, or about
half of the whole amount of the foreign trade by sea ; besides which
a considerable quantity of goods, the productions of the United
Kingdom, arrived in Venice fix)m Trieste.
The total number of vessels which entered the port of Venice in
the year 1865 was 353, of an aggregate burthen of 59,915 tons,
distributed as follows : —
NationaUty
Vessels
Tons
British
68
38,321
Italian and Austrian ....
227
10,992
Hanoverian
5
473
Hamburg ......
i-i
115
Bremen
1
248
Danish
1
115
French
1
211
„ in ballast
1
182
Greek
6
835
Holstein
6
663
Mecklenburg
1
307
Netherlands
14
3,648
Turkish
4
246
Prussian
5
1,162
Kussian
1
396
Swedish and Norwegian
Total ....
11
2,201
353
59,915
It will be seen that nearly two-thirds of the shipping of Venice
is under the British flag.
According to a return of June, 1865, Italy has a seafaring
population of 158,692 individuals, thus distributed : — ^In the Italian
kingdom, as then existing, 137,360 ; in Venetia and Istria, 20,455 ;
in the Papal States, 877. The whole of the seamen are inscribed
on the rolls of the thirty-five maritime districts, or circondarii,
into which the kingdom is divided, and are liable to the maritime
conscription.
Claimed by the people and Gk)vemment of the kingdom of Italy,
but remaining imder strict political separation, are the —
345
PAPAL STATES.
Beigning Sovereign.
Pius IX., Sovereign-Pontiff of Rome, born at Sinigaglia, May 13,
1792, the son of Count Mastai Ferretti. Appointed bishop, in petto,
December 23, 1837 ; Archbishop of Imola, December 14, 1838 ;
created cardinal, December 24, 1839 ; elected Sovereign-Pontiff, as
successor of Gregory XVI., June 16, 1846 ; crowned June 21, 1846.
The nominal income of the Sovereign-Pontiff, from his Roman
States, is limited to 600,000 scudi, or 121,000/. ; but it is calculated
that the Papal revenue from all sources, including contributions
from foreign countries, amounts to above ^yq millions of scudi, or
considerably more than one million sterling.
The Pontiff was originally elected by the priests and people of the
diocese of Rome; but subsequently by the cardinals. In the eleventh
century Nicholas 11. conferred on the cardinals the right of directing
the election, and, in accordance with his statutes, the cardinals, who
had figured as a body since the eighth century, were bound to demand
of the Roman people and the Roman clergy the ratification of their
choice. To legalise the election it was indispensable that the same
name should obtain two-thirds at least of the votes of the Conclave,
together with the suffrages of the people and the clergy of Rome.
This mode of proceeding, however, was found to give rise to dissen-
sions, and the consequence was that both the clergy and the people
were excluded from all participation in the election. This reform
took place in 1217, on the accession of Gregory X.
The election of a Pontiff is by scrutiny or ballot. Each cardinal
writes his own name with that of the candidate he proposes on a
ticket. These tickets are deposited in the consecrated chalice which
stands on the altar of the chapel where they sit; and each one
approaching and leaving the altar kneels and repeats a prayer. After
a pause the tickets are taken from the sacred cup by officers named
ad hoc from their own body; the tickets are compared with the
number of cardinals present, and when it is found that any one of
them has two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected.
If no one can show the requisite number of votes another proceeding
is gone through. This proceeding is the election by access — so
called because any cardinal has the right to accede to the vote of
another by altering his ticket according to a prescribed form. The
moment the election is declared the tickets are burnt. The present
Pontiff Pius IX. was elected by imanimity. He is the 258tiL Pq>^^» ^
346 PAPAL STATES,
The riHe of the Popedom, as a tempoial power, dates from the
year 755, when Pepin, king of the Franks, granted to the Pontiff
the exarchate of Ravenna, to which Charlemagne added the provinces
of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser Henry III., in 1053, increased these
possessions of the head of the Church by the city of Benevento, with
the surrounding territory; and not long after, in 1102, the Mar-
chioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the pro-
vinces known as the * Patrimony of St. Peter.' In 1297, Forli and
the rest of the Romagna, and, in 1364, Bologna, became portions of
the Papal dominion ; and, towards the end of the fourteenth century,
the Pontiff acquired ftdl jurisdiction over Rome and Sabina. Fer-
rara was acquired in 1598, Urbino in 1G26, and Orvieto in 1649.
In 1798 Rome was taken by the French, and in 1810 the whole of
the Papal States were included in the kingdom of Italy. The Con-
gress of Vienna restored the greater part of them to the Sovereign-
Pontiff; but, in consequence of an insurrection, the Romagna de-
tached itself from the Papal rule in 1859, and in 1860 the Marches
and Umbria followed. Since that period, a strong French garrison
has prevented the annexation of the whole of the Papal States to
the kingdom of Italy. This garrison, however, was stipulated to
be withdrawn before the end of the year 1866, according to a treaty
between the Emperor of the French and the King of Italy, fidgsed
September 15, 1864. The treaty, which intimately concerns the
future of the Papal States, is in four articles, as follows:* —
*Art. 1. Italy undertakes not to attack the present territory of
the Pope, and even to prevent by force any attack proceeding from
the exterior.
* Art. 2. France will withdraw her troops gradually as the army
of the Pope becomes organised. The evacuation will, nevertheless,
be accomplished within two years.
* Art. 3. The Italian Government will make no protest against the
organisation of a Papal army, even composed of foreign Catholic
volunteers, sufficient to maintain the authority of the Pope, and
tranquillity both at home and on the frontier of the Papal States ;
provided, however, that this force does not degenerate into a means
of attack against the Italian Government.
* Art. 4. Italy declares herself ready to enter into an arrangement
for assuming a proportional part of the debt of the former States of
the Church.'
The withdrawal of the French garrison from Rome commenced in
the month of November 1865, when a portion of the troops in
garrison in the Papal States re-embarked at Civita Vecchia.
* Moniteur Universely Oct. 30, 1864.
CONSTITUTION AND GOTBRNMENT. 347
Constitation and Oovemment.
The GrOTemment of the Papal States, previous to the accession of
Pius IX., was wholly ecclesiastical, no person being eligible to fill a
public office who had not obtained the rank of abbot. Since the
year 1847, however, many important official positions have been
thrown open to the laity. In theory, the Sovereign- Pontiff enacts
all laws and nominates to all appointments; but practically the legis-
lative and executive power is left to a cabinet, differing little in
respect to its organisation from other European Governments. A
CJouncil of Ministers, with the Cardinal Secretary of State as presi-
dent, conducts the foreign relations. It examines the more important
affairs, settles any differences that may arise between ministerial
departments, promulgates measures for the public security of the
State, and names the principal functionaries. 'Hie Council of
Ministers is divided into the following seven departments :—
1. The Ministry of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Cardinal
Giacomo Antonelli, bom at Sonnio, near Terracina, April 2, 1806,
the son of a wood-cutter; educated at the priestly seminary at Eome ;
nominated bishop, in partibus, 1840; Under-Secretary of State in
the Ministry of the Interior, 1841; Minister of Finance, 1845;
cardinal deacon, Jime 11, 1847; appointed Minister of State and
of Foreign Affairs, April 12, 1850.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Monsignore De Witten, ap-
pointed Minister of the Interior, October 25, 1865.
3. The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works. — Baron P. D.
Constantine Baldini, appointed Minister of Commerce and Public
Works, June 21, 1860.
4. The Ministry of Finance. — Monsignore Giuseppe Ferrari ,
appointed Minister of Finance, December 1, 1854.
5. The Ministry of Police. — Monsignore L. Eandi, formerly dele-
gate of Civita Vecchia ; appointed Minister of Police, November 1 ,
1865.
6. The Ministry of Grace and Justice. — Monsignore A. Giansanti,
Solicitor-General of the Koman Government; appointed Minister of
Justice, May 23, 1861.'
The Minister of the Interior is the head of the internal adminis-
tration of the State. He has imder his control the provincial autho-
rities, provincial councils, mayors and communal councils, and
communal magistrates, the archives, woods and forests, the prisons,
and the press.
The Minister of Grace and Justice superintends the administra-
tion of civil and administrative justice. He has under his control
the tribunals, the judges, the attorneys-general, the advocates, and
their courts of discipline. To him are sent, for xefeteaRfc \si *^^
348 PAPAL STATES.
Sovereign, all memorials and petitions for the reversal of sentence ;
he decides in cases of extradition, and conducts the arrangement of
judicial statistics, and the periodical publication of the laws and acts
of Government.
The Finance Minister administers the property and revenues of
the State — mines, quarries, fiscal 'duties, the property of the Apos-
tolic Chamber, custom-houses, taxes (direct and indirect), the public
debt, registration, mortgages, the Post-oflSce and the Lottery. He
prepares new tariffs ; he prepares the estimates and accounts of each
department ; and, when the whole has been submitted to and approved
by the Council of Ministers, makes out the budget and the general
accoimt of the State.
On the Minister of Commerce devolves the duty of directing all
that relates to commerce, industry and agriculture, the conservation
of ancient monuments, and the execution of public works. Under
his control are the Chamber of Commerce, Exchange, stockbrokers,
internal navigation, the merchant navy, captains of ports, industrial
and literary property, weights and measures, manufactures, agricul-
ture, concessions of fairs and markets, public monuments, roads,
ports, bridges, and canals, which are not provincial or national.
The head of the administration is charged with the organisation,
discipline, and administration of the army, and with the guard and
maintenance of the forts for the defence of the State, the military
works in the interior and on the frontiers, arsenals, powder magazines,
manufactories of arms, barracks, the military hospitals, and, to a
certain extent, the gendarmes.
At the side of the Cabinet of Ministers stands the Council of
State, consisting of nine ordinary and six extraordinary members.
A cardinal is the president, a prelate vice-president. The coun-
cillors of State must be at least thirty years of age, bom subjects of
the Homan Government, or have resided in the territory constantly
for ten years, and be in the enjoyment and free exercise of their
civil rights. The extraordinary members do not habitually attend
the sittings, but are summoned when required by the president.
Minutes of the proceedings of the Coimcil are made out by a secre-
tary. The vice-president, coimcillors, secretary, and other officers
are named by the Pope, through the president. The ftmctions of
ordinary coimcillors and secretaries are incompatible with the pro-
fession of advocate or attorney, but not with that of consistorial
advocates in all that relates to their ftmctions in Consistory.
The most important affairs to be regulated by the Council of
State are projects of new laws, the interpretation of laws and of
superior orders, questions of competency between ministers, the
examination of municipal regulations, and the approbation of all the
acts of the Provincial Coimcils in the part reserved to His Holiness.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 349
The president presents to the Council the matters referred to him by
the Holy Father. The ministers, collectively or separately, address
reports to the president, demanding that they shall be examined
and discussed in the Coimcil. The ministers may interfere in the
sections, or at the general assembly ; but they have no vote.
The Consulta of State for the Finances is composed of councillors
chosen by His Holiness on the proposition of the provincial councillors,
and their number is equal to that of the provinces. The Council
has a secretary, a chief accountant, and assistants. Each provin-
cial council prepares a list of four candidates, from among whom a
councillor is chosen, who must belong to one of the following
classes : — 1. Those who possess either in town or coimtry a landed
property worth 10,000 crowns. 2. Those who possess a capital of
12,000 crowns, of which one-third is in landed property, and the
remainder in public securities, or in capital employed in trade, manu-
£u;tures or agriculture. 3. The rectors, professors, or members of
collies, or of the State universities, either in active service or on
the retired list, provided they possess 2,000 crowns in landed pro-
perty. More than one-half the property must be situated in the
province to which the candidate belongs. Only half of the candi-
dates are chosen from the two latter classes — the other half are
always landed proprietors. The councillors are renewed by thirds
every two years, and they retire according to length of service.
When they cease to exercise their iunctions, from no matter what
cause, in the interval of two years the Holy Father selects the new
councillors among the candidates already proposed, or he commands
the provincial councils to prepare a new list. The coimcillors
immediately cease their functions when from any cause they are
rendered ineligible. Should His Holiness dissolve the Council a new
composition is proceeded with in the manner indicated above.
The principal objects of the deliberations of the Consulta are the
examination or revision of the budgets and the accounts of the State.
The examination and revision of the budget and accounts comprise
not only the general account, but likewise the particular accounts of
each administration set forth in the budget. The Consulta, in case
the subject relates to expenses already incurred, pronounces its
judgment, which is absolute. The opinion of the Council is de-
manded whenever it is intended to create or extinguish a debt, to
raise new taxes, to diminish existing ones, to confirm existing con-
tracts, or to conclude others which interest the public administra-
tion. Its advice is equally demanded with respect to changes or
modifications in the customs departments, and to the best means
of contributing to the prosperity of agriculture, manufactures, or
commerce, and to the conclusion of commercial treaties as fer as they
regard articles relating to the finances. In the month of September
350 PAPAL STATES.
preceding the expiration of each session the Minister of Finance
transmits to the president the budget of ordinary expenses, and in
the month of September of each year that of the extraordinary ex-
penses, and both accompanied by his remarks. The president, by
means of the Commission on Accounts, prepares the revision so as to
examine it at its next sitting. When under other circumstances the
opinion of the Consulta is demanded, the Minister of Finance and
the other ministers transmit their reports to the president. When
they refer to important matters the president appoints a reporter, or
transmits them to a commission of three or five councillors, who
prepare the discussion and make the report to the Assembly.
Ecclesiastical Administration.
The Sovereign-Pontiff is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of
the Roman Catholic Church. His judgments are held to be infal-
lible, and there is no appeal against his decrees. The Pontiff may
seek advice from the College of Cardinals, consisting, when complete,
of six cardinal-bishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal-
deacons ; but numbering, at the 1st of July 1866, only forty-four
cardinal-priests, and ten cardinal-deacons. Nearly all the members
of the College of Cardinals are Italians by birth ; the exceptions
being — Cardinal Sterks, Archbishop of Malines ; Cardinal de Bonald,
Archbishop of Lyons ; Cardinal Prince Schwarzenberg, Archbishop
of Prague ; Cardinal Mathieu, Archbishop of Besan9on ; Cardinal
Gousset, Archbishop of Rheima ; Cardinal Von Geissel, Archbishop
of Cologne; Cardinal Donnet, Archbishop of Bordeaux; Cardinal
Szcitowsky, Archbishop of Gran, and Primate of Hungary ; Cardinal
Rauscher, Archbishop of Vienna; Cardinal Alameda y Brea, Arch-
bishop of Toledo ; Cardinal Rodriguez, Patriarch of Lisbon ; Cardinal
De la Puente, Archbishop of Burgos; and Cardinal Gaston de
Bonnechose, Archbishop of Rouen — one native of the Netherlands,
three natives of Germany, one of Himgary, five of France, three
of Spain, and one of Portugal.
The cardinals are Princes of the Church. In the early ages the
cardinals were the principal priests of the churches in Rome or
deacons of districts. In the eleventh century they numbered but
twenty-eight; and it was in modem times that the number was
raised to seventy. When assembled the cardinals form the Sacred
College, compose the Council of the Pope, preside at special and
general congregations, and govern the Church so long as the Ponti-
fical throne is vacant. They received the distinction of the red hat
under Innocent HI., during the Council of Lyons, in 1245 ; and the
purple from Boniface VIIL, in 1294. The great Catholic Powers
propose a certain number of prelates to be named by the Pope, and
these are known as Cardinals of the Crown.
REVENUE, ABMT, AND POPULATION. 35 1
Subject to the Sovereign-Pontiff are ^ve patriarchates of the
Oriental Kitus with patriarchal jurisdiction — ^three in Antiochia for
the Melchites, Maronites, and Syrians ; one in Babylon for the
Chaldeans; one in Cilicia for the Armenians. There are, further,
seven patriarchates of the Latin Ritus — Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antiochia, Jerusalem, Venice, West India, and Lisbon. There are 176
archbishoprics; of the 131 belonging to the Latin rite, twelve are
dependent directly from the Koman Patriarchate; 119 of these sees
are endowed with church-provinces. There are 694 bishoprics —
640 of Latin, fifly-four of the Oriental ritus. At the Ist of July
1866, there were filled 649 bishoprics, with residence. Besides these,
there are 234 titular bishoprics, i.e. in partihus infidelium ; so that
the total of the prelates forming the Roman hierarchy amounts to
980. The apostolical vicariates, the delegations, and prefectures in
all parts of the world stand under the Congregatio de Propaganda
fide at Rome. The number of vicariates is one hundred, of delega-
tions five, of prefectures twenty, ten of which were first founded by
the present Pope Pius IX., who has also raised nine archbishoprics
to metropolitan churches, and has created four new archbishoprics
and thirty-five bishoprics, chiefly in England, Holland, and America.
In Europe the Propaganda has the administration of the vicariate of
the Oscanian Duchies, through the Nuntius at Munich, and of North
Germany and Denmark, through the Bishop of Osnabriick ; it further
administers Saxony, with Misnia and Lusatia, Luxemburg, Roman-
Graubunten, Tessin, Scotland (in which there are three vicariates),
Sweden, Herzegovina, Wallachia, Bosnia, Constantinople, Sofia,
Greece, Gibraltar. The rest, thirty in number, are spread over the
whole of Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia. The oldest of living
cardinals is the Cardinal-Priest Antonio Tosti,the Finance Minister of
the late Pontiff Gregory XVI., who was bom October 4, 1776 ; the
youngest member of the College is the Cardinal-Priest Ferretti, bom
March 9, 1817. The sum-total of the ages of the present fifly-eight
cardinals amounts to 3,803 years, giving to each an average age of
sixty-five years.
Eevenue, Army, and Population.
No oflicial account of the revenue and expenditure of the Papal
Government is given to the public. According to the statement of
Italian papers, the revenue, in the year 1864, amounted to 4,500,000
scudi, and the expenditure to 10,000,000 scudi. Not included in
the revenue were 'Peter's pence,' to the amount of 1,500,000 scudi.
From another account it appears that in the budget for 1865 the
total revenue was estimated at 6,353,993 scudi, and the expenditure
at 11,947,270, leaving a deficit of 5,593,277 acudi. Tsva \^%^
352
PAPAL STATES.
annual deficits were covered partly by voluntary gifU of Roman
Catholics in all parts of the world, and partly by loans. The last
loan thus issued, sanctioned by the Pontiff, August 6, 1865, was to
the amount of 10,000,000 scudi. The sum total of the Pontifical
Debt is unknown.
The army of the Sovereign-Pontiff is entirely formed by enlist-
ment, taking place in foreign countries as well as within the Papal
States. The troops numbered, at the beginning of 1866, very nearly
10,000 men, composed as follows: —
1 regiment of the line (Italians)
1 battalion ' cacciatori ' (Italians) .
1 „ zouaves (French and Belgians)
1 „ * carabinieri * (Swiss)
1 „ * troops of St. Patrick * (Irish)
1 „ garrison troops
1 legion of gendarmes
Total of infantry
2 squadrons gendarmes .
2 „ dragoons (partly foreigners)
Total of cavalry
1 regiment artillery
1 company engineers
Staff
Total of all troops
Men
1850
800
750
650
600
650
2,700
8
300
250
-8,000
550
800
150
88
-9,588
The Papal army, in 1859, consisted of 15,239 men,with 1,200 horses,
and was raised, in 1860, to 25,000 men. The battle of Castelfidardo
dispersed this army, which has since been partly reorganised. There
are three fortresses within the Papal States — Civita Vecchia, Porto
d'Anzio, and the Castell Sant' Angelo, within the walls of Rome.
The territory of the Sovereign-Pontiff, previous to 1859, embraced
an area of 17,218 English square miles, with 3,124,668 inhabitants;
but has since been reduced to 4,891 English square miles, with
692,106 inhabitants. Of the former twenty * legations' and * delega-
tions' into which the territory was divided, only five remain, namely,
Rome and the Comarca, with 326,509 inhabitants; Viterbo, with
128,324; Civita Vecchia, with 20,701; Velletri, with 62,013; and
Frosinone, with 154,559 inhabitants. The city of Rome had a
population of 180,359 in 1858; of 182,585 in 1859; of 184,049 in
1860 ; and of 194,587 inhabitants in 1861.
The last census of Rome for the year 1863 gives a population of
201,161 souls, an increase of 6,574 on that of 1861. Rome is
divided into 54 parishes, the inhabitants of which are specified as
follows, no notice being taken of the fluctuating population of
foreigners. The city contains 34 cardinals, 36 bishops, 1,457 priests
TBABE.
353
and clerks, 367 seminarists, 2,569 monks, 2,031 nuns, 660 male
collegians, 1,674 female inmates of schools, 947 male inmates of
cliaritable institutions, 1,180 female do., 40,827 families, 92,024
men, 87,819 women, 30,235 married men, 28,201 married women,
4,301 widowers, 9,447 widows, 59,015 bachelors, 50,171 spinsters,
5,175 soldiers, 387 prisoners; heterodox population, 311 ; and 4,490
Jews. According to this statement, the ecclesiastical population
consists of 1,894 individuals of the secular clergy or priests, 2,569
of the regular clergy or monks, and 2,031 nuns—making, in all,
6,494. There are in Eome 6 seminaries, 19 colleges, 16 charitable
institutions, 15 conservatories, 43 schools directed by nuns, and 56
religious orders — of which that of the Jesuits reckons most members,
viz. 344, and that of the Armenians the fewest, viz. 1. The nuns
belong to many classifications, and have been of late rapidly increasing.
The order of the Jesuits, which has its head-quarters at Rome,
has been rapidly increasing within the last few years. The number
of the members of the order, at the end of the year 1863, was 7,529,
or 118 more than in 1862. They are distributed among 19 estab-
lishments, of which five are in Italy, five in Germany and Belgium,
three in France, two in Spain, and four in England and America.
The Italian Jesuits number 1,617, the Austrian 362, the Belgian
576, the Dutch 236, the German 584, the French 2,266, the Spanish
868, the English 270, the Irish' 139, and the Amerioan 350; the
rest belonging to other nations. At Rome there are 344 Jesuits,
and in the foreign missions 1,362, of whom 560 are French, 296
Spanish, and 260 Italians, the remainder being natives of other
countries.
Trade.
The international trade of the Papal States is extremely small,
although facilitated by the excellent port of Civita Vecchia. The
commercial intercourse with the United Kingdom is shown in the
subjoined table, which gives the value of the imports from the
Papal States into the United Kingdom, and the exports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures to the Papal States in each of
the ^ve years 1861-5 : —
Imports from Papal States
Exports of Home Produce
Year
into the
from the United Kingdom to the
United Kingdom
Papal States
£
£
1861
1,356
82,567
1862
967
46,991
1863
1,099
26,868
1864
2,626
72,689
1865.
23,921
12,888
A A
354 PAPAL STATES.
The imports from the Papal States into the United Kingdom
consist chiefly of bones of animals ; while the exports to the Papal
States are mainly iron and coals, the former of the average value
of 10,000/., and the latter of about 8,000Z. per annum.
There are four lines of railway in the Papal States : 1st, Rome
to Ceprano; 2nd, !Rome to Civita Vecchia; 3rd, Rome to Corese;
4th, Rome to Frascati and Albano. The total length of these rail-
ways is 84 English miles. The trains run only once a day on the
Ceprano line to Naples ; the others twice and three times a day.
But the traffic has fallen off in the last few years, and but little
profit is made upon them. The Frascati line is an annual loss.
Money, Weights, and Mea4rare8.
The money, weights, and measures of Italy, with the British
equivalents, are : —
MOKEY.
The Lira, average rate of exchange,
„ Eoman 8cudo „ „
25
^
1/. sterling.
4«. U.
»»
It
) KUogramme ....
lAtre, liquid measure .
Roman lAbra
Roman jBtt^>Wo .
•
=
2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
0-22 imperial gallon.
0-76 lb. avoirdupois.
8*10 imperial busliels.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. OmciAi Publications.
Statistica Amministrativa del Begno d'ltalia. Biveduta ed ampliata per cura
del Minister© dell' intemo. 4. Firenze, 1866.
Annuario Generale dell* Industria e Commercio del Begno d'ltalia per
I'Anno 1866. 8. Firenze, 1866.
Annuario del Ministero delle Finanze del Begno d'ltalia. 4. Firenze, 1866.
Annuario Ufficiale della Marina Italiana. 4. Torino, 1866.
La Navigazione Italiano e il Commercio Estero. 8. Torino, 1866.
Belazione della Camera di commercio ed arti di Napoli, sopra la statistica ed
il movimento commerciale ed industriale nell' anno 1865. 8. Napoli, 1866.
Beports by Mr. West, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, Com-
merce, Bailways, Finance, and Public Credit of Italy, dated Jan. 1, and Jan.
15, 1863; in 'Beports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VL
London, 1863.
Beport by Mr. "West, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Government,
Trade, and Industry of Italy, dated Jan. 1, 1864; in * Beports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VII. London, 1864.
Beport by Mr. West, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Population,
Taxation, Industry, and Agriculture of Italy; dated July 6, 1863; in
* Beports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,* &c. No. VIII. London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. Herries, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and
Commerce of Italy, dated February 1866 ; in ' Beports of H. M.'8 Secretaries
of Embassy.' No. XIII. London, 1866.
BOOKS OF BEFERENCE. 355
Beport by Mr. Consul Goodwin on the Trade of Sicily for the year 1864 ; in
* Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Now-Official Puklicatiom8.
Abate (Tommaso) Eiordinamento dei Bilanci delloStato, e Biforma Econo-
mica nel Sistema delle Lnposte. 8. Torino, 1866.
Acqua (Bag. Angelo del?) Annuario Statistico del Begno d* Italia per I'Anno
1866, eompilato su dati ufficiali. (Anno VI.) 8. Milano, 1866.
Annuano industriale italiano pel 1866, ossia Dizionario statistico-storico-
opmmerciale d' Italia. 8. Napoli, 1866.
Biamchi (N.) Storia Documentata della Diplomazia Europea in Italia dall'
Anno 1814 all' Anno 1861. 6 vols. 8. Torino, 1865.
Biffart (Oberlieut. M.) Venetien mit dem Festungsvierecke, eine militar-
geographische Skizze. 8. Darmstadt^ 1868.
Broivn (Samuel) Statistical Progress of the Kingdom of Italy. In * Journal
of the Statistical Society.' Vol. XIX. 8. London, 1866.
Castro (Vincenzo de) Belazione suUo Stato dell* Istruzione Primaria nel •
Oiroondario di Abbiategrasso nell' Anno scolastico 1859-1860, presentato al
Consiglio provinciale per le seuole. 8. Milano, 1862.
Cesare (Carlo de) II Passato, il Presente e I'Avvenire della Pubblica Am-
ministrazione nel Begno d' Italia. 8. Firenze, 1865.
Cobbe (Frances Power) Italics : Brief Notes on Politics, People, and Places
in Italy, in 1864. 8. London, 1865.
Correnii e Maestri (N.) Annuario Statistico Italiano. 8. Torino, 1866.
Jkbrauzde ScUdapenna (le Chevalier Louis) Organisation Administrative des
Etats de I'Eglise. M6moire du Gouvemement Pontifical, communique par le
nonce du Samt Si^ge au Cabinet Fran9ais le 2 Janvier 1863 ; avec preface et
introduction. 8. Paris, 1864.
De 8dlis (Monsign., Protonot. Apostol.) DeU' AutoritA del Be nelle Materi©
di Disciplina e di Polizia Ecclesiastica. 12. Napoli, 1862.
Fabi (Massimo) Yiaggio in Italia. Novissima guida descrittiya-storica-
statistica. Ediz. 10. 12. Mikno, 1866.
Falconi (Marino) SuUe Imposte. Lettere all' awocato Giuseppe Camazza
Puglisi. 8. Torino, 1862.
Filippo (Amat. di S.) Del commercio e della navigazione dell* isola di
Saardegna, con alcuni docimienti inediti o ran. 8. Cagliari, 1866.
Gigli (Ottavio) Gli Istituti di Beneficenza e i Beni Ecclesiastici negli ex-
Stati Pontifici. Studii con Documenti inediti. 8. Firenze, 1866.
Ghuida Generale del Commercio e dell' Industria ItaHana per il 1863. 4.
Milano, 1865.
Lossvw (Ed. V.) Handbuch zur Beise nach und in Italien. 8. Berlin, 1866.
Nohl (Max.) Tagebuch einer italienischen Beise. Herausgegeben von Wilh.
Lubke. 8. Stuttgart, 1866.
Plebano et Mvsso (J.) Les Finances du Boyaume d'ltalie, consid^r^s par
rapport k Thistoire, & I'^conomie publique, a Tadministration et a la politique;
avec une preface, par M. Paul Boiteau. 8. Paris, 1865.
Postel (I'abb^ V.) La Sicile, souvenir, r^cits et l^gendes. 8. Paris, 1866.
Rossi (Yincenzio) Delle Condizioni dell' Italia neU' Agricoltura, nelle Mani>
ffttture e nel Commercio in con&onto dell' Inghilterra e della Francia e della
liberta del Commercio. 8. Milano, 1865.
▲ ▲2
356
NETHERLANDS.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
William III., King of the Netherlands, born Februaiy 19, 1817,
the eldest son of King William II., and of Princess Anna Paulowna,
daughter of Czar Paul I. of Russia ; educated by private tutors, and
at the University of Leyden ; succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his father, March 17, 1849. Married, June 18, 1839, to
Sophie, Queen of the Netherlands, bom June 17, 1818, the second
daughter of King William I. of Wiirtemberg. Offspring of the union
are two sons : — 1. Prince Williamy heir-apparent, born September 4,
1840; admiral in the Dutch navy. 2. Prince Alexander, bom
August 25, 1851 ; lieutenant in the regiment of Grenadiers.
Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Prince Henry, bom June 13,
1 820 ; Governor-General of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg ;
married. May 19, 1853, to Princess Amalia, daughter of the late
Duke Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. 2. Princess Sophie, born April 8,
1824 ; married, October 8, 1842, to Grand Duke Charles Alexander
of Saxe- Weimar.
Uncle and Aunt of the King. — Prince Frederick, bom February
28, 1797, second son of King William I. of the Netherlands ; field-
marshal of the Dutch army; married, May 21, 1825, to Princess
Louise, daughter of King Frederick WiUiam III. of Prussia. Issue
of the union are two daughters, Louise, born August 5, 1828, and
married to the King of Swe^den and Norway ; and Marie, born July 5,
1841. 2. Princess Marianne, born May 9, 1810. sister of the prece-
ding; married, September 14, 1830, to Prince Albert of Prussia;
divorced March 28, 1^49.
The royal family of the Netherlands — known as the House of
Orange-Nassau, in distinction from the elder branch of Orange-
Walram, formerly ruling the Duchy of Nassau — descend from a Ger-
man Count Walram, or Walrab, who lived in the eleventh century.
Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht with Joan of Polanen,
in 1404, the family acquired the little principality of Breda, and
thereby got a footing in the Netherlands. The alliance with another
heiress, only sister of the childless Prince of Orange and Coimt of
Chalon, brought to the house a rich province in the south of France ;
and a third matrimonial union, that of Count WiUiam II. of Nassau-
Orange with a daughter of King James II., transferred the crown of
Great Britain to the family. Previous to this period, the members
had acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands, and,
under the name of * stadhouders,' or governors, become the sovereign
CONSTITUTIOlff AND GOVERNMENT. 357
rulers of the State. The dignity was formally declared to be heredi-
tary in 1747, in William IV. ; but his successor, William V., had to
fly to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican
army. The family did not return till the year 1815, when, in
consequence of a decree of the Congress of Vienna, dated May 31,
William VI. was solemnly proclaimed King of the Netherlands,
tmder the title of William I. He abdicated in 1840, making over
the CTOwn to his son, William II., who, after a reign of nine years,
left it to his heir, the present King.
The Sovereign, according to the terms of the Constitution, has a
civil list of 600,000 guilders, or 50,000Z. ; while an additional sum
of 300,000 guilders, or 25,000/., is set out as allowances for the
princes or princesses of the royal family, and the maintenance of
the Court. The latter sum is divided at present in the manner that
the heir- apparent has 100,000 guilders, or 8,333Z. ; the queen-
dowager, 150,000 guilders, or 12,500Z. ; and the remaining 50,000
guilders, or 4,166Z., are given as a subsidy for the maintenance of the
royal palaces. The family of Orange-Nassau are, besides, in the
enjoyment of a very large private fortune, amassed, in greater part, by
the * merchant-king' William I., who is believed to have acquired no
less than 150 millions guilders in successful speculations. But the
richest member of the royal family is not the King, but his uncle.
Prince Frederick, who, to some extent, continued the enterprises of
his father, William I., and who now passes for one of the wealthiest
princes of Europe. Prince Frederick is a liberal patron of arts
and sciences, and devotes a large portion of his immense wealth to
charitable purposes.
The House of Orange-Nassau has given the following Sovereigns
to the Netherlands, since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the
Congress of Vienna: —
House of Orange-Nassau,
William 1 1815
William II 1840
WilUara III 1849
The average reign of the three Sovereigns, inclusive of the reign cf
the present king, amounted to 16 years.
Constitution and Government
The present fundamental law — grondwet — of the Netherlands
received the royal sanction October 14, 1848, and was solemnly
proclaimed Nov. 3, 1848. This charter vests the whole legiplati-ve
authority in a Parliament composed of two Chambers, called the
States- General. The Upper House, or first Chamber, consists of 39
members, elected by the provincial Diets from among the most highly
assessed inhabitants of the various counties. The second Chamber of
the States-General numbers 72 members, ^kclvid \i^ \i?i2^Qt\.* ^s^
358 NETHEBLAlfDS.
citizens, natives of the Netherlands, paying taxes to the amount of
120 guilders, or lOZ., are voters. Clergymen, military officers in
active service, and judges, are debarred from being elected. The
members of the second Chamber receive an annual allowance of 2,000
guilders, or 166/., besides travelling expenses. Every two years one-
half of the members of the second Chamber, and every three years
one- third of the members of the Upper House retire by rotation. The
Sovereign has the right to dissolve either of the Chambers separately,
or both together, at any time, but new elections must take place
within forty days. The second Chamber alone has the initiative of
new laws, and the functions of the Upper House are restricted to
either approving or rejecting them, without the right of inserting
amendments. The constitutional advisers of the King, having a
seat in the Cabinet, must attend at the meetings of both Houses,
and have a deliberative voice ; but, unless they are also members,
cannot take an active part in the debate. All financial measures
must originate in the second Chamber^ and the assent of both the
Sovereign and the Upper House is required before any bill which
has passed the House of Representatives becomes law. The royal
veto, however, is seldom, if ever, brought into practice. Alterations
in the Constitution can only be made by the vote of two-thirds of
the members of both Houses, followed by a general election, and a
second confirmation, by two-third vote, of the new States-GeneraL
The executive authority is in the hands of the sovereign, and
exercised by him through a responsible Council of Ministers. There
are seven departments in the Ministerial Coimcil, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Baron S. Van Heemstra, ap-r
pointed May 28, 1866.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Baron Schimmelperminkj appointed
May 28, 1866.
3. The Ministry of Justice. — Jonkheer E. J. H. Borret, appointed
May 28, 1866.
4. The Ministry of the Colonies. — N. Trakranen, appointed
September 16, 1866.
5. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Jonkheer Zuylen Van
NyevelU appointed May 28, 1866.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Chevalier Huyssen de Kattendi/ke,
appointed March 12, 1862.
7. The Ministry of War. — General J. W. Blanken, appointed
February 1, 1862.
Each of the above ministers has a salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,000Z. per annum. Whenever the sovereign presides over the
deliberations of the ministry, the meeting is called a 'Cabinet
Council,' and the privilege to be present at it is given to all princes
of the royal family who are of age. There is also a Pri-vy Council
CHURCH AND BBUOATION. 359
of 14 members, all nominated by the (Jovemnient, wliich the sove-
reign may consult on extraordinary occasions.
Clmrcli and Education.
According to the terms of the Constitntion, entire liberty of con-
science and complete social equality is granted to the members of
all religious confessions. The royal femily, and a majority of the
inhabitants, belong to the Reformed Church; but the Roman Catholics
are not fax inferior in numbers. In the census of 1849 — more recent
enumerations do not show the religious creed — the number of Cal-
vinists, or members of the Reformed Church, is given as 1,906,618 ;
of Lutherans, 66,170; of Roman Catholics, 1,220,087; of Greek
Catholics, 41 ; of divers other Christian denominations, 41,151 ; and
of Jews, 64,070. The government of the Reformed Church is Presby-
terian ; while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, of
Utrecht, and four bishops, of Harlem, Breda, Roermond, and Herzo-
genbush. The salaries of several British Presbyterian ministers,
settled in the Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with
the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid put of the public funds.
There is a strongly-developed tendency to sectarianism in the
larger towns of the Netherlands, illustrated in the subjoined analysis
of file population of Amsterdam, in the year 1860 : —
Memherg of the Dutch Reformed Church . . . 128,228
„ „ French or Walloon Church . . 3,000
„ „ Presbyterian Church .... 248
„ „ English Episcopal Church . . . 170
Lutherans 34,684
.Baptists 3,787
Armenians 960
Moravians 3
Other Protestant Dissenters 659
Roman Catholics 57,168
* Old Roman Catholics ' 313
Greek Catholics • . . . 15
Jews 28,389
Belonging to none of the above-mentioned communities 161
Total . . 257,780
Education is well conducted, and very generally diffused. On
January 15, 1857, there were 2,478 public schools, with 4,638
schoolmasters and 134 schoolmistresses. The pupils numbered
186,766 boys, and 136,001 girls. The teachers are superintended
by 70 school -inspectors, who act under an inspector-general, depend-
ing on the Minister of the Interior. It is the duty of the inspectors
to grant licenses for the establishment of schools, and to present to
the Government, three times a year, an account of the state of public
instruction. Besides the public schools, there are 944 higher educa-
360
NETHERLANDS.
tional establishments, with 1,842 male and 777 female teachers, and—
according to an enumeration of July 15, 1857 — attended by 40,493
male and 40,652 female pupils. A fuller education than these impart
63 additional * Latin schools,' with 1,802 pupils. Above them are
the three universities of Ley den, Groningen, and Utrecht, with 1,327
students. The ecclesiastical training schools comprise six Roman
Catholic and two Protestant seminaries. There are also three military,
one naval, and one veterinary school. The proportion of attendance
in the public schools ia one in eight of the entire population.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the kingdom, as shown in the
budgets, were as follows in each of the four years 1860 to 1863 : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1860 ....
1861 ....
1862 ; . . .
1863 ....
£
7,556,768
7,605,167
7,208,124
8,232,265
£
6,651,272
7,015,428
7,150,666
8,168,399
The budget for the year 1864-5 estimated the public income and
expenditure of the kingdom of the Netherlands as follows : —
Estimated Revenue for 1864-5
Direct taxes :
Land tax ....
Personal taxes .
Tax on trades and professions
Total ....
Excise :
Sugar
Wine
Spirits ....
Salt
Soap . . . ► .
Beer and vinegar
Butchers' meat .
Coals ....
Turf
Total .
Guilders
10,435,450
7,332,000
2.982,400
20,749,850
£1,727,155
2,000,000
1,260,000
5,850,000
2,580,000
1,260,000
510,000
1,380,000
1,590,000
1,650,000
18,080,000
£1,506,670
BETBNUB AND EXPEITDITCBE.
361
E^timotod BfiVSDue tor l864^^
Guildera
Indirect taxeii :
Hegi^atration .*,»,,,
Succession and inlicritance * , , ,
38 por Cfint. on these duties ....
Total
Import, and oxpoit dues :
Duties on imports, &e, , , , » ,
Lights {md buoys ..,..,
Stamps on inittrunieiits * . , . .
Percentngea .*.**.,
Total
Aesnj and tax on arti^^les of gold and «ilrer .
Public domain :
From the ordinarj domain, tithea, &C,
From the domuin in posaesaion of the "War De-
puftment -*,.,..
Boadfl mid cajiols ««...,
Total .
Poat-office ,,,.,,,.
Tekg;raphfl ...*»..,
Lottery -,..,,,*
Game ilcens^a ..*,,,,
Pilotage
Mines *....,.,,
Miscelliineon^ ...».*.
Contribution from Belgium, puraiuint to treaty of
KovpmbcT 5, 1832 . ^ . , ; .
Second inetidment of pnrchaae-monpy of Scheldt
dncH , * . » ^ , . , :
Latf^resfc on balance of purchuBe-money of Scheldt
due^ not jet paid up *
Colonial surplus
CoTttribntion from rhe Eaist Indiao revenue to-
wanla paymfiit of the intcrcHt on debt, charged
on the EiiHt Indian PoBfieBHiona ....
Contribution from the Ea^t Lidiim ™ venue to piiy
dede'it on the bodgeta of the other colonics
From biklaneea of former yeara * ...
Tottd revcnae * * , , ,
M00.000
300,000
2,300,U00
3,439,000
12,489,000
£1.040.756
3,600,000
330,000
7.200
2J3G
3,939,935
jg32S,328
256,500
£21,375
4S3.&00
84,800
690,800
1,259,400
£104,950
2,100,000
305,700
410,000
100,000
700,000
fi98
1,701,879
400,000
3,089,253
312,832
19,463.000
£1,621,917
9,800,000
2,825,000
6,000.000
103,732,849
£8,644,412
36a
NBTHEBLANDS.
The following was the estimated expenditure for 1864-5, sanc-
tioned by the States-General : —
GuDdere
£
Civil list of the King ....
600,000
50,000
Allowance of the Queen Dowager
150,000
12,500
„ „ Prince of Orange .
100,000
8,340
Subsidy for the maintenance of the
royal palaces
60,000
4,170
Superior departments of State
588,029
49,002
Foreign afl&irs
529,245
44,104
Koman Catholic worship
668,672
55,723
Department of Justice .
2,933.744
244,479
Protestant worship ....
1,752,886
146,074
Home department ....
24,278,387
2,023,199
Marine
8,739,953
728,329
National debt
39,976,977
3,331,415
Finance department ....
6,749,200
562,433
War department ....
12,733,000
1,061,083
Colonial department ....
Total expenditure .
Surplus ....
2,925,072
243,756
98,188,018
8,182,335
5,544.931
462,077
Of this surplus, the sum of 5,250,000 guilders, or 437,500Z., is to
be added to the sinking fund for the extinction of the national debt.
The actual produce of the ordinary branches of the public revenue
of the Netherlands for the two years, 1861 and 1862, is represented
in the following table : —
Souxoe of Berenne
ReoeiptB for the twelve
months of 1861
Receipts for the twelve
months of 1862
Direct taxes :
Landtaz ....
Personal taxes .
Patents ....
Dues on mines . •
Total .
Import and export duties and
shipping dues :
Import and export .
Shipping dues .
Lights and buoys
Stamps on instruments .
Total
Guilders Cents
10,370,941 60
7,185,304 82
2,938,932 32
1,296 42
Guilders Gents
10,410,818 27
7,277,475 38
2,978,296 13
1,532 58
20,496,475 16
20,668,122 36
3,977,487 20
1,032,824 90
333,523 25
10,892 28
3,817,514 99
923,066 40
337,465 72
10.682 22
5,354,727 63
5,088,729 33
REYENUE AND EXPENDITUBE.
Sonzca of Hevenue-^conimued,
363
Source of Revenue
Beoeipts for the twelve
months of 1861
for the twelve
months of 1862
Excise:
Wine ^ .
Home spirits
Foreign spirits .
Butchers' meat .
Salt .
Soap .
Beer and vinegar
Coals
Turf.
Total .
Assay and tax on articles of
gold and silver :
Tax
Assajage and percentage .
Total .
Indirect taxes :
Stamps
BegistratioD dues
Mortgage dues .
Duties on successions
Total .
Post-office
Lottery .
Pilotage .
Total revenue
Guilders Cents
2,043,406 86
1,252,196 3
6,689,024 6
281,324 7a
1,402,688 24
2,629,141 80
1,286,713 77
488,215 65
1,655,663 10
1,709,990 11
18,437,364 24
256,748 1
1.831 90
258,579 91
2,085,824 66
5,676,303 26
456,750 46
3,866,546 27
12,085,424 65
2,001,033 90
412,445 50
768,100 84
59,814,151 88
Guilders Cents
1,971,056 13
1,281,428 71
6,705,587 39
283,783 79
1,446,680 65
2,603,259 61
1,259,448 84
516,693 It
1,632,707 36
1,670,233 99
18,370,879 48
253,067 63
1,765 86
254,833 49
2,082,268 92
6,115,929 96
616,631 97
8,548,431 91
12,262.162 76
2,074,022 61
549,486 50
756,845 93
60,025,082 61
The total receipts of 60,025,082 florins 51 cents, equal to
5,002,090Z. for 1862, as shown in the above table, exceed diose of
1861 by 210,930 florins 69 cents, or 17,578/., and the estimate by
1,778,483 floiins 51 cents, or 148,207Z. The revenue derived from
articles of consumption had, however, it will be observed, fallen
below that of the preceding year.
The sums voted for the payment of interest on the national debt
of the Netherlands are as follow :—
364
NETHEBLANUS.
On a capital of 687,078,770 guilders, bearing interest at Guilders
2J per cent 17,176,969
On 104,966,011 guilders 95 cents at 3 per cent.
Half-year's interest on 16,330,000 guilders, and half-
year's interest on 16,030,000 guilders, at 3J per cent
On 202,159,700 guilders, at 4 per cent.
Colonial debentures, capital 12,484,500 guilders, at 4
per cent.
Interests on deposits and life annuities
Kent and other payments charged on the national do-
main .
Total charge for the national debt
3,149,036
666,300
8,086,388
499,380
61,091
Cents
25
45
0
0
0
12
91,424 0
r 29,630,588 82
L £2,469,211
The rest of the sum of 39,976,977 guilders, or 3,331,415/., set
down in the budget as expenditure for the national debt, goes
towards a sinking fund for the same. The operation of this fimd
has brought about a great decrease in the annual charge for the debt
within a comparatively short time, as will be seen from the following
statement, which gives the amount of interest paid during the ten
years 1855-64:—
Guilders
Guilders
1855
35,793,187
1860
31,561,919
1856
35,224,246
1861
30,935,258
1857
34,590,583
1862
30,799,502
1858
34,107,620
1863
30,696,589
1859
32,133,938
1864
29,630,588
According to a statement of the Minister of Finance, made when
laying the budget of 1864 before the States-General, the reduction
of the national debt, from 1848 to 1864, amounted to 185,000,000
guilders, or 15,416,667/. The total debt,- on Dec. 31, 1863, was
1,023,018,982 guHders, or 85,251,581/.
Army and Navy.
The army of the Netherlands is formed partly by conscription and
partly by enlistment, in such a manner that the volimteers form the
stock, as well as. the majority of the troops. The men drawn by con-
scription at the age of twenty have to serve, nominally, five years ;
but practically, all that is required of them is to drill for a few
months, and, returning home on furlough, meet for a fortnight
annually for practice, during a period of four years. Besides the
regular army, there exists a militia — * schutters ' — divided into two
classes. To the first, the * active militia,' belong all men from the
twenty-fiflh to the thirty-fifth year of age ; and to the second, the
* resting (rustende) militia,' all persons from thirty-five to £j^j'£.Ye,
The first class, numbering 26,109 men in the year 1862, is again
Army and navy.
365
subdivided into two distinct parts, the one comprising the unmarried
men and widowers without children, and the other the remaining
married soldiers. The 'resting militia,* to the number of 61,262
men, is distributed in fifty-four full and nine half battalions. A law
passed by the States- General in 1861 orders the assimilation, at a
future period, of the standing army and miHtia ; but no steps have
been taken as yet to effect this object.
The regular army stationed in the Netherlands, at the commence-
ment of 1863, was composed as follows : —
1 regiment of grenadiers and musketeers
8 regiments of infantry of the line
4 „ of light dragoons
1 regiment of heavy dragoons
1 „ of field artillery
1 „ of horse artillery
3 regiments of heavy (fortress) artillery
Staff and 1 battalion of engineers
Total ....
Officers
Men
105
3.875
728
38,632
140
3,484
38
1,035
83
2,744
31
716
204
6,195
106
839
1,435
57,520
The colonial troops numbered the following non-commissioned
oflScers and men on December 31, 1863 : —
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery . .
Sappers and miners
Total
Europeans
Natives
Total
9,884
535
1,611
289
14,845
15
1,066
666
24,729
550
2,677
955
12,319
16,592
28,911
To which force are to be added the officers, all Europeans, consist-
ing of 660 infantry, 27 cavalry, 80 artillery, 20 sappers and miners,
and 340 staff officers — total, 1,127.
Previous to the year 1830, when Belgium was united with
Holland, the standing army of the Netherlands consisted of but
25,000 men, with 140,000 militia, and 43,000 colonial' troops. The
Belgian revolution caused a great increase of the standing army,
which has since that time never been brought down again to its
former normal state.
The navy of the Netherlands was composed, x>n July 1, 1864,
of the following steam and sailing vessels : —
steamers
5 screw frigates of from 45 to 51 guns
2 „ corvettes of 19 guns
38 „ sloops of from 8 to 16 guns
13 paddle-steamers of from 1 to 8 guns
58 men-of-war, with . ^
Guns
243
38
425
79
785
366
NETHERLANDS.
Sailing YesaeU
2 second-class ships of the line of 74 guns .
3 first-class frigates „ „ 52 „
4 second-class frigates „ „ 32 ,,
4 first-class corvettes „ „ 22 „
4 second-class corvettes of from 10 to 20 guns
6 brigs of from 12 to 18 guns
6 ' swimming batteries ' of from 26 to 32 guns
6 sloops of from 2 to 10 guns
48 gun-boats of from 2 to 8 guns .
81 sailing men-of-war, with • . . .
Ouiui
148
156
128
88
80
78
146
32
130
936
The navy was manned, on July 1, 1864, by 6,137 sailors,
officered by 1 admiral, 1 'admiral-lieutenant,' 3 vice-admirals,
4 rear admirals (*schouten-bij-nacht') 20 captains, 40 commanders,
298 first and second lieutenants, 186 midshipmen (' adelborsten ')
and 123 administrative officers. The marine infantry, at the same
date, consisted of 46 officers and 2,088 non-commissioned officers and
privates. Both sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment,
conscription being allowed, but not actually in force.
At the session of the States-General of 1863, a bill was adopted
granting a credit to the ministry of marine for transforming a part of
file fleet of the Netherlands into iron-clad vessels.
PopnlatioiL
The kingdom, since the separation of Belgium, consists of the
following ten provinces : —
ProvinosB
Area
Population in
Population
square miles
1838
Dec. 31, 1861
North Holland .
928
423,873
634,119
South Holland
1,166
609^661
636,193
Zealand
688
145,642
170,131
Utrecht
642
140,674
163,333
Guelderland.
2,018
336,401
410,464
Overyssel .
1,293
191,062
240,209
Drenthe
788
70,271
98,509
Groningen . .
778
172,437
211,462
Friesland .
1,151
227,415
278,669
North Brabant .
1,663
366,160
411,946
Total .
10,906
2,683,396
3,372,662
The pure Dutch, or Netherlanders, nimibering about 2^ millions,
inhabit the provinces of North and South Holland, Zealand, Utrecht,
and Guelderland ; the Friesians, speaking a dialect of the Dutch
language^ are- dispersed, to the number of half a million, through
HETHBRLANDS.
367
Overyssel, Drenthe, Groningen, and Friesland; while North
Brabant is almost entirely inhabited by a Flemish population.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages was, at four different
miTinal periods, as follows :— -
Years
Births
Deaths
1861
1864
1868
1860
117,036
109,563
112,898
116,669
74,557
81,794
97,977
102,627
26,368
23,866
26,342
27,007
Among the births in the year 1860, were 6,965 illegitimate
clnldren, or about five per cent. StiU-bom children, included in
the list, were to the number of 6,743, or nearly six per cent. The
male population in the year 1860 numbiered 1,663,395, and the
female 1,693,934.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively larger town population
than any other country in Europe. According to the census of
Dec. 31, 1861, there are thirteen towns in the kingdom with a
population of above 20,000 inhabitants. They are — Delft, with
20,858; Nymegen, with 21,625 ; Dort, with 23,117; Hertogenbosh,
with 23,243; Leeuwarden, with 25,536; Arnhem, with 26,382;
Harlem, with 28,145; Groningen, with 36,112; Ley den, with
87,102; Utrecht, with 54,495; The Hague (*S'Gravenhage'),
with 81,393 ; Rotterdam, with 109,402 ; and Amsterdam, with
268,355 inhabitants. In the provinces of North and South
Holland the population of the eleven principal towns is considerably
larger than that of the country districts. The natural increase of
population, however, is higher in the rural parts than the cities.
Trade and Indastry.
In the last ten years the average annual value of the merchandise
imported into the United Kingdom from the Netherlands amounted
in round numbers to 8 millions sterling. The total value of the
imports from the Netherlands into the United Kingdom, and of the
exports of British and Irish produce to the Netherlands, in each of
the ^re years, 1861-5, is shown in the subjoined table : —
Imports from the Netherlands
Exports of Home Produce
Yeftrs
into the
from the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
to the Netherlands
1861
7,692,895
£
6,434,919
1862
7,863,031
6,046,242
1863
8,661,119
6,324,696
1864
11,660,639
6,885,463
1865
12,451,466
8,111,022
368
NETHERLANDS.
The principal article of import from the Netherlands into the
United Kingdom is butter, the average value of which, in the ^yb
years, 1861-5, was about 1,500,000/. Live animals and com
form the other chief imports. The staple articles of export from
the United Kingdom to the Netherlands are cotton and woollen
manufactures, averaging two millions sterling per annum.
The total value of the imports and exports of the Netherlands in
the years 1860-2, from and to all countries, and inclusive of the
imports of bullion and specie, is given in the subjoined tables : —
Impobts into the Nbthbrlands, 1^60-2.
Total Imports, J5j^^* i 'a
includiLteansit ' ^^ . ^*"^ *°^
° ^^ nver . . .
Total
Entered for home consumption "I
(Vrije Verkeer) J
TBy sea . . .
In Transit ... By land and
(^ river . . .
Total
I860
1861
1862
£
25,585,834
12,102,969
£
28,265,163
10,832,293
£
25,497,748
11,634,541
37,688,803 39,097,456
37,132,289
26,365,780 27,917,329
27,448,946
7,205,949 7,162,370
4,197,654 3,463,514
7,127,619
3,513,002
11,403,603 10,625,884
10,640,621
Exports from the Netherlands, 1860-2.
Total Exports, J2^ ^®it J 1„^'
including trknsit|\^^^^^^ ^^^^
Total
Dutch produce, &c. (Vrye Verkeer) .
rBysea . . .
In Transit ... -^ By land and
t river . . .
Total
I860
1861
1862
£
17,892,931
14,503,608
£
17,411,202
16,015,624
£
16,865,108
14,916,847
32,396,539
33,426,826
31,781,966
20,992,937
22,800,942
21,141,334
7,205,949
4,197,654
7,162,370
3,463,514
7,127,619
3,513,002
11,403,603
10,625,884
10,640,621
COLONIES.
369
The commerce of the Netherlands has greatly increased within
the last ten years. During this time, the imports froni Great Britain,
Germany, and Russia have nearly doubled, while the exports have
risen chiefly to Germany, Belgium, and Italy.
The mercantile marine of the Netherlands on December 31, 1864,
consisted of: —
Clippers
9
measuring
6,134 tons
Ships (full rigged)
127
99
101,130 „
Barques
364
»»
210,038 „
Brigs .
147
it
36,130 ,i
Schooners
386
If
64,260 „
Brigantines
2
»»
372 „
GaUiots
314
n
38,976 „
Koffs, &c .
734
»»
76,988 „
Hookers
. 26
M
2,826 ^
Sloops .
6
n
348 „
Smacks, &c.
. 149
19
6,416 „
Steamers
. 38
2,289
vessels
12,636 „
Total
664,244 tons
The chief manufactures of the Netherlands are hnen of the finest
quality, woollens, silks, and velvets, paper, leather, and tobacco. The
manufacture of cotton goods has been recently introduced, but does
not flourish, owing to the absence of coal. About 97 per cent, of the
cotton e:xpc«ts go to the Dutch East India possessions, this being a
protected trade, as goods furnished with a certificate of Netherland
origin pay only duty in those possessions at one half of the rates paid
by foreign goods.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands are divided into the
following dependencies : —
Area in English
square miles
Population Dec 31,
1859
Possessions in the East Indies
„ „ West Indies
„ „ West Coast of Africa
Total ....
620,179
64,187
10,626
17,980,000
86,792
110,118
684,991
18,176,910
The revenue and expenditure of the East Indian colonies, exclusive
gf Java, in the year 1860, is shown in the following table : —
B B
37°
NETHEBLASDS.
Receipts
Expenditure
Sumatra :
Guilders
Guilders
Grovemment of West Coast
7,965,884
6,876,276
Benkoelen ....
187,603
340,618
Lampongs ....
2,051
138,362
Palembang ....
611,639
983,852
Banka
16,325,722
9,832,958
Billiton
33,609
30,997
Riouw
264,880
848,691
Borneo :
Pontianak ....
684,814
646,810
Sambas
343,347
947,910
Bandjermassim
826,594
947,065
Macassar, &c
536,468
1,162,945
Moluccas :
Amboina
323,931
927.326
Banda
1,643,323
932,113
Temate
46,878
228,599
Menado, &c .
763,344
769,416
Timor
Total
64,736
126,327
29,403,830
24,239,261
£2,460,319
£2,019,938
The above accotmt leaves a clear surplus of 5,164,569 guilders, or
430,380/., as profit for the Home Government, exclusive of com-
mercial transactions.
The revenue and expenditure of the West Indian and African
colonies, in the year 1860, is shown in the subjoined statement: —
Dependencies
Receipts
Expenditure
Surinam
West Indian Islands .
Coast of Guinea ....
Total . . . .-
Guilders
1,018,850
302,268
5,450
Guilders
1,643,034
793,781
120,450
1,326,668
£110,506
2,457,265
£204,772
This leaves an annual deficit in the administration of the "West
Indian and African colonies of 94,2 2 6 Z., which, however, is more
than covered by the profits on commerce, drawn direct by the
Government of the Netherlands. From documents issued by the
Colonial Office in December, 1862, it appears that the total amoimt
realised by the Gk)vemment in 1860 from its importations from the
BOOKS OF REFEBENCE. 37 1
Dutch colonies was 58,493,399 guilders, or 4,874,449Z. The produce
represented by this amount was brought to the European market
through the medium of the * Netherlands Trading Company,' the
Government's brokers. The expenses incurred in the cultivation
and shipping of this produce, and for the governmental charges of
the colonies, amounted to 35,194,720 guilders, which left the home
power a balance of profit of 23,194,720 guilders, or 1,932,893Z.
Slavery ceased in the West Indian colonies on the 1st of July,
1860. There were, at this period, 11,386 slaves, for each of whom,
without regard to age or sex, the owner received 33Z. in compensa-
tion. All the emancipated slaves liad to imdergo an apprentice-
ship of three years, during which period one-half of their income
was retained by the Home Government.
For a detailed account of the principal colonial possession of the
Netherlands, Java and Madura, see Part 11. of the Statesman's
Year Book.
Money. Weights, and Measnres.
The money, weights, and measures of the Netherlands, and the
British equivalents, are :— >
Monet.
The Guilder^ or Florin = Is. Sd.
"Weights and Measubbs.
The Pond . . =» 2.2 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Mtcd of potatoes =• 2} imperial bushels.
„ „ of coals . — 2f imperial bushels, about 10.8 Muden to the ton.
„ Last of grain . « lOj imperial quarters.
„ Kanne . • = If imperial pints, about 4^ to the imperial gallon.
„ CuUc M . . = 35.3 cubic feet.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands.
1. Official Publications.
Staats-Almanak voop het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1866. Met mag-
tiging van de regering uit officiele opgaven zamengesteld. 8. s' Gravenhage,
1866.
Statistisch Jaarboek voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. Uitgegeven
door het departement van Binnenlandsche zaken. 's Gravenhage, 1866.
Marine, Koninklijke Nederlandscbe, op den 1 Januarij 1866. Verkrijgbaar
aan het Ministerie vau Marine. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1866.
Naam- en Ranglijst der Officieren van het Koninkl. Leger der Nederlanden en
van Nederlandsch-Jndien. Voor 1865. 33 jaargang. Gorinchem, 1865.
Staat der Nederl. Zeemagt en Koopvaardij-vloot. Op. 1. Januarij 1868.
8. Amsterdam, 1864.
Statistiek van het Gevangeniswezen over 1863. 8. *s Gravenhage. 1865.
Geregtelyke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der "Nederlanden. 4. 's Graven-
hage, 1861-66.
BB 2
372 NBTHERLiLNDS.
Verzameling der konsulaire berigten en verslagen over nijverlieid, handel en
scheepvaart. le jaarg. 8. *8 Graven hage, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Ward, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, Com-
merce, Manufactures, and Public Revenue of the Netherlands, dated June 27i
1862, and Jan. 17 and 27, 1863 ; in * Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy,' &c. No. VI. London, 1863.
Reports by Mr. Ward, H. M.*s Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce, In-
dustry, Railways, Public Credit, and Taxation of the Netherlands, dated July 2,
1863, and Jan. 23, Jan. 31, and June 20, 1864 ; in * Reports of H. M.*s Secre-
taries of Embassy,' &c. No. VII. London, 1864.
Reports by Mr. Ward, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Revenue, Expen-
diture, and Public Debt of the Netherlands, dated Jan. 11 and Feb. 3, 1865 ;
in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VIII. London,
1866.
Report by Mr. Ward, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on Agricultural Statistics,
dated Jan. 10, 1866 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XIL
London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul Newnham on the Trade and Navigation of North
Holland during the Year 1863 ; in * Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.' London, 1864.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Brugsma (F. C.) Nederland en zijne Overzeesche bezittingen. 8. Groningen,
1865.
Geuns (J. J. van) Het Recht van Amendement der Parlementaire Vergade-
ringen. Historisch-staatsrechtelijke proeve. 8. Utrecht, 1864.
Hardenberg (H.) Overzigt der vomaamste Bepalingen betreffende de Sterkte,
Zamenstelling, Betaling, Verzorging en Verpleging van het Nederlaudsche
Leger, sedert den vre^e van Utrecht in 1713 tot den tegenwoordigen tijd.
Hoofdzakelijk op voet van vrede. 2e gedeelte. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1864.
Hviet (A.) Ontwerp eener vrije Verbinding van Nederlands Hoofdstad met de
Noordzee. fol. Amsterdam, 1866.
Jaarhoekje^ Staatkundig en staathuishoudkundig, voor 1866. Uitgegeven
door de vereeniging voor de statistiek in Nederland. 18. jaarg, 8. Amsterdam,
1866.
LaveJeye (E.), Etudes d'Economie Rurale : La N^erlande. 8. Paris, 1866.
Mollerus (J. H. M.) Geschiedtundig overzigt van het Handelsstelsel in Ne-
derlandsch-Indie. 8. Utrecht, 1866.
Staat, Tegenwoordige, van het Koningnjk der Nederlanden. Beschrijving
en afbeelding der steden, dorpen, heerlijkheden, landgoederen en verdere
merkwaardige plaatsen in ons vaderland. Zuid-Holland. Door A. W. Kroon.
Amsterdam, 1862.
Sweijs (H.) Ne^rlands vloot en Reederijen. Alphabetisch opgemaakt. 6e
jaargang. 8. Rotterdam, 1864.
Tijdschrift voor Staathuishoudkunde en Statistiek. Algemeen register op
den mhoud der. 20 eerste jaargangen door Mr. B. W. A. E. Sbet tot Oldhuis.
8. Zwolle, 1866.
Verslag van den handel, scheepvaart en nijverveid van Amsterdam, over het
jaar 1866. Opgemaakt door de Kamer van Koophandel en fabrieken aldaar.
8. Amsteidam, 1866.
373
PORTUGAL
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Luis I., King of Portugal, born Oct. 31, 1838, the son of
Queen Maria II. and of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg; suc-
ceeded his brother, King Pedro V., Nov. 11, 1861 ; married Oct. 6,
1862, to
Pia^ Queen of Portugal, born Oct. 16, 1847, the youngest
daughter of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy. Issue of the union are
two sons, Carlos, bom Sept. 28, 1863, and Alfonso, born July 31,
1865.
Sisters and Brother of the King, — 1. Princess Maria, bom July
21, 1843; married. May 11, 1859, to Prince George, second son of
the King of Saxony. 2. Princess Antonia, born Feb. 17, 1845 ;
married, Sept. 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen. 3. Prince Augustus, born Nov. 4, 1847.
Father of the King, — Prin,ce Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, titular
'King of Portugal,' born Oct. 29, 1816, the eldest son of the late
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; married, April 9, 1836, to Queen
Maria II. of Portugal; obtained the title * King,' JSept. 16, 1837;
widower, Nov. 15, 1853 ; Kegent of Portugal during the minority of
his son, the late King Pedro V., Nov. 15, 1853, to Sept. 16, 1855.
Great- Aunts and Uncle of the King. — 1. Princess Teresa, bom
April 29, 1793, the daughter of King Joao VI. of Portugal and of
Princess Charlotte of Spain ; married, April 11, 1809, to Don Pedro
of Spain ; widow July 4, 1812 ; married, a second time, Oct. 20,
1838, to Don Carlos, pretender to the crown of Spain; widow,
March 10, 1855. 2. Princess Maria, sister of the preceding, bom
July 4, 1801 ; Kegent of Portugal from March 10, 1826, to Feb.
26, 1828. 3. Prince Miguel, born Oct. 26, 1802 ; Kegent of
Portugal, Feb. 26, 1828 ; declared King of Portugal by decree of
June 30, 1828 ; abdicated May 29, 1834 ; married, Sept. 24, 1851,
to Adelheid, daughter of the non-sovereign Prince of Lowenstein-
Wertheim-Rocliefort, domiciled in the grand duchy of Baden.
Offspring of the union are four daughters and one son, who assume
the title of Prince and Princesses of Portugal, but are not acknow-
ledged as such by the Government of King Luis I.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of
Braganza, which dates from the commencement of the frfleenth
374
PORTUaAL.
century, at which period Affonso, an illegitimate son of King Joao
or John I., was created by his father Duke of Braganza and Lord of
Guimaraens. When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the House
of Avis, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his
nominal successor, Henrique * the Cardinal,' Philip II. of Spain took
possession of the country, claiming it in virtue of his descent from a
Portuguese princess ; but in disregard of the fundamental law of the
kingdom, passed by the Cortes of Lam ego in 1139, which excluded
all foreign princes from the succession. After bearing the Spanish
rule for more than half a century, the people of Portugal revolted,
and proclaimed Don Joao, the then Duke of Braganza, as their king,
he being the nearest heir to the throne, though of an illegitimate
issue. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of Joao FV., to
which Portuguese historians appended the title * the Fortunate.'
From this Joao, through many vicissitudes of family, the present
rulers of Portugal are descended. For two centuries the members
of the line of Braganza kept up the ancient blood alliances with the
reigning house of Spain ; but the custom was broken through by the
late Queen Maria IL, who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg,
entered the great family of Teutonic Sovereigns. Luis I. is the
second Sovereign of Portugal of the line of Braganza- Coburg.
Luis I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis, or about 82,000Z. ; but
His Majesty returns annually 26,000 milreis to the public exchequer,
to be employed for educational purposes. The expenses of the whole
Court, including the allowance to King Ferdinand and the other
princes, amoimt to 675,000 milreis, or nearly 152,000/. King Luis
has settled upon his consort, Queen Pia, sixty contos of reis, or
14,000Z., from his own civil list, declining a proffered grant from
the fimds of the nation.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns of Portugal since its
conquest from the Moors : —
I. House of Burgimdy,
Henri of Burgundy
Affonso I.
Sancho I.
Affonso IL, 'the Fat*
Sancho IL, *Capel'
Affonso III. .
Diniz, * the Farmer *
Affonso IV. .
Pedro, *the Severe*
Ferdinando I.
II. House of Avis,
Joan I., * the Great*
Eduardo
A.D.
1095
1112
1185
1211
1223
1248
1279
1325
1357
1367
1385
1433
Affonso v., *the African'
Joan II., ' the Perfect ' .
Manoel . . . .
Joan III.
Sebastian
Enrique * the Cardinal ' .
A.D.
1438
1481
1495
1621
1557
1578
III. Interval of Submission to Spain,
Philip II 1580
Philip III 1590
PhiHpIV. .... 1623
IV. House of Braganza,
Joan rV., 'the Fortunate * . 1640
Affonso VI 1668
CONSTimjTION AMD GOVERNMENT.
375
A.D.
Pedro n 1683
JoanV. 1706
Jos6 1760
Maria I. and Pedro III. . . 1777
Maria 1 1786
Joan Jose, Regent . . .1796
Joan VI 1816
Pedro rV 1826
A.D.
Marian 1826
Miguell 1828
Maria II., restored . . . 1834
V. HonsB OF Bbaoanza-Cobuho.
Pedro V 1853
Luis 1 1861
The average reign of the thirty -five sovereigns of Portugal, from
the ascension of the House of Burgundy, amounted to twenty-two
years.
Constitation and Govenmieiit
The fundamental law of the kingdom is the ' Carta de Lei '
granted by King Pedro TV., April 29, 1826, and altered by an
additional act, dated July 6, 1852. The crown is hereditary in the
female as well as male line ; but with preference of the male in case
of equal birthright. The constitution recognises three powers in the
State, the legislative, executive, and * moderating * authority, the two
last of which reside in the Sovereign and his responsible ministers.
There are two legislative Chambers, the * Camara dos Pares,' or
House of Peers, and the * Camara dos Deputados,' or House of
Commons, which are conjunctively called the General Cortes. The
peers, unlimited in number, but actually comprising 115, are named
for life by the Sovereign, by whom also the president and vice-
president of the first Chamber are nominated. The peerage was for-
merly hereditary in certain families; but on May 27, 1864, the
Cortes passed a law abolishing hereditary succession. The members
of the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by all citizens
possessing a clear annual income of 133 milreis, or 22Z. The deputies
must have an income of at least 390 milreis, or 89Z. per annum ;
but lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the
learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental
Portugal is divided into thirty-seven electoral districts, returning
154 deputies, to which Madeira and the Azores add twenty-five.
Each deputy has a remuneration of about lOs. a day during the
session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections
must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolu-
tion, a new Parliament must be called together within thirty days.
The General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law
passed twice by both Houses. All laws relating to finance and
general taxation must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.
376 FOKTUOAL.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a respon-
sible Cabinet, divided into seven departments, namely —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Senhor Antonio de Aguiar, ap-
pointed Minister of the Interior, and President of the Council of
Ministers, Sept. 3, 1865.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Af^irs. — ^Viscount de Castro, ap-
pointed Sept. 3, 1865.
3. The Ministry of War. — General Travassos- ValdeZy appointed
Nov. 21, 1865.
4. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Senhor
Bargona de Freitas, appointed Sept. 3, 1865.
5. The Ministry ot i^'inance. — Antonio Maria de Fontes, appointed
Aug. 30, 1865.
6. The Ministry of Marine and of the Colonies. — Viscount Praia
Grande, appointed Sept. 3, 1865.
7. The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works. — Senhor Serpo
Fimentel, appointed Sept. 3, 1865.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice
of a Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting of thirteen
ordinary and three extraordinary members, nominated by the
Crown for life. The leading ministers, past and present, generally
form part of the Privy Coimcil.
Church and Education.
The Roman Catholic faith is the State religion; but all other
forms of worship are tolerated. The Portuguese Church is under
the special jurisdiction of a * Patriarch,' with extensive powers, two
archbishops, and fourteen bishops. The Patriarch of Lisbon is
always a cardinal, and, to some extent, independent of the Holy See
of Rome. Under the Patriarch are five continental and five colonial
bishops; imder the Archbishop of Braga, who has the title of
Primate, are six ; and under the Archbishop of Evora three bishops.
The total income of the upper hierarchy of the Church is calculated
to amount to 300,000 milreis, or 67,500/. There are 3,769 parishes,
each under the charge of a presbitero, or incumbent. Most of the
conventual establishments of Portugal were suppressed by decree of
May 28, 1884, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the
State. At that period there existed in the country 632 monasteries
and 118 nunneries, with above 18,000 monks and nuns, and an
annual income of nearly a million sterling. This revenue was
applied to the redemption of the national debt ; while a library of
30,000 volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco,
at Lisbon, fi:om the collections of books and manuscripts at the
BEYENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 377
various monasteries. A few religious establishments are still per-
mitted to exist ; but their inmates are in a state of great poverty,
and the buildings are gradually falling to ruin. The lower ranks of
the priesthood are poorly educated, and their income scarcely
removes them from the social sphere of the peasants and labouring
classes. The number of Protestants in Portugal, mostly foreigners,
does not exceed 500. They worship in chapels at Lisbon and
Oporto.
The superintendence of public instmction is under the manage-
ment of a superior council of education, at the head of which is the
Secretary of State for the Home Department, and which holds its
sitting at Coimbra. Public education is entirely free from the
supervision and control of the Church. By a law enacted in 1844,
it is compulsory on parents to send their children to a place of
public instruction ; but this prescription is far from being enforced,
and only a very small fraction of the children of the middle and
lower classes really attend school. In 1854 there were 1,136 schools
devoted to primary instruction, attended by 33,500 pupils of both
sexes, of whom, however, only 1,570 were females. From the year
1854 to 1862 the Government founded 588 new schools, of which for
boys 452, for girls 136. Portugal had in 1854, 1,200 public schools,
with 55,12 scholars. At the close of 1861 there were 1,788 public
schools, with 79,172 scholars, showing an increase of 23,980 scholars.
In 1862, there was one scholar to every 36 inhabitants. There is
only one university in the kingdom, that of Coimbra, founded in
1290. It has five faculties, and 46 professors and lecturers, who are
attended by between 800 and 900 students. The lyceums, which
impart secondary instruction, number 182, with, on the average,
3,000 scholars. The clergy are educated in six seminaries and
eight training schools, where most of them receive gratuitous in-
struction. In the building of the extinct monastery at Belem,
about 900 orphan and abandoned children of both sexes are sup-
ported, educated, and taught various useftd trades.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The annual revenue of Portugal amounted, on the average of the
last ten years, to 3,000,000 Z. sterling, while the average expenditure
during the same period was about 250,000/. more. The estimated
ordinary revenue of the kingdom for the financial year 1864-65
amounted to 16,805,040,828 reis, or 3,734,453/., and that for
1865-66 to 17,354,963,293 reis, or 3,856,657/., as shown in the
following statement of the two budgets : —
378
PORTUGAL.
Rbvenxtb.
Ordinary Revenue :
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes . ^
Revenue from national
property and sundry
receipts .
Deductions from the
Civil List and salaries
Total .
Receipts from former
years
Total .
Extraordinary Revenue :
Sums to be raised by
the Government by
loan or by any other
means that may be
more expedient
Grand total .
1864-65
1866-66
Reis
4,938,176,027
9,633,172,811
2,017,021,046
216,670,944
£
1,097,372
2,140,705
448,227
48,149
Reis
4,978,687,725
10,200,491,069
2,115,784,499
60,000,000
£
1,106,375
2,266,775
470,174
13,333
16,805,040,828
3,298,790,275
3,734,453
733.064
17,354,963,293
289,123,610
3,856,657
64,249
17,644,086,903
3,377,393,500
3,920,906
750,631
20,103,831,103
4,467,517,21,021,480,403
4,671,437
The revenue has not much risen for the last thirty years. It was
11,940,151 mibeis in 1834; two millions less, or 9,843,170 in
1844; and 10,793,407 milreis in 1854. In the financial year
1858-59 the public income amoimted to 12,206,747 milreis, or
2,746,518Z.; and in 1860-61 to 12,504,534 milreis, or 2,813,520^
According to these financial estimates of income and expenditure,
there will be a deficit of about three-quarters of a million sterling
in each of the financial years 1864-65 and 1865-66, to be covered
by the so-called * extraordinary revenue,' that is, by loans. The actual
deficit will probably be much larger than the one estimated, to
judge by the experience of former periods.
There has been no budget for the last thirty years without a
deficit. The expenditure amounted, in 1834, to 14,911,314 milreis;
in 1844, to 11,158,214; and in 1854, to 11,784,472 milreis. In
the financial year 1858-59 the public expenditure was 12,947,061
milreis, or 2,913,088Z., in 1860-61 it rose to 13,987,859 milreis,
or 3,147,268Z.; and in 1862-63, to 22,329,239 milreis, or 4,962,053Z.
The revenue in the year 1862-63 amounted to 14,563,556 milreis,
or 3,458,568/., so that there was a deficit of 7,765,683/. milreis, or
1,503,485/.
REVENUE AND BXEENDITTJBE.
379
The following is the amount of the various branches of national
expenditure, as estimated in the budgets of 1864-65, and
1865-66 :—
ExPENDITUBE.
Ordinary Expenditure —
Interest, &c. on Home
Debt .
Ditto on Foreign Debt
Finance Department
and general charges.
Home Department
Department of Justice
and Ecclesiastical
Afiairs .
"War Department
Department of Navy
and Colonies .
Foreign Department .
Department of Public
Works, Commerce,
and Industry .
Total
Extraordinary Expendi-
ture in the several
Public Departments .
Grand Total .
1864-65*
1866-66
Reis
2,826,111,657
2,928,840,016
3,600,251,364
1,668,689,956
631,445,940
3,128,346,027
1,249,448,730
189,653,258
1,324,886,157
£
628,024
650,863
800,066
346,375
118,100
695,189
277,653
42,146
294,419
Beis
3,107,698,731
2,738,024,643
3,519,165,191
1,686,438,295
651,504,429
3,275,972,982
1,283,511,421
211,860,268
1,370,021,053
£
690,677
608,449
782,036
.362,641
122,566
727,993
286,227
47,078
304,449
17,337,671,103
2,766,160,000
3,862,815
614,702
17,644,086,903
3,377,393,500
3,920,906
750,631
20,103,831,103
4,467,517
21,021,480,403
4,671,437
The public debt, commonly divided into a home debt and foreign
debt, was as follows, on Jime 30, of each of the years 1862, 1863,
and 1864 :—
1862
1863
1864
Home Debt
Foreign Debt
Total . ( ^^"^
Milreis
81,687,760
68,166,088
Milreis
89,771,400
84,461,429
Milreis
97,187,600
87,929,911
149,853,788
33,717,102
174,222,829
39,200,136
186,117,511
41,651,440
38o
POBTUOAL.
The following table gives the divisions of the public debt of the
kingdom in each of the years ending June 30, 1861 and 1862 : —
Deferred debt to bear from f Internal
January 1, 1863 . . \ Foreign
Ancient debts of various designa- 1
tions recognised ... J
Funded 3 per cent, debt internal and")
foreign /
Floating debt> paying about 6^ orl
7 per cent J
Total . 1
1861
1862
Milreis
2,640,839
2,592,820
11,790,761
106,945,241
7,377,244
Milreis
2,640,839
2,592,820
11,790,761
114,772,599
18,156,769
131,247,005
£29,530,676
149,853,788
£33,717,102
The cost of management and interest of the public debt of the
kingdom, both internal and external, is set down as follows in the
budget of 1864-65 :—
Charges of internal debt : — Milreis
Interest 2,643,472
Sinking fund 3,670
Salaries 20,176
Sundry charges 8,300
Total internal . . * 2,675,618
Charges of external debt :
Financial agency in London . . . 7,459
Interest 2,694,958
Sinking fun^
Sundry charges 30,800
Total external . . . 2,733,307
Total internal . . . 2,675,718
Total f 5,408,925
""^^^ ' ' ' 1 £1,262,082
The interest on the public debt has remained frequently unpaid.
On June 30, 1864, the unpaid interest amounted to —
Home debt 404,329 milreis, or £90,974
Foreign debt 260,258
Total .... £341,232
ARMY AND NAVY.
381
The growth of the Portuguese debt, in the course of forty years,
has been as follows : —
Tears
Debt in milreia
Tears
Debt in milreis
1826 .
1836 .
1838 .
1848 .
. 36,623,000
. 65,280,990
. 82,040,514
. 74,193,186
1853 .
1855 .
1869 .
1862 .
. 79,363,942
. 93,314,346
. 123,869,867
. 149,863,788
Portions of the national debt have been repudiated at various
periods ; among others the loan contracted by Don Miguel in 1832.
At times, as in the year 1837, the interest on the home debt has been
paid, but not that on the foreign debt. By a royal decree of Dec. 18,
1852, the interest on the whole funded debt, internal and foreign,
was reduced to 3 per cent. Many of the creditors protested against
this act, but without effect.
Army and Navy.
The army of the kingdom consisted of the following troops on
May 31, 1866 :—
18 regiments of infantry of the line
9 battalions of riflemen
8 regiments of lancers and dragoons
3 „ of artillery
1 battalion of engineers
Staff and sanitary troops
Total
The number of troops in the Portuguese colonies amounted, in
the year 1866, to 8,236 infantry and artillery, besides a reserve of
9,572 men.
The cost of the War Department in the financial year 1865-66
was as follows : —
Offloers
Men
. 683
9,218
. 314
3,468
. 244
2,263
. 107.
1,278
3
317
. 194
106
. 1,646
16,640
Milreis
Secretary of State's office . . . 92,249
Staff of the army
93,259
Corps of all arms
2,006,000
Fortresses
32,097
Justice, &c. . . .
322,373
Officers on commissions
63,531
Officers on half-pay .
26,644
Officers retired .
400,705
Veterans and invalids
136,867
Sundry expenses
111,677
Totol f 3,276.972
XOUli . 1
I £727,993
382
POBTTGAL.
The navy was composed, May 31, 1866, of —
1 sailing ship of the line, with
1 „ frigate, with
3 „ corvettes, with .
11 „ brigs and brigantines, with
7 „ transports, with
11 steamers, with . . . .
Gnus
76
40
44
45
7
82
34 men-of-war, with 294
Many of the above vessels, however, are reported to be in a bad state,
and scarcely seaworthy.
The Navy and Colonial Department, in the year 1865-66, required
the following simis : —
Milrds
Secretary of State's office .
Officers, military and civil .
80,660
44,233
687,423
Arsenal
Kope manufactory
Various establislunents
323,210
48,892
32,503
Sundry expenses . . . .
Eetired officers ....
40,027
26,459
Total .
1,283,611
£285,227
The navy is manned by 2,832 sailors and marines.
Fopulation.
Portugal is divided into seven provinces, the area of which and
population, according to the enumerations of 1838 and of 1858 is
given in the subjoined table ; —
Provinces
Area sq. miles
Pop. in 1838
Pop. in 1858
Minho ....
Tras-os-Montes .
Beira, Upper . . "\
Beira, Lower . . /
Estremadura
Alentejo ....
Algarve ....
Total
2,671
4,065
8,686 1
8,834
10,255
2,099
872,400
331,200
996,350
109,200
790.700
314,310
136,260
860,479
324,296
1,025,371
161,222
755,122
305,404
162,784
36,510
3,649,420
3,684,677
XBASE AND COHHEBCE.
383
To the kingdom belong likewise the Azores, or Western Islands,
containing an area of 715 square miles, with a population, in 1858,
of 240,113 inhabitants ; Madeira, with 317 square miles and 98,620
inhabitants; and Porto Santo, with a population of about 1500.
Portugal has comparatively few large towns. There are but
three with a population of above 20,000, namely, Braga, with 30,175 ;
Oporto, with 81,200; and Lisbon, with 275,286 inhabitants. The
number of aliens residing in the kingdom does not amount to more
than twelve thousand.
In the fifteenth century, Portugal is stated to have had about five
millions of inhabitants. According to a calculation of 1732, the
number was 1,850,000 at that period. Since then, and particularly
since the commencement of the present century, the population has
been gradually increasing.
Trade and Industry.
The conamercial relations of Portugal are chiefly with Great
Britain, and there is very little trade, either by land or sea, with
other countries. Next to Great Britain, but far below, stand
Brazil and France. The subjoined table gives the total value of the
imports firom Portugal into the United Kingdom, and of the exports
of British and Irish produce to Portugal in the five years 1861 to
1865 :—
Years
Imports from Portugal into the
Exports of Home Produce
■ from the
United Kingdom
United Kingdom to Portugal
£
£
1861
1,962,899
1,987,450
1862
2,040,396
1,533,365
1863
2,333,809
2,225,777
1864
2,202,506
2,091,314
1866
2,470,301
2,070,381
Wine is tibe chief article of import fi*om Portugal into the United
Kingdom, the average value approaching 1,000,000Z. per annum.
The exports of British and Irish produce to Portugal embrace cotton
goods, averaging 800,000/. per annum; iron, wrought and un wrought,
averaging 225,000/. ; and woollen fabrics, averaging 130,000/. per
annum.
The oflicial returns relative to the wine trade of the Douro
district show that in 1852 the number of pipes produced was 92,090,
of which 35,833 were approved by the tasters as exportable ; in
384
PORTUGAL.
1862 th^ total quantity produced was 71,592 pipes, of which 54,291
were approved. The registered produce of the vintage of 1865 in
the Douro district amounted to 82,866 pipes. There were exported
from Oporto in 1860, 27,860 pipes, of which 22,416 were sent to
Great Britain. In 1861 the exports were 26,908 pipes, of which
22,945 reached Great Britain; and in 1864 the exports reached
29,711 pipes, the number sent to Great Britain being 24,832. A
large proportion of the residue was exported to British possessions.
The quantity of wines shipped from Oporto in the year 1863 was
34,905 pipes, of which 30,044 were forwarded to Great Britain. The
export of wine from Lisbon in 1863 amounted, in round numbers,
to 17,500 pipes, of which 14,300 were sent to Brazilian and other
South American ports, about 1,900 to Portuguese possessions, up-
wards of 1,000 to British ports, and 300 to various other places.
In 1862, the exports of wine from Lisbon amounted to 11,062 pipes,
of which 1,313 were shipped to Great Britain; while in 1861 the
quantity exported was 12,328 pipes, of which 1,463 went to Great
Britain.
The subjoined table shows the quantity of wine shipped from
Oporto to the chief countries in the two years 1862 and 1863:—
Destination
1862
1863
Pipes
al.
Pipes al.
Great Britain
24,832
15
30,044 10
British Possessions
1,365
18
580 5
Brazil ....
2,078
10
2,746 1
Hanse Towns'
560
4
476 3
Portuguese Possessions .
253
14
313 17
United States
To all countries
150
18
142 20
29,711
13
34,905 7
The single article wine constitutes more than two-thirds of the
value of Portuguese exports to all coimtries. The other exports are
cattle, cork, olive oil, oranges and lemons, pyrites of iron or copper,
elephants' teeth, and sheep's wool.
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted, on the 1st of Januaij)
1863, of 829 vessels, of a total burthen of 87,953 tons.
Colonies.
The formerly numerous colonies of the Portuguese in Asia ara
now reduced to Groa, Salcete, Damao, Macao, and settlements in the
islands Sodor, Timor, and Mindoro. In A6dca, Portugal retains
BOOKS OF REFERENCE.
385
the GrOveniinentB of Angola and Congo in Soutb Guinea ; Mozam-
bique on the eastern coast, and some establishments in Sen^ambia,
with yarious islands. The popidation of these colonial possessions,
in the year 1858^ amounted to —
1. Possessions in Asia : Inhabitanta
Indian settlements, Goa, Salcete, &c 363,788
Damao and Diu 44,808
Indian Archipelago 850,300
Macao 29.687
Total .
2. Possessions in Africa :
Cape Verde Islands (14, of which 7 are inhabited) .
^ Settlements in Senegambia ....
Islands of St Thomas and Principe
Angola* Benguela, and Mossamedes
Territory of Mozambique (24,000 square leagues)
Total .
Total colonial possessions
1,288,483
85,393
1,096
12,263
669,190
300.000
1,057,931
2,346,414
The colonial budget for the year 1863-64, estimated, for the
whole of the possessions, a revenue of 1,032, 114 milreis, and an
expenditure of 1,328,802 milreis, leaving a deficit of 296,688 milreis,
or 69,22 6Z. The average deficit for the preceding years amounted to
above 30,000/.
Money, WeigMs, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Portugal^ with the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Milreis .... Average rate of exdiange, 64^rf.
Wbiohts and Mbasures.
Hie Libra . . . = 1.012 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Almude 1^^^^'^^^ ^ 3.7 imperial gallons.
[ „ Oporto = 6.6 „ „
„ Alquiere . . . = 0.37 imperial bnshel.
„ Moio ...» 2.78 imperial quarters.
Statistical and other Books of Reference relating to Portngal.
1. OPFICIAIi PUBLICATIOMS.
Beport by Mr. Lytton, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Administration of Portugal, dated July 30, 1866; in *E^)ortB of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XI. London, 1866.
Eeports by Mr. Herries, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on Trade and
Mining Industry, and Legislative Measures connected with Commerce, dated
October, 1862 ; in ' Eeports of H. M's Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VI.
London, 1863.
CC
386 POBTTIOAL.
Keports by Mr. Hemes, H. M/s Secretary of Legation, on Commerce and
Finance,Uated July, 1863, and Jan. 27, 1864 ; in ' Eeports of H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy,* &c No. VII. London, 1864.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Smith on the Trade of Portugal for the year 1862 ; in
* Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Correspondence with Her Majesty's Minister at Lisbon respecting the
opening of the Douro "Wine Trade. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Non-Officlax Publications.
Aldama-Aycda (Gr. de) Compendio Greogr4phico-estadistico de Portugal e sus
Posesiones Ultramarinas. 8. Madrid, 1860.
Balhi (A.) Essai Statistique sur le Boyaume de Portugal. 2 vols. 8. Paris,
1862.
Eschwege ("Wilhelm L. von) Portugal : ein Staats und- Sittengemalde, nach
dreissigjahrigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.
Lopes (B. de Silva) Corografia, ou Memoria Economica, Estadistica e Topo-
grafica do Beino do Algarve. Lisboa, 1841.
Marques (P. Gr.) Diecionario Gheo^fico Abbreviado das oito Provincias de
Portugal e Algarve. 8. Porto, 1863.
Minano (Sebast. de) Diecionario G eografico-estadistico de Espana y Portugal
10 vols. Madrid, 1826-36.
Minutoli (Gr. von) Portugal und seine Colonien im Jahre 1854. 2 vols. 8.
Stuttgart, 1865.
Vogel (Ch.) Le Portugal et ses Colonies ; Tableau Politique et Commercial de
la Monarchic Portugaise. 8. Paris, 1866.
Wappdus (Dr. S. E.) Handbuch der Greographie und Statistik. Das pyre-
naische Halbinselland. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
387
RUSSIA.
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Alexander 11., Emperor of Russia, bom April 17 (April 29 new
style), 1818, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I. and of Princess
Charlotte of Prussia ; educated, imder the supervision of his father, by
General Moerder, a learned German, and the Russian poet Joukowski ;
entered the army, 1831 ; nominated colonel in the regiment of grena-
diers, 1835 ; chancellor of- the imiversity of Helsingfors, Finland,
1837 ; travelled in Germany, 1840-41 ; superintendent of the
military schools of the empire, 1849 ; appointed to a command in
the Caucasian army, 1850. Succeeded to the throne, at the death
of his father, February 18 (March 2), 1855 ; crowned at Moscow,
August 26 (September 7), 1856. Married, April 16 (April 28),
1841, to
Maria, Empress of Russia, bom August 8, 1824, the daughter of
the late Grand-duke Ludwig II., of Hesse-Darmstadt. Offspring of
the union are: — 1. Grsuid^duke Alexander, heir-apparent, bom
February 26 (March 10), 1845. 2. Grand-duke Vladimir, bom
April 10 (April 22), 1847. 3. Grand-duke Alexis, bom January 2
(January 14), 1850. 4. Grand-duchess Maria, bom October 5
(October 17), 1853. 5. Grand-duke Sergius, bom April 29 (May
11), 1857. 6. Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3),
1860.
Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor, — 1. Grand-duchess Maria,
bom August 6 (August 18), 1819 ; married, July 2 (July 14), 1839,
to Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg ; widow, October 20 (November
1), 1852. 2. Grand-Duchess Olga, bom August 30 (September 11),
1822 ; married July 1 (July 13), 1846, to Prince Charles, heir-ap-
parent of Wurtemberg. 3. Grand-duke Constantine, bom September
9 (September 21), 1827 ; high-admiral of the Russian navy ; married,
August 30 (September 11), 1848, to Princess Alexandra of Saxe-
Altenburg, of which union there are issue four sons and two daughters,
Nicholas, bom Febmary 2 (February 14), 1850 ; Olga, bom August
22 (September 3), 1851 ; Vera, bom Febmary 4 (Febmary 16),
1854; (Donstantine, bom August 10 (August 22), 1858; Dimitri,
bom Jime 1 (June 13), 1860 ; and Viatscheslav, bovn 5\\!t^ \V^\s^
13), 1862. 4. Grand-Puke Nicholas, bom StxI-j Tl (^KxvgOL^ '^i
cc2
388 BUSSIA.
1831 ; general in the Russian army ; married, January 25 (February
6), 1856, to Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg, of which marriage
there is one son, Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856.
5. Grand-duke Michael, bom October 13 (October 25),. 1832;
married, August 16 (August 28), 1857, to Princess Cecilia of Baden,
of which union there are issue three sons and one daughter, namely,
Nicholas, born April 14 (April 26), 1859 ; Anastasia, bom July 16
(July 28), 1860; Michael, born October 4 (October 16), 1861 ; and
George, born August 11 (August 23), 1863.
The reigning ft,mily of Russia descend, in the female line, from
Michael Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of the
House of Rurik; and in the male line from the duke Charles
Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, born in 1701, scion of a younger
branch of the ducal family of Oldenburg. The union of his daughter
Anne with Prince Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp formed
part of the great reform projects of Petei: I., destined to bring Russia
into closer contact with tiie western states of Europe. Peter I. was
succeeded by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian
peasant, and she by the grandson of Peter's elder brother, with
whom the male line of the Romanofs terminated, in the year 1730.
The next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan III., and Elizabeth,
of the female line of Romanof, foimed a transition from the native to
the German rulers of the empire, whose reign commenced with the
accession of Peter III., of the house of Holstein-Gottorp. All the
subsequent emperors allied themselves into German families, thus
gradually becoming completely Teutonic, in blood as well as origin.
The wife and successor of Peter HI., daughter of the Prince of
Anhalt Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her
only son, Paul, who became the father of three emperors, Alexander
L, Constantino, and Nicholas, and the grandfather of a fourth, the
present Alexander H. All these sovereigns allied themselves to
German princesses. The Emperor Paul gave his hand, first, to a
princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and next to a princess of Wurtemberg ;
his successor, Alexander I., married a princess of Baden ; the next
emperor — ^ruler for seven days, December 1 to 8, 1825 — Constantine,
imited himself to a princess of Saxe-Coburg ; while Nicholas L
selected a daughter of the King of Prussia. All the matrimonial
alliances of the imperial family are exclusively with the Protestant
houses of Germany.
The emperor is in possession, de jure and de facto, of the whole
revenue of the Crown domains, consisting of more than a million of
square miles of cultivated land and forests, and valued at 40,000,000
roubles, or about 5,700,000/. In the budget for the year 1864, the
civil list of the emperor is set down to the amount of 1,163,316^^
But this tnim does not include the revenue of the imperial appanages^
CONSTITUTION AND GOTXBNUBNT.
389
amomiting to 539,973/., according to an official statement made in
1863. The sum total of the direct income of the imperial family
would, therefore, be 1,703,289/. From indirect sources a far larger
revenue is undoubtedly derived. The great pomp displayed on all
occasions by the imperial court requires, probably, not less than the
expenditure of the whole 40,000,000 roubles, or five and three
quarter millions sterling, derived from the Crown domains.
The following have been the Tsars and Emperors of Russia, from
the time of election of Michajlo Romanof Tsar Peter I. was the
first ruler who adopted, in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.
Souse of Bomanof — Male Line.
Michajlo . . . 1613
Alezei
Feodor
Ivan and Peter I,
Peter I.
Catherine I.
Peter II. .
1645
1676
1682
1689
1726
1727
Souse of Bomanof— Female Line.
Anne .... 1730
Ivan III.
Elizabeth
1740
1741
House of Hohtein-Chttorp.
Peter III. . . . 1762
Catherine 11.
Paul .
Alexander I.
Constantino .
Nicholas
Alexander IL
1762
1796
1801
1825
1825
1855
The above list shows that, notwithstanding many vicissitudes in
the succession of the crown, the average reign of the sovereigns of
Russia, for the last two centuries and a half, has been close upon
fifteen years.
Constitution and Oovemment
The Grovemment of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in the
emperor, whose will alone is law. There are, however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the house of Holstein-
GU)ttorp have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of the
Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, by
the right of primogeniture, with preference of male over female
heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued by Peter I.,
February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to select his
successor to the throne from among the members of the imperial
fiunily, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture. Another funda-
mental law of the realm proclaimed by Peter I., is that every
sovereign of Russia, with his consort and children, must be a
member of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes and prin.ce.«»^
of the imperial house, according to a decree oi Me^xa»j^Kt\.^TKQa^^
obtaizz the consent of the emperor to any maxmigi^ \Jfc^«^ "o^l <j«^-
39Q Bussu.
tract ; otherwise the issue of such union cannot inherit the throne^
By an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is held to be of ago
at the end of the sixteenth year, and the other members of the
reigning family with the completed eighteenth year.
The administration of the empire is entrusted to four great boards,
or councils, possessing separate functions, but centring in the
* Private Cabinet of the Emperor.' The first of these boards is the
Council of the Empire^ established in its present form by Alexander
I., in the year 1810. It consists of a president, and an unlimited
number of members appointed by the emperor. On July 1, 1866,
the council consisted of thirty-nine members, exclusive of the minis-
ters, who have, a seat ex officio, and of the princes of the Imperial
House, who can claim the right to be present at the deliberations.
The Council is divided into four departments, namely, of Legisla-
tion, of Military Affairs, of Civil Administration, of Finance, and
of Public Instruction. Each department has its own President,
and a separate sphere of duties ; but there are collective meetings of
the four sections. The chief function of the Council of the Empire
is that of superintending the action of the general administration,
of watching over the due execution of the laws of the realm, and
of proposing alterations and modifications of the same whenever
necessary. The Council stands in direct communication with the
* Private Cabinet of the Emperor.'
The second of the great colleges, or boards of government, is the
Directing Senate or * Prawitelstwujuschtschi Senat,' established by
Peter I., in the year 1711. The functions of the senate are partly
of a deliberative and partly of an executive character. It is tlie high
court of justice for the empire, controlling all the inferior tribunals.
The senate is divided into eight conmiittees or sections, of which
five sit at Petersburg and three at Moscow. Each committee is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain descriptions of
cases, brought either immediately before it, or by appeal fix)m the
inferior courts. In a few cases, however, parties dissatisfied with its
decisions may petition the emperor. The senators are mostly per-
sons of high rank, or who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence
presides over each department, who represents the emperor, and with-
out whose signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenunif
or general meeting of the sections, the minister of justice takes the
chair, as high procurator for his majesty. Besides its superinten-
dence over the court of law, the senate examines into the state of
the public revenue and expenditure, and has power to inquire into
public abuses, to appoint to a great variety of oflices, and to make
remonstrances to the emperor. Monthly reports of its proceedingB
are published in the ofiicial Gazette.
7^e third coUege, established "by P^let 1., m xJaa ^«ai 1721, ii^
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 39 1
the Holy Sy7iod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the
religious affairs of the empire. It is composed of the principal dig-
nitaries of the Church. All its decisions run in the emperor's name,
and have no force till approved by him. The President of the Holy
Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod.
The fourth board of government is the Council 0/ Ministers, It
is divided into twelve departments. They are-^
1. The Ministry of the Imperial House. — Count W. Adlerherg,
gNieral of infantry and aide-de-camp of the emperor ; appointed
April 11, 1857.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — ^Prince Alexander Michael
Gortschakoff, bom 1798 ; entered the diplomatic service, 1818 ;
Secretary of Embassy at London, 1824 ; Minister at Florence, 1830;
jPlenipotentiary at Vienna, 1832 ; Ambassador Extraordinary at
Stuttgart, 1841 ; Ambassador at Vienna, 1854 ; appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs, April 17, 1856.
3. The Ministry of War. — General Count Millutin, appointed
Assistant-Minister of War, July 1860 ; Minister, June 20, 1862.
4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Rear- Admiral N. Krahhe, ap-
pointed October 15, 1860.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — Privy Councillor P. Valujeff^
appointed May 9, 1861.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Count Tolstoy^ Procura-
tor-General of the Holy Synod, appointed April 27, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Finance. — Privy Councillor M. von Beutem,
appointed Nov. 9, 1862.
8. The Ministry of Justice — Privy Councillor S. Zamiatnin^
appointed Assistant-Minister of Justice, 1855 ; Minister, November 4,
1862.
9. The Ministry of the Imperial Domains. — General A. Zelenoiy
appointed November 25, 1862.
10. The Ministry of Public Works. — General Mielnikow, ap-
pointed October 29, 1862.
11. The General Post-Office. — ^Privy Councillor J. Tolstoy, ap-
pointed Postmaster-General, November 30, 1862.
12. The Department of General Comptrol. — Privy Councillor
M. Tatarinow, appointed Comptroller-General, February 15, 1863.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers,
who supply their place on certain occasions. They all communicate
directly with the sovereign, or with the * Private Cabinet of the
Emperor,' in which body centres the whole executive authority of
the empire. The Private Cabinet is divided into four sections, the
first of which has the presidency and superintendence of the other two,
and is in immediate communication with the emperox. T\i^ ^aftRwcAu
is the legislative department; the tlMxd ia ftp^ciaX^^ di'esoXft^^si*^^
392 KUSSIA.
comptrol of the army and secret police ; and the fourth to public
instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.
The local administration of the empire differs in different pro-
vinces ; Government having always allowed conquered or annexed
countries to preserve their own laws and institutions, except in bo
far as they were hostile to the general constitution of the empire.
The Grand-duchy of Finland has a special and partially inde-
pendent form of government; and the provinces wrested frcan
Sweden by Peter the Great, Coiuland, and those formerly belonging
to Poland, have peculiar institutions and privileges, which, however,
have latterly been much modified.
The empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are, at present, 14 of the first,
51 of the second, and above 320 of the last. There are, besides,
extensive districts which fi'om the thinness of the population are not
organised into regular governments, which are called provinces, or
* oblcLsts.' At the head of each general government is a viceroy, or
general-governor, the representative of the emperor, who as such ccan-
mands the forces, and 1^ the supreme control and direction of all
aflfeirs, whether civil or military. All the functionaries within their
jurisdiction are subordinate to, and make their reports to the general-
governors, lliey sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts,
and exercise the right of pardon in a limited degree. A civil-
governor, representing the general-goveraior, assisted by a council of
regency, to which all measures must be submitted, is established in
each government or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the
governor is provisionally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor
with respect to the matter be ascertained. A vice-governor is
appointed to fill the place of the civil-governor when the latter is
absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of
finance under the presidency of the vice-governor.
The government of the parish, and part of the local administra-
tion, is intrusted to the people, to the extent of leaving them free
in matters of social interest. For this purpose, the whole coimtry
is divided into communes denominated * Mir ' — which means botii
* the village ' and * the world ' — and these again are united into dis-
tricts or * Volosti,' embracing a population of about six thousand
souls. Each communal administration is presided over by an Elder,
or * Starshina,' who, in case the commune consists of several vil-
lages, has under him a ' Starosta,* or head of each hamlet, as also a
tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these ofiicers
are elected by ballot at annual assemblies by the peasants, and
from among Uiemsclves. The ofiices are more or less honoraxy,
the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as
to be scarcely more than nomioal. The annual assemblios for
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 393
(tmg these local representatives are constituted in a very
aliar manner. Every ^ye houses have the election of one
uty for the communal assembly, and these again choose a dele-
2 for the district assemblies, in the proportion of one man to
ry ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish
seru and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the
iidon of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper
libution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of
recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the
imune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and
ilar matters. As a rule, these communal assemblies take place
iilarly three times a year ; but they may be called more fre-
mtly if business of importance requires it. In conjunction with
se assemblies are village tribunals, consisting of two elected
nbers of the commune called ' conscience people.' Injuries and
noes of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not
3lving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of
le popular tribunals,
lie nobles of the empire possess a representation of their own,
to Catherine 11. An imperial patent, dated April 21, 1785,
bowed on them an organic constitution upon the German model,
rowed principally from the Baltic provinces. According to this
stitution, the nobles living in each province form a corporation
ler an elected president, or marshal, to whom is joined a Govern-
it commissioner. The members of this corporation assemble at
alar intervals of three years, with liberty to deliberate on any
ject they choose, and wi^ the special privilege that the governor
he province, who otherwise rules supreme, shall never be present
their meetings. These parliamentary bodies have their own
s, archives, secretaries, treasuries, and permanent committees,
latter of which unite with deputies of the towns to examine the
mates and allotment of contributions to be made by the country.
> extensive rights and privileges enjoyed by these states-general
said to be not always exercised in the best possible manner.
} more educated members of the Russian nobility have till lately
31 scarcely any part in the election and deliberations of the
jmblies, and the whole power has fallen, therefore, into the hands
the very imperfectly instructed landowners in the country.
i chief object of all their political actions has been to uphold
privileges and rights of their class. These privileges are of
greater extent than those possessed by any other class in the
)ire. The Russian nobleman can only be deprived of his life,
perty, and honour, by judgment of law ; he can only be tck^
bis peers, and the judgment must be speciaYLy coTALTYCkfc^\s^ ^^
)eror. No corporal punishment can be in&fi\A^ -vt^xl^xoe^s ^^^
394 BussiA.
is free from personal taxes, recruitment, and having soldiers quar-
tered upon him ; he can freely establish manufactures and indofr*
trial tmdertakings of all kinds on his estates ; but in the towns, in
such cases, he must enter the respective guilds. He is at liberty to
sell his own products and manu&ctures. More than one-half of all
the cultivated land belongs to the nobility in fee-simple, and more
than one-half of the population of Russia Proper, until recently,
were not only their dependents but serfs. The power of this large
class, which partly governed the empire, has suffered a heavy loss
by the great work of serf emancipation, which leaves the emperor
more than ever Autocrat of Eussia.
Church and Education.
The established religion of the empire is the Greco-Russian,
officially called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. The Russian Church
separated from the See of Rome in 1054, and from the Byzantine
patriarchate in 1589. It has its own independent synod, but main-,
tains the relations of a sister Chui'ch with the four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The saci«d
synod, the board of government of the Church, was established with
the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs.
There have been three epochs in the government of the Russian
Church. At first it had a foreign head, the patriarch in Constanti-
nople, who appointed the Metropolitan of Kief, and afterwards oi^
Moscow ; during the second period, commencing in 1589, it was
governed by a patriarch appointed by the Tsar, but nearly indepen-
dent ; lastly, the direction of the Church was transferred to the
emperor. He is however not the head of thef Church in the same-
sense as the Pope of Rome. The emperor exercises the extern^:
functions in a still greater degree than the pontiff; he appoints to
every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to
the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates ; and
he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain cases.
But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and
dogmatic questions. In the case of any new heresy springing up in
Russia, requiring a judgment, the emperor cannot pronounce a
decision, but this duty appertains to the synod, and, if the ques-
tion is critical, the opinion of the four Eastern patriarchs must be
consulted, and finally a council has to be convened. The judg-
ment of the Church being once given, the emperor must command
its execution. In official documents the emperor never calls him-
self the Head, but only the Protector or Defender of the Church.
The points in which the Greco-Russian Church differs fix)m the
Boman Catholic &iitij are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of
CHURCH AND EDUCATION. 395
tlie Pope, its prohibiting the celibacy of the cleigy, and its autho-.
rising all indiyiduals to read and study the Scriptures in their
▼emacular tongue. The prohibition of celibacy is carried to such
an extent, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before
he is married, nor after he becomes a widower ; and as, by the rules
of the Church, he is not allowed to remarry, the death of his wife
occasions the cessation of his clerical functions. The priests may,
however, on the death of their wives, enter into a convent, and
enjoy the privilege of becoming eligible to be dignitaries of the
Church. There are in Kussia nearly 500 cathedrals and about
29,000 churches attached to the established feith, the latter employ-
ing about 70,000 secular or parochial clergymen. There are also
about 560 convents, of which 480 are for men and 70 for women.
The clergy are either secular or regular — the former consisting of
the parochial clergy, and the latter of the higher dignitaries, monks,
and priests. The hierarchy is composed of bishops, archbishops,
and metropolitans. There are in all 38 dioceses.
The Russian Church formerly possessed immense wealth, but
it was partly confiscated by Peter I. and partly by Catherine II.
^ The latter sovereign appropriated the whole movable property of
the Church for the use of the State, assigning, in compensation,
pensions to the chief ecclesiastical dignitaries. But, with the
exception of a few livings in Petersburg, Moscow, and other
principal cities, the stipends of the clergy, even when increased by
the offerings of the people, and by the perquisites on occasion of
births, marriages, and fiinerals, are quite inadequate to provide for
their respectable subsistence. The total niunber of established
clergy, of all ranks and orders, may be taken at about 254,000 ;
and the sum allowed as stipends by Government is so very small,
that they are almost wholly dependent on their flocks. The revenue
even of the senior metropolitan, the highest dignitary in the hier-
archy, does not exceed 700Z. a year; and an archimandrite, or
abbot, the class next below a bishop, has not generally more than
from 40Z. to 50Z. a year.
With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, who are
excluded from Russia Proper, almost all religions may be freely
professed anywhere in the empire. No member of the Russo-Greek
Church is, however, permitted to renounce his religion ; and when a
marriage takes place between one of its members and a person
belonging to another feith, the children must all be brought up in
the established faith. Catholics are very numerous in the Polish
provinces ; there are, also, large numbers of Lutherans, chiefly in the
Baltic provinces, about 2,300,000 Mohammedans in Russia in Europe .»
and, finally, Jews, worshippers of the Grand Lama, ^^\i'cv«^^«xA
about 7D odier Chrisd&Df Heathen, and Mohanmi^dasi ^fccXa. '^tifist^^
396 RUSSIA.
are no reliable religious statistics, but according to the most careful
calculations, there are, among the inhabitants of Eussia, 56,000,000
professing the Orthodox faith ; 6,500,000 of Roman Catholics ; and
4,000,000 of Protestants, mostly Lutherans. The Jews number
very nearly 2,000,000, nearly one-half of them residing in the
kingdom of Poland.
The Russian clergy are chiefly educated at training schools pro-
vided by the Government within the last 25 years. In the year
1862, there were 479 training-schools, with 60,636 pupils; of these
latter 414 were educated at the charge of the Crown in the academies,
7,347 in the seminaries, 7,595 in the district schools, and 3,187 in
the parish schools. Thus 18,543 pupils were educated at the charge
of the Crown, and 42,092 at their own expense. In 1839 there
were only three academies, with 51 teachers ; 45 seminaries, with
415 teachers; 173 district schools, with 818 teachers; and 193
parish schools, with 367 teachers.
The education of the people is still very backward in Russia,
though it has made much progress within the last half a century.
A plan for a national system of instruction was laid down in a ukase
of the Emperor Alexander, issued in 1802 ; which, though it has
imdergone various modifications, contains the outline of the system
that is still followed. The empire is divided in respect of education
into a certain nmnber of districts, each of which has a university, with
a certain number of lycemns, at which the young men intended
to fill xjivil ofiices are mostly instructed, besides gymnasiimis, high
schools, and elementary schools, varying according to area and popu-
lation. The chief districts are those of Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkof,
Kasan, Dorpat, Kief, Odessa, Wilna, Warsaw, and Siberia ; but of
these only the first six have universities. A curator, or inspector,
is placed at the head of each district, who is in constant communica-
tion with the minister of public instruction. The subjects and
(iourses of study, the examinations to be gone through, and the fees
to be paid, are all fixed by Government. The sum placed annually
at the disposal of the minister of public instruction amounts to
4,156,824 roubles, or 593,832/.
According to a report of the minister of public instruction, the
university of St. Petersburg, founded in 1819, has 87 professors and
lecturers and about 600 students. In the imiversity district are
included eight governments, with 17 gymnasiums ; 78 district and
123 parish schools. The university of Moscow, founded in 1775,
has 129 professors and very nearly 800 pupils. It has nine govern-
ments within its jurisdiction, possessing 2 lyceums, 17 gymnasiums,
89 district and 309 parish schools. The university of Dorpat, foimded
in 1632, has 105 professors and lecturers, with above 900 pupils,
among whom are many foreigners. There are three governments
BETENUE AJID EXPENDITURE.
397
under its jurisdiction, containing seven gymnasiums and 156 public
acliools. The university of Kharkof, founded in 1803, has 90 pro-
fessors and some 500 pupils, and has jurisdiction over five govern-
ments, including the territory of the Cossacks of the Don. About
the same number of professors and students has the university of
Kasan, founded in 1804, with jurisdiction over ten governments.
Kasan is a celebrated resort of students wishing to perfect themselves
in the dialects of the east, as the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Mongolian,
and many other languages are taught by eminent professors. Finally,
the university of KieiF, one of. the best endowed of all high seats of
learning in the empire, founded in 1834, has 105 professors and
lecturers and about 800 pupils. It has under its jurisdiction five
governments, with two lyceums, 19 gymnasiums, 41 district and 107
parish schools.
The official report of the minister of public instruction states that,
in the year 1860, there were in the whole of the empire 8,937
schools with 950,002 pupils. This gives one pupil to every 77
inhabitants. Other calculations give a much lower rate of public
education, stating the proportion of school-attending children to
inhabitants as one to 140. The system of private education, formerly
very common in Russia, has almost entirely ceased, owing chiefly to
various imperial decrees which exclude from Government employ-
ments all young who have not been educated at public schools.
E^venne and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the Russian empire, in each of
the years 1862-5, were as follows, according to the budget estimates
of the Ministry of Finance : —
Tears
Beyenue
Expenditure
1862
1863
1864
1865
Sil. roubles
295,861,839
347,867,860
401,094,793
380,093,614
46,844,791
56,079,078
63,606,677
60,164,219
Sil. roubles
310,619,739
347,867,860
401,094,793
380,093,614
£
49,181,459
55,079,078
63,506,677
60,164,219
The financial estimates of Russia are framed afi;er the model of
the French, the revenue as well as the expenditure being divided
into ' ordinary ' and * extraordinary,' and loans treated as ' extra-
ordinary revenue.' The following statement gives the budget
estimates for 1865, with roubles reduced to pounds sterling : —
"398 RtfSSIA.
Estimated Revenue for the Tear 1865.
1, Orsinabt Eeybnub.
£ £
Taxes— Direct 6,809,915
Indirect— Excise, 21,335,300/., Customs, 5,350,770/. . 26,686,070
Duties and stamps 1,997,847
35,493,832
Boyalties— Mines 375,162
Mint . . . . . . . . . 375,976
Post-office 1,155,595
Telegraphs 294,733
2,201,466
State domains and property — Bents from Crown lands
held by peasants 4,445,131
Kailway, Moscow to St. Petersburg . . . 1,437,058
Forests 515,516
Miscellaneous — ^Lands and mines .... 1,587,015
7,984,720
Miscellaneous receipts — Repayment of loans made by
Government . 699,826
Contributions to treasury by town corporations -1.^2^0^27
Stat-e charges on provinces J ' '
Surplus of revenue of the Kingdom of Poland . 472,500
Kevenue of the Trans-Caucasus .... 518,048
. Miscellaneous — ^Produce of schools of agriculture,
printing, fines 1,335,555
6,266,254
Receipts from Grovemment establishments — Sale of
spirits at Government distilleries . . . 132,450
Sale of forage, stores 254,651
Reimbursement of divers expenses .... 663,067
Miscellaneous 204,860
1,255,028
Total ordinary revenue . . 53,191,300
2. EXTBAOBDINARY REVENUE.
Exchequer bills 2,700,000
Anglo-Dutch loan, 1864 ... . . 4,272,919
6,972,919
Total gross revenue ... ^ 60,164,219
Estimated Expenditure for the Year 1865.
1. ObDINABT EXPBNDITUBB.
£ £
Public debt — Extinction and interest of foreign loans . 4,633,420
Extinction and interest of internal loans . . 4,312,249
8,945,669
Expenses of superior State department . . . 180,518
CAarcli— Pay of clergy, 599,1781. .... 801,291
BKYUnn AKD JBXPENBITVBB.
399
1. Ordinaiy Ezpenditue — continued.
£
Imperial household and citU list ....
Foreign office, diplomatic and consular service .
Army— Pay 3,279^94
Bations 4,360,346
Forage 2,218,123
dotiiing 1,987,173
Miscellaneous . 5,147,069
NaTv— Pay ........ 273,994
Victualling 89,937
Clothing 94,632
Ship-building . 960,919
Miscellaneous
Finance Department — Pensions to widows and
orphans
Subventions to companies and towns
Construction of factories for casting guns
Compensations: to Denmark for Sound dues, to
Poland for abolition of Custom-houses
Extraordinaiy disbursements of treasury
Extraordinary disbursements in provinces
Central and local administration of finance
Miscellaneous
Expenses of collecting revenue — Direct taxes £32,522
Excise on spirits 1,385,669
Excise on tobacco, salt, and sugar . . 218,962
Customs 706,555
Duties and stamps 22,914
Mint and mine inspection . . . 459,412
1,833,268
2,298,817
824,40d
117,300
630,415
600,000
551,848
657,858
260,353
5,940,997
£
1,163,316
814,109
17,992,606
3,262,650
Department of Domains — Central and local adminis-
tration
Grants of rents to servants of the Crown
Forests, farms, surveys, &c. . . . .
2,826,033
643,087
251,580
673,218
C(Hnmittee of Southern Colonies
Home office — Central administration .
Censorship of Press ....
Provincial administration
Maintenance of clergy of foreign persuasions
Divers
Public Instruction — Central and district administra-
tion
Universities, lyceums, and gymnasia
District, parochial, primary, and other schools
• Crants, aid to proifessors
89,068
28,161
1,069,813
102,404
529,384
68,697
563,164
194,070
120,772
8,767,030
1,367,880
26,902
1,818,836
936,603
400
RUSSIA*
1. Ordinaiy Expenditure— cow fe«tt«rf.
£
Pablic "Works — Central and local administration . 496,676
Water communication 338,984
Koadfl 666,746
Telegraphs 49,240
Buildings 201,673
Guarantees to Railway Companies .... 976,000
Working of line, St Petersburg to Moscow . 846,760
Working and extension of telegraphs . . . 294,733
Expense of levying tolls .... 16»616
Post-oflBce, including postal stations, horses, &c.
Justice — Senate and central administration
Provincial and district courts, magistrates
Law College and divers ....
Comptroller of empire, central administration
Imperial studs . . . .
Civil administration of Trans-Caucasus
Total ordinary expenditure
Anticipated deficit in collection of taxes
Expenditure for Government establishments
196,232
644,831
132,387
8,774,416
1,706,160
:e600,000
1,266,028
Army
Navy
2. Extraordinary Expenditure
(on accoimt of Polish Insurrection).
£4,872,706
734,442
973,460
48,938
89,226
642,467
62,702,044
1,866,028
64,657,072
Total expenditure
6,607,147
60,164,219
It will be seen from the above statement that the gross ordinary
revenue of the Russian empire during the year 1865 is estimated at
63,191,300Z., and the gross expenditure at 60,164,219/., showing a
deficit of 6,972,919/., which is to be covered by an issue of exche-
quer bills to the extent of 2,700,000/., and by 4,272,919/. of an
Anglo-Dutch loan of 6,000,000/ — issued at 85 — contracted in April
1864, with Messrs. Baring, of London, and Hope & Co., of
Amsterdam. To this was added an internal loan of 100,000,000
roubles, issued in January, 1865. The 100 millions were issued in
bonds of the value of 100 roubles, bearing interest at 5 per cent
Thepe bonds are redeemable in 60 years by means of drawings, two
of which will be held annually for the first 30 years, and one draw-
ing annually during the succeeding 30 years. At these drawings the
prizes will range from 120 roubles upwards, payable at Amsterdam,
and the total sum distributed at .each drawing is to amoimt to 600,000
roubles.
KEYENUE AND EXPENBITUBE. 4OI
The budget estimates are all that is known of Russian finance,
and no account of the actual revenue and expenditure of the State
has ever been published.
According to an official report of the Minister of Finance, dated
March 18, 1866, the public debt inscribed in the Great Book, at the
commencement of 1864, showed the following amounts : —
I. — Debts fob a Giybn Pbsio9.
Foreign.
fiTe per Cents Dutch flonns 32,931,000
„ „ . roubles 11,807,000
Four-and-a-half pes Cents jg sterling 10,380,000
Four per Cents. roubles 37,025,000
Home.
Kve per Cents., bank-notes, issued by virtue of Imperial decree
of June 2, 1863 roubles 5,028,950
li — Pebfbtuai. Erntbs.
Foreign.
Five per Cents. roubles 164,391,660
„ „ . £ sterling 16,000,000
Three per Cents „ 6,895,000
Home.
^j. per CentSi roubles 49,815,178
Four per Cents. (Consolidated Loan) ... „ 152,303,595
Five per Cents. (Perpetual Deposits) ... „ 288,277
Grand total in silver roubles . . . 648,781,781
In the course of 1864 there were inscribed in the Great Book : —
Foreign Debts.
Five per Cent. Anglo-Dutch Loan, contracted by virtue of an^
Imperialukaseof April 3, 1864 . . . £ sterling 1,937,800
IHtto Dutch florins. 47,933,000
Home^ Bebts^
Four per Cents, (subscription to the Consolidated Loan) roubles 1»707,304
Five per Cents. (Bank-notes issued by virtue of an Imperial
decreeof June2, 1863) 4,971,050
SiMKiNQ Fund. — Dbbts fob a Given Period.
Foreign,
Rve per Cents Dutch florins 2,754,000
„ „ roubles 286,500
Four-and-a-half per Cents. . . . . - £ sterling 210,000
Four per Cents. . . . . roubles 1,675,000
Hom^.
Bank-notes at five per cent roubles 25,000
PbBPBTUAI. E3BNTB&.
Foreign..
Five per Centa. igq\>\«& 'ttjft^^iS*^
D D
402 BUSSIA.
Home.
Six per Cents roubles 1,849
Bonos of the Consolidated Four per Cent. State Loan, which had
been exchanged for deposits not subject to be converted into
bonds of this character 91,691
In consequence of these transfers the position of the public debt
at the beginning of 1865 was as follows : —
I.— Debts fob a Given Pebiod.
Foreign.
Five per Cents Dutch florins 78,110,000
„ „ £ sterling 1,937,800
„ „ roubles 11,520,500
Four-and-a-half per Cents. .... £ sterling 10,170,000
Four per Cents. roubles 65,350,000
Home.
Five per Cents., Bank-notes 9,975,000
II. — ^Pebpetual Bemtes.
Foreign,
Five per Cents roubles 164,141,600
„ „ £ sterling 16,000,000
Three per Cents „ 6,895,000
Home,
Six per Cents roubles 49,813,329
Four per Cents. Consolidated Loan ... „ 153,919,380
Five per Cents. Perpetual Deposits ... „ 288,377
Grand total of the debt in roubles . . 690,089,675
„ „ „ pounds sterling 120,764,761
Not included in this account, are above 750 millions of paper
money, called Bills of Credit, issued by Government on the guarantee
of all the banks and other credit establishments of the empire, united
into a State bank by imperial decree of September 1, 1859. The
capital of these establishments, which are under the direction and
supervision of the Minister of Finance, is stated to amount to
96,241,618 roubles, or 13,748,802Z. The note circulation of Russia
has increased very rapidly of late years, while the specie has
diminished at the same time. There was —
Jan. 1856
Feb. 1862
„ 1866
Note dicnlation
Specie
£63,450,663
106,626,443
119,346,980
18,476,582
12,336,705
11,874,312
The guarantee iund of the note circulation not amoimting to more
than one-tenth, it has been foimd necessary to give them a :forced
currency. Notwithstanding this measure, gold and silver has been
for many years at a premium, varying from, 10 to 15 per cent.
▲BMT. .403
The destruction of public credit, through an illimited issue of
paper money, is of old standing. In the reign of Catherine 11., the
first attempt, on a large scale, was made to cover the annual deficits
by a very liberal supply of paper roubles, the sum total of which at
the death of the Empress, 1796, amounted to 200,000,000. During
the subsequent wars with France and Turkey, new emissions of paper
followed, with the consequence that, in 1815, the notes had fallen to
418, that is, one silver rouble was worth four roubles eighteen copecs
in paper. Great efforts were now made by the Government to im-
prove this state of things, by withdrawing a portion of the paper from
circulation. After ten years of improved financial management,
there remained, however, still 600,000,000 of notes, circulating at the
rate of three paper roubles to one silver rouble. As a final remedy,
the Imperial Government withdrew, in 1843, the whole of the old
papejT money, introducing, in its stead, a new form of bank notes,
with forced currency. By these and other means, particularly the
establishment of the State bank above mentioned, the nominal value
of the paper money, called Bills of Credit, was considerably raised,
80 as to stand only at fi-om 10 to 15 per cent, discount. However, as
will be seen firom the above statement, the issue of paper money con-
tinues at an increasing rate, the note circulation having more than
doubled in ten years.
Anny and Navy.
1. Army,
The land forces of Russia are formed of two descriptions of troops,
different firom each other in many respects — the regular troops, pro-
perly so called, and the feudal militia of the Cossacks and similar races.
Some corps of the latter have been brought into regular form and
training, and are occasionally employed like the rest of the army,
alUiough in many respects they differ entirely fi:om the regular troops.
The regular army is recruited from the classes of peasants and arti-
sans, partly and principally by means of a conscription, partly by the
adoption of the sons of soldiers, and partly by voluntary enlistment.
Every individual belonging to these classes is, with a few exceptions,
liable to compulsory service, provided he be of the proper age and
stature. The levies, which take place alternately in the eastern and
western divisions of the empire, are ordinarily in the proportion of
one or two to every 500 males ; but during war the proportion is at
least as two or three to 500, and sometimes as much as four or even
five to 500. This last, however, may be taken as the maximum levy,
and is rarely exceeded. The nmnber of recruits to be furnished by
the empire in general, and by each district in pai:ticuia,t ,\a^ixfe^«jc,<i«t^-
ing to the results of the preceding censoa. TYia XLot>\L*^ tloxc^vsa^
DD 2
404 Russu.
such of their dependants as they please to complete their quotas, the
only conditions being that they should have a good constitution, and
be of the requisite size, and not less than 18, nor more than 40 yean
of age. The contingents supplied by some of the great landed pro-
prietors are very large, sometimes amounting to 3,000, to 5,000, and
even to 6,000 and upwards. The recruits are first sent to the
recruiting establishments, and thence forwarded to the corps to
which they are assigned. Nobles, magistrates, clergymen, and
students are exempted from the service. Merchants and traders
enrolled in the different guilds are also exempted ; as are the only
sons of peasants, and peasants with more than three children. The
levies furnished by the Cossacks are regulated by particular treaties ;
and many half-savage tribes are excused, partly on account of their
diminutive size, and partly because of their great aversion to a mili-
tary life. Generally, it is found that a levy of two on every 500 males
produces a supply of about 90,000 or 100,000 men. Substitutes
are admitted in the event of the authorities being informed and not
objecting to their employment.
The period of service is fixed at 22 years for the guard, and 26
years for the other troops. But since 1840, soldiers after 10 or
15 years' service, according as they belong to the western or eastern
divisions of the empire, are entitled to an indefinite leave ; and
are sent home to their native place, their names being enrolled in
the reserve of the battalion or squadron of the regiment to which
they belong, that they may, if necessary, be again called into active
service. The aggregate strength of the reserves — those of 10
years' service being called the 1st reserve, and those of 15 years'
service the 2nd — is estimated at about 215,000 men. The entire
number of reserve troops formed in this manner is divided into two
great levies, the total amount of which is as follows : — First levy :
nine battalions of grenadiers, three of carabineers, thirty-six of in-
&ntry of the line, and thirty-six of chasseurs, or a total of eighty-
four battalions of infentry, fifly-two squadrons, and twenty-four
foot-batteries, or in roimd numbers 100,000 men, with 192 gims.
Second levy : twelve battalions of the guard, twelve of grenadiers
and carabineers, seventy-two of infantry of the line and chasseurs,
or a total of ninety-six battalions of infantry, sixty-two squadrons,
and twenty-four foot, with eleven horse-batteries, and two and a half
battalions of sappers, or in round numbers 1 15,000 men with 280 guns.
Formerly, the annual recruitment took place simultaneously
throughout the whole empire; but this being attended by many
inconveniences, the Emperor Nicholas, in 1834, divided his realm
into two moieties, to be subjected to the recruitment in alternate
years. The divisions were at first into northern and southern, but
were changedj in 1839, into eaatftTn and N<i«&t^TQ. habrea. At pre-
Bent, the two divisions consist of ih^io\io^m^Qco^«n5MMas.\A\
AB]£T»
405
JSkistem Half comprises Vologda) Kostroma, Yaroalaf, Vladimir,
M06COW, Ksduga, Tula, Riazan, Tambof, the country of the Don
CtOBsackB, Caucasia, Astrakhan, Saratof, Penza, Nizhni Novgorod,
Samara, Simbirsk, Kazan, Viatka, Perm, Orenburg, Tobolsk, Tomsk,
Yeniseisk, and Irkutsk. The Western Half consists of Archangel,
Olonetz, St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, Smolensk, Pskof, Esthonia,
livoma, Courland, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Vitebsk, Mohilef, Vol-
hynia, Kief, Podolia, Kherson, Taurida, Ekaterinosla^ Poltava,
Tchemigof, Orel, Kursk, Kharkof.
The imperial ukase which fixes the number of recruits is generally
issued in summer ; the levy commences in November, and must be
concluded by January 1. Governments are sometimes released from
the necessity of furnishing recruits on account of a bad harvest ;
tiiey are debited, however, with the amount on future levies, although
these debts are nof^always paid. The military colonies in the south
furnish eight men in a thousand every alternate year. The levies
ordered by the Government were, in 1836, for both halves of the
empire at once — an exceptional case — exclusive of Georgia and Bes-
sarabia, five in a thousand ; 1837, for the southern half, five in a
thousand ; 1838, for the northern half, six in a thousand ; 1839, for
the western half, five in a thousand ; 1840, for both halves at once,
for twenty-five Governments, six in a thousand; for twenty-two
Governments, five in a thousand ; four Governments being relieved
on account of a bad harvest, the average was five in a thousand.
This proportion has been kept up within the last twenty-five years.
The nominal strength of the Hussian army, according to the
returns of the ministry of war, was as follows, in the year 1865 : —
1. Eegular army.
Infantry . . . .
Cavalry . . . .
Artillery . . . .
Engineers . . . .
Total .
2. Army of 1st reserve.
Troops of the line .
Garrison troops in regiments ,
„ „ in battalions .
Total.
3. Army of 2nd reserve.
Troops of all arms .
(General total
On the peace
footing
364,422
38,306
41,731
13,413
457,876
80,456
80,456
19,830
100,285
264,036
Oc the war
footing
694,511
49,183
48,773
16,203
808,670
74,661
23,470
29,892
127,926
199,380
&U,0%
VVi?ik,Vl^
4o6 BUSSIA.
By an Imperial decree, dated St. Petersbtirg, August 12, 1S66,
the reduction of the army was ordered from the semi- warlike to 1&«
ordinary peace footing. Two divisions of the Guards, 22 divisiotiB
of infantry, two brigades of artillery, and 10 other divisions weite
ftirther Ordered to be reduced from the ordinary peace footing td
the cadres of their respective regiments. Two divisions of cavahy
were finally ordered to be reduced from 16 to 14 sections, and only
two divisions of cavalry to be maintained on the ftdl peace footing.
Russian soldiers are very generally married ; Government, con-
trary to the policy of most other states, giving every facility to those
who wish to take wives. Among other inducements, it supj^ies
them with lodgings, and undertakes to feed, clothe, and educate^
their children. But it allows the male children no choice of a profes-
sion ; they are all brought up from infancy with a view to their
being made soldiers or otherwise engaged in the public servicfe.
After remaining for awhile with their parents in their (Quarters,
they are taken to military depots, where they are instructed in theit
duties. This class, which has received the name of * cantonists*
amoimted, in 1842, to no fewer than 292,990 individuals ; but the
numbers, it is said, have since greatly increased. Of these, 71,900
are stated to have been serving in the army, 35,450 to have been in
public establishments, and 185,640 with their parents. Most of
the non-commissioned officers of regiments beloiig to the class of
cantonists, having been selected on the ground of their habit of
discipline.
There are at Petersburg schools for pages, engineers, officers of
artillery, and sub-officers of the guard, the rank of ensign being
given to pages who have gone through a certain course, and to
gentlemen cadets who have been two years in the service. But the
principal establishment for the education of officers is that of the
* Corps des Cadets,' at Petersburg, founded in 1731, It has about
700 pupils, the sons of noble parents, or of those who have attained to
the rank of captain in the civil or military service. The pupils are
divided into ^ye classes, and on leaving school become ensigns in
regiments of the line. This school has mateiially contributed to
diffiise information among the inferior nobility, and to supply the
army with able officers. There are also schools for cadets at Moscow,
Woronesch, Polotsk, Tula, Tamboff, and other towns. The pupils
leave after a fixed time, and are ranked as ensigns. By a
decree of the Emperor, dated Oct. 22, 1863, various new rules
were laid down for the entrance of officers into the army,
with the view of facilitating the entrance of young men leaving
public schools, and supplying the increased military forces of Russia
with a sufficient number of officers. Young men who have gone
through the course of studies in tke lA^ %ci\i<oo\& ^^nll \^« at onee
ABMT.
407
admitted into the army as non-commissioned officers, without
escpmination, and after three months' service, and passing the
examination, will be promoted to the rank of officers. All these
young men will be promoted without waiting for vacancies. Youths
who have pursued their studies in the middle schools receive the
rank of officers after the expiration of six months. All other
Toltmteers desirous of entering the army, whatever be their origin
-—whether noble or plebeian — may be promoted to be officers at
the expiration of one year's service, and after passing the necessary
examination. If, notwithstanding this measure affording additional
&cilities and inducements to enter the army, the necessary number
of officers should not be obtained, the period to be served by non-
commissioned officers who have risen from the ranks before they
can take rank as officers will be reduced — ^in the guards tb seven,
and in the line to eight years.
The pay of the officers in the Russian army is very small com-
pared with that of the other European nations. It is as follows : —
Heutenant-general, 1,116 roubles, or 159/. a year; major-general,
838 roubles, or 119/.; colonel, 560 roubles, or 80Z. ; lieutenant-
colonel, 419 roubles, or 59/. ; major, 336 roubles, or 48/. ; captain,
307 roubles, or 43/. ; second captain, 282 roubles, or 40/. ; lieu-
tenant, 238 roubles, or 34/. ; second lieutenant, 224 roubles, or 32/. ;
ensign, 209 roubles, or 29/. ; and non-commissioned officers, 10 to
123 roubles, or 1/. IO5. to 17/.
Among the irregular troops of Russia, the most important are the
Cossacks. The coimtry of tiie Don Cossacks contains from 600,000
to 700,000 inhabitants. In case of necessity, every Cossack, from
fifteen to sixty years of age, is bound to render military service.
The usual regular military force, however, consists of fifty-four
cavalry regiments, each numbering 1,044 men, making a total of
56,376. The Cossacks are reckoned in round numbers as follows : — <
On the Black Sea
Great Russian Cossacks on the Caucasian Line
Don Cossacks
Ural Cossacks
Orenburg Cossacks
Siberian Cossacks
Total
Heads.
125,000
160,000
440,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
876,000
Inmilitaay
seryioo
18,000
18,000
66,000
8,600
10,000
9,000
129,000
The Cossacks are a race of free men; neither eer&^e Ti<st «sik!|
ciher dependence ujpon the land exists amoii^ ^^m. Tt^ft «5&xfe
408 RUSSIA.
territoiy belongs to the Cossack commune, and every individual has
an equal right to the use of the land, together -with the pastures,
himting-grounds, and fisheries. The Cossacks pay no taxes to the
Government, but in lieu of this they are boimd to perform militaiy
service. They are divided into three classes: — first, the minors or
* Maloletniye,' up to their sixteenth year; secondly, those on actual
service, the * Sluzhiliye,' for a period of twenty-five years, therefore
until their forty-second year ; thirdly, those released fi:om service,
the * Otstavniye,' who remain for ^ye years, or until their forty-
seventh year, in the reserve ; after that period they are regarded as
wholly released from service and invalided. Every Cossack is
obliged to equip, clothe, and arm himself at his own expense, and to
keep his horse. Whilst on service beyond the firontiers of his own
country, he receives rations of food and provender, and a small
amount of pay. The artillery and train are at the charge of the
Government. Instead of imposing taxes on the Don Cossacks, the
Kussian Government pays them an annual tribute of 21,310 roubles,
besides 20 roubles as a gift to be distributed among the widows and
orphans of those who have Mien in battle. Besides the Cossacks of
the Don, there are, on the Orenburg and Siberian lines, the Bashkir
and Meshtcherski Cossacks, numbering some 200,000 men.
2. Navy.
The Russian navy consists of two great divisions, the fleet of the
Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets is again
subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near the Baltic,
and three in or near the Black Sea, to which must be added the
small squadrons of gaUeys, gun-boats, and similar vessels. The
divisions, like the English, carry the white, blue, and red flag — an
arrangement originating with the Dutch — but indthout the rank of
the admirals being in any way connected with the colour of the flag.
Each division of the fleet formerly conmsted of one three-decker,
eight two-deckers, six frigates, one corvette, and four smaller vessels.
The sailors of the imperial navy are levied, like the army, by recruit-
ment ; as many of them, however, as possible are enlisted volimtarily,
and the crews furnished by Finland are obtained altogether in this
manner. The period of service in the navy was formerly twenty-
two years, but was reduced, by imperial decree of September 10,
1859, to fourteen years.
According to an ofl&cial report, the Russian fleet consisted, January
1, 1865, of 258 steamers and 36 sailing vessels, of which the greater
and more formidable part was stationed in the Baltic. The Black
Sea fleet number 43, ihe Caspian 32, the Siberian or Pacific 33, and
the Lake Aral or Turkestan squadron 9 vessels ; the rest of 177
ahips being either stationed at Kronstadt and Sweaborg, or engaged
NAVY.
409
IB cruising in European waters. From the Recueil de la Marine^
pabliahed at St. Petersburg, it appears that the number of armour-
plated ships in the Russian fleet on January 1, 1865, was one
fiigate, two floating batteries, two sloops with two towers, and 10
dioops with one tower ; on the slips there were, at that date, two
wore vessels, one frigate and one floating battery.
A report of the minister of the navy, dated June 1, 1862, gives
the following list of vessels as forming the fleet of war of Russia at
that period : —
■
Ships of the line
Frigates .
Coryettea
Brigs .
Steamers
SaUing
yeesels
Gunboats .
Sloops and
schooners
Total
Steamers
Sailing
yeeaelB
"9
22
24
12
10
6
3
5
86
96
2
36
248
62
Altogether 310 men-of-war, with 3,691 guns. The steamers were
stated to be of 37,007 horse-power, with 2,387 guns, and the sailing
vessels with 1,304 guns. It will be seen, comparing this report with
that of January 1, 1865, that the conversion of the sailing navy into a
titeam navy, is going on gradually, but slowly. The fleet, according
to another oflScial report, was manned by
Admirals and genwals
Commissioned officers and staff
Civil employ&s
Sailors, soldiers, and non-commissioned officers
Total, , . . .
Jan. 1, 1860
Jan. 1, 1861
114
3,669
1,319
63,046
96
3,246
966
56,216
68,047
59,622
A fleet of iron-clad vessels and steam-rams has been in course of
construction for the last four years at the naval yards of St. Peters-
burg and Nicolaieff. The largest of these, called * Sevastopol,' was
launched at Cronstadt, August 24, 1864. The * Sevastopol ' nearly
equals the British iron-cladsj * Bkck Prince * and * Warrior,' in her
dimensions, and exceeds those of the French * Gloire ' and * Nor-
mandie.* At the line of flotation the * Sevastopol ' measures 300 feet
in length, and her greatest breadth is 52 feet 3 inches. The ship
draws 26 feet at the poop and 24 at the chains. Her plates are
4^ inches thick, fastened to a double coating of teak from 6 to
9 inches thick. Her engines have a nominal fot<i^ oi %^^ \ksyRfc.-
power, and she is armed with steel guns oi tk^ ^^aXiesfc c»iScst^*
410 B1T8SIA.
Her prow has a beak of a formidable kind attached to it. The next
largest iron-clad vessel of the Eussian navy is the * Pojarski,' built
by English engineers at the naval yard of St. Petersburg, and
launched in September, 1866. The * Pojarski' is 280 feet long,
49 feet beam, and about 31 feet deep. The armour-plating is 4^
inches thick, and extends the entire length of the vessel from the
depth of 5 feet below, and 6 feet above the line of flotation : the
armour is laid on a backing of East India teak 18 inches thick.
The * Pojarski's ' armament is placed in a central battery occu-
pying about 80 feet on the length of gun deck, both sides and
ends being completely armour-clad : the armament consists of eight
300-poimder steel guns, four on each broadside. The iron hull is
of great strength, being constructed on the cellular tubular principle.
The entire bottom of the vessel is built with double iron skin for
the purpose of giving great additional safety as well as strength. It
is a remarkable fact that not only are the hulls of the new iron-clads
built in Russia, but the entire quantity of iron used is home-made.
The steam-engines and boilers, the armour-plating, and the arma-
ment are also wholly of Russian manufacture.
Population.
The Russian empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part
of the globe, and about one-twenty-sixth part of its entire sur&ce.
But the superficial extent of the empire has never been determined
with accuracy. A topographical survey made during the years
1865-66, and embracing the provinces of Russia in Europe, showed
the total area of the same to be 90,117 geographical square miles, or
1,992,574 English square miles. Finland and Poland are not in-
eluded in this survey, but their area was calculated on the basis of
other measurements^ and is given, in official returns, as follows : —
Oeog. sq. miles
Russia in Europe ....... 90,117
Northern Asiatic Russia, or Siberia . . . . 223 J 80
Southern Asiatic Russia, or Trans-Caucasia . . 3,123
Qrand duchy of Finland 6,400
Kingdom of Poland 2,320
American colonies 17,500
Total 343,240
or 7,612,874 £ng. sq. m.
POPULilTION.
411
The subjoined table giveB the area and poptdiition of the empire,
according to the enumerations of 1846 and of 1858 : —
Area in Gw,
Bip. !n 1846
' Pop. InlSCS
Northern Provincea— ApchaogBl
15,519
263,000
274,051
Olonete .
2J84
263,100
287,354
Vologda . '
6,M7
822,200
951.593
Great Eusfiia— Peterabm^g
970
643JO0
1,083,091
Novgorod .
2,213
907,900
975,201
Pekof
810
776,800
706,462
Smolensk .
1,019
1,170,600
1,102,076
M03LX)W
5g&
1.374,700
1,599,808
Tww
1,224
1,327.700
1,491,427
Yaro&Uf .
6B0
1,008,100
976,866
Kostroma .
1,496
1,054,600 '
1,076,988
Nijni Novgorod .
877
1,178,200
1,269,606
Vladimir ,
862
1,246,600 '
1,207,908
Eiazan
767
1,365,900
1,427,299
Tambof .
1,202
1,750,900
1,910,454
Tula .
555
1,227*000
1,172,249
Kaluga
673
1,006,400
l,O07>471
Ots?l .
859
1,502,900
1,532,034
Konrsk
818
1,680,000
1,811,972
Baltic ProTtBees — Esthonia
376
310,400
303,478
LivoQia
858
814.100 '
883,681
Courlaud
496
553,300 1
667,078
White Ku^iB^Wit^pisk .
81Q
7^tf,6O0 ;
781,741
MohJlef ,
BBS
931,300
884,640
Minsk .
1,622
1,046,400
986,471
Idthuania^Wtlna -
768
663,700
876,116
Gmdo .
693
907,100
881,881
Kowno .
758
916,680
988,287
little Eiaaaia^-Volhynia .
1.3B7
1,445,500
1,528,328
Pndnlift ,
774
1,703,000
1,748,466
1 Kief.
914
1,605,800
1,944,334
1 TcheraiKoff
1,000
1,430,000
1,471,866
Pultawa ,
897
1,783,800
1,819,110
KharkoflF .
9S5
1,467,400
1,582,571
1 Voronejo .
1,209
1,657,900
1,930,850
Don Cossacks
2,943
704,300
896,870
HflTT Eijasia— Ekaterinoakf
1,196
870,100
1,842,681
KheiraOQ
1,332
842,400
1,027,459
Taurida
1,163
572,200
687,343
JJe^sarabffl .
838
792,000
910,107
Wolga and Caspian Ppovuices—
Kajmn . . , .
1,128
1,342,900
1,543,344
Pensa ... *
69Q
1,087,200
1.888,535
Simbink ....
1»315
l,3ia,900
1,140,973
Sai^tof , . . .
3,525
1,718,600
1,636,135
AfltFakhan ....
2,860
284,400
CaiuraauH . . » .
2,350
\ h^^^m
\
412
BUSSIA.
Abba and Population — continued.
Goyemments
AreainGeo.
Bq. miles
Pop. in 1846
Pop. in 18M
Oural Provinces — Orenbourg .
6,773
1,948,600
2,036,581
Perm .
6,073
1,637,700
2,046,572
Viatka .
2,600
1,662,800
2,123,904
Siberia— Tobolsk . . 1
Toomsk .
Irkutsk .
Yakutsk .
223,780
2,937,000
4,070,938
Kamchatka
Okhotsk .
Yeniseisk .
Trans-Caucasia.
3,123
2,648,000
4,003,766
Grand-duchy of Finland .
6,400
1,412,316
1,724,193
Kingdom of Poland .
2,320
4,867,700
4,790,379
Eussian America
17,600
61,000
72,376
Grand total .
•
343,240
66,008,315
73,992,373
A later census than the above was made for the provinces of
European Russia, on the 1st of January, 1864, and for Finland and
Poland on the Ist of January, 1863. According to these enumera-
tions, the total population of Russia in Europe amounted to
61,061,801 ; of Finland to 1,798,909 ; and of Poland to 5,336,210
souls, giving a total, for the European portion of the empire, of
68,196,920 inhabitants.
To the Asiatic portion of the empire there was added, in 1866,
a new province, called Russian Turkestan. This province, according
to an imperial decree of March 1, 1866, comprises all the territory
bordering on the principalities of Central Asia, from the sea of Aral
to Lake Issik-Koul, of a total area of 12,800 geographical square
miles, or three times the size of Great Britain.
The following table gives a view of the extent of the Russian
dominions at different epochs : —
G^eog. sq. miles
In 1635, at the accession of John the Terrible
In 1686, at his death ....
In 1613, at the accession of Michael Eomano£f
In 1646, at his death . . . .
In 1726, at the death of Peter the Great .
In 1741, at the accession of Elizabeth
In 1796, at the death of Catherine II.
In 1856, at the accession of Alexander II.
37,200
144,000
148,000
268,000
280,000
325,000
335,000
343,240
More than a hundred tribes, with as many different languages,
are comprised within the circuit of the Russian empire, bat nearly
POPULATION,
413
these live on the frontiers of the country ; the interior is in-
bited by a homogeneous race, the Russians, numbering about
,000,000, whereas all the other tribes of the empire imited do not
seed 24,000,000. The Russians are generally subdivided into
eat Russians, numbering about 36,000,000 ; Little Russians, or
tthehes, to the number of 10,000,000 ; and White Russians, about
K)0,000. The dialect of the Little and the White Russians
jhtly differs from that of the Great Russians, but not so much as
prevent a mutual understanding. Of other races, the most im-
rtant are the Slavonians of Poland and Lithuania, numbering
ne 7,000,000 ; the Fins and Lettons, some 2,500,000 ; and the
menians, to the number of about 2,000,000. These figures,
Bvever, are mere estimates; for there exist no official returns
;arding the various nationalities inhabiting the empire.
Previous to the year 1863, the greater portion of the inhabitants
fte empire were serfs, belonging either to the Crown or to private
tividuals. The number belonging to private owners was estimated
1861, at 22,000,000 of both sexes, the male serfs being distributed
follows : —
Number of male
serfs
Ayerage nnmber
of Berfa to each
proprietor
58,457 with less than 21 slaves
30,447 with 21 to 100
16,740 with 101 to 500 .
2,273 with 501 to 1,000 .
1,453 with 1,001 and upwards
450,037
1,500,357
3,634,194
1,562,834
3,556,959
7-7
49-3
2171
687-6
2,4480
tals . 109,340
10,704,378
980
5y an imperial decree of March 3, 1861, coming into final execu-
1 on March 3, 1863, serfdom was abolished, under certain condi-
18, within the whole of Russia. The owners of the serfs were
apensated for their loss by a payment regulatud in the following
nner: — The previous labour of the serf was estimated at a yearly
tal of 6 per cent., so that for every six roubles which the labourer
ned annually, he had to pay 100 roubles to his master as his
ital value to obtain his freedom. Of this sum, the serfs had to
e immediately 20 per cent., while the remaining 80 per cent,
pe disbursed as an advance by the Government to the owners, to
repaid, at intervals extending over foiiy-nine years, by the freed
aants. According to an ofiScial report, tlie whole of tjiese arrange-
QtB were completed at the end of July, 1865, so that^ ^om ^!^
e^ serfdom ceased to exist in Russia.
414 BUSSIA.
The Groyemment, as a consequence of the emancipation of the
fser&y took measures in 1864-5, for the diffusion of instroo-
tion among the agricultural population. An additional budget
of 450,000 roubles was decreed for the year 1865, by which 3ie
budget of Public Instruction was raised to about 1,300,000 roubles.
This supplementary budget provides for the founding of village
schools, of 11 new gymnasia (colleges) ; for the purchase of books
and paper for the poorer peasants ; for supplementary payment to
schoolmasters and professors ; for the purchase of scientific instru-
ments ; for the establishment of laboratories and museums ; for the
foundation of a Polytechnic School ; and for other schools for teach-
ing agriculture and horticulture.
Besides the 22,000,000 of serfs belonging to private owners,
there were, according to a census taken some years ago, 22,225,075
Crown peasants — that is, 10,583,638 men, and 11,641,437 wo-
men. The emancipation of this class began previous to that of
the private serfs, and was all but accomplished on September 1,
1863. By an imperial decree of July 8, 1863, land was granted to
the peasants on the private and appanage estates of the Crown, and
to the peasants who belonged to the imperial palaces, which they are
to pay for in forty-nine years in instalments, each equal in
amount to the * obrok,' or poll-tax formerly yielded by them. The
peasants on these Crown estates, about 2,000,000 in number, were
thereby elevated to the rank of rent-paying peasants, a situation in
which they will remain for forty- nine years, when they become
freehold landowners.
An important, though not very numerous class of the population
of Russia are the foreign settlers which the Government succeeded in
attracting to the country at various periods. The enormous extent
of excellent but waste land, and the small and thinly-scattered
population in all parts of the empire, naturally suggested the idea to
the Government of bringing these deserts into cultivation by inviting
colonists from other countries. Ivan Vasilievitch invited Germans
to Moscow, of which the German ' Sloboda ' still affords evidence.
Michael Fedorovitch, in 1617, brought several thousand inhabitants
from Finland and Carelia, and established them between Tver and
Moscow. Peter I. settled a great many Swedish prisoners, and in
1705, after the capture of Narva and Dorpat, carried away about
6,000 of the inhabitants, and planted them in scattered parties in
various parts of the empire. But Catherine II., immediately after
the commencement of her reign, conceived the idea of * peopling with
immigrant foreigners the desert and waste lands of the southern
provinces of the empire, and through them of disseminating industry
and agricultural science among her subjects,' as it is expressed in the
ukase of 1763.
POPULATION,
415
The first colonists receiyed from the Russian Groremment the
necessary travelling expenses from their homes to their places of
destination ; they were allowed the importation, duty-free, of their
effects, to the value of 300 silver roubles; they had houses built at
the expense of the Crown ; and they had provisions and money for
the first year, and a large sum as a loan, without interest, for a cer-
tain number of years. These last privileges have not been granted
to the same extent to all subsequent colonists.
A return made several years ago stated the number of colonies
in the empire, inhabited by settlers who had not yet become quite
nationalised, as follows : —
Number of
the coloniea
or villages
Population
Hales
Females
Total
Bessarabia
Kherson .
Gis-Oaucasia
Georgia .
Ekaterinoslaf
St Petersburg
Saratof .
Taurida .
Tchemigof
Voronedi
105
55
3
7
47
13
102
80
8
1
38,995
20,796
236
1,201
6,750
1,522
63,717
12,237
862
631
35,478
19,795
245
1,187
6,547
1,513
63,311
11,323
890
600
74,473
40,591
481
2,388
13,297
3,035
127,028
23,560
1,752
1,231 .
Tc
>tal .
421
146,947
140,889
287,836
Besides the foregoing, the Russian empire possesses considerable
colonies of the three peoples who seem to be adapted to the migra-
tory or pedlar trade-^the Jews, Armenians, and Tartars, or rather
Bokharians. The Jews, who number about a million and a half,
are only found in the western provinces of the Russian empire,
in the south, and a few in Siberia. In the former Polish provinces
of the west they are more numerous than in any other part of the
world, and occupy there a very important position. In the central
provinces of the empire the Jews are not tolerated. The second
people for the migratory trade are the Armenians. Their numbers
are greater than those of the Jews, amounting to abouti two millions,
and they are spread throughout all Asia and a part of Africa, and
to be found even frequently in China. The third of these peoples
are the Tartars, and especially the Bokharian part of them. The
Bokharians are everywhere indefatigable and skilful merchants;
many are settled in the Siberian towns, and by their means Russia
has much intercourse with Bokhara and the commercial roads co\!l-
nected with it.
4i6
BUSSU.
An important feature in the social life of Russia is that the right
of primogeniture, as such, does not exist. Peter I. desired to intro-
duce an inheritance in fee of the oldest son among the nobility by
an ukase of March 13, 1713. This, however, was so much opposed
to the customs and traditions of the people, that it was abandoned.
Peter 11. cancelled the former ukase by that of March 17, 1728.
Primogeniture has gqIj been established in a few great families by
particular &mily statutes.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of the imports and exports of Eussia — exclusive
of specie — in each of the years 1860-64, is exhibited in the sub-
joined table: —
Years
Imports
Exports
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
8il. roubles
159,334,166
152,323,405
167,111,131
152,869,978
154,697,989
£
25,227,910
25,233,039
26,459,263
24,204,413
24,493,849
SU. roubles
165,664,672
181,383,281
177,179,985
180,429,825
154,473,154
£
26,230,240
28,719,020
28,053,498
28,568,056
24,458,250
The imports of Russia, in the year 1864, entered by the various
frontiers of the empire, as follows : —
IzDports
Value
By the White Sea ....
„ Finland
„ the Baltic
„ the European Land Frontier (in-
clusive of Poland).
„ the Black Sea and Sea of Azof
TotAl into European Eussia .
By Trans-Caucasian Frontier
„ Orenburgh and Siberia
„ Kiachta and China ....
„ The Amoor
Total in Asiatic Russia
Total
SU. roubles
660,714
3,006,281
85,348,432
28,694,039
12,994,083
£
104,614
475,995
13;513,502
4,543,223
2,057,396
130,703,549
20,694,730
5,848,549
1,330,636
9,760,727
7,039,408
15,120
926,021
201,686
1,545,448
1,114,673
2,392
23,994,440
3,799,119
154,697,989
24,493,849
TKADB AND INDUSTKT,
417
l^e exports of Russia, in the year 1864, were sent from the
Turious frontiers of the empire as follows : —
Exports
Value
From the White Sea ....
„ Finland
„ the Baltic
„ the European Land Frontier (in-
clusive of Poland
„ the Black Sea and Sea of Azof .
Total from European Bussia
From the Trans-Caucasian Frontier
„ Astrakan
„ Orenburgh and Siberia .
„ Kiachta and China
Total from Asiatic Eussia .
Total ....
Silver roubles
4,747,472
6,048,496
64,187,612
21,561,253
44,227,755
£
751,683
957,678
10,163,039
3,413,866
7,002,728
140,772,588
22,288,994
5,175,870
217,277
4,904,925
3,333,094
819,513
45,486
776,613
527,739
13,700,566
2,169,256
154,473,154
24,458,250
The commercial intercourse of Eussia with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the value
of the total imports from Eussia into the United Kingdom, and of
the exports of British and Irish produce to Eussia in each of the
four years 1861 to 1865 :—
Team
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom to
Bussia
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
12,822,688
15,101,059
13,419,263
14,711,202
17,383,395
£
3,041,448
2,070,918
2,695,276
2,854,898
2,921,496
The principal articles of import from Eussia into the United
Kingdom are taUow; grain, particularly wheat; hemp and flax;
timber, potashes, bristles, linseed and hempseed, linseed and hemp-
seed oils, wool, leather ; fox, hare, and squirrel skins ; canvas and
coarse linen, cordage, caviar, wax, isinglass, ftirs, and tar. The
principal exports from the United Kingdom to Eussia are cotton
stuffs, and yam; machinery and mill- work; hardware and iron;
woollens, tea, lead, tin ; coal and salt in large quaxitiXi^^ Xmsssi^ %sA
silks.
££
41 8 BUSSIA.
According to the Trade Returns published by the Russian Govem-
ment, there are thirty English firms established in Russia, of which
twenty are at St. Petersburg. In 1863 the English merchants of
St. Petersburg imported goods to the amount of 875,000/., while
they exported Russian produce to the value of 3,000,000/. The
Russian produce was almost entirely exported by twelve of the old-
established firms, who only imported, at the T^ussian Custom-house
valuation, British goods to the extent of 270,000/., the balance on
the imports having been made up by seven smaller houses dealing
exclusively in duty-free articles, principally coal, iron, and ma-
chinery. One other firm, long established as the proprietors of the
* English Magazine,' — the principal depot for English goods at
St. Petersburg — imported, in 1863, merchandise of the value of
31,000/. The nine other firms in other parts of Russia exported
Russian produce of the value . of about 2,000,000/. sterling, while
they only imported English goods to the extent of 80,000/. Con-
sequently, the aggregate transactions of British merchants in Russia,
as far as they are shown in Russian oflicial Returns, may, in round
numbers, be stated as follows : '- —
Total exports of Russian produce .... £6,000,000
Total imports of British goods .... 1,000,000
The number of British vessels which entered Russian ports
amoimted to 1,922 in 1865, of a total tonnage of 262,951 ; while
there cleared 1,956 vessels, of 263,830 tons. More than one-half
of the vessels which entered, and one-seventh of those which cleared,
were in ballast.
The chief trading ports are Petersburg and Riga, on the Baltic;
Archangel, on the White Sea ; Odessa, on the Black Sea ; Tagan-
rog, on the Sea of Azof; and Astrakan and Baku, on the Caspian
Sea. Moscow is the principal entrepot of the interior commerce of
the empire. The trade with China is mostly carried on through
Kiachta ; and the interior commerce is kept up by means of Nijni
Novgorod. There are also very large fairs at Irbit, Kharkofl^
Poltava, and other towns.
The commercial navy of Russia, exclusive of the grand-duchy of
Finland, consisted, on January 1, 1862, of 1,927 vessels, with a tcm-
nage of 205,759, manned by 11,860 sailors. The greater part of
this fleet consisted of small coasting vessels, many of them belong-
ing to Greeks, sailing under the Russian flag. Included in the
nimiber were 396 trading steamers on the rivers and lakes of the
empire ; very nearly two-thirds of the number on the river Volga
and its ajBiuents. This inland communication continues to be
largely on the increase, a great number of vessels for the purpose
being built in Great Britain, Belgium, Holland, and France.
CONSTITUTION AND OOYSBNMENT. 4.I9
PoHticallj united with the Russian empire, but administratiyelj
separated, are the grand-duchy of Finland, and the kingdom of
Poland.
I. FINLAND.
Constitation and Oovemment.
The grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia by
the treaty of Frederickshamm, September 17, 1809, has preserved,
by special grant of Alexander I. (renewed by the decrees of the
Emperor Nicholas, of December 24, 1825, and of Alexander II., of
March 3, 1855), its ancient constitution, dating from the year 1772,
and reformed in 1789. This charter provides for a national parlia-
ment, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the burghers,,
and tiie peasants. The right of legislation and of g^ieral taxation
is nominally in the hands of this assembly, though in reality it is
exercised by a senate appointed by the ' Emperor Grand-duke.'
This senate was created by an ordinance of Alexander I., of October
26, 1811, and consisted first of three members, called the * Com-
mittee for the Affairs of Finland.' Another ukase, of February 12,
1812, created a Governor-general of Finland, in whom was vested
the whole executive power, as representative of the sovereign. In
1816, a consultative body, called the * Imperial Senate of Finland,'
was placed at the side of the ministerial council, as the * CJommittee for
the Affairs of Finland,' and denominated, after a while, * the Senate.'
The 'Imperial Senate,* originally consisting of fourteen members, then
of sixteen, and finally, up to the present time, of eighteen, is nominated
by the sovereign for three years, and chosen to one-half from the
nobility of Finland, and the other half from among the classes of
citizens and peasants. The organ of their communication with the
emperor is a secretary of state for the grand-duchy of Finland,
residing at St. Petersburg.
The four estates of Finland were assembled, after an interval of
more than ^y years, for the first time, by the Emperor Alexander II.,
on September 19, 1863, whem it was announced to them that their
ancient privileges would be recalled into life^ with the introduction
of some necessary reforms. The latter are to include the repeal of
the class representation of the people.
The executive authority in the grand-duchy is exercised at pre-
sent jointly by the governor-general and two ministers appointed
by the Crown. The seat of the Government is at Helsin^ors, at
which place, instead of Abo, the ancient capital, the meeting of the
estates. of Finland are held.
Governor-general of the Grand-duchy. — General BdSQ»x\. ^\a^
BokasaowsUj appointed November 19> 1861,
SB 2
420 BUS8IA — FINLAND.
With the exception of the governor-general and the secretary of
state for the grand-duchy, residing at St. Petersburg, all the func-
tionaries of the Govemment must, according to the constitution, be
natives of Finland.
Bevenue, Army, and Population.
The finances of the grand- duchy are kept entirely separate firom
those of the Russian empire. The actual revenue and expenditure
of the grand-duchy, in ^e year 1862, were as follows : —
Ebvenub fob 1862.
Boubles
Land-tax . . 624,000
Taxes upon trade and commerce .... 23,000
Poll-tax 305,000
Indirect taxes 1,827,819
Hiscellaneoos revenue 225,450
Total . . 3,005,269
£429,324
ExPBMDmJBB FOE 1862.
Eonbles
Oeneral administration 297,570
Justice . 108,992
Salaries and pensions 762,679
Army 57,990
Pubhc instruction 827,975
Hospitals and almshouses 268,835
Agriculture and industry 297,239
Public works . 630,154
Miscell^eous 180,044
Total 5 2,831,478
lotal . . I £404 497
Notwithstanding a r^ular annual surplus of revenue over ex-
penditure, the grand-duchy has accumulated a public debt within
the last quarter of a century. Up to the year 1840, Finland had no
public debt at all ; in 1840 and 1841, however, bonds of 900, of 300,
and 100 roubles were issued, bearing 4 per cent, interest, and pay-
able by the bank of Finland three days after notice given by the
holder ; the whole sum thus raised was 700,000 roubles, or about
105,000/. The second debt was contracted by issuing bonds, eadi
of 60 roubles, to a total amount of 600,000 roubles, bearing 3f per
cent, interest. The third debt arose from the costs of the Russian
war in 1854 and 1855, which immediately at its beginning con-
sumed all the former savings of the grand-duchy to an amount of
2,000,000 roubles. The senate hoped to cover the further war
expenditure by issuing new bonds of 900, of 300, and 100 roubles, to
an amount of 650;000 roubles*, but this sum was found to be insi^-
TRADE AUD GOMHBRGE. 42 1
cient, and there had to be emitted another loan of 1,200,000 roubles,
in bonds of 900, 300, and 100 roubles. In 1858, the fourth debt
was contracted by the emission of 1,500,000 roubles, in bonds of 50
roubles, bearing 3f per cent, interest ; besides whidi the Hussian
Bank of Commerce at St. Petersburg advanced 2,500,000 roubles*
To pay back this advance, Finland contracted a fifth loan of 5,000,000
roubles in St. Petersburg, against bonds of 500 roubles each, bearing
4 per cent, interest. 4,000,000 roubles of this loan having been
spent, it was resolved to emit the remaining bonds of 1,000,000
roubles in 1863 and 1864. At the close of 1861, the Finnish public
debt, deducting the sums paid back, amounted to 6,145,041 roubles,
including about 2,500,000 roubles payable to the bondholders three
days after notice. As this was held to be inconvenient, it was
thought expedient to contract for this and other purposes a new
loan, and to pay back the 2,500,000 roubles. This sixth loan wa»
made in Germany, with Rothschild and Sons at Frankfort-on-the-
Maine, and amounted to 4,400,000 thalers, or 660,000Z. Finally,.
a seventh loan for 3,000,000 thalers, or 450,000/., secured by mort-
gage bonds of the Government of Finland, was issued at Frankfort^*
on-the-Maine in August, 1865.
The army of the grand-duchy, maintained at an extraordinarily
small sum, as shown in the aecoumts of expenditure, consists of
3,782 men, all of them infentry. The troops are raised entirely by
enlistment or * var^ade,' and have to engage for a period of not less;
than six and not more than ten years. The navy of the grand-
duchy, consisting of about sixty vessels of small size, for coast de-
fence, is incorporated with the Eussian fleet.
The grand-duchy is divided into eight provinces, with a total*
area of 6,400 geographical, or about 136,000 English square miles^
The census of 1858 stated a population of 1,724,193, of whomi
1,688,131 were Lutherans, and 36,062 members of the orthodox
Greek Church. An enumeration made on the 1st of January, 1865,,
showed that the total population of the grand-duchy had risen to*
1,798,909, or at the rate of one and a half per cent, per annum.
Trade and Commerce.
The total imports into the grand duchy, in 1864, amounted to
2,141,783/., and the total exports to 1,167,960/. The imports were
suppKed by the following countries : —
£
Great Britain supplied .... 136,950
Russia 1,021,263
Sweden and Norway 136,196
Other countries 848,374
Total .... ^,1^1,1^^
422
BUSSIA — POLAND.
Of the exports, the shipments to —
£
Great Britain .... amounted to 335,603
Russia 447,335
Sweden and Norway 124,552
Other countries, chiefly Spain, the Brazils, and
Holland 260,470
Total .... 1,238,428
The imports from, and exports to. Great Britain were as follows
in each of the five years 1860-64 : —
Years
Imports from Great Britain
Exports to Great Britain
£
£
1860
. 221,172
173,556
1861
180,462
217,684
1862
164,862
265,882
1863
224,659
340,119
1864
139,950
335,603
Iron and cotton manufactures are the chief articles of import from,
and deals and battens the staple exports to, the United Kingdom. *
The Finnish mercantile marine consisted at the end of the year
1863 of 532 vessels, of about 160,000 tons burthen, being an in-
crease of 52,000 tons on the tonnage owned in 1853. The mercan-
tile fleet was reduced by one half during the war of 1854-5, and
since then the increase has been very great. The seamen of the
grand-duchy were to the number of 5,829 in the year 1864. They
are held to be the best sailors of the Russian navy ; but the Govern-
ment is only allowed to impress a small number for the service of
the imperial fleet of war.
II. POLAND.
Constitutioii and Oovemment.
The kingdom of Poland ceased to be an independent country in
the yedr 1795, after the * third partition.' By this act of the three
monarchs of Prussia, Austria, and Russia, the coimtry was broken
up as follows : —
ToPrusBia
To Austria
To Russia
Sq. miles
Population
52,000
64,000
168.000
3,500,000
4,800.000
6,700,000
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 423
By the stipulations of the peace of Tilsit, July 7, 1807, the greater
part of the territory taken by Prussia, with a portion of the country
acquired by Austria, was formed into a * grand-duchy of Warsaw,'
under the King of Saxony. This arrangement was again upset at
the Congress of Vienna, when a new * kingdom of Poland * was
formed, and the whole ancient territory of the Polish nation redis-
tributed as follows : —
To Prussia
To Austria
To Russia
To Kingdom of Poland
Sq. miles
Poptdation
29,000
30,000
178,000
47,000
1,800,000
3,600,000
6,900,000
2,800,000
A constitutional charter was granted to the kingdom of Poland by
Alexander I., under date of November 27, 1815. By it the legis-
lative and executive powers were divided; the latter being held by
the Emperor of Eussia as King of Poland, while the former he
shared with the states assembled in diet. The diet consisted of two
chambers ; the Senate, composed of thirty members, nominated
entirely by the king ; and the Chamber of Deputies, numbering 128,
77 of whom were appointed by the assemblies of the nobles, and 51
by the commons, or communal assemblies. The diet was to meet
once in two years, the sittings to extend to thirty days. The sub-
jects discussed in the diet were the laws, taxes, and other matters
affecting receipts and expenditure. The laws originated in the
Upper House, and after discussion in the Chamber of Deputies, were
returned to the Senate for its approval or rejection. The new con-
stitution guaranteed to Poland the liberty of the press, the freedom
of the person, the responsibility of ministers, and further declared
that the public business should be transacted in the national lan-
guage, and that all public offices should be j&lled by natives alone.
The army was fixed at 50,000 men, and every Pole, without dis-
tinction of birth or religion, was liable to serve as a soldier from the
age of twenty to thirty. The Russian troops, on the promulgation
of this charter, evacuated the kingdom.
In consequence of the revolution of 1830-81, this constitutional
charter was repealed by an imperial decree of 1832, called the
* Organic Statute.' It made the kingdom of Poland virtually a pro-
vince of the empire, but with separate administration, under a go-
vernor-general nominated directly by the sovereign. The * Organic
Statute ' was modified again by decree of Alexander II., of March
14, 1861, which instituted a council of state, to assist the ^^^rc^'cyt-
general in the administration of the coimtry, aii^ \» ^^e^ax^ '^^si
424 BUSfilA — POLANB.
annual budgets of the kingdom. These and other reforms were
suspended by the revolution of 1862, which, after a sanguinary
struggle, extending over several years, was finally suppressed by the
execution of the leading members of the * Nation^d Government,'
which took place at Warsaw, August 5, 1864. After the suppres-
sion of the insurrection, the kingdom, by imperial decree of Sep-
tember 1, 1864, was divided into eight governments, instead of five,
as before. The new administrative divisions have their seat at
Warsaw, Kalisch, Siedlce, Lublin, Radom, Plock, Suwalki, and
Kielce. In each of them resides a military governor, as well as a
civil administrator. The military commanders, formerly stationed
in the chief towns, were recalled, and their duties passed into the
hands of the military governors.
Eeveniie and Population.
The budget for the kingdom for the year 1865 — published at
Warsaw, February 2, 1865 — estimates the revenue at 23,315,154
roubles, or 3,680,000/., and the expenditure at the same amount.
The receipts consist of the produce of the land-tax imposed upon the
peasants, the increase of direct existing taxes, and of the monopoly
of beverages, besides some smaller branches of revenue. In 1864
the return fi*om these various sources reached 970,000 roubles. For
1865 their probable product is estimated at 3,740,000 roubles, being
for both years together 4,710,000 roubles. The costs of adminis-
tration for the two years are stated at 3,960,000 roubles. A sum of
3,150,000 roubles, or 504,000/., is placed at the disposal of the
Finance Minister at St. Petersburg for the general service of the
empire.
The total amount of the national debt of the kingdom, at the close
of the year 1860, amounted to 52,777,820 roubles, or 7,539,700/.
By decree of the secret * National Government,* dated July 5, 1863,
a forced loan of 21,000,000 Polish florins, or 787,500/., was put in
circulation in three issues of 7,000,000 florins each, represented
by obligations of 500, of 1,000, and of 5,000 florins. At the com-
mencement of 1866, the total debt, recognised by the Eussian
Government, amounted to 55,927,825 roubles, or 8,043,750/.
The population of the kingdom of Poland at the census of 1858,
amoimted to 4,840,466, and, on the 1st of January, 1865, to
5,336,210 persons. Of these, about 4,000,000 are of Slavonic origin ;
about 500,000 are Jews, and 250,000 Germans, the numbers of
other nationalities settled in the kingdom being very trifling.
The revolutionary struggle of 1862-4 is stated to have cost the
country no less than half a million inhabitants. It appears from
ofBcial return's that the niunber of people who left Warsaw to join
BEYENUE AKD POPULATION. 425
the insurrectionary bands in 1862 and 1863 amounted to 8,128, out
of a population of 216,000. Of these 83 were children between 10
and 14 years old, 1,902 were between 20 and 25, 1,463 between 25
and 80, 869 between 30 and 85, 568 between 35 and 40, 376 be-
tween 40 and 45, 207 between 45 and 50, 110 between 50 and 55,
62 between 55 and 60, 43 between 60 and 65, 18 between 65 and
70, 9 between 70 and 75, 4 between 75 and 80, 3 between 80 and
85. Among the emigrants, forming actually four per cent, of the
population, were 6,447 unmarrieS men, 1,233 husbands, 129
widowers, 181 girls, 83 wives, and 54 widows.. Classified according
to their several professions, there were 2,226 artisans and operatives
among the number ; 1,066 valets and domestic servants (out of a
total of 19,000 of both sexes) ; 197 members of the civil service,
140 public scribes, 173 pupils in the higher educational establish-
ments, and 82 schoolboys.
The rural population in the year 1859 amounted to 3,599,959 ;
the town population to 1,164,487. The class of nobles contained
77,836 members. Between the nobles and the peasants stand a
middle class of people, called the * Schliachti,' or lower nobility.
The greater part of the Government officials are drawn from
this class, which numbers 171,500 persons, or about 30,300
&milies.
The great majority of the people are engaged in agricultural
occupation. The total area of the cultivated land is stated to
be: —
Polish Tlocks
Arable land 47,364
Garden land 3,826
Meadow 8,422
Pasture 2,046
Total . . 61,657
or about 2,558,000 English acres ; the Polish vlock being equal to
41*48 acres. An imperial ukase, published March 10, 1865, made
a complete revolution in the social state of the country, by con-
stituting the peasants the actual possessors of the lands they had
previously held on leases. * The numerous unsettled questions con-
nected with the various rights or claims these peasants may have on
the lands still remaining to the former proprietors, have naturally
tended to depreciate the value of real property throughout the
kingdom, and have created a state of uneasiness and uncertainty in
the relations of the two classes to each other, the results of which
can hardly as yet be calculated.^ *
* Report by Colonel Stanton, H.M.*s Congol-Genenl al'^uttiw \ m*^ Q.Qisk-
mercial Beporti reeeired at the Foreign Office/ 1SG5.
426 . RUSSIA — ^POLAND.
Trade and Industry.
According to official returns, the total value of the exports of the
kingdom of Poland for the year 1862 amounted to 20,175,541
roubles. The imports for the same period amounted to 25,991,978
roubles. For the year 1863, the exports were valued at 1,998,686
roubles, or about one- tenth of the previous year. The imports were
valued at 4,957,005 roubles, or about one-fifth of the previous year.
Of the imports, the most important as regards the trade with
Great Britain are tea, coal, machinery, and hardware. The im-
portation of sea-borne tea into the kingdom commenced only in
the year 1862, and the return for that year shows that the quantity
imported amounted to 79,524 poods, or 2,894,673 lbs., having a value
of 2,368,253 roubles, whil&t in the year 1863 the imports as re-
turned fell to 5,446 poods, or 198,972 lbs. The coal imported from
England during the year 1862 was valued at 157,000 roubles. The
return for 1 863 makes no special mention of this article. The value
of the imports in hardware and machinery during the year 1862
amounted to 3,800,000 roubles. In 1863 the value was only
554,000 roubles. The exports of grain of all kinds in the year 1862
were returned at 1,493,000 chetwerts, or 1,078,300 quarters. In
the year 1863 the quantity returned was only 19,000 chetwerts, or
13,790 quarters.
There are but few manufacturing establishments in Poland. The
textile manufactures of the kingdom are confined to certain dis-
tricts of the provinces of Warsaw and Kalisz, and principally to
the towns of Lodz, Tomazow, Zgierz, and Ozorkow, where the
population consists chiefly of Germans. The cloths and other
woollen manufactures produced in the kingdom are of an inferior
quality, and the greater portion is employed in the kingdom itself,
die remainder finding its way into the interior of the Eussian empire.
The number of hands employed in textile manufactures, which in
the year 1860 were returned at 36,677, had in 1862 diminished to
28,630, and the value of these manufactures from 13,731,834
roubles to 10,750,000 roubles. The mineral district of the kingdom
of Poland, situated in the south-west portion of the kingdom, is
tolerably rich in ores, but defective management and want of
energy shown in working the mines has hitherto prevented any
large or remunerative yield taking place. During the earlier periods
of the kingdom the mines were much neglected, and it is only
since the year 1815 that they have been considered worthy of
more serious attention. The principal mines of the kingdom belong
to the Crown, and are worked by means of a department of mines,
at a very considerable expense, and slight profit, and a very large
amount of capital has been sunk on the works. The Crown mines
BOOKS OF HEFEBENCS.
427
are divided into two districts, the eastern and western, the mineral
produce being at present limited to iron, zinc, and coal. Formerly
lead combined with silver ore was found near Olkusz. Copper ore
also on the estates formerly belonging to the bishops of Cracow,
near Blielee, and sulphur at Charkowa on the river Nida, the latter
having produced annually, from the year 1807 to 1849, from 6,000
to 7,000 cwts. of sulphur ; but none of these latter mines are now
worked, partly in consequence of their being flooded, but also from
the want of proper skill and capital for their management. It is
stated, on official authority, that the Eussian Government intends
to sell the whole of the Crown mines of the kingdom.
Money, Weights, and Measures of Bossia.
The Silver Rouble .
The Berkowitz
„ Pood .
, Chetvert
, Oxhuft .
„ Anker .
„ Vedro .
, Arsheen
, Dessiatine
, Ship Last
1 Pound .
1 Pood, OP 40lb8.
63 Poods .
1 Tchetvert
a
0 Tchetverts
Money.
Average rate of exchange, Zs, 2d.
Wbiqhts AlO) Mba.sub£s.
Eussian
= 360 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 36 „ „
= 5 . 77 imperial bushels.
s 58^ wine gallons.
■* "j »» »»
= 2| imperial gallons.
8 28 inches.
» 2 . 702 English acres.
» 2 tons.
«B ^o't^ of a pound English.
=» 361bs. English.
= 1 ton.
SB ^th of imperial quarter.
■s 70 quarters.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Bussia.
1. Officiax Publications.
Materials for a Statistik of the Empire of Russia. Published, under the
sanction of His Majesty, by the Statistical Department of the Ministry of the
Interior (Russian). 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-66.
Memorandum on the Trade between &reat Britain and Russia. By T. Michell,
Attach^ to H.M.*8 Embassy at St. Petersburg. Presented to botli Houses of
Parliament. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Luniley, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Trade of Rusaifl.
with Central Asia ; dated January, 1862 ; in * Re^^tla oi^.^'% ^^«ct^\»sv«a» ^\
Embassy.* Na V, London, 1862.
428 BUSSIA.
Beport by Mr. Lumley, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Trade and
Manufacture of Cotton in Enssia, dated January, 1865 ; in ' Eeports of EL M.'b
Secretaries of Embassy/ No. VIII. London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. Consul Crowe on the Trade and Commerce of the grand-duchy
of Fiiiland; in ' Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.' London.
1865.
Beport by Mr. Consul Crowe on the Trade of Finland for the year 1864 ; in
'Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Beport by Colonel Stanton on the Trade and Commerce of the kingdom of
Poland for the years 1862 and 1863; in 'Eeports received at the Foreign
Office.' London, 1865.
Beport by Lieut.-Colonel Mansfield on the Trade and Commerce of Poland
for the year 1864; in 'Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1866.
2. Non-Officiai. Pubucations.
Atkinson (T. W.), Travels in the Begions of the Upper and Lower Amoor
and the Eussian acquisitions on the confines of India and China. 8. London.
1860.
Bar (K. E. von\ and Hdmersen (Gr. ixm\ Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Bub-
sischen Beichs. 17 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-66.
BHx (Prem.-Lieut.), Die K. Bussische Annee in ihrem Bestande, ihrer Or-
ganisation, Ausriistung u. Starke im Kriege u. Frieden am 1. Jan. 1863. 4.
Berlin, 1864.
Bvschen (A. von\ Bevolkerung des Bussischen Kaiserreichs in den wichtig-
sten statistischen Verbal tnissen. 8. Ootha, 1862.
Custine (Marquis de), La Eussie en 1839. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1843.
Fabricius (A. v.) Zur Geschichte des Bussischen Postwesens. Eine Skizze in
Veranlassung des 200jalirigen Bestehens desselben. 8. Eiga, 1866.
Golovine (Ivan), Etudes et Essais : Bichesse de la Eussie, Economie priv^e,
Economie hospitaiiire. 8. Paris, 1864.
Gurowski (De)t Bussia and its People. 8. London, 1854.
Hagenmeiater (Jul. v<m\ M^moire sur le Commerce des Ports de la Nouvelle
Eussie. 8. Odessa, 1835.
Haxthausen (A. von\ Studien iiber die innem Zustande, das Volksleben u. s. w.
Busslands. 3 vols. ^8. Berlin, 1847-52.
Khanikof (N. de) Etudes sur rinstruction Publique en Eussie. l*"* partie.
Demiferes r^formes de I'organisation de I'instruction publique, accompagn^es
d'une carte de la Eussie d'Europe divis^e en provinces acad^miques. 8. Paris,
1866.
Koppen (Dr. Peter von)^ Statistische Beise in Bussland. 8. St. Petersburg,
1864.
Kimast (Beg.-B.), Statistische Mittheilungen iiber Littauen und Masuren. 3
vols. 8. Gumbinnen, 1863.
Melanges Busses, tirees du bulletin de TAcad^mie Imp^riale des Sciences de
St. P^tersbourg. 2 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1865.
Michie (Alexander), The Siberian Overland Boute from Pekin to Peters-
burg, through the Deserts and Steppes of Mongolia, Tartary, &c. 8. London,
1864.
Petzholdt (Alex.), Beise im "Westlichen und SiidUchen Eoropaischen Buss-
land im J. 1855. 8. Leipzig, 1860.
PorocUne (Victor de\ Les Bessources Matirielles de la Eussie. 8. PaiiB,
1865,
BOOKS OF BEITEBENCE. 429
Satfenstein (E. G.), The Eussians on the Amur; its Discoyery, Conquest, and
Ck>kmisation. 8. London, 1861.
Bein {Gt.), Statiskteckning af Stoifurstendomet Finland. 8. Helsingfors,
1860.
TegoboraJei (L. de\ Etudes sur les Forces Froductives de la Eussie. 3 vols.
8. Paris, 1862.
Urquhart (D.), Progress of Bussia in the West, North, and South. 8.
London, 1853.
Valikhanof (Capt), and VeniiiJcof(^.\ the Eussians in Central Asia. Trans-
lated by J. and E. Michell. 8. London, 1865.
Wdfsohn (Dr. Wilh.), Eussische Eeyue : Zeitschrift zur Kunde des geistigen
Lebens in Eussland. VoL iy. Jahrgang 1865. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Wolowski (L.), Les Finances de la Eussie, r^ponse 4 quelques publicistes ]
avec les documents officiels. 8. Paris, 1864.
430
SPAIN.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Isabella II., Queen of Spain, bom October 10, 1830, the eldest
daughter of King Fernando Vll., and of Princess Marie Christine of
the Two Sicilies ; succeeded to the throne at the death of her father,
September 29, 1833; proclaimed Queen at Madrid, October 2,
1833 ; declared of age by decree of the Cortes, November 8, 1843;
married, October 10, 1846, to her first cousin,
Francisco de Assis, titular king of Spain, born May 13, 1822,
son of the Infante Francisco, brother of King Ferdinand VII. The
Queen has children: — 1. Infanta Isabel^ born December 20, 1861,
2. Alfonso, Prince of Astiuria, bom November 28, 1857. 3. Infanta
Del Pilar, bom June 4, 1861. 4. Infanta Delia Paz, bom June 23,
1862. 5. Infanta Maria, bom Feb. 12, 1864.
Sister of the Queen, — Infanta Lutsa, bom January 30, 1832;
married, October 10, 1846, to Duke Antoine de Montpensier, born
July 31, 1824, fifth surviving son of the late King Louis Philippe
of the French.
Mother of the Queen. — Queen Marie Christine, bom April 26,
1806, daughter of King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies ; married,
December 11, 1829, to King Ferdinand VII. of Spain; widow,
September 29, 1833 ; married a second time, December 28, 1833,
to Fernando Munoz, bom at Tarran9on, Cuenca, in 1810, and nomi-
nated Duke de Rianzares and Grandee of Spain, October 13, 1844,
and Duke de Montmorat in France, October 10, 1847. Offspring
of the marriage are two sons and five daughte^rs.
Cousins of the Queen, — 1. Infanta Isabel, bom May 18, 1821,
daughter of the late Infante Francisco, second brother of King
Ferdinand VII; married, June 26, 1841, to Count Ignatius Gu-
rowsky. 2. Don Francisco, brother of the preceding, married to
Queen Isabella II. 3. Infante Henrico, Duke of Seville, brother of
the preceding, born April 17, 1823 ; mairied at Rome, May 6, 1847,
to Dona Helena de Cordove. 4. Infanta Luisa, sister of the pre-
ceding, bom June 11, 1824; married, February 10, 1847, to Don
Jos^, Count de Trastamara. 5. Infenta Josepha, sister of the pre-
ceding, bom May 25, 1827; married, June 28, 1848, to Don Giiell
y Rent^. 6. Infanta Christina, sister of the preceding, bom June 5,
1833; married, November 19, 1860, to her cousin, Infante Sebastian,
born Nov. 4, 1811, of which union there is one son, Francis, bom
August 20, 1861. 7. Inianta Amalia, sister of the preceding, bora
BEIGNING SOVEREIGN AND FAMILT. 43 1
October 12, 1834 ; married, August 25, 1856, to Prince Adalbert,
uncle of the King of Bavaria. 8. Infante Juan Carlos^ born May
15, 1822, the only son of * Don Carlos,' brother of King Ferdinand
VII., and pretender to the crown of Spain ; married, February 6,
1847, to Archduchess Maria, daughter of the late Duke Francis IV.
of Modena. Offspring of the union are two sons, Carlos, bom
March 30, 1848 ; and Alfonso, born September 12, 1849.
Queen Isabel II., the only remaining Bourbon sovereign in
Europe, is the eighth in lineal descent from King Henry IV. of
France, on the paternal as well as on the maternal side. The
Bourbon family ascended the throne of Spain in the year 1700, the
last king of the House of Hapsburg, Carlos II., having left the
crown by his will, in default of direct heirs, to the grapdson of his
sister, Maria Theresa, wife of King Louis XIV. of France. Philippe
d'Anjou, afterwards King Felipe V. of Spain, was succeeded, in
1746, by his son, Fernando VI., who left the crown to his brother,
King Carlos IH. The latter had for successor his son^ Carlos TV.,
who was forced into abdication by the heir-apparent, in March
1808. But in the month of May of the same year, Fernando VII.
was forced to restore the crown to his father, and on May 5, 1808,
Carlos IV. made his sovereignty over to the Emperor Napoleon.
For the next five years, Spain was nominally under the sceptre of
Joseph Bonaparte, till the reverses of tlie French emperor forced
him to sign flie treaty of Valen9ay, December 8, 1813, which gave
the crown of Spain once more to King Fernando VII. Having no
male heirs, the king, by decree of March 29, 1830, repealed the Salic
law which Felipe V. had proclaimed on May 12, 1713. The repeal
occasioned the war of succession from 1833 to 1840, which, how-
ever, rested upon no legal basis. The Salic law, swept away by
the decree of one king, as it had been introduced by the ordinance
of another, never had root in the institutions of Spain. The ancient
code of the Partidas expressly sanctioned female succession to the
throne, and it was in consequence of this very right that the House
of Bourbon, as well as tlie previous House of Hapsburg, came to
rule the kingdom.
Queen Isabel II., the sixth monarch of Spain of the House of
Bourbon, has a civil list of 34,000,000 reaJes, or 340,000/. The
allowances to the queen's consort, and other members of the royal
femily, amount to 18,350,000 reales, or 183,500/., making the total
co3t of the court 52,350,000 reales, or 523,500Z. The formerly
extensive domains of the reigning family have been made over to
th? State, with the exception of a number of palaces and small
estates in the neighbourhood of the capital. The personal property
of the queen« her sister, and her mother, is believed to be very
large ; that of Queen Marie Christina, residing at Malmaison, near.
43^ SPAIN.
Paris, amounting to an annual rent of about 300,000Z. According
to Art. 49 of the constitution, the income of the king and royal
family is settled by the representatives of the people at the com-
mencement of each reign.
Since the foundation of the Spanish monarchy, by the union of the
crowns of Aragon and Castille, there have been the following
sovereigns : —
House of Aragon.
Fernando V. ' the Catholic ' . 1512
House of Hapsburg,
Carlos I.
Felipe II.
FeUpe in. .
FeUpelV. .
Carlos II. .
1516
1566
1598
1621
1665
Fernando VI. . . . 1746
Carlos III 1759
Carlos IV 1788
Fernando VII. . . . 1808
House of Bonaparte,
Joseph Bonaparte . . 1808
HoiLse of Bourbon.
Fernando VII., restored . 1814
Isabel II 1833
House of Bourbon,
FeHpeV. .... 1700
In the three centuries and a half which have elapsed since the
union of the separate kingdoms, there have been thirteen monardis
of Spain, giving to each an average reign of twenty-seven years.
Congtitutioii and Government
The fundamental law of the kingdom is embodied in the consti-
tution of May 23, 1846, partly suspended in 1857, but re-established
in 1864. It vests the power of enacting laws, in conjimction with
the king, in the representatives of the nation, called * las Cortes.'
The Cortes are composed of two co-operating bodies, the Senate and
the Congress of Deputies, or * Diputados k Cortes.' The Senate is
composed of two classes ; the first hereditary, and the second nomi-
nated for life by the sovereign. To the first class belong the
* Grandees,' or representatives of the upper nobility, possessing a
certain income ; as also the archbishops, bishops, governors of
provinces, and presidents of the supreme courts of law. The mem-
bers of lie second class are nominated by the crown, within pre-
scribed restrictions as to age and fortune. To be eligible, it is
necessary to be a native of the kingdom, to be forty years of age,
and to be possessed of an income of 1,000 reales per annum. All
Spaniards possessed of these qualifications may be nominated by
the sovereign for the ofiice of senator.
The second chamber, or Congress of Deputies, consists of repre-
sentatives of the people, in the proportion of one deputy to every
35,000 souls of the population. The deputies are elected directly
by liie voters, and may be re-elected indefinitely. To be a deputy
it is necessary to be a native of the kingdom, not a clergyman, and
to have completed the twenty-fifth year, and every Spaniard poe-
CONSTITUTION AND GOYBBNMBNT. 433
sessmg these qualifications may be elected for any of the provinces.
The deputies are appointed for three years.
The Cortes assemble each year. It is the right of the sovereign
to convoke them, to suspend and close their meetings, and dissolve
the Cortes ; but under the obligation, in the latter case, of con-
▼oking and reassembling another Cortes within the period of three
months. If the sovereign should omit to convoke the Cortes on the
Ist of December for any one year, the Cortes are notwithstanding to
assemble precisely on itiat day ; and in case the conclusion of the
term of the congress holding office should happen to occur in that
year, a general election for the nomination of deputies is to commence
on the first Sunday of the month of October. On the demise of the
crown, or on the sovereign being incapacitated to govern through any
cause, the extraordinary Cortes are immediately to assemble. Each
of the legislative bodies forms rules for its own internal regulation,
and has to scrutinise the l^ality of the elections, and the qualifica-
tions of the individuals who are elected. One of the legislative bodies
cannot be convoked for business without the other being assembled
at the same time, except in the case in which the senate sits in
judgment on the ministers.
The sovereign and each of the co-legislative bodies possess the
right of originating laws. Laws relating to taxes and public credit
are to be presented first to the congress of deputies ; and if altered
in the senate contrary to the form in which they have been ap-
proved by the congress, they are to receive the royal sanction in
the form definitely decided on by the deputies. The resolutions of
each of the legislative bodies are to be determined by an absolute
majority of votes ; but in the enactment of laws the presence of
more than half the number of each of these bodies is necessary. If
one of the co-legislative bodies should reject any project of law
submitted to them, or if the king should refiise it his sanction, such
project of law is not to be submitted anew in that legislature.
Besides the legislative powers which the Cortes exercise in con-
junction with the sovereign, the following &culties belong to them —
First, to receive firom the sovereign, the immediate successor to
the throne, fi-om the regency or regent of the empire, the oath to
observe the constitution and the laws. Second, to resolve any doubt
that may arise of feet or of right with respect to the order of suc-
cession to the crown. Third, to elect the regent, or appoint the
r^ency of the empire, and to name the tutor of the sovereign while
a minor, when the constitution deems it necessary. Fourth, to
render effective the responsibility of the ministers of the crown, and
to designate those who are to be impeached to the judgment of the
senators. The senators and deputies are irresponsible and inviolable
§0T opinions expressed and votes given by them in the discharge of
F F
434 SPAIN.
their duties. Senators and deputies are not to be proceeded against
or arrested during the session without the permission of the legis-
lative body to which they may belong, if not taken in the act of
committing any crime; but in this case, or other in which they
are prosecuted or arrested whilst the Cortes are closed, they are to
give immediate information to their respective co-legislative bodies
for their cognisance. Deputies and senators who receive from the
Government or from the royal family any pension or employment
which is more than a promotion from a lower to a higher office of the
same kind, or a commission with salary, honours or titles, are sub-
ject to re-election. The senate, in the session of 1863, niunbered
296 members, and the congress 394 deputies.
The executive authority is exercised under the sovereign, by a
council of responsible ministers, called * Secretarias del despacho de
Estado.' All commands or orders issued by the sovereign must
be signed by the respective ministers; and no public ftmctionary
is to execute such orders if not thus signed. The ministers may
be senators or deputies, and take part in the discus.sions of the two
legislative bodies ; but they are permitted to vote in Jihat body only
to which they belong. The ministerial departments are —
1. Presidente del Consejo de Ministros^ President of the C3ouncil. —
Leopold 0' Donnelly Coimt of Lucena; bom 1808; entered the
army 1822; captain, 1827; coloneJ, 1832; lieutenant-general,
1840 ; raises an insurrection against General Espartero, regent of
the kingdom, October 2, 1841 ; seeks refuge in France, October 21,
1841 ; returns to Spain, August 1843 ; Captain-General of Cuba,
1844-48 ; Director-General of the infantry, 1849-51 ; raises an
insurrection against the Government, Jime 28, 1854 ; Minister of
War, June 6, 1855, to October 12, 1856 ; President of the Coimcil
of Ministers, June 30, 1858 ; resigned March 1, 1863. Ke-appointed
President of the Council, June 21, 1865.
2. Ministerio de Estado, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Senor
Bermudez Castro, appointed June 21, 1865.
3. Ministerio de Gracia y Justicia, Ministry of Justice. — Senor
Fernando Calderon CollanteSj appointed June 21, 1865.
4. Ministerio de la Guerra, Ministry of War. — Leopold O'Donnell,
Count of Lucena, ad interim,
. 5. Ministerio de Marina^ Ministry of Marine. — Senor Zavala, ap-
pointed June 21, 1865.
. 6. Ministerio de la Gohemacion, Ministry of the Interior. — Senor
Posada Herrera, appointed June 21, 1865.
7. Ministerio de Fomento, Ministry of Public Welfare, or of
Commerce, Education, and Public Works. — Senor Annijo, ap-
pointed June 21, 1865.
8, MitUsterio de Hacienda^ Ministry of Finance. — Alonso Mar-
tinez, appointed June 21, 1B65.
CHTJKCH AKD EDUCATION. 435
The sovereign is permitted to consult, in important cases, a Council
of State, consisting of the ministers and thirty-two privy councillors.
The Council of State was first organised by royal decree of July 14,
1858, which was modified by a law of the Cortes sanctioned Septem-
^r 1, 1860. According to this law, all privy councillors must be
Spaniards by birth, and not less than twenty-five years of age. The
council is divided into six sections, namely, first, foreign affairs and
justice ; second, war and marine ; third, finances ; fourth, interior
and pulDlic welfere, or * fomento ; ' fifth, colonies ; and sixth, depart-
ment for deciding affairs in dispute between the various ministers.
The privy councillors, whose number must not exceed thirty-two,
are nominated by the sovereign.
Church and EdncatioiL.
The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the
■whole population of the kingdom, with the exception of about
60,000 persons, adhere to the same faith. According to the eleventh
article of the constitution, the clergy of the established Church are
to be maintained by the State. By two decrees of the Cortes, passed
July 23, 1835, and March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments
were suppressed, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the
nation. These decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of
the Roman Catholic Church, which ended in the sovereign pontiff*
conceding the principle of the measure. By a concordat with Rome,
concluded in August 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised
to sell the whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parson-
ages, in return for an equal an)0Tmt of imtransferable public debt
certificates, bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent. The pro-r
ceeds of the public sale of church property up to the commence-
ment of 1863, amounted to more than 3,000,000,000 reales, or
30,000,000/.
In 1862 there were in Spain 2,806 prelates and priests of
cathedrals and colleges ; 33,881 incumbents, or priests with paro-
chial cures; and 3,198 assistant priests, without cure of souls.
The numbers show an immense decline over previous periods.
According to the oflicial returns of the census of 1787, the ecclesi-
astics of all descriptions, including 61,617 monks, 32,500 nuns, and
2,705 inquisitors, amoimted to 188,625 individuals. Haifa century
later, in 1833, the class still comprised 175,574 individuals, of whom
61,727 were monks, and 24,007 nuns. The total number of secu-
larised religious or * regulares exclaustrados,' amounted to 6,822 in
1858, to 6,323 in 1859, and to 6,072 in 1862. Of this number
about 3,000 assist the secular clergy, and the rest make up the 3^198
assistant priests without cure of souls. The "vr^^et "Vnet^xOo:^ <i«\SL-
prises Tiine arcbbisbopB and seventy bishops.
p F 2
+36
SPAIN.
Up to a very recent period, the great mass of the population of
Spain was in a state of extreme ignorance. It was rare, in the latter
part of the eighteenth century, and at the beginning of the present,
to find a peasant, or an ordinary workman, who was able to read,
which accomplishment, among women, was even held to be immoraL
Until the year 1808, public education was entirely in the hands
of the clergy; but late enactments, giving the instruction of the
people in charge of the Government, have made a radical change
in this respect. The State, however, pays but a very smaJl
sum towards public education, which is left mainly to the charge
of the commimes and the parents themselves: but the super-
intendence of the Government over educational matters has led
to vast progress. In 1797 only 393,126 children attended the
primary schools, which were very imperfect. In 1812, the Cortes
tried to introduce some modifications, but failed, on accoimt of
the war, in making a radical reform in popular education. Fresh
efforts were made in 1820 and 1825, but still without much success.
The law of July 21, 1838, enjoining the expenditure of considerable
sums by the communes for the purpose of public instruction, proved
a great step in advance. Since that time the laws have been several
times amended, especially in 1847 and 1857 when the masters were
subjected to examination, schoolrooms built, and different scholastic
institutions founded. The result was, that in 1848 there were
663,711 pupils, and on January 1, 1861, 1,046,558 pupils, of both
sexes, divided between the public and private schools as follows : —
Deaoription of schools
Schools
Scholars
Boys
Girls
Total
Public schools — Superior
Elemeutaiy
Mixed
Infant .
Adults.
Total
Total
Private schools— Superior
Elementary
Mixed
Total
In&nt .
Adult .
Total
Total of public and private
sehoolf . . •
219
10,261
7,399
14,659
398,176
222,000
624
216,963
42,904
16,083
616,129
264,904
17,879
109
272
18,260
36
1,902
1,707
634,736
1,392
60,317
23,116
260,381
26
39,284
16,632
896,116
10,169
6,900
912,176
1,417
89,601
38,748
3,644
90
66
74,826
64,941
129,766
3,244
1,393
3,800
22,060
134,383
1,046,5^
BEYBNUB AND EXPENDITUBB.
437
Middle-class education is given in fifty-eight public colleges by
767 professors to 13,881 pupils. In first-claas education, the most
remarkable feature is the large number of law-students, namely,
3,755 in 1859-60, divided among ten faculties. There are ten^
fitculties of literature and philosophy, with 224 students; seven
fiusulties of sciences, with 141 students ; four feculties of pharmacy,
with 544 ; seven faculties of medicine, with 1,178 ; and six faculties
of theology, with 339 students— in all 6,181 students.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the kingdom is raised by a system of direct and
indirect taxation, stamp duties, and Government monopolies. The
direct taxes are imposed on landed property, houses, live stock,
industry, commerce, registration acts, titles of nobility, mortgages,
and mineral produce. The indirect taxes on foreign imports, arti-
cles of consumption, tolls, bridge and ferry dues.
The revenue returns for the financial year 1864-65 were as
follows : —
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes .....
Stamps
Government property ....
Colonial revenue
Treasury bonds
Other stock
Bscudos
£
54,192,109
47,236,773
86,663,766
7,769,836
393,031
6,961,004
1,068,487
6,419,210
4,723,677
8,666,376
776,983
39,303
696,100
106,848
202,284,996
20,228,496
The budget for the year 1864-65 anticipated a revenue of
214,505,387 escudos, or 21,450,538/., whereas the amount realised
was only 202,284,995 escudos ; showing a deficit, therefore, of
12,220,390 escudos, or 1,222,039/. This was accounted for by a
Mling-off in the customs, consumption duties, registration fees, the
powder monopoly, the tax on the number of railway passengers, and
the colonial revenue.
The expenditure is divided into extraordinary and ordinary, as is
the case with the revenue. In almost all the budgets the expendi-
ture is made to balance the revenue. The ordinary expenditure for
the year 1864-65 amounted to 217,955,218 escudos, or 21,795,521/.,
and the extraordinary to 55,490»068 escudos, or 5,549,006/. In
the budget, the ordinary expenditure for the year had b^«CL ^<5X.
down as only amounting to 212,916,957 eacudoft, ot ^\^^^\^^^^V^
438 8PAIN.
and the extraordinary to 38,536,027 escudos, or 3,853,602^. Thus
the estimates were more than two millions sterling below the actual
expenditure.
It appears^ according to a Government statement, that the amount
of deficits on the ordinary and extraordinary budgets between 1859
and 1864 was 114,103,999 escudos, or 11,410,399/. ; but if added
up from the year 1850, they amounted to 210,600,000 escudos, or
21,060,000Z.
' The following is an abstract of the budget for 1866—67, as pre-
sented to the Cortes by the Minister of Finance : —
Estimated Obdikabt ExPENDrruEE.
Civil List 458,500
Tax collecting charges 4,739,922
Public debt 155,238
Administration of Justice 1,602,252
Passive State charges 31,773
6,987,685
Govenment departments . ... 14,546,145
21,533,830
Estimated Obdinabt Eetenvb.
£
Direct taxes 2,835,500
Indirect taxes . . ... . . 5,532,687
Stamp duties 8,665,691
State property
Colonial revenues
Treasury profits .
773,772
1,227,625
160,000
22,195,276
Total estimated expenditure .... 21,533,830
' ■ ' 22,196,276
To*al estimated revenue
Estimated surplus
Tol^l extraordinaiy expenses
Total extraordinary revenue
Estimated deficit
661,446
4,835,463
4,650,133
185,330
In a report by Mr. West, British Secretary of Legation at Madrid,
on the financial state of the kingdom— dated Madrid, March 1, 1866
occur the following remarks : — * It seems, perhaps, almost absurd
to assert that a solution of the financial difficulties of Spain may
eventually be found in her increasing revenue. But it must be
borne in mind that for many years past the Government has been
making vain attempts to cover in their budgets an exaggerated
expenditure caused chiefly by the mal-administration of the fim^nceft
KEVENUB AND EXPENDITURE. 439
and by systematdcally over-estimating the revenue. The fact that
it has increased within the last fifty years fi^om 6,000,000Z. sterling
to 22,000,000Z. is sufficient ; but if further proof were required, i%
might be found in the augmentation of the declared value of taxable
property, which occurs from time to time. It cannot be expected
tihat the present income of the country should meet such a lavish
expediture, but it by no means follows that it is not even now, de-
prived as it is by existing legislation of its productive powers, suffi-
cient to meet all the requirements of a well-regulated and economical
system of finance.'
The revenue of Spain has largely increased during the last few
years, and continues to progress. In 1822 — when the great English
loans were made to Spain upon which the payment of interest which
accrued from 1841 to 1851, is still in dispute as ' Spanish certificate
question' — the total revenue of the country was only about 6,000,000/.
sterling.
£
In 1850 the revenue actually received was 12,722,200
„ 1855 „ „ „ 14,914,979
„ 1860 „ „ „ 18,923,440
To which sirm must be added ' extraordinary * revenue
derived from sale of national property . . . • 3,039,247
„ 1864-5 the revenue was 20,228,496
Which sum included 4,733,736/. derived from recent sales
of national property as * extraordinary ' revenue.
The national -and Church property of Spain was and is still of
inunense value, but there was a reluctance in some people to buy
the latter on account of religious scruples, till 1858, when a con-
cordat was concluded with the Pope and sanction obtained for the
sales, which were then actively continued, the Government giving
great facilities to the purchasers. The payments are made one-
tenth in cash, and the remainder in promissory notes from 1 to 10,
and, in some cases, to 19 years, the property remaining mortgaged
to the final insta-lment, owing to which the biddings at times have
been for even more than double the amount of its value. The
Cortes, in 1859, 1861, and 1863, authorised the Grovemment to
apply 28,000,000Z. for extraordinary expenses in constructing roads
and railways, of which only about 16,000,000/. has been spent,
the money being obtained out of the sums placed at interest by
capitalists, corporations, and the public in the * Caja de Depositos,^
or Deposit Bank, under the direction of the Grovemment, for the
repayment of which the Treasury was accumulating the promissory
notes given by the purchasers of the national properties. The
quantity of these properties sold from 1855 to December 31,
1865, produced about 38,000,000/. The properties unsold a.t ^W
latter date were valued at 10,000,0001.
440 SPAIN.
The total capital of the public debt of Spain on the Ist of March,
1866, amounted to 16,397,747,225 reals vellon, or 163,977,472/.
Of this capital the sum of 7,652,720/. represents bonds issued by
the Government in payment of subventions to railway companies ;
and 2,722,590/. represents bonds (^ obliga^iones de carret^ras') given
in payment for common roads, canals, and other public works, while
the sum of 17,737,068/. sterling represents the amount of stock
created, and given to the civil, ecclesiastical, and charitable cor-
porations in exchange for their property, sold under the law of
' Desamortiza9ion ' passed in 1855. The following statement gives
the various items of the debt as existing on the 1st of March,
1866 :—
Descriptioii of debt Amount in realet
Debt of 6%, due to the United States .... 12,000,000
„ consolidated of 3%, due to Denmark . . . 26,000,000
„ claim of England, 6% 70,000
„ external, consolidated 3% 1,051,667,952
„ internal » » 6,167,651,024
„ external, deferred „ 2,346,944,000
„ internal „ ,, 2,613,956,085
„ redeemable, of the 1st class 232,900,484
„ „ 2d „ external . . . 613,120,000
„ „ 2d „ internal . . . 237,170,000
„ perpetual, at 4%, internal 20,379,566
6% „ 82,464,606
5%, external 7,476,000
Bonds, not consolidated 30,763,121
Debt, provisional 28,898,517
„ floating, 5%, (paper) 378,103,186
„ without interest 154,546,069
„ passive, external 13,760,000
„ share of the civil corporations in tithes . . . 52,955,003
Bonds in favour of the clergy 11,939,143
„ interests on those capitals 958,857
Provisional documents for the interests of the floating debt 88,613,297
External old debt, at 6% 76,120,000
„ perpetual, at 3%, of 1831 1,282,133
„ deferred, without interests, of 1831 . . . 84,958,000
„ „ premium, of 1834 .... 19,764,000
Shares of the national loan of 1821 3,564,000
BUls, of the first loan, Laffitte 2,212,760
Shares, of the public roads loan 187,639,000
„ railways „ 315,000
Treasury bonds, to the bearer, for railways . . . 307,338,000
Shares, of public works 70,512,000
Bills on the treasury for materials 14,109,946
„ „ for individuals 483,835,530
Totftl fReales 16,397,747,226
' • • t £ 163,977,478
ABMT AND NAYT. 441
The 8 per Cents, were created by the Convention of the 17 th
Febroarj, 1834, for the settlement of American claims. The 3 per
Gent. Consols, interior and exterior, proceed, first, from the debt
issued in conformity with the decree of the 21st January, 1841,
which authorized the capitalisation into 3 per cent, stock of the
interest due on the consolidated debt at 4 and 5 per cent., interior
and exterior, due, but not then liquidated ; secondly, by the con-
version of biUs on the Treasury by contract ; thirdly, by the con-
version of Treasury bonds on the Havana, approved by the law of
the 14th February, 1845 ; fourthly, interest upon the capital held
by the layholders of tithes, guaranteed by law of 2nd September,
1841, and 20th March, 1846 ; fifthly, capital created for the amorti-
sation of the 60,000,000 reals, or 600,000/., English claims at 5 per
cent., recognised by the Convention of the 28th October, 1828, and
for the conversion of the deferred consolidated debt, acknowledged
by law, 1st of October, 1852 ; and, lastly, the issue made imder the
laws of the 23rd February, 1855, and 31st May and 17th December,
1856. In 1851, on account of the inability of the Government to meet
its engagements in full, a portion of the debt of Spain was converted
into Passive Stock, that is, a stock not bearing interest, and which
had to be liquidated by an annual sinking fund. The Amortisable
First and Second Class was created by a law of August 1, 1851,
to be composed of the internal debt called 'Deuda sin Interes,' and
of some other various debts and claims against the Government
which were called for liquidation before the * Direccion de la Deuda
Publica.* By that law a sinking fimd of 120,000/. annually in-
cluded in the budget was established, besides other advantages, for
its extinction; and a commission, composed of three senators and .
three deputies, was ordered to be appointed yearly by the Cortes to
watch and report upon all the operations connected with the public
debt.
Army and ITavy.
Spain during the reign of Philip II. had 280,000 men under
arms. After the War of Succession, her army was reduced to
75,000 men. Under Charles III. the Spanish army was increased
to 90,000 men and 10,000 horses. At the death of Ferdinand the
military force consisted of only 60,000 men and 8,000 horses. In
1859, when about to commence the war against Morocco, it was
increased to 250,000 men. The army is formed by conscription ; but
the purchase of substitutes is not only allowed, but encouraged by
the Government. The price to be paid for substitutes was fixed by a
decree of December 1859, at 8,000 reales, or 80/. There are, on the
average, about 20,000 volunteers, or men procured by eiili«toDas3Ci\»\sw
the reffolar army. The time of service m die kvfeavVrj \& «w^x. ^^asJ^
44a
SPAIN.
of which five have to be spent in the infantry of the line, and three
in the provincial militia. For military purposes the kingdom is
divided into five districts, or * capitanias generales,' at the head of
each of which stands a * captain -general,' with the rank of field-
marshal. OflSicial returns of the year 1863, state the nominal strength
of the army, including the * provinciales * or provincial militia, and
the * guardia civil * or national guard, as follows : —
Staff
Officers
Rank and file
Total
Infantry ....
278
2,647
67,258
60,183
Artillery
44
369
9,486
9,899
Engineers
8
72
2,288
2,368
Cavaby .
107
829
10,904
11,840
' Provinciales*
173
1,610
43,243
44,926
• Carabineros '
43
470
11,549
12,062
* Guardia civil*
Total
24
401
9,965
10,390
677
6,298
144,693
161,668
On the proposition of the Minister of War, a bill was passed in
the Cortes, April 4, 1865, fixing the number of regular troops in
the army at 100,000. By another bill, however, which passed the
Cortes March 17, 1866, the effective of the army was permanently
reduced, in time of peace, to 85,000 men.
The general staff of ihe Spanish army comprises five captain-
generals besides the King and three Infantes of Spain, 64 lieutenant-
generals, 156 marshals, and 316 brigadier-generals.
The navy consisted, according to official returns, of the following
vessels, at the commencement of 1866 : —
Sailing vessels
2 ships of the line, each of 84 guns .
6 frigates, of from 32 to 50 guns
4 corvettes, of from 16 to 30 guns .
9 brigantines, of from 12 to 16 guns
16 smaller vessels, of from 1 to 7 guns
36 sailing vessels, with
Gnns
168
182
90
140
61
641 guns
Steamers
1 screw steamer of the line, with 100 guns, and of 1,000 horse-power
8 frigates, with . . . 320 „ „ 3,200 „
11 corvettes, with . . . 42 „ „ 1,260 „
68 gunboats, transports, &c., with 94 „ „ 1,360 „
78 men-of-war steamers, with 656 guns, and of 6,810 horse-power
A large number of vessels included in this list are not in a very
good state, and probably not seaworthy. According to a bill which
passed the Cortes on April 10, 1860, the fleet of war is to
he gradually increased, so aa to comprise the ibUowing new
ABMT AND NATY.
443
ve^lfl : — Two sailing vessels of 172 guns ; a frigate of 42 guns ;
three corvettes, carrying 76 guns ; two brigantines, carrying 32
guns; two first-class sloops, 4 guns; eleven second-class ditto, 11
guns ; 70 schooners ; three launches and three transports of 1,823
tons burthen. The iron-clads will consist of three frigates, of 104
guns and 3,000 horse-power ; four screw steam frigates, of 186 guns
and 2,360 horse-power ; twelve schooners, carrying 29 guns, of
1,400 horse-power; three transports, of 2,600 tons and 370 horse-
power; eight paddle steamers, of 40 guns and 1,760 horse-power;
and a transport of 960 tons and 500 -horse-power. The first iron-
clad frigate of Spain, the * Arapiles,' was built at Blackwall, and
launched October 17, 1864. The *Arapiles,' built afl:er French
models, is of wood, covered with plates 4^ inches thick, and carries
34 guns in broadside battery, with engines of 800 horse-power.
Besides the * Arapiles,* Spain had, in June, 1866, the iron-clad
* Numancia,* of 43 guns, and the * Vittoria,* of 30 guns.
The progress made by Spain within the last seven years towards
the construction of an effective navy, may be appreciated from the
following ofi^cial statement, which gives a detailed account of the
strength of the Spanish * armada * in the year 1859 : —
2
4
2
4
9
6
4
5
1
2
7
30
9
2
Class of VesselB
Gtmg
Horse-power
Men
* Navios/ or ships of the line .
Frigates
Steam frigates
* Corbetas,' or corvettes .
' Bergantines/ or brigantines .
* Goletas,' or schooners .
Screw schooners
' Pailebots/ or gunboats .
'Mistico' . . . .
'Lugres,' . . . .
' Faluchos/ OP feluccas .
Paddle steamers
Transports ....
Pontons
Total .
170
156
62
100
140
17
8
7
2
12
142
18
660
370
7,621
1,648
1,162
767
899
1,041
231
332
196
38
92
336
3,062
421
124
86
834
8,661
10,339
It will be seen by comparing the above table with the previous
statement that Spain is making efforts for converting her old sail-
ing navy into a new steam-propelled fleet of war.
The navy of Spain was manned, in 1866, by 1,121 oflicers,
12,986 sailors, and 7,980 marines. The navy, the same as the army,
is recruited by conscription, naval districts for this purpose being
formed along the coast, among the sea&ring population.. T.W
number of men inscribed on these naval coii^tv^Xa^tl \^s^«» '"«^ "^^
SPAIN.
year 1863 amounted to 62,783. The navy has two captain-generals,
seven lieutenant-generals, thirteen commodores, and fifty brigadier-
PopulatioiL
The last general census, taken May 21, 1857, stated the area and
total population of the kingdom as follows : —
Continent of Spain .
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands
Total
Axea
Poptdation
English sq. mUes
177,781
1,757
3,220
16,807,753
266,952
227,146
182,758
16,301.851
An enumeration of the people on the continent of Spain was
made on the 31st of December, 1864, and showed that the total
population had risen to 16,302,625. It had previously been or-
dered that another general census should be taken in the spring of
1867, but by a royal decree, dated November 30, 1865, the time
was postponed to 1870, after which a census is to be taken every
ten years.
The kingdom, inclusive of the adjacent islands, is divided into
forty-nine provinces, the area and population of which, and of the
twelve ancient divisions, is as follows : —
Area in En-
Population in
Poptdation in
glish sq. miles
1846
May, 1857
New Castille— Madrid
1,315
369,126
476,786
Guadalaxara
1,946
159,044
199,088
Toledo
8,774
276,952
328,766
Cnenca
11,304
234,582
229,959
Ciudad Heal
Total .
7,543
277,788
244,328
30,882
1,317,492
1,477,915
Old Castille— Bnrgos . 1
r 224,407
333,356
Logrono
7,674
i 147,718
173,812
Santander
J
L 166,730
214,441
Oviedo .
3,686
434,635
524,629
Soria .
4,076
115,619
147,468
Segovia
3,466
134,854
146,839
Avila .
2,569
137,903
164,039
Leon .
5,894
267,438
348,756
Palencia
1,733
148,491
185,970
ValladoHd
3,279
184,647
244,023
Salamanca
6,626
210,314
263,516
3,562
159,426
249,162
Total
72,447
^ 3,649,673
^ 6,473,826
Area and Fo^nlaijon^-i^ntintt^d,
445
PrtjyiiMJM
Ana in £ti
P&pulation in
May 1867
Gralicia — -Corunna
Lugo .
Orense
Pontoredra
Brough t forward
TdM
Eatremadnra — Eadaj oa
Caceren
Totdl
AnddiiKia— S^rUle .
Enelva .
Cadiz
Jaen
Cksdora ,
Qnmada — GTeDadSi ,
AlmerU .
Malaga
Total
Tal«nciA — Yakacia .
All cant
CaBt^llon-de-la-
Plana ,
Mtircia
Albaceta .
Total
Cataloma— Barcelona ,
Tatragona
Lerida
GsFQiia ,
Total
Aragon — Zaragoza
Terud.
Total
Kavatpo ,
Total
Guipuscoa — Alra
Guipuscoa
Tot-4il
I&lands — Balearic Islands
Camury Is^landa
Total
1
72,447
15,897
88,344
I4,33fl
102,673
8,989
4,4fil
4J59
12^,272
9,622
129,894
7,683
7,877
146,454
12,180
157,634
14,726
172,360
2,45U
3,649,673
435,670
357.272
319.038
360.002
f 316,622
y S3 1,398
5,669.675
367.303
133,470
324,703
266,919
315,459
7,077,629
376,974
234,739
338,442
{
8,027,734
451,685
318,444
199,022
280,694
180,763
9,468,342
442,473
233,477
161,322
214,160
{
10,499,764
304,823
214,874
214,988
11,234,449
221,728
174,810
1,082
1,267
622
11,456,177
67,623
111,436
104,491
177,781
1,757
3,220
11,739,627
229,197
199,950
182,768
l2,lftS,n\
6,473,826
651,989
424,186
371,818
428,88^
6,250,705
404,981
302,134
6,957,820
463,486
174,391
383,078
346,879
361,536
9,676,190
441,917
315,664
451,406
10,886,177
606,608
378,968
269,919
380,969
201,118
12,563,927
713,734
320,593
306,994
310,970
14,216,218
384,176
257,830
238,628
16,096,861
297,422
15,394,283
96,398
160,579
156,493
16,807,763
266,952
227,145
yifi^v^S^ \
446
SPAIN.
It has been calculated that about the time of Julius, Caesar Spain
must have contained 78,000,000 inhabitants, and yet in 1688 it did
not possess more than 8,000,000. But from that time forward
there was a temporary increase ; in 1768 the population had risen
to 9,307,800 souls; in 1789 to 10,061,480; and in 1797 it ex-
ceeded 12,000,000 souls. In 1820 it had fallen to 11,000,000, or
thereabouts; but in 1823 it had again risen to 12,000,000, and in
1828 to 13,698,029. Nevertheless, the official return of 1837 only re-
gistered 12,222,872 souls,andanewtendency to decrease commenced.
In 1842 the population was not found to exceed 12,054,000 souls.
It rose again, as shown in the preceding table, to 12,168,774 in
1846, and to 16,301,850 in 1857, giving a density of population, at
the latter period, of 90 per English square mile, or considerably
less than half that of Italy, and less than one-third that of the
Netherlands.
Subjoined is the population of the principal towns of Spain, ac-
cording to an enumeration made on the 31st of December, 1864: —
Towns
Population
Towns
Population
Madrid .
Barcelona • .
Seville
Valence
Malaga
475,785
252,016
152,000
145,512
113,050
1 Murcia
Grenada .
Saragossa .
Cadiz
109,446
100,678
82,189
71,914
According to the census of 1857, out of 3,803,991 able-bodied
men, 125,000 belonged to the clergy, 241,335 to the army, navy,
and military functionaries, and 478,716 to the nobility. The re-
mainder comprised 47,312 students, 5,673 advocates, 9,351 writers,
27,922 belonging to the customs, and 206,090 servants ; forming a
total of 1,221,799 men living apart from all manufacturing or agri-
cultural labour.
Nearly 46 per cent, of the whole surface of the kingdom is still
uncultivated. The soil is subdivided among a very large number
of proprietors. Of the 3,426,083 assessments of the property-tax,
there are 624,920 properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666
from 10 to 20 reales; 642,377 from 20 to- 40 reales; 788,184 from
40 to 100 reales; 416,546 from 100 to 200 reales; 165,202 from
200 to 500 reales ; the rest, still sufficiently numerous (279,188),
are charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and upwards. This sub-
division is partly the work of recent years,' for in 1800, the number
of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the hands of 273,760 proprie-
tors and 403,760 farmers.
The titled nobility of the kingdom ia -^erj TixxmaxQwa. It con-
TRADE AND INDUSTRY,
447
sisted in 1863 of 82 dukes, all grandees of Spain ; 722 marquises,
of whom 54 grandees ; 558 counts, of whom 59 grandees ; 74 vis-
counts; and 67 barons. There are about half a million persons
belonging to the untitled nobility.
Trade and Industry.
The total imports of Spain, including bullion and specie, averaged
20 millions per annum, within the five, years 1861-65, while the
exports, within the same period, averaged 12 millions sterling.
Among the importing countries, France stands first, and the United
Kingdom second ; but as regards exports, the latter holds the first
rank.
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the imports of Spain into the United Kingdom, and of
the exports of British and Irish produce, in each of the five years
1861 to 1865 :—
Years
Imports from Spain into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Spain
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
4,458,373
3,766,437
4,844,324
5,879,705
4,769,223
£
2,919,501
2,862,261
3,508,556
3,084,778
2,249,822
Both the imports and exports of the preceding table include those
of the Balearic Islands, but not of the Canary Islands and other
possessions of Spain. The principal article of import from Spain
into the United Kingdom is wine, the annual value of which varies
fi-om 1,500,000Z. to near 2,500,000Z. The chief exports of the
United Kingdom to Spain are linen yam and linens, averaging in
value 650,000Z. per annum ; iron, wrought and unwrought, aver-
aging 600,000/. ; and coals, averaging 225,000/. per annum.
The mineral as well as the agricultural riches of Spain are ,very
great, but neither of these two sources of national wealth are as yet
developed. Much progress, however, has become manifest within
the last ten years. In the year 1863, there were 1,991 mines
worked in Spain, which produced the following quantities Qi^ \£i^\55i»ai
and minerals :—
448
SPAIN.
Metals and MineralB QnantitieB
From private mines :
Iron 172,368 ton«
Lead 311,161 „
SQver 148,896,000 oz.
Copper 143,396 tons
Tin 6 „
Zinc 106,858 „
Quicksilver 167,962 cwt.
Cobalt 68 „
Antimony 1,178 „
Manganese 666,947 „
Common salt 1,263 „
Soda 344,876 „
Sulphur 462,669 „
Coal (pit) 316,027 tons
Lignite ....... 17,218 „
Ai^haltum 61 „
Turf 127 „
From mines belonging to the State :
Quicksilver 14,496 cwt.
Copper 888 tons
Lead 2,186 „
Sulphur 3,779 cwt
Salt • . 76,939,474
The material progress of Spain in the course of about ten years is
indicated, to some extent, by the growth of a system of railways,
the more important to the kingdom as there was formerly a great
want even of ordinary roads. The subjoined tabular statement
gives the length of railways opened for traffic in Spain, at the end
of each year, from 1856 to 1864 : —
Years
Length
KilomStrea
7-
English miles
1866
6262^
326
1867
673108
418
1868
8635M
629
1869
1,148^
713
1860
1,916^^
1,189
1861
2,369i^
1,471
1862
2,728S§a
1,694
1863
3,687
2,227
1864
4,066
2,624
The total revenue derived from railways, in the year 1863,
amounted to 2,549,113/., or 1,144Z. per English mile. In the same
year, the number of travellers over these railways was 10,548,277 ;
very nearly one-half the revenue was derived from them, and tiie
iOtber liaif from the transport of cattle and merchandise.
TBAPB AUD INDUSTKY.
449
The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private compa-
nies, but nearly all have obtained guarantees, or subventions,
from the Government. All the principal railways have been con-
ceded to private individuals or companies with large subventions.
The concessions, when a * subvention * is attached to them, are
given by public adjudication. Any one who has made the stipu-
lated deposit of * caution money,* may apply for a concession in
sealed tenders, which are opened and read in public on the day of
adjudication, and whoever oflTers to make the railway with the
lowest subvention, becomes legally entitled to the concession. The
subventions are paid by instalments during the construction of the
work, in bonds or obligation, bearing 6 per cent, interest, at their
market value of the day.
The issue of these obligations commenced in February, 1854 ;
and the rates of interest which they bear ranges from 3 to 8 per cent.
The actual sum derived from the obligations negotiated was
23,345,313/. The periods prescribed for redemption of the obli-
gations negotiated, ranges from 1850 to 1891, and of the whole
number negotiated (2,337,922), 23,163 had been redeemed on June
30, 1864;^ but of this small number it appears that 3,871 were
never brought into circulation.
The total amount of capital raised for railways on June 30,
1864, was as follows : —
£
By shares 21,463,307
By subventions .... 6,496,105
By obligations ..... 23,345,313
Total
61,304,725
About one-half of this railway capital is believed to be in the
hands of French holders.
The common roads of Spain are constructed by the Governmetit,
the funds being obtained by the issue of another class of 6 per cent,
bonds, called * obliga9iones de carreteras.'
The merchant navy of the kingdom consisted, on January 1,
1863, of the following vessels : —
Description
Vessels
Tons
Sailing Tes8els|^°g«g^^j^t.«l^^J^^« ' * *
^ I „ m coasting „ . . .
Steam vea«elfl \ ^^"® P°^®^ (5,185) in foreign trade .
bteam vessels \ ^^ ^^^^gg ^ .^ ^^^.^^ ^^
Total .
1,446
3,293
36
65
245,312
101,724
12,035
8,719
4,840
367,79<^
\
Q Q
450
SPAIN.
The commercial navy has been declming in recent jeara, both in
number of vessels and tonnage. In 1860, there were 6,715 sailing
vessels, of 449,436 tons burthen. But the steamers, in 1860, only
niunbered 6S, of 13,369 tons burthen.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Spain, formerly embracing nearly the
irhole of America, are reduced at present to the following islands,
with a small strip of territory in Northern Africa : —
Colonial Foaaessions
Africa— Island of Fernando Po
Island of Corisco
Territory del Cabo de San Juan
Island of Mosquitos 6 Elobej .
Island of Annobon
America — ^Puerto-Rico and adjacent islands
Cuba and adjacent islands
Philippine Islands —
Batanes j Babuyanes
Luzon
Polillo, Catanduanes Marinduque, Bu-^
Has, Ticao y Masbate ... J
Mindoro
Calamianes, Ouyos y Cagayanes
Palanan 6 Paragua
Balabac
Oceania. Philippine Islands—
Samar
L^yte
Bojol
CebA . .
Kegros
Pan&y
Sibuyan, Romblon, Tablas, Fuegos and 1
others adjacent . . . . /
Mindanao and adjacent .
Basilan, Jolo and adjacent
Territory of Borneo, dependent of Jol6
Marianas Islands ....
Islas Carolinas — ^Palaos and adjacent
Bonebey
Ualan . . • .
Islas pequenas
Total
Area in sq.
Ueguas'
66-80
0-46
3-22
0-06
0-54
300-45
3,833-39
20-00
3,67870
300-32
311-29
107-74
446-77
1193
392-74
306-45
104-83
19112
280-80
380-32
144-83
2,828-38
128-70
1,616-12
3309
31-93
11-93
3-87
28-83
15,453-60
Area in hectares
207,100
1,400
10,000
200
1,700
931,400
11,883,300
62,000
11,094,000
931,000
965,000
334,000
1,385,000
37,000
1,217,600
950,000
325,000
692,500
870,500
1,179,000
449,000
8,768,000
399,000
6,000,000
102,600
99,000
37,000
12,000
89,400
47,896,600
COLONIBS.
4SI
He population of the African possessions is estimated at 15,000 ;
of the colonies in America at 2,066,000 ; and in Oceania at 2,860,000
inhabitants. If these estimates be correct, the whole population of
the Spanish colonies would amount to about 5,000,000 inhabitants,
mostiy coloured men.
The most important of the Spanish colonial possessions are those in
America, Cuba taking the first rank. The census of Cuba of 1775,
gave a population of 170,370 ; that of 1791, 272,140 ; that of 1817,
gave 551,998, and that of 1827, 704,487 : namely, 311,051 whites;
free coloured, 106,494 ; slaves, 286,942. The census of the years
1846 and 1862 gave the following results : —
Population
1846
1863
White ....
Coloured, free .
slave.
425,767
149,226
323,769
764,760
226,938
368,660
898,762
1,369,238
The numbers given in the census of 1862 are exclusive of the
army and navy and other transient population, but inclusive 84,050
Chinese, of whom there were none, or scarcely any, in 1846.
The number of slaves who obtained their Hberty, either by pur-
chase or by gift of their masters, was : —
In 1858 2,066
„ 1859 1,992
„ 1860 . . . . . . . 1,919
„ 1861 . 1,629
„ 1862 1,886
9,462
Many slaves besides are liberated every year by private docu-
ment, and many children of slaves are registered as free, their
liberty being obtained by gift of the masters, or by payment of 25
dollars before birth. Of the slaves, negroes, 275,382 were males,
and only 150,139 females; total slaves, 436,495. The excess of
free over slave population amounted to 134,634. The cultivated
lands imder sugar, coffee, tobacco, and gardens, were estimated, in
1858, at 54,000 caballerias, or 1,728,000 acres. There were 1,238
sugar estates, employing 138,701 persons ; 1,838 coffee plantations,
with 114,760 persons; and 42,549 ferms, witii 393,993 persons.
Total, 647,454 agricultural labourers. In 1760, the produce of coffee
and sugar together, in Cuba, amoimted only to about 5,000,000 lbs.
Forty years afterwards, this was increased \o «\>o^^ \$^^^^^?5>V5S^^%^
oq2
45*
SPAIN.
In 1820, the exports increased to above 100,000,000 lbs. In 1858,
the export of ^ese two articles was, sngar, 812,129 boxes; coffee,^
1,260,920| arrobas.
The following is a statement of the increase of production :—
Sugar
. arrobas
1846
1863
17,729,589
41,418,444
Coffee .
»i
1,470,754
741,542
Tobacco .
. cargas
168,094
305,626
Indian com .
. lanegas
942,491
2,179,724
Rice
. aiTobas
929,858
1,747,474
Wax
»»
32,326
68,420
Cuba is divided into three provinces, the SE. and central being
the richest and most populous, and containing 22 cities and towns,
and 204 villages and hamlets. Chief towns, Havana, Santiago,
Matanzas, Santa Clara, Santa Maria, and Trinidad. The commercial
prosperity of Cuba has been of late years on the increase.
The government of the island is vested in a captain-general, who
is supreme military commandant and civil governor of one of the
provinces. There is a governor of the other provinces, who has
independent civil power, responsible only to the Court of Spain.
There is a military garrison of several battalions^ and a marine
force of 4 frigates, 15 steam-ships, and 32 small craft.
The island of Puerto-Rico, in point of importance the second
Spanish colony, possessed, in the year 1860, a population amounting
to 583,308, thus divided :—
Pure whites
Coloured
300,430
282,878
Total . 683,308
And of the 282,878 coloured people were —
Free .... 241,142
Slaves .... 41,736
Total . 282,878
Thus, the proportion of slaves was only one-eighth of the whole
population. The exports of the island consisted, in 1860, of 60,000
tons of sugar, 23,604 quintals of tobacco, 15,924,524 lbs. of coffee,
296,696 lbs. of cotton, 43,445 puncheons of molasses, 1,254 pun-
cheons of rum, 672,472 lbs. weight of hides, and 5,524 head of
cattle : the whole valuing 1,100,000/., of which 300,000/. went to
England, or to its colonies in North America. During the same year,
the value of imports amoimted to 1,500,000/., of which 500,000/.
worth came from Great Britain and the British colonies in North
Amenca,
BOOKS OF BEFEBENOE. 453
Honeyi Weights, and Heasures.
The money, weights, and measures of Spain, and the British
idqniyalents, are as follows :—
Moznnr.
The Real VeUon . . s Average rate of exchange, 100 « £\ sterling.
„ Eacudo . . . = „ „ „ 10 = £1
Quinial .
Libra
Square Vara .
Fanega .
Wbiohts AifD Measubbs.
B 101.4 lbs. ayoirdupois.
« 1.014 „ „
a 3i^ imperial gallons.
= 2| „ „
= 1.09 Vara « 1 yard.
B 1^ imperial busheL
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Spain.
1. Official Ptjblicatioks.
Anuario Estadistico de Espana, correspondiente k 1865 y 1866. 4. Jkladrid,
1866.
Censo de la Poblacion de Espana, segon el recnento verificado en 25 de
diciembre de 1860 por la Junta General de Estadistica. Publicase de 6rden de
a M. FoL Madrid, 1863.
Coleccion Legislativa de Estadistica. Comprende nna ojeada sobre la esta-
distica de los tiempos antiguos, un indice de las disposiciones referentes al ramo
oonsignadas en los tomos de Decretos hasta la creacion de la Comision general,
otro de las que sobre la estadistica de los ramos que tienen k su cargo han dic-
tado posteriormente a aquella ^poca los diferentes centres de la administracion
publica, y por ultimo las leyes, reales decretos, reales ordenes j disposiciones de
la Comision (boy Junta General de Estadistica) sobre los objetos de su insti-
tuto. Fublicada por acuerdo de la misma Junta General de Estadistica. 4.
Madrid, 1862.
Memoria presentada al Congreso de Diputados por la Comision Inspectora de
las Operaciones de la Deuda Publica. Madrid, 1864.
Nomenclator de los Pueblos de Espana, formado por la Comision de Estadis-
tica General del Eeino. Publicase de 6rden de S. M. Fol. Madrid, 1858.
Report by Mr. L. C. Sackville "West, H.M.*s Secretary of Legation, on tbe
Financial State of Spain, dated Madrid, March 1, 1866 ; in * Eeports by H.M.'8
Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XIV. London, 1866.
Beports by Mr. L. C. P. "West, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on Commerce
and General Statistics, dated Jan. 1, 1866; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy.' No. XIIL London, 1866.
Eeports by H. M.'s Consuls at Alicante, Barcelona, Carthagena, Malaga, &c,
on the Trade and Commerce of Spain ; in ' Commercial Eeports received at the
Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1865.
Reports of H.M.'8 Consul at Biscay, Malaga, and Vigo, on the Trade and
Commerce of Spain ; in ' Commercial Reports xeceW^ di^i ^^ ^<^^\^ ^^^^.
London, 1866.
454 SPAIN.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Mmantigue de las Islas Baleares para el ano 1866. 8. Falma, 1866.
Andersen (Hans Christian), In Spanien. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Codigo de Comercio, conforme 4 la edicion oficial, con notas y concordandas,
por un abogado del Ilnstre Colegio de Madrid. 32. Madrid, 1865.
Coelh (Fr. de Lnjan), Besenas G^ografica, Geologica y Areola de Espana.
8. Madrid, 1864.
Cohneiro (Manuel), Derecho Administratdvo Espanol. 3rd ed. Vol. I. 4.
Madrid, 1865.
Colmeiro (Manuel), Historia de la Economia Politica en Espana. 2 vols. 8.
Madrid, 1864.
Flores (Antonio), Crimea del Viaje de SS. MM. y AA. ER. k las islas Baleares,
Cataluna y Aragon, en 1860 ; escrito de 6rden de S. M. la reina. 3rd. ed. Fol.
Barcelona, 1862.
Fomento (El), de Espana^ EeTista .Universal de Agricultura. "FoL Madrid,
1865.
Garrido (Fernando), L^pagne Contemporaine, ses Progrte Moraux etMat^
riels au 19me SiMe. Bruxelles, 1862.
Lestgarens (J. ), La Situation lEconomique et Industrielle de TEspagne en
1860. Bruxelles, 1861.
Polin (D. Jos^ Lopez), Diccionario Estadistico Municipal de Espana. 4.
Madrid, 1863.
Vidal (J. L.), L'Espagne en 1860. Etat Politique, Administrative, Legis-
lative; Institutions Economiques; Statistique Gen^rale de ce Boyaume. 8.
Paris, 1861.
Villa- Atardi (Baron de), Consideraciones sobre el Estado Administrativo y
Econ6iiiico de Espana. 4. Madrid, 1865.
455
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Seigning Sovereign and Family.
Charles XV., King of Sweden and Norway, born May 3, 1826,
the son of King Oscar I. and of Queen Josephine, daughter of
Prince Eugene of Leuchtenberg. In consequence of the pro-
longed ilhiess of his father, appointed Prince Regent of Sweden
and Norway by royal decree, September 25, 1857. Ascended the
throne, at the death of King Oscar I., July 8, 1859 ; took the
* oath to the constitution of Norway, at Christiania, Oct. 6, 1859 ;
crowned King of Sweden at Stockholm, May 3, 1860. Married,
June 19, 1850, to
Louise, Queen of Sweden and Norway, bom Aug. 5, 1828, the
eldest daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, uncle of
the reigning King of the Netherlands. Offspring of the union is
an only daughter, Louise, bom Oct. 31, 1851, who, however, cannot
succeed to the throne, as the Salic law is at present in force in
Sweden and Norway.
Brothers and Sister of the King. — 1. Oscar, Duke of Ostrogothia,
bom Jan. 21, 1829, the second surviving son of King Oscar I.;
general in the armies of Sweden and Norway, and vice-admiral
in the Swedish-Norwegian fleet. Married June 6, 1857, to Sophia,
Princess of Nassau, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Duke
William of Nassau. Offspring of the imion are four sons ; namely,
Gustavus, Duke of Norland, bom June 16, 1858 ; Charles, Duke of
Gothland, bom Nov. 15, 1859; Oscar, Duke of Ostergothland,
ix)m Feb. 27, 1861, and Eugene, Duke of Nericia, bom Aug. 1,
1865. 2. Charlotte Eugenie, Princess of Sweden and Norway,
bom April 24, 1830. 3. Augustus, Duke of Dalecarlia, bom
Aug. 24, 1831, major-general in the army of Sweden and Norway;
married Aug. 16, 1864, to Theresa, Princess of Saxe-Altenburg,
bom Dec. 21, 1836, daughter of the late Duke Edward of Saxe-
Altenburg.
King Charles XV. is the third sovereign of the House of Bema-
dotte, and grandson of General Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte Corvo,
who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by the
Parliament of the kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the throne
Feb. 5, 1 818, in the name of Charles XIV. The con^eaa o^ YvessMk.
united 'Norway to the iSwedish crown, aa a "i^^Qm?5«wafc i^^ *^ci^
456
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
eminent services of the heir-apparent against French supremacy in
eastern and central Europe.
The present sovereign of Sweden and Norway has a civil list of
1,230,000 rixdalers, or 266,500/. as King of Sweden, and 113,000
specie-dalra, or 24,510/., as ruler of Norway. The royal family,
besides, has an annuity of 200,000 rixdalers, or 44,167/., voted,
on the security of state domains, to King Charles XIV., for
expending his private fortune in Swedish works of industry. King
Charles XIV., at his death, left to his son property to the amount of
eighty millions of francs, or more than three millions sterling.
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, from
the accession of the House of Vasa, or Ericson : —
House of Vasa,
Ulrica Eleanora
1719
Oustavus Ericson .
1523
Adolphus Frederick
1751
Eric XIV. . . ,
1560
Gustavus III. .
1771
John ITT.
» 1568
Gustavus IV. .
1792
Sigismund
. 1590
Charies XIII.
1809
Charles IX, .
Gustavus Adolphos .
1604
1611
Hoitse of Bemadotie,
Christina
1633
Charles XIV. .
1818
Charles X.
1654
Oscar ....
1844
Charles XI. .
1660
Charles XV. .
1859
Charles Xn. .
1697
The average reign of the eighteen rulers who occupied the throne
of Sweden since the accession of Gustavus Ericson, amounted to
nineteen years.
According to the conditions laid down at the Congress of Vienna,
confirmed at the Peace of Kiel, Jan. 4, 1814, and accepted by the
Norwegian Parliament Nov. 4, 1814, the personal imion of the
kingdom of Sweden and Norway is established on the following
terms. While the government of the two countries is to be kept
entirely separate, the action of the monarch over both shall be ex-
ercised through a Council of State, composed, in equal numbers, of
Swedes and Norwegians. The law of succession shall be the same
in both coimtries. In case of the minority of the king, his absence
in foreign countries, his physical or mental incapacity, or any other
temporary vacancy of the throne, the sovereign power is to be ex-
ercised by a Council of Regency, composed of ten Swedish and ten
Norwegian state councillors, appointed by the Diets of the two
coimtries. In case of absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets
must assemble for the election of the fiiture sovereign, and should
they not be able to agree upon one person, an equal number of
Swedish and Norwegian deputies have to meet at the city of Carl«
CONSTITUTION AND GOVBKNMBNT. 45/
atadt, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nomination
to be absolute. Finally, it is laid down by the Act of the Vienna
Congress that the personal union of the two kingdoms shall be in-
dissoluble and irrevocable, without prejudice, however, to the
separate Government, constitution, and code of laws of either
Sweden and Norway. Each therefore remains an independent
kingdom.
I. SWEDEN.
ConstitatioiL and GtovemmeiLt.
The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are — 1. The
Constitution or Regerings-Formen of June 6, 1809 ; 2. The law
of royal succession of September 26, 1810 ; and 3. The amended
regulations for the formation of the Diet, adopted December 8,
1865. According to these statutes, the king must be a member of the
Lutheran Church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land.
His person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make
peace, and grant pardon to condemned criminals. He nominates to
all appointments, both military and civil ; concludes foreign treaties,
and has a right to preside in the supreme Court of Justice. The
princes of the blood royal, however, are excluded from all civil
employments. The king has an absolute veto against any decrees of
the Diet, and possesses legislative power in matters of provincial
administration and police. In all other respects, the foimtain of law
is in the Diet. This Diet, or Parliament of the realm, consists of
two chambers, or estates, both elected by the people, but represent-
ing different interests. The First Chamber, or Upper House of
Parliament, consists of 119 members, or one deputy for every 30,000
of the population. The election of the members takes place by the
* landstings,' or provincial representations — one in each of the 24
* Ian,' or governments, of the kingdom — and the municipal corpora-
tions of all towns not already represented in the * landstings.' All
members of the First Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and
must have possessed for at least three years previous to the election
either landed property to the taxed value of 80,000 rix dollars
mynt — 4,450Z. — or an annual income of 4,000 rix dollars — 223Z.
They are elected for the term of nine years, and obtain no pajrment
for their services. The Second Chamber, or Lower House of Par-
liament, consists of 185 members, of whom 52 are elected by the
towns and 133 by the rural districts, there bem^ oixfc T^^x^aeoXaJCvi'ii
458 SWEDEN.
for every 10,000 of tbe population of towns with more than 10,000
inhabitants, and one representative for every 40,000 of the popula-
tion of rural districts. All natives of Sweden, aged 21, possessing
real property to the taxed value of 1,000 rix dollars — 56Z. — or an
annual income of 800 rix dollars — 45 Z. — are electors; and all
natives, aged 25, possessing the same qualifications, and making,
moreover, public profession of the Protestant faith, may be elected
for the Lower House of Parliament. The election is for the term of
three years, and the members obtain salaries for their services, at the
rate of 1,200 rix dollars — 67^. — for each session of four months,
besides travelling expenses. The salaries and travelling expenses of
the deputies are borne by the Government, as well as the cost of
elections ; and the expenditure of any money for the latter purpose
by the parliamentary candidates is forbidden under heavy penalties.
The vote is by ballot, both in town and country.
The two Houses of Parliament assemble every year, voting the
budget for the same period. All the legislative measures are pre-
pared in committees, appointed evei-y session, immediately after
meeting. The committees are six in number, namely, 1. The
Constitutional Committee, which maintains a surveillance over all
constitutional questions, and consists of ten members of each of the
two Houses of Parliament. 2. The State Committee, which super-
intends the State expenditure, and consists of nine members of each
House. 3. The Subsidy Committee, which is charged with the
examination of all questions in which the aid of the State may be
required. 4, The Legislative Committee, which takes cognisance of
all matters connected with proposed alterations in civil, criminal, or
ecclesiastical law. 5. The Bank Committee, which superintends aU
the affairs of that establishment ; and 6. The Committee on com-
plaints and petitions, to which, in the first instance, all these are
specially referred. Each Committee has the right of calling upon
the ministers and other members of the Government for explanations,
and of hearing witnesses in any cases before them ; but ^e Consti-
tutional Committee alone has power to indict the ministers and
chief servants of the crown, for any acts contrary to the fundamental
laws of the kingdom which they may have committed.
The Diet of the two Houses constitutes the chief legislative power
in the kingdom. The executive is in the hands of the king, who
acts under the advice of a Council of State, composed of two respon-
sible Ministers, and eight Privy Councillors. The Ministries are —
1. The Ministry of Justice. — Baron L. de Geer, appointed Feb.
8, 1858.
2, The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Count C. L. de Mander^
strem, appointed March 16, 1858.
BEYEKUE AND XZPENDITUBE.
459
The Council of State, attached to the Ministry, consists of ^ve
* colleges,' or departments, namely : —
The Department or College of Finance. — Baron J, A. Chippen-
stedt, appointed May 28, 1856.
The Department of the Interior. — Henry de Lagerstrdle, appointed
Nov. 2, 1860.
The Department of Marine. — Coimt Platen, appointed July 10,
1862.
The Department of War.— General Alex. Eeuterskjoldy appointed
April 11, 1862.
The Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Frederic
Ferdinand Carlson, appointed August 15, 1863.
All the members of the Council of State, together with the
ministers of State, are responsible for the acts of the Government,
individually and collectively. But it is left to the two ministers to
express more directly the will of the sovereign ; and to them like-
wise is left the duty of bringing new and important measures before
the Diet, on the rejection of which they are expected to resign. The
action of the Council of State being less direct, its members are not
necessarily involved in ministerial changes. Connected with the
Council of State, though not responsible to either parliament or the
sovereign, are the Chancellor of Justice, who is at the head of the
judicial organisation of the kingdom, and the Justitice Ombudsman, or
Attorney- General, who has to extend a general supervision over all
the courts of law, and to watch that the constitution is upheld in
the elections to the Diet, and in respect of aU the other rights and
privileges of the Swedish people.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the kingdom for each of the
years 1864-65 and 1865-66 was as follows :—
Bevenne
1865-66
Post ....
Stamps ....
Excise and brandy .
Total . . {
Biz dollars mynt
8,171,100
11,100,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
7,000,400
Biz dollars mynt
8,447,360
14,000,000
1,600,000
1,300,000
8,400,000
28,971,600
£1,609,528
33,647,358
£1,869,1^^
\
460
SWEDEN.
Expenditure
1864-65
186&-66
Ordinary:
Koyal household
Justice
Army
Navy
Interior
Finance .
Public instruction
Pensions
Extraordinary ....
Total . . 1
Biz dollars mynt
1,278,400
2,198,570
479,200
8,727,720
3,305,100
2,206,950
4,270,450
3,276,400
1,168,920
Biz dollars mynt
1,230,000
2,180,570
479,200
9,585,742
3,634,950
3,857,266
5,450,076
3,624,516
1,194,682
26,911,710
8.970.570
31,237,000
9,293,193
35,882,280
£1,993,460
40,530,193
£2,251,677
The deficits of both the financial periods 1864-65, and 1865-66,
were covered by a reserve fond created by the surplus revenue oif
former years, and various imposts on newspapers, playing cards,
billiards, and other assessed taxes. The deficits arose chieSy from
increased expenditure connected with the construction of a network
of railways, at the cost of the State. For these works, the Diet
voted nearly 35 million rix dollars, duiing the years 1858, 1860,
1864, and 1865, leading to a vast increase of the public debt.
Through the energetic efforts of King Charles XIV. — formerly
General Bemadotte — the whole public debt of Sweden was liqui-
dated during the years 1819 to 1840. Subsequent events, however,
made the creation of a new debt necessary, the first part of which
was contracted in England, in 1852, to the amount of 450,000/. A
further sum of 3,000,000 marks, or 185,000/., was borrowed at
the Hamburg Exchange in the following year ; and soon after, a
loan of 20,000,000 rixdalers, for the establishment of a system of
railways by the State, was negotiated by the banking-house of Johns
& CJo., Stockholm, at b^ per cent., to be repaid in forty years. The
latter sum proving insufficient for the purpose, another loan of
25,000,000 was taken up by Swedish capitalists, at 5 per cent,
interest. The breaking out of the commercial crisis of 1857, induced
the Government to contract a further debt of 12,000,000 rixdalers, at
6 per cent., for the relief of distress in the mining and manufacturing
districts. The whole debt of Sweden, on the 1st of January, 1864,
amounted to 52,136,680 rix dollars, or i2,896,482/., as follows:—
Biz mynt dollars
Bailway Loan of 1858 20,485,600
„ of 1860 . ... . . 25,479,956
Foreign Debt 6,171,125
1o\.A
r 52,136,680
ABMT AND NAYT. 46 1
To the above was added, in May 1864, a new loan of 2,223,000Z.,
contracted — at 92 — with British banking-houses, and in January,
1866, a loan of 9,000,000 Prussian thalers, or 1,350,000/., concluded
with German banks. The proceeds of both the latter loans were
employed for the completion of State railways.
Army and Navy.
The Swedish army is composed of four distinct classes of troops.
They are —
1. The Indelta, or national militia, paid and kept, not by the
Grovemment, but by the landowners, and, to some extent, from the
income of State domains expressly reserved for this purpose. Every
soldier of the Indelta has, besides a small annual pay, his torp^ or
cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his own
during the whole period of service, often extending over forty years,
or even longer. In time of peace, the troops of the Indelta are
not called up for more than a month's annual practice, and for the
rest of the year are free from military duty.
2. The Bevaering, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy
from the male population between the age of 20 and 25 years. It
is only since 1812 that conscription has been introduced into
Sweden, and it is still highly impopular. About 19,000 men are
drafted annually, one-tenth of which number, on the avei*age, find
substitutes for themselves, at a cost of from 10/. to 25/.
8. The Vdrfoade^ or enlisted troops, to which belong the royal
lifeguards, the hussars, and the greater part of the artillery. The
men may engage for either three, or six, or twelve years ; but the
greater number are for six years, peculiar inducements being held
out for this term.
4. The militia of Grothland, consisting of twenty-one companies
of infantry, organised in a similar manner to the Indelta^ yet quite
independent of the latter. They are not compelled by law to serve
beyond the confines of the Isle of Gothland, and have a separate
command from the other troops.
The army of Sweden consists altogether of
Indelta 33,405 rank and file
Bevaering .... 95,295 „ „
Vdrfvade .... 7,692 „ „
Militia of Gothland . . 7,921 „ „
In sum total 144,010 men, with 152 pieces of artillery. Of this
number about 85,000 men belong to the infantry of the line ; 6,000
to the cavalry; 5,000 to the artillery, and the rest to the «o\x^<£^ViaX»
irregular militia. In November 1862, and a;gaiai m XJcka ^eeK^sti. <^
462
SWEDEN.
1865, the Government brouglit a bill befbre the Diet for a re-
organisation of the whole of the army, on the basis of extending
the conscription, reforming the Indelta, and doing away, to a great
extent, with the Vdrfvade, But the proposition was not ^vourablj
received by the representatives of the people.
The coast of Sweden is protected by the fortresses at Marstrand,
Goteborg, Carlscrona, and Stockholm, all of which, however, have
but small garrisons.
The navy of the kingdom consisted, at the end of 1865, of -^
2 screw-steamers of the line, of 74 and 70 gims, and 350 and 300
horse-power.
3 screw-frigates, of 10 and 8 guns, and 300 and 200 hor8e->
power.
8 corvettes, of from 5 to 7 guns, of which six are iron-clad vessels.
125 gunboats, of 1 and 2 guns, and from 60 to 70 horse-power,
of which three iron-clad vessels, and one — launched in September,
1865 — a turret ship, with two guns, after the American model.
There were building, at the end of 1866, three more iron-clads,
one of them of the * Monitor * class. The navy was manned, at the
same date, by 14,950 sailors, of whom, however, more than one-half
were on fiirlough, or attached to the fleet of reserve.
Population.
Sweden was one of the first countries of Europe in which a regu-
lar census was taken. The first enumeration took place in 1748, at
the suggestion of the Academy of Stockholm, and it was repeated,
at first every third year, and, after 1775, every fifth year. This
quinquennial census has been continued to the present day.
The population of Sweden amounted on December 31, 1865,
according to the account published by the Statistical Depaiinnent, to
4,114,141, of whom 498,982 were inhabitants of towns, exclusive
of the capital.
The population of the principal towns was as follows, at the end
of 1860 and of 1865 :—
Towns
1860
1866
Towns
I860
1866
No.
No.
No.
No.
Stockholm .
112,391
124,691
Calmar . .
8,061
8,634
Gothenburg
34,300
41,686
UpsaU . .
8,469
9,262
MaJmoe . .
18,919
21,626
Lund . .
8,412
9,323
Norkopping
19,966
21,679
Orebro , .
7,377
8,383
CarlskroDtt .
16,300
16,995
Jonkeping .
7,444
8,668
Gefle . .
/
10,976
11,610
POPULATION.
463
The area and popnlation of Sweden, on the Slst of December,
1860y are shown in the following table : —
Governments (L&n.)
Area In Geo.
■q. miles
Popnlation,
Deo. 81, 1860
Stockbohn (City)
Stockholm
Upeala
Sddermanland
East Gothland
Jonkoping
Kronoberg
Galmar,
Gotdand
Bleckinge
Christianstad
Malmoe
Halland
GK>theborg and Bohu ....
Elfsborg
Skaraborg
Wermland
Orebro
Westmanland
Kopparberg
G^fleborg
Wester Norrland
Jemtland
Westerbotten
Norrbotten
The Lakes
Total . . .
English square miles
In the country
In towns (without Stockholm) .
137
97
118
200
202
178
200
58
63
114
84
89
89
237
156
327
153
125
577
356
447
900
1,382
1,554
168
8,002
168,042
112,391
121,737
92,536
126,705
240,917
171,011
152,225
221,029
50,137
117,876
209,581
284,430
119,578
214,342
269,322
222,240
247,171
151,651
103,300
166,899
136,061
116,669
61,218
81,478
69,225
3,859,728
3,425,209
322,128
Four-fifkhs of the population of Sweden are devoted to agri-
cultural pursuits, but only a very small fraction of the rural popu-
lation are owners of the land which they are cultivating. To the
nobility belong one- eighth of the area of the kingdom in private
property. The army and navy are chiefly officered by nobles, who
also hold the most important charges imder Government, and at the
court. It has been calculated that there are 2,400 noble families in
Sweden, possessing property to the amount of 71 million rixdalers.
The number is continually increasing, owing to the law of gavelkind,
as well as the fact that nobility may be purchased, in many cases,
with landed property. Feudal taxation exists in many ^la.<i«a.^
besides which the cultivators of the soil Yiav^ \o to»^ ^^ ^ ^^mN. ^1
464
SWEDSK.
the public revenue, and have to keep the Indelta, and to make and
repair the roads of the country without remuneration.
Notwithstanding the poverty and dependent state of the bulk of
the population, education is well advanced in Sweden. In 1860,
no less than seventy-one per cent, of all the children between eight
and fifteen years visited the public schools. There were above
3,000 teachers and professors in the country in 1860. The vast
majority of the population are Protestants ; at the census of 1860,
there were found no other dissenters, but 913 Eoman Catholics, 471
Mormons, and nearly a thousand Jews.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Sweden with Great Britain is nearly twice as
great as that with all the other countries taken together. Subjoined
is a tabular statement of the total value of the imports from
Sweden into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British and
Irish produce to Sweden in each of the five years 1861 to 1865 : —
Tears
Imports from Sweden into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Sweden
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
2,620,720
2,698,216
3,232,102
3,868,312
4,129,305
£
608,954
603,013
606,987
731,294
900,959
The principal articles of import from Sweden into the United
Kingdom are deals and timber, to the average value of 1,500,000/.;
oats, to the average value of 700,000/. ; and iron, in bars, to the
average value of 450,000/. per annum. The exports of British home
produce are of a miscellaneous nature, the most important being
woollen manufactures, averaging in value 50,000/. per annum.
The commercial navy of Sweden, registered for foreign trade at
the various ports of the kingdom, consisted of the following ntmiber
of vessels, on December 31, of each of the years 1861 and 1862 : —
Forts
Calmar .
Carlshamn
Carlskrona
Gefle .
O-othenburg
Halmstad
1861
1862
Vessels
Lasts of 2
tons
Vessels
Lasts of 2
tons
70
27
9
73
126
4,615
2,087
540
11,957
18,426
470
70
25
9
66
127
16
4,841
1,765
692
11,232
19,269
486
TBADB iOm INBnSTBT.
46s
Yeflselfl — continued.
IS6I
1803
Porta
Vessel!
Laatsof 2
torn
YesBflls
toiu
Heirao«aiid
38
6,824
34
£.462
Mulmo .
32
2,237
28
2,013
Oscar^hamn .
38
l,bU
28
1,580
Stockholm
110
14,8&3
115
16,192
Stromsttid
13
029
13
818
Smidavall
44
7,033
3B
6.625
Soder^hjimn ,
IS
1,729
12
1,661
Timed . ,
26
3.787
20 !
3,640
Westemit
25
2,269
23
2,257
550
2,348
62
2^57
$
310
6
307
Skelleftei .
5
752
&
752
LysekiU
40
IJU
31
1,386
Oth^poii^tB *
111
7,004
115
7.429
TobiJ
L
860
90,407
835
90,653
These numbers, as well as those of previous years, show a decline;
of the oommercial marine. The number of vessels registered ibr
foreign trade on December 31, 1860, was 902, of a total burthen
of 94,444 lasts. Thus, in three years, the loss amounted to 67
vessels, of 3,791 lasts, or 7,582 tons burthen.
Mining is the most important department of Swedish industry,
And the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant
jNCOgress by the introduction of new machinery. Subjoined is a
tabular statement showing the quantities of the different kinds of
ii[iinerals and metals produced in Sweden, in each of the years 1861
and 1862 :—
Minerals and Metals
Quantities
1861
Iron ore from mines .
„ lake and bog
Pig ... .
Cast goods
Bar .
Manufactures and steel
Silver . • . ,
Copper ....
Nickel copper .
Brass ....
Copper vork
centner
lbs.
centner
10,093,891
215,172
3,884,838
108,116
3,408,368
693,525
2,207
36,000
636
. 3,069 .
1862
10,106,100
378,261
4,563,926
303,170
3,016,078
634,230
2,657
39,911
678
H H
^
Minerals and Metals — continued.
Quantities
Ifim^rAlR and Iffltala
1861
1862
Lead centner
-6,100
10,409
Lead ore .
• »»
670
Zinc ore .
ii
.169,600
200,400
Cobalt ore .
lbs. •
— .
2,114
Sulphur .
centner •
4,643 ,
4,585
Lron, vitriol
• >>
6,200
8,138
»»
casks -
. 2,000
2,000
Copper
centner •
689
—
Bed ochre .
>»'
1,666
1,784
If • '
casks .
13,800
10,302-
Alum
>»
6,946 ,
. 6,312
Porphyry .
rix dollars.
8,700
. 9,600
Marble .
„
24,108
'28,126
Coal .
tons . 1 .236,000 j
231,478
It is only within recent years that Sweden has become a manu-
facturing country, but already the home produce has become of
such importance as considerably to affect the wipplies of the same
articles derived from other States, particularly from Germany. The.
Allowing table furnishes the statistics of aU the manufac4x>ries in.
Sweden, at the end ci the year 1862 : —
Description of lianuf actoriee.
No. of
tories
No. of
Looms
No. of
Workmen
104
922
3,294
7
651
913
24
2,485
1,301
21
—
3,757
7
63
640
6
317
478
9
61
71
13
807
«21
10
—
60
470
—
1,«20
10
—
1,051
93
—
.2,102
610
—
2,075
23
—
1,239
83
— .
.1,831
42
—
. 195
2
— ,
. 455
11
— ,
. 89
4
.■ "^
. 105
Value of
Axticlefi
Produced
eiflth ....
"Woollen and half woollen
Cotton and linen .
Cotton-spinning by machine
Sail and tent cloth .
Silk . . .
Ribbon (silk) .
Hosiery .
Cotton printing
Dyeing .
Sugar refineries
Tobacco and sdmS -
Leather ,
Grlass
Paper
Oil . . .
'Porcelain
Soap (hard and soft)
Stearhte .
Rix drs. mynt < -
11,570,947
1,593,397
6,202,879
8,383,938
425,426
1,023,338
62,466
676,«20
103,844
1,272,066
12,652,816
5,229i763
4,018,076
1,610,062
.2,779,966
.1,268,676
860,896
720,96a
■ 487,496
MONBT, \raiGSZ8, A^D HEASUBSS.
467
Description of Manufactories — continued.
Description of lianuf aotories
No. of
Manufac-
tories
. No. of
Looms
No. of
Workmen
Value of
Articles
. l^roduced
Rix drs. mynt
Mechanical workshops .
76
—
2,880
3,897,017
Beer breweries
^
— '
' 177
493,494
Bricks and tiles
64
' — '
• 569
400,714
Tallow candles
15
* — '
• lor
390,700
Rope . .
23
—
196
311,151
* Clocks and watches
1^3
* •
' 319'
87,982
Playing cards
'6
* — '
• 60'
94,170
Tapestry and carpet
20
—
310
272,748
Chemical productions
16
—
114
265,992
Carriages
21
—
241
264,316
Lucifer matches
16
—
1,010
424,883
Wool and linen yam spi
nning
by machine
9
—
169
349,013
Chemicals • ♦
9
—
31
44,500
Cork . .
11
—
111
82,750
Chicory .
6
—
112
142,704
Other factories
Total
646
12
2,239
1,880,041
2,521
4,808
30,725
69,280,924
Colony.
Sweden possesses only one colony, the Island of St. Bartholomew,
in the West Indies, 30 miles west of St. Christopher. The area of
the little island is 35 square miles, with a population of 18,000
inhabitants. It produces sugar, tobacco, cotton and cocoa. The
island was ceded by France to Sweden in 1784, and owing to the
efforts made by King Oscar I., slavery was abolished in 1848.
Honey, Weights, and Iffeasnres.
MOMBY.
The Six Dollar Mynt, 18 =£1 . . Average rate of exchange, 1«. \yi.
Weights and Mbasubes.
The Ort
„ Oz,
Centner
Skdlpund or r Commercial weight
Pound \ Metal „
Lispimd 0/ 20 f Commercial , ,
Skalpunds \ Metal „
' Commercial „
MetAl. „
Miners „
20
und of
unds
16 troy grains
405 „
112.06 lbs. avoirdupois.
0.936
0-747
18.7
14.9
374
398
about 6 to the cwt
,, 7i „
. „ 6 to the ton.
HH 2
468 NOBWAT.
Weights and Measures^— <»<mftntMtf.
The Skeppund of t^ ^.^ \ 658 lbs. aToirdnpois, about 4 to
26£^im«i; i^^"^^ • * =1 theton.
Ship Last .
Tumna of Corn
„ Salt
„ Coal
SunTM m
other agiicoltnral produce » 4
m .
Cubic Foot
2 tons
4^ imperial bushels.
■■ ^ ^ »» If
« 4.6 imperial pints, about 1} to
the imperial gallon,
a 23.4Eng. indies, about} of a yazd.
s 11.7 Ez^. cubic inches.
n. HOEWAY.
Constitatioii and Oovemment.
The constitution of Norway, proclaimed Nov. 4/1814, is one of the
most democratic in Europe. According to its terms, the whole l^isla--
tive and part: of the executive power of the realm is in the Storthing
— from stor, great, and^Atn^, court — of the realm, the representa-*
tive of the sovereign people. The king has the nominal command
of the land and sea forces, but can mEike few appointments, and
with the exception of the governor-general, is not dlowed to nomi-
nate any but Norwegians to public offices under the crown. He can
only remit punishment of death, and not grant a complete pardon to
criminals condemned by Norwegian courts of law. The king po»*
sesses the right of veto over laws passed by the Storthing, yet only
for a limited period. The royal veto may be exercised twice ; but
if the same bill pass three successive times, it becomes the law of
the land without the assent of liie sovereign. The king is forbidden
to grant any titles, dignities, and prerogatives, or to create an here-
ditary nobility. The latter was abolii^ed by law' in the Storthing
of 1821.
The Storthing formerly assembled every three years; but by a
modification of the electoral law, adopted March 20, 1863^ it was
resolved to hold annual sittings. The meetings take place, auojure^
and not by any writ from the king or the executive. Every native
Norwegian of twenty-five years of age, who is a biirgess of any town, or
possesses property or the life-rent of land to the value of 30Z. sterling, is
entitled to elect ; and, imder the same conditions, if thirty years of
age, to be elected. The whole country is divided into electoral dis-
tricts, according to population, and again parcelled out into sub-
divisions, according to area. The mode of election is indirect, the
people first nominating a number of deputies, to wbom devolves the
CONSnTUTipN AND GOYERNMENT. 469
task of appointing the representatiyes in the Storthing, At the end
of every third year the people meet at the parish church, without
sommons or special call, and choose their deputies; one to fifly
Toters in towns, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts. The
deputies afterwards meet at some public place, and there elect among
lihemselyes, or from among the other qualified voters of the district,
the Storthing representatives, in the proportion of one-fourth of the
number of deputies for the towns, and one-tenth of those for the
country. Together with every representative is chosen a substitute,
•who has to take his place in Parliament in case of illness or death.
The Storthing^ when elected, divides itself into two houses, the
Lagthiiig and the OdeUthing, The former is composed of one-
fourth of the ^members of the. Storthing, and the other of the
remaining three-fourths. Each l^ing nominates its own president,
vice-president, and secretaries. All new bills and propositions must
originate in the Odelsthing, from which they pass into the Lagthing^
to be either accepted, in which case they become law, or rejected.
In the latter case, should the Odelsthing demand it, the two Houses
iasaemble in conmion sitting to deliberate on the measure, and the
final decision is given by a majority of two-thirds of the voters.
The ordinary business of the Storthing is to settle the taxes for the
ensuing three years, to nominate public officers, to fix the adminis«-
tration of the revenue, and to enact, repeal, or alter any laws of the
country. But the Storthing also can form itself into a high court of
justice, for the impeachment and trial of ministers, judges, and other
servants of the State. The bill of accusation must always come from
the Odelsthing, and be brought from thence before the Lagthing,
sitting for the occasion as Rihsrdtten, or supreme tribimal of the
realm. Before pronouncing its own dissolution, every Storthing
elects five state-officers, whose duty it is to revise the public
accounts, and to watch over the welikre of the realm. While in
session, every member of the Storthing has an allowance of one and
a half specie-dollar, or about six shillings and sixpence a day.
The executive is formed by a Council of State, composed of the
governor-general of Norway nominated by the king, and seven
•councillors of state, the heads of as many departments. The
governor-general is invested with merely nominal power, and
neither he nor the king has any representative, or organ, in the
Storthing, Completely dependent frovci the latter are the state-
councillors, theoretically nominated by the sovereign, but practically
by the legislature. The communication between the king and the
Coimcil of State is upheld by a Norwegian ministiy at Stockholm,
consisting of a Minister of State, two Privy Councillors and a
Secretary.
47*
NORWAY.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The financial estimates voted by the Storthing for the three years
from July 1, 1863, to June 30, 1866, amounted to 4,780,110 specie-
dalra, or 1,036,022Z., which more than covered the expenditure.
Customs and excise produce nearly the whole income. The ex-
penditure, amounting to 4,750,000 specie-dalra, or 1,029,120Z^
annually, was distributed in the following manner : —
Civil list . . • .
Storthing . .
Council of state •.
Department of Foreign Affairs
„ of the Army .
Department of the Navy .
„ of Justice
„ of Church and Education
„ of Home Administration
Interest on public debt
Specie-dalra.
113,000
41,792
165,603
99,841
1,002,381
603,449
316,889
116,480
1,146,006
481,864
£.
24,860
9,295
86,652
21,966
220,523
110,767
69,496
26,405
252,121
108,206
At the separation of Norway from Denmark, the financial afiairs
of the kingdom were in a most disordered state. Gold and silver
had completely disappeared from circulation, and its place was taken
by more than thirty million dollars of paper money, issued by the
•former Government, with a forced course. According to the stipxda-
tions of the Peace of Kiel, Norway had to bear 2,400,000 rixdalers
of the public debt of Denmark, to pay which — as required in
silver — a first loan had to be negotiated. This was taken up
within the country. The public debt, which at the close of the
month of August 1859, was 7,688,000 specie-dalras, had become
reduced, at the end of August 1863, to 7,266,500 specie-dalras, or
1,574,408/.
Army and Navy.
The troops of the kingdom are raised partly by conscription, and
partly by enlistment. Every Norwegian is obliged to go through a
military training, either in the regular army or the militia. All
able men, between the age of twenty-seven and thirty, must enter
the militia for annual exercise of arms. The time of service in the
regular army is, nominally, five years in the infantry, and seven
years in the artillery and cavalry. But most soldiers are sent home
on furlough at the expiration of one or two years. The army consists
of about 10,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry, 1,000 artillerjrmen, and
160 engineers; in all, 12,150iaeii. TVi^Vm^V^aa^^^^eiTCDMsaau
vepvtknov.
♦7«
ke^p & gtiaard of NcJrwegiaa; volunteers ; and io transfer, ht the pur-
pose of common military exercises, 3,000 men annually from Nor*
twty to Sweden, and vice versd. Otherwise, it is not allowed to anjr
Norwegian soldier to set foot in the sister kingdom^ There are 108
oOrps of volunteers in Norway, numberinjg 7,600 members.
The naval force of Norway consists of three steam-frigates, of 41
and 50 guns, eight steam corvettes, of 14 guns each, and 127 gun-
boats. In the session of 1861, the Storthing resolved to raise the
navy to 156 vessels of war, with 5,000 guns, and 4,000 men, exclu-
idve of the naval reserve. In the naval estimates of 1863-66,
the following sums were apportioned for the increase and mainte-
nance of the fleet : — ^A sum of 300,000 specie-dahras for building a
new armour-clad vessel ; 90,000 for a new machine for the frigate
• St. Olaf ;' 85,000 for the partial plating with armour of the frigates
* Kong Sverre ' and * St. Olaf,' and the sloop ' Nordsjemen ;' and
88,000 specie-dalras for a factory for the manufacture of armour-
The navy is manned solely by conscription. All sea-faring men
and inhabitants of seaports, between the ages of thirty and sixty,
are enrolled on the lists of either the active fleet or the naval militisw
The numbers on the list amounted to above 48,000 men, on Jan. 1,
1863.
FopulatioiL
• The kingdom is divided into seventeen provinces, or Amts, of the
following area and population, in 1850, arid 1860: —
Amts
Sq. miles
Pop. in 1860
Pop. in 1860
Smaalehnens .
1,570
73,622
84,416
Aggershuus
1,898
109,432
95,961
Hedemarken •
9,639
87,118
101,393
Christians •
9,441
102,730
115,149
Buskerud
4,798
83,918
90,343
Jarlsberg and Lonrwig .
858
63,070
73,223
Bradsberg
5,574
72,891
76,546
Nedenaes • •
4,266
53,932
59,112
Mandal ....
2,046
61,918
67,370
Stavangep
3,814
78,210
91,539
South Bergenhuus .
6,300
116,989
104,762
North Bergenhuus .
7,533
77,978
81,496
Komsdal ....
5,948
81,314
90,283
South Trondhjem .
7411
89,329
96,318
North Trondhjem .
8,689
66,570
73,571
Nordlands
15,087
65,512
77,587
Finmarken
Total .
27,536
43.938
54,665
121,807
l,32S,'t'IV
I \^^^:^*^^
47» . hoiwjlt.
The whdle of tike inbltfaitaiits of the kie^om «re ixbetnberB of tJie
Lutheran Churoh, with the exception of aome 280 Mormons. Nor-»
way is divided into five bii^oprics and 836 parishes : the latter
divisions are very extensive, but several are frequently under the
cure of one priest. The incomes of the parish priests amount to
from 800 to 1,600 specie-dalras, those of the bishops to 4,000 ^)ecie-
dalras a year. The £;>rmer are paid by means of rents from glebe
lands, a small tithe of com from each &nn, or of fish in some parts,
and fees, and other unfixed sources of revenue. There are no
Pissenters ; all sects of Christians are, however, tolerated. But Jews
are excluded from settling in Norway, nor are even suffered to remain
in the country for many days at a time.
In 1837, 176,733 persons, or about one-seventh part of the popu-
lation, were receiving public instruction. Schoolmasters are settled
in each parish, who live either in fixed residences, or move at stated
intervals fi*om one place to another, and who frequently attend dif*
ferent schools, devoting one day only in the week to each. They
are paid by a small tax levied on householders, besides a personal
payment from each scholar. Instruction in the primary schools is
Jimited to reading, writing, arithmetic and singing, with Bometimes
^he rudiments of grammar and geography. Almost every town
supports a superior school ; and in thirteen of the principal town?
is a * IflBrde skole,' or college, the instruction in which includes
theology, Latin, Greek, Norwegian, German, French, English,
;Daathematios, history and geography. Christiania has a university,
foimded by the Danish Government, in 1811, which is modelled on
the system of the German imiversities.
Norway is essentially an agricultural and pastoral country. In
1855, of a total male population of 585,381, of whom 434,267 were
above ten years of age, 309,000 were connected with agriculture,
either as proprietors, formers, or farm-servants. Only about 100th
part of the entire surface is under culture, or otherwise productive.
In Norway the feudal system was never established, and the land is
mostly the property of those who cultivate it. Such land is termed
* udal,' or noble. Udal land is held from or under no superior, not
even the king.
Trade and Industryi
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of
the imports from Norway into the United Kingdom, and of the ex-
ports of British and Irirfi produce to Norway, in each of the five
j^ara 1861 to 1865:—
.num AKD tsvaaxr.
473
Yean
Importa from Korw«y into
the United Kingdom
*
"Exports ot Borne Produce
of the United Kingdom to
Nprway
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
951,205
1,105,978
1,231,083
1,322,060
1,525,009
£
478,549
506,059
556,979
772,096
677,458
About three-fourths of the imports from Norway into the United
• Kingdom consist of wood and timber ; the inost notable of the other
articles are fish, ice, and small quantities of bar iron and copper ore.
Woollen manufactures, averaging 70,000/*, and wrought and un-
wrought iron, averaging 80,000Z. per annum, form the staple articles
of British exports to Norway. ....
Next in importance to the commerce in wood are the fisheries,
which afford the second staple conunodity of export, and at the
same time give employment and support to the bulk of the popula-
tion firom the Naze to the Warangerfiord, at the entrance of the
White Sea. The fisheries are divided into the herring fishery,
which usually commences soon after the new year ; the winter ood
fishery, which likewise commences about the end of January ; and
the spring and summer fishery along the coast of Finmark to the
White Sea. The herring fishery continues for about two months.
It is confined exclusively to the district between the Naze and the
iieadland of Stat, a distance of about 300 miles. The fish are gene-
rally caught in nets, salted, and then packed in barrels for exporta-
tion. The number of boats employed annually does not greatly vary.
In 1860 there were 2,632 boats, besides 276 vessels, manned toge-
ther by 13,786 men, with 46,215 nets, and employing 368 salteries,
cUstributed within 300 miles.
The cod fishery commences about the end of January around and
"between the Lofoden islands, and continues to the end of March.
During the year 1860, 5,675 boats, manned by 24,266 men, were
employed as follows: — 13,038 men fishing with nets, 7,775 with
lines, and 3,453 with deep-sea lines.
The commercial marine of Norway, at the end of 1863, consisted
of 6,109 vessels, of a collective tonnage of 289,S96 commercial lasts,
or 578,722 tons, manned by 34,817 sailors. About 280 vessels were
built, or purchased for Norwegian account, in 1863, besides many
fishing coasters. Considering its population, Norway has the largest
commercial navy in the world.
474 &WtVm AND KOBTTAT.
Koney, Weights, and Iffeasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Norway, and the British
equivalents, are as Ibllowa: —
MOITET.
The Sjpecie Rix Dollar . = Ayerage rate of exchange, 4«. 6i
Weights and Mbasubes.
Th^ Pound • . . « 1.1 lb. avoirdupois.
Lispund . . . ■» 17.6 „
Skepptmd . . . « 352.32 „ 3J cwts.
Commercial Last . . = 2 tons. *
Taender of G-rain, Salt =» 3.8 imperial bushels.
CJoal . . = 4.7 „
Pot . . . . • = 1.7 imperial pint.
Vog . . . . — 89.64 lbs. avoirdupois.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning
Sweden and Norway.
1. Official Publications.
; Bidrag till Sveriges offieiela statistik. A. Befolknings-statistik. Ny fo^d.
1. Statistiska central-byrSns undeidSniga berattelse for Sren 1866 med I860.
Aid. 1, innehSUande folkmangdens summariska belopp, ingSngne och upploste
Sktenskap, fodde, aflidne, vaccinerade, ut- och inflyttade. 4. Stockholm, 1862.
. Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik. B. Rattsvasendet. Ny foljd. 1.
Justitie-statsministernfl underdSniga embetsberattelse for Sr 1864. Afd, I, in-
nehSllande arbetsredogorelser samt sErskilda uppgifber ang^nde inteckning och
lagfart, utsokningsm^ och bysatte. 4. Stockhob[i, 1866.
, Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik. C. Bergshandtering. Kommerce-kol-
legii underdSniga berattelse for &r 1862. D. Fabriker och manufakturer. Kom-
mers-kollegii underdMga berattelse for ii 18.62. F. Utrikes handel och i^'ofart.
Kommerce-kollegii underd^iga berattelse for &r 1862. Q-. F&ngvSrden. Ny
foljd. IV. FRngv&rds-styrelsens underdSniga berattelse for &r 1862. J. Tele-
grafvasendet. Ny foljd. 2. Telegraf-styrelsens underdSniga berattelse for Sr
1862. K. Helso- och gukvfirden. I. Sundhets-kollegii underdHniga berat-
telse. 4. Stockholm, 1863.
Femarsberattelser, Kongl. Majets Befallningshafvandes. Ny foljd. Lands-
hofdinge-embetenas i Ostergotlands, Skaraborgs och Westmanlands Ian iind.
berattelser for Sren 1856-1860. (Tillhor Bidr^ till Sveriges officiela statistik.
H.) 4. Stockholm, 1863.
Sveriges och Norgea Stats-kalender for Sr 1866. Utgifven efter kongL raaj.
n&digste forordnande, af dess vetenskaps-akademi. 8. Stockholm, 1866.
Statistisk Tidskrift, utgifven af Kongl. Statistiska Central-ByrSn. Stockholni,
1865.
Zolltarif, Norwegischer, fiip den Zeitraumvom 1. April 1863 bis zum 1. April
1866. Berlin, 1866.
Expos6 de I'Etat de la Statistique Officielle en SuMe. Rapport 4 la cin-
qui^me session du Congr&s International de Statistique k Berlin du d616gu6
o&ciel de la Suede. 8. Stockhoho, 1864.
BOOKS OP lUfiFBRBNCB. 475
Report by Mr. Hamilton, H.M.*8 Secretary of L^ation, on the Financial
State, Trade, and Population of Sweden and Norway, dated March 14, 1863 ;
in * Beports by H. M/s Secretaries of Embassy.* No. VL London, 1863.
Report by Mr. Vice-Oonsnl A. de Capel Crowe, on the Trade and Navigation
of 'Norway, for the years 1862 and 1863 ; in ' Commercial Reports received' at
the Foreign Office.' London, 1864.
Report by Mr. Consnl Hunt on the Trade of Sweden for the year 1864 ; in
'Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.* London, 1866.
' Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Fart X. London, 1866. '
2. NoN-OPFtClAI. PxTBLiCATIONS.
' Agardh (C. A.) och iQungherg (C. E.), Statsokonomisk Statistik ofver Sverige.
3 vols. 8. Carlstadt, 1869-62.
Agardh (C. A.) och Ljungberg (C. E.), Forsok till en statsekonomisk statistik
ofrer Sverige. Den statsekonomiska afdelningen af C. A. Agardh, den statis*
tiska af C. E. Ljungberg. Stockholm, 1865.
Anrep (Grabr.), Sveriges ridderskaps och adels kalenderfor &r 1865. 12.
Stockholm, 1865.
Brandes (K. H.), Ausflug nach Schweden in 1858. 8. Lemgo, 1859.
i Forssdl (C), Ett &r i Sverige. Taflor af svenska allmogens kladedragt,
lefiiadssatt och hemseder, samt de for landets historia markvardigaste orter i
tecknade af J. Gr. Sandberg, beskrifne af A. Grafetrom och utgiftie af C.
Forssell. 4. Stockholm, 1864.
Hassel (Frdr.), Sch-jreden in der neuesten Zeit. . Ein© statistisch-finanzielle
Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1866. ....
Ljungberg (C. ;E.), Allman Statistik. 2 vols. Stockholm, 1861. .
Petermann (Di:. A.),, Schweden's Flacheninhalt und Bevolkerung ; in * Mit-
theilungen,'.No. yiL .Gotha, 1866. ....
Bvdbeck (J. G,), Beskrifning ofver Sveriges Stader i Historlsk, topographiskt
och statistiskt hanseende. 3 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1855-61. .
Segerdahli (G.), Statjstisk^ Notiser om tyska Statemas. SkogptiUg^ngar, skog-
sinrattning og Si^ogsafkasti;ing. . 8. Stockholm, 1863.
Thomee ((3-.), iexikpn, Historiskt-, geografiskt och statistiskt, ofver Sverige,
af Gustaf Thomee, V. G. Granlund och Ake C. Wm. Hammar. Band. V.
4. Stockhohn, 1864.
47^
SWITZERLAND.
Goxuttitatioii and Oovemment
The republic of Switzerland, formerly a leagae of semi-inde-
pendent states, or ' Staatenbund,' has become a united confederacy, or
^ Bimdesstaat,' since the year 1848. The present constitution, product
of. a ^ort civil war, bears date September 12, 1848. It vests Ihe
supreme legislative and executive authority in a parliament of two
chambers, a ' Standerath/ or State Ck>imcil, and a ' Nationalrath,' or
Federal Council. The first is composed of forty-lour members,
chosen by the twenty-two cantons of the Confederation, two for
each canton. The ' Nationalrath ^ consists of 128 representatives of
the Swiss people, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one deputy
for every 20,000 souls. Thus, on the basis of the general census of
I860 — ^in force till the next census of 1870 — ^the cantons are repre-
sented as follows in the Federal Coimcil : —
Nnmberof
Number of
Cantons
Bepresen-
Cantons
Hepresen-
tatlvei
tatives
Berne
23
Solenre ....
3
Zurich ....
13
Appenzell — ^Exterior and
Vaud .
11
Interior
3
Argovia ....
10
Glaris ....
2
St. Gall .
9
ShafFhausen .
2
lioceme ....
7
2
Tessin ....
6
Unterwald — Upper and
Fribourg.
6
Lower ....
2
Grisons ....
6
Uri
1
Valais ....
5
Zng ....
1
Thurgovia
5
Basle— Town and Country
5
Total of representatives 1
to Federal Council J
.128
Geneva ....
4
Neuchatel
4
A general election of representatives takes place every three years.
Every citizen of the republic who has attained the age of twenty
years, is entitled to a vote ; and any voter, not a clergyman, may be
elected a deputy. Both chambers united are called the ^ Bimdes-
Versammlung,' or Federal Assembly, and as such represent the
supreme Government of the republic. The chief executive authority
is deputed to a * Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven
members, elected for three years, by the Federal Assembly. Every
citizen who has a vote for the National Coimcil is capable of be-
coming a member of the executive.
The president and vice-president of the Federal Coimcil are the
first magistrates of the republic. The former has an annual salary
of 4001 ; and the latter of 3401. "Bolik axe €^^\ft^ \s^ ^^^^^«w\
CHUBCH AND EDUCATION. 477
Aflsembly ibr tihe term of one year, and are not re^ligible till after
Ishe expiration of another year. The election takes place at a united
meeting of the State Council and the Federal ConnoL The Federal
Assembly alone has the right to declare war, to make peace, and to
condude' alliances and treaties with other nations.
Independent of the Federal Assembly, though issuing from th^
ttme, is the * Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal. It consists of
eleven nrembers, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The
Federal Tribunal decides, in the last instance, all matters in dispute
between the various cantons of the republic, as well as between the
cantons and the Federal Government, and acts in general as high
court of appeal. The Tribunal is divided into three sections, the
^ Anklagekammer,' or chamber of accusation ; the ' Kriminalkammer,*
or jtiry department ; and the * Cassations-Gericht,' or council of
judges. Each section consists of three members, and the remaining
two members, dected specially by the Federal Assembly, fill the
post of president and vice-president.
The seven members of the Federal Coxmcil, each of whom has a
salary of 340Z. per annum, while the president has 400/., act as
ministers, or chiefs of the seven administrative departments of the
republic. The president and vice-president of the coimcil, by the
terms of the Constitution, hold office for only one year, from
January 1 to December 31.
By a vote of the Federal Assembly of November 28, 1848, the
city of Berne was chosen as the seat of the Federal Council and the
central administrative authorities of the republic.
Clmroh and Edoeation.
The population of Switzerland is nearly equally divided between
Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, with a majority in favoitt
of the former. According to the census of December 10, 1860,
the number of Protestants amounted to 1,483,498 ; of Roman
Catholics to 1,040,534; of various Christian sects, to 5,894 ; and of
Jews, to 4,316. According to the forty-fourth article of the constitu-
tion, * all Christian sects are tolerated ; ' but with the proviso,
stipulated in the fifty-eighth article, that * the order of the Jesuits ifi
rigorously excluded from every part of the republic* The Roman
Catholic priests are much more numerous than the Protestant clergy,
the former comprising more than 6,000 regular and secular priests;
They are under five bishops, at Basle, Chur, St. Gael, Lausanne,
and Sion. The government of the Protestant Church, Calvinistic in
principle, and Presbyterian in its form, is under the supervision of
the magistrates of the various cantons, together with tlie superin-
tendence of public instruction.
Education is very widely diffused <6ltov\!^ %Nq\\a^s!?^2KCL\^"^s?G^'^
larly in the cantons of Aargau, Ziiridi, 'Boti^^ «sAN«q.^,^^^^'^'^^
478 SWITZERLAlffD,
vast majority of inhabitants are Protestants. In these four cantons,
the proportion of school-attending children to the whole population
is as one to five; while in the half-Protestant and h^-Catholic
cantons it is as one to seven ; and in the chiefly Catholic cantons as
one to nine. Parents are compelled to send their children to school,
pT have them privately taught, from the age of five to that of eight
years; subsequent education is encouraged, but not compulsory.
Parental neglect may be punished by fine, and, in some cases, by
imprisonment. In every district there are primary schools, in
which the elements of education, with geography and history, are
taught ; and secondary schools for youths of from twelve to fifteen,
in which instruction is given in ancient and modern languages,
geometry, natural history, the fine arts, and music. In both these
schools the rich and the poor are educated together, the latter being
admitted gratuitously. There are normal schools in several of the
cantons for the instruction of schoolmasters ; who are subsequently
paid, by the cantons, salaries varying usually from lOZ. to 50Z. a
year. Sunday-schools exist in several cantons, and Lancastrian
schools in Geneva and Vaud. There are superior gymnasia in all
the chief towns. Basle has a university, founded in 1460, which
was formerly much frequented; and since 1832 universities have
been established in Berne and Zurich. The three imiversities of
BfiJe, Berne, and Zurich have 115 professors, 31 private tutors, and
500 students. Geneva and Lausanne possess two academies with
theologic, philosophic, and jurisprudence Acuities, 45 professors, and
870 students, of whom 70 at Geneva are foreigners, chiefly French
Protestants. The Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, foimded in
1855, possesses a philosophic &culty and 46 teachers, some of them
professors of the universities. The Polytechnic School is maintained
by the Federal Government, at an annual expense of 8,500/.
Bevenue and Ezpenditnre.
The public revenue of the Confederation is derived chiefly from
customs dues, which, by the constitution of September 12, 1848, are
levied only on the frontiers of the republic, instead of, as before, on
the limits of each canton. Some other sources of income, as the '
profits derived from the postal system, conducted also by the Federal
Government, and of some national property, are of no great impor-
tance. The chief part of the postal revenue, as well as a portion of
the customs dues, have to be returned to the cantonal administra*
tions, in compensation for the loss of these items of income. In
extraordinary cases, the Federal Government is empowered to levy a
rate upon the various cantons after a scale settled for twenty years.
A fini source of revenue is derived from the profits of various
^Federal manu&ctories, such as gunpowder and percussion caps ; and
^omjudiicial and other foes.
BEYENTJS ANJD XZPSNPITURE.
479^
' >TbdiA^6wiiig is the official statemoit of the Actual inoome ^d
espeaditure of &6 Swiss GonfederaticHi for the year 1863 : —
Seven UE.
^*t««Bt on real piroperty , .
'"„' on capital . , .
Interest on floating capital and loans .
C|i068 receipts from the customs .
J 9» I, post-office •
i „ . „ telegraphs
\ »> • » powder .
„. . „ percussion caps
„ „ mint
I y^ „ telegn^hic workshop
„ „ Polytechnic School
Qhanceiy receipts
Military department . ,
Fees of judicial department
Fiaaoa .
Gents
FranoB
45,214
79
109,814
66
156,029
,
,
121,768
8,137,834
6
7,112,951
65
602,429
43
1,174,686
18
* 76,760
0
3,016,546
20
111,829
31
34,642
67
dents
86
8,662
168,361
1,167
60
99
61
20,166,579 40.
Total revenue.
178,192 10
20,621,559 69
EXPBNDITUEB. *
Interest on debt .
National council •
S^tes council
iFederal council .
^ „ tribunal .
„ chancery
Pensions
• Francs Gents
47,682
6,641
62,416
3,653
137,916
39,461
Departments — ^Political department
Home „
Military „
Finance „
Customs „
Justice and police .
Extraordinary expenses
0
"90
66
62
58
60
107,573
261,340
13,376
71,057
4,540
22,326
31
88
26
42
35
99
Special Administrations — ^Army . . ,3,770,189 38
Customs i 3,602,760 69
Post 7,112,951 65
Telegraph 421,039 87
Gunpowder 1,074,698 42
Percussion caps 63,666 45
Mint 3,016,646 20
Manufacture of telegraphs . . . 96,662 10
Polytechnic school 279,974 2
Francs Cents
211,724 63
290,661 66
480,234 20 '
Total expeuditaie • \
19,338,378 68
1,326 0'
4Scy
gWlTZlKLAHDb
The Btstement shows a siirphis of 299,235 ftiiacs, or 11,9702.^ of
income over expenditure) being considerably more than the previous
budget estimates.
l3ie details of the State property of the Confederation, which bears
the name of the ^ Federal Fortune,'' and of the national liabilities, are
given in the subjoined statement :-^
National property
I860
1861
Beal property —
1. Allmend of Thonne . * .
Fraact
Cents
Francs Cants
430,600
0
430,600 0
2. Kalberweide at Thoune .
—
25,668 96
3. Fortifications
64,500
0
64,600 0
4. Powder millsand dependencies
417,100
0
441,239 74
6, Percnaeion cap fiictory .
18,000
6
18,000 0
6. Cnstom-houBes
536,400
0
615,392 49
55,000
0-
—
Capital out on mortgage
2,991,744
63
4,246,445 46
Interest on arreap . . . .
• 74,890
75
42,939 18
Capital advanced to Federal de-"1
parfcments ».•... J
2,744,430
79
2,352,167 67
Inventoiy . . . . .
2,451,173
80
3,030,661 67
Federal chest ....
Total .
l^tionalliabUties
3,458,223
54
2.866.673 34
13.241,063
41
14,133.288 41
Federal debt . . • • .
4,250,000
0
4,000,000 0
Hypothecated debt
90,000
0
90,000 0
Interest on debt • . . .
88,551
37
83,342 46
Fund of reserve at the mint .
• 498,818
40
718,205 19
Deposit of Consul Emezy
Total. . . . • .
. — .
5,000 0
4,925,369
77'
4,896,547 65
Surplus of * Federal fortune '
/ 8,315,693
\ :e328,628
64
9,236,740 76
:e369,470
Of the Federal debt a sum of ^50,000 francs was paid in 1860,
reducing it^ as stated above, to 4,000,000 francs. The item of 5,000
francs, which figures as a deposit of Consul Emery, is a sum which
the Confederation holds for payment to the creditors of a Swiss
Consul of the name of Emery, who died a bankrupt at Rio de Janeiro
several years ago. The estate of Grlitli, on the Luceme lake, where
the midnight scene is said to have taken place between the Swiss
patriots, for the purpose of freeing their country from the Austrian
rule, was bought by national- subscription, and handed over to the
Confederation, to prevent its &lling into the hands of a speculative
hotel company.
The various cantons have their own budgets^ and some of them
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
481
are encumbered with liabilities. The following are the financial
statements of the cantonal Governments for the year 1861 : —
Cantons
Income
Expenditure
Debt
Francs
Francs
Franca
Berne • • • •
4,764,478
4,971,831
720,000
Zurich •
2,862,000
3,156,000
—
Vaud .
2,898,000
2,746,000
90,000
Geneva .
2,742,000
2,466,000
16,000,000
Argovia .
2,136,000
1,926,000
163,300
StGaU .
1,527,057
1,632,112
6,700,000
Tessin .
1,035,643
1,219,935
6,518,872
Fribourg
1,204,240
1,168,789
3,386,433
Neuch&tel
1,056,494
1,127,385
3,000,000
Basle— Town .
1,129,000
1,575,676
—
„ Country
r
557,698
537,557
—
Soleure .
1,169,000
1,156,000
532,688
Laceme .
982,646
887,001
413,317
Thorgovia
899,202
879,308
—
Vakis .
685,468
698,965
—
Orisons .
731,000
965,000
SchB.ffhausen .
294,099
351,953
—
Glaris .
208,837
176,524
1,215,293
Schwyz .
158,721
216,315
294,581
Uri . .
183,229
206,366
—
Appenzell — ^Exterior
46,558
236,657
—
„ Interior
132,600
135,000
—
Zng ... .
105,000
116,000
47,418
Unterwald — Upper .
69,827
62,271
—
„ Lower .
24,000
21,200
—
The chief income of the cantonal administrations is derived fi:om
a single direct tax on income, amounting, in most cantons, to 1^ per
cent, on every 1,000 francs property. In eighteen Swiss cantons,
numbering a population of 1,775,333 souls, excise duties ai*e raised
to the amount of 2,502,387 francs. * Aniongst these eighteen cantons
eight raise in addition, by the sale of excise licenses, 167,775 francs;
four cantons, numbering a population of. 574,725 souls, raise, by the
sale of excise licenses — ^no excise dues being levied — the sum of
326,664 francs, and ^in one canton and two half cantons, with a
population of 148,468 souls, neither duties nor excise licenses exist.
The amoimts raised form, in some cantons, a very important part of
cantonal revenue. In Berne they form one-fifth of the total revenue;
in Lucerne, one-seventh ; in Uri, one-tenth ; in Upper Unter-
walden, one-eighth ; in Soleure, one-sixth ; in Tessinese it is only
one-iburteenth of the total revenue.
II
482 SWITZERLAI^D.
Army.
The thirteenth article of the Constitution of September 12, 1848,
forbids the maintenance of a standing army within the limits of the
Confederation. To provide for the defence of the country, every
citizen has to bear arms, in the management of which the children
are instructed at school, from the age of eight, and pass through
regular exercises and public reviews. Such military instruction is
voluntary on the part of the children, but is participated by the
greater number of pupils at the upper and middle-class schools.
They not only go through the infantry exercises, but practise
gunnery, the necessary rifles and cannon — the latter 2 and 4
pounders — being furnished by the Federal Government.
The troops of the republic are divided into four classes, namely : —
1. The * Bundesauszug,* or Federal army, consisting of all men
able to bear arms, from the age of 20 to 34. All cantonsare obliged,
by the terms of the constitution, to furnish at least 3 per cent, of
their population to the * Bundesauszug.'
2. The army of reserve, consisting of all men who have served in
the first class, from the age of 35 to 40. The numbers are calcu-
lated to amount to 1^ per cent, of the population.
3. The * Landwehir,* or militia, comprising aJl men from the 41st
to the 45th year.
4. The * Landsturm,' or army of defence, including all men above
45, till the term when they are disabled by age from military
service.
The numbers of the various classes, in actual readiness to take
the field, are given as follows in an oflicial return of July, 1862 : —
Men.
1. Bundesauszug 82,747
2. Army of reserve .... 42,292
3. Landwehr 64,887
4. Landsturm 150,000
Total . . 339,926
The two first classes are organised in 80 battalions of infantry,
niunbering 80,000 men, and 120 companies of ' sharpshooters,' com-
prising 8,712 picked riflemen. The cavalry comprises 2,911 men,
divided into 35 companies, and the artillery, 12,400 men with four
' mountain batteries * of 10 guns each, and eight ' rocket batteries,'
beaidea twelve companies of sappers and miners.
POPULATION. 483
The whole of the military expenses for the year 1863 were as
follows : —
Francs Centa
Salaries of employ^ in the magazines and offices . 52,707 90
Central miHtapy school 179,313 90
Annual mancBuyres 211,646 71
Staff of instructors of all arms .... 128,580 30
Instruction of recruits 1,295,890 49
Trigonometrical studies 38,000 0
Acquisition of guns, muskets, and munitions of war. 1,595, 870 99
Fortifications of Aarberg, Luzi^nsteig, St Mau-
rice, Bellinzona, Eglisau, and BAle . . • 153,001 3
MiLitaiy armament and various other items . . 115,678 6
Total . .3,770,189 88
or £134,807-
During the short civil war — the * Sonderbundkrieg ' — of 1847, an
army of 138,441 men, with 246 guns, was placed in the field, after
less than three weeks' preparation. The troops were —
From the 14 federal cantons . • 98,861 men, and 172 guns
„ the 8 seceded „ . . 39,580 „ and 74 „
Total . . 138,441 men, and 246 gunp
The enlistment of citizens of the republic into foreign military
service is forbidden by the terms of the Constitution of 1848, under
the penalty of loss of all civil rights.
FopulatioiL
The Swiss Confederation was founded on the first> January, 1308, by
the 3 cantons Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. In 1353 it numbered
8. cantons, and in 1513 it was composed of 13 cantons. This old
Confederation, of 13. cantons, was increased by. the. adherence of
several subject territories, and existed till 1798, when it was re-
placed by the Helvetic Republic, which lasted four years. In 1803,
Napoleon I. organised a new Confederation, composed of 19 cantons,
by the addition of St. Gall, the Grisons, Argovia, Thurgovia, Tessin,
and Vaud. This Confederation was modified in 1815 ; the number
of cantons was increased to 22 by the admission of Valais, Neuch^tel,
and Geneva. More recently, three of the cantons split into halves,
and were acknowledged as such by the Confederation, it being
arranged that each of the moieties should send one member to
the State Council, giving two members to the &j\Aft^ ^a^^^^s^
undivided ' can to22&
II 2
484
fiWITZEKLAND.
The census of Dec. 10, 1860, showed the following popnlation of
the 22 cantons : —
Cantons
Males
Females
Total
Cantons
Males
Females
Total
Zurich •
130,962
136,689
267,641
Appen-
Berne •
234,409
234,107
468,616
zell-
Lucerne •
65,289
66,676
130,966
Exterior
24,487
24,117
48,604
Uri
7,145
7,616
14,761
Interior
6,781
6,2.S9
12,020
Schwyz .
22,261
22,942
46,193
St. GaU .
89,321
91,770
181,091
Unter-
Orisons .
43,267
47,920
91,177
wald—
Argovia .
94,062
100,648
194,600
„ Upper
6,446
6,963
13,399
Thurgo-
„ Lower
6,679
6,982
11,661
via
44,766
45,581
90,347
Glaris .
16,420
17,0.38
33,468
Tessin .
64,037
67,369
131,396
Zug . .
9,940
9,727
19,667
Vaud .
109,692
104,014
213,606
Fribourg
62,927
63,043
106,970
Valais .
46,786
46,096
90,880
Soleure .
34,666
34,972
69,627
NeuchA-
Baslfr-
tel. .
43,622
44,326
87,847
Town .
Country
Schaflp.
20,389
26,770
20,862
26,003
41,261
61,773
Geneva .
Total .
40,806
42,540
83.340
1,254,610 1,279,632
2,634,242
hausen
17,133
18,513
36,6.46
1
The area of Switzerland, in English square miles, and the density
of pojpulation per square mile, according to the last census, was as
. follows :—
Cantons
Area in
Pop. to
Cantons
Area in
Pop. to
sq. m.
sq. m.
sq. m.
sq.m.
Zurich .
686-3
365-8
Schaflfhausen
119-7
294-9
Berne . «
2,661-6
178-8
Appenzell —
Lucerne «.
587-4
226-1
„ Exterior
1 152-8
369-3
Schwyz •
338-3
130-5
„ Interior
Uri . . .
420-8
34-4
St. GaU .
747-7
228-2
Unterwald —
Grisons
2,968-0
30-2
„ Upper .
1 262-8
96-6
Argovia
602-4
397-7
„ Lower .
Thurgovia
268-3
368-6
aiaris.
279-8
107-9
Tessin
1,034-7
113-8
Zug . •
86-4
204-4
Vaud .
1,181-9
168-8
Fribourg .
663-9
177-1
Valais
1,661-6
60-6
Soleure
264-6
273-6 :
NeuchAtel ,
280-2
262-6
Basle— City ,
1 184-6
420-2
1
Geneva
91-3
702-6
Country ,
To
tal .
15,233-0
167-2
There are 485,000 heads of families in the country, of which
number 465,000 possess landed property. It is calculated that of
the 2,534,242. inhabitants of Switzerland, there are but 500,000
having no landed . possession. Of every 100 square miles of land,
20 axe pasture, 17 forest, 11 ata\A'&,^Q m^aAs^w^ 1 vineyard, and 30
TBADI AND INDUSTBT.
48s
tmcTiltivated, or occupied by water, rocks, and glaciers. Of every
1,000 souls, 585 are members of the Protestant Church, 411 Eoman
Catholics, 2 sectarians, and 2 Jews ; of the same number 702 speak
Grerman, 226 French, 55 Italian, and 17 *Romansch,' a dialect of
tlie Romanic tongue. The German element is ruling in 16 out of
the 22 cantons, among them the two leading cantons of the republic,
Zurich and Berne.
Trade and Industry.
The Federal custom-house returns classify all imports and exports
Under three chief headings, namely, * live stock,' ' ad valorem
goods,' and * goods taxed per quintal.' According to this classifi-
cation, the import and export trade of thb Confederation, in the two j
years 1862 and 1863, was as follows: —
Importation
1868
1862
Live stock head
Agricultural instruments, carts and railway
camagps for travellers, and merchandise,
ad valorem . . . . . francs
Gk>ods taxed per quintal, including loads re-
duced to quintals . . . quintals
Exportation.
Live stock head
Wood and coal, ad valorem , . francs
Goods, per load and quintal • . quintals
816,613
584,778
14,636,694
812,607
488,232
14,180,728
101,530
7,494,326
2,077,543
111,550
6,839,249
2,053,660
The direct trade of Switzerland with its four neighbours, France,
the states of the ZoUverein, Italy, and Austria, was as follows in the
year 1863:—
Fbancb —
Imports ....
Exports ....
Transit trade
Head of cattle
and
other animals
Quintals
43,017
41,351
4,109
Francs
■ 4,368,827 •
7,424,850
668,602
281,320
88,477
4,368,827
8,374,672
German Zollvebbin —
Imports ...
Exports ....
Transit trade
67,379
20,290
23,627
Francs
■ 172,496 1
6,662,472
853,785
615,042
111,496
ITiA^b
\ %,^Si\,^^^
486
SWrrZEBLAND.
Italy —
Imports • • . .
Exports ....
Transit trade
Head of cattle
and
other «-T>iTrm.lH
Ad valorem
Quintals
77,986
44,845
63,863
[ 1,300,203 1
1,434,696
431,765
398,559
186,694
1,300,203
2,265,020
Austria —
Imports ....
Exports ....
Transit trade
24,225
5.064
6,089
1 7,724 1
366,404
64,162
34,493
35,378
7,724
465,060
The chief exports of Switzerland consist of manufactured goods
of various kinds, added to which is a small quantity of agricultural
produce, such as cheese.
According to the census of 1860, there are 1,900,000 individuals,
or about three-fourths of the population, supported by agriculture,
either wholly or in part. The manufactories employ 180,000
persons, the handicrafts 150,000. In the canton of Basle, the manu-
facture of silk ribbons, to the annual: valiie of 1,400,000/., occupies
6,000 persons ; and in the canton of Zurich silk stuffs to the value
of 1,600,000Z. are made by 12, 000. operatives. The. manufacture
of watches and jewellery in the cantons of NeuchS,tel, Geneva,
Vaud, Berne, and Soleure occupies 36,000 workmen, who produce
annually 500,000 watches — three-sevenths of the quantity of gold
and four-sevenths of silver — valued at l,800,000i^. In the cantons
of St. Gall and Appenzell, 6,000 workers make 400,000Z. of em-
broidery annually. The printing and dyeing factories of Glaris turn
out goods to the value of 6,0001. per annum. The manufacture of
cotton goods occupies upwards of 1,000,000 spindles, 4,000 looms,
and 20,000 operatives, besides 38,000 hand-loom weavers. Straw-
plaiting, in the cantons of Argovia, Lucerne, and Basle, employs
30,000 persons, and machine building, principally at Zurich, 6,000.
In many of these occupations, agricultural labour* is combined with
factory work.
From official returns lately laid before the Swiss Federal Govern-
ment by the Minister of the Interior, it appears that at the end of
1864 the railways open for public traffic in Switzerland had an
aggregate mileage of 1,310 kilometres, or 820 English miles, distri-
buted in the hands of thirteen different managements, as follows : —
The amalgamated Swiss railways, 270 kilometres ;* the Swiss North
JSJastezp, 179 kilometres; the Zimch and Lucerne^ 62 kilometres;
BOOKS OF BEFEBENCE. 487
the Baden State" Railway, 8 kilometres ; the Western of France, 3
kilometres ; the Swiss Central, 250 kilometres ; the Canton of Berne
State Railway, 71 kilometres; the Swiss Western, 149 kilometres;
the Fribourg Railway, 97 kilometres ; the Franco- Swiss Railway,
70 kilometres ; the Jura Industrial Company, 37 kilometres ; the
French Mediterranean Railway Company, 15 kilometres ; and the
Italian Railway, 64 kilometres. There is one kilometre of railway
to 32 square kilometres of superficial area and 1,965 inhabitants, or
509 metres per thousand head of the total population of the country.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Switzerland, with their
British equivalents, are as follows : —
MONBY.
The Franc, « . = Average rate of exchange, 25= £1 sterling.
Weights and Meastjbbs.
The Centner =» 110 lbs. avoirdupois. The Arpent (Land) « 8-9ths of an acre.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning
Switzerland.
1. Official Publications.
Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau des
Eidgenoss. Departements des Innem. 4. Bern, 1865.
Schweizerische Statistik. Bevolkerung. Eidgenossische Volkszahhmg vom
10. Dec. 1860. 4. Bern, 1862.
Statistique de la Suisse. Commerce de la France avec la Suisse pendant les
ODse ann^es 1851-1861. 4. Bern, 1863.
Waarenverkehr der Schweiz mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung auf den ZoU-
verein und Oesterreich. 4. Bern, 1865.
Reports by Mr. Burnley, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, In-
dustry, Agriculture, Finance, and Popular Education of Switzerland, dated June
29, and Dec. 28, 1863, and June 20, 1864; in 'Beports by H. M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy.' No. VII. London, 1864.
Keport by Mr. Rumbold, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Penal Laws
of Switzerland ; dated March, 1865 ; in * Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy.' No. IX. London, 1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ganz (Dr. Karl), Bericht iiber die Ergebnisse der durch die regierungsrath-
liche Fabrikcommission im J. 1860 vorgenommenen Inspectionen der sammt-
lichen Fabriken des Cantons Ziirich. 8. Winterthur, 1861.
Hodler (J.), Allgemeine Grundsatze des Natiirlichen Staatsrechts mit ver-
gleichender Beriicksichtigung der Schweizerischen Bundesverfassung und der
Bemer Cantonsverfassung. 8. Bern, 1865.
Kolh (Q-. Fr.), Beitrage zur Statistik der Industrie und des Handels der
Schweiz. 8. Ziirich, 1859.
Sfifft (A. von\ Culturstudien. Kunst- und Reisebriefe aus der Schweiz und
Deutschland. 2 vols. 8. Berlin, 1865.
488
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Abdnl-Aziz, Sultan of Turkey, born Feb. 9, 1830, the second son
of Sultan Mahmoud II. ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
elder brother, Sultan Abdul-Medjid, June 25, 1861.
Children of the Sultan, — 1. Tussuf Izzeddin'E^exi^i^ bom Oct. 9,
1857. 2. Salihe Sultana, born Aug. 10, 1862. 3. Mahmoud Djemil
Eddin EiFendi, boni Nov. 20, 1862.
Nephews and Nieces of the Sultan. — 1. Amurath Murad Effendi,
Heir Presumptive, bom Sept 21, 1840. 2. Fatime Sultana, bom Nov.
1, 1840; married, Aug. 11, 1854, to Ali-Ghalib Pasha, third son of
Reschid Pasha; widow, Oct. 30, 1858; remarried, March 24, 1859,
to Mehemed Noury Pasha. 3. i?6/?^/ Sultana, born Feb. 6, 1842;
married, July 21, 1857, to Etham Pasha, son of Mehemed Ali Pasha.
4. AhduUHamid Effendi, bom Sept. 22, 1842. 5. Djemile SuJtana,
bom Aug. 18, 1843 ; married, Jime 3, 1858, to Mahmoud- Gelal-
Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha. 6. Mohammed- Reschad
Effendi, born Nov. 3, 1844. 7. Munire Sultana, bom Dec. 9. 1844;
married, June 10, 1858, to Ilhami Pasha, son of Abbas Pasha,
Viceroy of Egypt ; widow, Sept. 9, 1860 ; remarried, Jan. 5, 1861,
to Ibrahim Pasha, son of Riza Pasha. 8. Ahmet - Kemaleddin
Effendi, bom Dec. 3, 1847. 9. BeTiige Sultana, bom July 16, 1848;
married, Oct 11, 1859, to Husni Pasha, son of Mustapha Pasha. 10.
Mohammed-Buhran-Uddin Effendi, bom May 23, 1849. 11. Nur-
Eddin Effendi, bom April 14, 1851. 12. Seniche Sultana, bora
Nov. 21, 1851. 13. Fehim£ Sultana, bom Jan. 26, 1855. 14.
Chehime Sultana, born March 1, 1855. 15. Solyman Effendi, born
Jan. 12, 1861.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-second, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of iJbe empire, and the
twenty -sixth sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By the
law of succession obeyed by the reigning family, every sovereign
has the right to nominate his successor to the throne, within the
circle of his own blood relations; but custom has changed this rule,
to the effect that not the nearest, but the eldest male heir, may lay
claim to the crown. Thus the late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, although
he left fourteen children, six sons and eight daughters, was suc-
ceeded, not by his eldest son — twenty-one years of age at the date
of his death — but by his brother.
CONSTITUTION AND GOTBRNMENT.
489
The private income of the saltan is variously reported. Official
documents, issued by the Minister of Finance, state that the civil
list amounts to 240,982 purses, or 1,033,882/.; but this sum evi-
dently represents only a fraction of Ihe resources of the sovereign.
Other accounts fix the personal expenditure of the sultan at
9,600,000/., equal to more than three-lburths of the whole revenue
of the empire. The private exchequer of the monarch is encum-
bered with vast liabilities, notwithstanding frequent attempts at
retrenchment. To the reigning femily belong a great number of
crown domains, the income from which, as well as the customary
presents of tributary princes and high state functionaries, contribute
to the revenue of the imperial house.
The following is a list of the thirty-three sovereigns of Turkey,
with date of accession, from the foundation of the empire and of
the reigning house.
House of Othman,
Othman, or Osman I.
1299
Osman I. •
. 1618
Orchan
. 1326
Amurath IV., *The Intre
Amurath I.
1360
pid' ,
1623
Bajazetl., 'The Thunder-
Ibrahim .
. 1640
bolt» .
. 1389
Mohammed IV.
. 1649
Solyman I. * .
Mohammed I. .
. 1402
Solyman lU. .
. 1687
1413
Ahmet 11.
. 1691
Amurath II.
. 1421
Mustapha IL •
1695
Mohammed II., Conqueroi
Ahmet III. .
1703
of Constantinople
, 1451
Mahmoud I. .
. 1730
Bajazet II.
. 1481
Q3man II.
1754
SeUml. .
. 1512
Mustapha ITT.
1757
Solyman IL * The Magni-
Abdul Hamid .
1774
ficent*
1520
Selim in.
1788
Selim II. .
. 1666
Mustapha IV. .
1807
Amurath Til. .
. 1574
Mahmoud II. .
1808
Mohammed III.
1595
Abdul-Medjid
1839
Ahmet I.
1603
Abdul-A^iz
1861
Mustapha I. .
1617
The average reign of the above thirty-three rulers of the Turkish
empire, during a period of more than five centuries and a half,
amounted to seventeen years.
Constitntion and Oovemment.
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the precepts of
the Koran. The will of the sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not
in opposition to the accepted truths of the Mahometan religion, as
laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran,
the laws of the ' Multeka,' a code formed of the supposed sayings
and opinions of Mahomet, and the sentences and decisions of hi&
immediate successors, are binding upon the aoTet^^ %& ^^ ^a» ^^£^
490 TURKEY.
Bubjectfl. Another code of laws, the * Canon nameli,' formed by
Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, from a collection of * hatti-sheriflfe,'
or decrees, issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general
obedience, but merely as an emanation of human authority. The
Koran and the ' Midteka * alone, both believed to be of divine
origin, embody the fundamental laws of the State, and prescribe the
action of the theocratic government.
A charter of liberties, not yet fully executed, was granted by
Sultan Abdul Medjid to his subjects in the * Hatti-Humdyoun * of
February 18, 1856. The principal provisions of this imperial order
are as follows : — ' Full liberty of worship is guaranteed to every
religious profession. No one can be forced to change his religion.
No legal documents shall acknowledge any inferiority of one class
of Turkish subjects to another, in consequence of difference in reli-
gion, race, or language. All foreigners may possess landed property,
while obeying the laws, and paying the taxes.'
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the
supreme direction of the sultan, by two high dignitaries, the Grand
Vizier, the head of the temporal Government, and the * Sheik-ul-Islam,'
the head of the Church. Both are appointed by the sovereign, the
latter with the conqurrence of the ' Ulema,' . a body comprising the
clergy and chief functionaries of the law. The dignitaries are : —
1. The Grand Vizier. — Mehemed Ruchdi Pasha, appointed June
6, 1866.
2. The * Sheik-iil-Islam.' — Sead-Eddin Effendi, nominated Dec.
28, 1858. .
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative
of the sovereign, is President of the ' Divan,' or Ministerial Council,
divided into nine departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Aali Pasha, appointed Nov.
22, 1861. .
2. The Ministry of War. — Riza Pasha, Seraskier, irppoiiited
June 6, 1866.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Kibrisli Mehemet Pasha, appointed
Feb. 20, 1866.
4. The Ministry of Marine. — Mehemed FuadFasha, Grand Admiral,
appointed May 31, 1865.
5. The Ministry of Commerce, Agriculture, and Public Works. —
Edem Pasha.
6. The Ministry of Police. — Halim Pasha, appointed November,
1863.
7. The Ministry of Justice. — Aarif Effendi, appointed February
10, 1865.
8. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Edhem Pasha, appointed
October 24, 1S63.
BELIGION AJRD EDUCATION.
491
9. The Ministry of * Vakouf,' or of the domains of the Church
and of Charitable Institutions. — Nedjeb Effendi, appointed January
5, 1866.
The salary of the Grand Vizier amounts to 1,440,000 piastres, or
13,000/. per annimi ; while the Ministers of Foreign Affairs and of
War have 108,000 piastres, or 10,000/., and the heads of the
departments of Finance and Marine, 90,000 piastres, or 8,200/.
each a year.
The whole of the empire, except the dependencies in Africa, is
divided into Governments, and subdivided into provinces and dis-
tricts. A general governor, or pasha, who is held to represent the
saltan, and is assisted by a coimcil, is placed at the head of each
Government. The provinces and districts are subjected to inferior
authorities, under the superintendence of the principal governor.
All subjects, however humble their origin, are eligible to, and
may fill, the highest offices in the State. Birth confers no privilege,
as all true believers are equal in the eye of the law.
Religion and Edncation.
The adherents of the various religious creeds of the empire are
roughly estimated to consist of the following numbers : —
Religion
InBurope
In Asia
In Africa
Total
Mussulmans
Greeks and ArmeniaTis
Catholics .
Jews ....
Other sects
Total.
4,550,000
10,000,000
640,000
70,000
240,000
12,650,000
3,000,000
260,000
80,000
6,0000
3,800,000
21,000,000
13,000,000
900,000
160,000
300.000
16,500,000
16,050.000
3,800,000
35,350,000
In this statement, the term Catholic is applied to the disciples of
all the Eastern churches which acknowledge the authority of the See
of Rome, although there are amongst them numerous differences in
the matter of discipline and ceremonial. Of these Eastern Catholics
there are : —
1. Latins, or Catholics who use the Eoman Liturgy,
consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians,
Croats, and others, to the number of . . . 640,000
2. United Greeks 26,000
3. United Armenians .... 75,000
4. Syrians and United Chaldeans . . 20,000
5. Haronites, under a Patriarch atKanobin
in Mount Lebanon .... 140,000 260,000
Total . . 900,000
The above five religious denominations, together with, thft "Pt^-
testants and Jews^ are recognised by the T\irk^ Q(QN€rccax<&\:L\» ^s^
492 trUBKET.
independent religious conMnnnities, with the privilege of possessing
their own ecclesiastical rule. The bishops and patriarchs of the Greeks
and Armenians, and the * Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi, of the
Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable poli-
tical power and independence.
Throughout Turkey, the ministers of religion are subordinate to
the civil authorities, who exercise over them the power of diocesans.
Magistrates may supersede and remove clergymen who misconduct
themselves, or who are unequal to the proper discharge of the duties
of their office. The magistrates themselves may also, whenever
they think proper, perform all the sacerdotal functions. Owing to
the feet that the Koran constitutes the code of law and charter
of rights, as well as the religious guide of the followers of Mahomet,
there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the
professors and interpreters of the law. Both together form the class
of * Ulema,' governed by the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' the former being
called * Mollahs,' , and the latter * Muflis.' The members of the
* Ulema ' go through the same course of education, based on the
thorough knowledge of the Koran and the *Multeka;' but though
they sdl study together, the lawyers and judges are quite distinct
from the clergy, it being lefb to every young man brought up in one
of the colleges of the order to determine for himself, when he has
attained a proper age and acquired a sufficient stock of learning,
whether he will become a priest, or a doctor of law, or a judge.
The members of the Ulema constitute a form of aristocracy.
They pay no taxes or public imposts, and, by a peculiar, privilege,
their property is hereditary in their families, and is not liable to
arbitrary confiscations. Their persons are sacred ; their blood may
on no accoimt be shed ; nor can they be legally punished in any way
but by imprisonment and exile. However, the power and dignity
of the ulemas are not hereditary in individuals, but in the order.
Formerly they held their offices for life ; but about the end of the
seventeenth century they were made removable at pleasure, like
other public functionaries. But each individual enjoys all the pri-
vileges of the order, independently of his holding any office, or
exercising any public emplojnnent. Besides the ulema, there is a
priestly class limited to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter
Fatima. These are called ' oomra,' or ameers, and are authorised
to wear green turbans. They are very numerous, and are found in
the lowest ranks of life.
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education. It is a
sacred maxim, that ' the ink of the leaVned and the blood of mar-
tyrs are of equal value in- the sight of heaven ;' and that the world
subsists by four principles, namely, * the science of the learned, the
justice of princes, the prayers of tTa,e iaithM, and the vabur of the
REVENUE AKD EXPENDITURE.
493
brave.' In consequence, public schools have been long established
in most considerable Turkish towns, and 'medresses,' or colleges,
with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the
principal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited. The pupils are chiefly taught to read and*
write the first elements of the Turkish language ; the class-books
being the Koran, and some commentaries upon it. In the * me-
dresses,' which are the colleges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils
are instructed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher and
write the different sorts of Turkish characters ; instruction in a
species of philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and morals founded on the
Koran ; and these, with theology, Turkish law, and a few notions on
history and geography, complete the course of study. Among late
improvements in public instruction are the foundation of a new
imiversity in 1845 ; and the subsequent organisation of a plan of
primary and secondary instruction. In 1859, Constantinople had
397 primary schools, which were attended by 22,700 pupils ; and
schools of tie same description have been established in most other
great towns. There are likewise many special schools where in-
struction is afforded in the sciences necessary to the prosecution of
the chief military and civil employments.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of Turkey is chiefly derived from taxes of three
denominations — the Verghi, the Aashr, and the Roussoumiat. The
Verglii, or poll-tax, is a tax on the whole population, paid at a fixed
rate for each house or family. The collection is lefl; to the heads of
the different communities, whose duty it is to distribute the tax
between the rich and the poor according to their means. The second
tax, the Aashr, or tithe, is a tax of ten per cent, upon the produce
of cultivation. The third tax, the Eoussoiuniat, is revenue derived
from the sale of the customs, stamps, the sale of animals, taxes on
shops, bakeries, butcheries and mills, and from the rent of lands be-
longing to the Crown.
The revenue and expenditure of the Government for each of the
four years ending March 30, 1862-65, were as follows, according to
the budget estimates : —
Years
1861-62
1862-63
1863-64
1864-66
Bevenue
fi-
ll, 164,662
16,100,191
13,684,271
14,737,231
Expenditure
12,739,088
13,551,766
13,495,477
\
494
TITRKET.
The details of the budget of 1863-64 were as follows : —
Revenue
Expenditure
l8t Division.
Direct taxes .
Exemption fjx>in mi-
litary service tax
paid by Christians
2nd Division.
Indirect taxes
Sheep tax
Hog tax
Customs receipts
Tobacco tax .
Fish tax
House contract tax
Stamps .
Spirit duty .
* Tapou,' or tax upon
transfer of land
Miscellaneous .
3rd Division.
Postal service
Profits from impe-
rial printing office
Crown lands .
4th Division.
Revenue from fish'
ing stations .
Revenue from fo-
rests .
Rent of Government
farms .
Salt monopoly
Mines .
Tax on land sales
6th Division.
Tribute of Egypt
„ of Wallachia
„ of Moldavia
„ of Servia
„ Isle of Sa-
mos
„ of Mount
Athos
Revenue of arsenal
Receipts from Ted-
garet .
Total estimated "1
revenue • J
Purses Pitis.
610,207 32
121,171 320
71
70
14
74
825,142
176,667
6,918
600,000
120,000
11,438
3,141 302
30,000 —
25,000 —
25,000 —
245,000 —
20,152 90
2,189 251
3,846 9
4,580 314
3,180 269
17,398 10
125,000 —
18,580 124
11,666 225
8,000 —
5,000 —
3,000 —
4,600 —
800 —
174 —
12,069 244
3,116 416
3,010,539 335
£13,684,271
National liabilities.
Ist Division.
Foreign debt, inte-
rest and sinking
fund .
2nd Division.
Home Behts.
Consolid^s, lavilati
mumtaz^s, interest
and sinking fund .
Interest on esham
mumtaz^s and on
senaliks
Interest on ordinary
schims and muka-
tars, timars, and
other like indem-
nities .
Taxes received by
anticipation from
the provinces
Interest on sums
received from or-
phans* dep6t
Mecca and Medina
donations
Civil list and impe-
rial court . . .
Pensions, allow-
ances, and salaries
of various officials
Ministry of War
„ of Tophaneh
Ministry of Navy
„ of Justice .
„ of*Evcaf,'or
pious foundations
Ministryof th e Interior
„ of Foreign
Affairs .
„ of Commerce
„ of Public In-
struction &
Works .
„ of Police .
„ of Finance .
"""S^trf } p.9«M04 492
or :€13,496,477
Purses Pias.
351,570 229
285,000 —
45,795 -
123,761 113
62,431 87
5,817 2
74,116 400
240,982 160
13,731 324
827,813 144
38,000 —
210,367 179
20,794 368
40,240 475
357,239 257
26,228 234
3,990 229
9,430 36
32,949 390
130,434 144
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
495
Several of the above items of expenditure, such as the amount
set down for the civil list, are manifestly incorrect, dijffering from
other official statements. Instead of a surplus, there was a con-
siderable deficit during the years 1859-62. These deficits amounted
to the following sums, according to reports made by the Grand
Vizier : —
M
9,711,000
11,088,000
1,377,000
1,574,636
1,700,000
1,697,000
6,348,536
The actual revenue for the year 1859-60 was, in round numbers
„ expenditure „ „ „ „
Deficit for 1859-60 was, in round numbers • •
„ 1860-61 „ ft 11 • .
1861-62 „ „ „ . .
Loss by exchange in the years 1860-62
Total deficit in three years
The loss by exchange arises from the Government receiving its
revenue in paper at home, and having to pay a portion of its lia-
bilities abroad in gold.
The excess of expenditure over income, dating from the year
1850, . has given rise to a very large public debt. The liabilities
of the Ottoman Empire are divided into two categories — the External
or Hypothecated Debts, contracted, as their designation implies,
abroad, and secured on special sources of revenue ; and the Internal
Debts, known principally imder the generic term of Consolid^s,
issued at Constantinople alone, and therefore dependent only on a
compact between the Porte and its subjects, and secured on the
general credit and resources of the Empire. The External Debts,
with the exception of two loans, the first contracted in 1855, and
guaranteed by England and France, bear an interest of 6 per cent.,
with a sinking fund of 1 and 2 per cent. The Internal Debts, for
the most part, bear an interest of 6 per cent., with a sinking fund of
2 per cent. In both c>ases the sinking fund is applied to the pay-
ment of obligations at par by annual drawings.
The foreign debts of Turkey are as follows : —
Years of issae
Original
amount
Interest
Sinking
fund
Annual
charge
1854
1855
1858
1860
1862
1863-4
1866
1866
Total .
£
3,000,000
6,000,000
6,000,000
2,070,000
8,000,000
8,000,000
3,636,363
6,000,000
6 per cent.
4 per cent
6 per cent.
6 per cent.
6 per cent.
6 per cent.
5 per cent.
6 per cent
1 per cent.
1 per cent.
2 per cent.
1 per cent.
2 per cent.
2 per cent.
2 per cent.
2 per cent
£
210,000
250,000
400,000
144,900
640,000
640,000
254,542
480,000
40,706,363
\ ^,';i\^^V^
49^ TURKET.
The foreign loan of 1865 was issued at 50, but reduced by
allowances to 47 ; and the loan of 1866, offered at the same price,
was only partially taken up, the credit of Turkey having feUen
very low.
Most of the foreign debts are secured by special assignments of
revenue, the first being charged upon the Egyptian tribute. The
nominal amoimts of these loans have been in some degree reduced
since the date of issue by the operation of the sinking fund, but as
the latter is in every case accumulative, the annual charge remains
the same until the entire extinction of the debt.
The home debt, consisting of a great variety of State obligations,
issued at various periods, and amoimting in the aggregate to about 20
millions sterling, was consolidated by two Imperii decrees published
in March, 1865. These decrees established a system of public debt,
to be called the Greneral Debt of the Empire. A Great Book was
instituted, in which all future debts of the Empire are to be in-
scribed, imder the direction of a high officer of State, to be called
Governor of the General Debt. These debts are to consist of obli-
gations at 5 per cent., with a sinking fund of 1 per cent. The
obligations are to be printed in Turkish, English, and French, bear-
ing a fixed value in the currency of the language. The interest is
to be paid half-yearly, at a fixed rate of exchange, at Constantinople,
Paris, London, Amsterdam, and Frankfort The sinking fund is to
be employed in the following manner: — A sum of 1 per cent, on
the original nominal value of the bonds issued, together with the
interest of bonds previously amortized, is to be annually applied to
amortization. With this sum bonds are to be purchased to the no-
minal amount of 1 per cent., at the market price of the day. The
difference between the market price of the bonds and their nominal
value is to be applied to a reserve fund, which is to preserve the
equilibrium of credit.
The present state of the finances of Turkey, and especially the
. public debt, is described as follows by M. Antoine Schwabacher, agent
to the great banking-house of Oppenheim, Paris, deeply interested
in Tur^sh loans. * The Grand Vizier, as well as the Minister of
Foreign Affairs,' M. Schwabacher says, in a letter to the Times,
dated July 21, 1866, * are animated with the best intentions, and
work day and night with the greatest zeal and intelligence, but they
are struggling against difficulties which they have not created. All
the provisions of the Budget are overthrown by the demolition,
reconstruction, and furnishing of Imperial palaces and the construc-
tion of iron-clad fiigates. The only remedy for Turkish finances
could come, with time, fi:om good roads and railways ; but who is to
construct them in a country where the small population does not
o£fer for the present sufficienti ]^TOsgec\.^, a5i^\?\i^x^\\L<ft guarantee of
AKMX AND NAVY. 497
interest by the Government is no inducement, and has very little
value ? And how long would it be till any fruit could be returned
by better communication with the interior? A single look at the
tableau of the Turkish debt will prove that they have a great deal
to do to pay the exterior foreign loans, but as for the general debt
the only coupon which has been paid was retained by the contrac-
tors, and they cannot pay any more without making a fresh issue of
the general debt or a new loan ; and I really do not think that
either one or the other is possible for a long time, if ever, as five
millions of the general debt are still to be realised, and also a great
part of the last foreign loan 1865 remains still disposable for account
of the Turkish Government. The general debt is a mere fiction ;
the law has been broken on all points ; the coupon has not been
paid ; the special coupon for the conversion of Serghis, due also
lst~13th July, has not been redeemed ; the sinking-fund has not
been provided for ; no bonds have been purchased and cancelled ;
the Board of Supervision has been dissolved and does not exist;
part of the reserve bonds of the five millions have been issued ; the
drawings for the unconverted Consolid^s have ceased. The Turkish
Government would have done much better to have made at once
arrangejaents with the bearers of the general debt, which should
,♦ never have been quoted on European markets.'
Army and Navy.
The military force of Turkey is divided into — Ist, the regular
active army, called Nizam ; 2nd, the reserve, or Bedif; 3rd, the
contingents of auxiliaries; and, 4th, the irregular troops. The
regular active army consists of six corps or * ordou,' under the
command of a field-marshal, or * mushir,' with their head- quarters
at Scutari, Constantinople, Monastir, Karbrout, Damascus, and
Bagdad. Each ordou consists of two divisions, commanded by a
general of division, or *ferik.' Each division is divided into three
brigades, commanded by generals of brigade, or * livas.' The ordou
consists of eleven regiments, namely, six regiments of foot, four of
horse, and one regiment of artillery. Besides the six ordous, there
are three detached corps — one brigade on the island of Candia,
numbering 4,000 regulars, 3,500 irregulars, and 600 native can-
noniers — a total of about 8,000 men ; a second brigade in Tripoli,
consisting of one regiment of foot, and one of horse, to the strength
of 4,000 men ; and a third brigade, of 4,000 men, at Tunis. The
three detached corps muster^ therefore, to^ the strength of 16,000
foot and horse.
498
TUnKBY.
The special corps, .raider the command of the Grand Master of
the Artillery, are likewise divided into ordous. They consist of—
1. The central corps of artillery — four regiments — one reserve
regiment, and three special regiments which are quartered in the
various fortresses of the empire, in the forts of the Dardanelles and
of the Danube, on the coasts of Asia Minor and the Black Sea;
2. The engineer brigade of two regiments of 800 men each.
The Reserve, or Redif, forms a second army, with the same organi-
sation as that of the Nizam, and consisting of the same number of
regiments of the various arms. These regiments are divided into
battalions, squadrons, and companies, and have their standing stafis
of officers and corporals on active service, receiving full pay. It
is the duty of the latter to live in the towns and villages among the
soldiers, who, though on leave, are nevertheless not discharged from
the service, and these soldiers they must collect and drill once a
week. The Redif soldiers meet every year for four weeks at the
head-quarters of their respective ordous, and take part in the
field manoeuvres. While thus on service the men have the regular
pay and the usual allowance of provisions.
The auxiliaries consist of the contingents of the tributary pro-
vinces. These provinces are — Wallachia and Moldavia^ Servia,
Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, Upper Albania, and Egypt. The
actual number of these troops varies greatly at different periods ;
and depends on the politics of the time or the enemy against
whom they are expected to take the field. In the late war with
Russia the number of auxiliaries amounted to about 75,000 men,
namely, 30,000 from Bosnia and the Herzegovina, 20,000 from
Upper Albania, and 25,000 from Egypt.
The total of the military forces of Turkey may be estimated as
follows : —
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Field artillery
Artilleiy in fortresses
Engineers
{In Candia
TripoU
Tunis
Reserve
Auxiliaries
Irregulars
Regiments
36
24
6
4
2
4
2
2
80
War-footing Peace-footing
117,360
22,416
7,800
5,200
1,600
8,000
4,000
4,000
170,376
Total of forces
100,800
17,280
7,800
6,200
1,600
8,000
4,000
4,000
148,680
148,680
76,000
87,000
469,360
ABM7 AND NA.YT. 499
The irregular troops are calculated to consist of —
1. Kayas or gendannes on foot, Seymens or mounted gendarmes, and Men
county" militia or Soubechis 30,000
2. Tartars of Dobrodja and Asia Minor 5,000
8. Hungarian and Polish volunteers 2,000
4. Moslem Tolunteers 50,000
Total of irregulars . . 87,000
During the late war with Russia, the actual number of troops in
the field was as follows, according to an official statement of the
Grand Vizier : —
Ifen
Infantry of the Nizam .... 72,180
Cavalry and field artillery . . . 22,737
Artillery in fortresses .... 10,408
Total troops of the Nizam . . 105,325
Of this number 2,259 were in the pay of the British Grovemment,
The Turkish army comprised besides : —
Men
Infantry of the Eedif .... 92,650
Cavalry 11,177
Auxiliary troops in the pay of the British
Government 7,741
Total troops of the Bedif . . 111,568
Altogether 21 6,893 men. The annual cost of these troops, accord-
ing to tike same official statement, amounted to 6,055,000Z., namely,
2,320,000/. for the troops of the Nizam ; 2,610,000Z. for the Redif ;
and 1,125,000Z. for the artillery in fortresses.
Formerly a considerable portion of the troops were furnished by
the spahis and other holders of estates on condition of military service.
But that system was changed in 1843, since which time the army is
recruited by conscription. The conscripts are drawn at the age of
twenty years; the period of service is limited to five years ; and the
anTni5>.1 contingent is about 25,000 men. Only one son in a family
can be taken as a conscript ; and when there is but one son in
a fiunily, he is exempted. After five years' service in the Nizam,
the soldier is liable to duty for seven years longer in the Redif.
Only a portion of the troops is raised by conscription, and the rest
is procured by enlistment, which is productive of many recruits, as
the pay in tiie Turkish army is comparatively high, amounting to
20 piastres, or 3s. 6d, per month, besides clothing, board, and full
rations. The Government imdertakes the task of procuring sub-
stitutes, at a fixed price, for all who wish to avoid the conscription.
The Turkish navy has been entirely reconstructed «^<(ife ^(W ^<ia^
1858. Previous to the late war against B.\iBaia, Ibtk!^ tai^ c/qpcc^t\s^
xx2
500 TUBKEY.
6 ships of the line, 10 fidgates, 6 corvettes, 14 brigs, 16 cutters and
schooners. 6 steam-fHgates, and 12 other small vessels. Total 70
vessels, manned by 34,000 sailors and 4,000 marines. Most of
these ships were destroyed at Sinope, Nov. 1853, and others foun-
dered in storms in the Black Sea. Newly built in the years
1860-62 were 23 screw steamers, of various sizes, with 820
guns. To these were added, in the three years 1863 to 1865,
the following vessels: — Five iron-clads built in England, the
' Abdul- Aziz,' the * Osman Ghazy,' the * Sultan Mahmoud,' the
' Ourkhan,' and the * Feltah ; ' and a steam-corvette for the trans-
port service, the * Said Bahri.' Three other iron-clads, called the
' Izzedin,' * Fuad,' and * Ismail,* were commissioned in July, 1864,
besides a screw frigate named the * Gu^n^-Bikhran.' A screw-
corvette was built in the summer of 1865, at the arsenal of
Constantinople, called the *Nousr-el-Azil;' and two other screw-
corvettes, the * Muzafer ' and * Mensour^,' were built on the stocks at
Ismidt, The * Ferad,' a steam-frigate, was launched at Sinope, in
August, 1865 ; two screw-corvettes were built the same year at the
arsenal at Ghiumlek, the * Merikh,' and the * Akard ;' and a steam-
corvette, the * Zeivan,' at Amasura, in Asia Minor. The largest
iron-clad in the Turkish navy is the * Osman Ghazy,' built by
Napier and Sons, Glasgow, and launched September 2, 1864.
It is a * ram,' armour-plated from stem to stem, and of the
following dimensions : — ^Length over all, 309 feet ; extreme breadth,
56 feet; depth moulded, 37 feet; burthen, 4,200 tons; draught
of water, 24 feet 9 inches. The stem of the vessel projects about
4 feet beyond the upper deck at the water line. The * Osmaa
Ghazy ' is propelled by horizontal engines of 900 horse-power, and
armed with 24 guns. Twenty of these are 68-pounders, and- the
remaining four, which are to be placed on the upper deck, being
110-pounders. The other British built iron-clads of the Turkish
navy are of similar construction, but smaller dimensions.
PopnlatioiL
The area and population of Turkey are known only by estimates,
and not as the result of scientific measurement and of a general
census. Enumerations of the people, which took place in 1844 and
in 1856, cannot lay claim to any amount of exactness. According
to the former return — held to be the most correct of the two — the
total area of the empire, including the tributary provinces, comprise?
i86,288 geographical, or 1,812,048 English square miles, and the
POPULATION.
501
wctent and population of the several gi-and divisions in Europe, Asia,
•nd Africa are as follow : —
Divisions
Area in Engl,
sq. m.
Population
Pop. to sq. m.
TuAey in Europe .
Turkey in Asia
Turkey in Africa
Total .
207,438
660,870
943,740
16,600,000
16,060,000
3,800,000
75
24
4
1,812,048
36,360,000 1 20
ITie total population, estimated, according to the census taken in
X844, at 35,350,000, is distributed as follows, in the different divi-
fikms of the empire : —
Ttjbkey in Exjbopb.
Thrace
1,800,000
Bulgaria
3,000,000
Bomnelia and ThessaJy
2,700,000
Albania
1,200,000
Bosnia and the Herze-
gOYina
1,100,000
The Islands
700,000
Holdayia
1,400,000
Wallachia .
2,600,000
Servia . . . .
1,000,000
15,500,000
TtTBKEY m Asia.
Asia Minor, or Anatolia 10,700,000
Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Kurdistan . . 4,460,000
Arabia . . . 900,000
16,050,000
TuBKBY m Afbica.
Egypt .... 2,000,000
Tripoli, Fez, and Tunis 1,800,000
3,800,000
35,350,000
Total
The various races of which the population of the empire in
Europe, Asia, and Africa is composed, are thus classified in the
census taken in 1844 : —
Baces
In Europe
In Asia
In Africa
Total
Ottomans .
Greeks
Armenians .
Jews ....
Slaves or Slavonians .
Boumains .
Albanians .
Tartars
Arabs
Syrians and Chaldeans
Druses
Kurds
Turkomans
(Hpsies
Total .
2,100,000
1,000,000
400,000
70,000
6,200,000
4,000,000
1,600,000
16,000
214,000
10,700,000
1,000,000
2,000,000
80,000
20,000
886,000
200,000
80,000
100,000
85,000
3,800,000
12,800,000
2,000,000
2,400,000
150,000
6,200,000
4,000,000
1,600,000
36,000
4,685,000
200,000
80,000
1,000,000
85,000
214,000
16,600,000 1 16,060,000
3,800,000
36,350,000
502
TURKEY.
The territories of the Turkish empire in Europe are divided into
14 Eyalets, or Governments, and subdivided into 43 Sandjaks, or
provinces, and 376 Kazas, or districts. In Turkey in Asia there
are 18 Eyalets, 78 Sandjaks, and 858 Kazas ; and in Turkey in
Africa, 3 Eyalets, 17 Sandjaks, and 86 Kazas.
Turkey in Eubopb.
Pop. of
Pop. of
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
1. Edime, or
8. Syrp, OP Sep-
Thrace
Adrianople
100,000
Tia • . .
Belgrade .
60,000
2. Silistria . .
Silistria .
20,000
9. Bosnia . .
Serajevo .
60,000
3. Boghdan, or
10. Eoumelia
Monastip .
15,000
Moldavia .
Jassy . .
60,000
11. Yania . .
Janina .
30,000
4. Eflak,opWal-
12. Selanik,orSa-
lachia . .
Bucharest
80,000
lonica . .
Salonica .
80,000
6. Widdin . .
Widdin .
26,000
13. Djizair, op The
Islands . .
6. Nisch . . .
Nissa . .
10,000
Rhodes .
30,000
7. U8kup,opSco-
14. Kyrt, orCpete
Candia .
20,000
pia . . .
XJskup .
10,000
The Eyalets of Silistria, Widdin, and Nisch are formed out of
the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria ; and those of Yania and Selanik
comprise the ancient Epirus and Macedonia. The Eyalets of Uskup
and Eoumelia are formed from Albania. The Eyalet of Bosnia is
composed of Bosnia, a part of Croatia, and of the Herzegovina. The
Eyalet of Djizair, or The Islands, comprises all the isles of the Otto-
man Archipelago, of which the principal are Ehodes, Cyprus, Cos,
Tenedos, Lemnos, Mitylene, Scio, and Patmos.
TuBKBT IN Asia.
Pop. of
Pop. of
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
Eyalets
Chief towns
chief
towns
1. Kastamuni .
Kastamnn
12,000
11. Khabpout .
Kharput .
50,000
2. Khowdavend-
12. Mossul . .
Mossul .
65,000
1 guiap . .
Bpussa .
100,000
13. Baghdad. .
Baghdad .
105,000
'3. Aidin . . .
Smyrna .
160,000
14. Haleb, OP Al-
j4. Karaman . .
Koniyeh .
30,000
eppo . . .
Aleppo .
100,000
<5. Adana . .
6,000
15. Saida ...
Beyrout .
60,000
6. Bozok . . .
Angopa .
60,000
16. Scham . .
Damascus
180,000
= 7. Sivas . . .
Sivas . .
30,000
17. Habesh . .
Djedda .
18,000
('8. Trabezoun .
Tpebizond
60,000
18. Haremi-Na-
9. Erz-rum . .
Erz-rum .
100,000
hevi . . .
Medina .
19,000
10. Kurdistan .
Diapbekhp
60,000
i The Eyalet of Kastamuni comprises the ancient Paphlagonia;
that of Xhowdavendguiar part of the ancient Bithynia, Phrygia,
POFCLATION.
503
and Mjsia. The Eyalet of Ai'din is formed fix)m part of Isauria,
Lydia, Ionia, Caria, and Pisidia ; the Eyalet of Karaman contains
part of Isauria, Lydia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lycaonia, and Cappa-
docia. That of Adana comprises Gilicia Petraea ; those of Bozok
and Sivas, Cappadocia; while Trabezoun, or Trebizond, is formed
from the ancient provinces of Pontus and Colchis.
TUEKBT IN AfBICA.
Eyalets
Chief towns
Pop. of chief
towns
1. Misp, or Egypt
2. Thrablousi Garb, op Tripoli
3. Tunis ....
Caipo .
Tripoli .
Tunis .
260,000
20,000
200,000
Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure, namely,
1st, as * Miri,* or Crown lands ; 2nd, as * Vacouf,' or pious founda-
tions ; 3rd, as * Malikaneh,' or Crown grants ; and 4th, as * Mulkh,'
or freehold property.
The first description of property, the * miri,' or Crown lands,
which form by far the largest portion of the territory of the sultan,
are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the right to
cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees, which,
of course, varies in proportion to its value. The deed which gives the
applicant a title to the grant has the sultanas cipher attached, and
the possession of this document ensures the property to the holder
and his heirs, while at the same time it forbids its alienation. Th^
sultan, however, still continues to exercise the rights of seignioiy
over the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the
owner neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years, it is for-
feited to the Crown.
The second form of tenure, the * vacouf,' is more complete in its
nature than the former. It is of two kinds, called, respectively,
* Vacouf-el-Zarai ' and * Vacouf-el-Karamain.' The object of both
is to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the
people, by the erection of mosques and schools, besides eleemosy-
nary institutions. The * Vacouf-el-Zarai ' is land or other immov-
able property, originally obtained by grants from the Crown, and
entailed in the same form as the law of succession to the throne,
that is, not on the holder's natural heir, but on the eldest surviving
member of his family. The grant is sometimes conceded for a
limited period only, but generally in perpetuity. The * Vacouf-el-
Karamain ' is property bequeathed by private individuals for the
same pious purposes as enumerated above, but more especially for
the erection of caravanseries, fountains, wdls, and other accommo-
dations for the convenience of those who mak^ \5afe Y^^vcoa.^^ \si '^'^
504
TURKEY.
holy cities. Property of this kind descends fi'om &ther to son, and
is inalienable, though means are found to evade the law by letting
the land for such a length of time as to be tantamount to a sale.
All the various forms of * vacouf ' property are exempt from taxa-
tion, and the loss to the treasury, in this respect, is great. Sultan
Mahmoud II. meditated at one time the entire reconversion of
* vacouf' property into * miri ' or Crown lands, intending to provide
for the religious institutions out of the general revenue; .but pious
scruples, or considerations of State policy, interfered to preserve
the * vacoufs.' It is said, however, that the subject is again under
consideration by the present Sultan Abdul- Aziz.
The third class of landed property, the land called * malikaneh,*
was originally granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recom-
pense for the military service required of them, and for the safe
conduct of the caravans of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. This
property is hereditary, and exempt from tithes ; and the payment of
a fee by the heir is all that is required to make the succession vaUd,
The fourth form of tenure — the * mulkh,' or freehold property, the
tenure most advantageous to occupiers — does not exist to a great
extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the
neighbourhood of villages is * mulkh,' which the peasants purchase
from time to time from the Government on very moderate terms.
To have a valid claim to land held by this tenure, the estate must
be registered in books kept for that purpose by the various muni-
cipal councils.
Trade and Commerce.
The increase in the trade and commerce of Turkey within the
last thirty years has been very great. In 1831 the trade with Eng-
land amounted to 888,684/. ; in 1839 to 1,430,224/.; in 1848 to
3,116,365Z. ; and in 1860 to 7,768,473Z. Thus in thirty years the
trade had augmented by 850 per cent. The commercial intercourse
between Turkey and the United Kingdom during the years 1861
to 1865 is shown in the following table, which gives the total value
of the imports from Turkey into the United Kingdom, and of the
exports of British and Iridi produce to Turkey, in each of these
years : —
Years
Imports from Tm'key into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Turkey
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
3,636,892
4,261,009
6,301,920
5,663,139
5,845,773 .
£
2,987,800
3,487,761
6,714,550
5,977,918
6,649,066
TBADE AND COMMERCE.
505
The two staple articles of the imports of Turkey into the United
Kingdom, in recent years, have been raw cotton and com. The
00m imports, consisting chiefly of maize, wheat, and barley, average
rather more than 1,000,000/. per annum. The imports of cotton,
which only amounted to 218Z. in 1860, rose to above a million
sterling in 1863 and 1864. By far the most important article of
export of the United Elingdom to Turkey, averaging in value full
two-thjbrds of the total export trade, is manufactured cotton and
cotton yam.
The subjoined table gives the declared real value of the various
articles of British and Irish produce exported to Turkey in each of
the years 1863 and 1864 : —
Exports
1863
1864
Apparel and haberdashery .
Seer and ale ...
Butter
Coals, cinders, and culm
Copper, wrought and unwrought
Cotton yam ....
Cottons, entered by the yard .
„ „ at value
Earthenware and porcelain .
Furniture, cabinet and upholstery wares
G-lass manufactures
Gunpowder ....
Hardwares and cutlery .
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Linen yam ....
linens, entered by the yard .
„ „ at value
Machinery : Steam engines .
„ All other sorts .
Painters' colours .
Paper of all sorts .
Plate, plated ware, jewellery,
watches ....
Silk manufactures .
Spirits
Sugar, refined
Telegraphic wire .
Tin, unwrought .
Tin plates ....
Woollens, entered by the yard
„ „ at value .
All other articles .
and
£
65,768
4,321
13,903
77,636
108,481
698,836
8,673,715
26,943
27,916
2,827
19,198
620
66,066
167,360
2,396
64,649
3,601
6,915
44,033
6,014
14,233
8,698
6,349
19,208
17,015
224,626
30,297
14,977
272,871
17,702
139,789
£
87,889
9,711
3,680
96,678
181,964
810,173
8,667,914
21,386
29,996
6,779
22,698
2,385
76,694
182,192
1,384
81,745
4,452
27,993
74,842
4,276
12,849
7,792
10,127
33,806
13,668
318
36,901
26,813
246,890
11,640
197,693
Total exports
6,714,660
I &,^1^SV^ \
506 TUHKET— BOUMANIA.
It is estimated that the trade of Turkey with foreign countries
amounted, in the year 1864, to 46,000,000^., and that between the
provinces to 20,000,000/. ; making a total of 66,000,000Z. for the
year.
TKIBUTAET STATES.
I. EGYPT.
See Part n. — ^Africa.
11. BOXTMAiriA.
Constitution and Oovemment
The xmion of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
was granted by a firman of the sultan, dated November 12, 1861,
and was solemnly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy, on December
23, 1861, the name * Roumania' being given to the united provinces,
and Colonel Couza — elected Hospodar of Moldavia, January 17,
1859, and of Wallachia, February 5, 1859 — assuming supreme
power imder the title of Prince Alexander John I. But a revolu-
tion which broke out at Bucharest, February 23, 1866, forced him
to abdicate, and a Provisional Government having been installed,
the people were called upon to elect a second ruler of Roumania,
when the choice fell upon —
Cliarles, bom April 20, 1839,^ the second son of the late reigning
Prince Charles of HohenzollernrSigmaringen ; formerly lieutenant
in the second regiment of Prussian dragoons ; accepted his election
as Prince of Roumania, May 10, 1866 ; arrived at Bucharest, May
21, 1866; recognised by the Turkish Government, July 11, 1866.
The constitution now in force in Roumania was drawn up by
Prince Alexander John, submitted to the vote of the people May
10-14, 1864, and accepted by 682,681 votes against 56,918.
This constitution vests the legislative power collectively in the
Prince, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate con-
sists of 64 members, one-half of whom are nominated by the
Prince fi:om among persons who have held the highest functions
in the country, or who possess- an annual income of 800 ducats,
or 360Z. The other 32 are elected firom the members of
the general district comicils, and nominated by the Prince from
BEVBNUB,. ARMY, AND POPULATION. 507
» list laid before him of three members for each of the 32 dis-
tricts. The 64 members of the Senate are renewed every three
years in the proportion of one-half. The Chamber of Deputies
consists of 160 members, of whom 85 are for Wallachia and 75 for
Moldavia. The members are chosen by indirect election, the first
voters nominating electors, and these, in their turn, the deputies.
Voters are all Roumans, aged twenty-five years, who can read and
write, and prove the payment of annual taxes to the amount of
four ducats, or 11, 1 6s. each. Eligible as deputies are all Roumans
aged thirty, and possessing a yearly income of 200 ducats, or 90/.
The Prince has an absolute veto over all laws passed by the
Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The executive is in the
hands of the reigning Prince, assisted by a council of five ministers,
heads of the following departments : —
The Ministry of the Interior. — Laxar Catardji^ appointed Minister
of the Interior and President of the Council, May 24, 1866.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — ^L. Marojewi,
The Ministry of War. — Jean Ghika,
The Ministry of Finance. — H. Bosetti,
The Ministry of Justice. — Jean Cantacuzene,
Wallachia is divided into eighteen, and Moldavia into thirteen
districts, each of which has a prefect or governor, a receiver-general
of taxes, and a civil tribunal, consisting of a president and two
other judges. Moldavia has a director of police and a town-council
in each municipality. Judges are removable at the pleasure of the
superior authorities. The legal codes are founded upon the civil
law and the customs of the principalities ; but though the system of
jurisprudence has been much amended, many reforms remain to be
efiected, especially in the administration of the laws, which is said
to be most corrupt. Nearly the whole population belongs to the
Greek Church, and every village has a small church or chapel, with
one or more priests, who act as curates. The ecclesiastics of this
order are chosen from among the people, from whom they are little
distinguished in appearance, and whose avocations they follow when
not engaged in their clerical functions.
Eevenue, Army, and Population.
The chief source of revenue is a capitation-tax of thirty piastres,
or seven shillings per head on the rural population, with a higher
scale for tradesmen and merchants. Customs duties, the profit from
State property, and the salt monopoly, produce about one-third of
the national income. In the budget published by the Government
in July, 1864, the total revenue for the year 1864 was e8ticcLaXft5i. -sbX.
164,000,000 piastres, or 2,400,000i. TVi^ ^aL^xij^X^rt^, ^-«S.^^?i.
5o8
TUBKBT— KOUMANU,
into ordinary and extraordinary, was given as follows for 1864:
— Ordinary expenditure, 165,767,997 piastres ; extraordinary,
38,272,678 piastres; total, 204,040,675 piastres, or 3,400,678/.
The estimated deficit was 60,800,000 piastres, or 1,000,678/.
Wallachia has to pay a tribute of 5,000 purses, or 25,000/., and
Moldavia 3,000 purses, or 15,000/., to the Turkish Government. The
public debt of the united principalities amounted, on January 1,
1860, to 54,800,000 piastres, or 800,000/., and was considerably in-
creased since that period. A loan of 60,000,000 francs, or 2,400,000/.,
was contracted by the Roumanian Government at Paris, on May 24,
1860 ; another loan of 2,000,000/. was concluded with French and
English capitalists in March, 1863 ; another loan of 32,000,000 francs,
or 1,280,000/., was negociated at Paris in July, 1864 ; and, finally,
a loan of 916,000/. was contracted at London in January, 1866.
The military force is organised on the plan of the Russian army,
and the staff officers are principally Russians. The militia is formed
by the peasantry, in the proportion of two men for every 100 fami-
lies ; but along the banks of the Danube all the inhabitants capable
of bearing arms are organised into a military force, employed partly
on the quarantine service, and partly and principally as a national
or civic guard. The troops and militia of all descriptions amount
in Wallachia to about 45,000, and in Moldavia to about 16,000 men.
The regular army is divided into seven regiments of infantry, num-
bering 11,200 men; one regiment of lancers, of 1,600 men; and
two companies of engineers, of 500 men. A regiment of artillery
is in course of organisation.
The area and population of the united principalities are shown in
the subjoined statement : —
Wallachia ....
Moldavia and New Bessarabian
Provinces ....
Total .
AreainEng. sq. m.
27,600
18,142
Population
2,400,921
1,463,927
46,642
3,864,848
The numbers for Wallachia, in the preceding table, are the result
of a census taken in 1860, while the population of Moldavia and the
Bessarabian provinces is afler an enumeration made in January,
1864. The capital of the principalities and seat of the Government,
Bucharest, had, in 1860, a population of 124,734. The census of
1860 showed a large preponderance of the male over the female
population in Wallachia. Among the inhabitants are nearly 500,000
TBADE AND COMMBRCE.
Trade and Commerce.
509
The commercial intercourse between Roumania and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the total value of the imports from Eomnania into the United
Kingdom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce and
manufactures into Eomnania, in each of the five years 1861 to
1865 :—
Years
Imports from Roumania
into the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
toBoumania
1861
1862
1863
1864
1866
1,123,290
633,624
634,738
381,607
348,381
£
162,606
168,648
167,880
169,462
162,828
The chief article of Roumanian imports into the United Kingdom is
maize, the value of which averages a quarter of a million sterling
per annum. The exports of the United Kingdom to Roumania
consist of miscellaneous articles of British manufacture.
The principal shipping ports of Roumania are Ibraila and Galatz,
both on the left bank of the Danube, the former in Wallachia, and
the latter in Moldavia.
III. SEBVIA.
Oovemment.
The principality of Servia, since 1815 under the rule of native
princes, has been placed under the protection of the great European
powers, as a semi-independent state, by the Treaty of Paris, of
March 30, 1856. The twenty-eighth article of the treaty is as fol-
lows : — *The Principality of Servia shall continue to hold of the
Sublime Porte, in conformity with the imperial decrees which fix
and determine its rights and immunities, placed henceforward under
the collective guarantee of the Contracting Powers. In conse-
quence, the ftaid principality shall preserve its independent and
national administration, as well as full liberty of worship, of legis-
lation, of commerce, and of navigation.* The election of its rulers is
left to the Servian nation, but requires nominally the sanction of the
Turkish Government.
Prince of Servia. — Michael III., bom Sept. 4, 1825^ the wsvjl oi
Milos Obrenovic; succeeded to the Govenimexit «A. \)tka ^^saiOsi <:S.\iNS»
510 TURKEY — SERVIA.
father, Sept. 26, 1860 ; confirmed by decree of the Sultan, Oct. 7,
1860. Married, Aug. 1, 1853, to Countess Julia Hunyadi, born
Aug. 26, 1831 ; divorced Sept., 1865.
The executive power is carried on by the prince, assisted by a
council of five ministers, responsible to the nation. The legislative
authority is exercised by two independent bodies, the Senate and
the * Skoupschina,' or House of Representatives. The Senate con-
sists of seventeen members, nominated by the prince, one for each
of the seventeen departments into which the country is divided.
This body is always sitting. Formerly all vacancies in the Senate
were filled up by the rest of the members, but for some time past
the prince has exercised the power of appointing the senators. The
* Skoupschina ' is composed of deputies chosen by the people, at the
rate of one deputy to every 2,000 electors. The electors are the
males of the country above the age of twenty-one years, paying
direct taxes, and not being either domestic servants or gipsies.
These two classes are excluded firom the right of suffrage. Every
elector is eligible to become a member of the * Skoupschina,' except
the holders of Government oflices and the clergy. The respective
provinces of the * Skoupschina ' and the Senate are not clearly
defined. The latter body, it is stated, has recently encroached con-
siderably upon the province of the popular branch of the legislature;
and though it has constitutionally no power to make or to alter the
laws, yet it authorises the expenditure of the country, and by its
votes the taxation is apportioned. The ^ Skoupschina ' assembles
in annual session.
Eevenue, Army, and Population.
The revenue and expenditure of Servia for the year 1863 were
as follows : —
lUCBIFTS.
Francs
Direct revenue, post-office,
and telegraph . . 376,000
indirect taxes . . . 4,863,933
Customs .... 960,000
Sundry duties . . . 312,000
Extraordinary revenues . 840,000
Capitation tax . , . 4,580,000
Total J ^^»^^^'^^^
lotal| £477,278
ExFENDrrUBB.
Francs
Civil list and senate . . 1,208,008
Administrative expenses . 870,984
Special expenses for min-
istry . . . .9,612,941
Surplus charged to the re-
serve fund . . . 240,000
Total P^'^3^'73^
■^0^1 £477,278
Former budgets closed with a deficit. The budgets published by
the Government do not give the details of income and expenditure,
nor the actual resultB of Uie &iauciaL admixu&txatLon*
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MBASTJBES. 5II
The tribute which Servia has. to pay to the Turkish Government
amounts to 4,600 purses, or 23,000/.
The army consists of about 4,000 men, who are paid by the Ser-
vian Government. The troops comprise a small artillery corps and
200 cavalry ; the remainder are infantry. Beyond these there has
been lately organised a militia service, the strength of which is
estimated at 70,000 men. The militia furnished by two depart-
ments of the coimtry, those of Belgrade and of Elragujewatz, are
artillerymen ; the rest are infantry. There is also a newly organised
volunteer service. The Turks occupy five fortresses in Servia,
namely, Fetislam, Ada Kale, Semandria, the fort of Belgrade, and
Schabatz on the Danube. Of these places, Fetislam and Ada Kale
are imder the jurisdiction of the Pasha of Widin ; the remaining
five are included in the pashalic of Belgrade. Semandria and Bel-
grade are garrisoned by regular troops ; and the remaining five by
the Turkish militia.
The area of Servia is estimated at 12,600 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of 1861, of 1,098,281 inhabitants,
among whom are 20,000 gipsies, 1,800 Jews, and about 2,000 Ger-
man settlers. Belgrade, the capital of Servia, has a population of
14,600, exclusive of the Turkish garrison within the fortress.
Trade.
The chief trade of Servia is with Austria. Besides with this
country, commercial intercourse is only carried on with Turkey
and Wallachia. The trade of the principality is represented by
imports fix)m Austria and Turkey of the annual value of 500,000/.,
and exports, to the same countries, of 600,000Z. The chief articles
of export are wood, particularly oak, and pigs. The latter, which
are kept in countless herds, feeding on the acorns which cover the
groxmd for miles, are driven in large quantities into Hxmgary and
adjoining parts of Austria. The commercial resources of Servia
are as yet wholly undeveloped, chiefly for want of roads.
Money, Weights, and Measnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Turkey, and the British
equivalents, are :—
Monet.
The Piastre •» Average rate of exchange, 117 piastres
to £1 sterling.
40 Paras ^ I Piastre .... « • *i\%V^'b ^«w»
100 Piastres » i Turkish Lira . . . « \% &\£^cai<^.
512 TUHKBY.
Weights and Measubes.
The Oke, o/400 drams, . . — 2.8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Almud .
„ Killow ....
44 Okes ■■ 1 Cantar or Kintal
39-44 Okea
180 Okea = 1 TbAgA:^ .
1 Kilo = 20 Okea .
816 Xi^« . . . .
The Andazk (cloth measure)
„ Archin (land measure)
,, Donum (land measure)
1.151 imperial gallon.
= 0.9120 imperial bushel.
= 125 lb. avoirdupois.
= 1 cwt.
= 511-380 pounds.
B» 0*36 Imperial quarter.
■B 100 Imperial quarters.
= 27 inches.
=5 30 inches.
= 40 square paces.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Turkey
and Tributary States.
1. Officiai. Publications.
Salname 1283. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire. 8. Constanti-
nople, 1866.
Kisale-Nameh. Turkish Almanac for 1283 Hedjra. 12. Constantinople, 1866.
Sublime Porte : Minist^re des Finances. Budget des Recettes et des D^penses
del'Exercice, 1864-65. Traduction OfficielleduTexteTurc. Constantinople, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Green on the Condition, Agriculture, and
Trade of Moldavia and Wallachia ; in * Commercial Reports received at the
Foreign Office.* London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Consul Holmes on the Trade of Bosnia in 1864; in 'Con-
sular Reports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Longworth on the Trade of Servia ; in * Con-
sular Reports received at the Foreign Office.* London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Green on the Trade and Commerce of Con-
stantinople; in 'Commercial Reports received atthe Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Fol. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Badmutijun. History of the last two years. Armenian. Constantinople, 1866.
Barth (Heinr.), Reise durch das Innere der Europaischen Tiirkei von Rust-
chuk iiber Philippopel, Rilo, Bitolia und den Thessalischen Olymp nach Saloniki
im Herbst, 1862. 8. Berlin, 1864.
Bratiano (J. C), M^moire siir la Situation de la Moldo-Valachie depuis le
Trait^ de Paris. 8. Paris, 1863.
Chronos Emorologion, Almanack for 1866. In Greek. 18. Constantinople, 1866.
Farley (J. Lewis), The Resources of Turkey. 8. London, 1865.
Kajiz Huaseyn (Effendi). Hadikat-ul-dschevami. Description of the Mosks,
High Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.
Hammer (Jos. von), Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung des Osmanischen
Beichs. 2 vols. 8. Wien, 1815.
L^ean (G.), La Turquie d'Europe. 8. Paris, 1862.
Soutzo (Prince N.), Notions Statistiques sur la Moldavie. 8. Jassy, 1849.
TJhicini (A.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1853.
Ubicini (A.), La Turquie Actuelle. 8. Paris, 1855.
Ueber die ethnographischen Verhaltnisse der^urop^ischeji Tiirkey. Mitthei-
lungen der K. X. Geographischen Gesellschaft. 5. Jahrgang. Vienna, 1861.
PAET n.
THE PRINCIPAL STATES NOT IN
EUROPE.
LL
I
515
I. AMERICA.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
Constitution and Government
The constitution of the Argentine Republic bears date May 15,
1858. By its provisions, the executive power is left to a president
elected for six years by representatives of the fourteen provinces, 133
in number; while the legislative authority is exercised by a Senate
and a House of Deputies, the former numbering 30, and the latter
54 members. A vice-president, elected in the same manner, and at
the same time as the president, assistsi in the discharge of the exe-
cutive. The president is commander-in-chief of the troops, and
appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices; but he and his
ministers are responsible for their acts, and liable to impeachment
before the Senate and the House of Representatives.
President of the Republic, — Don Bartolome Mitre, bom 1820 ;
entered the army as officer of artillery in Montevideo, 1839 ; took
part in the campaigns against General Oribe and Urquiza, 1840-45 ;
entered the service of Chili, with the rank of colonel, 1846 ; took the
lead in the insurrectionary movement against General Rosas, 1851 ;
appointed commander of the forces of the city of Buenos- Ayreu,
1852 ; promoted to the rank of general, 1859 ; elected governor of
the province of Buenos- Ay res, 1860 ; defeated General Urquiza in
the battle of Pavon, September 17, 1861 ; appointed provisionally
governor-general of the Argentine Republic, October, 1861 ; elected
president of the republic, by a unanimity of votes, October 6, 1862.
Vice-President of the Republic, — Colonel Marcos Paz, elected
October 5, 1862.
The Ministry, acting under the President, is divided into five de-
partments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Senox CixuXisrcDJ^ ILa-vjosou.
LL 2
5l6 AMEBICA — ^AKGENTINB KEPUBLIC.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Senor Eufino de Elizalde.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Don Lucas Gongales, appointed
March, 1861.
4. The Ministry of War and Marine. — General Juan Andres Gelly
y Obes.
5. The Ministry of Education and Public Worship. — ^Dr. Eduardo
Costa,
At the first meeting of the national congress of the Argentine
Republic, in May, 1862, it was decided that the seat of the new
Government shoiild be at the city of Buenos- Ayres.
Bevenne, Army, and Population.
In the budget for the year 1863, the public income was estimated at
87,030,000 piastres, or 750,258/., and the expenditure at 89,456,381
piastres, or 771,176/., leaving a deficit of 2,426,381 piastres, or
20,918/., to be covered by taxes on various articles of consumption.
There is no direct taxation. The principal revenue of the republic
is derived from the customs' duties, which range from 15 to 20 per
cent. The national liabilities, including the debt contracted by
Buenos- Ayres, previous to its union with the Argentine Confedera-
tion amount to 3,185,000/., divided as follows : —
British loan to Buenos-Ayres, at 6 per cent. . . 962,000
„ „ „ „ at 3 per cent. . . 1.323,000
Piastres
Interior debt at 4 per cent. . . . 617.6481 qaa nnn
„ at 6 per cent . . . 103,600,000 J ^^"'"^"
3,185,000
To the above was added, in March, 1866, another British loan of
1,250,000/., at 6 per cent., issued at 75. This loan, contracted for
by the banking-house of Baring Brothers, formed the first half of a
sum of 2,500,000/. which the legislature, by vote of May 27, 1865,
decided to borrow, in consequence of the w^r with Paraguay. The
former British loan at 3 per cent, dates from the year 1827, and the
interest on it was not paid for a long time. In 1857 an arrangement
was made to capitalise the interest due, raising the original one million
sterling to 1,823,000/., and to pay interest on the latter sum at the rate
of 1 per cent, fi-om 1861 till 1865 ; 2 per cent. fi:om 1865 till
1870 ; and subsequently, till the extinction of the debt, 3 per
cent. The floating debt amoimted, at the commencement of 1863,
to above two millions sterling, represented by paper money and
treasury bills. An internal loan of 300,000/. was contracted in
AvriL 1864, to pay off arrears oi tSoia fLoaXm^ d^\it». The intestine
TBADB AND INDUSTRY,
517
war of 1861 occasioned the issue of 100 millions piastres, sanctioned
by the resolutions of the national congress of June 28, and Sep-
tember 5, 1861.
The army, now in course of reorganisation, consists of about
10,700 men, exclusive of the militia and the national guard of
Buenos- Ayres, numbering 19,867 men. The navy comprises seven
steamers and ten sailing vessels.
The area of the republic is variously estimated at from 60,000 to
80,000 square leagues. The population, after a rough enumera-
tion of the year 1855, is divided as follows between the fourteen
provinces:—
Provinces
Population
Provinces
Population
Littoral or Kivemie —
Mendoza .
60,000
Buenos-Ayrea .
360,000
Central Provinces —
Santa F6 .
40,000
Cordoba
130,000
Entre Kios .
80,000
San Luis .
32,000
Corrientes .
85,000
Santiago .
60,000
Provinces contignons to
Incuman .
88,500
the Andes —
Northern —
Eioja
34,600
Salta ....
66,600
Catamarca .
San Juan .
60,000
62,000
Injuy.
Total .
33,200
1,171,800
The annual immigration, since the year 1856, amounted to from
6,000 to 11,000 souls. The numbers of immigrants that amved
during the six years from 1858 to 1863, inclusive, were as follows : —
1868
,
. 4,654
1861
. 6,301
1859
,
. 4,736
1862
. 6,716
1860
•
. 6,656
1863
. 10,258
The total arrivals from Europe in the year 1864, according to a
statement published by the Commission of Immigration, were 11,682,
being an increase of 1,274 on the preceding year. Of these, 5,435
were Italian, 2,736 French; 1,586 Spanish, 1,015 English, 289
German, and 100 Belgian ; while the proportions were, 66 per cent,
men, 16 per cent, women, and 18 per cent, children. Seventy per
cent, are described as labourers, 20 per cent, as artisans, and 10 per
cent, miscellaneous.
Trade and Industry.
The annual imports of the republic amount to above 4,000,000^.
in value, of which England gives one-fourth, and France two-ninths.
The commercial intercourse between the Argentine Republic and
the United Kingdom is shown in the Bub)oixiftd. \ato>a2kax ^aX^ax^ssoX^
5x8
AMEBICA — ^ABGENTINE REPUBLIC.
which gives the total value of the imports of the republic into the
United Kingdom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures into the Argentine Republic in each of the &ye
years 1861 to 1865 :—
Years
Imports from the Argentine
EepubUc into the United
Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
of the United Kingdom into
the Argentine B«public
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
1,471,649
1,133,071
1,239,651
1,186,181
1,014,600
£
1,383,529
854,213
1,330,959
1,758,085
1,951,048
The two staple articles of Argentine imports . into the United
Kingdom are hides and wool, the former averaging 400,000/., and
the latter about "300,000/. per annum. The exports of Great Britain
to the Argentine Republic consist chiefly in cotton and woollen
manufactures. The mining interests of the country are every
year assimiing greater importance, especially in the districts of San
Juan, Cordova, and Catamarca.
A network of railways, constructed chiefly at l3ie expense of the
State, has been in progress for several years. The following state-
ment gives the names of the various lines, the amount of capital
subscribed, and the amount of interest guaranteed by the Govern-
ment : —
Name of railway
■ Most distant points or
places connected or
proposed to be con-
nected
Miles
opened
or pro-
jected
Government guarantee
Maximum
cost not to
exceed—
Term
of
years
Bate
of
intrst.
Western Buenos Ayres .
Northern Buenos Ayres
Southern Buenos Ayres
Buenos Ayres & Euse-
vada
Central Argentine
Eastern Argentine
Buenos Ayres and Mer-
cedes ....
Buenos A3rres and San
Fernando .
Buenos Ayres and Chas-
oomas.
Buenos Ajrea and Buse-
vada ....
Ck>ncordia and Mercedes .
62J
17
76
30
247
200
£
160,000
700,000
6,400 per mUe
13,353 per mile
20
40
40
40
Per
cent.
7
7
*7
7
Nearly the whole of the capital for the construction of the lines
has been subscribed in England, while most of them are being built
by English contractors, and under the superintendence of English
eBgineera,
BOOKS OF BEFEBENCE. 519
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Argentine Republic, and
the British equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Dollar . . . Average rate of exchange, Zs. 6d.
„ Piastre ... „ „ „ 116 to IL sterling.
Weights and Measubbs.
The Quintal « 101*40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroha = 25*36 „ „
„ Fanega a l^ imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Republic.
1. Official Publications.
Hemoria del Ministerio del interior de la Eepublica Aijentina presentada al
CoDgreso nacional de 1864. 4. Buenos Aires, 1864.
Memoria del Ministerio del interior de la Eepublica Arjentina presentada al
Congreso nacional de 1865. 4. Buenos Aires, 1865.
Memoria presentada por el Ministro de estado en el departamento de hacienda
al Congreso nacional de 1865. 4. Buenos Aires, 1865.
Mensage del encargado del poder ejecutivo nacional c^ soberano Congreso de
]a Bepublica, 1862. 4. Buenos Aires, 1862.
Mensage del poder qjecutivo-presentando las cuentas de inversion al Congreso
nacional, 1865. 8. Buenos Aires, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul Hutchinson on the Trade of Rosario for the year 1864 ;
in * Consular Keports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1866.
Report by Mr. H. R. Helper, Consul of the United States, on the Trade and
Commerce of the Argentine Republic ; in ' Annual Report on Foreign Com-
merce.' Washington, 1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Almanaque Agricola, pastoril 6 industrial de la Rep^blica Aigentine y de
Buenos- Ayres. 4. Buenos- Ayres, 1866.
Arcos (Santiago), La Plata. Etude historique. 8. Paris, 1865.
Colonias de Santa F6. Su origen, progreso y actual situacion. Con obser-
vaciones generales sobre la emigracion a la Eepublica Argentina. 4. Rosario
de Santa Ffe, 1864.
Hutchinson (Thomas J.), Buenos Ayres and Argentine Gleanings ; With
Extracts from a Diary of Salado Exploration in 1862 and 1863. 8. London,
1865.
Mitre (Bartolom^), Estudios historicos sobre la Revolucion Argentina. 4.
Buenos Ayres, 1864.
Sastre (Marcos), La educacion popular en Buenos Aires. Memoria pre-
sentada al consejo de instruccion publico. 8. Buenos Aires, 1865.
520
BRAZIL.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, bom December 2, 1825, the son of
Emperor Pedro I. and of Archduchess Leopoldina of Austria ; swc-
ceeded to the throne on the abdication of his father, April 7, 1831 ;
declared of age, July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 1841. Married,
September 4, 1843, to
Theresa^ Empress of Brazil, bom March 14, 1822, the daughter of
the late King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union
are two daughtera, namely : — 1. Princess Isabel, bom July 29, 1846 ;
married, Oct. 16, 1864, to Prince Louis of Orleans, Comte d'Eu,
bom April 28, 1842, eldest son of the Due de Nemours, of the ex-
royal house of Bourbon-Orleans. . 2. Princess Leopoldina^ born
July 13, 1847 ; married Dec. 15, 1864, to Prince Augustus of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. OfiBpring of the union is a son, Pedro, bom
March 25, 1866.
Sisters of the Emperor. — 1. Princess Januaria, bom March 11
1822 ; married, April 28, 1844, to Prince Louis of Bourbon, son of
the late King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies. 2. Princess Franciscan
born August 2, 1824; married May 1, 1843, to Francois, Prince de
Joinville, bom Aug. 14, 1818, son of the late King Louis Philippe
of the French.
The Emperor is a scion, in the direct male line, of the House of
Braganza, the female line of which is ruling over Portugal. In
1808, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil ; in 1815, the colony
was declared a * kingdom ; ' and, the Portuguese Court having re-
turned to Europe in 1820, a national congress assembled at Rio de
Janeiro, and on April 22, 1821, proclaimed the independence of the
country. On March 13, 1822, Don Pedro, eldest son of King JoSo
VI. of Portugal, was chosen * Perpetual Protector ' of Brazil, and
proclaimed Emperor on the 12th October following. Compelled to
abdicate in 1831, he left the crown to his only son, the present
Emperor Pedro II.
The Brazilian empire derives from the ancient monarchy of Por-
tugal the principles of hereditary succession to the crown, which
exclude the Salic law, and allow females as well as males to occupy
the throne, with preference, however, of the male line.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 52 1
Constitntion and Ctovermnent
e constitution of Brazil bears date December 11, 1823. It
lisbes four powers in the State — the legislative, the executive,
iidicial, and the 'moderating' power, or the royal prerogative,
legislative power is vested, for the affairs of the empire, in a
•al legislative assembly, and for provincial affairs in the provincial
iblies. The general legislative assembly consists of two Houses,
>enate and the Congress. The members of both Houses are
id by the people, but under different forms. Senators are chosen
fe at electoral meetings expressly convened, each of which has
minate three candidates, leaving the choice between them to the
eign or his ministers. A senator must be forty years of age, a
e^bom Brazilian, and possessing a clear annual income of 800
is, or about 90Z. A salary of 3,600 milreis, or 400/., for each
Q is paid to every senator.
e members of the House of Congress are chosen by indirect
on, for the term of four years. For this purpose, the coimtry
rided into electoral districts, where every 200 voters appoint
lector, and a mmiber of the latter, varying according to popu-
i, nominate the deputy. The qualification for a voter is an
d income, of any sort, of 100 milreis, or a little more than 10/.
electors must have an income of 200 milreis, or a little more
20Z. a-year, as a qualification ; and the deputies must have an
le of 400 milreis each, or about 45/. per annum. All voters,
bed on the lists, are boimd to give their votes, under a penalty.
rs, monks, and servants are not allowed a vote ; and naturalised
;ners, as well as persons not professing the Koman Catholic
on, are incapable of being elected deputies. The latter receive
try of 2,400 milreis, or 270/., each session, besides travelling
ises.
e annual session of the legislative assembly has to commence on
3, and ordinarily extends over four months. Each House nomi-
its own officers. The two Houses sit in general assembly at the
ng and close of the session for the deliberation of important
ires ; and on these occasions the president of the Senate takes
hair, and the senators and deputies sit in mixed order. The
louses sit apart during the rest of the session, in the execution
I ordinary duties of legislation. The Chamber of Deputies has
litiative in the assessment of taxes, in matters concerning the
and navy, and in the choice of the sovereign of the realm,
i the latter act become necessary. The Senate has the exclu-
irivilege of taking cognisance of offences committed by members
3 Imperial family, and by senators and deputies, if committed
g the session. It is also invested wiih. tii^ xv^X> oi c^x^^^sba^
522 \ BRAZIL,
the legislative assembly, should the emperor fail to do so, within two
months aft-er the period fixed by law.
The executive power is vested in the sovereign, assisted by his
ministers and a coimcil of state. The ministers are rejiponsible for
treason, corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the con-
stitution, or the liberty, security, and property of the citizens. From
this responsibility they cannot escape upon the plea of orders from
the sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convocation
of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly ; the nomination
of bishops, presidents, and governors of provinces ; the declaration of
peace or war ; and the general execution and superintendence of all
measures voted by the legislature. The * moderating' power, like-
wise vested in the sovereign, gives him the authority to select
ministers and senators; to temporarily withhold his sanction from
legislative measures ; to convoke extraordinary legislative assemblies;
to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies; and to grant amnesties and
pardons. The ministry is divided into seven departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of Finance. — Senator Zacarias^ president of the
council of ministers ; appointed Aug. 8, 1866.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Deputy Martin Francesco^
appointed Aug. 8, 1866.
3. The Ministry of the Interior. — Senator Fernandez Torrea^ ap-
pointed Aug. 8, 1866.
4. The Ministry of Justice. — Senator Parauguay appointed Aug.
24, 1866.
5. The Ministry of War. — Senhor da Silva Ferraz^ appointed
May 24, 1865.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Deputy Alphonso Cello, appointed
Sept. 10, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Public Works, Agriculture, and Commerce.—
Deputy Manuel JDantas, appointed Aug. 8, 1866.
The ministers are assisted by a Council of State, consisting of
twelve ordinary and twelve extraordinary members, all named by
the emperor for life. The twelve ordinary members are constantiy
consulted on matters of administration and international questions,
and form part of the Government. The whole twenty-four are
convened on special occasions. The coimcillors of state, ordinary and
extraordinary, are mostly ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if
of age, is by right a councillor of State.
At the head of each province is a president appointed by the central
Government ; and in each province there are district chambers and
a general council, called the Legislative Assembly of the province,
the members of which are nominated by the same voters who elect
the deputies and senators. These voters likewise elect the justices
pftbe peace for the municipal districts. All these provincial elec-
REYENUB AND EXPENDITUKE.
523
tioQS are for four years. The Legislative Assemblies of the pro-
vinces exercise the same power within their districts as the Congress
for the whole empire.
Bevenue and Expenditnre.
The budgets of income and expenditure of the empire during the
seven years 1856-63 were as follows : —
Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
Milreis
£
Milreis
£
1856-57 .
62,756,109
6,935.062
41,926,719
4,716,755
1857-58 ,
53,411,166
6,008,756
54,027,379
6,078,080
1858-59 .
50,375,723
5,667,268
55,192,442
6,209,149
1869-60 .
47,070,791
5,295,464
54,005,289
6,075,695
1860-61 .
53,350,905
6,927,878
57,987,302
6,497,387
1861-62 .
50,221,343
6,649,901
52,842,981
6,944,835
1862-63 .
53,690,587
6,040,190
61,527,227
6,796,812
The details of the budgets for each of the years 1861-2, and
1862-3, were as follows : —
Branches of Bevenue and Expenditure
1861-2 1862-3
Import duties ....
Shipping dues ....
Export duties ....
Inland taxes
Municipal taxes ....
Extraordinary receipts .
Total
Deposits (Depositos)
Total . . 1
Ministry of the Interior .
„ of Justice
„ of Foreign Afiairs .
„ of Marine
„ of War . . .
„ ofFinance
Total . . 1
Bevenue
Milreis
31,343,560
264,326
5,298,565
7,389,345
1,635,739
728,116
Milreis
30,246,291
1 7,840,293
9,527,448
1,853,511
. 659,761
46,659,651
3,561,692
50,227,304
3,463,283
50,221,343
£5,649,901
53,690,587
£6,040,190
Expenditure
10,676,563
4,986,168
961,901
7,071,279
12,828,928
16,318,142
10,417,206
6,051,554
900,366
7,322,412
12,596,023
14,990,406
62,842,981
£5,944,836
51,627,227
£6a96,&V^
\
\
524
BKAZIL.
In the budget laid by the Minister of Finance before the Legisla-
tive Assembly in June 1863, the total revenue for the financial year
1863-64 was estimated, excluding deposits, at 51,500,000 milreis, or
5,724,232/., and the expenditure for the same period at 51,029,053
milreis, or 5,670,895/., leaving a surplus of 470,847 milreis, or
53,337Z. These estimates, however, were found to be incorrect, for
instead of a surplus of above half a million sterling, the budget for
the financial year 1864—65 was as follows: — Estimated revenue,
5 1,000,000 milreis, or 5,737,500Z. ; estimated expenditure, 57,846,407
milreis, or 6,504,720/.; deficit, 6,846,407 mikeis, or 767,220/.
Finally, in the budget for the financial year 1865-66, the expen-
diture was estimated at 56,588,823 milreis, and the revenue at
52,000,000 milreis. Consequently, the estimated deficit amounted
to 4,588,823 milreis, or rather more than half a million sterling.
A series of deficits, extending over many years, have laid the
foundation of a considerable national debt, which was augmented
by a number of loans raised for the construction of railways and
other works of public utility. The liabilities of the empire are
divided into a foreign and an internal funded debt ; besides which
there exists a floating debt, with sundry other owings to a large
amount. The foreign debt, entirely contracted in Great Britain,
was as follows on December 31, 1863 : —
stock issued on the London market
in the years—
Primitive
Amount
Amortization
In Cirenlatioa
1824
1839
1862
1858
1859 . • . , ^
1860
1863
Total.
&
3,686,200
411,200 .
1,040,600
1,626,600 .
608,000
1,373,000
3,866,300
£
1,327,600
86,000
160,600
203,200
80,800
94,400
£
2,368,600
326,200
890,000
1,323,300
427,200
1,278,600
3,865,300
12,400,800
1,942,600
10,468,200
To the above was added a five per cent, loan of 5,000,000/. ster-
ling, issued at the price of 74, contracted on the London market, in
September, 1865.
The internal fimded debt of Brazil . consisted of the following
liabilities on December 31, 1863 :—
AEMT AND NATT.
525
e per Cent, ^tock—
Bio de Janeiro
Do. ...
$ per Cent. Stock—
Bahia ....
Pemambnco •
Maranham . .
Bio Grande
Goyaz ....
Matto Grosso .
4 per Cent. Stock-
Bio de Janeiro
Total
EmisBion
Amortization
Totalin
Circulation
Milreis
77,769,000
1,333,800
290,200
63,400
36,400
77,800
41,000
156,400
119,600
Milreis
3,672,000
161,200
Milreis
74,097,000
1,172,600
290,200
63,400
36,400
77,800
41,000
166,400
119,600
79,887,600
3,833,200
76,064,400
CJonverted into pounds sterling, at an exchange of 25. Sd. per
milreis, the internal debt amounts to 8,556,205^.
The floating debt, consisting, on December 31, 1863, in treasmy
bonds to the amount of 4,336,500 milreis, and in Government paper
money amounting to 35,249,151 milreis, is not included in the above
statement. The total amount of paper currency in circulation
throughout the empire was estimated, in June,1864, at 80,021,950,000
milreis, or rather more than nine millions sterling.
Army and Navy.
The army is formed partly by enlistment and. partly by conscrip-
tion. In extreme cases, impressment is resorted to. A liberal boimty
and a grant of land at the end of fourteen years of service, is held out
as an inducement to enlist, and procures about one-third the necessary
number of soldiers. In the army estimates for 1864-65, the strength
of the regular army was stated to be 14,000 men on the peace- footing,
and 22,546 men on the war-footing ; in the latter case distributed as
follows : —
Men
15 battalions of infantry of the line . . . 13,364
4 regiments of cavahy . . . . . 3,727
6 „ „ artillery 8,682
2 companies of engineers . . . . • . 613
7 „ „ * pedestres ' 902
Staff and sanitary corps . . ... 358
Total . . 22,546
The army was at its full complement in May, 1865, when Brazil,
in concert with the Argentine Republic, and Uru^^-^^ ^"^s^ax^^
war against Paraguay. According to offiiCiial xe^xXj^^'i^^^^^ ^a:issi.
526
BBAZIL.
took the field on this occasion, the garrison of towns and other home
duties being left to the national guard. Municipal returns describe
the national guard as 577,329 men strong.
The navy, in May, 1865, consisted of fifteen sailing vessels and
twelve steamers. The former comprised one frigate, six corvettes,
and five brigs; and the latter, two frigates, three corvettes and
avisos, and seven gunboats. In the navy estimates for 1864-5, the
number of sailors and marines of the imperial fleet was stated to
be 3,000 on the peace-footing, and 5,000 on the war-footing.
Population.
The area of the empire is estimated at 147 624 geographical, or
3,100,104 English square miles, with a population of about
10,000,000, so that there are, on the average, but three indi-
viduals to each square mile. Brazil, in its extent of territory, is
second only to the empires of China and Russia. The subjoined
table gives the area and population of each of the twenty provinces
of the empire, according to a rough enumeration of the year 1860 :—
Area
Population
Geog. 8q. miles
Free
Bla^e
Minas Geraes ....
11,413
1,200,000
250,000
Rio Janeiro
860
1,000,000
400,000
Babia .
6,091
1,100,000
300,000
Pernambuco .
2,908
1,040,000
260,000
San Paulo
8,050
700,000
80,000
Ceara
1,736
604,000
36,000
Maranhao
6,769
330,000
70,000
Parahyba
1,138
250,000
30,000
Para
64,607
300,000
20,000
Alagoas .
630
260,000
50,000
Rio Grande do Sul .
4,059
380,000
40,000
Rio Grande do Norte
802
200.000
25,000
Sergipe .
628
220,000
55.000
Gojaz
13,694
205,600
15,000
Piauhy . . . ,
4,597
200,000
20,000
Santa Catharina
694
136,000
15,000
Matto Grosso . . . .
28,716
95,000
5,000
Parana . . .
—
80,000
20,000
Espiritu Santo
643
60,000
15,000
AmazoniiS . •
—
68,000
1,000
Total. ...
.147,624
3,100,104
8,307,000
1,707,000
OpEng
lishsqtiare
miles
10,014,000
Vast tracts of Brazil are iminhabited, or peopled only by a
scattered population. T)a& masaea <>i \i^vDcA\a.\\^& ^oxii^e^e near
TRADE AND COMMEBCE.
527
4be coast, ^ and around the chief seaports; thus the district of the
mimicipalitj of Kio de Janeiro comprises about 450,000 inhabitants,
while in the province of Pard, with an area of 1,144,647 English
iqnare miles, there live but 320,000 individuals, or not more than
one to every three and a half square miles.
The population of Brazil is made up of an agglomeration of
many races. While Brazil remained a colony of Portugal, but
few women accompanied the emigrants to South America. The
earliest European settlers intermarried and mixed with Indian
women; afterwards an extensive intermixture of i-ace occurred
with the Africans who were bought for slavery. The mixed
population increases continually and rapidly in Brazil. In the
northern provinces the Indian element preponderates. In South
Brazil the negroes are nimierous. The greater part of the population
of the Brazilian empire probably consists of mixed breeds, each of
which has a distinguishing name : thus Mulatto denotes the offspring
of a white with a negro, and Mameluco that of a white with an
Indian ; Cafuzo denotes the mixture of the Indian and negro ; Curi-
boco, the cross between the Cafuzo and the Indian ; Xibaro, that
between the Cafuzo and the negro.
The 1,700,000 of negro slaves belong to about 40,000 pro-
prietors. A law for the suppression of the trade in slaves was
sanctioned by the emperor on June 5, 1854. The immigration of
settlers from Europe, particularly Germans and Swiss, has been
greatly encouraged by the Government for a number of years.
According to an official report pf the year 1861, there existed in the
empire 55 colonies of these settlers, inhabited by 33,970 foreigners.
The nucleus of these settlements, regarded as an antidote to slaveiy,^
is in the province of Eio Grande do Sul.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Brazil with the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined table, which gives the total value of the im-
ports from Brazil into the United Kingdom, and of the exports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures to Brazil in each of
the five years 1861 to 1865 :^
Imports from Brazil
Exports of Home Produce
Yean
into the
of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
to Brazil
1861
2,631,480
4,562,165
1862
4,414,187
3,736,781
1863
4,491,000
3,964,261
1864
7,021,121
6,249,260
1865
6,797,271
5,^^^,^%^ \
528
BRAZIL.
The two great staple articles of Brazilian imports into the United
Kingdom are raw cotton and unrefined sugar, each averaging nearly
1,500,000Z. per annum. By far the most important article of
Briti^ exports to Brazil is manufactured cotton, the average value
of which, in the five years 1860-64, was above 2,000,000/. per
annum.
The total value of all the imports and exports of Brazil in each
of the four years 1861 to 1864, was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
1861
1862
1863
1864
Hilreis
123,720,346
110,631,189
99,072,713
123,046,876
£
13,918,638
12,434,768
11,145,680
13,842,669
Milreis
123,171,163
120,719,942
122,479,996
129,470,699
£
13,866,765
13,580,993
18,778,999
14,665,453
The imports into Brazil in each of the years 1863 and 1864, were
divided as follows between the various countries : —
Imports from
1863
1864
Great Britain and British Possessions .
France and French Possessions
Hanse Towns
Portugal and Portuguese Possessions .
Spain and Spanish Possessions
Belgium
Sweden and Norway . . . ,
Italy
United States
Chili
Peru
Bio de la Plata
Kussia . . . ' .
Austria
Denmark
Holland and Dutch Possessions •
Ports of the Empire . • . .
„ not specified , . . .
Fisheries
Africa
Total {'^^il
Milreis
60,765,700
18,832,676
6,379,328
6,966,137
1,854,651
1,008,111
116,676
687,571
6,044,134
6,650,668
791,929
68,111
131,201
907,402
224,196
2,156
292.367
Milieis
64,838,109
23,110,413
5,463,869
6,346,413
2,260,074
1,806,904
409,988
778,404
6,269,484
146,682
22,979
9,062,371
776,648
132,420
116,092
986,597
270,013
9,896
269,624
99,072,713
11,145,680
123,045,876
13,842,669
Rather more than one-half of the total imports into Brazil pass
through the port of Rio de Janeiro, The shipping returns of Rio
showed that there entered during 1865, from outwards^ Xy063
BOOKS OF BEFEBENCE. 529
vessels with 387,1^1 tons, against 985 vessels with 342,733 tons in
1864. The coasting trade was effected, in 1865, by the arrival of
1,687 sailing vessels and 353 steamers, of 266,958 tons burden.
Honey, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Brazil are as follows : —
MONBT.
The Milrcis . . . Average rate of exchange, 2«. Zd.
Weights and Measubes.
The Libra . . . = 1.012 lbs. avoirdupois.
Arroba. . . = 32.38 „ „
Quintal . . = 129.54 „
Alquiere (of Rio) . « 1 imperial bushel.
„ or Cantar = 1.82 imperial gallon.
Oitava ... a 55.34 grains.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Brazil.
1. Official Publications.
Almanak do Ministerio da Marinha, 1866. Vol. z. 8. Bio de Janeiro,
1866.
Almanak Militar para o Anno de 1866. 8. Eio de Janeiro, 1866.
Almanak para 0 Anno de 1866. 8. Bio de Janeiro, 1866.
Gollec^ao das Leis do Imperio doBrasile e Collec^ao dasDecisoesdoGrovemo
do Imperio do Brasil. 1863. Tomo xxvi. 8. Eio de Janeiro, 1864.
Repertorio Constitucional ou Indice Alphabetico e Sjstematico de todas as
disposi^oes contidas na constitui9ao politica do Imperio e no acto addicional. 8.
Bio de Janeiro, 1863.
Beport by Mr. Eliot, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Trade, Commerce,
and Bevenues of Brazil, dated June 24, 1863 ; in *Beports of H.M.*s Secretaries
of Embassy.' Ko. vii. London, 1864.
Beports by Mr. Consul Westwood and Mr. Consul GoUam, on the Commerce
of Brazil ; in * Commercial Beports received at the Foreign Office.' London,
1865.
Beports by Mr. Consul Morgan, on the Trade of Bahia for the Year 1864 ;
in * Consular Beports received at the Foreign Office.' London, 1865.
Beport by Mr. James Monroe, Consul of the United States, on the Trade
and Commerce of Brazil; in 'Annual Beport on Foreign Commerce.' 8.
Washington, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ave-LalleTnant (Dr. Bobert), Beise durch Siid-Brasilien und Nord-Brasilien,
1858 and 1859, 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Christie (W. D.), Notes on Brazilian Questions. 8. London, 1865.
Costa (S. 0. d'Araujo), Codigo Commercial do Imperio do Brasil acom-
panhado do Novo Begulamento do Papel Sellado tambem annotado. 8. Bic
de Janeiro, 1864.
M M
530
BRAZIL.
Bipt^/v (Charles), Le Br^l tel qu'il est 8. Paris, 1866.
BineUiff (Thomas W.), South American Sketches ; op, a Visit to Rio
Janeiro, the Organ Mountains, La Plata, and the Parani. 8. London, 1864.
Jequitinhonna (Visconde de), Reflexoes sobre as finan9a8 do Brasil operacjoes
de credito do thesouro e o emprestimo contrahido em Londres de cinco milhoes
de libras esterlinas no corrento anno. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1865.
Laemmert (Eduardo von), Almanak Administrativo, mercantil e industrial
da corte e proyincia do Rio de Janeiro para o anno de 1866. Vigesimo-terceiro
anno. Rio de Janeiro, 1866.
Moraes (Dr. Mello), Chorographia historica, chronographica, genealogica,
nobiliaria e politica do Imperio do Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, 1865.
More (Jean-Charles), De la Colonisation dans la Province de St.-Pierre de
Rio-Grande do Sul, Br^il. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Mouchez (Ernest), Les C6tes du Brasil, Description et Instructions Nautiques.
2e section. De Bahia k Rio Janeiro. 8. Paris, 1865.
Ribas (Antonio Joaquin), Direito administrativo Brasileiro. 4. Rio de
Janeiro, 1866.
Rodriguez (Jos 6 Carlos), Constitui9ao Politica do Imperio do Brasil segoida
do acto addicional, da lei da sua interpretai^o e de outras analysada. 8. Bio
de Janeiro, 1866.
53^
CANADA,
AND BBITISn NOBTH AMEBICA.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The basis of the political constitution of Canada is the Act of
31 €reo. in. cap. 31, passed by the Parliament of Great Britain in
1791. By the terms of it, the old province of Quebec — which then
embraced the whole of Canada — was divided into the two Govern-
ments of Upper and Lower Canada, with representative institutions
for each. The legislative authority was vested in a Legislative Coimcil
appointed by the Crown, and in a House of Assembly elected by the
inhabitants ; the Lower province was under a governor, whilst the
Upper was tmder a lieutenant-governor. This constitution was sus-
pended in consequence of the rebellion in Upper Canada in 1838^,.
and a Special Council appointed. In 1840 the two provinces were
reunited — by an Act 3rd & 4th Vic. cap. 35 — and the Legislative
Cotmcils of the united provinces were consolidated. The new Legis-
lative Coimcil consisted of twenty members, appointed by the governor
for life ; while the people were represented in a House of Assembly,
comprising eighty- four members, returned in equal proportions by the
inhabitants of Upper and Lower Canada. A final modification of the
constitution, by an Act passed June 14, 1853, comprises the funda-
mental laws now in force. The charter thus established vests the
legislative authority in a parliament of two houses, the Legislative
Council and the House of Assembly. The former consists of twenty-
four members nominated for life by the governor, and of twice the
number elected by the people. The House of Assembly comprises
130 members, chosen in 125 electoral districts and boroughs. Mem-
bers of the House of Assembly must be possessed of freehold property
of the value of SOOL Electors in counties, by a law which took effect
in 1855, are required to be possessed of, or to occupy, property of the
assessed actual value of 50Z., or the yearly value of 5^. ; while electors
in towns must be possessed of, or occupy, property of the yearly value
of 7L 10s, Members of the House of Assembly, during session, have
an allowance fi-om the public funds. Clergymen of all denominati<iX!L«»
are incapable of becoming members. TYie ILoviae \& ^^icXft.^ i^x ^wa
yeaxa; but way he previously dissolved by tke ^o'^etnQt^Hx^^'w^^^
M M !&
532 CANADA AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
case a new election must take place immediately. At least one
session must be held annually, so that a period of twelve months
may never elapse between each meeting of the legislature. All pro-
ceedings and records of the Legislative Assembly are ordered to be
kept, by the Act of 1840, in the English language only. The speaker
of the House of Assembly is elected by the members ; while the
president of the Legislative Council is appointed by the Crown for life.
The executive is vested in a governor-general, styled * Governor-
General of British North America,* and appointed by the Crown. He
has a salary of 7,000Z. per annum, and holds authority in the name
of the sovereign of Great Britain. The governor-general has the
power to give or withhold the royal assent to bills passed by the
Legislative Council and Assembly, or to reserve the same till the
royal pleasure be expressed. Such bills as are assented to by the
governor in the name of the Crown are, nevertheless, subject to dis-
allowance by the sovereign, within two years after the receipt of
authentic copies by one of the principal secretaries of state in Great
Britain ; and no bills, reserved for the consideration of the Crown, can
have any force, unless the royal assent be signified within two years
after they have been presented to the governor-general.
Governor-General. — ^Viscount Charles Stanley Monck, bom 1819,
the son of Charles Joseph Kelly, 3rd Viscount Monck, in the peerage
of Ireland ; member of Parliament for Portsmouth, 1852-57 ; Lord
Privy Seal to the Prince of Wales, 1855-58 ; appointed Governor-
General of Canada, October 15, 1861.
The governor-general is assisted in his functions by an executive
council, or cabinet, consisting of twelve members, namely : —
1. President of the Council. — Sir Narcisse BelleaUy appointed
Aug. 7, 1865.
2. Minister of Agriculture and Statistics. — Hon. Luc L. de Saint-
Just. Hon. T. D. D'Arci/ M'Gee.
3. Solicitor-General of Upper Canada. — Hon. John Cockburn.
4. Solicitor-General of Lower Canada. — Hon. Hector Langwin.
5. Attorney-General of Upper Canada. — Hon. J. S. Macdonald,
6. Attorney-General of Lower Canada. — Hon. G. A. Cartier.
7. Receiver-General. — Hon. Georaje Brown.
8. Provincial Secretary. — Hon. Adam J. F. Blair,
9. Postmaster General. — Hon. Oliver Mowat.
10. Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. Wm. M^DougalL
11. Minister of Finance. — Hon. J. T. Gait.
12. Commissioner of Public Works. — Hon. J. C. Chapaia.
The members of the cabinet have a salary of 1,250/. each per
annum. The president of the Legislative Council has the same
salary, while tJie speaker of the House of Assembly has 800/.
a year.
CHURCH AND EDUCATION.
533
Church and Education.
There is no State Church in British North America. The United
Church of England and Ireland is governed by five bishops ; the
Eoman Catholic Church by one archbishop, and eight bishops ; and
the Presbyterian Church of Canada, in connection with the Church
of Scotland, by annual synods, presided over by moderators. The
number of members of each religious denomination, according to the
census of 1861, was as follows : —
Religious
Upper
Lower
Religious
Upper
Lower
denomination
Canada
Canada
denomination
Canada
Canada
Church of England
311,565
63,487
Christians . . .
5,018
298
„ Rome .
258,141
943,253
* Second Adven-
Presbyterians —
tists' . . . .
1,050
2,305
Church of Scot-
Protestants . . .
7,514
2,584
land. . . .
108,963
23,730
'Disciples' . . .
4,147
5
Free Church of
Jews . . . .
614
572
Scotland . .
143,043
14,856
Menonists and
United . . .
51,378
5,149
* Tunkers \ . .
8,965
—
Methodists —
' Universalists '
2,234
2,289
Weslevan . . .
218,427
25,957
Unitarians . . .
634
652
Episcopal. . .
71,615
2,537
Mormons . .. .
74
3
New Connexion
28,200
1,292
' No religion ' . .
17,373
1,477
Other . . . .
23,330
874
Denomination not
Baptists. . . .
61,659
r,751
stated ....
8,121
528
Lutherans . . .
24,299
857}
Other creeds not
Congregationalists
Quakers . . .
Bible Christians .
9,357
7,383
8,801
4,927 1
121
184
classed . . .
Total .
14,286
678
1,396,091
1,111,566
Upper and Lower Canada have separate school laws adapted to the
religious elements prevailing in either. Each township in Upper
Canada is divided into several school sections, according to the re-
quirements of its inhabitants. The common schools are supported
partly by Government, and partly by local self-imposed taxation, and
occasionally by the payment of a small monthly fee for each scholar.
The total amount expended on common schools in Upper Canada
during 1858 exceeded 208,627/. In settled rural districts each school
section has a good school-house, furnished with maps, authorised
school books, and elementary philosophical apparatus. The salaries
of teachers vary from 130Z. to 4(W. in country parts, and from 280Z.
to 75Z. in cities and tOAvns. All common school teachers must pass
an examination before a county board of education, or receive a
license from the provincial Normal School, empowering them to
teach, before they can claim the Government allowance.
The subjoined table gives the total number of acKovila ^jcA ^tf^«5sax^
534
CANADA AND BHITISH NOBTH AMERICA.
in Upper Canada, for each year from 1851 to 1859, and the total
number of schools and scholars in Lower Canada, for each year from
1853 to 1859:—
Years
Schools
Scholars
Upper
Canada
Lower
Canada
Total
Tipper
Canada
Lower
Total
1851
1862
1863
1864
1856
1866
1867
1868
1859
3,062 \
3,078/
3,199
3,317
3,400
3,646
3,816
3,953
4,047
Not Stated
2,352
2,796
2,869
2,919
2,946
2,986
3,199
{-
6,661
6,112
6,269
6,464
6,761
6,938
7,246
170,982 \
182,981/
198,713
209,261
232,690
256,836
278,045
299,477
307,346
Not stated
108,284
119,733
127,068
143,141
148,798
156,872
168,148
306,997
328,994
369,748
398,976
426,843
466,349
476,494
In the year 1862, the number of schools was estimated at 8,130,
attended by 547,000 scholars. The annual state endowment of
education, in the same year amoimted to 563,803 dollars, and the
local grants to 2,327,262 dollars. The schools are also endowed
with 3,613,000 acres of land, granted by the Grovernment at various
periods, from 1797 to 1859. The Annual Report of the Chief Su-
perintendent of Education showed an attendance in 1862 at tlie
public elementary schools of 343,733 pupils in Upper Canada, and
139,474 in Lower Canada. This amounts to about twenty-two
per cent, of the population of Upper Canada, and about eleven per
oent. in Lower Canada.
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The total revenue and expenditure of Canada during the four
years 1860-63 is shown in the subjoined table. The comparatively
large amoimt of both income and expenditure in 1860 arose from
£nancial operations on a large scale, tending to a redemption of the
public debt : —
Years
Gross revenue
Exx)enditure |
1860
1861
1862
1863
Dollars
38,076,426
12,665,681
10,629,205
14,382,604
£
7,932,688
2,639,696
2,214,418
2,996,356
Dollars
36,996,748
14,742,834
11,396,923
14,909,174
£
7,499,114
3,071,424
2,374,150
3,106,078
The gross revenue of the year 1864 amounted to 15,526,000
doUara, and the net revenue — ^less Imperial sinking fiind and
BEYENUE AND SXFENDITUBB.
535
Montreal bank loan — ^to 11,170,000 dollars. The gross expendi-
ture in the same year amounted to 14,544,000 dollars, and the
net expenditure, less redemption of public debt — ^to 10,587,000
dollars.
The estimates of the revenue of Canada for the year ending June
30, 1866, were as follows :— Customs, 6,166,000 ; Excise, 1,550,000 ;
Post-office, 470,000 ; Public Works, 450,000 ; Ocean Postage,
70,000 ; Territorial, 650,000 ; Stamps, 130,000 ; and other sources,
1,650,000 dollars; making a total revenue of 11,136,000 dollars.
The following was the estimated expenditure : — Interest and manage-
ment of debt, 3,890,000 ; Ordinary Charges, 4,634,000 ; Civil
Government, 1,350,000 ; Refunds, 100,000 ; Militia, 500,000 ; and
Public Works, 600,000 dollars ; making a total expenditure of
11,074,000 dollars; and leaving an estimated surplus of 62,000 dollars.
More than one-half of the revenue of Canada is obtained from
customs duties, and the rest from excise dues and other indirect
taxation. In the year 1864 the customs produced 6,664,000 dollars.
The chief item of expenditure is the interest of the public debt,
requiring nearly four millions of dollars per annum.
The amount of the various descriptions of the public debt, the
rate of interest, and the amount of interest paid thereon, was as
follows, on December 31, 1864 : —
Description of Debt
Amount
Interest
Bates
Amount
Imperial loan
Debentures
„ ...
„ ...
,, ...
^ , /Dollars
™^ \£sterUng
DoUars
7,300,000
14,600
33,979,499
26,689,679
28,630
Per cent.
4
4*
6
6
8
DoUars
292,000
667
1,698,976
1,696,381
2,290
67,912,408
14,148,418
3,689,303
747,771
The public debt was as follows on December 31, of each of the
years 1860, 1861, and 1862 :—
Years
Amount of Debt
1860
1861
1862
Dollars
66,692,470
66,626,478
67,912,408
£ sterling
13,665,098
13,672,182
14,148,418
536 CANADA AND BKITISH NOKTH AMERICA.
The greater portion of this debt was expended in loans to incor-
porated companies, and for the building of roads, canals, railways,
light-houses, and other works of public utility, which are held as assets.
Army.
From a return issued at the War Office in September, 1865, it
appears that in the years 1861-2, 1862-3, and 1863-4, the sum of
276,368/. 45. Sd, was paid out of the Imperial treasury for the
transport of troops to Canada ; for the maintenance of troops there
in the same period, 1,662,971Z. 25. bd.; clothing, 145,326/.
95. 4cd. ; and arms and stores supplied, 675,571/. 125. ; total,
2,760,242/. 85. In addition to the troops maintained by the Im-
perial Government — the strength of which varies according to cir-
cumstances— Canada has a large volunteer force, and an enrolled
militia, numbering above 200,000 men, rank and file. In the years
1862, 1863, and 1864 Canada expended for the militia and volun-
teer forces the sums of 91,152 dollars, 470,948 dollars, and 311,990
dollars respectively ; total, 874,090 dollars.
The militia is divided into three classes; namely, — first class
service men, comprising immarried men and widowers without
children, between 18 and 45 ; second-class service, married men
and widowers with children, between same ages ; and third-class
reserve men, those between 45 and 60. Assessors each year pre-
pare the militia rolls, distinguishing the three classes, and on the
governor calling for a number of men, the warden, sheriff, and coimty
judge meet and ballot for the number required from their respective
coimties. In Lower Canada, in cases where the assessment system
is not in operation, the militia census is made by militia officers
appointed for the purpose. The ballot takes place for three years,
and in the balloting, the number of battalions required fi-om coimties
and townships is furnished according to population. In appointing
officers for the service battalions, the governor, as a rule, selects
those who have qualified themselves by volunteer service or by means
of drill associations, or who have shown themselves qualified by
examination before boards of examiners appointed for each county
or union of adjacent counties. If a sufficient number of competent
officers cannot fi*om the outset be obtained, the governor may grant
personal commissions, to be withdrawn within a certain time if those
to whom they are issued do not qualify themselves. Sums are granted
towards the education of officers. A school of military instruction is
established in each section of the province in connection with some
regiment of the British forces, a certain number of whose officers
and non-commissioned officers assist in the work of instruction, and
are paid an allowance for the extra duties they have to perform.
POPULATION.
537
The Government defrays the expenses of travelling and maintenance
of those who receive instruction, and the governor-general may at his
discretion call out service battalions for drill, for a period not exceed-
ing six days in one year. The present volunteer force of Canada
consists of 10,615 infantry, 1,687 artillery, 1,615 cavalry, and 202
engineers. In the session of the Legislative Assembly of 1863, laws
for the reorganisation of the militia were passed, providing that the
Government shall have power to accept, equip, and clothe 10,000
more volimteers. Fines are to be imposed on volunteers for non-
attendance at drill, a course thought necessary in order to insure a
thorough military proficiency.
Population.
The population of United Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at
240,000 ; in 1825 it amounted to 581,920 ; and in 1851 to 1,842,265.
The area and total population of Upper and Lower Canada, accord-
ing to the census taken in each of the years 1852 and 1861, was as
follows : —
Upper Canada .
Lower Canada .
Total .
Area in English
square miles
Population
in 1852
Population
in 1861
141,000
205,860
952,004
890,261
1,396,091
1,111,566
346,860
1,842,265
2,507,667
The estimated population in January, 1864, amounted to 2,783,079.
The population at the last census was 8 40 to the square mile. The
ratio of annual increase is at the rate of 4*34 per cent, in Upper
Canada, and 2*50 in Lower Canada.
The origin of the population of Upper and Lower Canada is thus
stated in the census of 1861 : —
Origin
Upper Canada
Lower Canada
England and "Wales
114,290
13,179
Scotland
98,792
13,204
Ireland
191,231
50,337
Natives of Canada :
Not of French origin .
869,592
167,949
Of French origin .
33,287
847,615
United States ....
50,758
13,648
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward
Island
4,383
977
New Brunswick ....
3,214
852
Newfoundland ....
487
232
West Indies
532
137
East Indies
im
I ^.^
538
CANADA AND BBITISH NORTH AMERICA.
Origin
Upper Canada
Lower Canada
France
Prussia, German States, and Holland
Italy and Greece ....
Spain and Portugal
Sweden and Norway
Eussia and Poland
Switzerland
Guernsey, Jersey, and other British
Islands
AH other places ....
At sea
Not known
Total .
2,389
22,906
104
96
261
161
617
529
541
323
1,395
949
672
114
55
229
56
81
628
128
61
414
1,396,091
1,111,566
The following number of emigrants settled in Canada in each of
the four years 1857 to 1860 :—
Country whence arrived
1857
1858
1859
I860
England
Ireland .
Scotland
Germany
Norway
Other countries
Total .
15,471
2,016
3,218
4,961
6,407
24
6,441
1,153
1,424
922
2,656
214
4,846
417
793
966
1,756
6,481
376
979
533
1,781
32,097
12,810
8,778
10,150
The number of steerage emigrants who arrived in Canada in
1864 was reported by the Emigration Agent-General at 34,779,
of whom 17,937 arrived by the St. Lawrence, 11,266 by the Sus-
pension Bridge, 3,774 by Oswego, 633 by Lake Chamlain, and
1,169 by Portland. It is supposed that 10,000 proceeded to the
United States, leaving 24,779 in the colony, of whom 19,000 settled in
Western Canada, 1,300 in Ottawa district, 2,000 in Upper Canada,
50 in the Lower Provinces, leaving above 2,400 imaccounted for.
The male emigrants from the United Kingdom were chiefly
farmers' labourers and mechanics. The number of emigrants who
arrived in Canada in the year 1865 was 19,419, comprising 7,679
male and 5,215 female adults, 4,236 children between the ages of 1
and 12, and 982 infants. Of the emigrants 4,830 were English,
5,458 Irish, 3,949 Scotch, 3,047 Germans and Prussians, and 2,085
other foreigners. The male emigrants comprised 2,198 farmers,
3,147 labourers, 2,098 mechanics, 10 professional men, 23 domestic
servants, and 203 clerks and traders. Compared with the year
1863 there was a decrease of 2,757 European emigrants, notwith-
standing which the number of settlers was materially increased in 1865
by the arrival of about 5,000 persons from the United States, who
became residents in Western Canada.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 539
The population of the principal
cities was as follows by the census
of 1861:—
Toronto 44,821
Hamilton
19,096
Upper Canada •
Kingston
13,743
Ottawa
14,696
^ London
11,565
Lower Canada{J:r/
90,323
61,109
Montreal is, next to Chicago, the largest city on the St. Lawrence
and the Great Lakes.
The numbers of the people of the * Lower Provinces,' who, pro-
bably, will be united with Canada at a not distant period in a British
North American Confederation, were as follows, according to the
most recent enumeration : —
New Brunswick 250,000
Nova Scotia 330,699
Prince Edward's Island .... 80,857
Newfoundland 122,638
784,194
This gives, with Canada, a total population of over three millions and
a half for the British North American Confederation.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of Canada is chiefly with the United States and Great
Britain, and more with the former than the latter. In the year
ending June 30, 1865, the imports into Canada were of the value
of 44,620,000 dollars. The imports from Great Britain amounted
in value to 21,036,000; from the United States, to 19,589,000;
from British North American Colonies, to 511,000 ; from the British
West Indies, to 209,000 ; from France, to 752,000 ; and from Ger-
many, to 387,000 dollars. The total of the previous year was
49,753,000 dollars. The duties in the year 1864-65 amounted to
5,663,000; and in the previous year to 6,081,000 dollars. The
imports of 1864-65 are thus classified : — Paying 30 per cent, and
upwards, 4,792,141; 25 per cent, 182,011; 20 and 15 per
cent., 18,117,392; 10 per cent., 2,216,658; free goods— coin and
bullion, 4,768,478 ; other free goods, 14,538,741 ; and reprints of
British copyrights, to 4,948 doUars.
The entire value of the exports from Canada in the year ending
June 30, 1865, was 42,481,151 doUars. The exports of the pre-
vious year amounted to 43,718,191 dollars, showing a decrease in
1864-65 of 1,237,040 dollars. Out of the 42^ millions of 1864-65,
23 millions, about half the entire exports were to the United States.
The following figures show the amounts: — ^Mine t^to^'^^^^'*^'^^^^^
dollars/ Miery ditto, 89,000; timber aui \om\>^^^ ^^^^^?^^^\
540
CANADA AND BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
animals and their products, 7,000,000 ; agricultural products,
8,300,000 ; coin in bullion, 1,600,000 ; and other articles, 300,000
dollars ; making a total of 22,864,000 dollars.
The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the commercial inter-
course of the North American Colonies with the United Kingdom,
giving the total value of the colonial imports into the United KiDg-
dom, and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures to the colonies, in each of the five years 1861 to 1865 : —
Years
Imports from the
North American Colonies into the
United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce from
the United Kingdom to the
North American Colonies
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
8,667,920
8,499,393
8,165,613
6,860,744
6,350,148
£
3,689,953
3,991,010
4,813,482
6,601,276
4,705,079
The exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures were
divided as follows, during the five years 1860-64 among the diife-
rent North American Colonies : —
Colonies
I860
1861
1862
1863
1864 i
£
£
£
£
£
British Columbia
37,084
231,644
199,227
302,511
vi\m
Hudson's Bay Company
Settlements
79,936
34,715
42,186
72,924
65,081|
Newfoundland .
466,572
391,876
331,452
442,102
390,996!
Canada ....
2,137,827
2,081,446
2,237,520
2,479,230
3,065,2541
New Brunswick
403,056
334,836
385,566
486,315
717,903
Prince Edward's Island .
73,781
75,529
72,730
107,740
146,882
Nova Scotia .
Total of North American "1
Colonies . . J
529,094
539,907
722,329
922,660
1,053,883
3,727,350
3,689,953
3,991,010
4,813,482
5,611,276
As regards the imports into the United Kingdom, those of Canada
form a much larger proportion of the whole than those of the
British exports to the North American Colonies. The imports firora
Canada, which varied, in the five years 1860-64, from \\ to near
6 millions sterling, consist principally of the two great staple articles,
wood and com, the first averaging in value 2,500,000/., and the
second 1,000,000/. per annum. Wood also is the staple article,
which New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward's Island
export to the United Kingdom. Woollen and cotton manufactures
are the chief articles sent in return from Great Britain.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT, 54 1
In the months of September to November, 1864, a congress of
popular delegates was held at Quebec, to deliberate on the formation
of a proposed
CONFEDERATION OP BRITISH NORTH
AMERICA.
Constitutioii and Govemmeiit
It was decided at the Quebec Congress, by a general vote of
Oct. 30, 1864, that the form of government of the proposed Con-
federation of British North America be based upon the existing
constitution of the Canadian provinces. The Legislative Coimcil,
or Upper House, is to be composed as follows : —
Members.
Upper Canada 24
Lower Canada , 24
Nova Scotia (10), New Brunswick (10), and Prince
Edward's Island (4) 24
Newfoundland 4
Total . . . .' . . . .76
The Legislative Councillors are to be named for life by the Crown ;
but will lose their seats by a continued absence during two years.
They must be born or naturalised British subjects, thirty years of
age, and possessed of, and continuing to be possessed of, real pro-
perty to the value of 4,000 dollars, free from all encumbrances.
The twenty-four Legislative Councillors who are to represent Lower
Canada are to have a local qualification ; they are to be named to
represent one of the electoral divisions, and must reside or possess
qualification in that division.
The House of Assembly, or Lower House of the Confederation, is
to be elected by the people of the United Provinces in the following
proportion : —
Deputies.
Upper Canada 82
Lower Canada 65
Nova Scotia 19
New Brunswick 15
Newfoundland 8
Prince Edward's Island 5
Total 194
The Governor-General will, as at present, be appointed b^ ^^^fc
Crown, this being the condition of union m\\i \\i^ "^f^^^ <BCK?gv:t^,
54^ CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
The Lieutenant-Governors of the provinces will be appointed by the
Governor-General, with the advice of his Cabinet. It is believed
that this proposed constitution will form the basis of a new British
American empire.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concemii^ Canada and
British Horth America.
1. Official Publications.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part X. Fol. London, 1866.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. 11. 8. London, 1866.
Correspondence relative to the proposed Union of the British North American
Provinces. London, 1865.
Further Correspondence relative to the proposed Union of the British North
American Provinces. London, 1866,
Letter by Lieut. Colonel Jervois respecting the Defence of Canada. Pre-
sented to Parliament. London, 1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Canadian Almanac and Kepository of Useful Knowledge for 1866. The 19th
year of publication. 8. I'oronto, 1866.
Faillon (Abb6) Histoire de la Colonic Francaise en Canada. 2 vols, FoL
Montreal, 1865.
Hunt (F. Sterry) Canada : a Geographical, Agricultural, and Mineralogical
Sketch. Published by authority of the Bureau of Agriculture, for distribution
at the Dublin Exhibition. Toronto, 1865.
Macfie (Matthew) Vancouver Island and British Columbia ; their History,
Kesources, and Prospects. 8. London, 1865.
Bowlings (Thomas) The Confederation of the British North American Pro-
vinces : iJieir Past Histo^ and Future Prospects. 8. London, 1866.
. RusseU (Wm. Henry) Canada : its Defences, Condition, and Eesources. 8.
London, 1865.
543
CHILI.
Constitutioii and Govemment.
The republic of Chili threw off the allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810.
The constitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
establishes three authorities in the State — the legislative, the execu-
tive, and the judicial. The legislative power is vested in two assem-
blies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
is composed of twenty members, elected for the term of nine years ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, chosen for a period of three years,
consists of one representative for every 20,000 of the population. The
executive is exercised by a president, elected for a term of five years.
President of the Republic, — ^Don Jos6 Joaquin Perez, bom 1801 ;
Secretary of Legation in France, 1829-31 ; Minister Plenipotentiary
at Buenos-Ay res, 1832 ; subsequently Coimcillor of State, Minister of
Finance, of the Interior, of Foreign Affairs, President of the Chamber
of Deputies, and President of the Senate ; elected President of the
Republic by a unanimity of votes, September 7, 1861.
The president of the republic is chosen by indirect election. The
people, in the first instance, nominate their delegates by ballot — ^to
t]ie number of 216 in the presidential election of 1861 — and the
latter, in their turn, appoint the chief of the State. The votes are
examined, and the declaration of the poll takes place at a meeting of
the two Houses of Legislature.
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a Coimcil of
State, and a ministry, divided into four departments, namely : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior and of Foreign Affairs. — Alvaro
Covarrubias, appointed Jan. 3, 1864.
2. The Ministry of Finance. — Alexander Reyes, appointed
June 10, 1863.
3. The Ministry of Justice, of Public Instruction, and of Ecclesi-
astical Affairs. — Feder. ErrdzuriZj doctor of jurisprudence, ap-
pointed Jime 20, 1864.
4. The Ministry of War and Marine. — Colonel J. Manuel Pinto,
appointed July 5, 1865.
The Council of State, appointed by the president of the republic,
consists of the ministers for the time being, two judges, one eccle-
siastical dignitary, one general or admiral, and ^n^ o\5ci« tesiOass^OT^^^
or ex- ministers.
544
CHILI.
Eevenue, Army, and Population.
The greater part of the public revenue is derived from customs.
The details of income for each of the three years 1861-63, and
the total expenditure for 1863, are given in the subjoined table ; —
Sources of Bevenne
1861
1862
1863
Dollars
Dollars
DoUars
Customs
3,538,805
3,841,374
4,259,534
Government monopolie
s . 963,787
1,090,080
1,091,821
Land taxes .
666,790
666,722
641,475
Transfer .
221,434
291,710
214,624
Trade taxes
74,639
76,018
74,316
Stamps
106,089
103,166
102,214
Post .
116,307
120,810
123,404
Mint .
27,672
6,373
4,254
Tolls .
45,729
38,092
30,196
Tax on capital
3,343
7,733
4,301
Extraordinary receipts
96,326
46,078
42,366
Eailways .
Total revenue . |
—
—
112,154
ollars 6,860,821
£ 1,170,164
6,287,155
1,257,431
6,700,659
1.340,131
Total expenditure
■r
°^ { Not St
ated \
7,685,983
1,617,196
The public debt of the republic, at the end of the year 1865,
amounted to 2,933,405/., made up of the following liabilities: —
Internal Debt —
1. Old Debt, 3 per cent., primitive capital
2. Consolidated Debt to the end of 1864 .
Total
Cancelled to the end of 1863 .
Kemained in circulation at the end of 1863
Loan of 1862 and 1863 at 7 and 8 per cent.
Total of the Internal Debt to )
the end of 1863 . . i
Foreign Debt —
1. Loan of 1822, at 6 per cent
Cancelled to the end of March 1865 .
Balance
Amount |
Dollars
1,912,200
1,124,926
Dollars
3,037,125
690,100
2,347,025
1,063,000
£
934,000
635,700
/ 3,410,026
1 £682.006
298,300
TRADE AND INDDSTRT.
5+5
2. Consolidated, at 3 per cent., of the
Arrears during the War of Inde-
pendence
Cancelled to the end of March, I860 .
Balance , , . . .
3. Loan, at 4^ per cent., of 1858, for the
Construction of Railways
Cancelled to the end of March 1865 .
Balance
Total Foreign Debt .
Total Debt ....
Amount
£
756,500
266,200
490,300
1,554,800
92,000
1,462,800
2,251,400
£2,933,405 |
To the above was added, in 1866, a loan of 450,G00Z., at six per
cent., contracted in England. It was issued at the price of 92, and
the bonds were secured by the hypothecation of the tobacco monopoly,
which in 1865 amounted to nearly 225,000/.
The army of Chili, raised by conscription, was stated to amount
to 5,300 men at the commencement of 1866, when the republic was
at war with Spain. According to an official return of the same
period, there were 29,698 national guards, or militia, inscribed on
the lists.
The navy of Chili consisted, at the commencement of 1866, of
the screw-corvette * Esmeralda,' of 16 guns; the steamer * Covadonga,'
of four guns ; the steamer * Maipu,' of two guns, and several smaller
vessels. In attempting the defence of the coast against the Spanish
fleet, which included the iron-clad ' Numancia,' of 43 guns, tlie naval
force of Chili incurred great losses.
The area of the republic is estimated at 249,952 English square
miles, with a population, according to the census of 1862, of 1,676,243
souls. Included in the territory of the republic, since 1862, is the
land of the Araucanians, on the southern frontier, governed, for some
years, by a native of France, M. de Tonnens, who styled himself
King Aurelius Antonius I. He was made a prisoner by the Chilian
troops in February, 1862.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse between Chili and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which. ^^^% >Sife
546
CHILI.
value of the total imports of Chili into the United Kingdom, and
of the total exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
Chili, in each of the five years 1861 to 1865 :—
Years
Imports from Chili
into the
United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
of the United Kingdom
toChiU
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
2,416,895
2,863,434
2,288,862
3,088,601
3,798,643
£
1,362,451
954,542
1,431,814
1,681,410
1,603,753
Copper and silver ore, the former of the average value of
1,500,000/., and the latter of near 300,000/., form the chief articles
of import from Chili into the United Kingdom. Of British pro-
duce sent in return, cotton manufactures, averaging 600,000/. in
value per annum, form the staple.
Chili was among the first states in South America in the construc-
tion of railways, made for the special object of facilitating trade and
industry. Subjoined is a list of the lines, their length, and cost,
which were opened for traffic in the middle of 1863 : —
Railways
Length
Total cost
Cost per
kUom^tre
From Valparaiso to Santiago .
„ Santiago to San Fernando
„ Caldera to Pabellon
„ Pabellon to Chanarcillo .
„ Coqnimbo to Las Cardas
Total.
Kilo.
183^
133^
1191J5
4111
64^
Pesos
10,834,798
5,526,000
2,960,000
1,000,000
1,040,000
Pesos
69,020
41,370
24,860
23,962
16,000
542^«
English miles
336i
21,360,798
£427,216
—
The commercial navy of Chili consisted, on August 30, 1863, of
259 vessels of 57,111 tons burthen, with 2,866 sailors.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Chili are :— .
M0K£T.
The Pesos, or Dollar ,
A.^«w%<a WLt© of exchange, is.
BOOKS OF BETEBENCE.
547
The Ounce,
Libra .
Quintal
Arroha
Gallon
Vara .
Square Vara
Wmohts and Mbasxtbbs.
1.014 ounce avoirdupois.
1.014 lb. „
101.44 „
25.36 „
6.70 imperial gallons.
0.74 „
0.927 yard.
0.859 square yard.
{of 25 pounds
of •
wine or spirits
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concemiiig Chili
1. Official Publications.
Memoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento del Interior presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1866. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1866.
Memoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento de Hacienda presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1866. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1866.
Estadistica de la Bepublica de Chile. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul Tait on the Trade of Coquimbo for the year 1864 ; in
* Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1865.
Report by Mr. Consul Murray on the Trade of Caldera and other places in
the province of Atacama ; in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.' 8. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. No. X. Fol. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amun&tegui (M. L.) La cuestion de Umites entre Chile i Bolivia. 8. San-
tigo, 1863.
Menadier (J.) Estadistica comercial comparativa de la Repubiica de Chile. 4.
Valparaiso, 1865-66.
Menendez (Baldomero) Manual de geografia y estadistica de Chile. 8. Paris,
1861.
Scherzer (Karl von) Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde
in den Jahren 1857-59. 8. Vienna, 1864.
Wappdus (Prof. J. C.) Die Republiken von Siid-Amerika, geographisch,
statistisch, init besonderer Reriicksichtlgung ihrer Production und ihres Han-
delsverkehrs. 8. Gottingen, 1866.
nk2
548
MEXICa.
Beigning Sovereign and Family.
Maximilian L, Emperor of Mexico, bom Jvly 6, 1832, the son of
Archduke Francis Charles of Austria, and of Princess Sophia of
Bavaria; entered the Austrian navy, 1846; appointed admiral and
commander-in-chief of the Imperial Marine, 1859 ; elected Emperor
of Mexico by the * Asemblea de Notables,* July 10, 1863 ; accepted
the crown, offered by a Mexican deputation, April 10, 1864; landed
at Vera Cruz, May 29, 1864 ; arrived at the city of Mexico, and
assumed the reins of government, June 12, 1864. Married, July
27, 1857, to
Charlotte, Empress of Mexico, bom Jime 7, 1840, the daughter
of the late King Leopold L of the Belgians.
By a decree of the Emperor Maximilian, dated April 10, 1864,
and published at the city of Mexico, July 1, 1864, it is ordered that,
* to obviate all eventualities which might arise, in the case of death
or of any other accident which may render it impossible for us to
continue to govern, the Empress, our august spouse, shall be charged
with the regency of the empire.'
Oovemment and Bevenne.
On April 10, 1865, the anniversary of his acceptance of the
<jrown, the emperor proclaimed a constitution, by the terms of which
Mexico is declared * an hereditary monarchy with a Catholic sove-
reign.' Promise is made of a future participation of the people in
the government of the empire ; but ' while awaiting the definite
organisation, the emperor represents the national sovereignty.' Nine
Ministers and a State Coimcil are to assist the Sovereign in the
government of the country. The emperor's Government guarantees
to all inhabitants of the empire ' equality before the law, personal
safety, safety of property, freedom of worship, and liberty of publish-
ing Uieir opinions.'
By another decree of the emperor, dated February 26, 1865,
he anno^Lnces that he will protect the Roman Catholic Chtu*ch as the
State religion, but tolerate all religions which are not opposed to
morality and civilisation, Tlie e&t&bliahment of 'new religions'
GOVERNMENT AKB REVENUE.
549
requires the Government authorisation. Abuses by loeal authorities
against the exercise of different religions are to be reported to the
Council of State.
The finances of the State have been for several years in great dis-
order ; the expenditure, occasioned by the necessity of maintaining
a large army, being nearly double the amount of the revenue. The
following statement represents the estimates of revenue and expen-
diture for the year 1866, according to official returns:—
Esthiated Exvbihtb fob 1866.
•Dollars
Maritime Custom Houses ..... 9,000,000
Provincial Custom Houses , , , , , 3,600,000
Direct taxes . . , 3,000,000
Stamped paper, post, and othex small taxes . . 1,000,000
Total 16,500,000
Estimated ExPENorruBE fob 1866.
Dollars
8,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
1 000,000
Interest of the public debt ....
Imperial house . . .
Works at palaces and public edifices
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its dependencies
Civil and nulitaiy pensions 1,500,000
Ministry of Finance and offices .... 1,000,000
Other Ministries and their offices ..... 1,000,000
Army and navy 10,000,000
Extraordinary expenses ...... 2,000,000
Total 29,500,000
Total expenditure
Total revenue
Total deficit
29,500,000
16,500,000
13,000,000
The actual deficit will, probably, be much larger than indicated
in the foregoing statement ; the expenditm^e, ever since the establish-
ment of the empire, having been far above the estimates, and the
revenue somewhat below. The revenue of the country, at different
periods, amounted to the following simis :— -
Year
1700
1763
1802
Dollars
3,000,000
6,705,876
20,200,000
^^^oSLpLrjel'^UOO.OOO
1825
1826
1827
1828
10,690,608
13,289,682
10,494,299
12,232,385
Year
1829
1830
1831
Dollars
14,493,189
18,923,299
16,413,060
1861 {5^FJ^^»»*«] 10,148,563
550
MEXICO.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the state of the Mexican
debt, both as regards capital and annual interest, in pounds sterling,
on August 1, 1865 : —
Old English Three per Cent Loan, as per settlement
of 1851
Three per Cent. Stock, created 1864, for settlement of
overdue coupons of old loan
Six per Cent. Anglo-French Loan of 1864
Six per Cent. Lottery Loan of 1865 ....
Interest :e600,000, Lottery Prkes ^£120,000, Sinking
Fund £250,000 i i
Six per Cent. Internal Mexican Debt, circa
Admitted Claims of Foreigners bearing interest at
6 per cent.
Amount due to French Gdvemlnent for w'ar expenses
at 31st March, 1865
Annual Payment to France on account of "War Ex-
penses, as per Paris Convention of 1864
Total ......
Capital
£
10,241,650
4,864,800
12,365,000
10,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
13,000,000
63,471,450
Annual
interest
307,206
145,944
741,900
970,000
420,000
360,000
1,000,000
3,945,094
By a Convention entered into in 1866 between the French and
Mexican Governments, a large portion of the customs duties, hitherto
forming the principal item of public revenue, were assigned in pay-
ment of the interest and sinking fund of the debt owing to France.
The principal articles of this Convention, which was ratified by the
Emperor Napoleoh III. on the 12th of September, 1866, are : —
Art. 1. The Mexican Government grants to the French Government an
assignment of one-half of the receipts of all the maritime Customs of the empire
arising from the undjfrmeijtioned duties : —
Principal and special import and export duties upon all objects.
Additional duties of intemacion and contraregistre.
The duty of mejoras materiales as soon as the said duty shall be freed from
the assignment actually in force in favour of the Vera Cruz and Mexico
Eailway Company — an assignment which cannot be extended.
As the export duties of the Custom House on the Pacific Coast are already
pledged to the extent of three-fourths, the assignment now made in
favour of the French Gt)vemment shall be limited to the 25 per cent
which remains imchanged.
Art 2. The p)x>du(% of the assignment stipulated in the foregoing article shall
be applied : — 1: To the payment of the interest to the sinking fund and of all
the obligations arising out of the two loans contracted in 1864 and 1865 by the
Mexican Government. 2. To the payment of interest at the rate of 3 per cent,
upon the sum of 216,000,000f., of which the Mexican Government has acknow-
ledged itself indebted by virtue of the Convention of Miramar, and of all the
sums subsequently advanced in any shape from the French Treasury. The
VDOunt of Mb liability, estimated now at the approximate sunl of 250,000,0001,
ARMY AND WAVY. 55 1
shall be hereafter fixed in definitive manner. In the event of the amounts re-
ceived being insufficient for the full payment of the charges above-mentioned,
the rights of the holders of bonds of the two loans and of the French Govern-
ment shall remain completely reserved.
Art 3. The amount arising from the assignment of one-half of the produce
of the Mexican Customs shall increase proportionally with the augmentation of
the receipts, and in case the amount should exceed the sum necessary to meet
the charges specified in Art. 1, the excess shall be applied in reduction of the
capital sum due to the French Government.
Art. 4. The qitotaof duties, and the mode of levying them at present in force,
shall not undergo any modification which might have the effect of diminishing
the product of the proportion assigned.
Art 5. The collection of the duties assigned, as mentioned in Art. 1, shall
be performed at Vera Cruz and at Tampico by special agents, placed under the
protection of the French Flag.
The interest of the internal Mexican debt has not been paid for
a number of years.
Army and Havy.
The regular army of Mexico is in process of reorganisation, which
will probably extend over several years. The chief portion of the
actual army, under the command of the emperor, consists of a
* Foreign Legion' of 16,000 men, composed as follows: — 8,000
French, 6,000 Austrians, and 2,000 Belgians. The foreign legion
is divided into four regiments, which bear the titles of * Emperor
Napoleon III.,' * Emperor of Austria,' * Emperor Maximilian,' and
* Empress Charlotte.' The last regiment consists of Belgian soldiers.
The division called * Emperor of Austria ' consists of three battalions
of infantry, a regiment of hussars, a regiment of lancers, a company
of pioneers, and a battery of artillery. The officers in this regiment
are mostly taken from the Austrian army. These officers entered
the Mexican army with one step in advance, and their re-entrance
into the Austrian army is reserved to them for the term of six years.
Besides these troops, there has been stationed in Mexico, since the
year 1863, a French army of occupation, amounting to about 39,000
men. But by a decision of the Emperor Napoleon III., published
in May, 1866, this force is to quit Mexico before the end of 1867,
taking its departure in three divisions, the first detachment to lea\ e
in Nov. 1866, the second in March 1867, and the third in Nov. 1867.
By Imperial decrees of March 16, 1865, Mexico was divided into
eight military sections, the chief towns of which are Toluca, Puebla,
San Luis de Potosi, Guadalajara, Monterey, Durango, Merida, and
Culiacan.
The navy of Mexico consisted, in July 1864, of 9 small sailing
vessels, with a total of 35 guns and 300 men.
55^ ttEXICO,
Area and Popnlatidn.
The total area of Mexico is estimated at 846,615 Engl, square miles,
or about one -fourth of that of the whole of Europe. Within this im-
mense territory there lived, according to a rough enumeration made
in the year 1865, not more than 8,218,080 souls, or about nine on
the square mile. The density of population within the vast and
fertile realm is, therefore, exactly one-half of that of Sweden and
Norway, the thinnest inhabited state in Europe, which contains
eighteen inhabitants per square mile.
The Mexican population comprises five different classes : — 1. The
whites, constituting the aristocracy of the coxmtry, and generally
called Creoles. They are the direct descendants of the Spaniards,
and their number is estimated at 300,000. 2. Those who consider
themselves whites. They are the descendants of Spanish and Indian
parents, and chiefly follow the military profession or hold situations
under Government. This class numbers about 800,000. 3. The
Indians, reduced to a state of abject misery and servitude. They
live in villages, and constitute the agricultural class. Their number,
in the returns of 1862, is given at 4,868,000 ; they speak the
Aztec or old Mexican language. 4. The Mestizos, or mixed races,
distinguished by Various names ; the issue of an Indian and a
negro being called a zambo; that of a white and a negress, a
mulatto ; of a white and a mulatto female, a terzeron ; of the latter
and a white, a quadroon ; and so on to the eighth or tenth shade
of colour. The number of Mestizos in the country is stated at
1,500,000. 5. The Europeans, among whom the Spaniards pre-
dominate. The number of the latter is about 40,000 ; they are
generally nicknamed Gachupinos — which, in the old Mexican tongue,
means pricking with the heel, in allusion to the spurs the first
conquerors wore. The King of Spain formerly exercised a right of
conferring the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the white population
on individuals of any shade by a decree of the audiencia, * Que se
tenga por bianco ' — that he be deemed white. These distinctions of
colour have been abolished as far as political privileges are con-
cerned, by the constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all
colours to the equal enjoyment of civil rights.
While a, republic, Mexico was divided into 19 states, besides the
federal city, the present capital, which formed a province by itself.
This arrangement was changed in 1865 by a division of the empire
into fifty departments, each under a prefect, afler the French model.
The following table gives the names and populations of these fifty
administrative divisions, with that of their capitals :^-
ABBA ARC POPULATION.
553
Deparfcments
PojyoIatloiL
Capitals
Population
Yucatun .
Cftmpeche
L& Ltignnfl
Tabasco .
Tehuantepuc
Ejutla
Teposi^olulii
Vem Cniz
Puebla
Tlujtcala . ^
Vfi.lb de Mexico
Tula
Toluea .
Iturbidp .
Guerrero ,
AeapulL^o .
Mieboaciiti
TiiDnitiiro
Goakoman
Colima
Autkn
Ouantijuato
Agnascali RtiteB ,
FrtMsiiiilo .
Potofii
Mattshuak
Tanmulipiis
Matjvmoros
Nuevo LeoQ
Coabuila
Miipimi
Maziitkn
Sinftloii
Bwmngo
Alamo9
Soiiora
Arizona
Haejuqnilla
BjUopilas ♦
ChihuHtiua
CttliforoLa
Total
126,368
47,000
99,9S0
167.S17
86,276
235,645
93.675
160,720
265459
97,940
467,788
339,571
481,796
266,678
178,174
311,8.53
lJ7,ei9
273,615
124,836
97,949
417.378
179,100
96,450
136J33
219,987
82,674
78,605
601,850
433,161
192,823
82,860
308,118
82,427
71,470
40,034
162,645
63,178
6,777
94,387
82,186
103,608
46,496
41,041
80,129
' 25,603
16,092
71,481
66,824
12,4;20
8,218,080
Cam^hfl .
El Cartnf'n
Siin Jimn Batitiata
San Cristobal
Bucha
Oajaea
Ejutla
Teposcolida
Tuxpan
Puebk
Tlnicrtk ,
TulanciDgo
Tula.
Toluca
Taaco
Querkaro .
Chilpanciugo
Acapulco ,
Mortdia
Tancitam ,
Coalcoman
Colima
Guodalnjara
Autkn
AcapoTieta .
Quauigtiato
Aguascalientes
Zacatoeas *
Frefluillo *
San Luifi .
Matehuala
Cindad Victqriii
MoTilprey ,
Saltillo .
fiaa Fernando de E&sas
Mazatlan .
Slnaloa
DurHngo *
Indde
Alain oa
tTred
Altar
Jimpnea; .
Hidalgo .
Cbibuahna
LaPaa .
24,000
16,500
6,000
6,000
10,500
4,300
25,009
7,128
1,200
10,000
6,000
76.000
4.OO0
200,000
6,000
fi.OOO
12,000
6,000
48,000
3,000
3,000
25,000
2,000
3,000
31,000
70,000
3,000
2,000
63,000
23,000
18,000
12J)00
34.000
3,600
6,000
4i,o6o
14.000
9,000
1.000
15.000
9,000
14,000
6.000
6,000
7,000
1,000
3,00f>
3.000
12,o00
600
55^ MEXICO,
Area and Popnlation.
The total area of Mexico is estimated at 846,615 Engl, square miles,
or about one -fourth of that of the whole of Europe. Within this im-
mense territory there lived, according to a rough enumeration made
in the year 1865, not more than 8,218,080 souls, or about nine on
the square mile. The density of population within the vast and
fertile realm is, therefore, exactly one-half of that of Sweden and
Norway, the thinnest inhabited state in Europe, which contains
eighteen inhabitants per square mile.
The Mexican population comprises five different classes : — 1. The
whites, constituting the aristocracy of the coxmtry, and generally
called Creoles. They are the direct descendants of the Spaniards,
and their number is estimated at 300,000. 2. Those who consider
themselves whites. They are the descendants of Spanish and Indian
parents, and chiefly follow the military profession or hold situations
under Government. This class numbers about 800,000. 3. The
Indians, reduced to a state of abject misery and servitude. They
live ui villages, and constitute the agricultural class. Their number,
in the returns of 1862, is given at 4,868,000 ; they speak the
Aztec of old Mexican language. 4. The Mestizos, or mixed races,
distinguished by various names ; the issue of an Indian and a
negro being called a zambo; that of a white and a negress, a
mulatto ; of a white and a mulatto female, a terzeron ; of the latter
and a white, a quadroon ; and so on to the eighth ot tenth shade
of colour. The number of Mestizos in the country is stated at
1,500,000. 5. The Europeans, among whom the Spaniards pre-
dominate. The number of the latter is about 40,000; they are
generally nicknamed Gachupinos — which, in the old Mexican tongue,
means pricking with the heel, in allusion to the spurs the first
conquerors wore. The King of Spain formerly exercised a right of
conferring the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the white population
on individuals of any shade by a decree of the audiencia, * Que se
tenga por bianco ' — that he be deemed white. These distinctions of
colour have been abolished as far as political privileges are con-
cerned, by the constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all
colours to the equal enjoyment of civil rights.
While a republic, Mexico was divided into 19 states, besides the
federal city, the present capital, which formed a province by itself.
This arrangement was changed in 1865 by a division of the empire
into fifty departments, each under a prefect, after the French model.
The following table gives the names and populations of these fifty
administrative divisions, with that of their capitals :-^
ABBA AKD Vat^lAVlOtl.
553
Bcpartmoati
Fopulath)!!
Oftpltalf
Population
Yucatan .
263,647
M^rida .
24,000
Cain pec be
126,368
Cumpecha ,
15,500
lAJS^na
47,000
El Curm(*ti
6,000
Tabc^co .
99,9a0
Sttn JuMu Bfiutista .
6,000
Chiap^ .
167,317
Rftn CristoW .
10,500
Tehiiiiii tepee .
86,276
Sucbil
4,300
Otijacft
235,845
O^'aca
25,000
Ejutk
03,676
Ejutla
7,128
Tepo«colulii
160,720
T^osfolula
l,20O
. Vera Crm
265,169
Vera Cmi
10,000
TuxjMin .
97,940
Tuxpan
6,000
Puebla .
467,788
Puobk
75,000
Tiaxojila .
339,671
Tlaictilii .
4,000
VaUe de MfiHrr
481J96
Meiieo
200,000
Talajiciijeo
266,Q7a
Tulaticingo
6,000
Tula
178,174
Tula . , .
5.000
Tolaea .
311,8-53
Toluca
12,000
Iturbide .
157,619
Ta*co
5.00E}
Quer^taro
273,615
Quer^taro .
48,000
G^en?era -
124,B36
Chilpuncingo
3,000
Acapulco ,
07,949
Acap^lco .
3,000
MichoacHu
417,578
Mortlia
25,000
Tftucitipo
179,100
TandUiw .
ti.ooo
Coakoraan
96,450
Coalconiiin
3,000
Colimtii
136,733
Colima
31,000
Jalkco .
210,987
Guadalajara
70,000
Autku
82,674
Autlan
3,000
Nayarit .
78.605
Acaponeta .
2.00O
Ounnajuato
601,860
Guanajuato
63,000
Aguaseali flutes
43SJ61
AgtiaBColientfs .
23,000
ZMcatecRS .
192,823
Zacat^cas .
16,000
Frwsiiilb ,
82,860
Fresuillo .
12JJ0O
Potost
308,116
Sflu Lui^ .
34,000
Mat^haak
82,427
Mat^huala
3,600
TamiiulipdB
71,470
Ciiiflaci Viftona,
6.000
Kattimoros
40,034
MfttamofOfl
41,000
Nuero Ltou
162,646
MoiJt«^r^y , d
14,000
Coahmln .
63,178
S«ltillo .
9,000
MapiuiL
6,777
San Fernando de Uoass
1,000
Ma^atlan
94.387
Martian ,
15.000
SiqaIoUt
82,185
Sin^iloa
9,000
Durango
103,608
Durango ,
14,000
Nazas .
46,496
Inik^e
5,000
Alamos ,
41,041
Alaihoa
6,000
Sonora
80,129
Vre&
7.000
Arizoua ,
26,603
AltA^
1,000
Huejuquilla
16,092
Jimpue^ ,
3,O0o
BftfopilftB -
: 71,481
Hidalgo .
3.000
Chihimhua
] 66,824
Chibnahuji
12,000
California
12,420
LaPfl^ .
600
Total .
8,218,080
55^' MEXICO.
Area and Foptilation.
The total area of Mexico is estimated at 846,615 Engl, square miles,
or about one-fourth of that of the whole of Europe. Within this im-
mense territory there lived, according to a rough enumeration made
in the year 1865, not more than 8,218,080 souls, or about nine on
the square mile, The density of population within the vast and
fertile realm is, therefore, exactly one-half of that of Sweden and
Norway, the thinnest inhabited state in Europe, which contains
eighteen inhabitants per square mile.
The Mexican population comprises five different classes : — 1. The
whites, constituting the aristocracy of the coimtry, and generally
called Creoles. They are the direct descendants of the Spaniards,
and their number is estimated at 300,000. 2. Those who consider
themselves whites. They are the descendants of Spanish and Indian
parents, and chiefly follow the military profession or hold situations
under Government. This class numbers about 800,000. 3. The
Indians, reduced to a state of abject misery and servitude. They
live in villages, and constitute the agricultural class. Their number,
in the returns of 1862, is given at 4,868,000 ; they speak the
Aztec or old Mexican language. 4. The Mestizos, or mixed races,
distinguished by "^rarious names; the issue of an Indian and a
negro being called a zambo; that of a white and a negress, a
mulatto ; of a white and a mulatto female, a terzeron ; of the latter
and a white, a quadroon ; and so on to the eighth or tenth shade
of colour. The number of Mestizos in the country is stated at
1,500,000. 5. The Europeans, among whom the Spaniards pre-
dominate. The number of the latter is about 40,000 ; they are
generally nicknamed Gachupinos — which, in the old Mexican tongue,
means pricking with the heel, in allusion to the spurs the first
conquerors wore. The King of Spain formerly exercised a right of
conferring the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the white popuiation
on individuals of any shade by a decree of the audiencia, * Que se
tenga por bianco ' — that he be deemed white. These distinctions of
colour have been abolished as far as political privileges are con-
cerned, by the constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all
colours to the equal enjoyment of civil rights.
While a republic, Mexico was divided into 19 states, besides the
federal city, the present capital, which formed a province by itself.
This arrangement was changed in 1865 by a division of the empire
into fifly departments, each under a prefect, after the French model.
The following table gives the names and populations of these fifiy
administrative divisions, with that of their capitals :-^
AB£A ANS !<dPVLATIOK.
553
!^Qpiirtiii0D Lb
PopulotiOil
Capitals
PopnjQtlon
Curapeche
La Laguoa
Ohiap^ .
Tehuimtepec
Oajaea
Ej-utla
Tepo^eolulii
Vera Cruz
Tuipan ,
Tlu3Cjik .
Valla de Mexieo
Tulaaciiigo
Tula
ToluM
I turbid^ .
Qner^taro
Guerrero .
AcapuJt'o .
Miclioaciin
Taneitjiro
Coaleoman
Colimu
Jalisct)
Aiitlan
Nayarit ,
GiiiiiiiiJTaato
AguaecaUflntea .
Zacfltecas .
Freanillo .
Potosi
Matehaak
Tamiiulipas
Matamoroa
Nutro LeoQ
Coahuila
Mapimi
Mazatlan
H^JDaloui
Durango
Ntiisas
Alamos
Sonora
ArizoDfi
Hnejuquilla
BfttopQfttJ .
Chihuahna
California
263.647
47,000
99,9SO
1&7,317
85,275
235,815
03,675
160720
266,159
e7,&40
467,7SS
33fl,571
481.796
26B,678
178,174
311,853
157,619
273,515
124,836
07,949
417,373
179,100
96,450
136,733
219,987
82,674
78,605
601,850
433,151
192,823
82,860
308,U6
82,427
71,470
40,034
152,645
63.178
6.777
94,387
82.185
103,608
46,495
41,041
80,129
26,603
16,092
71,481
65,824
12.420
Hdrida
Cam^iiB ,
El Curmen
Siin Jimn Bntttista
San CriiJt^NLL
StwhU
Osgaca
Ejutla
Tepos(?oln!H
Vera Ctuk
Tuxpfin
Pueljla
Tlaicak .
Mexico
Tnlancingo
Ttda . . ,
Toluca
Tasco
Quer^taro ,
CMlpjmcJngo
Acupulc-o ,
Morelia
Taneftajfo *
Coalcoman
Colinift
Gmtdaligfira
AutliLB
Acaponeta .
Guttuiyuato
Aguascalientea
Zaeateciia ,.
Presnillo .
Selh Luis .
Xatehuala
Ciudad Victoria
Matamoifoa
]tfontere? .
Saltillo ,
San Fernando de
Hazatlan ,
Siniilfja
Durango *
Ind^e
Alflttiog
Ures
Altiif
Jimeoez ,
Hidalg<> ,
Cbibuaiua
La Pa;z
Rosas
24,000
15,500
5,000
6,000
10,500
4,300
2a.000
7,128
1,200
10,000
0,000
75,000
4,000
200,000
6,000
5,000
12,000
5,000
48,000
3,000
3,600
25,000
2,000
3.000
31,000
7u,ooo
3,000
2,060
63,000
23.000
16,000
12J)00
34,000
MOO
6,000
41,0&0
14,000
0,000
1,000
15,000
9,000
14,000
5,000
6,000
7.000
1,000
3,OOo
S,000
12,000
500
Total
8,218,080
5525 HEXICO.
Area and Fopnlation.
The total area of Mexico is estimated at 846,615 Engl, square miles,
or about one-fourth of that of the whole of Europe. Within this im-
mense territory there lived, according to a rough enumeration made
in the year 1865, not more than 8,218,080 souls, or about nine on
the square mile, The density of population within the vast and
fertile realm is, therefore, exactly one-half of that of Sweden and
Norway, the thinnest inhabited state in Europe, which contains
eighteen inhabitants per square mile.
The Mexican population comprises five different classes : — 1. The
whites, constituting the aristocracy of the coimtry, and generally
called Creoles. They are the direct descendants of the Spaniards,
and their number is estimated at 300,000. 2. Those who consider
themselves whites. They are the descendants of Spanish and Indian
parents, and chiefly follow the military profession or hold situations
under Government. This class numbers about 800,000. 3. The
Indians, reduced to a state of abject misery and servitude. They
live in villages, and constitute the agricultural class. Their number,
in the returns of 1862, is given at 4,868,000 ; they speak the
Aztec or old Mexican language. 4. The Mestizos, or mixed races,
distinguished by "^rarious names; the issue of an Indian and a
negro being called a zambo; that of a white and a negress, a
mulatto ; of a white and a mulatto female, a terzeron ; of the latter
and a white, a quadroon ; and so on to the eighth or tenth shade
of colour. The number of Mestizos in the country is stated at
1,500,000. 5. The Europeans, among whom the Spaniards pre-
dominate. The number of the latter is about 40,000 ; they are
generally nicknamed Gachupinos — ^which, in the old Mexican tongue,
means pricking with the heel, in allusion to the spurs the first
conquerors wore. The King of Spain formerly exercised a right of
cpnferring the exclusive privileges enjoyed by the white population
on individuals of any shade by a decree of the audiencia, * Que se
tenga por bianco ' — that he be deemed white. These distinctions of
colour have been abolished as far as political privileges are con-
cerned, by the constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all
colours to the equal enjoyment of civil rights.
While a republic, Mexico was divided into l9 states, besides the
federal city, the present capital, which formed a province by itself.
This arrangement was changed in 1865 by a division of the empire
into fifty departments, each under a prefect, after the French model.
The following table gives the names and populations of these fifty
administrative divisions, with that of their capitals :^-
ABSA i.»t) FOFttLATION.
553
Xtepartments Fctpulathm
Capltalg
PopxilfltJoa
Tuoatan ,
263,647
Mdrida .
24,000
Campeebe
126,368
CampGche ,
15,-500
La lit^utia
47,000
El Cnrirn[ n
6,000
Tabasfco ,
99,930
San Juan Bautista
6,000 1
Cbiupua .
157,317
San Criatobfll ,
10,500
Tfthuant^pec .
86,275
Sucbil
4,300
Oajaca
335,845
Oi^aca
25,000
EjuUa
93,675
Y.iutia, ,
7,128
Teposcolulft
I6a.720
T^^oscolnla
1,200
VeraOnM '
265,159
Ten CrvLz
10,000
Tii3;pan .
97,940
Tiixpan
6,000
Puebla .
467,788
Puobk .
76,000
Tksciik .
339,571
Tlijjceda .
4,000
Valle de M^cc
481J96
Mexico
200,{!00
Tulaiioingo
266,678
Tidaiiciiigo
6,000
Tul^
178,174
Tula . . .
6,ono
Toluca ,
311,853
Toluea
12,000
Iturbide .
157,619
Tasfo
5,000
Qtler^taro
273,515
Quei^taro .
48,000
Guerrero .
124,836
Chilpttncingo
3,000
Acapulco .
Miehoacan
07,949
Acapulco .
3,000
417,378
Mort'lia
26,000
TiincitiiTO
179,100
Tandtaro .
2,000
Cofllcoman
' 96,430
Coal<;oman
3,000
Colimn
13A733
ColiTua
31,000
Jiiliseo -
219,987
Guja^aUjani
70,000
Autkn
82,674
Autkn
3,000
, Nayarit .
7S,B05
Acaponela ,
2.000
Giiatiiiinato
fi0l,S50
Guanajuato
63,000
AguasGvliftntes
433,151
Aguascalientes ,
23,000
Zucatecas .
192,823
^acatecaa ,
16,000
Pwsnillo ,
82,860
Freeuillo ,
I2J)00
PotosI
308,116
San Luia .
34,000
Itatehuala
82,427
Matebuala
3,500
Tamaiilipfls
71,470
Ciudad Vict or k .
0.000
MatAraoroa
40,034
Matanioros
41,0G0
Nuero Leon
152,045
Moiit*=rej ,
14,000
Coahuila .
63,178
ShltiUo ,
9,000
MrtpiTnl ,
6,777
San Fernando de Rosa^
1,000
Mazat.lan ,
94,387
Mazatlan .
15,000
Siiialoa ,
82,186
Sinaloa ,
9,000
Durango .
10M08
Durdngo .
14,000
NiizaB
46,495
Ind^ff
6,000
Alamos .
41,041
Akmo€ .
6,000
Sonora
80,129
Urea
7,900
Arizona .
25,603
Altat
1,000
HuejuquUla
( 16,092
Jimenez ,
3,00o
BjUopilas ,
71,481
Hidalgo ,
S,0(>0
Chibuahua
t 65,824
Chihuahua
12,^00
California
12,420
La Paz .
I
500
V
Total
8,218,080
\
\
554
ItEXICO.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Great Britain with Mexico has undergone great
fluctuations for the last ^(ty years. The imports of British produce
into Mexico amounted to 112,599/. in 1818; they fell to 1,598/. in
1821; rose to 1,228,040/. m 1827; fell to 160,752/. in 1831; and
rose again to 779,059/. in 1849. Then again came a period of
decline, which continued till 1861, after which a steady and gradual
progress made itself felt. The subjoined tabular statement shows
the total value of the imports from Mexico into the United Kingdom,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce to Mexico in each of
the five years, 1861 to 1865 :—
Tears
Imports from Hexioo
into the
United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
into Mexico
1861
1862
1863
1864
1866
£
347,629
619,508
2,294,337
3,129,334
3,216,924
£
683,667
757,823
1,678,572
1,809,743
1,898,056
The extraordinary rise in the imports from Mexico into the
United Kingdom, from 1862 to 1865, was due solely to the introduc-
tion of raw cotton, of which, previous to 1862, not a single pound
was imported. The other Mexican imports are of a miscellaneous
nature, the most notable being mahogany, averaging in value
100,000/. per annum. Cotton manufactures, of an average value
of 450,000/. per annum, form the staple export of the United Kingdom
to Mexico.
The formerly important silver mines of Mexico, neglected for a
long time, were partly reopened in 1864. The former annual ave-
rage produce of these mines is given as follows :—
DoIlarB
Zacat€caa 6,000,000
Guanajuato 2,000,000
San Luis Potofii 600,000
Guadalajara 600,000
Mexico 1,000,000
Durango 1,000,000
11,500,000
Add bars and silver exported secretly . 1,000,000
12,100,000
;e2,420,000
BOOKS OF KEFERBNCE. 555
Since the accession of the Emperor Maximilian, the working of
the silver mines has been resumed on an extended scale.
A line of railway, called the * Imperial Mexican,' 300 miles long,
from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, with branch to Puebla, was
commenced, under State aid, in 1864, and is to be completed in
1867. A portion of the line, from the capital to San Angelo, was
opened in September, 1865.
Honey, Weights, and Heasnrds.
The money, weights, and measures of Mexico and the British
equivalents^ are as follows : —
Money.
The Dollar . . . Average rate of exchange, 4*.
Weights and Measubes.
The^rroia/^^'^® • ' ^ 3| imperial gallons.
„ Square Vara . , . = 1.09 vara « 1 yard.
„ Fanega . . . . » 1 J imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Hexico.
1. Officiai* Publications.
AnaJes del Minesterio de fomento, colonizacion, industria y comercio. 8.
Mexico, 1865-66.
Comercio exterior de Mexico. Fol. Mexico. 1866.
Memoria del Secretario del despacho de hacienda. Fol. Mexico, 1865.
Report by Mr. R. T. C. Middleton, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the
Trade, Industry, Finances, and Population of the Mexican Empire, dated
Aug. 12, 1865; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XI.
London, 1866.
Reports of Mr. Consul Jonson and Mr. Consul Blacker, on the Trade and
Commerce of Mexico; in * Abstract of Reports on the Trade of various Coun-
tries.* No. XI. Fol. London, 1862.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
Message of the President of the United States of March 20, 1866, relating
to the Condition of Affairs in Mexico, in answer to a resolution of the House of
Representatives, of Dec. 11, 1865. 8. Washington, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien et moderne. 18. Paris, 1866.
Egloffstein (Baron F. W. von), Contributions to the Geology and the Physical
Geography of Mexico ; with Profiles of some of the principal Mining Districts.
8. New York, 1865.
Hauslab (Frz. t;.), Ueber die Bodengestaltung in Mexico und deren Einfluss
auf Verkehr und Militarischen Angriff iind Vertheidigung. With Maps and
Plates. 8. Vienna, 1865.
Mailer (J. W.), Rftisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und Mexico. 3
ToLs. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
556
PARAGUAY.
Constitatioii and Oovemment.
The form of government of Paraguay is nominally republican, but
approaches in reality to an absolute despotism. Representative
institutions exist in the form of a congress of several hundred mem-
bers, which, however, is entirely subject to the head of the State.
The latter, called President of the Eepublic, exercises the whole
legislative and executive authority, and is commander in-chief of
the troops, as well as head of the Church, the law, and every other
branch of the Government. The president has, moreover, the right
to nominate his own successor. ....
President of Paraguay. — ^Don Francisco Solano Lopez, bom in
1827, the eldest son of Don Carlos Lopez, president of the republic;
succeeded to the presidency at the death of his father, by the will of
ihe latter, Sept. 10, 1862.
The President of the Republic is assisted in the discharge of his
administrative functions by four secretaries of state, whom he may
appoint or discharge at will. They are : —
1, The Secretary of the Interior. — ^Francis Sanchez,
2. The Secretary of War and of the Navy. — Col. VenBncio Lopez.
8. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs-*— Jos^ Berges,
4. The Secretary of the Treasury.— Mariano Gonzalez,
The country is divided into 20 sections, or commandanciaa, ex-
clusive of a territory in the south-east, called the Missions, occupying
600 square leagues, and governed by a special officer.
Population, Bevenue, and Commerce.
The area of Paraguay is estimated at 73,000 square miles, and
the population, according to an enumeration made in 1857, amoimted
to 1,337,431. Nearly one-half the entire territory is national pro-
perty. It consists of pasturage lands and forests, which have never
been granted to individuals ; the estates of the Jesuit missions, an4
other religious corporations ; and a great number of country houses
and farming establishments confiscated by the late dictator, Francia.
The latter paid great attention from the commencement of his reign
to the improvement of agriculture, and to rendering the Government
POPULATieN, EEyBNUB, iA-ND COMMERCE. 557
property productive ; and, by so doing, created a branch of revenue
which, aided by time and a thrifty Government, has been found suffi-"
cient of itself for all the wants of the State. Paxt of these lands are
let at a very moderate rent, and foi- an unlimited period, linder the
single condition that they shall be properly cultivated, or turned
into pasturage. On other parts of these national lands there are
large farms, where thousands of cattle and horses are bred. These
supply the cavalry with horses and the troops with provisions;
besides which, they also furnish great numbers of oxen for the con-
sumption of the capital. The farming establishments are objects of
peculiar solicitude to the Government ; and every month the master
herdsmen are obliged to make a detailed report concerning them.
No official account of revenue and expenditure has ever been
given ; but it is calculated that the annual receipts amount to about
750,000Z., derived from State property, the greater part of which
has been confiscated ; tithes in kind upon all articles of produce,
the right to levy which is sojd each year to the best bidder ; taxes
upon shops and storehouses ; the droit d^aubaine, or right to the
property of all foreigners dying in Paraguay ; and fines, postage,
sale, stamp and commercial dues. The principal State expendi-
ture is for war stores and the support of the army. There is no
public debt.
The military force formerly numbered only about 3,000 men,
principally cavalry ; but in the war against the allied forces of
Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic, which broke out in
March, 1865, the Government raised in a short time an effective
army of 60,000 men, including 10,000 cavalry, and 5,000 artillery.
According to newspaper reports, these troops were divided into
four corps d'armee of from 10,000 to 20,000 men,, and had with them
400 field pieces and battery guns. The chief fortress of Paraguay
is Humayita, manned, in 1865, by 8,000 men, with 120 gims of
large calibre.
The Paraguayan navy was said to consist, in 1865, of 3 brigs
of war, 21 steamers, and 15 small gunboats, partly iron-clad, each
carrying one 80-pounder Armstrong gun.*
The commerce of Paraguay is small, and almost entirely in the
hands of Government. With the United Kingdom, Paraguay has
held no direct commercial intercourse for many years, except in
1862, when a few articles of machinery and furniture, valued at
1,764/., were exported to the republic. The great staple of Para-
guay is 1/erba matej a species of cabbage, the leaves of which are
dried and reduced to powder, in which state it is exported, being
extensively used in South America as a kind of tea. When the
* Buenos Ayrea Standard^ Apxnl 7.0, \%^^.
5 58 PARAGUAY.
crops of mat^ are being gathered, the Grovernment sends its agents to
the plantations, who fix the quantity wanted by Grovemment, as well
as the price to be paid for it ; the remainder is left at the disposal of
the proprietor of the land. The Grovemment sells its share at a large
profit ; and any private person wanting to export mate has to pay a
heavy tax for the privil^e.
Honey, Weights, and measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Paraguay, and the Britisli
equivalents, are : —
MONBT.
The Dollar . . . Average rate of exchange, Zs. 6d.
Weiohts and Mbasxtbes.
The Quintal. . . .a 101.40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroha . . . . = 25.35 „ „
„ Fanega . . . . = 1 J imperial bosheL
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Faragoay.
Non-Official Publications.
Bemersay (L. A.) Histoire physique, ^nomique et politique du Paraguay et
des ^tablisHements des Jesuites. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.
i>w ^a^y (Alfred), La R^publique de Paraguay. 8. Bruxelles, 1865.
Mansfield (Charles), Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New edition. By the
Kev. Charles Kingsley. 8. London, 1866.
Powell (David), The Republic of Paraguay. In * Vacation Tourists and Notes
of Travel.' Edited by Francis Gkilton. 8. London, 1864.
559
PERU.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of Peru is republican, all power being
held to emanate from the people. The constitution is modelled oh
that of the United States, the legislative power being vested in a
Senate and a House of Kepresentatives ; the former composed of de-
puties of the provinces — two for each province — and the latter of
representatives elected by the electoral colleges of provinces and
parishes. The parochial electoral colleges consist of all the citizens
resident in a parish, for every 200 of whom an elector is nominated ;
and in every village with an amount of population entitling it to
name an elector, a municipal body is established, subject to the
approbation of the departmental juntas. The electoral colleges of
provinces are composed of parochial delegates, who elect deputies to
congress in the proportion of 1 for every 20,000 inhabitants. The
provinces, however, in which the whole population does not come
up to 10,000, may nevertheless send a deputy. In the session of
1864, the Senate was composed of 36 members, and the House of
Eepresentatives of 86 members.
The executive power is entrusted to a president, assisted by a
vice-president, both elected by the people for the term of six years.
President of the Republic, — General Don Miguel Anthony Pezet,
elected Vice-president of the Kepublic, April 1862 ; succeeded to
the presidency, at the death of President San Ramon, April 3, 1863.
During the greater part of the years 1865 and 1866, an intestine
war was raging in Peru, in consequence of which Colonel Mariano
Ignacio Prado assumed the executive, under the title of * Provisional
Supreme Chief of the Republic'
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a cabinet
of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The ministers of the
* Provisional Supreme Chief of the RepubHc ' were, in 1866 —
1. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Terribio Pachaco.
2. The Minister of the Interior. — J. M. Quimper,
3. The Minister of Justice. — ^T. Simeon Tejeda,
4. The Minister of Finance and Commerce. — Ignacio Pardo.
5. The Minister of War and of the Navy. — 3o^^ Golxjex.
The administration of each of thelihree de]^arX.Ta,«tL\& o^ ^^ t^-^nJj^^^
560
F£BU.
is under a local governor, assisted by provincial juntas. The latter
are bodies sitting in the capital of each department, composed of two
members from each province, elected in the same manner as the
members of the senate, and whose functions include the assessing of
taxes, examining the accounts, and determining the military force
of the department.
Bevenue, Anay, and Population.
The revenue of the republic in the year 1862 amounted to
21,245,832 dollars, or 4,249,167Z., nearly three-fourths of which
was derived from the sale of guano. The expenditure during the
same period amounted to 21,446,466 dollars, or 4,289,293^., leaving
a deficit of 200,634 dollars, or 40,126/.
The details o£ the actual revenue sand expenditure of each of the
years 1860 and 1861 were as follows :— .-
Branches of Revenue and Expenditure
I8GO 1861
Customs
Sale of Guano ....
Other receipts ....
Total ... 1
Ministry of the Interior .
„ Foreign Affairs .
„ Justice, &c. .
„ Conunerce, &c. .
„ War wid Mannfi .
Total ... 1
Revenue
DoUars
3,505,701
16,259,822
1,288,385
Dollars
3,251,755
16,921,751
1,072,326
21,053,908
£4,210,781
21,245,832
:fi4,249,166
Expenditure
1,989,028
447,005
1,090,844
8,410,000
9,186,999
12,034,959
429,460
1,092.665
7,604,402
10,284,980
21,123,876
;fi4,224,776
21,448,466
£4,289,293
The liabilities of Peru on July 1, 1865, were as follows : —
£
Foreign debt of May 30, 1802 . ..... 3,464,640
Home debt of December 81, 1862 .... 1,227,1.12
Loan of Thompson, Bonar & Co., October 7, 1863 . 7,000,000
Consolidated 6 per cent, loan (Thompson, Bonar
& Co., February 22, 1865) 10^000,000
To^. . . . 21,691,762
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 56 1
The 1O,OO0,OOOZ. loan of 1865 was issued in part for redeeming
the older debt ; and the loan itself is redeemable by a sinking fund
of 4 per cent, per annum. The whole of these liabilities are secured
by the guano deposits of the Peruvian islands.
The army of the republic in 1866 was composed as follows : —
Men
Infantry 8,400
Cavalry 1,200
Artillery 1,000
Gendarmerie 5,408
Total .... 16,008
The Peruvian navy consisted, in the summer of 1866, of 1 iron-
clad frigate, called the * Independencia ; ' 2 other steam frigates, the
* Apurimac ' and the * Amazonas,' 3 corvettes, and a brig, armed in
the aggregate with 110 guns. The * Independencia ' iron-clad, built
at Poplar, London, in 1865, has a stem constructed as a ram, and
the armament consists entirely of Armstrong guns on theshimt prin-
ciple— ^viz., 12 70-poimders of 4 tons each on the main deck, and 2
pivot guns, 150-pounders, weighing 7 tons each, on the upper deck.
These latter guns can be used on a line even with the keel.
The area of Peru is estimated to extend over 502,760 square
miles, while the popidation, according to a rough enumeration made
in 1860, amounts to 2,865,000, the greater number of them descen-
dants of Spaniards, mixed with * Indians.' The religion in Peru is
the Roman Catholic ; no other is tolerated. Each of the three
departments is a diocese or bishopric. The bishop resides in the
capital, with his respective chapter of canons, ecclesiastical governors,
justice of the peace, and judges of his court. In each province there
is a vicar ; in each district a cura, or parish priest ; and in the minor
villages a deputy cura, curate, or assistants. In the small city of
Arequipa there are 3 monasteries, 4 convents, 1 beatorio, or house
for the reception of pious women ; 1 cathedral, 17 temples, large and
small ; House of * Recogidas,' and a hospital for the clergy, the sick
of both sexes ; and an orphan asylimi. In the still smaller town of
Cuzco are found the same number of public buildings, 20 churches,
4 convents, and 5 large monasteries.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercoyrse between Peru and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement^ wlakkt ^^^"^^
total value of the imports from Peru into X\i^ \ixa\ft.^ ^^jav^^^si^^^si^
0 0
562
PERU.
of the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
Peru in each of the five years, 1861 to 1865 : —
Years
Imports from Peru into
the
United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
of the United Kingdom
1861
1862
1863
1864
1866
£
3,169,652
2,394,092
3,665,328
2,666,431
4,002,150
£
1,194,873
824,685
1,027,343
1,331,875
1,193,335
The staple article of import from Peru into the United Kingdom
is guano, to the value of from 1,000,000Z. to 2,000,000/. Among
the other articles of import are sl^eep and alpaca wool, and nitre, each
averaging 300,000Z. per annum in value. Cotton and woollen manu-
factures are the principal British exports to Peru.
The chief wealth of Peru consists in the immense deposits of guano
on the islands belonging to the republic, particularly the Chincha
and Lobos Islands. It is calculated that these deposits contain about
16,000,000 tons, of the estimated value of 80 millions sterling. The
amount of guano exported from the Chincha Islands in 1863 was
313,479 tons. The whole value of the exports of guano and other
products from the port of Callao in 1863 was 22,468,802 dollars, or
4,493,760/. The whole amount of exports from all the ports of the
republic in the year 1863 was 32,598,610 dollars, or 6,519,722/.
Money, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Peru, and the British equi-
valents, are : —
MONBY.
The Dollar . . Average rate of exchange, 4«.
Weights and Measubes.
The Ouru:e . . . . = 1.014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra ....=» 1.014 lb.
„ Quintal . . . . = 101.44 „
^rroftai^'^^^P^^^ ' = 25.36 „
" \ of wine or spirits = 6.70 imperial gallons,
„ GaUon . . . . = 0.74
„ Vara . . . . = 0.927 yard.
„ Sgmre Vara . . , -. 0.869 square yard.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 563
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Fern.
1. Offictai Publications.
Anales de la dictadura. Oolecciou de docmnentos oficiales de la jefetura
suprema del Coronel Mariano I. Prado. Entregas 1-13. Lima, 1866.
Reglamento de comerdo de la Rep^blica del PeriL 4. Lima, 1864.
Report of Mr. Constd Cocks on the Trade of Peru for 1863, in * Commercial
Reports received at the Foreign Office.* 8. London, 1864.
Report of Mr. Consul Cocks on the Trade of Peru for 1864, in * Commercial
Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
Report of Mr. Consul Wilfliew on the Trade of Peru for 1866, in * Commer-
cial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
CabeUo (Pedro M.), Guia poHtica eclesiastica y militar del Peru, para el ano
de 1865. 12. Lima, 1865.
Grandidier (E.), Voyage dans TAm^rique du Sud, P^rou et Bolivie. 8. Paris,
1863.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peru and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Leubel (A. G.), El PerA in 1860, 6 sea Anuaris nacional. Primer ano. 8.
Lima, 1860.
Menendez (D. Baldomero), Manuel de geografia y estadistica del Perd. 12,
Paris, 1862.
PaZ'Soldan (D. Mateo), Geografia del Peru. 8. Paris, 1863.
00 2
564
UNITED STATES.
Constitution and Oovemment
The national government of the United States is a democratic
federative repulDlic, composed of States. It is based on the constitu-
tion of September 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were made
on December 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment pn January 8,
1798 ; a twelfth amendment on September 25, 1804 ; and a thir-
teenth amendment on December 18, 1865.
By the constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted to
three separate authorities, the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. The executive power is vested in a president. He is the
only executive officer known to the constitution. He is appointed by
an Electoral College, chosen by the popidar vote of all the States ; the
number of electors from each State being equal to the number of
senators and representatives which each has in Ccmgress. His term
of office is four years, but he is eligible for re-election indefinitely.
No person is eligible to the office of president who is not a native-
bom citizen, of the age of thiiijy-five years. The president is com-
mander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia in the
service of the Union. He has the power of a veto on all laws passed
by Congress ; but notwithstanding his veto, any bill may become a
law on its afterwards being passed by two-thirds of both Houses of
Congress. The vice-president is ex-officio president of the Senate ;
and in case of the death or resignation of the president, he becomes
the president for the remainder of the term, and his place is filled by
the vice-president, or preadent/^ro teni. of the Senate. The elections
for president and vice-president are held in all the States on the first
Tuesday in November, every four years ; and on the 4th of March
following th^ new president elect is inaugurated.
President of the United States. — Andrew Johnson, bom at Raleigh,
North Carolina, December 29, 1808 ; apprenticed to a tailor at Ra-
leigh, 1818-24?; established himself as master tailor at Greenville,
Tennessee, 1827 ; elected alderman of GreenviUe, 1828, and mayor,
1830; member of the State Legislature, 1835-37 and 1839-41;
elected member of the State Senate, 1840; member of the Lower
House of Congress of the United States, 1843 ; elected governor of
Tennessee, 1853, .and re-elected 1855 ; senatorof the United States,
1857-63 ; elected yice-President of the United States, November 8,
1864; assumed the voffice of President, at the death of Abraham
Lincobi, April 14, 1865.
Vice-President of the United States. — Lafayette S. Foster, bom at
Franklin; Connecticut, November 22, 1806 ; studied law and gradu-
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
565
ated at Brown University, Ehode Island, 1830; member of the Legisla-
ture of Connecticut, 1839-64 ; elected member of the United States,
1855 ; re-elected, 1860 ; vice-president of the Senate^ 1865 ; assumed
the office of Vice-President of the United States, on the elevation of
Vice-President Johnson to the presidental chair, April 14, 1865.
The President of the United States has an annual salary of 25,000
dollars, and the Vice-President of 8,000 dollars.
Since the adoption of the constitution the offices of president and
vice-president have been occupied as follows : —
Presidents of the United States.
Name
George Washington
John Adams .
Thomas Jefferson
James Madison
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams
Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren
William H. Harrison
John Tyler
James K. Polk .
Zachary Taylor
MUlard Fillmore
Frankhn Pierce
James Buchanan
Abraham Lincoln
Andrew Johnson
From State
Virginia .
Massachusetts
Virginia .
Virginia .
Virginia .
Massachusetts
Tennessee .
New York .
Ohio
Virginia .
Tennessee .
Louisiana .
New York.
New Hampshire
Pennsylvania
Illinois
Tennessee
Term of Service
Born
Died
1789-1797
1732
1799
1797-1801
1736
1826
1801-1809
1743
1826
1809-1817
1761
1837
1817-1826
1769
1831
1825-1829
1767
1848"
1829-1837
1767
1845
1837-1841
1782
186a
1841-1841
1773
1841
1841-1845
1790
1862
1845-1849
1796
1849
1849-1850
1784
1850
1860-1863
1800
—
1853-1857
1804
—
1857-1861
1791
—
1861-1865
1809
1865
1865 —
1808
—
Vice-Pbbsidbnts of the United States.
Name
John Adams .
Thomas Jefferson
Aaron Burr
George Clinton
Elbridge Gerry
Daniel T. Tompkins
John C. Calhoun
Martin Van Buren
Richard M. Johnson
John Tyler .
George M. Dallas
Milled Fillmore
William B. King
John C. Breckinridge
Hannibal Hamlin
Andrew Johnson
Lafayette 8. Foster
From State
Term of Service Bom Died
Massachusetts
Virginia .
New York .
New York.
Massachusetts
New York .
South Carolina
New York .
Kentucky .
Virginia .
Pennsylvania.
New York .
Alabama .
Kentucky .
Maine
Tennessee
Connecticut
1789-1797
1797-1801
1801-1805
1806-1812
1813-1814
1817-1825
1826-1832
1833-1837
1837-1841
1841-1841
1846-1849
1849-1860
1863-1858
1867-1861
] 861-1865
1865-1865
\%^5> —
1735
1743
1756
1739
1744
1774
1782
1782
1780
1790
1792
1800
1786
1821
1809
i&oa
1826
1826.
1836
1812
1814
1825
185a
1862
1850
1862
1853
566 UNITED STATES,
The administrative business of the nation is conducted by several
officers, with the tide of secretaries, who form what is called the
* Cabinet.' They are chosen by the president. Each of the secretaries
presides over a separate department, imder the authority of the
president. The heads of departments are seven in number,
aiamely : —
1. The Secretary of State and of Foreign Affairs. — ^William Henry
Seward, bom in New York, May 16, 1801 ; studied jurisprudence ;
•elected member of the Senate of the State of New York, 1830 ; mem-
ber of the Senate of the United States, 1849-61.
2. Secretary of Treasury. — Hugh M^Culloch, appointed March 3,
1865.
3. Secretary of "War. — Edwin M. Stanton, of Pennsylvania.
4. Secretary of Navy. — Gideon Welles, of Connecticut.
5. Secretary of the Interior. — Thomas Harland, acting pro tein,
6. Postmaster-General. — ^Alexander W. Randall, of Wisconsin ;
appointed Aug. 1, 1866.
7. Attorney-General. — Henry Stanhery, of Ohio; appointed
Aug. 1, 1866.
Each of the above ministers has a salary of 8,000 dollars per
annum. All hold their office under the will of the president.
The whole legislative power is vested by the constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
TThe Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each
State, chosen by the State legislatures for six y^ars. Senators must
not be less than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens of the
United States for nine years ; and be residents of the State for which
they are chosen. Each senator is entitied to one vote. Besides
its ordinary capacity, the Senate is vested with certain judicial
functions, and its members constitute a High Court of Impeachment.
The judgment only extends to removal from office and disqualifi-
^cation. Representatives have the sole power of impeachment.
The House of Representatives, or Lower House, is composed of
members elected every second year by the people of the several
States. To ascertain the number to which each State is entitled, a
-census is taken every ten years. By the law of May 23rd, 1850,
under which the existing apportionment of representatives was
originally made, it was enacted that the number of representatives
in Congress should be 233, that the representative population deter-
mined by the census of that year and thereafter should be divided
by said number 233, and tiiat tiie quotient so found should be the
ratio of representation for the several States. The ratio thus
ascertained under the census of 1860 was 124,183 ; and upon this
basis the 233 representatives were apportioned among the several
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 567
States — one representative for every district containing that ntunber
of persons ; giving to each State at least one representative.
Subsequently, by the act of March 4, 1862, the number of repre-
sentatives from and after March 3, 1863, was increased from 233 to
241 by allowing one additional representative to each of the fol-
lowing States, viz., Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. Representatives must
not be less than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of
the United States for seven years, and be residents in the States from
which they are chosen. In addition to the representatives from the
States, the House admits a * delegate * from each organised territory,
who has the right to debate on subjects in which his territory is
interested, but is not entitled to vote.
Every bill which has passed the House of Representatives and
the Senate must, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Pre-
sident of the United States ; if not approved, he may return it,
with his objections, to the House in which it originated. If after
reconsideration two-thirds of that House agree to pass the bill, it
must be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by
which it must likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-
thirds of that House, it becomes a law. But in all such cases the
votes of both Houses are determined by yeas and nays, and the
names of the persons voting for and against the bill are entered on
the journal of each House respectively. The occasions when
presidents of the United States have used their veto power have
been very rare. From the establishment of the republic to the end
of the year 1866, a period embracing 39 Congresses, there were but
28 vetoes, being an average of one in three years. Of these vetoes
President Washington sent two to Congress; President Madison,
six; President Monroe, one; President Jackson, nine; President
Tyler, four ; President Polk, three ; President Buchanan, one ; and
President Johnson, two. Presidents John Adams, Jefferson,
John Quincy Adams, Van Buren, Harrison, Taylor, Fillmore, Pierce,
and Lincoln, sent no vetoes to Congress, and their administrations
covered an aggregate of nearly 33 years. Of the 28 vetoes sent to
Congress, in but two cases were the adherents of the rejected bills
able to muster two-thirds of the members for their passage. The
first case was an imimportant law in President Tyler*s adminis-
tration, and the other was the second veto of President Johnson, the
Civil Rights Bill, which was passed against his veto in the session of
1866. Kany Bill is not returned by the president within ten days
after it has been presented to him, it becomes a law, in like manner,
as if he had signed it.
Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurr^CkRfc <2»1 "^^
568 UNITED STATBS.
Senate and House of Representatives is necessary, must be presented
to the President of the United States ; and before taking effect,
must be approved by him, or being disapproved, must be repassed
by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Hepresentatives.
By the 8th Section of the 1st Article of ^e Constitution of the
United States, the Congress has power : —
1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare
of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be
imiform throughout the United States ;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
several States, and with the Indian tribes ;
4. To establish a imiform rule of naturalisation, and imiform
laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States ;
5. To coin money and regulate the value thereof, and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ;
6. To provide for the punishment of coimterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States ;
7. To establish post-offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
their respective writings and discoveries ;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ;
10. To define and pimish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offences against the law of nations ;
11. To declare war, gi'ant letters of marque and reprisal, and
make rules concerning captures on land and water ;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ;
13. To provide and maintain a navy ;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land
and naval forces ;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ;
16. To provide for organising, arming, and disciplining the
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respec-
tively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training
the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever,
over such district, not exceeding ten miles square, as may, by
cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become
the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise
CONSTITUTION AND GOVEKNMBNT. 569
like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legis-
lature of the State in which the same shall be for the erection of
forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;
and
18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United
States.
Under the law of August 16, 1856, the salary of a senator,
representative, or delegate in Congress is 6,000 dollars for each
Congress, at the rate of 3,000 dollars per annum, and mileage at the
rate of 8 dollars for every twenty miles of estimated distance by the
most usual road from his place of residence to the seat of Congress,
at the commencement and at the end of every session ; but this
mileage is allowed for two sessions only in each Congress. The
salary of the speaker of the House is double that of a representa-
tive, and the president pro tempore of the Senate, when there is no
vice-president, is entitled to the salary allowed by law to the vice-
president, of 8,000 dollars per annum.
The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators
and representatives are prescribed in each State by the Legislature
thereof; but Congress may at any time by law alter such regu-
lations, or make new ones, except as to the places of choosing
senators. No senator or representative can, during the time for
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under
authority of the United States, which shall have been created or
the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such
tinie ; and no person holding any office under the United States can
be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
According to the sixth article of the Constitution, * the senators
and representatives, and the members of the several State Legislatures,
and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and
of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to
support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required
as a qualification to any office or public trust imder the United
States.'
The period usually termed ' a Congress,' in legislative language,
continues for two years; as, for example, from March 4, 1865,
until March 3, 1867, at which latter time the term of the
representatives to tbe Thirty-Ninth Congress expires, and the
term of the new House of Representatives commences. Con-
gresses always commence and expire in years terminating with odd
numbers ; as 1789-91, which was the term of the First Congress, or
1861-63, the term of the Thirty-Seventh Con^^Ba, ot \^<o^-^^ ^Ni^fc
term of the Thirty-Ninth Congress.
570
UNITED STATES.
The following is a list of —
The Congbesses of the United States.
Number of
Congress
Time of Session
Place of (Congress
March 4, 1789, to March 3, 1791 . . ■!
New York 2 ses-
I.
sions, and 3rd in
i
Philadelphia.
n.
October 24, 179], to March 2, 1793
Philadelphia.
III.
December 2, 1793, to March 3, 1795 .
ft
IV.
December 7, 1795, to March 3, 1797 .
,,
V.
May 15, 1797, to March 3, 1799 .
f
1st session at
VI.
December 2, 1799, to March 3, 1801 . j
Philadelphia, 2nd
at Washington.
VII.
December 7, 1801, to March 8, 1803 .
Washington.
VIII.
October 17, 1803, to March 3, 1805
,,
IX.
December 2, 1805, to March 3, 1807 .
X.
October 26, 1807, to March 3, 1809
„
XI.
May 22, 1809, to March 3, 1811 .
XII.
November 4, 1811, to March 3, 1813 .
^j
XIII.
May 24, 1813, to March 3, 1815 .
XIV.
December 4, 1815, to March 3, 1817
XV.
December 1, 1817, to March 3, 1819 .
„
XVI.
December 6, 1819, to March 3, 1821
xvn.
December 3, 1821, to March 3, 1823 .
j^
XVIII.
December 1, 1823, to March 3, 1825 .
,,
XIX.
December 5, 1825, to March 3, 1827 .
XX.
December 2, 1827, tx) March 3, 1829 .
XXI.
December 7, 1829, to March 3, 1831 .
jj
XXII.
December 5, 1831, to March 3, 1833 .
xxni.
December 2, 1833, to March 3, 1835 .
^
XXIV.
December 7, 1835, to March 3, 1837 .
XXV.
September 4, 1837, to March 3, 1839 .
»
XXVI.
December 2, 1839, to March 3, 1841 .
XXVII.
May 31, 1841, to March 3, 1845 .
^
XXVIII.
December 4, 1843, to March 3, 1845 .
XXIX.
December 1, 1845, to March 3, 1847
XXX.
December 6, 1847, to March 3, 1849 .
XXXI.
December 3, 1849, to March 3, 1851 .
^^
XXXII.
December 1, 1851, to March 3, 1853 .
,,
XXXIII.
December 5, 1853, to March 3, 1855
XXXIV.
December 3, 1855, to March 3, 1857 .
XXXV.
December 7, 1857, to March 3, 1859 .
I,
XXXVI.
December 5, 1859, to March 3, 1861 .
XXXVII.
July 4, 1861, to March 3, 1863 .
>i
XXX vin.
December 6, 1863, to March 3, 1865 .
,,
XXXIX.
December 3, 1865, to March 3, 1867 .
»»
By the tenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States,
passed December 15, 1791, the powers not delegated to Congress are
reserved to the States or to the ]^ple. Therefore the powers to
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 571
enact municipal laws, that is, all laws which concern only the States
directly and immediately, are among the reserved rights of the
States and the people, and are vested by the people in the State
Legislatures. The States of the union are, therefore, sovereign in a
municipal capacity ; while the General Government is sovereign in
a national capacity, and is represented and known officially as the
government of one nation.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States
by the thirteenth amendment of the Constitution — adopted and
declared valid December 18, 1865, after ratification by 27 States
out of 34 — as follows : — Section 1. * Neither slavery nor involim-
tary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States
or any place subject to their jurisdiction.* Section 2. * Congress
shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.'
The constitutions of the several States all agree in their main fea-
tures, and the powers vested in them are principally the same. In all
there is the same form, and the same principles lie at the foundation.
The executive in every State is vested in a governor. The duties of
the governors are in general analogous to those of the president, as far
as the several State governments are analogous to those of the Union.
They have the nomination, and, in conjimction with the Senate, the
appointment of many important officers. Like the president, they
make recommendations to the Legislature, and take care that the
laws are executed. Like the president, they may be impeached and
removed for treason, bribery, or other high crimes.
The Congress of the United States has the power to alter the
Constitution, by the 5th article of the same. The article orders
that the Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary to propose amendments to the Constitution, or on the ap-
plication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall
call a convention for proposing the amendments, which in either
case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the Consti-
tution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the
one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the
Congress.
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The following statement gives the total amount of the actual
revenue and expenditure of the Government of tbe UmXfe^^XaXfc's* "^s^
each of the years— ended June 80th— 1^6^,1^^^, ^ii\%^^ %—
572
UNITED STATES.
Tears ending
30th June
Revenue, including loans
Expenditure |
1
1863
1864
1866
Dollars
889,379,663
1,386,768,614
1,801,792,628
£
186,287,426
288,699,711
376,373,464
DoUars
896,796,631
1,298,056,102
1,897,674,224
1
186,624,298 |
270,428,364 ,
395,348,797 '
The principal branch of revenue, besides loans, in the three years
1863-5, was that derived from the customs. The following table
gives the receipts from each of these sources, besides the totals, and
also the amount of balance in the Treasury on the 1st of July each
year, that is, the day after the end of each financial term : —
Tears ending
30th June
Customs
Loans
Total
Balance in
Treasury
on 1st July
1863
1864
1866
Dollars
69,069,642
102.316,163
84,928,261
Dollars
776,682,362
1,121,131,843
1,472,224,741
Dollars
889,379,653
1,385,758,614
1,801,792,628
Dollars
5,329,044
96,739,906
858,309
The following table gives the principal branches of the actual ex-
penditure of the United States, in each of the financial years 1863,
1864, and 1865 :—
Branches of Expenditure
1863
1864
1865
Dollars
Dollars
DoUaTB
Civil list
6,350,619
8,069,177
10,833,945
Foreign intercouse
1,231,413
1,290,692
1,260,818
Naval department
63,211,106
85,733,293
122,567,776
War department
699,298,601
690,791,842
1,031,323,361
Pensions
3,140,194
4,979,633
1 14,268,676
Indian department
1,076,326
2,638,298
Miscellaneous
16,671,890
18,166,730
32,670,796
Public debt, redemption,
and interest
Total expenditure 1^"^^
205,816,482
486,507,437
684,758,954
895,796,630
1,298,066,102
1,897,674,224
186,624,298
270,428,354
395,348,797
The receipts of the United States for the financial year ending
June 30, 1866, were :—
From customs
„ internal revenue
„ sales of public lands
„ direct taxes
„ other miscellaneous sources ....
Dollars Cents
179,376,878 60
309,610,934 37
741,539 61
1,486,118 05
66,941,485 05
/ Total revenue, exdasive oC lowia .
^ 658,066,966 68
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
573
During the same period the expenditure of the United States was
as follows : —
Civil list and diplomatic
Pension list and Indian affiiirs ....
War Department
Navy Department
Interest on public debt
Total expenditure ....
Dollars Cents
41,017,921 86
18,862,467 11
284,469,701 82
43,364,118 62
133,139.369 70
620,833,669 00
The revenue for the financial year 1866, as above given, was wholly
raised from taxation, with the exception of the small arnount received
from land sales, and about 30,000,000 dollars of the * miscellaneous '
receipts, which were realised from sales of Government property at
the close of the war. The remainder of the * miscellaneous * item
was the premium obtained from the sales of Government gold. The
above totals represent currency values, but when reduced to gold
values by taking the average premium during the fiscal year — 140
per cent. — ^the receipts of the Government in gold were 334,834,173
dollars, 41 cents, and the expenditures, in gold, at 312,500,155
dollars, 40 cents. Over and above this, there were during the first
three quarters of the fiscal year ending March 23, 1861, receipts from
loans to the amount of 520,466,393 dollars, and expenditures on
account of the public debt amoimting to 370,833,444 dollars.
= The following table gives the amount of the national debt and the
interest thereon, on July 1, in each of the years 1861-65, after the
ofiicial returns of the Secretary of Treasury : —
Tears (July 1st)
Amount of debt
Amount of interest
Dollars
Dollars
1861
90,867,829
11,930,797
1862
614,211,372
107,127,369
1863
1,098,793,181
228,916,246
1874
1,740,690,490
362,643,862
1866
2,682,693,022
658,873.646
The actual debt of the United States and the nature of the interest
on the various portions, on August 1, 1866, was as follows, according
to the ofiicial return of the Secretary of the Treasury : —
Description of Debt
Amount of Debt
Debt bearing interest in coin
„ bearing interest in currency
„ on which interest has ceased
„ without interest .
Total debt, August 1, 1866
Dollars Cents
1,242,628,441 80
1,079,668,968 96
4,670,160 VI
7.,ni^A\^,^^'^ '^'^
574
VISITED STATES.
The debt of the United States reached its maximum on August 1,
1865; from that date till August 1, 1866, there were paid off
124,153,999 dollars, nearly 25,000,000/.
The following statement shows the times at which the various
kinds of debt of the United States arrive at maturity : —
Time of maturity
Amount
Description
Dollars Cents
December 31, 1866 .
612,227 98
Temporary loan, 4 per cent.
31, 1866 .
21,664,710 65
„ 5 per cent.
31, 1866 .
67,266,168 47
„ „ 6 per cent.
31, 1866 .
55,921,000
Certificates of Indebted-
ncBS, 6 per cent.
31, 1866
32,236,901
1 and 2 year notes, 5percent.
May 1, 1867 .
514,780,500
5-20 bonds, 6 per cent.
June 30, 1867 .
234,400,000
Treasury notes, 7 3-10 p. c
1867 . •.
167,012,141
Compound interest notes, 6
per cent.
December 31, 1867
9,415,250
Bonds, 6 per cent.
March 3, 1868
595,600,000
Treasury notes, 7 8-10 p. c.
Jxly I, 1868 .
8,908,341 80
Bonds, 6 per cent.
5-20 bonds, 6 per cemt.
November 1, 1869
100,000,000
1, 1870
50,590,300
5-20 bonds, 6 per cent.
January 1, 1871
7,022,000
Bonds, 5 per cent.
„ 1. 1874
20,000,000
Bonds, 5 per cent.
March 1, 1874
172,770,100
10-40 bonds, 5 per cent.
December 31, 1880
18,415,000
Bonds, 6 per cent.
June 30, 1881 .
317,252,430
Bonds, 6 per cent.
July 1, 1881 .
1.016,000
Bonds, 6 per cent.
November 1, 1895 .
2,538,000
Bonds, 6 per cent.
In stating the times of maturity of the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds, the
payment of which, is optional with the Government, the earliest
periods are given.
It is ordered, by Act of Congress, that a sinking fund shall be
provided for the payment of the debt. The Act requires that the
surplus gold remaining afler the payment of the interest shall be
devoted * to the purchase or payment of 1 per cent, of the entire
debt of the United States, to be made within each fiscal year after
July 1, 1862, which is to be set apart as a sinking fund, and the in-
terest of which shall in like manner be applied to the purchase or
payment of the public debt, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall
from time to time direct.' Li the financial year ending the SOth of
June, 1866, the receipts in gold amounted • to 384,884,173 dollaiB,
and the disbursements, in gold, to 312,500,155 dollars, leaving a
surplus of 22,334,018 dollars. A very considerable portion of the
debt of the United StateB ia held in Germany and the Netherlands.
ARMY. 575
Army and Ifavy.
1. Army.
By the eighth section of the first article of the constitution of the
United States, Congress is empowered in general * to raise and sup-
port armies;' and by the second section of the second article, the
president is appointed commander-in-chief of the army and navy,
and of the militia when called into the service of the United States.
On August 7, 1789, Congress established a Department of "War
as the instrument of the president in carrying out the provisions of
the constitution for military affairs. A number of * Original Rules
and Articles of War ' were enacted by the Congress of 1776, and
continued in force under the constitution, with several modifications.
These rules were the basis of the actual Articles of War which were
enacted in 1806, and have been but slightly altered since that time.
They form the military code which governs all troops when
mustered into the service.
In 1790, the rank and file of the army, as fixed by act of Congress,
amoimted to 1,216 men; to which force, in the next year, one
regiment 900 strong, was added. In 1792, an act of Congress pro-
vided for a uniform militia throughout the United States, and the
system then arranged has received but slight alterations imtil the
present time. The nominal strength of the militia thus organised is
given in a statement below. In 1796, the regular army consisted
essentially of a corps of artillerists and engineers, two companies
of light dragoons, and four regiments of infantry of eight companies
each. This force was little increased, except during occasional
periods, till the outbreak of the civil war.
At the commencement of the year 1861, the United States army
consisted of about 14,000 regular troops, stationed chiefly in the
Southern States. A large number of these joined the cause of the
so-called Confederate States, reducing the Federal army to less than
5,000 men. On April 15, 1861, the president called out 75,000
volunteers for three months, to defend the capital, which was
threatened ; and on May 3, he called out 42,000 volunteers to serve
for three years or the war. On July 22, 1861, Congress passed an
act authorising the president to accept the services of 500,000
volimteers for such terms as he might deem necessary, ranging i5*om
six months to three years or during the war. On July 25, 1861,
the president was again authorised to call out 500,000, making in
all, 1,000,000 men. The number proving insuflicient for the active
prosecution of hostilities, and the repair of losses occasioned by the
war, a draft was ordered in the summer of 1863, by proclamatiotL
of the President of the United States. By a lie^ -^To^^asMfiG^s^L <2?l
the president, dated October 17, 1863, a l^yy oi ^^.^'^^ ts>l«cl-wj»»
ordered, and another call of 500,000 meii ^a& xx^^e^ ^^Tvx«n ^-^
576
UNITED STATES.
1864. The total number of men called into the field by the Govern-
ment of the United States, from 1861 till the end of the civil war,
in 1865, amoimted to 2,653,062, or nearly one-fourth of the entire
male population of the Northern States. This vast number served
various terms of service, from three months to three years ; but so
many served the longer term that when reduced to the three years'
standard the aggregate terms of service were equivalent to 2,129,041
men serving for three years. Of the whole body of men sent to the
Federal armies, each State furnished the following numbers : —
Maine . . 71,745
New Hampshire 34,605
Vermont . . 35,256
Massachusetts. 151,785
Khode Island . 23,711
Connecticut . 57,270
New York . 455,568
New Jersey . 79,511
The State of New York furnished over one-sixth of the whole
number, Pennsylvania one-eighth, Ohio one-ninth, and Massachusetts
one-fifteenth : these four States gave to the army one-fifth of their
entire male population. New Hampshire and Vermont sent one-
fourth of their male citizens, and Indiana and Illinois over one-
fourth. Kansas showed the highest proportion, having sent 36 per
cent, of her men, while Iowa sent 30 per cent. The Southern, or
Confederate States, had in the field, during the greater part of the
war, an army of 400,000 men, of which, it is estimated, they lost
300,000 from wounds and disease. The Southern army was entirely
disbanded in April 1865 ; but of the Northern army tiere remained
210,000 on the pay rolls on July 31, 1865.
The policy of the Government after this date was to muster out
every volunteer soldier and retain only the regulars. The number of
troops in the regular army on September 1, 1866, was as follows: —
Pennsylvania .
366,326
Illinois .
. 258,217
Delaware
13,651
Michigan
. 90,119
Maryland
40,730
Wisconsin
. 96,118
West Virginia .
30,003
Minnesota
. 25,084
District of Co-
Iowa
. 75,860
lumbia
16,872
Missouri .
. 108,773
Ohio
317,133
Kentucky
. 78,540
Indiana .
195,147
Kansas .
. 20,097
Troops
Officers
Men
Six cavalry regiments, each 12 companies
Five artillery regiments, each 12 companies .
Ten infantry regiments, each 10 companies .
Nine infantry regiments, each 24 companies .
Total
264
273
340
693
7,248
4,890
8,360
21,321
1,570
41,819
This force, with a few thousand recruits to bring the total number
of officers and men up to 50,000, is in the future to constitute the
standing army of the United States.
By an order of the War Department, dated July 12, 1865, the
United States and Federal temt«r\^aN<T^re cLaaaified under fiye grand
ARMY.
577
military divisions, viz. : — Of the Atlantic, with head-quarters at Phi-
ladelphia ; of the Ohio, at St. Louis ; of the Gtdf, at New Orleans ;
of the Tennessee, at Nashville ; and of the Pacific, with head-quarters
at San Francisco. The divisions are subdivided into 18 military
departments, each under a special commander.
The nominal strength of the militia force of the United States
is shown in the following table, compiled from the official returns of
the Secretary of "War, made at various periods. : —
states and Territories
Return of
the year
Officers
Bank and file
Total
Maine ....
1856
304
73,248
73,652
New Hampshire
1854
1,227
32,311
33,538
Massachusetts .
1860
580
160,612
161,192
Vermont .
1843
1,088
22,827
23,916
Bhode Island
1860
202
18,339
18,541
Connecticut
1860
200
51,430
61,630
New York .
1860
2,011
497,602
499,613
New Jersey
1852
—
—
81,984
Pennsylvania .
1858
—
—
360,000
Delaware
1827
447
8,782
9,229
Maryland
1838
2,397
44,467
46,864
Virginia .
1860
5,670
137,485
143,166
North Carolina
1845
4,267
75,181
79,448
South Carolina
1856
2,599
33,473
36,072
Georgia .
1850
6,050
73,649
78,699
Florida .
1845
620
11,602
12,122
1851
2,832
73,830
76,662
Louisiana
1859
2,79^
88,532
91,324
Mississippi
1838
825
35,259
36,084
Tennessee
1840
3,607
67,645
71,252
Kentucky
1852
4,870
84,109
88,979
Ohio
1858
—
— ,
279,809
Michigan
1858
1,018
108,652
109,670
Indiana .
1832
2,861
51,052
63,913
Illinois .
1855
—
257,420
Wisconsin
1855
1,142
60,179
61,321
Iowa
—
—
—
Missouri .
1854
88
117,969
118,047
Arkansas .
1859
1,139
46,611
47,760
Texas .
1847
1,248
18,518
19,766
California
1857
330
207,400
207,730
Minnesota
1860
185
24,806
24,990
Oregon .
—
—
—
—
Washington territory
—
—
—
—
Nebraska territory
—
—
_
.—
Kansas territory
—
—
—
Territory of Utah
1853
285
2,536
2,821
Territory of North Mexico
—
—
—
—
\
District of Columbia
1852
226
7.915
V '^^w^^
G«i
lerall
total .
50,110
\ •i,*2afk,^i^
"\ ^,^«k^^«
p p
578
UNITED STATES.
The militia is entirely under the control of the governors and
legislative assemblies of the individual States.
2. Navy.
For a period of nine years after the Government of the United
States was organised, there was no navy department. The execu-
tive duties growing out of the management of the naval forces had
been committed by Congress to the War Department by an Act ap-
proved August 7, 1789. It was not until April 30, 1798, that a
separate department was created, with a chief officer called the Secre-
tary of the Navy.
The naval forces of the United States, at the commencement of the
year 1861, consisted of forty-one men-of-war on active service, the
greater number of them sailing vessels. Congress having decreed
the creation of a steam navy, the following number of vessels was
built from March 4, 1861, till March 4, 1866 :—
No.
Description
Guns
Tonnage
/
7 Screw sloops, Ammonoosnc class, 17 to 19 guns,
3,213 to3,713 tons each
1 Screw sloop Idaho, 8 guns and 2,638 tons .
8 Screw sloops, spar deck, Java class, 25 guns and 3,177
tons each
2 Screw sloops, spar deck, Hassalo class, 25 guns and
3,365 tons each
10 Screw sloops, clippers, single deck, Contoocook class,
13 guns and 2,348 tons each
4 Screw sloops, Kearsage class, 8 to 12 guns, and ave-
raging 1,023 tons each
6 Screw sloops, Shenandoah class, 8 to 16 guns and
1,367 to 1,533 tons each
2 Screw sloops, Ossipee class, 10 to 13 guns and 1,240
tons each
8 Screw sloops, Serapis class, 12 guns and 1,380 tons
4 Screw sloops, Eesaca class, 8 guns and 131 to 900 tons
8 Screw sloops, Nipsic class, 7 to 12 guns and 593 tons
23 Screw gunboats, Unadilla class, 4 to 7 guns and 507
tons each .
9 Screw tugs, Pinta class, 2 guns and 350 tons each
2 Screw tugs. Pilgrim class, 2 guns and 170 tons each .
13 Paddle-wheel steamers, double-enders, Octorara class,
7 to 11 guns and 730 to 955 tons each .
26 Paddle-wheel steamers, double-enders, Sassacus class,
10 to 14 guns and 974 tons each ....
7 Paddle-wheel steamers of iron, double-enders, Mo-
thongo class, 10 guns and 1,030 tons each .
1 Paddle-wheel steamer of iron, double-ender, Wateree,
12 guns and 974 tons
141
121
8
200
50
130
40
74
23
26
32
71
123
18
4
98
272
70
12
23,637
2,638
25,416
6,730
23,480
4,092
8,584
2,480
11,046
3,462
4,744
11,661
3,150
340
11,024
25,324
7,210
97S
1,442
176,986
NAVY.
Iron-(xuj» Vessbls.
No. Description
2 Sea-going casemated vessels, Dundepberg and New
Ironsides
3 Sea-going turret vessels, Puritan, Dictator, and Eoa-
noke
4 Double turret vessels, Kalamazoo class, 4 guns and
3,250 tons each
4 Double turret vessels, Monadnock class, 4 guns and
1,564 tons each . . . .
1 Double turret vessel, Onondaga, 4 guns and 1,250 tons
4 Double turret vessels, Winnebago class, 4 guns and 970
tons each . .
8 Single turret vessels, Canonicus dass, 2 guns and
1,034 tons each
9 Single turret vessels, Passaic class, 2 to 4 guns and
844 tons each
20 Single turret vessels, Yazoo class, 1 to 2 guns and 614
tons each ........
2 Single turret vessels, Sandusky and Marietta, 2 guns
each
3 Single turret vessels, Ozark, Neosho, and Osage, 2
to 7 guns each
2 Casemated vessels, Tuscumbia and Chillicothe, 5 and
3 guns respectively
~62"
206 Total
579
Guns
Tonnage
28
8,576
12
9,733
16
12,800
16
4
6,256
1,260
16
3,880
16
8,272
21
7,096.
35
12,280
4
953
13
1,624
8
768
189
73,988
1,631
49,9741
When the vessels now under construction are completed, the flieet
will include 75 Monitors, 401 screw or paddle steamers, and 112
sailing vessels — carrying in aU 4,443 guns.
The following are the most remarkable vessels of the fleet of
war of the United States : —
1. The Colorado, screw frigate, 3,426 tons ; 1 11 -inch and 1 150-pounder
rifled pivot gun ; 42 9-inch and 4 100-pounder rifled broadside guns ; 2,6061b.
broadside shot ; 2,1231b. broadside sheU.
2. The Brooklyn, screw corvette, 2,200 tons ; 20 9-inch, 2 100-pounder rifled,
and 2 60 -pounder rifled broadside guns; 1,2201b. broadside shot; 9901b;
broadside shell.
3. The Lackawanna, screw sloop, 1,633 tons ; 2 11-inch and 1 lOO-poundeu
rifled pivot guns ; 10 9-inch broadside guns.
4. The Iroquois, screw sloop, 1,016 tons ; 1 11-inch and 1 150-pounder rifled
pivot gun ; 4 9-inch broadside guns.
6. The Tallapoosa, paddle sloop, 974 tons ; 2 11 -inch pivot guns; 4 9-inch
broadside guns.
6. The Penobscot, screw gunboat, 500 tons ; 1 11 -inch pivot gun ; 4 howitzer
broadside guns.
7. The Powhattan, paddle corvette, 2,400 tons • \ \\-mc^asA\ \^Q-^5«ssb.^^'c
pivot gnn ; 16 9-iiich hroadMe guns.
p p 2
580 UNITED STATES.
8. The New Ironsides, iron-clad frigate, 3,486 tons; 14 11-inch and 2 150-
pounder broadside guns ; 600-horso power ; estimated steam rate, six to seven
knots.
9. The Roanoke, 3 turrets, 3,435 tons ; 6 15-inch pivot guns ; 3d0-horse
power ; estimated steam rate, five knots.
10. The Dictator, one turret, 3,033 tons; 2 15-inch pivot guns; 950-horse
power ; estimated steam rate, ten knots*
11. The Monadnock, two turrets, 1,500 tons; 4 15-inch pivot guns; 600-
horse power ; estimated steam rate, eight knots.
12. The Mahopac, one turret, 1,034 tons ; 2 15-inch pivot guns ; 350-horse
power ; estimated steam rate, seven knots.
13. The Montauk, one turret, 880 tons ; 1 15-inch and 1 150-pounder rifled
pivot gun ; 250-horse power ; estimated steam rate, six knots.
The largest iron- clad in the navy of the United States is the ram
Dunderberg, built at New York 1862-5, and launched at the
beginning of 1865. The ram of the Dunderberg is part of the
ship, and is not bolted or fastened cm as is usually the case, but is an
•extension of the bow, which for 6 Oft. is a firm and solid mass of
timber. This is covered over with heavy wrought-iron armour,
and forms a beak, which, driven at a high rate of speed, it is said
will pierce through the strongest ships. On the side of the vessel
below the casemate the armour is 3-^ inches thick, and placed on
vertically in screw bolted slabs, from 12 feet to 15 feet long and 3
feet wide. The propeller and two rudders are protected by a shelf,
which runs out aft and is braced to the stem and sides. One of
the rudders is common to all ships, the other is placed above and
forward of the propeller. The Dimderberg carries 16 guns, and
hm a /total burthrai of 5,090 tons.
The United States Navy^ as at present organised, contains 2,048
officers of all ranks, there being one admiral, one vice-admiral, and
twenty-seven rear-admirals. Nearly all the officers are on the active
list, the reserve and retired lists being much smaller than the usual
proportion, owing to the weeding out of the war.
The United States possess eight dockyards, namely, Portsmouth,
Charlesto¥m, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, Penaa-
cola, and Mare Island. Portsmouth, New Hampshire, has an area
of 63 acres, but nearly five acares must be filled in befcHre the land
can be used. The yard is situate on an island, and has a water
front of about 1,000 feet; it has one floating dry dock and three
building slips. Charlestown, near Boston, covers 80 acres of groomd,
but 16 acres of this are marsh, and must be filled in. The water
frontage that is of any value is only about 600. The yard has one
stone dry dock and two building slips. Brooklyn covers a surface
of 80 acres of available ground and 40 acres of marsh that can be
filled in — 120 acres in all. There is at present an available water
Srontage of 1,200 feet, one ston^ ^ct^ dock, «iXid two btdldipg slips.
AREA AND POPULATION.
581
Philadelphia yard has only 15 acres surface, and one acre of this
must be filled in to be available. The yard has one floating dry
dock, two building slips, and a water fi:ont of about 600 feet.
Washington yard has an area of 42 acres, two acres of which are
marsh, and there is a water frontage of 900 feet with two
building slips. The yard has no dry dock. Norfolk and Pensacola
yards were destroyed in the civil war, and at present no work of any
importance is done at either of them ; and Mare Island, on the
Pacific, is yet unfinished, and is used only as a place of temporary
repair.
Area and Population.
The area of the United States, according to Land-office measui-e-
ments, is 2,819,811 square miles. This is equal to 1,921,288,233
acres, of which 1,400,549,033 are public lands for sale by the
Government Land-office. Only one-fourth of the country is inhabited
to any great extent by civilised people.
The population of the United States has been ascertained at all
times with great accuracy. The census is taken in the States in
obedience to Article 1, section 2 of the Constitution, which pro-
vides that * Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included in this Union ac-
cording to their respective numbers;' and the same' section directs
that * the actual enumeration shaU be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years.' Under these provisions, and
the laws passed in piH-suance of them, the census of the United
States has been taken eight times, namely, in 1790, in 1800, 1810,
in 1820, in 1830, in 1840, in 1850, and in 1860.
The following table gives the total population of the United
States, distinguishing white, free coloured, and slave, in each
decennial period from 1800 to 1860 : —
Years
White
Free coloured
Slave
Total
1800
4,304,489
108,395
893,041
5,305,925
1810
5,862,004
186,446
1,191,364
7,239,814
1820
7,861,937
233,524
1,538,038
9,638,131
1830
10,537,378
319,599
2,009,043
12,866,020
1840
14,195,695
386,303
2,487,455
17,069,453
1860
19,553,114
434,449
3,204,313
23,191,876
\
1860
26,975,575
488,005
3,963,760
I ^\M^,^'^'^
582
UNITED STATES.
The area, population, and number of inhabitants to the square
mile in various groups of states, in the year 1860, and the increase,
in per-centage, over the last decennial period, is given in the
following table, in which the States are arranged in groups : —
states
Area in
sq. miles
1860
1850
Population
Number of
inhabitants
to sq. mile
Nmnberof
to sq. mile
Six New England States
Six Middle States, including
Maryland, Delaware, and
Ohio
Six Coast Planting States, in-
cluding South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisiana .
Six Centr^ States, namely,
Virginia, North Carolina,
Tennessee, Kentucky, Mis-
Seven North-western States,
namely, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, "Wisconsin, Iowa,
Minnesota, and Kansas
Texas
California ....
63,272
151,760
286,077
309,210
250,295
237,321
188,982
3,135,283
10,697,661
4,364,927
6,471,887
6,543,382
604,215
379,994
49-65
69-83
15-26
20-93
2214
2-65
2-01
43-11
66-36
12-43
16-71
10-92
0-89
0-87
1
It will be seen, from the above table, that the population, during
the decennial period 1850-60, increased most rapidly in the seven
North-Western States, and least in the six New England States.
The six middle States have the densest population, which, however,
is considerably less so than that of Turkey in Europe. Sweden and
Norway itself, which has the thinnest population of any State in
Europe, has seven times as many inhabitants to the square mile as
Texas and California. The population of Prussia and Austria is
three times, and that of Great Britain five times as dense as that of
the six New England States. As for the Southern States, compri-
sing the six Coast Planting, and the six former central Slave States,
their population, at the census of 1860, was only half as dense as
that of Russia in Europe.
The subjoined table gives the total population of each State and
territory of the United States, distinguishing white, free coloured
persons, Indians, and those which were slaves, in the year 1860,
according to the census returns : —
POPULATION*
583
Stfttei
Whit*
Free
ooloTirwl
aiftvea
TotaJ
Alabama ,
526,271
2,690
160
435,080
964,201
Ai-kanjsas .
324,143
144
48
111,115
435,450
California .
338,005
4,086
14,655
—
379,994
Conneiiticut
451,504
8,627
18
-^
460,147
Delaware .
B0,589
19,829
—
1,798
112,216
Morida
77,747
932
1
61,745
140.426
Georgia
591,560
3,o00
38
462,198
1,057,286
Illinois
1,704,291
7.623
32
—
1.711.961
ludi&na
1,338,710
11,428
290
— j
1,360,428
Iowa .
673,r7&
1,104
65
—
674,948
Kansas
106.390
625
189
2
107,206
Kt>Dtueky .
919,4B4
10,684
33
225,483
1,155,684
Lf^uisianii ,
357,46fl
18,647
173
331,726
708,002
Maine
626,947
1,327
5
—
628,279
JVIaiyiand .
61&,&i8
83,942
—
87,189
687,049
Massachuitetts .
1,221,432
9,602
32
—
1,231,066
Michigan .
739,799
6J&9
2,155
,
749,113
MinDesota ,
171,227
259
2,369
—
173.865
Sliasissippi
353,899
773
2
436,031
791,305
Missouri ,
1,063,489
3,572
20
114.931
1,182.012
New Hampshire,
325,079
494
—
_
326,073
Now Jersey
640,699
25,318
—
18
672.036
New York .
3,831,590
49,005
140
—
3,880,735
North Carolina .
629,942
30,463
1,158
331,059
992.622
Ohio .
2,303,808
30,664
30
2,339,602
Orpgon
52,160
128
177
—
62,405
PennfljlTanift
2,849,269
66,849
7
—
2,906,115
1 Rhode Island ,
170,649
3,952
19
—
174,620
South Carolina ,
291,300
9,914
88
402,406
703,708
T^nnesstie .
826,722
7,300
00
276,719
1,109,801
Teiaa
420,891
355
403
182,566
604,216
Vermont *
314,369
709
20
—
315.098
Virginia _
1.047,299
58,042
112
490,865
1,696,318
Wisconsin .
Total .
Territories :
773,693
2fi,699,34z'
U71
613
—
775.881
476,562
23,370
3,950,531
31,149,806
Colortulo
34,231
46
^_
—
34,277
DaJcotai
2,576
^^
2,261
= —
4,837
District of
Columbia .
60,763
11,131
1
3,185
75,080
Nebraska .
2R,696
67
63
15
28,841
Nevada
6,812
45
—
—
6,857
New Mexi<M ,
82.924
8p^
10,4-^2
—
93.516
Utah .
40,125
30
89
29
40,273
Wjjshin^n .
Totiil .
Total in stAtee
11,138
30
426
—
lt,594
267,320
11,434
13.292
3,229
295,275
and territorieii
26,966,662
487,996
36,G^*i
\ %^h^:^^^
\ ^'VAN.^.Vjft^
584
UNITED STATES.
The total population of the principal towns of the United States,
in each of the years 1850 and 1860, is shown in the following list : —
CitieB and Towns
In the States of
Population
1850
I860
New York .
New York .
515,547
805,651
Philadelphia .
Pennsylvania
340,045
562,529
Brooklyn
New York .
96,838
266,661
Baltimore .
Maryland
169,054
212,418
Boston .
Massachusetts
136,881
177,812
New Orleans
Louisiana
116,375
168,675
Cincinnati
Ohio .
J15,436
161,044
St. Louis
Missouri
77,860
160,773
Chicago
Illinois .
29,963
109,260
Newark
New Jersey .
38,894
71,914
Louisville
Kentucky
43,194
68,033
Albany.
New York .
50,763
62 367
Washington .
Districtof Columbia
I 40,001
61,122
San Francisco
California
34,776
56,802
Providence .
Rhode Island
41,513
50,666
Charleston .
South Carolina
42,985
40,578
Subjoined is a statement of the number of alien passengers who
arrived in the United States by sea from foreign countries, from
September 30, 1819, to December 31, 1860 : —
Year
Males
Females
Sex not stated
Total
Year ending Sept.
30, 1820
4,871
2,393
1,121
8,385
It }»
1821
4,651
1,636
2,840
9.127
M it
1822
3,816
1,013
2,082
6,911
»l »>
1823
3,598
848
1,908
6,354
tt 11
1824
4,706
1,393
1,813
7,912
tt »»
1825
6,917
2,959
323
10,199
»» >»
1826
7,702
3,078
57
10,837
»» »>
1827
11,803
5,939
1,133
18,875
M )>
1828
17,261
10,060
61
27,382
>> »»
1829
11,303
5,112
6,105
22,520
»» >»
1830
6,439
3,135
13,748
23,322
»> »»
1831
14,909
7,724
—
22,633
»» »f
1832
34,596
18,583
—
53,179
QuarterendiTigDec. 31, 1832
4,691
2,512
100
7,303
Year ending Dec.
31, 1833
41,546
17,094
—
58,640
»» It
1834
38,796
22,540
4,029
65,365
M M
1835
28,196
17,027
151
46,374
»» »»
1836
47,865
27,553
824
76,242
M M
1837
48,837
27,653
2,850
79,340
tt •»
1838
23,474
13,685
1,755
38,914
»> »»
1839
42,932
25,125
12
68,069
It
1840
52,883
31,132
51
84,066
ff ft
1841
48,082
, Zt,(SZ\
[ 176
80,289
POPULATION.
585
' Year
Hales
Females
Sex not stated
Total
Year ending Dec. 31, 1842
62,277
41,907
381
104,665
First three quarters of 1843
30,069
22,424
3
52,496
Year ending Sept. 30, 1844
44,431
34,184
—
78,615
n 1846
65,016
48,115
1,241
114,371
,, 1846
87,777
65,742
897
164,416
1847
136,086
97,917
965
234,968
» 1848
133,906
92,149
472
226,627
,, 1849
177,232
119,280
612
297,024
I860
196,331
112,635
1,038
310,004
Quarter endingDec. 31, 1860
32,990
26,805
181
69,976
Year ending Dec. 31, 1851
217,181
162,219
66
379,466
„ 1862
212,469
167,696
1,438
371,603
,. 1863
207,958
160,616
72
368,646
1864
256,177
171,656
—
427,833
1866
116,307
86,667
3
200,877
,, 1866
115,846
84,590
—
200,436
,, 1867
146,216
105,091
—
251,306
1868
72,824
60,002
300
123,126
„ 1859
69,161
61,640
481
121,282
I860
Total
88,477
66,077
86
163,640
2,977,603
2,036,636
49,276
6,062,414
The following aggregates also exhibit the number of arrivals of
passengers from foreign countries during periods of nearly ten years
each, and thus indicate the accelerated progress of immigration : —
Periods
Passengers of
foreign birth
American and
Foreign
In the 10 years ending September 30, 1829
„ 10:J years ending December 31, 1839
„ 9} years ending September 30, 1849
„ llj years ending December 31, 1860
„ 41^ years ending December 31, 1860
128,502
638,381
1,427,337
2,968,194
151,636
672,716
1,479,478
3,256,691
6,062,414
5,469,421
The following is a statement in which the number of emigrants
have been spread over equal decennial periods, by the aid of the
quarterly reports. It shows, more clearly than the foregoing table,
the tide of immigration into the United States : —
Four census periods
!0f
foreign birth
In the 10 years previous to June 1, 1830
„ 10 years previous to June 1, 1840
„ 10 years previous to June 1, 1860
„ 10 years previous to June 1, 1860
244,490
662,000
586
UNITED STATES.
The following table shows the number of immigrants who landed
in the port of New York during the five years 1861 to 1865: —
1861
1862 .
1863 ...
1864 .
1865
From Ireland
From Germany
Total
27,754
32,217
92,681
97,893
70,338
27,159
27,740
38,236
53,929
82,464
66,629
76,306
156,223
186,208
196,075
It will be seen that the number who landed in the port of New
York alone during the year 1865 exceeded the average of annual
immigration in the United States from 1820 to 1860, and even that
from 1840 to 1850.
The 195,075 immigrants who landed at New York in the year
1865 were natives of the following countries : —
Ireland .
70,338
Sweden
2,337
Sicily
3
Germany
82,454
Denmark .
727
Mexico
59
England
27,144
Italy
691
Russia
93
Scotland
3,961
Portugal .
42
East Indies
7
Wales .
505
Belgium .
97
Turkey
5
France .
2,054
West Indies
281
Greece
5
Spain .
222
Nova Scotia
76
Poland .
423
Switzerland
2,512
South America
109
Africa
37
Holland
729
Canada
43
Austraha .
18
Norway
157
China
36
From January 1 to August 8, 1866, there landed 155,799 emi-
grants at New York, being 55,033, more than during the same period
of 1865. During the first six months of 1866 there arrived
124,769 immigrants in the United States from Europe, an increase of
50,681 over the immigrant arrivals of the coixesponding period of 1865.
The places of birth of all the immigrants who arrived in the United
States from 1820 to 1860, are shown in the subjoined statement : —
Place of birth
England
Ireland ....
Scotland
Wales . .
G-reat Britain and Ireland
France . .
Spain ....
Portugal
Belgium
Number
302,665
967,366
47,890
7,935
1,425,018
208,063
16,248
2,614
9,862
POPULATION.
587
Place of birth
Prussia
G-ermany
HoUand
Denmark
Norway and Sweden . . . . •
Poland
Russia
Turkey and G-reece
Switzerland
Italy . .
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and Malta
Iceland
Europe
British America
South America .
Central America and Mexico
West Indies
China
East Indies
Persia
Asia
Liberia, Egypt, Morocco, Algiers, and Barbary States
Cape of Good Hope
Africa
Azores, Canary, Madeira, and Cape Verd Islands .
Sandwich and Society Islands ....
Australia
St. Helena
Isle of France
South Sea Islands and New Zealand
Not stated
Total aliens
United States
Total . . . .
Number
60,432
1,486,044
21,679
6,640
36,129
1,669
1,374
286
37,733
11,202
2,718
10
626
117,142
6,201
18,734
40,487
41,443
127
22
27
34
2
279
3,871
86
109
17
3
83
180,854
6,062,414
397,007
5,469,421
The following is an estimate of the number of naturalised citizens
residing in the United States, with the countries where they were
bom:— Ireland, 1,611,000; German States, 1,198,000; Eng-
land, 430,000 ; British America, 250,000 ; France, 109,000 ; Scot-
land, 105,000; Switzerland, 54,000; Wales, 45,000; Norway,
43,000; Holland, 28,000; Turkey, 28,000; Italy, 10,000; Den-
mark, 10,000; Belgium, 9,000; Poland, 7,000; Mexico, 7,000;
the Antilles, 7,000; China, 5,000; Portugal, 4,000 ; Prussia, 3,000;
various countries, 204,000— total, 4,136,000.
Subjoined is a statement of the occupations of the 5,459,421 emi-
grants detailed in the preceding table, which arrived in l\3ift.\ST>i^^a^
States from 1820 to 1860 : —
588
UNITED STATES.
Occupation
Number
Occupation
Number
♦Merchants .
231,852
Engineers
2,016
♦Farmers
764,837
Artists .
2,490
♦Mechanics .
407,524
Teachers
1,528
♦Mariners .
29,484
Musicians
729
♦Miners
39,967
Printers
705
♦Labourers .
872,317
Painters
647
Shoemakers .
3,474
Masons .
2,310
Tailors .
3,634
Hatters
266
Sempstresses and
Manufacturers
3,120
milliners .
5,246
Millers.
631
Actors .
588
Butchers
945
Weavers and spin-
Bakers .
1,272
ners .
11,557
♦Servants
49,494
♦Clergymen .
4,326
Other occupations
26,206
Clerks .
♦Lawyers
♦Physicians .
3,882
2,676
7,109
Not stated .
Total .
2,978,699
5,459,421
The ten trades marked with an asterisk in the above list were
always enumerated during the whole period ; the other occupations
were not reported during the four years 1856-59, except that their
aggregate only was embraced under the single title of * other
occupations/
The first negro slaves were imported into Virginia in 1619, and
in 1670 there were about 2,000 negro slaves in the colony. The
first slave ship fitted out in the English colonies sailed from Boston
in 1648. The importation of slaves into the United States was
interdicted by law in 1808. In 1774 the Legislature of Rhode
Island interdicted the importation of slaves into that colony ; and
the next year, and while still a British colony, passed a law of
emancipation by declaring the children of all slave mothers to be
bom free. Massachusetts abolished slavery by the Bill of Rights
in 1780. Connecticut, in 1784, put a stop to the introduction of
negroes, and declared all bom after March 1 of that year free at the
age of twenty- six. Pennsylvania prohibited the introduction of
slaves in 1780, and declared free all children of slave mothers born
after the passing of the law. Virginia prohibited the importation of
slaves in 1778, and Maryland in 1783. Slavery was abolished in
New Hampshire in 1792, in New York in 1799, and in New Jersey
in 1825. The constitutional amendment of Dec. 18, 1865 — see
p. 571 — abolished slavery throughout the United States.
The mortality of the entire population of the United States
amounted to 392,821 in 1860, as against 323,272 in 1850, the
average in each of those years being as 1*27 to 1*41. It varied,
POPULATION.
589
in 1860, according to latitude, the nature of the population, the soil,
and other causes, from 0*44 per cent, in Washington territory, to
2*06 per cent, in Arkansas. The next highest mortalily to that in
Arkansas, was in the two States of Massachusetts and Louisiana, and
the same, 1*76 per cent., in both. The next highest (1*74 per
cent.) is set down to the district of Columbia, in which the capital
is situated. Taking the country by regions, the Pacific Coast and
the North- Western States show the lowest, and the Mississippi
Valley the highest, rate of mortality.
The subjoined table exhibits the value of real estate and personal
property according to the census of 1850, and the census of 1860 ;
also the increase, and the increase per cent. : —
Real astn-Ui ana jxrwu^ property
fli-nl^iA rt-njl Tmftti^vtjMi.
IncMfifi^
QiiCiieB luici jLBzn.HjnQa'
mjQ
laeo
ui crease
paroent.
DoUiirB
DollaiGi
DoUttfS
Alabama
1 228,204,332
495,237,078
267,032,746
117-01
Ajkunsiia
39,841.025
219,256,473
179,415,448
450-32
California
22,161,872
207,874,613
185,712,741
837-98
Connecticut .
155JO7.0Sfl
444,274,114
288,566,134
185-32
Dekwart)
21,062,656
46,242,181
25,179,625
119-54
Florida .
22,862,270
73,101,500
50,239,230
219-74
Geor^a .
335,426,714
645,895,237
310,460,523
92-56
Illinois ,
156,265,006
871,860,282
715,505,276
45793
Indianii ,
202,650,264
528,835,371
326,185,107
160-95
Iowa
23.714,638
247,338,265
223,023,627
942-97
Kansas *
^- -_
31,327.895
— —
—
Kentucky
301,628,456
666,043,112
364,414,656
120-81
Louisiann
233,9^8,764
602.118,568
368,119,804
157-31
Maine ,
122,777.571
190,211,600
67,434,020
64-92
Maryland
2l9,t2l7,364
376,910,944
157,702,580
7103
MasiJachusettfi
573,342,286
815,237,433
241,895,147
42*19
Michigan
59,787,255
257,163,983
197,376,728
330-13
Minnesota
Not returned.
52,294,413
— —
—^
HiBsissippi
228,951,130
607.324,911
378,373,781
16626
Missouri
137,247.707
501,214,398
363,966,691
265 18
N^JT?- HampsUii'^ .
103,60^,835
156,310,860
62,658,025
50'80
New Jeniey (partly
egtimated) ,
200 000,000
467,918.324
267,918,324
133-95
New York ,
1,080,300,216
1,843,338,517
763,020,301
70-63
North Carolina
226,800,471i
358,739,399
131.938,927
58^7
Ohio
504,726,120
1,103,808,422
689,172,302
136-54
Ort'gou . .
5,063,474
28,930,637
23,867,163
471*35
PennBylvania .
722.4S6,120
1,416,501,818
694,015,698
96-05
Khode Inland .
80,508,794
135,337,588
54,828,794
6810
South Carolina
288,257,694
548,138,754
259,881,060
0015
TennesBce
201,246,686
493,003,892
292,657x206
145-42
Texas .
62,740,473
365,200,614
312,460,141
Uft^-^t^i^
VemjoDt
.
92,206,049
l22,47T,U<i
\ WS,Tl^,\^\
\ ^^'^
!fS.
590
miTEI) STATES.
States and Territories
Increase
Increase
percent.
18dO
I860
Virginia .
Wisconsin
District of Columbia
Nebraska Territory
NewMexico Territory
Utah Territory
WashingtonTemtory
Total
Dollars
430,701,082
42,056,595
14,018,874
5,174,471
986,083
Dollars
793,249,681
273,671,668
41,084,945
9,131,056
20,813,768
5,596,118
5,601,466
Dollars
362,548,599
231,615,073
27,066,071
15,639,298
4,610,035
8417
560-72
19306
302-24
467-50
7,135,780,228
16,159,616,068
8,925,481,011
126-45
The ratio of increase of the population of the United States was
for the several decennial periods as follows : —
1790— 3,920,827
1800— 5,305,937
1810— 7,239,814
1820— 9,638,131
1830—12,866,020
1840—17,069,453
1850—23,191,876
1860—31,443,790
35*02 per cent ratio of increase.
36-45
3313
33-40
32-67
33-87
35-58
This shows an average decennial increase of 34*60 per cent, in popu-
lation through the seventy years from the first to the last census.
The actual and probable future progress of the population of the
North American States, as shown in the preceding statement, was
thus commented on by the late President of the United States in his
Message to Cbngress : — * It is seen that the ratio of increase at no
one of these seven periods is either two per cent, below or two per
cent, above the average, thus showing how inflexible and conse-
(juently how reliable the law of increase in our case is. Assuming
that it will continue, it gives the following results : — The population,
in 1870, will be 42,323,372; in 1880 it wiU be 56,966,216; in
1890 it will be 76,677,872 ; in 1900 it wiU be 103,208,415 ; in
1910 it wiU be 138,918,526; in 1920 it wiU be 186,984,335;
in 1930 it will be 251,680,914. These figures show that our country
may be as populous as Europe now is, at some point between 1920
and 1930, say about 1925, our territoiy, at 73 J persons to the
square mile, being of the capacity to contain 217,186,000.' *
* Message of President Abraham Lincoln to the Congress of the United
States, dat^ Washington, December 1, \Z^1.
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
59^
Trade and Industry.
The returns of the domestic manufactures of the United States,
including fisheries and the produce of the mines, show that whereas,
according to the census of 1850, their total value was 1,019,106,616
dollars, it amounted for the year ending on June 1, 1860, to
1,900,000,000 dollars, or ah increase of more than 86 per cent, in
ten years. It is assumed that one-third of the whole population is
supported, directly or indirectly, by manufacturing industry.
The subjoined table gives the total value of the imports and
exports of the United States in each year — ended June 30 — from
1855 to 1864 :—
Years
i
(ended
Imports
Exports 1
30th June)
Dollars
£
Dollars
£
1855
257,808,708
53,710,147
218,909,502
45,606,146
1856
310,432,310
64,673,398
281,219,423
58,587,380
1857
348.428,342
72,689,238
293,823,760
61,213,283
1858
263,338,654
64,862,220
272,011,274
56,669,016
1859
331,333,341
69,027,779
292,902,051
61,021,260
1860
353,616,119
73,670,024
333,576,057
69,495,011
1861
304,436,224
63,424,213
374,974,528
78,119,693
1862
189,404,771
39,459,327
193,052,204
40,219,209
1863
242,631,939
50,548,320
267,652,849
65,761,010
1864
315,368,853
65,699,761
236,539,830
49,070,797
The commercial intercourse of the United States with the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the total value of the imports from the United States, and of the
exports thereto of British and Irish produce and manufactures, in
each of the eleven years, 1855 to 1865 : —
Imports
Exports of Home Produce
Years
from the United States
from the United Kingdom
to the United States
£
£
1865
25,741,752
17,318,086
1856
36,047,773
21,918,105
1857
33,647,227
18,985,939
1858
34,257,516
14,491,448
1859
34,294,042
22,553,406
1860
44,727,202
21,667,066
1861
49,389,684
9,064,504
1862
27,716,157
14,327,870
1863
19,572,010
15,344,392
1864
17,923,677
16,708,506 I
1865
21,649,116
^\,*l^5,1^Q ^
592
UNITED STATES.
The immense fluctuations visible in the preceding table were
caused chiefly by the supply of the single article, cotton. In
1854, the United States sent 722,151,346 pounds of cotton to the
British market, and in 1860 the amount had risen to 1,115,890,608
pounds. But the supply fell as low as 6,394,080 pounds in 1863,
and only rose to 14,148,064 pounds in 1864. Subjoined is a tabular
statement of the total quantities and value of cotton exported from
the United States to all countries in each of the twelve years —
ending June 30 — from 1853 to 1864. The last colunm gives the
average price per pound of the cotton exported each year : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Average price per
pound
Pounds
Dollars
Cents
1863
1,111,570,370
109,456,404
9-85
1854
987,833,1''6
93,696,220
9-47
1855
1,008,424,601
88,143,844
8-74
1856
1,361,431,701
128,382,351
9-49
1857
1,048,282,475
131,575,859
12-55
1858
1,118,624,012
131,386,661
11-72
1859
1,386,468,566
161,434,923
12-72
1860
1,767,686,338
191,806,555
10-85
1861
307,616,099
34,051,483
1107
1862
6,064,564
1,180,113
23-30
1863
11,384,986
6,652,405
68-43
1864
10,840,534
9,044,840
83-43
Next to cotton, the most valuable export article of the United
States, for the above period, was com, particularly wheat. The
exports of com to the United Kingdom, formerly very inferior in
value to those of cotton, became greatly superior in amount subse-
quently to the year 1861. In the year 1863, the exports of wheat to
the United Kingdom amoimted to 27,325,739 bushels, of the value
of 36,752,807 dollars, and in 1864 to 18,078,999 bushek, valued at
24,549,834 dollars. There were exported, besides, to the United
Kingdom 1,794,496 barrels of wheat flour, of the value of 11,074,908
dollars, m 1863, and 979,754 barrels, valued at 6,872,496 dollars, in
1864. It will be seen that the value of the exports of wheat and
wheat flour from the United States to the United Kingdom had be-
come, in 1863-64, nearly fivefold that of cotton, the total value of
the former articles, during these two years, having amounted to
79,250,045 dollars, and that of the latter to 17,947,404 dollars.
The following table gives the value of the various articles of
British and Irish produce and manufactures exported to the United
States in each of the three years, 1863 to 1865 : —
TRADB Aim ISSUSTRT.
593
Articles
]863
1864
1865
£
£
£
Alkali, soda
356,574
384,259
498,128
Arms, ammunition, and military
stores : —
Fire-arms and parts of fire-arms .
409,679
18,924
. 13,157
Gunpowder
226
2,015
46
Of all other kinds
17,422
18,304
. 11,499
Beer and ale . . •
33,053
43,411
65,867
Coals and culm .
170,529
129,470
119,208
Cotton piece goods
1,611,764
1,678,440
3,012,482
„ thread for sewing .
280,330
214,050
202,364
Earthenware and porcelain .
Haberdashery and millinery
356,329
398,338
452,255
665,609
761,778
937,709
Hardware ind cutlery
429,011
472,932
638,129
Linen, piece goods
2,076,761
2,481,199
3,633,938
„ thread
200,228
187,560
149,363
Metals :—
Copper, sheets, nails .
16,347
16,426
42,404
Iron, pig
129,063
215,429
212,566
„ bar, bolt, and rod
517,697
731,805
267,641
., railway, of all kinds
419,625
831,962
426,803
„ cast
28,911
16,544
6,701
„ hoops, sheets, and
boiler
plates
191,283
222,176
119,268
Iron, wrought, of all kinds
209,978
258,371
165,646
„ steel, unwrought .
531,249
493,244
366,004
Lead, pig and lead shot
51,016
251,809
167,439
Tin plates .
746,464
658,218
975,656
Oilseed ....
3,634
45,439
72,038
Salt . . . ...
26,977
36,619
70,317
Silk manufactures : —
Stuffs, handkerchiefs, and ribbons .
128,543
119,873
117,948
Other articles of silk only .
87,934
75,831
130,311
Mixed with other materials .
19,163
39,093
46,639
Spirits, British . . . • .
14,713
11,229
16,741
Wool, sheep and lambs'
38,828
16,300
31,410
"Woollen manufactures : —
Cloths, coatings ....
670,512
709,765
673,114
Worsted stuffs ....
2,003,690
2,068,103
3,784,301
Carpets and druggets .
268,318
270,442
385,841
All other articles ....
2,632,952
2,839,158
3,544,067
21,236,790
15,344,392
16,708,505
The most remarkable fact in connection with the above table is
the great increase in the exports of cotton, linen, and woollen
manufactures, the total value of which rose fi-om 7,111,603Z. in
1863 to 1 1,841, 393Z. in 1865, the value of the cotton piece
goods alone increasing to the amount of nearly di TCL^iVvycL «xA ^V^aiS.
sterling.
594
UNITED STATES.
Tlie total tonnage, sailing and steam, of the commercial navy of the
United States, at the end of the years 1860-64, was as follows : —
Years
Sailing
Steam
Total
Tons
Tons
Tons
1860
4,4S6,931
867,937
6,363,868
1861
4,662,609
877,204
6,639,813
1862
4,401,702
710,463
6,112,166
1863
4,553,111
672,970
6,126,081
1864
4,026,066
960,335
4,986,401
The civil war had a very depressing effect on the shipping of the
United States by transferring it from American vessels to those of other
nations. To what an extent this was the case will be seen from the
following table, which gives the imports and exports of New York,
distinguishing those carried by American from those carried by
foreign vessels, in each of the five years 1860-64 : —
Years
Imports
Exports
American
vessels
Foreign
vessels
American
vessels
Foreign
vessels
1860 .
1861
1862
1863
1864
Dollaus
137,382,296
70,382,977
69,199,104
38,113,376
31,777,560
Dollars
100,379,493
91,301,522
113,645,669
145,902,954
177*391,322
Dollars
96,511,297
95,221.536
74,430,719
44,387,879
42,239,046
Dollars
49,643,656
47,682,153
120,235,873
174,868,325
227,999,661
A glance at the above table will show that whereas in 1860 the
greater part of both the imports and exports of New York was
carried by American vessels, the latter had less than one-fifth of the
trade in 1864. The transfer was mainly in fevour of the shipping of
the United Kingdom.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the United States are :
Money.
The Dollar . . Average rate of exchange, 4cs. 2d,
Weights and Measubes.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old "Winchester
gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards. They
*re: —
Wine gallon — 0.83333 gallon.
Me gallon . = 1.01695 „
Bushel . =s 0.9692 imperial bushel.
Instead of the Briti&li c^7\h Qi qvmiVaL ^i \QQ ^\m.da is used.
BOOKS OF BEFERENCE. 595
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning the United
States,
1. Official Pttblications.
Acts of Congress relating to Loans and the Curreney fix)m 1842 to 1866 in-
clusive. 8. New York, 1866.
Agriculture of the Unit^^d States in 1860, compiled from the original returns
of the Eighth Census, under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, C. Q-.
Kennedy, Superintendent of the Census. 4. Washington, 1865.
Commercial Relations. Report of the Secretary of State on the Commercial
Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries for the year ended Sep-
tember 30, 1865. 8. Washington, 1866.
Commerce of the United States. Statistics of the Foreign and Domestic
Commerce of the United States, embracing an Historical Review and Analysis
of Foreign Commerce from the beginning of the Government ; the present in-
ternal Commerce between the Mississippi and Atlantic Stat-es ; the Overland
Trade and Communication with the Pacific States ; the Productions and Ex-
changes of the Gk)ld and Silver Districts ; the Commerce of the Pacific Coast
and the Internal Relations of the Northern Frontier of the United States.
Communicated by the Secretary of the Treasury in answer to a resolution of the
Senate of the United States, March 12, 1863. 8. Washington, 1865.
Manufactures of the United States in 1860. Compiled from the original
returns of the eighth census, under the direction of the Secretary of the
Interior. 4. Washington, 1866.
Preliminary Report on the Census of the State of New York for the Year
1865. Prepared under the direction of the Secretary of State. 8. Albany,
1866.
Report on Emigration by a Select Committee of the Chamber of Commerce
of the State of New York, January 5, 1865. With Appendix, containing
Documents and Tabular Statements referred to in the Report. 8. New York,
1866.
Report of the Secretary of the Navy, with an Appendix containing Reports
from officers. December, 1865. 8. Washington, 1866.
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the state of the Finances for the
Year 1866. 8. Washington, 1866.
Report of the Secretary of War, 1866. 8. Washington, 1866.
Report by Mr. Burnley, H.M. Secretary of Embassy, on the Iron and Steel
Trade of the United States, dated Washington, March 5, 1866 ; in * Reports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. 13. 8. London, 1866.
Reports of Messrs. Hemans, Murray, Donohoe, Archibald, and Kortright,
British Consuls at Buffalo, Portland, New Orleans, New York, and Plula-
delphia, on the Trade and Commerce of the United States in 1864 and 1866 ;
in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Stuart, H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy, on the Revenue, Ex-
penditure, and Public Debt of the United States, dated February 22, 1864 ;
in * Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. VII. London, 1864.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries, Fol. Part X, London,
1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Astie (Z. F.), Histoire de la r^publique des Etats-Unis depuis I'^tahUssft.-
ment des premieres colonies jusqu'a I'^lection du PT4B\d.eiil "LKsiRS^, ^^VsrJs^^^
d'une preface pap Ed. Labop^ ^. 2 vols. 8. PdXVB,\%^&.
QC42
596 ITKITED STATES.
Benton (T. H.), History of the Working of the American Government for
Thirty Years. 2 vols. 8. New York, 1861.
Bishop (J. Leander), History of American Manufactures from 1608 to 1860,
exhibiting the Origin and Growth of the Principal Mechanic Arts and Manu-
factures from the earliest Colonial period to the adoption of the Constitution,
and comprising Annals of the Industry of the United States in Machinery,
Manufactures, and useful Arts. 2 vols. 8. Philadelphia, 1864.
Boynton (C. B.), The Four Great Powers : EnglaiMi, France, Bussia, and
America. Their Policy, Resources, and Probable Future. By Eev. C. B.
Boynton, D.D., Professor at the United States Naval Academy, Chaplain of the
House of Kepresentatives. 8. Cincinnati, 1866.
Homans (J. Smith), Banker's Magazine and Statistical Kegifiter, New Yoric,
1866.
Lesley (J. P.), The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges, and
Rolling Mills of the United States. By J. P. Lesley, Secretary of the American
Iron ^sociation. 8. New York, 1866.
Macpherson (E.), The Political History of the United States of Amenct
during the Great Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
Nasi (Dr. Wilhelm), Der hundertjahrige Bestand des amerikanischen
Methodismus. Cincinnati, 1866.
Baymxmd (Hon. Henry J.), The Life and State Papers of Abraham Lincoln,
late President of th-e United States ; including his Speeches, Addresses, Messages,
Letters, and Proclamations. 8. New York, 1865.
Sanger (George P.), The Statutes at Large : Treaties and Proclamations of
the United States of America. From December, 1863, to December, 1865.
Arranged in chronological order and caijefully collated with the originals at
Washington. Boston, 1866.
Schoolcraft (Henry R.), Historical and Statistical Information respecting the
History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States.
Collected and prepared imder the direction of the Bureau of Indian Af^dis.
6 vols. 4. Philadelphia, 1851-60.
Smith (E. F.), Commentaries on Statute and Constitutional Law of the
United States. 8. Albany, 1848.
Story (J.), Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States. 3 vols.
8. Boston and Cambridge, 1833.
Tocqueville (Alexis C. H. C. de). La D^moeratie en Am^rique. 4 vols. 8.
Paris, 1835-40.
Wedgwood (William B.), The Government and Laws of the United States.
Comprising a complete and comprehensive view of the use, progress, and pre-
sent organisation of the State and National Governments. 8. New York.
1866.
Wilson (Henry), Military Measures of the United States Congress, 1861-
1865. By Henry Wilson, Chairman of the Committee on Military Afl&iirs. 8.
New York, 1866.
597
URUGUAY.
Constitatioii and Ooyemment.
The republic of Uruguay, or Banda Oriental del Uruguay^
formerly a Brazilian province, on August 25, 1825, declared its
independence, which was recognised by the Treaty of Montevideo,
signed August 27, 1828. The constitution of the republic was pro-
claimed Jiily 18, 1831. By the terms of this charter, the legislative
power is in the hands of a Parliament composed of two Houses, the
Senate and the Chamber of Kepresentatives, which meet in annual
session, extending from February 15 to the end of Jime. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators and
five members of the Lower House assume the legislative power, as
well as the general control of the administration.
The executive is given by the constitution to the President of the
Eepublic, who is elected for the term of four years, and cannot be
re-elected till after the lapse of four years. A vice-president, also
elected for four years, is at the head of the senate, but has no other
political power.
President of the Eepublic. — Dr. Francisco Antonio Vidaly bom
at Montevideo in 1827 ; educated at Paris ; appointed Minister of
the Interior of Uniguay, February, 1865 ; elected President of the
Republic, March 1, 1866.
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a council of
ministers divided into four departments, namely, the ministerio de
gobiemo, or ministry of the interior ; the ministerio de relaciones
exteriores, or department of foreign affairs ; the ministerio de hacienda^
or department of finance ; and the ministerio de la guerra^ or depart-
ment of army and navy.
Eevenne, Army, and Population.
There have been no recent returns of public revenue and expen-
diture, owing to almost uninterrupted civil war. A budget
extending over eighteen months, commencing July 1, 1860, and
ending December 31, 1861, estimates the receipts at 3,579,802
dollars, or 715,960Z., and the expenditures at the same amount.
The public debt in February, 1862, amoimted to 20,000,000 dollars,
or 4,000,000/., not including a debt to England of 50,000Z. sterling.
The consolidated debt amounted in 1862 to 4,^QQ,^W ^^jJ^tss ^x
900,000/. at 6 per oenU Other claima agam^X. ^xvx^eMwi \» '^'^u
598 ITKUOUAT.
amount of 6,000,000 dollars acknowledged, but not definitively
settled, also exist. The Government issued, in 1863, 2,500,000
dollars additional Government obligations to cover the expenses of
the intestine war then raging.
The army of Uruguay was composed as follows in 1864 : —
Grairison of the capital 1,300
Garrisons in the provinces , 1,500
National guard 20,000
According to newspaper reports the army was considerably in-
creased in the spring of 1865, when Uruguay entered into an alli-
ance with Brazil and the Argentine Kepublic, and declared war
against Paraguay. The army which actually took the field was
stated to number 3,500 men.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 73,538 square miles, with a
population, according to the census of 1860, of 240,965, or little more
than three inhabitants per square mile. The country is divided into
13 provinces. The capital, Montevideo, had, according to an enume-
ration of the year 1862, a population of 45,765, of whom about one-
half were foreigners.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United King-
dom is of some importance. Subjoined is a tabular statement of
the value of the imports fi*om Uruguay into the United Kingdom,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
Uruguay in each of the five years 1861 to 1865 : —
Imports from Uruguay
Exi)orts of Home Produce
Years
into the
from the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
to Uruguay
£
£
1861
639,717
681,638
1862
992,328
453,790
1863
1,220,629
634,973
1864
1,099,271
993,259
1865
1,256,010
813,448
The chief articles of import from Uruguay into the United King-
dom are tallow, wool, and hides, the first of an average value of
250,000Z. and the last of 300,000^. per annum. The exports from
the United Kingdom to Uruguay consist chiefly of manufactured
cotton and woollen goods The total foreign trade of the Republic
passes through the port of Montevideo.
The subjoined table eho^a Ibiie imxc^T ^svd ti^^ma^^ of British
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
599
vessels employed in the direct and indirect trade at tlie port of
Montevideo, in each of the five years 1861 to 1865 : —
Years
Direct trade
with the United Kingdom
Indirect trade
with Foreign Countries
Vessels
Tons
Vessels 1 Tons
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
Entered
61
48
66
103
106
16,017
18,329
22,058
42,690
56,394
86
80
80
119
223
31,923
30,241
35,461
65,099
101,000
Cleared
48
40
64
53
64
12,299
9,237
19,553
37,345
37,073
92
83
78
151
217
36,052
36,229
35,528
61,676
100,926
The value of the exports shipped from Montevideo to various
countries in each of the years 1863 to 1865, was as follows : —
Exports
1863
1864
1865
To France . .
„ Great Britain .
„ Spain ....
„ Italy . . . .
„ Brazils ....
„ United States .
Total .
Dollars
3,330,964
3,413,274
1,212,437
519,096
1,117,708
2,446,176
Dollars
2,495,916
2,209,844
1,012,962
928,625
649,362
1,409,907
Dollars
3,781,686
3,091,639
971,538
1,016,660
799,538
929,630
12,705,245
9,583,845
11,777,241
The rearing of cattle and other agricultural pursuits form the sole
industry of the inhabitants. Commerce, foreign as well as internal,
is chiefly in the hands of foreigners.
Money, Weights, and Measnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Uruguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Dollar. Average rate of exchange, 3*. 6d,
Weights and Msasxtbes.
The Quintal = 101.40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba = 25.35 „ „
„ Fanega « 1^ imperial bnsheL
6oo
n. AFKICA.
ALGERIA.
Oovemment, Eevenue, and Army.
Algeria, the largest and most important of the colonial possessions
of France, is entirely imder military rule. The supreme adminis-
tration is in the hands of a Governor- General, under whom are
placed the whole of the civil and military authorities. The country
is divided into five military districts, Aumale, Dellys, M^deah,
Milianah, and Qrleansville, which are subdivided into military cercles.
The salary of the Governor-General was fixed, by Imperial decree
of September 5, 1864, at 125,000 francs, or 6,000Z.
The revenue of Algeria, in the year 1864, amounted to 18,734,000
francs, or 749,360Z. ; and the expenditure to 17,856,013 francs, or
714,241/. But the cost of maintenance of the army, the expendi-
ture for public works, and other large sums disbursed by the Govern-
ment are not included in this expenditure, being provided out of the
French budget. It is calculated that the sum total of French ex-
penditure in Algeria from the time of its conquest in 1830 till the end
of the year 1865, amounted to 6,000,000,000 francs, or 200,000,000/.
sterling.
The French troops in Algeria consist of one corps d*armee, ihe
7th, numbering about 60,000 men. The troops in Algeria are
divided into two classes, namely, French corps, which remain there
in garrison for a certain number of years and then return to France,
and the so-called native troops, which never quit the colony except
for fighting purposes. In these latter corps, however, there are a
great number of Europeans. They consist of three regiments of
Zouaves, three of Turcos, or * Tirailleurs Alg^riens,' three of * Chas-
seurs d'Afrique,' and three of * Spahis,' — altogether 15,000 infentiy
and 3,000 horse. Besides these there are the punishment battalions,
popularly known as the batbalioii& o£ ' Z&^^h^rs.'
TRADE AJiD INDUSTBT.
6oi
Area and Population.
The boundaries of Algeria are not very well defined, large por-
tions of the territory in the outlying districts being claimed both
by the French Government and liie nomade tribes who inhabit it,
and hold themselves unconquered. According to the oflGlcial esti-
mates, the total area of the colony embraces 39,000,000 hectares, or
96,369,000 acres, being about three times the size of England. The
number of the population and their nationality is given as follows in
the census returns of 1856 and 1861 : —
Nationality
1866
1861
French
Other Europeans ,
Arabs in towns
„ in tribes
Jews
Other sects ....
Total .
92,738
66,544
123,250
2,184,099
21,048
, 8,388
112,229
80,517
358,760
2,374,091
28,097
13,142
2,496,067
2,966,836
In 1862 there were 6,139,136 acres of land under cultivation in
Algeria, of which 413,112 acres, or on an average, 8 per cent., were
cultivated by the European colonists, and 4,726,024 acres, or 92 per
cent., were cultivated by the natives. The total amount of cereals
produced in 1862 was 4,159,712 imperial quarters, of which 426,023
imperial quarters, or 10 per cent., were produced by the colonists,
and 3,733,690 imperial quarters, or 90 per cent., were produced by
the natives. But of this vast quantity of grain only 82,448 im-
perial quarters, or 2 per cent., were exported.
Trade and Industry.
Since the days of the French conquest, trade in Algeria has, both
as regards importations and exportations, made immense strides ; for
while in 1830 the trade of Algeria with France did not exceed
248,000/., it reached 8,492,000Z. in 1864. But, besides with France,
the trade with other countries is not very important, being, imports
and exports together, not much above the value of one million ster-
ling per annum. Spain stands second in the list of countries trading
with Algeria ; while the Barbary States hold tiha ^JkoAl^ «si^ '^s^^
United Eangdom the fourth place.
602
ALGERIA.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the im-
ports from Algeria into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of
British and Irish produce and manufactures to Algeria in each of the
five years 1861-65 :—
Tears
Imports from Algeria
into the
United Kingdom
Exxwrts of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Algeria
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
30,322
47,264
104,204
137,467
90,505
&
20,955
46,253
13,732
12,207
10,916
Small quantities of com and wool form the chief articles of
Algerian import into the United Kingdom, while the exports consist
almost entirely of coal and iron.
France draws large amounts of agricultural produce, particularly
com and cattle, from the colony. It appears from official returns that
the importation of com and cattle from Algeria into France is increas-
ing rapidly. In 1863 there were 6,178 oxen imported into France
from Algeria; and in 1864 the number increased to 11,233. The
Algerian sheep imported into Marseilles in the year 1863 amounted to
77,659, and in 1864 to 100,763. In the year 1860 Marseilles received
only 851 oxen from Algeria, and during the summer months of 1865
the markets of Marseilles, Toulon, Montpellier, and Cette, were in
a great measure supplied with African beef.
The cultivation of the vine in Algeria has made great progress
within the last few years. In the year 1862 the land planted with
vines was estimated at 16,000 acres, of which 8,000 were situated in
the province of Algiers, 5,500 in the province of Oran, and 1,500
in the province of Constantine. The vineyards produced in that
year 43,222 hectolitres of wine, and 18,472,912 lbs. of grapes were
sold for the table. The land was chiefly planted with the Chasselas-
Burgundy, Alicante, and Grenache vines. The greatest fault to be
found with the Algerian wines is their acidity. In 1863 additional
plantations were made, both by the Arabs and colonists. The
number of planters amounted to 17,281, of whom 22,300 were
natives, and 5,000 Europeans. The vineyards covered 87,000 acres,
of which 50,000 were planted with vines producing black, and the
remainder with those producing white grapes. Of these vine-
yards 10,500 acres were situated in the province of Algeria, which
produced 83,000 hectolitres of wine, and 8,500,000 lbs. weight of
grapes for sale ; 64,000 acxea m tli<& i^xo^iELCi^ of Ckmstantine, pro-
BOOKS OF BEFEKENCB. 603
ducing 30,000 hectolitres of wine, and 4,100,000 lbs. of grapes; and
12,500 acres in the province of Oran, producing 20,000 hectolitres
of wine, and 2,000,000 lbs. of grapes.
In recent years the growth of cotton has also been attempted in
Algeria. In the year 1864, there were 7,950 acres of land sown
with cotton, producing upwards of 4,000,000 pounds of raw cotton,
the whole of which was exported to France, To encourage the
cidture the French Government is granting a premium on the expor-
tation of native cotton from Algeria.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Algeria, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Gold 8eqvin • . . Average rate of exchange, 8«. 6i^.
„ Monzonnah . . ,, ,, „ ^.
Weights and Measubes.
The Onguyah . , . =3 -4 grammes.
„ Hollah (liquid) . . — 16.66 litres, or about 17 pints.
„ Psa (dry) . . = 48 litres, or about 51 J pints.
The money, weights, and measures of France are also in general
use.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Algeria.
1. Official Publications.
Annnaire g^n^ral de TAlg^rie, 1866, suivi de documents officiels. 8. Paris,
1866.
Etat actuel de TAlg^rie, public d'aprfes les documents officiels sous la
direction du direct, g^n^ral des services civils. 8. Paris, 1866.
Statistique et documents relatifs au s^natus-consulte sur la propri^t6 arabd.
8. Paris, 1864.
Tableau de la situation des ^tablissements fran9ais dans TAlg^rie, 1862.
4. Paris, 1865.
Keport by Mr. Consul-Gen eral Churchill upon the Trade and Navigation of
Algeria during the years 1862, 1863, and 1864 ; in 'Commercial Reports received
at the Foreign Office.' 8. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Beynet (L^n), Les Colons alg^riens. 8. Alger, 1866.
Coaentino (M. de), L' Algeria en 1865. Coup d'ceil d'un colonisateur. 8.
Paris, 1865.
Dareste (Rodolphe), De la propri^t^ en Algfecve. licJ\ ^\sl \^ \«fli. V^W ^
S^natus-consulte du 22 avril 1863. 2e Wdt. \%. ^«na,\^^^«
6o4
ALGERIA.
Duval (J.\ Tableaux de la situation des ^tablissements fran9ais dans rAlg^&«
Bapport. 8. Pans, 1865.
Faidherbe (G^n^ral), L'Arenir du Sahara et du Soudan. 8. Paris, 1866.
LamhoreUe (Louis), Cinq ans en Afrique, souvenirs militaires d'un Beige
an service de la France. 8. Bnixelles, 1865.
Lucet (Marcel), Colonisation europ^enne de TAlg^rie. 8. Paris, 1866.
Mas Latrie (L. de), Trait^s de paix et de commerce et docimients diver?
concemant les relations des ckr^tiens avec les Arabes de T Afrique septentrionale
au moyen fige, recueillis par ordre de Tempereur et publics avec une introduc-
tion historique. 4. Paris, 1866.
Pharaon (Florian), Voyage en Algeria de Sa Majesty Napoleon HI. Fol.
Paris, 1866.
Sainte-Felix (Ren6 de), Le Voyage de S. M. Tempereup NapoUon III. en
Alg^rie, mai— juin 1865, p6dig6 d'apr^s les documents officiels. 8. Paris,
1866.
6o5
CAPE OP GOOD HOPE.
Constitation and Oovemment.
The present form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was established in the year 1852. By Letters Patent, dated
23rd May, 1850, the Governor and Council were empowered to enact
ordinances for the establishment of a Eepresentative Government ;
two year's later the present constitution was brought into force. It
vests the executive in the Governor and an Executive Council, com-
posed of certain office-holders appointed by the Crown. The legis-
lative power rests with a Legislative Council of 15 elected members,
presided over ex-officio by the Chief-justice, and a House of
Assembly of 46 elected members, representing the country districts
and towns of the colony. There is an election at the end of every
five years for the Coimcil, when eight and seven members are elected
alternately. The qualification for members is possession of immovable
property of 2,000Z., or movable property worth 4,000Z. With the
exception of paid office-holders, and others specified in the Order
in Council, any person may be elected a member of Assembly.
Members of both houses are elected by the same voters, who are
qualified by possession of property, of receipt of salary or wages,
ranging between 25Z. and 50Z. per annum. The colonial secretary,
the attorney-general, the treasurer-general, and the auditor-general,
who are members of the Executive Council, can take part in the
debates of the Legislativ.e Council and House of Assembly ; they
can introduce new measures, but cannot vote in either House.
Governor of the Cape of Good Hope. — Sir Philip E. Wodehouse,
bom 1806 ; entered the Ceylon civil service as writer. May, 1828 ;
promoted to be assistant colonial secretary and clerk of the executive
and legislative councils, Oct. 1833 ; district judge of Kandy, 1840 ;
Government agent for the western province, 1843 ; appointed super-
intendent of Honduras, 1851 ; governor of British Guiana, Feb.
1854 ; special envoy to the Government of Venezuela, 1858 ; ap-
pointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope, 1861.
The governor is, by virtue of his office, coTMaaxL'^J5?c-\s\.-OKv<s5l <^
the forces within the colony.
6o6
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The revenue of the colony is derived mainly from import duties,
which produced, on the average of the last ^ve years, rather more than
a quarter of a million sterling per annum. Comparatively little is
derived from rent or sales of public lands, although enormous dis-
tricts are waiting to be cultivated, and the price of agricultural
produce is very high. A large portion of the expenditure is for
police, gaols, and convicts. The income and expenditure of the
colony during the eight years, from 1856 to 1864, were as
foUows : —
Years
Eevenue
Expenditure
£
£
1856
348,362
333,151
1857
421,525
375,796
1858
463,010
494,989
1859
469,075
605,284
1860
742,771
763,236
1862
753,326
683,792
1863
757,602
682,666
1864
587,713
633,939
The revenue of 1863 was obtained from the following sources :
Sources of Eevenue Amount
Customs : — £
Import duties 273,916
Warehouse rent 622
Land sales 13,266
Land revenue 27,996
Rent, exclusive of land 7,927
Transfer duties 5.7,168
Auction „ 20,517
Stamps and stamped licences . . .. . . 34,447
Taxes, arrear road rates 53
Postage 22,794
Fines, forfeitures, and fees of court .... 10,306
Fees of office 5,073
Sale of Grovemment property 3,227
Reimbursements in aid of expenses incurred by Gro-
vemment . 6,370
Interest and premiums 17,340
Special receipts 3,336
Loans in aid of revenue 170,700
Miscellaneous receipts, including advances repaid . 41,404
Total . . 716,489
ABBA AND POPULATION. 607
The various branches of expenditure in 1863 were as follows : —
Branches of Ezi)enditure Amount
£
Governor and other officers 34,636
Judicial . 13,159
Administration of justice . 92,38
Divisional courts 27,050
Civil commissioners . ..... . ... 1 1,048
Allowances to court servants under Act 26 of 1,860 . . 7,220
Stamp Office . . ..... . ... 535
Police, gaols, and constables . . . ... 49,398
1,215
13,199
394
15,270
17,510
9,269
7,280
Crown forests
Customs
Revenue services
Ecclesiastical
Educational
Post Office .
Medical . .
Hospitals, lepers, and destitute . . . . 11,030
Port and boat establishments ... , . . 4,885
Mounted frontier force 49,274
inland „ 4,268
Parliamentary expenses 9,444
Pensions, retired allowances, &c. . . . . 13,735
Conveyance of mails 42,969
Convict expenditure 32,675
Rent 6,379
Transport . ^ 14,045
"Works and buildings 44,443
Roads, streets, and bridges 82,831
Aborigines 9,348
Specisd payments 3,590
Military 10,000
Immigration 13,145
Railways 8,594
Sums refunded 1,808
Interest and premiums 32,972
Advances outstanding 22,505
Loans repaid 29,000
Miscellaneous . 20,431
Total . . 683,792
The colony had a public debt at the end of 1863, of 716,050/.
The debt dates from the year 1859, when it amounted to 80,000/.
It rose to 368,400Z, in 1860 ; to 565,050/. in 1861 ; and to 715,050/.
in 1863.
Area and Population.
The colony is divided into fourteen districts, differing greatly in
extent, as shown in the following table, which. ^Aao ^^^^'i Okv<^
towns: —
6o8
CAPE or GOOD HOPE.
Districts
Area in square
milee
Chief towns
Cape Town district ....
9
Cape Town
Cape Division
3,584
Simon's Town
Stellenbosch .
2,280
Stellenbosch
Worcester
0,000
"Worce ster
Clanwilliam
2,111
Clanwilliam
Zwellendam
7,616
Zwellendam
George .
4,032
George Town
Beaufort
13,050
Beaufort
XJitenhage
8,960
XJitenhage
Albany
1,792
Bathurst
Somerset
•4,000
Somerset
Cradock
3,168
Cradock
Grdaf Reinet
8,000
Graaf Reinet
Colesbery
11,654
Colesbery
Districts not organised
34,675
Total
I
104,931
The population, white and coloured, according to the last returns
made in 1856, was then as follows : —
Various
White Coloured Aliens Malay and Total
Africanders
102,156 129,167 10,684 25,189 267,096
The European inhabitants consist in part of the English authorities
and English settlers ; but the majority are of Dutch, German, or
French origin, being the descendants of the original settlers. The
coloured people are chiefly Hottentots and Kaffirs ; the remaining
portion of the population consists of Malays, and so-called
Africanders, the latter the offspring of a black woman and a Dutch
fether. Very little communication takes place between the Kaffirs,
Africanders, and Malays, each race holding the others in contempt.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total imports and exports of the Cape Colony, in
the eight years from 1856 to 1864, was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exxx)rt»
£
£
1856
1,588,393
1,327,175
1857
2,637,192
1,988,406
1858
2,495,341
1,798,176
1859
2,677,867
1,818,080
1860
2,665,902
1,920,279
1861
2,601,842
1,806,598
1862
2,623,159
1,936,761
1863
%,11^,^%Z
1,997,899
1864
^,410,%^^
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
'609
The following table gives the quantities and value of the prin-
cipal articles imported into the colony in each of the years 1863 and
1864: —
Imports
1864
Apparel and slops .
Beer and ale, bottled
„ „ in wood
Cabinet and upholstery ware .
Coals
Coffee
Cotton manufactures
Haberdashery and millinery .
Hardware, cutlery, and ironmongery
Iron, bar, bolt, and rod .
Leather manufactured .
Linen manufactures
Oilmen's stores
Eice
Saddlery and Harness .
Sugar, raw . .
Tea
Tobacco manufactured .
Wood, deals .
Woollen manufactures
Gallons
£
Gallons
£
£
Tons
£
Cwts.
£
£
£
£
Cwts.
. £
£
£
£
Cwt^\
£
£
Cwts.
£
Us.
£
Cwts.
£
Cuhicft.
£
£
117,753
141,094
25,230
181,655
15,382
27,033
20,630
20,473
64,694
170,280
137,661
191,230
102,285
38,600
16,506
71,791
9,937
61,976
124,678.
63,695
15,914
129,238
120,223
616,422
36,632
6,758
61,062
134,714
9,393
71,212
169,496
179,255
31,744
249,666
21,744
27,086
38,248
39,097
63,236
156,636
337,064
270,533
113,643
21,880
11,605
73,307
14,682
61,444
86,735
40,490
16,244
116,432
136,025
137,640
9,923
4,112
33,894
482,636
32,623
82,276
Total value of principal and other ^j
articles J
£
2,275,833
2,493,389
Among the articles of export, wool is the most important, the
value shipped annually constituting nearly three-fourths of the
total exports. The sheep-farms are often of very great extent, com-
prising from 3,000 to 10,000 acres, and upwards : those in tillage
are comparatively small. The graziers are, for the most part, pro-
prietors of the farms which they occupy, paying a quit rent to
Government as the original owner of the soil. Land on rent, from
the farmer to a private owner, is almost unknown. The transfer of
land from one individual to another is effected with the utmost
facility by the laws of the colony, with the consequence tl\«A. -^^tof^'^vj
seldom remains long in one family.
R R
6io
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
The following table gives the quantities and value of the principal
articles export^ from the colony in each of the years 1 863 and
1864 :—
Exports
1863
1864
3,540
103.214
10,275
72,834
25,263
17,367
53,226
10,773
Copper ore j £
^ , -1 f Lbs.
Feathers, ostrich \ £
Hides, ox and cow . j £ ■
Ivory I £
Skins: ;
G«at { ^)j
Sheep I £ ■
Wine, ordinary | « '
«r T , . f Us. '31.148,176
Wool, sheep s ^ £ 1^504,661
510,171
58,677
873,397
69,495
319,146
46,054
4,327
122,722
17.873
81,755
34,289
16,048
26,013
4,488
450,247
65,716
891,360 .
76,453
175,601
24,986
1,413,689 '
,871,068 ,
Total value of principal and other 1
articles )
£: 2,224,446
2,613,709
I
The inhabitants of the colony are employed, besides sheep-
farming, in the production of wine, in the breeding of horses and
cattle, and in the growth of wheat, barley, oats, and maize. The
export of all these articles of agricultural produce is gradually, though
slowly, increasing.
6ii
EGYPT.
OoYemment.
Egypt, formerly a province of the Turkish empire, became in-
dependent in 1811. By the Imperial Hatti-SchlrifF of Jan. 12,
1841, confirmed by the firman of June 1, 1841, the Government of
Egypt is hereditary in the family of Mehemet Ali. His descendants
bear the title of Viceroy. The law of succession is the same as in
the imperial house of Turkey.
Viceroy of Egypt — Ismail Pasha, bom 1816, the eldest surviving
son of Ibrahim Pasha, eldest son of Mehemet Ali ; succeeded to the
Government at the death of his uncle. Said Pasha, Jan. 18, 1863.
The present viceroy is the fifth hereditary ruler of Egypt of the
family of Mehemet Ali.
Heir Presumptive, — Mustapha Pasha, second surviving son of
Ibi-ahim Pasha, born 1816.
The administration of the country is under a Council pf State,
consisting of four military and four civil dignitaries, nominated
by the viceroy. At the side of the coimcil stands a ministry, di-
vided into ^yQ departments, of finance, of war, of marine, of home,
and of foreign affairs. A governor is at the head of each of the seven
provinces.
Bevenne, Army, and Population.
The budget for the year 1864 estimated the revenue at 4,250,000/.,
and the expenditure at 3,575,000/., leaving a surplus of 675,000/.
Former years showed a great deficit, amoimting to firom 500,000/.
to 1,000,000/. annually.
A tribute of 80,000 purses, or 400,000/., has to be paid yearly
to the Turkish' Government. The deficit of several years created
a floating debt, amounting, at the end of 1859, to 5,000,000/.
sterling. In August 1860, the Government contracted a loan of
28,000,000 fi^cs, or 1,120,000/., at Paris ; and, in March 1862,
another loan of 40,000,000/. francs, or 1,600,000/. In August,
1864, the Government borrowed 700,000/. of two En^^aJo. ^'csva^*-
stock banks. The negotiation of anotliet \o«a c»l ti^^^^^^^^^* "«^^
effect in October, 1864, at Paria and liOiidoTu TfcL^ ^a^x«t ^«»^
bb2
6l2
EGYPT.
issued for fifteen years, with interest at the rate of 9 per cent.,
and a proportionate amount set aside for a sinking iund.
The army is raised by conscription. It consisted, in January
1863, of four regiments of infantry, of 3,000 men each; of a bat-
talion of chasseurs, of 1,000 men ; of 3,500 cavahy ; 1,500 artillery ;
and two battalions of engineers, of 1,500 each. There is, besides, a
regiment of black troops, of Sudan, 3,000 men strong. The present
viceroy decided, soon after his accession, to reduce the r^ular army
to 14,000 men, namely, 8,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, artillery, and
engineers, and 3,000 black troops.
The Egyptian navy comprised, in 1865, seven ships of the line,
six frigates, nine corvettes, seven brigs, eighteen gunboats and
smaller vessels, and twenty-seven transports. The viceroy has the
command-in-chief of the fleet.
The area of Egypt is estimated at 175,812 square miles, with a
population of about 5,000,000, including 150,000 Copts, 90,000
Bedouin Arabs, 8,000 Jews, 3,000 Armenians, and about 15,000
domiciled Europeans, one-third of them Greeks. The population
of Alexandria, according to a superficial enumeration of tJie year
1859, numbered 400,000, while Cairo had 4,590 inhabitants.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Egypt with the United Kingdom
is very important, on account of the direct as well as the transit
trade. The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of
the imports from Egypt into the United Kingdom, and of the ex-
ports of British and Irish produce and manu&ctures to Egypt, in
each of the Gve years 1861 to 1865 : —
Years
Imports from Egypt into
the United Kindom
Exports of Some Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Egypt
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
8,398,493
12,225,783
16,495,681
19,602,235
21,773,250
£
2,278,848
2,405,982
4,406,295
6,050,221
5,985,087
The magnitude of the commercial transactions as regards the im-
ports fi:om Egypt into the United Kingdom is partly owing to the
costly transit trade which flows from India through Egypt. The
single article, raw silk, enumerated among Egyptian imports into
the United Kingdom, but chiefly Indian produce, was of the value of
6,768,6011. in 1860; of 4,2^4,b^U. m \^^\% ^i ^,QQ9,361/. in
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
613
1862; of 4.637,455Z. in 1863; and of 3,715,132Z. in 1864. The
second staple article of Egyptian imports into the United Kingdom
is raw cotton, the value of which rose from 1,480,895Z. in 1860, to
3,723,440Z. in 1862, to 8,841, 557Z. in 1863, and to the enormous
sum of 14,300,507Z. in 1864. The third staple article of Egyptian
imports is com, especially wheat, the value of which averages
1,000,000Z. per annum. The exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures to Egypt, in the years 1863 and 1864, com-
prised the following principal articles : —
Exports, principal articles
Apparel and haberdashery
Arms and ammunition
Fire-arms (small)
Gunpowder .
Books, printed
Carriages, of aU sorts
Coals, cinders, and culm
Copper, wrought and unwrought .
Cotton yarn ....
Cottons entered by the yard
„ „ at value
Drugs and chemical products
Earthenware and porcelain .
Hardwares and cutlery, unenumerated
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Linens, entered by the yard
Machinery : steam engines .
„ all other sorts .
Mathematical instruments .
Paper of all sorts (including paper hangings)
Plate, plated ware, jewellery, and watches
Provisions (not otherwise described) .
Silk manufactures ....
Stationery, other than paper
Telegraphic wire, &c
Woollens, entered by the yard (including
those formerly entered by the piece)
Woollens entered at value .
All other articles ....
Total
269,130
24,905
3,697
84,750
23,517
123,138
266,482
122,960
1,810,980
20,429
16,117
13,804
53,116
161.689
42,949
161,195
252,621
21,790
3,754
153,434
17,462
258,418
44,752
570
65,615
6,877
392,244
£
283,236
18,601
5,009
94,064
77,354
168,651
405,337
146,658
2,492,997
35,954
24,223
17,482
67,620
236,090
151,151
312,884
402,071
13,688
3,098
132,512
19,155
271,850
46,794
30,547
90,554
10,922
493,178
4,406,295
6,051,680
A large part of these exports of the United Kingdom pass merely
in transit through Egypt on the way to British India.
6J4 EGYPT.
Honey, Weights, and Heasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of Egypt, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Sequin = Average rate of exchange, 58. 4<f.
„ Piastre^ of 40 jparas . . « „ „ 2|«?.
Weights and Measuees.
The KiUow = 0.9120 imperial busheL
„ Almud = 1.151 imperial gallons.
OkCy of 400 dranis . . . « 2.8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Egypt
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Eangdom with
Foreign Countries in the year 1864. 4. London, 1866.
Report of Mr. A. Hale, Consul-General of the United States, on the Trade
and Commerce of Egypt, dated Alexandria, February 24, 1865; in * Annual
Report on Foreign Commerce.* 8. Washington, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Figary-Bey (A.), Studii scientifici suU Egitto e sue adiacenze compresa la
peninsola dell' Arabia Petrea. 8. Lucca, 1865.
Flachat (E.), M^moire sur les travaux de Tisthme de Suez. 8. Paris,
1865.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Egypt and Syria. 8. London, 1865.
Issel (A.), Del canale di Suez. Kelazionc presentata alia camera di com-
mercio ed arti di Trapani. 8. Genova, 1865.
Le Saint (L.), L'isthme de Suez. Essais de canalisations dans les temps
anciens et au moyen Age. Projet de M. de Lesseps. Travaux accomplis de la
M^diterran^e a la Mer Rouge. 12. Paris, 1866.
Sapeto (G.), L,'Italia ed il Canale di Suez. 8. Firenze, 1865.
Scnerer (H.), Reise in Egypten. 8. Frankfort, 1866.
Tarich-i'Misr. History of Egypt> translated from the Arabic, by Behjet
Efendy. 8. Constantinople, 1865.
6i:
LIBERIA.
Constitution and Oovenunent.
The constitution of the republic of Liberia is on the model of
that of the United States of America. The executive is vested in a
president and a non-active vice-president, and the legislative power
is exercised by a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The president and vice-president are
elected for two years ; the House of Representatives also for two years,
and the senate for four years. There are 13 members of the Lower
House, and 8 of the Upper House ; each county sending 2 members
to the senate. It ia provided that, on the increase of the population,
each 10,000 persons will be entitled to an additional representative.
Both the president and the vice-president must be thirty -five years
of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars, or 120Z.
In case of the absence or death of the president, his post is filled by
the vice-president. The latter is also President of the Senate, which,
in addition to being one of the branches of the legislature, is a
Council for the President of the RepubKc, he being required to
submit treaties for ratification and appointments to public oflice for
confirmation.
President of Liberia. — ^Daniel Bashiell Warner, elected May 5,
1864, for the term of two years, and re-elected in 1866.
Vice-President of Liberia, — James W. Priest, elected May 5,
1864.
The first president was Joseph Jenkins Roberts ; he was succeeded
by Stephen Allen Benson. Each of these two presidents served four
terms of two years each. Mr. Daniel B. Warner, the actual chief
magistrate of the republic, is the third president.
For political and judicial purposes, the republic is divided into
counties, which are further subdivided into townships. The counties
are four in number, and called Montserrado, Grand Bassa, Since,
and Maryland. The townships are commonly about eight miles in
extent. Each town is a corporation, its affairs being managed by
officers chosen by the inhabitants. Courts of monthly and quarter
sessions are held in each coxmty. The civil business of the county
is administered by four superintendents appointed h^ t\i^ ^^^'sA^^:^*
with the advice and consent of the senatiti. 1\i^ q.qv3CdJg^ «^'^\kk^ ^^
6] 6 LIBEItlA.
government is capable of indefinite extension over new districts of
territory that may be acquired, giving all the advantages which
local self-government affords to the inhabitants. The Government
of Liberia is entirely in the hands of men of the African race.
Population, Bevenne, and Trade.
The settlement of Liberia, foimded in 1822, was, on August 24,
1847, proclaimed a free and independent state, as the Republic of
Liberia. The state was first acknowledged by England, after-
wards by France, Belgium, Prussia, Brazil, Denmark, and Portugal,
and, in 1861, by the United States. The republic has about
600 miles of coast line, and extends back about 100 miles on an
average, but with the facihty of almost indefinite extension into
the interior. It is stated that the natives everywhere manifest the
greatest desire that treaties should be formed with them, so that
the limits of the republic may be extended over all the neighbouring
districts. The Liberian territory has been purchased by more than
20 treaties, and in all cases the natives have freely parted with their
titles for a satisfactory price. The chief solicitude has been to pur-
chase the line of sea-coast, so as to connect the different settlements
under one Government, and to exclude the slave trade, which formerly
was most extensively carried on at Cape Mesurado, Tradetown,
Little Bassa, Digby, New Sesters, Gallinas, and other places at
present within the republic.
The population is estimated to number 500,000, of which 16,000
are Americo-Liberians, and the remaining 484,000 aboriginal inha-
bitants. In the year'1862, the public revenue amounted to 30,190/.,
and the expenditure to 29,973/. The Liberians have built and
manned 30 coast traders, and they have a number of large vessels
engaged in commerce with Great Britain and the United States.
The principal articles of export are coffee, sugar, palm oil, and
various other products of the soil of Africa. In the Board of Trade
returns, including the * Annual Statement of the Trade and Navi-
gation of the United Kingdom,' the imports and exports of Liberia
are not distinguished, but thrown with others together under the
heading * Western Coast of Africa.'
6i7
NATAL.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Cape of
Good Hope settlement, •vvas erected into a separate Government by
Letters Patent issued in November, 1845. A Lieutenant-Governor
was appointed, as well as an Executive Council created. The Lieu-
tenant-Governor was subordinate to the Governor of the Cape, and
the Legislative Council of the latter continued to frame laws for Natal
till 1848, when a separate Legislative Council was established. In
1856 Natal was erected into a distinct and separate colony, and from
that time has not been under the control of the Governor of the Cape.
Its affairs are administered by a Lieutenant-Governor, assisted by an
Executive Council, composed of the Chief-justice, the senior officer
in command of the troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer,
the Attorney-General, and the Secretary for Native Affairs ; and a
Legislative Council, composed of four official members, namely,
the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the Attorney- General, and
the Secretary for Native Affairs, and 12 members elected by the
counties and boroughs. .
Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, — John Maclean, C.B. ; formerly
Chief Commissioner for British Kaffraria, 1852-GO ; Lieutenant-
Governor of British Kaffraria, 1860-4 ; appointed Lieutenant-
Goverijor of Natal, April 6, 1864.
The Lieutenant-Governor has a salary of 1,200Z., and the Colonial
Secretary of 700/.
Bevenne and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony in the six
years, 1859-64, were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1859
50,904
49,916
1860
86,871
80,384
1861
114,087
126,560
1862
109,299
113,237
1863
123,089
117,98(\
1864
136,210
\ \^n,n^i
\
6i8
NATAL.
About one-third of the revenue is derived from customs, and the
rest from miscellaneous sources of income, chief among them a * hut-
tax on natives.' The latter produced 17,926/. in the year 1862.
The chief item of expenditure is for police and the administration
of justice. The public debt, which was 50,000/. in 1860, had
risen to 100,000/. at the end of 1863.
Natal is a solitary instance of a colony having been established by
Great Britain without cost to imperial ftmds. In its early days it
Iiad a loan of ten thousand pounds, which has long since been repaid.
Its military expenditure is, however, still paid by Great Britain.
Population.
The colony has an estimated area of about 18,000 square miles,
with a seaboard of 150 miles. But the extent of some of the
districts is all but unknown. The following table gives the area of
the best explored counties and divisions, and the population of each,
according to Government retiurns of the year 1863 : —
Area in
Counties and divisions
square miles
Population
County of Pietermaritzburg
—
32,060
City of „ „
—
4,913
County of Durban
3,774
6,020
Borough of „ ......
—
4,313
County of Klip River
Ladysmith Division
—
25,996
Newcastle „
2,232
5,347
County af Victoria :
Inanda Division
482
13,585
Tugela „
1,000
386
County of Umvoti
2,000
4,179
County of Weenen
—
20,595
Division of the Upper Umkomanzi
1,440
12,661
Lower „ ....
Total ....
1,600
12,258-
—
156,165
About one-seventh of the population enumerated in the above
table are of European origin. Comparatively few emigrants arrived
in recent years, the former Government aid to this effect having come
to an end. {See Great Britain and Ireland^ p. 287.) The number
of emigrants from Great Britain in the year 1863 — when there
existed Government aid — was 256, of whom 35 were married men,
31 married women, 78 single men, 42 single women, 35 boys between
the ages of 1 and 12, 23 giils \)etNveeTi \\i^ ^axxi^ ^^ea^? male infants,
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
619
and 5 female ; 184 were English, 59 Scotch, and 13 Irish. A number
of Indian coolies, from 500 to 800 per annum, have also been recently
introduced into Natal.
Trade and Commerce.
The value of the total imports and exports of the colony, in the
six years 1860-65, was as follows: —
Years
Imports
Exports
£
£
1860
354,987
129,390
1861
402,689
119,207
1862
449,469
127,228
1863
473,333
158,565
1864
591,686
220,267
1865
455,206
210,254
The staple article of export is sheep's wool ; next to which in
importance stand sugar, ivory, and hides. Many of the exports,
particularly wool, come from the neighbouring Dutch republics,
which also absorb more than one-third of the imports. The native
population, though extensively engaged in agricultural pursuits, have
not as yet been able to produce any articles of export from Natal.
620
III. ASIA.
CEYLON.
Constitution and Oovemment.
The present form of government of Ceylon was established by
Letters Patent of April, 1831, and supplementary orders of March,
1833. According to the terms of this constitution, the administra-
tion is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council
of ^ve members ; viz., the Officer Commanding the Troops, the
Colonial Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Treasurer, and the
Auditor-General; and a Legislative Council of 15 members, in-
cluding the members of the Executive Council, four other office-
holders, and six unofficial members.
Governor of Ceylon. — Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, Knt., for-
merly in the 87th Fusiliers ; subsequently, 1846-53, a member of
the Irish Poor-law Board ; appointed President of Montserrat,
1854; Lieutenant-Governor of St. Christopher, 1855; Governor
of Hong-Kong, 1859. Appointed Governor of Ceylon, 1864.
The Governor has a salary of 7,000Z., and the Colonial Secretary
2,000/.
Bevenne and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of the
eight yeara 1857 to 18G4, was as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1857
578,028
535,803
1858
654,961
594,333
1859
747,036
698,268
1860
767,100
705,440
1861
751,997
635,230
1862
759,135
626,653
1863
952,790
738,194
1864
867,728
1,843,292
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
621
Rather more than one-third of the revenue is derived from import
and export duties, and the rest from miscellaneous indirect taxes, of
which the most productive, * licences,' furnishes about 125,000Z.
per annum. The items * land sales,' and * land revenue,' produce
together little more than 100,000Z. The largest item of the expen-
diture is for public works, and the next largest for police and ad-
ministration of justice. About 17,000/. per amium ^are spent for
educational purposes.
Population.
The following table gives the area and population of Ceylon, in
the several provinces, according to a return of the year 1862 : —
Provinces
Area in square
mUes
Total population
Population per
square mile
Western
North-western
Southern ....
Eastern
Northern ....
Central
Total
Military ....
Total (including military) .
3,820
3,362
2,147
4,763
5,427
5-191
725,812
204,924
334,769
83,738
419,062
306,939
19000
60-95
155-91
17-61
77-21
69-12
24,700
2,075,234
4,647
84-01
•18
2,079,881
84-20
Of the total population here enumerated, 15,231 were white, and
the rest coloured. The male sex preponderated over the female in
the proportion of ten to nine both among the white and the coloured
inhabitants of Ceylon.
Trade and Commerce.
The trade and commerce of Ceylon has greatly expanded in recent
years, having more than trebled from 1851 to 1864. The total
imports, which were of the value of 1,998,450/. in 1851, had risen to
5,526,964Z. in 1864, while the total exports, which were of the value
of 1,805,877/. in 1851, amounted to 3,112,268/. in 1864. In the
subjoined tables, the quantities and values of principal articles im-
ported and exported from Ceylon, in each of ttvft ^^«t^ \^^^ ^saSiw
1864, are given ; —
622
CEYLON.
IiQportfl
18(t8
lie*
Coala and coke ^
51,104
127,729
55,187
143,400
PtPCFS
1,07^,653
1,363,244
Cotton maDuioctiiree
*
11,003
790,408
14.723
997,272
Packat^ts
ftoa
1,433
Twist '
CwU.
96
74
€
60.694
93,861
Packagfs
8,228
6,326
Ctitlery and haMvore .
Pieces
109
11,085
22,651
5,371
£
66,647
70.604
Paekityes
7
—
Coiry BtuffB, , . » . .
CwU.
87.607
59.617
74.052
38,798
Fifth, flalted mad drlDd ,
r Cw£s.
Bmhiis
L £
60,905
60.9{15
75.248
75.218
Grain : Paddy J
798,280
119 J42
680.364
102,055
Kicb
Bushels
4,415,620
3.943.396
[ £
1.324,746
1,183.019
Packages
1,659
1,397
BAberdashery and miUiuery ,
Fi^ca
6,573
—
£
66,263
53,505
Specie and bullion , . . .
Totftl value of priueipal and i
articles ....
£
.ther| ^
1,842,974
1,771,053
5,433,807
5,526,964
lt[pgrt«
Arecanuts , T Ourf^
Cinnamon J ■
Coffee, planmtion , , . J *^^^
. NiLtive r ^'^^-
f Packages
Cotton manufacturer . . . . j Piec&9
I £
(Bundles
Packages
t Packages
leea
ISM
68,406
54,326
51,304
40.716
734,038
778,675
36,703
38,833
670,068
676,315
1,809,186
1,55-^513
158,517
9-^,543
317,034
190,897
5,861
3,925
341,084
211,541
340,263
251,276
—
351
1^ — •
4 '
906
652
69.105
43,668
—
1,826
6,217
—
1,682
493
^^,963
^ ^25,479
TRADE AND COMHEBCE.
623
Exports
1863
1864
Oil. cocoa-nut ^ CwU
Specie and bullion .... £
Spirits, arrack { ^'^^'^
Tobacco, unmanufactured . . . ^ ^
Total value of principal and other 1 «
articles J
162,076
189,232
408,050
100,250
7,499
22,113
22,144
180,761
224,955
460,621
165,611
17,428
1,090
1,222
3,587,234
3,112,268
The commercial intercourse of Ceylon with the United Kingdom
is shoMm in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the total
value of the imports from Ceylon into the United Kingdom, and of
the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
Ceylon, in each of the ^vq years 1861 to 1865 : —
Years
Imports from Ceylon into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Ceylon
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
2,251,019
2,488,2Q^
3,699,425
3,173,820
3,707,615
£
486,665
573,998
1,075,927
826,368
686,308
The quantities and value of the principal articles imported from
Ceylon into the United Kingdom, in the year 1864, were as follows : —
Imports from Ceylon into the United Kingdom
Cinnamon Lbs.
Coffee „
Coir, coir rope, twine, strands, and I ^ .
yam J
Cotton, raw „
Cowries „
Ebony Tons
Hemp Cwts,
Lead, black (or plumbago) . . . Tons
Oil, chemical, essential and perfumed . Lbs,
„ cocoa-nut Cwts.
All other articles Valtie
Total ....
Quantities
Value
696,769
£
61,482
69,011,290
2,370,129
33,635
43,911
32,499
272,685
4,210
4,113
538
6,460
422
806
3,647
44,366
22,321
9,423
186,267
348,706
—
12,760
—
^ ^,W^,%^^
624 ^S^^ — CEYLON,
The staple article of imports from Ceylou into the United King-
dom is coffee, of the average value of 2,000,000/. per annum. The
only other articles of note are cocoa-nut oil and raw cotton, the
ibi-mer averaging 240,000/., and the latter 100,000/. during the five
years 1861-65. Manufactured cotton goods, of the average value
of about 360,000/. per annum, form the principal British export to
Ceylon.
(For Money^ Weights, and Measures, see India.)
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Ceylon.
1. Official Publications.
Report of Governor Sir C. J. MacCarthy, dated Colombo, August 20, 1863;
in ' Reports on the Past and Present Stat* of H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.'
Part II. London, 1864.
Report on the State of Ceylon, dated July, 1864; in 'Reports on the Past
and Present State of H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Part II. London, 1865.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part X. Pol London, 1 866.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the L^nited
Kingdom, No. IL 8. London, 1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baker (S. W.), Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.
Duncan (George), Geography of ladia. Part II. Ceylon. 8. Madias,
1865.
Mouat (Frederic J.), Rough Notes of a Trip to Reunion, the Mauritius, and
Ceylon. 8. Calcutta, 1852.
Pridkam (C), Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon. 2 vols.
8. Loudon, 1849.
Schmarda (L. K.), Reise um die Erde ; 2^ilon. \o\ I. 8. Brunswick,
1861.
8irr(K, C), Ceylon and the Cingalese. 2 vols. 8. London, 1851.
Tennent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical.,
Historical, and Topographical. 5th ed. London, 1860.
625
CHINA.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the Chinese empire is strictly patri-
archal. The sovereign called * Ta-hwang-li,' or the Great Emperor,
is regarded as the father of his people, and has unlimited power
over all his subjects. The fundamental laws of the empire are laid
down in the first of the * Four Books * of Confucius, which prescribe the
government of the State to be based upon the government of the family.
Beigning Emperor. — Ki-tsiang, *High Prosperity,' formerly Prince
Tsai-sung, bom April 5, 1855, the eldest son of the Emperor Hien-
fung, * Perfect Bliss ; * succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, August 22, 1861.
The present sovereign is the 8th Emperor of China of the Tartar
dynasty of Ta-tsing, * The Sublimely Pure,' which succeeded to the
native dynasty of Ming in the yeai» 1644.
The emperor is spiritual as well as temporal sovereign, and, as
high priest of the empire, can alone, with his immediate representa-
tives and ministers, perform the great- religious ceremonies. No
ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any
priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion.
The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction
of the * Interior Council Chamber,' comprising four members,
two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants
from the Han-lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing
is done contrary to the fundamental laws of the empire, contained
in the sacred books of Confucius. These members are denominated
* Ta-hyo-si,' or Ministers of State. Under their orders are the
Le-poo, or six boards of government. They are : — 1. The board
of civil appointments, which takes cognisance of the conduct and
administration of all civil officers ; 2. The board of revenues,
regulating all financial affairs ; 3. The board of rites and ceremonies,
which enforces the laws and customs to be observed by the people';
• 4. The military board, superintending the administration of the
army ; 5. The board of public works ; and 6. The high tribunal of
criminal jurisdiction.
Independent of the Government, and 1^eoT%\Aca^"^ ^cis^ *^^-
central administration, ia the Tu-che-yWeu^ ot \i<i^x^ ^^ -^^s&S^^
S S
626
CHINA.
censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents,
the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient
custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged
to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor is to be
present at the meetings of each of the six government boards, with-
out taking any part in the deliberation, and others have to travel
through the various provinces of the empire to inspect and superin-
tend Qie administration of the chief public functionaries.
Bevenne and PopnlatioiL
The estimates of the public revenue of China vary greatly, and
while they are stated by some to exceed 100 miUions sterling, are
held by others not to come up to half that amount. Official returns
of the Chinese Government— intended for a special public use, and
as such not very reliable — which were published in 1844, give the
revenue as follows : —
Land-tax, in money
Ditto in kind, valued at
Salt tax .
Tea duties
Duties on merchandise
Duties on foreign ditto, at Canton
Sundries ....
Duties on marketable articles .
Duties on shops and pawnbrokers
Ginseng
Coinage
Total taels
Sterling
Taela
63,730.218
113,398,067
7,486,380
204,630
4,335,469
3,000,000
1,052,706
1,174.932
6,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
191,804.139
..£63,934,713
The above was returned as the net revenue of the country.
No statement of the expenditure is given in the official accounts;
but from missionary reports, as well as the accounts published in the
* Peking Gazette,' it would appear that there are almost constant
deficits, which the governors and high officers of provinces must
make good by loans or extraordinary taxation.
The public revenue is mainly derived from three sources, namely,
customs duties, licences, and a tax upon land. The customs duties
fall more upon exports than imi)orts ; their total prixluce at the
thirteen treaty ports open to Europeans amounted to 8,691,817 taels,
or 2,897,272/. in 1863, and to 8,138,102 taels, or 2,712,701/, in
1864. A large portion of the land-tax is paid in kind, and the
amount is chiefly discharged in rice, wheat, and pulse, which is kept*
by the Government in immense granaries in the suburbs of Pdd i
and Tung-chow.
The revenues of the various provinces of the empire were atatei
j» foUowa in the offidal xepoxt oS \%\At \ —
HEVENTJE AND POPULATION.
627
Provinces
Sent to the capital
Provincial
treasury
Money taels
Shihrice
Money taels
Chih-le ....
1,939,941
1,180,614
Keang-soo
2,564,728
1,431,273
1,471,543
Gan-hvniy
1,194,914
—
3,274,683
Keang-si .
1,602,431
795,063
796,224
Che-Keang
2,287,346
678,320
907,906
Foo-Keen
1,055,290
309,380
Hoo-Pih .
776,173
96,934
366,741
Hunan
944,432
96,314
280,192
Honan .
2,441,110
221,342
658,923
Shan-tnng
2,730,736
353,963
743,532
Shan-se .
2,702,285
—
898,081
Shen-se ,
1,344,548
—
306,121
Kan-suh .
182,644
218,560
133,061
Sze-Chuen
306,366
24,271
Kwangtnng
719,370
642,601
Kwang-si.
278,559
113,725
Yun-Nan .
188,927
227,626
87,862
Kwei-Choo
Totals .
53,346
—
27.066
23,313,146
4,119,385
12,120,407
Total in money . 35,430,562 taels
The empire is divided into eighteen provinces, the area and popula-
tion of which, according to the imperial census of 1 812, is as follows : —
Provinces
Chih-le .
Shan-tung
Shan-se .
Honan
Keang-soo
Gtin-hwuy
Keang-si .
Foo-Keen ,
Che-Keang
Hoo-Pih .
Hunan
Shen-se .
Kan-suh .
Sze-Chuen
Kwang-tung, or Canton
Kwanp:-si .
Yun-Nan . •
Kwei-Choo
Provincial capital
Peking .
Tse-nan-foo .
Tae-yuen-foo .
Kae-fung-foo .
Nanking
Gan-king-foo .
Nan-chang-foo
Fuh-choo-foo .
Hang-choo-foo
Woo-chang-foo
Chang- cha-foo
Se-gan-foo
Lan-choo-foo .
Ching-too-foo .
Kwang-choo-foG
Kwe-lin-foo
Yun-nan-foo
Kwei-yang-foo
Distance
from
Peking
inlys*
800
1,200
1,640
2,400
2,700
2,860
4,846
3,300
3,165
4,650
2,660
4,040
5,700
7,570
7,460
8,200
7,640
Area in
English statute
miles
68,949
65,104
66,268
66,104
92,661 I
72,176
53,480
39,150
144,770 I
154,008 J
166,800
79,466
78,250
107,869
64,664
Population
Total . \ \,^yi,^^^ \My\.^gg^^g\
27,900,871
28,968,764
14,004,210
23,037,171
37,843,601
34,168,059
30,426,999
14,777,410
26,266,784
37,370,098
18,662,507
10,207,266
16,193,136
21,436,678
19,147,030
7,313,896
6,661,320
* Ljr8—194 to a degree, or about one-tlnid "E.n^\v xk^'^^ «8^«2si.
8 s 2
628 CHINA.
The above population, giving 283 souls per square mile throughout
the empire, appears to he excessive, considering that some of the
outlying portions of the immense territory are by no means densely
inhabited. Nevertheless, later returns than those of 1812, likewise
said to be official, give still higher figures. It is stated that in a
census taken in 1842, the population of China was ascertained to
number 414,686,994, or 320 per English square mile.
Since the accession of the present dynasty, a census, or rough
enumeration of the population, takes place every ten years, but tihe
results are not always, and never completely, made public. From
what has become known of these computations of the people, it
would appear that China nearly trebled its population in the hun-
dred years 1742 to 1842, and that it doubled in the seventy years
1772 to 1842.
The standing military force of China consists nominally of four
divisions — the Manchoos, in 678 companies of 100 men each, the
Mongols, in 211 companies, and 106,000 Chinese, all cavalry, and
500,000 native infiintry, besides 125,000 irregular troops or militia;
in all, 829,900 men. Besides these, many irregular troops are
stationed in the provinces of Mongolia, Turkestan, Tibet, where the
Government is military, and in all considerable cities there is a
garrison of Tartar troops. But recent reports state the Chinese
army to be composed of only 600,000 men, scattered over the surface
of the empire. A standing army, in the European sense of the word,
is not in existence. The soldiers do not live in barracks, but in
their own houses, pursuing as chief business some civil occupation,
frequently that of day-labourers, and meeting only on certain occa-
sions, pursuant to orders from the military chieftains.
Trade and Commerce.
The first attempt on the part of Great Britain to open a trade with
China was made in 1637, when four merchant vessels arrived at
Macao; but through the intrigues of the Portuguese there established,
the enterprise failed. Afterwards the East India Company carried
on a small traffic at the different maritime ports, and chiefly at
Canton. In 1792, Lord Macartney's embassy attempted .to put the
trade on a more liberal basis, but with little success. . In 1816, Lord
Amherst's mission for a similar purpose also failed, though the English
trade continued for the next twenty years. In 1834 the exclusive
trade of the East India Company with China terminated, and the
country was thrown open to general traders. The opeping thus made
was followed by a commercial treaty, signed on August 29, 1842, by
the pienipotentaries of the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor
ofCbinaf by the teima of 'Wbidv ^^^"^otV^ q^^ ^^ ^soc^^x^^^^ oi^ened
TRADE AKD COMMERCE.
629
to European trade. The five ports comprised those of Canton, Amoj,
Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghae. To these five ports were
subsequently added eight others — namely, Swatow, Tientsin, Che-foo,
Hankow, Kiu-kiang, Chin-kiang, Formosa, and New- Chang.
The relative importance of these thirteen gates of Chinese com-
merce is shown in the following table, which gives the total value of
the imports and exports of each, during the years 1863 and 1864 : —
Ports
Imports
Exports
1863
1864
1863
1864
Shanghae .
Foo-chow-foo .
Canton
Ningpo
Amoy
Swatow .
Tientsin .
Che-foo .
Hankow .
Kiu-kiang .
Chin-kiang
Formosa .
New-ehang
Total .
£
29,709,575
2,616,637
2,281,354
3,348,601
2,046,033
1,526,404
2,205,739
759,178
3,308,772
1,061,788
1,522,603
£
21,610,757
2,378,044
2,421,482
3,421,538
2,354,913
2,133,262
2,593,065
1,008,325 •
3,620,738
1,044,217
1,557,784
193,213
236,579
£
12,227,153
4,021,203
3,862,039
1,454,569
994,129
694,807
304,405
498,932
4,247,302
2,436,780
230,276
£
13,282,589
4,374,685
3,414,863
2,083,435
943,494
1,233,371
576,929
919,516
4,484,475
1,356,983
402,979
154,498
570,133
33,797,950
50,386,684
44,573,919
31,471,595
The amount of duties collected at each of the treaty ports, in the
years 1863 and 1864, was as follows : —
Ports
Shanghae .
Canton .......
Swatow
Amoy
Foo-chow
Formosa
Ningpo . ...
Hankow
Kiu-kiang
Chin-kiang
Che-foo
Tientsin
New-chang
Total . . . r
1863
Taels
2,526,621
926,315
326,056
470,992
1,703,674
352,946
1,314,003
713,778
37,596
156,153
163,681
1864
Taels
2,042,331
727,890
355,183
474,909
1,601,260
47,851
395,323
1,289,619
629,187
30,049
228,921
210,850
104,729
8,691,817 I 8aS^\<5rt»
630
CHINA.
The following table gives the value, in taels — equal to 65. Sd,
of the imports at each of the thirteen treaty ports in the year 1864
distinguishing between foreign goods and native produce, and imports
from Great Britain and British colonies, and from other Chinese
ports: —
Imparbinisei
PromQrftBtBjitftin,
and oolunie*
Prom othur
CMaeae pon4
Total value of
Impomt
Shftnghap: —
Tflda
Tftelfl
Th^
Foreip^ goods .
30,667.447
31G.440
Native produce .
.
30,602,294
64,832,271
Canton : —
Foreign goodi ,
——
1,863,798
\
Native produ<».
5,307,901 ;
V 7,264,445
J
Swtttow:—
Foreign goodfl .
2,904,425
16.483
-t
KatJT-e produce .
—
3,448,421
1 6,399,786
JLmor-
Foreign goock ,
Native produce.
■ 3,379,71s
2,827.810
16,250
1 7.054,739
Foo-chow ;^
Forfign g:oods ,
Native prtidnce.
4,379.988
2,727,603
I 7,134,133
FormoBa : —
Natl re goods ,
„
150,456
-k
Fore ign gooda ,
Ningpo :
Foreign goods .
297,066
132,116
\ 579,638
2,922,108
2,210,889
,
Native goods ,
_
3,923,722
10,264,616
Hankow : —
Native gowia .
Forei^i gooda ,
71,964
4,912,677
6,83M82
] 10,S62,216
Kiu-kiang:^
Foreign ijoods ♦
1,772,302
^
Native gooda »
—
1,360,350
V 3,132,652
Cbin-kiimg : —
Native gooda <
3,6e7HSe7
1
For«»ign goods .
Cbe-foo :—
—
1,005,486
1 4,673,363
porpign goods *
601,678
632,775
1
Native goods .
—
1,650,673
j 3,024,974
Tie-ntaan:—
Native goods .
3,752,601
1
Furei^n goods .
676,320
3,404,383
j 7,779,197
New-chwang : —
Foreign and native
gouds .
Total . j
51.126.615
709,738
709,738 '
76,748,025
133.721,758
:|1 7,042,205
je25,582,576
je44,573,919
TRADE AJfD COMMERCE.
631
The following table gives the value of the exports at each of the
thirteen treaty ports, distinguishing between exports to Great Britain
and British colonies, and to other open Chinese ports : —
Ports
To Great Britain,
British possessions
and colonies
To other open
Chinese ports
Total exports
Shanghae
Canton
Swatow
Amoy .
Foo-chow
Formosa
Ningpo
Hankow
Kiu-kiang
Chin-kiang
Che-foo
Tientsin
New-chang
Taels
27,243,189
6,581,245
111,437
465,674
10,587,880
7,031
1,747.747
1,394,683
66,762
877,871
573,637
Taels
8,549,365
2,884,305
3,573,606
1,467,251
1,335,476
456,462
4,495,518
12,058,742
4,004,186
1,208,939
1,868,400
1,153,457
1,710,398
Taels
39,847,768
10,244,590
3,700,112
2,830,482
13,124,056
463,493
6,250,306
13,453,425
4,070,948
1,208,939
2,758,547
1,730,786
1,710,398
Total
•
• 1
49,657,156
£16,552,385
44,766,105
£14,922,035
101,393,850
£33,797,950
The following table gives the total value of the re-exports from
each of the thirteen treaty ports in the year 1864 — distinguishing
between foreign and native goods, and exports sent to Great Britain
and British colonies and to other Chinese ports : —
Re-exports in 1864
To Great Britain,
British possessions,
and colonies
To other
Chinese ports
Total value of
reexports
Shanghae : —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Canton : —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Amoy : —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Swatow: —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Foo-chow:—
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Taels
406,531
12,225,418
3,623,678
5,123
22,896
22,800
8,463
1,023
12,581
Taels
16,091,953
3,634,336
165,553
1,086
495,319
40,764
48,065
7,789
189,484
15,172
Taels
^ 38,652,666
I 3,815,561
I 582,098
[ 74,603
} 238,063
\
632
CHINA.
Be-ezport8 in 1864
To Great Britain,
British posseasions,
aud colonies
To Other
Chinese porta
Total value of
re-exports
Formosa : —
Native goods .
Ningpo: —
Foreign goods
Native ^kxIs .
Hankow : —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
Kiu-kiang : —
Foreign goods .
Native goods .
Cliin-kiang :
Foreign goods .
Native goods .
Che-foo :—
Foreign goods
Native goods ,
Tientsin : —
Foreign goods
Native goods .
New-chang
Total .
410
7,171
12,742
460
382
103
1,642
344
4,636
135,686
104,419
141,714
49,380
66,734
24,819
31,448
20,173
123,209
81,407
114,297
17,558
31,228 .
6,161
• 261,603
I 191,644
1 91,663
1 61,621
} 208,768
J 133,776
31,228
16,351,657
£6,450,652
21,636,129
£7,212,043
44,337,719
£14,779,239
Subjoined is a statement of the total value of the trade of China
with other countries in the year 1864 : —
Countries
Imports
Be-ezports
Exports
Great Britain, British)
possessions, and co-
Japan ....
United States .
Other countries
Chinese open ports, or )
international trade J
Total .
Taels
51,126,616
1,832,206
450,678
3,664,236
76,748,026
£
17,042,206
610,736
150,226
1,188,078
26,682,675
Taels
8,061,468
21,636,129
£
1,017,153
7,212,043
Taels
49,657,166
344,947
4,482,859
2,142,783
44,766,105
£
16,652,385
114,982
1,494,287
714,261
14,922,035
133,721,768
44,673,919,
—
-
101,393,860
33,797,950
It will be seen from the preceding table that Great Britain and the
British colonies absorb almost the whole of the foreign commerce of
China. The values of the total imports from China to the United
Kingdom and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures from the United Kingdom to China — inclusive, in either
case, the British colony of Hong Kong, strictly a free port in the
Chinese empire— were aa follo^a in. eacih of tte ten years from 1856
to 1865 :—
TBADE AND INDPSTRT.
633
Imports from China and
Exports of Home Produce
Years
Hong Kong into the
from the United Kingdom
United Kingdom.
to China— with Hong Kong
1856 ....
£
9,421,648
£
2,216,123
1857 .
11,448,639
2,449,982
1858 .
7,073,509
2,876,447
1859 .
9,014,310
4,457,573
1860 .
9,323,764
5,318,036
1861 .
9,070,445
4,848,657
1862 .
12,137,095
3,137,342
1863 .
14,186,310
3,889,927
1864 .
15,673,930
4,711,478
1865 .
11,447,028
5,171,152
The quantities and value of the principal articles imported from
China — inclusive of Hong Kong — into the United Kingdom in the
year 1864, were as follows : —
Imports from China into the United Kingdom.
Quantities
Value
Camphor .... Cwts.
18,399
90,074
Canes or sticks of all sorts . Value
—
16,307
Cassia lignea Lbs.
755,765
29,172
China or porcelain ware and earthen-
ware Owts.
1,082
13,464
Cotton, raw „*
769,259
6,242,504
Cotton, piece goods . . . Pieces
1,262
2,003
Ginger, preserved .... ]J)8.
202,002
8,654
Hemp Cvits.
4,570
6,627
Japanned and lacquered ware . . „
214
3,177
Mats and matting . . . Valtie
—
6,640
Oil: Chemical, essential, and per-
fumed: cassia .... Lbs.
29,882
13,201
„ „ other sorts . . . „
83,903
18,506
Rhuharh . . . . . „
66,644
12,501
Silk, raw „
461,357
472.636
„ waste, knuhs or husks . .Cwts.
2,210
28,582
„ Thrown Us.
—
—
„ Manufactures:
Crape shawls, scarfs, and hand- \
kerchiefs, and crape in pieces „ S
6,273
16,908
China damask . Running yards
4,120
1,097
Pongees and pongee hand- 1 p^^^
kerchiefs . . .J
3,078
2,673
„ Unenumerated.
Value
—
1,427
Sugar, unrefined
. Cwts.
4,283
6,588
Tea
.Lbs.
116,102,527
8,606,705
Tin . . .
. CwU.
2,548
13,322
Wax, vegetable
• »
—
\
Wool, sheep and lambs' .
.Us.
147,784
I Xi:\^^
All other articles .
Total
Valw
—
\ v^.^^v
-
\ \b,<5A-^52k'^^
634 CHINA.
(For separate tables of imports into the United Kingdom from the
colony of Hong Kong, see pp. 640-3.)
The following tabular statement gives the quantities and value of
the principal articles of British and Irish produce exported from the
United Kingdom to China — inclusive of Hong Kong — in the year
1864 :—
Exports of Home Produce from the United Kingdom to CWna
Quantities | Yalne
Apparel and haberdashery
Arms and ammunition .
Beer and ale
Coals, cinders and culm .
CJopper, wrought and unwrought
Cotton yarn
Cottons, entered by the yard .
„ „ at value
Earthenware and porcelain
Glass manufactures ....
Hardwares and cutlery, imenumerated
Iron, wrought and unwrought .
Lead and shot
Linens, entered by the yard .
Paper of all sorts (including paper
hangings)
Pickles and sauces . . . '.
Provisions, unenumerated
Stationery other than paper .
Tin plates . . .
Woollens, entered by the yard (including
those formerly entered by the
piece)
„ „ at value
All other articles
Total
Value
Barrels
Tons
Cwts.
Us.
lards
Value
Cwts.
Tons
Yards
Cwts.
Value
11,592
146,598
12,612
1,961,813
73,526,512
6,741
15,519
7,822
656,651
1,645
'Yards 16,756,215
Value
£
44,298
76,223
47,117
77,732
56,001
241,942
2,007,880
3,287
8,925
26,808
31,231
181,900
170,364
36,689
9,083
21,062
21,856
6,881
44,852
1,829,222
8,269
261,856
4,711,478
China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, most
of which, however, are badly ki»pt. There is, nevertheless, a postal
service, but of a very rude kind. The couriers who are desjiatched
by the local functionaries are allowed to carry private letters for a
trifling remuneration. Letters from Pekin reach Shanghae in 15 or
20 days, and Canton in 40, 50, and sometimes 60 days, llie postage
of a letter from Pekin to Shanghae is about fivepence. The couriers
change horses every twenty miles. It is expected that the Chinese
Government will be induced to grant a post-office contract to Euro-
peans, which cannot Ml to lender ^e^X ^^^x^kea to comm^ce.
BOOKS OF BEFEBENCE. 635
Money, Weights, and MeasnreB.
The money, weights, and measures, in ordinary use at the treaty
ports, and in the intercourse with foreigners, are as follows : —
MONIST.
The Tael . . = Average rate of exchange, 6s. S4.
J, Mexican Dollar » The rates of exchange fluctuate from 4a. I><^.
to 4«. lOd.
Weights and Measubbs.
The Tael . . = 1^ oz. avoirdupois.
„ Picul . . =» 133 lbs. „
„ Catty . . = If „ „
„ Chang , . « 4 yards.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.
China Directory for 1866. Seventh Annual Publication. Hong Kong, 1866.
Report by Lieutenant-Colonel Neale on British Trade at the nine new Ports
opened to Commerce by the Treaty of Tientsin of 1858, and by the subse-
quent Convention of Peking of October 24, 1860, dated December 20, 1861 ; in
» Beports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No V. London, 1862.
Commercial Eeports from H.M/s CobsuIs in China 1862-64. 8. liondon,
1865.
Commercial Keports from H.M.'s Consuls in China and Siam. 8. London,
1865.
Commercial Keports from H.M.'s consuls in China, Japan, and Siam, 1865.
8. London, 1866.
Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. Fol. London,
1866.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abel (C), Arbeiten der Kaiserlich. Russischen Gesandschaft zu Peking iiber •
China, sein Volk, seine Religion. Aus dem Russischen. 2 vols. 8. Berlin,
1858.
Davis (J. P.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8. Lon-
don, 1836.
Gutzlaff{C. F. A.), China Opened ; or a Display of the Topography, History,
Customs, Manners, Arts, Manufactures, Commerce, &c. of the Chinese Empire.
2 vols. 8. London, 1838.
Hanspach (Rev. A.), Report for the Years 1863 and 1864 of the Chinese
Vernacular Schools, established in the Sinon, Kiushen, Fayuen, and Chonglok
districts of the Quangtung province. 8. Hongkong, 1865.
Lauture (Comte d'Escayrac de), M^moires sur le Chine: Gouvemement. 4.
Paris, 1864.
Oliphant (Oscar), China ; a popijlar history. 8. London, 1857.
Oshorn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of BriUfib. E.c\&^<(sta\s^^^?cb3^s&.« ^.
London; 1860,
636 CHINA.
Pallu (Lieutenant Leopold), Kelation de TExp^dition de Chine en 1860,
p6dig6e d'apr^s lea documents officiels, avec Tautorisation de M. le Comte de
Chasseloup-Laubat, Ministre de la Marine. 4. Paris, 1864.
Sacharoff (T.), The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during
the Four Thousand Years of its Historical Existence ; or, the Rise and Fall of
the Chinese Population. Translated into English by the Rev. "W. Lobscheid.
Also, the Chronology of the Chinese, from the Mythological Times up to the
present Rules. 8. Hongkong, 1 865.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude
and Latitude. 8. Hongkong, 1864.
Wells (S. Williams), The Chinese Commercial Guide, containing Treatise,
Tariffs, Regulations, Tables, etc., useful in the trade to China and Eastern Asia.
Fifth ed. 8. Hongkong, 1863.
637
HONG KONG.
Constitution and Government
The colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was con-
firmed by the treaty of Nankin, in August, 1842 ; and the charter
bears date April 5, 1843. Honk Kong is mainly a factory for
British commerce with China,- and a military and naval station for
the protection of that commerce.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary,
the officer commanding the troops, and the Attorney-General.
There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor,
and composed of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, the
Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor- General, the Sur-
veyor-General, and three imofficial members nominated by the
Crown, on the recommendation of the Governor.
Governor of Hong Kong. — Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell^ Klnt. ;
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and graduated B.A. 1835,
M.A., 1838, hon. LL.D., 1844 ; called to the bar in Ireland,
1838, and at Lincoln's Inn, London, 1840 ; chief justice of the
Gambia colony from 1843 to 1847 ; governor of Gambia from 1847
to 1851 ; conducted several exploring expeditions up the Gambia,
and in the interior of Africa, between that river and the Senegal ;
governor of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, in 1852 ; captain-general and
governor- in-chief of South Australia, 1855 to 1862 ; governor of
Novia Scotia, 1864-65, appointed governor of Hong Kong, 1865.
The Governor has a salary of 5,000Z. per annum.
There is a large police force in the colony, numbering 550 men,
of whom 60 are Europeans, 382 Indians, and 108 Chinese.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The occupation of Hong Kong at its outset was effected at con-
siderable cost to Imperial ftmds, the vote from Parliament in the year
1845 being nearly 50,000Z. in addition to military expenditure. The
•olony may be considered to have paid its local establishmenta \s5k.
1855, since which year it has held genexaXl"^ «h fsvxr^ooSk c>*l x^s^^ccaa
over and above its fixed expenditure.
638
HONG KONG,
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of the
eighteen years from 1847 to 1864 were as follows: —
Yean
Revenue
Expenditure
50,959
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1847
31,078
1856
35,500
42,426
1848
25,091
62,658
1857
58,842
65,497
1849
23,617
38,986
1858
62,476
62.979
1850
23,526
34,314
1859
65,225
66.109
1851
23,721
34,115
1860
94,182
72,390
1852
21,331
34,765
1861
127,241
109,632
1853
24,700
36,418
1862
131,512
122,423
1854
27,015
34,635
1863
120,078
122,201
1855
47,973
40,813
1864
132,885
159,022
The subjoined table shows the principal branches of both the
revenue and expenditure of the colony in the year 1863 : —
Revenue
Amount
Expenditure
Amount
Land revenue
Bents, exclusive of land
Direct taxes .
Licences : —
Opium
Spirit retailers .
Pawnbrokers .
Auctioneers
Other licences .
Fines, forfeitures, and
fees of court
Fees of office
Post office .
Keimbursements .
Interest
Miscellaneous
28,707
9,116
27,331
16,175
5,903
1,117
1,000
517
8,240
4,700
12,738
2,087
4,573
2,764
Total
1*10,07%
Establishments : —
Governor .
Colonial Secretary
Treasurer .
Clerk of Councils
Registrar General
Surveyor General
Chief Magistrate
Post Master General
Harbour Master
Auditor General
Surgeons .
Police
Judicial .
Ecclesiastical .
Educational
Medical and hospital
Administration of justice
Gaols ....
Pensions, and retired \
allowances . . J
Revenue services and I
rent . . .J
Works and buildings .
Land and houses 1
purchased . . J
Roads, streets, and \
bridges , . J
Miscellaneous ' .
£
5,256
4,364
1,940
206
1,493
3,666
6,111
4,214
2,993
2,107
1,696
21,549
5,558
941
1,306
1,484
341
18,732
2,076
658
17,263
669
13,620
3,959
122,201
AREA AND POPULATION.
639
It will be seen that about one-half of the public revenue of the
colony is derived from Jand and other direct taxes, which more than
cover the expenses of administration. But the extremely small sum
spent upon education, and the very large amoimt disbursed for police
and gaols — nearly one-third of the total expenditure — appear very
imfevourable as regards the social state of the colony.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is one of a number of islands called by the Portuguese
' Ladrones,' or thieves, from the notorious habits of the old inhabi-
tants. It is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the
mouth of the Canton river, about 40 miles east of Macao. The whole
of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge, stretching
nearly east and west ; its abrupt peaks rising to the height of 1,800
feet above the sea level. The length of the island is about 1 1 miles,
its breadth from 2 to 5 miles, and its area rather more than 29 square
miles. It is separated from the mainland of China by a narrow
strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does not exceed half a
mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Koo-loon was ceded to
Great Britain by a treaty entered into in 1861 with the Govern-
ment of China ; it now forms part of Hong Kong.
The population of Hong Kong was as follows at the end of each of
the years 1861, 1862, and 1863, according to official returns: —
Years
European population
Total population, including
Chinese
Males
Females
Males
Females
Total
1861
1862
1863
1,146
1,101
1,118
411
503
626
87,945
93,824
91,268
31,376
29,687
33,582
119,321
123,611
124,860
About one-fourth of the Chinese population of Hong Kong live in
boats on the river, as shown in the subjoined table which gives the
numbers of both sexes dwelling on land and water, at the end of each
of the years 1860, 1861, and 1863.
640
HONG KONG.
Descriptioii of
Tears
Native population
Males
Females
Total
Houses .
Boats . . ■
Total . i
1860
1861
1863
1860
1861
1863
42,909
53,069
60,148
19,688
20,478
21,124
16,283
20,114
23,386
9,001
10,431
9,413
68,192
73,173
83,633
28,559
30,909
30,537
1*860
1861
1863
62,467
73,637
81,272
24,284
30,646
32,798
86,761
104,082 i
114,070 1
It will be seen that in the two years from 1861 to 1863 the boat
population has been declining, while there was, at the same time,
a great increase of natives.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — ^virtually a part of the
commerce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, the United States,
and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total im-
ports and exports. The following table gives the number, tonnage,
and nationality of the vessels which entered and cleared from Hong
Kong in the year 1863 : —
Nationality of Vessels
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels | Tons
British
816
472,125
840
471,949
American (U.S.) ,
211
150,504
206
162,905
Eussian
8
2,852
8
2,312
Swedish
26
8,057
30
8,162
Norwegian .
9
3,275
9
3,182
Danish .
136
35,844
133
35,796
Dutch .
65
25,605
61
23,728
Hanse Towns
264
74,678
271
77,552
Prussian
25
12,640
16
13,290
Oldenbnrgh .
14
3,816
17
4.216
Mecklenburgh
2
604
1
208
Hanoverian .
19
6,436
21
6,725
Belgian
4
1,187
4
1,206
Austrian
3
2,010
3
2,009
French .
60
31,933
60
29,781
Portugueste .
8
2,565
9
3,322
Spanish
67
16,439
65
16,036
i
Siamese
100
41,197
93
44,851
/ Peruvian
3
3,543
5
6,176
/ Chilian \ ^ \ 614
2
698
/ Hawaian . . • • \ —
\ —
\ \
V 466
k
I
Total
•
. \ 1,%^^^
\ "^^\,^^«k
\ \?i.^^
\^\\^^
TBADE AND CO^IMEROfi.
641
The imports from Hong Kong into the United Kingdom have been
registered only since the year 1861 , being formerly included with those
of China. The value of these imports amounted to 137,864/. in
1861; to 154,721/. in 1862; to 1,288,907/. in 1863; and to
2,881,929/. in 1864, showing an increase more than twelvefold in
the course of three years.
The subjoined table gives the value of the exports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures from 1845 to 1864, exhibiting
separately the exports to China and to Hong Kong, and jointly to
both, so as to show the share of Hong Kong in the commerce of the
Chinese empire : —
Exports of
Exports of
Years
British produce
British produce
Total to
to China
To Hong Kong
China and Hong Kong
1845
855,196
1,539,631
£
2,394,827
1846
565,212
1,226,227
1,791,439
1847
735,089
768,880
1,503,969
1848
795,465
650,494
1,446,959
1849
885,140
651,969
1,637,109
1850
975,954
598,191
1,674,146
1851
1,628,869
632,399
2,161,268
18.52
1,918,244
586,355
2,503,699
1853
1,373,689
375,908
1,749,697
1854
532,639
468,077
1,000,716
1855
888,679
389,265
1,277,944
I806
1,415,478
800,646
2,216,123
1857
1,728.885
721,097
2,449,982
1858
1,730,778
1,145,669
2,876,447
1859
2,625,997
1,931,576
4,467,673
1860
2,872,045
2,445,991
6,318,036
1861
3,114,694
1,733,963
4,848.657
1862
2,024,118
1,113,224
3,137,342
1863
2,416.705
1,473,222
3,889,927
1864
3,093,865
1,618,867
4,711,478
It will be seen that the British trade with Hong Kong underwent
immense fluctuations in the twenty years from 1845 to 1864, but
which corresponded throughout with the general Chinese commerce,
differing only in so far as showing, a trebling in the value of the
exports sent direct to China during this period, and a standstill of
those sent by way of Hong Kong.
The quantities and value of the principal articles imported from
Hong Kong into the United Kingdom in the year 1864 were as
follows : —
TT
640
H05a KONG.
Description of
1 ....
Native population
dwellinga * '
Males
Females
Total
Houses .
Boats . . •
Total . -
1860
1861
1863
1860
1861
1863
42,909
53,059
60,148
19,588
20,478
21,124
15,283
20,114
23,385
9,001
10,431
9,413
68,192
73,173
83,533
28,559
30,909
30,537
1*860
1861
1863
62,467
73,537
81,272
24,284
30,545
32,798
86,751
104,082
114,070 j
It will be seen that in the two years from 1861 to 1863 the boat
population has been declining, while there was, at the same time,
a great increase of natives.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part of the
commerce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, the United States,
and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total im-
ports and exports. The following table gives the number, tonnage,
and nationality of the vessels which entered and cleared from Hong
Kong in the year 1863 : —
Nationality of Yessels
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels Tons
British
816
472,125
840
471,949
American (U.S.) .
211
150,504
206
162,905
Eussian
8
2,852
8
2,312
Swedish
26
8,057
30
8,162
Norwegian .
9
3,275
9
3,182
Danish .
136
35,844
133
35,796
Dutch .
65
25,605
61
23,728
Hanse Towns
264
74,678
271
77,552
Prussian
25
12,640
16
13,290
Oldenburgh .
14
3,816
17
4.216
Mecklenburgh
2
604
1
208
Hanoverian .
19
5,436
21
6,725
Belgian
4
1,187
4
1,205
Austrian
3
2,010
3
2,009
French .
50
31,933
60
29,781
Portuguesfe .
8
2,565
9
3,322
Spanish
57
16,439
65
16,036
Siamese
100
41,197
93
44,851
i
Perurian
3
3,543
6
6,176
/ Chilian.
. \ 'I \ ^w
\ '^
I 698
1 Hawdian
•
"\ --
\ -
\ \ \ v\.^ V
L
Total
•
. \ 1,%^'i
\ ^'^^^'^^^
. \ \,^^!» \^\v^^n. \
TBADE AND COMHEROfi.
641
The imports from Hong Kong into the United Kingdom have been
registered only since the year 1861, being formerly included with those
of China. The value of these imports amounted to 137,864/. in
1861; to 154,721/. in 1862; to 1,288,907/. in 1863; and to
2,881,929/. in 1864, showing an increase more than twelvefold in
the course of three years.
The subjoined table gives the value of the exports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures from 1845 to 1864, exhibiting
separately the exports to China and to Hong Kong, and jointly to
both, so as to show the share of Hong Kong in the commerce of the
Chinese empire : —
Exports of
Exports of
Years
British produce
British prodace
Total to
to China
To Hong Kong
China and Hong Kong
1845
865,196
£
1,539,631
£
2,394,827
1846
665,212
1,226,227
1,791,439
1847
735,089
768,880
1,503,969
1848
795,466
650,494
1,446,969
1849
885,140
651,969
1,537,109
1850
975,954
698,191
1,574,146
1851
1,528,869
632,399
2,161,268
1852
1,918,244
585,355
2,603,699
1853
1,373,689
375,908
1,749,697
1854
632,639
468,077
1,000,716
1855
888,679
389,265
1,277,944
1856
1,415,478
800,646
2,216,123
1857
1,728.886
721,097
2,449,982
1858
1,730,778
1,145,669
2,876,447
1859
2,525,997
1,931,576
4,467,673
1860
2,872,045
2,445,991
6,318.036
1861
3,114.694
1,733,963
4,848,667
1862
2,024,118
1,113,224
3,137,342
1863
2,416.705
1,473,222
3,889,927
1864
3,093,865
1,618,867
4,711,478
It will be seen that the British trade with Hong Kong underwent
immense fluctuations in the twenty years from 1845 to 1864, but
which corresponded throughout with the general Chinese commerce,
differing only in so far as showing, a trebling in the value of the
exports sent direct to China during this period, and a standstill of
those sent by way of Hong Kong.
The quantities and value of the principal articles imported from
Hong Kong into the United Kingdom in the year 1864 were as
follows : —
TT
642
HONG KONG.
Imports from Hong Kong into the United Kingdom
Quantities
Yalae
Camphor Cwts.
Cassia lignea Lbs.
Cotton, raw Cwts.
Oil, chemical, essential, or perfumed :
Cassia Lbs.
Other sorts ..;...„
Silk, raw „
Sugar, imreiined Cwts.
Tea Lbs.
All other articles Value
Total
18,399
765,467
309,412
29,882
76,376
10,873
4,272
1,316,664
£
90,074
29,160
2,670,600
13,201
16,106
11,656
6,671
98,637
47,125
2,881,929
The following table gives the quantities and value of British and
Irish produce and manufactures exported from the United Kingdom
to Hong Kong in the year 1864 : —
Exports of Home Produce from the United Kingdom to
Hong Kong
Quantities
Value
Apparel and haherdasherj
Arms and ammunition . ,
Beer and ale . .
Coals, cinders, and culm .
Copper, wrought and unwrought
Cotton yam
Cottons, entered by the yard .
„ „ at value
Earthenware and porcelain ,
Glass manufactures
Hardwares and cutleiy, unenumerated
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Lead and shot ....
Linens, entered by the yard .
Paper, of all sorts (including paper
hangings)
Tin plat«s . . .
Woollens, entered by the yard (including
those formerly entered by the
piece) ....
„ entered at value
All other articles ....
Total .
Value
^ »»
Barrels
Tons
Cwts.
Lbs.
Yards
Value
Cwts.
Tons
if
Yards
Cwts.
Value
Yards
Value
}
6,879
66,236
9,678
1,793,564
22,618,669
2,665
4,894
4,203
397,667
649
3,112,664
£
17,913
16,824
23,873
35,102
42,300
219,901
606,145
972
3,944
13,129
12,259
63,843
92,064
23,234
3,729
29,309
280,994
4,136
131,197
1,618,867
The staple of British exports to Hong Kong, that of cotton ^ibrics,
underwent great fluctuation in the five years 1860-64. The value
of cotton &brica entered by tbe yocd^' ex]^rted from the United
TRADE AND COMMEBCE. 643
Kingdom to Hong Kong amounted to 1,149,671/. in 1860; but fell
to 877,475/. in 1861; fell still fiirther to 316,193/. in 1862;
slightly rose to 384,343/. in 1863 ; and to 605,145/. in 1864. The
quantities of cotton goods exported to Hong Kong fell from 81,644,698
yards in 1860 to 22,618,669 yards in 1864.
(For Money, Weights, and Measures, and Books of Reference, &qq
China, pp. 635-6.)
TTi
644
INDIA.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is estab-
lished by the Act 21 and 22 Victoria, cap. 106, called * An Act for
the better Government of India,' sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
the terms of this Act, all the territories heretofore under the
government of the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty,
and all its powers are exercised in her name ; all territorial and
other revenues and all tributes and other payments are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone, subject to the provisions of this Act.
One of Her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, called the
Secretary of State for India, is invested with all the powers hitherto
exercised by the Company or by the Board of Control, and all
warrants and orders under Her Majesty's sign-manual must be
countersigned by the same.
The executive authority in India is vested in a governor-general
or viceroy, appointed by the Crown, and acting under the orders of
the Secretaiy of State for India. The Governor-General has
power to make laws and regulations for all persons, whether British
or native, foreigners or others, within the Indian territories imder
the dominion of Her Majesty, and for all servants of the Government
of India within the dominions of princes and states in alliance with
- Her Majesty.
Governor- General of India, — Sir John Laird Mair Lawrence^
Bart., bom March 4, 1811, the fourth son of the late Lieutenant-
Colonel Alex. Wm. Lawrence, of Londonderry ; educated at Hailey-
bury for the Indian civil service, 1827-29 ; Assistant, Agent, Col-
lector and Magistrate at Delhi, 1831-48; Chief Commissioner of the
Punjab, 1849—58; nominated member of the Council of State
for India, 1858 ; appointed Governor-General of India, Nov. 28, 1863.
The salary of the Governor-General is 30,000/. a-year, exclusive
of allowances, which may be estimated at 10,000/.
The following is a list of the Gk)vemors-General of India, since
the battle of Plassy, with the dates of their appointments :-^Colonel
Clive, 1759; Mr. Holwell, 1760; Mr. Vansittart, 1761; Mr.
Spencer, 1765 ; Lord Clive, 1765 ; Mr. Verelst, 1767 ; Mr. Car-
tier, 1769 ; Mr. Warren Hastings, 1772 ; Sir J. MTherson, 1785 ;
Earl (Jfarquis) ComwalliB, 1786 -, Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore),
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. 645
1793; the Earl of Mornington (Marquis Wellealey), 1798; the
Marquis Cornwallis, 1805 ; Sir G. Barlow, 1805 ; the Earl of
Minto, 1807 ; Earl Moira (Marquis of Hastings), 1813 ; Earl
Amherst, 1823 ; Lord W. Bentinck, 1828 ; Lord Auckland, 1835 ;
Lord Ellenborough, 1842; Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge, 1844; Earl
(Marquis of) Dalhousie, 1847 ; Lord Canning, 1855 ; Lord Elgin,
1862 ; Sir John Lawrence, 1863.
The administration of the Indian empire is entrusted by the
charter of August 2, 1858, to a Coimcil of State for India. The
Council consists of fifteen members, of whom seven are elected by
the Court of Directors from their own body, and eight are nominated
by the Crown. Vacancies in the Council, if among those nominated,
are filled up by Her Majesty, and if among the elected, by an
election by the other members of the Council ; but the major part
of the Council must be of persons who have served or resided ten
years in India, and not have left India more than ten years previous
to the date of their appointment ; and no person not so qualified
can be elected or appointed, unless nine of the continuing members
be so qualified. The office is held during good behaviour : but a
member may be removed upon an address from both Houses of
Parliament. No member is to sit or vote in Parliament. The
salary of each is fixed at 1,200/. a-year, payable, together with that
of the Secretary of State, out of the revenues of India.
The duties of the Council of State are, under the direction of the
Secretary of State, to conduct the business transacted in the United
Kingdom in relation to the government of and the correspondence
with India ; but every order sent to India must be signed by the
secretary, and all despatches fi*om governments and presidencies in
India must be addressed to the secretary. The secretary has to
divide the Council into committees, to direct what departments
shall be under such committees respectively, and to regulate the
transaction of business. The secretary is to be president of the
Council, and has to appoint from time to time a vice-president.
The meetings of the Council are to be held when and as the
secretary shall direct ; but at least one meeting must be held every
week, at which not less than ^ve members shall be present.
The Government in India is exercised by a * Supreme Council,'
sitting at Calcutta, and consisting of five ordinary and firom six to
ten extraordinary members, presided over by the governor-general.
The ministry, divided in the departments of foreign affairs, finances,
the interior, military administration, and public works, form part of
the Supreme Council. The appointment of the ministers, the
members of the Council, and the executive governors mnjI Vsksexi.-
tenant-govemors of the various territoti^ft wck!^ y^qVym^s^ v:S. "^^
empire rests with the governor-geneTal.
646 IKDU.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
According to the Act of 1858, the revenue and expenditure of
the Indian empire is subjected to the control of the Secretary in
Coimcil, and no grant or appropriation of any part of such revenue
can be made without the concurrence of a majority of the Council.
Such parts of the revenues of India as may be remitted to
England, and moneys arising in Great Britain, are to be paid into
the Bank of England ; and paid out on drafts or orders signed by
three members of the Council, and countersigned by the secretary
or one of his imder-secretaries. The sovereign of Great Britain is
empowered to appoint from time to time an auditor of the accounts,
with power to inspect all books and examine all officers, and his
report is to be laid before Parliament. The accounts of the whdle
revenue and expenditure of the Indian empire must be laid annually
before Parliament.
The financial state of the Indian empire has undergone immense
changes in recent years, both the revenue and the expenditure
having nearly doubled since 1851. In the year ending April 30,
1851, the pubHc revenue amounted to 97,625,860/., and the ex-
penditure to 27,000,624/., leaving a surplus of 624,736/. In the
year 1856-57, immediately preceding the mutiny, the total expendi-
ture of the East India Company, both in India and England, including
the interest guaranteed by the Government on the paid-up capital of
the various Indian Railway Companies, exceeded the revenue of the
year by 474,208/. The enormous cost of the military operations in
the years 1857-58 and 1858-59 produced a deficit, in the finances
of Lidia, which amounted, in those two years, and in 1859-60
respectively, to 8,390,642/., 14,187,617/., and 10,769,861/. The
cessation of war and consequent reduction of the army, and the
efforts of the several Governments and administrations in India,
resulted in the conversion of the large deficit of upwards of ten
millions in 1859-60 into a surplus in 1862-63, which, owing to an
unusually large receipt from opium, was no less than 1,827,346/.
In the following year the surplus amounted to 78,347/. ; the falling-
off being attributable to diminished receipts from opium and
income-tax ; but in 1864-65 there was a deficit of 193,520/. This
deficit was not attributable to any falling-off in the revenue, which,
on the contrary, rose from 44,613,032/. in 1863-64, to 45,652,897/.,
in 1864—65, showing an increase of 1,039,865/. within the year,
mainly due to the improvement of 529,406/. in the receipts from
opium, and of 487,888/. in those from salt. But the increase of
revenue was more than counterbalanced by an augmented ex-
BEVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
647
penditure, exhibited cliiefly in the two items of public works and
cost of the army.
The subjoined table gives the total gross amount of the actual
revenue and expenditure of India, in each of the years ending
April 30, from 1859 to 1865 :—
Tears ended
April 30
In India
Home
charges
Berenne
Expenditure
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
36,060,788
39,705,822
42,903,234 -
43,829,472
46,143,752
44,613,032
45,662,897
£
43,590,794
44,622,269
41,529,973
37,245,756
36,800,806
38,087,772
38,246,926
£
7,466,136
7,239,451
5,394,646
6,634,344
6,515,601
6,446,913
7,599,491
Adding together the Indian expenditure and the home charges,
the financial accoimts of India for the year 1864-65 stand as follows : —
£
The total revenue of 1864-65 was .... 44,652,897
The total expenditure 45,846,417
Deficit
193,520
The financial statement for the two years 1865-66, and 1866-67,
the former containing the revenue and expenditure as provisionally
returned, saving corrections, and the latter the budget estimates, is
as follows : —
Estimated revenue .
„ expenditure ,
Deficit
1865-66
1866-67
£
47,041,540
47,377,487
£
47,321,000
47,393,800
335,947
72,800
The subjoined table gives a general statement of the actual and
estimated sources of the revenue of India for five years, from 1861
to 1866. It will be seen that the receipts from land are by far
the most important, forming nearly one-half of the total income.
The other half is made up from miscellaneous sources, opium
standing at the head of the list : —
648
INDIA.
Actual
Actual
Actual
Calculated
Budget ■
Booices of Revenue
revenue
revenue
revenue
revenue
estimate |
1861-63
1863-63
1863-64
1864-66
1865-66 !
£
£
£
£
£ 1
Land . •
19,684,670
19,570,147
20,303,423
20,094,800
20,268,190
Forest
460,728
620,680
304,443
366,130
383,000
Abkaree .
1,786,167
1,951,080
2,060,270
2,272,960
2,236,320
A8se«js«i taxes
2,064,696
1,882,212
1,483,622
1,236,490
661,140
Customs .
2,876,139
2,464,366
2,384,061
2,266,470
2,191,2801
Salt .
4,663,081
6,244,160
6,036,696
6,624,250
6.782,880|
Opium
6,359,269
8,065,476
6,831,999
7,614,120
7,723,600
Stamps
1,693,217
1,489,638
1,736,216
1,912,140
2,068,600
Mint
380,73.)
371,116
369,769
414,800
461,640,
Post-office
402,135
425,528
459,882
347,220
370,180
Electric telegraph
73,462
75,525
91,762
93,590
130,350j
Law and justice, and
1
police .
611,613
494,842
631,798
716,470
848,790
Marine
156,723
189,046
307,715
312,270
226,630
Public works
688,858
443,553
461,786
1,016,660
1,000,000
Tributes and contribu
tions
780,162
725,763
716,990
742,280
722,350
Miscellaneous, civil
468,500
404,057
616,903
492,976
413,300
„ militar)
r 966,219
802,309
747,431
700,000
860,000
Interest .
34,218
34,364
72,277
181,600
262,610
43,829,472
—
46,284,106
46,488,760
Loan to be raised ii
England for ne¥
J
military and irriga
tion works
^^
1,200,000
Deficit, inddg. railway
B 60,628
—
—
344,143
Total
•
. 43,880,100
46,143,762
44,613,032
46,628,249
47,688,760
The amount of the various branches of public expenditure of
India, in each of the years — ending April 30 — 1862 to 1866, is
shown in the subjoined table : —
Branches of Expenditure
Allowances, refunds,
and drawbacks
Land, revenue, forest,
and abkaree .
Aaseo&Qdi taxes .
Customs .
Sait .
Actual I Actual
expenditure ' expenditure
1861-62 1862-63
341,638 342,066
2,030,489
2,076,970
72,676
Actual
expenditure
1863-«4
333,566
2,384,412
45,116
Calculated
expenditure
1864-65
£
289,470
2,601,300
40,370
Bndg^
estimate
1865-66
Vli^A '^'^'i.'^A V5l^\^^<iV i^yy^ooui
&^\A\\\ ^^^^'^^^ 'i«v;\»t^ ^ijv^^^^
£
242,960
2,740.640
. 19,390
190,660
BEYENUE AND EXPE5DITFRE.
Branches of Espeuiliture — cmdhiufd^
649
Bcatiflliae of Bxpooattuitf
Opium
Mint . , . ,
Electric telegropb
Alio wad cea &n d ussigti-
ments under treiitiea
and eagag«int^iit» .
AUowunceA to district
find village officers .
^liacelLfuieous .
Guilt iiigeueif'S, sp(?cial
and temporury
Army
Marine diaries ,
Pul>Ue workfij inclu-
ding 1 pej" cent, in-
comi^'tax fntid^ and
lot's bj exchange on
railway tnuiEUL'tionB
Sftlaripfl and expenses
of pablic depart-
ments .
likW and jostic^^
Poliee
Edn^^ation, sdence, and
art * . ,
Pul]ti(!!al agendea and
othfr foreign &er-
ricea
StiperaDnnation and
retired allowaneea,
and gratuities for
charitable and otber
purposes
JUiscellaneons .
Civil contingenciffl ,
Interest
Expcnditnre in India
Ki^t expenditure in
England
Guaranteed int<*reBt on
TiLilwny capital less
net traffic receipts .
/ Total expenditure
jLCtlZRl
exiMfndlttire
ACttLftl
1,440,465
68,263
106,688
481,32H
1,640,466
599,682
20,742
1,856,278
BS,<>07
180,723
Actual
eiiJcnditnTB
£
2,306,493
103,393
162,182;
CnkoJated
fexpendltirre
4&l,196i 502,671
352,689 321,306
1,73M63
563,046
26,581
1,721,335
58*^^,089
26,625
£
2,707,840
97.100
138,340
416,310
385,000
1,712,900
629,940
.510
1
I ai,5
9,783i 841
13,681,900 12,764,325 12,697,069 13,327,760
666,193 7H560 S67,5&5 £32,410
4,742,183 4.400,632
l,106,749i
1,951,217
2.163,163
342,593
210,670
703,297
3(»9,702
204,783
3,134,897
1,091,936
2,074,146
2,141,269
400,361
241,515
740,896
265,405
103,16.1
3,351,680
5,375,523
1,167,451
2,120,636
2,300,482
441,856
214,148
602,218
334,8.56
116,594
i| 3.093.250
37,245,756 36,800,805:38,087,772
4,943,428; 4,777,630
5,203,264
1,425*080
5,685,817
1,171,220
2,306,890
2,347,240
565,760
238,760
362,730
I 804,520
3,130,500
4,890,036
estiidAte
£
1,954,800
102,340
133,480
431,4901
441,150
1,682,900
343,860
100,100
13,764,560
538,200
5,888,640
1,231,560
2,500,060
2,442,590
622,210
^4,940
811,970
311,600
3,201,820
40,349,797 40,469,540
5,463,390
l,572,\7il \,feft^,^ft\\,^%^^\\vj^ffg:s^
4 ^,^16 aotU^ &^^^^%^^^^^^^"i!*^^
650 INDU.
By far the most important source of revenue to which rulers in
India have, in all ages, looked for obtaining their income is the
land, the tax on which, in the year before the Mutiny, ftimished
more than one-half of the total receipts of the East India Ck>mpany's
Treasury. Even now, when th* necessities of the Indian empire
have rendered it compulsory to resort more largely to the aid of
duties levied on the continually increasing trade of the country, no
less a sum than 20,087,728/., out of a total income of 45,652,897/., is
derived from the land revenue.
The land revenue of India, as of all eastern countries, is generally
regarded less as a tax on the landowners than as the result of a joint
proprietorship in the soil, under which the produce is divide^ in
unequal and generally undefined proportions, between the ostensible
proprietors and the State. It would seem a matter of justice,
therefore, as well as of security for the landowner, that the respective
shares should, at a given period, or for specified terms, be strictly
defined and limited. Nevertheless, the proportion which the
assessment bears to the fiill value of the land varies greatly in the
several provinces and districts of India. Under the old native
system, a fixed proportion of the gross produce was taken ; but the
British system deals with the surplus or net produce which the
land may yield after deducting the expenses of cultivation, and the
directions to the revenue settlement officers provide that at least one-
third of this net produce shall always be left to the cultivator as his
profit.
In Bengal, a permanent settlement was made by Lord Comwallis,
in 1793, with the zemindars or principal landowners, who pay direct
to the Government a sum probably somewhat exceeding one-half of
the amount which they receive as rent ; by this measure, the Go-
vernment was debarred from any further direct participation in the
agricultural improvement of the country. In the north-western
provinces, a general settlement of the revenue was completed in
1840, fixing the amount to be paid by each village for a period of
thirty years ; and a similar course has been adopted in the Punjab.
It is estimated that in this case the assessment was about two-thirds
of the yearly value — that is, the surplus after deducting expenses of
cultivation, profits of stock, and wages of labour. In the revised
settlements, more recently made, it was reduced to one-half of the
yearly value.
In the Madras Presidency there are three different revenue
systems. The zemindary tenure exists in a few districts, but prin-
cipally in the northern Circars ; the proprietors, of whom some posseas
old ancestral estates, and others were created landholders in 1802, hold
the land direct from the Government, on payment of a fixed annual
sum. The promin^ut d^fwtft qC ttla system are, that the wbolft «f
KETENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 65 1
the waste lands are alienated from the State, and form part of the
emoluments of the proprietor, to whom a considerable allowance,
estimated at from 15 to 33 per cent, of the revenue, is also made for
expenses of management, so that the influence of the landowner,
which is very powerful, owing to the state of dependence in which all
classes are placed imder him, is often injuriously exercised, par-
ticularly in matters of police. In the village-renting system, the
villagers stand in the position of the' zemindar, and hold the land
jointly from the Government, allotting the different portions for culti-
vation among themselves; but this involves the serious defect of joint
responsibility, and the want of clearly defined individual property in
the land. Under the ryotwar system, every registered holder of
land is recognised as its proprietor, and pays direct to the Govern-
ment : he can sublet, transfer, sell, or mortgage it : he cannot be
ejected by the Government, and, so long as he pays the fixed assess-
ment, he has the option of annually increasing or diminishing the
cultivation on his holding, or he may entirely abandon it. In
unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are granted for loss of
produce. The assessment is fixed in money, and does not vary from
year to year, except when water is obtained from a Government
source of irrigation ; nor is any addition made to the rent for
improvements effected at the ryot's own expense. He has, therefore,
all the benefit of a perpetual lease without its responsibilities, as he
can 'at any time throw up his lands, but cannot be ejected so long as
he pays his dues, and receives assistance in difficult seasons. The
original assessment was unfortunately fixed too high, but the reduc-
tions and re-assessments made of late years are materially improving
the position of the cultivators. An annual settlement is made, not
to re-assess the land, but to determine upon how much of his
holding the lyot shall pay ; when no change occurs in a holding,
the ryot is not affected by the annual settlement, and is not required
to attend it. The ryotwar system may be said essentially to prevail
throughout the Presidency of Madras, as the zemindar and village
renter equally deal with their tenants on this principle.
In Bombay, the revenue management is, generally speaking,
ryotwar ; that is, as a rule, the occupants of Government lands settle
for their land revenue, or rent, with the Government officers direct,
and not through the intervention of a middle -man. Instances,
however, occasionally occur, in which the Government revenues of
entire villages are settled by individual superior holders, under
various denominations, or by a co-partnership of superior holders.
The survey and assessment of the Bombay Presidency has been
almost completed on a system introduced and carefully elaborated
about twenty years ago. The whole country is surveyed and isaa.'^^'^^'eA.^
and the fields distinguislied by permanent. \>o\>xi^a.T^ xc^^^^'^^'^^
652 INDIA.
is penal to remove ; the soil of each field is classed according to its
intrinsic qualities and to the climate ; and the rate of assessment to
be paid on fields of each class in each subdivision of a district is fixed
on a careful consideration of the value of the crops they are capable
of producing, as affected by the proximity to market towns, roads,
canals, railways, and similar external incidents, but not by improve-
ments made by the ryot himself This rate was probably about
one-half of the yearly value of the land, when fixed ; but, owing to
the general improvement of the country, it is not more than trom a
fourth to an eighth in the districts which have not been settled quite
recently. The measurement and classification of the soil are made
once for all ; but the rate of assessment is open to revision at the end of
every thirty years, in order that the ryot, on the one hand, may have
the certainty of the long period as an inducement to lay out capital,
and the State, on the other, may secure that participation in the advan-
tages accruing from the general progress of society to which its joint
l)roprietorship in the land entitles it. In the thirty years' revision,
moreover, only public improvements and a general change of prices,
but not improvements effected by the ryots themselves, are con-
sidered as grounds for enhancing the assessment. The ryot's tenure
is permanent, provided he pays the assessment.
The important questions of the expediency of settling in per-
petuity the amount of revenue to be paid to the Government by land-
holders, of permitting this revenue to be redeemed for ever by the
l>ayment of a capital sum of money, and of selling the fee simple of
waste lands not under assessment, have been within the last few
years fully considered by the Government of India. The expediency
of allowing owners of land to redeem the revenue has long been
advocated as likely to promote the settlement of European colonists;
but experience seems to show that advantage is very rarely taken of
the power which already exists in certain cases to redeem the rent by
a quit payment; and it appears unlikely that such a permission
would be acted upon to any great extent, while the rate of interest
afforded by an investment in the purchase of the land assessment is
so fer below that obtained in ordinary transactions, as is at present
the case in' India. Entertaining no doubt of the political advantages
which would attend a permanent settlement, and considering it most
desirable that facilities should be given for the gradual growth of a
middle class connected with, the land, without dispossessing the
present proprietors and occupiers, the Government of India recently
decided to sanction the redemption of the revenue only in cases
where lands are required for dwelling-houses, factories, gardens,
plaDt&tiona, and Bimilar puxiposfea, \i\xX. Vi waxJivwvifc ^ -^Ymanent
aettlement being effected t\iro\x^o\A \)tv^ «cK^\t^ ^\. ^^ ^t^^^ox. ^^
revised rates, in aU districts or i^^vxls o^ ^^u\^\^S5ix?V^.^^^ ^^^^^^.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 653
able increase can be expected in the land revenue, and where its
equitable apportionment has been, or may hereafter be, satisfectorily
ascertained. In proceeding to carry this measure into effect, it was
decided that, where agriculture is backward, population scanty, and
rent not fully developed, permanency of settlement must be refused ;
and that, on the other hand, where the estates are so fairly cidtivated,
and their resources so fully developed, as to warrant the introduction
of a permanent settlement at the existing rates, it may at once be
granted.
Next in importance to the land-tax, as a great source of Indian
revenue, is the income derived from the opium monopoly. The
cultivation of the poppy is prohibited in Bengal, except for the
purpose of selling the juice to the officers of the Government at a
certain fixed price. It is manufactured into opium at the Govern-
ment factories at Patna and Benares, and then sent to Calcutta, and
sold by auction to merchants who export it to China. In the
Bombay Presidency, the revenue is derived from the opiimi which is
manufactured in the native states of Malwa and Guzerat, on which
passes are given, at a certain price per chest, to merchants who wish
to send opium to tlie port of Bombay. The poppy is not cultivated
in the Pjesidency of Madras. The gross revenue derived from
opium has averaged during the last ten years about 6,500,000/.
sterling, having risen from 5,011,525/. in 1856-57 to 8,055,476/. in
1862-63. The price was, however, exceptionally high in the last-
mentioned year, and in 18G3-64 the sum realised was 6,831,999/.,
while in 1864-65 it again rose to 7,361,405/.
In Bengal, the number of chests of opium sold in 1864-65 was the
largest ever offered in any one year, being 54,486 as compared
with 42,619 in 1863-64. The area of land under cultivation was,
however, only 801,003 beegahs — a beegah being about five-eighths
of an acre — or 8,353 less than in the preceding year ; and the quan-
tity of opium made during the season was 47,777 chests, besides that
sold at file Government Treasuries imder the excise system. Tlie
gross receipts of the year were 5,255,447/., or 91,329/. less than was
realised in 1863-64; but the difference in the net receipts was
more considerable, owing to an increase of 46,499/, in the charges
attendant on the cultivation. The net revenue, accordingly, which
amounted to 2,894,095/., showed a falling off from the previous year
of 148,590/. ; but against this had to be set an increase of 45,886/.
from the sale of the abkaree opium, which produced a sum of
158,525/. in the year under report. In 1861-62 the price paid to
the ciiltivators being deemed insufficient, was raised from 8a. to IO5.
a seer. It was, however, found that the effect of this measure was
to very nearly double the area of cultivation in three years, and to
raise the provision from 29,358 chests in 1860-61 to 64,269 chests
654
IKDIA.
in 1863-64; while the selling price, which in 1861-62 was 137/. per
chest, fell to 85/. in 1863-64, and the charges were considerably in-
creased. It was, therefore, determined to reduce the price paid to
the growers to 9s. the seer. The further extension of poppy culti-
vation has been prohibited, both in Benares and Behar, and the less
productive sub-agencies in Benares have been closed.
The revenue derived from the opiiun monopoly is more than
sufficient, even in the lowest years, to pay the interest of the public
debt of India. The amount of the debt, including that incurred in
Great Britain, was, on April 30, 1857, 54,490,793/. In the course
of the next five years the debt was very largely increased, and on
April 30, 1862, it had risen to 98,779,911/. Since that time, the
Government have been enabled to pay off some portion of it, and at
the end of the financial year 1866, the principal sum had been
reduced to 92,811,793/.
The subjoined tables show the total amount of the public debt of
British India, distinguishing the debt in England. In the following
table, the various descriptions of that part of the debt contracted
in India are given, for each of the years 1862, 1863, and 1864 : —
Years
ended
^^5"
Registered
Indian trea-
sury notes
Temporary
Loans
Deposits, in-
cluding the
civil and
military funds
Total capital
of debt in
India
Interest paid
on debt in
India
1862
1863
1864
£
64,580,173
64,684,294
64,233,638
£
1,662,612
1,666,118
1,776,694
£
466,763
466,763
447,437
£
6,809,411
6,960,960
6,760,976
£
72,418,859
72,666,136
72,207,646
£
d,134,897
3,361,680
3,093.250
Subjoined is the account of the debt of India in England, as well
as the total debt of India, for each of the years 1862, 1863, and
1864 :—
Tears
ended
Debt of India in England
Total debt of India
Bond debt
Debenture and
other loans
Interest paid
Capital of total
debt
Interest paid on
total debt
1862
1863
1864
£
4,872,200
3,116,000
3,114,900
£
30,223,100
28,723,100
23,195,600
£
1,426,008
1,486,916
1,372,699
£
107,514,169
104,496.236
98,618,146
£
4,660,906
4,838.696
4,465,849
A return issued by the Secretary of State for India, in Mardi,
1866, stated the amount of the Indian debt, chargeable in India,
including treasury notea, aer^kft fond&^bilk ^yabk, and depeai^
ABMY. 655
at 85,835,957/., the return of the previous year having been
87,017,929/. The amount chargeable in England — India Stock,
War Office demands, &c. in 1866 amounted to 28,872,836/., the
return of the previous year having been 28,509,776/.
On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of
India, providing for the issue of a paper currency by a Government
department of Public Issue, by means of promissory notes for sums
of not less than ten rupees, or 1/. in value. Circles of issue were
established from time to time, as found necessary, and the notes were
made legal tender within the circle in which they were issued, and
rendered payable at the place of issue, and also at the capital city of
the Presidency within which that place was situated. A further Act
was passed in 1862 authorising the banksof Bengal, Madras, and Bom-
bay, to enter into arrangements with the Government for managing the
issue, payment, and exchange of the currency notes, and such of the
business previously transacted by the Government treasuries as it
might be desirable to transfer to them ; and on February 28 of the
same year an Act was passed, repealing the power previously held by
the bank of Bengal to issue its own promissory notes, placing the
afiairs of the bank on a new footing, with power to enlarge its capital
very considerably, and transferring to it the management of a large
part of the treasury business of the Government, and also that
connected with the paper currency. Similar acts were passed with
reference to the banks of Madras and Bombay.
An arrangement was more recently concluded with the bank of
Bengal for carrying out the details of this measure. In the £rst
instance, the issue of notes was entrusted to the bank, but it being,
in the opinion of the Secretary of State in Council, necessary that the
functions of banking and currency should not be united in one
establishment, the management of the issue was shortly afterwards
placed in the hands of a commissioner, whose office is at the Mint.
Ten currency circles have been established, the head- quarters of
which are at Calcutta, Allahabad, Lahore, and Nagpore, Madras,
Calicut, Trichinopoly, and Vizagapatam, Bombay, and Kurrachee,
and instructions have been issued for receiving the notes of branch
circles at any Government treasury in payment of taxes, and for con-
verting them at any place of issue where the officer in charge
anticipates no risk in doing so. The total amount of notes now in
circulation is in value a little above 7,000,000/.
Army.
The Act of Parliament which transferred the Government of India
to the Crown, in 1858, directed that the military forces «t NJaa ^S^s^
India Company should be deemed to be ladmu ^^s&jXvXar^ ^o^x^Jfc^ 's^
6s6
INDU.
Her Majesty, and should be ' entitled to the like pay, pensions,
allowances, and privileges, and the like advantages as regards pro-
motion and otherwise, as if they had continued in the service of the
said (Company/ It was at the pame time provided, that the Secretary
of State for India should have * all such or the like powers over aJl
officers appointed or continued under this Act as might or should
have been exercised or performed by the East India Company.'
The number of the European troops in India at the beginning of
1866, excluHive of commissioned officers, was 68,336, and the Native
troops at the same date were 114,833. Some diminution in the army
was effected recently by the conversion of three field batteries of the
Madras artillery into garrison batteries, the reduction of a battery
at Bombay, and the disbandment of the Southern Mahratta Horse
at that presidency and of the East India regiment in Bengal, and the
reduction of four regiments of the Madras Native Infantry. The
body-guard of the Grovemor of Bombay, which was previously
formed by a detachment from one of the Native Cavalry r^ments,
was at the same time constituted as a separate corps. At the
banning of the year 1864, the whole of the native infimtry regi-
ments in Bengal and Bombay were placed en a new organisation,
under which there are only seven combatant European officers with
each corps, the troops and companies being commanded by native
commissioned officers, as was previously the case in the irregular
force ; and on November 1, 1865, the Madras army was assimilated
in organisation to those of the other presidencies.
In the army estimates laid before Parliament in the session of 1866,
the strength of Her Majesty's British Forces in India was given sb
follows : —
British forces in India
Olfloen
Non-oom-
miflsioned
officers
Bank and
File
AUraoka
186«-67
1865-66
Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Royal artillery
Royal engineers
Infantry of the line .
Totol
200
362
699
336
2,028 *
249
603
790
3,664
2,680
4,466
8,140
41,080
8,129
6,421
9,629
336
46,772
8,180
6,009
10,771
336
60,798
3,615 1 5,306
56,366 1 65,287
71,044
The charges for the whole Indian army rose from 14,546,410/. in
1863-64 to 15,774,486/. in 1864-65. Part of this increase was
caused by the high price of provisions, and the large demand for
labour throughout tVie co\m\!ty,^\as^ T^TA^sc«^\^»Tk»iAfl£^arY to give
compensation to tibe native o^cet^oii^w^^^^t^', «8^^asS^^ \si.>&3BaEBs»^
Good-conduct pay, moxeover, v»«a ^gcwiXAsA. \iSwst ^wMa vs^«j^ ^\
POPULATION.
657
service than hitherto, and the cost of these measures was estimated
at not less than 110,000/. a year.
Since its embodiment and reduction to its present position after
the great Mutiny, the native army of India has been twice tried in
action — in the Sittana war on the north-west frontier, and in the
Bhootan war on the north-east frontier. On both occasions the
behaviour of the troops revealed a somewhat defective organisation.
Fopnlatioii.
The total area and population of India are as follows, according to
the latest returns : —
Presidencies
Area in English
sq. miles
Population
GrovemoT-General's district
Bengal ....
Madras ....
Bombay ....
Punjaub ....
North-west Provinces
Total
170,330
280,200
126,805
137,743
100,406
116,493
14,166,161
41,498,608
23,127,856
11,937,612
14,794,611
30,110,497
933,722
136,634,244
The above numbers of the population are but the result of
estimates, as an accurate enumeration has never been made — and,
probably, cannot be made — owing to religious prejudices, aiid the
peculiar mode of life of the natives of India. Some authorities
estimate the population of the empire at close upon 200 millions.
The English population in India amounted, according to the re-
turns made by the several Governments, to only 125,945 persons in
1861. Of these 125,945 people, 84,083 went to compose the British
officers and men of the Indian army ; while 22,556 consisted of men
and boys in civil life, including the civilians in the public service ;
the remaining 19,306 being females, of whom 9,773 were over 20
years of age. When the census was taken, the number of females
of English origin in India above the age of 15 was 11,636, including
8,356 wives and 1,146 widows. Of the officers and men of the
Koyal army 93 per cent, of all ages were immarried, while the pro-
portion of civilians above the age of 20 unmarried amounted to 50
per cent.
The two largest towns in India are Calcutta and Bombay. A
partial census of Calcutta was taken in January, 1866, the results
referring to only that third of the whole city which is nnder the
jurisdiction of the justices, at the head of whom is a ^ Lord Mayor.*
In this third, excluding Hourah, the Surrey side, and aU the great
u u
658 INDIA.
Buburbs like Garden Eeach, there were found to be 378,066
inhabitants, of whom 11,067 were Europeans and Americans, 10,950
Indo-Europeans, 38 Greeks, 722 Armenians, 1,443 other Asiatics,
548 Jews, 113 Parsees, 37 Africans, 408 Chinese, 118,365 Mussul-
mans, and 239,380 Hindoos. Of the latter there were found to be
100 children to 475^ adults, and 100 females to 159 males. The
whole of the inhabitants occupied 15,976 brick houses and 42,917
huts, so that there were 6^ to each house. As many of the census
papers were never called for, the municipal authorities admitted the
figures to be below the truth. It is believed that ten inhabitants
to a house would be a fairer average in a densely crowded oriental
city, where native families live in clans and Europeans in boarding-
houses. Omitting Hourah, the population of Calcutta proper, city
and suburbs, must be above a million, with at least about 15,000
Europeans.
A census of Bombay was taken in 1865, and showed the existing
population to amount to 816,562. Two hundred years ago, at the
time of the cession by Portugal, it was only 10,000. The Indo-
Europeans in 1865 niunbered 1,891 ; the Europeans 4,814 ; the
Jews, 2,872 ; and the native Christians 19,903. The Parsees
numbered 49,201 ; the Mussulmans, 145,880; the Brahmins,
30,604 ; and the Hindoos, 191,540. Tnere were only 2,074 negroes,
and 358 Chinese. The whole population of Bombay lived in 24,206
houses.
The great bulk of the population of India are Hindoos, calculated to
numBer above 100 millions. Of adherents of minor Christian sects, there
are 70,000 Syrians, 200,000 * Jacobites' in Malabar and Travancore,
several thousand Armenians, and a small number of Abyssinians.
In the seventeenth century, the Reformed religion was introduced,
but with little success, by the Dutch. In 1793, the Baptist Mis-
sionary Society sent out its first agents, and several other societies
rapidly augmented the niunber of missionaries all over the country.
According to recent returns, there are 22 missionary societies, which
have established 260 stations, employing 403 preachers, and 551
native catechists. They have founded 309 native churches, having
a commimion roll of 7,356, besides numerous male and female
schools, tract societies, and printing-presses.
In the North-Western Provinces and Madras the foundation has
been laid of a national system of Education; but the general position
for the whole of India is, that the Government has -succeeded in
establishing a system of public instruction for the upper and middle
classes, but has as yet made little or no impression upon the body of
the people.
TRADE AND COMMEBCE.
<59
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of the Indian empire,
including treasure, was as follows, in each of the years 1862, 1863,
and 1864 :—
Years
Imports
Exports
1862 .
1863 .
1864 .
£
37,272,417
43,141,351
60,108,171
£
37,000,397
48,970,786
66,895,884
Divided into merchandise and treasure, the imports in each of the
three years were as follows : —
Years
Imports of
merchandise
Imports of
treasure
Total
imports
1862
1863
1864
£
22,320,432
22,632,884
27,145,590
£
14,951,985
20,508,967
22,962,681
£
37,272,417
43,141,351
50,108,171
Similarly divided, the exports were as follows : —
Years
Exports of
Exports of
treasure
Total
exports
1862
1863
1864
£
36,317,042
47,859,645
65,626,449
£
683,355
1,111,140
1,270,435
£
37,000,397
48,970,785
66,895,884
The total imports, including treasure, in each presidency, were as
follows : —
Years
Imports into
Bengal
Imports into
British Burmah
Imports into
Madras
Imports into
Bengal
1862
1863
1864
£
14,307,358
14,979,456
15,080,219
£
533,790
572,956
565,519
£
3,474,519
3,408,640
4,055,024
£
18,956,760
24,180,299
30,407,409
The total exports, including treasure, feom. ^a.dcv Yt«^^^^>'*^^'^
as follows ;—
u tj2
66o
INDIA.
Years
Bengal
Exports from
British Burmah
Exports from
Madras
Exports from
Bombay
1862
1863
1864
£
13,110,869
16,627,387
19,328,765
£
1,426,871
1,377,203
1,630,733
£
3,413,634
6,089,726
7,367,662
£
19,050,032
26,876,469
38,568,724
Taking the value of imports and exports together, India stands
first in the list of both foreign countries and colonial possessions in
commercial intercourse with the United Kingdom. The commerce
between India and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined
tabidar statement, which gives the total value of the imports
from India into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures to India in each of tbe five
years 1861 to 1865:—
Years
Imports from India into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to India
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
21,968,752
34,133,661
48,434,640
62,296,699
37,395,372
£
16,411,756
14,617,673
20,002,241
19,961,637
18,264,670
The values of the principal articles imported from India into the
United Kingdom, in each of the years 1862, 1863, and 1864, are
shown in the subjoined table :—
Imports
Aloes ....
Berries, Myrobolan
Borax ....
Caoutchouc
Cardamoms .
Cassia lignea .
Cloves ....
Coffee ....
Coir rope, twine, and strands
Com, wheat .
Cotton, raw .
Cotton piece goods .
Ontch ....
Dates . .
1862
£
969
19,194
4,819
9,813
37,690
651
11,200
384,474
77,374
10,247
21,933,774
106,754
44,084
£
12,231
36,663
16,248
31,116
39,288
2,699
40,012
392,679
109,429
16,666
34,409,260
92,053
41,819
1864
£
3,113
22,334
16,323
26,324
17,657
14,130
539,258
105,274
1,251
37,899,651
17,529
53,635
248
XBASE AND COUMBRCE.
66 1
The value of the priDcipnl articles imported from India in the years 1862,
1863, and 1 86 4 — con tin utd.
Importfl
1B63
3fi63
i&a
£
£
£
GKnger
22,687
48,223
55,244
Gum, aujnii * - * -
16,908
26,286
13,848
,, atabic . • . .
5,058
13,671
4,912
„ bcdje . . - ,
38,347
52,289
73,849
„ shelke . , . .
301,182
264,383
243,099
Hemp, rough or undressed
27,lo4
52,192
86,783
jtite . . ♦ >
e06,ft34
1,606,997
2,173,414
other vegetiable sub-
stances, of the nature of un-
drifflBed hemp
—
4
390
Hides, cot tanned -
793,200
870,316
699.596
tunned, tawed, rarried,
or ia any tthj dressed .
13,811
14,423
9,662
Horns, horatipa, aJid pieces of
horns - * . ^ .
29.618
37,235
31,294
Indigo , . , , .
1,784,004
2,001,777
l,89t),95e
Madder root, bcluding Mmyeet
27,460
17,324
19,212
Kutmegs , . . ,
436
120
786
Nutsand kernels, nuenumeratoJ,
for expreasing oil therefrom .
I6,5r57
19,984
11,024
Oil, caijtor ....
48,503 ,
107,695
44.068
„ coooa-uut
156,626
325,035
294,072
„ seed « . « .
7,692
67,735
31,952
H train , , * .
15,665
3,129
23,290
Oiibannm * . , .
25,353
36,868
25,998
Pepper . , , , .
37,521
7,638
6,063
Petroleum ....
41,580
— ■
9,197
Rice, not in the husk
2,131,167
1,728,340
1,722,064
Safflower * , • .
82,738
38,366
53,414
Saltpetre ....
7o9j55
726,681
499,437
Seeds; linseed and flax .
1,368,496
1,&82,971
2,030,781
„ mnstjird
4,557
3,843
1,510
„ poppy ... *
24,663
52,492
41,863
rape . . , .
243,639
686,184
369,415
,, (tesamum
14,264
9,S23
4,271
„ un enumerated, for ©x-
preadng oil therefrom *
109,649
192,85<*
78.610
S*?nna
7,952
11,969
33,123
filtk, raw
438,572
194,058
154,619
,1 wjvste . * . .
46,123
28,640
46,27a
,^ mannfactnres : corahu^
dioppas, bandannajBt and tus-
sore cloths . . , ,
139,148
1 112,698
48,173
Skins, goat, undres&ed .
7,166
3,366
4,274
„ tanned, tawed, or
drtfiiied
111,110
138,667
„ aheep, t^fwuued or tawed .
4i,60t
662
IKDU.
The Talne of the principal ajrticles imported from India in the years 1862,
1863, and 1864 — continued.
Imports
1862
1863
1864
Spirits: rum .
Sugar, unrefined
„ refined
Tallow . . .
Tea
Teeth, elephants*
Tin . .
Turmeric
Wax, bees* .
Wood, teak .
Wool, sheep and lax
All other articles
Dbs"
£
2,889
364,038
4,456
2.660
161.768
78,010
4,632
2,963
95,906
742,807
171,482
£
1,189
266,100
266
2,776
292,323
70,013
6,840
6,320
37,096
1,003,372
165,676
£
919
817,262
30,727
3,148
390,684
82,649
33,831
12,199
60,038
976,229
291,606
T
'otal
34,133,651
48,434,640
62,285,599
The value of the principal articles of British and Irish produce
and manufactures exported from the United Kingdom to India in
each of the three years 1862, 1863, and 1864, is shown in the
subjoined table : —
EzportB
186S-
1864
Apparel and haherdasheiy
Arms and ammunition :
Fire-arms (small)
Gunpowder
Beer and ale .
Books, printed
Carriages
Coals, cinders, and culm
Copper, wrought and unwrought
Cotton yam .
Cottons, entered hy the yard
„ „ at value
DnigB and chemical products
Earthenware and p(»celain
Glass manufactui«8
Hardwares and cutleiy, unenu-
merated
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Lead and shot
Leather, wronght and xoi-
wrought ....
Leather: saddlery and ^lameea
Linemf, entered hy the yax^ .
£
176,942
11,643
11,620
418,404
42,973
100,744
89,006
896,966
1,336,470
7,178,514
80,160
36,646
60,196
98,268
169,379
1,446,730
33.779
£
246,467
. 12,944
5,470
395,684
. 43,626
40,831
126,580
1,315,690
2,613,237
10,437,724
92,408
61,354
. 70,600
142,429
231,462
1,636,299
76,830
. ^,^%
\ *L'^,^^
248,828
18,430
7,639
486,136
52,774
117,761
135,266
1,547,163
2,190,924
10,279,078
96,204
45,958
84,431
160,466
218,358
1,445,500
'36,607
\
^^096
\
RAILWAYS.
British and Irish produce exported to Indifi-'-continued,
663
Exports
1862
1863
1864
£
£
£
Machinery : steam engines
466,236
350,235
213,988
„ all other sorts
290,686
255,199
286,765
Paper of all sorts (including
jpaper hangings) .
! 100,337
92,803
98,015
Painters' colours (not other
wise described) .
89,372
46,721
46,826
Pickles and sauces)
30,372
46,263
43,282
Provisions (not otherwise de
scribed)
68,325
81,776
74,764
Salt ....
89,708
91,594
80,988
Stationery, other than paper
26,860
31,651
28,263
Telegraphic wire, &c.
212,138
46,243
32,671
Tin plates
17,219
16,979
10,766
Umbrellas and parasols .
36,315
43,B14
44,821
Woollens, entered by the yard
(including those formerly en-
tered by the piece)
352,542
663,333
803,068
Woollens, entered at value
16,841
28,946
21,707
Zinc, wrought and unwrought
46,181
43,488
62,928
All other articles .
Total .
542,227
682,656
669,650
14,617,673
20,002,241
19,951,637
There is a constant flow of bullion from the United Kingdom to
India. In the year 1863 the bullion, gold and silver, imported into
India exceeded the export of bullion from India by a value of
i9,398,3l5if.— namely, gold 6,848,159/. and silver 12,550,156/. In
1864 the import exceeded the export by 21,629,751/. — namely, gold
8,893,334/., and silver 12,736,417/. The total thus absorbed
in India fpom the year 1800 till the end of 3864, exceeded
256,000,000/. The bullion, gold and silver, coined in India,
amounted to 9,382,132/. in 1863, and 11,479,685/. in 1864, and the
total from the year 1800 till the end of 1864 exceeded 231,000,000/.
Bailways.
The intertial Commerce of India has been greatly developed of
late years by the construction of several great lines of railways,
made under the guarantee of the Government. In the year 1845
two private associations, termed the East Indian and the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway Companies, weite formed for the purpose
of constructing lines of railroad in India ; but the projectoi*s found it
impossible to raise the necessary funds for their proposed schemies
without th^ assistjmce of the State. It was, therefore, determined
by the East India Govertament to guarantee to the i^ailway companies,
664 INDIA.
for a term of 99 years, a certain rate of interest upon the capital
subscribed for their undertakings ; and, in order to guard against the
evil effects of failure on the part of the companies, power was
reserved by the Government to supervise and control all their pro-
ceedings by means of an official director in England and of officers
appointed for the purpose in India. The land required for the
raUways and works connected therewith was given, and continues to
be given, by the Government free of expense, and the stipulated
rate of interest is guaranteed to the shareholders in every case,
except that of the traffic receipts of the line being insufficient to
cover the working expenses, in which event the deficiency is charge-
able against the guaranteed interest. Should the net receipts, on
the other hand, be in excess of the sum required to pay the amount
guaranteed, the surplus is divided in equal parts between the Gt>veiu-
ment and the shareholders, until the charge to the Government for
interest in previous years, with simple interest thereon, has been
repaid, after which time the whole of the receipts are distributed
among the shareholders. The railway companies have the power of
surrendering their works, after any portion of the line has been
opened for three months, and of receiving from the Government the
money expended on tne undertaking ; and, on the other hand, the
Government has the power at the expiration of a period of 25 or 50
years from the date of the contracts, of purchasing the railways at the
mean value of the shares for the three previous years, or of paying a
proportionate annuity until the end of the 99 years, when the land
and works will revert to the Government, unless the railway
companies have previously exercised their powers of surrender. As
a rule, all Indian railways are constructed, in the first instance, for a
single line of rails, the bridges, tunnels, and cuttings being made
suitable for a second line. The gauge in all cases is 5 feet 6 inches.
There are at present eight great railway companies in India, com-
prising, 1, The East Indian ; 2, the Great Indian Peninsula ; 3, the
Madras ; 4, the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India ; 5, the Sinde ;
6, the Eastern Bengal ; 7, the Calcutta and South Eastern ; and
8, the Great Southern of India Railway.
The East Indian Railway Company, first and greatest of the eight
companies, was originally formed in 1845, with a view to the con-
struction of a line from Calcutta to Raneegimge, in order to bring
down the coal which abounds in that neighbourhood, and to develop
the mineral resources of the district. The company was incorporated
by an Act of Parliament on August 1, 1849, and the engineers com-
menced work in 1851. In September, 1854, 37 miles were opened
for traffic ; and in February, 1855, the whole line of 121 miles to
Haneegunge was completed. In the meantime, however, a general
system, of trunk railways for India had been determined upon, and
BAILWATS. 665
the line from Calcutta to Agra and Delhi was offered to the East
Indian Eailway Company. The offer was accepted, and the line
consTTUcted accordingly. Starting from Hourah, on the right bank of
the Hooghly, opposite to Calcutta, the line proceeds in a north-
westerly direction to Burdwan, where, the branch to Raneegunge
strikes off to the west, while the main line runs due north to Rajmahal,
thus connecting Calcutta with the Ganges, and enabling traders to
avoid the navigation of 250 miles of one of the most dangerous
portions of the river. At Rajmahal the railway turns westward
and proceeds up the right bank of the Ganges, past Monghyr,
where it is driven liirough the only tunnel in its course, a length of
900 feet through a hill of clay slate and hard quartz rock, to Patna,
Benares, and Allahabad. Soon afrer leaving Patna, it is conveyed
across the river Soane by a magnificent bridge, which consists of 27
iron girders of 150 feet each, supported on brick foimdations, and
which, it is believed; is exceeded in magnitude by only one other in
the world. At Allahabad the railway crosses the river Jumna by
another great bridge, which was opened for traffic on August 15,
1865. It has 15 spans of 200 feet, the rails being laid upon the top
of the girders, and the space beneath made available for an ordinary
carriage road 11 feet in width. The line then takes a north-westerly
course through Cawnpore, into the heart of the Upper Provinces,
and at a point 20 miles from Agra — with which it is connected by a
branch — it strikes northward past Allyghur to Ghazeeabad, where it
meets the Punjab Railway, and whence a short junction line of 12
miles unites it with the city of Delhi. The total length of the East
Indian Railway, with all its branches, is about 1,500 miles, of which
1,127 were opened in the summer of 1866. The line of rail is at
present single throughout its course, except for the first 67 miles
from Calcutta ; but the cord line to Luckieserai will be made double,
and also the portion between Luckieserai and Allahabad.
Scarcely inferior to the East Indian Railway in actual length, and,
perhaps, even more remarkable as an engineering work, is the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway, the object of which i3 to establish means
of communication between the three Presidency towns, and to
connect the great cotton growing districts of Central India with the
sea-port of Bombay. As in the case of the East Indian Railway, the
operations of this company were at first very limited. It was in-
corporated in the year 1849, and entered into a contract for the
construction of a line from the town of Bombay, through the island
of Salsette, and across the Tannah estuary, to Callian, a distance of
33 miles, together with a short branch to Mahim, at the northern
extremity of Bombay Island. The works were commenced in
October, 1850, and finished in May, 1854. At the e\i^ ^1 NlwaX "^^
the company undertook the extension oi iSba '\Mxa \slXq "^^ YoNsscssst^
666 INDIA.
to unite with the East Indian and Madras Railways. At Callian it
is divided into two great branches, the one going to the north-east,
ihe other taking a south-easterly direction. The great physical
difficulty, in either case, was to surmount the Ghauts, a lofl^ range
which runs parallel to the sea along the whole west coast of the
peninsula, and forms a barrier to the conveyance of the rich produce
of the Deccan to the port of Bombay. The northern line is carried
over the Thull Ghaut by an incline nine miles and a quarter in
length, in the course of which it attains an elevation of 972 feet. It
then proceeds, by Nassick and Chalisgaum, to Bhosawul, at which
point an important branch runs eastward, through the great cotton
district of Oomrawuttee, to Nagpore. The main line, rfiortly after
Bhosawul, crosses the river Taptee, and continues its course to the
north-east, up the valley of the Nerbudda, to Jubbulpore, where it
meets the East Indian Railway. The southern of the two great
branches is taken through the mountains of the Bhore Ghaut by an
incline nearly 16 miles long, with a total elevation of 1,881 feet,
the difficidties of the course being overcome by a series of cirttings,
tunnels, viaducts, and embankments, hardly rivalled in any other
part of the world, except on the sister incline over the Thull Ghaut
The railroad is then continued to Poona, Sholapoor, and Kulburga,
at which place it has been proposed that a line of 119 miles should
branch off eastward to Hyderabad, the capital of the Nizam's
territories, while the main line proceeds across the River Kistna to
Raichore, where it fomis a junction with the railway from Madras.
The distance from Bombay to Jubbulpore is 615 miles, and that to
Raichore 441 ; and the operations of the company extend over a
total length, including the branches, of 1,266 miles. The section
over the Bhore Ghaut was opened on April 21, 1863 ; but in con-
sequence of dam^^e done by the rains, it was found necessary to
suspend traffic operations until the following November, when
the line was again opened for the conveyance of both goods and
passengers. The Thull Ghaut incline was opened on February
1, 1865 ; and traffic is now carried on between Bombay and
Khundwa, 352 miles, on the north-east portion ; between Bhosawul
and Kowtah, 177 miles, on the Nagpore branch; and between
Bombay and Sholapoor, 282 miles on the line to the south-east.
The Madras Railway Company was established in the year 1852,
■*nth the view of constructing a railway from the city of Madras to
the western coast. Operations were commenced in June, 1853, and
on July 1, 1856, the first section, as far as Arcot, a distance of 65
miles, was opened to the public. In 1858, a further contract was
entered into, for a line towards the north-west, to meet the south-
eastern branch of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, and thus^
Ibrm a direct communicatioTi "b^Xj^^eo. \3ci^ "^T^^sstvss^ xktwbs^ ^
RAILWAYS. 667
Madras and Bombay. The country through which the line to the
western coast passes presented few obstacles to its progress, the only
engineering difficulties being to convey the line across the several
rivers which traverse its path. Leaving Arcot and Vellore a short
distance on the left, and throwing out a branch on the right to the
important military station of Bangalore, it turns southward through the
Shevaroy Hills to Salem, beyond which point it resumes a westerly
direction, and, passingthrough the cotton fields of Coimbatore, finds its
way by a break in the Ghauts to the port of Bey poor on the coast of
Malabar. The whole of this line, from Madras to Beypoor, 406
miles in length, was opened for traffic in May, 1862, and on August
1, 1864, passengers were conveyed on the Bangalore branch, which;
is 86 miles long, and attains a height of 3,000 feet on the Mysore
table land. The north*- west line, leaving the other at Arconum, 42
miles from MadraiS, proceeds through Guddapa, and across the river
Pennar, to Gooty, near which point a branch strikes off on the left
to the town of Bellary^ while the main line crosses the Toongabudra,
and at Raichore joins the line from Bombay. This portion of the
railway is 338 miles in length ; and, as its path is crossed by twelve
•rivers and two ranges of hills, the works in some parts were very
heavy. The line was opened to Cuddapa, a distance of 119 miles,,
in 1865, and a further section of 32 miles was ready for traffic at
Midsummer,. 1866.
The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway Company was'
forced to connect Bombay with the cotton districts of Guzerat and
Central India. It was incorporated in July, 1855, and the cutting of
the first sod took place in May, 1856. Starting northwards from
Bombay, throi^h the island of Salsette, and crossing the Bassein
Channel and theVeturnee River, tiie railway follows the line of the coast,
passing Damaun and Surat, at which place it ie carried over the'
Taptee River by an iron bridge of about 2,000 feet in length. A
more serious obstacle to its progress presented itself in the rivei*
Nerbudda, which the railway crosses by another iron bridge, 3,800
feet long. Continuing its northerly direction, it proceeds tlirough'
Broach to Baroda, at which point it turned to the north-west, over
the Mhye River, and terminates its course at Ahmedabad, 310
miles from Bombay. The whole line is open, except a section of
four miles within Bombay Island, fix>m Grant Road to Colaba, which
is to be conducted over land now in course of being reclaimed from
Back Bay.
The Sinde Railway Company was incorporated by an Act of Parlia-
ment passed on July 2, 1855, and was reconstituted in August, 1857.
Although its afikirs are undeb? a single Board, the operations o€ <ks!^
Gbmpany in reality embrace four separate concetu^^ ^qt ^jwScl <2fl^"^^^«5w
the capital miaed is kept distiinct feom tWX. o^ \)si^ c^'Casest Nka^^- ^^S^s^«
668 INDIA.
object of the combined undertakings is to establish communication
between the port of Kurrachee and the Punjab, and to connect the
chief cities of that province with the East Indian Eailwaj at Delhi.
The first portion, or Sinde Railway proper, proceeds firom ^e harbour
of Kurrachee, across the Rivers Bahrum and Mulleer, and through
the Karatolla Hills, to Kotree, on the Indus, opposite Hyderabad, and
thereby enables traders to avoid the delays attendant on the naviga-
tion of the delta of the river. The length of the line is 109 miles ;
it was conmienced in April, 1858, and was opened for traffic on May
11, 1861, with the immediate effect of developing a considerable
trade in cotton which had been previously seen on the Indus, as well
as in indigo, grain, wool, and other products. The navigation of the
Indus from Kotree to Mooltan, a distance of 570 miles, is performed
by vessels of the Indus Steam Flotilla, which ply twice a month over
the course, the larger vessels being employed on the portion of the
river above the Sukkur Pass, and smsdler steamers being used
between that place and Kotree. The Punjab Railway starting from
Sher Shah, on the banks of the Chenaub, about 12 miles below
Mooltan, passes through that city, and thence follows a nearly
straight coiu-se up the lefV bank of die Ravee, as &r as Lahore, at -
which place it turns directly to the east, until it reaches Umritsur.
This line, which is 253 miles long, was conmienced in February,
1859; on April 10, 1862, the section between Umritsur and
Lahore, 32 miles in length, was opened ; in May, 1863, the section
between Mooltan and Sher Shah was pronoimced to be in working
order; and on April 24, 1865, the complete line was declared
available to the public. The railway from Umritsur to Delhi
follows a south-easterly direction through the Punjab, and crossing
the Beas at Wuzeer Ghaut, proceeds by Jullunder to Phillour, at
which place it is conveyed over the Sutlej. Continuing its course
through Loodiana, Sirhind, and Umballa, it crosses the Jumna
shortly before reaching Seharunpore, where it turns southward, and
passing through Mozuffernugger and Meerut, arrives at Ghazeeabad,
whence the trains will run into Delhi over the branch constructed
by the East Indian Railway Company. The length of the whole
line is 320 miles ; the contractors commenced work in 1864, and,
although no portion had been opened in the summer of 1866, it was
anticipated that the section between Ghazeeabad and Meerut would
be ready for traffic by the end of the year.
In 1857, the Eastern Bengal Railway Company was formed for
the purpose of affording railway accommodation to the thickly
popidated districts lying north and east of Calcutta, which are richly
cultivated with indigo, sugar, oil-seeds, rice, and other grain.
Starting from the Calcutta side of the Hooghly, the railway proceeds
up the right bank of the Motabaii^ Vi ^ws^xafe^ oi^. ^^ Qem^sfMi
BAILWATS. 669
opposite Pubna, thus enabling merchants to send their goods direct
to and from Calcutta, without undergoing the delay and danger of the
navigation of the Simderbunds. The works were commenced in April,
1859, and the line was opened throughout its entire length of 114
miles, in November, 1862. Arrangements have been made for convey-
ing passengers and gbods by steamboats from Kooshtee to Dacca, and
also to Assan. In August, 1865, it was determined to extend the
line, a distance of 45 miles, to Goalundo, at the confluence of the
Bramapootra and the Ganges, with the view of intercepting the
traflSc from the coimtries on the north-east, and the railway com-
pany have agreed to construct it as part of their original imder-
taking.
The necessity for increased accommodation for ships trading to
Calcutta, and the dangers of navigating the Hooghly, led to the
formation, in 1857, of the Calcutta and South Eastern Eailway
Company, with the object of constructing a short line of 29 miles
from Calcutta in a south-easterly direction to the harbour and town
which it was contemplated to establish on the Mutlah estuary.
The whole railway was opened for traffic in March, 1862, with the
exception of the bridge over the Piallee, which was not finished till
a rather later date ; but it was not until the beginning of 1865 that
a company was formed to build the necessary jetties and wharves
required to make Canning Town a trading port.
The Great Southern of India Eailway Company was constituted
in 1857, its object being, as its name implies, to construct railways
in the Southern Provinces of India. The line at first sanctioned runs
due west from Negapatam on the east coast, by Tanjore, to
Trichinopoly, through a country extensively cultivated with rice
and cotton crops. Operations were commenced in May, 1859, and
the whole line of 79 miles was thrown open for traffic in March,
1862. An extension of 87 miles was subsequently authorised to
enable it to be taken through Caroor, and up the right bank of the
Cauvery, to join the Madras Railway at Errode.
The total length of lines open or in course of construction by the
eight Indian railway companies is 4,944 miles, of which 2,519 were
in working order on January 1, 1864. Between that date and
May 1, 1865, there came to be 667 miles completed, making
the total length open on May 1, 1865, 3,186 miles, a distance
which was increased to 3,332 miles by May 1, 1866. The net
profits in the year ending June 30, 1863, on 2,151 miles of rail-
way, amounted to 690,834/. ; and to 915,077/. in the year ending
June 30, 1864, on 2,489 miles. The number of passengers
conveyed in the latter year was 11,781,683, compared'w\\!cL^?L'^s^NS^
in the former. The total expenditure oi c«^\Xa\ ow ^^X^^^'s^ "^*^^^
were open, or in course of constrwctioii, «aio\3CD^^ <3ti. ^s^s?^ -»
670
ilnxtA.
1865, to 54,942,029Z. The expenditure in 1865 amounted to
rather more than 6,000,000/ about 1,800,000/. expended in Eng-
land, and 3,850,000/. in India. The total amount estimated to be
required for the undertakings, as now sanctioned, will reach
77,500,000/. The number of shareholders at the end of the year
1864 was 29,303 in England, and 777 in India, the latter number
consisting of 384 Europeans and 393 natives. There were also
6^453 debenture holders. Up to the end of 1864, the Government
had advanced 13,160,539/. to the railway oompanies for guaranteed
interest, but about 3,300,000/. had been paid back out of the earn-
ings of the railways, leaving naarly 10,000,000/. still due to the
Government. The charge upon the Government was 2,567,743/. in
the year 1864 ; but the receipts from traffic which went in dimi-
nution of this charge amounted to about 1,000,000/., and in 1865
reached 1,300,000/. It is calculated that year by year the revenues
will approach nearer to the amount of the guaranteed interest, so
that at last the Government will not only be relieved of the annual
payment altogether, but the railways will begin to earn more than
the guaranteed rate, and discharge their debt for previous advances
out of half the excess profits above 5 per cent. It is also expected
that, before many years are over, the whole of the lines will form a
complete network of railways, contributing greatly to the extension
of trade and the progress of civilisation in the vast Indian empire.
Koney, Weights, and Keasnres.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British
equivalents, are :-—
MONST.
The Mohitr of Bengal, average rate of exchange .
„ Mohur of Bombay „ „
„ Bupee of Bombay „ „
„ Bujpee of Madras of 15 Silver Rupees „ ,
„ Star Pagoda of Madras „ „
„ Madras or Company's Eujpee of 16 Annas or 192 Fice
„ Sicca Ru^pesi 16-15ths of Company's Rupee
6i
1:
2r
%
10:
Hi
Weights akd Mbasubes.
The Mawnd of Bengal, of 40 seers
„ „ Bombay .
„ „ Madras .
„ Candy, qf 20 maunds
„ Tola ....
„ Gue of Bengal
« 2.054 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 28 lbs-
= 25 lbs.
» 24.3 bushels.
« 180 gr.
671
JAPAN.
Ckmstitution and Ctovemment.
The system of government of the Japanese empire is as yet
but imperfectly known. The nominal head of the State is a
Spiritual Emperor called the * Mikado/ invisible to the people, and
considered of semi-divine origin. At his side stands a Temporal
Emperor, the * Ziogim,' or, as commonly called, the Tycoon, whose
office also is hereditary in his family, and who represents the cen-
tral executive. But neither the Mikado nor the Tycoon appear to
be possessed of general authority, extending over the whole State.
The actual government is vested in a number of feudal princes,
or *Daimios,' proprietors in their own right of a more or less
extensive territory, over which they exercise absolute sway. The
central authority is not only powerless as far as they are concerned,
but they claim the right even of removing the Tycoon and his
ministers.
Tycoon of Japan, — Mina Motto /., bom about 1845 ; obtained
the title of Daisiogoong, or * great commander of the army,' 1860.
The administration of the empire is carried on by two Councils of
State, the first, called the * Gorogio,' composed of five members, and
the second, the * Onwakadouchisri,* of seven members. Over the
first council, which more immediately represents the executive
authority, presides the ' Gotario,* or prime-minister, who occupies
the post of regent of Japan, in the event of the minority, or duiing
the temporary illness of the Tycoon. The * Gotario ' is elected by the
two Councils of State and the principal * Daimios * of the empire,
from among the latter class.
The following is a list of the chief feudal princes of the empire,
with their revenues and territorial possessions, taken from the
Japanese * Official Almanack : ' * —
* After Sir Rutherford Alcock's The Cajwtal 0/ tHc T^coon,\jKi\iStfs^^^^'^'
Vol IL, Appendix. D.
672
JAPAN.
NamM and titles of prtndpfti
Dolmioe
/
Prince of Kati^a, Maida
KiLga no Kiimi
Prince of Stttsoimm, Mats-
dsiiTfl Satsouma no Kami
Prince of Dwari, TokungOr
wa Owari dono
PriDce of Moot Gen or Xen-
(la'i, Mat*dAJmi Moulwn
no Kami, or X^rvdai
Princp df Kaiol^ Tokunga-
WR Kidono» OP Ksiou
Prince of Etzn, HusokftWft
Et£U no Kami
Prince of Hino» Matsdaira
Mi no no Kflmi
Prince of Aki* MAtadftiTft
Aki no Kami
Prince of DaiSien, Hfttsdji-
Tra D»i[«?ii no Thiou
Prince of Fben, MatsdaJira
PiBcnnoKami
Prince of Mito^ Tokungawa
M^ito Dono
Prine<t Ikamono, Ikamouo
Kami
Prince of Igo» Hatsdaira
Igo no Kaini
Prince of Itsumi, Todo It-
j^umi no Karai
W. nc^ of EfsifM^nt ^atedHirii
Ersiwn no Kami
Prince of Koum, Matstlaira
Koum no Kami
Prince of AwB, Mirtsd:ijra
Awft no Kami
Princ« of ToMt l^tfltadaim
TopanoKami
Prince Okoubo Kaga, Ok-
onW Haga no Kiimi
Prince of Ghemba, Arima
GhemW no Kami
Prin<!e of Okio, Satak^ OMo
no Til ion
Frince of Nnmbmi, Nam
boa Sicano no Kami
in kokOEit
of lice
1,202,700 769J28
760,800 486,912
629,500
626,000
iJ55,000
540,000
520,000
436,000
309,000
357,000
350,000
350,000
330,000
323,950
320,000
310,000
250,000
242,000
213,000
210,000
205,000
200,000
rounds
Loni flf thecaBt]f>q
andoitlea of
Kanasawa, Dais-
odgi, Koumatsou
KagoBima,* Sa-
dowara
Na^^sa, Inn
Yatnar
400,640 Siraifii, Xen<ki,
Taiia
402,8&0
355,200 Wakayama, Ta-
nnite, Sin go
t345,600 Koumamoto, Jat^
sosiro, Oudo
Foukookfl.
332,800
279,040
236,160
228,400
224,000
224,000
211,200
207.320
204,800
198,400
160,000
164,880
136,320
134,400
131,200
Ghirosima
Ycwflknni, To-
knjama, Ha*
gi-CIiio£>u
Sagtt
Mito
Ghikomi
Wakamatson
W^mo
Toukofii
Okajama
Soomoto, Tokm-
simA
TukiiUibi
Odawarm
Koorm^
Akita
128.0001 Morioka, HatcM-
\
8ituated Iti
tbe proTinoei
of
Ka^a and
Koto
f^ateouma
and Fouigo
Owari
Mouteen,
or Osbion
XendajL
Ki, or
KsioQ
Chigo 0^
Figo
TftikoudKen
Aid
Nagatoand
Soniio
Fizeu
FiiatB
05mi
Oshion
Mondjrtii
• Jtombapded by theBTit\8V.fte«tTma.« ^.i^^s^.^^^.-,*., ^^V^-V^A«A.
CONSTITtrriON AND GOTEBNMENT.
•673
Names and titles of principal
Daimios
Revenues
in kokous
of rice
Pornids
sterling
Lord of the castles
and cities of
Situated in
the provinces
of
Prince of Matsdaira Dewa
180,000
£
116,200
Madzi
Idzumo
no Kami
Prince of Matsdaira Kai no
150,000
96,000
Koriyama
Yamat .
Kami
Prince of Matsdaira Okino
150,000
96,000
Gusoo, Takou,
Igo or Iho
Kami
Matsyama
Okasawa Sakio no taiou
150,000
96,000
Kokoura
Boudzen
Okoudaira Daisen no
160,000
96,000
Nakatzou
Boudzen
taiou
Sakai Sayemon no dzio
150,000
96,000
Shouai
Dewa
Wiezougui Banio no
150,000
96,000
Igouesawa
Dewa
Daihitzou
Sakakibari Sikibou no
150,000
96,000
Takata
Etsigo
taiou
Prince of Goto, Sakai Goto
150,000
96,000
Ghimedgi
Harima
no Kami
Tachibana Sakou Siogen
120,000
76,800
Yanagawa
Chikongo
Prince of Awa, Kourousima
102,500
65,600
Takeda
Boungo
Awa no Kami
Prince of Simosa, Matsdaira
100,000
64,000
GsM
Mousachi
Simosa no Kami
Toda Guemenou no Zio
100,000
64,000
Ggaki
Mino
Prince of Sinano, Sanada
100,000
64,000
Matsiro
Sinano
Sinano no Kami
Prince of Igo, Abe Igo no
100,000
64,000
Sirakawa
Gshiou
Kami
Prince of Etjou, Tsougaro
100,000
64,000
Glii^romas6
Gshiou
Etjou no Kami
Prince of Wakasa, Sakai
100,000
64,000
Wakasa no Kami
Maaida Keenosk^
100,000
64,000
Togawa
Etjou .
Prince of Inaba, Matsdaira
100,000
64,000
Sikano Totori,
Inaba,
Inaba no Kami
Yonoka
Houki
Prince of Mikawa, Matsdiira
100,000
64,000
Tsouyama
Mimasakka
Mikawa no Kami
Prince of Isen, Ab6 Isen no
100,000
64,000
Tokouyama
Bingo
Kami
Prince of Totomi, Dat6 To-
100,000
64,000
Gwadzima
Igo
tomi no Kami
Prince of Tsousima, Tsou-
100,000
64,000
Foutchou
Tsousima
sima no Kami
Prince of Gueraeue, Tsouzya
95,000
60,800
Soutioura
Fitats
Gu^n^mi no Kami, or Sono
Matsdaira Gkionoske
82,000
52,480
Taka Saki6
Kodzouk^
Makino Ghiobouno Sono
80,000
51,200
Kasawa
Fitats
Matsdaira Hiobonou
80,000
51,200
Akaza
taiou
\
Prince of Gwi, Doi Gwi no
80,000
5A ,2.00 \ 'Io\ao>3\>LWii^
X^^xsiRk-aa.
Kami
I \
\
X
X
674
JAPAN.
KamoB and titles of principal ,?"SS
Pounds
sterling
Lord of the castles
Situated in
and cities of the provinces
of
Onoyima Daisen Nosk^
Prince of Yamasiro, Toda
Yamasiro no Kami
Nakagawa Siouri no
Taiou
Prince of Itsou, Matsdaira
Itsou no Kami
Prince of Bouzen, Makino
BoTizen no Kami
Matsdaira Yas no djo
Prince of Noto, Naito Noto
no Kami
Prince of Hoki, Matsdaira
Hoki no Kami
Kouss^ Yamato no Kami
Prince of Iki, Matsdaira Iki
no Kami
Prince of Itsoumi, Matsdaira
Itsoumi no Kami
Prince of Tonomo, Ishikawa
Tonomo no Kami
Prince of Kawatchi, Inoi6
Kawatsi no Kami
Prince of Ghiobou, Honda
Ghiobou no taibu
Prince of Tamba, Matsdaira
Tamba no Kami
Prince of Tajima, Akimoto
Tajima no Kami
Soma Daisen Nosk6
Prince of Soiio, Matsdaira
Soiio no Kami
Prince of Kasousa, Tosaoua
Kasousa Nosk6
Prince of Ki, Naito Ki no
Kami
Prince of Simosa, Owayama
Simosa no Kami
Matsdaira Oukon Schio-
gen
Prince of Satou, OgaSouara
Satou no Kami
Prince of Naizen, Okab6
Naizen no Kami
Prince of Bitzu, Yenaba
Bitzu no Kami
Prince of Souri, Hoa Szuri.
no TaiovL
78,000
78,000
70,400
70,000
70,000
70,000
70,000
70,000
68,000
61,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
60,000
59,000
56,000
£
49,920
49,920
45,040
44,800
44,800
44,800
44,800
44,800
43,520
39,040
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
38,400
37,760
35,840
V
Ghef
Outzounomia
Oka
Joshida
Nagaonaka
Simabara
Nobonoka
Myatsou
S6ki-yado
Firando
Nishiou
Kami-yamo
Hama-matson^
Djen-8h6
Matsmoto
Fatsi-Bajasi
Nakamoura
Tanagonra
Sin
Dewa
Monrakami
Etsigo
Sinoyama
Tamba
Hamada
Iwami
Karaou6
Fizen
Kishou Onada
Idzomni
Oz en Kin6
Bonngo
^\iY
Chiouga
Mino
Simodzouk^
Boungo
Mikawa
Etsigo
Fizen
Chiouga
Tango
Simosa
Firando
Mikawa
Isse or Idze
Totomi
Oomi
Sinano
Kodzouk^
Oshiou
Oshiou
\
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.
675
Names and titles of principal
Daimlos
Revenue
in kokous
of rice
Pounds
sterling
Lord of the castles
and cities of
Situated in
the provinces
of
Prince of Dewa, Mitsouo
50,000
£
32,000
Noumatzou
Sourouga
Dewa no Kami
Prince of Iga, Matsdaira Iga
60,000
32,000
Whou6da
Sinano
no Kami
Prince of Totomi, Makino
50,000
32,000
Koumoso
Sinano
Totomi no Kami
Prince of Sou, Hakoura Sou
50,000
32,000
Anaka
Kodzouke
no Kami
Prince of Awa, Akita Awa
50,000
32,000
Miharo
Oshiou
no Kami
Prince of Daiken, Midzouo
50,000
32,000
Yama-gata
Dewa
Da'iken Motzo, or Sakon-
siogen
Prince of Chinga, Arima
50,000
32,000
Maroka
Etzizen
Chinga no Kami
Prince of Fizen, Misogoudtzi
50,000
32,000
Sibata
Etsigo
Fizen no Kami
Prince of Ki, Matsdaira Ki
50,000
32,000
Kamiyama
Tamba
no Kami
Prince of Awatsi, Wakisaka
50,000
32,000
Tazouno
Harima
Awatsi no Kami
Prince of Soo, Hakoura Soo
50,000
32,000
Bitzou
no Kami
Prince of Nagato, Kisgotou
50,000
32,000
Marougame
Sanoki
Nagata no Kami
Prince of Kai, Kourouda
50,000
32,000
Akidzouki
Chikouzen
Ka'i no Kami
Honda nakats kasa no
50,000
32,000
Okasaki
Mikawa
taibu.
Prince of Bitzu, Ota Bitzu
50,000
32,000
Kakc^gawa
Totomi
no Kami
Prince of Totomi, Nagai
46,000
29,440
Kotching ^
Totomi no Kami
Setsou
Matsdaira Totomi no
40,000
25,600
Amagasaki
Kami
Prince of Bouzen, Honda
40,000
25,600
Tanaka
Sourouga
Bouzen no Kami
Prince of Uoto, Doi Uoto
40,000
25,600
Oue
Etsisen
no Kami
Prince of Oki, Nishono Oki
35,000
22,400
Totooka
Totomi
no Kami
Prince of Kawatchi, Makino
35,000
22,400
Tanab6
Tango
Kawatchi no Kami
Prince of Souragano, Mats-
35,000
22,400
Iwadzi
Igo
daira Souragano Kami
Prince of Higo, Nagai Higo
32,000
20,480
Kano
."Sfiiaa
no Kami
\
Prince of Omi, Xontchidi
32,000
20,4B0 \ T?o\ikau^'^«ni^'^^^a^^
\^
\
xx2
676
JAPAN.
/
Names and titles of principal
Daimios
Revenues
in kokous
of rice
Pounds
sterling
Lord of the castles
and cities of
Situated in
the provinces
of
Prince of Setsou, Inagaki
30,000
£
19,200
Toba
Xima
Setsou no Kami
Matsdaira Setson no
30,000
19,200
Takatzou
Mine
Kami
Prince of Noto, Matsdaira
30,000
19,200
louamoura
Mino
Nolo no Kami
Prince of Sona, Sona Jnaba
30,000
19,200
Takasima
Sinano
no Kami
Prince of Tosi, Tosi Tam-
30,000
19,200
Miboa 1
bano Kami
^
Simodzouk^
Prince of Okoubo, Okoubo
30,000
19,200
Krani Yama J
Sado no Kami
Prince of Itakoura, Itakoura
30,000
19,200
Toukousima
Osliiou
Uaigeu no Sono
Prince of Nakaskasa, Mats-
30,000
19,200
Kami Yama
Dewa
daira Nakaskasa no Sono
Prince of Hori, Hori Tam-
30,000
19,200
Mouramatsou
Etsigo
bano Kami
Prince of Saki, Matadaira
30,000
19.200
Saidzio
Igo
Sakio no Taiou
Prince of Akidzouki, Akid-
27,000
17,810
Saifou
Choidga
zouki Sado no Kami
Omoura Tanga no Kami
25,000
16,000
Omoura
Fizen
26,000
16,000
Sliid6
Bonngo
Kami
Matsdaira Sayemon no
dj6
Prince of Oumoura, Onm-
26,000
16,000
FoTimay^
Boungo
25,000
16,800
Takatori
Yamato
oura Dewa no Kami
Prince of Nickawa, Mioura
23,000
14,720
Katzou-Yama
Mimasakka
Bingo no Kami
Prince of Naito, Naito
23,000
14,720
Takato
Sinano
Sourouga no Kami
Prince of Ooka, Ooka Sizen
22,000
lonaski
Morashi
no Kami
Prince of Mionak^, Mionak^
20,000
12,800
Taouara
Mikawa
Tosan no Kami
Prince of Moari, Moari Awa
20,000
12,800
Sa6ki
Boungo
no Kami
Prince of Mori, Mori Etsou
20,000
12,800
Ak6o
Harima
no Kami
Prince of Zengokou, Zengo-
20,000
12,800
Desi
Tadsima
kou Sanoki no Kami
Prince of Ghoinga, Mats-
20,000
12,800
Itowogawa
Etsigo
daira Ghoinga no Kami
Prince of Kokougio, Roko-
20,000
12,800
Honngoio
Dewa
ugio Shiogo no Kami
:
Prince of Sakai, Sakai Sima
BO Kami
\ %S,^^^
\ VL,^^
V^\K5^^\a.
KodzoukA
\ \
coNSTrrnriON and gotesnuent.
677
Names and titles of principal
Daimios
Bcvennes
in kokons
of rice
Ponnds
sterling
Lord of the castles
and cities of
Situated in
the provinces
of
Prince of Honda, Honda
20,000
12,800
Hie Yama
Sinano
Bongo no Kami
Prince of Omi, Ichikaotia
20,000
12,800
Simodate
Fitats
Omi no Kami
Prince of Tamba, Naito
20,000
12,800
Kolomo
Mikawa
Tamba no Kami
Prince of Kawatsi, Mads-
20,000
12,800
Nagasima
Idz6
yama Kawatsi no Kami
Prince of Shinga, Midzouno
18,000
11,520
Youki
Simosa
Shinga no Kami
Prince of Hiogo, Hon
17,000
10,880
Jeda
Hiogo no Kami
Prince of Samouki, Mats-
12,000
7,680
Takamatzo
Sanonki
daira Samouki no Kami
Prince of Shieda, Otawara
11,000
7,040
Otaoura
Simozouk^
Shieda no Kami
Prince of Bittjon, Hota
11,000
7,040
Sakoxira
Simosa
Bittjou no Kami
Prince of Etjou, Matsdaira
11,000
7,040
Konano
Idz6
Etjou no Kami
Prince of Sakio, Noiona
10,000
6,400
Nihou-Matz
Oshiou
Sakio no Taiou
Hitotsou Yanagh6 Nio-
10,000
6,400
Komadzou
Igo
bonoskA
Godjima Saijemmo no
12,000
7,680
Fnkar
Fizen
Djo
Prince of Kawatchi, Mats-
22,000
14,080
Kidziki
Boungo
daira Kawatchi no Kami
Shto Sayemmo no Dsio
22,000
14,080
Fkoni
Fizen
Prince of Simano, Sagara
22,000
14,080
Nagasa
Igo
Simano Kami
Prince of Oki, Kame Oki no
30,000
19,200
Tsonano
Iwami
Each of the great territorial magnates above enumerated is
absolute lord within his own territory, and has power of life and
death over all his subjects and dependents. Certain districts only
are under the immediate control of the central Grovemment, and
their revenues are assigned to the maintenance of the first dignitaries
of the State, the Mikado and the Tycoon. Besides their landed
influence, the power of the Daimios is secured by their command of
more or less considerable bodies of troops, consisting of their servants
and retainers, to which most of them have added in recent years,
small steam navies. According to a report of the Bt^^ ^licsoso^. -a^
Nagasaki, there were imported into 3ai^xi Vn x!ti^ ow^ -^^ax ^*^5^
twelve armed vessels, mostly iron screw cfteam^ox^ XJti^ ^^^sJj. ^1 N^^K^ssiVk
678
JAPAN.
with all particulars of origin, size, price, &c., is given in the follow-
ing table : —
Name and nationality
ofvesael
It
Where built
Price of
vessel in
Mexican
dollars
Name of purchaser
British.
Kin Lin .
Sir Harry Parkes
Union
Pembroke .
Ayrshire Lass .
Gerard
Elgin
270
641
204
243
67
410
396
4
6
8
3
2
4
6
Lanarkshire .
Sunderland .
Rotherhithe .
Boston, U.S. .
Dumbarton .
Ditto .
Birkenhead .
100,000
112,000
60,000
26,000
26,000
80,000
126,000
Prince of Satsouma
Prince of Kanga
Prince of Satsouma
Prince of Satsouma
Prince of Mino
Prince of Satsouma
Prince of Mino
Amemcan.
Star .
Huntress .
Matthew Luce .
260
383
306
2
4
2
U. S. A.
Ditto .
Ditto .
12,600
19,000
36,000
Prince of Kanga
Prince of Satsouma
The*Ziogun'
Prussian.
Berlin
207
2
New York .
11,000
Prince of Etsisai
Dutch.
Viola
Total .
684
6
British built .
96,000
Prince of Satsouma'
3,960
49
699,600
Although little is known of the forms of Government in Japan,
there seems no doubt that all political power is in the hands of the
Daimios, who form a feudal aristocracy not dissimilar to that of
Europe in the early Middle Ages.
Army and Fopnlation.
The armed force of Japan is composed of two distinct elements :—
1. The troops maintained by the Daimios, and destined for the de-
fence of their domains. 2. The troops kept by the Tycoon, and
constituting the imperial army. The number of Daimios who have
troops in their service amounts to 200, and they together keep up an
effective of 370,000 infantry, and 40,000 cavalry, forming the Federal
army, and placed at the orders of the Tycoon when the independence
of the country is threatened. The imperial army, kept up by the
Tycoon himself^ reaches the nominal figure of 100,000 inflmtry and
20f000 cavalry, but its aictevi«\ fct^ ici^ \ia\. ^-slc^^ half of that
amount. The preaent l^cooii T^ot^xjMft^ xJaa ^ot^ \sjl Y^VSsI^.
ABMT AND POPULATION. 679
Henceforth it will comprise 80,000 men, infantry, cavabj, artillery,
and engineers. The infantry is formed into regiments, manoeuvring
like the French soldiers, and armed on the same model. A number
of Japanese officers and sub-officers were instructed by French mili-
tary men at Yokohama in 1866.
The total area of Japan is estimated at 156,604 square miles,
with a population of 35,000,000, or 229 per square mile.
The number of foreigners settled in Japan is as yet very small.
At the end of the year 1862, the foreign community at Kanagawa,
the principal of the three ports of Japan open to aliens, consisted of
fifty-five natives of Great Britain; thirty-eight Americans; twenty
Dutch ; eleven French ; and two Portuguese ; and in the latter
part of 1864 the permanent foreign residents at Kanagawa had
increased to 300, not counting soldiers, of which number 140 were
British subjects, and about 80 Americans and 40 Dutch. At
Nagasaki, the second port of Japan thrown open to foreign trade
by the Government, the number of alien settlers was as follows on
the 1st of January, 1866 : —
British subjectB .
. 70
Portuguese
,
. 3
American citizens
. 32
Swiss
, ,
. 2
Dutch
. 26
Prussian
. 19
Total
. 166
French
. 14
A third port opened to European and American traders, that of
Hakodadi, in the north of Japan, was deserted, after a lengthened
trial, by nearly all the foreign merchants settled there, it having
been found impossible to establish any satisfactory intercourse with
the natives. Hakodadi is situated on an island, where there is little
or no cultivation, separated firom the continent of Niphon by the
Sangar Straits. No Japanese can enter Hakodadi, or have com-
mercial intercourse with any foreigner, without permission firom the
oflicials, who claim a large percentage on the business transacted.
There is an edict of 1637 still in force in the whole of Japan, which
makes it a capital offence for natives to travel into other countries.
Japanese seamen, even when accidentally cast on foreign shores, are
on their return subjected to a rigorous examination, and sometimes
imprisonment, to purify them firom the supposed pollution contracted
abroad. The laws of Japan are severe, vindictive, and sanguinary.
Fines are seldom imposed ; banishment to the mines, imprisonment,
torture, death by decapitation, poison, and impaling on a cross, are
the ordinary penalties of crime, the shades of which are little dl&tixi.-
guished. It firequently happens, also, that XJaa Q.wjii\.^ V\ssJi» ^\Jia.
punishment not only the delinquents t\iexnae\\^ft,\^>x\.NkNe« x^vaJ6:ss^^
jand dependents, and even strangers Y?l[ioYiaveac«\^€0^a^^^^'^^'^'"^
68o
JAPAN.
tators of their crimes. The prisons are gloomy and horrid abodes,
containing places for torture and private executions, besides numerous
cells for solitary confinement.
The Japanese police is extremely strict in the maintenance of
order, and the punishment of delinquents. It is also charged with
the registration of births, deaths, and marriages.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Japan with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of the total
imports irom Japan into the United Kingdom, and of the total ex-
ports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to Japan in
each of the five years 1861 to 1865 : —
Tears
Imports from Japan into
the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Japan
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
£
538,687
591,886
1,283,631
1,423,819
614,743
£
43,100
21
108,897
627,383
1,620,895
The trade of Japan with foreign countries showed an immense ex-
pansion in the year 1865. The total imports brought to Japail by
British vessels rose fi*om 5,693,647 Mexican dollars in 1864 to
11,560,509 dollars in 1865, and the imports in other vessels from
1,157,640 to 2,634,262 dollars. The exports in British vessels rose
from 9,941,404 dollars in 1864 to 16,186,823 dollars in 1865, and
the exports in other foreign vessels from 630,818 to 2,303,407 dol-
lars. But the increase in the value of the exports from Japan was
owing chiefly to the enormous rise in the price of Japanese silk ; the
quantity shipped in 1865 was rather less than in 1863, although
costing nearly a trebled price. The tea trade was checked by tibe
imperfect preparation of the leaf in Japan, and the quality seems
more suited to the American than the English market. * Those who
have most narrowly watched the progress of foreign intercourse with
Japan,' writes the British Consul at Kanagawa, under date of March,
1864, * have long suspected that much of the antagonism to foreign
countries, attributed by the Tycoon to the semi-independent Princes,
was fictitious rather thaii real \ that foreign trade as between the
two parties was a struggle — oil ^k^l-^coo^^^Afc \r» ^-^^xv the door
leading to the outex vroxld, oi ^\iv3tx V^^^ \\xs2«:?5 vsossvM^^Nai^ssa.
TRADE AND GOMMEBCE.
68 1
representative capacity, according to the traditions and established
institutions of Japan, to possess the key, at the highest price — on the
side of the Daimios, to get cheaply through the carrier, and part
with as little as possible of their profits. The statements of Satsou-
nia's agents, as well as other facts which have cropped up incidentally,
leave no doubt that such is the true state of affairs.'
The quantities and value of the imports fi^m Japan into the
United Kingdom, in the year 1864, were as follows : —
Imports from Japan into the United Kingdom
Qnantities
Value
CwU.
Tuns
Cotton, raw
Galls
Japanned or lacquered ware .
Oil, train or blubber
,, seed ••>■••«„
Hags and other materials for making paper Tons
Silk, raw Lbs.
„ waste, knubs or husks . . . Cwts,
Soy Gallons
Tea . . . . • . . ,Lbs.
Tin . CwU.
Tobacco, unmanufactured .... Lhs.
"Wax, Tegetable Cwts.
All other articles Value
Total . • . . .
83,967
1,804
172
169
102
43
428,474
363
300
2,434,180
2,271
1,696,968
3,841
696,316
6,778
2,968
7,247
4,341
679
467,668
4,823
16
169,307
12,129
38,891
12,172
11,695
1,423,819
The quantities and value of exports of British and Irish produce
and manufactures from the United Kingdom to Japan, in the year
1864, were as follows : —
Exports of British Home Produce to Jax)an
Apparel and haberdashery
Beer and ale .
Cotton yam
Cottons, entered by the yard
Iron, wrought and unwrought
Lead and shot .
Linens, entered by the yard
Machinery and nuUwork .
Perfumery
Soap ....
Spirits, British .
Tin plates
Woollens, entered by the yard
All other articles
Total
Value
Barrels
Us.
Yards
Tons
Yards
Valtte
tt
Cwts.
Gallons
Value
Yards
ValvA
Quantities
Value
£
—
3,136
1,463
6,846
46,810
6,966
6,232,348
187,762
2,006
17,617
834
18,338
26,724
1,342
—
3,922
—
166
1,026
1,281
6,174
665
—
21,641
4,097,819
306,807
\ ^%55v^^
V^
^^n?»s^
682 JAPAN.
The internal trade of Japan is very extensive, and a variety of
regulations are in force, the object of which is to protect and en-
courage home industry. The prices of goods are not enhanced by
imposts of any kind ; and communication between the great markets
and all parts of the empire is facilitated by numerous coasting
vessels and well -maintained roads. Foreign commerce, however, so
far from being encouraged, is vigorously opposed by the Government.
Nevertheless, by the treaties made with several European Govern-
ments— with Russia in October 1857, and with Great Britain, France,
and the United States, in July and August 1858 — the three Japanese
ports of Nagasaki, Kanagawa, and Hakodadi were thrown open to
foreign commerce.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in common use at the three
open ports of Japafi, and the British equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mexican Dollar, average rate of exchange . . 4:8. 6d.
WEIOHt.
The PiciU — 130 lbs. avoirdupois.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.
1. Official Publications.
Commercial Keports firom H.M.'s Consuls in China and Japan. 1 864. 8.
London, 1865.
Commercial Eeports from H.M.*s Consuls in China and Japan. 1865. 8.
London, 1866.
Reports by Mr. Consul Vyse and Mjr. Consul Winchester on the Trade of
Hakodadi and Kanagawa ; in * Commercial Reports received at the Foreign
Office.* 8. London, 1865.
Reports by Messrs. Fisher, Rice, and Walsh, United States' Consuls at
Kanagawa, Hakodadi, and Nagasaki, on. the trade and commerce of Japan ; in
* Annual Report on Foreign Commerce.' . 8. Washington, 1865.
2. Non-Official Publications.
AhocJc (Sir Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a narrative of a three
years' residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1863.
ComwaUia (Kinahan), Two Joumeys to Japan, 1856-57. 8. London, 1859.
Fraissinet (Ed.), Le Japon, histoire- et description,- moeurs, coutumes eu
religion, Nouvelle Edition, axigmeuVfee ^^ \.wv^ j^-a.yx.t^'e, \\si\3:?i^\»3x, rapports et
trsdt^B avec les Europ^ens. ^ voVb. l^i. ^kcva,^^^^*
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 683
Hdne fW.), Eeise um die Erde nach Japan. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
HUdreth (K.), Japan as It Was and Is. 8. London, 1856.
Leupe (P. A.), Keise van Maarten Gerritz-Uries in 1643 naar het Noorden en
Oosten van Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.
ZttAffo?/ ( J. A.), Acht Monate in Japan. 8. Bremen, 1857.
Oshom (Capt. S.), A Cruise in Japanese Waters. 8. London, 1859.
Spiess (Gust.), Die Preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wahrend der Jahre
1860-62. Keise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der Indischen Inselwelt.
8. Berlin, 1865.
Titsingh (M.), M^moires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie R^gnante des
Djogoungs, souverains du Japon. Public par A. Remusat. 8. Paris, 1820.
Wvllerstorf' Urbair (Baron von)^ Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara
um die Erde, in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859, unter den Befehlen des Commo-
dore B. V. Wiillerstorf- Urbair. Beschreibender Theil von Dr. Karl v. Scherzer.
2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.
684
JAVA-
Constitution and Oovemment.
Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Nether-
lands, is governed in an absolute manner, imder a system established
by General Van den Bosch, in 1832, and known as the * culture
system.' It is based in principle on the forced labour of the natives,
which is directed to produce not only a sufficiency of food for them-
selves, but the largest possible quantity of colonial produce best
suited for the European market. To carry out the * culture system,*
there exists a complicate bureaucratic administration, the functions
of which descend into the minutest details of public and piivate life.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura —
is divided into twenty-four provinces, or residencies, each governed
by a Resident, who has under him an Assistant-Resident and a
number of inspectors, called Controleurs. All these functionaries
must be citizens of the Netherlands, and the higher class must have
gone through an examination at the college of Delft, near Rotterdam.
The Resident and his assistants exercise absolute control over the
province in their charge; not, however, directly, but by means of a
vast hierarchy of native officials, who receive either salaries or per-
centages on the amount of produce cultivated by the natives. The
latter are controlled by these means in all their actions, and incited
to labour ; and the better to ensure such control, a register is kept
by the Resident, of the number of people in each village, with the
names and condition of each, and the minutest particulars affecting
their character and occupation. No person is allowed to move from
one place to another without a passport, and no occupation of any
kind can be engaged in without the permission of the authorities.
There is a regular and unceasing personal intercourse between the
native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the immediate agents of
the Resident.
The superior administration of Java, and executive, is in the
hands of a Governor-General, who is at the same time governor of
all the Netherland possessions in the East Indies. He is assisted by
a Council of five members, who, however, have no share in the
executive, and can act only aa a. Couxt of Advice.
Governor' General of Java. — •'fta£OTi\i» K, ^,^ . ^\o«*. laaiv dw
IffiVEKUE AND EXPENDlTttBE.
68s
Beele, appointed Governor- General of Java and Netherlands' India,
June 10, 1861.
The Governor-General represents the legislative as well as execu-
tive-power of Government. He has the right of passing laws and
regulations for the administration of the colony, which remain in
force until allowed or disallowed by the legislature of the mother
country. He is also commander-in-chief of the army and navy
stationed in the Netherlands' possessions. But he is bound to adhere
to the constitutional principles on which Java and its dependencies
are governed, and which are laid down in the * Regulations for the
Government of Netherlands' India,' passed by the King and States
General of the mother country in 1854.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
Java produces, for the benefit of the Netherlands, a large surplus
revenue, after paying for its own government. The local revenue
is derived from taxes on houses and estates, from licenses, customs
duties, personal imports, the income of crown lands, the Government
monopolies of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But
the chief portion of the large profits derived by the home Government
from Java is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amoimt of
colonial produce, grown under the * culture system,' and disposed of
in Europe at a price far above that of the cost of production. The
goods are brought into the European market through the medium of
the * Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij,' or Netherlands Trading
Company, acting as Government brokers.
The subjoined tabular statement gives the total revenue and
expenditure of the colony during the forty years 1821 to 1860. The
profits derived from the introduction of the * culture system ' may
be ascertained by a glance at the last column, which shows the
deficits — with occasional surplus — previous to 1834, and the subse-
quent balances in favour of the mother country : —
Years
Eevenue
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficat
1821
1,981,814
£
1,892,385
£
89,429 surplus
1822
2,163,652
2,249,823
86,271 deficit
1823
2,301,453
2,181,898
119,565 surplus
1824
2,437,122
2,378,768
68,364
1825
1,967,782
2,666,105
697,323 deficit
1826
1,686,187
1,720,807
35,620
1827
1,727,942
1;914,715
186,773
1828
1,857,975
1,869,606
1,631
1829
1,774,146
2,062,883
I a-^%a'^'\
1830
2,214,420
i,40b,1%^
\ \^\,*y$>^\
1831 j
2,228,165
\ lyZI^.^^Z
\ ^^,11'^
686
JAVA.
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus or deficit
1832
£
2,293,448
£
2,435,517
£
142,069
1833
2,637,482
2,749,761
212,279
1834
3,640,662
2.694,465
946,097 surplus
1835
4,169,784
3,468,652
701,132
1836
4,957,138
3,717,174
1,239,964
1837
5,620,623
4,104,577
1,515,946
1838
6,275,020
4,154,881
2,120,139
1839
6,854,989
4,600,198
2,264,791
1840
7,825,915
4,302,386
3,523,529
1841
7,778,264
4,279.466
3,498,798
1842
6,751,774
5,480,907
1,270,867
1843
6,609,438
5,472,201
1,137,237
1844
6,791,186
5.283,686
1,607,600
1846
6,880,002
4,950,069
1,929,933
1846
6,557,409
4,961,236
1,696,173
1847
6,128,641
5,021,031
1,107.510
1848
6,262,117
4,709,693
552,624
1849
6,392,891
4.482.664
1,910,337
1850
6,106,374
4,790,489
1,316,885
1851
6,195,140
4,900,769
1,294,371
1852
6,773,022
4,764,481
2,018,541
1853
7,261,762
4,781,431
2,480,331
1864
7,033,167
6,107.046
1,926,122
1866
7,513,869
5.277.456
2,236,414
1866
8,577,462
5,415,547
3,161,915
1867
9,686,382
6,804,054
3,782,328
1868
9,369,771
6,619,278
3,760,493
1859
9,271,343
6,730,203
3,641,140
1860
9,687,92^
6,963,711
3,734,214
To the sum total of the revenue here enumerated, the direct
receipts from all sources obtained in Java contributed only about
one-third, and the remaining two-thirds were obtained in the Nether-
lands from the sale of colonial produce. The most important part
of the direct revenue of Java is that derived from customs duties
and shipping dues, the produce of which, in each of the years
1861-63, was as follows :—
Customs duties and shipping dues
1861
1862
1863
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Duties: Import .
• •
7,038,800
6,383,675
5.780,569
Export .
3,291,187
3,166,566
3,116,715
Dues: Bonding .
80,847
109,430
56,031
Shipping .
4,413
3,361
6,363
Weighing
50,688
44,763
40,911
"Warehouse rent .
141,841
197,042
223,564
Excise duty on tobacco
87.514
82,504
94,258
Additional 6 per cent. .
521,994
482,663
452,988
Total . . .
roroiiaHi
4\\,^Vl ^^I'^'t yiA<5a,^^«s. \l.*l1<\>aM
•V
;
&V '^^\ai'^\ '^l^^^^X ^\«^w;i\
ARMY AND NAVY. 687
The direct revenue of Java has, even since the introduction of the
* culture system,' never been sufficient to meet the expenditure of
the government of the colony.
Army and Navy.
The peculiar ^stem of government of Java necessitates a com-
paratively large army, numbering, on the average, about 30,000
rank and file, commanded by 1,200 commissioned and non-com-
missioned officers. More than one-half of the troops are natives,
and the rest Europeans of all countries, the whole of them recruited
by voluntary enlistment. No portion of the regular army of the
Netherlands is allowed to be sent on colonial service ; but individual
soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by the permission of their com-
manding officers, and they form the nucleus of the garrison of Java.
The native and European soldiers are not divided into separate corps,
but mixed together in the same battalions. The artillery is composed
of European gimners, with native riders, while the cavalry are chiefly
Europeans.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in
Java, is divided into field and garrison battalions. In the former
there is a greater proportion of Europeans than in the latter. Each
company is composed separately either of Europeans or of natives,
but the European and native companies are mixed in the same
battalion, in the proportion of one-third to two-thirds. Each bat-
talion is composed of six companies, the two flank companies con-
sisting of European soldiers, and the four centre companies of natives.
The European companies often contain * half-castes,' negroes, and
Christianised natives of India, all on a footing of perfect equality,
except that of military rank. The native companies are composed
of the different Mahometan and heathen tribes of Netherlands' India,
mixed together so as not to allow of any great preponderance of race
or religion. The whole of the commissioned officers are Europeans,
and in each of the companies composed of natives, at least one-half
of the non-commissioned officers must also be Europeans. The
greater number of the soldiers, both Europeans and natives, are
married, and are allowed to be always accompanied by their families,
except when on active service in the field. Every man, when not
actually quartered in a town, has a small plot of land which he may
cultivate, and on which his family may live. Schools, both tor
adults and children, are attached to every battalion.
Unlike the Java army, which is purely colonial, the fleet of war
in Netherlands' India forms a part of the royal navy, and ita.^xz'^'svNSfcs*
are borne partly by the mother country and. "^aiVN^ \s^ ^^ ^0^<3«^ «
The fleet conmstedy in ^e summer of l^^t>, oi \7wo «gx«^ ^ccv^^^^^s
three corvettes, and twenty-five smaller steamers.
(jH9 mva.
ArM tnd FopttUtiiML
'H»^ Mfft* //f JttVtt, U$f',\wiUnf MtuUtrHf titfthrfU'M f/f^^^ K^*;^^
mhm lUtj y^Tur \H\i*tf ^Um Um? \WiUn.U ifnit^tnu^ui^ntiA^r f^ u^i*i^^fi$rj
ir/^/ ! I ^ : - I — I //.i//:;^;**
WAt^t i ; - I ^' ; 7,V;fJi«^t
\%\rt I — I V/v;5//;jfc;
i>if/4 MAM . Wf.*4i't 'Al.lM ihJtiJZi |'^2V///i^
tHhi \HM\ i iy<*/^/Oc nw^ 1 \^A*tiMiH io//*;^y/
\tm tfttiUfthUntf \rt$i Uiir rmi ht^ Um; ft^nh uif ttHS'mihi m$Hu$ttfH.iJu^»,
H\itv*-t'yf 1^$ t'M\W\^ WM tt>wJU>»wl U$ 4ttvft \/y h Ihw yifUi^n v/*
i'jti/my^ iiff **fUiU off w\t^fi$$f wlihrtti r^yuM Ut t^/t or mZf u^
'0*^ ^n'HU^f \fnri (ft i\m wn\ tff /l^y* U i'.Wm$M tm ittf^tc^r$$m^
\mi\tiitiy^ mA 'a Uouly m i>M» ft^MuU't^t^m m t\m t$^/riU-wtj$ti4rrf$ fMi^
i4 tittiti i\mi iUttfti Mf*? \/r\itiU*. ^-MUifU^a, *'\M\y o^wit^A i/y t$f$i'f^*» *h
w^iUftt H4 ftif/i^iuHurfii U^Mfnrtitn, lit** iHtt^iUfMa^ w^m^^m^ «m<W
iHfit(ruu^m$% hf i/ftvttUt lfiwhfWt$*t$tt^ tfuitnt^M turn t\hy\ ifffUniu/hM w^k
t/Hi*fi ti^mt from /i^M U^; Mffmr^^ti^ tm iMr mitMltmf mt^i iit^ty m»f
\,i^itUm trfiihM Uf «Mi Uiits'h work m i\t^^ tiUf^mt^ Ut ^'hiUHf «ft^ ^
t^fU ((^/ttftHUfft of \ffiyUfUl ''*'''' ff*^f^ ^*^' wk//t^H fff iim ti\m.fvt, (h^sd
\Mf¥f^'f 'm fir^M 'm Hm? iit^uU^^t, mA ^M« VAiro\f*miMttit$ft^\'^0ii4/liiicim
iff mt(f/r*i*s M mru'X ttfit$Mr*>itm U* h\\ i\^ Im^^k rt^nU^mif^ U$\tfmf^
^i'iiM wltfAi* \fffjrttUii^fit *ff 4H¥ii in U*i/!ftHy 4i¥i4M iuu^ V^urf^fiMtm
thads and comhbrce.
689
native population, being theoretically aawmilated with Europeans, and
all hoathenH and Maliometantt being claaited with natives. The former
are generally under the laws of the dominant race, and the latter
under the more stringent rules enacted for the government of the
tribes held in subjection. The division of the whole population into
two classes is a i\mdamental pinciple in the policy of the admi-
nistration, and enacted in the code specifying tlie hmits and con-
ditions for future legislation in Netherlands* India. It is thereby
withdmwn fVom the competence of the Governor-General and all
other local legislative powers, and entirely preserved from alteration,
oxoe])t by the paramount legislative authority of Uie King and States
General of the Netherlands.
Trade and Comxneroe.
Almost the enUre trade of Java is witli the Netherlands, and there
is com{mratively little oommorciul intercourse with otlier countries.
The subjoined table gives the total value of merchandise and
specie imported and exporttnl at tlie Islands of Java and Madurai in
each of the years 18G1, 1802, and 1863:—
Yuan
ImiHirti of
nuoruhttuiUiie
ToUl ImporU
InuluUlui; Hpeolt*
KxporUof
mttrulifutaiM
ToUU tacxpurta
luoludlng upeoltt
1861 . I^"^^**"*
1862. 1^^^^*^"*
1863. |Q«"^»^"*
45,203,245
8,766,937
44.349,193
8,695,766
41,783,983
3,481,998
46,806,060
3,900,506
46,243,633
3,853,636
45.239,213
3.769,934
45,695.784
3,807,982
43,077,737
3,589,811
42.815.396
3,567,949
52,998,583
4,416,548
51,970.233
4.330,853
50,847.439
4,237,286
The imports came ft^m the following countries in the year 1862 :—
Impurtu from
NcthorUiuls
Ortttt Uritain
FrHiu'o .
8w(Hleu .
KuhhU .
Deumark
Httiuburg
Mauritius
Amt^rica .
AtVica .
Cape of Good Hope
Benual aud Co^lou
Oulf of Pawia
M«rohfuidlMe
(hilUlton
21.166.740
8,439,063
669,242
101,293
262
10
136,474
30
179,771
154
72.522
190,954
l\4,9\f>
8))eole
UulUltini
375,562
Totttl
\ -
\
(lulUlera
21,542,302
8,439.063
669,242
101,293
262
10
136,474
30
179,771
154
72,522
i\
690
f JAVA.
Imports &c. — continued.
ImiMitB from
Merchandise
Specie
Total
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Manilla
91,968
-~
91,963
China and Macao .
1,442,653
—
1,442,653
Siam
468,973
-«.
468,973
Japan
74,639
32,016
106,664
Australia «...
403,557
—
403,657
Eastern Archipelago
Total. .{Gnilde»
10,806,947
1,486,863
12,292,810
44,349,193
1,894,440
46,243,633
3,695,766
167,870
3,863,636
The exports went to the following countries in 1862 : —
Exports to
Merchandise
Specie
Total
Guilders
Guilders
anilders
Netherlands ....
29,183,161
8,600
29,191,661
Great Britain .
456,321
—
456,321
France .
1,844,282
—
1,844,282
Sweden .
—
—
Hamburg
—
—
__
Bremen . •
3,198
—
3,198
America .
295,060
—
295,060
Bengal and Ceylon .
—
—
Gulf of Persia
1,110,658
—
1,110,668
China and Macao
386,506
877,600
1,263,106
Siam
134,031
—
134,081
Japan .
174,694
—
174,694
Australia
939,601
—
939,601
Eastern Archipelago
8,661,325
8,006,396
16,557,721
Total. .J<>^^e"
43,077,737
8,892,496
51,970,238
3,589,811
741,041
4,330,853
The imports into Java from the United Kingdom appear to be on
the decrease, having sunk from 11,132,411 guilders in 1861 to
7,333,774 florins in 1863. The exports from Java to the United
Kingdom, on the other hand, are slightly, on the increase. The
value of the exports given in the above ojfficial tables is much
below the European market prtce, and those to the Netherlands
scarcely represent the profits made on the sale of Java produce by
the * Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij.'
The subjoined table shows the principal and other articles exported
from Java, both to liie Netherlands and Great Britain, in the year
1862:^
TRADE AND COMMERCE.
691
Eicports of Java
TotheNetber-
lands
To Great Britain
Total
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Arrack . . . ...
322,833
6,060
501,004
Cochineal
7,799
—
7,799
Provisions
22,639
—
280,781
Caoutchouc ,
622,267
34,978
741,821
Resin
137,710
6,375
161,760
Hides, cow and buffalo ,
834,025
6,251
929,021
Indigo . . . -
1,391,118
_
1,561,241
Cinnamon
—
—
1,056
CoflFee .
4,463,350
2,660
5,961,454
Copper wares .
54
.^
1,002,438
Linen goods .
740
—
567,921
Oil.
30
—
175,898
Pepper .
191,650
8,620
354,271
Rattans .
348,473
4,430
415,715
Rice ....
950,225
153,730
3,603,020
Cloves .
—
771
Nutmegs
8,642
81,375
98,864
Sugar, white .
18,213,696
138,339
20.840,845
„ brown .
—
—
5,911
Tobacco .
1,161,072
1,808,200
Tea . . .
17,810
—
17,856
Tin
180,200
688
350,662
Birds' nests (edible)
—
—
147,134
Salt . . .
—
—
26,077
Total of principal and r Guilders
other articles . . t £
29,064,972
456,121
40,307,716
2,422,081
38,010
3,368,976
The whole of the experts to the Netherlands are carried bj, and the
property of, the * Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij.' This trading
society was established at Amsterdam in 1824, with a capital of
87,000,000 guilders, or upwards of three millions sterling, but which
was subsequently reduced to 24,000,000 guilders, or 2,000,000Z.
The King of the Netherlands, William I., was one of the principal
shareholders, and to create confidence in the company, he promised
a guarantee of 4^ per cent per annum to his aasooiates. His Majesty
had to pay this interest from his own purse up to the year 1832,
when the introduction of the 'culture system' in Java laid the
foundation for the prosperity of the company, which has since been
uninterrupted. The capital to start and work the * culture system '
was advanced by the * Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij,* on an
interest of 4^ per cent, guaranteed by the State ; and the company,
at the same time, was appointed sole agent in buying and importing
into Java all Government supplies, and in exporting all produce and
selling it in Europe.
692 JAVA.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Java, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Guilder, or Guiden = U. Sd.
"Weights aito Measures.
The Amsterdam Fond . » 1.09 lbs. ayoirdnpois.
„ Pecid . . . = 133 lbs. „
„ Catty . . . - li „
„ Chanff , . . s= 4 yards.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Java.
1. Officiaii Publications.
Almanak en Naamregister yan Nederlandsch-Indie, voor ' 1866. BataYia,
1866.
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indie.
Uitgegeven door het Koninklijk Instituut voor de Taal-, Land- en Volkenbuule
van Nederlandsch Indie. Nieuwe volgreeks. 8. Amsterdam, 1865.
Verslag van den Handel, de Scheepvaart en de inkomende- en uitgaande
Kegten op Java en Madura, over het jaar 1864. Batayia, 1865.
Verslag van den staat van het schoolwezen in Nederlandsch Indie, afgesloten
onder ultimo 1863. 8. Batavia, 1865.
Verslag over het jaar 1864, zamengesteld door de Kamer van koophandel
en nijverheid te Batavia. 8. Batayia, 1865.
Report by Mr. "Ward, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Progress of the
Netherlands' East India possessions since 1857, dated January 17, 1863; in
* Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy,' &c. No. VI. London, 1863.
Statistical tables relating to Foreign Countries. Part X. London, 1866.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Devenier ( JSz., S. van), Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op
Java, op last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. B. Fransen van de
Putt€, bijeenverzameld. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1865.
Money (J. W. B.), Java, or, How to Manage a Colony ; showing a practical
solution of the questions now affecting British India. 2 vols. 8. Jjmiisx^
1861.
MuUer (Joh.), Beschreibuug der Insel Java. 8. Berlin, 1860.
Vliet (L. vanWoudrichem van), Over Grondeigendom en heeredienstpligtigh^
op Java. 8. Amsterdam, 1864.
693
SIAM.
Oovemment, Eevenue, and Anny.
The constitution of Siam is that of a feudal monarchy, not very
dissimilar from the Japanese form of government, but with this
difference, that the hereditary chieftains possess less, and the supreme
rulers more power than in the neighbouring country. The general
legislative and executive authority is vested in two kings, the first
being the real occupant of the throne, and the second only nominally
his equal.
First King of Siam, — Somdel Fhra, Paramanda, Maha-Mangkut,
*His Majesty the King encircled with the Great Crown,' bom
October 18, 1804 ; educated at a Buddhish monastery, and studied
all the Indo- China dialects, as well as French and English ; ascended
the throne at the death of his uncle, Phra Chao Prasat Thong, 1851.
Second King of Siam, — Wangna, *The youngest King,' bom
1810, the brother of Somdel Phra; educated by European mission-
aries; heir-apparent of the First King.
The Second King has a court, ministers, and even an army of his
own, and royal honours are paid to him on all occadons. He is also
exempt from the customary prostration before the First King, instead
of which he salutes him by raising hands in the air. But he cannot
draw from the royal treasury without permission of his colleague,
and, on the whole, is regarded as the chief subject of the First King.
The public revenue is estimated at about 3,145,000Z. sterling a
year ; of which sum, the poll-tax and fines for non-service in the
army produce 2,500,000/.; the land-tax, 287,000Z.; tax on finiit
trees, &c., 65,000/. ; on pepper, 50,000/. ; on spirits and gambling,
about 57,000/. each ; and the customs, 33,000/. But exclusive of
the taxes paid in money or produce, the people are subjected to
personal service, and other oppressive burdens. The collectors
receive no salary, being remunerated by a tithe of the revenue
realised. The receipts and expenditure are said nearly to balance
each other, but there is seldom any large sum in the public treasury.
There is no standing army, but a general armament of the people,
similar, in principle, to that of Switzerland. Every male lnhafci^A5^)2ci^»^
from the age of 21 upwards, is obliged to «en^ XJofe ^\aXfc ^Lcs-^Hss^sa
moDtha a year. The ibllowing individual ar^,\iOVi«^«t^ cxsie^*^^'-
694 0^^^-
members of the priesthood, the Chinese settlers, who pay a commu-
tation tax, slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable
to service, and those who purchase exemption by a fine of from six
to eight ticals a month, or by furnishing a slave or some other
person not subject to the conscription, as a substitute. It is stated
that the Government has, for many years past, made large annual
purchases of muskets ; and it is estimated that Siam now possesses
upwards of 80,000 stand of arms, besides a considerable stock of
cannon.
The fleet of war consists of numerous junks, galleys, and other
imall vessels, built on the Chinese model, and mountiiig heavy guns,
manned by Chinese and other foreigners.
Area and Population.
The limits of the kingdom of Siam have varied much at dif^rent
periods of its history ; and even now, with the exception of the
Western frontier, the lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced ;
most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less inde-
pendent. As nearly as can be calculated, the country extends, at
present, from the 4th to the 20th degree of north latitude, and from
the 96th to the 102nd degree of east longitude, being a total area of
about 250,000 square miles. The numbers of the population are
still more imperfectly known than the extent of territory, and th«
difficulty of any correct result is the greater on account of th«
Oriental custom of numbering only the men. The last nalire
registers state the male population of the kingdom as follows, m
round numbers:— 2,000,000 Siamese; 1,500,000 Chinese; 1,000,000
Laotians; 1,000,000 Malays; 350,000 Cambodians; and 50,000
Peguans. Doubling these figures, to include the female sex, this
would give a total population ibr the kingdom of 11,800,000 inhabi-
tants, or 47 to the square mile.
The Siamese dominions are divided into 41 provinces, each pre^
sided over by a phaja, or governor. The native historians diattngiiiah
two natural divisions of the country, called Mohang-Nona, the r^on
of the north, and Monang-Tai, the southern region. Previous to the
fifteenth century, the former was the more populous part of the
country, but since the establishment of Bangkok as capital— -vith
firom 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants— the south has taken the
lead in population. Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai, or
Monang-Thai', which means 'fi:ee,' or 'the kingdom of the free.*
The word Siam- — quite imknown to the natives — ^is Malay, firom
sajam, * the brown race.*
Every Siamese male is obliged to work for the kings during tiiree
months o£ the yeax, but l^ei^ \& u^^ ^X>«K^x)Xa ^^x\s»s:l\:<| ^^^ichajt time
TBADE AND COMMERCE.
69s
he may be called to do so. Beyond tibe r^folar aerrice tihe men are
often called on to attend the kings on any jonmey they may nnder-
take, either by land or water.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Siam with the United Kingdom is
inconsiderable, and appears to be on the decline. The subjoined
table shows the value of the principal articles imported from Siam
into the United Kingdom in each of the five years 1860-1864 : —
Imports from Siam into ttui
United Kingdom
Gum, benzoin .
Gum, sticklac .
Hides, not tanned .
Horns, homtips, and peces
of horns
Indigo .
Pepper .
Kice, not rough
Sapan wood
Sugar, unrefined
Wood, teak
All other articles
Total
1,625
1,000
2,435
1,639
1,197
64,773
16
2,555
75,240
1861
792
1,668
284
4,063
1
644
12,598
4,698
462
26,138
1863
£
1,046
3,418
4,693
1,054
2,176
1,463
252
22,921
626
176
37,824
1868
£
1,341
4,948
885
366
203
9,657
1,090
20,746
1864
£
2,484
3,329
1,840
390
79
460
5,880
60
14,522
The exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to
Siam were as follows, in each of the five years 1860-64 : —
Exports of British produce to
Siam
I860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
£
£
£
£
Arms and ammunition .
750
1,450
1,927
215
662
Beer and ale .
251
62
446
60
125
Copper, wrought and un-
wrought
465
1,643
10
45
^59
Cotton yam
884
1,685
-^
1
—
Cottons, entered by the
yard ....
4,101
2,364
156
12
162
Earthenware and porcelain
225
501
828
759
148
Iron, wrought and un-
wrought
730
3,585
934
923
848
Machinery and mill work.
3,641
15,411
13,203
8,284
9,166
All other articles .
Total .
2,156
9,378
4,403
1,685
3,360
13,203
> 35,91^
\^ ^\,^^1
\ W^'ii.N.
\^Si^%^
696
8IAH.
The whole foreign trade of Siam passes through the port of
Bangkok. Daring the year 1864, the total exports, in foreign and
native vessels, from the port of Bangkok, were as follows : —
Exports
Weight
Value
Picula
TioalR
£ Sterling
Rice
2,409,748
7,229,244
903,630
Sugar
89,261
892,610
111,676
Sapan wood .
97,490
194,980
24,372
Paddy .
40,678
110,940
13.876
Pease .
979
4,384
6,485
Silk . . .
927 '
261,020
31,375
Tin . . .
1,007
38,266
4.783
Seel seed
26,927
107,708
13,463
Hemp .
816
13,827
1,728
Hides .
4,197
41,477
6,186
Horns .
3,966
32,694
4,087
Salt
148,121
80,796
10,099
Salt fish .
126,136
462,272
66,634
Mussels .
4,929
49,290
6,161
Teak .
9,806
120,930
15,116
Kosewood
20,867
41,714
6,214
Gum bei^'amin
223
28,990
3,624
Ivory .
121
38,116
4,764
Cotton .
19,290
771,760
9,645
Lukraban seed
2,117
4,234
529
Cardamums .
1,266
94,876
11,859
Gkunboge
89
6,293
787
Mangrove bark
7,122
7,122
890
Pepper .
23,762
366,280
44,810
Sticklac .
13,331
226,627
28,328
1,317,922
The total number of vessels which arrived at Bangkok in 1864
was 457, of 158,849 tons. Of these, 147 vessels, of 54,645 tons,
were British. There cleared, in the same year, 422 vessels, of
171,335 tons, of which 148, of 54,771 tons, were British.
The commercial navy of Siam consisted of the following vessels
in the years 1862-64 : —
Vessels .
Tonnage .
1862
1863
1864
126
47,078
104
37,981
134
61,431
Many of these vessels have been constructed in Bangkok by native
carpenters. Those built during the last four or five years are re-
ported to be ftilly equal to t\x^ wet3i^<a oi Yivxt^^^ewa. ^\^, Twelve
BOOKS OP BEFEKENCE. 697
of the vessels belong to the kings, who possess, besides, several
steamers for private use, and take an active interest in trade and
commerce.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Siam, and the British
equivalents, are : —
MONBT.
The Ticalf of 12,800 cowries, average rate of exchange, 28. 6i.
Weights ajxd Measubes.
The Tael , , ' . . , «= 1 J oz. avoirdupois.
„ PunU . . • . . . = 133 lbs. „
» Cattt/ = ij. „ „
„ Chang »= 4 yards.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
1. Official Publications.
Eeports of Mr. Thos. G-eo. Knox, Consul at Bangkok, on the Trade of Siam,
dated March 31, 1865; in 'Commercial Eeports from H.M.'8 Consuls in
China and Siam.' 8. London, 1865.
Keport by Mr. Knox, British Consul at Bangkok, on the Trade of Siam ; in
* Abstract of Eeports of Various Countries and Plsices, received by the Board
of Trade.' No. XI. London, 1862.
Eeport by Mr. Alabaster on the Foreign Trade of Siam; in 'Abstract' in
No. XL London, 1862.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Shomburgh on the Trade of Bangkok, dated Bangkok,
January 24, 1864; in 'Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office.'
London, 1864.
Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between Great Britain and Siam, signed
April 18, 1 855, Eatified April 5, 1856. Siamese andEnghsh. 4. Bangkok, 1856.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bowring (John), The Kingdom and People of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London,
1857.
Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cam-
bodia and Laos, during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
PaUegoix (B. J.), Description du Eoyaume T'hai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1854.
Spiess (Gust.), Die Preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wahrend der Jahre
1860-1862. Eeise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der indischen
Inselwelt. 8. BerUn, 1865.
698
IV. AUSTRALASIA.
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitatioii and Oovemment
The constitution of New South Wales, the oldest of the Australasian
colonies, was proclaimed in 1858. It vests the legislative power
in a Parliament of two Houses, the first called the LegislatiTe
Council, and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative
Coimcil consists of twenty-one members nominated by the Crown
for the term of five years; and the Assembly of seventy-two
members, elected in eighty-nine constituencies. To be eligible, a
man must be of age, a natural-bom subject of the Queen, or, if an
alien, then he must have been naturalised for five years, and
resident for two years before election. There is no property quali-
fication for electors, and the votes are taken by secret ballot. The
executive is in the hands of a governor nominated by the Crown.
Governor of New South Wales. — Sir John Young, Bart., K.C.B.,
bom 1807 ; educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, B.A., 1829 ;
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, 1834 ; M-P. for the county of
Cavan, 1831-55; Lord of the Treasury, 1841-44; Secretary of
the Treasury, 1844-46 ; Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1852-55 ;
Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, 1855-59 ; created
K.C.B.Feb. 1859 ; appointed Govemor o£ New South Wales, 1860.
The govemor, Ijy virtue of his ofiice, is commander-in-chief of
all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of 7,000/f. In the
exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of five ministers,
called respectively, the Principal Secretary, the Colonial Treasurer,
the Secretary for Public Works, the Secretary for Lands, and the
Attorney-GeneraL The principal secretary has a salary of 2,000/.,
and the other ministers of 1,500Z. The Cabinet is responsible £)r
its acts to the Legislative Assembly. The statute laws of Great
Britain are in force throni^ou\."5^«^ ^\>fisx^^^s^
ABBA AND POPULATION.
699
Eevenue and Ezpenditnre*
The principal part of the public rerenue, to the amount of nearly
one-half, is derived from cnstoms duties, chief among them the
import duties on spirits. The other sources of income consist of
miscellaneous receipts, the most important of which are from land
sales and rents of land. Direct taxation does not exist. In the
year ending with June, 1865, the revenue of New South Wales
amounted to 1,462,009/., and the expenditure to 1,882,478/., leaving
a deficiency of 420,469/. For every 100/. of revenue there was
an expenditure of about 129/. The customs duties produced
578,433/.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of the five
years — ending June 30 — 1861-65 was as follows : —
Years
Bcvenue
Bxpendlttxre
£
£
1861
1,432,406
1,529,788
1862
1,611,569
1,698,728
1863
1,533,597
1,988,969
1864
1,516,732
1,625,020
1865
1,462,009
1,882,478
The public debt of New South Wales amounted to 57,500/. in
1850; to 1,011,300/. in 1855; to 3,830,230/. in 1860; and to
5,802,980/. in 1864. The debt yrsB ^tirely incurred for railways
and other public works.
Area and Population.
New South Wales was first colonised by convicts in 1788. In
May, 1787, six transports and three store-ships, convoyed by a
frigate and an armed tender, sailed from England with 565 male
and 192 female convicts, under the command of Captain Phillip.
He arrived at Botany Bay on January 20, 1788, but, discovering
Port Jackson by accident, he removed his fleet to it. In 1789 a
harvest was first reaped at Paramatta. In 1790 the first grant of
land was made to a convict In 1799 there were 1,200 bushels of
surplus wheat grown in the colony, and purchased by Government.
In 1788 the whole population, including the Government establish-
ment and convicts, amounted to 1,030. In 1803 the first news-
paper was printed. In 1810 the population, free and felon,
amounted to 8,293. There were at the same period 97,637 acres q€
land granted, and there were in the colon*;} \,\\^ \iK^tv5»^^^.?£\^
homed cattle, 34,550 sheep. In 18^1 \k^ -go^xiia.^xi. Ssisst^»»*^ "^
700
NEW SOUTH WALES.
29,783, and in 1828 to 27,611 males and 8,978 females : total
36,598. Of this number, 14,156 were male, and 1,513 female
convicts; and 5,302 males, and 1,342 females, free by servitude.
The number of immigrants which arrived in the colony in the
twelve years 1829 to 1840 amounted to 41,794. During the years
1841 and 1842 the nimiber of immigrants was 30,224. The popula-
tion of Sydney, in 1833, was 16,233 ; and in 1836j 19,729. In
1840 it amounted to 29,973 ; and in 1845-46, to 38,358. The
colony was relieved from the transportation of criminals in 1840.
By the Act of 13 & 14 Vict. cap. 59, the district of Port Phillip
was formed into a separate colony, imder the name of Victoria.
The following was the area and total population of New South
Wales, according to the census of April 7, 1861 : —
Area
Square miles, 478,861
Population
348,646.
According to estimates made after the returns of the Registrar-
General, the population numbered : —
December 31, 1861 .
31, 1863 .
Hales
Females
Total
202,099
209,637
166,179
169,298
368,278
378,935
The returns of immigration for the ten years, 1853 to 1862 in-
clusive, exhibit the results shovm in the following table : —
Qninqnennial
periods
Assisted
Volxmtary
Total
Male
Female
Hale
Female
Male
Female
1863-67
1868-62
Total
24,248
9,967
25,466
9,372
14,311
67,982
9,017
14,671
38,569
67,949
34,472
23,943
34,216
34,827
72,293
23,688
106,608
68,415
These figures show that, whilst the assisted immigration has been
conducted with due regard to the equalisation of the sexes, the
voluntary immigration sets at nought this important social conside-
ration. The above numbers are exclusive of 3,022 Chinese immi-
grants, who arrived in the year 1859, and of 6,958 of the same
nation, which arrived in 1860. They were nearly all males.
The religious division of the inhabitants was as follows, accord-
ing to the census of 1851 aii^ oi \^^\ \ —
TRADE AND INDUSTRY.
701
Numbers
Proportion
per 1,000
Church of England .
Wesleyans
Congregationalists . . *1
Other Protestants . . J
Roman Catholics
Hebrews . . . . .
Mahometans and Asiatic creeds .
All others
1851
93,137
18,156
• 10,008
6,472
66,899
979
852
740
1861
.159,958
34,692
23,68!2
/Min
.\ 9,863/
99,193
1,759
12,909
3,393
1851
498
97
53
35
304
5
4
4
1861
456
99
67
44
283
4
37
10
The sums paid out of the State funds for religious purposes,
principallj in salaries, were as follows in the year 1864 : —
£ s. d.
Church of England
Eoman Catholics
Presbyterians
Wesleyans ....
Total
17,932 17 2
10,161 1 6
3,527 0 0
1,835 7 7
33,456 6 2
There were, at the same period, 270 churches and 447 chapels,
or buildings used as such, providing accommodation for 119,075
people, that is, rather under one-third of the total population, having
an average attendance of 86,674, or under one-fourth of the popu-
lation.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of New South Wales has more than quintupled since
the year 1850 ; but the imports into the colony increased at a lesser
ratio than the exports. The total value of the' imports in 1850
amounted to 2,078,338/., and in 1864 to 9,836,042/. The exports
in 1850 were valued at 1,038,340/., and in 1864 at 8,117,217/.
The quantities and value of the articles imported into New South
Wales, in each of the years 1863 and 1864, were as follows : —
Total imports into New Soath Wales
1863
1864
Pbincepal Abticles.
Apparel and slops
f Packgs,
Beer and ale j ^
, S 'Pouikqs,
and rope \ ^ a
Cordage and rope
Cottons and waste cotton goods
Gold
f Packga.
S Oz,
\ £
5,270
186.630
2,081,903
333,159
19,070
31,619
211
2,700
163,984
4,994
198,560
1,276,370
215,280
19,020
43,835
285
5.396
401,545
702
5BW SOUTH WALB&
Total imports into New South Wales
Grain: IWcipal Abtici^ "^^
Wheat I £
Flour and bread .... J £
«. S Tons
Rice \ £
Hardware and ironmongery . . . -j ^ £
r Tons
Iron and steel i £
MacHnerj ^
Leather, mamifiactured . . . .1 ^ £
Linens, drapery, and haberdashery . \ ^ £
X.., . i Pachas.
Oilmen 8 stores { " £
Silka {^"'^^'i
Spirits :
^ _ f Gallons
Brandy <^ £
_ ( Gallons
Rum , \ £
Gin and Geneva . . . . -j £
Stationery :
Book. {^'^^^'k
^ f Fachas.
Paper | £
Sugar, nnrenned i £
Tea { £
Timber £
Tobacco, mannfactured : , jj^^
Fig and Cavendish ... J £
^ S Lbs-
Cigars [ £
. ' f Gallons
Wme ^ £
^ , f Lbs.
Wool \ £
Woollens i £
Total value of principal and other "1 ^
artieles . . > .J
612,366
156,862
14,249
192,923
4,819
103,034
75,633
319,360
14,675
142,010
42,436
14,705
254,620
27,981
1,475,499
59,577
104,155
544
70,554
458,992
228,891
839,892
60,567
326,688
7V07
1,868
63,673
7,820
114,173
19,063
483,746
4,111,233
350,072
88,882
686,809
82,885
63,185
18,619
320,938
130,432
7,176,562
647,426
918
66,355
1,163,914
326,411
23,613
622,563
6,515
119,544
49,887
262,868
14,708
14«,452
44,578
19,450
355,281
19,287
1,108,745
51,991
97,202
513
71,698
261,681
117,978
290,300
63,887
91,787
20,862
2,288
66,027
7,392
115,049
14,656
408,306
8,245,884
270,321
91,044
1,669,119
199,319
64,466
25,767
326,022
137,010
9,447,731
835,949
681
56,483
8,819,576
9,836,042
TBADS AND INDUSTBT.
703
The qnantities and Tahie of the articles exported from New South
Wales, in each of the years 1863 and 1864, were as follows : —
Total exports from New South Wales
Pedtcipal Abticlbs.
Coal and coke | £
Linens, silks, woollens, and haberdashery \ ^
FloTir and bread <y £
Gold:
^ . ( Boxes
Coin \ £
Dust and bar -j £
^ . . , \ Bushels
Grain, maize only < ^
Hardwai© and ironmongery . . A ^£
Hides and skins . . . " . £
LiTe stock, horses \ £
Sugar:
Befined -j £
Unrefined. ' ]^ Qmts^
TaUow . . . . . : \ ^£
T^ 1 £
Tobacco of all kinds .... £
Wool ..-....{ ^
Total value of principal and other ) -
articles . . . . . \
1864
298,337
372,601
220,902
212,783
8,346
8,602
329,221
222,702
7,199
8,060
106,667
186,068
397
663
1,774,184
2,647,616
160,116
78,169
687,920
304,966
694,913
623,308
132,086
112,086
27,605
33,402
106,913
123,494
100,189
106,977
2,898
3,938
68,896
66,366
16,367
21,614
32,391
46,705
68,879
61,773
102,806
107,933
24,609
67,096
44,746
111,862
1,616,461
1,206,610
134,184
115,144
137,337
118,842
21,204,697
24,880,688
1,828,009
2,220,867
6,936,839
8,117,217
Rather more than one-half of the total imports into New South
WsJes come from the United Kingdom, and about one-third of the
exports are shij^d to it. The rest of the trade is chiefly with
British Possessions. The commercial intercourse of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the imports from New South Wales
into Great Britain, and of the exports of British produce and manu-
factures to New South Wales in -each of the five years 1861 tj^
1865:—
704
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Imports from New South
Exports of Home Produce
Years
Wales into the United
from the United Kingdom
Kingdom
to New South Wales
1861
£
2,040,124
£
2,725,148
1862
2,078,819
3,511,226
1863
2,266,948
2,949,373
1864
2,559,380
2,741,780
1866
—
3,575,283.
The staple article of import^ of New South Whiles into the United
Kingdom is wool, of the average value of 1,600,000Z. per annum.
In the year 1850, about 70,000 acres of land were in cultivation
in New South Wales, and the colony had 5,660,829 sheep ; 952,852
horned cattle ; 63,890 horses ; and 23,890 pigs. In 1859 tiie numbers
were: landincultivation, 217,440 acres; sheep, 7,736,323 ; homed
cattle, 2,110,600; horses, 200,700; and pigs,. 92,800. In nine
years the number of acres of land in cultivation had been trebled;
and above 2,000,000 sheep and more than 1,000,000 head of cattle
had been added to the stock. In 1862, the agricultural statistics of
the colony, which in the meantime had been deprived of the impor-
tant district of Queensland, were as follows: — Acres in cultivation,
297,500 ; above 6,000,000 acres, as yet uncultivated, were enclosed.
The number of sheep at the same period amounted to 5,600,000;
of horned cattle to 2,270,000 ; of horses to 233,000 ; and of pigs
to 146,000. The live stock returns, embracing the year 1864, showed
an increase of nearly half a million sheep, but a decrease of 100,000
cattle. This decrease was due partly to exportation to New Zealand
and elsewhere, but mainly to boiling-down operations. In round
numbers, the flocks and herds of the colony were estimated, at the
commencement of 1866, at eight and a quarter millions of sheep,
and two millions of cattle.
There were, in 1862, coal-mines to the number of 21 ; and 15 other
mines, of copper, iron, lead, zinc, and silver. The gold fields extend
over three districts, called the Western Field, the Northern Fields, and
the Southern Fields. The following is a list of the annual yields of
gold in the colony, fi-om the first discoveries to the end of 1862 : —
Years
Oz.
Value £
Years
Oz.
Value £
1851
144,120
468,330
1857
175,950
674,470
1852
818,751
2,660,940
1858
286,798
1,104,170
1853
548,652
1,781,170
1859
329,363
1,259,120
1854
237,910
773,200
1860
384,085
1,462,772
1855
171,367
654,590
1861
470,034
1,808,560
1856
184,600
689,174
1862
584,219
2,306,876
TRADE AND INDUSTRY, 705
From the official * Statistical Register ' for 1864, laid before the
Legislative Assembly in the session of 1866, it appears that the
coal mines of New South Wales are steadily increasing in productive-
ness, while the copper and gold mines decrease in importance. The
quantity of coal raised in 1864 amounted to 550,000 tons, against
434,000 in the previous year. Only two copper mines were at work
during the year 1864, producing ore to the value of 14,600Z. and
7,500T. The gold-mining for the year 1864 showed a great diminu-
tion. It yielded only 316,429 ounces, which was a falling off of 23
per cent, on the yield of the previous year.
z z
7o6
NEW ZEALAND.
Constitution and Government
The present form of government for New Zealand was established
by statute 15 & 16 Vict. cap. 72. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers, the
first called the Legislative Council, and the second the House of
Representatives. The Legislative Council consists of twenty-four
members, nominated by the Crown for life, and the House of Repre-
sentatives, of fifty-three members, elected by the people for ^ve
years. Every owner of a freehold worth 50Z., or tenant householder,
in the country at 5/., in the towns at 10^. a year rent, is qualified
both to vote for, or to be a member of, the House of Representa-
tives. The executive is vested in a governor, appointed by the
Crown.
Governor of New Zealand, — Sir George Grei/, K.C.B., bom
1812 ; entered the army as ensign in the 83rd regiment, 1830 ; pro-
moted to be lieutenant 1833, and captain, 1839 ; left England in 1837
with instructions from Government to explore the north-west part of
Australia, during 1837-39 ; appointed Governor of South Australia,
December 1840 ; Governor of New Zealand, 1846 ; Governor of
the Cape of Good Hope, 1854 ; re-appointed Governor of New
Zealand, June 1861.
The governor, who is, by virtue of his oflSice, commander-in-chief
of all the troops in the colony, has a salary of 4,500^. He is
assisted in the executive by a responsible ministry of five members,
the Colonial Treasurer, &e Colonial Secretary, the Postmaster-
General, the Minister for Colonial Defences, and the Attorney-
General. Each of these ministers has a salary of 1,000Z. per annum.
By the Act 15 <& 16 Vict. cap. 72, the colony was divided into five
provinces, each governed by an elected Superintendent and a Pro-
vincial Council.
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of deal-
ing with questions of native government, were in 1863^ transferred
from the imperial to the colonial Government.
KEVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
707
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony, during the years
1858-64, were as follows : —
Years
Be^enue
Expenditure
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
341,655
459,649
464,738
691,464
1,186,009
1,380,836
1,608.841
£
No returns
it
l,118,'l77
1,757,092
1,860,980
A considerable portion of the revenue of New Zealand is terri-
torial, derived from the sale of Crown lands, depasturing licences,
and assessments. The following table shows the various branches of
revenue in the year 1863 : —
Branches of Revenne
Amoqnt
Ordinary : £
Customs 692,061
Post office 32,329
Rents and seizures » 436
Fees and fines 45,768
Licences 23,530
Miscellaneous 49,168
Total ordinary revenue ....
Territorial :
Sale of crown laiids 384,039
Depasturing licences 26,375
Timber and quarrying licences . . . 1,460
Miscellaneous receipts 308
* Gold export duty 1,000
Revenue under Gold Fields' Act, 1866 . . 32,520
Gold Duty Act, 1868 78,703
Total territorial revenue ....
Incidental receipts and re-imbursements , . ,
Total revenue
zz2
743,272
524,406
113,928
1,380,836
7o8
NEW ZEALAND.
The various branches of expenditure in the year 1863 were as
follows : —
Branches of Expenditure
Amount
Customs
Public Debt, interest, and sinking fund
Salary of the governor ....
Executive
Legislature, electoral, and audit .
Judicial supreme court ....
„ district and resident magistrates* court
„ coroners' and crown prosecutions . .
Registration of land and deeds .
„ births, deaths, and marriages
Police and prisons
Medical and hospital
Marine boards and harbours
Postal and steam communication
Militia and volunteers ....
Licensing officers
Pensions and allowances ....
Native purposes
„ schools ......
Educational
Immigration
Miscellaneous
Kefands of revenue .'....
Joint-stock companies ....
Eoads and public works
Expenditure under Otago * Public Buildings Loan Act, 1862
„ „ „ *Loan Act, 1862'
„ „ „ * Harbour Loan Act, 1852'
Land surveys ...
* Gold Fields Act, 1868 ' .
* Bay of Islands Settlement Act, 1868 '
'Bank of Issue Winding-up Act, 1866'
Receipts in aid repaid
Total
£
33,881
68,635
4,500
32,673
26,856
12,558
24,290
1,380
8,660
2,354
120,786
27,961
41,741
106,290
6,833
386
1,787
50,984
8,301
24,396
50,289
115,213
5,259
82
776,092
621,657
11,278
213,025
20,648
89,692
21,662
330
6
2,800
1,767,092
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1856, amounted to
77,174/. in that year, and rose to 594,044/. in 1860, and- to
1,289,750/. in 1863. The total amount authorised to be borrowed
by the Government of the colony, on December 31, 1864, was
8,650,000/., and the amount of debentures in circulation at the
same date was 1,450,000/. The various provincial Grovemments of
New Zealand have likeYnfiecoii\>T«u(2.\A^^<^\^«^
gate to about three loiUionaftlec^ti^.
AKEA AND POPULATION.
709
Area and Population.
The colony of New Zealand, first visited by Captain Cook in
1769, consists of a group of three islands, known as the North,
Middle, and South, or Stewart's Island. The whole group is nearly
1,000 miles long, and 200 miles broad ; its coast line extends over
1,000 leagues. The area of the country is estimated <at 122,000
square miles, or nearly 80,000,000 acres, two -thirds of which
are fitted for agriculture and grazing. The North Island contains
about thirty-one, and the Middle Island about 46,000,000 acres.
Stewart's Island, uninhabited — and, as many think, uninhabitable —
contains about 1,000,000 acres.
The population of New Zealand, according to the census of De-
cember, 1861, is given in the following table : —
Provinces
Males
Females
Total
Auckland ....
13,49^1
10,926
24,420
Taranaki .
1,169
875
2,044
Wellington .
6,626
5,940
12,566
Hawke's Bay ,
1,667
944
2,611
Nelson
6,337
4,615
9.952
Marlborough
1,503
796
2,299
Canterbury .
8,939
7,101
16,040
Otago .
27,161
6,002
30,163
Southland .
1,107
713
1,820
Total
L
64,062
37,912
101,915
In December 1864, when a new enumeration took place, the popu-
lation, of European descent, in New Zealand, exclusive of the military
and their families, was 172,158, of whom 106,580 were males, and
66,578 females. In these numbers are included the military settlers
and their families, numbering altogether 6,382, viz., 5,139 males,
and 1,243 females. The distribution of the total population through
the several provinces was as follows : — ^Auckland, 42,132 ; Taranaki,
4,374; Wellington, 14,987 ; Hawke's Bay, 3,770 ; Nelson, 11,910;
Marlborough, 5,519 ; Canterbury, 32,276; Otago, 49,019; South-
land, 8,085 ; to which is to be added the population of the Chatham
Islands (86), making the aggregate as above. Thus it will be seen
that the Northern Island, comprising the provinces of Auckland,
Taranaki, Wellington, and Ilawke's Bay, contained 65,263 or 37*93
per cent, of the population ; and the Middle Island, com^T\saxs% '^'^
provinces of Nelson, Marlborough, CanteT\i\xTy,0\aj^ci«sA^j«>Q5Ss^^
106,809 or 62-07 per cent. Theae nuinbet^ «j&\ia&\>^^^ ^"xV^^i
not include the military or theix {axm\ieB, ^\io Ti\ws^«t^o. vvv
710
NEW ZEALAND.
viz., officers and men, 9,136 ; male children, 933 ; and women and
female children, 1,904.
The total number of aborigines, in each province and district,
according to the returns of a census taken between September
1857 and September 1858, was as follows : —
Males
Females
Under U
Above 14
Age not
stated
Total
Total
Auckland
Taranaki (New Ply-
3,834
10,026
7,770
21,630
16,660
mouth)
Wellington
Hawke's Bay
Nelson
366
1,101
592
133
1,386
3,458
1,462
659
—
1,761
4,639
2,044
692
1,264
3,540
1,629
428
Canterbury .
Otago
69
69
247
216
43
349
286
289
240
Districts :
Stewart's Island and
Kuapuke
Chatham Islands
Total
—
*~"
110
247
110
247
90
263
6,154
17,343
8,170
31,667
24,303
The white population of New Zealand, composed chiefly of
emigrants from Great Britain, is scattered in small communities over
the colony. The wide intervals between these settlements are oc-
cupied by natives called Maories, who are well armed, and skilful in
the use of their rifles. They are addicted to war, and have at times
given much trouble to the Government. They mostly avail them-
selves of the natural fastnesses aflforded by the country, and large
armed bodies of them pass rapidly from place to place, subsisting
where European troops cannot live. Won by the teaching of their
missionaries, the natives have almost as an entire race embraced
Christianity, and have abandoned the most revolting of their former
customs. Listructed by their teachers, a great proportion of the
native population are able to read and write ; and encouraged by the
precept and example of the same missionaries, they have, in all
parts of the islands, made considerable progress in the rougher
branches of civilised life. The Maories are represented as being
fond of agriculture, and the Government has encouraged them in this
taste. Besides, they have been induced to construct mills, to acquire
vessels, and to attend to the breeding of cattle and horses, for which
tbey have a great parlia^ty . AX. \k^ commencement of 1863, a war
broke out between tlie naXiWea axA\)sv^'^x«Q^^\i.^\5QkfeT^^«wl<son-
dnued through the yeaxal^^^A^^^n^^L^^'^^^- 'Yt^a\ft\a5LTiK»s&«^^
tBADB AMD IHDUnur,
7"
British troops in tb^e CfAonVf ni tbe beginning of Beptember 1866,
u^mftmiUA to about 10/iOO iiiie«, o^mms^m^ oi tea bAttaiioiw of
iuhMryf wU^i 2^) men otihe Uoytd ArtUkry smd Kogmeern, Th«
Ujisd (ji tb/a colonial ibrce« in Aram at tb/9 «aiii« period amouot^ to
6,«V)0 m^Oy militia ao4 roluoteersi mhatry tmd cavalry.
Inula Md Indiiftrjr.
Tb« corom/erce of New Zeabuid iaertiajied aiot^ than twenty-fold in
th€ twelve yeans from 18(^2 to 1863, The im|iort«y which were of
tl*e value of 35d,U4/, in 1852, ha4 ri«en to 7,024,674/, in 1863; and
exjy>rt#, valued at 14/>,d72/, in 18*02, amounted U> 3,485,40i5/Jn 1863,
The <^uantitiea and value of the im|/ort« in eaeh of the two year«
1862 aiid 1863 were aa followa ; —
T^x«i toi9i9rt«to<<9 lir«w 2<f«lM)4
U9«:;
PajvcvFAi, AancMM,
AoimAli iCryr it/>ck , ,
Ap{Ar<el ;
&yX« fuid uhom
QiAVm, wofAien, Had «ilk idaou.-
iW«ir€«, 4Mp«ff7, milliiMfrx,
huhertUthhifry, Md »l//p
Irtm, hsiftiwuf^f eutUrry, ir*m
m/fDf^y,iiiid raw and irrouglit
AJ«««4 h«<er , ,
tki^ir— i»y and re^wd
T«a ,
8j>iriUi
hnody , ,
8t«iti//o«ry and Uy>k« ,
JtAmfififi , , ,
Wiiw , , , ,
• {
if
f Gallons
I £
f OaWmn
f Vii£kfjt(,
{ "'i
X OalUm$
nnfiif^
777J/W
17«-^5«
inJuu
€7^,iffiH
vm
277^^56
1,UM^^
2««,»7i
17«,304
33/J,0«2
l,7im,iidfH
TomlfMlusrApiimij^\wd(jiiAmvt(y^i^ A -^^'iAfWa , -V^tvffV^
712
NEW ZEALAND.
The quantities and value of the exports, in each of the years 1862
and 1863, were as follows : —
Total exports from New Zealand
Pbincipal Abticles.
Gold and gold dnst
r Oz.
I &
[Tons
1 £
/ Tone
^ i
r Lbs.
, 1 ^
Total value of principal and other articles . £
Kanri gam
Potatoes
Timber of all kii^ds
Wool .
1862
410,862
1,591,389
1,103
11,107
2,533
9,527
16,242
9,839,265
674,226
628,646
2,432,479
1,400
27,036
554
3,763
18,174
12,585,980
830,495
2,422,734 | 3,485,406
The total value of the imports of the colony in 1864 amounted to
7,000,655/., against 7,024,674/., in 1863, showing a decrease of
24,019/., or 0*34 per cent. On the other hand, the amount of im-
ports in 1863 was 2,398,592/., or 51*84 per cent., above that of the
imports in 1862 ; and the amount for 1862 showed an increase of
2,132,271/., or 85-50 per cent, over 1861. The total value of ex-
ports from New Zealand in 1864 amounted to 3,401,667/., against
3,485,405/. in 1863, being a decrease of 83,738/., or 2-40 per cent.
But the increase in the total value of exports in 1863 was 1,062,671/.,
or 43*86 per cent, as compared with 1862 ; and the amount in 1862
was 1,052,487/., or 76*81 in advance of 1861.
The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the imports of merchandise — exclusive
of gold and specie — from New Zealand into the United Kingdom,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manuj&ctures
to New Zealand, in each of the ^ve years 1860-64 : —
Tears
Imports from New Zealand
into the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
445,244
541,357
611,445
740,397
1,102,407
£
569,066
865,827
1,221,632
1,971,438
1,867,624
Tie staple article of import fcom ^e.^ Zealand into the United
Kingdom is wool, the value oi ^Yii^^^^jxissvxxxXft^Xft V^'^^^'^^\.\s3L^Si^<^^
TBADB AND INDU8TRT.
713
and to 1,041,655Z. in 1864. The exports comprise all the ordinary
articles of British manufactures.
The number and tonnage of registered vessels belonging to New
Zealand was as follows on December 31 of each of the years 1857 to
1864 :—
Years. (3lBt December)
YeBsels
Tonnage
Crew
1867
1868
1869
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
186
189
213
238
262
287
343
423
6,662
6,862
7,883
8,627
9,144
10,826
16,189
22,673
680
696
674
716
787
931
1,193
1,669
The vessels registered on December 31, 1864, belonged to the
following six ports : —
Porte.
Vessels
Tonnage
Crews
Auckland
267
11,623
863
Wellington
14
1,349
66
Napier
4
148
10
Neson
13
406
65
Lyttelton
64
3,700
217
Dunedin
Total .
71
6,347
369
423
22,673
1,669
Ship-building and the trade in timber are, next to wool-growing,
the chief elements of the industry of New Zealand. Among the
mineral productions are gold, copper, iron, and coal. The gold-
diggings are in Auckland, Nelson, and Otago. Those of Auckland
are not very productive. The Nelson diggings yield gold to the
value of 2,000Z. a week. Mineral stores of immense extent are
believed to be in existence not far below the soil in various parts of
New Zealand.
7H
QUEENSLAND.
Confltitntion and Ooyenmient.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland was estab-
lished December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South Wales.
The power of making laws, and imposing taxes, is vested in a Parlia-
ment of two Houses, the Legislative Coimcil, and the Legislative
Assembly. The former consists of twenty-three members, ten
nominated by the Crown for five years, and thirteen nominated
for life. The House of Assembly comprises twenty-six deputies,
elected for five years by all natural-bom or naturalised citizens, who
pay taxes, and have undergone no condemnation for any criminal
act. The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Queensland. — Sir George Fergusson Bowen^ born
1822 ; educated at the Charterhouse, and at Trinity College, Oxford ;
elected fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, 1844 ; admitted a
member of Lincoln's Inn, 1844 ; appointed President of the
University of Coriu, 1847, resigned 1851 ; Chief Secretary to the
Government of the Ionian Islands, 1854 ; C.M.G., 1855, K.C.M.G.,
1856, and promoted to G.C.M.G., 1860 ; appointed first governor of
Queensland, 1859.
The governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also bears
the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 4,000^. per annum,
* and allowances.' In the exercise of the executive authority he is
assisted by an Executive Council, consisting of four members, the
Colonial Secretary, the Attorney- General, the Colonial Treasurer,
and the Secretary for Public Lands and Works. Each of these
ministers has a salary of 1,000Z. per annum. They are jointly
and individually responsible for their acts to the Legislative
Assembly.
Sevenne and Expenditure.
The public income and expenditure of Queensland, during the
first six years of its existence, were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1860 .
178,589
180,103
1861 .
238,239
299,606
1862 .
346,431
367,317
1863 .
390,823
404,402
1864 .
\ 5>^^A^^
\ «t%%,<\^4
1866 .
\ e>^\Am
\ ^\'^\'^\ \
AREA AND POPULATION. 715
The reveniie of Queensland in 1865 amounted, as stated in the
preceding table, to 631,432/. against 502,456Z. in 1864. These
sums, however, include land orders received at the Treasury in return
for the grants of land which they represent. Not reckoning these,
the revenue for the year 1865 amounted to 472,461/. against
369,425/. for 1864, the increase being 103,036/., or at the rate of
28 per cent. The customs' revenue for the year 1865 yielded
195,540/., against 153,341/. for 1864, the increase being 42,199/.,
or at the rate of 27 per cent. The greater part of the revenue
of Queensland is produced by customs' duties, land sales, and rents
of public lands ; while the chief expenditure is for works of general
utility, and for aids to emigration.
Area and Population.
The colony of Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern
portion of the Australian continent. It also includes, in the terms
of Her Majesty's Letters Patent, * all and every the adjacent islands,
their members and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the
Gulf of Carpentaria.'
It appears from the statistical register of Queensland for 1861,
that the Surveyor- General has made a careftil calculation of the
present area of the colony ; and the result is, in roimd numbers, as
follows: —
Area of Qxteensland.
Square miles
East of longitude 141° 660,000
Between 141<^ and 138«> . 118,600
Total 678,600
Occupied Countby.
Square miles
Approximate area of country occupied by pastoral stations 195,000
The vast territory thus defined, equal in size to one fifth of the
whole of Europe, formed a part of New South Wales until it was
erected into a separate colony, under the name of Queensland, by an
order of Her Majesty in Council, which took effect on December 10,
1859, upon the arrival of the first governor. Sir G. F. Bowen.
The population amounted to 24,870 on December 31, 1859 ; to
29,074 on December 31,1860, to 34,367 at the same date in 1861,
and to 45,077 on December 31, 1862. The last census of Januar}^,
1864, showed that the colony had then a population of 61,467
persons. Of these 2,878 were employed in agriculture, 7,693 in
pastoral pursuits, and 14,919 in domestic duties, while 17^89S ^««i
* under tuition.' The origin of the 61,4^1 iii\:ia2c3^Xa.TL\^\^ NJciXia.^^"-
—Bom in Queensland, 9,592 ; born m o)i\vet KTxaXx^\.«es. ^•^^^'^
and New Zealand, 7,205; born in Grxeat "^x^X^axi ^xA^xS^^^^^^^"^
7i6
QUEENSLAIYI).
dominions, 38,185 ; bom in foreign countries, 6,485 : — ^total, 61,467.
The whole number of paupers or persons receiving public support
was only 222. The proportion of males to females in 1864 was as
tliree to two.
Emigration is adding from 16,000 to 12,000 persons every year
to the population of Queensland. The emigrants of 1863 from the
United Kingdom numbered 11,727, as follows : —
Emigrants
Males
Females
Total
By Government vessels
By private vessels ....
Total ....
621
6,545
522
4,039
1,143
10,584
7,166
4,561
11,727
The number of emigrants who left the United Kingdom during the
year 1865 for Queensland amoimted to 12,551, of which number
1,469 were conveyed in ^ye Government vessels, at the expense of
colonial funds. The number thus conveyed consisted of 102 married
men, 121 married women, 549 single men, 499 single women, 91
boys between the ages of 1 and 12, 87 girls between the same ages,
13 male infants, and 7 females — 303 were English, 120 Scotch, and
1,046 Irish.
Trade and Industry.
The value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the years
1860 to 1864, is given in the following table. . It shows that
during this period of ^ve years the total commerce of the colony
increased nearly threefold in value, rising from one million and a
quarter to three millions and a half.
Year
Imports
Exports
Total exports and
imports
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
742,023
967,950
1,323,509
1,713,263
2,267,954
£
523,476
709,598
748,519
888,381
1,247,054
£
1,265,499
1,677,548
2,068,744
2,601,644
3,515,008
The quantities and value of the imports in each of the years
1863 and 1864 were as follows :—
TBASE ADD INSUSTBT.
717
Total imports into Qaeensland
Pbincipal Articles.
Apparel and slops . . . . < ^ k
-o :x \ / Gallons
Beer and ale < £
Grain:
Wheat {^^^£
Flour and bread . , . . | ^"^
Kice A >
Hardware and ironmongery . . . •! ^ ^
Iron and steel ^Paokg>^
Metchinerj £
Leather, mannfectured . . . . | ^^^
Linen and drapery . . . . \ ^ n
Oilmen's stores \ " i
Spirits :
^ J r Gallons
Brandy -j, £
T» f Gallons
Rum < £
r,. rt r Gallons
Qm, Geneva -j £
Stationery :
Books {^*'*^5
Paper {^'«'*^^
Sugar, unrefined •! «
T- { ^i
Timber £
Tobacco :
Fig and Cavendish . . . * { ^£
ra r Lbs.
Cigars -j £
Wine 1^^
Wool { ^
Total value of principal and other articles . £
1863
675
7,149
184,113
41,268
147
55
8,990
138,128
204
4,646
19,810
96,580
34,206
38,725
25,990
3,275
69,963
8,609
349,652
19,309
55,562
66,774
39,875
66,320
14,762
40,938
11,840
484
5,845
2,152
30,234
2,407
81,681
639,359
67,282
13,158
186,766
41,236
15,532
6,017
79,078
42,027
1864
698
9,080
430,843
66,889
337
140
10,052
242,625
439
9,392
31,977
143,240
43,005
26,685
32,294
^ 5,429
104,972
9,692
403,938
23,391
62,355
80,053
42,101
68,016
12,878
36,570
9,598
666
11,326
1,967
26,540
2,603
91,472
756,308
68,133
21,274
329,587
58,036
20,072
8,661
79,648
43,231
4
58
7i8
QUEENSLAND.
The quantities and value of the exports in each of the years 1863
and 1864 were as follows : —
Total exports from Queensland
1863
1864
Pbincipal Abticlbs.
Coal and coke
/ Tons
4,228
4,279
100
142
Drapery, cottons, linens, &c.
r Cases
\ £
235
5,490
162
4,689
Flour and bread ,
/ Tons
1 £
16
229
29
710
Gold dust
{ %
3,936
14,802
22,037
83,292
Grain (oats, rice) .
. £
466
—
Hardware and ironmongery
r Packgs.
59
334
609
1,321
Hides and skins .
J No.
£
28,628
16,149
32,467
16,916
Live stock, horses .
No.
£
59
1,019
7
140
Sugar — raw . , •
r Cwts.
330
254
1,046
1,190
„ Kefined .
' Cwts.
£
z
2
9
Tallow
' Cwts.
17,660
22,740
£
30,716
32,999
Tea •
' Us.
7,244
4,673
£
628
326
Tobacco, of all kinds
. £
646
1,627
Wool
r Us.
10,669,044
14,006,789
776,776
1,037,663
Total value of principal anc
othe
r articles .
£888,381
£1,247,064
The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the
other Australian colonies, and next to them with the United KiDg-
dom. The subjoined tabular statement gives the value of the toted
imports from Queensland into the United Kingdom, and of the ex-
ports of British and Irish produce and manufactures to Queensland
in each of the four years 1861 to 1864 : —
Years
into the United Kingdom
Exports of Borne Produce
from the United Kingdom
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
131,088
166,673
263,201
344,362
£
74,060 •
193,664
316,467
460,003
TRADE AND INDUSTRY. 719
The staple article of imports from Queensland into the United
Kingdom is wool, the value of which was 226,775/. in 1863, and
324,348/. in 1864.
There are several coal mines in the colony, producing about
18,000 tons of coal per annum. Great gold fields have hitherto not
been discovered, though the metal is believed to exist in large
quantities.
Most of the productions of both temperate and tropical countries
can be cultivated with success in Queensland. The climate is stated
to be favourable to pastoral occupations, and to the growth of wool.
Experience has shown that extensive districts are also adapted for
the growth of cotton, and many persons regard the colony as destined
to become the future cotton-^eld of Great Britain. A bonus is
offered by the Government of ten acres of land for every bale of
Sea Island cotton weighing 300 lbs. The extent of land set aside
for the cultivation of cotton in 1863 amounted to 2,021 acres.
720
SOUTH AUSTRALIA,
Constitution and Ooyemment.
The constitution of South Australia bears date October 27, 1856.
It vests the legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people.
The Parliament consists of a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly. The former is composed of eighteen memberSy six of
whom retire every four years, their successors being then elected
for twelve years. The executive has no power to dissolve this
body. It is elected by the whole colony voting as one district.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Ck>uncil are
that he must be twenty-one years of age, a natnoral-born or
naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the
electoral roll six months, besides having a freehold of 50/. value, or
a leasehold of 20/. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of
25/. annual value. The qualification for a member of Council is
merely that he must be thirty years of age, a natural-born or natural-
ised subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty-six members, elected
for three years by seventeen districts, but liable to dissolution by the
executive. The sole qualification for an elector is that of having
been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at
twenty-one years of age ; and the qualification for a member is the
same. The Speaker of 9ie House of Assembly is chosen by the mem-
bers of a new House on its first meeting. Judges and ministers of
religion are ineligible for election as members, as well as aliens who
have not resided ^ye years in the colony. The elections of members
of both Houses take place by ballot.
The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown
and a responsible Executive Council, the members of which must
have been elected deputies of either of the two Houses of Parliament
Governor of South Australia, — Sir Dominic Daly, bom 1798 ;
Secretary of the province of Canada, 1840-48 ; appointed Lieut-
Governor of Tobago, 1851 ; transferred to the Government of
Prince Edward's Island in 1854-59 ; appointed Governor of South
Australia, November 1861.
The governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of all
the troops, has a salary of 4,000Z. per annum. The Cabinet, or Exe-
cutive Council, of which he is the president, consists of five members,
called the Chief Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the
Commissioner of Crown Lands, and the Commissioner of Public
Works. The Chief Secretary has a salary of 1,300/. per annum,
and each of the other meic^^xt^ oi ^<^ ^sd^\si^ ^^l. The
BEYENUS AND EXPENBITUBE.
721
ministers axe jointly and individually responsible to the Legislature
for all their official acts.
Sevenne and Expenditure.
The annual revenue and expenditure of the colony for each of
the seven years 1858-64 were as follows : —
Yean
Berenue
Ezpenditixre
£
£
1858
601,500
620,756
1859
669,683
492,656
1860
504,045
543,025
1861
558,586
482,951
1862
659,870
615,114
1863
631,700
635,205
1864
766,635
612,078
The details of revenue and expenditure, ordinary as well as extra-
ordinary, in the year 1863, were as follows : —
Branches of Bevenne
Gross
amount
Branches of Expenditure
Gross
amount
Obdinabt KEvmruB Ain)
Loans.
£
£
Customs duties
156,245
Civil list.
14,800
Port and harbour dues .
4,371
Establishments :— .
Rents, exclusive of land .
1,241
Salaries fixed
73,468
Assessment on stock
40,084
Provisional ,
82,285
Licences ....
15,481
Allowances .
4,138
Postage ....
19,020
Contingencies
123,608
Fines, fees, and forfeitures
17,566
Pensions ....
3,556
Sales of crown lands
184,415
Works and buildings
135,889
Sales of Government
Interest and exchange
1,706
property . ,
1,340
Interest and redemption
Luid revenue .
46,408
of loans
125,986
Eeimbursements in aid .
10,137
Immigration .
24,378
Railways
98,750
Miscellaneous services
45,391
Tramway
2,225
1
Interest and exchange
56
1
Special receipts in aid of
1
immigration .
6,340
1
Telegraphs
8,293
1
Water rates, Adelaide .
16,072
1
Miscellaneous receipts .
Ordinary revenue .
3,656
Loans under Acts on
/
631,700
635,205
Receipts from loans
Total revenue •
33,044
public works
Total «i:!(«Ddi\!Qx^
13,465
664J44
>^V^??V^
3 A
722
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
The public debt of tbe colony, dating from 1854, amounted to
593,700/. in 1857, to 870,100/. in 1860, and to 866,860/. in 1863.
This debt does not include loans for reproductive public works.
Area and FopulatioiL
The original boundaries of the colony, according to the Statutes
of 4 and 5 Wm. cap. 95, were fixed between 132** and 141** E.
long, for the eastern and western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for
the northern limit, and for the south the Southern Ocean The
boimdaries of the colony were subsequently extended, under the
authority of Royal Letters Patent, dated July 6, 1863, so as to
embrace all the territory lying northward of 26** S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude. The
total area of this territory is calculated to comprise 383,328 English
square miles.
South Australia was first colonised in 1836 by emigrants fromOreat
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the
South Australian Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained a
grant from the Imperial Government of the lands of the colony.
The conditions were that the land should not be sold at less than 1/.
per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such lands should
be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers ; that
the control of Ihe company^s affairs should be vested in a body of
commissioners approved by the Secretary of State for the colonies,
and that the governor of the colony should be nominated by the
Crown.
The total population of each sex, according to the enumerations
taken in each of the years 1844, 1846, 1851, 1855, 1861, and
1863, was as follows : —
Dateofoensns
Kales
Femahs
Tbtel
Februaiy 26, 1844 .
9,626
7,670
17,366
26, 1846 . . .
12,670
9,660
22,390
January 1, 1851
36,302
27,737
63,700
March 31, 1865 .
43,720
41,469
86,821
April 8, 1861 ....
66,048
61,782
126,830
JanuAiy 1, 1863
69,608
66,721
136,329
The total population was estimated, on January 1, 1865, at
148,143. The immigration in the year 1864 brought 5,959 per-
sons, while there emigrated 2,575.
The occupations of the population and their percentage propor-
tion were as follows, accor^^ \o tVi^ ^t^^^ of A^ril 8^ 1861 :
ABXA. AND POPULATION.
7*3
Occupation
Number
Agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural
Commerce, trade, and manufactures
Domestic servants
Labourers (branch undefined)
Mining ......
Learned professions
General and local government
Maintained at public cost
Independent means ....
Miscellaneous pursuits ....
Residue, including females and children
23,135
13,899
6,617
3,306
1,908
1,320
822
417
229
170
76,007
18-24
10-96
4-43
2-60
1-60
1-06
•66
•33
•18
•13
69-93
Total
126,830
100-00
The following was the origin of the population according to the
census of April 8, 1861 : —
Origin
Males
Females
Total
British Possessions:
South Australia .
Victoria ....
New South Wales
Other British Possessions .
England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Foreign countries :
France ....
Germany ....
China
Other foreign coxmtries
Bom at sea ....
Unspecified ....
Total
24,388
363
253
751
24,015
3,971
6,408
78
4,879
39
662
281
70
24,226
334
264
664
20,828
3,678
7,286
46
3,984
1
163
281
39
48,613
687
607
1,416
44,843
7,649
12,694
123
8,863
40
725
662
109
66,048
61,782
126,830
The following statement gives the religious division of the in-
habitants of the colony, according to a semi-official enumeration of
the year 1861 :—
xTumber
Percentage
Church of Endand ....
43,687
36-948
Boman Catholics .
16,694
13-219
Wesleyan Methodists
14,322
12141
German Lutherans
11,235
9-624
Independents
6,268
6*314
Church of Scotland
4,821
Bible Christians .
\ ^,^^^
Zh.^
724
SOUTH AUSTBAUA.
Free Church of Scotland
Number
Percentage
4,137
3,508
Primitive Methodists ....
3,672
3129
Baptists
3,424
2-902
Christians
1,658
1-405
United Presbyterians ....
1,572
1-333
Other Christian Denominations .
573
0-486
Unitarians
493
0-417
Hebrews
360
0-305
Moravians
217
0-183
New Church
192
0-163
Society of Friends ....
124
0-106
Mohammedans and Pagans .
112
0095
Not specified
Total
1,390
1-179
126,830
The various degrees of instruction or ignorance of the popula-
tion, according to the census of April 8, 1861, were as follows :^-
Able to read and write .
Able to read only .
Unable to read
Unknown
Total
Hales
Females
Total
38,201
7,943
18,062
842
33,062
10,354
17,580
786
71,263
18,297
35,642
1,628
65,048
61,782
126,830
At the census of 1861, the total aboriginal population of South
Australia was 5,046, the males largely exceeding the females in
number. There were only 850 children, so that here, as elsewhere,
the original race is &st becoming extinct.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, inclu-
sive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in each
of the five years 1860-64 was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
£
£
1860
1,739,591
1,783,716
1861
1,976,018
2,032,311
1862
1,820,656
2,145,796
1863
2,028,280
2,358,817
1864
2,412,931
8,305,545
TKADB AND INDUSTKl. 725
The quantities and value of the imports of South Australia, in
each of the years 1863 and 1864, were as follows: —
TotAl imports into South AontniU*
PfilNOPAl ARTICLES.
Appft^l ajid slops .
Bags and si^cke, oorti and gniiiiy
Beer and porter
Boots and shoos * i
Bullion and specie .
Cfljidles . i * •
Coalflf coke, aud other fuel
CatloTj and bArdwBTo
Drapetj . * , ,
Grocmes and oilman'd at<MPeB
Ii^n : tar, elieet* hoop, and rod
„ manufa<;tnres
Implpments ♦ * »
Machinery
Spirits: Biandy
Gin ,
Tea . . * .
Tobacco, nmnufactupod *
Win© . , . .
Woodj timber, pqiiarDd, &c.
Wool. . . , *
fPackgs.
r Bales
1 £
t Gdlons
1 £
1 £
f Packgs.
I £
[ ^i
r tvmm
>•« '^
t Packgs.
I £
1 £
i Tom
I ^
\ £
fPackffs.
I ^
( Gail&njt
7 £
r Gallons
^ ^ ^
} £
f "^^
I LA*.
i £
i Gallons
£
I £
i Us.
I £
Total toJu© of principal ftnd other }
articles , . . , • J
19«3
746
22,248
3,585
59,384
311*641
44,656
3,954
75,555
27
135,600
694,065
25.478
37.741
48,428
5.079
34,00(1
9.277
443,048
27.592
47.362
1.283
11,792
49,265
83,276
963
12,291
2,499
33,650
73,973
34,014
41.882
12.113
98,072
134,924
900.468
79,653
242.879
44,438
54,411
27,477
13,023
54,621
1,316,919
66,272
S,02S,280
ifle4
480
9,349
4,094
10), 153
314,497
47,712
3,780
68,314
172
260,142
668,669
21,277
02,301
07,999
6,601
36,036
9,894
609.175
28,105
46,476
1,845
22,211
01,135
114,179
1,486
13.421
1.439
12,896
71,319
33.988
24,260
7,313
97,159
149.878
1,109,505
87,461
564,384
91,790
66,864
29,177
21,740
73,972
1,200.060
74,833
726
SOUTH AUSTBALU.
The quantitiea and value of the prmcipal exports, in each of the
years 1863 and 1864, weie as follows : —
Total exports from South Australia
Principai. ABnCLBS.
Bullion and specie
Com: Flour
„ Wheat .
Metal, copper ,
Ores
Wool
£
Tons
. £
Qrs.
£
CwU.
£
Tons
£
Us.
Bales
£
Total value of prmcipal and other 1
articles J
1863
1864
70,000
43,643
39,722
41,818
478,821
844,619
116,634
196,386
220,193
663,713
96,039
134,065
447,944
637,791
6,833
6,164
93,924
63,712
16,668,979
17,496,651
.48,226
60,946
776,646
849,125
2,368,817
3,306,545
The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South
Australia with the United Kingdom, giving the value of the total
imports from the colony into Great Britain, and of the exports of
British produce to South Australia, in each of the five years
1860-64 :—
Imports from South Aus-
Exports of Home Produce
Years
tralia into the United
from the United Kingdom
Kingdom
to South Australia
£
£
1860
736,480
810,983
1861
784,663
1,086,280
1862
866,683
896,486
1863
1,097,796
1,067,886
1864
1,203,809
1,116,664
Mining operations are pursued on a very extensive scale in the
colony. The mineral weith as yet diiscovered consists chiefly in
copper. The largest of the mines is the Burra-Burra copper mine,
employing about 1,000 persons. Most of the ores raised are re-
duced to fine copper before shipment. The increase in mining is
shown by the returns of the value of copper and copper ore exported
during a period of fifteen years, of the following value : —
1S62
1S5B
£^74,700 \ V^^*i
TBADE AND INDUSTKY. J%^
The number of copper mines at work at the end of 1864 amounted
to 36. At the same date, the colony had 56 miles of railway open
for traffic, contracted by a company which was established under
powers of an Act of the Legislature of South Australia, assented to
in her Majesty's name on October 21, 1862. The company received
the grant of 128,000 acres of freehold land for 100 miles of railway.
728
TASMANIA.
Constitation and Oovemmeni
The constitution of Tasmania was settled by the local Act of 18
Vict. No. 17. By this Act a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly are constituted, called tJbe * Parliament of Van Diemen*s
Land.* The Legislative Coimcil is composed of fifteen members,
elected by all natural bom or naturalised subjects of the Crown
who possess either a bOL freehold, or hold a commission in the army
or navy, or have a degree of some university, or are in holy orders.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty members, elected by lOL
householders, or freeholders, and all subjects holding a commission,
or possessing a degree, or in holy orders. The legislative authority
rests in both Houses united ; while the executive power is vested in
a governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Tasmania, — Colonel Gore Browne, C.B. ; entered the
army, 1814 ; commander of the 4l8t regiment during the Afgha-
nistan campaign, 1842 ; Governor of St. Helena, 1851-54 ; Governor
of New Zealand, 1854-61 ; appointed Governor of Tasmania, March
1862.
The governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the troops in the colony ; he has a salary of 4,000Z. per annum. He
is aided in the exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible
ministers, consisting of four members, the Colonial Secretary, the
Colonial Treasurer, the Attorney-General, and a minister without
office. The members of the cabinet must have a seat in either of
the two Houses of Parliament.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The public revenue is chiefly derived from customs duties, and
the sale and rent of State lands. The subjoined statement shows the
revenue and expenditure during the years 1858-64 : —
Years
Bevenue
Expenditure
1858
£
599,524
560,488
1859
429,425
422,587
1860
413,915
403,194
1861
316,732
337,941
1862
371,594
355,864
1863
aw,67o
329,760
1864
^ %M,^^%
AREA AND POPtTLATION. 729
The receipts arising from the sale and lease of public lands formed
about one-fourth of the revenue of 1864. The total grants of land
amounted to 100,115 acres in 1861, to 39,568 acres in 1862, and to
78,080 acres in 1863. The number of grants in 1863 was 338, of
which 251 for less than 100 acres, and 87 for grants of between 100
and 500 acres of laud.
The public debt of Tasmania, on the 1st of January, 1864,
amounted to 527,880^.
Area and Popnlation.
Tasmania, once known as Van Diemen's Land — in honour of a
governor of the Dutch East Indies — was discovered by the navigator
Tasman in 1642 ; and afterwards partially explored by Captain
Cook. The first penal settlement formed here was in 1803 ; and
till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from Great Britain
and from New South Wales, of which colony it was a dependency.
Transportation to New South Wales having ceased in the year 1841,
Tasmania, to which had been annexed Norfolk Island, became the
only colony to which criminals from Great Britain were sent ; but
this ceased in 1853, when transportation to Tasmania was likewise
abolished.
The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles, or
16,778,000 acres, divided as follows : —
Acres
Area of Tasmania, exclusive of islands and lakes . . 15,571,500
Islands in Bass's Straits, north-east group: —
Flinders 613,000
Cape Barren 110,000
Clarke's 20,000
All others 27,000
North-west group : —
King^s 272,000
Bobbin's 24,500
Three Hummock 19,000
Barren 18,400
Walker's 1,700
All others 1,900
Schouten Island ....... 7,000
Maria's Island 24,000
Bruni Islands, north and south 90,000
All other islands 2,500
Lakes— discharging southerly 65,500
„ northerly 10,000
Total area of Tasmania .... 16,778,000
Area of alienated land .... 3,413,810
13,365,810
Area of unalienated land, including lakes » « \^A^%>^"V\
The quantity of land under cultivation on January \, Y%^5, ^«»a 'I'b^^'V^^ ^'ct^s^-
730
TASMANIA.
The census of April 7, 1861, showed the population of Tasmania
as follows : —
Males . .
Females . .
Total . .
Total
Married
Single
49,593
40,384
15,893
15,616
33,700
24,768
89,977
31,509 •
58,468
The population, on January 1, 1865, was calculated at 93,307, of
whom 42,934 were females.
The number of immigrants of each sex, in each of the years
1858, 1859, and 1860, was as follows :—
Yean
Males
Females
. Children
Total
1858
1859 .
1860 .
2,335
1,794
1,679
1,229
916
1,141
439
265
612
4,003
2,975
3,432
The greater part of the immigrants came from Great Britain and
Ireland, and about one-fiflh of them at the public expense. In the
year 1858, the Government paid 5,587/. for 479 immigrants ; in
1859, the sum of 9,430/. was paid for 713 immigrants, and in 1860,
the simi paid was 9,311/. for 818 immigrants. No immigrants, in
Government vessels, arrived in Tasmania during the year 1863. In
1864, the total arrivals numbered 3,711, but the departures, on the
other hand, amounted to 3,521.
The progress of increase of the population, from the first settle-
ment of the colony to the year 1848, took place at the following
i-atio : —
Year
Jan. 1
Free
Convicte
Hales
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
1804
68
10
78
360
40
400
1822
2,209
1,407
1,269
4,548
348
4,996
1824
3,781
2,248
3,616
6,467
471
5,938
1825
4,297
2,462
6,029
6,244
601
6.845
1830
8,351
4,623
6,759
8,877
1,318
10,196
1835
12,940
9,051
12,974
14,914
2,054
16,968
1840
14,647
11,517
21,991
15,624
2,239
17,763
1842
21,672
15,116
27,327
17,632
2,700
20,332
1848
25,376
18,354
43,730
16,948
3,601
20,449
TBADE AND II9DUSTBT.
731
At the census of 1842, the number of aborigines in the colony
amounted to 51 ; but they had dwindled down to 30, namely 15
males and 23 females, at the census of December 31, 1847. There
were still 6 aborigines — 1 man and 5 women, dwelling at * Oyster-
Cove '—in April, 1866.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of Tasmania has been decreasing of late years. The
total imports from all countries amounted to 1,328,612^. in 1858,
and had fallen to 902,940^. in 1863, but rose again to 908,265^. in
1864. The total exports, which were of the value of 1,151,609/. in
1858, had fallen to 999,511/. in 1863, and to 975,730/. in 1864.
The total value of the imports from Tasmania into the United
Kingdom, and of the exports of British produce and manufactures
to Tasmania, in each of the five years 1860-64, is shown in the fol-
lowing statement : —
Yean
into the United Kingdom
Exports of Home Produce
from the United Kingdom
to Tasmania
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
497,006
465,862
457,683
360,405
464,296
£
367,644
324,114
284,934
315,221
266,716
The staple article of imports from Tasmania into the United
Kingdom is wool. The value amounted to 428,838/. in 1860, to
322,677 in 1863, and to 422,969/., representmg 4,828,260 pounds
of wool, in 1864.
The mineral resources of Tasmania are presumed to be large, but
they have hitherto been left undeveloped. The greatest progress
has been made in gold and coal mining. Quantities of gold ore have
been found in many parts of the island, which are widely distant
from each other ; but notwithstanding the offer of a large Govern-
ment reward, the metal has not been found in remimerative amounts.
Veins of coal are foimd in nearly every part of the colony. The
main portion of the fuel used in Hobart Town is from mines in the
immediate neighbourhood, and from Tasman's Peninsula. The coal
mine of Mount St. Nicholas is estimated to occupy an area of 14
square miles. Iron is said to abound all over the colony.
73*
VICTORIA.
Constitution and Oovemment
The coiiBtitution of Victoria was established by an Act, passed by
the Legislature of the colony, in 1854, to which the assent of the
CroAATi was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the Act of
the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 55. This charter
proyided that the l^islative authority should vest in a Parliament
of two Chambers ; the Legislative Council, composed of thirty mem-
bers, and the Legislative Assembly, composed of sixty members.
Members of the Council to be owners of property worth 5,000/., or
500Z. a year. All candidates to deposit lOOZ. with returning officer
before the nomination-day. Money returned to candidates who poll
one-fifth of the number of votes polled by the successful candidate.
Owners, lessees, and occupiers of property valued at 1,OOOZ. or 100/.
a year, barristers, solicitors, medical practitioners, ministers of re-
ligion, officers in the army and navy, schoolmasters, &c., are entitled
to vote if in possession of electors' rights. The constitution provides
that six members of Couucil shall retire every two years. Kecently
a bill was introduced into the Upper House to effect a reduction in
the qualification of electors and members, and an abridgment of the
tenure of office. Had it passed the property qualification of members
and electors would have been reduced one-half, and the term of
office would have been reduced from ten to five years. Althongli
the bill was rejected by the casting-vote of the president, it is likdy
to become law in a future session. While the constitution provided
that the duration of Parliament should be five years, an Act was
passed in 1857 limiting its duration to three years. The L^slative
Assembly, which was formerly composed of sixty members, now
consists of seventy-eight. Any man of twenty years of age untainted
with crime is eligible to become a candidate ; owners of freeholds
valued at 50/. or 5/. a year, and naturalised males over twenty-one
years, are entitled to vote. Candidates for the Assembly must deposit
50/. with the returning officer on the nomination-day. Members of the
Legislature are not entitled to any remimeration for services rendered.
The executive is vested in a governor-general, appointed by the
Crown.
Governor- General of Victoria. — Hon. John H. T. Manners /S^M/ton,
born 1810, educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated
M. A., 1835 ; Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department
from Sept. 1841 to July, 1846 ; returned M.P. for the borough of
Cambridge, Sept. 1839, but unseated on petition; sat for the
borough of Cambridge from 1841 to 1847 ; lieut.-govemor of New
BruDSwick, from June, 1854, to Oct. 1861 ; governor of Trinidad
from April, 1864, to "NLay,!^^^', «i.Y^m\i^ ^^wasst-^^oecal of
Victoria, May 1866, and aaavxme^d o«LQfe kxvsj^-^^A'^'^^^
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.
733
The Govemor-Geriferal, who is likewise commander-in-chief of all
the colonial troops, has a salary of 10,000Z. a year. In the exercise
of the executive he is assisted by a cabinet of ten ministers, called the
Chief Secretary, the Minister of Justice, the Attorney-General, the
Treasurer, the President of Board of Land and Survey, the Com-
missioner of Public Works, the Commissioner of Railways, the Com-
missioner of Customs, the Minister of Mines, and the Postmaster-
General. The ministers must be members of either of the Houses of
Legislature, and they are individually and collectively responsible for
their acts to the colonial Parliament.
Eevenne and Expenditure.
The total amount of the gross public revenue and of the expendi-
ture of the colony, in each of the years 1858 to 1864, was as
follows :—
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1858
3,064,783
2,915,379
1859
3,258,792
3,450,241
1860
3,039,035
3,311,308
1861
3,070,721
3,125,767
1862
3,217,750
2,853,121
1863
2,880,087
2,879,698
1864
2,993,082
3,011,054
The various branches of revenue and expenditure, in the year 1863,
are shown in the subjoined table : —
Branches of Bevenue Gross amount Branches of Expenditure Gross amount
tistoms:
Import duty on spirits
,,
wine .
It
beer .
»»
tobacco
cigars
>f
coffee
»»
sugar .
„
tea .
>»
opium
)i
nee .
If
dried fruits
»»
hops . .
»}
malt .
RegiBtration fees
Total
Export duty on gold
Dutv on spirits dis- )
tuied ID me colony j
£
496,672
45,840
53,717
121,952
10,360
11,928
121,952
94,094
24,173
15,822
16,683
5,543
8,476
28,132
1,060,533
121,510
6,181
\
Houses of Legislature .
Chief secretary's de-)
partment . . j
R^strar general's i
department . >
Judicial department j
and magistracy )
Treasury department .
Commissioners of lands 1
and surveys . J
Public works
Railways, roads, and >
bridges . . J
Trade and customs )
department . {
Postmaster general's 1
department « \
Po\ice . . . ,
£
12,793
5,630
17,497
151,345
314,813
94,726
282,794
423,013
112,374
160,7G7
734
VICTORIA.
Branches of Revenue GroflBunoant Branches of Bxpenditure GrosBsmoniifr
Gold:
Bosiness licences
Miners' rights .
Leases of auriferous 1
lands and quartz |>
veins. . .. J
Tonnage and pilotage)
at ontports . . )
Postage
Fines and'forfeitures :
Supreme court .
County and general >
sessions courts . )
Petty sessions .
Other
Fees of civil offices :
Supreme court .
County and general I
sessions court J
Petty sessions .
Courts of mines
Other
Lands:
Sales of .
Rents of .
Licences :
Auctioneers*
Publicans'
Spirit meiy^hants'
Brewers' .
Pastoral occupation
Leases, licences, and ~
fees for survey
runs
All other licences
Miscellaneous :
Rents (exclusive of )
land) . . \
Sale of Government )
property J
Receipts f romGt)vem-
ment printing-
office
Receipts from tele- )
graph department (
Receipts from la- )
hour of prisoners $
Storage of gunpowder
Chinese rates .
Railway income
MiaceUaneoxia .
Total
ipauon
), and 1
irey of >
m- I
£
10,281
29,149
6,135
20,659
118,452
694
103
8,204
1,878
20,843
4,521
10,280
588
19,046
334,587
176,154
4,350
54,625
14,124
979
277,495
12,974
10,130
2,073
3,726
6,288
25,668
5,008
1,184
90
454,382
Penal establishments
Medical
Aborigines .
Public library
Audit office .
Shorthand writer .
Education .
Lunatic asylum
Electoral
Magnetic survey .
Botanic and Zoological )
Gardens . \
National Museum
Steam sloop * Victoria '
Grants
Sc%bAct .
Special appropriations r
Immigration
Commissioners of ]
Audit .
Under * Constitution '
Act,' Schedule D.,
Parts 1 to 8
University of Mel-
bourne .
Interest on water
and sewerage de-
bentui'es
Principle due on
water and sewer-
age debentures
Pensions and retar-*!
ing allowances J
Interest on Mount 1
Alexander rail- I
way debentures J
Interest on railway?
loan . {
Mining boards -.
Costs of arbitrations
Roads
Liquidation of cor-1
poration bonds J
Miscellaneous
uj
6,881
4,290
14,696
25,245
IcAA
"KVCl^JIW^
i\
AKEA AND POPULATION. 735
The chief sources of the revenue of Victoria, until the year 1862,
were customs duties and sales of public lands, which, with some
fluctuations, produced about one-half of the annual income. A new
source of revenue was more recently added in the receipts derived
from public works, including a great railway system, the manage-
ment of which remains in the hands of the Government.
The debt of Victoria amounts to about nine millions, of which not
more than one million is held in the colony, the rest being held in
Great Britain. This debt is almost entirely composed of a great
railway loan, authorised in 1858, and amounting to eight millions
sterling. Seven millions of this sum were made payable in
London. The total of eight millions, it is probable, will be
exceeded to some extent in the construction of the railways, in
consequence of unanticipated liabilities involved in the purchase of
the Geelong and Melbourne line from a private company, with the
object of completing the railway system in the hands of the Govern-
ment. The remainder of the colony's debt consists of several other
sums that amoimted originally to above a million and a half sterling.
One of these items was 500,000/., and another 200,000/., contracted
in the year 1854, on behalf of the municipalities of Melbourne and
Geelong, and repayable by the Government; another was for 820,000/.,
expended in the construction of water- works for Melbourne. The
great railway loan is not repayable imtil the years 1883-85 ; but
the other liabilities are to be discharged previous to 1875.
Area and PopnlatioiL
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion of
New South Wales, bearing the name of the Port Philip district.
It was erected in 1851 — by Imperial Act of Parliament, 13 and 14
Victoria, cap. 59— into a separate colony, and called Victoria. The
colony has an area of 86,944 square miles. Victoria is bounded on the
north and north-east by a straight line drawn from Cape Howe
to the nearest source of the river Murray, thence by the course
of that river to the eastern boundary of South Australia, or 141**
E. long., thence to the sea ; on the south by the sea, a distance of
about 700 miles, to Cape Howe, including the islands along the
coast.
The growth of the population, as shown by the census of nine
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table :— .
736
TICTOBIA.
Number of
Dates of census
Hales
Females
Total
females to
May 26, 1836
142
36
177
24-6
November 8, 1836
186
38
224
20-4
September 12, 1838
3,080
431
3,611
14-0
March 2, 1841
8,274
3,464
11,738
41-9
„ 2, 1846
20,184
12,696
32,879
62-9
„ 2, 1861
46,202
31,143
77,346
67-4
April 26, 1854
March 29, 1867
. 166,876
80,900
236,776
61-9
264,334
146,432
410,766
66-4
April 7, 1861 .
328,661
211,671
640,322
64-4
The estimated population of Victoria, on January 1, 1865, was
604,858, viz., 347,954 males, and 256,904 females.
The following were the birthplaces of the population of each sex,
according to the census of the year 1861 :-^
BlrOipIiUM
Victoria , , , , ,
Other AuiitmlL&n coboies And New
Zealand
England
Wales .
Scotliind
Ireland .
British colonies (not Auj^timU&n}
India: Bri^iah
tj Natives
FoEEiax:
FranL'c .
Gemijinj
Other purts oi Europo
United Sttttefl
China
Other countiiefl
Bom at a&a.
Unsipeci^ed (British natoflfi'
„ (ForeigH)
„ (Names not mentioned)
Of British parentage, out of British
possesaiona ....
Migratory (ejtclu»iTe of Clime«e)
Fopnlatioa
Mftleg
nasD
10,336
108,037
4,333
37,033
47476
2,675
437
18S
1,026
8,118
6,562
2,209
24,724
9S7
408
31
1,094
770
2,873
I M8,a5l [^ 2U,671
Femalea
68,686
9,600
61,549
1,722
23,669
39,984
915
217
16
224
2,300
376
346
8
60
863
9
106
409
468
ToUJ
138,07^
19,386
169,586
6,065
60,701
&7,160
3,49a
fi54
204
1,260
10,41S
6,938
2,654
24,732
406
1,840
663
40
1,200
1,179
3,341
540,322
AKEA AND POPULATION.
737
It will be seen from the preceding table, that among the natives of
ihe colony the sexes are nearly equally balanced, while they are &r
from being so among the immigrant population. Yet here, too,
exist enormous differences. The immigrants from Scotland and
Ireland seem more generally to be accompanied by their families
than those from England, while among the foreign immigrants the
disproportion in the sexes is very striking. The Germans alone
have any considerable number of females among them, and the rest
of foreigners are nearly all males. The disproportion is most im-
favourable among the Chinese settlers, consisting of more than
24,000 males, but only eight females. The above enumeration, in
stating the birthplaces, does not include 1,694 aborigines, namely,
1,046 males and 648 females. The aboriginal race is drawing
towards extinction.
The following were the occupations of the people according to the
census of 1861 : —
Nature of Oocupation
Government service, army and navy .
Professional — clericail, medical, legal . .
„ literature, fine arts, and sciences .
Trading . .
Personal offices — entertaining, clothing, serving,
&c.
Mann&ctnring
Gold-mining
Agricultural and pastoral
Carrying
Dealers in food and drinks
Miscellaneous — ^labourers, &c. .
Independent . . . . .
Engaged in domestic offices or duties, and un-
specified
Maintained at pubHc cost or by the community .
Not specified and unemployed . . . .
Total .
Total
Incltuiye of
Chinese and
Aborigines
3,774
3,149
4,227
16,594
36,442
33,780
83,120
52,801
12,245
12,380
11,299
1,364
254,503
4,559
11,085
540,322
Chinese and
Aborigines
1
80
11
1,046
372
150
21,161
642
49
310
115
74
189
2,224
26,426
It will be seen from this return that the agricultural population
as yet is very small in the colony, being vastly outnumbered by the
gold miners.
The number of persons of each relig^\a\]L& ^<esiCi\xi\x^3b^C^a^ '^'J
follows, according to the census of tlie yeai \^^\ \ —
3 B
738
VICTOBU.
Number
Denominations
Number
Church of England and
Wesleyan Methodiste :
Episcopalian Protestants
205,695
Wesleyans, Wesleyan
Methodists, and Me-
Free Church .
454
Protestants (not otherwise
thodistfl .
40,799
defined)
5,919
Primitive Methodists .
3,775
Presbyterian Churches:
Wesleyan Methodist As-
Presbyterian Church of
sociation and Uni-
Victoria .
5,052
ted Free Methodist
Church of Scotland
36,917
Churches .
1,146
Free Church of Scotland
Bible Christians .
651
and Free Presbyterians
21,219
Other Wesleyan Method-
United Presbyterian
ists ....
140
Church .
16,734
Independents or Congrega-
Other Presbyterian
tionalists
12,777
Churches .
346
Baptists ....
9,001
Presbyterians (not other-
Lutherans and German
wise defined) .
6,835
Protestants .
10,043
Unitarians
1,430
Unsectarian, no denomina-
Society of Friends ; , ,.
273
tion, and Secularists
952
Calvinists and Calvinistic
* No religion * .
441
Methodists .
650
Mahometans .
189
Other persuasions
1,257
Pagans (exclusive of Chi-
Roman Catholics
107,610
nese) ....
1,672
Catholics (not otherwise
Chinese ....
24,551
defined)
2,219
Unspecified adults .
2,391
Greek Church .
239
„ children .
642
Israelites and 'Christian
Objecting to state .
11,536
Israelites * . . .
395
Unenumerated migratory
Latter- Day Saints or Mor-
population .
3,361
mons . • •
108
Jews ....
2,903
Total ;.
540,322
The progress of population of the colony was greatly aided by the
encouragement of immigration on the part of the State. From 1838
to 1860, above 120,000 immigrants received assistance from the
public funds for defraying their passage to the colony. Subsequently,
however, to the year 1864, this * assisted ' immigration came to be
greatly reduced, and the number of persons conveyed from the United
Kingdom to Victoria, in the. year 1865, amounted to but 487, of
whom 37 were married men, 37 married women, 379 single women,
16 boys between the ages of 1 and 12, 6 girls between the same ages,
5 male infants and 7 female ; 179 were English, 58 Scotch, and 250
Irish. The total number of immigrants from the United Kingdom
which arrived in the colony, in the year 1865, was 9,713, represent-
ing a considerable decrease over the preceding year.
(For particulars of * assisted ' emigration to Victoria, see * Emigra*
tion from the United ^ngSiom,^ ^. ^%^,^
TBADE AND COMMERCE.
739
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, in the twelve
years from 1853 to 1864, was as follows: —
Years
Imports
Exports
£
£
1853
15,842,637
11,061,544
1854
17,659,051
11,775,204
1855
12,007,939
13,493,338
1856
14,962,269
15,489,760
1857
17,256,209
15,079,512
1858
15,108,249
13,989,209
1859
15,622,891
13,867,859
1860
16,093,730
12,962,704
1861
13,532,452
13,828,606
1862
13,487,787
13,039,422
1863
14,118,727
13,566,296
1864
14,974,815
13,898,384
The quantities and value of the imports into the colony, in each of
the years 1863 and 1864, were as follows : —
Total imports into Victoria
Fbixcifal Abticles.
Apparel and slops
Beer and cider
Boots and shoes .
Butter and cheese
Candles ....
Coals (including coke and fuel till
1856 inclusive)
Cottons ....
Flour (including bread and biscuit
till 1855 inclusive) .
1863
8,860
344,460
2,647,394
474,073
33,110
618,776
1,975
243,236
2,308
239,411
111,434
172,256
1,181
72,940
9,465
1864
\
5,748
186,860
1,934,892
335,019
28,407
672,410
1,103
116,742
1,928
183,360
114,026
174,679
480
27,722
\
3b2
740
VICTOBli.
ImporU-^Priudpal Aiticles — eoniintt^.
ToUl Imports Into Victoria
1S«3
law
PfilKCIPM, ABTICLK*.
Fnniiturt
Grmin of all kinda (mduding
rice) . , * I
Haberdiflhery ami drapery .
H&rdware aod iroamongcrj ,
Iron and stael
M&chiuery .
Oilraan's stores
Potatoes
Pronsions
Bail way materials
Silks .
Sped© ,
Stationery (Int^luding books till
1850 inclusive)
Sttgar of all kinds and molasges
Spirits of all kinds
Tea .
Timber
Tobacco
Wine of all kinds
Woollens
£
BmheU
Tani
£
Fachgs.
TonA
£
/ Fachgs.
', £
f Teiu
r Packgv.
{ TmM
V i
f Packgs.
£
f Packffs.
I ^^
r Cwta.
£
GaUons
£
I £
Bundles
f U».
\ £
!G&llmu
£
Paetfft.
{
Total Talue of prindpal and otlier artidefl £
12,338
9,719
93,068
73,701
1,646,762
1,825,600
9ABI
15.14a
726,820
954,991
47,836
39,493
2,744,800
2,418,483
28.481
33.402
553,577
366,133
22,031
22,138
329,510
390,860
e,d8a
6,276
95.367
68,447
104,261
83,475
229,870
180.246
7.167
5,830
44,667
29,748
1M»0
9,193
1,202
1,360
162,116
134,991
170,&61
9,446
481
515
66,886
68,055
6fi5t209
980,992
15,653
16,920
221,606
244.916
519,116
455,140
694,163
538,286
2,226,254
1,512,122
681,634
484,702
6,069,562
8,986.717
38M86
519.287
4.0S6,62l
4,791,550
21,449,816
19,282,316
49,508
30,884
377.485
318.122
2,814,343
6,994,636
385,734
728,477
509,928
523,404
248,598
261,642
3,583
2,098
235,941
191,551
14,118,727
14,974315
The quantities and value oi iVe ex.^T\A feooi t.\v^ colony, in each
of the jears 1863 and 18^4, viete ^afe\ift^^%—
TBADE AND COMMEBCE.
741
Total exports from Yictoria
1863
Pbikcipal Abticles.
Gold (exclusive of specie) .
Specie— Grold
„ Silver
Hides .
Cattle .
Horises'.
Skins .
Tallow
Tea .
Wool .
{
0Z8,
£
£
£
No,
£
No.
£
No.
£
No.
£
No.
Bundles
£
Tons
£
Lbs.
£
Us.
£
1,627,066
6,520,957
1,169,471
685
146,640
98,346
11,270
83,744
7,189
156,088
137,560
101,710
126,744
7,918
865
33,871
1,908,550
155,615
25,679,886
2,049,491
1,545,450
6,206,237
1,029,872
3,806
144,577
94,651
8,813
65,189
1,810
42,198
146,569
108,720
79,960
8,173
1,733
60,230
2,628,018
209,630
39,871,892
3,250,128
Total value of principal and other articles £
13,666,296
13,898,384
Wool is the staple article of export from the colony. In 1850
the export of wool had reached 18,091,207 lbs. ; and notwithstand-
ing the attraction of the gold fields, the exports had advanced in
1863 to 25,579,886 lbs., and in 1864 attained to 39,871,892 lbs.
Tallow, also, and hides are exported largely.
Rather more than one-half of the total imports and exports of
Victoria come from, and are sent to, the United Kingdom.
The commercial intercourse of the colony with the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of the
total imports of merchandise — exclusive of gold and specie — from
Victoria into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British
produce and manufectures to Victoria in each of the five years I860
to 1864 :—
Tear»
Imports from Victoria into
the United Kingdom
from the United Kingdom
to Victoria
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
£
2,867,446
2,905,342
2,870,715
2,681,239
4,043,8ia
6,377,740
6,628,331
6,731,566
742
VICTOKU.
The staple article of import from Victoria into the United King-
dom is wool, the imports of which amounted to 24,209,615 lbs.,
of the value of 2,357,545/. in 1860, and rose, in steady annual in-
crease, to 37,368,805 lbs., of the value of 3,630,444/., in 1864,
averaging in value 2^ millions sterling per annum. The exports to
Victoria embrace nearly all articles of British manufacture, chief
among them apparel and haberdashery, to the value of about one
million sterling a year.
Since the discovery of gold mines, in 1851, large quantities of
gold have been exported from Victoria. In 1853 gold of the value
of 12,600,083/. was exported, but that was the greatest quantity
ever sent forth, and it has since been declining, and in 1864 had
fellen to 6,206,237/. In the latter year there was gold-mining
machinery in the colony of the value of 1,496,699/.
The foUowing was the estimated population, distinguishing the
Chinese, in each mining district of the gold fields, on Dec. 31, 1862 :^
Districts
Other than Chinese
Chinese
Men
Women
Children
Total
Ballarat
31,125
11,025,
15,616
67,666
6,752
Castlemaine .
13,973
6,510
4,924
24,407
6,183
Maryborough
39,643
8,289
13,238
61,170
3,364
Ararat ....
7.660
2,210
2,400
12,160
1,400
Sandhurst
13,720
4,080
4,820
22.620
2,740
Beechworth .
Total . .
13,604
4,260
4,316
22,069
6,447
119,616
36,364
46,212
200,091
24,886
The 24,886 Chinese engaged in search of gold were nearly all
males, there being but one woman of the same race included in the
number. The larger proportion of the Chinese males were between
the ages of 20 and 45.
Victoria has a more extensive system of railways than any other of
the Australasian colonies. The Victorian railways consist^ of two
main lines, one from Melbourne to Sandhurst, 101 miles in length,
and the other from Melbourne to Geelong and Ballarat, with a short
branch to Williamstown, the port of Melbourne, of a length of
96 miles. The Geelong and Melbourne line was pm-chased by the
Government in 1860, and an extension irom Sandhurst to the river
Miuray at Echuca, of a length of 56 miles, has since been sanctioned.
The following table shows the length, cost of construction, and other
particulars of the railways of Victoria : —
TRADE AND COUHEBCE.
743
Name of Raaways
Length of line
Cost of construction
Number of
miles
travelled in
the year
1863
Proposed
total
leng^
Extent
opened at
oommenoe-
mentof
1864
Total cost
of lines
Average
cost per
mile
Melbourae and Sandhurst
Melbourne, Geelong, and
Ballarat .
Williamstown Branch .
Melbourne and Hobson's
Bay .
Melbourne and Brighton
Melbourne .
Total .
KUes
• 261
6
7
7
MUee
196
6
7
6
£
7,462,000
436,558
247,360
448,641
£
38,070
68,345
36,126
81,571
892,687
138,896
48,600
118,441
271
214 |8,673,648
40,028
1,198,624
The total gross revenue of the above railways, in the year 1863,
amounted to 579,922/., and the net revenue to 229,400/., or rather
less than three per cent, on the expended capital. There was, how-
ever, a great increase of receipts in each of the years 1864 and 1865,
and it is calculated that, on the completion of the system, the Vic-
torian railways will form an important source of revenue of the
colonial Government.
744
WESTERN AUSTBALIA.
Constitution and Oovernment
The administration of Western Anstralia — the only colony to
which convicts from Great Britain continue to be transported— is
imder a Governor appointed by the Crown, who is assisted by an
Executive Council composed of certain office-holders, namely, the
senior officer in command of the forces, the Colonial Secretary,
the Comptroller-General of Convicts, the Surveyor-General, the
Attorney-General, and the Treasurer and Collector of Internal
Revenue. There is also a L^slative Council, composed, including
the Gt)vemor, of six official and four unofficial members. The
official members are the Gt)vemor, the Commander of the Forces,
the Colonial Secretary, the Surveyor-Greneral, the Attorney-General,
and the Treasurer and Collector of Intemal Revenue. The unofficial
members are appointed by the Crown, on the recommendation of the
Governor.
Governor of Western Australia. — J. S. Hampton^ formerly Comp-
troller-General of Convicts in Tasmania; appointed Governor of
Western Australia, Nov. 1861.
The Governor has a salary of 1,800/. per annum.
Bevenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony during the six
from 1858 to 1864 were as follows: —
Years
Revenue
Ezpenditnre
£
£
1859
67,942
64,919
1860
69,862
61,744
1861
67,261
81,087
1862
67,406
72,267
1863
71,708
71,073
1864
71,911
70,716
AREA AND POPULATION.
745
Tlie various branches of revenue, and expenditure, in the year
1863, were as follows : —
Branches of Bevenne
OroBS
amount
Branches of Ibcpenditure
Gross
amount
Customs duties
Harbour dues .
T#a,nd sales
Land revenues
Eents, exclusire of land
Transfer and auction duties
Licences ....
Postage ....
Pines, forfeitures, and fees
Sale of Government pro-
perty . . . •
Eeimbursementof expenses
Penal farm produce .
Miscellaneous .
Special receipts
Imperial grant in aid
Total
31,857
1,090
3,870
10,215
' 119
415
2.253
3,496
1,218
124
979
471
44
94
15,462
Fixed establishments
Eevenue service
Administration of justice .
Ecclesiastical .
Charitable allowances
Hospitals
Police ....
Gaols ....
Harbour master
Immigration .
Pensions and gratuities .
Conveyance of mails
Subsidy to mail service .
Transport . .
Works and buildings
Eoads and bridges .
Aborigines
Penal establishment
Eent ....
Interest ....
Eefunds ....
Eemittances .
Eepayments .
Miscellaneous .
Total
£
37,291
59
891
73
1,114
879
4,006
2,424
535
422
203
2,505
1,189
484
4,854
5,816
649
827
578
105
613
2,000
2,070
1,487
71,708
71,073
The total public debt of the colony, at the end of 1864, was 1,750^.,
the remainder of a loan of 12,939Z., raised in 1855.
Area and Population.
As defined by Royal CJommission, Western Australia includes
aU that portion of New Holland situated to the westward of 190° E.
long. The greatest length of this territory is 1,280 miles from north
to south, and 800 miles from east to west. The occupied portion of
the colony is about 600 miles in length from north to south, by
about 150 miles in average breadth.
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years
made but little progress, owing, to a certain extent, to an absence of
water. In 1850, the colony had not more than 6,000 inhabitants^
including men, women, and children. Tlift <i.Ci\Q\^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^esascisa.^
VXSnB5 ArSIBALU.
!>*'-
;/>j:
]lu£ ^ 3cal >:cGJisua of 15,691, nmmeljy 9,852 males and
c
A."vr:r-i:jic ro 1:1 eiT-^vraaon mide December 31, 1863, Western
A*isc:a.:a. xz 'hiz r«irv:o. ccctauzied 18.780 inhabitants, of whom
i^ti': r. • • iT^i in :*e xw::^ of Fremantle and Perth; the rest were
iiswr<*fi .'^cr 4:1 irs=« »"^c 0^ » miks bv 130. They consLst of farmen
vao r^i:T-^«; I'. V ;k:n»^ azid nm 1,000 to 2,000 sheep ; ^ cockatoo
iLninrrs." wb: ^.-caczie tt!«r produce, and carry on some trade; and
r*f:i<; crfr^ wb: £•: T^rrsiry duty, and hare allotments. These
voitlinrr -■▼Ti'eii in l:^^5 about 260.000 sheep, 32,500 cattle, and
S • I'T^ejw y : iectlrd discrict of any size will cany more than an
ir^jrae? .;*i >c^ft'r tc r8rec:y-tiTe acres, and so large a proportion of
*U7!ac^f :> :\X"^ric\i ry somK sand, and poisonous plants, that all the
ar:L: ji'. le scacx; is ^ilnady taken up. and the prospect of extension
certrcd^ Oil tiL^ di;scoT«ry of lacceasible land fit lor settlement beyond
the rrf:9«:£i: liziirs^ vbich may exist, but has not yet been found.
Fcr y«>ars padc iiv.niijradoQ into the colony has been confined to
the persoas sta: cut by rh* British Goremment — paupers and cri-
minals. In the year l:?t>4 there arriTed 561 convicts in Western
Auscralia. At the end of the year there were in the colony 1,371
convicts in prison and l,44d ticket-ot-leave holders at large, of
which latter number 1.33o were in private service, the rest being
at the hiring depots The total number of convicts received in the
colony down to the end of the year 1864 was 8,179, of whom 2,820
were undergoing their sentence, or at large on tickets of leave;
1 .<;m)2 had become firee by servitude, 3,85d had been conditionally
pardoned, and 24 had received a fi:ee pardoa. The expenditure on
convict account in Western Australia averages about 24/. per annum
for each prisoner.
Trade and Commeroe.
The total value of the imports and exports of Western Australia,
in the six years from 1859 to 1864, is shown in the subjoined state-
ment : —
1 Years
Imports
Bzports
£
£
1869
125,315
93,037
1860
169,074
89,246
1861
147,912
96,789
1862
172,991
119,313
1863
167,136
143,105
1864
168,707
111,903
TRADE AND COMMEBCE. 747
Of the imports of 1864, there came 108,366Z. from the United
Kingdom, of which 97,507Z. consisted of British produce and manu-
factures ; while of the exports, 70,730/. in value were sent to the
United Kingdom.
The exports of the colony consist almost entirely of wool and
timber, the former being of the average value of 60,000/. annually.
The soil is believed to be rich in mineral ore, principally copper ;
but as yet mining has not proved remunerative in Western
Australia.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning
Australasia.
I. Official Publications.
Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part X. Fol. London, 1866.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year, from 1861 to 1864. No. II. 8. London,
1866.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with
Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1864. 4. London,
1866.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, in each of the fifteen years from
1851 to 1865. No. XIIL 8. London, 1866.
Tenth Eeport of the Commissioners of Her Mjyesty's Customs, on the
Customs. 8. London, 1866.
Twenty-sixth Report of the Emigration Commissioners. 8. London, 1866.
Annual Reports on Convict Establishments : Western Australia and Tas-
mania. London, 1866.
Papers relating to the Affairs of New Zealand. Presented to Parliament by
command. London, 1866.
Correspondence respecting the Non-enactment of the Appropriation Act in
Victoria. Presented to Parliament by command. London. 1866.
Statistical Notes on the Progress of Victoria, from the foundation of the
Colony. By W. H. Archer, Registrar-General of Victoria. 4. Melbourne,
1862-6.
Statistics of New Zealand for 1864, including the results of a census of the
Colony taken in December of that year. Compiled from Official Records. Fol.
Auckland, 1866.
748 WESTERN AUSTRALU.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Chapman (H. S.), The Indnstrial Progress of Victoria. In * Journal of the
Statistical Socie^r.' Vol. xxvi. part 4. 8. London, 1863.
Fox (Wm.), The War in New Zealand. 8. London, 1866.
Gorst (J. R), The Maori King ; or, the Story of onr Quarrel with the Natives
of New Zealand. 8. London, 1865.
Hardman (Wm.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in
Australia from 1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.
Hochstetter (F. V.), Neu-Seeland. 8. Stuttgart, 1863.
Howitt (W.), History of Discorery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
2 vols. 8. London, 1865.
Uoyd (Geo. Thomas), Thirty-three years in Tasmania and Victoria. 8.
London, 1862.
Westgarth (Wm.), The Colony of Victoria : its History, Commerce, and Gold-
mining; its Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 1864.
Wilkins {yf .), The Geography of New South Wales: Physical, Industrial,
and Political. 18. Sydney, 1863.
Woods (Rev. J. E. Tenison), History of the Discovery and Exploration of
Australia ; or, an Account of the Progress of Geographical Discovery in that
Continent, from the Earliest Period to the Present Day. 2 vols. 8. Xx)ndoD,
1866.
749
INDEX.
ABD
ABDUL-AZIZ, Sultan of Turkey,
488
Alexander IT., Emperor of Russia, 387
Algeria, area and population, 601
— exports and imports, 602
— goyemment and revenue, 600
Anhalt, population, 160 '
— reigning family, 168
Antigua, area and population, 305
— exports and imports, 307
Argentine Republic, area, 517
army, 617
commerce, 618
— — government, 616
population, 617
Augsburg, population o^ 192
Austria, area of, at different periods, 19
— army, strength and organisation, 16
losses of, in war of 1866, 17
— budget for 1866, 12
— church organisation, 9
— commerce, 26
— commercial marine, 27
— constitution, 6
— debt, U
— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 9
— education of the people, 10
— Emperors, list of, 6
— exports, value of, 26
to United Kingdom, 22
— government, 8
— imperial femily, 3
— imports, value of, 26
from United Kingdom, 26
— iron-clads, list, 18
— money, weights, and measures, 28
— nationalities' in, 24
— navy, strength and organisation, 18
at the battle off jussa, 19
BAV
Austria, nobility, 24
— occupations of the people, 24
— popiUation at last census, 21
at different periods, 22
— railways, 27
— religious division, 9
— revenue and expenditure in 1866,
12
for fourteen years, 11
— shipping, amount and tonnage, 26
— universities, 10
— war of 1866, losses in, 17
Azores, or Western Islands, area and
population, 383
BADEN, army, 206
— constitution, 203
— debt, 206
— education of the people, 204
— population, decline of, 207
^- reigning feimily, 201
— revenue and expenditure, 206
— state railways, 206
Bahamas, area and population, 306
— exports and imports, 307
Baltic fleet, Russian, 40&
Barbadoes, area and population, 306
— exports and imports, 307
Bavana, army, 190
— constitution, 187
— education, public, 188
— land, division of, 192
— Landwehr, 191
— nobility, 191
— occupations of the people, 192
— popidation, increase of, 190
— reveiiUft«tAcx:^"a^iX^acfc,\sa
750
INDEX.
BEL
CHI
Belgium, area, 40
— ami J, strength and organisation, 39
— budget for 1866, 38
— constitution, 31
— debt, 39
— electors, number of, 33
— education of the people, 36
— exports, 43
— government, 32
— imports, 43
— increase of population, 40
— money, weights, and measures, 45
— navy, 40
— occupation of the people, 42
— population, 40
— raUwajs, 44
— royal family, 30
— trade and commerce, 43
Berlin, population, 129
Bermuda, area and population, 305
— exports and Imports, 307
Bemadotte, house of, 466
Bismark, Count, minister of Prussia,
112
Bohemia, diet, 6
— education of the people, 10
— nobles, 25
— population, 21
Bourbon, House of, in Spain, 431
Braganza, House of, 373
Brazil, area, 626
— army, 525
^ commerce, 628
— constitution, 521
— government, 522
— imperial family, 620
— navy, 526
— population, 627
— revenue and expenditure, 523
— slaves, 627
Bremen, constitution, 182
— population, 183
— trade and commerce, 183
— weights and measures, 184
British Columbia, area, 305
exports and imports, 307
British Guiana, area and population,
305
exports and imports, 307
Brunswick, government, 150
— population, 152
— revenue, 161
Brnnawick-LUnebtirg, BLoiaae ot, \bQ
Brunswick, New (see New Brunswick)
Brussels, population at various periods,
43
— voters, parliamentary, 33
Bukowina, diet, 6
— population, 21
pANADA, area, 637
\J — army, 636
— church organisation, 533
— commerce, 539
— constitution, 631
— debt, public, 635
— education, 634
— exports and imports, 540
— government, 632
— immigration, 638
— population, 637
— revenue and expenditure, 634
Canton, imports and exports, 629
Cape of Grood Hope, area and popula-
tion, 607
commerce, 608
government, 606
revenue, 606
Carinthia, diet, 6
— population, 21
Cardinals, number o^ 360
— origin, 845
Camiola, diet, 6
— population, 21
Ceylon, area and population, 621
— constitution and government, 620
— exports and imports, 622
— revenue and expenditure, 620
Channel Islands, population, 283
^ privy-council government, 231
Charles XV., King of Sweden and
Norway, 466
Chili, area and population, 646
— army and navy, 545
— commerce, 646
— government, 543
— revenue and expenditme, 544
China, area, 627
— army, 628
— commerce, 629
— exports to United Kingdom, 683
— government^ 625
I — imports and ejqwrts, 680
\ — Ym:^^t\ji^^m.TJnited Kingdom, 684
INDEX.
751
CHI
FRA
China, population, 627
— revenue, 626
— treaty ports, trade at, 630
Christian IX., King of Denmark, 48
Confederation of British North Ame-
rica, 541
Cossacks, number and organisation,
407
Croatia and Slavonia, Diet, 6
population, 21
Cuba, area and population, 461
— slavery, 451
— trade and commerce, 452
DENMAEK, agriculture, 56
— army, 65
— church organisation, 62
— colonies, 58
— commerce, 58
— constitution, 60
— debt, 65
—^ education of the people, 52
— government, 60
— imports and exports, 68
— kings, list of, 49
— land, division, 57
— navy, 55
— nobiUty, 67
— occupations of the people, 67
— popiiation, 66
— revenue and expenditure, 63
— royal family, 48
— slapping, 68
EGYPT, area and population, 612
— government, 611
— money, weights, and measures, 614
— trade and commerce, 613
England, area, 271
— births and deaths, 273
— church organisation, 237
— criminal statistics, 274
— education, 2^3
— emigration, 286
— militia establishment, 260
— occupations of the people, 272
— pauperism, 274
— parliamentary representation, 226
-~ poptdation, 270
— religious denominatioiis, 238
England, volunteer army, 267
— (see also Great Britain and Ire-
land).
FINLAND, area and population, 421
— commerce, 422
— constitution, 419
— debt, public, 420
— mercantile navy, 422
— revenue and expenditure, 420
Florence, population of, 339
Folksthing, of Denmark, 60
France, area in miles, 89
in acres, 92
— army, strength and organisation,
77
education of the army, 71
— . budget for 1865, 74
— church organisation, 68
— colonies, 97
— commerce, 93
— commercial marine, 96
— conscription, 78
— constitution, 63
— council of state, 64
— cultivation of the soil, 92
— criminal statistics, 91
— debt, national, 76
— departments, 87
— division of land, 92
— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 69
— education of the people, 70
— exports, value o^ 94
— fortresses, 81
— government, 66
— imperial family, 61
— imports, value of, 94
— iron-clad navy, 83
— land, division and value of, 92
— legislative body, 64
— ministers, 66
— money, weights, and measures, 99
— navy, 81
— occupations of the people, 92
— owners of land, 92
— population, number at various
periods, 90
classification of, 92
— railways, 96
— real property, value of, 92
752
INDEX.
FRA
ORE
France, senate, composition of, 65
— shipping, 96
— sovereigns, list of, 63
— wars, recent, cost of, 76
Francis Joseph I., emperor of Austria, 3
Frankfort, population, 126
G ALICIA, diet, 6
— nobles, 26
— population, 21
Gambia, area and population, 306
— imports and exports, 307
George I., King of the Hellenes, 310
Germany, area, 106
— bookis of reference, 217
— couistitution, 103
— money, weights, and measures, 217
— population, 105
— States of, 106
— treaty of Confederation, 102
Gibraltar, area and population, 306
— exports and imports, 307
Gold Coast, area and population, 306
exports and imports, 307
Greenland, population, 68
Guadaloupe, imports and exports, 08
— population, 97
Guiana, British (see British Guiana).
Guiana, French, imports and exports,
98
population, 97
Great Britain and Ireland, area, 270
army, 264
budget for 1866-67, 247
cabinet, 230
— church organisation, 236
civil list of sovereign, 220
— colonies, 304
commerce, 289
commercial marine, 297
Commons, House o^ 225
constitution, 222
cotton trade, 300
criminal statistics, 274
customs revenue, 295
— — — debt^ national, 262
education of the people, 244
elective franchise, 228
emigration, 284
established church, 236
expenditure, iiaXAOuaY^tcoTDL
1851tolS6ft,^^%
Great Britain and Ireland, exports,
from 1863 to 1865, 289
— — division ot, among va-
rious nations in 1864 and
1865, 292
fortifications, 269
— government, members of,
231
imports, from 1863 to 1865,
289
distribution oj among
various nations in 1864
and 1865, 290
iron-dad navy, 266
legislature, 227
Lords, House of, 225
ministers in 1866, 231
— ministries since the year
1715, 234
navy, 261
parUaments, list o? 230
parliamentary government,
222
population, 270
pnvy ooundi, 230
reform bill, 227
— religious denominations,
237
revenue, 248
Boman Catholics, 238
royal family, 219
shipping statistics, 296
sovereigns, list o^ 221
taxation, 249
volunteer army, 257
— wealth of population, 288
— (see also England, Ireland, and
Scotland).
Greece, area, 319 "
— army, 318
— churdi organisation, 314
— commerce, 320
— constitution, 311
— debt, 316
— education of the people, 314
— exports and imports, 320
— government, 313
— land, division o£, 320
— money, weights, and measures, 321
-- navy, 318
— occupations of the people, 319
— Y^-^^^^*^^ 318
\
INDEX.
753
HAM
ITA
HAMBURG, army, 175
— commerce, 176
— constitution, 173
— exports and imports, 1 76
— money, weights, and measures, 178
— population, 175
— revenue and expenditure, 174
— shipping, 177
HanoYer, former kingdom of, popula-
tion, 128
— revenue and expenditure, 118
Hanse Towns, commerce, 176
judicial organisation, 179
Hapsburg, House of, 5
Hesse - Cassel, former electorate of,
population, 129
Hesse-Darmstadt, army, 210
— constitution, 208
— population, 210
— revenue and expenditure, 209
— reigning family, 207
Hohenzollern, House of, 107
— principality of, area, 128
Holland (see Netherlands).
Holstein, area and population, 128
Holstein-Gottorp, family of, 388
Honduras, area and population, 305
— exports and imports, 307
Hongkong, area and population, 639
— constitution and government, 637
— exports to, 641
Hungary, diet, 6
— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 9
— nobles, number o1^ 24
— population, 21
ICELAND, government of, 52
— population, 58
India, area, 657
— army, 655
— budgets from 1865-67, 647
— constitution, 644
— debt, 654
— government^ 644
— governors-general, list of, 645
— imports and exports, 659
— land-tax, assessment of and reve-
nue from, 650
— money, weights, and measures, 670
— population, 657
— railways, 663
— religious divisioiifl, 65S
India, revenue and expenditure, 647
Ireland, area, 277
— agricultural statistics, 281
— church organisation, 240
— clergy, income of, 242
— criminal statistics, 282
— decrease of population, 278
— education, 243
— emigration, 286
— land^ division of, 280
produce, 280
— occupations of the people, 278
— parliamentary representation, 227
— pauperism, 282
— population, 278
— religious denominations, 279
— union of, with England, 230
— (see also Great Britain and Ire-
land).
Isabella II., Queen of Spain, 430
Italy, area and administrative divi-
sion, 336
— army, 333
— budgets from 1864 to 1866, 330
— church organisation, 326
— clergy, income of, 327
— commerce, 339
— commercial marine, 343
— constitution, 325
— debt, national, 331
— education of the people, 328
— exports and imports, 342
— government, 326
— iron-clad navy, 335
— land, division of, 339
— landed property, debt upon, 340
— monasteries, number and revenue,
327
— money, weights, and measures, 354
— navy, 335
strength at battle off Lissa,
336
— population in 1866, 338
of ancient divisions, 338
— real property, value of, 339
— religious orders, 327
— revenue and expenditure, 330
— royal family, 323
— shipping, 343
— universities, 329
— (see also Papal States).
3c
754
IlfDEX.
JAM
HUK
JAMAICA, ^urea and population,
306
— exports and import.**, 307
Japan, area and population, 671
— army, 678
— feudal princes, list of, 672
— foreifrne'^ number, 679
— government, 671
— imports and exports, 680
— money, weights, and measures, 682
— trade with United Kingdom, 680
Jaya, area and pcpulation, 688
— army and navy, 687
— commerce, 689
— culture system, 684
— government, 584
— money, weights, and measures, 692
— revenue and expenditure, 686
— trade with the Netherlands, 691
Jews, Austrian, number ofi 24
— French, number of, 68
— Irish, numl)er of, 279
— Polish, number of, 424
— Prussian, number of, 114
— Russian, number of, 396
religious position, 416
Johann I., King of Saxony, 136
Ionian Islands, area and population,
319
revenue o^ 316
L ABU AN, area and population, 306
I — exports to Great Britain, 307
Land, division of, in Austria, 24
Bavaria, 192
Denmark, 67
France, 92
Greece, 320
Ireland, 279
Italy, 340
Norway, 472
Poland, 426
Prussia, 131
Kussia, 413
Sardinia, 328
Spain, 446
Sweden, 463
Switzerland, 484
Turkey, 603
United States, 689
I^ndsthing, of Denmark, 50
Landwehi, Proasian, 121
Lauenburg, area and population, 128
Liberia, area and population, 616
— constitution and goyemment^ *616
— revenue and trade, 616
Lichtenstein, population, 214
— reigning family, 212
— revenue and expenditure, 214
Limburg. government, 215
— population, 216
Lippe-Detmold, population, 168
reigning family, 167
Lisbon, population, 383
— exports of wine, 384
Lissa, naval battle off (see Austria
navy ; also Italy, navy).
Lloyd, Austrian, shipping of^ 27
Lombardy, area and population, 338
— value of landed property, 340
Liibeck, constitution, 179
— population, 180
— trade, 180
Luis I., King of Portugal, 373
Luxemburg, constitution, 216
— population, 217
— revenue and expenditure, 216
MALTA, area and population, 306
— exports and imports, 307
Martinique, import-s and exports,
98
Mauritius, area and population, 306
— exports and imports, 307
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, area and popu-
lation, 146
constitution, 144
exports and imports, 146
reigning family, 143
revenue and expenditure, 145
serfdom of the people, 146
Mecklenbure-Strelitz, population 166
reigning family, 166
Mexico, area and population, 552
— army and navy, 661
— commerce, 664
— government, 648
— revenue and expenditure, 649
Ministries of Great Britain since the
year 1716, 234
Moldavia (see Roumania).
Munich, population o^ 192
INDEX.
755
NAP
PAR
NAPLES, ex-kingdom of, area, 338
— education of the people, 329
— landed property, value of, 340
— monasteries, 328
— population, 338
Napoleon III., Emperor of the French,
61
Nassau, population, 125
Natal, area and population, 618
— government, 617
— imports and exports, 619
— revenue and expenditure, 617
Netherlands, area, 366
— army, 364
— budget for 1864-65, 360
— church organisation, 359
— colonies, 369
— commerce, 368
— constitution, 357
— debt, 363
— education of the people, 359
— exports and imports, 367
— government, 358
— navy, 365
— population, 366
— religious denominations, 359
— revenue and expenditure, 360
— royal family, 356
— shipping, 369
— States-general, 357
— trade and commerce, 367
New Brunswick, area and population,
305
imports and exports, 306
Newfoundland, area and population,
305
— imports and exports, 306
New South Wales, area and popula-
tion, 699
commerce, 702
government, 698
immigration, 700
religious denominations,
701
— revenue and expenditure,
699
New York, population of, 584
New Zealand, area and population,
709
commerce, 711
government, 706
native population, 710
revenue and expenditure, 707
Norway, area, 471
— army, 470
— budget for 1863-6, 470
— commerce, 473
— constitution, 468
— council of state, 469
— debt, public, 470
— exports and import-s, 473
— navy, 470
— population, 471
— revenue and expenditure, 470
— Storthing, 468
Nova Scotia, area and population, 305
exports and imports, 306
Niiremberg, population o^ 192
OLDENBUKG, area and population,
149
— reigning family, 147
— revenue and expenditure, 149
— trade and commerce, 150
Oldenburg, line of, kings of Denmark,
49
Oporto, population, 383
— wine exports, 384
Orange-Nassau, family of, 357
PAPAL STATES, area, 352
army, 362
budget for 1864, 351
cardinals, 350
clergy, 353
council of state, 348
debt, 352
ecclesiastical administration,
350
government, 347
Jesuits, number, 353
pontiff, election of, 346
population, 352
revenue and expenditure, 361
trade and commerce, 353
Paraguay, area and population, 566
— government, 666
— money, weights, and measures, 668
— revenue and trade, 657
Paris, population of, 93
Parliament of Great Britain and Ire-
land, duration, 230
7s6
INDEX.
PAR
RUS
Parliament of Great Britain and Ire-
land, omnipoteney, 222
origin, 226
prorogation, 223
Patriarch of Constantinople, mode of
election, 314
Peru, area and population, 561
— commerce, 562
— government, 659
— money, weights, and mr^asures, 662
— revenue ana expenditure, 660
Peter's Pence, annual amount of, 337
Pius IX., Sovereign-Pontiff, 346
Poland, area at various periods, 422
— commerce, 426
• — constitution, 423
— debt, public, 444
— land, division of, 426
— manufactures, 426
— nobility, 426
— revenue and expenditure, 444
Pope, mode of election of, 346
Popedom, rise of, 346
Portugal, area, 382
— army, 381
— budget for 1866-66, 379
— church organisation, 376
— colonies, 384
— commerce, 383
— constitution, 376
— debt, 380
— education of the people, 377
— exports and imports, 383
— government, 376
— money, weights, and measures, 386
— navy, 382
— population, 382
— revenue *and expenditure, 377
— royal family, 373
— trade and commerce, 383
Prague, treaty of, 104
Prince Edward Island, area and popu-
lation, 306
— imports and exports, 306
Prussia, area, 125
— army, 120
— budget for 1866, 117
— chamber of deputies, 109
— church organisation, 113
-— clergy, number and income, 1 14
— commerce, 131
— oommercial marine, 132
— ootrntittttagm, 109
Pnissia, council of ministers, 112
— debt, public, 118
— division of land, 131
— education of the people, 116
— exports and imports, 131
— fortresses, 124
— government, members of, 112
— iron-clad vessels, 126
— landed proprietors, number, 131
— legislative body, 110
— money, weights, and measures, 135
— nationalities, 130
— navy, 124
— nobility, 131
— occupations of the people, 13
— population, 126
— railways, 133
— religious denominations, 113
— revenue and expenditure, 116
— royal family, 106
— shipping, 132
— sovereigns, list of, 109
— universities, 116
Puerto-Eico, commerce and population,
452
QUEENSLAND, area and^ popu-
lation, 716
— commerce, 717
— government, 714
— imports and exports, 716
— revenue and expenditure, 714
EEICHSRATH, Austrian, 6
K^union, imports and exports, 98
Keuss-Greiz, population, 212
reigning family, 211
Keuss-Schleiz, population, 172
reigning family, 171
Kigsdag, of Denmark, 60
Eigsraad, of Denmark, 61
Boman Stat-es (see Papal States).
Romano^ House of, 388
Bome, occupations of the people, 363
— population at various periods, 352
Houmania, area and population, 508
— commerce, 609
— government, 607
Russia, area, 412
— anny, 403
INDEX.
757
RUS
SPA
KusBia, church organisation, 394
— commerce, 416
— commercial marine, 418
— conscription, 404
— constitution, 389
— Cossacks, 407
— council of the empire, 390
— council of ministers, 391
— debt, national, 401
— education of the people, 396
— fleet of war, 408
— government, 391
— imperial family, 387
— imports and exports, 417
— iron-clad navy, 409
— lands of foreign settlers, 415
— manufactures, 418
— money, weights, and measures, 427
— navy, 408
— nobility, 393
— population, 410
— races, 412
— religious denominations, 395
— representation of nobles, 393
— revenue and expenditure, 397
— senate, 390
— serfs, emancipation, 413
— shipping, 418
— sovereigns, list of, 389
— universities, 396
SARDINIA, area and population,
338
— value of landed property, 340
Saxe-Altenburg, population, 164
reigning family, 160
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, constitution, 162
population, 163
reigning family, 160
Saxe-Meiningen, population, 158
reigning family, 157
Saxe-Weimar, army, 154
constitution, 153
population, 165
reigning family, 152
revenue and expenditure, 154
Saxony, army, 141
— constitution, 138
— education, 139
— population, 141
— railways, 140
— Teyeane and expenditure, 139
Saxony, royal family, 136
Schaumburg-Lippe, population, 173
— — reigning famUy, 172
Schleswig-Holstein, population, 128
Schwarzburg-Eudulstadt, population,
169
reigning family, 168
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, popula-
tion, 170
reigning family, 169
Scotland, area, 275
— births and deaths, 276
— church organisation, 239
— criminal statistics, 277
— education, 244
— emigration, 286
— occupations of the people, 276
— pauperism, 277
— population, 275
— religious denominations, 239
— (see also Great Britain and Ireland).
Senegal, imports and exports, 98
Serfs, Russian, emancipation of, 413
Servia, army and popidation, 511
— commerce, 511
— government, 509
Sicily, area and population, 338
— nobility of, 340
— value of landed property, 340
Sierra Leone, area and population, 30
imports and exports, 307
Silesia, Austrian, Diet^ 6
— population, 19
South Australia, area and population;
722
commerce, 724
government, 720
mines, 726
occupations of the people, 722
religious denominations, 723
revenue and expenditure, 721
Spain, area, 444
— army, 441
— budget for 1866-7, 438
— church organisation, 435
— colonies, 450
— commerce, 447
— commercial navy, 450
'- — constitution, 432
— Cortes, 433
— council of ministers, 434
758
INDEX.
SPA
UNI
Spain, education of the people, 436
— exports and imports, 447
— gOTemmentk 434
— iron-dad navy, 443
— > landed property, division of, 446
— money, weights, and measures, 453
— navy, 443
— nobility, 446
— population, 444
— railways, 448
— revenue and expenditiire, 437
— royal family, 430
— shipping, 449
— silver mines, 448
— sovereigns, list of^ 432
Styria, dietj 6
— population, 21
Sweden, area, 463
— army, 461
— budget for 1864-66, 459
— commerce, 466
— constitution, 457
— council of ministers, 458
— debt, public, 460
— exports and imports, 465
— government, 459
— money, weights, and measures, 467
— navy, 462
— population, 462
-* revenue and expenditure, 459
— royal family, 466
— sovereigns, list of, 466
Switzerland, area, 484
— army, 482
— budget for 1863, 479
— church organisation, 477
— commerce, 486
— confederation, origin of, 483
— constitution, 476
— debt, public, 480
— education, 477
— exports and imports, 486
— federal assembly, 476
— national property, 480
— occupations of the people, 484
— popiiiation, 483
— revenue and expenditure, 478
rnASMANIA, area and population,
— commerce, 746
— goranimeii^ 744
Tasmania, revenue and expenditue,
746
Tobago, area and population, 305
— imports and exports, 307
Transylvania, diet, 6
— population, 21
Trinidad, area and population, 305
— imports and exports, 307
Turkey, area, 501
— army, 497
— budget for 1863-64, 494
— constitution, 489
— commerce, 504
— debt, national, 496
— exports and imports, 506
— government, 490
— iron-dad vessels, 600
— land, division o^ 503
— money, weights, and measures, 612
— nationalities, 601
— navy, 600
— population, 601
— religious division, 491
— revenue and expenditure, 493
— sovereigns, list of, 489
Toscany, area and population, 338
— landed property, value o^ 340
— population in 1788, 341
Tyrol, diet, 6
— population, 21
United Kingdom (see Great Britain
and Ireland).
TTNITED STATES, area, 681
U army, 675
budgets, for 1864-66, 672
— i — ootnmerce, 693
commercial progress, 691
congress, 666
congresses, list of, 670
constitution, 664
cotton, exports of, 692
debt, national, 673
exports and imports, 591
government, 666
immigration, 684
iron-dad navy, 579
land, division of, 689
militia, 677
mortality of the people, 688
TvaluxaUsed citisens, number
INDEX.
759
WUR
United States, navy, 578
occupations of the people, 588
population at various periods,
681
presidents of the republic, list
of, 565
real property, yalue of, 589
revenue and expenditure, 672
senate, 666
shipping, 594
slavery, origin of, 688
abolition of, by constitu-
tional amendment, 671
war of 1861-6, losses in, 676
YASA, House of, 456
Venice, commerce, 343
— population, 339
Victor Emmanuel II., King of Italy,
323
Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain,
219
Victoria, area and population, 736
— commerce, 739
— gold mines, 742
— government, 732
— immigration, 738
Victoria, occupations of the people, 737
— nationalities, 736
— religious denominations, 738
— revenue and expenditure, 733
Virgin Islands, area and population,
305
— imports and exports, 307
WALDECK, population, 166
— reigning family, 165
Wallachia (see Koumania).
Western Australia, area and popula-^
tion, 746
commerce, 746
convicts, 746
government, 744
immigration, 746
revenue and expenditure, 745
William I., King of Prussia, 106
William III., King of the Netherlands,
356
Wiirtemberg, army, 199
— constitution, 196
— education, 197
— population, 200
— revenue and expenditure, 198
— royal family, 193
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KESERVE FUNDS and UNDIVIDED SURPLUS at 31 st Decem-
ber 1865, the date on which the accounts were last made up . 158,432
The sum of £2,067,652 is therefore the amount offered by this Company as
security for the fulfllment of its obligations to Policy Holders.
This Company transacts all kinds of Home and Foreign Fire and
Ijife Insurance, Annuities, Endowments, Heversions. &o., at moderate
rates, and on terms as liberal as those ot any other first-class Office.
EQUITABLE CONDCTIOM'S OF POLICIES— Moderate Premiums (with
the option of paying them according to a variety of convenient methods)— Liberal provision for the
non-forfeiture or surrender of Policies — and certoin specially beneficial arrangements as to the
reception of the Bonuses— are some of the many advantages of the Life scheme of the Ck)mpany .
THE LIFE BONUS averages 46 per cent, of the Premiums paid, in some cases
rising to 65, 70, and even 75 per cent. Substantial benefits have therefore been conferred on
its Assurers ; and as the Life Liabilities are valued on the principle of net Premiums, assuming
only 3 per cent, interest— (M« outside expenses chargeable to the Life Department for the general
management of the Company being specially limited 6y the Deed of Settlement to 10 per cent, of the
net Life Income)— there is every reason to expect equally good Bonuses in the future.
All liosses settled with promptness and liberality. A«etLt%^^s^i(A^
at home and abroaid,
J. M^0^CBI3SB^ ^qraaO>S<, ^a-ao^w.
Adrertinmg SkeeL
IMFERIAL
LIFE IXSURANXE COMPANY,
1 OLD BROAD STREET, LONDON, E.C.
iMtitatMi !»<•.
Insanmoefl mcj be effocted in this Ollloe with or 'without paztieipaAicm
in Froflts, st moderate rates, snd with secoritj- to the Poliaj- holden.
DIBSCT0B8 a866).
CHABLB3 ICAB&YAT, Eq^ Cft
6. J. GRAYSTOyE BEID, E«i., Dfpmff (
THOIfAS GEORGE BARCLAY, Em}. S4MCEL HIBBERT, Baq.
JAMES 0. C. BELL. Eaq. ! THOSIAS NEWMAN HUNT. Sao.
ClfARLES CAVE. E*?. .. JAMES O. MURDOCH. Baq.
EDWARD H FAR Y CHAPMAN, Eaq. . FREDERICK PATTISON, Baa.
HESRY DAVIDSON, Eaq. ! WILLIAM R. ROBINSON. Baq.
0&)R(}E FIELD. E*i. i JAMBS SCOTT, Baq.
GEOROB UIBBERT, Eaq. j MARTIN TUCEBR SMITH, Baq.
Auditors,
JOHN H. ASTELL, Eaq. PAUL BT7TLBB, Baq.
JA3fBS BRAND, Eaq.
SAMUEL INaAXIi, Actuary.
NEW AMERICAN BOOKS.
NOTICE. — All the New American Books of interest an
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London : SAMPSON LOW, SON, & MARSTON,
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LONDON LIBRARY,
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POUNDED IN 1841.
Patron-H.B,H. THE PBINOB OP "WAIiSS.
President— THE EABL OP CLABENDON, K.Q.
The following nro tho Terms of Admission to this Library, which oontaiiis 80,000 VolnmeB of
Ancient and Modem Literature, in various languages :— Subscription, £8 a-year, or £2 with
Entrance Fee of £6 ; Life Membership, £26. Fifteen Yolnmea are allowed to country, and T^
to Town McmbeTft. T^AoAVii^-TQOia open from Ten to Six. Catalogue, New Edition, with
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Advertising Sheet
ESTABLISHED 1837.
THE SCOTTISH
PROVIDENT INSTITUTION.
HEAD OPPICB,
6 ST. ANDREW SQUARE, EDINBURGH.
LONDON OFFICE,
18 KING WILLIAM STREET, E.G.
TRUSTEES :
ALKXANDERMATHESoyof Ardroaa,E8q.,M.P. IB. S. Gordon, Esq., Advocate, Sheriff of
Charles Cowan, of Logan House, Esq. | Perthshire.
James A. Campbell, Esq., Younger, of Stra- i Charles Lawson, Esq. of BorthwickhalL
cathro. I
Its Advantages, as compared with other Offices^ are —
A greatly larger original Assurance for the same Freinium, and eventu-
ally, to good lives, as laree additions as where the ordinary high
rate of Premium is charged.
For the same yearly sum, as large an Assurance may be secured /ro/» the first
as can be looked for olsowhoro only after many years' accumulation of Bonuses.
Thus, a policy for £\,2(iQ, or £1,250, may generally bo had for the Premium
which in the other Mutual or Participating Offices would secure £1,000 only.
The Whole Profits, moreover, are secured to the Policy-holders themselves,
and are divided on a system which is at once safe, equitable, and peculiarly
favourable to good lives, no share being given to those by whose early death
there is a loss (instead of a profit) to the common fund. In this way Policies
for £1,000 have already been increased to £1,300, £1,500, and in some instances
to upwards of £1,700.
THE SUBSISTING ASSURANCES, at 31st December 1865 amounted to
£5,225,027; and
THE REALISED FUND, arising entirely from accumulated Premiums, to
£1,133,471 ; the whole of which is invested in unexceptionable securities in
this country.
Examples of Annual Premium for £100 at Death, with Profits.
Life
Premiums limited to 21 Pay-
ments ....
I
Age 25
Age 30
Age 35
Age 40
Age 45
Age 50
£ 8. d.
1 18 0
2 12 6
£8. d.
2 1 6
2 15 4
£ s. d.
2 6 10
3 0 2
£ 8. d.
2 14 9
3 7 5
£ 8. d.
3 5 9
3 17 6
£ 8. d.
4 1 7
4 12 1
Full information may be had on application to the Head Office, Edinburgh,
or to the London Brandi, 18 King WiUiam Street, E.C.
Octader 1866, J. MUIB. lELTOB^ \iCiiAo\i^«c£fe\aari^
4 Adaertising Sheet
IN THE
SCOTTISH WIDOWS' FUND,
TEE- LARGEST MUTUAL LIFE OFFICE
IN THE WORLD,
Profits on the Largest Scale are Realised, and the
Whole Profits Divided among Policyholders.
NoTK. — There are no Shareholders^ as in Life Assuranoe Companies qf the Proprietary
Class, to receive Dividends from the Profits,
HENCE,
In the SCOTTISH WIDOWS' FUND, Life Assurance is con-
ducted under the most favourable circumstances for the Assured.
LONDON . . .4 ROYAL EXCHANGE BUILDINGS, COENHILL.
DUBLIN . . . .9 LOWER SACKVILLE STREET.
GLASGOW . . 141 BUCHANAN STREET.
MANCHESTER 39 CROSS STREET, KING STREET.
LIVERPOOL. . ORIEL CHAMBERS, 14 WATER STREET.
LEEDS . . . .18 EAST PARADE.
GENERAL FINANCIAL RESULTS.
Annual Income £560,000
Invested Funds 4,300,000
TSgw Assurances (1865) .... 1,045,498
Claims Paid 5,300,000
MAGNITUDE OF BONUSES.
Up to 31 St December 1859, Profit exceeding TWO MTLIiIONS
STSBIiING had been divided among the Policyholders, and the Bonuses
added to the original Sums Assured during the entire 14 years 1845 to 1859
averaged
£2 : 5s. per cent, per annum,
believed to be the IjABOEST BONXTS declared by any Life Office sine*
the Society was founded in 1815.
Forms of Proposal, ^c, may be obtained free of charge at the Head Office, or
any of the Agencies,
^Klffi^SYXA ^JJLEIGH, Manager.
HkadOfficb, ^.^.^, KS^'^SBSKS^^^wsMJUw^.
9 St. Akdriw 8Qm "Edisbubg^,
jfov. isee.
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tMxt $tn Pate to ih ^utn.
BY ROYAI.
COMMAND.
JOSEPH GILLOTT
Respectfully directs the attention of the Commercial public, and of
all who use Steel Pens, to the incomparable excellence of his
productions, which for Quality of Material, Easy Action, and
Great Durability, will ensure universal preference.
VICTORIA WORKS, BIRMIMHAltt.
Eveiy packet bears the
facsimile of his signature,
They can be obtained, Eetail, of every Dealer in the World ;
WHOLESALE, AT THE
WOBKS, GBAHAM STREET, BIBMINGHAM;
AND AT THE
Branch Bstabliflhmentfl, 91 JOHISC OTSBIEBfY^.ls:^^ ^cs«S5.n
and 37 GBAOXOHTJBGS BTJBCEB?E,TjOr&T>Cna.
Advertising SheeL
COlfSTIlOTIOF US ILL ITS STA&ES,
Coughs, Whooping Cough, Asthma, Bronchitis, Fever, Ague,
Diphtheria, Hysteria, Rheumatism, DiarrhcBa, Spasms,
Colic, and Benal and Uterine Diseases
ABB IMMBDIATELY BSJBVBD BY ▲ D08B 07
CHLOEODYNE.
Burl Bnaeell bM gndonsly f a^onred J. T. DaTenport irith the following :— ** Bztraot of a
Despatch from Mr. Webb, H3.U.*i Consul at Manilla, dated Sept. 1 7, 1864 :—
" * The remedy most eflBcacioos in its effects (in Epidemic Cholera) has been found to be
CnLORODTXE, and with a small quantity given to me by Dr. Burke I have saved several
Uves.'"
*•* Earl Russell communicated to the College of Physicians that he liad lecdved a
despatch from Her Majesty's Consul at Manilla, to the effect that Cholera has be^ laging
fearfully, and that the only remedy of any service was Chlobodthx. — See * Laadet,*De&
31, 1864. ^
Among Invalids it allays the pain of Nenralgla, Rheumatism, Oont, &o. idhiotiMi tlM
weary achings of Consumption, relieves the soreness of the Chest, Cough, and Ejqptotosatlaa,
and Cures all Chest Affections, such as AsUuna, Bronchitis, Palpiti^n, &c. It cheola
Diarrhoea, Alvine Discharges, or Spasms, and Colics of the Intestines, &c.
The extensive demand for this remedy, known as Dr. J. Collzs Browk^s OHLOBomm,
by the Medical Profession, Hospitals, Dispensaries— civil, military, and naval — and Families,
especially guarantees that this statement of ita extreme importance and value is a bondjtde
one, and worthy of the attention of all.
Bxtraots from Medical Opinions.
From W. Ybsauub Pettiorew, M.D.— * I have no hesitation in stating that I have never
met \iith any medicine so efficacious as an Anti-Spasmodio and Sedative. I have used it hi
Conetunption, Asthma, Diarrhoea, and other diseaset, and am most perfectly iu^aRt>e\ with
the results.'
Dr. McMiLUiAN, of New Galloway, Sootlaod.— ^ I oonslder it the most valuable T»^«Miu»hw»
known.'
G. Hatward, Esq., Surgeon, Stow«K)n-ye-WoM,— *I am now using Dr. J. CoLUS
Brow>'e's Chlorodtne with marvellous good effects in allaying inveterate sickneaB in
pregnancy.'
Dr. McGrioor Crofts, late Army Staff, says, * It is a most valuable meddne/
J. C. Baker, Esq., M.D., Bideford.— * It is, without doubt, the most valuable and eertam
Anodyne we have.'
Dr. Gibbon, Army Medical Staff, Calcutta.— < Two doses completely cured me of
Diarrhoea.'
The following is an extract from the decision of the Yioe-Chanoellor In the late ChknodyBe
Chancery Suit (* Browne and Davenport v. Freeman ') :— Vice-chancellor Sir W. P. Wood
stated that Dr. J. CoUis Browne was undoubtedly the inventor of Chlorod3rne — ^That 13m
statements of the Defendant Freeman were deliberately untrue, and he regretted to aaj that
they had been sworn to. Eminent hospital Physicians of London stated that Dr. J. OoUiB
Browne was the discoverer of Chlorodyne ; that they prescribe it largely, and mean no other
than Dr. Browne's.— See * Times,' July 18, 1864.
OAITTIOy.
None genuine without the words ' Dr. J. CoUis Browne's Chloro-
dyne ' on the Government Stamp. -Overwhehning medical testimony
accompanies each bottle. Sole Manufacturer, J. T. Davenport, 33 Ghreat
Bussell Street, Bloomab^oay, Iiondon* The immense demsad enables
the proprietors to xednoe \i\i» iBt\o^\V\i\%TinrqFi i»5^^\£L\^^\.^Iaa^l8. lid.,
2s.9d.,48.6d.,«adllB.
Advertising Sheet.
BY APPOINTMENT
TO ER.H. THE PBIlfCE OE WALES.
ALLEN'S PORTMANTEAUS
37, WEST STRAND, LONDON.
lUiLstrated Catalogue of 500 other Articles, for Home or
Continental Travellingy by Post, Free.
ALLEIT'S
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ALLEirS PATEKT
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ALLEN'S PATENT
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DBESSINO CASE.
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DBESSINO BAG.
LADTS WABDBOBE
POBTMANTEAU.
BAILWAT
POBTMANTEAU.
ALLEN'S SOLID
MAHOGANY
DBESSING CASE.
PBIZE MEDAL AWAKQE^ \S^^')!.>
FOR GENERAL EXC£.U-Et\0^.
10 Advertising Sheet.
oouRT cihq
PATRONISED BY THE NOBILITY AND GENTRY THROUGHOUT
THE KINGDOM.
THE COURT CIRCULAR.— The best Weekly Paper : being condncted
with special attention to Family reqnirementB.— It contains all the news of the week
carefollj compiled, Comments npon every Political and Social Event of importance, Reviews
of New Books, Military and Naval Intelligence, Notices of Scientific Societies and Public
Amusements, Foreign Intelligence, Proceedings at the British and Foreign (^urts, and every-
thing essential to a journal adapted to the wants of Society.
THE COURT CIRCULAR.— Established in 1866. Price 6dL ; stamped 6rf.
Offloe, 28 Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, W.O.
rpHE COURT CIRCULAR— ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, £l It.
WEEKLY COMMERCIAL TIMES, BANKERS' GAZETTE, AND
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Saturday— Price Sd. and Od.
Pbivcipxjm: Liheral. It is more MtatUHeal than political; and thonsh its 'Epitome of
General News' is quite sufficient, doubtless, fbr mercantile men, who have time only for a
hasty glance, its commercial information forms its main feature. It is something between a
price-current and a newspaper, and communicates probably a greater amount of geaaacal com-
mercial information than any other paper. Its analyses and digests of paxliamentaxy returns
connected with our trade and oonunerce are admirably compiled and extremely useful.
OFFIOB — 340 STBAJTD, "W.O.
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PUBLISHED AT THE END OF EVERY MONTH.
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T H
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classes interested in these subjects. The character of its City and Commercial
news— comprehensive, late, and accurate — has already attained for it great
attention and patronage from a numerous and influential body.
The main object of the Sunday Gazette is to fill up the void caused by the
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A HISTORY of AGRICULTURE and PRICES in ENGLAND
from 1259-1400. Compiled entirdj from Original and Contemporaneous
Records. Bj Jamss K Thobold Rookbs, M.A., Professor of Political
Economjr in the UniTersitv of Oxford; Tooke Professor of Economic
Science and Statistics, Elingfs College, London.
Oxford : Printed at the CLhXBmoJt Pans, and PabUahed for the XJKivxBsnT l^
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The attention of Book-Buyers
18 E8PBCIALLT DIBECTED TO THE UNUVALLBD STOCK OF
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Ancient anb inolxetn 33oo6seUers,
WHO HAYB ALWAYS ON SALB, AT YEBY MODBBATB FBIOBS,
THE LARGEST AND BEST COLLECTION OF BOOKS,
BOTH NEW AND SBCOND-HAND, IN ENGLAND.
••• Their Stock, oonristfng of upwards of 200.000 VOIiTTMES, Indlndes the FINEST
▼•rietr^of calf and moroooo Biiidtng», mueh lowtr in prioa than nraaUy chaised, the ftill Diaeonnt bdog
allowed.
OsKTLBMiifr OB CoKanrmi Foamira LtBaAam, eaaoot do better than addreai themtelfeB direct to
the Adrertireri, who az« readjr at all tfanee to mpply Paica* Catauwobs, and eatimatee avitalde fn
Public or Prirmte Librarlee, Beading Sodetlee, BookClnbe, Merhanine' IneUtatioM, etc
Their MONTHLT GATALOOUE ov SECOND-HAND BOOKS, whicfa appeari resvlarly on the
S5th of each month, contains a large aewmblage of Andent and Modem WOTke, County Histories. ^
including many books both cnrioos and rare ; also the New Publications, wlthprioes and publishcn*
names. These Catalogues are sent post-free, tat It months, on a prepayment of Three ShilUogs.
Also, now readr, a CATJXOGUB of CHOICE NEW ILLUSTBATED amo OTHEB BOOKS.
soiTABLs FOB PEESENTAnON or PBIZES.
WILLIS dt; SOTHERAN, 186 Strand, London.
The Beoords of 10,763 Oorea of
AsthiTift, Consmnption, and Other Disorders of the Throat and Iinngs by
have been published in the last 12 months.
The benefit to Society which haa resulted from the disoovery of this Medidne is, however,
far greater than these figures show, as many thousands of cures are eileoted, and not made
known out of the circle of the friends of the parties.
Another Cure of Severe Cough.
Extract from a letter dated November 14, 1866, from Mr. W. S. Maloom, PnbUsher, of the
ChruHan News Office, 142 Trongate, Glasgow.
* My mother had a very severe cough, and tried everything she could think of to get relief,
but without eftect, when she was ix\duoed to try a box of the Wafers, and we were astonished
to And that tiie second night after tu&ng ^askam Y»x QQ!<(vigck.^«a cmass^s^^i -njooved.
piesfantta^ ftiosU. l|d.snd^.M,v«\>ox. «o\d.Vi a».^a«a$shu
Advertising Sheet 13
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