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• a » 7
A_*_TIS SCIENTIA V E nTlTs
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J
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THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK
1894
THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL PUBLICATION
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THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANNUAL OF
THE STATES OF THE WORLD
FOR THE YEAR
1894
EDITED BY
J. SCOTT KELTIE
ASSISTANT SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
THIRTY-FIRST ANNUAL PUBLICATION
REVISED AFTER OFFICIAL RETURNS
ionton
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1894
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Man sagt oft : Zahlen regieren die Welt.
Das aber ist gewiss, Zahlen zeigen wie sie regiert wird.
Goethe.
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PREFACE
My first duty is again to convey my warmest thanks to the
many friends in all parts of the world who have co-operated
with me in the revision of the new edition of the Yeab-Book.
As the result of their help, it will be seen, the statistics of the
new edition have been almost entirely renewed, and many
important additions and corrections have been made.
With the help of Mr. John Leyland the sections dealing with
the navies of the various States have been entirely recast and
practically rewritten. It is hoped that the data given in these
sections, combined with the Introductory Table on the Navies of
the World, will be of real service at present when the question of
our naval position is exciting so much interest.
I am more than ever indebted this year to Mr. I. P. A.
Ren wick for his invaluable co-operation in the editorial
department.
J. S. K.
Office of • The Statesman's Year-Book,'
29 Bedford Street, Strand,
London, W.C.
February 28, 1894.
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CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY
I. Customs valuations m Different
Countries
XXIV
II. The Wheat Crops of the World
III. The World's Production of Gold and Silver
xxviii
xxix
IV. The British Empire .
V. The Navies of the World .
XXX
xxxii
Additions and Corrections
To/ace 3
Part the First.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
Reigning Queen and Empress .
3
I. The United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Irelani
—
PAGE
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 6
Area and Population . 14
Religion .... 28
Instruction ... 83
Justice and Crime . . 88
Pauperism ... 40
Finance .
Defence . . . .
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit .
PAGE
42
53
66
79
87
90
95
II. India, the Colonies, Phot
ectorates, and Dependencies
J—
FAOE
Europe—
Gibraltar .... 98
Malta .... 99
Asia —
Aden and Perim . 100
Bahrein Islands . 100
Borneo (British) . .101
Ceylon—
Constitution and Govern
ment .
Area and Population.
Religion .
Instruction . •
Justice and Crime .
Pauperism
FACE
. 103
. 103
. 104
. 104
. 105
. 105
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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Ceylon —
Finance ....
105
Defence ....
106
Production and Industry .
106
Commerce
106
Communications
108
Money and Credit
108
Money, Weights, and
Measures
108
Dependency
108
Books of Reference .
108
Cyprus ....
109
I
Hong Kong—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .111
Area and Population 111
Instruction . . . 112
Justice and Crime . .112
Finance . . .112
Defence . . . .113
Commerce and Shipping . 113
Money and Credit . .114
# Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .114
Books of Reference . .115
India and Dependencies —
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 115
Area and Population . 118
Religion . . . .125
Instruction . . .127
Justice and Crime . .128
Finance . . . .129
Defence . . . .133
Production and Industry . 135
Commerce . . .140
Shipping and Navigation . 145
Internal Communications . 147
Money and Credit . .150
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 151
Books of Reference . .152
Baluchistan . .154
Sikkim . . . .156
Andaman and Nicobar
Islands . . .157
Laccadive Islands . 157
kamaran i8land . . 157
Labuan . . . .158
The Straits Settlements—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 158
Area and Population . .159
Instruction . . .160
Justice and Crime . .161
Finance . . . .161
Defence .... 162
Production and Industry . 162
Commerce . . . 162
Shipping and Navigation . 164
Communications . . 164
Money and Credit . .164
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .164
Books of Reference . .165
Africa —
Ascension Island . .166
Basutoland . . .166
BECHUAN ALAND . . .167
Cape of Good Hope— -
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .168
Area and Population . 170
Religion .... 171
Instruction . . .171
Justice and Crime . .172
Pauperism . . . 172
Finance .... 172
Defence . . .173
Production and Industry . 173
Commerce . . .174
Shipping and Navigation . 175
Internal Communications . 176
Banks .... 176
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 176
Books of Reference . .177
Central Africa (British) 177
East Africa (British) . 179
Mauritius —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 181
Area and Population. . 182
Finance . . . .183
Defence . . . .183
Commerce .183
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . 184
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . 184
Dependencies . . .184
Books of Reference . .185
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CONTENTS
IX
Natal —
Constitution and Govern
ment .
Area and Population
Instruction
Finance .
Defence .
Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communica
tions
Books of Reference .
Niger Territories .
Oil Rivers Protectorate
South Africa (British)
St. Helena
Tristan D'Acunha .
West African Colonies —
The Gold Coast .
Lagos
Gambia .
Sierra Leone .
Zanzibar —
Sultan and Government
Area and Population
Religion .
Justice
Finance .
Army
Commerce
Books of Reference
zululand .
America-
Bermudas .
Canada—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . .
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime .
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Communications
Money and Credit .
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Books of Reference
185
186
187
187
187
188
188
189
189
190
192
193
195
196
196
197
197
197
199
200
200
200
201
201
201
201
202
203
204
207
208
209
210
210
212
213
214
218
218
219
220
220
America-
Falkland Islands .
Guiana, British
Honduras, British .
Newfoundland and Lab-
rador ....
Books of Reference of New-
foundland and Labrador
West Indies
Bahamas .
Barbados
Jamaica .
Leeward Islands
Trinidad
Windward Islands
Statistics of West Indies .
Books of Reference of West
Indies ....
Australasia and Oceania-
Fiji—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Finance ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Books of Reference .
New Guinea, British
Books of Reference .
New South Wales—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Finance .
Defence
Production and Industry
Commerce
222
223
224
225
226
227
227
227
228
230
231
231
232
234
235
235
236
236
236
237
237
238
238
238
238
239
239
241
242
243
243
244
245
246
249
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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
New South Wales—
Shipping and Navigation . 251
Internal Communications . 251
Money and Credit . . 252
Books of Reference . .253
New Zealand —
Government and Consti-
tution . . . .254
Area and Population . 256
Religion . . .258
Instruction . . . 258
Justice and Crime . . 259
Pauperism . . . 259
Finance .... 260
Defence .... 262
Production and Industry . 262
Commerce . . . 264
Shipping and Navigation . 267
Internal Communications . 267
Money and Credit . . 268
Books of Reference . . 269
Queensland—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .269
Area and Population . . 270
Religion .... 271
Instruction . . . 272
Justice and Crime . . 272
Pauperism . . . 272
Finance .... 272
Defence .... 273
Production and Industry . 273
Commerce . . 274
Shipping and Navigation . 275
Internal Communications . 275
Banks .... 275
Books of Reference . .275
South Australia—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 276
• Area and Population . 277
Religion . . .278
Instruction . . .278
Justice and Crime . 278
Defence .... 279
Finance .... 279
Production and Industry . 279
Commerce . . . 280
Shipping and Navigation . 281
Communications . . 281
Banks . . .282
Books of Reference . . 282
Tasmania—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 282
Area and Population . 283
Religion .... 284
Instruction . ' . , 284
Justice and Crime . . 285
Pauperism . . . 285
Revenue and Expenditure . 285
Defence .... 286
Production and Industry . 286
Commerce . . . 287
Snipping and Navigation . 288
Internal Communications . 288
Books of Reference . . 289
Victoria—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 289
Area and Population. . 290
Religion .... 292
Instruction . . . 292
Justice and Crime . . 293
Finance .... 294
Defence .... 295
Production and Industry . 295
Commerce . 296
Shipping and Navigation . 299
Internal Communications . 299
Money and Credit . . 300
Books of Reference . . 300
Western Australia —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . . 301
Area and Population . . 302
Religion .... 302
Instruction . . . 303
Justice and Crime . . 303
Pauperism . . . 303
Finance . . . .304
Defence .... 304
Production and Industry . 804
Commerce . . 305
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 306
Money and Credit . . 306
Books of Reference . . 306
Australian Defence . . 307
Australasian Federation . 307
Books of Reference . . 308
Pacific Islands . . 309
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CONTENTS
XI
Part the Second.
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
PAGE
AFGHANISTAN . . .313
Trade .... 315
Books of Reference . . 316
AFRICA : CENTRAL IN-
DEPENDENT STATES-
CENTRAL Sudan States —
Bornu .... 317
Wadai — Eanem — Bag-
irmi . . . .318
Egyptian Sudan • . .319
Dahomey . . . .320
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .322
Area and Population . 323
Religion .... 324
Instruction . . . 324
Justice . . . .324
Finance .... 325
Defence .... 326
Production and Industry . 327
Commerce . . . 327
Shipping and Navigation . 329
Internal Communications . 330
Money and Credit . 330
Money, Weights, and
Measures . .331
Diplomatic Representatives 331
Books of Reference . . 331
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY—
Reigning Sovereign . . 333
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . .335
Area and Population . . 340
Religion . . .# . 344
Instruction . . 346
Justice and Crime . . 348
Austria-Hungary—
Pauperism . . . 349
Finance . . . .349
Defence .... 354
Production and Industry . 358
Commerce . . . 363
Shipping and Navigation . 365
Internal Communications . 366
Money and Credit . . 368
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .370
Diplomatic Representatives 371
Bosnia and Herzegovina . 371
Books of Reference . .372
BELGIUM—
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern- --
ment . . ./ .
Area and Population '.
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance ....
Defence .
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
BHUTAN ....
BOLIVIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population .
376
378
380
380
382
382
383
384
385
387
390
390
891
392
392
393
394
395
395
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Xll
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Bolivia—
Religion, Instruction, and
Justice .... 396
Finance .... 396
Defence .... 396
Production and Industry . 396
Commerce . . 397
Communications . . 397
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 397
Consular Representative . 398
Books of Reference . . 398
BRAZIL—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .399
Area and Population . . 401
Religion .... 402
Instruction . . . 402
Justice and Crime . . 402
Finance . . . .403
Defence .... 404
Production and Industry . 405
Commerce . . • 405
Shipping and Navigation . 406
\ Internal Communications . 407
' n Money and Credit . 407
TMoney, Weights, and
Measures . . . 407
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . 408
Books of Reference . . 408
CHILE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 410
Area and Population . 411
Religion .... 412
\ Instruction . . . 412
•Justice and Crime . .412
Finance .... 413
Defence .... 413
Industry .... 414
Commerce . . .415
Shipping and Navigation . 416
Communications . .417
Money and Credit . .417
Money, Weights, and
Measures . .417
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .418
Books of Reference . . 418
PAGE
CHINA—
Reigning Emperor . 419
Government . 419
Area and Population . . 420
Religion .... 421
Instruction . 422
Finance .... 423
Defence .... 423
Production and Industry . 425
Commerce . . . 425
Shipping and Navigation . 428
Internal Communications . 428
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 429
Diplomatic Representatives 430
Books of Reference . . 430
COLOMBIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .433
Area and Population . . 433
Religion and Education . 434
I Finance 434
I Defence .... 435
! Production . . .435
Commerce . . . 435
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .436
Money and Credit . . 437
Money, Weights, and
Measures . 437
Diplomatic and Commer-
cial Representatives 437
Books of Reference . 438
439
440
CONGO FREE STATE
Books of Reference .
COREA—
Government . 441
Area and Population . 441
Religion ana Instruction . 441
Finance .... 441
Defence .... 442
Production and Commerce 442
Money .... 443
Books of Reference . . 443
COSTA RICA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 444
Area and Population . .444
Religion and Instruction . 444
Justice
Finance
445
445
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CONTENTS
Xlll
Costa Rica—
Defence .... 445
Industry and Commerce . 445
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 446
Money, Weights, and
Measures 446
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . 446
Books of Reference . 447
DENMARK—
Reigning King . . 448
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 449
Area and Population . 451
Religion . . . .452
Instruction , 453
Crime . . . 453
Finance and Defence . 453
Production and Industry . 456
Commerce . . . 456
Shipping and Navigation . 458
Internal Communications 458
Money and Credit . 458
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 458
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives 459
Colonies .... 459
Books of Reference . . 460
ECUADOR—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 461
Area and Population 461
Religion and Instruction . 462
Justice and Crime . . 462
Finance .... 462
Defence .... 463
Commerce . . . 463
Shipping and Navigation . 464
Internal Communications . 464
Money and Credit . . 465
Weights and Measures 465
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . 466
Books of Reference . . 466
FRANCE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . .«*% . . 467
Area and Population . 471
France—
Religion .... 475
Instruction . . .476
Justice and Crime . . 478
Pauperism . . . 479
Finance .... 479
Defence . . . .484
Production and Industry . 492
Commerce . . . 496
Shipping and Navigation . 499
Internal Communications . 501
Money and Credit . . 502
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 503
Diplomatic Representatives 504
Books of Reference . 504
Andorra . . .505
Colonies and Depend-
encies . . . 506
Asia —
French India . . .508
French Indo-China . 508
Annam . . .509
Cambodia .... 509
Cqchin:China . . .509
Tonqttin . .510
Africa-
Algeria—
Government . . .510
Area and Population 511
Religion and Instruction . 511
Crime .... 511
Finance . . . .511"
Defence . . . .515
Industry . . . .611
Commerce . . 515
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .514
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 514
Books of Reference . .514
French Congo and Gabun 515
Gold Coast Territories 515
Madagascar —
Reigning Sovereign . .516
Government . . 516
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XIV
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Madagascar —
GERMAN EMPIRE—
PAGE
Area and Population
516
Reigning Emperor and
£mg ....
Religion and Education .
517
530
Justice ....
518
Constitution and Govern-
Finance ....
518
ment ....
531
Defence ....
518
Area and Population
534
Production and Industry .
518
Religion ....
538
Commerce
519
Instruction
539
Shipping and Communica-
Justice and Crime
541
tions ....
519
Pauperism
542
Money and Banks .
519
Finance ....
543
Consular and other Re-
Defence ....
545
presentatives
519
Production and Industry .
552
Books of Reference .
520
Commerce
556
Dibgo-Suarez, Nossi-bb,
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications
560
562
St. Marie .
520
Money and Credit .
564
Mayotte and the Comobo
Money, Weights, and
Islands
521
Measures
565
Reunion ....
521
Diplomatic Representatives
565
Obock ....
521
Foreign Dependencies .
566
Senegal, Rivieres du Sud,
Togoland ....
567
the Settlement on
Cameroons
567
the Guinea Coast,
German South - West
the Fbench Sudan,
Aprica
568
and the French Sa-
hara ....
522
German East Africa
568
In the Western Pacific .
569
Tunis—
Bey ....
Government
523
523
States of Germany— r
Alsace-Lorraine—
Area and Population
524
Constitution
570
Finance ....
524
Area and Population
571
Industry ....
525
Religion, Instruction, Jus-
Commerce
525
tice and Crime, Poor-
Money, Weights, and
relief ....
572
Measures
526
Finance ....
572
Books of Reference .
526
Production and Industry .
572
America-
Anhalt—
Guadeloupe and Depend-
Reigning Duke
572
encies ....
527
Constitution
573
Guiana ....
527
Area and Population
Finance ....
573
574
Martinique
527
St. Pierre and Miquelon
528
Baden —
Reigning Grand-Duke
574
Australasia and Oceania —
Constitution .
575
New -Caledonia and De-
Area and Population
Religion ana Instruction .
575
576
pendencies .
528
Finance ....
577
Society Islands and
Production and Industry .
577
Neighbouring Groups .
528 '
Communications
578
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CONTENTS
XV
Bavaria —
Reigning King . . 578
Regent . . . .578
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .579
Area and Population . . 580
Religion . . . .582
Instruction . . . 582
Justice, Crime, and Pauper-
ism . . . .582
Finance . . . .583
Army .... 583
Production and Industry . 584
Bremen—
Constitution . . .585
Area and Population. . 585
Religion, Justice, and
Crime .... 585
Finance . . . .586
Commerce and Shipping . 586
Brunswick—
Regent .... 586
Constitution . . . 587
Area and Population . . 587
Finance . . . .588
Production and Industry . 588
Hamburg —
Constitution . . . 588
Area and Population. . 589
Religion, Justice, Crime,
and Agriculture . . 590
Finance .... 590
Commerce and Shipping . 590
Hesse —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 592
Constitution . . . 593
Area and Population . . 593
Religion and Instruction . 593
Finance .... 594
Production and Industry . 594
Lippe—
Reigning Prince . . 694
Constitution . . . 594
Area and Population. . 595
* Finance and Industry . 595
LtJBEOK —
Constitution . . . 595
Area and Population . .- 596
Religion, Instruction, Jus-
tice, and Pauperism . 596
Finance .... 596
Commerce and Shipping . 597
Mecklenburg-Schwerin —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 597
Constitution . . . 598
Area and Population . . 598
Religion and Instruction . 599
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism .... 599
Finance .... 599
Production . . . 599
Mecklenburg-Strelitz —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 600
Constitution and Finance . 600
Area, Population, &c. . 600
Oldenburg —
Reigning Grand-Duke . 601
Constitution and Revenue . 602
Area and Population . . 602
Religion and Instruction . 6Q3
Justice and Pauperism . 603
Production . . .603
Prussia—
Reigning King . , .604
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 606
Area and Population . . 610
Religion . . . .613
Instruction . . . 613
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism .... 615
Finance .... 615
Army . . . .617
Production and Industry . 618
Commerce . . . 619
Internal Communications . 619
Saxe-Weimar—
Reigning Grand-Duke 620
Constitution and Revenue . 620
Area and Population . . 621
Religion, Instruction, Jus-
tice, and Crime . . 621
Production . . . 622
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XVI
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Saxony —
Reigning King . . . 622
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .623
Area and Population . . 624
Religion . . . .625
Instruction . . . 625
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism .... 626
Finance . . . .626
Production and Industry . 626
Communications . . 627
SCHAUMBUBG-LlPPE—
Reigning Prince . 628
Constitution and Finance . 628
Area and Population . 628
The Thtjringian States—
Reuss, Elder Branch . 629
Reuss, Younger Branch 629
Saxe-Altenburg . . 630
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 631
Saxe-Meiningen . . 632
schwarzburg - rudol -
8TADT . . . .633
SCHWARZBURG - SONDER8-
HAU8EN . . .633
Statistics —
Area and Population . 634
Religion . . . 635
Crime and Pauperism . 635
Agriculture . . . 636
Waldeck—
Reigning Prince . . 636
WURTTEMBERG —
Reigning King . . 637
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .638
Area and Population . . 639
Religion . . . .640
Instruction . . . 640
Crime and Pauperism . 640
Finance .... 640
Army .... 642
Industry .... 642
Books of Reference . . 643
GREECE—
Reigning King . .645
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .646
Area and Population . . 647
Religion . . . .648
Instruction . . . 649
Finance . . . .649
Defence .... 651
Production and Industry . 652
Commerce . . . 653
Navigation and Shipping . 654
Internal Communications . 655
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 655
Diplomatic Representatives 656
Books of Reference . . 656
GUATEMALA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 658
Area and Population . . 658
Religion .... 658
Instruction 658
Crime .... 658
Finance .... 659
Defence .... 659
Production and Industry . 659
Commerce . . . 659
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 660
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . 660
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 661
Books of Reference . . 661
HAITI—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 662
Area and Population . . 662
Religion and Instruction . 662
Finance .... 662
Defence .... 663
Commerce and Communica-
tions .... 663
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 664
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . 664
Books of Reference . .654
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CONTENTS
XVU
HAWAII—
Reigning Monarch, Consti-
tution, and Government 665
Area and Population . . 666
Religion ana Instruction . 666
Finance .... 666
Commerce, Shipping, and
Communications . . 667
Currency .... 668
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 668
Books of Reference . . 668
HONDURAS—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 669
Area and Population . 669
Instruction . . . 669
Finance .... 669
Production and Commerce 669
Communications . 670
Money, Weights, and
Measures 670
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 670
Books of Reference . 671
ITALY-
Reigning King
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Navigation and Shipping
Internal Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Foreign Dependencies
Abyssinia and Shoa
Books of Reference .
672
673
676
683
690
692
694
694
699
705
708
710
711
712
713
713
714
715
716
JAPAN-
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Local Government
Area and Population .
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit .
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
LIBERIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population .
Finance ....
Commerce
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives .
Books of Reference .
LUXEMBURG
MEXICO-
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
Area and Population.
Religion and Instruction
Justice
State Finance .
Local Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Communica<
tions .
Money and Credit
b
719
719
721
721
723
723
723
724
724
726
727
728
730
730
731
732
732
73S
734
734
734
734
735
735
735
736
737
738
739
740
740
741
741
742
743
744
744
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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Mexico —
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . 745
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .746
Books of Reference w .746
MONACO
MONTENEGRO—
748
Reigning Prince . . 749
Government . . .749
Area and Population . 750
Religion .... 750
Instruction . . • 751
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism1. . . • 751
Finance . . • .751
Defence . . . .751
Production and Industry . 751
Commerce . . .752
Communications . . 752
' Money .... 752
Books of Reference . .752
MOROCCO—
Reigning'Sultan
Government
Area and Population
Religion .
Defence .
Commerce
and
753
753
753
754
754
754
Money, Weights,
Measures . • • 75o
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .756
Books of Reference . . 756
NEPAL 757
NETHERLANDS (THE)—
Reigning Sovereign . . 759
Government and Constitu-
tion . • • • 760
Area and Population . 763
Religion . . • -765
Instruction . ' i«S
Justice and Crime . 767
Pauperism . *67
Netherlands (The)—
Finance .... 768
Defence . . . 770
Production and Industry . 772
Commerce . . .774
Shipping and Navigation . 777
Internal Communications . 778
Money and Credit . . 780
Money, Weights, and
. Measures . . .781
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 782
Colonies . . .782
Dutch East Indies—
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 782
Area and Population . 783
Religion . . . .785
Instruction . . . 785
Justice and Crime . .786
Finance .... 786
Defence .... 787
Production and Industry . 788
Commerce . . 790
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 791
Money and Credit . . 791
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . 791
Consular Representatives . 791
Dutch West Indies —
Dutch Guiana, or Su-
rinam .... 792
Curacao .... 793
Books of Reference . . 794
NICARAGUA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .797
Area and Population . 797
Instruction . . . 797
Finance .... 797
Industry and Commerce . 798
Communications . 798
Money, Weights, and
Measures . .798
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives 799
Books of Reference . . 799
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PAGE
UiJNia
PAGE
OMAN .
800
PERU—
Constitution and Govern*
ORANGE FREE STATE—
ment ....
Area and Population .
819
819
Constitution and Govern-
Religion ....
820
ment ....
801
Instruction
820
Area and Population .
801
Finance ....
820
Religion ....
802
Defence ....
822
Instruction
802
Industry ....
822
Justice and Crime
802
Commerce .
823
Finance ....
802
Shipping and Navigation .
824
Defence ....
803
Internal Communications .
824
Production and Industry .
803
Money, Weights, and
Commerce .
803
Measures . . _ .
825
Communications
804
Diplomatic Representatives
825
Books of Reference .
804
Books of Reference .
826
PARAGUAY—
PORTUGAL—
Constitution and Govern-
Reigning King .
827
ment ....
805
Constitution and Govern-
Area and Population
805
ment ....
828
Religion, Instruction, and
Area and Population.
830
Justice ....
806
Religion ....
832
Finance ....
806
Instruction
833
Defence ....
806
Justice and Crime .
833
Production and Industry .
806
Finance ....
833
Commerce
807
Defence ....
835
Communications
807
Production and Industry .
836
Money and Credit .
807
Commerce
837
Money, Weights, and
Shipping and Navigation .
839
Measures
808
Internal Communications .
839
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Money and Credit .
839
808
Money, Weights, and
Books of Reference .
808
Measures
840
Diplomatic Representatives
Colonies ....
840
PERSIA—
841
Reigning Shah .
809
Books of Reference .
843
Government
810
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
811
811
ROUMANIA—
812-
Reigning King .
844
Justice ....
812
Constitution and Govern-
Finance ....
812
ment ....
844
Defence ....
813
Area and Population .
845
Production and Industry .
813
Religion ....
846
Commerce
813
Instruction .
846
Money and Credit .
815
Finance ....
846
Communications
816
Defence ....
847
Money, Weights, and
Production and Industry .
847
Measures
816
Commerce
848
Diplomatic Representatives
817
Shipping and Communi-
Books of Reference .
818
cations .
849
b 2
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XX
1?HE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
PAGE
ROUMANIA —
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 849
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 850
Books of Reference . . 850
RUSSIA-
Reigning Emperor .
ConstitutioD and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime .
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Communications
Money and Credit .
Money, Weights, and
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives .
Finland ....
Population
Instruction
Pauperism and Crime
Finance ....
Industry
Commerce
851
853
858
863
865
868
870
878
891
897
904
905
908
910
910
911
911
912
912
912
912a
9126
I
Shipping and Navigation 9126
Internal Communications 912c
Money, Weights, &c. 912c
Dependencies in Asia —
Bokhara . . 912c
Khiva .... 914
Books of Reference . 915
SALVADOR—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .917
Area and Population . 917
Instruction and Justice . 917
Finance . 917
Production and Commerce 918
Salvadou —
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .918
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .919
Diplomatic Representatives 91 9
Books of Reference . . 919
SAMOA .
SANTO DOMINGO—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . ^ .
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction .
Justice ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communi-
cations ....
Money, Weights, and
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives .
Books of Reference .
SERVIA—
Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime .
Pauperism
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
920
921
921
922
922
922
922
922
923
923
923
924
924
925
925
926
927
927
928
928
928
929
930
931
932
932
932
933
J2iQlggd£¥-kj QQfi I C -
CONTENTS
XXI
SIAM—
Reigning King. . . 934
Government . . . 934
Area and Population . 935
Finance .... 936
Defence .... 936
Production and Industry . 936
Commerce . . . 937
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 938
Money, "Weights, and
Measures . . . 938
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 939
Books of Reference . . 939
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 940
Area and Population . 940
Religion .... 941
Instruction . . . 941
Finance .... 941
Defence .... 941
Production and Industry . 942
Commerce . . . 942
Communications . . 942
Books of Reference . . 943
SWAZILAND . . .943
SPAIN—
Reigning Sovereign . . 944
Queen Regent . .944
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 945
Area and Population . . 948
Religion .... 949
Instruction . . . 950
Finance .... 950
Defence .... 952
Production and Industry . 955
Commerce . . . 955
Shipping and Navigation . 957
Internal Communications . 958
Money and Credit . . 958
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 958
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . 958
Colonies. . . .959
Cuba and Porto Rico 959
Philippine Islands . 961
Books of Reference . . 962
SWEDEN AND NORWAY—
Reigning King . . .962
Sweden —
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
964
Area and Population
966
Religion .
, .
969
Instruction
,
969
Justice and Crime
969
Pauperism
.
969
Finance .
970
Defence .
.
971
Production and Industry .
973
Commerce
974
Shipping and Navigation .
976
Internal Communications .
976
Money and Credit .
977
Norway—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
978
Area and Population
.
980
Religion .
.
983
Instruction
.
983
Justice and Crime
983
Pauperism
,
984
Finance .
.
984
Defence .
.
985
Production and Industry .
987
Commerce
988
Shipping and Navigation .
990
Internal Communications .
991
Money and Credit .
992
Money, Weights, and
Measures
993
Diplomatic Representatives
993
Books of Reference
994
SWITZERLAND—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 995
Area and Population . . 998
Religion .... 1000
Instruction . . . 1000
Justice and Crime . . 1001
Finance .... 1002
Defence .... 1004
Production and Industry . 1006
Commerce . . . 1007
Internal Communications . 1008
Money and Credit .. , 1008
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THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
Switzerland—
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1009
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1009
Books of Reference . . 1009
lUi^UA • • • • •
TURKEY—
1VXU
Reigning Sultan
1011
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
1013
Area and Population .
Religion and Education .
1015
1018
Finance .
1019
Defence .
1022
Production and Industry .
1026
Commerce
1027
Shipping and Navigation .
1030
Internal Communications .
1030
Money, Weights, and
Measures
1031
Tributary States-
Bulgaria .
1032
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
1032
Area and Population .
1033
Instruction
1034
Finance .
1034
Defence .
1034
Production and Industry .
1035
Commerce
1035
Shipping and Communica-
tions .
1035
Money and Credit .
1036
Samos . • .
1036
I
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1036
Books of Reference . .1037
Egypt—
Reigning Khedive . . 1038
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 1039
Area and Population . 1040
Religion ana Instruction . 1042
Justice and Crime . . 1042
finance . . , .1043
Egypt—
Defence .... 1046
Production and Industry . 1046
Commerce. . . . 1048
Shipping and Navigation . 1051
Suez Canal . . . 1052
Internal Communications . 1054
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1054
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1055
Books of Reference . . 1055
UNITED STATES—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1058
Area and Population . .1064
Religion .... 1070
Instruction . . . 1071
Justice and Crime . . 1074
Pauperism . . .1075
Finance .... 1075
Defence . 1079
Production and Industry . 1084
Commerce . . . 1090
Shipping and Navigation . 1093
Internal Communications . 1094
Money and Credit . . 1095
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1096
Diplomatic Representatives 1097
Books of Reference , ♦ 1097
URUGUAY—
Constitution and Govern.
ment . . .1100
Area and Population . . 1100
Religion .... 1102
Instruction . . .1102
Finance . . . .1102
Defence . . . .1103
Production and Industry . 1103
Commerce . . .1103
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 1105
Money and Credit . .1105
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1106
Diplomatic and 'Consular
Representatives . . 1106
Books of Reference . . 110Q
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CONTENTS
XZ111
VENEZUELA—
Constitution and Govern
ment .
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction
Justice and Crime .
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
1107
1107
1108
1109
1109
1109
1110
Venezuela—
Commerce . . . 1110
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 1111
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1112
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .1112
Books of Reference . .1112
INDEX
1113
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i
INTRODUCTORY.
I. — Customs Valuations in Different Countries.
The following is a condensed translation of part of the Report issued in
September, 1893, by M. Alfred Picard, President of the French Permanent
Commission on Customs Valuations. The Report, which is founded on the
replies of French Diplomatic and Consular Agents to questions addressed to
them, describes briefly the systems adopted in various countries in the
preparation of their trade statistics1 : —
In Germany, the average value of each article in the Customs list is fixed
annually, under the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission
of experts, who receive information from Chambers of Commerce and other
sources. There are separate valuations for imports and exports. The price
fixed is that of the goods at the moment of crossing the frontier. For imports
the price does not include Customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, ware-
housing, &c., incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price
includes all charges within the territory, but does not include export duties,
nor are drawbacks or bounties taken into account. The quantities are deter-
mined according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports, the fiscal
authorities may actually weigh the goods. For packages, an official tare is
deducted. It is endeavoured also, as far as possible, to ascertain the true
country of origin or of destination of goods.
In the United Kingdom the system in force is a valuation of both imports
and exports according to the bills of entry and the shipping bills, false declar-
ations being punishable by fine. In case of imports, the control of the
Customs administration, at least in so far as regards those articles which are
l The Report is more folly reproduced in the Board of Trade Journal for November, 1893,
from which the paragraph below relating to the United Kingdom is taken. The same number
of the Journal contains an account of the meeting of the International Statistical Institute
at Chicago in 1893, and incidentally mentions some features of the United States statistical
system not referred to in the following Report. In the Bulletin de I'Inetitut International de
8tati*tique, Tome VII., I livraison, Rome, 1893, there is an article by 8ignor Luigi Bodio
"•On the Discrepancies between the Trade Statistics of Various States," where the subject
is treated from the Italian point of view.
The French system of valuation does not fall within the purpose of this Report, but it
may be stated as follows :— The Cownution Permanente dee Valewrt annually determines
the values (called actual values) which represent as nearly as possible the average prices
of the different articles in the Customs House list during the year. The values fixed at the
end of one year and applied to that year retrospectively, are applied also during the fol-
lowing year, at the end of which the provisional results thus obtained are revised according
to new values definitely fixed by the Commission. Thus each year there are published first
the provisional and later the definitive commercial statistics. A similar (not identical)
system of revision is followed in other countries. It may be added that in France
merchants are requested to state as exactly as possible the true country of origin or of des-
tination of goods imported or exported whether by sea or land.
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INTRODUCTORY XXV
subject to duty, is a guarantee of accuracy in the returns, but as regards the
exports it is different, for merchants are only required to furnish their declara-
tions within a period of six days after the sailing of the vessel, and the only
proof of their accuracy, if proof be needed, lies in an inspection of the bills
of lading, the production of which the authorities have the right to demand.
The valuation of imports and exports is checked in the Statistical Office of the
Customs (to which a copy of the entry is sent), where the officials possess a
knowledge of current values and where market reports and lists of prices cur-
rent are readily available to detect any departures from substantial accuracy in
this respect. [It should be noted that the important difference between
the United Kingdom and other systems is that the former shows the values at
the time of import and export, whilst in most other countries the values are
computed at the prices of a year or more before.]
For goods imported the practice adopted is generally to take the value at
the port of entry, including all incidental expenses up to the landing on the
quay. For goods consigned to the English market for sale, the market value
in that country is that which is sought to be known and to be included in the
returns. This is ascertained from the declaration made by the importers, and
is checked by the expert knowledge available in the Statistical Office, and by
the price-lists and market reports of the day. For exports the valne at the
T>ort of shipment is taken. English . statistics take cognisance only of the
immediate point of origin and destination, and do not record the prime origin
and ultimate destination of the goods.
In Austria the values are fixed annually by a permanent commission,
comprising officials and representatives of agriculture, sylviculture, trade and
industry. In general, net values are taken for imports and gross values (with-
out deduction of tare) for exports, and they must be determined at the cross-
ing of the frontier. The commission has to fix them according to the countries
of origin or of destination , and only employ averages exceptionally. Quantities
are declared, but the administration may, and in the case of imports always
does, check the declarations. The weight declared is either net or gross, ac-
cording to the tariff regulations.
In Belgium a distinction, as regards valuation, must be made between
imports subject to ad valorem duties and other goods imported or exported.
For the former, statistics are drawn up according to the values which have
served as a basis for the calculation of the duties. For the others a commission
of five members availing themselves of Bourse and official quotations, &c,
fixes average values — without regard to countries of origin or destination.
For imports the official values comprise the initial price and cost of transport
to the frontier, but not customs duties or excise ; for exports, they consist of
the price at the place of production and the cost of transport to the point of
shipment The quantities of goods subject to duty are strictly scrutinised ;
but for goods free of duty, imports and exports, the declarations of the parties
interested are generally accepted. When the gross weight is given an official
tare is deducted. In the case of goods subject to ad valorem duty the adminis-
tration has a right of pre-emption at the declared value increased by 10 per
cent when the importers disagree with the fiscal authorities and are unwilling
to risk a reference of the dispute to experts.
In Spain there is, under the Minister of Finance, a Commission of Tariffs
and Customs, consisting of senators, deputies, officials, merchants, bankers,
&c. For imports the values fixed are those on crossing the frontier before the
imposition of Customs duties or other charges in the Peninsula, and for exports
the values are the frontier values, export duties being deducted. The Com-
mission should revise its values annually, but the official returns seem still
drawn up according to the tables of 1888. The quantities recorded should,
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XXVI THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
theoretically, be those determined by weighing or other effective means, both
for exports and imports ; bnt the officials, even for imports, often refrain from,
such verification. The gross or net weight is given according to tariff regula-
tions.
In the United States the values are fixed not according to average prices,
but according to invoices 1 or shipping papers, which the importers and ex-
porters have to produce. For imports the invoices are signed by an American
Consul ; for exports the shipping papers are signed by the authorities at the
port of shipment. The quantities are determined by declarations.
In Italy there is a permanent central commission, comprising official
members, representatives of commercial corporations, &c. The values are
those of the goods at the frontier, exclusive of import or export duties. Fot
imports and exports the parties interested declare the value of the goods,
their quantity, and the country of origin or destination. For imports there
is recorded the gross weight in the case of goods subject to a duty of 20 francs
per quintal (8s. ljd. per cwt.) or less ; the net legal weight {i.e. with deduc-
tion of an official tare) in the case of goods subject to duty of 20 to 40 francs
per quintal (8s. ljd. to 16s. 3d. per cwt.) ; the actual net weight in the case
of goods taxed at over 40 francs per quintal (16s. 3d. per cwt.). For exports
the gross weight is usually given. Inaccurate declarations are punishable by
fine if the inaccuracies are prejudicial to the Treasury.
In the Netherlands the statistics give sometimes the real, sometimes the
official, value of goods. For goods liable to an ad valorem import duty and
for some articles duty-free, the importer has to declare the real value according
to the prices current of the day ; in case of disagreement, the fiscal authorities
may acquire the goods at the declared value increased by 10, 11, or 12 per cent.
To other goods the official values, unchanged since 1862, are applied. Every
declaration of imports and of exports is, in principle, subject to verification,
but in fact only those relating to goods subject to duty are checked. Returns
are made out in gross weight, in net weight (with deduction of an official tare),
in number or in value according to the nature of each case. When goods are
imported or exported by river the neighbouring country is always regarded as
the country of origin or of destination ; thus imports really from France are
attributed to Belgium. When transport is by sea the country of origin or of
destination is determined by the last point of shipment or the first point of
landing ; thus French or Spanish wines are set down to the account of
England.
In Russia the Custom House agents fix the values of imports and exports,
either on the basis of declarations of interested parties and documents in
support of them, or by reference to experts when the declarations are untrust-
worthy or erroneous. They are assisted also by price lists. The values of
exports are determined at the point of shipment exclusive of cost of transport,
insurance, &c. The quantities of goods imported are determined by weighing
or other effective means, as are also the quantities of goods exported when
subject to export duty. The declarations of shippers are sufficient in the case of
exports duty-free. The gross weight is always recorded except in those cases
for which the Customs regulations have provided official tares. The Customs
officials never require the true country of origin or of destination. They
register the port wnere the bill of lading is dated, for imports — and proceed
similarly in the case of exports. •
i The values of imports being the values at the ports of shipment, the question of the
rate of exchange arises. Up to 1892, in the valuation of certain duty-free articles, the cur-
rency at the port of shipment was taken at par ; for 1898 corrections have (at least in the
case of coffee) been made allowing for depreciation of currency.
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INTRODUCTORY XXV11
In Switzerland for the majority of imports the values are fixed by a com-
mission of from 25 to 30 experts, nominated by the Customs Department. Up
to 1891 a single value was fixed for each class of goods. Since 1892 the
commission has to take into account the difference of prices in different
countries of origin. For other imports and for produce exported declarations
are considered sufficient, subject to a reference to experts, the Berne Statistical
Bureau frequently requiring explanations or rectifications. Certain articles,
such as embroideries and pocket watches, are valued according to declarations
by the producers themselves. Of goods in general the returns show the net
weight, but the declarations are required to state also the gross weight. Only
quantities of goods subject to duty are verified, and it is the gross weight
which is verified, as this only enters into the computation of the duty. It is
sought to record as the country of origin the country of production, and
as the country of destination that in which the produce is to be consumed.
When exact information is not available the most distant known points of
transit are recorded.
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XXV111
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
II.— The Wheat Crops of the World,
The following table shows, for the chief wheat-producing countries, the
wheat crops in 1893, and the probable exports and imports, with the total
supply required for the year 1893-94, according to estimates laid before the
Association nationale de la Meunerie frangaise.
Countries
Persia
United States
Russia
India
Hungary
AsiaMinor,
Argentina
Roumania
Canada
Australia
Bulgaria .
Turkey, European
Algeria & Tunis
Chile
Servia
Egypt .
France
Italy
Germany .
Spain " .
United Kingdom
Austria
Belgium .
Greece
Netherlands
Portugal .
Sweden and
Norway
Denmark .
Switzerland
Total
Production
Bushels
385,000,000
353,897,500
264,000,000
137,500,000
60,500,000
55,000.000
44.000,000
42,625,000
37,125,000
30,250,000
27,500,000
26,125,000
19,937,000
8,250,000
5,500,000
279,433,400
115,775,000
89,375,000
79,750,000
49,500,000
44,600,000
15,125,000
6,875,000
6,187,500
5,500,000
4,675,000
4,125,000
4,125,000
2,202,255,400
Exports
Bushels
67,375,000
96,250,000
41,250,000
44,000,000
8,250,000
27,500,000
30,250,000
9,625,000
26,125,000
11,000,000
5,500,000
2,750,000
5,500,000
2,750,000
1,237,500
379,362,500
Imports
Net Supply
Bushels
Bushels
—
317,625,000
—
257,647,500
—
222,750,000
—
93,500,000
—
52,250,000
—
27,500,000
—
13,750,000
—
33,000,000
—
.11,000,000
—
19,250,000
—
22,000,000
—
23,375,000
—
14,437,000
—
5,500,000
—
4,262,500
27,500,000
306,933,400
31,900,000
147,675,000
24,750,000
114,125,000
13,750,000
93,500,000
165,000,000
214,500,000
39,875,000
84,475,000
27,500,000
42,625,000
4,125,000
11,000,000
8,250,000
14,437,500
5,500,000
11,000,000 |
2,750,000
7,425,000
2,750,000
6,875,000
12,375,000
16,500,000 !
366,025,000
2,188,917,900
— —
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THE GOLD AND SILVER PRODUCTION
XXIX
III. — The World's Production of Gold and Silver.
The following table, adapted from that published by the Director of the
United States Mint, shows the production of gold and silver in the different
countries of the world in 1891 and 1892. Where statistics for these years are
not available, the estimate given is based on the production of the latest year
known : —
Countries
Gold
1801
Silver
1801
Gold
1892
Silver
1892
Oz. Troy
Oz. Troy
Oz. Troy
Oz. Troy
Europe : —
Russia .
1,167,045
444,280
1,139,032
425,473
Germany
—
6,127,800 *
—
6,127,800 l
Austria-Hungary .
67,708 *
1,672,443 s
67,708 2
1,672,443 2
1 Sweden .
3,537
117,605
3,537 s
117,605 s
Norway .
—
182,130
—
182,130 s
Italy .
4,565
886,793
4,565 s
886,793 s
Spain
—
1,655,789 4
—
1,655,789 4
Turkey .
322 B
42,534-"
322 8
42,534si
| France .
6,430 6
2,286,411 6
6,4306
2,286,411 6
: Great Britain .
3,247
291,761
3,215
197,915
Asia :—
Japan
24, 595 7
1,391,516 8
24,595 7
1,391,516s
British India .
120,691
—
147,890
—
Corea
36,265 •
—
36, 265 •
—
Africa
686,917
—
1,067,605
—
North America : —
United States .
1,604,832
58,340,740
1,596,376
58,010,720
Mexico .
48,386
40,999,770
54,623
45,641,233
Canada .
44,752
314,973
44,752 3
314,973 s
Central America.
7,909
1,547,154
7,909 s
1,547,154 3i
South ' America : —
Argentina
Columbia
3,9546
479,614
3,954 6
479,614 s
167,952
1,004,109
168,273 s
1,004,109 s
Bolivia .
3,247 7
11,981,212
3,247 7
11,981,212s
Chile .
69,508 •
2,276,027
69,508 s
2,276,027 s
Brazil
21,187
—
21,187 s
—
Venezuela
48,353
—
48,353 s
—
British Guiana
87,062 ■
—
87,062 s
—
Dutch Guiana.
26,234
—
26,234 s
—
French Guiana
48,289
—
48,289 s
—
Peru
3,634
2,407,360
3,634 s
2,407,360 s
Uruguay
Australasia.
4,501 6
—
4,501 6
—
1,518,927
10,001,865
1,638,490
13,441,497
Total .
6,087,892
144,451,886
6,827,556
152,090,308
i Estimate of United States Mint Bureau. 2 Hungary, 1891 ; Austria, 1890.
3 Prod- ce of 1891. - * Produce of 1888. * Produce of 1886. « Produce of 1890.
7 Calculated on the basis of exports in 1891 8 Produce of Imperial mines in 1891.
• Produce of 1889.
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XXX
IV. THE BRITISH
United Kingdom .
India : —
British India 12 .
Feudatory States
Total India .
Colonies—
Europe : —
Gibraltar .
Malta and Gozo .
Total Europe
Asia .—
AdenandPerim2
Ceylon2
Hong Kong 3
LabuanS
Straits Settlements * .
Total Asia .
Africa : —
Ascension .
Basutoland .
Bechuanaland
Cape Colony
Mauritius2 .
Natal ....
St Helena .
West African Colonies : —
Gambia
Gold Coast .
Lagos ....
Sierra Leone
Area.
Sq. miles
120,973
1,068,314
731,944
1,800,258
1-9
119
25,3(55
29
30-2
1,472
20,970
35
10,293
71,000
221,310
705
20,400
47
2,700
15,000
1,071
15,000
357,021
I
Total Africa ....
America : —
Bermudas
Canada 5
Falkland Islands and South Georgia .
British Guiana
British Honduras • ....
Newfoundland and Labrador 3 .
West Indies :—
Bahamas ....
Jamaica and Turks Islands
Barbados ....
Leeward Islands .
Windward Islands
Trinidad and Tobago .
Total America . | 3,014,338
Australasia : —
Fyi
New Guinea
New South Wales
New Zealand
Queensland
South Australia .
Tasmania ....
Victoria ....
Western Australi
20
3,815,647
7,500
109,000
7,562
162,200 «
4,466
4,424
166
701
784
1,868
7,740
90,000
310,700
104,470
668,500
903,690
26,215
87,884
975,920
Total Australasia . . ' 3,175,119
Total Colonies . j 7,174,175
Total U. K., India, and Colonies. 9,095,400
Protectorates and Sphebes of |
Influence —
Asia . .... I 120,400
Africa , 2,120,000
Pacific | —
Total Protectorates .
' Total British Empire .
2,240,400
11,335,806
Population
38,104,397
221,172,952
66,050,479
287,223,431
25,869
165,662
191,631
41,910
3,008,466
221,441
5,853
512,905
3,790,575
860
218,902
60,876
1,527,224
371,655
543,913
4,116
50,000
1,473,900
100,000
180,000
4,530,446
15,123
4,833,239
1,789
284,887
81,471
197,934
47,565
644,235
182,806
127,028
156,211
218,414
6,790,197
125,402
350,000
1,132,234
626,668
393,718
320,481
146,667
1,140,405
49,782
Revenue
90,396,377
57,511,800
4,285,297
19,588,040
844,915,874
1,112,000
35,000,000
10,000
36,122,000
881,087,874
57,511,800
66,735
289,231
345,966
1,195,885
466,028
6,311
517,490
2,185,214
41,046
146,293
4,496,344
482,130
1,892,455
7,691
30,977
183,074
08,421
86,860
6,934,290
33,955
7,586,680
11,485
578,463
50,798
392,456
56,704
721,168
162,668
141,472
133,242
571,442
10,435,534
Expenditure
£
90,875,865
57,210,170
57,210,170
72,183
297,371
1,147,159
488,091
4,876
604,425
2,244,551
39,888
154,6157
4,817,082
617,710
1,280,964
7,445
28,740
158,104
86,513
83,852
6,674,863
31,643
7,554,686
10,947
542,470
66,058
285,468
63,222
742,120
199,130
181,745
143,100
668,200
10,323,739
71,553
67,652
4,500
4,500
10,501,104
10,536,820
4,889,251
4,044,690
3,446,943
3,667,620
2,741,623
2,660,993
787,764
919,802
7,729,572
8,482,917
543.889
550,610
80,215,199
30,825,010
50,116,209
50,488,317
198,023,386
198,023,852
i Including Upper Burmah. 2 Rupee at Is. tyd. 3 Dollar at As.
5 Dollar at 2s. ftd. « The area of Newfoundland alone is
2d. 4 Dollar at 2«.10d.
42,000 square miles.
TWM.... -A
EMPIRE, 1892—93
XXX
Debt
Total
Imports i
Total
Exports l
Imports
from U.K.1
Exports
to U.K.1
Registered
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered and
cleared
Railway
open.
Miles
£
671,042,842
456,123,496
£
255,937,743
£
£
8,644,754
75,868,000
20,825
143,398,100
53,725,860
73,260,900
36,148,250
23,426,820
54,374
8,950,651
18,042
143,398,100
53,725,860
73,260,900
36,148,250
28,426,820
54,874
8,950,651
18,042
. -79,168
12,633,038*
11,742,579*
183,482
5,761,036
6,761,036
7,299
8,036
8,753,175
6,241,421
7-1
79,168
12,633,038
11,742,579
183:482
15,335
14,994,596
7'L
2,689,242
200,000
2,630,900
4,565,234
1,799,812?
86,782
20,035,626
29,118,354
2,227,500
4,021,728
836,7055
54,838
19,037,674
1,156,247
1,799,8126
3,158,627
2,580,804
886,7055
3,558,652
6,971,161
11,788
28,187
44,024
2,600,000
5,790,706
10,294,152
115,455
10,200,435
28,900,748
192
-2,889,242
26,178,440
6,114,686
83,999
192
26,006,167
500,000
7,170,354
5,158
3,000
94,338
9,571,670
2,828,200
3,165,249
30,386
100
90,000
12,206,493
1,200,000
1,480,606
7,863
3,000
7,691,195
428,800
2,422,932
19,010
100
11,474,561
107,250
1,034,447
4,508
8,850
4,732
3,211
3,180,582
216,242
1,163,880
74,161
2,444
9 J
399
50,000
170,000
597,095
522,041
418,117
17,395,096
173,000
665,064
577,083
420,451
16,820,660
83,521
407,038
323,565
332,198
11,711,259
34,130
471,219
212,513
195,298
J 2,424
14,222
161,000
826,910
679,354
800,695
-
33,731,679
13,534,026
7,102,774
2,935
9,100
60,684,919
812,155
17,000
1,863,065
329,283
26,179,829
70,138
2,433,213
261,185
1,431,137
115,455
23,417,132
126,312
1,780,319
263,555
1,549,468
88,056
8,496,254
62,555
949,051
89,535
487,855
2,487
13,386,962
121,805
1,270,794
104,450
409,913
6,217
987,0883
757
7,3422
4,3372
100,304
348,576
10,752,974
89,328
635,300
285,324
666,810
14,870
311
110,526
1,523,944
30,100
120,471
259,675
613,820
197,401
1,966,869
1,081,572
402,610
434,708
2,105,218
145,186
1,787,142
926,572
555,003
561,309
2,271,806
46,709
1,005,397
469,317
221,958
232,187/
769,236
9,067
511,550
119,168
65,189
838,186
801,164
26,731
4,525
| 19,760
2,678
334,079
1,509,774
1,247,259
1,770,573
1,792,824
1,315,000
24
89
54
66,044,775
36,952,663
33,499,149
12,918,110
17,090,221
1,109,739
20,787,135
15,348
243,235 | 253,586
98
26
56
57
78
81
15
99
434,791
14,967
21,972,247
9,534,851
9,170,408
7,819,589
1,346,965
14,214,546
882,148
8,883,983
4,767,369
2,049,359
2,872,185
541,619
6,857,090
592,496
7,653,915
7,483,618
4,069,987
3,167,298
315,836
7,699,501
395,700
196*
9,130
74,581
29,581
89,761
20.100
119,818
6,006
299,228
1,522,523
10,221,615
137,309
8,852
6,647,184
1,331,323
972,428
2,383,263
1,157,140
1,456,264
1.124,565
2,351
2,036
2,353
1,810
475
2,903
051
16
57
1 23
65,390,462
153,631,290
482,879,933
26,064,101
56,991,638
93,180,888
30,685,805
74,042,249
07,469,069
17,218,318
88,953,571
178,772,222
12,579
31,001
69,428
Z. i z
-
z
"
-
~
-
—
—
—
—
— 1 —
—
— 1 —
—
—
—
l Including bullion and specie. The experts from U.K. are exclusive of £64,563,113, tl
value of Foreign and Colonial merchandise exported. 2 jn 1590. ~
3 Including inland navigation. ' 4 The trade of Malta is mainl v transit.
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XXXll THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
V. — The Navies of the World.
The great importance of being able to establish a comparison between the
navies of the different powers, has led to an attempt being made in this
volume to devise a system of classification of warships which should make
such a comparison possible. At the present time almost every country has a
classification of its own ; and therefore the estimates of naval strength inserted
in the several sections of this volume are given irrespective of formal systems,
and are based upon one uniform plan. Great simplicity has been aimed at.
The results in regard to all but the least important navies are here brought
together. In classifying battleships, three factors have been taken into con-
sideration— displacement, age, and speed — displacement because it implies
offensive or defensive power, age as indicating efficiency, and speed as deter-
mining mobility. No vessel is admitted as a battleship which has less than
11 knots sea speed, such speed being considered as 2 knots less than the
nominal speed. First-class battleships are of 6,000 tons at least, and are not
more than 12 years old (1893), the date of launch being taken ; second-class
battleships (not more than 20 years old), and third-class battleships
(not more than 27 years old) are admitted down to 5,000 tons dis-
placement. Port and local defence vessels are a miscellaneous group of older
and slower battleships, armoured gun-boats, &c. First-class cruisers, a, are
all of 5,000 tons or more, armoured or otherwise, with a sea-speed of 15 knots
at least ; cruisers of the same class, b, are another miscellaneous group, all
armoured, but of smaller displacement or speed than the a ships, some being
old vessels excluded on the ground of age from the battleship list. These
b ships are admitted as cruisers largely for convoying purposes. Second-
class cruisers are of 2,000 tons or more, with a sea-speed of at least 12 knots.
With the view of simplification all other vessels of the cruising character —
sloops, unarmoured gunvessels, torpedo gunboats, &c, are grouped as third-
class cruisers ; those indicated by the letter a, have a sea-speed of at least
10 knots ; the b vessels are slower. Torpedo-boats are divided into three
classes — first-class (includiug destroyers and division boats) over 125 feet in
length ; second-class, from 100 feet to 125 feet ; third-class, from 80 feet to
99 feet ; boats of less than 80 feet, being considered as useful only for
harbour purposes, are not counted. It remains to be added that the estimates
include vessels in hand, ordered to be built, or provided for.
Battleships
1st class
8
3rd class
Torpedo Craft
Class
Si
Cruisers
I
1
Cruisers
Class
3
1
2
S
£
a
b
•3
eg
a
b
1
2
3
Great Britain
25
9
11
18
23
12
68
103
86
85
33
18
486
France
23
S
3
1» | 8
10
37
47
65
45
148
88
451
Russia
16
—
1
25 , 6
7
3
31
12
53
6
—
160
Italy
9
8
—
4 > 4
5
15
31
8
100
36
4
219
Germany
4
8
2
14 ! 1
8
9
22
3
77
64
—
212
Netherlands
—
—
—
22
—
6
5
10
67
6
14
3
188
Spain
1
—
—
2
8
2
6
24
25
12
27
1
108
Austria
1
5
2
10
1
—
4
16
12
24
5
26
106
Sweden
—
—
—
10
—
—
1
10
8
—
16
2
53
Norway
—
—
—
5
—
—
—
4
14
—
5
8
31
Denmark
—
1
—
0
—
3
—
6
14
6
4
2
42
Portugal
1
4
1
25
5
3
1
40
Turkey
1
1
—
7
1
9
2
33
22
9
15
7
107
Greece
—
—
—
2
—
8
—
4
16
6
6
6
43
United States
6
—
—
17
5
2
13
7
14
2
—
1
67
Brazil
—
2
—
9
—
—
8
4
18
8
6-
44
Argentine Republic ...
Chile
1
.
_ _
2
1
—
3
1
2
5
7
2
5
8
8
4
6
3
81
27
China .... ... ' ..
1
" 1
~—
"9
— *
3
"9
12
85
*"i
26
IS
111
Japan
'".
6
9
15
7
i
40
"
7T
Digitized by ^
ADDITIONS AND COERECTIONS.
THE WEST INDIES.
The following figures, showing the total imports into the West Indies in
1892, should be substituted for those of the last column of the table on page
233. The figures as they there stand show the imports from the United
Kingdom only.
Bahamas .... 197,401
Barbados .... 1,081,572
Jamaica 1,941,481
Turks Islands . . 25,388
Windward Islands—
St. Lucia .... 173,025
St. Vincent . . 102,981
Grenada .... 158,702
Leeward Islands —
Virgin Islands .
St. Christopher \
Nevis J
Antigua .
Montserrat
Dominica .
Trinidad .
Tobago #
Total
4,643
181,532
188,358
26,774
61,303
2,089,380
15,888
. £6,248,378
VICTORIA.
Ayent-Gcmral of Victoria in Great Britain.— Tux. Hon. Duncan Gillies.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
The, Budget for 1894, as submitted by the Finance Committee of the
Chamber of Deputies, estimates the revenue and [expenditure as follows : —
Gold dollars. Currency dollars.
Revenue 34,344,000 23,700,000
Expenditure 18,683,000 62,388,000
Surplus 15,661,000 38,688,000
If gold be taken at 300 per cent, the estimated surplus is 2,765,000 gold
dollars or 8,295,000 currency.
BRAZIL.
President of the Republic— Dvl. Phudente de Moraes, elected March 1,
1894.
Vice-President.— Senhok Victorino Pereira.
The President and Vice-President-elect enter on office on November 15, 1894.
URUGUAY.
President of the Republic— Dr. Jost Ellauri, elected March 2, 1894.
Dr. Ellauri having declined the office, the Presidency at present (March 5)
vacant.
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PART THE FIRST
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
The British Empire consists of : —
I. The United Kingdom op Great Britain and Ireland.
II. India, the Colonies, Protectorates, and Dependencies.
Reigning Queen and Empress.
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress
of India, born May 24, 1819, the daughter of Edward, Duke of
Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria
of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich of Leiningen.
Ascended the throne at the death of her uncle, King William IV.,
June 20, 1837; crowned at Westminster Abbey, June 28, 1838.
Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha;
widow, Dec. 14, 1861.
Children of the Queen.
I. Princess Victoria (Empress Frederick), born Nov.' 21,1 840 ;
married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm (Friedrich I.
of Germany), eldest son of Wilhelm I., German Emperor and
King of Prussia ; widow, June 15, 1888.
II. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841 : married
March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of King
Christian IX. of Denmark, — offspring1 : — (1) George, Duke of
York, born June 3, 1865, married July 6, 1893, to Victoria
Mary, daughter of the Duke of Teck ; (2) Louise, born Feb. 20,
1867, married to the Duke of Fife, July 27, 1889, — offspring,
Alexandra Victoria, born May 17, 1891 ; Maud Alexandra, born
April 3, 1893 ; (3) Victoria, born July 6, 1868; (4) Maud, born
Nov. 26, 1869.
III. Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh (Duke of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, Aug. 22, 1893), born Aug. 6, 1844 ; married,
i Prince Albert Victor, eldest son of the Prince of Wales, born Jan. 8, 1864, died Jan. 14,
1892.
3 2
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4 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Jan. 23, 1874, to Grand Duchess Marie of Russia, only
daughter of Emperor Alexander II. Offspring : — (1) Alfred, born
Oct. 15, 1874; (2) Marie, born Oct. 29, 1875; married Jan. 10,
1893 to Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Crown
Prince of Roumania. Offspring: — Carol, born Oct. 15, 1893;
(3) Victoria, born Nov. 25, 1876 ; (4) Alexandra, born Sept.
1, 1878 ; (5) Beatrice, born April 20, 1884.
IV. Princess Helena, born May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5,
1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Offspring : —
(1) Christian, born April 14, 1867 ; (2) Albert John, born Feb. 26,
1869 ; (3) Victoria, born May 3, 1870 ; (4) Louise, born Aug. 12,
1872; married to Prince Aribert of Anhalt, July 6, 1891.
V. Princess Louise, bom March 18, 1848; married March 21,
1871, to John, Marquis of Lome, eldest son of the Duke of
Argyll.
VI. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born May 1, 1850 ;
married, March 13, 1879, to Princess Louise of Prussia, born
July 25, 1860. Offspring: — (1) Margaret Victoria, born Jan.
15, 1882; (2) Arthur, born Jan. 13, 1883; (3) Victoria, born
March 17, 1886.
VII. Princess Beatrice, born April 14, 1857 ; married, July
13, 1885, to Prince Henry, third son of Prince Alexander of Bat-
tenberg, uncle of Ludwig IV., Grand Duke of Hesse. Off-
spring : — (1) Alexander Albert, born Nov. 23, 1886 ; (2) Victoria
Eugenie, born Oct. 24, 1887 ; (3) Leopold Arthur Louis, born
May 21, 1889 ; (4) Maurice Victor Donald, born October 30, 1891.
Cousins of the Queen.
I. Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumberland, born Sept. 21, 1845, the
grandson of Duke Ernest August of Cumberland, fifth son of King George III. ;
married, December 21, 1878, to Princess Thyra of Denmark, born September 29,
1853. Six children.
II. Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26, 1819, the son of
Duke Adolph of Cambridge, sixth son cf King George III. ; field-marshal
commanding-in-chief the British army.
III. Princess Augitsta, sister of the preceding, born July 19, 1822 ;
married June 28, 1843, to Grand Duke FriedrichWilhelm of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
IV. Princess Mary, sister of the preceding, born Nov. 27, 1833 ; married,
June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von Teck, born Aug. 27, 1837, son of Prince
Alexander of Wiirtemberg. Four children : — 1. Victoria Mary, born May 26,
1867 ; married, July 6, 1893, to George, Duke of York. 2. Albert, born Aug.
13, 1868. 3. Franz Josef, born Jan. 9,1870. 4. Alexander, born April 14, 1874.
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THE ROYAL FAMILY 5
The Queen reigns in her own right, holding the Crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the Crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of
Hanover and the ' heirs of her body, being Protestants/
The civil list of the Queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the incomes of previous
sovereigns. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to
1,000,0002. sterling, but in 1777 the civil list of the King was
fixed at 900,0002., and the income over and above that sum
from the hereditary possessions of the Crown passed to the.
Treasury. Under William IV. the civil list was relieved of
many burthens, and fixed at 510,0002.
It is established by 1 & 2 Vict, c, 2, that during her Majesty's
reign all the revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Con-
solidated Fund, but that a civil lisfc shall be assigned to the Queen.
In virtue of this Act, the Queen has granted to her an annual
allowance of 385,000Z. of which the Lords of the Treasury are
directed to pay yearly 60,0002., into her Majesty's Privy Purse ;
to set aside 231,260/. for the salaries of the royal household;
44,2402. for retiring allowances and pensions to servants ; and
13, 2002. for royal bounty, alms, and special services. This leaves
an unappropriated surplus of 36,3002., which may be applied in
aid of the general expenditure of her Majesty's Court. The
Queen has also paid to her the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster,
which in the year 1892 amounted to 84,4672., and the payment
made to her Majesty for the year was 48,0002.
On the Consolidated Fund are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family: — 10,0002. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh (reduced from £25,000 on the
Duke's accession to the Dukedom of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
in 1893); 25,0002. to the Duke of Connaught; 8,0002.
to the Empress Victoria of Germany; 6,0002. to Princess
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ; 6,0002. to Princess Louise,
Marchioness of Lome; 6,0002. to Princess Henry (Beatrice) of
Battenberg ; 3,0002. to the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Stre-
litz ; 5,0002. to Princess of Teck, formerly Princess Mary of
Cambridge; 12,0002. to George, Duke of Cambridge ; and 6,0002.
to Princess Helena of Waldeck, Duchess of Albany.
The heir-apparent to the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,0002., and by an Act passed in 1889
receives 37,0002. annually in addition for the support and main-
tenance of his children. The Prince of Wales has besides as in-
come the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall, which in the year
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6 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
1892 were 101,358/., the sum paid to the Prince being 60,098/.
The Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict. cap. 1, the
annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case of
widowhood.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers
of Great Britain, with date of their accession, from the union of
the crowns of England and Scotland : —
House of Stuart.
James I. .... 1603
Charles 1 1625
Commonwealth.
Parliamentary Executive
Protectorate .
Charles II.
James II.
House of Stuart.
1649
1653
1660
1685
Home of Stuart Orange.
William and Mary . . . 1689
William III 1694
House of Stuart.
Anne . . . . . 1702
House of Hanover.
George I. . . . . 1714
George II 1727
George III. . ' . . . 1760
George IV 1820
William IV 1830
Victoria 1837
1. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND IRELAND.
Constitution and Government.
I. Imperial and Central.
The supreme legislative power of the British Empire is by its
Constitution given to Parliament. Parliament is summoned by
the writ of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by advice of the
Privy Council, at least thirty-five days previous to its assembling.
On a vacancy occurring in the House of Commons whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in
annual session extending from the middle of February to about
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 7
the end of August. Every session must end with a prorogation,
and by it all Bills which have not been passed during the session
fall to the ground. The royal proclamation which summons
Parliament in order to proceed to business must be issued fourteen
days before the time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death
of Parliament ; it may occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as
is most usual, during the recess, by proclamation, or finally by
lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration of the existence
of any Parliament being seven years. Formerly, on the demise
of the sovereign Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof ;
but this was altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of
postponing the dissolution till six months after the accession of
the new sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the
Parliament ' in being at any future demise of the Crown shall
not be determined by such demise.'
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses
of Legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the middle
of the fourteenth century.
The House of Lords consists of peers who hold their seats —
(1) by hereditary right; (2) by creation of the sovereign;
(3) by virtue of office— English bishops; (4) by election for
life — Irish peers ; (5) by election for duration of Parliament —
Scottish peers.
The number of names on the * Roll ' was 401 in 1830 ; 457 in
1840 ; 448 in 1850 ; 458 in 1860 ; 503 in 1877 ; and 567 in 1893.
About two-thirds of these hereditary peerages were created in the
present century. Excluding the royal and ecclesiastical peerages,
the 4 oldest existing peerages in the House of Lords date from
the latter part of the thirteenth century, while 5 go back to the
fourteenth and 7 to the fifteenth century. There are besides 6
peeresses of the United Kingdom in their own right, and 2 Scotch
peeresses, and 20 Scotch and 64 Irish peers who are not peers of
Parliament.
The House of Commons has consisted, since 49 Hen.
III., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties ; of
citizens, or representatives of cities ; and of burgesses or repre-
sentatives of boroughs, all of whom vote together. To the House
of Commons, in the reign of Edward L, 37 counties and 166
boroughs each returned two representatives ; but at the accession
of Henry VIII. the total number of constituencies was only 147.
The additions from Edward VI. to Charles II. were almost
entirely of borough members. In the fourth Parliament of
Charles I., the number of places in England and Wales for which
returns were made, exclusive of counties, amounted to 210 ; and
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8 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
in the time of the Stuarts, the total number of members of the
House of Commons was about 500. At the union of the
English and Scottish Parliaments in 1707, 45 representatives of
Scotland were added ; and at the union of the British and Irish
Parliaments in 1801, 100 representatives of Ireland. The
average number of members was then about 650.
By the Reform Bill of 1832, the number of English county
constituencies was increased from 52 to 82 ; 56 boroughs, con-
taining a population of less than 2,000 each, were totally
disfranchised, and 31 other boroughs, of less than 4,000 each,
were required to send one representative instead of two. On the
other hand, 22 new boroughs acquired the right to return two
members, and 24 to return one member. In Scotland the town
members were increased from 15 to 23 — making 53 in all ; while
the Irish representatives were increased from 100 to 103.
The next great change in the constituency of the House of
Commons, was made by the Reform Bill of 1867-68. By this
Act England and Wales were allotted 493 members and Scotland
60, while the number for Ireland remained unaltered, and house-
hold suffrage was conferred on boroughs in England and
Scotland. A still greater reform was effected by the Repre-
sentation of the People Act 1884, and the Redistribution of Seats
Act, 1885. The former introduced a ' service franchise,' extend-
ing to householders and lodgers in counties the suffrages which in
1867 had been conferred upon householders and lodgers in
boroughs, and placed the three Kingdoms on a footing of equality
as regards electoral qualifications ; while the latter made a new
division of the United Kingdom into county and borough con-
stituencies, and raised the total number of members to 670,
England receiving 6 new members, and Scotland 12.
The number of members and of registered electors for
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland respectively, in 1893
was as follows : —
'
Counties.
Boroughs.
Universities.
Total.
1
Members, Electors
Members Electors
Members
Electors
16,172
17,106
4,495
Members' Electors
| England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
253 |2,754,863
39 i 343,392
85 j 637,757
237 2,091,723
31 258,593
16 , 105,019
5
2
2
495
72
103
4,862,758
619,091
747,271
!
377 3,736,012 '
284 2,455,335
9
37,773
670 16,229,120
\
Thus about one-sixth of the population are electors.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
9
The number of those voting as ' Illiterates,' and the total
votes recorded in 1892, were as follows : —
| England
Illiterates
46,109
Scotland
Ireland United Kingdom
4,577 J 84,919
Total votes polled being i 3,725,972 | 466,040 , 395,024
135,605 |
4,587,036 ;
All elections for members of Parliament must be by secret
vote by ballot, an Act being passed annually to this effect.
No one under twenty-one years of age can be a member of
Parliament. All clergymen of the Church of England, ministers
of the Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic clergymen are
disqualified from sitting as members ; all Government contractors,
and all sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which
they act, are disqualified both from voting and from sitting as
members. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the
House of Commons, but non-representative Irish peers are
eligible.
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom from the accession of George IV. : —
Reign
Parliament
When met
When dissolved
Existed
, George IV. .
1st
21 April 1820
2 June 1826
Y. M. D.
6 1 12
>>
2nd
25 July 1826
24 July 1830
3 11 29
William IV.
1st
14 Sept. 1830
23 April 1831
0 7 9
| 11 •
2nd
14 June 1831
3 Dec. 1832
1 5 19
11
3rd
29 Jan. 1833
29 Dec. 1834
1 11 0
4th
19 Feb. 1835
17 July 1837
2 4 28
i Victoria
1st
11 Sept. 1837
23 June 1841
3 9 12
,,
2nd
19 Aug. 1841
23 July 1847
5 11 4
>j
3rd
21 Sept. 1847
1 July 1852
4 9 10
1 J5 •
4th
20 Aug. 1852
21 Mar. 1857
4 7 1
1 J>
5th
30 April 1857
23 April 1859
1 11 23
■ „
6th
31 May 1859
6 July 1865
6 1 6
}>
7th '
15 Aug. 1865
11 Nov. 1868
3 2 27
.>>
8th
10 Dec. 1868
26 Jan. 1874
5 1 16
, >) •
$th
5 Mar. 1874
24 Mar. 1880
6 0 19
1 ., • ■
10th
29 April 1880
18 Nov. 1885
5 6 20
>» "
11th
12 Jan. 1886
26 June 1886
0 5 14
1 >> '
12th
5 Aug. 1886
28 June 1892
5 10 23
1
13th
4 Aug. 1892
The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is
vested nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of
Ministers, commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence is de-
pendent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons.
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10 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The member of the Cabinet who fills the position of First Lord
of the Treasury is, as a rule, the chief of the Ministry. It is on
the Premier's recommendation that his colleagues are appointed ;
and he dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown.
The present Cabinet consists of the following members :
1. Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury, and Lord Privy Seal. —
Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, son of Sir John Gladstone, Bart., of Fasque,
born 1809 ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P. for Newark,
1832 ; a Lord of the Treasury, December, 1834 ; Under-Secretary for the
Colonies, January to April, 1835 ; Vice-President of the Board of Trade and
Master of the Mint, September, 1841, to May, 1843 ; President of the Board of
Trade, May, 1843, to February, 1845 ; Secretary of State for the Colonies,
December, 1845, to July, 1846 ; M.P. for the University of Oxford, 1847 ;
Chancellor of the Exchequer, January, 1853, to February, 1855, and June,
1859, to June 1866 ; M.P. for South Lancashire, 1865, and for Greenwich,
1868 ; First Lord of the Treasury, December, 1868 ; became, in addition,
Chancellor of the Exchequer, August, 1873 ; resigned both offices,
Jan., 1874 ; again First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer,
May, 1880; M.P. for Mid-Lothian, 1880; resigned Chancellorship of the
Exchequer, December, 1882, and the office of First Lord of the Treasury,
June, 1885 ; First Lord of the Treasury and Lord Privy Seal, February, 1886 ;
resigned office, August, 1886. Present appointment, August 15, 1892.
2. Lord High Chancellor. — Right Hon. Lord BerscheU, formerly Sir Farrar
Herschell, born 1837 ; educated at Bonn and London University ; called to
the Bar (Lincoln's Inn), 1860 ; Q.C. and Bencher, 1872 ; M.P. for Durham,
1874 ; Solicitor-General, May, 1880 to June, 1885 ; Lord Chancellor, February
to August, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
3. Lord President of the Council, and Secretary of State for India. — Right
Hon. Earl of Kimberley, K.G., born 1826, succeeded his grandfather as Baron
Wodehouse ; educated at Christ Church, Oxford ; Under-Secretary for
Foreign Affairs, 1852-56 and 1859-61 ; created Earl of Kimberley, 1866 ; Lord
Privy Seal, 1868-70 ; Secretary for the Colonies, 1870-74, and 1880-82 ; Secretary
of State for India, 1882-85, and February to August. 1886 ; Chancellor of Duchy
of Lancaster far a short time in 1880. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
4. Chancellor of the Exchequer. — Right Hon. Sir W. V. Harcourt, son of
the Rev. W. V. Harcourt, born 1827 ; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge :
called to the Bar (Inner Temple), 1854 ; Q.C., 1866 ; M.P. for Oxford (city), 1868 ;
Solicitor-General, 1873 ; M.P. for Derby, 1880 ; Home Secretary 1880 to 1885 ;
Chancellor of the Exchequer, February to August, 1886 ; Professor of Inter-
national Law, Cambridge, 1869-87. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
5. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. — Right Hon. Earl of Rosebery,
K.G., born 1847 ; succeeded his grandfather, the fourth Earl, in 1868 ; Under-
Secretary of State, Home Office, 1881-83 ; Lord Privy Seal and First Commis-
sioner of Works, 1885 ; Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1886. Present
appointment, August 18, 1892.
6. Secretary of State for the Home Department. — Right Hon. Herbert
H. Asquith, born September, 1852 : educated at City of London School
and Balliol College, Oxford ; called to the Bar (Lincoln's Inn), 1876 ;
and M.P. for East Fife, 1886 ; Q.C. 1890. Present appointment, August 18,
1892.
7. Secretary of State for the Colonies. — Right Hon. Marquis of Ripon, K. G. ,
born 1827, succeeded his father as Earl of Ripon and his uncle as Earl de Grey in
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 11
1859 ; created Marquis of Ripon, 1871 ; M.P. for Hull, 1852 ; for Huddersfield,
1853 ; for the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1857 ; Under-Secretary of State for War,
1859 ; on Indian Board in February, and War Office in July, 1861 ; Secretary of
State for War, 1863-66 ; on India Board, February to June, 1866 ; Lord President
of the Council, 1868-73 ; Governor-General of India, 1880-84 ; First Lord of the
Admiralty, February to August, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
8. Secretary of State for War. — Right Hon. H. Campbell-Bannerman, son
of Sir J. Campbell, of Stracathro, born 1836 ; educated at Glasgow University
and Trinity College, Cambridge ; assumed the surname of Bannerman in 1872 ;
M.P. for the Stirling Burghs since 1868 ; Financial Secretary to the War
Office, 1871-74 and 1880-82 ; Secretary to the Admiralty, 1882-84 ; Chief
Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1884-85 ; Secretary of State for
War, February to August, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
9. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Right Hon. Earl Spencer, KG., bom
1835 ; succeeded his father to the title in 1857 ; M.P. for South Northampton-
shire, 1857 ; educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge ; Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland, December, 1868, to February, 1874, and April, 1882,
to June, 1885 ; Lord President of the Council, 1-880-1883, and February to
August, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
10. Chief Secretary to the Lm%d-Lieutenant of Ireland. — Right Hon. John
Morley, born 1838 ; educated at Cheltenham College and Lincoln College,
Oxford ; called to the Bar (Lincoln's Inn), 1873 ; M.P. for Newcastle-on-Tyne,
1883 ; Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, February to August,
1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
11. President of the Board of Trade. — Right Hon. A. J. Mundella, born
1825 ; M.P. for Sheffield, 1868 to 1885, and for Sheffield (Brightside), 1885 ;
Vice-President of the Council on Education, May, 1880, to June, 1885 ;
President of the Board of Trade, February to August, 1886. Present appoint-
ment, August 18. 1892.
12. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. — Right Hon. James Bryce, born
1838 ; educated at Glasgow University and Trinity College, Oxford ; called
to the Bar (Lincoln's Inn), 1867 ; Regius Professor of Civil Law. Oxford, 1870 ;
M.P. for Tower Hamlets, 1880, and for South Aberdeen, 1885 ; Under-Secretary
of State for Foreign Affairs, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
13. President of the Local Government Board. — Right Hon. Harry H.
Fowler, born 1830 ; M.P. for Wolverhampton, 1880 ; Under-Secretary of State
for the Home Department, 1884-85 ; Financial Secretary to the Treasury,
February to August, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
14. Secretary for Scotland. — Right Hon. Sir G. O. Trevelyan, Bart., born
1838 : succeeded his father to the baronetcy in 1886 ; educated at Harrow
and trinity College, Cambridge ; M.P. for Tynemouth, 1865-68 ; for the
Border Burghs, 1868-86 ; and for Glasgow (Bridgeton), 1887 ; a Lord of the
Admiralty, 1869-70; Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty, 1880-82;
Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1882-84 ; Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster, 1884-85 ; Secretary for Scotland, February and
March, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
15. Postmaster- General. — Right Hon. Arnold Morley, son of Mr. Samuel
Morley, born 1849 ; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; called to the
Bar (Inner Temple), 1873; M.P. for Nottingham, 1880, and for East
Nottingham, 1885 ; Political Secretary to the Treasury, 1886. Present
appointment, August 18, 1892.
16. First Commissioner of Works. — Right Hon. G. J. Shaw-Lefevre, son
of Sir J. G. Shaw-Lefevre, K.C.B., bom 1832 ; educated at Eton and Trinity
College, Cambridge : called to the Bar (Inner Temple), 1856 ; Bencher, 1882 ;
M.P. for Reading, 1864; a Lord of the Admiralty in 1866 ; Parliamentary
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
Secretary to the Board of Trade, December, 1 868, to January, 1871 ; Under-
Secretary to the Home Department, January to March, 1871 ; Secretary to
the Admiralty, March, 1871, to February, 1874, and April to December,
1880 ; First Commissioner of Works, 1880-84 ; Postmaster-General, 1884-85 ;
M.P. for Bradford, 1886. Present appointment, August 18, 1892.
17. Vice-President of the Council on Education. — Right Hon. A. H. Dyke
Aclandy son of Sir Thomas Acland, born 1847 ; educated at Rugby and
Christ Church, Oxford ; tutor at Oxford until 1885 ; member for the Rother-
ham division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1885. Present appointment,
August 18, 1892.
The following is a list of the heads of the Administrations of Great Britain,
with the dates of their acceptance of office, since the resignation of Lord North
in 1782 :—
Heads of Dates of
Administrations. Appointment
Marq. of Rockingham March 30, 1 782
Earl of Shelburne
Duke of Portland
William Pitt .
Henry Addington
William Pitt .
Lord Grenville
Duke of Portland
Spencer Perceval
Earl of Liverpool
George Canning
Viscount Goderich
Duke of Wellington Jan. 8,
Earl Grey . . Nov. 16,
Viscount Melbourne July 14,
Sir Robert Peel . Dec. 26,
Viscount Melbourne April 18,
July 3,
April 5,
Dec. 19,
March 17,
May 10,
Jan. 26,
March 24,
Dec. 6,
June 8,
April 10,
August 10, 1827
1828
1830
1834
1834
1835
1782
1783
1783
1801
1804
1806
1807
1810
1812
1827
Heads of Dates of
Administrations. Appointment
Sir Robert Peel . Aug. 30, 1841
Lord John Russell . July 6,
Earl of Derby . Feb. 26,
Earl of Aberdeen . Dec. 27,
Viscount Palmerston Feb. 8,
Earl of Derby . Feb. 22,
Viscount Palmerston June 17,
Earl Russell . . Oct. ,
Earl of Derby . July 6,
Benjamin Disraeli . Feb. 28,
1846
1852
1852
1855
1858
1859
1865
1866
1868
1868
1874
1880
1885
1886
1886
W. E. Gladstone ." August 15, 1892
W. E. Gladstone
Benjamin Disraeli.
W. E. Gladstone .
Marquis of Salisbury June 24,
W. E. Gladstone . Feb. 6,
Marquis of Salisbury August 3,
Dec. 9,
Feb. 21,
April 28,
\
II. Local Government.
England and Wales. — The system of local government is extremely compli-
cated, although it has been much simplified by the Local Government Act of
1888. In England there is in each county a lord-lieutenant, who represents
the Crown, but whose duties are almost nominal. He recommends to the Lord
Chancellor persons to be put on the commission of the peace. There are also
a custos rotulorum, or keeper of the records, a sheriff, a coroner, a clerk of the
peace, and other officers. Before the* Act of 1888 the management of
county business was in the hands of the justices and of a number of ' Boards '
elected under various statutes for certain specific purposes. The principal
unit within the county is the parish, and of these there are in England and
Wales about 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes, about 14,684 civil parishes, and
about 14,775 highway parishes. The business of the parish is transacted by a
vestry, and for poor law purposes the civil parishes are grouped into 649
unions, each of which is administered by a board of guardians, elected by
ratepayers and owners annually (see ' Pauperism '). Rural boards and school
boards (see ' Instruction ') still transact certain portions of the county
business. Supreme over all is the Local Government Board in London, the
President of which is a member of the Government. This department was
established in 1871, and has wide and varied powers. The County Councils,
created by the Act of 1888, are sul>oi'dinate to the Local Government Board.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 13
These Councils are elective bodies, consisting of a chairman, aldermen, and
councillors. The councillors are elected by a popular vote for three years.
The aldermen are elected by the councillors, and sit for six years, and one-half
of the number goes out in eveiy third year. The chairman is elected by the
Council. For the purposes of the new Act England and Wales was divided
into 60 administrative counties, and 61 county boroughs having more than 50,000
inhabitants, so that with the County of London the number of new areas
created was 122. The administrative business transferred from the justices of
the peace to the County Councils consists of business as to (1) making of
rates ; (2) borrowing of money ; (3) supervision of county treasurer ; (4)
management of county halls and other buildings ; (5) licensing of houses for
music and dancing, and of racecourses ; (6) maintenance and management of
pauper lunatic asylums ; (7) maintenance of reformatory and industrial
schools ; (8) management of bridges ; (9) regulation of fees of inspectors,
analysts, and other officers ; (10) control of officers paid out of the county
rate ; (11) coroner's salary, fees, and district ; (12) Parliamentary polling
districts and registration ; (13) contagious diseases of animals, and various
other matters. The control of the police is given to the County Councils
jointly with the justices of the peace in quarter sessions, and there is a stand-
ing joint committee of the two bodies to exercise this control. The metro-
politan police is, however, under direct Government control.
In all the great towns local business is administered by a municipal
corporation, which derives its authority from a charter granted by the Crown.
In 1835 the municipalities of the country were completely reorganised. A
municipal corporation consists of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, and
acts through a Council elected by the burgesses — practically by the ratepayers.
The councillors serve for three years, one-third retiring annually ; the alder-
men are elected by the Council, and the mayor, who serves for one year, also
by the Council. A municipal corporation has generally wider powers than are
conferred on the County Council ; e.g., the Town Council has the entire
management of the police. As to poor law and school board administration in
boroughs, see ' Pauperism ' and ' Instruction. '
Scotland. — In 1889 a Local Government Act was passed for Scotland,
which in its main outlines followed the English Act of the previous year.
The powers of local administration in counties formerly exercised by the Com-
missioners of Supply and Road Trustees were either wholly or in part trans-
ferred to the new Councils, which took over their duties and responsibilities in
1890. Municipal bodies exist in the towns of Scotland, as in those of
England, but instead of ' aldermen ' there are ' bailies, ' and instead of a
* mayor ' there is a 'provost* There are in Scotland five kinds of burghs —
(1) Burghs of barony ; (2) Burghs of regality (no practical distinction between
these two) ; (3) Royal Burghs, representatives of which meet together
annually in Edinburgh, as the ' Convention of Royal Burghs, ' for the trans-
action of business ; (4) Parliamentary Burghs which by an Act passed in;1879
are enabled to send representatives to the convention ; (5) Police Burghs, in
which the local authority are the Police Commissioners.
Ireland. — In the counties local affaire are not in the hands of a popularly
elected body. The principal county authority for local government is the
grand jury, which is appointed under the Act 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 116. Its
powers end with each of the assizes. In Ireland the towns are partly
corporate and partly governed by commissioners. There are eleven boroughs
with a mayor, aldermen, and councillors, whose powers are regulated by 3 & 4
Vict. c. 108. The ordinary affairs of the borough, such as lighting, watching,
and cleansing, are administered by the Council, which has power to levy
rates for these purposes. But in the majority of Irish towns, as they have no
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14
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
charter of incorporation, the local affairs are administered by a body of Com-
missioners, who have powers generally to discharge the usual municipal
functions, and are empowered to levy rates to defray the cost of administration.
The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not bound by Acts of the
Imperial Parliament unless specially mentioned. The Isle of Man is
administered in accordance with its own laws by the Court of Tynwald, con-
sisting of the Governor, appointed by the Crown ; the Council for Public
Affairs, composed chiefly of ecclesiastical and judicial dignitaries appointed
by the Crown ; and the House of Keys, a representative assembly of 24
members chosen on a property qualification for 7 years by the 6 ' sheadings '
or local subdivisions, and the 4 municipalities. The Channel Islands are
administered according to their own laws and customs, each by a Lieut. -
Governor, with judicial and other functionaries ; and a * States ' Assembly,
partly elective. Jersey has a separate legal existence. Guernsey, Alderney,
and Sark have a Lieut. -Governor in common, but otherwise their governments
are separate.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The population was thus distributed over the various divisions
of the United Kingdom at the^last census, taken April 5, 1891 : —
Divisions
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
Population on
April 5, 1891
England
Wales ....
50,840
13,291,402
14,192,088
27,483,490
7,470
761,499
757,536
1,519,035
Scotland
29,785
1,942,717
2,082,930
4,025,647
Ireland ....
32,583
2,318,953
2,385,797
4,704,750
Isle of Man .
220
26,329
29,279
55,608
Channel Islands
75
43,226
49,008
92,234
Army, Navy, and Mer-\
chant Seamen abroad/
224,211
—
224,211
Total, United Kingdom I 120,973 \ 18,608,337 . 19,496,638 38,104,973
The following table gives the population of those divisions at
each of the four decennial censuses previous to 1891 : —
Divisions
1861
1871
1881
England .
16,921,888 18,954,444 21,495,131 24,613,926
Wales
1,005,721 1,111,780 1,217,135 1,360,513
Scotland .
2,888,742 3,062,294 3,360,018 3,735,573
Ireland .
6,574,271 5,798,967 5,412,377 , 5,174,836
Isle of Man
52,387 ' 52,469 54,042 53,558
Channel Islands
90,739 90,978 90,596 j 87,702
Army, Navy, and Mer-1
chant Seamen abroad/
, 212,194 250,356 216,080 1 215,374
i ' i
Total, United Kingdom
j27,745,942 29,321,288 31,845,379 35,241,482
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
15
The decennial rate of increase or decrease ( - ) per cent, at
each of the last five censuses has been as follows : —
-
1851
1861
1871
13-20
972
-6-65
0 83
1881
1891
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
The Islands .
12 65
10 25
-19 85
11-93
6 01
-11-50
0-22
14-36
11-18
-4-40
-2 34
11-65
776
-91
4-7
2-5
57
8-6
10-75
8*17
If Ireland be excluded from the calculation, it will be found
that the rate of increase for the remainder of the United Kingdom
was very nearly uniform.
The proportion per cent, of the population living in the various
divisions of the United Kingdom was as follows at each of the
six decennial censuses from 1841 to 1891 : —
Divisions
England ....
Wales
1841
1851
1861
1871
1881
1801
722
55-4
61-0
64-6
67 5
69 8
3-4
3 6
3-8
3 8
3-8
3 8
Scotland ....
9-7
10*4
104
106
10-6
107
Ireland
30-2
237
19*8
17-0
14-6
12-5
Isle of Man ....
'2
•2
•2
2
•2
•1
Channel Islands .
•3
•3
•3
•3
•3
•2
Army, Navy, and Merchant \
Seamen abroad /
•8
•8
•9
•6
•7
•5
In 1891, in Wales and Monmouthshire 508,036 persons or
28*6 per cent, of the population were returned as able to speak
Welsh only, and 402,253, or 22*6 per cent., as able to speak
Welsh and English. Thus 910,289, or 51-2 per cent., persons
could speak Welsh. In 1881 the number returned was
950,000, or about 70 per cent. In 1891, in Scotland, 43,738, or 1-09
per cent., of the population of Scotland could speak Gaelic only,
and 210,677, or 5*23 per cent., could speak Gaelic and English.
Thus 254,415, or 6 32 percent., could speak Gaelic. In 1881 the
number was 231,594, or 620 per cent. In 1891, in Ireland,
38,121, or -81 per cent, of the population of Ireland, could speak
Irish only, and 642,053, or 13*65 per cent., could speak Irish and
English. Thus 680,174, or 14*46 per cent., could speak Irish.
In 1881 the number was 949,932, or 1820 per cent.
Computed on the basis of the registration of births and
deaths, the population of the United Kingdom and its divisions
was, exclusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, as
follows, at the end of June, in each of the last ten years.
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m t%
*riti
16
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Total of
United Kingdom
35,721,992
England
and Wales
26,921,737
Scotland
Ireland
4,972,777
1884
3,827,478
1885
36,013,937
27,220,105
3,856,307
4,937,525
1886
36,312,715
27,521,780
3,885,155
4,905,780
1887
36,597,810
27,826,798
3,914,318
4,856,694
1888
36,878,912
28,135,197
3,943,701
4,800,014
1889
37,176,464
28,447,014
3,973,305
4,756,145
1890
37,482,415
28,762,287
4,003,132
4,716,996
1 1891
37,795,475
29,081,047
4,033,180
4,681,248
1892
38,104,973
29,403,346
4,063,452
4,638,175
, 1893
38,429,992
29,729,506
4,093,959
4,606,527
Subjoined is a more detailed statistical account of the popu-
lation of 1. England and Wales ; 2. Scotland; 3. Ireland; and 4.
Islands in the British Seas.
1. England and Wales.
The population of England and Wales was as follows at the ten enumera-
tions, 1801 to 1891 :—
Date of
Enumeration
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
Population
8,892,536
10,164,256
112,000,236
13,896,797
,15,914,148
Pop. per
sq. mile
Date of
Enumeration
Population I
153
175
207
139
274
1851
I 1861
j 1871
. 1881
1891
117,927,609
i20,066,224
122,712,266
25,974,439
29,002,525 '
Pop. per
sq. mile
308
345
390
446
498
The following table shows the area in square miles, the total population,
and the population per square mile in 1891, of each of the 52 counties
of England and Wales : —
Pop. per
sq. mile
75,477 85,227 160,704 ; 344*9
117,208 121,501 238,709 330*6
91,195 94,089 185,284 249*3
92,513 96,448 188,961 220*0
352,936 377,122 730,058 710*8
149,259 173,312 322,571 2377
132,080 134,469 266,549 175*9
266,011 262,022 528,033 513*1
297,898 333,910 631,808 242*6
94,735 99,782 194,517 196*8
517,942 498,617 1,016,559 1,005*5
390,515 394,930 I 785,445 509*5
England.
Bedford .
I Berks
i Buckingham
Cambridge
Chester .
Cornwall .
Cumberland
Derby
I Devon
! Dorset
I Durham .
, Essex
466
722
743
859
1,027
1,357
1,516
1,030
2,605
988
1,011
1,542
Digitized by VjOOQIC
ABBA AND POPULATION
17
Counties, or Shi
Area
res sq. miles
Population, 1891
Pop. per
sq. mile
Males
Females
Total
Gloucester
. 1,243
281,012
318,935
599,947
4827
Hampshire
. 1,621
337,546
352,551
690,097
425/
Hereford .
840
56,090
59,859
115,949
138-0
Hertford .
635
106,471
113,691
220,162
346 T>
Huntingdon
366 '
28,419
29,342 i
57,761
157-7
Kent
. 1,552 '
555,718
586,606
1,142,324
736-0
Lancashire
. 1,887 ,
1,889,926
2,036,834
3,926,760
2,080-9
Leicester .
824 ;
180,044
193,540
373,584
453 3
Lincoln .
. 2,646 ;
233,571
239,307
472,878
178-7
Middlesex
283 !
1,522,497
1,729,174
3,251,671
11,4900
Monmouth
534
130,757
121,659
252,416
472-7
Norfolk .
. 2,044
219,355
235,161
454,516
222S
Northampton
NorthumberlaiH
. 1,003 |
149,759
152,424
302,183
3012
I . 2,015 ■
252,283
253,747
506,030
251-1
Nottingham
843
214,199
231,624
445,823
528'8
Oxford
756
89,649
96,020
185,669
244*1
Rutland .
152
10,323
10,336
20,659
135-9
Shropshire
. 1,343
116,736
119,603
236,339
175-9
Somerset .
. 1,630 '
225,754
258,583
484,337
297*1
Stafford .
• , 1,171
540,693
542,715
1,083,408
925*2
Suffolk
. , 1,489
180,441
190,794
371,235
249 3
Surrey
. i 758
820,993
910,350
1,731,343
2,284-1
Sussex
. 1,458
253,438
297,008
550,446
377 5
Warwick .
902
388,261
416,811
805,072
892-5
Westmorland
783
32,326
33,772
66,098
84-4
Wiltshire .
. 1,375
130,662
134,335
264,997
192*7
Worcester .
751
197,867
215,893
413,760
550 9
York (E. Ridin
</) • 1,171
167,933
173,613
341,546
291-6
„ Wity)
56
32,551
34,453
67,004
11,982-9
„ (X. Ridin
if) • 2,128
180,164
180,219
360,383
169*3
„ ( W. Ridh
y) . 2,763
1,188,195
1,251,700
2,439,895
883 0
Wales.
Anglesey .
275
23,941
26,157
50,098
189-5
Brecon
743
28,509
28,522
57,031
76-7
Cardigan .
689
27,365
35,265
62,630
90 9
Carmarthen
919
62,316
68,250
130,566
1421
Carnarvon
564
56,496
61,708
118,204
209-7
Denbigh .
662
59,569
58,303
117,872
178-0
Flint
256
38,242
39,035
77,277
301-8
Glamorgan
808
360,250
326,968
687,218
850 5
Merioneth
669
24,035
25,177
49,212
73 6
Montgomery
; 797
28,222
29,781
58,003
72-8
Pembroke
. 1 617
41,685
47,448
89,133
144 4
Radnor
. ' 470
id . 50,840
10,869
10,922
21,791
46-4
Total of Englai
13,291,402
761,499
14,052,901
14,192,088
27,483,490
540-6
Total of Wales
i . i 7,470
757,536
14,949,624
1,519,035
203-3
Total of Englan
and Wales
l| . 58,310
29,002,525
497-4
Digitized by vj(
c
30gle
18
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The number of inhabited houses in England and Wales in 1891 was
5,451,497; uninhabited, 372,184; building, 38,387; against 4,831,519
inhabited ; 386,676 uninhabited ; and 46,414 building in 1881.
Assuming that the population of urban sanitary districts is urban, and the
population outside such districts rural, the following table shows, according to
the figures of the preliminary census report, the distribution of the urban and
rural population of England and Wales in 1891, and their percentage of
increase during the decennium 1881-1891 : —
Population of Districts
250,000 and upwards
100,000—250,000
50,000—100,000
20,000— 50,000
10,000— 20,000
3,000— 10,000
Under 3,000
Total Urban .
Rural
Total Population
No. of
Districts
6
18
38
120
176
453
195
1,006
Aggregate pop.
of districts, 1891
Percentage of Percentage
entire pop. of increase,
1891 1881-1891
6,375,645
2,793,625
2,610,976
3,655,025
2,391,076
2,609,141
367,282
22 0
9 6
9 0
12*6
8-3
8 9
1-3
20,802,770
8,198,248
29,001,018
71*7
28*3
100 0
9*1
19*1
22-9
22-5
18-9
9 6
2 6
15-3
3 4
11-65
From these figures it appears that 22 per cent, of the population of
England and Wales live in six town? of upwards of 250,000 inhabitants ; 31*6
percent, (in 1881, 29*6 per cent.) in 24 (in 1881, 20) towns of over 100,000
inhabitants ; 40*6 per cent, in 62 towns of over 50,000 inhabitants ; 53 2 per
cent in 182 towns of over 20,000 inhabitants ; and 17,826,347, or 61*5 per
cent, in 358 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. In 1881, 14,626,131, or 56*3 per
cent, of the whole population, lived in 303 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants.
In 1891, there were in England and Wales 62 towns with more than
50,Q00 inhabitants. The following is a list of them with their population in
1881 and 1891, and the increase per cent, during the decennial period. For 33
towns the estimated population in June, 1893, is given as stated in the
Registrar-General's Report : —
Estimated
Enumerated
Population
Increase
Cities and Towns
Population
—
per cent
1893.
1881
1891
4,211,056
1881-91
London (registration) .
4,306,411
3,815,544
104
Liverpool1 ....
Manchester1.
510,514
552,508
517,951
- 63
515,598
462,303
505,343
9 3
Birmingham.
487,891
400,774
429,171
7 1
Leeds
382,093
309,119
367,506
18-9
Sheffield
333,922
284,508
324,243
14-0
Bristol
225,628
206,874
221,665
7 1
Bradford1
221,611
194,495
216,361
11-2
Nottingham ....
220,551
186,575
211,984
136
West Ham .
227,405
128,953
204,902
58*9
Kingston-upon-Hull l .
208,709
165,690
199,991
20*7
Salford
203,431
176,235
198,136
124
Newcastle-on-Tyne
196,997
1 145,359
186,345
28*2
Portsmouth ....
167,277
1 127,989
Digit
159,255
zed by VjOO
24 4
AREA. AND POPULATION
19
Cities and Towns
Estimated
Population |
1893 I 1881
Enumerated Population
Leicester
Oldham
Sunderland
• Cardiff.
Blackburn
Brighton
Bolton .
' Preston1
Croydon
Norwich
Birkenhead
Huddersfield !
Derby .
< Swansea1
i Ystradyfodwg
' Burnley1
Gateshead
Plymouth
Halifex.
Wolverhampton
South Shields
Middlesbrough
Walsall1
Rochdale
Tottenham
St. Helens
Stockport
Aston Manor.
York1 .
Southampton
Leyton x
Willesden
Northampton
Heading1
West Bromwich
Merthyr Tydfil
Ipswich
Bury1 .
Wigan .
Hanley.
Devonport
Newport l (Mon ) .
Warrington l
Coventry *
Hastings.
Grimsby 1
Bath .
Barrow-in-Furness 1
Total
184,547
136,469
134,515
142,435
124,005
117,833
117,278
110,225
108,997
104,184
103,817
97,549
97,341
93,816
93,462
90,938
86,781
91,918
84,298
10,327,846
122,376
111,343
116,542
82,761
104,014
107,546
105,414
96,537
78,811
'87,842
84,006
86,502
81,168
76,430
55,632
63,339
65,803
73,794
73,630
75,766
56,875
55,934
59,402
68,866
36,574
57,403
59,553
53,842
. 61,789
60,051
27,026
27,613
51,881
48,861
56,295
48,769
50,546
54,717
48,194
48,361
48,939
38,469
42,552
44,831
42,258
40,010
51,814
47,259
10,294,866
1891
142,051
131,463
130,921
128,849
120,064
115,402
115,002
107,573
102,697
100,964
99,184
95,422
94,146
90,423
88,350
87,058
85,709
84,179
82,864
82,620
78,431
75,516
71,791
71,458
71,336
71,288
70,253
68,639
66,984
65,325
63,106
61,266
61,016
60,054
59,489
58,080
57,260
57,206
55,013
54,846
54,736
54,695
52,742
52,720
52,340
51,876
51,843
51,712
11,759,871
Increase
per cent.
1881-91
161
18-1
12 3
557
15-4
7 3
9*1
11-4
30*3
149
18-1
10*3
16*0
18'3
58-8
37 4
30 3
14-1
12*5
9 0
37-9
35*0
20-9
3*8
95-0
24*2
18-0
27-5
8*4
8*8
133*5
1219
17-6
23 1
57
18-9
13 3
4'5
14-1
13-4
11*8
42'2
23 9
17-6
23 9
297
01
9 4
14*2
1 Th« areas of ttiese towns were extended in the decennium 1881-91,but in every case the
jH/pnlatiou in 1881 relates to the town as constituted in 1891. iQO£jI<
20
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
More than one-fourth of the total urban population, and nearly one-
seventh of the total population of England and Wales are concentrated in the
metropolis. The limits of the metropolis were denned by the Registrar-
General, in the census returns of 1891, as consisting of an 'Inner Ring* and
an 'Outer Ring,' the former subdivided into a 'Central Area' and 'Rest of
Inner Ring.' The following table gives the results of the censuses in 1881
and 1891 :—
, Divisions of the Metropolis
Population
Rates of Increase ( + ) .
or Decrease ( — ) per cent.
1881
1891
1871-81 !
1881-91 i
Central Area .
Rest of ' Inner Ring '
1,101,994
2,713,550
1,022,529
3,188,527
- 4*6 1
+ 293 1
i
- 7*2
+ 17*5
Inneror Registration London
' Outer Ring ' .
1 Greater London ' .
3,815,544
951,117
4,211,056
1,422,276
+ 173
+ 50*5 |
+ 104 1
+ 49 5
4,766,661
5,633,332
+ 227 |
+ 18-2 !
I
The night population of the City of London in 1891 was 37,694 (50,652 in
1881) ; the day population in 1891 was 301,384 ; in 1881 it was 261,061.
The following is the division of the population aged 10 years and upwards
in England and Wales according to occupation in 1891 : —
1
Professional class
Domestic ,,
Commercial ,,
Agricultural and fishing class
Industrial class
Unoccupied class
Total .
Males
597,739
140,773
1,364,377
1,284,919
5,495,446
1,708,713
Females i
328,393
1,759,555
35,358
52,026
1,840,898
7,445,660 .
Total
926,132
1,900,328
1,399,735
1,336,945
7,336,344
9,154,373
10,591,967 I 11,461,890 22,053,857
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 29,785 square miles, including its islands, 186 in
number, with a population (including military in barracks and seamen on
board vessels in the harbours), according to the census of 1891, of 4,025,647
souls, giving 135 inhabitants to the square mile.
The following table exhibits the numbers of the population of Scotland at
the dates of the several censuses, together with the density per square
mile : —
Digitized by
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AREA AND POPULATION
21
Date of
Enumeration
Population
Density per j
sq. mile
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
1,608,420
1,805,864
2,091,521
2,364,386
2,620,184
54 !
60
70
79 ,
88
Date of
Enumeration
Population
Density per
sq. mile
97
100
113
126
135 »
1851
1861
1871
1881
1891
2,888,742
3,062,294
3,360,018
3,735,573
4,025,647
The country is divided into 33 civil counties, grouped under eight geo-
graphical divisions. The following table gives the results of the census,
excluding the military in barracks and the seamen on board vessels in the
harbours, on April 5, 1891 : —
Divisions and Civil
Area in
sq. miles
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile
Counties
Males
Females
Total
1. Northern.
Shetland
551
12,190
16,521
28,711
52 1
Orkney
376
14,298
16,155
30,453
80*9
Caithness .
686
17,472
19,705
37,177
54 2
Sutherland
2,028
10,395
11,501
21,896
10-8
2. North- Western.
Boss and Cromarty
3,078
37,279
41,448
78,727
25*5
Inverness .
4,088
43,585
46,536
90,121
22 0
3. North-Eastern.
Nairn
195
4,284
4,871
9,155
46 9
Elgin
476
20,368
23,103
43,471
91-3
Banff.
641
29,547
32,137
61,684
96-7
Aberdeen .
1,955
135,185
148,851
284,036
145 3
Kincardine
383
17,524
17,968
35,492
92-7
4. East-Midland.
Forfar
875
125,414
152,321
277,735
3174
Perth
2,528
57,826
64,359
122,185
47-5
Fife .
492
90,527
99,838
190,365
386-9
Kinross
73
3,160
3,513
6,673
91*4
Clackmannan
48
15,834
17,306
33,140
690*4
5. West-Midland.
| Stirling .
447
59,478
58,543
118,021
264 0
Dumbarton
241
48,683
49,331
98,014
406-7
Argyll
3,213
36,292
37,793
74,085
23-0
Bute .
218
8,211
10,193
18,404
84-4
6. South- Western.
Renfrew
245
110,520
120,292
230,812
942-0
Ayr . . .
1,128
111,037
115,349
226,386
200-/
Lanark
882
550,847
555,052
1,105,899
1,253*
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22
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Divisions and Civil
Area in
Population
Pop. per
Counties
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
sq. mile
7. South- Eastern.
Linlithgow
120
27,946
24,862
52,808
440-1
Edinburgh .
362
205,765
228,511
434,276
1,1997
'Haddington
271
18,169
19,208
37,377
137 9
Berwick
461
15,383
16,967
32,290
70 0
Peebles
355
6,912
7,838
14,750
41-6
Selkirk .
257
12,909
14,803
27,712
107*8
8. Southern.
Roxburgh .
665
25,901
28,599
53,500
80-4
Dumfries .
1,063
34,898
39,347
74,245
69-8
Kirkcudbright .
898
18,902
21,083
39,985
44-5 '
Wigtown .
Total Scotland .
486
16,976
19,086
2,082,930
36,062
4,025,647
74 2
29,785
1,942,717
135-1
The number of inhabited houses in Scotland in 1891 was 817,568 ; un-
inhabited, 51,460; building, 5,618.
The population in 1891 was distributed as follows among the larger towns,
according to parliamentary or police burghs : —
In Towns of
Over 100,000 .
Between 50,000 and 100,000
„ 20,000 and 50,000
10,000 and 20,000
Total
No. of
Towns
4
3
9
18
34
Inhabitants
1,200,374
198,555
245,724
278,002
Per cent, of Total
Population
1,922,655
29 8
4 9
6 1
6-9
477
According to registration districts, the population of the principal towns
of Scotland was as follows at the Census of 1891 and in the middle of 1893, as
estimated in the Registrar General's Report : —
Towns
Glasgow
Edinburgh
Dundee
Aberdeen
Leith .
Population j Population
1891 1898
I 618.471 !
; 264,796
I 155,675
123,327 I
69,885
677,883
267,672
157,289
129,543
70,927
Towns
Paisley .
Greenock
Perth .
Kilmarnock
I Population
| 1891
69,295
I 63,512
, 30,768
I 27,968
Population
1893
69,128
62,713
30,336
At the Census of 1891 the population of Glasgow, parliamentary and
suburban, was 658,198, and the increase (1881-1891) 13*9 per cent.
The total population of these nine towns represented nearly two-fifths of the
population of Scotland. In 1881 the total town population was 2,306,852 ; in
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
6)Q
the village population, 447,884 ; and the rural, 980,837. In 1891 the town
population was 2,631,291, snowing an increase of 14*06 per cent. ; the village
population was 465,836, the increase being 4 01 per cent.; and the rural
928,513, there being a decrease of 5*33 per cent.
The occupations of the people, according to the census of 1891, were as
follows : —
Professional class .
Domestic ,,
Commercial ,,
Agricultural ,,
Industrial ,,
Unoccupied and non-produc-
tive class ....
Total ....
Males
75,532
13,102
170,676
219,042
742,036
Females
35,787
190,051
10,276
30,082
290,368
722,329 | 1,526,366
1,942,717 2,082,930
Total
I
111,319
203,153
180,952
249,124
1,032,404
2,248,695
4,025,647
3. Ireland.
Ireland has an area of 32,531 square miles, or 20,819,982 acres, inhabited,
in 1891, by 4,704,750 souls. The following table gives the population of
Ireland at different census periods, with the density per square mile : —
Year of
Census
Population
I Density per
| sq. mile
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
5,395,456
5,937,856
6,801,827
7,767,401
8,175,124
166
186
209
239
251
Year of
Census
Population
Density per
sq. mile
, 1851
I 1861
1871
1881
1891
6,552,385
5,798,564
5,412,377
5,174,836
4,704,750
201
178
167
159
144
The subjoined tables give the results of the enumerations in the four
provinces of April 3, 1881, and of April 5, 1891, together with the decrease,
in numbers and rate per cent., between 1881 and 1891 : —
1881
1,278,989
1,331,115
1,743,075
821,657
5,174,836
1891 !
i 1
1
1 1,187,760 ]
1,172,402
1,619,814 i
724,774 j
4,704,750 |
Decrease between 1881
and 1891
Provinces
Number
91,229
158,713
123,261
96,883
! Rate per
j cent.
Leinster
Munster .
Ulster
Connaught
; 7-13
! 11-92
•07
: 1179
Total of Ireland
470,086
9-08
The area and the population of the counties of the four provinces ol
Ireland at Hie census of April 5, 1891, are given in the following table : —
Digitized by
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\
24
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
I
Population
Provinces
j
<Pop. per
and Count
ies
cinstcr.
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females |
Total
sq. mile
Province of L
1
Carlow County
349
20,552
20,384
40,936
117-3 ;
Dublin
354
197,409
221,807
419,216
1,184-2 ,
Kildare
j
654
38,407
31,799
70,206
107*3
Kilkenny
,
796
43,468
43,793
87,261
109 6
King's-
,
772
33,777
31,786
65,563
84-9
Longford
,
421
26,681
25,966
52,647
125-0
Louth
>
316
35,242
37,796
71,038
224 8
Meath
»
906
39,224
37,763
76,987
84-9
Queen's
>
664
33,171
31,712
64,883
97 7
Westmeath
,
708
33,927
31,182
65,109
919
Wexford
>
901
54,935
56,843
111,778
124-0
Wicklow
»>
781
31,054
31,082
62,136
79 5
Total of Leinster .
7,622
587,847
599,913
1,187,760
155-8
Province of Munster.
Clare County
1,294
63,138
61,345
124,483
96-2
Cork ,,
2,890
219,988
218,444
438,432
1517
Kerry ,,
1,853
91,017
, 88,119
179,136
96-6
Limerick County
1,064
78,607
80,305
158,912
149 3
Tipperary „ .
1,659
86,807
86,381
173,188
104*4
Waterford ,, .
721
48,054
50,197
98,251
136*2
Total of Munster .
9,481
587,611
584,791
1,172,402
123 6
Province of Ulster.
1
Antrim County .
1,237
1 221,448
249,731
471,179
380 9
Armagh ,,
i 512
68,370
74,919
143,289
279 8
( Cavan ,,
1 746
56,772
55,145
111,917
150 0 1
; Donegal ,,
1,870
91,478
94,157
185,635
99*2
' Down ,,
957
105,334
118,674
224,008
234-1
Fermanagh,,
715
37,344
36,826
74,170
103 7
Londonderry County .
816
73,260
78,749'
152,009
186*2 '
Monaghan ,,
i 500
| 42,727
1 43,479
86,206
172-4
Tyrone
Total of Ulster .
iProrincc of Connaught.
1 1,260
| 84,596
86,805
171,401
136 0
8,613
| 781,329
I 838,485
1,619,814
188-1
1
1
1
1
Galway County .
i 2,452
1 108,283
- 106,429
214,712
87 5
Leitrim ,,
619
I 39,715
38,903
78,618
127 0
Mayo „
2,126
! 107,498
111,536
219,034
103-1
j Roscommon County .
949
58,000
! 56,397
114,397
120 5
1 Sligo „
Total of Connaughl
721
48,670
49,343
98,013
135 9
t 6,867
362,166
1 362,608
724,774
105-5
j Total of I
reland .
i 32,583
2,318,953
2,385,797
| 4,704,750
144-4
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AHEA AND POPULATION
25
The number of inhabited houses at the census of 1891 was 870,578, against
914,108 in 1881, and 961,380 in 1871. The decrease in the decennial period
1881-1891 amounted to 47 per cent.
Of uninhabited houses, there were 58,257 at the census of 1881, and
69,320 in 1891, representing an increase of 18*9 per cent, in uninhabited
houses ; in 1881 there were 1,710 houses building ; in 1891 there were
2,602.
The population in 1891 was distributed as follows among the larger
towns: —
In Towns of
Over 100,000 .
Between 50,000 and 100,000
„ 20,000 and 50,000
„ 10,000 and 20,000
Total
No. of
Towns
2
1
5
10
18
Inhabitants
500,951
75,345
143,272
124,983
844,551
(Per cent. ofTotal
Population
! 107 I
1-6 :
i 3*0 |
i 26 j
.; 17-9 I
In Ireland, in 1891, there were only three cities with over 50,000 in-
habitants, viz., Dublin, with 245,001, but 361, 891 within the metropolitan police
district (349,688 in 1881) ; Belfast, 255,950 ; Cork, 75,345 ; Limerick had
37,155 inhabitants ; Londonderry, 33,200 ; Waterford, 20,852.
The population was divided as follows according to occupation in 1891 : —
-
Males 1
Females
Total
Professional class
138,971 ,
75,272
214,243
Domestic ,,
34,490
220,654
255,144
Commercial ,,
81,012 '
2,161
83,173
Agricultural ,,
845,691 ,
91,068
936,759
Industrial ,,
404,155
252,255
656,410
Indefinite and non-productive .
814,634
1,744,387
2,385,797
2,559,021
Total
2,318,953
4,704,750
4. Islands in the British Seas.
The population of the Islands in the British Seas was found to be as
follows at the census of April 5, 1891 : —
Islands
Area |
square miles
i Isle of Man 220s
Channellslands , Acres
: Jersey . . | 28,717
Guernsey, &c. | 12,605
Population
53,558
52,445
35,257
Total
189,307 141,260
54,518
37,716
147,842
Population
per sq. mile
i 1891
2527
Increase
per cent.
3 8
4-0
7-0
4-7
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26
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following were the numbers of the population of the Islands at each
of the four censuses of 1861, 1871, 1881, and 1891 :—
Islands
1861
1871
1881
1891
Isle of Man
Jersey ....
Guernsey, Herm, and Jethou
Alderney ....
Sark and Brechou .
Total .
52,469
55,613
29,850
4,932
583
143,447
54,042
56,627
30,685
2,738
546
53,558
52,445
32,631
2,048
571
55,608
54,518
35,287
1,857
572
144,638
141,260
147,842
II. Movement op the Population.
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
England and Wales.
Population | Total Births , Illegitimate I Deaths
1887 ! 27,826,798 886,017
28,135,197
28,447,014
28,762,287
29,081,047
29,403,346
879,263
885,179
869,937
913,836
897,957
42,770
40,730
40,627
38,412
38,781
37,581
Deaths
Marriages
530,577
200,175
510,690
203,456
517,968
213,696
562,248
223,028
587,666
226,025
559,090
226,922
The proportion of illegitimate births to the total births in
1891 was 4*2 per cent. Having gradually diminished from 7 per
cent, in 1845 ; the minimum rate was 2*8 per cent, in Essex
(extra Metropolitan), and the maximum 7*5 in Shropshire. The
percentage for London was 3 '6. The births and deaths are
exclusive of still-born.
^u The proportion of male to female children born in England
^t during the last ten years is as 1,037 to 1,000. But as the former
K suffer from a higher rate of mortality than the latter, the
■ equilibrium between the sexes is restored about the tenth year of
^^ life, and is finally changed, by emigration, war, and perilous male
^^^ occupations, to the extent that there are 1,000 women, of all ages,
Bfco 949 men in England.
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AREA AND POPULATION
27
Scotland.
Year
, 1888
i 1889
1 1890
J 1891
1892
Estimated
Population
3,943,701
3,973,305
4,003,132
4,033,180
4,063,452
Total Births
123,269
122,770
121,530
125,986
125,011
Illegitimate
9,968
9,643
9,167
9,647
9,183
Deaths
71,174
73,203
78,978
83,573
75,568
Marriages
25,305
26,318
27,441
27,969
28,637
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1892 was 7*3
per cent., the rate varying from 4*5 per cent, in Eoss and
Cromarty to 16*3 per cent, in Wigtown. The proportion of male to
female births in Scotland for the last ten years was 1,054 to 1,000.
Ireland.
Estimated
Year I PopXtfon I To^Birth8 ! legitimate
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
4,800,014
4,756,145
4,716,996
4,681,173
4,638,169
109,557
107,841
105,254
108,116
104,234
3,124
3,049
2,827
2,900
2,613
Deaths
Marriages
85,892
82,908
85,850
85,999
90,044
20,060
21,521
20,990
21,475
21,530
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1892 was 2*5
per cent., the rate varying from 0*5 in Connaught to 3*9 in
Ulster. The proportion of male to female births in Ireland for
the last ten years was 1,057 to 1,000.
2. Emigration and Immigration.
There was very little emigration from the United Kingdom
previous to 1815, in which year the number of emigrants was no
more than 2,081. It rose gradually from 12,510 in 1816, to
34,987 in 1819. In the five years 1820-24 there emigrated
95,030 individuals; in the next five years, 1825-29, the number
was 121,084; in 1830-34 it rose to 381,956 ; but sank again to
287,358 in 1835-39, Between 1815 and 1852 the total number
of emigrants was 3,463,592 ; between 1853 and 1860 it was
1,582,475, of whom 1,312,683 were of British or Irish origin;
between 1861 and 1870 it was 1,967,570, of whom 1,571,829 were
of British or Irish origin ; 1871-80, 2,228,396, of whom 1,678,919
were British or Irish ; 1881-1890, 3,555,655, of whom, 2,558,535
were British or Irish; and the total from 1815 to 1892 was
13,453,628. The total emigration of persons of British or Irish
origin only, 1853-1892, was 7,550,515 ; 5,045,981 went to the
United States ; of these, 2,191,991 were English, 409,741 Scotch,
and 2,444,249 Irish.
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Bfa^ai
28
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table exhibits the number of persons, natives
and foreigners, emigrating from the United Kingdom to British
North America, the United States, and Australasia, and the
total number — the latter figure including the comparatively small
number going to other than these three destinations (32,635 in
1893) — in each of the last five years : —
Year
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
To British
To the United
North America
States
38,056
240,395
31,897
233,522
33,752
252,016
41,866
235,221
50,371
213,247
To Australasia
Total
28,834
21,570
19,957
16,183
11,470
342,641
315,980
334,543
321,397
307,750
Of the total in 1892, 192,748 were males, and 128,649 females.
The following shows the number of British emigrants to places
out of Europe in the last two years with the increase or decrease
Year
1892
1893
Increase or Decrease
English
Scotch
Irish
133,815
134,302
23,325
22,660
52,902
52,155
487
-665
-747
Total
United Kingdom
210,042
209,117
-925
In the year 1892 there were 143,747 immigrants, British and
foreign, which, deducted from the total of 321,397 emigrants, left
an excess of 177,650 emigrants. As regards persons of British
and Irish origin the immigrants in 1892 numbered 97,780, which
deducted from the total of 210,042 British emigrants, left an
excess of 112,262 emigrants of British origin. In 1893 there
landed at British ports from the Continent 112,306 aliens, of
whom 78,848 were stated to be en route to America.
Religion.
I. England and Wales.
The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal.
Its fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-
nine Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised
and finally settled in 1571. But though the Protestant Episcopal
is the State religion, all others are fully tolerated, and civil dis-
abilities do not attach to any class of British subjects.
The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
RELIGION 29
possessing the right, regulated by the statute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20,
to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the form
being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the royal
licence, or conge d}elire, to proceed to the election, accompanied by
the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and afterwards
the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is signified
under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the sees of
old foundation ; the bishoprics of Manchester, St. Albans,
Liverpool, Truro, Newcastle, and Southwell are conferred direct
by letters patent from the Crown. The Queen, and the First
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown.
There are 2 archbishops and 31 bishops in England. The
former are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have
also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise epis-
copal, as in- their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, juris-
diction. Under the bishops are 30 deans, 85 archdeacons, and
613 rural deans. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs,
the provinces have each a council, or Convocation, consisting of
the bishops, archdeacons, and deans, in person, and of a certain
number of proctors, as the representatives of the inferior clergy.
These councils are summoned by the respective archbishops, in
pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled, they must
also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate ; as well
as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they are
binding on the clergy; so that their real power is extremely
limited.
The number of civil parishes (districts for which a separate
poor rate is or can be made) at the census of 1881 was 14,926.
These, however, in many cases, do not coincide with ecclesiastical
parishes, which, during the present century, have lost their old
importance, the ancient parishes having been cut up in many
cases into districts, each of which is virtually an independent
parish ecclesiastically. Of such parishes there are about 14,000 ;
according to a return of 1882 the Church of England possessed
14,573 registered churches and chapels, in which marriages could
be solemnised. Since 1818 the Church Building and the Ecclesi-
astical Commissioners have formed upwards of 3,000 new ecclesi-
astical districts. Each parish has its church, presided over by an
incumbent or minister, who must be in priest's orders, and who
is known as rector, vicar, or perpetual curate, according to his
relation to the temporalities of his parish. Private persons pos-
sess the right of presentation to about 8,500 benefices; the
patronage of the others belongs mainly to the Queen, the
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30 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
bishops and cathedrals, the Lord Chancellor, and the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge. The total annual income of Church
property of all kinds is estimated at about 7,000,000/., most of
which is managed by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. The
number of clergy of all grades (including assistant curates)
belonging to the Church of England actually doing duty in
churches is returned in the census of 1891 at 24,232, and if those
who fill other functions be added, the total number is probably
about 27,000.
In the theory of English law every Englishman is a member
of the Church of England, but it is estimated that the population
of England and Wales actually claiming membership with the Esta-
blished Church was (1881) about 13,500,000, leaving about
12,500,000 to other creeds.
On the basis of the marriage registers 71*6 per cent, of the
population belonged to the Established Church, 4*4 per cent, to the
Roman Catholic Church, and 24*4 to other bodies.
There are many Protestant Dissenting religious bodies, the
most prominent being Methodists of various sects, the Independ-
ents or Congregationalists, the Baptists, and the English Pres-
byterians. The Methodist body, subdivided into members of the
Old and New Connexion, Primitive and Free Church Methodists,
Bible Christians, and various other sects, possess about 15,000
chapels and 800,000 members ; the Independents or Congregation-
alists 4,580 churches and stations, 2,730 ministers, and 360,000
members ; the Baptists 3,780 chapels, 1,874 ministers, and 300,000
members, besides in each case the families of members and other
adherents. There are altogether 280 religious denominations in
Great Britain, the names of which have been given in to the
Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, the total
number of registered chapels in 1891 being 27,253. According to
the census- of 1891 there were 10,057 Protestant Dissenting
ministers in England and Wales.
The number of Roman Catholics in England and Wales (1891)
is estimated at 1,500,000. There are fifteen dignitaries of the
Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales, namely, one
archbishop and fourteen bishops (besides two coadjutor bishops),
as many dioceses, united in the ' Province of Westminster.' In
December 1893 there were 1,405 Roman Catholic chapels and
stations. The number of officiating Roman Catholic clergy at the
same date was 2,613 (1,620 in 1871).
The number of Jews in Great Britain and Ireland (exclusive of
London) was estimated in 1890 at 25,700, of those in London
in 1891 at 67,500.
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RELIGION 31
II. Scotland.
The Church of Scotland (established in 1560 and confirmed in
1688) is organised on the presbyterian system of government, in
which the clergy are all equal, none of them having pre-eminence
of any kind over another. There is in each parish a parochial
tribunal, called a kirk session, consisting of the minister or clergy-
man, who acts as president or moderator, and of a number of laymen
called ruling elders. There are in all 84 presbyteries, meeting
frequently throughout the year, and these again are grouped in
16 synods, which meet half-yearly and can be appealed to against
the decisions of the presbyteries. The supreme court of the
Scottish Church is the General Assembly, which consists of 386
members, partly clerical and partly lay, chosen by the different
presbyteries, boroughs, and universities. It meets annually in
May (under the presidency of a moderator appointed by the
Assembly, the Sovereign being represented by a nobleman known
as Lord High Commissioner), sitting for ten days, the matters
not decided during this period being left to a Commission.
The number of parishes, old and new (1893), is 1,348, and
the number of churches, chapels, and stations, 1,700 ; the total
number of clergy, with and without charges or appointments,
exceeds 1,800. The parishioners are allowed, under certain
regulations, to choose their own ministers. The entire endow-
ments of the Church from all sources, including the annual value
of the manses and glebes, amount to about . 350,000*. per annum.
Since 1845 members of the Church have erected and endowed
churches for 384 new parishes, the value, with endowments,
being little short of 2,250,000*. In 1892 voluntary gifts (in-
dependently of over 200,000/. derived from the interest of invested
contributions, grants from two trusts, and pew rents levied in 450
churches) amounted to 360,588*. Exclusive of ' adherents,' the
Established Church in 1878 had 5 15, 786 members or communicants.
In 1892 the number was 604,984.
The Presbyterians not members of the Established Church of
Scotland have the same ecclesiastical organisation as that Church.
Of these, the largest body is the Free Church of Scotland, formed
from the * Disruption ' in 1843, with 1,273 ministers and mission-
aries, 1,047 churches, 343,015 members or adherents, and claiming
as ' population connected with the Free Church, 1,372,060* in 1893.
Its income in 1892-93 from all sources at home was 645,837*.
The aggregate funds raised in Scotland for all purposes during
the fifty years from the Disruption amount to 23,342,809/.
Next is the United Presbyterian Church, formed from the
i
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32 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
amalgamation of several bodies of seceders, one dating as far
back as 1733, with 615 ministers, 572 churches, 47 home mission
stations, 187,075 members (besides adherents), and an income in
1892 of 372,259/. There are also Baptists, Independents,
Methodists, and Unitarians. The Episcopal Church in Scotland,
which includes a large portion of the nobility and gentry, has
7 bishops, 268 churches and missions, and 266 clergy, and claims
the adherence of about 80,000 of the population.
The Roman Catholics have increased largely of late years,
chiefly from the influx of Irish population. The Roman Catholic
Church had two archbishops and four bishops in Scotland in
1893, 366 priests, and 340 churches, chapels, and stations. The
number of Roman Catholics is estimated at 365,000.
III. Ireland.
The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland is under four arch-
bishops, of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three
bishops. On the death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese
nominate a successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postu-
late or petition the Pope. The bishops of the province also pre-
sent the names of two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The
new bishop is generally chosen from among this latter number ;
but the appointment virtually rests with the cardinals. The
emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, <fcc., and from
the cathedraticum, a small contribution paid by incumbents of
parishes. The incomes of all classes of the Roman Catholic
clergy of Ireland arise partly from fees, but principally from
Christmas and Easter dues, and other voluntary offerings. In
1891 the Roman Catholic population was returned at 3,647,307,
being 10*4 per cent, under the number returned in 1881.
The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal), formerly
(1801-1870) in union with the Church of England, ceased to be
< established by law ' by Act of Parliament (1869) 32 <fe 33 Vict,
cap. 42. It has now (1894) two archbishops, eleven bishops, and
1,700 clergy. It possesses 1,500 churches, 600,000 members, and
received in 1892 voluntary contributions amounting to 151,000/.
Its income previous to disestablishment was 600,000/., and its
entire capital estimated at 14,000,000/. By the Disestablishment
Act 7,500,000/. were allotted to it by way of commutation (charged
with the payment of annuities amounting to 696,000/.), and
500,000/. in lieu of private endowments. The Church is governed
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33
by a General Synod — bishops, clergy, and laity having the right
to vote separately. There are also 23 diocesan synods.
There were in Ireland, at the census of 1891, 444,974 Presby-
terians, 55,500 Methodists, 17,017 Independents, 5,111 Baptists,
3,032 Quakers, 1,798 Jews.
Instruction.
The following table proves progress in the diffusion of
elementary education, by indicating the percentage of persons
in England and Wales who signed by mark in the marriage
register during each year specified :: —
Year
Males
Females 1
Year
Males
Females
1843
1853
1863
1873
32.7
30*4
23*8
18'8
49*0
43-9
33-1
25 4
1883
l 1889
! 1890
1891
12*6
7'8
7'2
6-4
15*5
9*0
8'3
7 3
In London the proportion of men who signed with marks in
1891 was 3*7 per cent., and of women 5*0. Over most of the
South-eastern, South Midland, Eastern, South-western, and West
Midland counties the proportion of males who signed with marks
was greater than females. In the North Midland and Northern
counties and in Wales the preponderance is much in favour of
the males. The most illiterate counties for men in 1891 were
Monmouth 13-3, North Wales 117, Suffolk 10-7, Cambridge
and Shropshire 10*4, and Cornwall 10*0 per cent. In Scot-
land, the proportion in 1890 was 3*92 per cent, of men and
6*42 of women. In 1857 the proportion was 12*11 per cent,
males to 24*66 females. In Kinross-shire and Peebleshire all
males and all females, and in Orkney and Banffshire all
males, signed their names. In all the divisions except the N.W.,
West Midland, and S.W., the proportion was comparatively low.
The two most illiterate counties by this test are Ross, 14*52 per
cent, males to 42*24 per cent, females, and Inverness with 9*25
to 18*21. In Ireland the proportion unable to sign the marriage
register in 1891 was 19*4 men and 19*4 women. In 1874 the pro-
portion was 30*1 men and 36*4 women. The proportions varied
in the various provinces from 16*2 per cent, of the men and 15*7
per cent, of the women in Leinster to 26*8 per cent, of the men
and 22*2 per cent, of the women in Connaught.
The highest education is provided for in Great Britain and
Ireland by a number of universities and detached colleges. With
the exception of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, Owens College, the
Scotch Universities, and Trinity and Queen's Colleges, Ireland,
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
most of the other institutions have been founded within the last
ten years. The following table gives the statistics in most cases
for the last term of 1893 : —
No. of
Teach-
1
No. of
Teach-
—
Col-
ing
Students
—
Col-
ing ' Students
leges
Staff
leges
Staff
England and
Scotland.
Wales.
! Universities : —
Universities :l —
Oxford .
Cambridge
Durham .
Colleges : —
Aberystwith .
Bangor .
Manchester .
23
19
1
90
108
13
26
26
97
3,232
2,912
196
298
127
9742
Aberdeen
i Edinburgh
| Glasgow
1 St. Andrews
1 College : —
University,
Dundee .
1
1
1
2
1
43
102
94
27
19
748
3,138"
2,04112
205
250
Newcastle
52
2,1643
j
Nottingham .
Sheffield . .
60
18
4314
290s
1 Ikeland.
Birmingham .
50
495
University : —
Bristol .
47
4128 ;: Dublin .
1
64
1,103
Cardiff . j 1
31
S087 \ Colleges :—
i
Lampeter . 1
9
129 I1 Queen's, Belfast
1
20 ! 394
Leeds . . 1 1
98
6708|| „ Cork.
1
25
230
Liverpool . ' 1
54
429 ' „ Galway
1
17
108
London : — '
1
University . ' 1
67
1,093* || Total United
King's . | 1 '140
480I0I Kingdom .
68
1,397
22,857
I
i Owens College, Manchester, University College, Liverpool, and Yorkshire College,
Leeds, are associated together as the Victoria University. 2 Inclusive of 108 women ;
exclusive of 368 evening students. 3 Of the teaching staff 34, and of the students
1,959 (about half of them being evening students) belong to the College of Science ; the
remainder to the College of Medicine. * Besides 1,329 evening students.
5 Including 103 evening students. * In addition there are 744 evening students.
7 There are also 1,500 students attending evening technical classes. 8 Excluding 440
evening students. • Exclusive of school. i<> Numbers for 1892, exclusive of
school and evening students ; in 1893, including school and evening classes there were 4,352
students. u Including 72 women, excluding 104 non-matriculated students. 12 Of
the teaching staff 30, and of the students 155, belonged to the women's department.
London University is only an examining body, with power to grant degrees
to all candidates who pass its examinations : in 1893 it had 77 examiners,
and in 1892, 5,553 candidates underwent its various examinations. The Royal
University of Ireland holds a similar position in Ireland : in 1893 it had 64
fellows and examiners ; in 1893, out of 993 entered for matriculation, 679
passed, 186 being women. The Catholic University of Ireland includes,
besides University College, Dublin, seven other Catholic colleges. It grants
degrees in theology and philosophy, and sends up its students for other degrees
to the examinations of the Royal University.
For medical education, besides the faculties attached to some of the uni-
versities and colleges, there are medical schools attached to the hospitals of
most of the large towns in England. In a few of the colleges female students
are admitted. There are, besides, 4 university colleges for ladies : — Newnham
College, Cambridge, a staff of 15, and 149 students in 1893 ; Girton College,
Cambridge, with 6 resident and 29 outside lecturers, and 113 students ; and
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Lady Margaret and Somerville Halls, Oxford, the former with 38 students and
the latter with 52 students. There is a similar College (Bedford) for ladies in
London with 20 lecturers and 130 students, and another in Edinburgh.
The City and Guilds of London Technical Institute has two Technical
Colleges, a Technical Art School, and a Leather Trades School. The total
teaching staff in December, 1893, numbered 74, and the students (including
about 1,500 evening students), 1,858.
Middle-class education in England is entirely unorganised, and is mainly
left to private enterprise; no complete, trustworthy statistics are available.
There are a number of endowed public and grammar schools but over the
conduct of these schools Government has no control.
In Scotland, the burgh schools of various names, grammar schools, high
schools, &c, are administered by the school boards. There are also endowed
schools and schools under private management which give secondary educa-
tion. In 1893 59 schools were inspected, 23 of them being under school
boards, 21 endowed schools, and 15 private schools. There were 7,148 candi-
dates for leaving certificates, 3,755 being from 55 higher class schools, and
3,393 from 97 higher departments of state-aided schools. The total receipts
of the higher class public schools in the year ended 15 May, 1892, amounted
to £60,963 ; this included income from endowments, school fees (£34,246),
loans (£2,500) and contributions from burgh or other funds. Under the
Education and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1892, a sum is avail-
able for secondary education.
For Ireland there is an Intermediate Education Board, with a yearly
income, on January 1, 1893, of 34,483Z. Its functions are to examine all can-
didates who present themselves. In 1892 5,759 pupils (4,294 boys and 1,465
girls) presented themselves for examination, as compared with 5,156 in the
previous year, and 6,952 in 1881. In 1881 there were in Ireland about 1,500
superior schools, with about 200,000.
In connection with the Government Science and Art Department there
are, in addition to classes in ordinary schools for science and art education,
2,553 science schools, with 180,410 pupils. The number of art schools and
classes in 1892 was 1,631, and the number of students 115,848. The Parlia-
mentary vote for 1893-94 was 645,015/., against 64,675Z. for 1856-57.
Up to the beginning of this century elementary education in England was
left almost entirely to the care of the clergy of the Established Church. In
1808 the British and Foreign School Society was founded, and in 1811 the
National School Society, the latter being under the authority of the Church.
In 1833 Parliament for the first time voted money to aid in the building of
schools. In 1839 a Committee of Council on education was appointed to
watch over the distribution of these subventions. In the same year normal
schools began to be built and received aid from the Committee of Council. In
1846 subventions were first given to increase the salaries of teachers, and
in 1847 Catholic schools were admitted to these benefits. In 1853 grants
began to by given to schools according to the number of pupils in attendance,
and in 1862 the grants were made to depend on examination results.
The Elementary Education Act of 1870 and subsequent amending Acts
now regulate elementary education in England and Wales. The central
administrative authority resides in the Education Department or Committee
of Council on Education, consisting of Lords of the Privy Council with the
President of the Privy Council as President, and a member of the Privy
Council as Vice-President who represents the department in the House of
Commons. Sufficient school accommodation must be provided in every
district for all the resident children between the ages of 5 and 14. The
d 2
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
boroughs and parishes are, unless the educational requirements are otherwise
supplied, formed or grouped into school districts each with its elected school
board which may compel parents to send their children to school. In boroughs
and parishes, where school boards are not required school attendance committees
are appointed to enforce the attendance of children. On April 1, 1893, there
were in England and Wales 2,381 school boards embracing a population of
18,764,565, and 781 school attendance committees embracing a population of
10,277,961. The obligatory subjects are reading, writing, arithmetic, and
(for boys) drawing, or (for girls) needlework. Optional subjects are singing,
geography, science, algebra, modern languages, cookery, &c. In board schools
unsectarian religious instruction is given ; in voluntary schools sectarian doc-
trines may be inculcated. There are 7 standards and each pupil should pass
one standard every year. When the fourth standard is passed, the child, if
12 years of age, may leave school. A "code" providing in detail for the
regulation of schools is annually prepared by the department and submitted
to Parliament. In 1891, by a fee grant of ten shillings for each child
between 3 and 15 years of age in average attendance, to be paid on certain
conditions to managers of public elementary schools, education was rendered
practically free in England and Wales. On June 1, 1893, there were 19,534
schools receiving the fee grant, and only 142 schools had refused it.
The following table includes the total number of Voluntary and Board
day-schools under inspection during the last 5 years ; —
Years ended
August 31
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Schools
Inspected
19,221
19,310
19,419
19,508
19,515
Accommodation
5,356,554
5,440,441
5,539,285
5,628,201
5,692,975 .
Average
Attendance
3,614,967
3,682,625
3,717,917
3,749,956
3,870,774
Children of
School Age
(6-14)
5,962,448
6,042,940
6,124,519
6,686,984!
6,708,504l
i Age 5 — 15. The number is calculated from census results of 1891 ; the earlier estimates
being from census results of 1881.
On August 31, 1892, there were in England and Wales 4,869 Board
schools ; 11,935 National Society Schools ; 530 Wesleyan ; 967 Roman
Catholic ; 1,333 British, Undenominational, and others. In the same year
there were 48,772 certificated teachers, 23,558 assistant teachers, 26,961
pupil teachers. In 1893 there were 44 residential and 14 day training
colleges with 3,927 students.
The School Inspectors are appointed by the Crown on the recommendation
of the Education Department.
In Scotland from 1595 to 1872 elementary education was regulated by the
Act of James VI. which ordained that every parish should have a school
supported by revenues derived from the land, the teachers being appointed
on the recommendation of the Presbyterian ministers. By the Elementary
Education Act of 1872, the Scotch Education Department was instituted,
and each burgh and parish or group of parishes was required to have a school
board to administer Doth elementary and middle-class schools, and to enforce
the attendance of children from 5 to 14 years of age In 1889, by a capita-
tion grant, education was made free for the compulsory standards ; in 1891
an age limit, 5 to 14, was introduced. Tho following table includes the
total number of day schools inspected in Scotland during the last 5 years : —
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tNSfRtTCTioN
3?
Tears ended
80 September
Schools
Inspected
Accommodation
Average
Attendance
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
3,105
3,116
3,076
3,105
3,030
687,297
706,085
714,865
732,735
736,511
496,239
503,100
516,046
538,365
538,678
Children of
School Age
833,109
841,982
850,949
835,175I
846, 5821
* Calculated from census results of 1891, earlier years from census of 1881
In 1892 there were in Scotland 2,671 public schools ; 51 Church of
Scotland schools ; 176 Roman Catholic ; the rest being Free Church, Epis-
copal Church, or Undenominational. In the same year there were 8,252
certificated teachers and 3,776 pupil teachers. In 1893 there were 7 training
colleges with 858 students.
Elementary education in Ireland, since 1845, is under the superintendence
of a body of * Commissioners of National Education in Ireland.' The follow-
ing table gives statistics of elementary schools for five years : —
1
Children of
1 Tear ended
Schools in
Average on
Rolfs
Average
School
! Dec 31
Operation
Attendance
Age (5-13)
'
Census 1891
! 1888
8,196
846,433
493,883
—
1889
8,251
839,603
507,865
—
1890
8,298
828,520
489,144
—
1891
8,846
824,818
506,336
939,694
1892
8,403
816,972
495,254
939,694
Of 8,320 schools regarding which returns had been received, 3,817 were
mixed Roman Catholic and Protestant ; 3,474 were Roman Catholic ; and
1,077 were Protestant. On December 31, 1892, there were 8,193 teachers and
3,182 assistants, with 668 students in the 5 training colleges.
Annual grants were made to primary schools (for examination and attend-
ance of scholars in the case of Great Britain) for five years as follows : —
-
1889
1890
£
3,326,220
493,354
902,391*
439,506
1891
1892
1893
England
Scotland .
Ireland
Gt. Britain (var.)
£
3,245,450
488,686
902, 3331
433,748
3,414,411
522,925
955, 9761
454,790
5,348,102
£
4,280,026
558,170
969,445
453,389
£
5,653,402
872,989
1,017,301
471,848
7,915,540
United Kingdom
5,070,217
5,161,471
6,261,030
* Including rates.
In addition to the grant these schools derive an income from endowments,
school fees, local rates, voluntary subscriptions, and other sources. The total
income of the elementary schools inspected in England and Wales in 1892
was £8,057,989 ; in Scotland, £1,251,244 ; and in Ireland that of the schools
under the Commissioners of National Education was £1,171,439.
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38 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Justice and Crime.
England and Wales.
The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional
courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and
gaol delivery, more popularly known as 'assizes,' and the Central Criminal
Court. Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty sessional court
house, the Lord Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metro-
politan or borough police magistrate or other stipendiary magistrate sitting in
a court house, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter sessions
are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts can
be held at other times, and are then called 'general sessions/ Two justices
constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Certain boroughs have
a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in
quarter sessions assembled, in which the recorder of the borough is the judge.
The assize courts are held four times a year in various towns throughout the
country by ' commissioners ' nominated by the Crown. These commissioners
are generally judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice,
but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good standing are appointed. The trial
takes place before a single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is the
court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the City of London and a large
surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve times
a year, and more often if necessary. The Recorder and the Common Sergeant,
and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of
London Court, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by the
judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases are
reserved. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor offences.
Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional
court before being tried at the sessions or the assizes. To every sessions,
assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal Court the sheriff cities 24
of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more
than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand jury examines the
bill of indictment against the accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses
for the prosecution, and if they think a prima facie case for trial is made out
they endorse the bill ' a true bill.' All criminal trials, except those which
come before a court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a
petty jury of twelve men. Except on some highly technical point of procedure
there is no appeal in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the same
crime after a petty jury has found him ' not guilty. ' On a conviction the judge
can, if he think fit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court for
Crown Cases Reserved. This Court is formed by five or more judges of the
High Court, and can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other
method of securing the revision of a sentence is by the royal prerogative,
exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be
modified or annulled. Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen,
but in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a Cabinet minister, ex-officio president
of theHouse of Lords, and goes out with the ministry) and the Lord Chief Justice
are appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other
judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.
Scotland.
The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland.
It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less fre-
quently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the
circuit towns. One judge can, and usually does, try cases, but two or more
preside in cases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competent court in
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39
cases of treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers,
and generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is
by statute directed to be inflicted ; and it has moreover an inherent jurisdic-
tion to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law
or statute, and such as have never previously come before the courts and are
not within any statute.
The sheriff of each county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes
occurring within the county which infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if
the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the
merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused is, under the
Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 188/, regularly asked to plead in the
sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment can be wholly or in part
disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the peace have jurisdic-
tion in petty cases occurring within the burgh or county, and in a number of
minor offences under various statutes.
Ireland.
In Ireland persons charged with crime are first brought before the petty
sessions court, which must consist of at least two ordinary justices of the peace,
one of whom may be a stipendiary — commonly called a resident magistrate.
Then if the charge be trifling it may be disposed of, the prisoner, if convicted,
having a right of appeal to the quarter sessions or recorder's court (according
as it is in a borough or in the county), provided he isvfined more than twenty
shillings or sentenced to a longer imprisonment than one month (Petty Sessions
Act, sec. 24). If the charge be of a more serious character it must either be
dismissed or sent for trial to the quarter sessions or recorder's court, or to the
assizes, as in England. There is this difference, however, between quarter
sessions in Ireland and in England : in England they are presided over by an
unpaid chairman, who need not be a lawyer and who is elected by his fellow
justices of the peace for the county ; while in Ireland they are presided over
by a paid official, who must be a barrister, whose decision on points of law binds
the court, who is appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil
bill court of the county, which corresponds to the English county court. The
assizes are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court
of Justice. In the quarter sessions, recorder's court, and assizes the trial is by
jury in all cases save appeals from petty sessions. Under the Crimes Act
witnesses and persons suspected of crime may be interrogated before a secret
court of inquiry ; but admissions then made are not evidence against the
persons making them. Prisoners may be convicted before two resident magis-
trates specially appointed to hear cases under the Crimes Act, and in cases
where the sentence exceeds a month, convicted persons have a right of appeal
to the county chairman at quarter sessions.
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial and convicted, in
each of the three kingdoms, was as follows in the last five years : —
England and Wales.
Committed for Trial
Convicted
Year
Males
Females
2,072
1,907
1,899
1,868
1,724
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
11,678
10,192
10,076
9,887
10,492
13,760
12,099
11,974
11,696
12,216
10,661
9,848
9,242
9,066
9,607
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40
THE BRITISH EMPIfcE :— UNITED KINGDOM
Scotland.
Year
Committed for Tria
Females.
I
Convicted
Males
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
2,001
1,833
1,909
1,969
1,871
351
417
403
384
381
2,352
2,250
2,312
2,354
2,262
1,853
1,737
1,825
1,822
1,778
Ireland.
Year
Committed for Trial
Convicted
Males
Females
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,821
1,801
1,728
1,714
1,761
367
380
333
398
270
2,188
2,181
2,061
2,112
2,013
1,220
1,225
1,193
1,255
1,196
The following table shows the strength of the police force in England and
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland : —
Year
England
and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
12,579
13,934
13,951
Year
England
and
Wales
39,221
39,673
40,596
Scotland
Ireland
1880
1888
1889
31,488 3,484
37,296 1 3,986
37,957 4,038
1890
1891
; 1892
4,103
4,228
4,400
13,921
13,840
13,630
Pauperism.
There is a Poor Law, under a variety of statutes, applicable to the Three
Kingdoms, by which paupers, under certain conditions, are to be relieved in
their own houses or lodged in workhouses or poor-houses built for the purpose.
The law is administered by the Local Government Board, through Boards of
Guardians elected for the purpose. For the administration of the law the
country is divided into a number of unions or parishes. The funds are
obtained in the different parishes or unions by means of a poor-rate levied on
the occupiers of property of all kinds, determined by the local authorities
accordingly.
The following table shows the total amount expended in relief of the poor
for the last five years (ended March 25 for England and Ireland, and May 14
for Scotland) : —
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PAUPERISM
41
Year
England & Wales
Scotland
Ireland
Total U.K.
£
£
£
£
1888
8,440,821
887,867
1,390,929
10,719,617
1889
8,366,477
882,836
1,444,680
10,693,993
1890
8,434,345
874,389
1,409,024
10,717,758
1891
8,643,318
880,458
1,405,514
10,929,290
1892
8,847,678
912,838
1,411,597
11,172,113
The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and ' casual poor ' in receipt
of relief in the several unions and parishes of England and Wales was as
follows on January 1 of the last five years : —
January 1
Number
of Unions
and
Parishes
Adult
Able-bodied
Paupers
All other
Paupers
Total
1889
i 1890
1 1891
1 1892
i 1893
1
647
647
648
649
649
104,817
97,745
98,794
99,534
107,178
705,315
689,800
676,111
654,951
669,280
810,132
787,545
774,905
754,485
776,458
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive of casual
poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland during the five years
from 1888 to 1892, on January 14 in each year, is shown in the subjoined
table :—
Year
Number of
Parishes
Paupers 1 Dependents Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
886
886
886
886
886
59,730 33,430 93,160
59,079 32,532 91,611
58,650 | 31,561 90,211
57,673 , 30,610 ! 88,283
56,903 30,458 j 87,362
The subjoined table gives the number of indoor and outdoor paupers, and
the total — including others in blind and deaf and dumb asylums — in receipt
of relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week in January in each
of the last five years : —
Year
(January)
Indoor Paupers
Outdoor Paupers
Total
including Asylums
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
46,364
44,653
42,601
42,018
42,755
62,760
62,213
63,426
60,709
59,001
109,957
107,774
107,129
103,839
102,865
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42
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Finance.
I. Revenue and Expenditure.
The following tables show the total amounts of the estimated
and actual Imperial revenue and expenditure of the United
Kingdom for the year ended March 31, 1880, and the five
years ended March 31, 1893 : —
Tear ended
March 31
Revenue i
Estimated
in the
Budgets
Actual* Receipts
into the
Exchequer
More ( + )
orless(-)
than Estimates
£
-1,816,902
+ 1,645,812
+ 3,154,316
+ 1,879,112
+ 564,786
- 57,623
1880
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
&
81,161,000
86,827,000
86,150,000
87,610,000
90,430,000
90,453,000
£
79,344,098
88,472,812
89,304,316
89,489,112
90,994,786
90,395,377
i
Expenditure i
i
I
Tear ended
i
March 31
Budget and
Actual Pay-
More ( + ) 1
Supplementary
Estimates
ments out of
orless(-) '
the Exchequer
than Estimates i
£
£
1
1880
84,105,871
82,184,797
-1,921,074
1889
87,024,061
87,683,8302
+ 659,769
1890
86,723,168
86,083,314
- 639,854 '
1891
88,511,943
87,732,855
- 779,088 {
1892
90,924,036
89,927,773
- 996,263
1893
91,069,560
90,375,365
- 694,195
1 By the system now adopted, these items exclude Army and Navy * Extra Receipts ' and
the contributions by India for 'Military Charges.*
a Inclusive of special expenditure, amounting to £2,009,958, incurred in connection with
the conversion of debt.
The following table (derived from the two preceding) shows
the differences (surplus or deficit) between revenue and expendi-
ture in 1880 and the last five years : —
Year
Ended March 31
Surplus ( + )
or Deficit ( - )
Year
Ended March 81
Surplus ( + )
or Deficit ( - )
1880
1889
1890
£
-2,840,699
+ 788,982
+ 3,221,002
1891
1892
1893
£
+ 1,756,257
+ 1,067,013
+ 20,012
The Imperial revenue is derived mainly from taxation (under
the first six heads of the following table), which in 1892-93
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FINANCE
43
produced 74,800,000^., or nearly five-sixths of the whole. The re-
maining sixth is subdivided into five heads as below (vii. — xi.).
Year ending March 31, 1898.
!
Budget '
Sources of Revenue
Net Receipts J ^hequeri
Estimate ;
1893-94 i
i. Customs —
£ ; £ £ £
Tobacco .
10,124,435 1
Tea .
3,399,375 !
Rum
2,078,535
!
Brandy .
1,334,221
'
Other spirits
678,768
Wine
1,268,491
Currants .
100,184
Coffee
173,858
Raisins
191,205
Other articles .
270,219
1Q filQ 9Q1
1071K Ann
19,650,000
11. Excise —
X«7, Ul«7, £i0 X x*/f § xuy\j\j\j
Spirits
15,284,067
.
Beer
9,445,893
Licence duties .
234,280
Railways .
310,325
Other sources .
1 ••• «
8,569
25,283,134
9F> <?fiO OfiO
ok inn t\(\/\
i m. Stamps (excluding Fee
£,*}}0\J\Jf\J\J\J £,U, ±\J\J, VW
Stamps, &c.) —
I
Probate duty .
2,398,030
|
Legacy duty
3,242,091
|
Estate duty-
Personalty
1,091,760
Realty .
162,902
Succession duty
1,455,806 1
Deeds
2,412,894 1
Receipts .
1,148,396 1
Bills of exchange
665,030 ,
Patent medicines
220,325
Licences, &c.
164,155 ,
Companies' capital duty
124,970
Marine insurances
134,557
Other sources .
567,467 '
,
13,788,383
13,805,000 13,600,000
iv. Land Tax .
— 1,024,713
1,040,000 1,035,000
v. House Duty .
— 1,411,511 ■ 1,410,000 1,425,000
vi. Income and Property
1
1
Tax . . .
—
13,439,576
13,470,000 15,150,000
Total Produce of Taxes .
74,566,608
74,800,000
75,960,000
vii. Post Office .
10,344,353
10,400,000
10,600,000
1 viii. Telegraph service
— ; 2,486,791 2,480,000
2,480,000
1 ix. Crown Lands
—
515,596*' 430,000 430,000
i That is, revenue actually paid into the Exchequer between April 1, 1892, and March 31,
1893.
2 Gross receipts from which fall to be deducted the cost of collection and other out-
goings.
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u
,THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KltiaboM
Tear ending March 81, 1893
Sources of Revenue
Net Receipts
x. Interest on Purchase
money of Suez Canal
- Shares, &c.
xi. Miscellaneous —
Fee Stamps
Civil Departments
Revenue Departments
Bank of England
Post Office Savings
Banks .
Various .
Total non-tax Revenue .
Total Revenue
| 220,396
Exchequer^
Receipts
Budget
Estimate
1893-94
220,396 220,000
i
832,568 I
812,862 '
30,447
170,971 J
51,117
167,016
2,047,487
15,614,623
90,181,231
2,064,981
15,595,377
90,395,377
1,950,000
15,680,000
91,640,000
1 That is, revenue actually paid into the Exchequer between April 1, 1892. and March 31,
1893.
The national expenditure falls under three categories : (1) the
Consolidated Fund Charges, 28,306,1 75£, mainly bestowed on the
National Debt, but including 1,428,57U. for the Naval Defence
Fund; (2) the Army and Navy Supply Services, 31,844,000*. ;
and (3) the Civil and Miscellaneous Services, including expense
of collection of the revenue, 30,225,190*., for 1892-93.
Branches of Expenditure
i. National Debt Services : — '
Interest of Funded Debt .
Terminable Annuities
Interest of Unfunded Debt
Management of Debt
New Sinking Fund .
Suez Canal Exchequer Bonds
ii. Naval Defence Fund .
iii. Other Consolidated Fund
Services : —
Civil List
Annuities and Pensions . i
Salaries and Allowances .
Courts of Justice, Salaries
Year ending March 31, 1893
£
16,052,835
6,350,400
659,826
185,194
1,751,745
Budget Esti-
mate 1893-94
25,000,000
200, 00Q
25,000,000
. 200,000
1,428,571 1,429,000
407,954
334,538
83,672
517,943
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FINANCE
45
Branches of Expenditure
Miscellaneous .
Total Consolidated Fund
Services .
iv. Army ....
v. Ordnance Factories .
vi. Navy .....
vii. Civil Services .
viii. Customs and Inland Revenue;
ix. Post Office
x. Telegraph Service
xi. Packet Service .
Total Supply Services .
Total Expenditure
Surplus Income .
Year ending March 31, 1803
Budget Esti-
mate 1893-94
£
333,496
17,541,700
300
£
1,677,603
£
1,691,000
28,306,175 28,320,000
17,542,000
14,302,000
17,780,515
2,615,595
6,513,000
2,595,000
721,080
17,803,000
14,240,000
18,130,000
2,706,000
6,791,000
2,739,000
735,000
j 62,069,190 I 63,144,000 I
90,375,365 91,464,000
20,212
176,000
The estimates for the financial year ending March 31, 1894, have for
comparison been embodied with the two preceding general tables.
Fuetheb Details of the Budget.
Army. — The net cost of the British army, according to the estimates for
1893-94, is 17,802,800^. Including appropriations in aid, amounting to
2, 947, 851 Z., the gross estimate was 20, 750, 65 11. The following table shows
the net estimates for 1893-4, as compared with those for 1892-93 : —
Army Estimates.
I. Effective Services :— 1892-93
Begular forces and army reserve : £
General staff and regimental pay, &c. . 4,942,205
Chaplains' department . . . . " 57,935
Staff of military prisons, &c. . 29,335
Army reserve 605, 525
Medical Establishments .... 290,100
1893-94
£
5,127,424
58,752
29,484
660,740
288,200
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46
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
1892-93 1893-94
£ £
Auxiliary forces :
Militia 535,000 I 560,000
Yeomanry cavalry . .• 74,400 i 74,400
Volunteer corps 781,500 ' 786,000
Commissariat :
Transport and remounts 639,700 623,000
Provisions, forage, &c 2,645,000 , 2,622,400
Clothing 820,600 ' 790,600
Warlike and other stores . . . 1,847,000 1,827,400
Works, buildings, dee. with superintending 802,100 , 789,600
Various:
Military education .... 113,500 114,400
Miscellaneous services . . . 122,300 126,300
War Office 257,800 257,800
Total effective services 14,564,000 14,736,500
II. Non-Effective Services : —
Officers, dec. :
Rewards for distinguished services
Half pay ....
Retired pay and gratuities
Widows' pensions and allowances
Pensions for wounds
Retired allowances, auxiliary forces
Xon-commissioned officers and men, dx.
In-pensions ....
Out-pensions.
Rewards for distinguished services .
Widows' pensions, &c. .
Superannuation allowances, &c.
Total non-effective services
10,730
10,400
82,850
72,600
1,250,376
1,259,016
132,061
132,359
11,998
12,226
39,685
37,599
31,280
31,697
1,345,300
1,345,250
5,960
5,740
2,860
2,713
154,100
3,067,200 1,385,400
Total effective and non-effective services 17,631,200 , 17,802,800
Net increase, 1893-94
171,600
\
Navy. — The net cost of the Navy, according to the estimates for 1893-94,
is 14,240,100/. Including appropriations in aid, amounting to 1,027, 574*., the
gross estimate was 15,267,674Z. The following table shows the net estimates
for 1893-94, as compared with those for 1892-93 : —
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FINANCE
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1892-93
I. Effective Services. £
Wages of Officers and Seamen and Royal Marines 3, 520,000
Victualling and Clothing 1,215,700
Medical Establishments 125,000
Martial Law 11,400
Educational Services 75,800
Scientific Services 60,000
Royal Naval Reserves 159,000
Shipbuilding, Repairs, &c 4,771,000
Naval Armaments 1,398,700
Works, Buildings, &c 448,000
Miscellaneous Services 148,000
Admiralty Office 227,800
Total effective services . . 12,160,400
IL Non-effective Services.
Half-pay, Reserved, and Retired Pay . . 764,200
Naval Pensions, &c 941,600
Civil Pensions, &c 313,700
Total non-effective services .
Ill, Extra Colonial Estimate.
Additional Annuity, for service in Australasian
waters
2,019,500
60,300
1893-94
£
3,620,800
1,260,700
133,000
10,900
80,500
59,300
172,000
4,719,000
1,315,200
380,000
160,100
231,000
12,142,500
768,700 !
956,400 I
312,220 '
2,037,320
60,300 ,
Grand total 14,240,200 | 14,240,100
Net Decrease, 1893-94
100
Civil Services. — The following is an abstract of the Civil Service estimates
for 189&-94, showing the more important items of expenditure :-
£
I. Public Works and Build-
ings .
1,643,254
II. Salaries, «*<;., Civil De
partment8 :
U. K. and England .
Scotland ....
Ireland .
1,853,535
56,357
114,814
Total
III. Law and Justice :
U. K. and England :—
Sup. Court of Judicature
County Courts
Police Courts
Prisons, Eng. and Col.
2,024,706
327,902
36,200
60,383
617,637
£
270,814
154,722
Reformatories, Great Brit.
Other expenses
Scotland : —
Courts of Justice, &c.
Prisons ....
Other expenses
Ireland : —
Supreme Court of Judicature 114, 006
Land Commission . . 70,467
County Court Officers, &c. 123,093
Police and Constabulary . 1,481,958
Prisons .
Reformatories, &c. .
Other expenses
89,891
.91,800
45,110
128,532
110,702
77,264
Total
3,800,481
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THE BKITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
IV. Education, Science and
AH:
U. K. and England :—
£
Public Education .
.6,194,718
Science and Art Dept.
. 645,015
British Museum
. 157,500
National Galleries .
. 15,118
Universities and Colleges,
Great Britain
. 83,012
Scientific Investigation
. 26,163
Scotland : —
Public Education
. 968,073
National Gallery
4,050
Ireland : —
Public Education .
1,069,969
National Gallery
2,545
Queen's Colleges, &e.
6,053
Total
9,172,216
V. Foreign and Colonial
Services :
£
Diplomatic and Consular 448,101
Colonial. . . . 124,066
Other services . . 64,088
Total
636,205
VI. Non-Effective and
Charitable Services . 671,037
VII. Miscellaneous,
182,030
Grand Total 1893-94 . 18,129,929
Grand Total 1892-93 . 17,626,875
Net decrease 1893-94
503,054
In addition to the ordinary expenditure above given, there were issues to
meet expenditure under the Imperial Defence Act, 1888, 285,000?.; Naval
Defence Act, 1889, 1,150,000*.; Barracks Act, 1890, 535,000?.; Telegraph
Act, 1892, 86,0002., these issues being in each case covered by equal sums bor-
rowed under the several Acts, and paid into the Exchequer. The net advances
for purchase of bullion amounted to 115, 000?. The amount of the surplus of
the previous year (the 'Old Sinking fund '), 1,067,013?., was issued from the
Exchequer and applied in reduction of debt. Besides the foregoing items,
there were a few minor receipts into and issues from the Exchequer account ;
which is also swollen by cross entries in respect of sums borrowed and paid off
during the year. The balance in the Exchequer on April 1, 1892, was
6,255,169/.; the gross receipts into the Exchequer in the year 1892-93
amounted to 148,912,205?.; the gross issues out of the Exchequer in the
year 1892-93 amounted to 150,074,839?., leaving a balance on March 31,
1893, of 5,082,535?.
II. Taxation.
The revenue derived from the most important of direct taxes, that upon
incomes, was as follows since 1884 : —
Year ending \
Tax
! Annual Ex-
Year ending
Tax
Annual Ex-
March 31
per£
5rf.
1 chequer Receipt
March 31
per£
6d.
| chequer Receipt
1884 j
| 10,718,000
1889 !
&
12,700,000
1885 '
6d.
1 12,000,000 :
1890 !
6d.
' 12,770,000
1886 i
Sd.
i 15,160,000
1891 !
6rf.
13,250,000
1887
Sd.
15,900,000
1892
6d.
13,810,000
1888
Id.
14,440,000 •
1893 ,
6d.
13,470,000
The gross amount of the annual value of property and profits assessed to
the income tax in the year ended April 5, 1892, in the United Kingdom,
was 710,752,684?. ; in 1871 it was 465,478,688?. Of theamount for 1892
the share of England was 607,748,110?. ; of Scotland, 65,023,424?. ; of
Ireland, 37,981,150?.
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FINANCE
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The real property so assessed was distributed as follows : —
Assessed to Income Tax
1889
1890 | 1891
1892
ra (England
g -] Scotland .
i-h" (Ireland
£
42,274,444
6,539,762
9,940,928
£
41,795,594
6,416,507
9,941,799
£
41,378,589
6,374,863
9,941,368
£
41,129,907
6,318,581
9,943,358
Total
58,755,134
120,513,633
12,906,606
3,502,665
58,153,900
121,907,494
13,026,736
3,557,392
57,694,820
123,721,189
13,245,723
3,617,151
57,391,846
$ (England .
| -] Scotland .
X \ Ireland
125,945,646
13,425,504
3,675,851
Total
136,922,904
138,491,622
140,584,063
143,047,001
The annual value of the mines, railways, and ironworks assessed to the
income tax was as follows in 1892 : —
_
Mines
Railways
Ironworks
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total ....
£
9,372,169
1,488,830
10,890
10,871,889
£
38,691,790
4,050,352
1,448,514
44,190,656
£
2,463,325
516,117
2,979,442
The annual value of canals was assessed at 3,431,253/. ; of gasworks,
4, 607, 648 J. ; of quarries, 985, 6142. ; other profits, including waterworks,
salt springs, and alum works, 6, 390, 759 J.
In accordance with Acts passed in the years 1888-90, various duties are
collected for local authorities by Imperial officers. These are : (1) the duties
on local taxation licences, the proceeds of which are distributed to the
counties of England and Wales and Scotland according to the amount
certified to have been collected in each ; (2) the probate duties to the extent
of one-half, the proceeds of which are shared by the three divisions of the
United Kingdom, England receiving four-fifths, Scotland eleven-hundredths,
and Ireland nine-hundredths of the moiety ; (3) the additional duties of 6d.
per gallon on spirits, and 3d. per 36 gallons on beer, the proceeds of which
are paid into the local taxation accounts of England, Scotland, and Ireland,
in the same proportion as the moiety of the probate duty. The net receipts
of these duties and the payments made to local taxation accounts in the
year ended March 31, 1893, were as follows : —
-
Additional Beer
& Spirit Duty
x. , Moiety of Pro-
Licences bateDuty
Total
Net receipts
£
1,357,380
£ £
3,434,253 i 2,398,030
£
7,189,663
Payments :
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total payments
1,089,633
149,885
131,871
3,099,328
334,299
1,920,949
268,231
220,007
6,109,910
752,415
351,878
1,371,389 1 3,433,627
2,409,187
7,214,203
The following statement from a Return on Financial Relations (England,
Scotland and Ireland) shows for the year ended March 31, 1893, the amount
E
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
contributed by each of the
penditure on each, and the
for Imperial expenditure :
three divisions of the United Kingdom, the ex-
balance of revenue contributed by each available
1 _
Imperial
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total
Revenue: —
Customs ....
Excise ....
Stamps ....
Land tax and House duty .
Income tax
£
65,000
171,000
•£
15,229,858
18,769,987
11,856,689
2,310,394
11,413,675
£
2,005,982
3,586,139
1,256,970
125,829
1,291,972
£
2,383,451
2,927,008
609,724
562,929
&
19,619,291
25,283,134
13,788,383
2,436,223
13,439,576
74,566,607
15,558,758
1 Total, taxes .
1 Non-tax revenue
236,000
938,884
59,580,603
12,309,425
8,266,892
1,397,437
6,483,112
913,012
Total Exchequer revenue
Local taxation revenue .
1,174,884 ! 71,890,028
41,000 j 6,155,907
9,664,329
745,046
7,396,124
247,710
90,125,365
7,189,668
i Grand total
Per cent.
1,215,884
62,067,294
78,045,935
80-20
10,409,875
10-70
7,643,834
7-85
97,315,028 1
100
Expenditure: —
From Exchequer revenue .
From local taxation revenue
19,989,030
6,109,910
26,098,940
73-47
26-74
51,946,995
85-76
3,130,411
752,416
3,882,826
10*93
3-98
6,526,549
10-77
5,188,630
351,878
1
90,375,365
7,214,203 |
Total expenditure .
Percent. Eng. Scotl. Irel.
Per cent, total
Balance available for Im-
perial expenditure
Per cent
62,067,294
63*60
5,540,508
15-60
5-68
2,103,326
3-47
97,589,568 1
100
100 '
60,576,870
100
III. National Debt.
The expenditure on account of National Debt is now nearly
six times the amount paid in 1775, at the beginning of the War
of Independence of the United States. The total charge for
interest and management was then only a little over 4.V millions
sterling ; but at the end of the war it had risen to 9^ millions.
The twenty-two years' warfare with France, from 1793 to 1815,
added 23 millions sterling to the annual charge of the debt,
making it over 32 \ millions, decreased by slightly more than a
million in 1817, in the year of consolidation of the English and
Irish exchequer. Since this date, the capital of the debt has on
the whole been steadily decreasing, excepting for the years of the
Russian war. The annual charge, after increasing to nearly 30
millions in 1883, is now less than in 1857, at the close of that
war, by 3,207,039*. Moreover, the present figure (25,200,000*.)
includes a large provision for repayment of the capital of the
debt, amounting in 1892-93 to 6,531,844*.
The following table exhibits the growth of the debt from its
origin to the year 1893 at various periods : —
Periods
Principal
Annual Charge
National Debt at the Revolution in 1688
i Increase during William III.'s reign .
£ £
664,263 39,855
12,102.962 I 1,175 469 i
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FINANCE
51
Periods
Debt at the Accession of Queen Anne, in 1702
Increase daring the War of the Spanish
Succession
At the accession of George I., 1714
Increase during his reign ....
At the accession of George II., 1727
Decrease during 12 years' peace, ending 1739
At the commencement of the Spanish War,
1739
Increase during the war
Principal
At the end of the Spanish War, 1748 .
Decrease during 8 years' peace
1 At the commencement of the Seven Years'
| War, 1756
Increase during the war
; At the Peace of Paris, 1763 .
' Decrease during 12 years' peace .
• At the commencement of the American War,
1775
Increase during the war
At the end of the American War, 1784
Decrease during the peace .
At the commencement of the French War
1792
Increase during the war
At the Peace of Amiens, 1802
, Increase during war with Napoleon
At the Peace of Paris, 1815 .
Decrease during 40 years
At commencement of Crimean War, 1854
Increase during the war
Debt in 1857 .
Decrease since the Crimean War .
Debt on March 31, 1893
12,767,225
23,408,235
Annual Charge
1,215,324
1,847,811
36,175,460
16,675,337
52,850,797
6,236,914
3,063,135
(-) 323,507
2,739,628
708,744
46,613,883
29,198,249
2,030,884
1,134,881
75,812,132
1,237,107
3,165,765
412,199
74,575,025
58,141,024
2,753,566
2,279,167
132,716,049
5,873,238
5,032,733
329,214
126,842,811
116,220,334
4,703,519
4,837,737
243,063,145
3,399,724
9,541,256
109,077
239,663,421
297,989,587
9,432,179
10,836,372
537,653,008
323,386,041
20,268,551
12,377,067
861,039,049
91,956,500
32,645,618 '
4,930,415
769,082,549
39,026,173
27,715,203 ,
834,836
808,108,722
137,065,880
28,550,039 '
3,350,039 j
671,042,842
25,200,000
E 2
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following statement shows the total amount of the Gross and Net
Liabilities of the State on March 31, 1893. & £
Funded Debt 589,533,082
Estimated Capital of Terminable Annuities . 60,761,490
Unfunded Debt . ... 20,748,270
Other Capital Liabilities :
Russian Dutch Loan
Imperial Defence Act, 1888 .
Barracks Act, 1890
Telegraph Act, 1892 .
Savings Banks, &c, Deficiencies
671,042,842
502,779
689,299
542,544
86,474
783,626
2,604,722
Total Gross Liabilities 673,647,564
Sundry Assets 5,214,792
Total Net Liabilities 668,432,772
Exchequer Balances at the Banks of England and
Ireland 5,082,535
The whole of the debt amounts to 37,105,120?. less than
the gross annual value of property and profits assessed to income
tax, is less than half of the estimated national income, and
41,786,484/. less than the total value of British imports and
exports for 1892. It is about 17/. 10*. Id. per head of the present
population, and the annual charge is 13*. 2d. per head.
IV. Local Taxation.
The total amount raised for local expenditure was as
three divisions of the United Kingdom in the years named.
follows in the
Rates
1 Gas and Water Undertakings.
I Repayments .
\ Tolls, Dues, &c. .
Rents, interest, &c.
Sales
Government contributions
Loans
Miscellaneous
Total receipts
England and
Wales
1890—01
27,828,236
6,833,055
637,725
5,508,492
1,821,651
380,498
7,190,241
6,170,410
2,173,639
Scotland
1889—90
1 3,357,565
1,033,223
241,872
4,935
964,525
1,410,398
360,986
Ireland
1890—91
1 2,825,557
449,430
95,449
347,583
546,912
234,569
58,543,947 , 7,573,504 4,499,500
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FINANCE — ARMY 53
In the year 1889-90 the total receipts were 69,317,683/., and in 1867-68
they were only 36,496,0002. The rates levied in 1890-91 by the Urban Sani-
tary Authorities, in England and Wales alone, amounted to 7,284,280Z. ; the
poor rates in England amounted to 7,474,099/.; the School Board rates in
England amounted to 2,967,421/. The expenditure for the same year was, in
England and Wales, 58,208,686Z.; in Ireland, 4,545,074/. The total ex-
penditure in connection with the relief of the poor in the United Kingdom
was 10, 628, 066/. , police, sanitary, and other public works absorbed 35, 305, 533/. ,
and School Boards, 7,649,566/.
Defence.
I. Army.
The maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, without
the consent of Parliament, is prohibited by the Bill of Rights of
1689. From that time to the present, the number of troops as
well as the cost of the different branches of the service in detail,
have been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House of Commons.
The Secretary of State for War frames the ' Army Estimates/
which are submitted in ' votes ' for the approval of the House of
Commons.
Parliament exercises another important means of control over
the army, viz., by passing at the commencement of every session
an Act called the ' Army (Annual) Bill/ investing the Crown
with large powers to make regulations for the good government
of the army, and to frame the Articles of War, which form the
military code.
According to the army estimates laid before the House of
Commons in the session of 1893, the regular army of the United
Kingdom — exclusive of India — during the year ending March 31,
1894, is to consist of 7,497 commissioned officers, 1,016 warrant
officers, 15,955 sergeants, 3,687 drummers, trumpeters, <fcc., and
126,287 rank and file, a total of 154,442 men of all ranks, being
a total increase of 369 over the previous, year. This force is to
be composed of the following staff, regiments, and miscellaneous
establishments : —
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Branches of the Military Service.
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned Officers,
Drummers, Ac
Rank and
File
General and Departmental Staff.
General staff
Army accountants
Chaplains' department ....
Medical department
Veterinary department
325
209
86
624
68
295
491
7
17
50
1
Total staff .
1,312
793
68
Regiments.
Cavalry, including Life and Horse Guards .
Royal Horse Artillery ....
Royal Artillery
Royal Engineers
Infantry, including Foot Guards
Colonial Corps ......
Departmental Corps
Army Service Corps
Total regiments
Staff of Yeomanry, Militia, and Volunteers
Miscellaneous Establishments.
Instruction in gunnery and musketry
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich .
Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Staff College
Regimental schools
Other establishments
553
71
792
586
2,814
163
139
237
1,371
146
1,813
1,195
6,677
367
795
816
11,392
1,694
18,814
5,304
78,751
4,701
2,745
2,656
5,355
13,180
126,057
601
6,197
10
35
19
28
6
14
127
98
22'
23
3
182
160
97
5
18
1
31
Total miscellaneous
229
488
152
Total regular army
7,497
20,658
126,287
The total number of horses provided for this establishment
was 14,572.
For total cost of the British army, with details of the expen-
diture, see under Finance.
The following table exhibits, after official returns, the number
of officers, rank and file, maintained for service in the United
Kingdom at decennial periods since the year 1810 up to 1890,
and during the last two years, on the 1st of January in every
year: —
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>
Year
Cavalry
Artillery
16,814
Engineers
Infantry and
Special Corps
Total
1810
20,405
974
74,325
112,518
1820
9,900
4,046
371
46,799
61,116
1830
8,036
4,037
682
35,339
48,094
1840
7,190
4,118
544
38,624
50,476
1850
8,108
7,353
1,201
50,415
67,077
1860
11,389
14,045
1,707
62,366
89,507
1870
10,910
14,469
2,890
56,092
84,361
1890
12,470
17,584
5,370
68,682
104,116
, 1892
12,759
17,663
5,338
68,131
103,891
1893
13,179
17,823
5,379
69,734
106,115
The following is the official return of the number and distri-
bution of the effectives of the British army (incuding drafts on
passage to the Colonies, India, aud Egypt), in the beginning of
1893 :—
-
. Offioers and Men
Horses and Mules
Field Guns
England
Scotland
Ireland .
. > 77,063
. i 3,686
. 1 27,155
i
10,256
323
3,187
226
4 •
52
Total home
1
1 107,904
i
13,766
282
Egypt .
The Colonies .
India .
2,813
31,085
75,987
371
620
11,179
318
Total abroad .
!
109,885
12,170
25,936
318
General total
217,789
600
There are, besides, four classes of reserve, or auxiliary forces —
namely, the Militia, the Yeomanry Cavalry, the Volunteer corps,
and the Army Reserve force. The following is the official return
of the number of men in the regimental establishments of the
various forces, with the effectives, for 1893-94 ; —
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THE BBITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED" KINGDOM
-
Establishments
all Ranks, 1893-94
Effectives by
latest Returns
Regular Forces, Home and ")
Colonial /
Army Reserve, 1st Class .
„ 2nd „
Militia
Yeomanry
Volunteers ....
Total Home and Colonial .
Regular Forces on Indian Estab-)
lishments /
Total .
144,592
80,000
200
140,308
11,790
262,759
144,334
77,523
277
123,744
10,697
225,423
639,649
72,858
581,998
74,384
712,507
656,382
The following table shows the number of men in the British
Army serving in India during the years noted, according to Bud-
get estimates : —
Tears
Soldiers in India
i Tears
Soldiers in India
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
72,345
72,424
1 72,429
1891-92
1892-93
! 1893-94
72,496
72,648
72,858
The number of men enrolled in the Volunteer corps of Great
Britain has increased from 119,146 in 1860, to 193,893 in 1870
206,537 in 1880, 260,627 in 1890, and 262,759 in 1893.
Under various laws of army organisation, Great Britain and Ireland are
partitioned into 14 military districts. For the infantry there are 102 sub- or
regimental districts, commanded by line colonels ; for the artillery there are
12 sub-districts, commanded by artillery colonels ; and for the cavalry there
are two districts, commanded by cavalry colonels. The brigade of an
infantry sub-district, consists, as a rule, of two line battalions, two militia
battalions, the brigade depdt, rifle volunteer corps, and infantry of the army
reserve. Of the two line battalions one is generally abroad and the second at
one of the home stations. An artillery sub-district contains, in addition to
the royal artillery, the militia artillery and that of the volunteers and of the
army reserve ; and a cavalry colonel similarly has command, not merely over
the cavalry regiments within his district, but over the yeomanry, volunteers,
and reserve cavalry.
The General Annual Return gives as follows the numbers of non-
commissioned officers and men, natives of each of the three divisions of the
United Kingdom, composing the army on January 1, 1893 : — English,
156,804; Scotch, 15,921; Irish, 27,150; born in India and the colonies,
7,948 ; foreigners, 120 ; and 1,340 not re|»orted.
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DEFENCE 57
The establishments for military educational purposes comprise the
Council of Military Education, Royal Military Academy at Woolwich,
Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst, Royal Military Asylum
and Normal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Military School at
Dublin, Department for Instruction of Artillery Officers, Military Medical
School, ana a varying number of Garrison Schools and Libraries. In the
army estimates for 1893-94, the sum provided for military education is 175, 202?.
(including the appropriation in aid). The two principal educational estab-
lishments for officers are the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, and the
Royal Military and Staff Colleges at Sandhurst. In the army estimates of
1893-94 the cost of the Woolwich Academy was set down at 33,8531., and of the
Sandhurst College at 43,6352.
II. Navy.
The British Navy is a permanent establishment, governed by-
statutes and orders fixed with much precision by the Legislature.
Its administration was formerly in the hands of a Lord High
Admiral, but by the Act 2 Will, and Mary, c. 2, this office
was vested in a Commission. With the exception of various
periods in which the office has been revived — in the person of
the Earl of Pembroke in the reign of William III., of Prince
George of Denmark (1702-8), and of the Duke of Clarence
(May, 1827 — August, 1828) — it has continued to be held in
commission by the Board of Admiralty. The Board now
consists of the First Lord of the Admiralty, who is always
a member of the Cabinet, and five other commissioners.
The First Lord is responsible for the general direction and
supervision of all naval business, and deals with promotions,
appointments, nominations to cadetships, and other matters.
The First Naval Lord advises upon questions of maritime
defence, strategy, and naval policy, and is charged with business
relating to ships in commission, the distribution and organization
of the Fleet, the supervision of the Intelligence and Hydro-
graphic Departments, ships' complements, discipline, courts
martial, signals, collisions, gunnery, torpedoes, &c. The Second
Naval Lord is responsible for the manning and officering of the
Fleet, and for mobilization, naval education and training, the
Royal Naval Reserve, and many other matters concerning the
personnel. The special work of the Third Naval Lord and
Controller of the Navy is chiefly in relation to materiel. He
has charge of the dockyards, the steam reserves, shipbuilding
and repairs, machinery, the purchase, disposal and loan of ships,
questions relating to inventions and discoveries, naval ordnance
and stores, and the dockyard personnel The Junior Naval Lord
is concerned with the transport, medical and victualling services,
and with hospitals, the coaling of the fleet, questions of pay,
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and men voted was 103,81 4.
With the year 1893-4 closes the quinquennial period
governed by the Naval Defence Act of 1889, which provided for
the construction of 70 vessels at a cost originally estimated at
£21,500,000. This sum has been exceeded owing to alterations
in the design of ships, and, in August, 1893, a Bill was intro-
duced for authorizing the expenditure of £1,350,000 upon
dockyard shipbuilding, in addition to the sum of £8,650,000
allotted for that purpose under the Act of 1889. That Act
provided for the laying down of 10 first-class battleships (the
Royal Sovereign, Empress of India, Ramillies, Repulse, Resolution,
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DEFENCE 59
Revenge, Royal Oak, Hood, Centurion, and Barfleur), 9 first-class
cruisers, 29 second-class cruisers, 4 third-class cruisers, and 18
torpedo-gunboats. The First Lord, in the statement issued with
the Naval estimates of the current financial year, estimated that
at its close 9 only of the ships to be completed under the Act
would still remain in hand ; and it is anticipated that some of
these will be expedited. The whole of the contract-built ships
have been delivered.
In addition to the battleships built under the Act of 1889,
one other battleship, the Renown (which is described on p. 64),
was laid down in 1892-93, two other like ships, which were also
projected, being deferred. The shipbuilding programme of
1893-94 includes, in the dockyards, two first-class battleships —
the Majestic and Magnificent, which will be the most powerful
warships afloat — three second-class cruisers, and two sloops ; and,
in private yards, by contract, two large first-class cruisers — the
Powerful and Terrible (the last-named of which it has, however,
been decided to charge upon the next financial year) — and four-
teen torpedo-boat destroyers, in addition to six already ordered.
It has, however, since been decided to increase the total number
of destroyers to 42. The more important of these vessels are
described on p. 65. In so far as torpedo-boats are concerned, the
estimates of 1892-93 provided for the commencement of ten of
the first-class, upon which a sum of £20,000 only was to be
spent ; but a larger scheme had previously been under considera-
tion, the carrying out of which was dependent upon financial
considerations. Early in the year 1892-93 the Admiralty, how-
ever, decided, with the concurrence of the Treasury, to put
these vessels in hand, as well as to accelerate the progress of the
first-class boats. Lastly, in regard to ships, both in the year
1892-93 and 1893-94, several of our older second-class ships have
been put in hand for repair, refitment or reconstruction.
The year 1893 was marked by the foundering of the battleship
Victoria, flagship of Vice-Admiral Sir George Tryon, in the
Mediterranean, after collision with H.M.S. Camperdovm, flagship
of the second division of the squadron, during fleet manoeuvring
off Tripoli, Syria, on June 22nd. As many other ships in the
Navy are of like construction to the Victoria, it is important to
note the minute of the Admiralty enforcing the conclusion
arrived at by the Director of Naval Construction that the
foundering of the Victoria was not due to any defect in her
construction, but to the fact that many of the water-tight doors
and hatches in the forward part of the ship could not be closed
owing to the inrush of water.
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the effective strength of the
British Navy, ships in course of construction or planned being
included. Unfortunately, no uniform classification of the vessels
of various navies exists, but the table given is based upon a
system which will enable comparisons to be made ; and a state-
ment, upon the same system, will be found under each of the
naval powers. The more important of these results have been
collected in an introductory table, and with that table is an
account in detail of the method of classification adopted.
!
Battleships, 1st Class 25 ^
1 ,, 2nd Class .
9 r
45
,, 3rd Class .
11 J
Port defence ships r
18
Cruisers, 1st Class (a) .
23 )
35
„ (b) .
12 t
„ 2nd Class
63
„ 3rd Class (a) ■
103 \
189
„ » (b) .
86 )
Torpedo-craft, 1st Class1
85 \
,, 2nd Class
33 }■
136
,, 3rd Class
18 J
486
i Including 42 " Destroyers."
Briefly, the table has been constructed on the following
principle. No 1st class battleship is more than 12 years old,
nor of less displacement than 6,000 tons. Battleships of the
2nd class are not more than 20 years old, nor of less than 5,000
tons displacement. Third-class battleships do not exceed 27
years in age, and those with not more than 11 knots sea-speed
are relegated to the category of port-defence vessels. (Sea-speed
is assumed to be 2 knots less than the nominal or trial speed.)
First-class cruisers a are of more than 5,000 tons, with a sea-
speed of 15 knots or more ; those marked b are slower, but
are armoured, and admitted as first-class cruisers for convoy-
ing purposes. They include the older ironclads, steaming more
than 1 1 knots, which are assumed to be no longer fit for the
line of battle. Cruisers of the 2nd class are of 2,000 tons or
more, with not less than 12 knots sea-speed. In the 3rd class
of cruisers are included, for convenience of comparison, sloops,
gun vessels, gunboats and torpedo-cruisers and catchers. Those
marked a steam 10 knots or more at sea ; those marked b
have less than this speed. First-class torpedo craft exceed
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DEFENCE
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125 feet in length; 2nd class boats are from 100 feet to 125
feet ; third-class boats are from 80 feet to 99 feet. Boats of
less than 80 feet are not included, as being useful only for
local port defence except under very favourable circumstances.
Transports, store ships, tenders, and vessels of no fighting value
are excluded.
There are 8 vessels which are subsidized by the Admiralty
as " Reserved Merchant Cruisers," in addition to many others
which are held at disposition, and marked for preferential
employment, without subvention. The subsidized vessels are
the Victoria, Britcmnia and Oceana (P. & 0. Company), Majestic
and Teutonic (White Star Line), and Empress of India, Empress
of China and Empress of Japan (Canadian Pacific Railway
Company).
In November, 1893, there were 189 ships in commission,
75 in the Fleet Reserve, 28 in the Dockyard Reserve, and 21
building and completing at the Government dockyards.
The vessels on foreign service were thus distributed in
November, 1893—
Mediterranean and Red Sea . 30
Channel Squadron ... 8
North America and West Indies 12
East Indies .... 10
China 20
Cape of Good Hope and West
Africa .... 15
Pacific 8
Australia . . .12
South-east coast of America. . 4
Particular Service . .10
Surveying Service ... 7
Training Squadron ... 4
Total . . .140
The following tabulated list of battleships, coast and port defence vessels,
and first-class cruisers of the British Navy, built, building and projected,
requires a few words of explanation. The order of ships is chronological. In
the first list, the ships of which the names are in italics are port defence or
floating battery ships. The numbers following the names of the others
indicate the classes to which they have been assigned in the foregoing table.
The letters in the first column signify the character of the ships : — b. broad-
side; c.b. central battery; t. turret; bar. barbette. In the particulars of
guns, "Q.F." means quick-firing. Machine-guns are not given. The first-
class cruisers (5,000 tons or more) have a sea-speed of not less than 15
knots, the sea-speed being estimated at 2 knots less than the nominal speed.
An exception to this rule regarding speed is that certain armour-clads are
counted first-class as for convoying purposes, if with lower speed. The names
of these are printed in italics.
Digitized by
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62
THE BRITISH EMPIEE: — UNITED KINGDOM
a
s
1 «3
i
Name
■8
1
3
as
.2 0
lis
* Sh
<
6
Hector
1862
6,710
%
*
Prince Albert
—
1864, 3,880
cfc
Penelope
—
1867 4,470
6
'
Monarch
3
1868 8,320
10
C5
Hercules
3
1868 8,680
9
cb
Audacious .
3
1869 6,010
8
jcb
Invincible .
3
1869 6,010
8
eft
Iron Duke .
3
1870! 6,010
8
*
Hotspur
—
1870 4,010
11
cb
Swiftsure
3
1870 6,910
8
cb
Triumph
3
1870 6,640
8
c h
Sultan .
3 18701 9,290
9
t
Devastation
3 l"°'"1 9,330
14
t
Cyclops
— 3,560
10
' t
Olatton.
— 4,910
14
t
Gorgon .
— 3,560
10
t
Hecate .
— 3,560
10
t
Hydra .
— 3,560
10
t
Thunderer
3 9,330
14
, *
Rupert .
3 5,440
14
t
Neptune
2 9,810
13
c b
Superb .
2 9,170
12
cb
Alexandra .
2 9,490
12
; <
Dreadnought
2 10,820
14
: «
Inflexible
2 11,880
24
| bar
Temeraire .
2
1876] 8,540
11
icb
BeUeUU
—
18761 4,870
12
l cb
Orion .
—
1879 4,870
12
1 *
Agamemnon .
2
1879| 8,660
18
t
Ajax
2
1880, 8,660
18
t
Conqueror .
2
1881 6,200
12
f
Edinburgh .
1
1882 9,420
18
: t
Colossus »
1
1882 9,420
18
bar
Collingwood .
1
1882 9,500
18
bar
Rodney
1 1884J 10,300
18
t
Hero
1 (1885 6,200
12
bar
Benbow
1 J1885. 10,600
18
bar
Camperdown
1 1885 10,600
18
bar
Howe .
1 '1885 10,300
18
1 bar
Anson
1 1886 10,600
18
, t
SansPareil .
1 !l887 10,470
18
*
Trafalgar
1
1887 11,940
20
t
Nile .
1
1888 11,940
20
<
Hood .
1
1891 J 14,150
18
bar
Royal Sovereign
1
1891 j 14,150
18
*w
Empress of India 1 '1891 14,150
18
/>ar
Repulse
1
1892, 14,150
18
bar
Royal Oak .
1
1892, 14,150
18 -
bur
Ramillies
1
1892, 14,150
18
' bar
Resolution .
1
1892, 14,150
18
bar
Revenge
1
1892
14,150
18
2 9-ton; 16 6J-ton
I 4 12-ton
I 8 9-ton ; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
1/4 25-ton ; 2 12-ton ; 1 6J-ton ; 4 12-pr.\
|\ and 12 3-pr. Q.F. )
f 8 18-ton ; 2 12J-ton ; 4 6$-ton ; 28 Q.F.1
•\ guns' /
10 12-ton ; 8 4-in ; 4 6-pr. , A 6 3-pr. Q. F.
10 12-ton ; 6 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
10 12-ton ; 4 5-in. ; 4 20-pr. ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
2 25- ton ; 2 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. Q.F.
10 12-ton ; 8 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. A 4 3-pr. Q.F.
10 12-ton ; 4 5-in. ; 8 6-pr. A 8 3-pr. Q.F.
8 18- ton ; 4 12£-ton ; 7 20 pr., 4 6-pr. Q.F.
4 29-ton ; 6 6-pr. A 8 3-pr. Q.F.
4 18-ton ; 4 3-pr. Q.F.
2 25-ton; 3 6-pr. Q.F.
4 18-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F. 1
418-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F. '
418-ton; 4 3-pr. Q.F. \
4 29-ton ; 6 6-pr. A 8 3-pr. Q.F.
2 22-ton ; 2 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. A 6 3-pr. Q.F.
4 38-ton ; 2 12-ton ; 6 6-pr. A 8 3-pr. Q.F. 1
16 18-ton ; 64-in. ; 6 6-pr. A 103-pr. Q.F. I
/8 18-ton ; 4 22-ton ; 64-in. ; 4 6-pr. A 6\|
\ 3-pr. Q.F. /
4 88-ton ; 6 6-pr. A 2 3-pr. Q.F.
4 80-ton ; 8 4-in, ; 4 6.pr. A 2 3-pr. Q.F.
/4 25-ton ; 4 18-ton ; 6 4-in. ; 4 6-pr. A 2\
\ 3-pr. Q.F. J
4 25-ton; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
4 25-ton ; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
4 38-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 6 6-pr. A 8 3-pr. Q.F.
4 88-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
2 45-ton ; 4 5-ton ; 6 6-pr. Q.F.
4 45-ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. A 103-pr. Q.F.
4 45-ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. A 10 3-pr. Q.F.
4 45-ton ; 5 5-ton ; 4 6-pr. A 10 3-pr. Q.F.
/I 69-ton ; 3 67-ton ; 6 5-ton ; 12 6-pr. A\
\ 2 3-pr. Q.F. J
2 45-ton ; 4 5-ton ; 7 6-pr. A 5 8-pr. Q.F.
2 111-ton ; 10 5-ton ; 8 6-pr. A 7 3-pr. Q.F-
4 67-ton ; 6 5- ton ; 12 6-pr. A 7 3-pr. Q.F.
4 67-ton ; 6 5- ton ; 12 6-pr. A 7 3-pr. Q.F.
. 4 67-ton ; 6 6-in. ; 12 6-pr. A 7 3-pr. Q.F.
i/2 111-ton ; 1 29-ton ; 12 5-ton; 12 6-pr.
! \ A 9 3-pr. Q.F.
/ 4 67-ton ; 6 4'7-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. A 9)
\\ 3-pr. Q.F.
!/ 4 67-ton ; 6 47-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. A 91
I 3-pr. Q.F.
/ 4 67-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 10 6-pr. A 12
\ 3-pr. Q.F.
67-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 16 6-pr. A 12
3-pr. Q.F.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
I 2
3,260 12-::
2,130 11 ti
4,700 i 12'7
8,000 ' 14-7
8,500 ' 14 0
4,830
4,830
3,520
3,060
4,910
5,110
8,000
7,000
132
14'0
13«>
128
137
137
137
14-0
1,660 I 110
r
2,870
1,670
1,750
1,470
7,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,610
8,210
8,010
7,000
3,200
3,900
6,360
6,000
6,000
7,500
7,500
9,500
11,500
6,000
11,500
11,500
11,500
11,500
14,000
12,000
12,000
13,000
13,812
121
111
10i>
11 0
134
14 4
142
13 5
150
14 2
138
12 2
130
13 -J
13 2
150
15-;,
15;.
Ifri,
167
15'.
167
167
167
107
167
167
17\r>
180
13,000 17'-
13,000 i 17 •'.
13,000 17*.
13,000 17:.
13,000 17:.
13,000 • 17\.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
DEFENCE
63
Name
'•<ir Centurion
bar { Barftenr
bar Renown
bar 'Magnificent
bar • Majestic
1892
1892
10,500
10,500
12,350
14,900
14,900
12
12
/ 4 29-ton ; 10 4'7-in. Q.F. ; 8 6-pr. & 12
I 3-pr. Q.P.
Do. Do.
/ 4 20-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.P. ; 8 12-pr., 10 ) I
\ 6-pr. 6 12 3-pr. Q.F. /.
4 12-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 28 smaller Q.F. '
Do. Do.
1 Indicated
! Horse-
power
i
is.:
j 7
13,000
1
182
•Do.
13,000
18-2
0
10,000 | 17-0
13,000
13,000
180
180
* Programme of 1893-94.
Also the port-defence vessels Magdala (3,340 tons), Abyssinia
(2,910 tons), Scorpion (2,750 tons), Wivem (2,750 tons), Cerberus
(3,480 tons), Viper (1,230 tons), and Vixen (1,230 tons), on
Indian and Colonial stations.
•First Class Cruisers.
Name
Warrior
Black Prince
Minotaur .
Achillea
BeUerophon
Agincourt .
Northumberland
Shannon
Kelmm
Northampton
Imperieuse
Wartpite .
[1860
1861
1863
1863
11865
1 1866 1
|1866
|1875,
I18761
3*
5|
9,210
9,210
10,690
9,820
7,550
10,690
10,780
5,390
l&1i|lB
■a y
i
1876; 7,630
I I
|l883'
^1884!
8,400 I {
4 9-ton ; 28 6J-ton
4 9-ton ; 22 6*-ton ; 2 6-in.; 4 3-pr. Q.F. I
17 12-ton ; 4 4'7-in., and 8 3-pr. Q.F.
14 12-ton ; 2 5-ton ; 8 3-pr. Q. F. ,
10 14-ton ; 4 6-in.; 6 4-in.; 4 6-pr. Q.F. '
17 12-ton
7 12-ton ; 20 9-ton ; 12 smaller
2 18-ton ; 7 12-ton ,
/ 4 18-ton ; 8 12-ton ; 4 4'7-in. Q.F. ; 6 \
\ 6-pr. & 14 3-pr. Q.F. J
f 4 18-ton ; 8 12-ton ; 6'6-pr. & 8 3-pr. \
Q.F. J
4 24-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 4 3-pr. I
Q.F. j
4 22-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 4 6-pr. & 4 3-pr. \
Q.F. J
14-4
13 '6
14-4
14-3
13-7
148
6,560 | 141
3,370 i 12*3
6,640 j 14-4
6,070 '13-2
5,270
5,770
5,000
5,000
6,000
5,000
6 . 10,000 | 16-7
6 10,000 ' 1G-7 •
Digitized by
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64
THE BRITISH EMPIEE: — UNITED KINGDOM
§
!
00
Name
o
"3
I
00
CO fl
5g
Armament
o so
"g ©
H
HP?
IS*
lis.
is.
18*6 ,
Undaunted
1886
5,600
{
2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 6 6-pr. & 10 1
3-pr. Q.F. j
4
8,500
09
Aurora
1886
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6 .
21
Australia .
1887
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6
Galatea
1887
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6
Immortality
1887
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6
Narcissus .
1887
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6
Orlando
1887
5,600
Do.
Do.
8,500
18-6
\
Blake
1889
9,000
2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. ; 16 3-pr. Q.F.
4
20,000
22-0 |
Blenheim .
1890
9,000
Do.
Do.
20,000
22-0 i
Edgar
1890
7,350
{
2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 6-pr. & \
5 3-pr. Q.F. J
4
12,000
19-7
Endymion .
1891
7,350
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-7 i
Hawke
1891
7,350
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-7
Royal Arthur .
1891
7,700
{
1 22-ton ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 6-pr. & \
5 3-pr. Q.F. J
4
12,000
19-6 '
Crescent .
1891
7,700
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-6
I
St. George .
1892
7,700
{
2 22-ton ; 10 6-in. Q.F. ; 12 6-pr. A \
5 3-pr. Q.F. J
Do.
12,000
19*6
p«
Gibraltar .
1892
7,700
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-6
■S
Grafton
1892
7,350
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-7
s
Theseus
1892
7,350
Do.
Do.
12,000
19-7
Eclipse
5,500
5 6-in. Q.P. ; 6 4'7-in. and 9 smaller Q.F.
9,600
19-6
Minerva .
5,500
Do.
9,600
19-6
Talbot
5,500 j
Do.
9,600
19-6
•Powerful .
14,000 j [
2 9-2-in. ; 12 6-in. Q.F. ; 18 12-pr. & \
12 3-pr. Q.F. f
4
22-0
♦Terrible
14,000 ■
Do
4
22 -O
* Programme of 1893-94. The commencement of the TertibU lias been deferred until
the next financial year, in order to expedite the 14 torpedo-boat destroyers of this pro-
gramme.
Of the ten battleships built under the Naval Defence Act, seven are of the
Royal Sovereign type, which is a much improved development of the
" Admiral" class, with better protection, higher freeboard, and more powerful
armament. The Hood is the only one of these new battleships which carries
her heavy guns in closed turrets. The Barfleur and Centurion are examples
of the tendency to combine the chief qualities of the largest ironclads in a
rather smaller and less expensive compass. In them the protection and
arrangement of the quick-firing armament have been even more highly
elaborated than in the Royal Sovereign class, and their speed is at least equal.
Their heavy armament, however, is less powerful, and their armour is reduced
in thickness.
The Renown, now in course of construction at Pembroke, as part of the
programme of 1892-93, represents one of the latest types in the Navy. She is
described as an improved Centurion, and has a greater displacement (12,350
tons) than that type. She is to be armed with four 10-in. breechloading
guns, carried in two barbettes and mounted similarly to those in the
Centurion. Her- secondary armament will be extremely powerful, including
ten 6-in. quick-firing guns, eight 12-pounder quick-firers, and a considerable
number of smaller quick-firing guns. In the protection of this secondary
armament the arrangements in the Renown are more efficient than those
in any preceding battleship. The armament of submerged torpedoes will
also be more extensive than that in any other battleship. The barbette
Digitized by
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DEFENCE 65
armour will be somewhat thicker than that in the Centurion, The hull
armour will be arranged on an entirely different principle from that which
has been adopted in the Centurion, and associated with a different arrange-
ment of the protective deck. This point has received the most careful
attention ; and it is considered that the disposition and thickness of hull
armour adopted, together with the improved qualities of armour now obtain-
able, will make the ship well adapted for close action. With natural
draught 011 the eight hours' contractor's trial, a mean speed of 17 knots is
anticipated; with moderate forced draught a maximum speed of about 18
knots will be reached. Like the Centurion and the Rarfleur the Renown
will be wood sheathed and coppered, and will be capable of passing through
the Suez Canal.
We are, however, now to have, in the Majestic and Magnificent, which are
to be built at Portsmouth and Chatham, the largest type of battleship afloat.
The following are the characteristics of these colossal ships drawn from
a recent Parliamentary Paper. The proposed length is 390 feet, the extreme
beam 75 feet, the mean draught 27 feet, and the displacement 14,900 tons.
With natural draught, on the 8 hours' contractor's trial, a mean speed of 16J
knots is anticipated ; with moderate forced draught a maximum speed of 17|
to 174 knots will be obtained. The armament will include four 12-inch B.L.
guns of new type mounted in pairs ; twelve 6-inch Q.F. ; sixteen 12-pounders
Q.F. new type ; and twelve 3-pounders Q.F. There will also be five torpedo
discharges for 18-inch torpedoes, four of these being submerged. In the
general disposition of the armament the arrangement of the Royal Sovereign
class has been followed. There are, however, certain important differences.
The 12-inch guns mounted in strongly armoured barbettes will have their
mountings so arranged that they can bo loaded in any position by manual
power, while the proved advantages obtainable with hydraulic power and
fixed loading stations will be retained. Strong armoured shields will also be
fitted to the turntables and revolve with the guns. The protection of the
6-inch Q.F. guns is to be carried out more thoroughly than in the Royal
Sovereign class, involving considerable additional weight. Two more 6-inch
Q.F. are carried in the new ships, and 12-pounders have been adopted instead
of 6-pounders as in the Royal Sovereign. The armour-plating will be hard-
ened by the Harvey process.
Of the best type of first-class cruisers is the Royal Arthur, built under
the Naval Defence Act, and launched in 1891, of 7,700 tons, 12,000 horse-
power, and a speed of 20 knots. The class consists of nine vessels of from
7,350 to 7,700 tons, heavily armed, and with large coal endurance. All of
them are now afloat
The programme of 1893-94 includes two other first-class cruisers, the
Powerful and Terrible, but the last-named is to be deferred until the next
financial year. These will be powerful ships of about 14,000 tons, and will
certainly be far superior to any other like cruisers afloat. They are intended
to have a smooth-water speed of 20 knots and a trial speed of 22 knots.
Their armament will be very strong and carefully protected, and they will
have high freeboard, the bow and stern chasers being well above the water.
Their vital parts will be beneath a 4in. curved steel deck, which will be
associated with many watertight compartments. Their coal-bunker capacity
will be 3,000 tons.
The new second-class cruisers, built under the Naval Defence Act (of which
there are 29), are described as improved Medeas, and are of two types —
Apollo (3,400 tons) and Astrcea (4,360 tons)— with 9,000 horse-power ; speed
19^ to 20 knots. The programme of 1893-94 provides for three other second-
class cruisers, described as improve*! Astrceas, more powerfully armed and
F
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66
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
better protected. The two sloops will be improvements of the Goldfinch gun-
boat class, and the torpedo boat destroyers are to be very swift boats, haying
a contract speed of 27 knots. The Havock has steamed 26 knots on a 3 hours'
run. They will be armed severally with one of the new 12-pounder quick-
firing guns and three 6-pounders, and have five 18in. torpedo tubes.
According to the estimates for 1893-94, the approximate aggregate cost of
the effective and non-effective ships now on the strength of the navy
amounted to £58,302,561, while the incidental expenses amounted to
£7,409,614. The amount expended up to March 31, 1893, on vessels not
completed was £8,496,887, and the outstanding liabilities on such vessels at
that date were £2,636,374.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In 1876 the number of owners of less than an acre of land in
the United Kingdom, exclusive of the metropolis, was officially
returned at 852,408 ; of owners of more than an acre at
321,386 ; total number of owners, 1,173,794. The whole extent
of land accounted for in the returns was, however, five-and-a-
half millions of acres less than the area of the United Kingdom,
all common and waste lands, as well as the metropolis and the
lands of owners of less than an acre, having been excluded
from the survey.
The following table shows the distribution of the surface in
each section of Great Britain in percentages of the total acreage of
each section : —
1
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
72
1*6
26-4
100 0
Average
i Cultivable and pasture area
I Woods, coppice, &c.
! Mountain, heath, water,
&c
77
4-8
18-2
100 0
32,527
60
3'5
36 5
100 '0
25
4'5
70-5
lOO'O
19,085
58*5
3 6
37'9
100 0
Total area (in 1,000 acres)
4,712
20,820
77,144
The following table shows the distribution of the cultivable
area : —
Digitized by
Google
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
67
1874
1802
Great Britain:
Acres.
Acres
Corn crops
9,431,490
8,033,133
Green crops
| 3,581,276
3,297,528
Flax
9,394
2,455
Hops
65,805
53,961
Small fruit
—
—
Bare fallow, &c.
660,206
508,119
Clover and ma-
i
ture grasses .
1 4,340,742
4,808,819
Permanent pas-
1
ture
1
13,178,412
16,017,492
live stock : —
Number
Number
Horses .
1 1,311,739
1,432,620
Cattle .
6,125,491
6,508,632
Sheep .
30,313,941
27,272,459
Pigs .
2,422,832
2,773,609
Ireland :
i
Acres
Acies
Corn crops
1,901,508
1,514,607
Green crops
1,353,362
1,214,396
Flax
106,886 ,
96,871
Bare fallow, kc.
, 12,187 |
15,538
Clover, & mature
i
Permanent
pasture
Live stock : —
Horses .
Cattle .
Sheep .
Kgs . .
12,378,244 12,304,265
Number
468,089
4,118,113
4,437,613
1,096,494
Number
523,384
4,240,753
4,323,805
1,570,279
Acres
Acres
Acres
7,924,823
7,808,031
7,655,739
3,297,569
3,269,577
3,286,906
1,801
1,421
1,258
56,148
56,259
f 57,564
58,704
62,148
65,487
429,040
457,162
514,558
4,716,582
4,672,802
4,569,630
16,433,850
16,358,150
Number
16,492,567
Number
Number
1,488,403
1,518,082
1,524,527
6,852,821
6,944,783
6,700,676
28,732,558 128,734,704 ,'27,280,334
2,888,773
2,137,859
Acres
2,113,530
Acres
Acres
1,492,763
1,494,816
1,489,393
1,191,424 I
1,174,861
1,153,527
74,665
70,642 |
67,444
21,626
26,936 ,
22,038
1,248,604 1,252,979 ' 1,300,168 |
i
11,100,317 11,142,287 11,175,844 '
Number J
592,819 '
4,448,511
4,722,613 !
1,367,712 ;
Number
539,788
4,531,025
4,827,702
1,115,888
Number J
545,180 |
4,464,026 I
4,421,593 J
1,152,365
The following table shows the area (in acres) under each of the
heavy corn and green crops in the years named : —
Year
Wheat
Barley
Oats
Beaus
Peas
Great Britain
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
1874
3,080,800
2,287,987
2,696,384
559,044
310,647
1889
2,449,364
2,121,530
2,888,704
321,220
224,920
'1890
2,386,336
2,111,178
2,902,998
858,413
219,382
.1891
2,807,277
2,112,798
2,899,129
354,702
204,277
1892
2,219,889
2,036,810
2,997,645
311,810
194,424
1893
1,897,524
2,075,097
3,171,756
244,954
210,479
Potatoes I Turnips
Acres
520,430
579,222
529,061
682,794
525,361
627,821
I
Acres !
2,133,386 |
1,920,641 |
1,947,598 |
1,918,686
1,937,163
1,976,235 ;
F 2
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68
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Wheat
Barley ' Oats
Beans
Peas
Potatoes
Turnips
Ireland
1874
188,711
212,230
1,480,186
9,646
1,756
892,421
338,487
1889
91,131
186,543
1,237,135
3,862
667
787,152
297,818 ,
1890
93,208
182,218
1,220,241
3,714
655
780,801
295,361 1
1891
80,870
177,966
1,215,396
4,142
589
753,332
300,326 '
1892
75,344
175,612
1,226.307
3,973
460
739,942
300,445 '
1893
54,988
168,984
1.248,360
3,280
326
723,536
302,820
The following table shows the total produce of each of the
principal crops in Great Britain and Ireland in thousands of
bushels and tons for the years named : —
Great Britain Ireland
Description of Crops
il
1890
1891
1,000
1892
1,000
1893 1 1889
1,000 1 1,000
1890 | 1891 ! 1892
1,000
1,000
1,000 1,000
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls. |l Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls. Bushls.
Wheat ....
73,854
72,127
58,561
49,247; 2,680
2,639
2,615 1 2,214
Barley and Bere .
78,983
72,129
70,485
59, 535 j, 7,277
6,860
7,426 6,454
Oats ....
120,188
112,886
116,295
112,887! | 50,637
51,107
54,086 51,886
Beans ....
11,697
10,514
6,905
— ■! 125
162
180 149
Peas
6,294
5,759
5,017
- ,. 15
19
18
11
1,000
1,000
1,000
j 1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Tons
Tons
Tons
.' Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Potatoes
2,812
3,053
3,049
— | 2,847
1,810
3,037
2,585
Turnips and Swedes
27,747
25,392
27,848
— 3,909
4,256
4,349
4,071
The following table shows the estimated average yield per acre
of the principal crops : —
Great Britain
Ireland
Description of Crops
1890
Bushls.
80-74
35 02
41-40
32-65
1891 ! 1892
1883
Bushls.
25-95
28-69
35-59
| 1880
Bushls.
29-87
39-07
40-87
34-05
22-46
1890
1891 1892
Wheat .
Barley and Bere .
Oats .
Beans . . • •
Peas
Bushls.
31-26
34-14
38-77
29-66
28-23
Bushls.
26-38
34-61
88-80
22-19
25.85
Bushls.
28-58
87-60
41-86
43-61
Bushls.
82-34
41-64
44-50
43*58
30-48
Bushls.
29-36
86-76
42-31
37-51
24-97
Potatoes
] Turnips and Swedes
Tons
28-71
5-31
Tons
5-78
13-24
Tons
5-80
14-12
1
~ 1
Tons
3-62
13-12
Tons
2-82
14-40
Tons
4-08
14-48
Tons
3-49
18-55
1 _ _ - -
—
-
- -
_
For the quantities of cereals and live stock imported, see under
Commerce.
The following table shows the distribution of live stock among
the different parts of the United Kingdom in 1893 :—
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
69
Hoises
1 Cattle
Sheep
England
1,173,809
4,744,059
16,805,280
1,793,456
Wales
147,344
738,608 J
3,101,890 j
200,676 |
Scotland
203,374
1,218,009 ,
7,373,164 I
119,398
Ireland
United
Kingdom *
545,180 I 2,079,587 '
4,464,026 11,207,554 j
4,421,593 j 31,774,824
1,152,365 jl 3,278,030
i Including the Isle of Man and Channel Islands.
The following table shows the number of holdings or farms of various sizes
in each of the three kingdoms in June, 1885 (latest return) : —
Number of Agricultural Holdings in each Class
Proj
ortional Number per
ent. of Holdings
Classification of
Eng-
Wales
Scot-
Great
Eng-
Wales
Scot-
Great
Holdings
land
land
Britain
land
land
Britain
No.
No.
No.
No.
7.
7.
7.
7.
From \ acre to 1 acre
21,069
1,083
1,360
23,512
508
1-80
1-69
4-23
., 1 acre to 5 acres
103,229
11,044
21,463
135,736
24-88
18-35
26*59
24-42
« 5 „ 20 „ .
109,285
17,889
22,182
148,806
26-84
28-89
27-42
26-77
» 20 „ 50 „ .
61,146
12,326
10,677
84,149
14-74
20-48
13-23
15-14
„ 50 „ 100 „ .
44,893
10,044
9,778
64,715
1082
16-69
12-11
11-64
„ 100 „ 300 „ .
59,180
7,844
12,549
79,573
14-26
13-03
15-55
14-31
„ 300 „ 500 „ .
11,452
389
2,034
13,875
2-76
0-65
2-52
2-50
.. 500 ,,1,000 „ .
4,131 68
632
4,826
0-99
0-10
0-78
0-87
,,1,000
565 | 8
90
663
0-13
0-01
0-11
0-12
1
Total .
414,950 60,190
80,715
555,855
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
Acreage of Agricultural Holdings in each Class
Average size of Holdings
Classification of
Holdings
England
Wales
Acres
Scot- ! Great
land { Britain
EnS" .Wales
land |*aleB
Scot- Great
land Britn.
Acres
Acres Acres
Acres Acres
Acres Acres
From J acre to lac.
9,988
530
677 »illf195
t| *
*
4
lac to 5 acre.
286,526
34,532
68,619 1 389,677
2J, 3*
114 11}
3*
n 5 „ 20 „ .
1,219,663
200,169
236,995 i 1,656,827
101
n
., 20 „ 50 „ .
2,042,370
420,482
861,675 | 2,824,527
33} 34
33§
33$
734,
., 50 „ 100 „ .
3,285,850
735,671
725,499 , 4,746,520
734, 78:
744
,. 100 „ 300 „ .
10,285,988
1,233,374 2,139,138 13,658,495
173fl 157;
170}
171f
. 300 „ 500 „ .
4,328,722
143,623
768,823 ' 5,241,168
378 1 369;
378
877}
.500,, 1,000 „ .
2,697,794
89,793
409,641 j 3,147,228
653 | 631:
6484
6524
,,1,000 .
785,138
10,373
137,104 1 882,615
1,3014, ,1,296} il,523i
1,331}
Total .
24,891,539
2,818,547
4,848,166 |82,558,252
60 I 46|
60
58J
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70
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
A return made in 1890 gives statistics of holdings from \ acre to 50
acres, but does not deal with those of 50 acres and upwards. The figures iii
the following table which relate to 1889 allow of a partial comparison with
the return of 1885 :—
Small Holdings not exceeding 50 Acres (1889)
Classification of
Holdings
Bng-
land
No.
25,680
109,528
111,039
62,131
Wales
Scot-
land
No.
1,300
22,359
22,122
10,602
56,883
Great
Britain
i
Prom \ acre to lacre
„ 1 acre to 5 acres
„ 5 „ 20 „ .
„ 20 „ 50 „ .
No.
1,672
12,298
18,211
12,480
No.
28,652
144,185
151,372
85,213
Total .
808,378
44,661
409,422
Proportional Number per Cent,
of Holdings in each Class
Eng-
land
Wales
Scot-
land
Great
Britain
7.
8*33
35-52
36-00
20-15
7.
3-74
27-54
40-78
27-94
7.
2-81
89-66
39-23
18-80
7.
7-00
35-22
36-97
20*81
100*00
100-00
100-00
100 00
In the same return obtained for the Board of Agriculture it is stated that
the number of allotments under one acre detached from cottages in Great
Britain in 1889 was 455,005, and that the total number of separate
instances in which petite culture in one form or another exists in Great
Britain is estimated to be 1,300,000.
The following table shows the number of holdings, by classes, for each
county and province of Ireland, in 1891 and 1892, and the increase or
decrease in the latter year : —
Number and Classification of Holdings
Provinces
Leinster
Munstor
Ulster .
Connaught .
Total of Ireland
/1891
\1892
/1891
\1892
/1891
\1892
/1891
U892
/1891
\1892
Not
! exceeding
1 acre
17,696
16,920
14,922
14,836
17,026
16,648
5,984
5,797
55,628
54,201
Above 1 Above 5 Above 15 , Above 80
and not | and not and not | and not ■
exceeding , exceeding i exceeding , exceeding
5 acres ; 15 acres SO acres ■ 50 acres
18,034
17,863
11,207
11,113
21,287
21,099
12,936
12,750
63,464
62,825
25,881
25,686
19,254
19,159
64,760
64,693
46,766
46,487
156,661
156,025
I 22,258
I 22,191
24,368
! 24,059
53,825
53,859
33,496
33,505
133,947
133,614
15,206
15,169
22,176
22,232
25,013
24,823
11,526
11,308
73,921
73,532
Increase or decrease
in 1892
f Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease Decrease
\ 1,427 639 636 333 389
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
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Above 50
Above 100 Above 200
and not
and not
and not
Above 500
| Provinces
! exceeding
exceeding
exceeding
acres 1 iW^*
~ ~ ~
; 100 acres
200 acres
500 acres
1
/1891 | 13,865
6,867
2,785
415 i 123,007
U892 | 13,883
6,883
2,778
408 | 121,781
/1891 . 22,068
\1892 1 22,131
9,143
2,768
363 126,269
9,209
2,715
373
125,827
Ulster
/1891
\1892
14,090
3,654
1,041
259
200,955
14,202
3,647
1,044
254
200,269
Connaught
Total of Ireland
/1891
\1892
/1891
\1892
se /
6,338
6,457
3,147
3,187
1,686
1,756
8,280
530
530
122,409
121,777
56,361
22,811
1,567 572,640
56,673
22,926
8,293
Increase
1,565 | 569,654
Increase or decrea
Increase
Increase
Decrease ! Decrease
1 in 1892
312
115
13
2 ; 2,986
In 1891 the total number of occupiers was 526,670 ; in 1892, 525,275.
II. Fisheries.
From the preliminary report on the sea-fisheries we tabulate
the following results for 1893 : —
Excluding Shell-Fish
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total
Weight (tons)
328,528
309,814
35,784
Value on
Landing
£
4,825,090
1,623,277
281,953
i Value includ-
ing Shell-Fish i
£
5,168,659
1,698,341
296,976
674,126 j 6,730,320
7,163,876
This statement does not include salmon. The weight of fish caught in
1892 was 619,250 tons, valued at 6,433,987*. or including shell-fish,
6,883,825*. On account of salmon about 138,000*. should be added for
England and Wales, 277,000*. for Scotland, and 261,000*. for Ireland in
1892.
Of the fish landed in England, 255,295 tons (value 3,546,422*.) were
landed on the east coast.
The number of men employed in the British fisheries (1892) was approxi-
mately 120,856, of whom 41,222 were English, 50,66*3 Scotch, and 24,96*2
Irish. There were 27,157 registered boats. The total value of fish (produce
of the United Kingdom) exported in 1892 was 1,658,770*., besides 548,8847.
re-exported, while the value of that imported was 2,778,078*.
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the quantity of fish (in tons) conveyed inland by
railway from the ports of the United Kingdom in each of the last five years.
-
1888
264,964
83,670
7,536
1889
286,058
91,271
9,864
1890
1891
1892
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
283,344
93,681
7,853
294,883
94,062
7,709
"1
323,360 1
93,506 '
8,938
Total
356,170
387,193
385,378
396,654
425,804
III. Mining and Metals.
The total quantities raised, and value of the coal and iron ore
of the United Kingdom, were as follows in 1878 and the last five
years : —
Coal
Iron Ore
Quantities
Value
Quantities
Value
Tons
£
Tons
£
1878
132,654,887
46,429,210
15,726,370
5,609,507
1888
169,935,219
42,971,276
14,590,713
3,501,317
1889
176,916,724
56,175,426
14,546,105
3,848,268
1890
181,614,288
74,953,997
13,780,767
3,926,445
1891
185,479,126
74,099,816
12,777,689
3,355,860
1892
181,786,871
66,050,451
11,312,675
2,970,632
The following tables give a general summary of the mineral
produce of the United Kingdom for 1892. The first table relates
to the metallic minerals : —
Metallic Minerals
Minerals
raised
Values
Metals con-
tained in the
Ores.
Values of
Metals
Tons
£
Tons
£
Iron ore
11,312,675
2,970,632
4,041,178
10,406,033
Lead ore .
40,024
296,484
29,540
317,678
Tin ore
14,329
734,565
9,252
892,982
Copper ore .
5,995
11,953
495
24,746
Zinc ore
26,880
104,016
9,349
203,536
Bog iron ore
15,363
7,681
—
—
Copper precipitate
270
3,112
Ounces
—
Silver.
—
—
271,259
44,998
Gold ore
9,990
9,168
2,835
10,511
Iron pyrites
13,967
6,957
—
Antimony . | 6
98
116 .
Value of chief metallic minerals .
4,144,666
ores .
— 1
Total value of metals
from British
11,900,600
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 73
The following table relates to the non-metallic minerals : —
i
Tons
Value
-
Tons
147,540
9,611
24,247
Value
' Coal .
Stone
1 Slates and
slabs
! Clays
Salt .
' Oil shale
181,786,871
418,241
3,103,852
1,956,524
2,089,937
12,200
£
66,050,451
8,667,736
1,025,922
889,375
861,401
522,484
22,250
Gypsum . .
Arsenic ore,
&c. . .
Barytes
Other mine-
rals .
£
58,227
48,674
29,283
30,291
Phosphate
of lime .
i
Total non-metallic
minerals
Total mineral produce
78,206,094
82,350,760
This shows a decrease of 8,887,272/. on 1891 in the value of
the total mineral produce, and of 1,587,853/. in that of metallic
produce.
The following table shows the British coal produce for 1892,
arranged in districts : —
District
Tons of Coal
District
Durham, N. and S. .
23,834,027
Derbyshire
Scotland .
27,191,923
Northumberland
Yorkshire
23,189,915
Monmouthshire
Lancashire
22,356,171
Nottinghamshire
Glamorgan
22,808,314
Smaller coal-fields .
Staffordshire .
14,132,827
Ireland .
Tons of Coal
11,141,152
9,528,834
7,407,604
7,159,750
12,924,473
111,881
Total, United Kingdom
181,786,871
The total number of persons employed in coal-mines in the
United Kingdom in 1892 was 664,300.
The following table shows the progress of the exports of coal,
coke, and patent fuel at intervals since 1851 : —
Year
Quantity
Value
Year
Quantity
Value
1851
1861
1871
Tons
3,347,607
7,934,832
12,747,989
£
1,280,341
3,652,164
6,246,133
1881
1891
1892
Tons
19,587,063
31,084,116
30,453,973
£
8,785,950
18,895,078
16,810,758
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THK BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Of the coal exports of 1892, 5,286,278 tons valued at
2*719*915/., went to France ; 3,760,219 tons, valued at
KttlMtttt, to Italy; 3,719,143 tons, valued at 1,825,407*., to
Ooriuany ; and about a million and a half tons each to Russia,
Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Egypt.
The following are the principal ports for exporting coal, with
the number of tons shipped in 1892 : —
Tons
Tons
Cardiff .
. 10,740,702
Swansea .
« 1,297,233
Newcastle
. 4,117,450
Grangemouth .
. 1,095,237
N. Shields .
. 2,329,861
Hull .
. 912,252
Newport
. 1,876,901
Glasgow
. 796,958
Kirkcaldy
. 1,444,319
Grimsby .
. 607,070
Sunderland .
. 1,332,546
Liverpool .
. 442,025
The following table shows the production in thousands of tons
of various forms of iron and steel in the United Kingdom in the
years named, with the imports of iron ore and manufactured iron
and steel : —
Year
i
Pig-iron
Mannfd.
Iron
Bessemer
Steel
Open-
hearth
Steel
Iron Ore
Imports
Bar Iron
Imports
Manf. Iron
Imports
1 1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1868
1 4,970
—
110
—
114
65
16
1878
| 6,300
—
807
1751
1,174
102
105
1886
! 6,870
1,616
1,570
694
2,876
106
177
1887
7,442
1,701
2,064
981
3,762
112
199
1888
7,998
2,031
2,012
1,292
3,562
113
227
1889
8,322
2,254
2,140
1,429
4,031
111
231
1890
1 7,904
1,923
2,015
1,564
4,472
93
223
1891
1 7,406
3,180
77
1892
6,709
3,780
76
l 1879.
The total consumption of pig-iron in the United Kingdom
was in 1888, 7,052,433 tons; in 1889, 7,692,230; and in 1890,
7,294,684 tons. The average number of furnaces in blast in 1890
was 414 ; in 1891, 373 ; in 1892, 362. The number of puddling
furnaces for the manufacture of puddled bar iron in operation in
^1883 was 4,651 ; in 1888, 3,008 ; in 1889, 3,346 ; in 1890, 3,015.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
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The number of Bessemer steel converters at work in 1880 was
79 ; in 1886, 78 ; in 1887 and 1888, 87 ; in 1889, 83 ; in 1890, 82.
The number of open-hearth steel furnaces at work in 1880 was
99 ; in 1886, 187 ; in 1887, 222 ; in 1888, 230 ; in 1889, 247 ; in
1890, 252.
The following table shows the quantities of the leading un-
manufactured metals and minerals imported, in tons : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
Iron ore
Copper ore .
Tin ". '.
Tons
3,562,071
230,319
132,880
28,049
Tons
4,031,265
250,567
145,203
30,092
Tons
4,471,790
215,935
158,649
27,038
Tons
3,180,543
212,327
169,724
28,207
1892
Tons
3,780,503
226,087
182,782
29,468
Of the iron ore imported, 3,423,183 tons, valued at 2,716,820Z.,
came from Spain.
IV. Textile Industry.
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom
has been as follows : —
In 1820 .
. 152.000,000 lbs.
In 1870 .
. 1,338,306,000 lbs
., 1830
. 264,000,000 ,,
,, 1880 .
. 1,628,664,576 „
., 1840
. 592,000,000 ,,
„ 1890 .
. 1,793,495,200 „
„ 1850
. 663,577,000 „
,, 1891 .
. 1,994,885,312 „
., 1860
1,390,939,000 ,,
,, 1892 .
. 1,775,236,288 ,.
The subjoined table gives the total cotton imports, exports, and
the home consumption in the last five years : —
Year
Total Imports of
Cotton
Total Exports of
1 Cotton
Retained for Home
Consumption
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Lbs.
1,731,755,088
1,937,462,240
1,793,495,200
1,994,885,312
1,775,236,288
Lbs.
1 274,839,152
277,602,304
214,641,840
182,008,064
232,903,888
Lbs.
1,456,915,936
1,659,859,936
1,578,853,360
1,812,877,284
1,542,332,400
The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool —
^heep, lamb, and alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for
home consumption in 1874 and during the last five years : —
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n
70
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Total Imports of
Total Exports of
! Retained for Home
Wool
Lbs.
Wool
Lbs.
Consumption
Lbs.
1874
344,470,897
144,294,663
200,166,234
1888
639,267,975
339,075,483
300,192,492
1889
700,903,057
363,647,360
337,255,697
1890
633,028,131
340,712,303
292,315,828
1891
720,014,070
384,224,656
335,789,414
1892
743,046,104
430,828,993
312,217,111
Of the total quantity imported in 1892, 513,405,793 lbs. came
from Australasia.
The following tabular statement gives a summary of the
statistics of textile factories in each of the three divisions of the
United Kingdom in 1890 :—
' England and Wales
Scotland . . <
Ireland . . .
[Total of the United
6,180
747
268
Kingdom
7,190
U
3*
IS
50,211,216
2,418,735
1,016,111
53,641,062
Children
working
Half Time
2
3
3
1
a
e
00 «
If
722,406 35,166
71,471 i 2,915
28,612 2,477
I
822,489 40,558
r
38,653 72,517
3,862 10,532
3,426' 5,647
45,941186,908
ii.
® feen
5
00
1
s
Total Number
Employed
S
s
1
3
461,751
104,348
44,514
610,608
250,165
82,939
15,724
298,828
357,848
46,886
23,848
428,082
500,404 858,252
108,205 154,591
47,940 71,788
656,5491,084, 631
With regard to the material manufactured, the factories were
distributed as follows: — cotton 2,538, wool 1,793, shoddy 125,
worsted 753, flax 375, hemp 105, jute 116, hair 42, cocoanut fibre
24, silk 623, lace 403, hosiery 257, elastic 54.
Of the spindles, 48,409,733 were spinning or throwing spindles
and 5,321,329 doubling spindles.
Of the total number of persons employed there were 40,558 male,
45,941 female children, working half time. There were 88,696
males between thirteen and eighteen years of age, and 610,608
females over thirteen.
Comparing the return of 1890 with that of 1885, we find a
decrease in the number of factories of 275, but an increase in the
number of spindles of 560,950, and an increase of power-looms of
48,785. There is an increase in the whole number of persons
employed of 49,720.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
77
The following information is furnished by Mr. Thomas Ellison,
of Liverpool : —
A century ago the value of cotton, woollen, and linen yams and piece-
goods produced in Great Britain and Ireland was about 22,000,000/. — say,
woollen 17,000,000/., linen 4,000,000/., and cotton 1,000,000/. Of recent
years the value has been about 170,000,000/.— say, cotton 100,000,000/.,
woollen 50,000,000/., and linen 20,000,000/. The total amount of capital
employed is about 200,000,000/., and at least 5,000,000 people — men, women,
and children — are dependent upon these industries for their livelihood.
Moreover, one-half of the value of British and Irish products exported con-
sists of textiles. The progress made by each branch is shown in the sub-
joined statement of the weight of raw material used and the. value of yarns
and goods exported : —
Average Periods
Weight comsumed in Millions
of lbs.
Value of Products exported in
Thousands of £'s
Cotton
Wool
Flax
Total
Cotton
Woollen
Linen
Total i
1798-1800
1829-1881
1859-1861
1889-1891
1892
41-8
243-2
1,022-5
1,618-0
1,539-0
109*6
149-4
260-4
564-0
570-0
108-6
198-8
212-0
220-0
230 0
260-0
586-4
1,494-9
2,402-0
2,339 0
5-088
18-077
49-000
72-114
65-958
6-846
4-967
15-041
24-176
21-966
1-010
2-138
6 119
6-377
6-056
12944 ,
25-182
70-060 1
102-667 1
93-980 '
The following table gives the principal variations in the movements since
1860. Figures in millions of lbs., yards, and pounds sterling.
Cotton.
Imported
Exported
Retained for consumption .
Actual consumption .
Wool
Sheep, lamb, &c, imported .
From sheepskins imported .
' Produced at home
Goats' hair imported .
, Woollen rags imported
' Total
I860
1877
mil.
mil.
lbs.
lbs.
1,391
1,355
250
169
1,141
1,186
1,083
1,237
mil.
mil.
lbs.
lbs.
148
410
3
15
145
152
3
8
13
75
312
660
1883 1888
mil.
lbs.
1,734
249
1,485
1,498
mil.
lbs.
495
14
129
13
81
mil.
lbs.
1,732
271
1,461
1,529
mil.
lbs.
639
18
134
22
71
1891
mil.
lbs.
1,995
182
1,813
1,670
mil.
lbs.
720
22
148
20
83
1892
mil.
lbs.
1,775
233
1,542
1,539
mil.
lbs.
743
24
153
20
56
l
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78
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
-
I860
1877 | 1883 1 1888
1891
1 1892 j
Foreign wool exported .
Domestic wool exported
31
11
187 ! 277 I • 339
10 j 19 | 24
384
17
! 431 !
; 18 i
Total
42
197 I 296
363
401
449
Retained for consumption
Actual consumption .
270
270
463
435
mil.
lbs.
259
49
436
455
mil.
lbs.
185
47
521
528
592
600
547 ,
570 .
Flax and Tow.
Imported .
Produced at home
mil.
lbs.
164
53
217
6
211
211
mil.
lbs.
205
46
mil.
lbs.
188
28
mil.
lbs. |
209 !
28 |
237 :
10
247 j
230 .
Total
Exported ....
308
3
305
305
232
7
251
9
242
235
216
14
Retained for consumption
Actual consumption
225
230
mil.
yds.
4,539
256
162
202
200
mil.
yds.
4,912
223
159
Piecc-Gooda Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
mil.
yds.
2,776
191
144
mil.
yds.
3,838
261
178
mil.
yds.
5,038
271
177
mil. *
yds. !
4,873 !
212
171
Total
3,111
4,277
4,957
5,486
5,294
5,256
Yarn Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
mil.
lbs.
197
26
31
miL
lbs.
228
27
19
mil.
lbs.
265
33
18
mil.
lbs.
256
43
15
mil.
lbs.
245
41
15
mil.
lbs.
233
45
15
I
Total
254
mil.
£
52 0
157
6 6
274
mil.
£
69 2
21-0
7 1
316
314
301
293 '
mil.
£
65-9
22 0
60 ,
Value all Kinds Exported.
Cotton ....
Woollen ....
Linen
mil.
£
76-4
21-6
6 5
inil.
£
72 0
24-0
6 4
mil.
£
71-4
22 3
5 9
Total
74 3
97*3 ! 104-5 ' 1024
99 6
93-9
k
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COMMERCE
79
Commerce.
The United Kingdom is a free trading country, the only im-
ports on which customs duties are levied being chicory, cocoa,
coffee, dried fruits, spirits, tea, tobacco, and wine — spirits,
tobacco, tea, and wine yielding the bulk of the entire levies. In
1892 duty was levied on goods of the value of 29,898,344^. out of
a total of 423,793,882^. imports, or about 7 per cent, of the total
imports.
The declared value of the imports and exports of merchandise
of the United Kingdom was as follows during ten years : —
Year
Total
Imports
Exports of
British Produce
Exports of
Foreign and
Colonial Produce
i
Total Imports
and Exports
£
£
£
£
1884
390,018,569
233,025,242
62,942,341
685,986,152 1
1885
370,967,955
213,115,114
58,359,194
642,442,263 '
1886
349,863,472
212,725,200
56,234,263
618,822,935 j
1887
362,227,564
221,913,910
59,348,975
643,490,449
1888
387,635,743
234,534,912
64,042,629
686,213,284
1889 1
427,637,595
248,935,195
66,657,484
743,230,274
1890 !
420,691,997
263,530,585
64,721,533
748,944,115
1891 ]
435,441,264
247,235,150
61,878,568
744,554,982
1892
423,892,178
227,077,053
64,563,113
715,434,048
1893 |
405,067,690
218,496,246
58,935,595
682,499,531
The following table exhibits the average share, per head of
population of the United Kingdom, in the imports, the exports of
British produce, and the total, during ten years : —
' Tear
Imports
Exports of British
Produce
Total Imports and
Exports
£ a. d.
£ a. d.
£ a. d.
1883
12 0 10
6 15 4
20 13 2
1884
10 18 4
6 10 6
19 4 1
1885
10 6 0
5 18 4
17 16 9
1886
9 12 8
5 17 2
17 0 10
1887
9 17 11
6 13
17 11 8
1888
10 10 3
6 7 2
18 12 2
1889
11 10 1
6 13 11
19 19 10
1890
11 4 6
7 0 7
19 19 7
1891
11 10 5
6 10 10
19 14 0
1892
11 2 5
5 19 2
18 15 6
Digitized by VjOOQIC
80
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The share of each division of the United Kingdom in the trade
of the country is shown in the following table in thousands of
pounds (sterling) : —
-
1888
1889
£1,000
382,547
224,9251
65,6552
1890
1891
1892
England and f^P0** •
Wales 1 Exports . 1
Total
( Imports .
Scotland |Exports |
£1,000
349,182
212, 1501
63,140*
£1,000
376,427
237,464'-
63,8452
£1,000
391,468
223,3091
61,1422
£1,000
377,740
204,203'
63,919-
624,472
673,127
677,736
675,919
645,862
31,221
20,821i
8832
36,771
22,310i
989*
35,165
24,750*
8642
34,104
22,576i
7292
35,945
21,565]
6372
Total
52,925
60,070
60,779
57,409
58,147
1 ( Imports
Ireland |Exports .{
Total
7,232
8711
192
8,319
813'
132
9,100
316i
122
9,869
2541
8-
10,131
10,110
2681'
72
8,122
9,145
9,428
10,385
1 British.
a Foreign and Colonial.
Thus it will be seen that of the total trade, 90*5 percent, falls
to the share of England and Wales ; 8*1 per cent, to Scotland ;
1 #4 per cent, to Ireland.
The following table gives the total value of the imports of
foreign and colonial merchandise, and of the exports of British
produce and manufactures from and to foreign countries and
British possessions in the years 1891 and 1892 : —
Imports of Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
1
1891
£
32,234,398
31,261,571
12,606,415
6,254,428
1892
£
30,513,106
30,542,630
14,566,464
5,463,278
[
1891 \ 1892
British Possessions :
, India
Australasia
British North
America
\ South Africa .
£ : £
31,177,968 27,902,572
25,500,194 19,275,793
7,245,771 1 7,428,482
7,957,878 1 7,929,484
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^ -
COMMERCE
81
-*
Imports oi Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
V/OUDLI'168
1891
1892*
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
. Straits Settlements
! 5,356,865
4,868,289
2,463,543
2,092,486
Hong Kong
; 1,101,702
836,705
2,531,328
1,799,812
British West Indies .
, 1,558,152
1,945,373
2,217,802
2,184,349
Ceylon
British Guiana .
4,168,998
3,945,209
1,016,573
945,051
885,606
948,444
692,348
752,275
Channel Islands
1,201,486
1,169,200
759,425
767,551
West Africa
1,776,362
1,786,990
1,678,190
1,388,972
Malta
122,135
103,627
896,013
772,538
! Mauritius .
268,066
230,127
256,595
270,087
J AH other Possessions.
668,534
846,862
1,562,460
1,120,717
Total British Posses-
sions
99,464,718
97,766,304
85,956,088
74,630,169
Foreign Countries :
UnitedStates .
104,409,050
108,186,317
27,544,553
26,547,234
France
44,777,460
43,519,130
16,429,665
14,686,894
Germany .
27,031,743
25,726,738
18,804,329
17,583,412
Holland .
27,301,657
28,820,921
9,463,300
8,836,020
Belerium .
17,253,265
17,013,967
7,374,495
6,942,667
' Russia
24,110,251
15,122,677
5,407,402
5,357,081
1 Spain
10,523,875
10,916,636
4,977,473
4,672,938
1 Egypt
i China
10,658,288
10,525,230
3,789,238
3,192,592
4,713,508
3,583,248
6,456,593
5,776,055
1 Brazil
4,249,909
3,511,941
8,290,039
7,910,326
I Italy.
3,419,281
3,284,486
6,296,560
5,564,487
1 Sweden
8,509,651
8,230,064
2,988,449
2,861,952
Turkey .
5,442,881
5,551,798
6,553,878
6,190,114
Argentine Republic .
3,451,228
4,540,358
4,246,700
5,651,605
Denmark .
7,936,787
8,041,662
2,617,220
2,622,435
Portugal .
2,952,965
3,440,822
2,018,597
1,395,191
Roumania
1 5,038,091
2,973,794
1,676,964
1,332,590
Chile and Bolivia
1 3,710,356
3,871,399
2,000,550
3,734,697
Japan
i 1,152,585
804,003
2,882,964
2,992,068
Norway
| 3,363,629
3,576,615
1,901,897
1,706,111
Java
1,901,961
1,534,726
2,205,655
1,957,831
Greece
1 2,166,486
1,826,984
1,124,571
921,872
Foreign West Africa .
Austria
J 586,155
413,646
1,017,637
1,070,516
1 1,464,106
1,237,634
1,227,967
1,142,638
Peru
969,814
1,573,813
1,037,455
763,508
Central America
1 1,400,130
1,089,255
1,144,948
829,152
TTrumiav .
1 374,261
288,307
1,165,052
1,280,829
Spanish West Indies .
141,117
90,894
1,481,381
1,478,171
d
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82
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Imports of Merchandise
Exports of Produce and
Manufactures of U.K.
1891
1892
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
Mexico
493,453
454,070
1,695,774
1,298,293
Philippine Islands .
Colombia .
2,421,227
2,130,915
786,531
725,981
329,244
457,094
1,279,708
1,105,487
Venezuela .
290,997
256,739
821,326
368,915
Algeria
673,970
674,087
387,086
333,774
Morocco .
611,446
755,404
592,767
583,386
Ecuador .
110,238
128,032
259,871
257,632
Hayti, St. Domingo .
44,757
40,971
320,998
247,971
Tunis and Tripoli
476,081
371,378
182,145
116,027
Foreign — East Africa.
246,705
20,184
290,614
193,446
Persia
163,639
243,984
469,396
311,169
Siam
100,695
52,205
98,759
110,120
Bulgaria .
Madagascar
126,875
50,824
90,065
158,001
118,827
120,610
117,391
87,471
Cochin China and
Tonquin
9,986
196,421
58,973
29,822
All other Countries .
747,917
777,595
1,702,126
1,518,403
Total Foreign Coun-
tries
335,976,546
326,027,578
161,279,062
152,446,884
, Grand Total
435,441,264
423,793,882
247,235,150
227,077,053
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports
of gold and silver bullion and specie in five years : —
Gold
Silver
Year
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
£
£
£
£
1888
15,787,588
14,944,143
6,213,940
7,615,428
1889
17,914,039
14,455,318
9,185,400
10,666,312
1890
23,568,049
14,306,688
10,385,659
10,863,384
1891
30,275,620
24,167,925
9,315,598
13,060,866
1892
21,583,232
14,832,122
10,746,382
14,078,568
1893
24,232,086
19,571,373
11,913,395
13,459,645
The following is a summary of the imports and exports of the
United Kingdom for the years ended December 31, 1892 and
1893. The figures for 1 893 are those of the preliminary report : —
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COMMERCE
83
Imports
1
1892
1893
Exports of
British Produce
1892 ,
i
1893
£
£
* \
£
1. Animals, liv-
1. Animals, liv-
1
ing (for food)
9,362,135
6,351,704
in« ,'
699,046
629,915
2. (a) Articles of
2. Articles of
food and drink
food and drink
10,436,145
10,603,346
duty free
149,093,760
144,456,071
3. Raw materials
19,320,360
17,108,447
(6) Articles of
4. Articles manu-
food and drink
factured and
dutiable
26,348,086
24,987,886
partly manu-
Tobacco, duti-
factured, viz.:
t able
3,538,444
8,566,061
(a) Tarns and
, 3. Metals .
21,099,684
20,629,317
textile fabrics
I00,055,82o
90,608,356
1 4. Chemicals,
(b) Metals and
1 dye-stuffs and
articles manu-
i tanning sub-
factured
stances .
6,680,539
6,353,643
therefrom
5. Oils
7,076,462
7,409,841
(except ma-
1 6. Raw materials
for textile
chinery)
(e) Machinery
33,043,916
30,866,267
manufactures
77,711,558
67,976,004
and mill work
13,887,357
13,970,285
7. Raw materials
(<*) Apparel
and articles of
for sundry in-
| dustries and
personal use .
(«) Chemicals,
10,482,490
9,564,105
i manufactures
41,923,702
40,976,930
1 8. Manufactured
and chemical
1 articles .
65,440,280
65,906,175
and medicinal
: 9. (a)Miscella-
preparations .
8,584,893
8,695,234
j neous articles
14,972,175
15,834,940
(/) All other
(b) Parcel post
535,243
619,118
article8,either
manufactured
or partly
Total imports
423,793,882
!
405,067,690
manufactured
(g) Parcel post
Total British pro-
29,615,141
1,001,880
29,347,940
1,042,351
duce
227,077,053
218,496,246
Foreign and Co-
i
lonial produce
Total exports
64,503,113
58,935,595
i
1
t
291,640,166
277,431,841
The imports of wheat (excluding flour), in quarters (1
quarter = 8 bushels) have been as follows in the years indi-
cated : —
Year
Quarters
Year
Quarters
Year
Quarters
1870
1875
7,131,100
11,971,500
1880
1885
12,752,800
14,192,000
1 1890
1893
12,094,836
13,083,462
The following exhibits the quantities of the leading food im-
ports enumerated at the dates noted : —
Q 2
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84
THE BRITISH KMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Articles
1891
I
1892
159,432,857
1893
Cereals and flour .
. Cwts.
' 150,075,176
161,835,574
Potatoes
< >
3,192,836
3,008,336
2,828,125
Rice .
> j
6,200,820 '
6,271,699
5,449,597
Bacon and hams
,,
4,715,012
5,134,510
4,187,298
Fish .
«>
1 2,363,703 1
2,550,617
2,315,770
Refined sugar
>i
11,322,121
10,620,671
11,569,739
Raw sugar
!»
16,217,338
16,295,647
16,036,935
Tea
Lbs.
240,333,327
239,445,467 | 249,917,381
Butter .
Cwts.
2,135,607
2,183,009
2,327,473
Margarine
j »
1,235,430 !
1,305,350
1,300,033
Cheese .
,,
2,041,317 j
2,232,817
2,077,482
Beef .
j>
2,168,089
2,355,031
2,008,566
Preserved meat
>>
776,961
799,501
591,919
Fresh mutton
j>
1,662,994
1,699,966
1,971,500
Sheep and lambs .
Cattle .
(number)
344,504 ,
79,048
62,682
j)
507,407 ,
502,237
340,045
Eggs .(great hundreds)
10,681,137
11,139,419
11,025,908
Spirits .
Wine .
Gallons
12,221,389
11,836,961
10,966,988
j>
16,782,038 '
17,319,477
14,680,939
In 1893 the United Kingdom imported 2,399,210 quarters of
wheat from her own possessions, and the remainder from foreign
countries. The eight great wheat sources, in order, are (1893) : —
United States
Russia
India
Canada
6,452,570 quarters
2,012,400
1,236,720
631,471
Argentina . 1,549, 120 quarters
Chile . . 516,030 „
Australasia . 531,040 ,,
Germany 72,420 ,,
The quantity of flour imported in 1893 was 4,081,650 quarters,
of which 3,599,120 quarters came from the United States.
The following table shows the quantities of tea imported into
the United Kingdom from diif erent countries at different periods
in thousands of pounds : —
I
Proportion from each
Country
1878
1890
1891
. 1892
Country
1878
: 1890 • 1891
1892
j per
i per i per
per
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs.
1000 lbs. cent
cent. 1 cent
cent.
Holland
. 1 3,145
1,602
1,145
i 1,558
1-54
1 -72 1 -48
•65
China, Hong Kong
. 1165,636
73,689
i 62,155
1 56,836
80-85
1 32-97 1 25-81
23-73,
India .
35,423
101,770
110,122
110,711
17-29
1 45-53
45-73
46-24 '
Ceylon .
Other countries .
. ! 1
42,491
61,900
66,042
—
19-01
25-71
27-58 ,
. ' 647
3,941
5.457
4,298
•82
1-77
2-27
1-80
Total .
204,872
223,493
240,779
239,445
100-00
100-00 100-00
Google
100-00 '
Digitized by
COMMERCE
85
The subjoined tables exhibit the value of the great articles of
commerce imported for consumption and home produce exported
in each of the last three years : —
The Principal Articles of Import.
Principal Articles Imported
3891
£
61,571,504
1892
£
58,733,092
1893
£
51,299,802
Grain and flour
Cotton, raw
46,080,719
37,888,356
30,684,942
Wool, sheep and lambs .
27,856,556
26,839,319
24,437,178
Dead meat
20,148,874
22,359,070
22,331,503
Sugar, raw and refined
19,855,750
19,768,857
22,085,241
Batter and margarine
15,149,384
15,678,074
16,410,457
Wood and timber
14,928,571
17,152,522
15,390,894
Silk manufactures .
11,017,157
11,289,692
11,607,391
Flax, hemp, and jute
10,116,591
9,097,534
8,294,553
Tea
10,775,345
10,047,354
10,217,071
Woollen manufactures
1 9,275,179
9,469,038
9,875,181
Animals ....
9,246,398
9,362,135
6,351,704
Oils
7,339,394
7,076,462
7,409,841
Chemicals, dye stuffs, &c.
6,234,434
6,680,539
6,353,643
Seeds ....
7,553,739
7,044,335
7,016,539
Fruits ....
6,910,305
7,147,935
6,035,042
Leather ....
6,632,442
6,397,821
6,580,222
Wine ....
5,995,133
6,019,559
5,303,294
Cheese ....
4,815,369
5,416,784
5,160,918
Metals —
Copper, ore, &c. .
4,059,528
3,877,479
3,318,872
„ part wrought, &c.
2,372,950
1,665,942
1,914,312
Iron ore ...
2,453,407
2,716,820
2,792,028
„ in bars .
751,587
692,259
593,033
„ manufactures
3,274,801
3,034,692
3,007,062
Lead ... .
2,137,674
1,976,436
1,855,215
Tin ...
2,565,072
2,743,814
2,892,107
Zinc and its manufac-
tures
1 1,843,124
1,565,671
1,405,746
Coffee '.'...
i 3,520,918
3,794,718
3,875,639
1 3,437,394
3,935,759
4,001,280
Tobacco ....
! 3,423,971
3,538,444
3,566,061
The Principal Articles of Export (Home Produce).
Principal Articles Exported
Cotton manufactures .
Cotton yarn
Total of cotton
1891
1892
£ £
60,230,256 56,265,468
11,177,348 9,693,351
54,717,196
9,059,984
', 71,407,604 165,958,819 163,777,180
Digitized by VjOOQIC
86
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
Principal Articles Exported
Woollen manufactures .
Woollen and worsted yarn
Total of woollen and worsted
Linen manufactures
„ yarn .
Jute manufactures .
„ yarn .
Apparel and haberdashery
Metals :
Iron, pig
bar, angle, bolt, and rod .
railroad, of all sorts .
wire
tin plates ....
hoops, sheets, and plates .
cast and wrought, of all sorts
old, for re-manufacture
Steel, wrought and unwrought .
Total of iron and steel .
Hardwares and cutlery .
Machinery
Coals, cinders, fuel, &c.
Chemicals
1891
£
18,446,640
3,910,651
22,357,291
5,032,196
899,026
2,561,872
341,986
7,151,032
2,205,567
1,462,900
3,852,764
1,143,127
7,166,655
3,560,649
4,806,401
354,369
2,324,568
26,877,000
2,527,575
3,828,112
15,817,515
18,895,078
8,877,712
1892
£
17,906,608
4,059,778
21,966,386
5,165,902
890,142
2,593,759
285,882
6,604,911
1,974,?45
1,147,682
2,247,222
793,915
5,330,216
3,340,675
4,362,289
327,616
2,241,408
21,765,768
2,194,726
3,763,529
13,887,357
16,810,758
8,584,893
1893
£
16,428,407
4,533,474
20,961,881
4,778,996
1,005,155
2,391,363
298,427
5,759,913
1,972,374
929,960
2,512,964
654,169
4,992,276
3,265,663
3,768,902
334,365
2,183,482
20,614,155
2,048,042
3,022,651
13,970,285
14,488,154
8,695,234
The following table shows the quantity of the principal food
imports retained for home consumption per head of population in
each of the last five years : —
Article
188S
1889
1890
1891
1892 |
Bacon and hams
. lbs.
10*41
12-67
1355
13-11
14-10
Butter .
4*88
5-60
5-83
614
6*23
Cheese .
»»
6*64
5-57
6-23
5-86
6*39
Eggs .
Wheat and flour
no.
30-46
30-37
32-91
33*68
35 03
lbs.
223 49
21903
226 38
244 06
252-73
Sugar .
71 10
7719
73 21
8017
77-84 |
Tea
5*03
4*99
5-17
5*36
5-43
Rice
9 93
10-74
9*38
8-85
8-91 1
Tobacco
ii
1-48
1-51
1-55
1*61
1*64 |
h
The total value of goods transhipped for transit, in 1888 was
10,938,495/.: 1889, 10,181,012/.; 1890, 9,772,227/.; 1891.
9,923,480/. ; 1892, 10,580,716/.
/Google
Digitized by ^
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
87
Shipping and Navigation.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing and steam (ex-
clusive of river steamers) vessels of the United Kingdom engaged
in the home trade — the expression ' home trade ' signifying the
coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest ' — with the men (exclusive of masters)
employed thereon was as follows in each of the five years from
1888 to 1892 :—
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Men
Number
Tons
Men
Number
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
9,199
8,985
8,894
8,675
8,478
597,145
571,438
5751,147
556,968
539,326
39,505
38,314
37,618
36,714
35,495
1,760
1,841
2,004
2,211
2,344
289,852
289,245
325,082
354,714
371,530
20,540
21,015
22,850
25,107
26,611
The number and tonnage of those engaged partly in the home
and partly in the foreign trade was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons
Men
Number
Tons
Men
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
428
500
381
312
283
55,495
66,619
50,991
40,248
37,200
2,420
2,856
2,219
1,796
1,655
248
260
250
286
306
105,712
118,407
133,563
166,813
206,660
3,287 ,
4,092
4,386 ,
5,169 i
6,228 |
The number and tonnage of those engaged in the foreign trade
alone was as follows : —
i Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons |
Men
48,669
46,595
44,381
42,679
43,639
Number
3,284
3,484
8,601
3,632
3,577 ,
Tons 1 Men
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
2,665
2,484
2,295
2,127
2,082
2,401,419
2,338.289
2,267,434
2,250,285
2,388,800
3,902,265
4,257,156
4,563,119
4,795,513
4,905 996
108,700
117,391
124,654
129,015
128,107 1
Digitized by
Google
88
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
A summary of the total shipping of the United Kingdom, sail-
ing and steam, engaged in the home and foreign trade, during
the ten years from 1883 to 1892 is given in the following
table : —
Year
Number of
Vessels
Tons i Men j
Year
N timber of
Vessels
Tons
Men
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
18,912
18,744
18,791
17,917
17,723
7,026,062
7,083,944
7,209,163
7,144,097
7,123,754
200,727
199,654
198,781
204,470
202,543
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
17,584
17,554
17,425
17,243
17,020
7,351,888
7,641,154
7,915,336
8,164,541
8,449,512
223,673
230,263
236,108
240,480
241,735
The following table shows the total number and tonnage of
vessels registered as belonging to the United Kingdom (with
the Isle of Man and Channel Islands) at the end of each year : —
-
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
15,025
14,640
14,181
13,823
13,578
3,114,509
3,041,278
2,936,021
2,972,093
3,080,272
6,871
7,139
7,410
7,720
7,950
4,349,658
4,717,730
6,042,517
5,307,204
5,564,482
21,896
21,779
21,591
21,543
21,528
7,464,167
7,759,008
7,978,538
8,279,297
8,644,754
Of the men employed (1892) 30,899 were foreigners. The total
number of vessels belonging to the British Empire in 1892 was
36,128 of 10,286,198 tons.
The number and tonnage of vessels built and first registered
in the United Kingdom, from 1888 to 1892 was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Total
Number
269
277
277
308
322
Tons
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
1 1888
; 1889
i 1890
| 1891
1892
81,279
75,696
117,481
191,917
258,700
465
582
581
622
1 521
407,445
554,024
528,789
478,682
434,091
734
859
858
903
843
483,141
671,505
652,013
670,699
692,791
The following is the tonnage of sailing and steam vessels
(foreign trade) that entered the ports of the United Kingdom in
the years 1888 to 1892 :—
Digitized by
Google
' Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
British
Foreign Total
British
Foreign
Total
l.OOOtns.
31,664
33,048
33,857
34,213
33,944
British
Foreign
Total
1888
1889
1890
1 1891
1 1892
l,OOOtns.
20,116
21,077
21,189
20,347
21,356
l,030tns.
6,961
7,440
7,839
7,754
8,174
l,000tns.
27,077
28,517
28,979
28,101
29,530
l,000tns.
?4,127
24,766
25,267
25,188
25,064
l,000tns.
7,537
8,282
8,590
9,026
8,880
l,000tns.
44,242
45,843
46,406
45,375
46,420
l,000tns.
14,499
15,723
16,430
16,780
17,054
l,000tns.
58,741
61,566
62,836
62,814
63,474
Of the foreign tonnage for 1892 entered and cleared at British
ports, total 21,494,425:—
Norway had
Germany ,,
Holland „
Denmark „
5,350,864
4,045,145
2,144,103
1,950,635
France had
Sweden ,,
Spain ,,
Belgium ,,
1,938,916
1,935,537
1,162,999
952,619
had
Russia
Italy
U.S. (Am.) „
| Austria ,,
626,965
589,907
222,509
175,019
The total tonnage entered and cleared, excluding those coast-
wise, was as follows at the ports named in 1892 : —
London . 13,916,459
Newport
Southampton
1,864,053
Middlesbro'
. 1,193,869
Liverpool . 11,119,976
Cardiff. . 9,779,179
1,735,535
Bristol .
913,238
Sunderland
1,561,047
Hartlepool
782,035
Newcastle. 4,205,580
Leith . .
1,544,337
Belfast .
483,184
Hull . . 3,801,180
Grimsby . .
1,458,280
Greenock
482,850
N.fcS.Shields 3,290,645
Swansea . .
1,422,488
Dundee .
355,588
Glasgow . 2,940,905
Grangemouth
1,340,928
Cork . .
154,553
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Year
Length of
lines open
at the end
of each
year
Miles
1878 17,333
1888; 19,812
19,943
20,073
20,191
20,325
;1889
1890
1891
,1892
Total Capital
paid up
(shares and
loans) at the
end of each
year
698,545,154
864,695,963
876,595,166
897,472,026
919,425,121
944,357,320
Number of
Passengers
conveyed (ex-
clusive of
season-ticket
holders)
No.
565,024,455
742,499,164
775,183,073
817,744,046
845,463,668
864,435,388
Receipts
Prom
Passengers
26,889,614
30,984,090
32,630,724
34,327,965
35,130,916
35,662,816
From Goods
Traffic
Total, includ-
ing Miscella- ,
neons i
I
£
33,564,761
38,755,780
41,086,333
42,220,382
43,230,717
42,866,498
I *
62,862,674
172,894,665-
177,025,017
179,948,702
81,860,607
82,092,040
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
91
Of the total capital in 1892 the English railways had
777,138,895*., Scottish 128,716,165*., and Irish 38,502,260*. In
the division of the receipts of 1892, England and Wales took
69,852.358*., Scotland 9,061,931*., and Ireland 3,177,751*. The
working expenditure amounted to 45,717,965*. on all the railways,
being 56 per cent, of the total receipts.
On June 30, 1893, there were in the United Kingdom 960
miles of street and road tramways open, from which, during
the year 1892-93, 3,606,095*. had been received, and upon which
2,837,446*. had been expended. This left a balance of receipts of
768,649/. Total paid up capital 13,708,349*. The total number
of passengers who travelled during the year on the tramways
was 598,289,509.
II. Canals and Navigations.
The following table shows, for 1888 (the latest date available),
the length, traffic, revenue, and expenditure of the canals and
navigations in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, which
do not, and of those which do, belong to railway companies : —
—
Length
Traffic
Revenue
Expenditure
Canals not belonging
to railways : —
England and "Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
Miles
2,026
69
513
Tons
27,715,875
69,744
489,194
£
1,439,343
12,011
89,369
£
861,068
16,086
71,541
United Kingdom .
2,608
28,274,813
1,540,723
948,695
Canals belonging to
railways : —
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
1,024
84
96
6,609,304
1,386,617
30,386
437,080
57,178
6,495
335,503
26,599
4,456
United Kingdom .
1,204
8,026,307
500,753
366,558
Total .
3,813
36,301,120
2,041,476
1,315,253 !
The paid-up capital (from all sources) of the canals, &c, not
belonging to railway companies was, in 1888 : — in England and
Digitized by VjOOQIC
92
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Wales 20,959,820*.; in Scotland 1,254,047/.; in Ireland 2,071,308/.;
total 24,285,175/.
III. Post and Telegraphs.
The number of post-offices in the United Kingdom at the end
of March, 1893, was 19,625 ; there were besides 25,072 road and
pillar letter-boxes. The staff of officers then forming part of the
Post Office department was 71,956 (including 10,465 females),
besides 59,000 persons (16,000 females) who do not hold
permanent positions.
The following tabular statement gives the number of letters,
in millions, delivered in each of the three divisions of the United
Kingdom, and the average number for each individual of the
population, in 1879 and the last five years : —
Year
ending
March 31
Number of Letters delivered
(in Millions)
Number of Letters per head of
the Population
England
and Wales
s
I
a
B
8
Total
U.K.
I*
■a
8
00
•c
1
Total
U.K.
1879
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Millions
922
1,326 J
1,413
1,462}
1,516
1,532$
Millions
99
136
140
143
146*
152i
Millions j MiUions
76 1 1,097
95} | 1,558
96} | 1,650
99} ■ 1,705J
105 j 1,7674
105} 1 1,790*
37 27
47 ' 34
50 35
51 ; 36
52 1 36
52 | 37
14 1 32
20 1 42
20 44
21 45
23 . 47
23 47
The following are the statistics of post-cards, book-packets?
newspapers, and parcels delivered in 1892-93, showing increase
per cent, on the previous year : —
r
Post-cards .
Book-packets
Newspapers.
Parcels
rland
?ales
Millions
206*3
456-1
127*8
43*3
3*2
28
■5AJ
•5
73 :
0-8 j
6*2 I
Scotland
Millions
26*8
51-2
17-6
5 5
2+*
1 is
1 »H P.
1
Ireland
Millions
Increase
per cent.
5-5 i
13-0
3-5'
59 .
11-3
27 9
17-4
3-5
27
11-6
2-3
5-1
United
Kingdom
Millions
244 4
535 2
162*1
52*3
5 8.
1-2
8-1
6*1
Digitized by VjOOQlC
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
93
The number and value of money orders issued by the Post
Office in 1880 (ending March 31) and during the last five years were
as follows : —
Inland Orders
Total i
-
Number |
__ 1
Amount
Number
Amount
1880
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
16,774,354
9,228,183 j
9,027,750 |
8,864,483 1
8,906,576 ;
8,963,032
£
24,776,331
22,957,649
23,333,417
23,897,767
24,383,569
24,618,809
17,307,573
10,507,717
10,374,144
10,260,852
10,346,630
10,442,918
£
26,371,020
26,618,052
27,165,905
27,867,887
28,429,634
28,683,951
i Including colonial and foreign orders.
The inland orders in 1892-93 were as follows :-
-
Number
7,391,775
1,032,082
539,175
Value
Number per cent, of
Population
England .
Scotland
Ireland
£
20,658,172
2,605,839
1,354,798
24*9 !
25*2
11-6
Total, U.K.
8,963,032
24,618,809
23 3
The number and value of ' postal orders ' were as follows : —
Tear ending March 31
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Number
40,282,321
44,712,548
48,841,765
52,659,545
56,590,668
Amount
£
16,112,079
17,737,802
19,178,367
20,563,750
21,345,153
The postal revenue and expenditure (exclusive of telegraphs)
in 1880 and the last five years (ending March 31) have been as
follows : —
Digitized by
Google
94
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
-
1889
1890
1891
1892
i
1893
Gross revenue
Working expenses
£
9,102,776
6,062,902
£
9,474,774
6,266,263
£
9,851,078
6,687,089
£
10,183,000
7,134,000
£
10,344,000
7,518,000
Net revenue
3,039,874
3,208,511
3,163,989 | 3,049,000
2,826,000
The telegraphs were transferred to the State on February 5,
1870 ; in April, 1893, there were 34,056 miles of line and 209,046
miles of wire (including J22,741 miles of private wires, but exclud-
ing railway companies' wires).
The revenue and expenditure of the Post Office in respect of
the telegraphs were as follows for the years (ending March 31)
indicated : —
-
1876
1890
1891
1892
1893 '
Gross revenue
Working expenses
Net revenue
£
1,276,662
1,031,526
£
2,325,715
2,179,921
£
2,416,691
2,265,338
£
2,508,138
2,507,012
1
£ !
2,487,000 |
2,568,000 |
245,136
145,794
151,353
1,126
- 81,000
As there is an annual interest of 298,8881. on capital to pay,
there is really a deficit on the telegraphs.
The following table gives the number of telegraphic messages
forwarded from postal telegraph stations in 1879 and in each of
the last five years : —
i
Year
ending March 31
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom
1879
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
20,422,918
48,532,669
52,416,779
55,658,088
58,766,105
58,936,184
2,477,003
5,991,223
6,539,289
7,077,388
7,155,180
7,100,514
1,559,854
3,241,455
3,411,966
3,673,735
3,764,195
3,871,150
24,459,775
57,765,347
62,368,034
66,409,211
69,685,480
69,907,848
The total number of telegraph offices at post offices was (31
March, 1893), 6,603, at railway stations, 1,934 ; total, 8,537.
Digitized by
Google
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
95
The telegraph department has 28 telephone exchanges open in
various country towns, with 1,370 subscribers. There are now
over 46 miles of pneumatic tubing in London, connecting the
Central Office with others.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the value of the money issued from the Royal
Mint in the years named, and of the imports and exports of British gold and
silver coin : —
1
Gold
Money
issued
Silver
Money
issued
Bronze
Money
issaed
British Gold Coin
British Silver Coin
1 Year
1
Imported
Exported
Imported
£
151,139
106,568
147,635
84,186
100,888
162,528
Exported
£
184,494
378,288
528,581
506,996
369,408
199,084
1878
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
2,265,100
2,033,000
7,500,700
7,680,156
6,723,648
13,907,840
£
567,328
799,646
2,178,888
1,694,688
1,000,548
849,932
£
39,205
41,345
66,950
90,285
89,535
58,556
£
6,566,001
7,146,226
6,511,295
9,242,787
15,348,919
8,128,368
£
3,544,882
10,215,123
10,389,699
8,256,129
11,674,454
6,467,076
There is no State bank in the United Kingdom, but the Bank of England,
the Bank of Scotland, and the Bank of Ireland have royal charters, and the
first and the last lend money to the Government. The following are some
statistics of the Bank of England for December of the years stated : —
1
Issue Department
Banking Department
Year
Notes
Capital
Deposits
Notes in
Coin in
1
issued
Securities
Bullio n
and
and
Securities
the " Re-
the "Re-
"Rest"
Post Billf
serve "
serve "
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
1844
28,152
14,000
14,152
17,664
16,391
24,304
8,960
791
1854
27,180
14,000
13,180
17,706
18,146
27,418
7,780
654
1864
28,036
14,650
13,386
17,910
22,078
30,611
8,663
714
1874
35,784
15,000
20,784
17,646
26,761
34,056
9,642
709
1889
33,519
16,200
17,319
17,681
28,822
36,913
9,104
486
1890
39,193
16,450
22,743
17,796
39,991
42,985
14,079
723 |
,1891
38,099
16,450
21,649
17,720
36,216
40,843
12,447
646 |
1892
39,616
16,450
23,166
17,669 36,206
36,514
14,129
1232
1893
38,955
16,450
22,505
17,745 33,898 36,156
13,504
1983 -
The following are some statistics of the joint-stock banks (including the
national banks) of England, Scotland, and Ireland for October of the years
stated : —
Digitized by
Google
96
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
-
1889
18001 1 189H ; 1892
1893
£1,000
£1,000 £1,000 ! £1,000
£1,000
England and Wales :—
Deposits
|
380,800
352,100
408,477 435,345
432,670
Cash in hand and at call
100,582
97,410
107,421 120,264
119,550
Reserve Notes in Bank
I
of England
14,449
8,643
14,079 ' 16,298
18,169
Scotland : —
i
Deposits
85,023
88,264
91,610 i 92,520
92,413
Notes
5,845
6,207
6,467 | 6,557
6,465
Cash and at call .
19,846
21,412
21,427 | 19,542
20,662
Ireland : —
i
Deposits
37,186
37,843
38,520
40,316
40,538
Notes ....
6,199
6,664
6,642
5,752 1 5,882 '
Cash and at call .
8,816
9,903
9,086
8,185 j 8,850
May.
There were in October, 1893, 102 joint-stock banks, making returns in
England and Wales, with 2,468 branches ; 4 in the Isle of Man and Channel
Islands with 13 branches ; 10 in Scotland, 995 branches ; and 9 in Ireland,
484 branches. There were 29 offices in London of colonial joint-stock banks,
with 1,733 branches ; and 20 of foreign banks, with 126 branches. Of 42
private banks which made returns in England and Wales, the deposits
amounted to 66,440,459*., cash in hand And at call, 18,860,2792., partners'
capital and reserve, 12,232.4772.
The following are some statistics of the joint-stock banks, mainly
October, 1893 :—
for
-
English
Scotch
Irish
Colonial
£1,000
Foreign
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
Subscribed capital .
207,413
29,135
25,299 26,549
30,225
Paid-up do.
58,252
9,302
7,072 ! 14,999
19,012
Market value of do.
164,576
25,388
17,545 , 21,562
22,862
Reserve fund, dividend,
&c
31,170
6,552
3,465 j 6,975
6,916
Notes in circulation
27,619
6,464
5,882 5,847
2,869
Deposit and current ac-
1
counts
432,670
92,413
40,539 ! 106,568
53,910
Total liabilities x
571,568
119,231
57,618 159,287
111,861
Cash in hand and at call .
119,550
20,662
8,850
27,567
16,495
Investments
122,928
30,715
16,528
11,861
8,966
Discounts, advances, &c. .
305,882
60,893
31,209
116,412
84,013
Total assets1 .
571,568
119,231
57,618
159,287
111,861
i Including other items besides those preceding.
The following are statistics of the post-office saviugs-l>anks for live
years:—
Digitized by
Google
MONEY AND CREDIT
Ma:
-
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingdom i
( Received .
18884 Paid,
t Capital
( Received .
18894 Paid .
( Capital
( Received .
18904 Paid .
( Capital
( Received
1891 4 Paid.
( Capital
( Received .
, 18924 Paid .
| ( Capital .
£
18,743,829
14,572,033
54,070,204
19,572,041
15,494,852
58,147,393
20,769,803
16,495,202
62,421,994
21,170,281
17,574,047
66,018,228
22,653,356
18,798,013
69,873,571
£
450,057
340,214
1,252,468
600,607
375,869
1,377,206
558,307
436,429
1,499,084
560,964
445,242
1,614,806
635,287
481,227
1,768,866
£
1,191,178
890,488
3,233,722
1,184,845!
943,546
3,475,021
1,215,937
977,229
3,713,729
1,261,805
1,000,566
3,974,968
1,302,651
1,066,977
4,210,642
£
20,385,064
15,802,735
58,556,394
21,257,493
16,814,267
62,999,620
22,544,047
17,909,860
67,635,807
22,993,050
19,019,855
71,608,002
24,591,294
20,346,217
75,853,079
i Including Islands in the British Seas.
The following are statistics of trustees' savings-banks :
1
England
WaleB
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingdom i
1
'Received .
£
6,685,941
£
117,933
£
2,584,183
£
408,250
£
9,796,307
1888^
Interest ^
credited /
Paid.
.Capital
944,355
8,827,566
34,398,619
23,713
166,554
890,263
236,238
2,440,034
9,068,741
52,432
476,425
2,047,065
1,256,738
11,910,579
46,404,688
/Received .
Interest \
1889-[ credited/
iPaid.
ICapital .
6,359,557
112,453
2,678,340
407,581
9,557,931
823,470
8,765,323
32,816,323
21,281
151,071
872,921
221,705
2,596,041
9,372,745
48,249
437,069
2,065,862
1,114,705
11,949,504
45,127,820
Received .
6,234,996
124,055
2,824,391
380,965
9,564,407
1890-
Interest \
credited /
788,333
20,976
227,242
48,174
1,084,725
Paid.
.Capital
8,607,201
31,232,451
165,502
852,455
2,870,407
9,553,971
483,290
2,011,675
12,126,400
43,650,552
/ Received .
5,916,495
122,654
2,832,427
381,894
9,253,470
Interest \
1891 J credited/
760,605
20,766
232,959
46,906
2,061,236
Paid.
ICapital .
7,694,740
30,214,811
144,537
851,338
2,798,920
9,820,437
451,496
1,988,979
11,089,693
42,875,565
i Inc
luding Channel Islands.
G *
Digitized by
GooQle
966
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
f
-
England
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United
Kingdom^
1892-
Received .
Interest \
credited /
Paid.
k Capital
5,830,193
741,122
7,238,846
29,547,230
107,614
20,536
145,486
834,002
2,830,666
237,929
2,870,979
10,018,053
372,727
47,191
422,783
1,986,114
9,141,200 ■
1,046,778 '
10,678,094 !
42,385,449 ,
i Including Channel Islands.
The payments include purchases of Government Stock for depositors, and the capital is
exclusive of Government Stock held for depositors
a
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The sovereign weighs 123*274 grains, or 7*9881 grammes, '916 (or eleven-
twelfths) fine, and consequently it contains 113 "001 grains or 7 '3224 grammes
of fine gold.
The shilling weighs 87*27 grains or 5*6552 grammes, '925 (or thirty -seven -
fortieths) fine, and thus contains 80*727 grains or 5 '231 grammes of fine silver.
Bronze coins consist of a mixture of copper, tin, and zinc. The penny-
weighs 145*83 grains, or 9 '45 grammes.
The standard of value is gold. Silver is legal tender up to 40 shillings ;
bronze up to I2d., but farthings only up to 6d. Bank of England notes arc
legal tender for sums over 51.
Standard units are : of length the standard yard, of weight the standard
pound of 7,000 grains (the pound troy having 5,760 grains), of capacity the
standard gallon containing 10 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water at 62° F.,
the barometer at 30 inches. On these units all other legal weights and
measures are based.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.
1. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the 12 months
ended December 31, 1892. 8. London, 1893.
Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1892, with Abstract Returns for the United
Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries. 8. London, 1893.
Agricultural Statistics, Ireland : 1891-92. 8. Dublin, 1892.
Annual Statement of the Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom in the year
1892. Imp. 4. London, 1893.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the year 1892. Imp. 4. London, 1893.
Army Estimates of Effective and Non-Effective Services for 1898-4. Fol. London, 1893.
Army : General Annual Return for the year 1891. London, 1892.
' Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England : Annual Report of the Registrar-General.
London, 1893.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland : Annual Report of the Registrar-General.
8. Edinburgh, 1893.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Ireland : Report of Registrar-General. Dublin, 1893
Canals and Navigations : Returns made to the Board of Trade for 1888. Fol. London, 1890.
Census of England and Wales, taken on April 6th, 1891. Preliminary Report.
London, 1891. Detailed Returns, Vols. I. and II. London, 1893.
Census of Scotland, 1891. Report. Vol. I., with Supplement, and Vol. II. Part I.
Edinburgh, 1893.
Census of Ireland, 1891. Report Dublin, 1892.
Church of England, Revenues of the. London, 1893.
Consolidated Fund : Abstract Account, 1892-93. London, 1893.
Customs : Report of the Commissioners of H.M.'s. Customs. 8. London, 1893.
Debt, National Sinking Fund Accounts, 1893. Return relating to Debt, 1889-90
National Debt Bill, 1883 ; and Statement illustrating the BilL
Digitized by VjOOQLC
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 96c
Distribution of Seats Act, 1885. London, 1885.
Duchy of Cornwall : Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year 1892. Fol.
London, 1898.
Duchy of Lancaster : Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year 1892. Fol
London, 1893.
Education : Elementary Schools in England and Scotland. Return showing Expendi-
ture upon Grants, and Results of Inspection and Examination. 8. London, 1893.
Education..: Report of Committee of Council on^Education for 1892-93. 8. London, 189S.
Education : Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland, 1892-93.
London, 1893.
Education : Report of the Science and Art Department. London, 1893.
Education : Report of the Intermediate Education Board for Ireland for the year 1892.
London, 1893.
Education : Report of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland for 1892
Dublin, 1893.
Electoral Statistics, Return of, in County and Borough Constituencies in England and
Wales, Scotland and Ireland. London. 1893.
Electors : Return of the number of Electors on the Register of each County in England
and Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Fol. London, 1893.
Emigration : Statistical Tables relating to Emigration and Immigration for 1892. Fol.
London, 1893.
Emigration : Statistics of Ireland for 1892. Dublin, 1893.
Estimates for the year 1893-94. Fol. London, 1893.
Factories and Workshops Act : Return of the Number of Factories Authorised to be
Inspected, Persons Employed, &c, for 1890. London, 1891.
Financial Statement, 1893-94. London, 1893.
Finance Accounts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for the
Financial Tear ended March 31, 1893. 8. London, 1893.
Fish Conveyed Inland by Railway : Return for 1892-93. London, 1893.
Income and Property Tax : Return of the Amount of Income and Property Tax in Great
Britain and Ireland for 1814, and in each of the years 1842 to 1880. London, 1880.
Inland Revenue : Report of the Commissioners on the Duties under thein Management for
the years 1856 to 1869, with some Retrospective History and complete Tables of Accounts
of the Duties from their first Imposition. 2 vols. Fol. pp. 168 and 219. London, 1870.
Inland Revenue : Report of the Commissioners. 8. London, 1893.
Judicial Statistics of England and Wales for 1892. 4. London, 1893.
Judicial Statistics of Ireland for 1892. Fol. London, 1893.
Landowners in England and Wales : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and
upwards in England and Wales. 2 vols. London, 1876.
Landowners in Ireland : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and upwards in
Ireland. Dublin, 1876.
Landowners in Scotland : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and upwards in
Scotland. Edinburgh, 1875.
Local Government Act, 1888. London, 1888.
Local Taxation Returns : England. Published annually. Fol. London, 1893.
Merchant Shipping : Tables showing the Progress of British Merchant Shipping. Fol.
London, 1893.
Militia : Return showing Establishment of each Regiment in 1892. London, 1893.
Mineral Statistics of Great Britain and Ireland for 1892. London, 1893.
Navy : Statistical Report on the Health of the Navy for 1892. 8. London, 1893.
Navy List, Quarterly, for October, 1893.
Poor Law, England : 21st Report of Local Government Board. 8. London, 1893.
Poor Rates and Pauperism, Returns Relating to, 1892-93. London, 1893.
Poor Relief. Scotland : Report of Commissioners. 8. Edinburgh, 1893.
Poor Relief, Ireland : Report of Local Government Board for Ireland. 8. Dublin,
1893.
Post Office : Report of the Postmaster-General on the Post Office. 8. London, 1893.
Public Accounts : Report from the Committee. Fol. London, 1892.
Public Income and Expenditure : Account for the year ended 31st March, 1893. Fol-
London, 1893.
Public Records: Report of the Commissioners. 8. London 1893.
Railway Companies of the United Kingdom : General Report to the Board of Trade for
the year 1892. Fol. London, 1893.
Railway Returns for England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, for the year 1892. Fol.
London, 1893.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools : Report of Commissioners. 8. London, 1898.
Representation of the People Act, 1884. London, 1884.
Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in the 27th Parliament. London, 1893.
Scotland : Report of the Educational Endowments Commission. London, 1885.
" Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, in each of the fifteen years from 1878 to
1882. 8. London, 1893.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
96d THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
Statistical Abstract for the Principal Foreign Countries, in each year from 1881 to
1890-91. 8. London, 1893.
Taxation in England and Wales Return for the Financial Year 1814-15, and for each of
the Financial Years from 1842-43 to 1873-74. Fol. pp. 4. London, 1875.
Volunteer Corps : Annual Returns, 1892. London, 1893.
Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues : Report of the Commissioners. Fol. London, 1893.
Yeomanry Cavalry Training Return, 1892. London. 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baxter (Dudley), The Taxation of the United Kingdom. 8. London, 1869.
Brassey (Lord), The British Navy. 5 vols. London, 1882-83.
Brassey (T. A.), The Naval Annual. 1893.
Burrows (Montagu), Constitutional Progress. 8. London, 1869.
Catholic Directory for 1894. London, 1893.
Clarke (Major G. S.), Fortification. 8. London, 1890.
Clode (Charles M.), History of the Administration and Government of the British
Ariny, from the Revolution of 1688. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869-70.
Colomb (Admiral P. H.), Naval Warfare. 8. London, 1891.
Creasy (Sir Edward), The Imperial and Colonial Constitutions of the Britannic Empire,
including Indian Institutions. 8. London, 1872.
Cunningham (W.), The Growth of English Industry and Commerce during the Early and
Middle Ages, and in Modem Times. 2 Vols. 8. London, 1890-92.
Dilke (Sir Charles), Greater Britain. 2 vols. London, 1889.
Dilke (Sir Charles) and Wilkinson (TEL. S.), Imperial Defence. 8. London, 1892.
Dowell (Stephen), A History of Taxation and Taxes in England. 4 vols. London, 1888.
Eardley-Wilmot (Captain S.), The Development of Navies. 8. London, 1892.
Economist, The, Banking Supplements, published May and October annually. London.
Ellis's Irish Education Directory for 1894. Dublin, 1893.
Fowle (J. W.), The Poor Law. London, 1881.
Freeman (E. A.), The Growth of the English Constitution from the Earliest Times. New
Ed. 8. London, 1873.
Gneist (Rudolph), Das Englische Verwaltungsrecht der Gegenwart, in Vergleichung init
dem Deutschen verwaltungssystem. 2 vols. Berlin, 1884.
Gneist (Rudolph), History of the English Constitution. New Ed. London, 1891.
Gneist (Rudolph), History of the English Parliament. Third Ed. 1891.
. Goodenough (Lieut. -Col. W. H.) and Dalton (Lieut.-CoL J. C), The Army Book of the
British Empire. 8. London, 1893.
Green (J. R.), History of the English People. 4 vols. London, 1877-80.
Hertslet (8ir E.), Treaties of Commerce and Navigation, &a, between Great Britain and
Foreign Countries. London.
Hunt (Robert), British Mining. London, 1884.
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society of London. Quarterly. London.
Joyce (H.), History of the Post Office down to 1836. London, 1893.
Lloyd's Register, Particulars of the Warships of the World. London, 1894.
Lloyd and Hadcock, Artillery : its Progress and Present Position. 8. 1893.
Mahan (Capt. A. TA The Influence of Sea-Power upon History. London, 1890.
Mohan (Capt A. T.), The Influence of Sea-Power upon the French Revolution and
Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892.
Maitland (F. W.) Justice and Police. 8. London, 1885.
May (Thomas Erskine), Constitutional History of England. 2 vols. 8. London, 1861-63.
Molesworth (Rev. W. N.), History of England, 1830-74. 5th Edition. 3 vols. 8.London, 1874.
Palgrave (Reginald), The House of Commons. 8. London, 1869.
Palgrave (R. H. Inglis), The Local Taxation of Great Britain and Ireland. 8. London, 1871.
Pattinson (J. P.), British Railways. London, 1893.
Robinson (Commander C. N.), The British Fleet. 8. London, 1893.
Rogers (J. E. Thorold), Industrial and Commercial History of England. 8. London, 1892.
Scotland, The Church of : its Position and Work. Edinburgh, 1882.
Seeley (Prof. J. R.), The Expansion of England. London, 1883.
Shaw-Lefevre (G. J.), Agrarian Tenures. 8. London, 1893.
Stephen (Sir J. F.), History of the Criminal Law of England. 8 vols. London, 1888.
Stephens (A. J.), New Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. 8. London, 1890.
Stubbs (Professor), A Constitutional History of England, in its Origin and Development*
2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
The English Citizen, his Rights and Responsibilities. 13 vols. London, 1881-85.
Todd (Al.), On Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. 8. London, 1887-S9
White (W. H.), Naval Architecture. 8. London 1882.
Wright (R. S.) and Hobhouse (Henry), An Outline of Local Government and Local
Taxation in England and Wales. London, 1884.
Young (Sir Frederick), Imperial Federation of Great Britain and her Colonies. &
London, 1876.
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INDIA, THE COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, ETC. 97
II. INDIA, THE COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, AND
DEPENDENCIES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
In the following pages the various sections of the British Em-
pire outside the United Kingdom are arranged in alphabetical
order under the divisions of the world to which they belong : —
1. Europe; 2. Asia ; 3. Africa ; 4. America ; 5. Australasia and
Oceania.
The Colonies proper form three classes: — (1) The Crown
Colonies, which are entirely controlled by the home government ;
(2) those possessing Representative Institutions, in which the
Crown has no more than a veto on legislation, but the home
government retains the control of public officers ; and (3) those
possessing Responsible Government, in which the home government
has no control over any public officer, though the Crown appoints
the Governor and still retains a veto on legislation.
The total expenditure of the Mother Country in connection
with the Colonies (exclusive of India) amounts to about 2
millions sterling annually, mainly for military and naval pur-
poses.
According to the Army Estimates for the year 1893-94, the
total effective strength of the British forces in the colonies, ex-
clusive of India, was 31,964 of all ranks. The number of
troops in the various colonies having British garrisons was as fol-
lows : — Malta, 8,945 men ; Gibraltar, 4,902 ; Cape of Good Hope
and Natal, 3,331 ; Ceylon, 1,659 ; Bermuda, 1,455 ; Windward and
Leeward Islands, 1,325 ; Canada (Halifax), 1,477 ; Hong Kong,
2,996; Jamaica, 1,508 ; Straits Settlements, 1,558; Mauritius,
875 ; West Coast of Africa, 1,163 ; Cyprus, 553 ; St. Helena, 220 ;
besides 72,858 in India and 3,041 in Egypt.
The contributions from colonial revenues in aid of military
expenditure for 1893-94 are estimated to amount to 249,500/.,
as follows : — Natal, 4,000/. ; Mauritius, 18,750/. ; Hong Kong,
40,000/. ; Straits Settlements, 100,000/. ; Ceylon, 81,750/. ;
Malta, 5,000/. India contributes 805,000/. in respect of effective
home charges for regular forces serving in India, and 799,491/.
in respect of non-effective services.
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(
98
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — GIBRALTAR
EUROPE.
IiO.
GIBRALTAR
Governor.— General Sir Robert Biddulph, R.A., G.C.M.G., C.B., salary.
125,000 pesetas (nominally 5,000Z.). Colonial Secretary. — H. M. Jackson.
C.M.G.
The Rock of Gibraltar is a Crown colony, situated in 36° 6' K. latitude
and 5° 21' W. longitude, in the Province of Andalusia, in Spain, commanding
the entrance to the Mediterranean.
The Governor, who is also Commander-in-Chief, exercises all the function
of government and legislation.
Area, 1T^ square mile ; greatest elevation, 1,439 feet. Population (1892i.
26,050, including garrison of 5,305 men. Settled population mostly descend
ants of Genoese settlers.
Average births per 1,000 of civil population, 25 '31. Deaths per 1,000 oi
civil population, 18*71.
Religion of fixed population mostly Roman Catholic ; one Protestair
cathedral and three Roman Catholic churches ; annual subsidy to each com-
munion, 500Z.
Several private English schools ; elementary schools, 14 (6 Romai
Catholic). Pupils, 1,882 in 1892. Government grant, 1,320Z.
One magistrate's court and a supreme court.
Chief sources of revenue : — Port dues, rent of Crown estate, excise, post-
office, &c. Branches of expenditure : — Government civil establishments
administration of justice, public works, &c. Contribution by Home Govern-
ment, nil. Industries unimportant.
-
1888
1889
1890
1S91 189*2
Revenue ....
Expenditure .
£
59,262
53,061
£
63,674
57,594
£
62,461
59,043
£ £
61,136 56,735
62,885 72,183
i
Military expenditure by Imperial Government, 278,894Z.
Government savings-bank, with 3,219 depositors and 160,160£. deposit*
(1892).
Gibraltar is a naval base and position of great strategic importance, be:
there is a deficiency of dock-accommodation, and of machine shops for ship-
repairs. In 1892 the total tonnage of vessels entered was 4,393,019, of which
3,397,303 was British.
Three miles of internal telegraph under military, and about one mil-
under colonial, management. Postal communication daily with England.
Branch post-offices at Tangier, Laraiche, Rabat, Casablanca, Mazagan, Mogador.
Taffi Fez, and Tetuan.
There is cable communication with the Continent, the Mediterranean.
Eastern ports, and England, vid Post Office and Eastern Telegraph Company '*
lines.
The legal currency is that of Spain, the peseta = 1 franc ; 25 peseta?
nominally =17., but exchange is generally over 29 pesetas to the £.
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99
MALTA.
Governor. — Lieut. General Arthur James Lyon Fremantle, C.B. (salary
5,0002.)
Chief Secretary to Government. — Count G. Strickland, CM G.
An island in the Mediterranean, 58 miles from Sicily, with an excellent
harbour. It is one of the most important posts of call in the world, and is
the base and resort for repair and refitment of our fleet in the Mediterranean.
Malta is 17 miles long ; area, 95 miles ; and the neighbouring island,
Gozo, 20 miles ; total area (with Comino), 119 square miles. Population
for 1892, 166,889 (Maltese, 163,446; English, 1,702; foreigners, 1,741).
Local military, viz. : Royal Malta Artillery, 397, and Royal Malta Militia,
1,125. Chief town and port, Valetta. Education — 91 public schools, with
12,805 pupils in 1892 ; Government grant, 20, 601 2. There are a university,
1 lyceum, and 2 secondary schools. In 1892, 7,648 persons were committed to
prison.
The government is to some extent representative. The Governor is
assisted by an executive council and a council of government, according to
the Constitution of 1887, of 6 official and 14 elected.
— 1888 j 1889 | 1890
1891
1892
1 *
Revenue . . 240,146
Expenditure . j 212,313
£
251,175
229,703
£
261,254
266,900
£
275,125
281,870
£
289,231
297,371
Estimated revenue (1892), 271,976*., and expenditure, 263,9672.
Chief sources of revenue, 1892: Customs, 161,1582. ; land, 14,2832. ; rents,
25,8042. ; postage, 10,7432. ; interest, 24,5972., ; licences, 5,8602. Branches
of expenditure : Establishments, 117,4692. ; other services, 179,9022. Contri-
bution from Home Government, nil. Public debt, 79,1682. Savings-bank
with, for 1892, 6,073 depositors, deposits 486,9002.
Chief products : cotton, potatoes, oranges, figs, honey, and corn. Manu-
factures : cotton, filigree, lucifer-matches. Chief industry, farming ; (in
1892) horses, 6706 ; cattle, 8,226 ; sheep, 21,935.
1888
1889
Imports
Exports
£
26,763,128
25,955,848
£
24,287,112
28,627,082
1S90
£
23.679,821
22;i44,067
1891
£
35,591,999
34,955,979
1892
£
12,683,038
11,742,579
The trade is mainly transit — Imports (1892) : grain, 11,526,0912. ; pulse,
393,7912. ; wine, 189,2472. ; cattle, 214,7482. ; beer, 115,7942. ; oil, 59,1552.
Exports: grain, 11,352,5502. ; pulse, 338,2312. British imports, 183,4822.,
exports, 5,761,0362.
Vessels entered (1892), 3,664, tonnage 3,113,344.
„ cleared ,, 3,703, ,, 3,123,077.
Of the total entered and cleared 4,055 were British.
Railway, 7i miles ; telegraph, 65 miles. The Post-office traffic in 1892
was : —
Received 699,627 Letters. 38,940 Postcards. 725,291 Newspapers.
Despatched 711,476 „ 31,020 „ 164,637
: H 2
' : Digitized-by G.C)OgIC
100 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — BAHREIN ISLANDS
ASIA.
I
ADEH, PEBIH, SOMALILAHD AND SOCOTKA.
Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the Arabian coast, about 100 miles east of
Bab-el-Mandeb. It forms an important coaling-station on the highway to the
East, and is being strongly fortified. The settlement includes Little Aden, a
peninsula very similar to Aden itself, and the settlement and town of Shaikh
Othman on the mainland with the villages of Imad, Hiswa, and Bir Jabir.
It also includes the island of Perim at the entrance to the Red Sea, and is
subject to the Bombay Government. The Government is administered by a
Political Resident, who is also commander of the troops. The only Govern-
ment revenue is from duty on liquor, opium, and salt ; local taxes go to the
Municipality.
Area 75 square miles, of Perim 5 square miles. Population, in 1891, 41,910
against 34,860 in 1881. Imports (1891-92), by sea (including Perim),
31,607,325 rupees; by land, 3,558,937 rupees; treasure, 5,612,590 rupees.
Exports (1891-92), by sea, 27,122,913 rupees; by land, 1,439,131 rupees;
treasure, 5,964,189 rupees. Tonnage entered and cleared (mainly passenger
steamers), about 2,500,000 tons. No public debt.
Chief exports : Coffee, gums, hides and skins, piece goods, tobacco. Chief
imports : Cotton twist, piece goods, grain, hides and skins, tobacco. Aden
itself is non-productive, and tne trade is a purely transshipment one, except
that from the interior of Arabia.
The Somali Coast from Lahadu, west of Zaila, to 49° E. long., became a
British Protectorate in 1887, and is administered by a Political Agent and
Consul. The area is about 30,000 square miles, and the population (Mahometan
and mostly nomadic) about 240,000. The chief town, Berbera, has about
30,000 inhabitants in the trading season ; Zaila, 6,000 ; Bulhar, 5,000. At
these three ports there are British officers and Indian troops. Revenue
(1891-2) 184,202 rupees; expenditure, 146,400 rupees. Imports, 262,710*. ;
exports, 271,274/. The imports are chiefly rice, piece-goods, shirtings, and
dates ; the exports, coffee, skins and hides, ostrich feathers, ivory, and gum.
Transport is by camels and donkeys ; there are no porters.
The island of Socotra off the coast of Africa, and the Xuria Maria islands
off the coast of Arabia, are also attached to Aden. Area of former, 1,382
square miles. Population, 10,000. It came under British protection in 1886,
by treaty with the Sultan. Chief products, aloes ; sheep, cattle, and goats
are plentiful. The Kuria Muria Islands, five in number, were ceded by the
Sultan of Muscat for the purpose of landing the Red Sea cable. The group is
leased for the purpose of guano collection.
BAHREIN ISLANDS.
Group of islands in the Persian Gulf, 20 miles off the coast of El Hasa, in
Arabia. Bahrein, the largest, is 27 miles long by 10 wide. Moharek, on
the north of Bahrein, 4 miles long, ^ mile wide. There are about half-a-
dozen others, mere rocks. Manameh, the commercial capital, extends 10
miles along the shore ; 8,000 inhabitants. The population is Mohammedan
of the Sunni and Shiite sects. The seat of government is Moharek on the
island of that name ; population about 8,000. There are about 50 villages in
the islands.
The chief belongs to the ruling family of Al Kalifah ; the present
chief of Bahrein is Sheikh Esau, who owes the possession of his throne
entirely to British protection, which was instituted in 1867. Sheikh Easn
was again formally placed under British protection in 1870, when Ids rivals
were deported to India.
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BRITISH BORNEO
101
The great industry is pearl fishery, in which 400 boats, of from 8 to 20
men each, are engaged. The trade of the Bahrein Islands for 1892, includ
ing specie, was as follows : Imports, 473, 857 J., the chief articles being pearls,
107,500/.; grain and pulse, 83,802Z.; cotton goods, 38,866/.; coffee, 20,039/.;
dates, 11,750/.; tobacco, 6,409/.; cattle, 5, 687/. ; provisions, 5,770/.; specie,
142,063/. Exports, 490,562/., the chief articles being pearls, 307,813/. ; grain
and pulse, 28,963/.; cotton goods, 21,875/.; coffee, 14,063/.; dates, 8,275/.;
canvas, 6,562/.; shells, 3,712/.; specie, 71,188/. Of the total imports in
1892, 272,802/. were from British India and colonies, 146,101/. from Turkey ;
of the exports, 319,012/. were to British India and colonies, 139,356/. to
Turkey. In 1892, 847 vessels of 91,077 tons entered, and 827 of 90,847
tons cleared, the ports of Bahrein.
Political Resident,— Lieut. -Col. A. C. Talbot, CLE.
Brunei. See Nobth Borneo.
BORNEO (BRITISH).
British Horth Borneo. — Governor . — Charles Vandeleur Creagh ; C.M.G.,
salary, 9,000 dollars. Richard B. Martin is Chairman of the Court of
Directors in London.
The territory of British North Borneo is a territory occupying the northern
part of the island of Borneo, and situated nearly midway between Hong Kong
and Port Darwin in Australia. The interior is mountainous, one point being
13,700 feet high, but most of the surface is jungle.
Area, 31,106 square miles, with a coast-line of over 900 miles. Popula-
tion, 175,000, consisting mainly of Mohammedan settlers on the coast and
aboriginal tribes inland, with some Chinese traders and artisans. Chief
town, Sandakan, on the east coast.
The territory is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo
Company, being held under grants from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu.
The cession was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1881, and the territory is
administered by a Governor in Borneo and a Board of Directors in London,
appointed under the Charter. On May 12, 1888, the Government proclaimed
a formal protectorate over the State of North Borneo. The appointment of
the Governor is subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. For
administrative purposes the whole district is divided into nine provinces.
In 1889 the colony of Labuan was placed under the government of the
British North Borneo Company.
About 1,000,000 acres have been alienated by the Government on leases
of 999 years for tobacco planting, pepper, coffee, and other jungle products.
There are 17 estates planting tobacco.
The laws are based on the Indian penal, criminal, and civil procedure
codes, and local proclamations and ordinances. There is an Imaum's Court
for Mohammedan law.
-
1887
1888
1 1880
1890
Dollars
1891 J
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars \
Revenue proper .
142,687
158,462
; 251,602
358,461
417,028 1
Land sales .
14,507
80,000
| 256,183
239,655
7,212 ;
Expenditure
202,220
185,922
1 290,189
873,139
439,664 '
Exports
535,267
540,000
761,433
901,290
1,238,277
Imports
959,624
950,000
1,799,620
2,018,289
1,936,547
The expenditure m salaries in the colony is over 100,000 dollars. Sources
of revenue : Opium, spirit farms, birds'-nests, court fees, stamp duty, licences,
import duties, royalties, land sales, &c. No public debt.
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I
\
102 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — BORNEO
Most of the trade is carried on through Singapore with Great Britain
and the colonies. The chief products are timber, sago, rice, gums, coffee,
pepper, gambier, gutta-percha, tapioca, sweet potatoes, and tobacco, which
is being planted on a large scale. Coal and gold have been found. The
exports comprise mostly jungle and sea produce, wax, birds'-nests (edible),
coco-nuts, gutta-percha, sago, tobacco, rattans, india-rubber, seed pearls,
bgche-de-mer, &c. A flourishing timber trade is stated to have been opened
with China. Exports of leaf tobacco, 1886, 72,688 lbs.; 1887, 30,800 lbs.;
1888, 81,664 lbs.; 1889, 168,112 lbs., and estimated crop for 1890, 1,876,000
lbs. In consequence of American fiscal legislation tobacco-growing in Borneo
has recently declined.
The Government issues its own copper coinage (cents and half-cents) ;
also notes of one, five, ten, and twenty-live dollars to the extent of 100,000
dollars. Accounts are kept in U.S.A. currency.
Shipping entered, 1891, 147,499 tons; cleared, 147,499 tons; of which
nearly all was British.
Native military force of 377 men under European officers. There are two
Missions, one Protestant and the other Roman Catholic ; and the Protestant
community has a church and school at Sandakan, with a branch at Eudat.
Brunei and Sarawak.— In 1888 the neighbouring territories on the
north-west coast of Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak, were placed under British
protection. The area of Brunei, which is under a Sultan, is about 3,000
square miles, and its products are of the same character as those of British
North Borneo.
Sarawak has an area of about 50,000 square miles, with a coast line of
about 400 miles. The government of part of the present territory was
obtained in 1842 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Various
accessions were made between 1861 and 1885, and the Limbang River district
was annexed in 1890. The Rajah, H.H. Sir Charles Johnson Brooke,
nephew of the late Rajah, born June 3, 1829, succeeded in 1868. The popu-
lation is about 300,000, consisting of native races, Malays, Dyaks, Kayans,
and M units, with Chinese and other settlers. The chief towns are the capital,
Kuching, about 23 miles inland, on the Sarawak River, Bintulu, Muka, and
Oya. Brooketon is a settlement in the coal district opposite Labuan. At
Kuching are Church of England and Catholic missions with schools. The
revenue for 1892 was 461,817 dollars, and expenditure 425,506 dollars. The
revenue is derived chiefly from the opium, gambling, arrack and pawn farms ;
exemption tax payable by Malays and from Dyak revenue. There are import
duties on tobacco, salt, and spirits ; export* duties on sago, gambier, &c.
The produce in general resembles that of North Borneo. Coal exists in large
quantities, as well as gold, silver, diamonds, antimony, and quicksilver. In
1892 the imports amounted to 2,722,325 dollars (including 953,088 dollars,
coasting trade) ; and the exports, 3,155,899 dollars (including 932,776 dollars,
coasting trade). There are military and police forces, the former with 250 men.
Books of Reference concerning Borneo.
Handbook to British North Borneo. London, 1890.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Boyle (Frederick), Adventures among the Dyaks of Borneo. 8. London, 1865.
Hatton (Prank), North Borneo. 8. London, 1886.
nation (Jdseph), The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North Borneo. 8. London, 1886.
St. John (Bpenser), Life in the Forests of the Far Bast London, 1862.
Wallace (A. R), The Malay Archipelago. London, 1869.
Whitehead (J.), Exploration of Monnt Kina Bain, North Borneo. London, 1893.
Perim. See Aden, supra.
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104
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
fc
Area:
Provinces. | English
1 square miles
Population,
1881
} 639, 361
66,146
J897,329
293,327
433,520
127,555
302,500
«-> i X2R,
1831 1891
Central
Uva .
North Central
Western
Sabaragamuwa
North-western .
Southern
Eastern
Northern
2,304
3,725
4,047
1,371
2,085
3,024
1,980
3,657
3,171
474,487
159,155
75,319
763,187
258,605
320,032
489,761
148,727
319,193
205
43
19
565
102
106
247
41
101
25,364
2,759,738
3,008,466
118
The military population (1885) is included in the above.
The province of Uva was formed out of the Central Province in 1886,
and that of Sabaragamuwa out of the Western Province in 1889.
Of the total population enumerated at the census of 1891, there Were 6,068
English; 21,231 descendants of Europeans ; 2,041,158 Singhalese ; 723,853
Tamils ; 216,156 other races, including Moormen (descendants of Arabs),
Malays, Veddahs (aborigines in the interior), and others.
The census returns stated 845,149 persons, or 28 per cent, of the popula-
tion, to be engaged in agriculture ; 102,760 in industry ; 121,279 in
commerce.
The Registrar-General gives the number of persons married to one thousand
persons living in 1892 as 11*5, the number of births as 29*8 per 1,000,
and of deaths as 27*2. The highest death-rate was in the North-Central
Province, being 56*3 per 1,000 per annum. The lowest death-rate was regis-
tered in the Western Province, viz. 19*2 per 1,000. The highest birth-rate
for the year was in the district of Uva, viz. 41*5 per 1,000.
The immigration returns, dealing almost entirely with agricultural labourers
employed on the tea and coffee plantations, and not including the very large
number of traders and domestic servants, give, in 1892, 116,472 arrivals as
against 67,616 departures ; the numbers being in 1891, 76,728 arrivals, as
against 39,138 departures. The figures from 1870 to 1887 inclusive give
1,440,463 arrivals as against 1,262,833 departures.
The principal towns, with population according to the census of 1891
are :— Colombo, 126,926 ; Kandy, 20,252 ; Galle, 33,505 ; Trincomalee, 11,411 ;
Jaffna, 43,092.
Religion.
The principal religious creeds were returned as follows at the census of
1891 :— Buddhists, 877,043 ; Hindoos, 615,932 ; Mohammedans, 211,995 ;
Christians, 302,127.
Instruction.
Education has made considerable strides in Ceylon since it has been
organised under a separate Government department with a director of public
instruction and a staff of inspectors, as will be seen from the following
table :—
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JUSTICE AND CRIME — PAUPERISM — FINANCE
105
i ',
i __ Expenditure by
Government
Schools
Grant in Aid
Schools
Unaided Schools
1 i Government
No. of
Schools
200
436
453
Scholars
No. of
Schools
Scholars
No. of
Schools
Scholars
i 1872 Rs. 267,577
1891 Rs. 508,166
1 1892 , Rs. 525,839
10,852
41,746
42,190
402
971
1,024
25,443 365
74,855 i 2,645
82,637 2,395
9,435
37,242
33,631
There were thus in 1892, 158,458 scholars receiving regular instruction,
or a proportion of a little more than 1 in 20 of the population according to
the census of 1891. The Government expenditure is now chiefly devoted
towards vernacular education, which is unable to support itself, while English
education has obtained such a hold upon the people that it is becoming
gradually self-supporting. The only Government high English school is now
the Royal College ; but other high English schools receive grants in aid. The
Government also gives a scholarship of 150/. a year for four years to enable
promising students to proceed to an English university. The Cambridge
local examinations, and the examinations of the London University are
held annually in Ceylon by arrangement. There is an agricultural school
and ten branch agricultural schools, and there are ten industrial schools and
orphanages. A technical school is also on the point of being started.
Justice and Crime.
The basis of the law is the Roman-Dutch law, modified by colonial
ordinances. The criminal law has been codified on the principle of the
Indian Penal Code. Justice is administered by the Supreme Courts, the
police courts and courts of requests, and the district courts, intermediate
between the latter and the Supreme Court. There are also village councils
which deal with petty offences. The number of summary convictions in
1892 was 19,705. The number of convictions before the District Court was
462, and the number of convictions in the Supreme Court 395.
Pauperism.
The number of paupers is not known, as there is no poor law, though a
few old persons receive a charitable allowance from the Government vary-
ing from Rs. 1 to Rs. 12*50 each per mensem.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of
the last five years, were as follows : —
! Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Rupees
Rupees
1888
15,468,812
14,630,121
i 1889
15,299,877
14,906,281
1890
16,228,769
15,316,224
I 1891
17,962,710
16,435,079
1 1892
18,509,186
17,762,465
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106 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
The principal sources of revenue are (1892) : the customs, 4,385,636 Rs. ;
the revenue derived from land, which includes the tithe1 on grain,
946,363, Rs. ; licences, which in effect means the revenue from spirituous
liquor, 2,195,420 Rs. ; stamps, 1,433,777 Rs. ; the proceeds of the sale of
Government timber and Government salt, 1,315,271 Rs. ; and port and
harbour dues, 768,295 Rs. The receipts from the Government railway were
in 1892 4,697,600 Rs.
The principal items of expenditure are (1892) : civil and judicial estab-
lishments, over 3,000,000 Rs. ; establishments other than civil or judicial,
2,017,044 Rs. ; contribution towards military expenditure (including cost of
volunteer force) 1,250,992 Rs. (of this 1,143,642 Rs. is paid to the Imperial
Government) ; pensions and retired allowances, 791,611 Rs. ; interest on
loans, &c, 1,869,764 Rs. In 1892 3,133,020 Rs. out of the general revenue was
spent on public works, inclusive of 324,194 Rs. from the same source expended
on irrigation.
On December 31, 1892, the public debt of the colony amounted to
2,603,6132. and 1,325,856 Rs. ; it has been incurred entirely for public works,
including 191 miles of railway, the Colombo breakwater, and the Colombo
waterworks.
In 1892 the total local revenue amounted to 1,848,275 Rs.
Defence.
The harbour of Trincomalee on the east coast ot Ceylon is the head-
quarters of the British fleet in East Indian waters. It is fortified, and the
fortifications are being strengthened, at the cost of the Imperial Government.
The harbour of Colombo on the west coast is also protected, the colony
having paid the cost of the erection of earthworks, the Imperial Government
supplying the armament. Ceylon has no naval forces of its own. The
amount expended by the colony for the Colombo defence works in 1892 was
7,807 Rs., in addition to the figures mentioned below.
The British troops in Ceylon are under the command of a major-general,
and comprise a regiment of British infantry, artillery, and engineers, the
total strength being 1,653 ; there is a volunteer force numbering 1,217 of all
ranks. The colony pays 81,7502. per annum to the Imperial Government
as the cost of the garrison. The cost of the Local Volunteer Corps was
99,543 Rs. in 1892.
Production and Industry.
The estimated area of the colony is 16,233,000 acres, 2,077,300 acres
being under cultivation, and 828,475 acres pasture land. Of this, 718,242
acres were (1892) under rice and other grains, 42,933 under coffee, 269,854
under tea, 11,430 under cinchona, 766,512 under coco nuts, 40,055 under
cinnamon, 9,993 under tobacco, and 19,921 under cocoa. The live stock of
the island in 1891 consisted of 4.090 hov;os, 1,004,477 horned cattle, 87,028
sheep, and 148,434 goats. Plumbago is a valuable mining product, and in
1892 there were 803 plumbago mines. The produce of the pearl fishery
in 1890 was valued at 310,000 Rs. ; in 1891 at 960,000 Rs. (None in 1892.)'
Commerce.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the
colony, including bullion and specie, was as follows in each of the
last five years : — t
Abolished from January 1, 1893.
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COMMERCE
107
j Years
Imports
Exports
Rs.
Rs.
| 1888
58,524,990
39,383,135
1889
60,695,135
46,924,505
1890
63,091,938
51,127,339
1 1891
66,635,392
58,799,744
! 1892
70,687,496
62,271,924
The principal articles of export from Ceylon in 1892 were —
coffee, valued at 3,293,856 Rs. ; cinchona, 821,609 Rs. ; tea,
32,527,136 Rs.; plumbago, 4,306,669 Rs. ; coco-nut products,
9,566,532 Rs. ; areca nuts, 886,737 Rs.
The principal articles of import were — cotton goods valued at
5,664,914 Rs.; salt-fish, 1,904,075 Rs.; rice, paddy, &c, 26,551,352
Rs. ; coal and coke, 5,326,332 Rs. ; spirits, &c., 1,077,000 Rs. ;
wines, 440,000 Rs.
Disease has in recent years greatly reduced the produce of coffee. The
quantity exported fell from 824,509 cwt. in 1879 to 299,395 cwt. in 1884, to
178,490 cwt. in 1887, and to 43,338 cwt. in 1892. Including Liberian
coffee the quantity exported in 1890 was 90,090 cwt, and in 1891 89,673
cwt. The exports of tea, which in 1884 amounted only to 2,392,975 lb.
and in 1885 to 4,372,721 lb., reached 7,849,888 lb. in 1886, 13,834,057 lb.
in 1887, 23,820,471 in 1888, 34,346,432 lb. in 1889, 45,799,518 lb. in
1890, 67,718,371 lbs. in 1891, and 72,282,525 lbs. in 1892.
The exports of cacao was, in 1884, 9,241 cwt. ; 1885, 7,466 cwt. ; 1886,
13,056 cwt. ; 1887, 17,460 cwt. ; 1888, 12,231 cwt. ; 1889, 18,849 cwt. ;
1891, 20,615 cwt. ; and in 1892, 19,176 cwt.
The commerce of Ceylon is largely with the United Kingdom and India.
According to Ceylon returns the imports from the former in 1892 amounted
to 17,908,180 Bs. and exports to 39,304,750 Rs. ; imports from India 47. 421, 429
Rs. ; exports to 6,573,001 Rs. The amount of trade with the United Kingdom
is shown in the following table, according to the Board of Trade returns in
each of the last five years.
1
1888
1889
'
£
£
Imports from
Ceylon into
U.K. .
2,532,999
2,822,357
' Exports of
British pro-
duce to Cey-
lon
703,440
779,740
1891
£ ! £
1892
3,411,209 I 4,168,998 ! 3,945,209 j
921,615 | 1,016,573 945,051
The import of coffee from Ceylon into the United Kingdom was of the
declared value of 3,001,075*. in 1879, 434,677*. in 1888, 258,340*. in 1889,
847,822*. in 1890, 334,646*. in 1891, 137,842*. in 1892. Besides coffee,
other imports are—cinchona, 91,293*. in 1881, 655,646*. in 1885, 239,160*.
in 1889, 183,996*. in 1890, 94,1787. in 1891, and 111,125*. in 1892; coco-nut
oil, 184,349*. in 1888, 132,773*. in 1889, 191,101*. in 1890, 175,373*. in
1891, 111,044*. in 1892 ; cinnamon, 87,788*. in 1882, 38,156*. in 1888
Digitized by VjOOQIC
108 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
47.90U in 1889, 39,139Z. in 1890, 39,854Z. in 1891, and 36,419*. in 1892 ;
plumbago, 69,733*. in 1885, 38,084*. in 1887, 44,267*. in 1888, 103,849*.
in 1889, 135,853*. in 1890, 125,000*. in 1891, and 94,276*. in 1892 ; tea,
120*. in 1878, 134,304*. in 1883, 756,018*. in 1887, 1,244,724*. in 1888,
1,682,849 in 1889, 2,108,003 in 1890, 2,997,526*. in 1891, and 3,020,099Z. in
1892 ; cordage and twine, 177,454*. in 1884, 35,057*. in 1887, 54,265*. in
1888, 56,976*. in 1889, 58,142*. in 1890, 59,726*. in 1891, and 55,196/. in
1892. Manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 179,366*. ; iron, wrought
and un wrought, 88,162*. ; coals 180,726*., machinery, 94,513*., formed the
staple articles of British exports to Ceylon in 1892.
Shipping and Communications.
The total tonnage entering and clearing at Ceylon ports in 1892 was
5,790,706. In 1892, 175 sailing vessels of 11,535 tons, and 1 steamer of 255
tons, total 176 vessels of 11,788 tons, were registered as belonging to Ceylon.
Ceylon had 230J miles of railway open for traffic in 1893, 39 miles are
under construction, and 215 miles have been surveyed and projected.
In 1892 there were 182 post-offices, of which 34 were telegraph offices.
There were 1,550 miles of telegraph wire.
Money and Credit.
The estimated amount of paper money in circulation on the 81st of
July, 1893, was 7,305,000 Rs. Five banks have establishments in Ceylon,
but none issue notes. Bank deposits in 1890 : — Mercantile Bank, 4,355,600
Rs. ; Bank of Madras, 6,882,828 Rs. ; National Bank, 1,187,916 Rs. The
other banks are the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, and the Chartered Bank
of India, London and China. The Ceylon Savings Bank in 1892 had deposits
amounting to 2,567,225 Rs. ; and the Post Office Savings Bank to 516,842 Rs.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The weights and measures of Ceylon are the same as those of the United
Kingdom. The money of the country is the rupee of British India with cents
in place of annas and pioe ; thus Ceylon has a decimal coinage.
Dependency.
The Maldive Islands, 500 miles west of Ceylon, are governed by an
hereditary Sultan, who resides in the island of Mali, and pays a yearly tribute
to the Ceylon Government. Next to the Sultan is the Fandiari, the head
priest or judge, and besides him 6 Wazirs or Ministers of State. The Maldives
are a group of 17 coral islets (atolls), richly clothed with cocoa-nut palms, and
yielding millet fruit, and edible nuts.
Population estimated at about 30,000 Mohammedans. The people are
civilised, and are great navigators and traders.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.
Blue Book of Ceylon. a
Census of Ceylon, 1891. Colombo, 1892.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition. Official Handbook of the Ceylon Court. London, 1887.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Report on the Revenue, Trade, Ac, of Ceylon, in 'Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial
Possessions.' London, 1893.
Statistics of Ceylon ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom.' 8. London, 1893.
• Trade of Ceylon with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United King,
dotn with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
Baker (Sir 8. W.), Eight Tears' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.
Chalmer* (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Cumming (Miss Gordon), Two Happy Years in Ceylon. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1892.
Ferguson (J.), The Ceylon Handbook and Directory. 8. Colombo and London, 1893.
Ferguion (J.), Ceylon in 1893. Illustrated. 4th Edition. London, 1893.
Gordon-Cumming (Miss E.), Ceylon. London, 1891.
Tennent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical, Historical
and Topographical. 5th edition. London, 1860.
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CYPRUS 109
Christmas Island. See Straits Settlements.
CYPRUS.
High Cwnmissimier. — Sir Walter Joseph Sendall, K.C.M.G., appointed
1892 ; salary, 3,000*.
The third largest island in the Mediterranean, 60 miles from the coast of
Asia Minor and 41 from the coast of Syria.
It is administered by Great Britain, under a convention concluded between
the representatives of her Majesty and the Sultan of Turkey at Constantinople,
June 4, 1878.
The island is administered by a High Commissioner, vested with the usual
powers of a colonial governor. He is assisted by an Executive Council,
consisting of the senior officer in command of the troops, the Chief Secretary,
the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General.
The Legislature consists of a Council of eighteen members, six being office
holders — the Chief Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General, the
Chief Medical Officer, the Director of Survey and the Commissioner of
Nicosia — and twelve elected (for five years), three by Mohammedan and
nine by non-Mohammedan voters. The voters are all male Ottomans, or
British subjects, or foreigners, twenty-one years of age, who have resided five
years, and are payers of any of the taxes known as ' Verghis.'
Municipal councils exist in the principal towns, elected practically by all
resident householders and ratepayers. Those eligible to the council must be
voters rated upon property of the annual value of from 10/. to 20/., according
to population.
Area 3,580 square miles. The population at the census of 1891 : — 106,838
males, 102,448 females ; total, 209,286, exclusive of the military ; density per
square mile, 58*39.
For administrative purposes the island is divided into six districts, as
follows, with area in square miles: — Nicosia 1,040, Larnaca 365, Limasol
542, Famagusta 817, Papho 574, Kyrenia 246 ; total area 3,584 square
miles.
Mohammedans, 47,926 ; others, principally Greek Church, 161,360.
Birth rate computed in 1890 at 33*4 per 1,000.
Death „ „ „ 24 „
The principal towns are Nicosia (the capital and seat of government),
12,515 ; Larnaca, 7,593 ; Limasol, 7,388 (two chief ports) ; Famagusta (with
Varoshia), 3,367 ; Papho (including Ktima), 2,801 ; Kyrenia, 1,322 in 1891.
Excepting two or three so-called * high schools, ' the schools of the island
are of an elementary character. There is a Government inspector, and the
Government contributes 3,210/. per annum to elementary education. In 1892
there were 226 Christian schools with 10,555 scholars ; 108 Moslem schools,
with 3,771 scholars. Total cost (exclusive of Government grant) 6,377/. —
tees, voluntary contributions, and endowments.
Weekly newspapers in the English (2), Greek (6), and Turkish (2) lan-
he law courts (reformed in 1883) consist of (1) a supreme court of civil
and criminal appeal ; (2) six assize courts, having unlimited criminal jurisdic-
tion ; (3) six district courts, having limited criminal jurisdiction and unlimited
Hvil jurisdiction ; (4) six magisterial courts with summary jurisdiction ; (5)
village judges' courts. In all, except supreme court, native (Christian and
Mohammedan) judges take part.
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110
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — CYPRUS
There is a large amount of crime in proportion to the population, and the
people are prone to litigation.
The police force when at full strength consists of about 670 men.
The revenue and expenditure for five years, ended March 31, were : —
— 1 1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
149,362
109,963
£
174,499
106,338
£
194,936
107,589
£
217,162
112,742
£
189,933
111,394
Revenue derived chiefly from tithes on the principal products of the island,
taxes on immovable property and trade profits, military exemption tax,
sheep, goat, and pig tax, customs duties, excise, stamps, and court fees, and a
salt monoply. The tithe is taken in kind.
No Public Debt. A sum of 92, 800 J. is payable annually to the Sublime Porte
under the convention of 1878. Annual grant from imperial funds to revenue,
1888-89, 55,000*. ; 1889-90, 45,000/. ; 1890-91, 35,000/. ; 1891-92, 10,000/. ;
1892-93, nil.
Cyprus is essentially agricultural. Chief products — corn, cotton, carobs,
linseed, olives, silk, raisins, fruit, vegetables, cheese, wool, hides, and wine.
One-third of cultivable land under cultivation. Gypsum and terra umbra are
found m abundance. Sponge fishery yields sponges valued at between 20,000/.
and 30,000/. per annum. ^
The commerce, exclusive of specie, and the shipping for five years, ended
March 31, were : —
-
1888-89
1889-90 |
£
244,324
314,628
493,456
Calendar year
1890-91
1891-92
18921
£
346,821
298,165
515,922
: Imports
Exports
, Shipping entered
and cleared (tons)
£
232,807 ,
210,297 ,
442,172 j
£
274,123
399,648
474,441
£
344,125
432,419
523,729
i
Chief exports — Wheat, barley, carobs, wine, cotton, raisins, silk cocoons,
hides and skins, wool, cheese, vetches, animals, fruit and vegetables. The
principal imports are — Cotton and woollen manufactures, tobacco, groceries,
rice, alcohol, iron, leather, petroleum, timber, sugar, soap, and copper
manufactures.
Coins current — English, Turkish, and French gold, English silver and
bronze, Cyprus piastres, half piastre and quarter piastre pieces (9 piastres = one
shilling).
The Imperial Ottoman Bank has establishments in the island. Turkish
weights and measures current.
About 400 miles of good road, 240 miles of telegraph lines ; cable connects
with Alexandria and Syria.
Total number of letters delivered in Cyprus, 1892-93 : local 229,715 ;
received from abroad, 217,721 ; posted for tne island, 229,715 ; for foreign
countries, 110,419.
Annual Report of H.H.'s High Commissioner.
Lang (HamiltonX Cyprus.
Seiff. Reisen in der Asiatischen Tnrkei, 8. Leipzig, 1875.
Thomson (John). Through Cyprus with the Camera. 2 vols. Folio. London, 1879.
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AREA AND POPULATION
111
HOWG KOWG.
Constitution and Government.
The Crown colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was confirmed by the
treaty of Nanking, in August 1842 ; and the charter bears date April 5,
1843. Hong Kong is the great centre for British commerce with China and
Japan, and a military and naval station of first-class importance.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary, the Officer Com-
manding the Troops, the Attorney-General, the Registrar-General, the
Treasurer, and the Director of Public Works. There is also a Legislative
Council, presided over by the Governor, and composed of the Colonial Secre-
tary, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Director of Public Works, the
Harbour Master, the Registrar-General, and five unofficial members — viz. three
nominated by the Crown (one of whom is a Chinese), one nominated by the
Chamber of Commerce, and one by the Justices of the Peace.
Governor of Bong Kong. — Sir William Robinson, K.C.M.G., Lieutenant-
Governor of the Bahamas, 1874 ; Governor, 1875 ; Lieutenant-Governor of
Windward Islands, 1880 ; Governor, 1881 ; Governor of Trinidad, 1885.
Appointed Governor of Hong Kong, 1891.
The Governor has a salary of 32,000 dollars per annum.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the mouth
of the Canton River, about 40 miles east of Macao, and 90 miles south of
Canton. The whole of Hong. Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge,
stretching nearly east and west about 11 miles, its breadth from 2 to 5 miles,
and its area rather more than 29 square miles. It is separated from the main-
land of China by a narrow strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does
not exceed half a mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Kowloon, forming
part of the mainland of China, was ceded to Great Britain by a treaty entered
into in 1861 with the Government of China, and now forms part of Hong
Kong. The city of Victoria extends for upwards of four miles along the
southern shore of the beautiful harbour
The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval establish-
ments, was as follows at the last census, taken in 1891 : —
-
Male
Female
Total
White
Coloured
6,463
151,122
2,082
61,774
8,545
212,896
Total :
157,585
63,856
221,441
The total population in 1881 was 160,402 ; thus the increase in ten years
was 61,039. The total white population in 1881 was 7,990, showing an
increase during the ten years of 555. Of the coloured population in 1891,
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112
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONG KONG
1,901 were Indians, and 210,995 Chinese, one-third of the latter being
British subjects by birth. Of the resident white population, exclusive of the
military, police, naval establishment, &c. , almost one-half are Portuguese by
origin, and only one-third English. Next follow natives of Germany, the
United States, France, Spain, Italy, and Turkey, the remainder being divided
among about ten nationalities. A considerable proportion of the Indian
population are included in the military and police. The estimated population
on the 3l8t December, 1892, was 231,662, being British and foreign (white
and coloured), 10,590, and Chinese, 221,072.
The births and deaths for the last five years were as follows : —
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Births
1,662
1,683
1,617
1,734
1,843
Deaths
6,034
4,597
4,553
5,374
4,907
Births
per 1,000
770
8 65
8*14
771
7 96
Deaths
per 1,000
27*96
23*64
22*90
23-90
21*18
There is a constant flow of emigration from China passing through Hong
Kong. In the five years from 1886 to 1890 there passed through the colony
annually an average of 66,706 Chinese emigrants, more than three-fourths
going to the Straits Settlements. In 1892 the number of Chinese emigrants
was 52,143, and the immigrants 97,971.
Instruction.
In 1892 there were 122 schools subject to Government supervision, as com-
pared with 117 in 1891. Attending these schools in 1892 were 8,277 pupils, as
compared with 7,671 in 1891 ; the total expenditure in 1892 being 54,819
dollars, as compared with 60,359 dollars in 1891. There are also many private
schools, with 2,217 pupils, a police school (with 390 scholars) and a reformatory
industrial school (with 99 scholars).
Justice and Crime.
There is a supreme court, a police magistrate's court, and a marine
magistrate's court. The number of criminal convictions before the supreme
court in 1888 was 99 ; 1889, 64 ; 1890, 43 ; 1891, 26 ; 1892, 18. Before the
police magistrate's court, 1888, 9,932 ; 1889, 6,894 ; 1890, 7,740 ; 1891,
13,972 ; 1892, 12,098. The total number of prisoners in gaol at the end of
1892 was 468, of which 18 were Europeans. There is a police force in the
colony numbering 666 men, of whom 127 are British, 210 Sikhs, and the
remainder Chinese.
Finance.
The colony has paid its local establishments since 1855, since which year
it has held generally a surplus of revenue over and above its fixed expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony were as follows in each
of the last five years (the actual local rate for the dollar at the end of 1892
was 2*. 9 Id).
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COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
118
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Ordinal*}'
Premiums from
Land and Water
Account
Ordinary
Extraordinary, in-
cluding Defensive
Works and Water
Account
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Dollars
1,557,300
1,823,549
1,995,220
1,907,054
2,032,244
Dollars
160,688
154,725
16,638
51,761
204,688
Dollars
1,461,459
1,459,167
1,517,843
1,868,073
1,882,474
Dollars
530,870
374,551
397,507
580,013
460,362
The public revenue of the colony is derived chiefly from land, taxes, and
licences, and an opium monopoly, which together more than cover the expenses
of administration. A large portion of the expenditure has to be devoted to
the maintenance of a strong police force. On defensive works alone (apart
from military expenditure) 217,901 dollars was spent in 1886, 258,444 in 1887,
62,115 in 1888, 63,753 in 1889, 5,082 in 1890, and 20,005 in 1891. Expen-
diture on establishments in 1891, 916,809 dollars in the colony, 24,724Z. in
Great Britain.
Hong Kong has a public debt, amounting to 200,000Z., which was raised
in 1887 for waterworks, fortifications, and sanitation. On December 31, 1892,1
the surplus assets of the Colony exceeded its liabilities by 35,105 dollars.
Defence.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 2,800 men. There is also a
Volunteer Artillery Corps of 100 effective members. In 1892 the Colonial
contribution to Military and Volunteers was 269,005 dollars. It has now been
raised to 40,000/. Hong Kong is the headquarters of the China Squadron,
and there are usually several war-vessels present. The China Squadron
consists of 20 vessels in all.
Commerce and Shipping.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part of the com-
merce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, India, Australia, the United
States, and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total
imports and exports. There being no custom house, there are no official
returns of the value of the imports and exports of the colony from and to all
countries, but only mercantile estimates, according to which the former
average four, and the latter two millions sterling. Hong Kong is the centre
of trade in many kinds of goods. Among the principal are opium, sugar and
flour, salt, earthenware, oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, sandal wood,
ivory, betel, vegetables, live stock, granite, &c. The Chinese tea and silk
trade is largely in the hands of Hong Kong firms.
The amount of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong and the
United Kingdom is shown in the following table for five years :— -
1 In 1892 there were thirteen monthly payments.
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114
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONG KONG
Imports into Gt. Britain
from Hong Kong . .
Export* of British Pro-
duce to Hong Kong .
1,296,690
2,804,761
£
1,129,190
2,171,286
1890
£
1,225,064
2,528,212
1891
1892
£
£
1,101,702
836,705
2,531,828
1,799,812
The principal imports into Great Britain from Hong Kong and exports from
Great Britain to Hong Kong have been as follows in five years : —
Imports into Ot.
Britain :
Tea .
Silk : raw,
woven, &e. .
Hemp .
Copper .
Exports from Ot.
Britain :
Cottons .
Woollens
Iron
Lead
Copper .
265,309
459,563
134,998
53,409
203,115
546,092
156,338
37,090
£
194,323
494,349
197,725
102,661
£
195,526
505,356
100,426
68,584
1892
£
227,480
277,229
133,393
1,839,309 ! 1,335,135
366,357 201,066
93,057 86,743
87,338 80,540
29,267 82,379
1,583,486 i 1,545,554
259,886 316,180
118,397
48,522
84,925
105,468
44,653
92,810
1,073,286
250,505
79,662
25,083
56,785
In 1892, 4,499 vessels of 5,166,988 tons entered at ports in Hong Kong,
being 28,311 tons over 1891. Besides these, 22,755 junks of 1,606,251 tons
arrived, compared with 1891 a decrease of 51 junks and 28,365 tons. The
number of native vessels in Hong Kong — independent of several thousand
smaller boats that visit Hong Kong annually — is about 52,000, with a tonnage
of nearly 1,300,000.
Money and Credit.
The value of Bank notes in circulation in 1892 was 6,066,958 dollars, as
compared with 4,114,787 dollars in 1884 ; specie in reserve in 1892, 2,701,150
dollars, as compared with 1,810,033 dollars in 1884. The approximate
amount of coin in circulation up to December 31, 1892 was : — Hong Kong
dollars and half-dollars struck at Hong Kong Mint, 2,137,380 dollars ; Hong
Kong silver and copper subsidiary coins, 8,220,125 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in use at Hong Kong, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Mexican Dollar = 100 Cents = Exchange (1892) at 2*. 9jtf.
„ Chinese Tael = 10 Mace =
100 Candareens = 1,000 Cash = about 3*. lOd.
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INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES 115
Weights and Measures.
The Tael = 1J oz. avoirdupois.
„ Picul = 133 lbs
» Catty = 1} „
„ Chek = 14| inches.
„ Cheung = 12^ feet.
Besides the above weights and measures of China, those of Great Britain
are in general use in the colony.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Report on the Blue Book of Hong Kong for 1892. Hong Kong, 1893.
Colonial Office List. 1893.
Statistics of Hong Kong, in 'Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other
Possessions of the United Kingdom.' Annual. London.
Trade of Hong Kong with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Dew*f«(N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan : a Complete Guide to the Open
Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong, and Macao. 8. Lon-
don, 1867.
Hong Kong Almanac. 8. Hong Kong, 1893.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude and Latitude.
8. HongKox
Hong Kong, 1864.
INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
British India, in the widest sense of the term, comprises all that
part of the great Indian peninsula which is directly or indirectly
under British rule, as well as certain countries beyond that area
which are under the control or protection of the Governor-
GeneraL The non-British parts of India will be found included
in the second part of the Year-Book among Foreign Countries.
In a limited sense, the term British India applies to the districts
under direct British administration, thus excluding native States.
The term is so used, unless otherwise stated, in the tables, etc.,
that follow. The symbol Rx. stands for ten rupees. Rx. 1 = Rs. 1 0.
Government and Constitution.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is
established by the Act 21 <fc 22 Vict. cap. 106, called ' An Act for
the Better Government of India/ sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
this Act, all the territories heretofore under the government of
the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty, and all its
powers are exercised in her name; all territorial and other
i 2
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116 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
revenues, and all tributes and other payments, are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone.
The Secretary of State for India is invested with all the
powers hitherto exercised by the Company or by the Board of
Control. By Act 39 <fc 40 Vict. cap. 10, proclaimed at Delhi,
before the princes and high dignitaries of India, January 1, 1877,
the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland assumed the additional
title of Empress of India.
The executive authority in India is vested in a Governor-
General, commonly, but not officially, styled Viceroy, appointed
by the Crown, and acting under the orders of the Secretary of
State for India. The Governor-General in Council is invested
with power to make laws for all persons, whether British or
native, foreigners or others, within the Indian territories under
the dominion of Her Majesty, and for all subjects of the Crown
within the dominions of Indian princes and States in alliance with
Her Majesty.
Governor-General of India. — The Right Hon. Victor Alexander
Bruce, Earl of Elgin and, Kincardine, born May 16, 1849 :
educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford ; was Lord-
Lieutenant of Fifeshire and a University Commissioner foi
Scotland ; was Treasurer of the Household and Commissioner of
Works, 1886. Appointed to be Governor-General in succession
to the Marquis of Lansdowne in October, 1893.
The salary of the Governor-General is Rx. 25,080 a year.
The following is a list of the Governors-General of India, with
the dates of appointment : —
Warren Hastings . . . 1772
Lord Ellenborough .
. 1842
Sir J. Macpherson . . 1785
Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge .
. 1844
Earl (Marquis) Corn wallis . . 1786
Earl of Dalhousie .
. 1847
Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore) 1793
Marquis Wellesley . . 1798
Lord Canning .
. 1855
Lord Elgin
. 1862
Marquis Corn wallis . . . 1805
Sir John (Lord) Lawrence
. 1863
Sir G. Barlow . . .1805
Earl of Mayo .
. 1868
EarlofMinto .... 1807
Lord (Earl of) Northbrook
. 1872
Earl Moira (Marquis of Has-
Lord (Earl) Lytton .
. 1876
tings) 1813
Earl Amherst .... 1823
Marquis of Ripon .
. 1880
Marquis of Dufferin and Ava
. 1884
Lord W. Bentinck . . .1828
Marquis of Lansdowne .
. 1888
Lord Auckland . . 1835
Earl of Elgin .
. 1894
The government of the Indian Empire is entrusted to a Secre-
tary of State for India, assisted by a Council of not less than ten
members, vacancies in which are now filled up by the Secretary
of State for India. But the major part of the Council must be
Digitized by VjOOQIC
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 117
of persons who have served or resided ten years in India, and
have not left India more than ten years previous to the date of
their appointment ; and no person not so qualified can be
appointed unless nine of the continuing members be so qualified.
The office is held for a term of ten years ; but a member may be
removed upon an address from both Houses of Parliament, and
the Secretary of State for India may for special reasons reappoint
a member of the Council for a further term of five years. No
member can sit in Parliament.
The duties of the Council, which has no initiative authority,
are, under the direction of the Secretary of State for India, to
conduct the business transacted in the United Kingdom in rela-
tion to the government of India. Moreover, by the Act of 1858,
the expenditure of the revenues of India, both in India and else-
where, is subject to the control of the Secretary of State in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of such
revenues can be made without the concurrence of a majority of
votes at a meeting of the Council. In dealing, however, with
questions affecting the relations of the Government with foreign
powers, in making peace and war, in prescribing the policy of the
Government towards native States, and generally in matters
where secrecy is necessary, the Secretary of State acts on his own
authority. The Secretary has to divide the Council into com-
mittees, and to regulate the transaction of business. At least
one meeting must be held every week, at which not less than
five members shall be present.
The government in India is exercised by the * Council of the Governor-
General,' consisting of five ordinary members and a public works member,
whose post may be left vacant at the option of the Crown. The commander-
in-chief may be, and in practice always is, appointed an extraordinary member.
Governors and Lieutenant-Governors become extraordinary members when the
Council meets within their Provinces. The ordinary members of the Council
preside over the departments of finance and commerce, home, revenue and
agriculture, military administration, legislation, and public works. The
Viceroy usually keeps the foreign department in his own hands. The appoint-
ment of the ordinary members of the ' Council of the Governor-General,' and
of the governors of Madras and Bombay, is made by the Crown. The mem-
bers of the Council, together with from ten to sixteen * additional members for
making laws and regulations,' form a Legislative Council ; these additional
members are nominated by the Viceroy. In accordance with the new regu-
lations under the Indian Councils Act (55 and 56 Victoria, c. 14), a proportion
of the members so nominated must previously be recommended by various
local bodies. The proceedings in the Legislative Council are public. The
Lieutenant-Governors and chief commissioners of the other ten provinces are
appointed by the Governor-General, subject to the approbation of the Secretary
of State for India.
The governors of Madras and Bombay (including Sind) have each a
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118 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
legislative and executive council, and a civil service of their own. The
lieutenant-governors of Bengal and of the North-West Provinces (with Oudh)
have each a legislative council only ; the other administrators of provinces
have no councils and no legislative powers. Although the Viceroy is supreme,
the local governments of the various provinces enjoy a large measure of
administrative independence. Each province is broken into divisions under
Commissioners, and then divided into districts, which form the units of
administration. At the head of each District is an executive officer (collector-
magistrate, or deputy-commissioner), who has entire control of the district,
and is responsible to the governor of the province. Subordinate to the magis-
trate (in most Districts) there are a joint magistrate, an assistant-magistrate,
and one or more deputy-collectors and other officials. In some cases the
magistrate-collector is also judge, while in others the two functions are
separate. There are about 245 of such Districts in British India. In the
accompanying census tables, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Rangoon, and Aden,
have each been reckoned as a District ; bringing the total to 250.
India is administratively divided into British territory and Native or
Feudatory States ; the former is under the direct control in all respects of
British officials. The control which the Supreme Government exercises over
the Native States varies in degree ; but they are all governed by the native
princes, ministers or councils with the help and under the advice of a resi-
dent, or agent, in political charge either of a single State or a group of States.
The chiefs have no right to make war or peace, or to send ambassadors to each
other or to external States ; they are not permitted to maintain a military
force above a certain specified limit ; no European is allowed to reside at any
of their courts without special sanction ; ana the Supreme Government can
exercise the right of dethronement in case of misgovernment. Within these
limits the more important chiefs possess sovereign authority in their own
territories. Some of them are required to pay an annual tribute ; with others
this is nominal, or not demanded.
Local Government.
There were, in March 1892, 761 municipal towns, with a population of
15 millions. The municipal bodies have the care of the roads, water supply,
drains, markets, and sanitation ; they impose taxes, enact bye-laws, make im-
provements, and spend money, but the sanction of the Provincial Government
is necessary in each case before new taxes can be levied or new bye-laws can
be brought into force. By the Local Self-Government Acts of 1882-84, the
elective principle has been extended, in a large or small measure, all over
India. In all larger towns, and in many of the smaller towns, the majority
of members of committees are elected by the ratepayers, everywhere the
majority of town committees consists of natives, and in many committees all
the members are natives. For rural tracts, except in Burma, there are district
and local boards, which are in charge of roads, district schools, and hospitals.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Position of the Population.
The following synoptical table gives the estimated population
and area in square miles for six successive decennial periods.
The population is in millions and two decimals.
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AREA AND POPULATION
119
British Territory.
The subjoined tables embody the leading details of the
census taken February 26, 1891, and the population obtained
at the previous census : —
British Provinces
Area in
square
miles
No. of
Dis-
tricts
Population
in 1881
460,722
4,881,426
66,750,520
2,672,673
Population
in 1891
Increase
Pop. per
sq. mile
1891
Ajmere
Assam
Bengal
Berars
2,711
49,004
151,543
17,718
2
13
47
6
542,358
5,476,888
71,346,987
2,897,491
81,636
S9S,4<>7
4,596,467
224,818
200
112
471
163
207
60
Bombay Presidency :—
Bombay .
Bind ....
Aden
77,275
47,789
80
19
5
1
14,057,284
2,413,823
34,860
15,985,270
2.871,774
44,079
1,927,986
457,951
9,219
Total Bombay .
Burma:—
Upper
Lower
125,144
87,957
25
17
19
16,505,967
3,736,771
18,901,123
4,658,627
7,605,560
10,784,294
173,055
35,630,440
2,395,156
*,946,Q3S
921,856
151
35
53
45
125
109
252
411
522
436
188
229
Total Burma
Central Provinces
Coorg
Madras .
171,480
86,501
1,583
141,189
36
18
1
21
9,838,791
178,302
30,827,113
32,762,766
11,887,741
945,503
— 5,247
4,803,327
N.-W. Provinces and
Oudh:— -
N.-W. Provinces .
Oudh.
83,286
24,217
87
12
34,254,254
12,650,831
1,491,488
1,268,090
2,754,578
2,023,661
27,270
981
Total United Pro-
vinces
Punjab
Quetta, &c
Andamans
107,508
110,667
49
32
44,150,507
18,843,186
14,628
46,905,085
20,866,847
27,270
15,609
221,172,952
Total British Pro-
vinces.
964,993
250
198,860,606
22,812,346
The totals for population shown in column 4, include 43, 634 for the north
Lushai country (under Assam), 2,946,933 for Upper Burma, and 27,270 for
Quetta, &c. Excluding the population of these tracts, not enumerated in
1881, the net increase of the population of British territory in the decade was
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120 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
19,294,509. The total population of British India is about 15 per cent, of the
estimated population of the globe.
The Berars are only provisionally under British administration. Mysore
was restored to the Native Government in March 1881.
Besides the provinces of India under direct British administration,
there are, more or less under the control of the Indian Government, a
number of feudatory or Native States, covering an extent of 595,167
English square miles, with 66,050,479 inhabitants. They are, according to
the census of 1891 : —
States
Area in
Population
Population
Density
or Agency
square miles
1881
1891
mile
Haidarabad
82,698
9,845,594
11,537,040
1,691,446
139
Baroda .
8,226 ,
2,185,005
2,415,396
230,391
294
Mysore
27,936
4,186,188
4,943,604
757,416
177
Kashmir .
80,900
—
2,543,952
2,543,952
31
Rajputana
130,268
9,959,012
12,016,102
2,057,090
92 !
Central India .
77,808
9,387,119
10,318,812
931,693
133
Bombay States .
69,045
6,926,464
8,059,298
1,132,834
117
Madras States . ,
9,609 '
3,344,849
3,700,622
355,773
385
Central Provinces
States .
29,435
1,709,720
2,160,511
450,791
73
Bengal States . ,
N.W.P. States
35,834
2,786,446
3,296,379
509,933
93
5,109
741,750
792,491
50,741
155
Punjab States .
38,299
3,860,761
4,263,280
402,519
111 1
Shdn outposts .
—
—
2,992
2,992
— '
Total States .
595,167
1,560,160
54,932,908
66,050,479
11,117,571
nil
Total India .
253,793,514
287,223,431
33,429,917
184
The totals for population in column 3 include 43,716 under Rajputana,
2,543,952 for Kashmir, and 2,992 for Shan States (outposts only). Excluding
the population of these tracts, not enumerated in 1881, the net addition to
the population of Native States comes to 8,526,911. Similarly, the net
addition to the total population of all India comes to 27,821,420.
Besides the population shown in the above tables, as enumerated in 1891,
other tracts were roughly enumerated by means of family or tribal registration.
Other tracts, again, were duly enumerated, but the detailed returns were lost
during frontier disturbances. The rough totals which have been preserved are
as follows : —
British Tracts. Approximate population.
Upper Burma frontier (in Bhamo and Katha) . 42,217
British Baluchistan, excluding Quetta, &c. . .145,417
Burma frontier 74,276
Total British 261,910
Sikkim 30,458
Shan States 372,969
Rajputana (Bhils, &c.) 204,241
Total native territory . 607,668
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AREA AND POPULATION 121
The following are further details concerning the larger Native States : —
States
Haidarabad
Baroda
Mysore
Kashmir
Sikkim
Shan States
Rajputana States
Udaipur
Jodhpur
Bikaner
Jaipur
Bhartpur
Dholpur
; Alwar
Jhalawar
: Tonk .
Kotah
Central India States
Indore
Rewa.
Bhopal
Gwalior
Bombay States :
Cutch
Kolhapur .
Khairpur (Sind) .
Madras States :
Travancore
Cochin
Central Prov. States :
Bastar
Bengal States:
Kuch Behar
Hill Tipperah .
^££ I Population
HE" , 1891
82,698
8,226
27,936
80,900
12,861
37,445
23,090
15,349
1,961
1,156
3,051
3,043
2,839
3,803
9,625
12,679
6,950
25,855
6,500 '
2,816 i
6,109 l
11,537,040
2,415,396
4,943,604
2,543,952
30,458
372,969
1,844,360!
2,521,727
831,955
2,832,276
640,103
279,890
767,786
343,601
380,069
526,267
1,099,990 s
1,508,943
952,486
3,378,774 s
558,415
913,131
131,937
Gross
Revenue
Rx.
Reigning Family
I
3,340,000 Turk, M.
1,530,000 Maratha
1,475,000 Hindu
500,000 DograSikh
10,000 Buddhist
248,142 ! Sesodia Rajput j
429, 074 Rahtor Rajput
200, 849 Rahtor Rajput
655,485 Kachhwaha Rajput
270,938 Jat
102,500 Jat
266,100 Naruka Rajput
154,270 , Jhala Rajput j
133, 869 I Boner (Pathan), M. \
225,002 Hara Rajput I
I
580,462
133,487
400,000
1,391,040
Mahratha
Mahratha
Afghan, M.
Mahratha
178,500 'Rajput
337,843 ' Mahratha
— ! Baluch, M.
I 6,730 2,557,736 j 784,828 i Hindu
Hindu
1,362
13,062
1,307
' 4,086
722,906 ! 173,298
310,884 ! 16,827
578,868
137,442
179,998
98,780
Gond. Hindu
Hindu
Hindu
J/ = Muhammadan.
1 Excludes certain areas belonging to Central India chiefs.
J Includes certain areas in Rajputana.
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122 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
1
! States
Area in
square
miles
Population
1891
Gross
Revenue
B,
Reigning Family
N.W.P. States:
Rampur
945
551,249
345,300
/Rohilla Afghan,
\ M. i
Garhwal .
4,164
241,242
8,000
Hindu
Punjab States :
Patiala
5,951
1,583,521
5,640,000
Jat Sikh
Bahawulpur
17,285
650,042
1,600,000
Daudputra, 3f.
Jat Sikh
Jhid .
1,268
284,560
622,000
Nabha
936
282,756
700,000
Jat Sikh
Kaptirthala
598
299,690
2,000,000
Sikh
Mandi
1,131
166,923
406,000
Rajput |
Sirmur (Nahan) .
1,108
124,134
210,000
Rajput ;
Afghan, M.
Maler Kotla
162
75,755
314,000
Faridkot .
643
115,040
300,000
Jat Sikh
Chamba
2,126
124,032
350,000
Rajput f
Suket
404
52,403
105,000
Rajput
Kalsia
149
68,633
193,000
Jat Sikh
M = Muhammadan.
The following table shows, in millions, the civil condition of the population
of India, British territory and native States, so far as was ascertained the
census : —
Unmarried.
Males .
Females
65-1
43-6
Married.
62 1
62*4
Widowed.
64
227
Not thus
enumerated.
131
11-8
Total.
1467
140*5
Total Population India 287*2
Of the population on British territory in 1891, 112,542,739 were males,
and 108,630,213 were females. Of the population of the Native States
34,184,557 were males, and 31,865,922 were females.
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AHEA AND POPULATION
123
II. Population according to Race.
In the census results the total population of India is divided into 117
groups on the basis of language. But even the different native languages do
not denote separate ethnical groups, many of them being only dialects, and all
of them capable of classification into a few groups. The following table shows
the chief linguistic groups, with the population (in millions and two decimals)
assigned thereto : —
Aryo- Indie
Dra vidian
Kolarian
Gypsy .
Khasi .
Tibeto-Burman
195 46
52 96
2 96
•40
•17
7*29
Mon-Annam .
Shan .
Sinitic
Aryo-Iranic
Semitic
Aryo-European
•23
•18
•71
•33
•05
•24
The following table gives all the languages or dialects which are more pre-
valent than English, with the population (in millions and two decimals) of
those who speak them as parent tongues: —
Languages
Pop.
85.67
Languages
Pop.
593 '
Languages
Pop.
Hindi.
Burmese
Marwadi
1-44
Bengali
41*34
Malayaluni
j 5-43 ;
Pushtu .
1-08
Telugu .
Mahrathi
19-88 :
Urdu .
3 67
Karen .
•67
18*89 !
Sindbi .
• 2.59
K61 .
•65
Punjabi
1772 1
Santali .
1-71 i
Tulu .
•49
Tamil
15 23 1
W. Pahari
1-52
Kachhi .
•44
Gujarat! .
10-62 j
Assamese
; 1-43
Gypsy .
•40
Kanarese
9-75
Gondi .
1 1*38
Oraon .
•37
Uriya .
9.01
Central Pahai
•il 1-15
Kond .
•32
The English language is next in order with a population of 238,499.
The British-born population in India amounted, according to the census of
1871, to 64,061 persons, in 1881 to 89,798, and in 1891 to 100,511. In 1891,
the total number of persons not born in India, including the French and
Portuguese possessions, was 661,637. Of these, 478,656 returned as their
birth-place countries contiguous to India ; 60,519 countries in Asia remote
from India, including China; 100,551 the United Kingdom; 10,095 other
European, American and Australasian countries ; while 11,816 were born in
Africa, &c, or at sea.
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124 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
III. Occupations of the Population.
The following table shows, in thousands, for 1891, the distribution of the
total population, male and female, according to the occupations by which
they live, whether as workers or dependents : —
State and Local Admini-
strations
Defence
Service of Foreign States .
Provision and care of cattle
Agriculture
Personal, household, and
sanitary services .
Food, drink, and stimulants
Light, firing, and forage .
Buildings
Vehicles and vessels .
Articles of supplementary
requirement
Textile fabrics and dress .
Metals and precious stones
I 5,600
, 664
1 500
3,646
171,735
I 11,220
i 14,576
! 3,522
I 1,438
147
1,149
12,611
3,821
Glass, pottery and stone
ware ....
Wood, cane and, matting .
Drugs, dyes, gums, &c. .
Leather, horns, boxes, &c.
Commerce
Transport and storage
Learned and artistic pro-
fessions
Sport and amusements
Earth work and general
labour.
Undefined and disreputable
Independent means .
2,361
4,293
392
3,285
4,686
3,953
5,672
141
25,468
1,563
4,774
Total
287,223
IV. Movement of the Population.
The registration of vital statistics among the general population is still
very imperfect. The following table shows for 1891-92 the mean ratio of
births and deaths per thousand of the population for the provinces of British
India as officially recorded. It is admitted by the local authorities that the
returns for Bengal are manifestly absurd : —
Bengal ....
N. W. Provinces and Oudh
Punjab .
Central Provinces
Lower Burma .
Assam .
Madras .
Bombay .
Births
Deaths
2146
26-94
33*26 1
31 14
34*02 !
29 13
43*09 i
35-54
20-74 ;
15-93
28-59 !
29*91
34 4
26 2
36 27
27*26
The average death-rate for British India has varied from 20 '98 per 1,000
in 1880 to 28*09 in 1891.
The numlier of coolie emigrants from India in 1885-86, was 7,979 ;
1886-87, 7,978 ; 1887-88, 6,451 ; 1888-89, 10,388 ; 1889-90, 16,874 ; 1890-91,
20,085 ; in 1891-92, 16,567. The bulk of these emigrants go to British
Colonies, mainly to Deincrara, Trinidad, and Mauritius.
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AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
125
V. Principal Towns.
There are in India 75 towns, with over 50,000 inhabitants, as follows, ac-
cording to the results of the census of 1891 : —
Towns Population
Calcutta (with
suburbs)1 . 861,764
Bombay . . 821,764
Madras . . 452,518
Haidarabad
(with suburbs) 415,039
Lucknow
Benares .
Delhi .
Mandalay
Cawnpur
Bangalore
Rangoon
Lahore .
Allahabad
Agra
Patna
Poona (with
suburbs)
Jaipur
Ahmadabad .
Araritsar
Bareilly .
Meerut .
Nagpur
273,028
219,467
192,579
188,815
188,712
180,366
180,324
176,854
175,246
168,662
165,192
161,390
158,905
148,412
136,766
121,039
119,390
118,960
117,014
Towns
Howrah .
Baroda .
Surat
Karachi .
Gwalior .
Indore .
Trichinopoli
Madura .
Jabalpur
Peshawur
Mirzapur
Dacca
Gaya
Ambala .
Faizabad
Shahjahanpur
Farukhabad
Rampur .
Multan .
Mysore .
Rawalpindi
Darbhangah
Moradabad
Bhopal .
Bhagalpur
Ajmere .
1 Excluding Howrah.
opulation
Towns
Population
116,606 ! Bhartpur
. 68,033
116,420 J Salem .
. 67,710
109,229 ' Jalandhar
. 66,202
105,199 Calicut .
. 66,078
104,083
Gorakhpur
63,620
92,329
Saharanpur
. 63,194
90,609
Sholapur
61,915
87,428
Jodhpur .
. 61,849
84,481
Aligarh .
61,485
84,181
Muttra .
61,195
84,130
Bellary .
. 59,467
82,321
Negapatam
. 59,221
80,383
Haidardbad (Si
nd) 58,048
79,294
Bhaunagar
57,653
78,921
Chapra .
. 57,352
78,522
Monghyr
. 57,077
78,032
Bikaner ,
. 56,252
76,733
Patiala .
55,856
74,562
Maulmain
. 55,785
74,048
Sialkot .
. 55,087
73,795
Tanjore .
54,390
73,561
Combaconum
54,307
72,921
Jhansi .
. 53,779
70,338
Hubli .
. 52,595
69,106
Alwar .
. 52,398
68,843
Firozpur
. 50,437
After these towns there are 40 of between 35,000 and 50,000 inhabitants,
and 109 between 20,000 and 35,000. Of the so-called villages, as many as
343,052 in 1891, contained less than 200 inhabitants each ; and 222,996 con-
tained a population varying between 200 and 500.
Religion.
The most prevalent religion in India is that of the Hindus, their number
teing nearly three-fourths of the total population ; together with the Muham-
madans, who number 57,321,164, they comprise over 92 per cent, of the whole
community. The Buddhists are mostly in Burma, as will be seen from the
following table, which also shows that the number of Christians is a little
over 2,250,000 :—
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126 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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INSTRUCTION
127
Sect
Sect
Of the Christians enumerated above (2,284,380) the following are the
chief sub-divisions as given in the official returns : —
Population!
j 63,967 :
j 201,684
Roman Catholics .
Church of England
Presbyterians
Dissenters .
Population
1,315,263
295,016
40,407
296,938
| Other Protestants .
I Syrians, Armenians, and
Greeks
Instruction.
The following statistics are those of the census of 1891 : —
Males .
Females
Under Instruction
Not under Instruc-
tion, and able to
read and write
2,997,558
197,662
11,554,035
543,495
3,195,220
12,097,530
Not under Instruc-
tion and unable to
read and write
118,819,408
127,726,768
246,546,176
Not returned.
13,356,295
12,028,210
25,384,505
In 1891-92 the total expenditure on public instruction in India was
Rx. 3,073,184, against Rx. 67,100 in 1865, and Rx. 39,400 in 1858. Of the
sum spent in 1890-91, Rx. 540,010 came from local rates and cesses ;
Rx. 142,765 from municipal funds; Rx. 611,923 from subscriptions, endow-
ments, &c. ; 889,412 from fees ; and Rx. 889,174 from provincial revenues.
The following was the educational expenditure (in millions and two
decimals) at the dates quoted : —
1887
1888
1889
I
Rx.
2*551
Rx.
2*637
I
Rx.
2-726
Rx.
2-782
1891
Rx.
2-897
At the head of the national system of education in India there are the five
Universities of Calcutta, Madras, B6mbay, Allahabad, and the Punjab, which,
though merely examining bodies, have numerous affiliated colleges in which a
prescribed higher education is given than at the schools. Normal schools
have been established in every province for training teachers ; and a staff ol
inspecting officers visit all schools on the departmental lists. Medical colleges
furnish a limited number of graduates and a larger number of certificated
practitioners who do duty at hospitals and dispensaries, or serve in the military
medical department. Engineering and other technical schools have also
increased, and there are a few art schools.
The following table shows the number of students who matriculated at the
five Universities for the years quoted : —
Universities
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Calcutta .
Madras
Bombay .
Punjab
Allahabad
2,409
2,165
527
1,997
1,963
823
212
1,190
1,854
914
324
623
2,727
1,611
746
389
532
1,816
1,648
744
399
606
1,695
2,381
916
619
747
"1
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128 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The following table embraces the principal statistics for 1892, as to the
number of the various classes of schools and the pupils : —
hi-
gher
Institutions for
Scholars
„
Males
137
4,462
91,936 :
1
510 '
38,220 j
Females
Males |
Females
Colleges .
General education :
Secondary .
Primary
Special education :
Technical, medical,
dustrial, and o
schools
Private institutions :
Total .
2
445
5,243
50
1,064
16,411
441,796
2,571,384
20,686 '
481,289 |
50
35,780
270,205
1,250
32,324
135,266 1
6,803
3,531,566 |
339,609
Grand total
142,069
3,871,175
Of the total number of educational institutions in India (viz., 142,069),
21,235 are public, 60,527 are aided, and 60,276 are private and unaided.
Since the appointment of a commission, in 1883, to investigate the whole
system of education in India, the results have been to place public instruction
on a broader and more popular basis, to encourage private enterprise in teach-
ing, to give a more adequate recognition to indigenous schools, and to provide
that the education of the people shall advance at a- more equal pace along with
the instruction of the higher classes. Female education and the instruction of
certain backward classes of the community, such as Muhammadans, received
special attention. Notwithstanding the progress of education, the proportion
of the total population able to read and write is still very small. It is esti-
mated that in British India only 19*3 per cent, of the boys of a school-going
age attend school ; the jiercentage in the case of girls being 1 '8.
In 1892 there were 547 vernacular newspapers published regularly in 16
different languages. Only one daily vernacular newspaper circulates as many
as 1,500 copies, only one weekly as many as 20,000. During the year, 7,658
books and magazines, including many translations and new editions, appeared,
about nine-tenths being in native languages.
Justice and Crime.
The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and the Lieutenant-Governorships
of Bengal and the N.W. Provinces have each a high court, supreme both in
civil and criminal business, but with an ultimate appeal to the Judicial Com-
mittee of the Privy Council in England. Of the minor provinces, the Pnnjab
has a chief court, with five judges ; the Central Provinces, Oudh and Sind,
have each one judicial commissioner. Burma has a judicial commissioner and
a recorder. For Assam, the high court at Calcutta is the highest judicial
authority, except in the three hul districts, where the chief commissioner of
Assam is judge without appeal in civil and criminal cases. In each district
the ' collector-magistrate ' is judge both of first instance and appeal.
Appellate and original jurisdiction is exercised in the superior courts by
about 450 judges. During 1890, about 5,600 magistrates, of whom one half
Digitized by VjOOQIC
JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE
129
were honorary, exercised jurisdiction. There were 1,720 civil judges under
the superior courts. Nearly all the civil judges, and the great majority of the
magistrates, in the courts of original jurisdiction are natives of India ; while
in Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, the proportion of natives sitting in the appel-
late courts is considerable.
The following table gives (in thousands) the number of persons brought to
trial and of those convicted in criminal cases for the years quoted : —
Persons | 1882
1887 1 1888
1889
1,448
691
516
1890
1891
Tried. . . . j 1,223
Convicted . . | 642
Of whom, fined. 479
1,377 1 1,433
674 1 689
500 j 511
1,490
* 712
533
1,525
749
572
In 1891, 427 persons were sentenced to death, 1,873 to transportation, and
174,922 to imprisonment. There were 940 convictions for the crime of murder,
8,015 for cattle-theft, 55,443 for ordinary theft, and 17,682 for housebreaking.
The total police of that year were 144,420 in number. Out of this number
58,606 were armed with firearms and 44,962 with swords.
In 1891 there were 36 central gaols, 182 district gaols, and 527 subordinate
gaols and lock-ups. The following table gives the number of prisoners in gaol
at the end of the years quoted : —
Prisoners
1886
1887
73,940
2,570
1888
1889
82,140
2,933
1890
86,726
3,048
1891
Male .
Female
74,204
2,772
76,627
2,694
82,321
92,996
3,154
Total .
76,976
76,510
85,073
89,774
96,100
Of the total number of convicts (183,688), admitted into gaol during 1892,
13,824 had been previously convicted once, 4,035 twice, and 3,167 more than
twice.
Finance.
The subjoined table gives, in tens of rupees (Rx.), the total
gross amount of the actual revenue and expenditure of India,
excluding capital expenditure on public works, and distinguishing
Indian and home expenditure, in each of the financial years
ending March 31,' 1882, and 1887-92.
Tears
ended ■
i March 31
1882
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Revenue
Rx.
75,684,987
77,337,134
78,759,744
81,696,678
85,085,203
85,741,649
89,143,283
Expenditure 1
In India
In Great Britain
Rx.
Rx.
54,719,905
17,369,631
57,329,672
19,829,035
58,932,878
21,855,698
59,705,003
21,954,657
60,960,805
21,512,365
61,897 459
20,656,019 j
65,763,836
22,911,912
Total Expenditure
Rx.
72,089,536
77,158,707
80,788,576
81,659,660
82,473,170
82,053,478
88,675,748
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li
130 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
For many years the equivalent in sterling money of the rupee
was approximately 2*., but since 1873 the equivalent has fallen
considerably lower, and has been subject to continual variations.
In December, 1893, the sterling value of the rupee was under
1*. 3£<2. In the budget estimate for 1893-94 the rate of
exchange is taken at 1*. 2fcZ.
The following table shows the items of revenue and expen-
diture for 1892-93 (revised estimate) and 1893-94 (budget
estimate) : —
Revenue
Heads of Revenue
Land revenue
Opium .
Salt
Stamps .
Excise .
Provincial \
rates . . /
Customs
Assessed taxes
Forests .
Registration .
Tribute .
Interest .
Post Office,
Telegraph,
and Mint
Civil depart- 1
ments . /
Miscellaneous
Railways
Irrigation
Buildings \
and roads /
Military de-\
partment8 . J
•}
1892-93
Rz.
24,857,600
7,966,500
8,648,600
4,458,200
5,203,600
3,645,700
1,616,800
1,683,100
1,627,600
430,700
798,600
868,600
2,755,600
1,660,800
898,400
19,064,200
2,404,300
639,100
793,300
Total revenue {90,021,200
1893-94
Rx.
25,157,200
7,316,200
8,587,800
4,434,100
5,145,900
3,707,100
1,665,200
1,687,200
1,588,800
429,300
771,700
893,600
2,720,800
1,635,500
982,900
19,551,700
2,337,700
' 623,900
769,100
90,005,700
Expenditure
Heads of
Expenditure
1892-93
Interest
Refunds,
compensa-
tions, &c.
}
Rx.
4,343,200
1893-94
Rx.
4,065,900
1,775,400; 1,702,800
CcXL°n .} '.688,200 8'684'500
:;}
Post Office,
Telegraph
and Mint
Civil salaries&c.
Miscell. CiviH
charges . /
Famine re-
lief and in
8urance
Railway con- \
struction . /
Rail way Reve-\
nue account J
Irrigation
Buildings \
and roads J
Army .
Defence works
Total .
Deduct Expendi-^
tnre from Pro- >
vincial balances J
Total expenditure*
charged against}
revenue . . J
2,528,400 2,609,300i
14,344,10014,472,000,
5,599,100 5,538,100,
1,133,700 1,159,800|
292,9001 75,100,
20,775,000 21,545,800
2,982,300 2,860,100i
5,927,400| 6,090,600
23, 557, 90023, 011, 400
' 559,3001 536,600
91,466,900
- 363,800
92,352,000.
- 751,200
91,103,100 91.600,800
In addition to the above expenditure a capital expenditure
not charged against revenue on railway and irrigation works is
set down for 1892-93 at Rx. 3,986,700, and for 1893-94 at
Rx. 3,550,000.
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Finance
131
The following table exhibits the growth of the three most
important sources of the public revenue of India, namely, land,
opium, and salt, in the financial years 1883 and 1888-93 : —
Tear ended March 31
Land
Opium
Salt
Rz.
Rx.
R*.
1883
21,876,047
9,499,594
6,177,781
1888
23,189,292
8,515,462
6,670,728
1889
23,016,404
8,562,319
7,675,634
1890
23,981,399
8,583,056
8,187,739
1891
24,045,209
7,879,182
8,523,368
1892
23,965,774
8,012,380
8,636,182
1893
24,857,600
7,966,500
8,648,600
The most important source of public income is the land.
The land revenue is levied according to an assessment on estates
or holdings. In the greater part of Bengal, about one-fourth of
Madras, and some districts of the North-West Provinces, the
assessment was fixed permanently one hundred years ago ; while
it is fixed periodically at intervals of from twelve to thirty years
over the rest of India. In the permanently settled tracts the
land revenue falls at a rate of about two-thirds of a rupee per
acre of cultivated land, and represents on an average about one-
fifth of the rental, or about one twenty-fourth of the gross value
of the produce. In the temporarily settled tracts the land
revenue averages about 1£ rupee per acre of cultivated land,
represents something less than one-half of the actual or esti-
mated rental, and is probably about one-tenth or one-twelfth
of the gross value of the produce. For details as to the nature
of the different tenures of land that prevail in India see the
Year-Book for 1886, p. 799. See also under Agriculture.
The land revenue was contributed in 1891-92 as follows : —
Rz.
701,507
3,950,758
4,445,596
2,142,036
Administrations
Rx.
Administrations
India ....
138,673
Central Provinces
Bengal
3,867,957
Madras
Assam.
466,900
Bombay
Punjab
2,321,461
Burma
North-West Provinces
and Oudh
5,930,886
Total .
23,965,774
In British territory the cultivation of the poppy is only permitted in
parts of the provinces of Bengal, the North- West Provinces and Oudh. A few
thousand acres of opium are grown in the Punjab for local consumption. In
the monopoly districts, the cultivator receives advances from Government to
enable him to prepare the land for the crop, and he is bound to sell the whole
of the produce at a fixed price to Government agents, by whom it is de-
spatchea to the Government factories at Patna and Ghazipur to be prepared for
tne market. The chests of manufactured opium are sold by auction in
Calcutta at monthly sales for export to China. A reserve is kept in hand to
supply the deficiencies of bad seasons, and a small quantity is used by the
Indian excise departments. Opium is also grown in many of the Native
States of Kajputana and Central India. These Native States have agreed to
132 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
conform to the British system. They levy heavy duties on opium exported
from their territories for the China market, and such opium pays the Indian
Treasury a duty which has been recently reduced from Kx. 65 to Rx. 60 per
chest on exportation. The gross annual revenue derived from opium averaged
during each of the ten years 1883 to 1892 the sum of Rx. 8,731,046, and the
average net receipts during the same period, Rx. 6,374,871. In 1855-58 the
net opium revenue averaged only Rx. 4,580,000.
The largest branch of expenditure is that for the army. The maintenance
of the armed force to uphold British rule in India cost Rx. 12,000,000 in
the year before the great mutiny, and subsequently rose to above Rx. 25,000,000
It was Rx. 28,932,497 (including Rx. 11,387,287 for Afghanistan) in
1880-81; Rx. 18,359,433 (including Rx. 17,869 for Afghanistan, and
Rx. 1,308,684 for Egypt) in 1882-83.
The following table shows expenditure in each of the financial years 1888-93 :
Year ended March 31
-
Year ended March 81
1
1888
1889
1890
Rx.
20,417,934
20,301,841
20,677,814
1891
1892
1893
Rx.
20,690,068
22,280,601
23,557,900
The Budget estimate for 1893-94 is Rx. 23,011,400.
The following table shows the amount (in tens of rupees) of the debt of
British India, both bearing and not bearing interest, distinguishing the debt
in India and in Great Britain, in each of the financial years 1883 and 1887-92 :
Year ended
March 31
1883
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Permanent Debt
in India
| Permanent Debt
• in England
Rx.
90,688,766
92,653,636
98,089,862
100,879,742
102,761,175
102,746,662
102,692,317
Rx.
68,585,694
84,228,177
84,140,148
95,033,610
98,192,391
104,408,208
107,404,143
Unfunded Debt
in India
Rx.
9,963,096
8,789,343
9,715,834
10,706,207
10,675,877
11,271,306
12,170,666
Total
Rx.
169,237,556
185,671,156
191,945,844
206,619,559
211,629,443
218,426,176
222,267,126
The following table shows the revenues and expenditures of each of the
Governments for the year ending March 31, 1892 : —
India ....
Bengal ....
Assam ....
Punjab ....
N.W. Provinces and Oudh
Central Provinces .
Madras ....
Bombay ....
Burma ....
In England
Exchange
Total .
Revenue
Rx.
16,980,133
19,838,779
1,039,358
7,871,588
11,042,660
2,350,356
11,368,003
13,197,611
5,084,872
257,919
112,004
89,143,283
Expenditure
Rx.
22,519,754
8,975,445
749,498
4,833,685
5,154,384
1,460,481
9,391,621
8,764,194
3,914,774
15,974,699
6,937,213
88,675,748
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FINANCE — DEFENCE
138
The municipal revenues in India are derived mainly from octroi, taxes
on houses, lands, vehicles, and animals, tolls, and assessed taxes. The amount
of income for 1891-92 for all Indian municipalities was Rx. 3,395,594, and
the expenditure was Rx. 3,902,409. The following table shows the amount
for the chief administrations (in thousands of rupees) : —
Municipalities
Income
Expendi- i
ture j
7,796
3,962
4,180
9,841
4,354
5,272
Municipalities
income E«"
Madras
Bombay
Burma
3,275
9,927
2,850
3,671
68,405
3,606
Defence.
The following table gives the established strength of the
European and Native army in British India — exclusive of native
artificers and followers — for the year 1893-94 : —
Corps
European Army.
Royal Artillery
Cavalry
Royal Engineers .
Infantry
Invalid and Veteran Establishment
Staff Corps . .
General List, Cavalry .
General List, Infantry .
General Officers unemployed .
Total European Army
Native Army.
Artillery
Cavalry
Sappers and Miners
Infantry
Total Native Army .
Total European and Native Army
Numbers
European Non-Commissioned j Tni.i
Officers Officers and Privates lowu
496
261
265
1,537
10
769
27
66
39
12,822
5,418
74
52,176
21
3,470
European
Officers
33
362
56
1,127
1,578
70,511
Native
Officers
26
625
63
2,043
2,757
5,048 2,757
Non-Com.
Officers &
Privates
4,484
22,439
3,846l
110,532-
141,3d1
210,812
13,31S
5,679
339
53,713
31
769
27
66
39
73,981
Total
4,543
23,426
3,965
113,702
145,636
219,617
i Includes 85 European non-commis&ioned officers.
3 Includes 3 Europeans.
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134 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
An Act of Parliament was passed in 1893 for the abolition
of the Indian Presidency commands. In future there will be
four local armies, each under a lieutenant-general, subordinate
to the commander-in-chief.
Since 1856, when the Indian army consisted of 40,000
European soldiers and 215,000 natives, the numbers have changed
to 74,000 European and 145,000 native soldiers ; and the concen-
tration or mobilisation of troops has been greatly facilitated
within the empire or on its frontier. A regular transport service
now exists, and a method has been organised for the supply of
animal carriage, hospital servants, and other field establishments
sufficient to place a large army promptly in the field.
The health of the Indian troops has been so improved by
better barracks, by quartering a larger proportion of the European
soldiers at drill stations, and by attention to sanitary conditions,
that the death-rate, which before the Mutiny was 6*9 per cent,
for Europeans, and 2 for natives, has been reduced to 1 '6 and 1 #2
per cent, respectively. There were in 1891, 22,910 volunteers of
European blood, 19,893 of whom were reported efficient.
According to the estimates for 1893-94 the strength of the
European British army in India for the year (excluding the
veteran and invalid establishment) is as follows : —
1
— j Artillery
Cavalry Engineers
Infantry
Miscell.
Officers
Total
Bengal . . ' 7,716
Bombay . . 3,315
Madras . 2,287
3,786 1 187
631 1 79
1,262 j 73
33,453
10,130
10,130
1,311
140
261
46,453
14,295
14,013
Total . . 13,318
5,679 | 339
53,713
1,712
74,761
Returns published in 1884 showed that the various feudatory
and dependent States of India had armies numbering 349,835 men,
and 4,237 guns. A large proportion of these forces were little
better than a badly-equipped, undisciplined rabble ; but in 1888,
after the native chiefs had loyally offered large sums of money
towards the cost of imperial defence, the Indian Government elabor-
ated a scheme for the training and equipment of picked contingents
of troops in certain States, with a view to enabling the chiefs to
bear a direct share in the defence of the Empire. Measures are now
in progress which will enable the chiefs to furnish contingents of
troops fit to take their place in line with the regiments of the Indian
army. The special contingents, known as imperial service troops,
now number between 17,000 and 18,000 men, organised and under
instruction. Fourteen British inspecting officers have been ap-
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
135
pointed. The following table shows the States and contingents
with which they have to deal : —
•
p
&
&
1
! &
s
"3
State
6
1
£3
1
State
"3
: 1,200
S3
a
Kashmir .
343
3,750
800
4,398
Jodhpur .
— , 1,200
Patiala .
600
1,000
—
1,600
Bhartpur .
600
800
—
1,400
Jind .
150
600
750
Bikaner .
50C
—
—
500
Nabha
150
600
—
750
Jaipur
600
800
—
1,400
, Kapurthala
150
600
—
750
Gwalior .
1,200
—
—
1,200
Bahawalpur
150
300
—
450
Mysore
Rampur .
1,200
—
—
1,200
: Faridkot .
50
150
—
200
300
—
—
300
Sirmnr
50
600
150
1,060
~~
200
1,660
KathiawarStatea
Total .
525
7,218
—
—
625
I Alwar
9,510
300 117,028
Arrangements are being made under which the troops of
Haidarabad, Bhopal, Indore and other States will come within
the operation of the scheme.
The following war-vessels belong to the Indian marine : —
coast-defence turret ironclads : Magdala, station ship (3,340 tons),
four 8-in. 14-ton guns ; and Abyssinia (2,900 tons), with the
same chief armament ; also the despatch-vessel Lawrence (1,154
tons), and the sister first-class torpedo gun-boats Assaye and
Plassy (735 tons). In November 1893 there were 10 vessels in
commission on the East India station : — the Boadicea, Brisk,
Cossack, Lapwing, Magdala, Marathon, Pigeon, Redbreast, Flossy,
and Sphinx.
Production and Industry.
The chief industry of India has always been agriculture, but
it was not until about the year 1870 that the Indian Government
directed systematic attention to fostering and improving Indian
agriculture. Since that time there has been established in every
province of India a public department, which collects and distri-
butes early information concerning the crops, controls or advises
upon model and experimental farms, introduces new agricultural
appliances, tries new staples, and is organizing schools for teaching
the chemistry and science of agriculture. By these departments
Indian students of good education have been sent to Europe to
study at agricultural colleges. It is chiefly in respect of the use of
manures, of rotation of crops, of fodder raising and storing, of new
staples, and of such appliances as improved sugar-mills, that the
example or teaching of the agricultural departments and their
agents is likely to have useful effect. Something has also been
done towards introducing better breeds of cattle into some pro-
vinces, and great attention has been paid to the improvement of
the local breeds of horses, ponies, and mules.
The following table shows for 1892 the amount of land held direct from
Government in ten provinces of British India ; and also the number of
i
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136 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
estates, of holders, the average area of each estate,
and its average assess-
ment in rupees.
Statistics for Bengal and Bombay arc not available : —
Administration
No. of
Estates
Gross Area
of Estates
No. of
Holders
Average
Area of each
Estate
Average
Assessment
Acres
! Acres
rs. a. p.
Madras.
3 389,508
53,558,057
5,648,504
158
15 9 4
N.-W. Pro vs.
122,728 | 44,199,629
2,712,293
360
375 0 0
Oudh .
12,400 15,337,846
182,811
1,237
1,168 0 0
Punjab .
36,814 ' 55,579,791 , 3,146,631
1,510
688 0 0
Central Provs.
120,926 1 43,063 563 | 108,401
356
57 0 0
Berars .
381,236
8,168,592 ' 300,874
21
67 15 1
Coorg .
31,336
154,691 , 18,132
4*93
9 8 10
Assam .
783,744
7,563,684
—
9*65
5 6 1
Lower Burma
942,159
5,703,965
712,026
6 05
8 10 0
Upper Burma
508,017
2,605,156
506,804
5 13
In provinces where the zamind&ri tenure prevails (i.e. where single pro-
prietors or proprietary brotherhoods possess large estates of several hundreds
or thousands of acres), the State revenue is assessed at an aliquot part (usually
about one half) of the ascertained or assumed rental. The revenue is payable
on each estate as a whole ; the assessment remaining unchanged for the period,
of settlement. In provinces where the r&yatw&ri tenure prevails (i.e. where
each petty proprietor holds directly from the State, as a rule cultivates his own
land, and has no landlord between himself and the Government), the revenue
is separately assessed at an acreage rate on each petty holding, and land
revenue becomes payable at once (or after a short term of grace in the case of
uncleared lands) on all extensions of cultivation. The rdyatwdri proprietor
may throw up his holding, or any portion of it, at the beginning of any year
after reasonable notice, whereas the zaminddr or large proprietor engages to
pay the revenue assessed upon him throughout the term of the settlement.
The following table shows, so far as returns are available, the class of tenure
in each province : —
-
! ***%2££2"» l! RAyatwto,*,
1
Area
Surveyed.
3E33J *~ I w
Area ' Acres
Population tJo„„wl„fll
of&rveyedl Avenue
Area **•
N.-W. Provinces
Acres
52,604,874
1
33,802,188 j 4,481,581 —
_
Oudh
15,337,846
12,650,831 1 1,369,100 ', —
— —
Punjab
71,576,676
20,860,913 | 2,441,807 —
— _
Berars
—
— — 11,340,244
2,850,009 ; 645,699
Coorg
—
— — 1,012,260
173,055 : 22,557
Lower Bnrma .
1 187,641
— 8,181 " 55,984,676
— 928,800
Upper Burma .
8,899
— — 51,855,983
— —
Madras
30,067 823 ; 10 836,586 '' 517,590 59,869,505
25,296,868 | 4,464,183
Bombay
— — — •; 47,602,821
16,168,506 2,549,862
Sind .
— —
— ' 29,998,814
2,871,774 822,841
AJmere
980,172 244,469
12,889 .■ 784,601 297,889 24,650
Bengal
,
No
statistics !' available
i
Digitized by VjOOQlC
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
137
The following table shows, according to provinces (excepting Bengal), the
total acreage over which were grown the chief crops of British India in
1891-92, the total area cultivated being 134,973,451 acres :—
Administrations
Rice
Wheat
Other
Food
Grains
Sugar
Cane
Tea
Cotton
available
Oil
Seeds
Indigo
To-
bacco
Bengal .
N.-W. Provs. .
Statis
tics not
4,650,708
3,392,213
17,465,948
1,067.297
9,374
1,195,986
757,351
242,235
29,874
Oudh
2,488,334
1,365,184
6,646,356
295,497
—
54,789
227,954
16,864
11,402
Punjab .
722,511
6,767,893
10,813,825
363,976
9,011
500,299
881,748
58,896
43,435
Central Provs.
4,292,480
3,957,260
5,011,974
44,570
6
760,673
2,185,471
—
21,506
Berars
22,023
887,984
2,833,705
2,655
—
2,241,489
605,479
79
20,279
Coorg
74,295
—
1,609
—
—
—
40
—
10
Assam
1,207,871
49
76,027
18,473
241,586
666
187,599
—
35
Lower Burma.
4,662,897
—
17,323
10,071
19
16,735
58,603
51
16,695
Upper Burma.
1,012,633
17,631
1,026,034
944
742
110,396
329,255
1,547
24,884
Madras .
5,771,182
17,665
13,914,200
58,373
5,481
1,318,042
1,501,638
212,255
72,747
Bombay .
2,299,593
2,157,189
18,434,622
78,156
—
2,621,899
1,808,688
9,374
86,249
Ajmere .
490
9,539
207,272
235
—
38,431
8,397
7
3
ParganaHanpnr
Total .
1
85
27,225,102
1,425
3,418
85
—
24
1,435
—
2
18,573,982 76,452,323
1,940,332
266,219
8,659,429
8,498,058
541,308
327,121
Besides cotton, other fibres occupied 300,840 acres, only 644 of which
grew jute. Coffee plantations occupy 127,648 acres, of which 65,371 acres
were in Madras, and 62,167 acres in Coorg. Food crops, other than cereals
and pulses, cover 3,884,039 acres. In 1891-92 of the total area cultivated
(134,973,451 acres) 14,765,029 acres were cropped more than once, giving a
total area under crops of 149,738,480 acres. Reckoning twice over the land
irrigated for both harvests, 27,592,357 acres were under irrigation by canals,
tanks, wells, and otherwise. The following table shows for 1890-91 the
working of canals for which full accounts are kept : —
Capital outlay till
Area irrigated
Net receipts during 1
end of year
during year •
year
Rx.
Acres
Rx.
Bengal
N.W. Provinces
7,277,301
545,541
18,561
and Oudh
8,135,747
2,014,114
413,703
Punjab
6,435,818
2,842,658
751,491
Ajmere
Madras
166,790
28,503
6,661
6,759,689
2,767,775
401,342
Bombay
2,491,533
74,852
22,120
Sind .
1,193,929
1,290,817
142,458
The Ganges Canal, which was completed in 1854, and has cost
Rx. 2,855,614, comprises 437 miles of main canal, and 3,576 miles of dis-
tributaries. During the year it supplied water to 821,652 acres. The
Sirhind Canal, in the Punjab, has cost upwards of Rx. 3,708,000, and con-
sists of 542 miles of main canal, and 4,385 miles of distributaries. In Madras
the Godavari, Kistna, and Cauvery irrigation systems together irrigate
upwards of 2,000,000 acres.
In 1891-92 there were 62,927£ square miles of forest demarcated and
reserved by the State. The work of demarcating and reserving forest tracts
has been pushed on with great vigour in recent years, and especially since
1877. In that year the demarcated area was only 17,705 square miles ; in
Digitized by
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138 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
i
Sq. miles
Central Provinces 19,680
Bombay . . 10,324
Burma . . 6,674
Punjab
Berars
Sq. miles
. 3,612
1,715
1,255
the following year it was raised by operations in the Central Provinces to
40,425 square miles.
The following table shows the extent of reserved forests in 1891-92 in
square miles : —
Sq. miles
Bengal . . 5,211
Madras . . 9,178
N.W.P.andOudh 3,735
There were 127 cotton mills at work in India in 1891-92, containing
24,670 looms and 3,272,988 spindles, employing a daily average number of
117,922 persons. The whole capital invested in this industry is quite
Rx. 12,000,000 rupees.
There were 26 jute mills and one hemp mill in March, 1892, employing
a daily average number of 66,333 persons, with 8,695 looms and 174,156
spindles. The capital invested in the joint stock mills is estimated at
Rx. 3,500,000 rupees.
There were five woollen mills at work at the close of 1891, with 532 looms
and 17,210 spindles.
There are nine paper mills.
The quantity of beer brewed during 1891 amounted to 4,745,803 gallons.
In March, 1893, there were 956 joint stock companies in India registered
under the Indian Companies' Act. They possessed a total nominal capital
aggregating Rx. 35,372,842, and an actual capital (paid up) of Rx. 26,793,186.
The following table shows the division of the aggregate capital among
the principal classes of joint stock companies in 1893 : —
Companies
Number
I
Banking and loan
Insurance
Trading :
Merchants and traders
Navigation
Railways and tramways
Co-operative associations
Shipping, landing, and warehousing .
Total trading ....
Mills and Presses :
Cotton mills
Jute mills
Mills for cotton, jute, wool, silk, hemp,
&c
Cotton and jute, screws and presses
Other mills and presses
Total mills and presses .
Tea companies
Coffee and cinchona ....
Other planting companies
Mining and quarrying .
Ice making
Sugar manufacture
Breweries
Others
256
8
Paid up capital
Rx.
3,749,863
79,306
117
7
10
24
5
Grand total
163
57
12
68
87
37
263 "
142
5
10
54
12
3
3
_37_
956
Digitized by
1,863,652
873,940
979,582
51,395
56,889
3,825,458
4,965,026
1,209,485
4,188,952
1,374,081
547^460
12,285,004
~ 3,636,898
38,339
95,628
1,611,160
186,387
162,204
169,540
903,399
26,793,186
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTBY
139
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140 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
There were 87 collieries worked in India in 1892.
been as follows : —
The annual output has
1887
1888
Tons
1,564,063
1,708,903
Tons j Tons
1889 . 1,946,172 1891 . 2,229,400
1890 . 2,168,521 | 1892 . 2,650,682
The total value of the output in 1891 may be estimated at Rx. 791, 414. The
total imports of coal, coke, and patent fuel in 1891-92 amounted to 736,971
tons. The total number of persons employed at the mines is given as 34,902.
Commerce.
The value of the sea-borne external trade of India has risen in the 59
years, 1834-35 to 1892-93, from Rx. 14,342,290 to Rx. 196,829,486, the
increase being nearly fourteenfold, making on the average a rate of 21 *57 per
cent, annually. The average rate of increase during the last thirty-two years
is shown below, the period being divided into four terms of seven years each :
Average
Average 1 Increa8e
average Avnun-MM
Increase
Years
Annual
Annual
per cent, of
Imports
percent, of
Imports
Exports
Exports
Rx.
Rx.
1861-62 to 1867-68
46,564,217
55,247,350
—
1868-69 to 1874-75
43,144,965
57,379,611
-7 34
3 86 !
1875-76 to 1881-82
53,158,379
69,432,191
23 21
21 00
1882-83 to 1888-89
72,768,240
89,300,256
36 89
28*62
1889-90.
86,656,990
105,366,720
19*09
17*99 |
1890-91.
93,909,856
102,350,526
-8-37
2*86 !
1891-92.
84,155,045
111,460,277
-10-39
8*9 i
1892-93.
83,275,087
113,554,399
-105
1-88
In the year ending March 31, 1893, the total foreign trade of India
(private and Government) was as follows, in tens of rupees : —
Exports I
-
Imports
Merchandise .
Treasure
Total
Rx.
66,265,277
17,009,810
83,275,087
Rx.
106,595,475
6,958,924
113,554,399
The following shows (in tens of rupees) the total imports and exports of
India, divided into merchandise and * treasure ' (bullion specie), excluding
Government stores and Government treasure, in the fiscal years ending
March 31, 1883, and 1889-93 :—
Imports
Years ended
March 31
i
j Merchandise
Rx. 1
Treasure
Total
, Rx.
Rx.
1883
50,003,041
13,453,157
! 63,456,198
1889
66,570,318
17,459,301
84,019,421
1890
66,560,120
21,919,486
90,954,386
1891
j 69,034,900
14,722,662
81,310,119
1892
1 66,587,457
17,009,810
79,614,840
1893
; 62,605,030 |
17,009,810
i 79,614,840
Digitized by VjOOQlC
COMMERCE
141
EXPORT8 AMD RE-EXPORTS
Years ended
March 31
1
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
!
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
I 1883
83,400,865
980,859
84,381,724
1889
96,978,171
1,703,497
98,681,668
, 1890
103,396,862
1,841,920
105,238,782
: i89i
100,135,722
2,071,906
102,207,628
, 1892
108,036,010
3,143,186
111,179,196
1 1893
106,535,997
6,928,994
113,464,991
Of the exports of merchandise in 1892-93, Rx. 101,945,707
represented the products of the country. Ex. 4,590,290 were
re-exports of foreign imports.
The imports and exports, including private treasure, but
excluding Government stores and treasure, were distributed as
follows between the five great commercial divisions of India in
1883 and 1889-93:—
-
Bengal
Burma | Madras
Bombay
Bind
Imports : —
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
'Rx.
l 1883
23,418,430
3,772,887
4,928,956
30,116,866
1,219,059
i 1889
27,118,724
5,011,889
5,932,605
38,612,572
3,739,488
I 1890
26,314,803
5,467,752
6,437,420
42,295,457
3,503,989
1891
29,998,766
5,500,323
6,543,231
45,124,897
3,787,167
1892
28,706,848
5,520,872
6,221,702
36,776,556
4,084,141
1 1893
25,486,288
5,465,562
5,364,929
39,743,419
3,554,642
' Exports : —
!
1883
34,433,049
7,039,525
8,382,488
31,864,948
2,661,754
1889
37,873,741
6,108,822
10,446,348
40,363,646
3,889,111
1890
39,806,044
7,781,542
11,608,509
40,973,741
5,068,946
1891
37,428,230
9,612,321
10,900,145
39,542,536
4,724,396
1892
40,218,805
10,089,326
10,184,851
43,307,113
7,379,101
1 1893
42,200,527
9,235,783
11,263,254
46,579,931
4,185,496
The amount of bullion and specie, private and Government,
imported and exported, will be seen from the following table for
the years 1883 and 1889-93 :—
Tear ended
March SI
Imports of
Gold
Imports of
Silver
Rx.~~~
Exports of
Gold
Rx7
Exports of
Silver
Rx.
Rx.
1883
5,095,135
8,358,022
164,264
877,795
1889
3,119,088
10,725,872
305,154
1,479,192
1890
5,071,027
12,388,474
455,724
1,450,598
1891
6,500,832
15,433,654
864,660
1,258,518
1892
4,118,929
10,603,733
1,705,137
1,581,549
1893
1,781,789
15,228,021
4,594,472
2,364,452
I
Digitized by
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142 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
i
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the respective shares which
the leading countries with which India deals had in the exports and imports
(merchandise alone) of India in the years ending March 31, 1892 and 1893 : —
Countries
Exports of Indian Produce
Imports into India from
1892
1893
1892
1893
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
United Kingdom
33,446,985
32,267,196
48,271,400
44,005,841
China
13,711,883
14,402,271
2,877,138
2,842,530
France .
10,945,575
9,083,253
1,041,678
1,040,291
Italy .
2,985,457
3,641,157
535,906
356,306
Straits Settlements .
4,997,769
4,440,526
2,358,598
2,371,608
United States .
3,872,593
4,512,988
1,199,458
1,134,438
Egypt .
Belgium .
7,181,460
4,832,053
91,282
158,995
5,460,273
4,414,065
1,324,027
1,645,470
Austria .
: 2,174,645
2,606,847
839,407
1,031,939
Ceylon .
2,769,883
3,147,103
669,777
664,757
Australia
967,739
1,106,806
287,315
239,450
Japan
1,289,787
1,610,455
65,746
91,210 :
Germany
5,073,527
6,517,185
1,524,969
1,451,330 !
Mauritius
1,158,436
999,088
1,719,871
1,462,771 i
Arabia .
644,499
833,799
353,297
436,812
Holland .
932,071
670,433
155,415
206,746 ,
East Coast Africa .
560,719
593,901
326,591
293,656
Persia
594,829
508,603
709,992
687,092
Spain
246,779
625,905
14,802
16,824 i
The following table gives a summary of the value of the different classes
of imports and of exports of Indian produce (private merchandise only) in
tfce years 1892 and 1893 (ending March 31) in tens of rupees : —
Imports
Exports
1892
I
Rx.
Animals, living . 293,257
! Articles of food and drink 8,176,797
Metals and manufactures
of:—
Hardware and cutlery . ! 1,238,994
Metals . . | 5,655,072
Machinery . . | 2,111,596
Railway plant and stock | 1 , 484, 173
Chemicals, drugs, &c. . 1,535,216
Oils .... 2,635,955
Raw materials . . " 3,828,053
Articles manufactured or
partly so —
Yarns and textile fabrics 32,392, 712
Apparel . . . 1,398,027
Other articles . 5,837,605
1892
Rx.
1893
Rx. Rx.
300,673 , 101,878 137,307
7,950,819 38,456,954 | 30,810,947
1,217,754
5,382,017
2,359,103
1,032,939
1,615,097
2,919,162
3,604,278
29,159,942
I 1,383,830
: 5,679,416
I
Total
66,587,457 '62,605,030
10,955 I
65,899
124 ]
13,872,431 ,
583,811 i
36,179,292 !
9,908
74,205
294
120
14,575,150
595,568
39,317,572
9,828,427 11,660,179
119,204
145,426
4,331,816 4,619,031
103,550,83l|l01,945,707
Digitized by VjOOQlC
COMMERCE
143
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the value of the leading '
articles of private merchandise imported and exported (the produce of India
only — that is, not including re-exports of foreign goods) in the year ending
March 31, 1893:—
Exports
Value
Imports
Value
Rx.
Rx.
Rice ....
12,406,719
Cotton manufactures
. 25,625,865
Wheat
7,440,383
Metals, hardware 1
and cutlery . J
6,599,772
Cotton (raw)
12,743,679
,, (manufactured)
8,100,658
Silk (raw and manuf.)
2,817 651
Opium
9,255,014
Sugar (refined andl
unrefined) . J
2,625,683
Seeds (oil seeds mainly) .
11,631,015
Hides and skins .
5,591,935
Woollen goods .
1,523,243
Jute (raw) .
7,944,223
Liquors
1,447,263
„ (manufactured) .
Tea ...
3,237,993
6,292,348
Railway plant and 1
rolling-stock . J
1,032,939
Indigo
4,141,179
Oils .
2,919,162
Other dyes and tans .
Coffee
802,013
2,066,862
Machinery and Mill 1
work . . J
2,359,103
Wool (raw)
1,116.578
Coal .
1,141,450
Spices
514,675
Provisions .
1,862,055
Lac (excluding lac dye)
Sugar (refined and )
784,950
507,914
Apparel (excluding 1
nosiery) . . J
1,383,830
unrefined) . . (
Salt .
576,694
Silk (raw and cocoons).
617,574
Spices
Glass .
623,633
„ (manufactured) .
197,178
670,804
Oils ...
595,568
Drugs
662,815
Wood.
695,259
Paper .
436,098
Wool (manufactured)
120.080
Umbrellas .
441,145
Provisions .
775,802
Grain and Pulse ,
122,359
Saltpetre .
438,940
The share of each province in some of the most important exports is
shown in the following table for the year ending March 31, 1893 : —
-
Bengal
Bombay
Bind
Madras
Burma »
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Bice .
3,664,737
399,438
66,106
597,980
7,678,458
Wheat
1,524,356
4,254,614
1,661,298
115
—
Opium
5,985,03a
3,269,981
—
—
—
Indigo
2,600,446 352,324
43,734
1,144,675
Cotton
635,857 [10 370,151
401,087
1,284,071
52,513
Seeds
3,264,731 7,126,386
639,561
596,897
3,440
!
The gross amount cf import duty collected in 1892-93 was Rx. 3,390,808,
and export duty Rx. 741,194. The largest import duty is derived from
salt, IU. 2,546,638 in 1892-93 ; the export duty is entirely on rice.
The extent of the commercial intercourse between India and the United
Digitized by VjOOQIC
144 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined
table : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U.K. from India
Exports of British produce
to India . .
£
80,763,677
32,539,284
£
36,199,204
30,955,778
£
32,668,797
33,641,001
£
32,234,398
31,177,968
£
30,513,106
27,902,572
The following table shows the staple articles of import from India into
the United Kingdom in five years : —
Year
Cotton
Wheat
Jute
Seeds
Tea
Rice
Indigo
£
1,456,740
1,612,684
1,386,196 1
888,736
1,192,821 1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
3,063,002
5,223,808
4,740,232
1,850,331
1,164,813
£
3,069,808
3,405,284
3,461,071
5,507,526
4,812,180
£
3,890,315
5,403,651
4,916,509
4,193,832
3,871,929
£
3,492,640
8,618,980
2,534,959
3,485,455
3,099,235
£
4,426,506
4,566,496
4,768,340
5,045,121
4,782,675
£
1,400,952
1,774,761
1,984,121
2,209,157
2,076,938
Other articles are : leather, of the value of £2,142,613 ; untanned hides,
£387,579 ; coffee, £855,182 ; wool, £1,018,851 in 1892.
The chief articles of British produce imported into India are as follows : —
Year
Cotton Manu-
factures
Cotton Yarn
Iron
£
3,178,779
2,819,062
3,188,314
2,326,059
2,081,252
Copper
Machinery
T~
2,038,966
1,964,556
1,801,450
1,911,245
1,796,831
Woollens
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
18 530,641
17,678,634
18,676,110
17,113,237
15,622,518
£
2,711,844
2,250,292
2,563,680
2,399,275
1,754,541
£
295,505
761,900
855,587
819,373
781,014
£
520,812
462,036
560,054
615,011
517,135
The imports from India into Great Britain, and exports of domestic
produce and manufactures from Great Britain to India were as follows in
1892 :—
-
Imports from
Exports to
Bombay and Sind
Madras ....
Bengal ....
Burma ....
£
7,694,117
3,737,525
16,722,428
2,359,036
£
11,299,508
2,534,271
12,311,760
1,757,033
30,513,106
27,902,572
The following figures show the actual extent of the foreign trade of the
six largest ports in merchandise only, imports and exports (including re-
sxports), during the last five years, in tens of rupees :—
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SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
145
I
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
1
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1 Bombay
65,292,332
65,748,016
65,371,569
66,351,980
65,674,674
Calcutta
62,288,262
63,112,379
61,750,573
63,933,101
63,640,119
Rangoon
9,310,022
10,893,701
12,437,563
12,614,528
12,525,228
Madras .
9,296,678
10,339,281
10,020,739
8,917,973
9,067,535
Karachi .
7,377,212
8,405,722
8,402,099
11,310,986
7,546,292
Tuticorin
1,655,090
2,264,742
2,036,035
1,648,226
1,802,644'
1
Of the total imports of merchandise Rx. 51,296,061 in value came
through the Suez Canal, and of the exports Rx. 63,182,738 in value went
through the Suez Canal.
In addition to the sea-borne trade as above, there is a considerable trans-
frontier land-trade. The following table shows the value, in tens of rupees,
of the land-trade (excluding treasure, the figures for which are untrustworthy),
during three years ending March 31,. 1893 : —
1891
1892
1893
Rx. Imports | Rx. Exports | Rx. Total
3,515,200
3,979,700
3,690,900
3,029,700
3,932,200
3,388.000
6,544,900
7,911,900
7,078,900
The following table shows the value of the trade (excluding treasure), in
tens of rupees, with the leading trans-frontier countries in the last three years
ending March 31, 1893 :—
Imports from
Exports to
1891
1892
1893
1891
1892
1893
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
LusBela
48,800
43,800
40,500
28,600
23,600
27,800
Khelat
33,100
43,800
57,100
34,000
10,700
20,500
Kandahar i
12,900
469,300
234,400
5,700
526,200
297,700
Sewestan
63,400
69,500
53,700
68,300
85,500
71,200
Kabul .
208,600
218,100
220,800
459,900
653,600
610,500
Bajaur .
93,400
79,500
109,100
93,500
103,300
148,100
Kashmir
543,200
596,800
507,300
565,200
656,500
476,400
Ladakh
34,200
30,100
29,700
27,600
21,600
19,900
Tibet .
77,700
101,800
104,200
40,200
47,600
50,800
Nepal .
1,719,500
1,557,500
1,344,900
1,285,400
1,334,000
1,182,200
Karenni
148,700
174,100
233,700
14,400
14,400
19,700
Shan States
*
181,200
210,100
294,900
155,100
166,500
214,200
Zifnm« .
141,400
158,500
218,100
59,000
37,100
14,500
Siam
48,700
34,700
50,100
23,400
21,500
24,000
W.China . • • | 53,400
46,300
50,500
108,700
104,500
93,600
i Fluctuations mainly owing to new system of registration.
The total value of the coasting trade in 1892-93 was Rx. 66,097,209
in imports and exports, apart from Government stores and Government
treasure.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following table shows for five years the number and tonnage of vessel*
engaged in the foreign trade which entered and cleared at ports in British
India :—
Digitized by VjOOQIC
146 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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Digitized by
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INTEBNAL COMMUNICATIONS
147
The following gives the number and tonnage of steam vessels which entered
and cleared Indian ports vid the Suez Canal during the years indicated : —
Entered
Cleared
Total
,
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
1882-83
i 1888-89
1 1889-90
1890-91
1 1891-92
1892-93
711
755
677
752
1,043
782
1,152,440
1,408,331
1,881,767
1,487,111
2,019,483
1,637,806
934
967
931
965
1,268
929
1,433,480
1,735,626
1,723,597
1,821,405
2,412,341
1,887,457
1,645
1,722
1,608
1,717
2,311
1,711
2,585,920
3,143,957 |
3,055,364
3,308,516 |
4,431,824
3,525,263 '
The number of vessels which entered with cargoes in the interportal trade
in 1891-92 was 108,945 of 10,614,564 tons ; and in 1892-93 108,018 of
10,819,790 tons ; and cleared, in 1891-92, 99,394 of 10,286,589 tons ; and in
1892-93, 96,506 of 10,612,769 tons.
For the year 1692-93, 72 vessels of 2,141 tonnage were built at Indian
ports ; 47 of the vessels in Bombay, and 12 in Madras. The following table
compares the number and tonnage of all the vessels built and of those first
registered at Indian ports for six years : —
!
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1898
[
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
No.
Ton-
nage
Built .
, Registered .
115
165
4,208
10,140
118
.189
4,781
18,276
106
150
3,006*
8,591
80
124
2,795
10,005
86
187
3,816
10,060
72
118
2,141
6,102
Internal Communications.
I. Roads and Canals.
The following table shows the length in miles of roads maintained by
public authorities throughout the country : —
-
Metalled Miles
Unmetalled Miles
Total Miles
Bengal ....
N. W. P. and Oudh .
3,932
27,095
31,027
4,934
23,581
28,515
Punjab ....
2,256
21,920
24,176
Burma .
1,092
2,680
3,772
Central Provinces
1,201
6,057
7,258
Assam .
120
4,759
4,879
, Madras .
11,095
10,436
21,531
' Bombay
2,576
17,709
20,285
Haidarabad .
820
—
820
1 Coorg .
89
221
310
i Mysore .
Rajputana
1,730
3,170
4,900
771
1,162
1,933
; Central India
1,554
—
1,554
' Baluchistan .
376
889
1,265
i Military works
842
440
1,282
l
) Grand total
33,388
120,119
153,507
Digitized by
£p£>gle
148 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Irawadi, with some of
their branches, are largely used for inland traffic. In Southern India,
especially, canals are an important means of communication. Railways, how-
ever, are now rapidly spreading all over the Peninsula.
II. Railways.
The rate of progress in each of the last twelve years in opening out
railway communications in India will be apparent from the following
figures : —
Miles open
1877 7,322
1878 8,212
1879 8,492
1880 9,308
Miles open
1881 9,892
1882 10,145
1883-84 10,828
1884-85 12,000
Miles open
1885-86 12,375
1886-87 13,386
1887-88 14,377
1888-89 15,242
Miles open
1889-90 16,097
1890-91 16,977
1891-92 17,564
1892-93 18,042
The total capital expenditure by the State on Indian Railways up to the
end of 1892, including lines under construction and survey, amounted to
Rx. 234,463,619, allocated as follows :—
Rx.
Rx.
State Railways .
138,522,675
Foreign lines . . . 1,686,444
State lines leased to
Surveys .... 463,676
Companies
29,098,454
Collieries . . . 255,336
Guaranteed Railways .
49,251,783
Interest, Bengal & N.W.R.,
Subsidized Companies .
205,858
Delhi-Kalka, & Kohilkund 171, 571
Assisted Companies .
5,678,768
Native States
9,138,554
Total . . Rx. 234,463,619
Up to the end of 1892 the total amount of capital raised by the various
Guaranteed Railway Companies was 45,353,796Z., and for State lines leased to
companies 24,289,178Z., or a total amount of 69,642,974/., as shown below.
Guaranteed Railways
Great India Peninsula . 25,476,933
Bombay, Baroda, & Cen-
tral India . . . 8,807,219
Madras .... 11,069,644
Total
45,353,796
State Lines Leased to Companies
Bengal Nagpur .
Indian Midland
. 7,905,781
. 7,101,116
Lucknow Bareilly
. 147,000
Southern Mahratha
. 6,528,957
Mysore .
. 1,224,000
Bengal Central .
. 1,000,000
Assam -Bengal .
. 1,182,324
Total
24,289,178
The gross earnings on all railways during 1892 amounted to Rx. 23,229,281,
against Rx. 24,040,279 during 1891. During 1892 the number of passengers
carried was 127,456,913, the coaching earnings being Rx. 7,744,895, and the
passenger mileage 5,269,224,256 ; while during 1891, 122,855,337 passengers
were carried, the coaching earnings being Rx 7,753,762, and passenger mileage
5,226,107,975 miles.
The aggregate tonnage of goods, material, and live stock carried during
1892 was 26,334,232 tons, which earned Rx. 14,775,268, the ton-mileage
being 4,233 381 249. In 1891 the corresponding totals were 26,158,953 tons,
with an earning of Rx. 15,608,117, and a ton-mileage of 4,438,992,431.
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
149
The total working expenses amounted in 1892. to Rx. 10,900,005, or 46 92
percent, of the gross earnings; as compared with Rx. 11,303,847, or 47*02
per cent., in 1891.
The net earnings realised were Rx. 12,399,275 against Rx. 12,736,432 in
1891, giving an average return on the capital expenditure on open lines, includ-
ing steamboat services and suspense account, of 5*43 per cent, against 5*76 per
cent, in the previous year.
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
In 1892 there were 21,465 post-offices and boxes, against 753 in 1856.
In the fiscal year ended March 31, 1892, the number of letters, postcards,
and money-orders which passed through the post-offices of British India was
308,403,108; of newspapers 25,910,386 ; of parcels 2, 108, 685 ; and of packets
10,711,051 ; being a total of 347,133,230. The following table gives the num-
ber of letters, newspapers, &c, carried, and the number of offices and receiving
houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure (in tens of rupees) of
the Post Office in each of the five fiscal years 1888 to 1892 :—
Tear ended
Number of Letters,
Post Offices
and Letter
Boxes
Total
Total
March 31
Newspapers, Ac.
Revenue
Expenditure
Number
Rx.
Rx.
1888
274,398,622
16,967
1,214,196
1,375,215
1889
293,224,228
17,600
1,281,540
1,342,452
1890
311,988,110
19,196
1,301,362
1,376,594
1891
325,278,711
20,393
1,402,748
1,396,535
1892
347,133,230
21,465
1,445,925
1,496,417
In the fiscal year ending March 1870, the mails travelled over 50,281
miles, of which total 40,586 miles was done by boats and 'runners,' 5,460
miles by carts and on horseback, and 4,235 miles by railways. In the fiscal
year ending March 31, 1892, the mails travelled over 77,728 miles, of which
total 56,340 miles was done by steamers, boats and 'runners,' 4,192 miles
by carts and on horseback, and 17,197 miles by railways.
The following table shows the mileage of Government telegraph lines in
India, and the number of messages sent, together with the charges on and
receipts from all paid messages (including those sent by the Indo-European
Telegraph and Persian Gulf Section) : —
1 Year ended
March SI
Number of
Miles of Wire
Number of
Miles of Line
Revenue
Receipts
Revenue
Charges
Number of
Paid Messages
1888
, 1889
. 1890
1 1891
1892
93,517
99,655
106,140
113,512
120,159
31,894
33,462
35,279
37,070
38,625
Rx.
763,886
742,148
766,865
781,034
919,336
Rx.
786,627
704,092
731,355
768,980
838,720
2,807,617
2,983,152
3,132,571
3,407,100
3,308,998
There were 1,001 telegraph offices in India on March 31, 1892.
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150 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Money and Credit.
The great fall in the value of silver has, during the last twenty years, made
the task of administering Indian finances more difficult than formerly.
About sixteen millions sterling has to be spent in Great Britain on account of
India, and this has to be paid in gold, while the Indian revenues are raised in
silver. Thus Rx. 24,000,000 must be paid instead of Rx. 16,000,000, when
the rupee is worth only 1*. Ad. instead of 2*.
The total value of the silver and copper coined in British India from 1859
to 1893 inclusive has been Rx. 53,803,333 ; the heaviest coinage in any one
year being Rx. 16,328,917, during 1877-78, when the last great famine
occurred.
The standard of the currency of India since 1835 has been silver, and the
amount of money coined annually is large. Gold is coined in small quantities,
but it is not current as money, and is not legal tender. In the five financial
years from 1888-89 to 1892-93, the value (in tens of rupees) of the money
coined at the two Indian mints (Calcutta and Bombay) was as follows : —
Year ended
March 31
Gold Silver
Copper
Total
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Rx. ! < Rz.
22,609 7,312,255
23,051 ! 8,551,158
— 1 13,163,480
24,801 | 5,553,974
— ; 12,691,526
Rz.
101,503
204,468
178,309
166,317
131,119
Rz.
7,436,367
8,778,677
13,341,789
5,745,092
12,822,645
i
In 1892-93, the exchange value of silver fell considerably below 1*. Zd. ;
and in view of the increasing embarrassment of the finances, and the in-
convenience and impediments to trade, caused by the fluctuations in the gold
value of silver, the Government of India came to the conclusion that, failing
the adoption of the double standard by international agreement, measures
should be taken for the adoption of a gold standard for India. The Committee,
under the presidency of the Lord Chancellor, appointed to consider the
proposals of the Indian Government in their Report of May 31, 1893,
recommended : —
(1) The closure of the Indian Mints to the unrestricted coinage of silver
for the public.
(2) The issue of rupees at the Mints in exchange for gold at the rate of
Is. Ad. the rupee, and the receipt of sovereigns at the Indian treasuries in
payment of Government dues at the rate of rupees fifteen per sovereign.
Accordingly a Bill providing for the closing of the Indian Mints to the
unrestricted coinage of silver for the public was introduced in the Legislative
Council of the Governor General on June 26, 1893, and passed into law on the
same day, as Act VIII. of 1893. Notifications were issued simultaneously
providing (1) for the receipt of gold coin and gold bullion at the Mints in
exchange for rupees at a ratio of Is. Ad. per rupee ; (2) for the receipt of
sovereigns and half-sovereigns of current weight at treasuries in payment of
Government dues at the rate of fifteen rupees for a sovereign and seven and a
half rupees for a half-sovereign, and (3) for the issue of currency notes in
Calcutta and Bombay in exchange for gold coin or gold bullion at the rate of
one Government rupee for 1*. id.
. On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of India pro-
viding for the issue of a paper currency through a Government department of
Public Issue, by means of promissory notes. Circles of issue were established
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MONEY AND CREDIT
151
from time to time, as found necessaiy, and the notes were made legal tender
within the circle for which they were issued, and rendered payable at the
place of issue, and also at the capital city of the Presidency. There are now
eight circles of issue, each of which gives in exchange for money notes ranging
from 5 rupees to 10,000 rupees in value.
In the year ending March 31, 1863, the total value of notes in circulation
was 49,260,000 rupees.
The following were the total values of notes in circulation (in tens of
rupees) on March 31 in each year, from 1888 to 1893 : —
1888
1889
1890
Rx.
. 16,424,380
. 15,737,813
. 15,771,78©
1891
1892
1893
Rx.
25,690,449
24,076,408
26,401,820
Nearly two-thirds of the total note circulation is in the currency circles
of Calcutta and Bombay.
The following are the statistics of the various Government Savings banks in
India for five years. These banks were divided into Presidency banks (3), Railway
banks (11), Post Office banks (6,452), and Military banks (175) in 1891-92 :—
Banks
Native Depositors
European or Eurasian
Depositors
Total
No. of
accounts
Balance at
end of Year
No. of
accounts
Balance at
end of Tear
Depositors
Balance at
end of Year
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
6,151
6,236
6,545
6.641
6,641
266,308
312,722
355,017
402,061
451,640
Rx.
5,099,272
5,936,316
5,938,276
6,443,606
7,105,560
65,403
70,249
76,291
72,709
76,533
Rx.
1,478,465
1,563,755
1,458,577
1,453,939
1,584,590
331,711
382,971
431,308
474,770
528,153
Rx.
6,577,736
7,500,071
7,896,853
7,897,545
8,060,676
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British equivalents,
are nominally : —
Money.
= J Farthing.
The Pie .
3 „ . .
4 Pice, or 12 Pie
16 Annas
16 Rupees
1 Pice . . .=1J Farthings.
1 Anna . . . = \\ Pence.
1 Rupee . . . = 2 Shillings.
1 Gold Mohur . . = 11. 12s.
The relative value of the money of India and England fluctuates with the
gold price of silver ; thus, a rupee has been worth 2«. 2d., and for some years
was 1*. 7d., but in 1892-93 it fell below Is. 3d. (see p. 150). The anna is
equal to about Id. at present.
The sum of 100,000 rupees is called a * lac,' and of 10,000,000 a ' crore '
of rupees.
Weights and Measures.
The Maund of Bengal of 40 seers
,, ,, Bombay
,, ,, Madras
Candy, of 20 maunds
Tola
Guz of Bengal
82^ lbs. avoirdupois.
28 lbs.
25 lbs.
24*3 bushels/
180 gr.
36 inches.
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Google
152 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
An Act 'to provide for the ultimate adoption of a uniform system of
weights and measures of capacity throughout British India' was passed
by the Governor-General of India in Council in 1871. The Act orders :
Art. 2. ' The primary standard of weight shall be called a seer, and shall b&^
a weight of metal in the possession of the Government of India, equal, whefi
weighed in a vacuum, to the weight known in France as the kilogramme,
= 2*205 lbs. avoirdupois. Art. 3. 'The units of weight and measures of
capacity shall be, for weights, the said ser ; for measures of capacity, a mea-
sure containing one such ser of water at its maximum density, weighed in a
vacuum.' 'Unless it be otherwise ordered, the subdivisions of all such
weights and measures of capacity shall be expressed in decimal parts.'
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.
1. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to the Trade and Navigation of British India for 1802. Calcutta, 1898
Administration Report on the Railways in India for 1892-93. Calcutta, 1893.
Administration Reports of the various Provinces. Annual.
Aitchiaon (Sir Charles U.), A Collection of Treaties, Ac, relating to India and neighbour-
ing Countries. 3rd edit. 7 vols. Calcutta, 1893.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British India with Foreign Countries,
and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies, together with Miscellaneous
Statistics relating to the Foreign Trade of British India, from various periods to 189*4-93.
Imp. 4. Calcutta, 1893.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886. Special Catalogue of Exhibits. London, 188G.
East India : (1) Finance and Revenue Accounts, 1891-92, and Estimate for 1892-93 ; (2)
Financial Statement, 1892-93, 1893-94 ; (3) Home Accounts ; (4) Net Revenue and Expendi-
ture ; (5) Public Works Expenditure ; (0) Loans raised in India. London, 1892.
Famine Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1885.
Finance Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1887.
Finance and Revenue Accounts ; and Miscellaneous Statistics relating to the Finances of
British India. Part I. Revenues, Charges, and other Cash Transactions of British India.
Fol. Calcutta, 1893.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part II. Revenues and Charges of each Presidency
and Province. Fol. Calcutta, 1893.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part III. Revenues and Charges, Statistics for the
Administration of Revenue, and Miscellaneous Statistics. Fol. Calcutta, 1893.
Gazetteers, Provincial and District.
Hunter (Sir W. W.), Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols. London, 1877. Statistical
Account of Assam. 2 vols. London, 1879.
Hunter (8ir W. W.), The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 2nd edit. 14 vols. 1886-87.
Indian Army Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1879.
Indian Army and Civil Service List Issued by permission of the Secretary of State for
India in Council. 8. London, 1892.
Mackenzie (8ir A.), The North-Eastern Frontier. Calcutta, 1884.
Paget (Gen.) and Mason (Captain), Record of Expeditions against the Tribes of the North-
West Frontier. London, 1885.
Public Service Commission of 1886, Report ami Proceedings. Calcutta, 1888.
Report of the Census of British India taken on February 17, 1891. London, 1893.
Reports of the Trigonometrical Surveys of India up to 1893. Calcutta, 1893.
Report of the Indian Education Commission. Calcutta, 1885.
Returns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India, 1891-92. Calcutta, 1893.
Review of the Accounts of the sea-borne Foreign Trade of British India for the year
ending March 31, 1893. Simla, 1893.
Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India during the
year 1882-83 (including the decade of 1874-83). Two parts. Fol. London, 1883. The same
for 1890-91. London, 1892.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United King,
dom in each year from 1875 to 1892. 8. London, 1893.
Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1879-80 to 1891-92. No. XXVII. 8.
London, 1893.
Statistical Atlas of India. Calcutta, 1886.
Trade of India with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in 1S92.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
Watt (Dr. G.), Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Calcutta, 1885-92.
Sec 'A List of the Principal Indian Government Publications on Bale' London, 1891.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 153
2. Non-Official Publications.
Arnold (Sir E.), The Administration of Lord Dalhousie. London, 1862.
Baden-Powell (B. H.), Land Systems of British India. Oxford, 1892.
Balfour (Edward), The Cyclopaedia of India. 3 vols. London, 1885.
Black (C. E. D.), Memoir on the Indian Surveys, 1875-1890. London, 1891.
Birdwood (Sir G.), The Industrial Arts of India. London, 1 887.
Campbell (Sir G.), Memoirs of my Indian Career. 2 vols. London, 1893.
Chetney (General Sir G.), Indian Polity : a View of the System of Administration in
India. London, 1870.
Cunningham (Sir H. S.), British India and its Balers. 8. London, 1881.
Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain : a Record of Travel in
English-speaking Countries in 1860 and 1867. New edit. 8. London, 1885.
Duff (Grant), The History of the Mahrattas. London, 1826.
Dufferin (Marquis of), Speeches delivered in India. London, 1890.
Elliot (Sir H. M.), History of India as told by its own Historians. The Mussulman
period. 8 vols. London, 1869-77.
Elphinetone (M.), History of India. London, 1866.
Fontpertuis (Ad. Prout de), L'Inde britannique. 8. Paris, 1878.
Forbes (C. J. T.), British Burma and its People. 8. London, 1880.
Griffin (Sir Lepel H.), The Rajas of the Punjab, being the History of the principal States
in the Punjab. 2nd edit 8. London, 1872.
Hunter (Sir W. W.), The Indian Empire, its History, People, and Products. 2nd edit
London, 1886.
Hunter (Sir W.), Life of the Earl of Mayo. London. 1876.
Hunter (Sir W.) (Editor), Rulers of India Series. London, 1890-93.
Hunter (Sir W.), Bombay, 1885-1890. London, 1892.
Jaeolliot (L.), Lois, pr£tres, et castes dans l'lnde. 8. Paris, 1877.
Kaye (John William), The Administration of the East India Company : a History of
Indian Progress. 8. London, 1853.
Keane (A. H.), and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.
Keene (H. G.), History of India. 2 vols. London, 1893.
Low (Charles Rathbone), The History of the Indian Navy. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Ly all (Sir A.), The Rise of British Dominion in India. London, 1898.
Lyall (8ir A. C), Asiatic Studies. London, 1882.
MaeMahon (Gen. R.), Far Cathay and Farther India. London, 1892.
Mahon {Lord), Rise of our Indian Empire. 8. London, 1858.
Markham (Clements R.), Memoir on the Indian Surveys. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1878.
Marshman (John Clarke), The History of India, from the Earliest Period to the close of
Lord Dalhousie's Administration. 3 vols. 8. London, 1867-70.
Phayre (Sir Arthur), History of Burma. London, 1883.
Beelu* (Eliaee), Geographic universale. L'Inde et l'lndo-Chine. Paris, 1883.
Bouuelet (L.), India and its Native Princes. 4. London, 1876.
Saunders (Trelaunay), Atlas of India. London, 1889.
8eott (J. G.), Burma : as it was, as it is, and as it will be. London, 1886.
Sherring (Rev. M. A.), History of Protestant Missions in India. 8. 2nd edit. London,
1884.
Smith (Dr. G.), Short History of Christian Missions. Edinburgh, 1886.
8mith (Dr. G.), The Geography of British India, Political and Physical. London, 1882.
Smith (R. Bosworth), The Life of Lord Lawrence. London, 1883.
Stokes (Whitley), The Indian Codes. London, 1888-91.
Straehey (Sir John), India. London, 1888.
Straehey (Sir John), The Finances and Public Works of India, from 1869 to 1881. S.
London, 1882.
Temple (Sir R), India in 1880. London, 1881. Men and Events of my Time in India.
London, 1882.
Todd (Col. J.), The Antiquities of Rajasthan. London, 1823.
Toumstnd fM.), and Smith (G.), Annals of Indian Administration, 1856-75. 19 vols.
.Serampore and Calcutta.
Trotter (Capt. L J.), History of India under Victoria. 2 vols. London, 1886.
Wallace (Prof. R.), India in 1887. Edinburgh, 1888.
Watson (J. Forbes), and Kaye (Jn. Wm.), The People of India : a Series of Photographic
Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols.
Imp. 4. London, 1866-70.
Wheeler (J. Talboys), The History of India from the Earliest Ages. 4 vols. 8. London,
1874-76. A Short History of India. London, 1880.
Wittiamt (Sir Monier), Modern India and the Indians. 8. London, 1879.
Witliams (Sir Monier), Religious Thought and Life in India. London, 1883.
Yule (Sir H.), and Burnett (A. C), A Glossary of Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases
London, 1886.
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154 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
DEPENDENT STATES.
To some extent dependent on, or feudatory to, India, are the
two border States of Baluchistan and Sikkim.
A country in Southern Central Asia, lying approximately between lat. 25°
and 32° N., and between long. 61° and 70° E. ; extreme length from E. to W.
about 550 miles ; breadth about 450. Bounded on the N. by Afghanistan,
on the E. by British India, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, on the W. by
Persia. Includes (1) Independent Baluchistan ; (2) Quetta and the Bolan,
administered on the Khan's behalf by the British Government ; (3) British
Baluchistan ; (4) certain Afghan and Baluch tribes on the Indian frontier.
The reigning chief is Mir Muhammad Khan, Khan of Khelat, who
succeeded on the abdication of his father, Mir Khudadad Khan in August,
1893.
Khans of Khelat since 1700.
Abdulla Khan.
Muhabbat Khan.
Nasir Khan I., 1755-1795.
Mahmud Khan.
Mehrab Khan, 1819-1840.
Shah Nawaz Khan, abdicated.
Nasir Khan II., 1840-1857.
Khudadad Khan, 1857-1893.
Muhammad Khan, reigning.
The power of the Brahui Khans of Khelat was founded towards the end
of the seventeenth century by a hill chief named Kumbar. Called in to
protect the Hindu Raja of Khelat against marauders from the east, Kumbar
first expelled these invaders, and then overthrew the Hindu dynasty. His
successors gradually made themselves supreme from Khelat to the Arabian
Sea, and about 1740 Abdulla Khan, the fourth Brahui Khan of Khelat, was
acknowledged as chief of Baluchistan by Nadir Shah. TJie districts of
Quetta and Mastang were granted to Abdulla's son, Nasir Khan L, by
Ahmad Shah, the Durani King of Afghanistan. Nasir Khan's grandson,
Mehrab Khan, was killed in the storming of Khelat by a British force in
1839. His son, Nasir Khan II., was acknowledged by the British Govern-
ment in 1841 ; and in 1854 a treaty was executed with him, under the
terms of which he received a yearly subsidy of 50,000 rupees. Nasir Khan
was succeeded by his brother, Khudadad Khan, with whom a fresh treaty
was concluded in December, 1876, by which the subsidy was raised to
100,000 rupees a year. Khudadad Khan also made over the district of
Quetta to be administered by British officers, at first receiving the surplus
revenue, but since 1882 an annual quit-rent of 25,000 rupees. He also
received 30,000 rupees per annum as compensation for his right to levy transit
dues on merchandise in the Bolan Pass. In 1893, Khudadad Khan was found
guilty of murdering his Minister and other subjects, and was permitted to
abdicate. His son, Mir Muhammad Khan, has succeeded to all his rights and
privileges.
The Khan of Khelat is at the head of a confederacy of chiefs, but his
powers cannot be precisely defined. In all important matters he is amenable
to the advice of the Agent to the Governor-General in Baluchistan, who also
arbitrates in disputes between the Khan and minor chiefs.
The area of Baluchistan is about 130,000 square miles. This includes
(1) the greater part of Baluchistan ruled by a confederation of chiefs under
the suzerainty of the Khan of Khelat ; (2) the districts of Quetta and the
Bolan administered on the Khan's behalf by British officials ; (3) the As-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
BALtfCHISTAN — SIKKIM
155
signed Districts of Pishin, Shorarud, Kachh, Kawas, Harnai, Sibi, and Thai
Chotiali, which formerly belonged to Afghanistan, and are now directly
under British rule ; (4) the Afghan tribes between the Amir's territory and
India ; and (5) the Baluch tribes, known as Marris and Bugtis. Total popu-
lation of Baluchistan (British and Independent), about 500,000. The nomad
Baliichis are the most widely spread race, the Brahuis of the eastern plateau
being the dominant race.
During the year 1888-89 the district of Khetran was brought under
British control ; and more recently British authority has been established in
the country between the Zhob Valley and the Gumal Pass.
The principal towns are Khelat (the capital), Quetta, which is already
much larger than Khelat, Mastang, Kozdar, Bela, Kej, Bagh, Gandava,
Dadar, Sonmiani. The religion is Muhammadan. The only Hindus are
shopkeepers and those who have come to Quetta for trade, labour, &c.
There is no standing army, with the exception of about 1,200 men kept
up by the Khan ; His Highness could perhaps assemble, at an emergency,
10,000 irregular tribal levies, indifferently armed. The fortifications recently
erected by the Indian Government lie within the territory under British
administration. The numerous forts scattered about independent Baluchis-
tan could offer no resistance against artillery.
The Khan of Khelat's revenue consists of his subsidy from the Indian
Government of 100,000 rupees a year, his quit-rent of 25,000 rupees for the
Quetta district, and a share in the agricultural produce taken from the
inferior cultivators in Independent Baluchistan. The last source of revenue
varies considerably. In a good year it might be worth 500,000 rupees.
The agricultural produce of Baluchistan is limited, owing to the scanty
and uncertain rainfall ; but most of the crops grown in India may be found
in the country. Coal has also been found in several places. At Khost, on
the Sind-Pishin Railway, it has been successfully worked for some years
past. Baluchistan is an immense camel-grazing country. Steps have been
taken to improve the breed of horses in Baluchistan by the importation of
thoroughbreds, Norfolk trotters, and Arab stallions. Local manufactures
are unimportant, being confined to a few matchlocks and other weapons.
The nomad tribes make for themselves rough blankets and rugs. The chief
exports are wood, hides, madder, dried fruit, bdellium, tobacco, and dates.
The following table shows, as nearly as can be estimated, the imports and
exports of Baluchistan from and to British India for the past two years. The
trade over the Sind-Pishin Railway, very little of which goes beyond British
territory, is excluded : —
Imports
Exports
1892
1893
1892
1893
Lus Bela .
Khelat
Rx.
23,643
10,654
1
Rx.
27,809
20,481
Rx.
43,785
43,784
Rx.
40,513
57,123
The country through which the Bolan and Sind-Pishin Railways run is
under British administration. Elsewhere camels serve as the chief means of
transport. Surveys have recently been made for a line of railway from
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council, and to reorganise the administration.
Estimated area, 2,600 square miles. Population, according to a census
taken in 1891, 30,458. The people are known to their Gurkha neighbours as
Lepchas, but call themselves Rong.
Principal towns, Tumlong and Gamtak.
The religion is Buddhist.
The revenues of the Maharaja were formerly said to amount to Rx. 84
yearly over and above his subsidy. Since British intervention, there has
been a considerable improvement, due chiefly to the increased assessment in
tracts where surveys have been made. In the year 1890-91, the gross receipts
were Rx. 3,205, the total expenditure Rx. 1,616. The revenue consists practi-
cally of an income tax, assessed and collected by twelve Eazis and other
subordinate officials ; the collectors, however, retaining most of the money
themselves, and only handing over a portion to the Maharaja. The Eazis
exercise a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction within their districts ;
important cases being referred to the Raja and decided by his minister and
the diwans. The lamas pay no dues to the State.
Sikkim produces rice, Indian corn, millet, oranges, tea, and two or three
kinds of cloth. There are valuable forests in the State and wide tracts of
unoccupied waste. A few copper mines are worked.
The principal trade route from Bengal to Tibet passes through Sikkim ;
but the through trade is, for the time being, practically extinguished, owing
to the complications on the Tibetan frontier.
The following table gives the value of imports to and exports from British
India for three years : —
Imports
Exports
1891 1892
1893
Rx. I Rx.
12,323 1 12,699
15,058 22,016
Rx.
18,091
24,360 ,
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ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 157
The chiefs imports were cotton piece goods, tobacco, and rice ; the chief
exports food grains and vegetables.
See 'Report on a Visit to Sikkim in 1873,' by Sir John Edgar, Calcutta
1874; 'Report on Explorations in Sikkim, &c./ by Lieut. -Col. Strahan,
Dehra Dun, 1889.
Also attached to British India are the following island groups :
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.
The Andamans are a group consisting of the Great and Little Andamans
on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 600 miles from the Hugli mouth of
the Ganges. The Great Andamans comprise three large islands, the North,
Middle, and South, with several smaller ones ; the group is about 156 miles
long and 20 miles wide ; area, 1,760 square miles. The most considerable of
the Little Andamans are Interview, Outram, Henry Lawrence, and Rutland
Islands. The aboriginal population, of diminutive size and low type, is
variously estimated at from 2,000 to 10,000. The islands are mainly used as
a convict settlement for India. At the end of 1892 the convict population
was 11,356, of whom some 2,925 held tickets as self-supporters. There is a
police force of 645 men. Port Blair, the principal harbour, is on the South
Island of the Great Andamans. The population of Port Blair (1891) is
15,670. Other ports are Port Campbell on the west of South Andaman, and
Port Cornwallis on the east coast of North Andaman. About 21,449 acres
have been cleared for cultivation by the convicts, the produce mainly for local
use. The whole group was formally annexed in 1858, and is placed under a
'Chief Commissioner and Superintendent of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands/ appointed by the Indian Government.
The Nicobar Islands are a group to the south of the Andamans, 634 square
miles. There are 8 large and 12 small islands. Great Nicobar is 30 miles
long, 12 to 15 miles wide. There used to be a convict station at Nancowry or
Camorta Island, but in 1888 the place was abandoned as a penal settlement.
The number of aboriginal inhabitants is 6,915. The islands are said to yield
annually 15,000,000 coco-nuts — one half exported ; edible birds' nests, tortoise-
shell, ambergris, trepang are also shipped.
See ' Report on the Administration of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
for 1891-92/ Calcutta, 1892.
LACCADIVE ISLANDS.
A group of 14 islands (9 inhabited), about 200 miles off the west or Malabar
coast of the Madras Presidency. The northern portion is attached to the
collectorate of South Kanara, the remainder to the administrative district of
Malabar. Population (1891), 14,440, all Muhammadans. The staple product
is the fibre known as coir.
KAMAEAN ISLAND.
Small island in the Red Sea, on the west coast of Arabia, 20 miles SSW.
of Sonera, 15 miles long, 5 miles wide. There are 7 small villages occupied
by fishermen. Affords good sheltered anchorage.
Keeling Islands. See Straits Settlements.
Kuria Muria Island. See Aden.
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158 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
LABUAN.
Governor. — Charles Vandeleur Creagh, C.M.G.
Acting Resident and Treasurer. — F. G. Callaghan.
Crown colony, placed, in 1889, under the government of the British
North Borneo Company.
An island about 6 miles from the north-west coast of Borneo, in the
Malayan Archipelago. Area, 30£ square miles. Population (1891), 5,853
estimated, mostly Malays from Borneo, with some Chinese traders ; 30
Europeans in 1891. Capital, Victoria, 1,500 inhabitants.
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
3,832
3,923
£
4,272
3,828
£
4,701
5,364
£
8,977
7,368
£
6,311
4,876
Exports1
Imports
47,959
74,574
50,919
74,443
43,308
70,064
55,230
75,629
54,832
86,782
Tonnage, entered
and cleared
74,930
126,745
114,750
124,134
115,455
* Exclusive of those in native vessels.
Sago, gutta-percha, india-rubber, wax, &c, are imported from Borneo and
other islands and exported to Singapore. In 1890, 9,665 tons of coal were
exported. There is no trade with the United Kingdom.
Chief sources of revenue : Retail licences, also customs on spirits, wines,
tobacco, &c. There is no public debt.
THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Constitution and Government.
The Straits Settlements, a Crown colony, which comprises Singapore,
Penang (including Province Wellesley and the Dindings), and Malacca, were
transferred from the control of the Indian Government to that of the Secretary
of State for the Colonies on April 1, 1867, by an Order in Council issued under
the authority of an Act of the Imperial Parliament, 29 and 30 Vict. c. 115.
The Cocos Islands were placed under the Straits Settlements by letters
patent dated February 1, 1886, and Christmas Island by letters patent dated
January 8, 1889.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the general officer commanding the
troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Resident Councillors of Penang and
Malacca, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor-General, and the
Colonial Engineer. There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the
Governor, and composed of ten official and seven unofficial members, five
nominated by the Crown and two elected by the Chambers of Commerce of
Singapore and Penang.
Governor.— Lieut. -Col. SirC. B. H. Mitchell, K.C.M.G.; Colonial Secretary
British Honduras, 1868 ; administered the Government, 1870-76 ; Receiver-
General British Guiana, 1877 ; ColonW Secretary Natal, 1877 ; acted as
Governor, 1881-82, 1885-86 ; Governor of Fiji, 1886 ; administered govern-
ment of Natal and Zululand, 1889 ; Governor, 1889 ; and Governor Straits
Settlements, 1893.
There are municipal bodies in each settlement, the members of which are
partly elected by the ratepayers, and partly appointed by the Governor.
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AREA AND POPULATION 159
Area and Population.
Singapore is an island about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen
wide, with an area of 206 square miles, situated at the southern extremity
of the Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by a narrow strait about
three-quarters of a mile in width. There are a number of small islands
adjacent to it, which form part of the settlement. The seat of government
is the town of Singapore, at the south-eastern point of the island. Penang
is an island of 107 square miles, situated off the west coast of the Malayan
Peninsula, and at the northern extremity or entrance of the Straits of
Malacca. On the opposite shore of the mainland, from which the island
is separated by a strait from two to ten miles broad, is Province Wellesley,
a strip of territory forming part of the Settlement of Penang, averaging
eight miles in width, and extending forty-five miles along the coast, in
eluding ten miles of territory to the south of the Krian, the whole con-
taining an area of 270 square miles. The chief town of Penang is George
Town. Off the coast of Perak is the small island of Pangkor, which,
together with a small strip of the opposite mainland, has been acquired as
British territory, the whole being known as the Dindings. Malacca is
situated on the western coast of the peninsula between Singapore and
Penang — about 110 miles from the former and 240 from the latter — and
consists of a strip of territory about forty-two miles in length, and from
eight to twenty-four and a half miles in breadth.
In addition, the Native States of Perak, Selangor, Sungei Ujong, Negri
Sembilan, and Pahang, which occupy a large portion of the peninsula, are
under British protection.
After the military occupation of Perak, those concerned in the murder
of Mr. Birch were captured and punished. In Perak, Selangor, and Sungei
Ujong, including Jelebu, Residents were appointed in 1874, who are
assisted by a staff of European officers ; and it is their duty to aid the
native rulers by advice, and to carry out executive functions. The supreme
authority in each State is vested in the State Council, consisting of the
highest native authorities and the principal British officials. The Residents
are directly under the Governor of the Straits Settlements.
In 1883 the relations of the colony were consolidated with the small
Native States on the frontier of Malacca. These States were confederated
in 1889, under the name -of Negri Sembilan. A State Council has been
formed, and a Resident has been appointed. In 1887, by agreement with
the Raja of Pahang, the control of his foreign relations, &c, was sur-
rendered to the British Government. This was followed by a further
agreement in 1888 with the Raja (now styled Sultan), under which Pahang
was taken under British protection, on the same terms as the Protected
Native States on the west coast of the peninsula. Pahang is situate on the
east coast, within 200 miles by sea from Singapore. The Sultan of Johor
in 1887 placed, in the spirit of former treaties, nis foreign relations in the
hands of this country, and agreed to receive a British Agent.
The areas of these States, in square^miles, are : — Perak, 10,000 ; Selangor,
3,000 ; Sungei Ujong, 660 ; Negri Sembilan, 2,000 ; Johor, 9,000 ; Pahang,
10,000. The duty on the export of tin forms the largest item of the
revenue of these States. Gold is found in considerable abundance in some
of them. The country, however, is .otherwise rich, and offers great advan-
tages for the cultivation of coffee and cinchona on its high land, and of
paddy in the valleys.
The following figures give the numbers in the several Settlements, inclusive
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160 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
of the military, at the census, 1881, and the general results of the census of
April 6, 1891 :—
1881
Singapore
Penang
Malacca
Totals
White :
Males ....
Females.
2,207
562
2,769
565
109
674
31
9
2,803
680
40
3,483
Coloured :
Males ....
Females.
Totals (1881).
Totals (1891).
103,216
83,223
123,640
66,283
52,028
41,511
278,884
141,017
136,439
189,928
93,539
419,901
139,208
190,597
93,579
423,384 I
184,554
235,618
92,170
512,342
Under the heading of Penang are included Penang Island, Province
Wcllesley, and the Dindings.
The following are the chief statistics of the census of 1891 : —
Malays
Chinese
Natives of India
Singapore
Penang, &c. .
Malacca ....
Total .
35,992
106,756
70,325
121,908
87,920
18,161
227,989
16,035
36,245
1,647
213,073
53,927
A census of the population of the native States was also taken in 1891,
the totals being as follows : Perak, 214,254 ; Selangor, 81,592 ; Sungei Ujong,
23,602 ; Pahang, 57,462 ; Negri Sembilan, 41,617.
The births and deaths in 1892 were as follows : —
Singapore
Births
Deaths
3,326
j 5,621
Dindings | Penang I *™%£
3,262
3,331
104
79
2,395
4,241
Malacca
3,603
2,761
In 1892, 139,174 Chinese immigrants landed in the colony, as against
144,066 in 1891. The total number of Indian immigrants in 1892 was
18,421, against 30,183 in 1891, and 9,937 in 1882. Of the total 1,628 were
under indenture. The number returned to India in 1892 was 17,722.
Instruction.
Education, which is not compulsory in the colony, is partly supported by
the Government.
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FINANCE
The number of schools and scholars is as follows, 1892 :
161
-
No. of Schools
Attendance
Government English schools ....
Grant-in-aid English schools ....
Government vernacular boys' & girls' schools .
8
29
155
963
3,850
6,497
Total ....
192
11,310
Justice and Grime.
The law in force is contained in local ordinances and in such English and
Indian Acts and Orders in Council as are applicable to the colony. The
Indian Penal Code, with slight alterations, has been adopted, and there is
a Civil Procedure Code based on the English Judicature Acts.- There is a
Supreme Court which holds assizes at Singapore and Penang every two
months, and quarterly at Malacca, and which holds civil sittings monthly at
Singapore and Penang, and once or twice a quarter at Malacca.
There are, besides, police and marine magistrates' courts. The total
convictions before the Supreme Court in 1892 was 239 ; before the other
courts 30,863. The police force numbered over 2,000 of all ranks in 1892, of
whom about 100 were Europeans. The number of criminal prisoners ad*
mitted to the gaol in 1892 was 4,510.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony for each of the last
five years were as follows : —
1 * Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
1888
3,858,108
3,569,507
1889
4,410,620
3,816,194
1890
4,269,125
3,757,693
1891
3,826,583
4,599,199
1892
3,652,877
4,265,783
The estimated revenue for 1893 was 3,635,780 dollars. The leading items
of revenue in 1892 were — stamps, 281,989 dollars ; licences, 2,475,640 dollars ;
land revenue, 246,325 dollars ; port and harbour dues, 122,512 dollars ;
postage, 137,145 dollars ; and of expenditure — salaries, 1,402,164 dollars ;
public works, 773,447 dollars ; education, 91,924 dollars ; police, 91,073
dollars ; marine department, 70,402 dollars ; transport, 74,872 dollars ; military
expenditure, 837,967 dollars.
The revenue in 1892 was derived as follows: — Singapore, 2,054,373 dol-
lars ; Penang, 1,303,997 dollars ; Malacca, 294,507 dollars.
The total assets of the colony, January 1, 1893, amounted to
2,509 716 dollars, and liabilities 783,078 dollars.
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Among the leading imports are cotton goods, opium, rice, tea, cottee,
tobacco, hardware, copper, copra, gambier, pepper, gum, rattans, sago, cigars,
tin, tapioca ; many of these, however, being largely re-exported.
M 2
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 165
Japanese yen, and the American trade dollar are also legal tender if of a
certain millesimal weight and fineness. Silver coins representing fractional
parts of a dollar form legal tender of sums not exceeding two dollars, and
copper coins, i.e. cents, half and quarter cents, for any sum not exceeding one
dollar.
Weights and Measures.
The measure in use in the Settlements is the English yard, with its
divisions and multiples, and land is measured by the English acre. The
native terms are, however, still in use.
Commercial Weight.
16 Tahil=l Kati = 1 i lb. avoirdupois.
100 Kati =1 Picul = 133J lbs.
40 Picul=l Koyan =5,3334 » »
The kati of 1 J lb. is known as the Chinese kati. Another weight, known
as the Malay kati, and still in partial use in Penang, is equal to the weight of
24 Spanish dollars, or 9 '984 grains. This gives 142*628 lbs. as the weight
of the picul, and 5,705*143 lbs. as the weight of the koyan. The measures
of capacity throughout the colony are the gantang or gallon, and chupak or
quart.
The State of Johore (area 9,000 square miles, population 300,000), at the
Southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, is, in its foreign relations, con-
trolled by Great Britain, in virtue of a treaty of 1885. The Sultan is H. H.
Abu Rakar, G.C.M.G., under whom the country is administered by small
headmen. The revenue is chiefly from import and export duties. Imports
are opium, spirits, tobacco, rice, hardware, Manchester goods, &c. Exports
are gambier, pepper, sago, tea, coffee, gutta percha, &c. The population is
chiefly Malay and Chinese. Chief Town, Johore Bahru, 15 miles N. of
Singapore.
Keeling or Gocos Islands, group of about 20 small coral islands, about 700
miles S.W. of Sumatra, and 1,200 miles S.W. of Singapore. Population
(1891), 554. The islands were formally annexed to England in 1857, and
placed under the Governor of the Straits Settlements by Letters Patent in
1886. Large quantities of copra, coco-nuts, and oil are exported.
Christmas Island is 200 miles S.W. of Java, and 700 miles E. of Keeling
Islands. It is 9 miles long and about the same wide. It was added to the
colony by Letters Patent in January 1889, and a settlement from the Cocos
Islands has since been made on it.
Books of Beference concerning the Straits Settlements.
Colonial Office List. Annual. London.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom.
Annual. London.
Bine Book for the Straits Settlements. Annual. Singapore.
Annual Reports on the Native States. Singapore.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions. London.
Pcrak Handbook and Civil List. Singapore, 1894.
Bird (Isabella L.), The Golden Cheronese. London, 1883.
Cameron (J), Our Tropical Possessions. London, 1865.
Jagor (F. S-)f Beiseskizzen. Berlin, 1866.
Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Singapore
Keane (A. H.), An Eastern Geography. London, 1887
McNair. Sarong and Kris.
Wallace (A. R), Malay Archipelago. London, 1869.
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166 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — AFRICA
AFRICA.
Amsterdam Island. See Mauritius.
ASCENSION ISLAND.
Ascension is a small island of volcanic origin, of 35 square miles, in the
South Atlantic, 750 miles N.W. of St. Helena. It is entirely under- the
control and jurisdiction of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and
is used as a coaling, victualling, and store dep6t for Her Majesty's ships on
the West Coast of Africa station. There is an excellent sanitarium up Green
Mountain for crews of ships visiting the island, whose health is impaired from
service on the coast. There is a farm of 8 acres under cultivation. The
population, which consists entirely of officers, seamen and marines, with their
wives and families, and about 50 Kroomen, numbers in all about 300.
Garrison station, Georgetown, on northeast coast.
The island is the resort of the sea turtle, which come in thousands to
lay their eggs in the sand. Imports from the United Kingdom into Ascension
(1892), 3,504Z., mostly stores. The island is included in the Postal Union.
Captain in Charge, Captain John G. Jones, R.N.
BASUTOLAND.
\
Basutoland forms an irregular oval on the north-east of the Cape
Colony. The Orange Free State, Natal, and the Cape Colony form its
boundaries. Its area is estimated at 10,293 square miles. The territory,
which is well watered and has a fine climate, is stated to be the best grain-
producing country in South Africa, and the abundant grass enables the Basutos
to rear immense herds of cattle. The country is really one continuous elevated
plateau, though broken and rugged.
Basutoland was annexed to the Cape in August 1871 ; but it was placed
directly under the authority of the Crown from March 13, 1884. The terri-
tory is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the direction of the
High Commissioner for South Africa, the latter possessing the legislative
authority, which is exercised by proclamation. For fiscal and other purposes
the country is divided into six districts, namely : Maseru, Leribe, Cornet
Spruit, Berea, Mafeting, and Quthing. Each of the districts is subdivided
into wards, presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to the Moshesh family.
According to the census taken in 1891 the population consisted of 578
Europeans and 218,324 natives. As European settlement is prohibited, the
white population will remain more or less limited to the few engaged in trade,
government, and missionary work. Maseru, the capital and largest town, has
a population of 862, of whom 99 are Europeans.
The productions are wool, wheat, mealies, and Kaffir corn. There are
indications of iron and copper, and coal has been found and is used in some
parts, two mines being actively worked for local supply. Stock, &c. (1891) :
81,194 horses, cattle 320,934, ploughs 10,434, waggons 808.
There are 133 schools (mostly missionary), with 7,192 scholars ; grant in
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BASTJTOLAND
167
aid, 3,708/. There are two small Government schools and some industrial
schools.
The imports consist chiefly of blankets, ploughs, saddlery, clothing,
iron and tin ware, and groceries. Imports in 1892, according to Colonial or
Orange Free State Returns, 94,338/. The exports consist chiefly of grain,
cattle, and wool. The grain exports in 1892 are estimated at 90,000/.
The commercial intercourse is almost exclusively with the Cape Colony
and Orange Free State, and on July 1, 1891, Basutoland was admitted into
Customs Union with these States.
The currency is exclusively British, but exchange is still largely conducted
by barter. The revenue arises from the Cape contribution (18,000/.), the
Post Office, native hut tax (at the rate of 10s. per annum), and the sale of
licences.
-
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-98
Revenue .
Expenditure .
£ 1 £
30,102 37,210
30,584 34,872
£
39,606
37,265
£
41,784
40,825
£
40,753
42,657
£
41,045
39,838
There is no public debt.
There are no navigable waterways, the rivers being low in winter and
generally flooded in summer. The roads in the country are now in good
condition for any kind of transport.
The line of postal communication is through the Cape Colony and Orange
Free State.
There is a telegraph office at Maseru in communication with the Cape
Colony Telegraph system. In July, 1892, telegraphic communication was
established between Maseru and Ladybrand, the Orange Free State bearing
part of the cost.
Resident Commissioner. — Colonel Sir Marshal James Clarke (late R.A.),
ICC.M.G. (1,500/.)
Acting Resident Commissioner — G. Y. Lagden.
Reference. — Annual Colonial Report. London.
BEGHXJAN ALAND.
The Crown colony of Bechuanaland lies between the South African Re-
public on the east, Cape Colony on the south, the 20th meridian of east
longitude on the west, the Molopo River on the north, while the protectorate
extends over the Kalahari Desert to 21° E. long, and 22° S. lat. An Order
in Council, July 4, 1890, places the parts of South Africa situate north of
British Bechuanaland, west of the South African Republic and of Matabele-
land, east of the German Protectorate, and south of the Zambezi under the
jurisdiction of the Governor of British Bechuanaland. The total area is
170,000 square miles, of which 71,000 square miles form the Crown colony,
and the population (1891) (British Bechuanaland only), was 60,376, of whom
5,254 were whites ; the rest natives, of whom 47,650 lived in locations, and
paid hut tax. The Crown colony was annexed, and the protectorate declared
September 30, 1885. It is under direct Imperial jurisdiction, through the
Governor of Cape Colony, who is also Governor of British Bechuanaland, where
he is represented by an administrator. The country is stated to be well
adapted for cattle and for maize ; gold, lead, silver, and iron have been found.
The climate is healthy. The country is generally from 4,000 to 5,000 feet
above sea-level* though much of it suffers from want of water. The chief
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168
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
industry is agriculture, the products being raised for local consumption.
Tobacco is being cultivated ; maize, wool, hides, cattle, and wood are ex-
ported. There is a well-trained force of Border police, numbering 450, of
whom 350 patrol the protectorate.
-
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-98
Revenue l
Expenditure .
£
91,682
87,985
£
99,043
98,594
£
161,303
159,545
£
164,300
164,700
£
146,293
154,615
l Including Parliamentary Grant, 76,0001. in 1888-89 ; 89, 54 2 J. in 1889-90 ; 115,9912. in
1890-91 ; 120,0001. in 1891-92 ; 100,0002. in 1892-93.
A tax of 10*. per annum is levied on every native hut. The seat of
administration is at Vryburg, in Stellaland, a settlement originally formed by
the Boers on the border of the Transvaal. There are good roads and the
railway from the Cape to Kimberley has been extended to Vryburg, and is
being extended northwards to Mafeking. The postal service is incorporated
with that of Cape Colony ; there is a daily post to Cape Colony and a weekly
post to Matabeleiand. A telegraph extends to Mafeking, the chief emporium
in the colony, from Cape Town, and has been continued northwards through
the protectorate, as far as Fort Salisbury, in Mashonaland. The chiefs of
the protectorate are Ehama, at Palachwe, chief of the Bamangwato ; Batwen,
at Kanya, chief of the Bangwaketsi ; Lenchwe, at Mochudi, chief of the
Bakhatla ; Sebele, son of Sechele, at Molonolole, chief of the Bakwenas ;
Ikaneng, at Ramoutsa, chief of the Bamahti (under Batwen), with whom
is an assistant commissioner. There is also an Assistant Commissioner for
the Northern Protectorate, who resides at Palachwe. There are resident
magistrates at Vryburg, Mafeking, Taungs, Euruman, and Gordonia.
Administrator, Deputy High fCommissioner, and Chief Magistrate. — Sir
Sidney G. A. Shippard, K.C.M.G."(1,800Z.)
Bechuanaland. Commission and Instructions to Major-General Sir Charles Warren,
K.C.M.G., as Special Commissioner to Bechuanaland. London, 1884, and subsequent
Blue Books.
Berbera. See under Aden.
\
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
(Cape Colony.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was originally established by Order in Council of the 11th
of March, 1853. By Act 28 Vict. c. 5, and Colonial Act III.
of 1865, which provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria
with the colony, various changes were made, and further changes
of an important nature by the ' Constitution Ordinance Amend-
ment Act,' passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, providing
for * the introduction of the system of executive administration
commonly called Responsible Government. ' The Constitution
formed under these various Acts vests the executive in the
Governor and an Executive Council, composed of certain office
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each governed by a Mayor or Chairman and Councillors, a certain number
of whom are elected annually by. the ratepayers. There are also 73 Village
Management Boards.
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170
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Area and Population.
The Cape Colony was originally founded by the Dutch, under
Van Kiebeek, about the year 1652. When it was taken by the
English, in 1796, the colony had extended east to the Great Fish
River. In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the
Netherlands, but was again occupied by British troops in 1806.
Since that time the boundary has been gradually enlarged by the
annexation of surrounding districts.
The colony is divided into 73 divisions, and its dependencies
intov23 districts.
At the census of 1875 the colony, as then constituted, had an
area of 191,416 square miles and a population of 720,984
(236,783 Europeans). According to the report of the census
of April 5, 1891, the population on the same area is 956,485
(336,938 Europeans), snowing an increase of 32*66 per cent,
during the 16 years, or an annual increase of 2*04 per cent, of
the whole population, and an increase in the European popula-
tion of 42*30 per cent, in the 16 years, or an annual increase of
2*64 per cent. •
The following table gives the area and population of the colony and
dependencies according to the census of 1891 :
i-
Colony proper .
Griqualand West '
East Griqualand .
Tembuland
Transkei .
Walfish Bay
Total
Area, Square
Miles
Population in 1891
Per ;
European
Native and
Coloured
Total
Square i
Mile |
191,416
15,197
7,594
4,122
2,552
430
336,938 I 619,547
29,670 1 53,705
4,150 . 148,468
5,179 175,236
1,019 ! 152,544
31 1 737
956,485
83,375
152,618
180,415
153,563
768
5 00
5*49
20*10
43*77
60*16
1*79
221,311
376,987 1,150,237
1,527,224
6*90
1 Griqualand West is now incorporated in the Cape and constitutes 4 of the 70 divisions.
Pondoland, with a resident Commissioner appointed by the Cape, has an
estimated population of 200,000.
Of the white population, 27,667 were born in England, 6,646 in Scotland,
and 4,184 in Ireland, while 6,540 were German. Of the coloured population,
13,907 are Malays, and 247,806 a mixture of various races ; the rest are
Hottentots, Fingoes, Kafirs, and Bechuanas. Of the white 195,956 are males,
and 181,031 females ; and of the total population 767,327 are males and
759, 897 females. The whites are distributed as follows : —
, The Colony ' Griqualand Griqualand Tembuland Transskei
Proper I West East lemouiana rransieei
Males
Females
I 174,032
' 162,906
16,264
13,406
2,384
1,766
2,670
2,509
592
427
Walfish
Bay
14
17
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RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 171
The Transkeian territories are grouped under their chief magistrates, and are
subject to the 'Native Territories Penal Code.'
The chief towns with their population in 1891 were : — The capital, Cape
Town, 51,251 (with suburbs, 83,718); Kimberley, 28,718; Port Elizabeth,
23,266; Graham's Town 10,498; Beaconsfield 10,478; Paarl, 7,668; King
William's Town, 7,226 ; East London, 6,924 ; Graaf-Reinet, 5,946 ; Worcester,
5,404 ; Uitenhage, 5,331 ; Cradock, 4,389.
Of the European population in 1891, 14,253 were of professional occupation,
77,118 domestic, 17,922 commercial 74,095 agricultural, 31,177 industrial,
155,333 were dependants and 7,089 indefinite or unspecified. Of the coloured
population the great majority are engaged in agricultural or ^domestic employ-
ments.
There is no general system of registration of births and deaths in the
colony. At the Colonial Office 6,416 marriages were registered in 1892. The
amount of immigration into Cape Colony is small ; from 1873 to 1884 the
total number of immigrants sent by the emigration agent in England was
23, 337 ; the greatest number being in the year 1 882 — 4, 645. In 1 884 it was only
292. Government immigration was stopped in 1886. The number of adult
arrivals by sea in 1889 was 12,329, and departures 7,482 ; in 1890, 13,085 and
9,047 respectively ; in 1891, 11,599 and 8,415 ; and in 1892, 12,633 and 7,845.
Religion.
According to the census of 1891, there were in the Colony 732,047 Protestants,
comprising 306,320 of the Dutch Reformed Church, 139,058 of the Church of
England, 37,102 Presbyterians, 69,692 Independents, 106,132 Wesleyans and
5,390 other Methodists,, 20,278 Lutherans, 16,297 Moravians, 14,271 Rhenish
Mission, 6,954 Baptists. The Catholics numbered 17,275 ; Mohammedans
15,099; Jews 3,009. The number described as ' of no religion ' was 753,824,
of whom 528,338 were Kafirs and Bechuanas, 165,389 Fingos, 22,545 Hottentot,
and 36,998 of mixed race. There were in all 1882 places of worship. There is
no State Church, but a certain sum is appropriated annually for ' religious wor-
ship' (7,3752. in 1892-1893) to the Dutch Reformed, Episcopalian, Presbyte-
rian, and Roman Catholic churches ; in 1875 an Act was passed for the
gradual withdrawal of this grant.
Instruction.
Education is not compulsory. Of the European population in 1891, 28*82
per cent, of the males and 28 '02 per cent, of the females could neither read nor
write. In 1891, according to the census results, there were in the colony
99,280 European children between the ages of 5 and 14. Of these 22,080 were
tanght in the government-aided schools, 17,697 in private schools, and 20,223
at home or in Sunday schools only. Between the same ages there were 316, 152
native or non-European children of whom 34,133 were taught in government-
aided schools, 4,561 in private schools, and 5,021 at home or in Sunday
schools only. In the 1809 aided schools in 1892, the enrolment was 111,436,
with a daily attendance averaging 61,771.
Cape Colony has a University, incorporated 1873, and granted a royal
charter in 1877. It is an examining body, empowered to grant degrees, but
with no attached teaching institutions. There are 5 colleges aided by
Government grants under the Higher Education Act, each with full staff of
professors and lecturers in the departments of classics, mathematics, and
physical sciences. Number of students in 1891-92, 187 matriculation ; 1
M.A., and 27 Law ; 92 B.A., and intermediate ; 17 for survey; total 237.
Government expenditure for 1891-92 . . .£133,930
Local „ „ 1890-91 . . . 137,116
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172 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF QOOD HOPE
There were 81 public libraries in the colony in 1892, with an aggregate of
258,006 volumes. There are 78 newspapers and periodicals published in the
colony.
Justice and Crime.
The highest Court of Judicature in the colony is the Supreme Court,
whicn consists of a Chief Justice and eight puisne judges. The judges of
the Supreme Court hold sessions in Cape Town, and Circuit Courts in the
Western Districts ; the judges assigned to the Eastern Districts Ccurt hold
sessions in Grahamstown, and Circuit Courts in the Eastern Districts and
the Transkeian Territories ; and the judges assigned to the High Courts
hold sessions at Kimberley. By Art. 3/90 the Supreme Court has been
constituted a Court of Appeal under the Africa Order in Council of 1889.
There are numerous seats of magistracy and further periodical courts held
by magistrates at outlying villages, as well as courts of special justices of the
peace. Under certain conditions appeal may be made to the Queen in
Council. The Roman-Dutch law forms the great bulk of the law of the
colony, modified by colonial statute law.
In 1892 there were convicted before the special J. P. Courts, 1,820
prisoners ; before Magistrates' Courts, 41,667 ; before the Supreme Courts,
677. The prisoners in gaol, December 31, 1892, were 2,274 males and 310
females. In 1892 the Cape Police Force numbered 935, the Municipal and
ordinary Police Force, 954 ; and the Gaol Establishment, 362.
Pauperism.
In the various charitable institutions in the colony at the end of 1892,
there were 2,777 inmates. In 1892, 668 persons received indoor relief,
and an average of 309 monthly received outdoor relief.
Finance.
The income and expenditure of the colony, the former including loans,
the latter including expenditure under Act of Parliament, were as follows
during each of the last five years (ending June 30) : —
Revenue.
Year ended
June 30.
Taxation
Services
rendered
Colonial
Estate
Fines,
Stores
issued, Ac.
Loans
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
1,458,608
1,595,458
1,774,352
1,654,583
1,748,924
£
1,685,025
1,885,493
2,291,875
2,098,351
2,342,709
£
257,801
311,329
319,198
348,113
346,915
£
25,250
43,834
45,125
42,829
56,796
£
926
502,000
1,141,857
1,413,143
1,075,523
£
3,427,610
4.338,114
5,571,907
5,557,019
5,570,867
Expenditure.
Year
ended
June 30.
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Public
Debt
Railways
Defence
Police
and Gaols
Civil Esta-
blishment
Under Act
of Par-
liament
£
1,088,630
1,049,496
1,063,280
1,221,463
1,221,464
£
716,310
839,794
1,018,065
1,117,953
1,219,065
£
138,904
142,633
142,774
152,430
150,681
£
187,781
194,893
217,509
234,364
239,354
£
122,881
117,931
128,624
126,831
131,975
£
36,969
110,506
821,324
1,913,504
2,387,471
Total, j
including I
other heads I
£ I
3,260,759 |
3,621,019
5,327,496
6,436 007 I
6,371,220 |
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sessions \ Exports to . ! 87,062, 82,767 113,715! 89,510
Foreign J Iraportsfrom , 904,943 904,750 910,674 I 1,112,769
Countries } Exports to . 479,339 406,168 423,099 j 413,990 ,
The value of the imports (of merchandise) and exports (colonial), ex-
cluding diamonds sent through by post office, at the leading ports has been
as follows : —
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January 1, 1893, were 27 vessels of 3,855 tons
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rue general aunaue measure 1a me uiu A.uisieruam morgcn, recKoned
equal to 2*11654 acres. Some difference of opinion existed formerly as to
the exact equivalents of the shortest land measure, the foot, but it was in
1858 officially settled that 1,000 Cape feet were equal to 1,033 British
imperial feet.
Agent- General of Cape Colony in Great Britain. — Sir Charles Mills,
K.C.M.G., C.B., appointed in 1882.
Secretary.— Spencer Brydges Todd, C.M.G.
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Chiuta, which it follows ; thence it runs in a direct line to the eastern shore
x
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its commence witn tne ±uver onire.
From the confluence of the Ruo and Shire the boundary will follow the
centre of the channel of the latter river to a point just below Chiwanga ;
thence it runs due westward until it reaches the watershed between the
Zambezi and the Shire, and follows the watershed between those rivers, and
afterwards between the former river and Lake Nyasa, until it reaches parallel
14° of south latitude. From thence it runs in a south-westerly direction to
the point where south latitude 15° meets the River Aroangwa or Loangwa,
and follows the mid-channel of that river to its junction with the Zambezi.
On the west by a line following the centre of the channel of the Upper
Zambezi, starting from the Katima Rapids up to the point where it reaches the
territory of the Barotse kingdom. That territory to remain within the British
sphere ; its limits to the westward, which will constitute the boundary
between the British and Portuguese spheres of influence, to be decided by a
joint Anglo-Portuguese Commission.
In the early part of 1891, Her Majesty's Government extended the
field of operations of the Charter of the British South Africa Com-
pany, so as to include the whole of the British sphere north of the
Zambezi, except Nyasaland, under which name are included certain
districts in the Lake Nyasa region where British missionaries had
been settled for over fifteen years and the African Lakes Company
had been at work for the same period, and which in 1889 were declared to
be within the British sphere of influence. On the 14th of May, 1891, these
districts were proclaimed a protectorate of Great Britain under the name of
the British Central Africa protectorate. The protectorate is administered
under the Charter of the British South Africa Company by H.M. Commis-
sioner, whose administrative authority practically extends over the whole
sphere of influence beyond. The cost of administering the Protectorate is
borne by the Imperial Government and the British South Africa Company.
The contributions of the Company amounted in 1891 to £15,000, in 1892 to
£10,000, in 1893 (including a special grant of £10,000) to £27,000. The
Company is liable to contribute £5,000 a year additional when the Adminis-
tration of the Barotse country is undertaken.
The total area of British Central Africa is officially stated to be about
500,000 square miles. The European population is 237, of whom 210 are
British subjects. In the lower region a few Indian traders have begun to
settle, while on or near Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika are about 26 Arabs,
dwelling as chiefs, recognised by the British Government, or as merchants
of good repute. The total native population is about 4,000,000. Large
portions of territory are uninhabited owing to the former slave raids of the
Arabs and black Portuguese. The Barotse country on the east side of the
Upper Zambezi is thickly populated, but, with this exception, the native
population is congregated cniefly in that portion of the territory which is
more or less under British administration.
The chief town of British Central Africa is Blantyre, in the Shire High-
lands, with a population of about 35 Europeans and 4,000 natives. In the
same region, or on the Shire river, are Zomba (the seat of the Administration),
Chiromo, Katunga, and other settlements ; on Lake Nyasa are Fort Johnston,
Port Maguire, Livingstonia ; while other settlements have been, or are l>eing,
formed in the Tanganyika district, on Lake Moero, and on the Upper
Luapula river near Bangwcolo.
The Shire Province, lying round the southern shores of Lake Nyasa and ex-
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BRITISH CENTRAL AFlllCA 179
tending towards the Zambezi, is now governed very much after the manner of
a Crown colony. It is divided into eight districts, in each of which are two
or more officials of the British Central African Administration. There are
nine post-offices and seven customs-houses. The province contains most of the
European population of the Protectorate. Good roads are being made in all
directions, and life and property are safe. Six missionary societies are at
work. The climate, though not salubrious for European settlers in general,
i« healthier than the greater part of tropical Africa. Within the province
coffee planting has been greatly extended within the last few years. On Lake
Nyasa the chief trade is in ivory, probably onerfourth of the ivory exported
from Africa being from the Nyasa district. Other articles of export are india-
rubber, oil-seeds, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus teeth, Strophanthus seed,
bees'-wax and rice. Rice is grown to perfection, and the cultivation of wheat,
recently introduced, promises to be successful. Oats and barley thrive on the
uplands, where Merino sheep and Natal ponies seem also likely to prosper.
The trade for the year ended October 1892 was : Imports, £42,000 ; exports,
£37,000. The chief imports were cotton goods, machinery, provisions, hard-
ware and agricultural implements.
The armed force necessary to maintain order and to check the slave trade
consists of a corps of 200 Sikhs from the Indian Army, with from 200 to 300 black
police, recruited by permission of the Portuguese Government from the vicinity
of Mozambique. This force has English officers and Sikh non-commissioned
officers. An armament of artillery, with mountain guns, has been supplied by
the Imperial Government. There is also a naval force on the rivers Zambezi
and Shire and on Lake Nyasa, consisting of the five gunboats, herald,
Mosquito, Dove, Adventure, and Pioneer, with English officers and seamen.
There are five naval stations at intervals from Chinde at the mouth of the
Zambezi, to Port Maguire on the south coast of Lake Nyasa.
Communication with the coast is by H.M. gunboats and by the river
steamers of the British Central African Administration, the African Lakes
Company, Sharrer's Zambezi Traffic Company, and the African International
Flotilla Company. These vessels meet at Chinde the ocean-going steamers of
various British, German, and Portuguese Companies. Chinde is situated on
the only navigable mouth of the Zambezi, and at this port the Portuguese
Government has granted a small piece of land, called the " British Concession,"
where goods in transit for British Central Africa may be landed and re-shipped
free of customs duty.
H.M. Commissioner and Consul-General. — H. H. Johnston, C.B., who is
also Representative of the British South Africa Company.
References.
Foreign Office Reports on British Central Africa, and Annual Report of the British
South Africa Company.
Br i den (H. A.), Gun and Camera in Southern Africa. 8. London, 1893.
Buchanan (J.), The Industrial Development of Nyasaland. Geographical Journal,
Vol. I., 1893.
KeUie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London, 1898.
Rankin (D. J.), The Zambesi Basin and Nyasaland. 8. London, 1893.
Sclater (Lieut. B. L.), Routes in Nyasaland. Geographical Journal, Vol. II., 1893.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
EAST AFRICA, BRITISH (I.B.E.A.).
The strip of the Zanzibar coast extending from the northern limit of German
influence on the right bank of the Umbe to the Ozi River, including Kau and
Kipini, was in 1888 ceded by the Sultan for fifty years to the Imperial
British East Africa Company, the initials of which form the name Ibea, used
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180 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
to designate the territory. By a second concession, granted in 1889, the
Sultan ceded to the Company all his towns and possessions north of Kipini,
all the islands on the coast and in Manda Bay, and the ports of Kismayn,
Brava, Merka, Magadisho, Warsheik, and Maroti.
The Sultan (1891) granted all his territory from the Umbe to the Juba,
including the port of Kismayn, to the British East Africa Company in per-
petuity, for an annual payment of 80,000 dollars. The total length of coast
subject to the Company is about 400 miles. In consequence of the Anglo-
Italian Agreement of 1891, the concession of the ports north of Kismayn was
given up by the Company, Italy and the Sultan being left free to deal with
the:
each other in regard to them as they think fit.
By the Anglo-German Agreements of November 1, 1886, and July 1,
1890, the southern boundary of British East Africa extends in a north-west
direction from the north bank of the mouth of the River Umbe, going round
by the north of Kilimanjaro, to where the 1st parallel of N. latitude reaches
Lake Victoria. Thence across the lake and westwards on the same parallel to the
boundary of the Congo Free State. To the north, the British sphere is bounded
by the River Juba ; it ascends that river to 6° N. latitude, following that parallel
as far as 35° E. longitude, this meridian forming the boundary between the
British and Italian spheres of influence up to the Blue Nile, and is conter-
minous with the sphere of Italian influence in Gallaland and Abyssinia as far
as the confines of Egypt. To the west it is bounded by the Congo Free State
viz. 30° E. longitude which forms the boundary up to the N. limit of that
state (4° N. latitude). North of this parallel of latitude the British sphere
has at present no western delimitation and debouches on the independent
Mohammedan states of that region. British East Africa includes Witu and
the territory formerly claimed by Germany on the coast to the north (ceded by
Germany in 1890), and the islands of Patta and Manda. It includes Uganda,
Usoga,Unyoro, Ankori, Mpororo, Koki, part of Ruanda, the Equatorial Province
(Emin Pasha's), part of Kordofan and Darfur, and a large part of Somaliland.
The total area thus embraced probably extends to over 1,000,000 square miles.
Treaties have been made with the native chiefs between the coast and the
lake, and also with the King of Uganda and chiefs on the west side of the lake,
to beyond the Semliki River, and quite recently with the Somali tribes
occupying the interior between the Juba and Tana, whereby commercial access
to the Galla country is for the first time opened.
The Company holds a royal charter, dated September 3, 1888. It had
occupied the country as far as Uganda, and between that and Lake Albert
Edward and the River Semliki. By arrangement with the Government the
Company retired from Uganda at the end of March, 1893. A Government
commission was appointed to inquire into "The best means of dealing with the
country whether through Zanzibar or otherwise," and the Commissioner's report
is now under consideration of Her Majesty's Government. The Company's
capital is 2,000,000/. sterling, of which 1,000,000Z. was offered to the public.
On July 31, 1893, the Company withdrew from the administration of
Witu, of which (being a British Protectorate) they had assumed control as the
responsible delegates of Her Majest}7, distinct from their tenour of administra-
tion derived from the Sultan. Thereupon the Protectorate was temporarily
placed under the administration of the Sultan, and under Mohammedan law.
The chief ports are Wanga, Mombasa, Malindi,Mambrui,Lamu,and Kismayu.
The customs revenue realised in 1888 $36,000 ; in 1889 it was $56,000, a
gain of over 50 per cent. In 1891 it amounted to 214,872 rupees ; in 1892
239,812 rupees. In 1891 the imports were valued at 1,545,640 rupees ;
exports, 1,044,603 rupees ; in 1892, imports, 2,083,209 rupees ; exports,
l,030s 173 rupees.
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EAST AFRICA , 181
On June 30, 1892, the Sultan of Zanzibar withdrew his reserves under the
Berlin Act, thereby placing all his dominions within the Free Zone. Zanzibar
itself was declared a free port in February, 1892. At the mainland ports the
5 per cent, import duty is levied under the Brussels Act.
The principal exports are sesame seed, ivory, india-rubber, gum, copra,
coir, orchella weed, hides, &c. The imports are Manchester goods, Bombay
cloth, iron and copper wire, beads, &c. Trade is at present principally in the
hands of East Indian merchants (Banians).
The fine harbour of Mombasa has been much improved by the construction
of piers and jetties, beacons, and mooring buoys. A new town is being built
at Mombasa, and the appearance of the place has been greatly improved.
The Eastern Telegraph Company has recently connected Mombasa by
submarine cable with Zanzibar, and the East Africa Company has constructed
a telegraph line connecting the Company's coast ports with Mombasa. This
line is now completed to Lamu vid Golbanti (Tana River) and Witu. A
survey has been made for the construction of a line of railway over 657
miles long from the coast at Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza.
A good road has been constructed to connect Mombasa with Kibwezi (nearly
200 miles inland) where the East African Scottish Mission is working success-
fully towards the industrial education of the natives.
The country has been peaceably opened up by exploring caravans carrying
trade goods. The most advanced permanent posts occupied by Europeans are
situated at Machakos and Kikuyu, 250 to 300 miles inland, on a healthy
salubrious plateau, at an elevation of 7,000 feet, Mengo, the capital of the
kingdom of Uganda, and the line of forts established by Captain Lugard on
the western frontier of Unyoro, from the Albert Nyanza to the Albert Edward
Nyanza. The River Tana has been navigated by the Company's stern-wheel
steamer ' Kenia ' for a distance of 300 miles, as far as Baza, and the Juba, by
the same steamer, as far as Bardera, about 400 miles from the mouth of the
river.
The seat of government is at Mombasa. The acting administrator of the
Government is J. R. W. Pigott, Esq.
References.
Blue-books of 1891, 1802, 1893. These are the most important references.
Clarke (R. F.), Cardinal Lavigerie and the African Slave Trade. 1889.
Handbook of E. Africa Intelligence Department, War Office, 1894.
Hoenel (Lieut, von), Discovery of Lakes Rudolf, Ac. 2 vols. London, 1894.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London, 1893.
Lugard (Capt. F. D ), ' The Rise of Our East African Empire'; Early Efforts in Nyasa-
land and Uganda. 2 vols. London, 1893.
M'Dermott (P. L.), • British East Africa.' (A history of the Company). 8. London, 1893.
Beclus, Universal Geography, English Edition, vols. x. and xii.
Thomson (J.), Hasailand.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
The Annual Reports of the Company.
Travels of Speke and Grant, Sir Samuel Baker and Stanley.
Gambia. See West African Colonies.
. Gold Coast. See West African Colonies.
Lagos. See West African Colonies
Matabeleland. See Zambezia, British
MAURITIUS.
Constitution and Government.
The government of the British Colony of Mauritius, with its dependencies,
Hodrigues, Diego Garcia, and the Seychelles Islands, is vested in a Governor,
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182
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
aided by an Executive Council, of which the officer in command of Her
Majesty's troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Procureur-General, the Receiver-
General, and the Auditor-General, and two elected members of the Council of
Government are ex-officio members. There is also a Council of Government,
consisting of the Governor and twenty-seven members, ten being elected, eight
ex-officio, and nine nominated by the Governor. The official councillors
comprise the five Executive members, the Collector of Customs, the Protector
of Immigrants, and the Surveyor-General. The constitution was altered by
letters patent dated September 16, 1885, which introduced an elective element
into the Legislature. Under a moderate franchise ten members are now
elected, one for each of the following districts : — Moka, Plaines Wilhems,
Grand Port, Flacq, Savanne, Riviere Noire, Pamplemousses, Riviere du
Rempart ; and two for Port Louis.
Governor of Mauritius. — Sir Hubert Edward Henry Jerningham, K. C. M. G. ,
Colonial Secretary British Honduras, 1887; Colonial Secretary Mauritius, 1889;
Governor of Mauritius 1893. The Governor has a salary of 50,000 rupees, and
the Colonial Secretary 13,500 rupees per annum.
Area and Population.
The island of Mauritius, lying in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of
Madagascar, comprises an area of 705 English square miles.
The Seychelles group, Rodrigues, and the Chagos Islands are the principal
dependencies of Mauritius. Total area of dependencies, 172 square miles.
Mahe\ the most important of the Seychelles group, is situated at a distance of
940 miles from Mauritius.
The following were the numbers of the population of Mauritius, according
to the census taken in 1891 : —
—
Male
Female
Total
Total of resident population
Military in Port Louis and elsewhere .
Crews of mercantile shipping
206,038
721
344
164,550
2
370,588
721
346
Total of population
207,103
164,552
371,655
Over two-thirds of the population are Indian, and the remainder consists
of natives of African race, Chinese, mixed races, and whites. No official
figures exist as to the numerical proportions of these different groups
of the general population, except as to the Chinese, the number of whom
was estimated at 3,399 on January 1, 1893. The birth-rate of 1892 was
40*1 per 1,000, and death-rate 38*4. The total number of immigrants,
including women and children who landed in the colony in 1891 was 991,
and departures, 900. No immigrants landed in 1892, and the total number
of departures was 1,354. The capital of the colony, Port Louis, had, with
its suburbs, an estimated population ef 60,955 in 1892.
According to the census of 1891 the returns as to the religions showed
that there were then 209,079 Hindoos, 115,438 Roman Catholics, 34,763
Mahometans, and 7,307 Protestants. State aid is granted to both Churches,
the Roman Catholics receiving 102,556 rupees in 1892, and the Protestants
41,038 rupees ; the Indians are mostly Hindoos.
Primary education is conducted partly in government, and partly in State-
aided schools, 168 in 1892. The total government expenditure on education
in 1892, including the Royal College, was 457,040 rupees. In 1892 t|ic
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FINANCE — COMMERCE
183
average number of pupils on the roll in primary schools was 16,457, and the
average attendance 10,189. At the Royal College in 1892 the attendance was
201, and at the Royal College schools, 313.
The total number of convictions at the inferior courts in 1892 was 17,441
and at the Supreme Court, 94.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony for five years were : —
Revenue .
Expenditure
Rupees
8,574,058
7,771,579
1889
Rupees
8,744,802
8,558,332
1890
Rupees
7,774,774
7,705,311
1891
Rupees
7,595,651
8,192,265
1892
Rupees |
7,473,029 !
8,024,484 !
The principal sources of revenue were : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Rupees
2,611,280
2,453,423
1,490,642
Customs dues .
Licences and permits
Railway traffic .
Rupees
2,558,677
1,869,415
1,533,770
Rupees
2,412,876
2,140,176
1,801,213
Rupees
2,670,420
2,142,917
1,575,888
Rupees
2,424,425
2,268,143
1,597,321
The whole debenture debt of the colony in 1892 was : — Government
Debenture Debt, 771,449Z. ; Poor Law Commission, 3,5002.
The municipal debt of Port Louis was 156,860Z.
Defence.
The harbour of Port Louis is defended by Fort Adelaide and Fort George.
The troops in the colony at the beginning of 1893 numbered 834 (40 officers
and 794 men). The total military expenditure for 1892 was 58,2192., of
which about one-third was paid by the colony.
Commerce.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony (ex-
clusive of specie and bullion) was as follows in each of the last five years : —
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Total Imports
Total Exports
Rupees
Rupees
15,341,202
22,291,978
15,612,056
32,806,315
16,375,377
26,962,930
16,433,133
23,705,288
15,746,116
18,093,181
The exports from the colony comprise, as staple article, unrefined sugar
15,346,233 rupees in 1892, and, besides, rum, 303,642 rupees ; vanilla,
174,074 rupees ; aloe fibre, 309,653 rupees ; coco-nut oil, 215,900 rupees. A large
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184
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
portion of the trade is with the British colonies of South Africa, Australia,
and India.
The commercial intercourse of Mauritius with the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined table, according to the Board of Trade Returns.,
for each of the last five years : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
Imports from Mauritius into U. K.
Exports of British Produce to
Mauritius
£
275,546
253,928
£
421,537
300,698
£
264,900
320,326
£
268,066
256,595
230,127
270,087
The staple article of import from Mauritius into the United Kingdom is
unrefined sugar, the value being 294,311Z. in 1889 ; 157, 687 J. in 1890 ;
135,845Z. in 1891 ; 150,214Z. in 1892. The other imports comprise drugs
of the value of 29,340£. ; hemp and other fibres, 18,865?. ; caoutchouc,
3, 885?. The British exports to Mauritius in 1 892 consisted principally of cotton
goods, value 65,362Z. ; coal, 20,957Z. ; machinery, 10,56U ; iron, 49,902/. ;
manure, 13, 986 J. ; apparel and haberdashery, 8,910?. ; beer and ale, 7,194?.
Shipping and Communications.
The registered shipping in 1893 consisted of 62 sailing vessels of 4,601
tons (net), and 4 steamers of 131 tons ; total, 66 vessels of 4,732 tons.
The number of vessels entered in 1892 was 242 of 110,528 tons, and
cleared 240 of 105,714 tons.
The colony has two lines of railways with two branches, of a total length
of 92 miles, the revenue from which in 1892 was 1,490,642 rupees, and
expenditure 984,025 rupees.
There exists a complete system of telegraphs throughout the island of
Mauritius. The number of letters, postcards, and newspapers which passed
through the post office in 1892 was 2,675,693.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The standard coin of Mauritius is the Indian rupee, with its subdivisions.
All accounts are kept in rupees.
The metric system decreed by the Government of India in 1871 came
into force in Mauritius on May 1, 1878.
Dependencies.
Seychelles. — Population, according to Census of 1891, 16,440 (8,302
males, 8,138 females). Revenue 1892, 195,510 rupees ; expenditure, 222,253
rupees ; imports, 610,325 rupees ; exports, 798,698 rupees. Principal exports :
coco-nut oil, soap, vanilla, tortoise-shell. Ships entered 1891, 79, including
19 men-of-war. There are 26 Government schools, with 1,844 pupils.
Grants in aid 8,000 rupees. Administrator: T. Biseley Griffith, C.M.G.
Rodrigues (under a Magistrate). — 18 miles long, 7 broad. Population,
(census 1891) 2,068 (1,154 males, 914 females) ; revenue, 1892, 7,002 rupees ;
expenditure, 25,541 rupees ; imports (1892), 54,517 rupees ; exports, 93,050
rupees.
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thirty years of age, must have resided ten years in the colony, and must he
registered proprietor of real property of the net value of 5001. Members hold
their seats for ten years, provision being made for the withdrawal of five at
the end of the first five years. The President is appointed by the Governor.
The Legislative Assembly consists of thirty-seven members chosen by the
electors. Each Legislative Assembly continues for four years, unless sooner
dissolved. It meets annually or oftener, appoints its Speaker, and adopts
(with the approval of the Governor) its own standing rules and orders. Money
bills must originate in the Assembly, and the Legislative Council may accept
or reject but not alter them. No money bill, however, for any purpose not
first recommended to the Assembly by message of the Governor can be passed
in the session in which it is proposed. No person can be a member of the
Assembly who is not a duly qualified and registered elector. Members receive
an allowance of 11. a day during the session.
Electors are qualified by the possession of immovable property of the value
of 501., by payment of rent for such property of the annual value of 101. , or
(having resided three years in the colony) by having an income of 96Z. per
annum, inclusive of allowances. Electors (1892), 9,077.
The executive authority resides in a body of not more than six ministers,
each of whom must be, or must within four months become, a member of one
of the legislative bodies. Each may sit or speak in either house, but may
vote only in that of which he is a member.
Governor of Natal. — The Hon. Sir Walter Francis Hely-Hutchinson,
K.C.M.G. ; Private Secretary to Sir H. Robinson in Fiji, 1874; Private
Secretary for New South Wales affairs, 1875 ; Colonial Secretary of Barbados,
1877 ; Secretary to the Government of Malta, 1883 ; Lieut. -Governor, 1884 ;
Governor of Windward Islands, 1889. Appointed to Natal, 1893. He is
also Governor of Zululand.
The Governor has a salary of 4,000?. per annum.
The first Ministry under the new Constitution was formed October 10,
1893, as follows :—
Premier and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Sir John Robinson, K.C.M.G.
Attorney-General. — Hon. Harry Escombe.
Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. G. M. Sutton.
Minister of Native Affairs. — Hon. F. R. Moor.
Minister of Public Works. — Hon. T. K. Murray.
Area and Population.
The colony has an estimated area of about 20,460 square miles, with a
seaboard of about 200 miles. But the extent of some of the districts is all but
unknown. The colony is divided into 19 Magisterial Districts.
The European population has more than doubled since 1879. The returns
of the total population (1879 and 1891) were : —
Europeans .
Indians
Kaffirs
1891
1879
46,788
41,142
455,983
543,913
22,654
16,999
319,934
Grand total .
361,587
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rne ruouc uem on uecemoer jji, io»z, was /,i/u,ao4fc.
Defence.
There is a body of mounted police numbering 209, and of volunteers 1,835,
including a volunteer naval defence corps of 92 men. The cost of the mounted
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nuuucuo) »w,i7pwt. , uvfiiuuoy iuy,vwi». , iuoa>ij..luoi j , jzu^v^i ». j uv/u mju nun
goods, 135,886/.; leather goods and saddlery, 154,206/.; ale and beer,
41,994/.; wines and spirits, 107,587/.
The chief exports were :— Angora hair, 480,464 lbs. ; hides and skins,
168,997 in number; unrefined sugar, 194,427 cwt.; coal, 59,979 tons ; wool,
20,887,888 lbs.; maize, 1,809 cwt.; spirits and rum, 120,420 gallons ; gold in
dust or bars, 333,117/.; bark to the value of 7,170/. The value of Colonial
produce exported was 876,219/.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 189
The following is the value of the imports into Great Britain from Natal,
and the exports from Great Britain of domestic produce and manufactures to
Natal for six years, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports from Natal
Exports of British
produce to Natal
£
902,183
1,590,436
£
1,087,128
2,024,303
£
962,170
3,054,636
£
1,125,040
2,837,201
£
1,183,428
2,280,419
£
867,954
1,913,028
The wool imports into Great Britain from Natal amounted in 1892 to the
value of 692,384?.; hides, 27,582Z.; raw sugar, 40,307Z. in 1885, 32,370Z. in
1889, 7,189Z. in 1890, 2,271/. in 1891, 62,148Z. in 1892 ; cotton, 26,147Z. in
1890, 5,8902. in 1891, 501. in 1892. Much of the wool and other articles are
from the neighbouring Dutch Republics, which also take one-third of the
merchandise imported into Natal.
The chief articles exported from Great Britain to Natal in 1892 were apparel
and haberdashery, 397,1072. ; cottons, 127,6742. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
252,8462.; leather and saddlery, 151,0742.; machinery, 81,2452. ; woollens,
90,6962.; hardware and cutlery, 35,8712.; spirits, 32,8462.; beer and ale,
24,8102.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1893 the registered shipping of the colony consisted of 12 sailing vessels
of 624 tons, and 12 steamers of 2,587 tons ; total, 24 vessels of 3,211 tons.
In 1892, 542 vessels of 582,759 tons entered, and 550 vessels of 581,121
tons cleared Of the former 49 of 48,446 tons were from the United Kingdom
direct ; 257 of 379,137 tons from Cape Colony, including 150 of 307,482 tons
from the United Kingdom. Of the vessels cleared, 27 of 29,843 tons cleared
for the United Kingdom, and 200 of 277,240 tons for Cape Colony.
There are 399 miles of railway open, all constructed and worked by the
Government with the exception of the Dundee Branch (71 miles in length)
which was constructed by the Dundee (Natal) Coal Company, but is worked by
the Natal Government and will ultimately be absorbed into the Natal
Government Bailway System. The main line extends from the Port of
Durban to Pietermaritzburg (the capital of the Colony, 73 miles inland), and
from thence to Charlestown, on the border of the South African Republic,
306 miles distant from the Port. There are branch lines as follows : — one ex-
tending northwards from Durban to Verulam, 19} miles ; another from South
Coast Junction to Isipingo, 6j miles ; and the last but longest from the main
line at the 190£ mile post to Harrismith (Orange Free State) with a mileage
of 594 miles, 23£ of which run through the Orange Free State. The total
cost of construction of the railways was, up to the end of the year 1892,
5,820,4192. The receipts in 1892 were 532,7882., and the expenditure
365,7042. The net receipts for the year were equal to 22. 17*. 5(2. per cent.
upon the capital expended upon open lines.
Agent-General in London. — Walter Peace, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
Annals of Natal, 1495 to 1845, by John Bird, late of Civil Service of Natal. Published
by sanction of the Colonial Government. Pietermaritzburg, 1888-90.
Colonial Office List. 1893.
Correspondence relating to the proposal to establish responsible government in Natal.
[C. 6487]. Folio. London, 1892.
Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. Edited by J. Noble.
London, 1893.
Natal Blue-book for 1892-93. Pietermaritzburg, 1893.
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190 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NIGER TERRITORIES
Peace (Walter), Our Colony of Natal. Published by permission of the Natal Govern-
ment. London, 1884. Notes on Natal. London, 1893.
Russell (R), Natal, the Land and its Story.
Statistics of Natal, in ' Statistical Abstract for the several colonial and other possessions
of the United Kingdom.' 8. London, 1893.
Trade of Natal with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London,
1893.
_ Brooks (Henry), Natal : a History and Description of the Colony. 8. London, 1887.
Culling worth's Natal Almanac. Durban, 1893.
Elton (Capt), Special Reports upon the Gold Field at Marabastadt and upon the Trans-
vaal Republic. 8. Durban, 1872.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborencin Sud-Afrika's ethnographisch und anatomisch be-
| schrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.
x Gillmore (Parker), The Great Tlurst Land. A Ride through Natal, Orange Free 8tate,
j Transvaal, and Kalahari Desert. 8. London, 1878.
| Natal Almanack, Directory and Yearly Register. Pietermaritzburg, 1893.
Pay ton (Ch. A.), The Diamond Diggings of South Africa. 8. London, 1872.
Robinson (Sir John), Notes on NataL 8. Durban, 1872.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, the Diamond
Fields, Ac. 8. London, 1891.
Statham (F. R.), Blacks, Boers, and British. London, 1882.
TroUope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 9. London, 1878.
NIGER TEEBITOEIES.
These are governed by the Royal Niger Company, under a charter issued
on July 10, 1886. Its nominal capital of 1,000,000/. is fully subscribed, and
it has powers to increase indefinitely. Its foundation dates from 1882, when
it was formed under the name of The National African Company, Limited,
with the object of obtaining these regions for Great Britain. This was effected
in 1884, 1885, and 1886 by means of about 300 treaties with native States and
tribes, including the territories of Sokoto and Borgu.
According to the Anglo-French Agreement of August 5, 1890, the limit
l^etween the British and French spheres on the Niger is a line from Say, on
the Niger, to Barrawa on Lake Chad, ' drawn in such a manner as to comprise
in the sphere of the Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the Kingdom of
Sokoto, the line to be determined by Commissioners to be appointed,' and by
the Anglo-German agreement of July and August 1886, the limit between the
British and German spheres of influence is a line drawn from the point on the
Cross River, " about 9° 8' of longitude east of Greenwich, marked * Rapids ' on
the English admiralty chart," to such a point on the river Benue to the east
of Yola, as may be found on examination to be practieally suited for the
demarcation of a boundary. By a further agreement signed at Berlin on
November 15, 1893, this point has been fixed three miles below the centre of
the main mouth of the river Faro — or about 30 miles east of Yola — aud from
that point a further line of demarcation has been drawn to a point on the
southern shore of Lake Chad, " situated 35 minutes east of the meridian of the
centre of the town of Kuka," the capital of Borgu. This Anglo-German
agreement and the Anglo-French agreement of 1890 thus secure to British in-
fluence the important kingdom of Borgu. Total area of Niger Territories
and the regions secured to the Company's influence by the above international
agreements is estimated at 500,000 square miles ; population variously esti-
mated from 20,000,000 to 35,000,000.
At present the Fulah empire of Sokoto (attached by treaty to the Royal Niger
Company) is the largest, the most populous, and extensive in the whole of the
Sudan. The king of Gando, in the middle Niger Valley, as well as all the
other Fulah chiefs, recognise the suzerainty of the Emperor of Sokoto. The
reigning sovereign has irrevocably conferred on the Royal Niger Company full
sovereign power throughout a large part of his dominions, and complete juris-
diction, civil, criminal, and fiscal, over non-natives throughout the remainder.
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NIGER TERRITORIES 191
Sokoto and Gando together cover an area of 219,500 square miles, with a
population of 15,000,000. The empire, which is conterminous on the east
with Bornu, on the west with the Borgu and Mossi countries, and stretches from
the Sahara southwards to the unexplored regions beyond Adamawa, is especially
rich in agricultural resources, exporting considerable quantities of rice (the
chief cereal) and other grains, besides onions of excellent flavour, the fruit of
the butter tree, the parched seeds of the doria, dates, and honey. Cotton is
largely grown, and manufactured into a durable material, coloured with indigo
and other natives dyes. Much leather ware (shoes, sandals, pouches, harness)
is also exported in exchange for salt from the Sahara and European goods.
The Sultan of Sokoto exercises direct jurisdiction over only a comparatively
small portion of his dominions, most of which are ruled by vassal kings and
chiefs enjoying royal prerogatives, but attached to the central government by
payment of annual tribute, and the residence of officials from Sokoto, who
exercise much influence on the administration, and furnish frequent reports to
the Sultan. The right of the latter to depose a disobedient vassal and appoint
a successor is fully recognised, and has been more than once exercised of late
years. The Niger Company has forestalled any questions as to title or
sovereignty by making alternative treaties with these vassal kings. Wurno
is the present capital of the empire, on the river Gandi, population 15,000.
There are a great many other large centres of population and busy market
towns, such as Gando, capital of the Kingdom of Gando ; Yola, capital of
Adamawa, population 12,000 ; Kano, 35,000; Bida, 90,000 ; Gerki, 15,000 ;
Kebbi, 22,000 ; Yakoba, 50,000 ; Tessawa, 12,000 ; Katsena, 7,500 ; Gurin,
12,000 ; Duku, 15,000 ; Illorin, 50,000. Islam is the religion of the domi-
nant class, but paganism still prevails largely throughout the empire.
Borgu, which is attached to the Company by treaty similar to that with
Sokoto, occupies a considerable portion of the right bank of the middle Niger
to the south of Gandu and north of Illorin, two of the provinces of the Sokoto
empire. Borgu, which is also known under the name of Bussang, extends
westward to the meridian of Greenwich, and thus forms the northern boundary
of Dahomey. Its military power must be considerable, as it has throughout
this century successfully resisted the attacks of the Fulah empire. No
trustworthy statistics of this country are available. .Both its government and
people are Pagan.
The present capital of the Niger Territories is at Asaba, where the chief
justice of the supreme court resides, and where are also the central prison, civil
and military hospitals, and other public buildings. The headquarters of the
company's military force are at Lokoja. The other principal settlements
are at Akassa (port of entry), Abo, Abutshi, Atani, Bakundi, Donga, Egga,
Ganagana (port of entry), Ibi, Idah, Leaba, Loko, Odeni, and Yola, the
last being only about 200 miles from Lake Chad. The trade in these
inland territories is as yet in its infancy, the exports having been
230,000*. in 1888, 260,000*. in 1889, 285,000*. in 1890, 335,000*. in 1891,
and 342,000*. in 1892. The principal exports are gums, hides, india-
rubber, ivory, kernels, palm oil, and vegetable butter, but a great variety of
minor products are also exported. Considerable plantations of coffee and
cocoa have been started, and a botanic garden created. The imports are very
varied, the principal items being cottons, silks, woollens, earthenware, hard-
ware, beads, tobacco, and salt. Heavy duties have been imposed by the
company on spirits and gunpowder the trade in both of which has greatly
diminished in consequence since the charter. The importation of spirits into
regions north of latitude 7° N. (stated to form nineteen-twentieths of the
Territories) is now prohibited. Tobacco and salt are also taxed. All other
imports are free. The revenue is principally raised by export duties.
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Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London, 1893.
Pondoland. See Cape of Good Hope.
SOUTH AFBICA (BEITISH).
Under the unofficial title of British Zambezia is often included the whole of
the region lying between the north and west of the South African Republic and
the 22nd degree of south latitude and the southern boundaries of the Congo
Free State, and having as its eastern and western boundaries the Portuguese
and German spheres. The River Zambezi divides it into two portions, which
may be described as Southern Zambezia and Northern Zambezia ^see Central
Africa, British) respectively.
Of Southern Zambezia the precise western boundary is thus denned in the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 : —
" In South -West Africa, the sphere in which the exercise of influence is
reserved to Germany is bounded — (1) To the south by a line commencing at
the mouth of the Orange River, and ascending the north bank of that river to
the point of its intersection by the 20th degree of east longitude. (2) To the
east by a line commencing at the above -named point, and following the 20 th
degree of east longitude to the point of its intersection by the 22nd parallel of
south latitude. It runs eastward along that parallel to the point of its inter-
section by the 21st degree of east longitude ; thence it follows that degree
northward to the point of its intersection by the 18th parallel of south
latitude ; it runs eastward along that parallel till it reaches the River Chobe,
and descends the centre of the main channel of that river to its junction with
the Zambezi, where it terminates. "
Its eastern boundary is defined in the Anglo-Portuguese Agreement of the
11th of June, 1891, as follows : —
" By a line which, starting from a point opposite the mouth of the River
Aroangwa or Loangwa, runs directly southwards as far as the 16th parallel of
south latitude, follows that parallel to its intersection with the 31st degree of
longitude east of Greenwich, thence running eastward direct to the point
where the River Mazoe is intersected by the 33rd degree of longitude east of
Greenwich ; it follows that degree southward to its intersection by the 18° 30'
parallel of south latitude ; thence it follows the upper part of the eastern slope
of the Manica plateau southwards to the centre of the main channel of the
Sabi, follows that channel to its confluence with the Lunte, whence it strikes
direct to the north-eastern point of the frontier of the South African Republic,
and follows the eastern frontier of the Republic, and the frontier of Swaziland,
to the River Maputo.
" It is understood that, in tracing the frontier along the slope of the
plateau, no territory west of longitude 32° 30' east of Greenwich shall be com-
prised in the Portuguese sphere, and no territory east of longitude 33c east of
Greenwich shall be comprised in the British sphere. The line shall, however,
if necessary, be deflected so as to leave Mutassa in the British sphere, and
Massi-kessi in the Portuguese sphere."
In 1888 the portion of the Southern region included in Matabeleland and
Mashonaland was declared to be within the British sphere of influence, and on
the 29th of October, 1889, a Royal Charter was granted to the British South
Africa Company, conferring upon it large powers of administration to carry out
the objects for which it was formed, the principal being to extend northwards
the railway and telegraph systems of the Cape Colony and Bechuanaland, to
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194 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AFRICA (BRITISH)
encourage emigration and colonization, to promote trade and commerce, and
to develop and work mineral and other concessions.
The most important part of this territory is Matabeleland and Mashona-
land, rich in gold reefs and other minerals, the Mashona plateaus being well
adapted for culture and European settlement. Area of Matabeleland and
dependencies about 125,000 square miles. The population of Matabeleland
proper is estimated at 200,000 ; there was an army of 15,000, divided into
regiments or kraals, and presided over by Indunas.
The British South Africa Company is further empowered by its Charter to
take over the administration of other districts in Africa, subject to the
approval of the Government ; including the region to the north and west of
the Bechuanaland Protectorate, which embraces Ehama's territory and the
region between that and the German boundary. The country, though desert
'1 in parts, is well adapted both for cultivation and agriculture, being situated
J principally on the high, healthy plateau of Central South Africa.
!, Since the grant of the Royal Charter the British South Africa Company
| has extended the Cape Government railway system from Kimberley to Vryburg,
[ a distance of 126 miles, and this section has since been taken over from the
f Company by the Cape Government. An English company has recently been
r formed by the Chartered Company to extend the line of railway northwards
from Vryburg. The construction of the first section, a distance of 100 miles,
is proceeding rapidly, the earthworks for half the distance being in hand in
October, 1893. The cost of this section is estimated at £300,000. An
English company has been formed by the Chartered Company to construct
the railway provided for in the Anglo-Portuguese agreement, between Beira,
on the East Coast, and Mashonaland. The first section of 75 miles was
opened for traffic on October 7, 1893, and a good wagon -road leads from the
present terminus to Salisbury. The British South Africa Company has ex-
1 tended the telegraph system from Mafeking to Fort Salisbury in Mashonaland,
, over 800 miles, and 12 telegraph stations have been opened. Material for
a further 400 miles to carry the line across the Zambesi to Zomba, the head-
quarters of the Administration in Nyasaland, is already on the spot. From Zomba
the telegraph line will be carried md Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika to Uganda.
The consent of Lo Bengula having been obtained, an expedition was
despatched to Mount Hampden (31° 20' E. long., 17° 40' S. lat). By the
; pioneers a road of 400 miles was constructed, drifts and bridges over rivers
and boggy places were formed, and forts erected at Tuli, Victoria, Charter,
and Salisbury. In September, 1890, this force was disbanded and allowed
to j>eg off auriferous claims. Since July, 1891, six distinct goldfields have
been opened up ; over 25,000 mining claims have been registered, the holders
of over 4,000 of which have partially tested their reefs by shafts and cross-
cuts ; and 400 miles of gold-bearing formation have been located. Other
minerals have been discovered, and several claims have been marked out on
reefs showing silver, copper, blende, tin, antimony, arsenic, and lead ; while
deposits of nitrate of potassium, plumbago, and coal have been discovered.
Townships at Fort Salisbury, Victoria, Hartley Hill, and Umtali have been
k i surveyed and marked out. Farms of a total area of 2,000,000 acres have been
located, nearly one-half having been properly surveyed in addition. Large
bodies of experienced farmers have moved into the country, and other " treks "
are preparing to come in next year.
At Salisbury there are a branch of the Standard Bank, several churches,
hotels, and hospitals ; a sanitary board has been established, and good govern-
ment throughout the country provided for. A weekly postal and passenger
service covers the distance between Salisbury and Tuli in 4 J days, placing
Salisbury within 5 weeks of London. The capital of the Company waa
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ST. HELENA
195
£1,000,000, nearly the whole of which was represented by cash subscriptions.
A resolution to increase the capital to £2,000,000 by issuing fully paid-up
shares — viz. 925,000 to the United Concessions Company and 75,000 to the
Exploring Company in satisfaction of the rights of those companies to the
moiety of the net receipts from the operations of the British South Africa
Company — was agreed to November 20, and confirmed December 4, 1893.
Revenue now accrues from mining, trading, and professional licenses, stand
holdings, and postal and telegraph services.
Care was taken from the first to avoid collisions with the Matabele, but
their repeated raids on the Mashonas who are under the Company's protection
culminated July 18, 1893, in a raid such as could not be overlooked. While
efforts were made to obtain a peaceful solution of the difficulty, preparation
for any further hostilities which might be forced on the Company was not
neglected, and Her Majesty's High Commissioner authorised the Company's
Administrator, Dr. Jameson, to take all necessary steps to provide for the safety
o f the settlers. In the beginning of October the Matabele attacked the Company's
Police Force near Victoria, and the Bechuanaland Border Police; and on
October 6 the Company's force of about 620 men advanced westwards from
Charter and Victoria, while other forces, consisting of the Bechuanaland Border
Police.(Inrperial), Company's Police, and natives under Khama, advanced from
the south towards Buluwayo. After a difficult march and several battles, the
power of Lo Bengula was broken, and he fled with the remainder of his troops.
On November 2 the Company's forces entered Buluwayo without opposition.
References.
Annual Report of the British South Africa Company.
Bent (J. Th.), The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland. London, 1892.
Churchill (Lord R. S.), Men, Mines, and Animals in South Africa. 3 Ed. London 1893
Greswell (W. P.), Geography of Africa South of the Zambezi. 8. London, 1893 '
KeUie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London. 1893.
Mathers (E. P.), Zambesia. London, 1891.
Murray (R. W.), South Africa. London, 1891.
OateB (P.), Matabeleland and the Victoria Falls. 8. London, 1893.
Selous (F. C), Travel and Adventure in South-East Africa. London, 1893.
Wood (J. G.), Through Matabeleland. London, 1893.
ST. HELENA.
Governor. — Wm. Grey- Wilson, C. M. G. (500/.), assisted by a council of live.
St. Helena, of volcanic origin, is about 800 miles from Ascension Islandj
the nearest land, and 1,200 from the west coast of Africa. Its importance
as a port of call was greatly lessened by the opening of the overland route to
India, and also by the Suez Canal. Area, 47 square miles. Population in
1891, 4,116, inclusive of 179 garrison and 60 shipping. Births, 1891, 111 ;
deaths, 56 ; marriages, 23. Emigrants about 200 annually to the Cape and
United States. Four Episcopal, 3 Baptist, 1 Roman Catholic chapels. Educa-
tion, 11 schools, with 822 pupils ; 4 of the schools receiving a Government
grant of 354*. in 1891.
The following tables give statistics for St. Helena :-
-
1888
1889
£
8,509
8,979
5,643
28,963
1890
£
8,729
9,032
1,905
31,958
1891
1892
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
' 11,540
10,448
1 1,026
\ 37,606
£
6,874
8,288
3,126
27,382
£
7,691
7,445
Exports Y
Imports .
7,863
30,386
l Including specie: 5,2501. in 1889; 1,5801. in 1890; 2,195/. in 1891 - (i,72H in lt>92. ~~'
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There are an Executive and Legislative Council, both nominated, with two
unofficial iiiemliers in latter. Area estimated at 15,000 square miles, including
protectorate, 46,600. Estimated population, 1,473,882 ; of whom about 150
are Europeans. Chief towns : Accra, 16,267 ; Elmina, 10,530 ; Cape Coast
Castle, 11,614 ; Kwitta, Saltpond, and Winneba. Government elementary
schools at Accra and Cape Coast, but education mainly in the hands of the
various religious 1 todies, Wcsleyan, Roman Catholic, and C.ennan Missions;
7,572 scholars; Government contributed 2,167/. in 1892. Staple product*
and exports, palm oil, palm kernels, and india-rubber ; the export of
valuable native woods is increasing. Gold found in many parts and now
being worked. Telegraphs (1892) 271 miles, including three miles of cable.
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WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
197
Lagos, an island on the Slave Coast to the east of the Gold Coast, the pro-
tectorate extending along the coast between 2° and 6° E. long. , and for some
distance inland. Governor, Sir Gilbert Thomas Carter, K.C.M.G. (2,250£.).
Executive and Legislative Councils, nominated. Area, including protectorate,
1,071 square miles ; estimated population, 100,000, including about 150
whites. Including Yoruba, area 20,070 square miles ; population, 3,000,000 ;
Christians, 6,000 ; Mohammedans, 12,000 ; the rest Pagans. 34 schools ;
2,500 pupils; exclusive of Mohammedan schools. Principal products and
exports : palm oil and kernels, ivory, gum copal, and cotton. Chief imports :
spirits, tobacco, cotton goods, hardware. Trade mainly with Great Britain,
Brazil, and Germany.
Gambia, at the mouth of the river Gambia, ormerly formed part of the
West African Settlements, but in December 1888 was erected into an inde-
pendent colony. Administrator, R. B. Llewelyn, C.M.G. (1,3002.). Executive
and Legislative Council nominated. 2,700 square miles, population, 50,000.
Area of settlement proper, 69 square miles ; population (1891), 14,266, in-
cluding 62 whites, 5,300 Mohammedans, 2,385 Christians (Protestants and
Rpman Catholics) ; 12 schools, with 861 pupils enrolled ; Government grant,
proportionate to results (1892, 325Z.). Births (1892), 391 ; deaths, 638 ; but
the registration of births is very imperfect. In 1892 140 prisoners were com-
mitted, of whom 107 were sent to punishment. Chief town, Bathurst, on the
island of St. Mary, 6,000 inhabitants. Chief products and exports: ground
nuts, hides, bees-wax, rice, cotton, com, india-rubber.
Sierra Leone includes the island of Sherbro, and much adjoining territory.
Governor, Sir Francis Fleming, K.C.M.G. (2, 500 J.) ; assisted by Executive
and Legislative Councils, nominated. It extends from the Scarcies River to
the north, to the border of Liberia in the south, 180 miles. Area, 15,000
square miles ; population, 180,000. Sierra Leone proper 4,000 square miles ;
population (census, 1891), 74,835, of whom 224 are whites. Protestants, 40,790 ;
Catholics, 571 ; Mohammedans, 7,396 ; the rest Pagans. In 1892, 85 elemen-
tary and 6 high schools, with 10,500 pupils ; Government grant in aid, 7112.
Fourah Bay College is affiliated to the University of Durham. Chief town,
Freetown, 30,033 inhabitants — headquarters of H.M.'s forces in West Africa,
800 men of the West India Regiment, besides engineers and artillery. Armed
constabulary force of 500 men chiefly for frontier defence. Freetown, the
greatest seciport in West Africa, is a second-class Imperial coaling station,
with an excellent harbour fortified with several batteries of heavy guns.
There is a supreme court, and police and petty debt courts in each district ;
offences in 1892, 1,695. Chief products and exports: palm oil and kernels,
benni seed, ground nuts, kola nuts, india-rubber, copal, hides. Many skilled
workers in gold and silver. Trade considerably diminished owing to activity
of the French in their neighbouring colonies. Government savings banks
with 26, 817 J. deposited in 1892. There are good roads, and much traffic on the
many lagoons and canals. The following are the statistics of the four colonies :--
Revenue
Lagos
Gold Coast .
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
Total .
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
57,058
97,807
63,035
20,986
£
57,633
111,388
70,836
26,281
£
56,341
156,449
73,708
30,573
£
78,625
186,021
89,869
31,038
£
68,421
183,074
86,866
30,977
238,886
266 138
317,071
385,553
369,338
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198 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
Leading item of revenue (1892) : Customs, Lagos, 58,4767. ; Gold Coast,
161,7717. ; Sierra Leone, 69,4107. ; Gambia, 26,6917.
Expenditure
!
1889
1890
1891
Gold Coast
, Sierra Leone
Gambia .
Total
£
60,840
133,468
63,288
1 21,359
I
£ ' £
57,488 | 63,701 ' 66,388
125,003 117,899 ' 133,407
66,771 63,056 i 77,965
21,566 22,758 I 27,697
1892
£
86,513
158,104
83,852
28,740
I 278,955 270,828 267,414 ' 305,457 I 357,209
The public debt of Sierra Leone (1892), consists of a loan of 50,000/.
payable 1896-98, but the assets of the Colony at the end of 1892 showed a
surplus of 1,1607. The others have no public debt.
Exports
1888 1 1889
1890
&
595,193
601,348
349,319
163,374
1891
1892
Lagos
Gold Coast .
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
£ | £
508,238 457,649
381,619 ! 415,926
339,043 319,719
118,188 167,599
717,643
684,305
477,656
180,051
577,083
665,064
420,451
172,197
1,834,795
Total .
1,347,088 jl,860,893 jl, 709,234
2,059,655
Chief exports (1892) from Lagos: palm kernels, 260,1097.; palm-oil,
137,7437. Gold Coast : india-rubber, 166,6607. ; palm oil, 178,9547. ; fialni
kernels, 103,2957. ; gold dust, 98,8067. Sierra Leone (1891) : palm kernels,
157,4577.; rubber, 77,3837.: and kola nuts, 43,0047. Gambia: groundnuts
(1892), 150,2067.; rubber, 2,9207.
Imports
Lagos
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone
Gambia .
Total .
£ i
442,063
432,112
250,147
103,067
£
464,260
440,868
277,781 .
140,818
£
500,827
562,103
389,908
149,548
1891 | 1892
£ £
650,192 522,041
665,781 597,095
453,378 I 413,117 '
172,118 , 169,973 :
'1,227,389 1,323,727 1,602,385 1,941,469 1,702,226 '
The chief imports (1892) of Lagos were : cotton goods, 166,3767.; spirits,
88,4407.; tobacco, 194,4887. Gold Coast: cotton goods, 181,7747. Sierra
Leone: cotton goods, 132,1777. ; spirits, 30,8597.; tobacco, and haberdashery.
Gambia: cotton goods, 40,248/.; spirits, 20,5187.; tobacco, hardware. Ac-
cording to the Board of Trade returns, the total imports into the United
Kingdom in 1892 from the West African colonies amounted to 1,518,7427.;
and the exports of British produce and manufactures to these colonies
amounted to 887,1827.
Tonnage of all the vessels entered and cleared at the West African
Colonies, and of British vessels entered and cleared, for five years : —
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ZANZIBAR
199
1
1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
la ( Lagos
,|J Gold Coast
1 J Sierra Leone .
2 I Gambia .
3
525,857
560,025
517,681
193,511
505,517
569,046
589,171
198,911
555,862
643,015
679,509
221,686
597,645
777,169
842,523
229,958
679,354
826,910
800,695
217,424
h Total
1,797,074
1,862,645
2,100,072 2,447,295 2,524,382
| ( Lagos .
§ J Gold Coast
g j Sierra Leone .
i .a I Gambia .
'3
372,774
420,186
450,380
119,133
368,632
430,278
496,899
128,014
385,746
455,158
543,910
149,968
1,534,782
442,646
546,104
634,551
150,342
506,392
525,842
589,671
151,672
§ Total .
1,362,473
1,423,823
1,773,643 jl, 773,577
The currency, weights, and measures are the same as those used in Great
Britain.
Books of Reference.
The Annual Blue Books of the various Colonies, and Reports thereon.
The Colonial Office List. Annual.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonies. Annual.
Sierra Leone. Report and General Statistics of Census of 1891.
Banbury (G. A. L.)f Sierra Leone ; or, The White Man's Grave. 8. London, 1888.
BlydenlE. W.); Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. 8. London, 1889:
Boyle (FA Through Fanteeland and Coomassie. 8. London, 1874.
EUii (A. B.), West African Sketches. 8. London, 1881.
EUU (A. B.), History of the Gold Coast of West Africa. 8. London, 1893.
Moloney (C. A.), Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa. 8. London, 1887.
Moloney (C. A.), West African Fisheries (Gold Coast). 8. London, 1883.
Poole (T. E.), Life, Scenery and Customs in Sierra Leone and the Gambia. 2 vols. 12.
London, 1850.
Sibthorpe (A. B. C), History of Sierra Leone. 12. London, 1881.
8ibthorpe(A. B. C), Geography of Sierra Leone. 12. London, 1881.
ZANZIBAR.
Sultan and Government.
The Sultan, or more correctly, the Seyyid, Hamed bin Thwain bin Said,
about 38 years of age, nephew of the late Sultans Ali, Khalifa and Burghash,
succeeded to the Sultanate on the death of Seyyid Ali on March 5, 1893. He
was one of several claimants, and was selected by the British Government
as being the most fitting.
Zanzibar dominions were gradually acquired by the Imams of Muscat at
various dates between the years 1698 and 1807, partly by conquest from the
Portuguese and partly from native chiefs. They were held as an appanage of
Muscat until the death of Seyyid Said, when, on a dispute as to the succession
arising between Seyyid Thwain, of Muscat, father of the present Sultan of Zan-
zibar, and Seyyid Majid, of Zanzibar (both being sons of Seyyid Said), the domin-
ions in Africa were made independent of the present State, and confirmed under
Majid by an arbitration of Lord Canning (dated 1861), then Governor-General
of India. Besides the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, and smaller islands, the
Sultan's authority nominally extended along the coasts of the mainland, from
Warsheikh, in 3° N. lat, to Tunghi Bay, in 10° 42' S. lat. Until 1886 (see
British East Africa, p. 178 ; and German East Africa, p. 568) the Sultan's
dominions were of indefinite extent inland, his influence, however, extending
but a little way from the coast, except along a few trade routes. In 1886 the
Sultan's dominions were delimited. Zanzibar was recognised as holding a
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i
200 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ZANZIBAR
continuous strip of coast, ten miles in depth, reaching from Cape Delgado to
Kipini on the Ozi River. England and Germany agreed to confine their
action in the parts not recognised as belonging to Zanzibar as follows : —
Germany was to have as a sphere of influence the country stretching inland
from the river Rovuma northwards to the Umba River ; England's sphere of
influence extending northward from the Umba. Northwards of Kipini the
Sultan of Zanzibar retained several stations where he had hitherto kept garri-
sons, viz., Lamu, Kismayu, Brava, Merka, Mogadischo, Warsheikh. Of
these, however, the last four were ceded to Italy on August 26, 1892, and the
Italian Government took over their administration on September 26, 1893.
The German East African Association, in virtue of a concession signed in May
1888, acquired the right to administer the Mrima or mainland (including the
customs of the Sultan's ports) from the Rovuma to the Umba River on the
north. The Imperial British East Africa Company acquired the right to
administer the coast from the Umba to Kipini for fifty years, on condition of
an annual payment to the Sultan ; and in 1889 further acquired the ports and
islands (including Lamu, Manda, and Patta) mentioned above to the north of
the Tana. A further settlement of all territorial questions was entered into by
England and Germany in the summer of 1890, confirming the general lines of
the above agreement, but conferring on England the protectorate of Zanzibar,
including the island of Pemba, and abandoning to British influence the terri-
tory from the Umba north to the Juba River, including the territory of Witii.
The territory between the Tana and Juba rivers, the administration of which
had been entrusted to the British East Africa Company, was evacuated by them
on July 31, 1893, and the administration handed over to the Sultan of Zanzibar.
Germany acquired all the Sultan's rights over the portion of the mainland
under German protection for the sum of 4,000,000 marks.
In October 1891, a regular Government was formed, of which General
Mathews is President. Henceforth all accounts will be kept in English and
Arabic, and will be always open to the inspection of the British Consul -
General, and no new undertakings or additional expenditure will be incurred
without his consent. On February 1, 1892, Zanzibar was declared a free port,
but the importation of spirits, arms, powder, and mineral oils remains subject
to regulation. On June 29, 1892, a Chamber of Commerce was constituted,
its members being chosen to represent as far as possible the different com-
munities trading in Zanzibar.
Area and Population.
The island of Zanzibar has an area of 625 square miles, and Pemba 360
square miles. The population of the island is estimated at 150,000, and that
of the island of Pemba 50,000. There is a considerable foreign population,
mostly engaged in trading. There are about 50 Englishmen, 50 Germans,
a few Americans, Frenchmen, Greeks, and Roumanians. There are also
about 7,000 British Indian subjects. The town of Zanzibar has a population
estimated at 30,000.
Religion.
Mohammedanism is the religion of the country, most of the natives of the
coast and islands being Sunn is of the Shaft school, though many are heathen ;
while the Sultan and his relatives are schismatics of the Ibadhi sect.
There are Christian missions (Church of England, Wesleyan, Independent,
and Roman Catholic) on the island and far into the mainland.
There is a French hospital at Zanzibar, attended by French sisters of
mercy, and a hospital at the Universities Mission. Sir Thasia Jopan's
hospital for Indians is being completed.
Justice.
Justice among the Sultan's subjects is administered by various ' Kazis, *
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Correspondence respecting Sir Bartle Frere's Mission to the East Coast of Africa, 1872-73.
London, 1873.
Hertslet's Treaties.
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the natives for food and cotton goods, hardware, &c. Gold, silver, lead,
copper, tin, iron, asbestos, coal are found, but none of them except gold has
been worked. A telegraph line joins Eshowe to Natal, and there is a daily
post. There is a main road through the territory, with branch roads.
Revenue (1891), 40,080/., (1892), 42,432/. ; expenditure (1891), 36,118/.,
(1892), 33,953/.
Governor.— Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, K.C.M.G.
Resident Commissioner and Chief Magistrate. — Sir Marshall Clnrke,
K.C.M.G.
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cable ; in 1892 the number of messages sent was 17,489. There is also a
private telephone company, which has about 200 subscribers and upwards ot
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allowance for the members of the Senate of the Dominion.
Governor-General. — The Right Honourable the Earl of Aber-
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206 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
deen, born 1847 ; succeeded to the title 1870 ; H.M. High
Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scot-
land, 1881-86 ; Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, February to August,
1886. Appointed Governor-General of Canada, 1893; assumed
office, September, 1893.
The Governor-General has a salary of 10,OOOZ. per annum.
He is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act
of 1867, by a Council, composed* of 13 heads of departments.
Queen9 8 Privy Council. — The present Council, consists of the
following members : —
1. Premier and Minister of Justice. — Bight Hon. Sir J. S. D.
Thompson, K.C.M.G., Q.C. ; born 1845 ; called to the Bar, 1865 ;
Q.C., 1879 ; Attorney-General of Nova Scotia, 1878 ; Premier of
Nova Scotia, 1882 ; Judge of the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia,
1882-1885; Premier of Canada, 1892.
2. Minister of Trade and Commerce. — Hon. Mackenzie Bowell.
3. Minister of Finance. — Hon. G. E. Foster.
4. Postmaster-General. — Hon. Sir A. P. Caron, K.C.M.G.
5. Secretary of State. — Hon. John Costigan.
6. Minister of Marine and Fisheries. — Hon. Sir C. H. Tupper,
K.C.M.G.
7. Minister of Railways and Canals. — Hon. John G. Haggart.
8. Minister of Public Works. — Hon. Joseph A. Ouimet ;
Speaker, 1887-1891.
9. Minister of Militia and Defence. — Hon. J. C. Patterson.
10. Minister of the Interior. -Hon. T. M. Daly, Q.C.
11. Minister of Agriculture. — Hon. A. R. Angers.
12. President of the Council. — Hon. W. B. Ives.
wTix. x t> ic v I Hon. Frank S. Smith.
W.thout Portfolio } HoQ gir j Carl.^ K c M G
Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of 7,000
dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with the exception of the recognised
Prime Minister, who has 8,000 dollars, or 1,600Z. per annum.
The body of ministers is officially known as the ' Queen's Privy
Council for the Dominion of Canada.1
Provincial Government.
The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate parlia-
ment and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor at the head of the
executive. They have full powers to regulate their own local affairs and
dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere with the action
and policy of the central administration. The Lieutenant-Governors are
appointed by the Governor-General. Quebec, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward
Island have each two Chambers (a Legislative Council and a Legislative As-
sembly) and a responsible Ministry. In New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba,
and British Columbia there is only one Chamber (the Legislative Assembly)
and a responsible Ministry. The members of the Legislative Council of Prince
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AREA AND POPULATION
207
Edward Island number 13, Nova Scotia 21, Quebec 24. (The Provincial
Legislature of Prince Edward Island has passed an act abolishing the Legis-
lative Council, not yet assented to ; and the Nova Scotia Government has
promised a bill to that effect at the next session. ) The membership of the
Legislative Assemblies are — Prince Edward Island 30, Nova Scotia 38, New
Brunswick 41, Quebec 73, Ontario 91, Manitoba 40, British Columbia, 33 ;
and the North- West Territories, 26. The North-West Territories are pre-
sided over by a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislative Assembly, consisting
of 26 elected members. The Advisory Council (or Executive) consists of the
Lieutenant-Governor and 4 members elected by the Assembly.
Area and Population.
The population of Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at 240,000 ; it
has increased as follows : —
Year
1825
1851
1861
Population
581,920
1,842,265
3,090,561
Year
1871
1881
1891
Population
3,635,024
4,324,810
4,833,239
The following are the areas of the provinces with the population at the
censuses of 1881 and 1891 :—
Province
Prince Edward Island .
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick .
Quebec ....
Ontario ....
Manitoba
British Columbia .
Territories and Arctic
Islands
Total .
Square
Miles
2,000
20,550
28,100
227,500
219,650
64,066
382,800
2,371,481
Total
Popula-
tion, 1881
Total
Popula-
tion, 1891
108,891
440,572
321,233
1,859,027
1,923,228
65,954
49,459
56,446
Density
per sq.
mile
1891
109,078 , 54
450,396 22
321,263 ' 11
1,488,535 6-5
2,114,321 10
152,506 ' 2*4
98,173 0-3
Increase j Increase
per cent, per cent.
1871-81 ■ 1881-91
15-8
13-6
12-4
14 0
18*6
247*2
36-4
98,967 I 0-04 —
0-17
2-22
0-00
9-63
9-93
144-95
98-49
75-33
3,315,647 4,324,810 4,833,289 | 1-5
18-97 | 11-74
To the above area should be added 140,736 square miles for lakes, rivers,
&c, giving a total area of 3,456,383 square miles.
In 1891 there were 2,460,471 males and 2,372,768 females.
A portion of the North- Western Territories was in 1882 divided into four
districts — Assiniboia, 89,535 square miles ; Saskatchewan, 107,092 sq. m. ;
Alberta, 106, 100 sq. m. ; and Athabasca, 104,500 sq. m. By the census of the
first three districts taken in 1891, there was found to be a total population
of 66,799.
The district of Keewatin, between Manitoba and Ontario, and stretching
north to Hudson's Bay, was created in 1876 out of the Territories, and erected
into a separate government under the Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba ; a
portion of Manitoba was added in October 1883, and it has now an area of
about 282,000 square miles.
Eighty-six per cent, of the population of the Dominion consisted, at the
census of 1891, of natives of British North America. These numbered 4,185,877,
of whom 1,708,702 were natives of Ontario ; 1,406,514 of Quebec ; 423,890
of Nova Scotia; 299,154 of New Brunswick ; 108,017 of Manitoba; 56,851
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Methodists ... . 847,765
Baptists . . . 302,565 Total . 4,833,231*
Lutherans . . . 63,982 j
i Including Pagans
The following shows the numbers of the leading denominations in the
several provinces according to the census of 1891 : —
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I Nova Scotia .
I New Brunswick .
; Manitoba
British Columbia .
P. E. Island .
The Territories
1
Oct. 31, 1891
Dec 31, 1891
Dec. 31, 1891
June 30, 1891
June 30, 1891
June 30, 1891
87,567
60,476
24,983
9,260
22,330
5,949
47,875
34,894
12,433
4,680
12,084
3,539
2,354
1,696
866
185
531
248
23,809
691,316
419,547
490,033
171,311
146,883
129,042
59-0
53-8
50-0
55-4
57-7
60-6
• Total .
i
-
997,473
3B6,262
6,343,610
55-4
The total number of public schools was 15,793, and of high and superior
schools 1,011. If the number of those attending the universities and private
schools were added to the above figures, the total number of pupils would be
considerably over one million. The expenditure for the year on public and
high schools, including Government grants, was over 10,000,000 dollars. The
supervision of education is under the control of the Governments of the
several provinces, and the systems in use vary somewhat, but are all based on
the ^principle of free education, the funds being supplied by Government
grants and local taxation. In British Columbia and the North-West Terri-
tories the schools are supported wholly by Government. Education is more
or less compulsory in all the provinces, except New Brunswick, but the law is
p
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The actual sources of revenue and branches of expenditure comprised
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was as follows on July 1, 1892 :—
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212
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Dollars
Without Interest 18,220,323
At 3 per cent.
„ 3J
„ 4
„ 5
„ 6
At varying rates
35,599,199
66,050,115
150,037,660
25,011,634
2,090,944
2,323,399
Total Debt . . . 295,333,274
There are assets which make the net debt 241,131,434 dollars. A 3 per cent,
loan for £2,250,000 (10,950,000 dollars) was floated in London in June, 1892.
The minimum was £91, and the average price realised was £92 0s. lOJd. The
following shows the gross and net debts in the years specified: —
Gross Net
Dollars Dollars
273,187,626 227,314,775
284,513,842 234,531,358
287,722,063 237,530,042
286,112,295 237,533,212
289,899,229 237,787,540
295,333,274 241,131,434
debt, after deducting assets, is 10/. 2s. §\d. per
head, and of the annual charge for interest Is. Z\d. The total exports per head
in 1891 amounted to 4/. 15s. 7d.9 and the proceeds of less than three
years' exports would pay off" the debt. The expenditure on canals and railways
alone by the Government amounted to over 31 millions sterling up to 1892.
At the census of 1891 it was found that the value of the capital invested in
manufacturing industries of various kinds was 72 millions sterling, and the
annual value of the products 97 millions.
Provincial Revenues, Expenditures, and Debts, 1890.
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
The total burden of the
Province
Revenue
Expenditure
Net Del.t
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Ontario
3,153,015
j 3,299,683
Quebec
3,750,813
4,095,520
15,564,447
Nova Scotia
i 661,541
1 692,539
1,358,118
New Brunswick .
1 613,262
1 678,267
1,894,092
Manitoba .
590,484
1 664,432
697,815
British Columbia
| 959,248
1 1,032,104
620,844
Prince Edward Island
, 274,047
1 304,486
185,000
Defence.
The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence form a barrier between Central
Canada and the United States, but the eastern provinces and Western Canada
have neither natural barriers nor fortifications. With the exception of Halifax,
and a small fort at St. John, New Brunswick, there are practically no fortifi-
cations in Canada. Arrangements, howrever, are now being made between the
Imperial and Canadian Governments for the erection of fortifications at
Esquimalt on the Pacific coast, which will be garrisoned by Imperial troops.
In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Government — the
strength of which was reduced, in the year 1871, to 2,000 men, forming
the garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an ' Imperial Station ' —
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 213
Canada lias a large militia force. By the terms of the Act passed in March
1868 the militia consists of all male British subjects between 18 and 60,
who may be called out to serve in four classes — namely first class, 18 to
30, unmarried ; 2nd, from 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3rd, 18 to 45, married ; 4th,
45 to 60. The militia is divided into an active and a reserve force. The
active includes the land and marine militia. The active militia consists
of those who voluntarily enlist to serve in the same, or of men balloted, or
in part of both. The marine militia is made up of persons whose usual occu-
pation is on sailing or steam craft navigating the waters of the Dominion.
The active militia serve for three years. The city corps are trained for 12
days annually at their headquarters, and the rural corps for the same period
biennially in camps of exercise in their respective districts. Efforts are being
made to induce the Government to have the whole force drilled annually.
The reserve militia consists of the whole of the men between the ages of 18
and 60 not serving in the active militia of the time being, with certain ex-
emptions. The number of men to be drilled annually is limited to 45,000,
and the period of drill to 16 days every year. The establishment of the
active militia for the year 1893-4 amounted to 33,960 officers and men, com-
prising 9 regiments, 1 squadron, 3 troops of cavalry ; 1 brigade, 15 batteries
of field artillery ; 5 battalions, 9 companies of garrison artillery ; 2 companies
of engineers ; and 92 battalions, 6 companies of infantry. The permanent
corps, combined with which are schools of instruction, consist of the Royal
Canadian Dragoons (2 troops), Royal Canadian Artillery (3 batteries), and the
Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry (4 companies). The establishment is
1,010 of all ranks. There is also a Royal Military College at Kingston, founded
in 1875, since which time 85 cadets have been gazetted to commissions in the
Imperial army. The officer commanding the militia is appointed for five
years, and during appointment holds the rank of major-gen. in the militia ;
he must be on the active service list of the Imperial army, and of not lower
rank than colonel in the same. The Dominion is divided into twelve military
districts, as follows — viz. Ontario into four, Quebec three, Nova Scotia one,
New Brunswick one, Manitoba, the Territories, and Keewatin one, Prince
Edward Island one, and British Columbia one, each district being commanded
by a Deputy Adjutant-General, whose appointment is permanent. A small-
arms ammunition factory is in operation in Quebec. There is at present no
active marine militia, the naval defences of the country being the care of the
Imperial authorities. According to the Navy List twelve ships are on the North
America and "West India Stations, besides eight others on the Pacific Station.
Production and Industry.
Agriculture. — Of the total area of Canada in 1881, 45,358,141 acres (about
a fiftieth of the whole area) was occupied. The occupied land is being rapidly
increased. In 1892, 774,400 acres of Dominion lands were disposed of as
homesteads, and 62,828 acres were sold— 837,228 acres altogether. Of the
various holdings in 1881, the bulk, 258,915, were between 50 and 200 acres.
Of the occupied lands in 1881, 21,199,181 acres were returned as improved,
of which 15,112,284 acres were under crops, 6,385,562 under pasture. There
are no complete annual agricultural returns for the whole of Canada. It is
estimated that the total wheat crop of Canada in 1891 was about 60,721,193
bushels, and in 1892 about 48,182,295 bushels. In 1889 the total wheat crop
of Manitoba was, owing to the dry season, not much over 7 million bushels, in
1890 it was more than double, viz. 14,665,769, and in 1891, 23,19i,599
bushels, and in 1892, 14,453,835 bushels. The only complete agricultural
returns are from Ontario, and the average produce per acre for the last
eleven years is : fall wheat 20*1 bushels, spring wheat 15*4, barley 26*0, oats
35*1, rye 16 '2, peas 20*8, potatoes 118. Cheese is becoming a more and
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1892 113,963,375 | 127,406,068 | 116,978,943
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i Including fish-oils, fill's and skins of fish, and other products of the flshcrius.
- SJowe lumber, shingles, &c., included.
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Cheese .
Cattle .
Sheep .
Fish .
Apples .
Bacon and Hams
Skins and Furs
Leather, and m ami lac
tures of
1,822,850 I
1,025,786
62,262
227,083
262,516
77,822
312,849
133,778
z,uov,ozz
1,921,178
1,349,037
99,924
520,460
171,687
129,167
273,220
ZyOVVfVVJO
1,948,227
1,731,245
70,768
464,550
253,818
128,630 '
229,308
1,
382,265
537,318 .
59,208
410,254
288,807 I
234,863
194,802
145,337 . 172,394 196,338
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COMMERCE
217
The chief imports into Canada from Great Britain were :
Articles
and
Iron and Steel,
manufactures of .
Woollens
Cottons ....
Silk, and manufactures of
Wearing apparel, all
kinds ....
Fancy goods .
Flax, hemp, and jute,
and manufactures of .
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£ '
£
1,687,463
1,651,814
690,958
561,350
1,810,662
1,714,842
603,603
421,549
1,844,605 !
1,575,765
636,084 |
418,803 1
1,647,692
1,932,230
623,886
512,644
531,629
266,748
593,746
253,584
350,368
202,216 I
257,661
211,178
289,550
281,492
280,700 !
303,826
The following table exhibits the commercial intercourse of the Dominion
of Canada with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
in 1879, and in each of the last five years.
i
1879 1888
1889
£
11,785,838
7,702,898
1890
£
12,020,162
6,827,023
1891
1892 1
| Imports into U. K.
1 from Canada .
' Exports of British
I produce to Canada .
1
£ i £
9,834,236 8,915,498
5,926,908 7,138,877
£
12,103,493
6,820,990
1
£
14,052,010
I
6,869,808 '
The chief imports into Great Britain from Canada were :
Articles
Wheat .
,, flour
Maize
Pease
Wood & timber
Cheese
Oxen
Fish
Apples .
Bacon & Hams
Skins & Furs
1888
£
434,656
452,252
350,286
157,940
3,074,605
1,526,884
1,076,623
249,169
258,921
371,108
218,423
1889
1891
£
467,868
622,191
668,165
187,778
4,447,354
1,564,904
1,464,073
243,251
200,942
631,671
329,360
463,080
523,108
513,287
265,069
3,806,261
1,914,232
1,892,298
432,649
210,634
770,012
363,150
£
1,432,427
618,591
310,637
342,399
2,719,937
1,991,597
1,770,630
446,137
308,341
480,411
422,321
1892
1,443,938
701,585 !
206,280
351,795 I
3,745,526 ,
2,493,625
1,576,949 !
396,255 |
371,117 !
734,330
366,203
The chief exports of British produce and manufactures to Canada were :-
Articles
Iron, wrought
& unwrought
Woollens
Cottons .
AppaTel, &c.
1,451,614
1,412,329
720,121
649,526
1,547,104
1,579,522
809,424
685,058
1,552,359
1,211,138
644,765
623,135
1,365,548
1,317,655
690,903
660,814
1,161,706
1,418,153
715,092
660,576
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MONEY AND CREDIT
219
In 1892, of the capital paid up, 171,211,820 dollars represented Govern-
ment aid.
On June 30, 1892, there were 8,288 post-offices in the Dominion. During
the year ended on the foregoing date the number of letters sent through the
post-office was 102,850,000, of postcards 20,815,000, of newspapers, books,
&c, 34,044,000 and of parcels 345,600. Newspapers sent from the office
of publication are carried free. Their number in 1892 was estimated at
upwards of 64,000,000. The letters and postcards posted amounted to 20*99
per head, and the other articles to 20*57 per head. Revenue, 3,542,611
dollars ; expenditure, 4,205,985 dollars. A uniform rate of postage of three
cents has been established over the whole Dominion. The number of money
order offices in Canada in 1892 was 1,120, and of orders issued 919,996, their
value having been 12,825,701 dollars. Since confederation in 1867 the
number of offices has doubled and the number of orders sent is more than
eight times as many.
There were 31,841 miles' (2,699 being Government) of telegraph lines in
Canada in 1892, and 68,903 miles of wire, with 2,685 offices, and the number
of messages sent, as nearly as could be ascertained, 4,614,944. There were in
1892, 32,214 miles of telephone wire, with 492 offices, and 26,651 sets of
instruments.
Money and Credit.
The Bank Acts of Canada impose stringent conditions as to capital, notes
in circulation, limit of dividend, returns to the Dominion Government, and
other points in all chartered and incorporated banks. In making payments
every bank is compelled if required to pay a certain proportion in Dominion
Government notes, and must hold not less than 40 per cent, of its cash reserve
in Dominion Government notes. In 1892 there were 39 incorporated banks
making returns to the Government, with numerous branches all over the
Dominion. The following are some particulars of the Dominion banks, the
number in 1868 being 27, or 12 less than in 1892 : —
Tear ended
1
Capital
Notes in
Total on
Liabilities
Assets
Percentage
of Liabili-
June 30
! Paid up
Circulation
Deposit
ties to
Assets
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1868
30,289,048
8,807,079
32,808,108
43,722,647
77,872,257 !
56'15
1878
63,387,034
19,351,109
71,900,195
95,641,008
175,473,086
54-50
1887
60,815,356
30,438,152
114,483,190
149,418,632
229,241,464 ,
05-1S
1888
60,168,010
30,444,643
128,725,529
166,344,852
244,975,223
67*90
1889
60,236,451
31,209,972
136,293,978
175,062,257
255,765,631
68-44
1890
59,560,765
32,059,178
136,187,515
174,501,422
254,628,694
68-53
1891
60,742,366
31,379,886
149,431,573
188,387,504
269,491,153
69*88
1892
61,512,630
32,614,699
1
171,157,063 |
209,362,011
292,054,017
71-68
Post-office savings-banks have been in operation in Canada since 1867 ;
there are also Government savings-banks, under the management of the
Finance Department, in the Maritime Provinces, Manitoba, and British
Columbia. In 1892 there were 642 offices of the former and 39 of the latter.
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220
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
i
In 1892 the post-office savings-banks had 111,805 depositors and 22,298,401
dollars on deposit. The following is a statement of the transactions of the
post-office and Government savings-banks for 1890 and 1891 in dollars : —
Year
Balances, July 1
Cash Deposited
Withdrawals
Balances, June 30
1891
1892
41,012,465 11,096,601
39,400,026 1 11,531,926
12,709,040
11,402,404
39,400,026
39,529,548
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Canada are —
Money.
The Dollar of 100 cents. Average rate of exchange = 4s.
The value of the money of the United Kingdom is fixed by law as
follows : — The sovereign, four dollars and eighty-six and two-third cents ; the
crown piece, one dollar and twenty cents ; the half-crown piece, sixty cents ;
the florin, forty-eight cents ; the shilling, twenty-four cents ; the sixpence,
twelve cents.
The coins in circulation in Canada are all struck in England. Canada
has no gold coinage of its own, but the English sovereign and the United
States gold eagle of 10 dollars, with its multiples and halves, are legal.
Notes are issued exclusively by the Government for 4, 2, and 1 dollar, 50
and 25 cents ; no bank being allowed to issue notes for a less sum than
5 dollars.
Weights and Measures.
The legal weights and measures are the Imperial yard, Imperial pound
avoirdupois, Imperial gallon, and the Imperial bushel.
By Act 42 Vict. cap. 16, the British hundredweight of 112 pounds, and
the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundredweight was declared
to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000 pounds avoirdupois, thus assimilating the
weights of Canada and the United States.
High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada in Great Britain. — Hon.
Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B.
Secretary.— Joseph G. Colmer, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Canada
and British North America.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Reports of the various Government Departments or the year ending June 30,
1892. 8. Ottawa, 1892.
Census of Canada, 1880-81. 14 vols. Ottawa, 1882-83. Census Bulletins, 1891.
Estimates of Canada for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1894. 8. Ottawa, 1893.
Finances of Canada : Budget Speech delivered in the House of Commons of Canada by
Hon. G. B. Foster, Minister of Finance. 8. Ottawa, 1892.
Fisheries Statements for the year 1891. Ottawa, 1893.
General Report of the Minister of Public Works from June 30, 1867, to July 1, 188;».
With Maps. Ottawa, 1S87.
Public Accounts of Canada, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1892. Printed by onl«-i
of Parliament. 8. Ottawa, 1893.
Railway Statistics of Canada, 1891-92 & Ottawa, 1893
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 221
Report of the Auditor-General on Appropriation Accounts for the year ending June 30
1892. Ottawa, 1893.
Report on the State of the Militia for the year 1892. 8. Ottawa, 1893.
Reports (Annual) of the Geological Survey of Canada.
Report, Returns, and Statistics of the Inland Revenues of the Dominion of Canada, for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1892. 8. Ottawa, 1893.
Special Report on the Fisheries Protection Service of Canada, 1886. Ottawa, 1887.
Statistical Year Book of Canada for the year 1892. Ottawa, 1893.
Sessional Papers relating to the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1885-87. Ottawa, 1888.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom. 8. London, 1893.
Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion of Canada, for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1892. Ottawa, 1893.
Trade of the Dominion of Canada with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year
1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adam (G. M.), The Canadian North- West: its History and its Troubles, with the
Narrative of Three Insurrections. Toronto, 1885.
Adam (G. M.), Life of the Right Hon Sir John A. Macdonald, G.C.B. Toronto, 1891.
Bryee (Rev. Prof.), Manitoba: its Infancy, Growth, and Present Position. London,
1882.
Canadian Almanack for 1894. 8. Toronto, 1893.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Chapais (J. C), Guide Illustre du Sylviculture Canadien. Montreal, 1883.
Chapleau (Hon. J. A.), Report on the Constitution of the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa,
1891.
Colmer (J. G.), Recent Developments in Canada. London, 1887.
Cumberland (Stuart), The Queen's Highway. 2nd ed., London, 1888.
Dent (J. Chas.), The Last Forty Years ; or, Canada since the Union of 1841. Toronto,
1SS3.
Dilke (Sir Charles), Problems of Greater Britain. London, 1890.
Faillion (Abbe), Histoire de la Colonic francaise en Canada. 2 vols. Fol. Montreal,-
1865.
Fleming (Sand ford, C.M.G.), England and Canada, a Summer Tour between Old and New
Westminster. London, 1884.
Garneau (F. X.), Histoire du Canada depuis sa decouverte jusqu'a nos jours. Montreal,
1882.
Grant (Very Rev. Principal), Picturesque Canada. 2 vols. Toronto, 1884.
GresweU (W. P.), History of the Dominion of Canada. London.
Grcswell (W. P.), Geography of the Dominion of Canada. London.
Gunn (Hon. D.), History of Manitoba. Ottawa, 1880.
Hay den (Prof. F. V.), and Selwyn (Prof. A. R. C), North America. London, 1883.
Hurlburt (Dr. J. B.), The Food Zones of Canada. Montreal, 1884.
Lrgge (A. O.), Sunny Manitoba, its Peoples and its Industries. London, 1893.
Lovell (John) Gazetteer of British North America. Montreal, 1881.
MacUnnan (W.) Montreal and some of the Makers thereof. Montreal, 1893.
Macoun (Prof.), Manitoba and Canada. London, 1882.
Maepheraon (Lieut.-Col. J. P.), Life of Sir John A. Macdonald, G.C.B. Toronto, 1892.
Morgan (Henry J.), The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1894. Ottawa, 1894.
Morgan (Henry J.), Dominion Annual Register and Review, 1878-93. Ottawa.
Morgan (Henry J.), Bibliotheca Canadensis, or a History of Canadian Literature.
Ottawa, 1867.
MorrU (Hon. Alex.), Nova Britannia ; or, Our New Canadian Dominion Foreshadowed
Toronto, 1884.
Roe (W. Fraser), Columbia and Canada. Notes on the Great Republic and the New
Dominion. 8. London, 1878.
Roe (W. F.), Newfoundland to Manitoba. London, 1881.
Byereon (Rev. E., D.D., LL.D.), The Loyalists of America and their Times. 2 vols.
Toronto, 1880.
Selwyn (A. R. C.) and Dawson (G. M.), Descriptive Sketch of the Physical Geography
and Geology of the Dominion of Canada. Montreal, 1884.
Silver and Co.'* Handbook to Canada. London, 1881.
Todd (Dr. Alpheus, C.M.G.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies.
Boston, 1880.
Tapper (Sir Charles), The Canadian Confederation defended. London, 1868.
Tattle (C. R.), Our North Land : being a full account of the Canadian North- West and
Hudson's Bay Route. Toronto, 1885.
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zsanrra \\j. n.j, uuiinim i»i ncscaicuea, oiu. , uuriug a vuyage rwuuim inr nunu. s.
London, 1845.
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molasses, 30,641?/; timber, 21,832/. ; gold, 133,147 oz., valued at 492,9382.
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Nevis. See West Indies.
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NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOB
225
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOB.
Governor.— Sir J. Terence N. O'Brien, K.C.M.G. ; salary 2, 500Z.
Newfoundland is an island at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
between 46° 37' and 51° 39' N., 52° 35' and 59° 25' W. ; and Labrador, its
dependency, is the most easterly part of the continent of North America.
The coast of Newfoundland is rugged, especially on the south-west, where
the coast range reaches an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet. The hills attain
their summit within a few miles of the salt water, and then spread out into
an undulating country, consisting largely of barrens and marshes, and inter-
sected by numerous rivers and lakes. On the borders of the lakes and water-
courses good land is generally found, and in some cases, as about the Exploits,
the Gander and the Humber, it is heavily timbered. Area,, 42,200 square
miles. Population in 1891 : island, including Labrador, 202,040, of whom
195,472 were natives of Newfoundland and 143 Indians. Of the total popu-
lation 54,755 were engaged in the fisheries, 1,547 were, farmers, 2,682
mechanics, 1,258 miners. Capital, St. John's, with suburbs, 29,007 in-
habitants; other towns being Harbour Grace, 6,466; Carbonear, 4,127;
Twillingate, 3,585 ; Bonavista, 3,551. The birth rate in 1891 was 33, and
the death rate 22 per 1,000.
The government is administered by a Governor, assisted by an Executive
Council (not exceeding 7 members), a Legislative Council (not exceeding 15
members), and a House of Assembly consisting of 36 representatives. Mem-
bers of the Legislative Council receive 120 dollars per session ; members of the
Legislative Assembly receive 200 or 300 dollars per session, according as they
are resident or not in St. John's. For electoral purposes the whole colony
is divided into 18 districts or constituencies, 7 of which elect 3 members, 4
return 2 members, and 7 return 1 each. Of the population, 69,824 belong
to the Church of England, 72,696 are Roman Catholics, 53,276 Methodists,
1,449 Presbyterians, 4,795 other denominations. The total number of
aided schools in 1891 was 547, with 32,339 pupils; Government grant
129,200 dollars.
1
1
1888
1889
1890
1891
Dollars
1,978,2751
1,831,432
1892 !
i
1
1 Revenue (incl. loans) .
' Expenditure ,,
Dollars
1,427,115
1,906,815
Dollars
2,102,993
2,208,736
Dollars
1,881,386
1,993,288
Dollars
1,883,790 2'
1,668,120 j
i Including 196,856 • dollars purchase of work done on Hale's Bay Railway from
Government by contractors. a No loan.
Of the Revenue for 1892, no less than 1,731,893 dollars is from Customs
The public debt was 6,393,367 dollars in 1892, against 4,133,202 in 1889,
and 1,258,710 dollars in 1875.
The total exports and imports of Newfoundland for five years 3 are as
follows :—
-
1887
1888
1889
Dollars
6,122,985
6,607,065
1890
1891
Dollars
7,437,158
6,869,458
Exports .
Imports .
Dollars
5,397,408
5,176,730
Dollars
6,860,515
7,813,845
Dollars
6,099,686
6,368,855
3 Statistics of exports and imports for 1892 are not available, the consolidating books of
the Custom House Statistical Department having been destroyed in the fire of July that year
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BAHAMAS — BARBADOS 227
WEST INDIES.
The British West Indian possessions fall into six groups,
which are noticed separately, while the statistical results are ex-
hibited in general tables for convenience of comparison. The
groups are — (1) Bahamas, (2) Barbados, (3) Jamaica with Turks
Islands, (4) Leeward Islands, (5) Trinidad with Tobago, (6) Wind-
ward Islands.
BAHAMAS.
Governor. — Sir Ambrose Shea, K.C.M.G. (2,000/.), assisted by an Execu-
tive Council of 9, a Legislative Council of 9, and a representative Assembly
of 29 members, electors requiring to have a small property qualification.
A group of twenty inhabited and many uninhabited islands and rocks off
the S.E. coast of Florida.
Area, 5,450 square miles. Principal islands — New Providence (containing
capital Nassau), Abaco, Harbour Island, Great Bahama, St. Salvador, Long
Island, Mayaguana, Eleuthera, Great Inagua, Andros Island. Total popula-
tion (1881), 43,521 (11,000 whites) ; in 1891, 47,565. Births (1892), 1,889 ;
deaths, 1,229. Population of Nassau, 11,000. There are (1892) 39 Govern-
ment schools with 5,318 pupils on the rolls, and average attendance of 3,249,
and 10 aided schools with attendance of 425 pupils ; Government grant,
4,800Z. ; 35 Church of England schools with 1,659 enrolled pupils ; 45 private
schools with 1,559 enrolled pupils. In 1892, 1,414 persons were convicted
summarily, and 25 in superior courts. Sponge-fishing produced 65,554Z. in
1892 ; shells, pearls, and ambergris were also obtained. Fruit culture is on
the increase; in 1892 pineapples were exported, valued at 56,000Z., besides
preserved pineapples. The orange crop (1891)was valued at 2, 283 J. Fibre
cultivation is rapidly spreading. In January 1893, over 20,000 acres had
been planted out with sisal plants. In 1891, 42,994 lbs. of cotton were
exported, valued at 734Z. The total land granted in the colony amounts to
331,216 acres.
A joint stock bank came into operation on June 1, 1889 The Post Office
Savings Bank receipts in 1891 amounted to 2,622Z. ; and in that year, 132,156
letters and 90,987 papers passed through the Post Office.
BA&BAD08.
Lies on the E. of the Windward Islands.
Governor.— Sir J. S. Hay, K.C.M.G. (3,000*. and 600Z. table allowance),
with Executive Committee, Legislative Council of 9 Members, and House of
Assembly of 24 members, elected annually by the people ; in 1891, there
were 2,164 registered electors.
Area, 166 square miles ; population (1891), 182,306. Capital, Bridgetown,
the principal town ; population, 21,000 ; Speightstown, 1,500. Births (1892),
6,993 ; deaths, 3,729. Church of England, 156,539 ; Wesleyans, 14,485 ;
Moravians, 6,801 ; Roman Catholics, 816 ; Jews, 21, according to the
census of 1891. The legislature grants to the Church of England, 10,493Z. ;
Wesleyan, 700Z. ; Moravian, 400Z. ; Roman Catholic, 50Z.— per annum,
11,643Z. Education is under the care of the Government. In 1892, there
were 202 primary schools, and 11,765 pupils in average attendance ; Govern-
ment grant 9,340Z. ; 4 second-grade schools, 220 pupils ; 2 first-grade schools
for boys, with an attendance of 139 and 40 respectively, and 1 first-grade
school for girls with 148 pupils ; Codrington College, affiliated to Durham
University, 21 students. Two monthly, one fortnightly, one weekly, five
bi-weekly, and one daily newspapers.
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JAMAICA 22S
There is a high court of justice, circuit courts, and a resident magistrate in
each parish. Total summary convictions (1891), 11,112 ; before superior
courts, 3,863. Prisoners in gaol end of 1892, 940, There are 735 police
officers and men, 27 water policeman, and 1,512 members of rural police.
Total number of acres under cultivation and care in 1891, 640,249, showing
increase of 12,214 acres compared with previous year. Under sugar-cane,
32,487 acres; coffee, 22,476 ; bananas, 9,959 ; cocoanuts, 7,816 ; corn, 581 ;
cacao, 1,231; ground provisions, 85,842; Guinea grass, 124,586; common
pasture, 325,787; common pasture and pimento, 45,832.
The holdings are classified as follows (1891) : — Less than 5 acres, 95,942 ;
5-10, 8,603 ; 10-20, 4,718 ; 20-50, 2,694 ; 50-100, 879 ; 100-200, 563 ; 200-
500, 642 ; 500-800, 282 ; 800-1,000, 148 ; 1,000-1,500, 208 ; above 1,500, 265.
On December 31, 1890, the Colonial Bank had a circulation of 444,483/. ;
other liabilities, 4,420,932/. Total liabilities, 4,824,010/.; assets, 4,865,415/.
On March 31, 1892, there were 22,824 depositors in the Government
Savings Bank, the deposits amounting to 428,348/. The legal coinage is
that of Great Britain ; but various American coins are also current. Notes of
the Colonial Bank are current ; its average total circulation in 1891, was
166,355/.
The strength of the West India Regiments in Jamaica is 1,638 officers andi
men ; there is besides a Volunteer Militia, numbering 465 on December 31, 1892,
There are fortifications and batteries at Port Royal, Rocky Point, Apostles'
Battery, Fort Clarence, Fort Augusta, Rock Fort, Salt Pond's Hill. There
are 12 ships of the Royal Navy on the North American and West India stations.
In 1893 the registered shipping of Jamaica consisted of 401 sailing
vessels of 112,496 tons and 341 steamers of 480,611 tons ; total, 942 vessels
of 593,107 tons.
Jamaica has 89 miles of railway open (receipts, in year ended March 31
1892, 71,486/. ; expenses, 59,963/. ; passengers carried, 314,945) ; 695 miles
of telegraph; messages (to March 31, 1892), 102,925; receipts, 5,768/. ;
expenses, 6,382/. Letters passed through the Post Office in the year 1891-92, .
2,760,617 and 10,928 parcels.
Tueks and Caicos Islands, under the government of Jamaica, are
geographically a portion of the Bahamas, of which they form the two south-
eastern groups. The government is administered by a Commissioner, assisted
by a Legislative Board of five members appointed by the Crown. The Governor of
Jamaica has a supervising power over tne local government. There are upwards
of thirty small cays ; area 169 miles. Only six inhabited ; the largest, Grand
Caicos, 20 miles long by 6 broad. Seat of government at Grand Turk, 7 miles
long by 2 broad, the town having 1,883 inhabitants. » Population, 1891, 4,745
(males, 2,211 ; females, 2,534).
Education free ; Government grant 525/. ; 7 elementary schools, average
attendance, 303. Public library and reading-room at Grand Turk ; a weekly
newspaper.
Only important industry, salt raking. About two million bushels are
raked annually and exported to the United States, Canada, and to Newfound-
land. There is also a small sponge fishery. 46 vessels registered, of 6,080 tons.
Commissioner. — E. J. Cameron (salary 500/.) ; residence, Grand Turk.
Cayman Islands, attached to Jamaica, consist of Grand Cayman, Little
Cayman, and Cayman Brae. Grand Cayman, 17 miles long, 4 to 7 broad ;
total population 4,322 (males, 1,904 ; females, 2,418). Good pasturage.
Coco-nuts and turtle exported. Affairs managed by a body styled the
1 Justices and Vestry, ' comprised of magistrates appointed by the Governor
of Jamaica, and elected vestrymen.
The Mobant Cats and Pedro Cats are also attached to Jamaica.
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TRINIDAD — WINDWARD ISLANDS 231
and a Legislative Council of 10 official and 10 nominated unofficial members.
Capital of St Kitts, Basseterre, 7,000 ; of Nevis, Charlestown, 1,600. Chief
produce sugar and rum. Produce of Anguilla, cattle, pines, garden stock,
and salt.
Virgin Islands consist of all the group not occupied by Denmark,
except Crab Island, which is Spanish. Nominated Executive and Legislative
Councils. Chief town, Roadtown in Tortola Island, 400. Mostly peasant
proprietors ; sugar and cotton cultivated in small patches. ,
Dominica. Nominated Executive Council, and Legislative Council of 7
nominated and 7 elected members. Chief product sugar, with fruit, cocoa,
and timber.
Sombrero is a small island in the Virgin group, but unattached adminis-
tratively to any group. Phosphate of lime is shipped, and there is a Board
of Trade lighthouse
TRINIDAD
Immediately north of the mouth of the Orinoco, includes Tobago adminis-
tratively.
Governor. — Sir F. Napier Broome, K.C.M.G. (5,000?.), with Executive
Council of 4 official members and a Legislative Council of 9 official and 11
unofficial members, all nominated. Tobago has a subordinate commissioner;
with a Financial Board of not less than 3 nominated members.
Area : Trinidad, 1,754 square miles ; Tobago 114. Population : Trinidad
(1891) 200,028 ; Tobago (1891) 18,353. Capital, Trinidad, Port of Spain,
34,037. Births (1892) 7,251, deaths 5,365, marriages, 885. Education:
169 schools, 18,247 pupils, Government grant 26,372?. There are many
private schools, and a Queen's Royal College, with 74 students, and an
attached Roman Catholic College with 150 students. Of the total area 1, 120, 000
acres, about 194,000 acres are cultivated. Under sugar-cane, 58,500 acres ;
cacao and coffee, 94,625 ; ground provisions, 13,000 ; coco-nuts, 14,000 ;
pasture, 10,000. There is a large pitch lake in the island, which is leased
to an American Company, and from which 112,224 tons of asphalt were ex-
ported in 1892. The revenue derived from the lake in 1892 was 37,346?.
Railway 541 miles ; receipts (1892), 51,841?. 137£ miles of Government
telegraph. There is a Colonial Bank with note circulation of 135, 000?,
Government savings-bank, depositors (1892), 7,784; deposits (Dec. 31).
160,767?. Volunteer corps 600. Police force 531.
Tobago was annexed to Trinidad, Jan. 1, 1889. In 1892 there were 395
summary convictions, and 6 before the Supreme Courts. The culture of
cotton and tobacco has been introduced.
Virgin Islands. See Leeward Islands.
WINDWARD ISLANDS
Consist of Grenada, St. Vincent, the Grenadines (hall under St. Vincent,
half under Grenada), and St. Lucia, and form the eastern barrier to the
Caribbean Sea between Martinique and Trinidad.
Governor and Commander-in-Chief. — Sir Charles Bruce, K.C.M.G. (2,500?.
— resident at St. George's, Grenada). Each island has its own institutions ;
there is no common legislature, laws, revenue, or tariff ; there is a Common
Court of Appeal, and the colonies unite for other common purposes. Legal
currency, British sterling, doubloons, and United States gold coins. The
Colonial Bank issues 5-dollar notes to the extent of 9,800?. in St. Lucia,
11,700?. in Grenada, 8,000?. in St. Vincent.
Geenada. There is a Legislative Council of 6 official members nomi-
nated by the Governor, and 7 unofficial members nominated by the Crown.
Each town has an elective Board for local affairs. Area 133 square
miles ; population (1892) 55,333 (including 2,118 coolies); births, 2,465;
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232
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
deaths, 1,194 ; marriages, 357. There are (1892) 32 Government and Govern-
ment-aided elementary schools, with 6,247 pupils ; Government grant (1892)
4,202Z. ; and a grammar school with 43 pupils ; Government grant, 5832. In
1892 there were 1,235 summary convictions, and 31 in superior courts. There
were (1892) 20,418 acres under cultivation : sugar-cane, 911 acres ; cocoa,
11,115 acres ; cotton, 1, 812 acres ; spices, 1, 343 acres ; coffee 58 acres. Culture
of sugar-cane is decreasing, of cocoa and cotton increasing. In 1892, 904
depositors in savings-banks ; balance (Dec. 31) 6,8862.
The largest of the Grenadines attached to Grenada is Carriacou ; area,
6,913 acres ; population, 6,000.
St. "Vincent. Administrator and Colonial Secretary, Colonel J. H.
Sand with, C.B., with Legislative Council of 4 official and 4 nominated unoffi-
cial members. Area, 132 square miles ; population (1891), 41,054 ; white,
2,445; coloured, 554; black, 31,005. Capital, Kingstown, 4,547 popula-
tion. Education: 45 schools; Government grant, 1,81 7 J. Sugar, rum,
cocoa, spices, and arrowroot are produced ; good timber from the forests.
Most of the cultivated land belongs to three firms. About 13,000 acres (one-
sixth of area) under cultivation. Letters passed through the Post Office in
1892, 113,094.
St. Lucia. Administrator and Colonial Secretary, Brigade-Surgeon V.
S. Gouldsbury, M.D., C.M.G., with a nominated Executive and Legislative
Council. Area, 243 square miles ; population (1892), 43,310. Chief town,
Castries, 6,688. Births (1892), 1,760; deaths, 1,158. Education (1892) : 33
schools (12 Protestant, 21 Roman Catholic), 2,359 pupils; Government
grant, 2,6122. In 1892 there were 1,143 summary convictions, and 8 at
superior courts. Sugar, cocoa, rum, and logwood are chief products. Savings-
banks (end of 1892), 905 depositors, 6,9552. deposits. Letters and postcards
despatched, 48,471 ; books and papers, 5,629.
Statistics of West Indies.
i
Revenue
Expenditure
1890
j 1891
1892
1890 j 1891
1892
£
i
£
£
£
£
£ '
Bahamas
54,826
1 52,813
59,704
48,688
55,804
63,222
Barbados .
186,179
, 168,905
162,663
181,635
176,800
199,130
Jamaica^
788,888
778,615
718,332
666,415
781,888
734,524
Turks Island
8,901
7,354
7,886 |
8,263
7,995
7,696
Windward Islands :—
1
St. Lucia.
50,232
1 49,326
48,297 '
45,430
53,906
54,934 .
St. Vincent .
27,047
27,649
29,125 I
25,941
28,517
28,906
Grenada .
49,267
54,018
55,820 1
53,856
56,450
69,260
Leeward Islands : —
1
1
1
Virgin Islands .
1,762
1,612
1,365 ;
1,981 2,219
1,959 !
(St. Christopher
)
l
i
!
{Nevis
(Anguilla . . |
Antigua . . . ,
42,957
I 38,209
i
47,281
43,092 | 45,221
46,506
46,334
43,506 !
52,551
50,142 1 47,309 ,
50,873
Montserrat . . j
6,732
6,526
7,609
6,728 ' 7,808
7,882
Dominica . . '
21,574
21,583
22,716 '
28,607 i 24,987
25,075
Trinidad . . . 1
468,559
488,219 ;
520,231 ,
475,244 490,422
497,396
Tobago . . . I
i
8,656
8,730 |
7,459 ■
t
9,253 8,788
1,689,775 ! 1,787,549
9,0:0
Total .
1,761,913
l Fo
1
1,741,915 1
1,735,939
1,785,723
r years ende
d March 31
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STATISTICS
233
Customs revenue (1892) :— -Bahamas, 59,704/. ; Barbados, 92,340/.;
Jamaica, 319,810/.; Turks Island, 3,039/.; St. Lucia, 21,577/.; St. Vincent,
15,267/.; Grenada, 23,684/.; Virgin Islands, 481 /.; St. Kitts, Nevis, and
Anguilla, 23,967/.; Antigua, 28,697/.; Montserrat, 3,127/.; Dominica,
8,397/. ; Trinidad, 265,642/.; Tobago, 2,653.
The chief branches of expenditure are : — Jamaica : public works,
129,301/. (of which 114,814/. was from loans); salaries, 10,906/.; police,
40,375/.; Bahamas (1891) : public works, 7,706/.; salaries, 14,731/.; police,
6,250/.; Barbados (1891) : salaries, 78,249/.; St Lucia (1892): public works,
7,370/.; salaries, 17,893/. ; Grenada : public works, 21,314/. ; Leeward Islands :
public works (exclusive of loan expenditure), 12,605/.; hospitals, &c,
28,399/.; education, 10,442/.
In 1893 the Public Debt of Jamaica was 1,520,088/. (823,695/. for rail-
ways) ; of Bahamas, 110,526/.; of Barbados, 30,100/. ; Bermuda, . 8,600/.; of
Trinidad, 608,820/. ; of St. Vincent, 15,250/. ; of Grenada, 96,575/. ; of
Tobago, 5,000/. ; of Montserrat, 8,300/. ; of St. Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla,
34,000/.; St Lucia, 147,850/.; Antigua, 37,371/.; Dominica, 40,900/.
1
1
Exports i •
1890
Imports *
1890
1891
| 1892
1891
i 1892
;
£
£
£
£ £
£
, Bahamas .
168,121
128,010
145,136
222,612
190,670
46,709
Barbados .
1,204,889
814,254
926,572
1,193,723
1,067,617
469,317
Jamaica 2 .
1,902,814
1,722,096
•il, 759,806
2,188,937
1,759,890
1,001,228
Turks Islands
42,651
26,567
27,336
42,108
26,892
4,169
1 Windward Islands :—
1 St. Lucia
197,452
181,503
179,056
206,693
222,178
103,859
St Vincent .
104,744
98,673
117,672
97,808
97,839
49,813
\ Grenada .
266,302
236,643
264,681
170,874
176,929
79,015
Leeward Islands :—
| Virgin Islands
5,050
4,633
3,301
4,144
4,446
582
1 /St. Christopher
1 \Nevis .
} 225,233
187,455
229,182
181,646
161,105
87,790
Antigua .
218,223
157,463
244,741
184,591
167,110
93,846
Montserrat
22,765
24,339
31,614
24,096
25,846
10,228
, Dominica
41,009
38,910
46,165
57,382 | 60,780
30,012
,' Trinidad .
2,179,482
2,058,761
2,258,063
2,248,893 j 2,096,797
759,539
Tobago .
19,371
6,597,547
24,241
13,744
6,246,969
23,403 28,945
6,846,710 i 6,082,044
9,697
Total value
5,703,548
2,744,804
* Including bullion and specie. 2 For year ended March 31.
Trinidad alone, in 1892, exported sugar valued at 675,342/. ; cocoa,
761,164/. ; molasses, 57,599/. Jamaica exported sugar, 241,683/. ; rum,
255,737/.; coffee, 336,839/.; fruit, 262,745/. Barbados: sugar, 605,640/.;
molasses, 135,487/.; flour, 22,688/.; salt fish, 22,487/. St. Vincent: sugar,
33,451/. Grenada: cocoa, 226,107/.; spice, 15,650/. St. Lucia: sugar,
90,870/. ; cocoa, 23,470/. ; logwood, 3,711/. Leeward Islands : sugar, 427,594/. ;
molasses, 49,147/.; limes, &c, 16,130/.; rum, 8,129/.
In 1892, Jamaica imported cotton goods worth 262,294/. ; fish (salted),
130,975/.; flour (wheat), 177,225/. ; rice, 69,811/. Trinidad imported flour,
140,088/.; rice, 140,432/.; cotton and other cloths, 318,379/. ; meat (pickled,
&c), 59,283/. Barbados: linens and cottons, 128,679/. ; flour, 92,838/.;
rice, 70,424/. St. Lucia (1891): cottons, 27,129/.; fish (salted), 7,876/.;
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234 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
flour, 13,787Z.; haberdashery, 10,1937.; machinery, 8,381Z.; coals, 19,749*.;
St. Vincent (1891) : flour, 10,006Z. ; fish, 6, 501 J. ; meat, 3,6352. Leeward
Islands : textiles, 69,248Z.; haberdashery, 29, 810Z. ; flour, 55,0647.,* dried
fish, 27,5227.
Total imports into Great Britain from the British West Indies in 1892,
according to Board of Trade returns, 1,945,3737. (sugar, 780,4157. in 1889;
420,6587. in 1890 ; 312,0537. in 1891 ; 544,8187. in 1892 ; rum, 226,7817. ;
cocoa, 501,8047. ; and dyes, 189,0817.).
Exports from Great Britain to West Indies in 1892, 2,184,3497. (cotton,
554,7477.; apparel, 244,7347.; leather and saddlery, 135,2927.; iron, 131,4937.;
manure, 105,8817.; machinery, 79,7067.).
The total tonnage entered and cleared in 1892 was as follows : —
Bahamas . 334,079
Grenada
325,252
Dominica
. 389,915
Barbados . 1,247,259
Virgin Islands
21,751
Trinidad
. 1,201,791
Jamaica . 1,285,493
St. Kitts and
Tobago
53,035
Turks Island 224,281
Nevis
470,358
__.
St. Lucia . 788,430
Antigua
491,473
Total
. 7,518,200
St. Vincent . 266,256
Montserrat .
418,827
Of the total tonnage returned 6,001,294 was British.
Currency, weights and measures throughout the islands are those of Great
Britain, though in several of them various American coins are current.
Books of Reference on the West Indies.
The Jamaica Gazette. Weekly. Kingston, Jamaica.
The Official Gazette. Twice a week. Bridgeton, Barbados.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonies, <tc Annual. London.
Colonial Office List. AnnnaL London.
Bine Books of the respective Colonies.
Handbook to Jamaica. London, 1893.
Kingsley (Charles), At Last : A Christmas in the West Indies. 2 vols. 8. London, 1871.
Mutgrave (T. B. C), Historical and Descriptive Sketch of St. Vincent (containing
bibliography regarding the island). Kingstown, 1891.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses. [Chapter on the Leeward Islands and the Boiling Lake.]. 8.
London, 1887.
Schomburgk (Sir R. H.), History of.Barbados. 8. London, 1848.
Trowbridge (W. R. H.), Gossip of the Caribbees, Sketches of Anglo-West-Indian Life.
New York, 1893.
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235
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
FIJI.
Constitution and Government.
Fiji was ceded to the Queen by the chiefs and people of Fiji, and the British
flag hoisted by Sir Hercules Robinson, on October 10, 1874. The government
is administered by a Governor appointed by the Crown, assisted by an Execu-
tive Council consisting of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, and
the Receiver-General. Laws are passed by a Legislative Council, of which the
Governor is president. It comprises six official members, and six unofficial
members nominated by the Crown. The official members are the Chief Justice,
the Attorney-General, the Receiver-General, the Commissioner of Lands, and
the chief medical officer.
Governor of Fiji and High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. — Sir John
Bates Thurston, K.C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
The Governor also, exercises the functions of Her Majesty's High Com-
missioner and Consul-General for the Western Pacific. He has a salary of
2,000Z. per annum, paid from colonial funds, and 300Z. from Imperial funds.
There is no military establishment in the colony, but there is a force of
armed native constabulary numbering 100.
For the purposes of native government the colony is divided into 16
provinces, in 12 of which a superior native chief exercises, under the title of
Boko Tui of his province, a form of rule which recognises to a large degree the
customs and the system of administration by which the people governed them-
selves prior to the establishment amongst them of a European form of govern-
ment. In three of the provinces tbere are resident European officers as com-
missioners. About 160 native chiefs of inferior degree are employed by the
Crown in subordinate administrative capacities, and receive salaries from the
Government. There are also 33 native stipendiary magistrates associated with
13 European magistrates in the administration of justice. A European
commissioner resides in Rotumah.
Area and Population.
Fiji comprises a group of islands lying between 15° and 20° south latitude,
and 177° east and 178° west longitude. The islands exceed 200 in number,
about 80 of which are inhabited. The largest is Viti Levu, with an area of
about 4,250 square miles (about the same size as Jamaica) ; the next largest is
Yanua Levu, with an area of about 2,600 square miles. The total area of the
group is about 7,740 square miles. The island of Rotumah, lying between
12° and 15° of south latitude, and 175° and 177° of east longitude, was
added to the colony of Fiji by authority of Letters Patent in December 1880.
At the census of April 5, 1891, the population of the colony numbered
121,180.
The estimated population on December 31, 1892, was as follows : —
Male
Female
Total
Europeans
1,488
793
2,281
Half-castes
544
558
1,102
Indians .
6,113
2,990
9,103
Polynesians
2,075
377
2,452
Rotumans
1,047
1,160
2,207
Fijians
56,725
51,020
107,745
Others .
247
305
552
68,239 57,203 125,442
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236
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WJt
Among Europeans in 1892 the births were 65 and deaths 22 ; Fijians in 1892,
births 3,996, deaths 5,222 ; indentured Indians in 1892, births 223, deaths
246 (registered). Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Viti Levu ;
European population, 850.
Eeligion.
The number of persons attending worship in the native churches of the
Wesleyan Mission in 1892 was 99,835 ; attending the churches of the Roman
Catholic Mission, 10,205. The Wesleyan Mission establishment comprises 11
European missionaries, 70 native ministers, 52 catechists, 1,126 teachers, and
2,081 local preachers, 3,405 class leaders, with 979 churches, and 334 other
preaching places. The Roman Catholic Mission has 23 European ministers
and 180 native teachers, 20 European sisters, 3 European brothers, with 78
churches and chapels, and 1 European and 3 native training institutions.
Instruction.
Two public schools receive State aid to the extent of about 5002. a year,
one in Suva and one in Levuka. The number of scholars attending these two
schools in 1892 was 146. The education of the native Fijians is almost entirely
conducted by the Wesleyan Mission, in whose 1,951 schools 38,307 children
were taught in 1892. 144 schools are also conducted by the Roman Catholic
Mission, the number of day-scholars being in 1892 1950. The Roman Catholic
Mission also maintain 3 schools for Europeans, at which 135 children received
instruction during 1892. These mission schools receive no State aid, but an
industrial and technical school is carried on by the Government, in which 63
native youths are being trained in elementary branches of reading, writing,
and arithmetic, in boat-building, house-building, and cattle-tending.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure (exclusive of
that on account of Polynesian and Indian immigration) since annexation : —
1 Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
1 Expenditure
j
£
£ 1
£
1 £
1 1875
16,433
41,522
1888
65,019
i 58,993
i 1880
80,678
91,102 1
1889
63,722
1 57,710
I 1885
76,669
92,299 i
1890
66,817
60,826
! 1886
64,574
78,133
1891
71,250
i 67,820
j 1887
64,916
73,151
1892
71,553
1 67,652
1
Estimated revenue, 1893, 72,406Z. ; expenditure, 70,447Z.
The principal sources of revenue in 1892 were :— Customs, 32,4252. ;
wharfage and shipping dues, 3,2392. ; general licenses and internal revenue,
6,6002. ; native taxes (this is paid in native produce prepared by the natives,
and sold by the Government on their behalf by annual contract), 18,2562. ;
postal dues and stamps, 1,8602. The expenditure on personal emoluments was
33,4882. ; on other charges, 34,1632. ; total, 67,6512.
The public debt of the colony consists of loans amounting to 129,0002. ;
and advances from the Imperial Government of 114,2352., making a total
indebtedness of 243,2352.
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COMMERCE
237
Production and Industry.
There are 11 sugar mills in the Colony, with an aggregate nominal daily
output of 136 tons of dried sugar, 2 tea factories, witli an aggregate nominal
daily output of 600 pounds of dried tea, 2 desiccated coconut factories, and 10
boat-building yards. The rainfall at Suva for the year 1892 was 105*61 inches.
The mean minimum temperature for the year was 72° Fahr. ; the mean
maximum 83° Fahr. The absolute minimum temperature was 63° Fahr. in
June and September ; the absolute maximum 94° Fahr. in February.
In 1890 there was under cultivation by European settlers : — Bananas, 2,285
acres ; cotton, 30 acres ; coconuts, 19,620 acres ; maize, 380 acres ; sugar-cane,
11,699 acres ; yams, &c, 965 acres; tobacco, 67 acres ; peanuts, 306 acres ;
tea, 456 acres.
There were in the colony, at the end of 1892, 1,202 horses and mules ;
9,462 cattle ; 6,050 sheep ; and 3,855 Angora goats.
Commerce.
The value of the total foreign trade during five years was as follows :
Year
Total Foreign Trade
Imports
Exports
1 £
£
£
£
1 1888
560,200
183,222
376,978
1 1889
553,674
189,393
364,281
I 1890 *
571,290
206,757
364,533
1891
727,383
253,049
474,334
1892
688,376
253,586
434,791
The total amount of imports from and exports to British possessions and
other countries respectively, for each year, has been : —
Year
Prom British
From other
To British
To other
Possessions
Countries
Possessions
Countries
£
£
£
£
1888
174,244
8,977
341,446
35,531
1889
186,419
2,974
335,857
28,424
1890
194,173
12,585
332,322
32,210
1891
232,758
20,291
420,783
53,551
1892
247,735
5,851
388,176
46,615
The principal imports during 1892 were — hardware, 12,978?. ; drapery,
48,022?. ; meats, 11,844?. ; rice, 10,403?. ; breadstuffs and biscuits, 18,046?. ';
bags and sugar mats, 6,180?.; coal, 18,449?.; timber, 8,594?.; manure, 10,600?.;
galvanized iron goods, 5,911?. ; live stock, 8,115?. ; machinery, 8,251?.'
Of these items, meats, breadstuffs, coal, manure, live stock and machinery are
free of import duties.
The principal exports in 1892 were— sugar, 18,883 tons, valued at 302,133?. ;
copia, 5,937 tons, valued at 49,723?. ; green fruit (consisting principally of
bananas), 62,442?. ; desiccated coconut, 57 tons, valued at 3,190?. ; pea-nuts
379 tons, valued at 7,074?. ; and cotton, 33 tons 11 cwt, valued at 1,878?. '
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During the year 1892 the total number of merchant vessels entered at the
ports of entry as arriving in the colony was 63 steamers of 55,307 tons, and
28 sailing vessels of 14,137 tons. Of these vessels 78 were British, 2 German,
3 American, 5 Norwegian, and 1 Tongan.
There is regular steam communication between Fiji and New Zealand once
a month, between Fiji and Victoria every five weeks, and between Fiji and
New South Wales twice a month in addition to irregular steamers employed
in the sugar trade.
The registered shipping in 1893 consisted of 7 sailing vessels of, in all,
196 tons. At the end of 1892 there were 331 local vessels holding sea-going
certificates from the Marine Board, with a total tonnage of 3,320 ; 90 of these
vessels were owned by Europeans (tonnage 1,561) and 241 by natives (tonnage
1,759). There is also a subsidised inter-island steamer trading regularly in the
Group.
In 1892 there passed through the post-office in local correspondence
216,588 letters, 131,467 papers, and 150,071 book-packets; and in foreign
correspondence 110,251 letters, 94,074 papers and 8,967 book-packets.
The Colony entered the Postal Union on September 1, 1891.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Moneys, weights, and measures are the same as in the United Kingdom.
Books of Reference.
Annual Blue Book and Colonial Office Report.1
Calvert and Williams, Fiji and the Ftfians.
Colonial Government Handbook to F\ji. Suva, 1892.
Cooper (H. Stonehewer), Coral Islands of the Pacific 2 vols. London, 1880.
Cumming (Miss Gordon), At Home in Fiji. London, 1882.
ErskineiC&yt. J. E.), The Western Pacific. London, 1853.
Gordon 4* Ootch, Australian Handbook for 1891. Melbourne, 1891.
Home (John), A Year in Ftfi.
Pritehard (W. T.), Polynesian Reminiscences. London, 1866.
Reed (W), Recent Wanderings in Fiji- London, 1888.
8eeman (Berthold), Qovrrnment Mission to the Fijian Islands. London, 1862.
Waterhouse, F\ji : its King and People.
HEW GUINEA, BRITISH.
This possession is the south-eastern part of the island of New Guinea
with* the islands of the D'Entrecasteaux and Louisiade groups, and all
islands between 8° and 12° S. latitude, and 141° and 155° E. longitude.
The total area is about 90,000 square miles, and the population probably
about 350,000, of whom 250 are Europeans.
The government of British New Guinea is founded on the British New
Guinea Act of November, 1887, and on Letters Patent issued June 8, 1888.
The cost of the administration, estimated fat 15,000Z. a year, is guaranteed,
primarily by the Government of Queensland, for ten years, but this sum is
contributed in equal proportions by the Governments of New South Wales,
Victoria, and Queensland, and these Colonies have a voice in the general ad-
ministration of the affairs of the country. On September 4, 1888, the
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NEW SOUTH WALES 239
sovereignty of the Queen was proclaimed over British New Guinea by
the first administrator, Sir William Macgregor, K.C.M.G. (salary 1,500 J.).
Progresses being made in laying the foundations of law and order. Four mis-
sionary bodies are at work, the London Missionary Society on the South Coast,
the Sacred Heart Society in the Mekeo district, the Wesleyans in the Islands,
the Anglican Mission on the North-East Coast, and many thousands of
natives are being taught. At the same time trading relations with Europeans
are being established, and the groves of cocoa-nut trees are being extended.
Land is offered to settlers at 2#. 6d. an acre.
The Territory is divided into 4 magisterial districts. There is a Central
Court at Port Moresby, but it holds sittings wherever necessary. For native
government some simple laws have been passed in the form of regulations, a
commencement has been made in the training of native magistrates and
village policemen, and a force of armed constabulary of about 50 men, mostly
natives, now exists. Revenue from the colony in 1891-92 about 4,500Z.,
mostly from customs dues. The possession is believed to contain valuable
timbers, the coco and sago palm are plentiful, sandal-wood, ebony, gums,
rattans, and other products are found, and much of the country is suitable
for sugar and other tropical cultures. Gold is found in the Louisiade Islands,
and about 60 miners were at work in 1893. The trade of the possession is
confined to Queensland and New South Wales. Imports for 1892-93, 35, 1982. ;
exports, 14,9672. exclusive of gold to the value of (1891) 8,3712. (2,426 oz.).
The chief "imports are food stuffs, tobacco, drapery and hardware ; exports,
trepang, copra and pearl shell.
In 1892-93?73 vessels of 4,405 tons entered, and 75 of 4,447 tons cleared, ex-
clusive of Government vessels. There is good water communication to some
parts of the interior. British New Guinea is treated as a postal district of
Queensland, its mails passing through that colony. In 1891-92 the postal
movement was : letters, 8,310; newspapers, 9,261; packets, 121.
Books of Reference.
Annual Report of Administrator.
British New Guinea (Queensland) Act of 1887. Brisbane, 1888.
New Guinea, Further Correspondence respecting. London, 1883 and 1890.
Albertis (L. M. d'), New Guinea. Tr. from the Italian. 2 vols. London, 1880. Journal
of the Expedition on the Fly River. 8. Sydney, 1887.
Chalmers (J.), and Gill (W. Wyatt), Work and Adventure in New Guinea. London, 1885.
Kolff (Dirk Hendrik), Voyages, 1825-26. English Translation by G. W. Earl. 8.
London, 1840.
Moretby (Capt. J.), New Guinea and Polynesia. 8. London, 1876.
Bomilly (H. H.), The Western Pacific and New Guinea. London, 1886.
BomUljf (H. H.), From my Verandah in New Guinea. London, 1889.
Stone (O. C), A Few Months in New Guinea. London, 1880.
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of New South "Wales, the oldest of the
Australasian colonies, is embodied in the Act 18 & 19 Vict,
cap. 54, proclaimed in 1855, which established a 'responsible
government/ The constitution vests the legislative power in a
Parliament of two Houses, the first called the Legislative Council,
and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council
consists of not less than twenty-one members (73 at end of 1892),
appointed by the Crown for life, and the Assembly at present has
141 members, elected by seventy-four constituencies, An Act,
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240 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
assented to June 13, 1893, provides for the division of the
Colony into 125 electorates, each with only one member, and
abolishes the property qualification and plural voting. Every
male subject 21 years of age, having resided one year in the
Colony and three months in his Electoral District, is qualified as
an Elector. The elections must all take place on one and the same
day. The duration of a parliament is not more than three years.
Members of the Legislative Assembly are paid 300J. per annum.
In 1893 there were 316,741 electors enrolled, or 30*2 per cent,
of the population. At the last general election in 1891, 60*27 per
cent, of the electors on the roll voted. The executive is in the
hands of a Governor, appointed by the Imperial Government.
Governor.— The Right Hon. Sir Robert W. Duff, G.C.M.G.,
P.C. ; assumed ofiice 29th May, 1893.
The Governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-
in-chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of
7,000£. ; private secretary, aide-de-camp, and orderlies paid for
by the State. In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by
a Cabinet of ten ministers, consisting of the following members : —
Premier and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Sir George R. Dibbs, K.C.M.G.
Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. John See.
Attorney-General. — Hon. Charles G. Heydon.
Secretary for Lands. — Hon. Henry Copeland.
Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. William J. Lyne.
Minister of Public Instruction. — Hon. Francis B." Suttor.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. John Kidd.
Minister of Justice and Secretary for Mines and Agriculture. — Hon. T. M.
Slattery.
Vice-President of the Executive Council and Representative of the Govern-
ment in the Legislative Council (without portfolio). — Hon. Dr. Maclaurin.
The Colonial Secretary and Attorney-General have salaries of 2,0002., and
the other ministers of 1,500/.
Local Government.
Under the ' Municipalities Act of 1867 ' local government is extended to
166 districts, 68 being designated ' boroughs ' and 98 ' municipal districts,'
in addition to the City of Sydney. A borough must contain a minimum
population of 1,000, and an area not larger than 9 square miles ; a municipal
district a population of 500, and an area not larger than 50 square miles.
The estimated capital value of property within municipal boundaries was
returned for 1892 at 147,720,0002. (this figure includes Sydney, the amount of
which is 55, 550, 000 J.), 132,931,800/. productive lands and houses, and
14,788,200Z. waste and unimproved lands. The portion of the colony in-
corporated is small, covering to only 2,478 square miles, or the one hundred
and twenty-fifth part of its area. The population residing within the
municipal area is probably not less than 737,010.
The State grants an endowment to every municipality for a period of 1 f>
years after its incorporation as follows : For the first 5 years a sum equal to
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AREA AND POPULATION
241
the local revenue raised, the second 5 years a moiety, and the third 5 years a
fourth of the amount raised by rates and subscriptions. All persons holding
household, leasehold, or freehold estate in any municipality, and paying
rates, are entitled to from 1 to 4 votes for the election of aldermen and auditors,
according to annual value of property. There were 165,427 municipal voters
in 1892.
Area and Population.
The area of the colony is estimated at 310,700 square miles.
The colony is divided into 13 pastoral districts, and also into 141
counties.
The estimated population on December 31, 1892, was
1,197,650 (646,540 males, and 551,110 females). The population
at four successive census periods was : —
Year
Males Females
Total
Pop. per
square mile
Average in-
crease percent,
per annum.
1861
1871
1881
1891
198,488 , 152,372
275,551 228,430
411,149 340,319
612,562 1 519,672
350,860
503,981
751,468
1,132,234
1-18
1-62
2*42
3 64
4 3
4'9
5-1
According to race or origin the percentages were as follows at the census of
1891: — New South Wales, 64*03; other Australasian colonies, 7*52;
Aborigines, 0 73 ; English, 13 18 ; Irish, 6*63 ; Scotch, 3*25 ; Welsh, 0*44 ;
other British subjects, 0*59 ; total British subjects, 96*37. Chinese, 1*16 ;
German, 0*85]; other foreigners, 1*62 ; total foreigners, 3*63.
At the census of 1891 there was in the colony a population of aborigines,
comprising : —
-
Male
Female
Total
Full Blacks ....
Half-Castes ....
2,896
1,663
2,201
1,520
5,097
3,183
Total ....
4,559
3,721
8,280
included in total census population given above.
According to occupation the number of actual workers was distributed
thus at the census of 1891 : —
Professional 30,879
Domestic 58,393
Commerce and Trade 87,967
Industries 140,941
Agricultural, Pastoral, and Mineral 136,375
Unknown and undefined 10,382
Total workers
464,937
The number of persons classed as "dependents" was 655,964, of whom
12,478 were dependent on public or private charity.
y Go<bgle
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242
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
The estimated population of Sydney at the end of 1892 was 411,710, in-
cluding suburbs ; Newcastle, 13,500 ; Bathurst, 10,000 ; Gonlburn, 11,400 ;
Parramatta, 12,000 ; Broken Hill, 22,500 ; Maitland, 10,500 ; and Albury,
6,000.
The following table shows the births, deaths, and marriages for five
years : —
Year
Marriages
Total
Births
38,525
37,295
38,964
39,458
40,041
Illegitimate
1,958
1,987
2,051
2,115
2,289
Total
Deaths
14,408
14,796
14,217
16,286
14,410
Excess of
Births
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
7,844
7,530
7,876
8,457
8,022
24,117
22,499
24,747
23,172
25,631
The increase in population during the ten years ended 1892 was 335,740.
Towards this the excess of births over deaths contributed over 67 per cent.
The following are the statistics of the arrivals and departures by sea as
recorded for five years : —
-
1888 ; 1889
1890
1891
1892
Immigrants
Emigrants
62,361
56,941
61,151
51,762
67,799
54,807
12,992
69,919
52,073
62,197
52,687
Excess of immigrants
5,420
9,389
17,846
9,510
Assisted immigration, which became the policy of New South Wales in
1832, practically ceased in 1887. The total number of assisted immigrants
from 1832 to the end of 1892 was 211,682. Of these, 209,161 persons were
British-born, 96,228 being from England and Wales, 88,768 from Ireland, and
24,165 from Scotland. The number of assisted immigrants during 1892 was
only 179. In 1881 a poll-tax of 101. was imposed on Chinese immigrants,
and increased to 1002. in 1888 in all the Australian colonies, with the ex-
ception of Western Australia. The arrivals and departures of Chinese have
been as follows in five years : —
Arrivals .
Departures
1,848
1,562
7
941
1891
15
637
17
581
21
755
i
Religion.
An Act abolishing State aid to religion was passed in 1862. The clergy
who received State aid when the Act' was passed, and now survive, still re.
ceive that aid.
The Church of England in the colony is governed by a Metropolitan who
is also Primate of Australia and Tasmania. He is nominated by the Bishops
in Australia and consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury. There were
in 1892 six dioceses. The affairs of the Church of Rome are administered by
seven Bishops under the Cardinal Archbishop of Sydney, who is also Primate
of Australasia.
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law, and medicine are recognised as on an equality with those of the United
Kingdom. Government grants a yearly subsidy, amounting, with special aid,
to over 18,100?. in 1892. The total revenue for 1892 was 37, 591 Z. There
were 540 matriculated, and 528 non-matriculated students attending extension
lectures during 1891. There are 44 professors and lecturers.
There is a technical college, comprising classes in agriculture, physics,
applied mechanics, arts, elocution, chemistry, architecture, geology, com-
mercial economy, mathematics, pharmacy, and domestic economy. The daily
attendance at the college and branch schools averaged 6,205 for 1892.
There is a free public library at Sydney, with 97,348 volumes in 1892.
The library was visited by 197,255 persons during 1892.
Justice and Crime.
There are Courts of Magistrates, of Quarter Sessions, and the Supreme
Court, with a chief justice and six puisne judges. All prisoners charged with
offences bearing sentences of more than six months' imprisonment are tried by
a jury of twelve persons, either at Quarter Sessions, or before the Supreme
Court. Prisoners charged with capital crimes must be tried before the Supreme
Court.
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The amount of the Public Debt on December 31, 1892, was 54,473,433/.,
with mean rate of interest 3*824 per cent. Of this amount fully 84*60 per
cent, has been spent on the construction of railways, tramways, telegraphs,
water supply, sewerage, docks, and wharves. The net return from these ser-
vices was equal to 3*02 per cent, of the cost of construction ; or 2*45 per cent,
of the existing Public Debt, exclusive of treasury bills. The amount authorised
still to be raised was 20,281, 362/.
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DEFENCE
245
The expenditure of loans up to December 31, 1892, has been : Railways and
tramways, 37,417,319?. ; electric telegraphs, 801,301/. ; harbours and river
navigations, 3,196,164*. ; roads and bridges, 791,309Z. ; immigration, 569,930Z.;
water supply and sewerage, 6, 119, 8 40 Z. ; fortifications and warlike stores,
1,096,5302. ; miscellaneous, 2,132,4722. ; total services, 52,124,8652. In 1884
the nominal rate of interest was fixed at 3} per cent., at which rate 28,294,2002.
has been raised.
The financial statistics of the incorporated boroughs and municipal dis-
tricts are as follows for the municipal year 1892-93 : —
-
Total Annual
Value of all
Property in
Municipalities
Estimated
Capital Value of
all Property in
Municipalities
Revenue
exclusive
of Loans
Expendi-
ture
Loans Out-
standing
City of Sydney .
Suburbs .
£
2,777,245
2,666,318
£
55,550,000
51,524,000
£
218,214
292,613
£
456,258
363,038
£
960,000
684,200
Metropolis
Country .
5,443,563
2,601,881
107,074,000
40,646,000
510,837
336,457
819,296
400,711
1,644,200
448,850
Total.
i
8,045,444
147,720,000
847,294
1,220,007
2,093,050
The estimated wealth of the colony at the census of 1891, and at the close
of the year 1892 was as follows : —
-
At census of
1891
At close of
1892.
Revenue-yielding railways, waterworks, &c. .
Works and buildings not directly revenue yielding
Amount due to lands purchased from the State
Public lands leased but not sold
I Municipal property
Total public wealth
Land
Houses and improvements
Other forms of wealth
Total private wealth
Total wealth
£
44,958,000
20,813,000
13,224,000
94,400,000
£
46,762,900
23,493,400
13,671,200
98,008,000
181,925,500
7,218,000
172,895,000
6,400,000
179,295,000
189,138,500
173,352,000
129,800,000
104,253,000
179,043,000
126,896,000
98,209,000
407,405,000
404,148,000
593,286,500
586,700,000
In 1892 the land force of the colony comprised 9,866 men, of whom 625
formed the regular military force, 4,294 volunteers (partially paid), and 4,947
reserves. The naval force is composed of 619 men, and the Ordnance
Store Department numbers 75 ; making the total defence force 10,560.
These forces were divided as follows :—
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246
THE BRITISH EMPIRE — NEW SOUTH WALES
General, Permanent, Honorary, and Naval Defence Force Staff, 56 ;
Cavalry, 382 ; Artillery, 1,090 ; Engineers, 117 ; Submarine Miners, 144 ;
Mounted Infantry, 385 ; Infantry, 2,585 ; Rifle Companies, 4,873 ; Reserves,
74 ; Medical Staff Corps, 123 ; Naval Brigade, 331 ; Naval Artillery Volun-
teers, 269 ; Commissariat and Transport Corps, 40 ; Ordnance Store, 75 ;
torpedo boats, &c, 16 ; total, 10,560. A naval establishment is being pushed
forward at Garden Island, Sydney, to replace that at Circular Quay, and, in
addition to shore works, torpedo and other boats have been provided. The
cost of the defence of the colony during the year 1892 was 248,906Z. This
amount is exclusive of 54,4392. loan expenditure on fortifications and
military works, and of 23,4122. loan expenditure on naval station, Port
Jackson.
Production and Industry
I. Agriculture.
In 1893 there were 1.010,727 acres, or a little over one-half per cent, of
the area of the colony, under cultivation. The cultivated land is principally
to be found in small holdings of less than 500 acres. The colony is divided
legally, in accordance with its natural apportionment, into three parts, viz.,
the Eastern, Central, and Western divisions, and land is obtainable under the
following conditions : — 1st, by free selection before survey in the two first-
mentioned divisions, at the rate of 11. per acre, payable under a system of
deferred payments. In the Eastern division the minimum area to be selected
is 40 acres, and the maximum 640 acres ; in the Central the maximum is
2,560 acres. 2nd, by additional purchases of the same areas and under like
conditions after the completion of the condition of residence upon the original
selection. 3rd, by purchasing at double the price above mentioned, without
the condition of residence, the maximum area Deing 320 acres. 4th, Govern-
ment land is also sold at auction, the upset prices being 81. for town, 21. 10a.
for suburban, and 11. 5s. per acre for country lots. The area sold is not to
exceed 200,000 acres annually, and the maximum area for purchasers is 640
acres in one block.
In the Western division the land is leased by the State to pastoral tenants
under various forms. The total land alienated or in process of alienation at
end of 1892 was 46,295,954 acres. The total land occupied under leases of
various kinds is 130,309,466. The total land area of the colony, excluding
the surface covered by rivers and lakes, is 195,882,150 acres. The total pro-
ceeds of sales during 1862-92 was 47,033,106Z. The following table gives the
statistics of rural holdings of various sizes for the past ten years ending
March 31:—
Acreage
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888 J 1889
1
1890 1891 | 1892
1693
1 to 15 acres .
5,145
5,409
5,877
6,512
7,038 6,889
7,290 I 8,804 1 9,201
10,164
16 to 200 .
J0,170 ( 20,998
21,174
21,288
21,651 '21,503 .22,048 .22,153 |22,815
23,790
201 to 400 .
5,969 . 6,363
6,285
6,382
6,481 ' 6,612 ! 6,774 ! 7,059 1 7,892
7,796
401 to 1,000 .
6,031 6,497
6,611
6,792
6,778 1 6,750 J 6,849
6,906 I 7,158
7,453
1,001 to 2,000
1,667 1 1,886
1,811
1,948
2,010 1 2,089 1 2,191
2,888
2,402
•J.547
2,001 to 10,000
1,340 1,413
1,406
1,458
1,618 1.774 , 1,810
1,994
1,905
•2, 006
10,001 and upwards
Total .
471 1 513
563
552
566 580 i 658
656
677
672
40,792
43,079
43,727
44,932
46,142 '46,197
47,620
49,960
51,550
54,428 1
The area under cultivation in New South Wales during the last four years
and the crops produced were as follows : —
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
247
Tear ending
31 March
1800
1891
1892
1893
Area nnder
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Cultivation
1,164,475
1,241,419
1,179,621
1,010,727
Principal Crops
Area
Produce
Area
Produce
Area
Produce
Area
Produce
Acres
Bush, i Acres
Bush.
Acres
Bush.
Acres
Bush.
1 /Grain .
419,758
6,570,3351 333,233
3,649,216
366,666
3,963,668
452,921
6,817,457
Wheat {
Tons 1
Tons
Tons
Tons.
lHay .
82,880
140,348. 83,827
96,014
66,435
75,883
89,396
116,061
Bush, i
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
Maize
173,836
5,354,827i 191,152
5,713,205
174,577
6,721,706
167,549
5,087,256
/Grain .
5,440
113,109' 4,937
81,383
4,459
93,446
41,618
91,701
1 Barley {
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons.
W .
2,160
3,691 938
1,179
978
1,590
1,701
2,719
1
Bush, i
Bush.
Bush.
Bush.
! I Grain .
22,358
543,330 14,102
256,659
12,958
276,259
•20,890
466,608
;Oata{
Tons '
Tons
Tons
Tons
| I Hay .
108,129
156,920, 70,463
71,806
76,589
86,077
101,981
132,426
I Potatoes .
17,561
50,096! 19,406
52,791
22,660
62,283
18,502
52,105
] Lucerne and
sown grasses .
23,937
65,270
Cwts.
20,014
44,536
Cwts.
19,861
45,867
Cwts.
21,390
50,928
Cwts.
Tobacco
3,289
27,724
1,148
14,021
886
9,314; 848
8,344
Year
ending
31 March
1890
1891
1892
1893
Sugar-cane
Total
Area
18,730
20,446
22,262
26,751
Tons
168,862
277,252
185,258
264,832
Total
Area
7,867
8,044
8,281
8,264
Vines
Wines
Gallons
688,685
842,181
913,107
931,542
Brandy
Gallons
3,702
6,704
6,114
5,355
Table Fruit I
I
-I
Tons
2,951
3,355
3,694
5,916
The principal fruit-culture of the colony is that of the orange. There
were in 1893, 11,158 acres under oranges, with an estimated production of
692,266 cases, or 10,383,990 dozen.
On January 1, 1893, the colony had 58,080,114 sheep, 2,147,074 horned
cattle, 481,416 horses, 249,522 pigs.
There were 117,693 persons engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits
during the year 1891-92.
In 1887 a Forest Conservation Department was created and attached to one
of the principal State departments. There are 21 State forests, covering
97,712 acres. The timber reserves number 1, 058, and cover an area of 5, 694, 035
acres. The following are the general statistics for five years : —
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248
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Year
Timber cut in
Reserves subject
to Royalty
Revenue from
Royalties,
Licences, Ac.
Quantity of
Timber Sawn
Value of
Timber Sawn
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Sup. ft.
19,679,069
16,225,207
10,978,967
12,760,497
15,772,348
£
19,019
16,521
15,437
18,455
16,176
Sq.ft.
185,000,000
185,021,000
201,505,000
229,696,000
£
616,666
617,000
670,050
763,625
II. Mines and Minerals.
Gold is found in all parts of the territory. The total value raised to the
close of the year 1891 was 38,633,4882.
The following table shows the quantity and value of the gold, the produce
of New South Wales, coined or exported since its discovery in 1851 : —
Periods
Weight
Value
Oz.
£
1851-60
3,280,963
11,530,583
1861-65
2,233,001
8,606,290
1866-70
1,309,911
5,069,812
1871-75
1,612,227
6,207,265
1876-80
639,435
2,363,403
1881-85
624,835
2,325,501
1886-90
546,726
1,972,328
1891
153,336
558,306
1892
156,870
569,178
Total .
10,557,304
39,202,666
I
Most of the gold produced in the colony is received at the Mint for coinage,
and only about twenty per cent, is exported without passing through that in-
stitution.
The value of silver and silver-lead ore exported to the end of 1892 was
13,660,7152. In 1891, 350,661 ounces .of silver were raised, valued at 56,8842.,
and 133,355 tons of silver-lead ore and metal, altogether valued at 2,420,9502.
The value of copper raised in 1892 was 114,5592. The estimated value
of copper raised from its discovery in 1858 until the end of 1892 amounted to
3,596,4822.
The value of the tin produced in 1882 was 833,4612., in 1885 415,6262.,
in 1887 525,4202., in 1892 152,9942. The total value of the output of tin
since the mines were opened in 1872 has been 5,828,6572.
In 1892 there were 101 coal mines, employing 10,514 men ; the quantity
of coal raised in 1892 was 9,780,968 tons, valued at 1,462,3882. The estimated
value of coal raised to the close of 1892 amounted to 27,271,4292.
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COMMERCE
249
There are 20 smelting furnaces in the colony, principally for the smelting
of silver, tin, and copper ores. It is estimated that there were 32,508 persons
employed in mining and smelting during 1891.
III. Manufactures.
The following classification of manufactories, number of hands employed,
and capital invested is compiled from the returns of 1891-92 : —
Classification
i
No. of
Works
Hands
Capital
Invested
1
' Treating raw pastoral products
Preparation of foods and drinks
1 Clothing and textile fabrics
' Building materials .
• Metal works, machinery, &c.
Docks, slips, ship-building, &c.
Furniture, bedding, &c. .
Paper, printing, binding, &c.
Vehicles, harness, saddlery
Light, fuel, and heat
Other works
140
512
269
520
267
32
70
160
186
57
137
1,983
7,741
7,552
8,609
10,188
1,506
1,048
4,494
2,551
1,885
2,026
£
729,908
4.899,007
1,550,415
2,007,716
2,893,429
262,475
298,684
1,089,319
545,598
569,132
804,021
Total .
•
2,340
49,583
15,649,704
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the total trade of the
colony for five years : —
Tear
Total Imports
Total Exports
1888
£
21,229,277
£
20,920,130
1889
22,863,057
23,294,934
1890
22,615,004
22,045,937
1891
25,383,397
25,944,020
1892
20,776,526
21,972,247
The total customs revenue in 1892 amounted to 2,677,890£,
or 12*89 per cent, of the total value of the imports.
The following table gives the values of the total exports,
home and foreign produce, for the last five years : —
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250
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Year
Home Produce
Exported
Foreign Produce
Exported
Total Exports
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
15,544,875
17,423,311
17,232,725
21,103,816
17,707,102
£
5,375,255
5,871,623
4,813,212
4,840,204
4,265,145
£
20,920,130
23,294,934
22,045,937
25,944,020
21,972,247
Wool is the staple export of the colony. The following is a
table of the total quantities and values of wool exported since
1883 :—
Year
Weight
Value
Year
Weight
Value
Lbs.
£
Lbs.
£
1883
197,040,132
10,136,244
1888
243,256,253
9,358,515
1884
183,016,518
9,382,500
1889
266,229,029
10,785,070
1885
173,373,425
7,678,247
1890
243,738,266
9,232,672
1886
178,650,611
7,201,976
1891
340,691,382
11,312,980
1887
224,295,209
9,200,071
1892
323,052.014
10,540,147
The direct commercial intercourse (exclusive of gold) of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement, according
to the Board of Trade Returns, for six years : —
1887
1888
j Imports into U. K. £ £ j £
from N. S. W. . . I 7,177,912 8,708,250 i 8,702,648
Exports of British pro- | I
duce to N. 8. W. . I 6,845,817 8,078,311 7,014,827
The staple article of import from New South Wales into the United
Kingdom is wool, the quantities and values of which were as follows in each
of the last five years : —
1890
1891
1892
£
8,791,239
7,334,666
£
10,187,746
8,999,969
£
9,932,716
6,566,352
Year
Quantity
Value
Lbs. i
£
1888
149,539,681 '
6,434,987
1889
152,267,520
6,425,056
1890
127,402,559
5,796,529
1891
165,465,000
6,612,224
1892
181,836,921
6,574,896
Next to wool, the most important articles of import into Great Britain
from New South Wales are tin, of the value in 1892 of 304,379/.; silver ore,
836,893/. ; copper, 86,417/. ; tallow, 394,459/. ; leather, 177,399/. The
exports from Great Britain to New South Wales consist of all the principal
articles of British manufacturing industry, chief among them iron of the
value of 845,451/., apparel and haberdasher)*, 871,762/. ; cotton goods,
668,305/. ; woollen goods, 525,468/. in 1892.
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
251
The following table shows the direction of the sea-borne trade of New South
Wales in 1892 :—
! -
Imports from
Exports to
United Kingdom
Australasian colonies .
Other British possessions .
United States .
Other foreign countries
Total
JB
8,883,983
6,272,776
577,707
823,522
1,290,121
£
7,653,915
2,883,466
481,553
1,529,980
3,389,122
17,848,109
15,938,036
The overland trade was as follows for the last five years :
Year
Imports
Exports
Total
£
£
£
1888
3,040,010
5,559,681
8,599,691
1889
3,150,698
6,919,491
10,060,189
1890
4,707,341
8,026,376
12,733,717
1891
4,319,204
8,630,248
12,949,452
1892
2,928,417
6,034,211
8,962,628
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping of the Colony in 1892 consisted of 60 sailing
vessels of 3,282 tons, and 46 steamers of 5,848 tons ; total 106 vessels of
9,130 tons.
The number and tonnage of British and foreign vessels entered and cleared,
with cargoes and in ballast, during three years were : —
Year
British
Foreign
Total
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage %
Vessels
Tonnage
18Qft/Entered .
1890\Cleared .
i oni f Entered .
1891\Cleared .
1RQ9/Entered .
1892\Cleared .
2,655
2,556
2,712
2,776
2,706
2,806
2,101,930
2,055,033
2,431,561
2,471,046
2,473,933
2,503,917
234
221
309
324
254
261
311,317
293,592
390,337
401,292
330,616
338,718
2,889
2,777
3,021
3,100
2,960
3,067
2,413,247
2,348,625
2,821,898
2,872,338
2,804,549
2,842,635
Of the total cleared in 1892, 1,290 of 1,594,10^8 tons were from Sydney,
and 1,008 of 1,024,318 tons were from Newcastle.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1891 there were 10,073 miles of Government roads
metalled, gravelled* or ballasted ; 10,212 formed and drained, and 12,547
miles cleared ; also 6,281 miles of roads in municipalities.
The following are particulars of the railways in the colony on June 30,
1893: — Lines open for traffic, 2,351 miles. The total amount of money
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252
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
expended on railway construction and equipment to June 30, 1893, was
33,456,496?. The gross earnings for 1892-93 amounted to 3,222,423/.,
working expenses 1,250,0992., and percentage of working expenses to the
gross earnings, 38*8. There were also, at the close of 1892, 81 miles of
private railways, which had a capital expenditure of 438, 841 1.
The tramways are the property of the Government. There were, on June
30, 1893, 419 miles open for traffic, the capital cost being £1,118,471.
In 1892 there were 1,423 post-offices and 377 receiving-offices ; number of
letters carried, 76,575,400 ; post-cards, 827,360 ; newspapers, 45,520,500 ;
packets, &c, 12,380,200 ; income, 447,9452. ; expenditure, 447,7262. ;
money orders issued, 522,805 for 1,762,7132.
At the end of December 1892 there were in operation 26,443 miles of
telegraph wire ; cost of construction 801,9182. ; stations, 706 ; number of
telegrams, 4,046,251 ; receipts, 203,4172. ; including telephones the expen-
diture was 269,7902. ; and the net revenue, 185,0142.
Honey and Credit.
Statistics of money and bills in circulation within the colony for five
years are given below : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Notes
Bills
£
£
£
£
£
1888
8,459,503
509,614
28,242
1,591,500
84,111
1889
8,487,851
517,440
29,720
1,489,153
96,459
1890
9,153,250
541,478
31,140
1,503,404
119,938
1891
8,280,261
561,062
32,487
1,596,761
139,815
1892
9,000,496
578,452
34,841
1,439,872
104,223
Value of gold, silver, and bronze coin issued at the Royal Branch Mint,
Sydney, during five years, was : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
£
£
£
£ i
1888
2,187,000
11,285
1,630
2,199,915
1889
3,294,000
22,375
1,560
3,317,935
1890
2,808,000
35,175
1,460
2,844,635
1891
2,673,000
17,200
1,980
2,692,180
1892
2,837,000
13,925
2,065
2,852,990
The assets of the banks trading in New South Wales, according to returns
relating to operations within the Colony for the last quarter of each of the
last five years, were : —
Notes and
Notes and
Balances
Coin
Bullion
Landed
Bills dis-
Bills of
due from
Total
Year
Property
counted,
other
other
Assets
Ac
Banks
Banks
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
1888
5,293,213
59,141
1,133,801
37,830,481
303,857
2,094,480
46,914,973
1889
4,984,874 | 82,704
1,542,621
40,756,616
306,464 2.479,071
50,152,350
1890
5,619,111 ' 87,659
1,644,179
43,009,559
287,508 ' 1,788,901
52,436,977
1891
4,716,067 | 79,768
1,634,605
45,001,118
265,268 ' 1,771,710
53,468,536
1892
5,217,371
95,894
1,801,590
44,135,729
227,795
1,839,513
53,317,892
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BOOKS OF REFERENCE
253
The liabilities of the banks (exclusive of those to shareholders) were : —
Year
Notes in •
Circula-
tion
Bills in
Circula-
tion
Deposits
not
bearing
Interest
Deposits
bearing In-
terest
Total
Deposits
Balances
due to
other
Banks
Total
Liabilities
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,634,255
1,516,047
1,557,805
1,673,425
1,439,872
£
99,680
120,498
127,442
115,090
104,223
£
10,556,627
9,825,194
10,064,518
9,188,873
9,207,109
£
21,360,684
23,951,948
25,395,600
26,470,817
26,357,083
£
31,917,311
33,777,142
35,460,118
35,659,690
35,564,192
£
263,326
258,103
103,572
108,530
63,093
£
33,914,572
35,671,790
37,248,937
37,556,735
37,171,380
During the financial crisis of 1893 eight of the banks suspended, but re-opened shortly
afterwards on a reconstructed basis, and financial operations soon regained their equilibrium.
Of the Savings Bank of New South Wales, established in 1832, the
Governor is president, and by him the trustees are appointed. Besides the
head office in Sydney there are fifteen branches in the country districts.
There are also post-office savings-banks. Statistics are given below of both
branches of savings-banks : —
Year
Number of Depositors
Amount on Dec. 31
Average per Depositor
£
£ s. d.
1888
128,297
4,037,675
31 9 5
1889
134,914
4,280,083
31 14 6
1890
143,826
4,730,469
32 17 10
1891
158,426
5,342,135
33 14 5
1892
167,726
5,706,081
34 0 5
There are also savings-banks in connection with Land, Building, and
Investment companies.
Agent-General in London. — Hon. Sir Saul Samuel, K.C.M.G., C.B.;
Secretary, Samuel Yardley, C.M.G.
Under the supervision of the Go\ ernor of New South Wales are Norfolk
Island, 29° S. latitude, 168° E. longitude, area 10 square miles, population
about 750 ; Pitcaikn Island, 25° S., 130° W., area 3 square miles, popula-
tion 120 ; and Lord Howe Island, 31° 30' S., 159° E., population 55.
Books of Reference.
The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales. By T. A. Coghlan, Government Statis-
tician. Published annually since 1889. Sydney.
New South Wales Blue Book. Published annually. Sydney.
New South Wales Statistical Register. Published annually since 1858. Sydney.
Census of New South Wales, taken April 5, 1881. Sydney, 1892.
Report on the Eleventh Census (1891). By T. A. Coghlan, Government Statistician.
Sydney, 1892.
Railways of New South Wales. Report of Commissioners. Published annually. Sydney.
Report of Mining Department. Published annually. Sydney.
Trade of New South Wales in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom
with Foreign Countries and British Possessions.' Annual. London.
Cfuxlmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Lang (John Dunmore, D.D.), Historical and Statistical Account of New South Wales.
4th edit. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
Liversidge (A., M. A., F.R.S.), Minerals of New South Wales, Ac. London, 1888.
Maiden (J. H., F.L.S., F.C.S., Ac.), Useful Native Plants of Australia. Sydney and
London.
Reid (G. H.), An Essay on New South Wales. 8. Sydney, 1877
Woods (Rev. J. E. Tenison), Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales. 8. Sydney, 1882.
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LOCAL GOVERNMENT 255
estate of the value of 251. In 1893 females were admitted to
the franchise. No elector may vote in respect of more than one
constituency at any election.
For Maori representation every adult Maori resident in any
Maori electoral district — of which there are four only in the
colony — can vote.
At the general election in 1890 there were 183,171 electors on
the rolls for the electoral districts, which returned 70 European
members to the House of Representatives ; and at the election of
the four Maori members for the districts under the Maori Repre-
sentation Act, 7,086 votes of natives were recorded.
The proportion of representation to population was in 1890
one European member in the House of Representatives to every
8,928 persons, and one Maori member to every 10,381 natives.
The proportion of electors to population in the year 1890 was
one to every 3*4 persons.
Governor. — The Right Honourable the Earl of Glasgow,
G.C.M.G., appointed Governor of New Zealand, 7th June, 1892.
The Governor, who is by virtue of his office Commander-in-
Chief of the forces, has a salary of 5,000£, which is to cover all
expenses of his establishment and for travelling.
The general administration rests with a responsible Ministry
consisting of about seven members.
The following is the list of the present Ministry : —
Premier, Minister for Public Works, Minister of Native Affairs and
Defence. — Hon. R. J. Seddon.
Attorney-General, Colonial Secretary, and Minister of Marine. — Hon. Sir
P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G.
Minister of Education and of Labour, and Commissioner of Stamp
Duties.— Hon. W. P. Reeves.
Minister of Lands and Immigration, Minister of Agriculture and Commis-
sioner of Forests. — Hon. J. Mackenzie.
Colonial Treasurer, Postmaster-General, Electric Telegraph Commissioner,
and Commissioner of Trade and Customs. — Hon. J. G. Ward.
Minister of Justice and of Mines. — Hon. A. J. Cadman.
Member of Executive Council {without portfolio) representing the Native
Race. — Hon. J. Carroll.
Member of Executive Council (without portfolio). — Hon. W. Montgomery.
Speaker of the House of Representatives. — Hon. Major W. J. Steward.
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of dealing with
questions of native government, were transferred in 1863 from the Imperial
to the Colonial Government. In 1864 the seat of the general Government
was removed from Auckland to Wellington on account of the central position
of the latter city.
Local Government.
New Zealand is divided into counties and boroughs for purposes of local
government. The counties are subdivided into ridings. County councils are
empowered to constitute road districts on petition being made. Besides the
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Auckland
| 25,746
1 133,159
5-17
Taranaki
, 3,308
I 22,065
1 6*70
Wellington
, 11,003
97,725
8*90
Hawke's Bay
i 4,410
28,506
6*44
Marlborough
4,753
1 12,767
2-69
Nelson .
10,269
34,770
3*38
Westland
4,641
; 15,887
i 3-42
Canterbury
, 14,040
128,392
. 915
'ttago .... 25,487
' 158,097
1 6*00
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MOVEMENT OF THE POPULATION
257
In April 1891 the population of the North Island was 281,445 ; of the
South Island, including Stewart's Island, 344,913. In 1876, New Zealand,
previously divided into ten provinces, was divided into counties and boroughs.
The census of 1891 gave the total population as 668,651, including 41,993
Maoris. The total included 4,444 Chinese, of whom only 18 were females.
Of the Maoris, 22,861 were males, and 19,132 females. The total num-
ber includes 2,760 half-castes, living as members of Maori tribes, and 251
Maori wives of European husbands. In 1857 the number of Maoris was
estimated at 56,049, but this statement is not closely reliable.
Of the total population, excluding Maoris, in 1891, 605,196 persons, or
96*72 per cent, were British-born subjects. Of these, 366,716, or 58*61 per
cent., were born in New Zealand, and 218,834, or 34*97 per cent., born in the
United Kingdom (117,070 in England, 2,214 in Wales, 51,916 in Scotland,
and 47,634 in Ireland).
The foreign subjects numbered 14,594, or 2*33 per cent, of the population.
Excluding the Chinese, 67*62 per cent, of the population was found to
be unmarried ; 29*18 per cent, married ; and 3*20 widowers or widows.
Of the population, enumerated in April 1891, 352,097 lived in the rural dis-
tricts ; 270,343 or 43*14 per cent., lived in boroughs; 913 lived on adja-
cent islands, and 3,305 were on board ship.
Of the total population in 1891, 59*67 per cent, were returned as depen-
dents ; 14*45 per cent, as agricultural, pastoral, mineral, and other primary
producers; 11*25 per cent, industrial; 6*89 per cent, commercial; 3*98 per
cent, domestic ; 2 *52 per cent, professional ; and 1 *24 per cent, indefinite.
At the census of 1891 there were four towns with over 10,000 inhabit-
ants in New Zealand — namely, Auckland, 28,613, or with suburbs, 51,127 ;
Wellington (the seat of Government), 31,021, or with suburbs, 33,224 ;
Christchurch, 16,223, or with suburbs, 47,846 ; and Dunedin, 22,376, or with
suburbs, 45,865 inhabitants.
The estimated population of the colony, excluding 41,993 Maoris, was on
December 31, 1892, 650,433 persons (345,146 males and 305,287 females).
Movement op the Population.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Years
"1888"
1889
1890
1891
1892
Total
Births
Illegitimate
Births
Deaths
Marriages
18,902
18,457
18,278
18,273
17,876
577
612
603
638
593
5,708
5,772
5,994
6,518
6,459
3,617
3,632
3,797
3,805
4,002
of
Births over
Deaths
13,194
12,685
12,284
11,755
11,417
The birth rate for the year 1892 was 27 '83 per 1,000 persons living ; the
death rate was 10*06 per 1,000 ; and the marriage rate, 6*23.
Immigration and Emigration.
Years
Immigrants
Emigrants
Excess of Immigration
over Emigration
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
13,606
15,392
15,028
14,431
18,122
22,781
15,178
16,810
17,629
13,164
-9,17s1
214
-1,782 1
-3,19s1
4,958
1 Decrease, excess of emigration.
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258
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
Religion.
There is no State Church, and no State aid is given to any form of
religion. When the settlements of Canterbury and Otago were originally
founded, the bodies in connection with the Church of England and the Free
Church of Scotland respectively obtained endowments from the Societies by
which the settlements were organised, which they still retain. For purposes
of the Church of England the colony is divided into six dioceses — Auckland,
Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Bishop of
Wellington is now the Primate. The Roman Catholic Church has four
dioceses. The Archbishop resides at Wellington. The list of officiating
clergy under the Marriage Act shows the numbers given below. The
churches and chapels are given from the census of 1891 : —
Denomination
Number
of
clergy
Number
of
churches
and
chapels,
Ac.
Denomination
Number
of
clergy
Number
of
churches
and
chapels,
Ac.
Church of England
Presbyterian
Roman Catholic .
Methodist bodies .
Congregational .
274
179
132
160
18
414
370
193
376
30
Baptist .
Other Christian
bodies.
Hebrew .
18
31
7
35
175
5
According to the census of 1891, 40*51 per cent, of the population (ex-
clusive of Maoris) belonged to the Church of England, 22 62 were Presby-
terians, 10*14 percent. Methodists, other Protestant sects represented being
Baptists, Independents, Lutherans, Friends, and Unitarians. The total
Protestants numbered 485,972, and Roman Catholics, 85,856, or 1373 per
cent, of the population. There were 1,463 Jews, 3,928 Pagans, and 15,342
objected to state their religion.
Instruction.
The University of New Zealand is solely an examining body, and grants
degrees by. virtue of a royal charter. It receives an annual grant of 3, 000 J.
It awards scholarships to be held by students at affiliated colleges. The num-
ber of graduates admitted after examination is 373. There are three affiliated
colleges — the Otago University at Dunedin, with 9 professors and 16 lecturers ;
the Canterbury College at Christchurch, with 5 professors and 4 lecturers ;
and the Auckland University College, with 4 professors and 1 lecturer. They
are all endowed with lands. Total students (1892) 695, of whom 419 were
matriculated.
At the end of 1892 there were in operation 24 incorporated or endowed
secondary schools, with 166 teachers and 2,262 pupils. Five endowed
schools were not in operation. The income of all the schools for 1891 was about
53, 0002. , of which 25, 8682. was from endowments, and 20, 766Z. from fees. The
colonial primary school system is administered by an Education Department,
under a Minister, 13 Education Boards, and 1,092 School Committees. There
are 1,302 public primary schools, with 3,180 teachers, and 122,620 scholars
on the rolls; average attendance, 99,070. School age is from 5 to 15.
Education is compulsory betwoon the ages of 7 and 13 in those districts in
Digitized by VjOOQIC
JUSTICE AND CRIME — PAUPERISM
259
which the school committees bring the compulsory clauses of the Act into
operation. The instruction given at the public schools is secular only, and for
the ordinary standard course entirely free. Where there are no secondary
schools classes may be formed in the public school for extra subjects, for which
fees are charged. The system is maintained by a statutory allowance of
SI. 15s. per annum to the boards for each average attendance ; by special
votes of about 10,800£. per annum for inspection and scholarships ; and by
further special votes for school buildings, of which the amounts vary according
to circumstances.
There are 67 native village schools, with 88 teachers, 2,213 scholars on the
rolls, and average attendance of 1,634 ; and 4 boarding schools for native
children, at which 65 Government scholars are under instruction. Total net
expenditure by Government on native schools in 1892 was 14,220Z.
Total Government expenditure in 1892-93 upon education of all kinds
415,5502., including 10,133Z. for industrial schools.
There are 272 private schools, 678 teachers, and 14,208 scholars.
There is a medical school, and a school of mines ; a school of agriculture,
2 normal schools, 3 schools of art.
In 1891 there were 298 public libraries, mechanics' institutes, and other
literary and scientific institutions, with 14,489 members, 330,770 volumes.
There are now (1893) 53 daily papers, 15 tri-weekly, 26 bi-weekly, 59 weekly,
and 22 monthly.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is in the hands of five supreme court judges,
five judges of district courts, and twenty-nine resident magistrates, who
hold courts at one hundred and fifty-four places. There are numerous
justices of the peace.
The convictions for the last five years in the superior and inferior courts
(for 1892 approximately) were : —
—
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Europeans summarily con-
victed ....
Europeans convicted be-
fore supreme or district
courts ....
14,259
255
13,861
224
13,885
192
J.3,051
214
13,000
184
There are 10 principal gaols and 31 minor gaols. At the end of 1892
these gaols contained 447 prisoners. The police force consists of 483 officers
and men.
Pauperism.
The Government does not deal directly with pauperism. The colony is
divided into hospital and charitable aid districts. The boards rate the local
bodies within their boundaries, and receive Government subsidy equal to
what is raised. There are, besides, what are called 'separate institutions,' or
' incorporated hospitals and benevolent societies,' which receive from Govern-
ment 24*. a pound on private subscriptions. The total sum paid in 1892 out
of the Consolidated Fund was 65,941Z.
At the end of 1892 the number of indoor pauper cases was 680.
s 2
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260
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
1,489 children (819 boys and 670 girls) were wholly or in part maintained
by the Government in industrial schools and other institutions, or were
boai'ded out.
Finance.
The ordinary and territorial revenue and expenditure for five
calendar years are given below. The figures exclude all advances,
refunds, and cross entries of all kinds.
Revenue.
Years
ended
31st
Dec
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Ordinary Revenue
From Taxation
Direct . Indirect
£ I £
819,792 1,440,991
557,137 1,528,856
579,262 1,593,903
572,754, 1,609,775
676,369| 1,716,427
Total!
Railways
£ I £
2,260, 7831J 1,019,791
2,085,9931| 1,018,212
2,173,1651 1,143,989
2,182,5291] 1,114,055
2,392,796 1,154,592
Postal*
and
Tele-
graph
£
318.558
329,440
340,563
363,029
Other
Sources
Total
Ordinary
£
180,449
202,123
186,145
144 694
192^410 I 4,039,401
£
3,779,581
3,635,768,
3,843,862
3,804,807!
Terri- '
torial I Total
Reve- J Revenue
nue ,
I
£
330,234
356,151
364,166
341,924
349,850
£
4,109,81.*.
3,991,919
4,208,028
4,146,231
4,389,251
1 The amounts stated above as the revenue received from taxation sources do not repre-
sent the true taxation for each year, on account of the property tax being collected in the
latter part of any one year and the beginning of the next. The true taxation per head of
population -was 31. 5«. 9<2. in 1884, 32. 9s. lid. in 1890, and 32. \'1». 10<2. in 1892.
2 Not including revenue from telephone. The amount was 18,5822. in 1889-90, 19,2522.
in 1890-91, and 19,1552. in 1892-93.
Expenditure.
k
Years
ended
31st
Dec.
Charges
of the
Public
Debt
Rail-
ways
Public
Instruc-
tion
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
1,569,5571
1,616,5011
1,640,2801
1,597,3621
1,601,700'
_
£
675,895
626,939
725,932
727,609
690,627
£
377,234
377,716
397,885
441,269
408,208
Postal
and
Tele-
graphs
£
252,832
273,754
257,684
253,080
283,693
Consta-
bulary,
Militia,
and
Volun-
teers
188,358
157,119
168,492
180,913
164,371
Other
Ordi-
Total
Terri-
Ordinary
torial
Expen-
diture
Expendi-
ture
Expen-
diture
£
£
£
671,317
8,735,193
227,719
702,262
3,754,291
227,480
680,157
3,869,839
211,726
710,648
3,910,881
224,662
672,157
3,820,762
223,928
Total
Expen-
diture
8,981,721'
3,962,912'
4,081,565
4,135,543
4,044,690
1 The charges of the sinking fund met by debentures issued under the Consolidation
Stock Act, 1884, are not included. The amount of debentures issued was, in 1888, 268,2001. ;
in 1889, 275,2002.; in 1890, 288,0002. ; in 1S91, 282,3002. ; and in 1892, 280,3002.
The expenditure out of loan money for the same periods was
as follows (advances to or refunds from the Consolidated Fund
have been omitted, and the expenditure given is that on services
only) : —
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EXPENDITURE
261
Years ended
December 31
On Construction
of Railways
On Roads
Other Services *
Total Expenditure
out of Loans
£
£
£
£
1888
284,392
151,109
199,747
635,248
1889
244,906
92,333
116,051
453,290
1890
187,229
71,371
87,207
345,807
1891
143,957
95,079
107,288
346,324
1892
179,273
102,090
127,073
408,436
i Excluding moneys lent to local bodies and repayable by instalments — viz. 85,2061. in
1888, 58,4261. in 1889, 53,0101. in 1890, 172,024L in 1891, and 80,345*. in 1892.
The direct taxation prior to 1892 consisted of a property tax of one penny in
the ponnd on all assessed real and personal property, with exemption of 5002. ,
and the stamp duties ; but in 1891 a land and income assessment act was passed
repealing the property tax. This act provides for an ordinary land tax on
the actual value of land, certain deductions and exemptions being allowed
on account of improvements and mortgages. Mortgages are subject to the
tax. The rate for 1892-93 was Id. in the pound, yielding a revenue of about
300,000/. In addition to the ordinary land-tax there is a graduated tax on
land, rising from one-eighth of a penny in the pound on values from 5,0002.
to 10, 000 J., up to one penny and six-eighths in the pound on values of
210,0002. and upwards. The indirect taxation is by way of customs duty and
excise duty on beer made in the colony. The average per head of taxation in
1892 was 3/. 12*. 10d., excluding Maoris.
For the year ended March 31, 1893, the total ordinary revenue, exclusive
of receipts from sales of lands, was 4,219,5362., of which the customs duties
constituted 1,642,5902. ; stamps, with post and telegraph cash receipts,
658,4242. ; land tax, 297,1812. ; income tax, 67,3682. ; property tax, 17,1262. ;
and railways, 1,174,0992. The revenue together with the proceeds of
debentures issued under 'The Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,' for the accre-
tions of sinking fund for the year (280, 3002. ) amounted to 4, 499, 8362. At the
beginning of the year a surplus was shown of 165,5712., making a total of
4,665,4072. available for expenditure during the year.
The total ordinary expenditure was 4,153,1252., in addition to which,
200,0002. was paid to the Public Works Fund for carrying on public works
out of revenue instead of out of borrowed money, and 28,5022. was transferred
to the Land Fund to balance the deficiency in that account. There \i as thus
a surplus of 283, 7802. on March 31, 1893. The chief items of expenditure
were : interest and sinking fund, 1,821,1292.; railways, 729,2772.; education,
377,9412.; postal and telegraph, 277,2242.; defence and constabulary, 173,2202.
The receipts from land sales amounted to 110,3552.
The estimated expenditure out of ordinary revenue for 1893-94 amounts
to 4,409,3712., and the revenue, including the surplus of 283,7802. brought
forward, to 4,823,4802., leaving an anticipated surplus of 414,1092.
The total expenditure in public works from 1870 to March 31, 1893, was
27,736,1532., including discount and charges for raising loans.
The public debt for five calendar years is shown in the following table : —
| Years
Debentures
and Stock
Sinking
Fund
Net debt
Net debt
per head.
Interest
Sinking
Fund
Total
Charge
' 1888
. 1889
1890
1891
■ 1892
£
38,325,550
38,483,250
38,802,350
38,844,914
39,192,519
£
1,363,779
1,320,369
1,407,604
972,584
1,037,557
£
36,971,771
37,162,891
37,394,746
37,872,330
38,154,962
£ «. d.
60 17 6
59 18 3
69 15 4
59 14 7
58 13 3
£
1,750,571
1,772,596
1,769,051
1,744,730
1,734,185
£
117,540
117,540
117,540
108,535
108,469
£
1,868,111
1,890,116
1,886,691
1,853,265
1,842,654
On March 81, 1893, the net indebtedness was 38,144,070?., or an average of 581. 2*. 7d.
per head of population.
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262
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
By the provisions of ' The Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,' the Government
is empowered to issue debentures in every year equivalent to the annual
increase of the sinking fund, the proceeds to be paid to the consolidated
revenue. By the conversion of some of the loans into consolidated stock,
the sinking funds relating to such converted loans have been set free.
i
Local Finance.
For the purposes of local government the colony is divided into 93
boroughs and 78 counties, the latter being subdivided into 254 road districts
and 41 town districts.
The following table shows receipts from rates and from Government and all
other sources (including loans), and the expenditure and outstanding loans,
of the local governing bodies (counties, boroughs, town, road, river, drainage,
and harbour boards), for five years ended March 31 : —
Year
Receipts
Expenditure
Outstanding
Loans
From Rates
From other Sources
£
&
£
£
1888
433,831
1,306,661
1,819,787
5,812,803
1889
445,928
992,567
1,560,604
5,892,050
1890
460,303
914,413
1,476,540
5,978,059
1891
463,581
899,666
1,381,319
6,042,693
1892
488,824
907,420
1,400,467
6,081,934
According to the results of the assessment made as on November 1, 1891,
the total improved value of land in the colony, whether occupied or not,
whether belonging to persons, companies, local bodies, natives, or the Crown,
was: counties, 85,818,167Z. ; boroughs, 36,406,862Z. ; total, 122,225,0292.
The value of the improvements was : in counties, 27,922,735Z. ; in boroughs,
18,442,526/. ; total, 46,365,297/.
Defence.
The first consideration has been to provide sufficient means of protection
for the principal ports of the colony. The approaches thereto are defended
by batteries of heavy ordnance, supplemented by torpedo-boats and submarine
mines.
The Volunteer force has a strength of 8,520 of all ranks. There is be-
sides a permanent militia, consisting of an artillery branch of 134 officers and
men. Torpedo branch 66. The police force numbers 483. All males from
17 to 55 years of age are liable to serve in the Militia. It was found by the
census that in 1891 there were 164,777 persons at ages liable to be called
upon for this service.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
It is estimated that two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable
for agriculture and grazing. Of the total area, sixty-seven millions of acres,
nine millions are barren mountain tops, lakes, and worthless country. The
total acreage under crop (including 8,262,045 acres in sown grasses and
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
263
154,254 acres broken up but not under crop) in 1893 was 9,713,745 acres.
Of thirty-four millions of acres of Crown lands remaining for disposal, fifteen
millions are open grass or fern country and ten millions forest.
The rural lands of the colony can be bought from the Crown for cash.
They can also be held on deferred payment or perpetual leases (with re-
striction of area) or in some parts on pastoral leases. The largest freehold
estates are held in the Middle Island. The total extent of occupied holdings
over one acre in 1891 was 31,867,505 acres, of which 12,410,242 acres were
freehold of the occupier, 6,987,287 leased from private individuals or cor-
porations, and 12,469,976 acres rented from the Crown for pastoral purposes.
The following table shows the number of holdings of various sizes, and num-
ber of acres hold in freehold and leasehold, exclusive of Crown lands held for
pastoral purposes in 1891 : —
Number
Acreage
Sizes of Holdings
of
Holdings
Freehold
Lease-
hold, &cJ
Total
Over . . 1 to . 10 acres inclusive
11,116
28,124
24,343
62,467
. 10 „ . 50 „
8,899
148,965
105,751
254,716
ii
. 50 „ . 100 „
5,613
277,185
158,128
435,263
»f
. 100 „ . 200 „
6,851
654,729
374,022
1,028,751
„
. 200 „ . 320 „
3,916
609,857
408,462
1,013,819
»»
. 320 „ . 640 „
3,802
1,057,676
660,070
1,717,746
>>
. 640 „ 1,000 „
1,821
662,612
895,849
1,058,461
,,
1,000 „ 5,000 „
1,675
2,144,627
1,280,558
3,425,185
5,000 „ 10,000 „
247
1,208,819
559,980
1,768,799
10,000 „ 20,000 „
189
1,911,063
788,341
2,699,404
i«
20,000 „ 50,000 „
117
2,507,848
838,083
8,340,931
50,000 „ 100,000
24
801,647
723,000
1,524,647
Upwards of 100,000 acres
7
397,140
680,700
1,077,840
Total
43,777
12,410,242
6,987,287
19,397,529
i Leased by occupiers from others than the Crown.
At the census of 1891 there were in New Zealand 68,607 persons engaged
in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, of whom 25,826 were farmers, 14,286
relatives assisting on farms, 13,749 farm labourers, 1,426 runholders, and 6,427
station hands. ,
The acreage and produce for each of the principal crops are given as
follows : —
Wheat
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
362,158
835,861
301,460
402,273
381,245
§1
8,770
8,448
5,724
10258
8,378
5*
2422
25*15
18-99
25-50
21-98
Oats
367,225
426,071
346,224
323,508
826,531
10,977
13,673
9,947
11,009
29-89
32-10
28-73
34-03
3030
Barley
45,027
42,402
32,740
24,268
24,906
1,402
1,842
758
31-15
81-67
23-18
28-88
26'27
Hay
50,656
45,889
44,045
46,652
61,811
71,296
65,476
62,901
67,861
93,293
>3
!
1-41 I
1-43
1-43 |
1-44 i
1-51 !
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• j
264
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
The production of butter for the year 1890 amounted to 16,310,012 lbs.,
and of cheese to 9,975,698 lbs.
The live stock of the colony consisted in April, 1891, of 211,040 horses,
831,831 cattle, 18,227,186 sheep, 308,812 pigs, and 1,790,070 head of poultry.
The greatest increase of live stock in recent years has been in sheep. They
numbered in 1858, 1,523,324 ; 1864, 4,937,273 ; 1874,11,704,853 ; 1886,
16,580,388 ; and in 1891, 18,227,186.
The following table shows the statistics of the leading manufactories and
works in the colony : —
!
1 Years
Number of
factories
Hands employed
Estimated Capital
Estimated Produce
1890
1885
1881
1878
2,570
2,268
1,643
1,271
29,880
25,655
17,938
14,177
£
5,826,976
5,697,117
3,605,471
8,051,072
£
9,422,146
7,436,649
Not obtained
Not obtained
The largest items in the estimated value of manufactures and produce in
1890 were: meat freezing and preserving, 1,464,6592.; tanning, wool scour-
ing, &c, 1,026,349/.; grain mills, 991,8122.; saw mills, 832,9592.; boot
factories, 403,7362.; iron and brass works, 403,6352.
II. Mines and Minerals.
The following table shows the quantity and value of minerals
produced for ten years ending December 31, 1892.
i
Silve
ntimony
Ore
Manganc
Ore
-
Kauri Gum
Gold
<S
C|
<*
}H
i
)
3
08
t
00
1
.5
o
S3
•a
i
4
£
O
a
3
Jl
>
>
1,1
32
6,518
33
)6
248,374
>
1883
|16,826
l
804 384
993,352
1884
24,914
b
—
—
318
i
16
6,393
34
>1
229,946
921,797
1885
16,624
3
J6
5,289
602
1/
31
5,876
29
ro
237,871
948,615
1886
12,108
2
J2
1,784
328
1,J
76
4,920
25
>3
227,079
903,569
1887
20,809
3
14
3,999
305
I
L0
6,791
36
L9
203,869
811,100
1888
403
ro
6,246 1,085
2,4
17
8,482
38
13
201,219
801,066
1889
24,105
4
m
5,319! 1,080
2,1
22
7,519
32
>0
203,211
808,549
1890
32,687
6
L5
11,121 482
1,<
36
7,438
87
(3
193,193
773,438
1S91
28,023
5
L3
4,950 1,153
2,<
38
8,388
43
►6
251,996
1,007,488
1892
22,053
3
'A
4,900( 521
1,5
27
8,705
51
'8
288,079
954,744
Commerce.
Only a small proportion of the imports are admitted duty
free. Nearly all classes of imports are taxed. Luxuries, such as
spirits, wine, and tobacco, are highly rated. For a very large
number of dutiable articles (including clothing) other than these
the rates of duty are 25, 20, and 15 per cent, ad valorem.
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COMMERCE
265
The value of the trade is shown in the accompanying table : —
Years
Total Imports
Exports of Colonial
Produce
Exports of other
Produce
Total Exports
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
5,941,900
6,308,863
6,260,525
6,503,849
6,943,056
£
7,255,128
9,042,008
9,428,761
9,400,094
9,365,868
£
512,197
299,856
382,959
166,303
168,983
£
7,767,325
9,341,864
9,811,720
9,566,397
9,534,851
The values of the principal imports and exports in 1892 are shown in the
following table : —
Articles of Import
Value
Articles of Export
Value
Clothing, and materials
£
; Colonial produce :
£
for .
1,871,843
1 Wool .
4,313,307
Iron and steel goods,
1 Gold
951,963
machinery, &c.
1,000,915
Grain, pulse, flour ,
860,151
Sugar.
408,400
Frozen meat .
1,033,377
Tea ...
139,876
Kauri gum
517,678
Spirits, wines, and beer
269,993
Tallow .
165,513
Tobacco and cigars
121,664
Timber .
87,581
Paper, printed books,
Hides, skins, leather
371,297
and stationery
306,179
Live stock
20,575
Coal .
116,553
Butter and cheese .
318,204
Bags and sacks .
69,465
Bacon and hams
16,088
Fruit ....
121,368
Preserved meats
69,420
Oils ... .
119,533
Grass seed
59,110
Fancy goods
78,825
Other articles .
581,604
Other imports, exclud-
British and foreign
ing specie
2,117,930
produce
125,052
Specie
Total .
200,512
Specie
Total
43,931
6,943,056
9,534,851 J
The expansion of the export trade in wool, grain, frozen meat, kauri gum,
and timber, in the last four decennial periods, as shown in the following
table : —
Years
Wool
Grain
Frozen Meat
Kauri
Gum
Timber,
Sawn & Hewn
1862
1872
1882
1892
Lbs.
9,839,265
41,886,997
65,322,707
118,180,912
Bushels
6,602
1,058,480
4,310,984
6,625,525
Cwts.
15,244
869,600
Tons
1,103
4,811
5,533
8,705
Feet
745,750 1
4,568,435
16,486,901
22,860,551
[i And 2,402 loads.
In 1857 the export of gold was 10,436 oz., valued at 40,442/. It rose
to 628,450 oz., value 2,431,723/., in 1863. In 1882 the export was
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266
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
230,893 oz., value 921,664Z. ; and in 1892 237,393 oz., value 951,963?.
The total value of gold entered for export from the colony to December
31, 1892, was 48,387,861/. Most of the mining is done on Government
land.
The following table shows the value of trade with the leading countries
for four years : —
Countries
Imports from
Exports to
1889
1890
1891
1892
1889
1890
1891
1892
I
United- Kingdom
Australian
Colonies
Pacific Islands .
India and Ceylon
China ....
Mauritius . .
United States .
Other places .
£
4,138,077
1,107,132
153,344
204,373
111,621
129,943
842,436
121,937
£
4,221,270
1,087,593
176,509
132,847
59,421
91,520
355,395
135,970
£
4,369,633
1,013,549
246,354
275,250
40,718
70,650
361,795
125,900
£
4,767,369
1,112,099
210,506
171,716
51,866
55,031
381,627
192,842
£
6,559,682
2,145,671
144,564
12,973
19,907
254
341,862
74,852
£
7,401,350
1,634,248
143,767
4,542
16,837
1,346
583,134
26,496
£
7,140,831
1,705,561
148,410
2,551
7,972
4
515,208
45,860
. 1
7,483,61S
1,367,314!
140,7£»'
4,2711
4,1(*.
si;
520,797,
13,982
Totals
6,308,863
6,260,525
6,503,849
6,943,056
9,399,265
9,811,720
9,566,397
9, 534,851 1
1
The value of the total trade (imports and exports) for five years at each of
the principal ports is given as follows : —
Years
Auckland
Wellington
Lyttelton
Dunedin
£
£
£
£
1888
2,337,622
2,256,691
3,280,922
2,607,017
1889
2,405,218
2,548,902
3,289,881
2,967,089
1890
2,623,559
2,739,567
3,425,782
2,779,640
1891
2,813,357
2,603,821
2,854,152
2,810,418
1892
2,857,564
2,844,068
3,069,336
2,771,216
The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the United Kingdom
i.* shown in the following table, according to the Board of Trade Returns, for
five years : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into
U-. K. from
N. Z. .
Imports of
British pro-
duce to N. Z.
£
5,920,774
2,992,006
£
6,752,260
3,194,587
£
8,347,430
3,314,482
£
8,192,594
3,369,177
£ 1
7,751,741
3,450,537
The principal imports into the United Kingdom from New Zealand in
1892 were: wheat 382,810/., fresh mutton 1,567,246/., wool 4,026,577/.,
gum 178,845/., hemp 87,620/. ; the chief exports from the United Kingdom
to New Zealand were apparel and haberdashery 451,947/., cottons 454,792/..
iron (wrought and unwrought) 412,394/., woollens 286,495/.
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
267
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1893 the registered vessels of the colony engaged in both foreign
and coasting trade were 314 sailing vessels of 35,234 tons, and 179 steamers
of 39,347 tons ; total 493 vessels of 74,581 tons.
The following statistics show the shipping inwards and outwards for five
years : —
Years
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwards
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
No.
570
627
574
630
595
Tons
456,237
501,004
503,036
526,654
584,342
No.
683
781
744
737
686
|Tons
526,435
602,634
662,769
618,515
675,223
No.
687
734
729
715
651
Tons
524,874
577,087
644,032
613,914
629,386
No.
701
762
745
744
689
Tons
531,478
593,252
649,705
625,807
656,100
Of the vessels entered inwards in 1892, 203 of 335,577 tons were British ;
411 of 265,769 tons colonial ; and 72 of 73,877 tons foreign. Of vessels out-
wards, 189 of 315,633 tons were British ; 424 of 263,504 tons colonial, and
76 of 76,963 tons foreign.
For the year 1892, the shipping at five principal ports was as under : —
Port
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwards
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
Auckland .
255
229,138
239
181,349
Wellington
116
156,057
80
117,431
Lyttelton .
61
68,638
81
126,544
Dunedin .
68
78,271
37
48,782
Bluff Harbour .
90
92,930
98
107,542
Internal Communications.
Bailways.
On March 31, 1893, there were 716 miles of Government railways open
for traffic in the North Island, and 1,170 in the Middle Island, besides 150
miles of private lines — 2,036 miles in all. For that year the revenue from
Government railways was 1,181,5212., and the expenditure 732,1412., surplus
449,3802., the expenditure being 61*97 per cent, of revenue. The total ex-
penditure on construction of all the Government lines open, and unopen,
to March 31, 1892, had amounted to 15,497,783*. In 1892-93 the ton-
nage of goods carried amounted to 2,258,238, and the passengers numbered
3,759,044.
The private line of the "Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company is
84 miles long. The capital cost of construction and equipment to February
1893 was 766, 598 J. The gross earnings from traffic for the last financial year
were 84,5652., and the working expenses 34,5802.
The Midland Railway Company has 62 miles of line open for traffic. The
total expenditure on this line to June 30, 1892, was 1,023,6692., the revenue
for the year 12,9492., and the expenditure, equivalent to 66*88 per cent, of
the revenue, 8,6602.
All the chief towns of the colony are provided with tramway systems
worked by horses, steam-motors, or cables.
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268
THE BRITISH EMPlfcE : — NEW ZEALAND
Posts and Telegraphs.
In the last five years the Post Office received and despatched the following
correspondence : —
Years
Letters
Post Cards
■SS*4 | »«w»
Money Orders
Nos.
i
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
No.
40,398,020
42,301,233
43,917,200
47,612,864
50,610,742
No.
1,664,097
1,850,160
2,010,499
2,278,929
2,571,036
No.
4,728,308
5,381,493
6,159,130
7,170,761
13,283,387
No.
16,202,849
16,721,016
17,912,734
18,501,912
18,567,565
Iuued
162,387
172,076
176,427
195,239
199,438
Paid 1
144,450 1
150,500 J
151,286 i
160,279 :
160,423
1
The receipts of the Post Office Department, including commission on money
orders, were 214,002/. for the year 1892. The officials numbered 2,299 in the
combined Post and Telegraph Department, the working expenses of which
amounted to 278,3942.
The telegraph system is entirely in the hands of the Government. On
December 31, 1892, the colony had 5,479 miles of line and 13,459 of wire.
In the year 1866 there were 699 miles of line and 1,390 of wire.
The number of telegrams despatched was, in 1892, 1,904,143, of which
1,686,064 were private messages. The total receipts from telegrams and
incidental sources amounted to 103,8132.
The telephone is very generally used, and is in charge of the Telegraph
Department. In March 1892 there were 3,160 miles of wire laid, 3,811
subscribers, and the revenue was 19,1552. per annum.
i
Money and Credit1
There were, in the year 1892, six banks of issue doing business in New
Zealand. Three of these were wholly New Zealand institutions, having a
paid-up capital amounting to 1,550,0002., and reserves amounting to about
163,5402. The total average liabilities for the year of all six banks in respect
of New Zealand transactions were 14,623,3352., and the average assets
17,558,1682. The average amount on deposit was 13,587,0622. The value of
the notes in circulation of these banks was 959,943/.
The post-office and private savings-bank business has been progressive
during the last five years : —
No. of
Years
Savings ,
Banks
1888
295
1889
302
1890
303 !
1891
318 j
1892
327
No. of
Depositors
103,046
110,566
118,344
126,886
135,827
Amounts
Deposited
&
1,974,043
1,883,034
2,047,840
2,241,952
2,255,097
Amounts
Withdrawn
£
1,794,832
1,829,478
1,891,478
2,105,889
2,224,269
Amounts on |
Deposit at End
of Year
£
2,691,693 !
2,858,644
3,137,023
3,406,949
3,580,544
Agent-General in London.— Westley Brook Perceval, K.C.M.G. ; Secretary,
Walter Kennaway, CM. 6.
See also under Finance.
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QUEENSLAND 269
Attached to New Zealand are the following islands :
Chatham Islands, 43° 50' S., 177° W., 600 miles E. of New Zealand. Area
375 square miles ; population (1891) 459 (271 Europeans and 188 Maoris and
Morions) ; 66,000 sheep, 450 cattle.
Auckland Islands, 50° 31' S., 166° 19' E., 200 miles S. of Stewart Island.
Area of largest about 330 square miles. Uninhabited. The New Zealand
Government maintains a depdt of provisions and clothing for the use of
shipwrecked mariners on the largest island of the group.
Kermadec Islands, 36° S., 178° 30' W., 600 miles NNE. of New Zealand.
Area 15 square miles. Population (1892) 8 persons.
Small uninhabited islands are : The Campbell Islands, the Antipodes
Islands, and the Bounty Islands.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register, Blue Book.
Annual Reports on Mining.
Registrar-General's Report on Statistics of New Zealand. 8. Wellington, 1692.
Bradshaw (John), New Zealand of To-day. London, 1888.
Census of New Zealand, taken on the 5th of April, 1891. Pol. Wellington, 1892.
Report on the Results of Census, 1891. 8. Wellington, 1893.
Official Handbook of New Zealand. London. 1883, and Wellington, 1892.
New Zealand Official Year-book, 1893. 8. Wellington, 1892.
Bramall (Bu), The Mineral Resources of New Zealand. London, 1883.
Chalmers (R.), A History of Currency in the British Colonies. London, 1893.
Hay (W. D.), Brighter Britain ; or, Settler and Maori in Northern New Zealand. 2 vols.
London, 1882.
Hoehttetter (Ft. von.), New Zealand : its Physical Geography, Geology, and Natural
History. 2 vols. 4. London, 1868.
Niekole (J. Kerry), The King Country : Explorations in New Zealand. London, 1884.
Rusden (G. W.), The History of New Zealand. London, 1885.
Stout (Hon. Sir Robert), Notes on the Progress of New Zealand, 1864-84. Wellington, 1880
WakeJleld(E.), New Zealand after Fifty Years. 1vol. 1889.
Larnaeh (W. J.), Handbook of New Zealand Mines. 1887.
Griffin (G. W.), New Zealand : Her Commerce and Resources. 1S84.
Gudgeon (T. W.), History and doings of the Maoris. 1885.
Grey (8ir G.), Polynesian Mythology and Maori Legends. 1885.
Thomeon (A 8.), Story of New Zealand. 1859.
QUEENSLAND.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland was
established December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South
Wales. The power of making laws and imposing taxes is vested
in a Parliament of two Houses — the Legislative Council and the
Legislative Assembly. The former consists of 37 members,
nominated by the Crown for life. The Legislative Assembly com-
prises 72 members, returned from 61 electoral districts for three
years, elected by ballot, a six months' residence qualifying every
adult male for the franchise. Members of the Assembly are
entitled to payment of £150 per annum, with travelling ex-
penses. Owners of freehold estate of the clear value of 100Z.,
or of house property of 101. annual value, or leasehold of 101.
annual rent, or holders of pastoral lease or license from the Crown,
have the right of a vote in any district in which such property
may be situated. At the end of 1892 there were 84,632
registered electors.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
Crown.
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270
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
Governor of Queensland. — General Sir Henry Wylie Norman,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G., C.I., &c. ; 1862, Military Secretary to the
Government of India ; 1870, Member of the Viceroy's Council ;
1878, Member of Council of India in London ; 1883-88,
Governor of Jamaica ; appointed Governor of Queensland
December 1888.
The Governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also
bears the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 5,000£ per
annum. In the exercise of the executive authority he is assisted
by an Executive Council of eight ministers, consisting of the
following members : —
Premier, Vice-President of Executive Council, and Colonial Treasurer. —
Hon. Hugh Muir Nelson.
Chief Secretary and Secretary for Railways. — Hon. Sir Thomas
Mcllwraith, K.C.M.G.
Minister for Lands and Agriculture. — Hon. A. H. Barlow.
Postmaster-General and Secretary for Public Instruction. — Hon. W. H.
Wilson.
Secretary for Mines and Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. Robt. Philp.
Colonial Secretary. — Hon. H. Tozer.
Attorney-General. — Hon. T. J. Byrne.
Without Portfolio. — Hon. A. J. Thynne.
Each of the ministers who holds a portfolio has a salary of 1,000Z. per
annum. The Vice-President of the Executive Council receives 300Z. per an-
num in addition. They are jointly and individually responsible for their acts.
Queensland is divided into 36 municipalities and 117 divisions. The muni-
cipalities (often of considerable area) have local government somewhat similar to
that which prevails in England. The most populous municipality is Brisbane.
Area and Population.
Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern portion of the
Australian continent, including the adjacent islands in the
Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The territory is
of an estimated area of 668,497 English square miles, with a
seaboard of 2,250 miles. The colony formed, under the name of
Moreton Bay, a part of New South Wales until it was erected
into a separate colony, with the name of Queensland, by an order
of Her Majesty in Council, which took effect on December 10,
1859, upon the arrival of the first Governor, Sir G. Bowen.
The first settlement of the Colony was by convicts sent from Great Britain,
the earliest of them arriving in 1825. In 1842 the country was thrown open
to free settlers. The growth of the population has been as follows : —
Years
1846
1856
1861
1871
Population
Increase per
cent, per annum
j Years
Population
Increase per i
cent, per annum
2,257
18,544
34,367
125,146
72-16
17*06
26*41
j 1881 213,525
1886 , 322,853
j 1891 j 393,718
7*06
10 23
4 39
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Lutheran, 23,383 ; Baptist, 10,256 ; other Christian sects, 28,841 ; Jews, 809 ;
Mohammedan and Pagans, 17,434; no religion, 5,329; other religion, un-
specified, &c, 5,890.
Instruction.
Education is by statute compulsory, but no steps have been taken to
enforce the law. There were ten grammar or middle-class schools, with 57
teachers and 793 pupils, in 1892. These receive Government grants under
certain conditions. In 1892 there were 657 public elementary schools, with
1,498 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 45,975 pupils. There were
besides 135 private schools, with 444 teachers, and an average daily attend-
ance of 7,993 in 1892. Education in the State schools is free, the expenditure
of the Department of Public Instruction for the year 1892 being 251,683£. At
the census of 1891, 102,127 persons could neither read nor write, and 14,529
could read only, consisting mostly of infants and aliens.
Justice and Grime.
Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, district Courts, and police
magistrates assisted by Justices of the Peace. The total number of persons
convicted of serious offences in 1892 was 203. There were, including the penal
establishment at St. Helena, 17 gaols, with 527 male and 65 female prisoners
on December 31, 1892. The total police force, including native troopers,
averages about 900 men.
Pauperism.
There are many charitable institutions in the colony, partly supported by
Government. There is a department of outdoor relief in Brisbane, which
assisted 45,254 persons in 1892 with an expenditure of 8,116Z.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of
Queensland during each of the last five years ending June 30 : —
Revenue
1888-89
1889-90
3,614,652
3,497,806
&
3,211,795
3,695,775
1890-91
£
3,350,223
3,684,655
1891-92
£
3,473,716.
3,625,281
1892-93
3,445,943 ;
3,557,620 '
I
The following were the chief sources from which revenue was
received during 1892-93 : — Customs, 1,103,680/. ; excise and
export, 38,879/. ; stamp duty, 118,675/. ; licenses, 55,632/. ;
dividend duty, 69,938/. From land — Rent, pastoral occupations,
335,854/. ; other rents and sale of land, 329,854/. (including
149,065/. under Special Sales of Land Act of 1891). From
railways, 998,059/. From posts and telegraphs, 209,932/.
The chief items of expenditure during 1892-93 were as
under : — Interest on public debt, 1,229,839/. ; endowments to
municipalities and divisional boards, 112,730/.; public instruc-
tion, 246,322/. ; colonial treasurer's department, 151,928/. ;
secretary of public lands department, 122,609/. ; cost of working
railways, 632,889/. ; posts and telegraphs department, 318,513/.
The total expenditure from loans mostly on public works was
326,272/., of which the following are the principal items : — On
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 273 \
>•
electric telegraphs, 3,135J. ; on railways, 154,475£.,; on harbours
and rivers, 27,1 20J.; defence, 22,444£ ; water supply, 8,7602. ;
loans to local bodies, 62,5072. ; public works' building, 42,9842.
The estimated revenue for 1893-94 is 3,375,500Z., and the estimated expen- ,;f .
diture 3, 378, 690 J. The estimated value of the landed property of the colony |
in 1892, as taken for purposes of assessment under the several Acts for
providing Local Government, was 45,089,5472. This includes lands leased
from the Crown for pastoral purposes, the lessees* interest in which has been
capitalised for assessment purposes at 6,586,014Z., but not unoccupied Crown i
lands, nor lands the property of local bodies, churches, or reserves for public H
purposes.
The public debt of the colony amounted, on December 31, 1892, to the ■
sum of 29,457,1342. ;
Defence. -
The defence of the colony was provided for by an Act passed in 1884, by <
which, in addition to fully paid militia and volunteer corps to be maintained ;
and assisted by the Government, every man (with a very few exceptions)
between the ages of 18 and 60 is liable for military service under this Act. ■, ,
The Government have organised a drilled force of 4,646 men, about 140 of ; J
whom are fully paid regulars ; some 3,000 militia, paid for each day's drill ; . i
the rest volunteers, assisted with uniform, &c. Naval defences are pro-
vided for with two gunboats, a torpedo boat, and a picket-boat and six corps
of naval reserve and naval artillery. In addition, some of the tugs built for
the harbour service are fitted with a bow gun for service if required. Queens-
land contributes to the payment made by the Australian colonies to the Im-
perial Government for the maintenance of the auxiliary cruisers and gunboats.
(See post under 'Australian Defence. ') The Queensland Government gun-vessels •'
are the Oayundak and Paluma (450 tons), sister vessels, launched in 1884, •
and the Otter, Bonito and Stingaree, ranging between 290 and 450 tons. ,
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of the colony, 11,033,387 acres have been alienated : in
process of alienation, under deferred payment system, are 2,470,750, leaving
414,333,943 unalienated ; or but little more than 2 per cent., have been alien-
ated by the Government up to December 31, 1892, yielding a return of
6,967,0102. Under a Land Act passed in 1884, a maximum of 1,280 acres of
agricultural land can- be selected on a lease for 50 years, and a maximum of
20,000 acres of pastoral land for 30 years. The agricultural land can after-
wards be secured in fee simple under certain conditions and in return for certain
payments. In both cases there are numerous conditions and restrictions con-
tained in the Act, and in the rules framed in accordance with its provisions.
About one-half the area of the colony is natural forest, though little has '
been done hitherto to develop the forestry of the colony. A large proportion
of the area is leased in squatting runs for pastoral purposes, amounting to "|
277,298,853 acres in 1892; the number of runs was 4,222. The live stock in 1892
numbered 422,769 horses, 6,591,416 cattle, 21,708,310 sheep, and 116,930 pigs. ;
The total area under cultivation in 1892 was 260,828 acres, and of this 247,731
acres were under crop, besides which 28,919 acres have been laid down with 1 1
permanent artificial pasture. The leading grain crop is maize, of which !;
92,172 acres yielded 2,333,553 bushels in 1892. The growth of sugar-cane has j
in recent years been successful, though the want of labour hinders its develop-
ment : in 1892 there were 55,520 acres under this crop ; of this the produce of ]
40,572 acres yielded 61,368 tons of sugar.
T ♦
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274
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
There are several coal mines in the colony, the produce of which amounted
to 265,086 tons in 1892, valued at 123,3082. Gold-fields were discovered so
long ago as 1858, the produce of which for the year 1883 amounted to 212, 7S3
ounces, 307,804 for 1884, 310,941 for 1885, 340,998 for 1886, 425,923 for 1887,
481,643 for 1888, 739,103 for 1889, 610,587 for 1890, 576,439 for 1891,
615,558 for 1892, making a total of 8,630,472 ounces to the end of the
latter year, which at 3/. 10*. per oz. = 30,206,652/. Tin, copper, and lead
are also mined to some extent, the quantity and value of these minerals
raised in the year 1892 being —
Tin . . .
2,389 tons .
123,098/.
Copper
81 „ .
2,461/.
Silver and lead .
224,810 oz.
36,436/.
Bismuth
130 tons .
16,0007.
Antimony .
26 „ .
278*.
Opal .
10,0007.
Gems
—
4,437/.
Commerce.
A very large number of articles are subject to tariffs ; the
total customs duties collected in 1892 amounted to 1,121,206/.,
being over 25 per cent, of the total value of imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the
last five years, is given in the following table : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
1888
1889
1890
6,646,738
6,052,562
5,066,700
£
6,126,362
7,736,309
8,554,512
Tears
Imports
1891
1892
5,079,004
4,382,657
Exports
8,305,387
9,170,408
The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the other Austra-
lasian colonies, and, next to them, with the United Kingdom. The leading
exports were gold, 2,072,870/. ; wool, 426,247/. ; sugar, 589,753/. ; hides and
skins, 252,330/. ; tin, 155,204/. ; silver, 86,770/.; tallow, 250,308/.; pearl
shell, 106,841/.; meat, preserved and salted, 99,861/. jmeat, frozen, 276,113/.;
meat extract, 20,308/. in 1892.
The chief imports were textiles and apparel, 968,071/. ; metals and metal
goods, 573,111/. ; liquors, 258,178/. ; provisions, 961,962/. in 1892.
The following table gives, according to the Board of Trade returns, the
value of the imports (exclusive of gold) into Great Britain from Queensland,
and of the exports of domestic produce and manufactures from Great Britain
to Queensland, for five years : —
i
£
Imports from
Queensland 1,698,026
Exports of
British pro- i
duce . . I 2,745,264
1888
1891
1892
1,889,217
2,362,408
I
2,417,937 | 2,734,886 3,251,531
i i
2,128,216 I 2,224,316 1,793,391
The principal articles of import into the United Kingdom from Queensland
are wool, the value of which was 1,447,849/. in 1888, 1,575,029/. in 1889,
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SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION — BANKS 275
1,947,163/. in 1890, 2,016,277*. in 1891, 2,537,363*. in 1892 ; preserved meat
of the value of 454*. in 1888, 4,568*. in 1889, 42,746*. in 1890, 56,133*. in 1891,
61,052*. in 1892 ; shell, 116,579*. ; tin, 28,023*. ; tallow, 148,705*. in 1892.
Among the exports of British produce to Queensland in the year 1892, the
chief were apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 270,493*. ; iron, wrought
and unwrought, of the value of 246,224*. ; cottons, of the value of 193,539*. ;
and woollens, of the value of 99,909*.
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1893 consisted ofll6 sailing vessels of 10,506
tons, and (including river steamers) 93 steamers of 12,667 tons; total, 209
vessels of 23,173 tons. In 1892, 566 vessels of 490,869 tons entered, and
532 of 481,559 tons cleared the ports of the colony; of the former, 49 of
79,938 tons were from, and of the latter, 42 of 99,981 tons, were to the United
Kingdom. In 1892 425 vessels of 321,285 tons entered from, and 388 of
291,794 tons cleared for other Australian colonies. Vessels entering and
clearing more than one port on the same voyage are only counted at one port
of arrival and departure.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1892 there were 2,353 miles of railway open for traffic in the
colony, and 53 miles more in course of construction or authorised. The railways
are all in the hands of the Government, and the cost of construction on
opened lines up to the 31st Dec, 1892, has been 16,258,993*. The revenue
from railways during 1892 was 1,041,222*., and the expenditure in working
them 632,321*. The total expenditure to December 31, 1892, including
apportionment of cost of floating loans, losses on sales of stock, &c, has been
17,872,458*.
The Post Office of the colony in the year 1892 carried 15,779,569 letters,
11,405,904 newspapers, and 2,975,434 packets. There were 951 post and
receiving offices in the colony at the close of 1892. The post-office revenue
was 135,723*., and the expenditure 201,821*.
At the end of 1892 there were in the colony 9,996 miles of telegraph lines,
and 17,646 miles of wire, with 354 stations. The number of messages sent
was 905,124 in the year 1892, and 109,871 received from places outside the
colony, besides 89,316 official messages. The receipts of the Department
during that year were 82,952*., and the working expenses 112,991*.
Banks.
There are eleven banks established in Queensland, of which the following are
the statistics for the end of 1892 : — Notes in circulation, 575,435*. ; deposits,
10,493,904*.; total liabilities, 11,193,201*. ; coin and bullion, 2,082,264*. ;
advances, 17,410,895*. ; landed property, 738,936*. ; total assets, 20,552,087*.
There is a Government savings bank with 123 branches ; on January 1, 1893,
there were 47,093 depositors, with 1,708,393*. to their credit.
Agent-General for Queensland in Great Britain. — Sir James F. Garrick,
K.C.M.G., Q.C. ; Secretary, Charles Shortt Dicken, C.M.G.
Books of Reference.
Census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 3rd April, 1891. Pol. Brisbane, 1802.
Queensland : Annual Report from the Registrar-General on Vital Statistics. Fol. Annual .
Brisbane.
Bonxoick (James), The Resources of Queensland. London, 1880.
Lutnholtz (Carl), Among Cannibals. London, 1889.
Pugh'$ Queensland Almanac, Court Guide, Gazetteer, Ac. Annual. Brisbane.
Both (Henry Ling), A Report on the Sugar Industry of Queensland. Brisbane, 1880.
Statistical Register of Queensland, Annual. Brisbane.
Report on Agricultural and Live Stock Returns. Annual. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Agriculture. Annual. Brisbane.
The Year-Book of Queensland. Annual. Brisbane.
T 2
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276 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
Founded in 1 836 (Act 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 95) the present Consti-
tution of South Australia bears date October 24, 1856. It vests the
legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people. The Parlia-
ment consists of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly.
The former is composed of twenty-four members. Every three years
the eight members whose names are first on the roll retire, and
their places are supplied by two new members elected from each
of the four districts into which the colony is divided for this
purpose. The executive has no power to dissolve this body.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Council are that
he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural born or naturalised
subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the electoral roll six
months, besides having a freehold of 501. value, or a leasehold of
201. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of 251. annual
value. The qualification for a member of Council is merely that
he must be thirty years of age, a natural born or naturalized
subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members. Each mem-
ber of the Council, and also of the House of Assembly, receives
200/. per annum and a free pass over government railways.
The House of Assembly consists of fifty-four members, elected
for three years, representing twenty-seven electoral districts.
The qualifications for an elector are that of having been on
j the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at
! twenty-one years of age ; and the qualifications for a member
are the same. There were 74,711 registered electors in 1892.
Judges and ministers of religion are ineligible for election as mem-
• bers. The election of members of both houses takes place by ballot.
i The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
| Crown and an Executive Council, consisting of six responsible
ministers.
Governor of South Australia. — Right Hon. the Earl of Kintore, P.C.,
G.C.M.G. Appointed December, 1888. Assumed the Government April 11,
1889.
The Governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of the forces,
marine and military, has a salary of 5,0002. per annum. The ministry is
divided into six departments, presided over by the following members : —
Chief Secretary.— Hon. J. H. Gordon, M.L.C.
Premier and Attorney-General. — Hon. C. C. Kingston, Q.C., M.P.
Treasurer.— Hon. T. Playford, M.P.
Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. P. P. Gillen, M.P.
Commissioner of Public Works. — Hon. F. W. Holder, M.P.
Minister of Education and Agriculture. — Hon. J. A. Cockburn, M.P.
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AREA AND POPULATION
277
The Ministers have a salary of 1,000Z. per annum each. They are jointly
and individually responsible to the Legislature for all their official acts, as in
the United Kingdom.
Local Govebnment.
The settled part of the colony is divided into counties, hundreds, muni-
cipalities, and district councils, the last being the most important, as it
gives the powers of a municipality, the ratepayers having the power of levying
rates, kc, and applying the funds for road-making purposes. There are 42
counties, blocks of country thrown open for agricultural purposes. There are
4 extensive pastoral districts — the eastern, western, northern, and north-
eastern. There are 33 municipalities and 136 district councils. The Northern
Territory is presided over by a resident, assisted by a small staff.
Area and Population.
The original boundaries of the province, according to the statute of 4 & 5 Will.
IV. cap. 95, were fixed between 132° and 141° E. long, for the eastern and
western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for the northern limit, and for the South
the Southern Ocean. The boundaries were subsequently extended, under
the statute of 24 and 25 Victoria, cap. 44. A strip of land between 132° and
129° E. long, was added on October 10th, 1861. By Royal Letters Patent,
dated July 6, 1863, all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude, and now known as
the Northern Territory, was added. The total area of the colony is calculated
to amount to 903,690 English square miles.
South Australia was first colonised in 1836 by emigrants from Great
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the South Australian
Colonisation Association. The conditions were that the land should not be
sold at less than 11. per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such
lands should be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers,
and the construction of roads, bridges, and other public works (which
provisions have been strictly observed) ; that the control of the colony's
affairs should be vested in a body of commissioners approved by the Secretary
of State for the Colonies, and the Governor be nominated by tie Crown.
The population at various censuses has been : —
-
Population
Yearly
Increase
percent.
-
Population
Yearly
Increase
per cent
1844
1855
1866
17,366
85,821
163,452
22*5
7-0
1871
1881
1891
185,626
279,865
320,431
2*7
4*4
1-4
Of the total population in 1891, 4,895 belonged to the northern territory.
There were December 31, 1892, 171,476 males, 160,245 females. There is
only one person to about 3 square miles. The population of Adelaide, the
capital of the colony, and suburbs is about 136,766.
The enumerations here given, except the three last, did not include the
aboriginal population. The number of aborigines living in settled districts
was found to be 3,369, namely, 1,833 males and 1,536 females, at the census
of March 26, 1876. In 1881 the number of aborigines was stated to be 6,346
—3,478 males, 2,868 females, and in 1891—3,134, 1,661 males and 1,473
females. Of the population in 1891, 3,848 were Chinese (adult males).
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278
THE BEITISH EMPIKE : — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
The following are the statistics of births, deaths, and marriages for five
years : —
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Births
10,510
10,318
10,364
10,737
10,544
Marriages
2,084
2,062
2,235
2,315
2,119
Deaths
3,759
3,501
3,923
4,211
3,711
»of
Births i
6,751 '
6,817
6,441
6,526
6,833
The following are the statistics of immigrants and emigrants by sea only for
five years, and the excess of immigrants over emigrants : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Immigrants
Emigrants
12,637
12,750
9,230
8,736
7,432
5,060
16,684
12,807
15,688 '
14,499
- 113
+ 494
+ 2,372
+ 3,877
+ 1,189
Religion.
The aggregate number of churches and chapels in the colony in 1892 was
1,061. At the census of 1891 the number belonging to the leading denomina-
tions were as follows : — Church of England, 89,271 ; Roman Catholic, 47,179 ;
Wesleyans, 49,159 ; Lutherans, 23,328 ; Presbyterians, 18,206 ; Baptists,
17,547 ; Methodists, 11,654 ; Bible Christians, 15,762 ; Congregationalists,
11,882 ; Jews, 840. No aid from the State is given for religious purposes.
Instruction.
Public instruction is under charge of the Educational Department.
Teachers are paid partly by fees and partly by Government grants, public
lands being set apart for educational purposes. Education is compulsory
up to a certain standard. Government grants exhibitions and scholarships,
carrying the holders to higher schools and universities. In 1892 there were
262 public schools and 317 provisional schools ; the number of children
under instruction during 1892 being 53,457. There is a training college for
teachers. The University of Adelaide was founded in 1872. The university
is authorised to grant degrees in arts, law, music, medicines, and science. Its
endowment amounts to 50,0002. and 50,000 acres of land. There are several
denominational colleges. There were 254 private schools, with 11,647 pupils,
in 1892.
Justice and Crime.
There is one supreme court, a court of vice-admiralty, a court of insolvency,
68 local courts and police magistrates' courts. There are circuit courts
held at several places. There were 102 convictions for felonies and misde-
meanours in 1887, 91 in 1888, 78 in 1889, 82 in 1890, 90 in 1891, and 90
in 1892. The total number of white persons in prison at the end of 1892
was 87 males and 7 females.
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FINANCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
279
Defence.
The colony possesses an efficient militia and volunteer force, the former
consisting of 1,670 men of all ranks, and the latter of 816, or a total
military force, including the head-quarter staff , and a permanent force of
artillery 69 strong — of 2,486 men. For the purposes of local defence a small
cruiser, the Protector (920 tons), launched in 1884, is stationed off the chief
port of the colony, which is defended by two well-armed forts. South Australia
is a contributor to the maintenance of the Australian Auxiliary Squadron.
(See post under ' Australian Defence.')
Finance.
The total annual revenue and the total annual expenditure of the colony
of South Australia for each of the last five years ending June 30 were as
follows : —
Years
ending Jnne 30
Revenue
Expenditure
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
&
2,302,494
2,478,981
2,732,222
2,741,623
2,459,905
£
2,273,203
2,404,179
2,603,498
2,687,133
2,660,993
The revenue for 1893-94 is estimated at 2,637,074*., and expenditure
2,630,450*.
The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from customs
duties, inland revenue, posts and telegraphs, railways, and territorial receipts,
while the main portion of the expenditure is on account of public works,
railways, and interest on public debt. The total revenue averages 7*. 16s.
per head, of which customs and other sources of taxation contribute 2*. Is.
About one-third of the expenditure is for administrative charges, compris-
ing salaries of judges, &c, civil establishments, defences, police, gaols, and
prisons.
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1852, amounted, on Decem-
ber 31, 1892, to 21,230,700*. Three-fourths of the public debt has been
spent on railways, water-works, and telegraphs, the net earnings of which
exceed the interest payable. The railways show a profit of five per cent, per
annum.
The real property of the colony in 1892 was valued at 50,596,620*., and
personal property at 33,869,445*.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area (578,361,600 acres), 9,115,158 acres were alienated at
the end of 1892. The total land enclosed amounts to 29,830,971 acres, of
which 2,625,741 acres were under cultivation in 1892-93. Of this 1,520,580
acres were under wheat, 434,116 under hay, 9,918 under orchards, 15,418
vineyards, and 569,878 fallow. The gross produce of wheat in 1879-80 was
14,260,964 bushels, in 1884-85, 14,621,755 bushels, and in 1892-93, 9,240,108
bushels. In 1884, 473,535 gallons of wine were produced, of which 50,080
gallons were exported; in 1892-93, 594,038 gallons were made, and 325,038
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280
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
gallons exported. The live stock in 1893 numbered — horses, 186,726 ;
cattle, 411,793; sheep, 7,152,047. In 1892, of the total area 153,429 square
miles were held under pastoral leases, and the number of leases was 1,087.
The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in copper and silver.
The value of the copper ore produced in 1892 was 43,485Z., and of copper,
132,040Z.; and the total value of all minerals produced, 204,4182.; in 188/ it
was 319,954/. ; 1886, 275,280Z. ; 1885, 344,4512. ; 1884, 491,9502.
In 1892 there were 734 factories in the colony, employing 10,920 people.
There were 32 iron and brass furnaces, employing 1,236 people, and 52 manu-
facturers of agricultural implements to 405 people.
Commerce.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, in-
clusive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in
each of the last six years, was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Years
Imports
Exports
1887
1888
1889
£
5,096,293
5,413,638
6,804,451
£
5,330,780
6,984,098
7,259,365
1890
1891
1892
£
8,262,673
9,956,542
7,395,178
£
8,827,378
10,512,049
7,819,539
The imports into the colony consist of numerous articles of
general consumption, textile manufactures, and British colonial
produce, the principal article being drapery goods. Imports are
221. 14$. S\d. per head, and exports 2U. 0s. 9Jrf. per head.
The principal exports have been as follows for five years : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Wool .
Wheat .
„ flour
Copper ore
£
1,610,456
1,492,145
663,701
72,600
£
2,194,701
236,898
691,777
82,355
£
1,871,277
1,382,418
613,823
71,575
£
2,166,125
1,259,397
647,075
53,175
£
1,954,403
326,613
599,022
43,485
k
108,995 tons of bread stuff were exported in 1892.
Only about 5 per cent, of the trade is with foreign countries.
Of the remainder, on an average, about one-half of the imports
are from the United Kingdom, and the other half from the other
Australian colonies. Of the exports about two-thirds go to the
United Kingdom, and the bulk of the remainder to the Australian
colonies.
The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South Australia
with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns, exclusive
of gold, for the last^ six years : —
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282 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
Banks.
There are 10 banking associations. In 1892 their total liabilities were
7,960, 038Z., and assets 9,691,621Z. The average note circulation was 400,157?.
and deposits 7,499, 51 8Z.
The Savings Bank is managed by a board of trustees appointed by the
Government, and has 139 branches. On June 30, 1892, there were 78,795
depositors, with a total balance of 2,217,4312.
Agent-General of South Australia in London. — Sir John Cox Bray, K. C. M. G.
Assistant Agent-General. — Samuel Deering.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
South Australia.
Annual Statistical Register and Blue Book.
Census of South Australia, taken on the 5th April, 1891. Summary Tables. Fol. Ade-
laide, 1891.
Boothby (Josiah), Statistical Sketch of South Australia. London, 1876.
Finniss (B. T.), The Constitutional History of South Australia during twenty-one years,
from the foundation of the Settlement in 1836 to the inauguration of Responsible Govern-
ment in 1857. London, 1886.
Haretu (William), South Australia : its History, Resources, Productions, and Statistics.
London, 1876.
Hodder (Edwin), The History of South Australia, With Maps. 2 vols. 8. London, 1893.
Newland (S.), The Far North Country. Adelaide, 1887.
Stow (J. P.), South Australia: its History, Productions, and Natural Resources.
Adelaide, 1863.
The Tear-Book of South Australia. Annual. Adelaide.
i
TASMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Tasmania was established by Act 18
Vict. No. 17, supplemented by Acts 48 Vict. No. 54, passed in
1885, and 49 Vict. No. 8, passed in 1886. By these Acts a
Legislative Council and a House of Assembly are constituted,
called the Parliament of Tasmania. The Legislative Council is
composed of eighteen members, elected by all natural-born or
naturalised subjects of the Crown who possess either a freehold
worth 20/. a year, or a leasehold of 80/., or are barristers or
solicitors on roll of Supreme Court, medical practitioners duly
qualified, and all subjects holding a commission or possessing a
degree. Each member is elected for six years. Members of the
Legislative Council, and also of the House of Assembly, are paid
100/. per annum, and have the right to free railway passes, and
of franking through the post-office and telegraph department.
The House of Assembly consists of thirty-six members, elected by
all whose names appear on valuation rolls as owners or occupiers
of property, or who are in receipt of income of 60/. per annum (of
which 30/. must have been received during last six months before
claim to vote is sent in), and who have continuously resided in
Tasmania for over 12 months. The Assembly is elected for three
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AREA AND POPULATION
283
years. The number of electors for the Legislative Council at date
1892 was 7,111 or 4*65 of the total population, and for the
House of Assembly 29,261 or 19*14 of the total population. The
legislative authority vests in both Houses, while the executive
is vested in a Governor1 appointed by the Crown.
Governor. — The Right Hon. Viscount Gormanston, K.C.M.G.
Assumed office August 1893.
The Governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of the troops
in the oolony ; he has a salary of 3,5002. per annum. He is aided in the
exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible ministers, consisting of
six members, as follows ; —
Premier, — Hon. H. Dobson.
Chief Secretary, — Hon. Adye Douglas.
Treasurer. — Hon. John Henry.
Attorney-General. — Hon. N. K Lewis.
Minister without Portfolio. — Hon. C. H. Grant.
Minister of Lands and Works. — Hon. W. Hartnoll.
Each of the ministers has a salary of 700/. per annum. The position of
Premier has a salary of 200J. per annum attached ; not however drawn at
present. The ministers must have a seat in either of the two Houses.
Area and Population.
The first penal settlement was formed in Tasmania in
1804 ; and till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from
Great Britain and from New South Wales, of which colony it
was a dependency until 1825. Transportation ceased in 1853.
The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles or
about 16,778,000 acres, of which 15,571,500 acres form the area
of Tasmania Proper, the rest constituting that of a number of
small islands, in two main groups, the north-east and north-west.
The colony is divided into eighteen counties.
According to Census Returns the population has increased as
follows : —
Population.
Increase per Ct.
per Annum.
1841
1851
1861
50,216
70,130
89,977
3 96
2-83
I
1871
1881
1891
Population.
99,328
115,705
146,667
Increase per Ct.
per Annum.
I
115
1-43
3-84
At the census of 1891 there were 77,560 males and 69,107 females. On
the basis of this population, the average density is 5 *6 persons to a square
mile. Of the total population in 1891, 107,901 were natives of Tasmania,
26,975 natives of the United Kingdom, 7,328 natives of other Australasian
colonies, 943 Chinese, 918 German. In 1891 there were 22,313 males and
21,399 females married, 52,195 males and 43,736 females unmarried, 2,423
males and 3,945 females widowed, 25 males and 6 females divorced, and 604
males and 21 females unspecified. The aborigines of Tasmania are entirely
extinct.
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284
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
i
Of the population in 1891, 3,918 were returned as professional ; 7,180
domestic; 9,593 commercial; 16,016 industrial; 23,568 primary producers ;
1,136 indefinite ; 85,256 dependants.
The births, deaths, and marriages for five years have been as follows : —
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Births.
Marriages.
Deaths.
Excess of Births.
4,777
4,757
4,813
4,971
4,965
951
967
954
988
995
2,036
2,098
2,118
2,234
2,069
2,741
2,659
2,695
2,737
2,896
Of the total births in 1892, 236, or 4*75 per cent., were illegitimate.
The number of immigrants and emigrants was as follows in each of the
last six years : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Immigrants
Emigrants
14,980
12,288
18,866
17,936
23,443
20,771
29,517
27,070!
27,315
21,233
23,744
24,407
* It is estimated that the departures are understated by about 7 per cent.
The direct movement of population is mainly between the Australian
colonies (chiefly Victoria) and Tasmania.
The population of the capital, Hobart, on 6th April, 1891, was 24,905, and
of Launceston 17,108.
Religion.
The Government contributes 1751. annually for various religious pur-
poses. On 5th April, 1891, the census showed belonging to the Church of
England 76,082 of the population; Roman Catholics, 25,805; Wesleyan
Methodists, 17,150; Presbyterians, 9,756; Independents, 4,501; Jews, 84;
Baptists, 3,285; Friends, 176; other sects, 9,828.
Instruction.
There are 14 superior schools or colleges in the colony, with (1892) an
average attendance of 1,742 ; 251 public elementary schools, with 20,659
scholars on roll ; and 131 private schools, with 5,701 scholars. Education is
compulsory. There were also about 564 children attending ragged schools.
There are also five technical schools at Hobart, Launceston, Latrobe, New Nor-
folk, and Devonport The higher education is under a university, who hold
examinations and grant degrees. Elementary education is under the control
of a director working under a ministerial head. There are several valuable
scholarships from the lower to the higher schools. At the census of 1891 the
number of persons returned as unable to read and write was 37,034, or 25*38
per cent, of the population.
The total cost to Government of education in 1891-92 was 46,056Z. There
are 35 public libraries and mechanics' institutes, with about 57,000 volumes.
There are 5 daily, 8 weekly, 1 tri-weekly, 2 bi-weekly, and 7 monthly
journals.
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189,939Z.
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Defence.
The volunteer defence force of the colony numbers some 601 officers ana
men, and is composed of two rifle regiments, engineers, artillery, cadets
corps, and auxiliary force, all under jurisdiction of commandants stationed
at Hobart and Launceston. Included in the above is a small permanent
force, stationed at Hobart, of 18 men for the purpose of keeping barracks and
batteries in order, and to form the nucleus of a larger force. There is a statf
for the instruction of the other branches of the volunteer system, including
the country rifle clubs scattered throughout the Island.
There are four batteries on the river Derwent, and one on the Tamar.
Production and Industry.
The total area of the colony is 16,778,000 acres. In 1891 19,40S
"persons were directly engaged in agriculture. In 1892 there were 515,666
acres under cultivation. Of the total area, 4,762,977 acres have been
sold or granted to settlers by the Crown up to the end of 1892 ; while
684,284 acres have been leased as sheep runs. The total area under crops in
1892-93 was 179,396 acres; under grasses, 217,905 acres; fallow, 52,555:
11,366 acres were devoted to horticulture. The following table shows tin
acreage and produce of the chief crops for five years : —
1890
1891
Wheat, acres
,, bushels .
,, bushels per acre
Oats, acres .
,, bushels
„ bushels per acre .
Potatoes, acres .
,, tons
,, tons per acre.
Hay, acres .
,, tons .
,, tons per acre
40,657
49,055 | 39,452
47,217
58,897
819,497
756,639 , 642,980
930,841
1,018,550
2015
15 43
16-29
19-71
17*29
33,834
40,169
20,740
28,242
22,976
946,354
1,148,935
519,395
873,113
631,746
27*97
28*60
25*04
30 91
27-50
13,653
17,015
20,133
16,368
16,535
66,721
72,275
73,158
62,995
60,245
4-88
4-25
3 63
3-84
3 64
1 52,521
50,913
45,381
45,338
46,070
58,290
73,859
52,021
66,996
53,544
| 1-11
1-45
114
1-47
1-16
i
Under the head of horticulture 460 acres were sown with hops in 1 S92.
yielding 377,885 lbs. of hops. The yield of apples was 391,912 bushd>
Fruit culture is of great importance ; large quantities of fruit are exported.
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290 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
Members of the Legislative Assembly are entitled to reim-
bursement for expenses at the rate of 3001. per annum, and
members of both Houses have free passes over, all the railways.
In 1892-93 the number of electors on the roll of the Legisla-
tive Council was 162,263 ; the number of electors on the roll of
the Legislative Assembly was 260,838. Of the former all but
1,188, and of the latter all but 44,735, are ratepayers.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
Crown.
Governor. — The Right Hon. the Earl of Hopetotm. Appointed
Governor of Victoria 1889 ; assumed the government 28th
November, 1889.
The Governor, who is likewise commander-in-chief of the colonial
troops, has a salary of 10,0002. a year. In the exercise of the executive he is
assisted by a Cabinet of responsible ministers, composed as follows : —
Premier, Chief Secretary, and Minister of Railways. — Hon. J. B. Patterson,
M.P.
Attorney- General. — Hon. Sir Bryan G'Loghlen, Bart., M.P.
Solicitor-General and Postmaster-General. — Hon. A. Wynne, M.L.C.
Treasurer. — Hon. Godfrey Downes Carter, M.P.
Commissioner of Trade and Customs and Minister of Public Instruction. —
Hon. R. Baker, M.P.
President of the Board of Land and Works and Commissioner of Crown
Lands and Survey. — Hon. John Mclntyre, M.P.
Minister of Defence and Health. — Hon. Robert Reid, M.L.C.
Minister of Mines and Water Supply. — Hon. J. H M'Coll, M.P.
Minister of Agriculture and Commissioner of Public Works. — Hon. W. T.
Webb, M.P.
Portfolios without Office. — The Hon. Messrs. Richardson, M.P., Abbott,
M.L.C., and Cooke, M.L.C.
The Premier has a salary of 2,0002., the Treasurer and the Attorney-
General 1,8002. each, and — except one at 1,5002. — the other ministers receive
1,4002. each. At least four of the ministers must be members of either the
Legislative Council or the Assembly, but not more than eight may at any one
time be members of the Assembly.
Local Government.
For purposes of local administration the colony is divided into urban ami
rural municipalities. The former, called cities, towns, and boroughs, ought
not to be of a greater area than nine square miles, and in being constituted
must contain at least 300 householders. The latter, called shires, are portions
of country, of undefined extent, containing rateable property capable of
yielding a revenue of 5002. In 1892 there were 59 urban and 139 rural muni-
cipalities, all but a very small portion of the whole area of the colony being
included within their limits. Every ratepayer has one or more votes,
according to the amount of his rates.
Area and Population.
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion
of New South Wales, bearing the name of the Port Phillip dis-
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292
THE BRITISH EMPIRE; — VICTORIA
of the principal towns were as follows : — Melbourne, 490,896, or over two-
fifths of the population of the colony ; Ballarat, 46,033 ; Sandhurst, 37,238 ;
Geelong, 24,283; Warrnambool, 6,582; Castlemaine, 5,982.
The following are the births, deaths, and marriages in the colony for five
years : —
Year
Total •
Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages J *jQ. «*
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
34,503
36,359
37,578
38,505
37,831
1,658 •
1,809
1,913
2,064
2,116
16,287
19,392
18,012
18,631
15,851
8,946 1 18,216
9,194 16,967
9,187 1 19,566
8,780 19,874
7,723 1 21,980
In the 37 years from 1838 to the end of 1874, more than 167,000 immi-
grants received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage to
the colony ; but since 1874 State-assisted immigration has ceased. No account
is taken of migration overland across the borders, but the recorded immigration
into and emigration from the colony of Victoria by sea were as follow in each
of the last five vears : —
Year , Immigration (by sea)
Emigration (by sea)
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
102,032
84,582
79,777
62,448
62,951
60,229
68,418
• 63,820
53,172
69,214
Of the immigrants in 1892, 42,849 were males and 20,102 were females ;
and of the emigrants 46,718 were males and 22,496 females. In 1892, there
was exceptionally an excess of emigrants over immigrants, amounting to
6,263, in consequence of departures for the neighbouring colonies.
Religion.
There is no State Church in Victoria, and no State assistance has been
given to religion since 1875. Prior to that period a sum of 50,000Z. had been
set apart annually out of the general revenue for the advancement of the
Christian religion in Victoria, and this amount had been distributed propor-
tionately amongst the various denominations. At the date of the census of
1891 about 75 per cent, of the population were Protestants, 22 per cent, were
Roman Catholics, and a half per cent, were Jews. The following were the
enumerated numbers of each of the principal divisions in 1891 : — Episcopalians,
417,182 ; Presbyterians, 167,027 ; Methodists, 158,040 ; other Protestants,
94,608 ; Roman Catholics, 248,591 ; Jews, 6,459 ; Buddhists, Confucians, &c.^
6,746; others (including unspecified), 41,752.
Instruction.
Educational establishments in Victoria are of four kinds, viz., the
University with its three affiliated colleges, State schools (primary), technical
schools or colleges, and private schools. The Melbourne University was
established under a special Act of the Victorian Legislature, and the build-
ing was opened on October 3, 1855. The Institution at present receives, by
way of endowment, £17,250 annually out of the general revenue. It is both
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JUSTICE AND CRIME
293
an examining and a teaching body, and in 1859 received a royal charter
empowering it to grant decrees in all Faculties except Divinity.
Affiliated to the University are three colleges — Trinity, Ormond, and
Queen's — in connection with the Church of England, Presbyterian, and
Wesleyan Churches respectively. The School of Mines at Ballarat is also
affiliated to the University. From the opening of the University
to the end of 1892, 3,491 students matriculated, and 1,582 direct degrees
were conferred. In 1892 the students who matriculated numbered 220,
the direct graduates numbered 127, and there were 656 students attending
lectures.
Public instruction is strictly secular; it is compulsory for children
between the ages of 6 and 13, and free for the subjects comprised in the
ordinary course- of instruction. In 1892 there were 2,140 State schools,
with 4,977 teachers, a total enrolment of 248,725 scholars, and average
attendance 141,638, or about 57 per cent, of the numbers on the roll.
Practically all the children of school age living in the colony are being
educated, 84 per cent, at the State schools. Amongst persons aged 15 years
and upwards at the census of 1891, 95 1 per cent, were able to read and
write, and only 2 J per cent, were entirely illiterate. In 1891-92 the total
cost of public (primary) instruction, exclusive of expenditure on buildings,
was 740,600Z. — all paid by the State. Although the education given by
the State is strictly primary, twelve exhibitions — of the yearly value of 402.
each, and tenable for four years, and 100 scholarships — of the annual value
of 101., tenable for three years — are awarded annually to the ablest scholars, to
enable them to complete their education at the private grammar schools
and at the University. Secondary education is entirely under the control
either of private persons or proprietary bodies, usually connected with some
religious denomination. There were in 1891-92 7 §9 private schools in
Victoria, with 1,995 teachers, and attended by 37,203 scholars. These
numbers include 208 schools, 705 teachers, and 21,799 scholars in connection
with the Roman Catholic denomination, the members of which do not as a
rule avail themselves of the free education afforded by the State.
The other educational establishments embrace 27 technological schools
under the control of the Education Department, viz., 3 working men's
colleges, 13 schools of arts, 9 schools of mines, and 2 agricultural
colleges. In 1891 there were 196 lecturers attached to the technological
schools, and the gross enrolment of pupils was 8, 500.
The public library of Melbourne has about 127,000 volumes, and nearly
173,250 pamphlets and parts. The leading towns have either a public library
or a mechanics' institute. On Jan. 1, 1892, they numbered 405. The total
number of volumes in the libraries, exclusive of Melbourne, was about 513,000.
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and four puisne judges.
There are courts of general and petty sessions, county courts, courts of insol-
vency, courts of mines, and courts of licensing. The following are the criminal
statistics for five years : —
Taken into custody .
Summarily convicted
Committed for trial .
Sentenced
38,465
24,494
1,129
605
35,429 |
22,280
1,177
729
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
There are 9 prisons in Victoria, besides police gaols. At the end of 1892
there were confined in these prisons 1,402 males and 323 females.
Finance.
The actual revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of
the last &ve years ended June 30 were : —
r ended June 30
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1889
8,675,990
7,919,202
1890
8,519,159
9,645,737
1891
8,343,588
9,128,699
1892
7,729,572
8,482,917
1893
6,963,292
8,183,752
The following table shows the actual amounts of
revenue and expenditure under the principal heads during
1891-92 :—
Revenue and Expenditure, 1891-92.
Heads of Revenue
Amount
Heads of Expenditure
Amount *
i
Taxation : — ,
1
£
Customs, duties, &c. . \
2,388,961 |
Interest and expenses
Excise . . ' .
143,575
of debt .
1,726,700
Land tax . . . '
126,651
i Railways (working ex-
Duties on estates of ,
penses) .
j Otner public works .
2,118,377
deceased persons
247,534
792,352
Duty on bank notes . \
27,954
( Post and telegraphs .
756,190
Stamp duty . .
175,000
, Crown lands, kc.
240,142
Business licences . .
20,755
, Public instruction,
Tonnage, dues, kc.
18,880
science, &c.
868,974
Charitable institutions,
Total taxation .
3,149,310
&c
300,450
Judicial and legal
' Police and gaols .
i 217,828
Railways .
3,098,251
349,088
Post and telegraphs .
502,806
, Customs, harbours, kc.
118,626
Crown lands
519,584
Mining
126,880
Other sources
459,621
j Defences .
I 297,828
7,729,572
Other expenditure
Total.
569,987
Total .
8,482,917
The approximate revenue for 1892-8 was 7,919,147/., and expenditure
7,623,909/.
The amount raised by taxation, as shown in the last table, viz. 3,149,310/.
was equivalent to a proportion of 21. lis. 2d. per head of population.
Victoria has a deot, incurred in the construction of public works, which
amounted, on June 30, 1893, to 47,144,562/. (exclusive of 760,000/. to
cover revenue deficits). On June 30, 1892, it was 46,711,287/. Of this
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DEFENCE — PBODtTCTION AND INDUSTRY
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sum, 36,649,6062. was borrowed for the construction of railways, 7,354,256/.
for waterworks, 1,105,557/. for State school buildings, and 1,601,868/. for
other public works. The rate of interest on the public debt varied from
3 J to 5 per cent., and averages 4 per cent.
The estimated total value of the rateable property of the colony in 1892
exceeded 197,385,150/., and the annual value was 13,607,811/.
Defence.
The land forces of Victoria at the end of 1891 comprised an establishment
of 7,360 men of all arms, of whom 379 were officers, 751 non-commissioned
officers, and 6,230 rank and file. The naval force consists of a permanent
force of 237, and the Naval Brigade, of 379 officers and men.
The Naval flotilla of the colony consists of the coast-defence ironclad
Cerberus (3,480 tons), and the steel gunboats Albert (350 tons) and Victoria
(530 tons), as well as the iron gunboats Batman, Fawkner, Gannet, and Lady
Loch (336 to 387 tons), and a few torpedo boats. Victoria is a considerable
contributor to the support of the Australian auxiliary ships. (See post under
' ' Australian Defence. "
Production and Industry.
I. Agkicultuee.
Of the total area of Victoria about 22,534,600 acres are either alienated or
in process of alienation. Of the remainder about 12,200,000 acres are at
present suitable for agriculture ; 12,400,000 acres for pastoral purposes ; State
forests, timber and water reserves, over 5,400,000 acres ; auriferous land,
1,049,000 acres ; and roads, 1,678,000.
The total number of cultivated holdings in 1892-93 was 35,223.
The following table shows the areas under the principal crops and the
produce of each for five years : —
Total
Years
Area Cul-
tivated
Wheat
Oats
Barley
Potatoes
Hay
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Acres
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Bushels
Acres
Tons
Acres
Tons
1889
2,564
1,217
8,647
197-5
2,804
83*4
1,131
43
181
411
308
1890
2,627
1,179
11,496
236
5,645
907
1,881
47
157
451*5
666
1891
2,653
1,145
12,751
221
4,919
88
1,671
54
204
413
568
1892
2,688
1,333
13,679
190
4,456
45
844
57
201
369
514
1893
2,970
1,343
14,815
178
4,575
38
774
41
143
513
740
The prod
uce per acre
of the principal crops has been :
—
Barley
- . 1
Year
Wheat
Oats
Potatoes
Hay
1
Malting Other
f
!
Bushels
Bushels
Bushels 1 Bushels
Tons
Tons
1889
7*10
1420
13 55
3 04
075
1890
9-75
23-87
2018
3 33
1-48
1891
1113
22-26
16*59 | 23*99
3*79
1-37
, 1892
10 26
23 43
16-32 | 26*62
3*50
1*39
, 1893
11 03
25-75
18*15 | 26-35
3 51
1-44
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
In addition to these, green forage and permanent artificial grasses covered
248,919 acres, vines covered 26,447 acres, and gardens and orchards occupied
an extent of about 31,368 acres in 1892-93.
On March 31, 1893, it is estimated there were in the colony 439,596 horses,
1,824,704 head of cattle, 12,965,306 sheep, and 290,339 pigs.
II. Mining.
The subjoined statement gives, from official returns, the estimated quantities
of gold, with value, obtained in Victoria in each of the last five years : —
Tears
Number of
Ounces
Approximate ' Y
Value Yeara
Number of
Ounces
Approximate
Value
1888
1889
1890
625,026
614,839
588,561
2,500,104
2,459,356
2,354,244
1891
1892
576,400
654,456
&
2,305,600
2,617,824 |
The total quantity of gold raised from 1851 to 1892 is estimated at
58,070,215 oz., of an aggregate value of 232,280,8602. The estimated number
of miners at work on the gold-fields at the end of 1891 was 23,526, of whom
2,747 were Chinese.
III. Manufactures.
The total number of manufactories, works, &c. in March 1892, was 3,320, of
which about 1,810 used steam or gas engines, with an aggregate horse-power of
31,614 ; the number of hands employed was 53,525 ; and the lands, buildings,
machinery, and plant were valued at 16, 673, 581 J. The manufactures are
almost entirely for home consumption.
Commerce.
There are heavy tariffs on most of the important articles of
import, the total customs duties collected in 1892 amounting to
2,234,735 J., equal to about 13 per cent, of the total value of
imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, includ-
ing bullion and specie, in each of the last five years, was : —
Tears I Total Imports
1888
1889
1890
23,972,134
24,402,760
22,954,015
Total Exports
13,853,763
12,734,734
13,266,222
Years Total Imports
1891
1892
£
21,711,608
17,174,545
Total Exports
16,006,743
14,214,546
The value of the trade during 1891 and 1892 between Victoria
and the principal British and foreign countries is shown in the
following table, according to Victorian returns : —
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Live stock
2,040,213
1,081,348
1,997,051
1,553,727
991,113
Sugar and molasses .
945,978
992,761
1,208,797
1,051,838
872,457
Timber .
1,420,349
1,390,036
1,288,982
897,264
425,466
Wool
2,704,060
3,595,449
3,190,298
3,372,154 3,134,917
Woollens
923,549
969,412
785,961
903,657
655,411
Exports
Gold, mostly specie .
3,690,519
2,280,326
2,739,503
2,641,443
1,848,948
Wheat .
515,016
84,064
114,357
909,686
776,278
Live stock
406,777
538,973
476,717
457,394
443,717
Wool ...
5,170,930
5,928,932
5,933,699
7,165,092
6,619,141
The quantity of wool exported in 1892 amounted to 165,590,377
lbs., valued at 6,61 9,1 41^., of which, however, less than half was
the produce of Victoria.
Of the total imports those arriving at the port of Melbourne were valued
at 13,616,4982., and of the exports those snipped from Melbourne were
valued at 12,754,6332. in 1892.
The commercial intercourse of Victoria with the United Kingdom (ex-
clusive of gold) is shown in the subjoined table, according to the ' Board of
Trade Returns,' for each of the last five years : —
i -
1888 1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into
U.K. from
! Victoria
i Exports of Brit,
produce to
i Victoria
£ i £
5,844,201 1 5,500,105
I
8,877,069 7,721,118
£
3,968,662
7,101,348
£
5,612,129
7,249,224
£
5,974,418
4,726,361
The staple articles of import into the United Kingdom from Victoria are
wool and gold. The imports of wool into Great Britain were as follows in
each of the last five years : —
Years
Quantities
Value
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Lbs.
106,587,076
91,367,360
98,300,002
92,653,966
99,785,836 j
£
4,971,504
4,418,382
4,930,739
4,181,763
4,218,627
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
299
Among the minor articles of merchandise imported into the United King-
dom from Victoria in 1892 were wheat and flour, of the value of 327, 6622. ;
tallow, 156,4152. ; leather, 230,7672. ; preserved and frozen meat, 42,4172. ;
bark, 36,3362. ; sheep skins and rare, 273,2932.
The British exports to Victoria embrace nearly all articles of home
manufacture, chief among them iron, wrought and un wrought, 524,2292. ;
hardware and cutlery, 74,2772. ; woollen goods, 442,5612. ; apparel and
haberdashery, 448,9092. ; cotton goods, 727,6452. ; machinery, 148,2232. ;
paper, 242,8702. ; beer and ale, 118,0982., in 1892.
Shipping and Navigation.
The registered shipping in 1893 consisted of 274 sailing vessels of 44,717
tons, and 150 steamers of 75,096 tons, total 424 vessels of 119,813 tons.
The shipping inwards and outwards has been as follows for five years : —
Years
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
2,714
2,855
2,474
2,531
2,255
2,182,071
2,270,827
2,178,551
2,338,864
2,224,652
2,630
2,886
2,459
2,560
2,266
1,125,812
2,328,351
2,184,790
2,376,245
2,231,602
Of the* vessels entered in 1892, 409 of 839,829 tons, and of those cleared
402 of 834,810 tons were British ; 1,698 of 1,129,769 tons entered, and
1,717 of 1,140,571 tons cleared, were colonial. Of the total entered 1,844
of 2,128,726 tons, and cleared 1,768 of 2,030,047 tons, were at the port,
Melbourne.
Internal Communication.
The railways in Victoria all belong to the State. There were 2,903 miles
of railway completed at the end of 1891-92.
The total cost of the lines open to June 30, 1892, was 37,085,3092.— of
which all but about 2,302,3702. was derived from loans — being about an
average of 12,7752. per mile for the miles open. The gross receipts in the year
1891-92 amounted to 3,095,1222. ; and the expenditure to 2,138,1392., or
69*08 per cent, of the receipts ; which latter proportion, however, was higher
than usual. The profit on working was thus 956,9832., being equivalent to
2*61 per cent, of the mean capital cost, or 2*75 of the borrowed capital, which
bears interest at the average rate of a small fraction over 4 per cent. The number
of passengers conveyed in the year 1891-92 was 70 millions, and the weight
of goods and live stock carried was 3,655,000 tons. The train mileage in
1891-92 was 11,807,677 miles. The proportions of receipts from passengers
and goods traffic to the total receipts were 53 and 47 per cent, respectively.
The Post-Office oi the Colony forwarded 62,526,448 letters, 7,491,316
packets, and 22,729,005 newspapers in the year 1890. There were 1,766 post-
offices on December 31, 1892. The total postal revenue, including the receipts
from telegraphs, was approximately 502,8002. in the year 1891-92, and the
expenditure was 756,1902.
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300 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
There were about 7,100 miles of telegraph lines (including railway tele-
graphs), comprising 14,000 miles of wire, open at the end of 1892. The
number of telegrams despatched in the year 1892 was about 2,726,000. The
revenue from telegraphs was 166,248Z. in the year '1891-92. At the end of
the year 1892 there were 810 telegraph stations.
The telephone system (exclusive of railway telephones) included 474 J miles
of poles, 94 miles of aerial cable, and 10 miles of underground cable, the
whole containing 8,603 miles of wire ; whilst the sets of telephones in nse
numbered about 3,700.
Money and Credit.
A branch of the Royal Mint was opened at Melbourne on June 12, 1872.
Up to Dec. 31, 1892, 13,709,825 oz/of gold, valued at 54,844,577^., was
received at the mint, and gold coin and bullion issued of the value of
54, 843, 881 I. No silver or bronze coin is struck at the Melbourne Mint.
In 1892 there were 370 post-office and 18 general savings-banks. At the
end of the year there were 315,404 depositors, with a total balance of 5,993,215/.
During the first quarter of 1893 Victoria had 12 banks of issue, with about
550 branches and agencies, with notes in circulation, 1,208, 186 J., deposits
39,379,238Z., the total liabilities being 40,876,015/. ; gold and silver, coined
and in bars, 8,287,002Z. ; landed property, 1,947,5162. ; advances, &c,
49,998,827/. ; total assets, 60,627,188/. Total paid-up capital, 10,956,250/.
Government Statist. — Henry Heylyn Hayter, C.M.G.
Acting- Agent-General of Victoria in Great Britain. — Lieut. -Gen. Sir A.
Clarke, G.C.M.G
Secretary. — C. H. Pearson, LL.D.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register and Blue Book.
Report on Census of Victoria, 1891. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. Pol. Melbourne, 1893.
Handbook to the Colony of Victoria. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. (pamphlet). Fresh
editions issued from time to time.
Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1892. Pol. Melbourne, 1893.
Report on the Vital Statistics of Melbourne and Suburbs. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.
Published annually. Melbourne.
Statistics of Friendly Societies in Victoria, with a Report by H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.
Published annually. Melbourne.
Statistics of Trades Unions in Victoria, with a Report by H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. Pub.
lished annually. Melbourne.
Victoria : Defence Reorganization Scheme. Melbourne, 1883.
Victorian Year Book. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. Published annually in Melbourne.
Blair (David), Cyclopaedia of Australasia. Melbourne. 1881.
Finn (Edmund), Chronicles of Early Melbourne. 2 vols, illustrated. Melbourne, 1889.
LabiUiere (Francis Peter), Early History of the Colony of Victoria, from its Discovery to
its Establishment as a Self-governing Province of the British Empire. 2 vols. 8. London.
1878.
Mcnnell (Philip), The Dictionary of Australasian Biography. Melbourne, 1892.
Bu$den(Q. W.), The Discovery, Survey, and Settlement of Port Phillip. 8. London, 1872.
We»tgarth(yim.), The Colony of Victoria : its History, Commerce, and Gold-mining ; its
Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 1804.
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WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
Western Australia was the last of the colonies on the con-
tinent to obtain responsible government. By an Act entitled
the "Western Australia Constitution Act, 1890," the adminis-
tration, which had before been vested in the Governor, assisted
by a Legislative Council, partly composed of nominated and
partly of. elected members, was vested in the Governor and a
Legislative Council and Assembly, the Council to consist of 15
members, nominated in the first place by the Governor, and the
Assembly of 30 elected members. The qualification for electors
is the possession of a freehold estate of the clear value of 1001. ;
of a leasehold estate of the value of 101. per annum ; of a licence
from the Crown to depasture, occupy, cultivate or mine on Crown
lands on payment of 101. annually ; the occupation of a dwelling
house of the clear value of 10 J. per annum, or of a lodging which,
unfurnished, is of that value. There are 30 electoral districts.
The duration of the Assembly is fixed at 4 years. The qualifica-
tion for membership of either House is a freehold estate of the
value of 5001. or of the annual value of . 501. Members of the
Legislature are not paid, but travel free on all Government
railways. Provision is made that the members of the Legislative
Council shall be elected in the event of the total population of the
colony reaching 60,000, and power is reserved to the Crown to
divide the colony as may from time to time be thought fit. The
limit of population has now (1894) been reached. The entire
management and control of the waste lands of the Crown in
Western Australia is vested in the Legislature of the colony.
Governor. — Sir William C. F. Robinson, K.C.M.G. ; entered
the service 1855 ; President of Montserrat, 1862 ; administered
the Government of Dominica, 1865 ; Governor of Falkland Islands,
1866 ; Governor Prince Edward Island, 1870 ; Governor-in-Chief
Leeward Islands, 1874; Governor of Western Australia, 1874,
and again 1880; Governor Straits Settlements, 1877; special
mission to King of Siam, 1878; Governor South Australia, 1882 ;
Acting Governor Victoria, 1889 ; again appointed Governor of
Western Australia, 1889.
The Governor has a salary of 4,000Z. per annum. He is assisted in his
functions by a cabinet of responsible ministers, as follows : —
Premier and Treasurer. — Hon. Sir John Forrest, K.C.M.G. Colonial
Secretary. — Hon. S. H*. Parker, Q.C. Attorney -General. — Hon. Septimus
Burt, Q.C. Commissioner of Lands. — Hon. W. E. Marmion. Minister of
Public Works.— Ron. H. W. Venn.
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Area and Population.
As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes
all that portion of the continent situated to the westward of 129°
E. longitude. The greatest length of this territory from Cape
Londonderry in the north to Peak Head (south of King George's
Sound) in the south is 1,450 miles, and its breadth from Steep
Point near Dirk Hartog's Island, on the west, to the 129th
meridian, on the east, about 850 miles. According to the latest
computations, the total estimated area of the colony is 975,920
English square miles, including islands. It is divided into 20
districts.
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years the
population was small. In 1850 the colony had not more than 6,000 in-
habitants, but at the census of December 1859 the population had risen to
14,837— namely, 9,522 males and 5,315 females. On December 31, 1867,
the population numbered 21,713, comprising 13,934 males and 7,779 females.
At the census taken on March 31, 1870, the total population was 25,353, of
whom 15,565 were males and 9,788 females. Included in these numbers
were 1,790 male prisoners, either in prisons or at working depots in various
parts of the colony.
At the census of 1881 the population of the colony was 29,708 ; and the
results of the census of April 5, 1891, gave a total population of 49,782 —
29,807 males and 19,975 females. This shows an increase since 1881 of
20,074, or 67 57 per cent, being at the rate of 6*75 per cent, per annum.
These figures do not include the aborigines, of whose numbers it is difficult to
give even an approximate estimate, scattered as they are over an extensive
territory, much of which is yet entirely unknown. There were 5,670 aborigines
in service in the colony in 1891. Of the total population in 1891, 27,825
were returned as being natives of Western Australia, and 34,271 as being
unmarried. Of the unmarried population, 21,577 were males and 12,694
females, while of the unmarried population over 21 years of age, 10,126
were males and 1,990 were females. Perth, the capital, had an estimated
population of 10,040, in 1892 ; Fremantle, about 8,000. In 1892 there were
1,848 births and 931 deaths, giving a surplus of 917 ; there were 7,440 arrivals
and 2,968 departures — excess of arrivals over departures 4,472. The total
estimated population on December 31, 1892, was 58,674 — 36,095 males and
22,579 females. During 1892 there were 412 marriages in the colony.
i
Religion.
The religious division of the population was as follows at the census of
1891 :—
I Religious Divisions Number
Church of Eng*
land . . 24,769
Roman Catholics 1 2, 464
Wesleyans 4,556
Per cent. I Religious Divisions
Number
j! Independents . 1,573
49 '75 |j Presbyterians . 1,996
25*04 i| Other religions
9 15 ,j not specified . • 4,424
Per cent.
316
4 01
8 89
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33 acres) 23 J bushels, and hay H ton to the acre. There were in 1892
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COMMERCE
305
1,218 acres under vines, producing an average of 132 gallons of wine to
the acre, which sold at prices varying from 5s. to 6*. the gallon. There
are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and coal mines in the colony. Gold
exported during 1892, 59,548 oz., valued at 226,2842. There are few manu-
factures.
Along the river-courses of the north and north-east of the colony are
about 20,000,000 acres of fairly well-watered country, affording good
pasturage.
Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and specie, of
Western Australia, in the last five years is shown in the subjoined
statement : —
-
1688
1889
1890
1691
1892
Imports .
Exports .
£
786,250
680,345
£
818,127
761,391
£
874,447
671,813
£
1,280,093
799,466
£
1,391,109
882,148
The following table shows the character of the duties levied on the imports
for 1891 and 1892 :—
1891.
1892.
£
£
Value of goods imported subject to
specific duty
479,795
591,555
»*
tt
20 % duty .
37,918
45,431
tt
»»
12* % duty
67,203
64,497
*t
tt
5% duty .
. 430,433
509,128
it
duty free
204,744
180,498
Total . . 1,280,093 1,391,109
The chief exports are :— Gold, value in 1886, 1,207/. ; in 1890, 86,664/. ;
in 1891, 115,182/. ; in 1892, 226,284/. ; pearls, value in 1891, 40,000/. ; in
1892, 40,000/. ; pearl-shell, value in 1891, 100,527/. ; in 1892, 79,259/. ; sandal-
wood, value in 1891, 37,600/. ; in 1892, 42,870/. ; timber, value in 1891,89,176/. ;
in 1892, 78,419/.; wool, value in 1890, 360,934/. ; in 1891, 329,365/. ; in
1892, 326,703/. ; skins, value in 1891, 39,248/. ; in 1892, 36,657/.
The value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Western Australia,
and of the exports of domestic produce and manufactures from the United
Kingdom to Western Australia, according to the Board of Trade returns, in
each of the last five years was : —
Imports from Wes-
tern Australia
Exports of British
produce to W. A. .
1888
1889
1890
1891
' 1892
£
357,549
318,621
£
394,504
347,918
£
530,591
464,209
£
367,552
591,958
£
249,965
524,249
The imports into Great Britain from the colony consist mostly of wool,
pearl shells, and timber. The value of the wool imports was 146,202/. in 1878,
233,345/. in 1885, 229,069/. in 1887, 265,180/. in 1888, 309,587/. in 1889,
449,756/. in 1890, 282,791/. in 1891, 189,107/. in 1892. The quantity of wool
imported into Great Britain in 1892 was 6,420,836 lbs. The shells imported
into Great Britain in 1892 were valued at 7,932/. The chief exports from
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THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Great Britain to the colony in 1892 were iron, value 56,675Z. ; apparel, 78,187/. ;
beer and ale, 33,291/. ; cottons, 22,, 675/. ; machinery, 33,954Z. ; leather,
30,104/.
Shipping and Communications.
There were on the West Australian register on December 31, 1892, 8
steamers of (in all) 713 tons, and 142 sailing vessels of 5,293 tons ; total, 150
vessels of 6,006 tons. In 1892, 356 vessels of 572,090 tons entered, and
320 of 552,475 tons cleared, the ports of the colony.
There were 651 miles of railway open for traffic at the end of 1892, and 468
miles under construction, and 284 miles under survey.
In 1892 there were 3,288 miles of telegraph line within the colony, 4,013
miles of wire, and 375 miles under construction. From Albany the wire
extends to South Australia, and from Roebuck Bay to Banjowangie by the
alternative cable of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Cable Company. The
number of stations is 47. The number of messages sent was 251,247, the
gross charges amounted to 49,975/., which includes the Post Office expenditure,
and the net revenue to 13,787/.
In 1892 there passed through the Post Office 4,998,975 letters, exclusive
of 92,307 registered letters and post-cards, 4,205,329 newspapers, and
1,013,735 packets.
Money and Credit.
There are live banks in Western Australia besides the Post Office Savings
Bank. The following statement relates to the quarter ended June 30, 1893 : —
Banks
Capital
paid up
Notes in ! Total i Total
! Circula- • Deposit* Average Average
tion Liabilities ' Assets
Reserved
Profits
Western Aus- ,
tralian Bank . , 80,000 28,208
.National Bank ,
of Australasia 1,000,000 26,017
Union Bank of
Australia . . 1,500,000 23,332
Bank of New
South Wales .
| Commercial
■ Bank of Aus-
I tralia, Ltd. .
414,007
I
485,052 683,033 116,485
; ! i
303,005 331,853'l,134,389 679,032
1,250,000 6,165
— 5,215
384,646 412,652
70,764 77,354
110,708 116,103
| Total of average 3,830,000 88,937 11,283,1301,423,013
569,4451,095,708
209,6561,010,000
i
241,459 —
2,837,982 2,901,225
During 1892 deposits of the value of 54,611/. were made, and interest
1,8562. was allowed. The amount withdrawn during the year was 40,658/.,
leaving a balance of 60,133/. on deposit on December 31, 1892.
Agent-General in London. — Sir Malcolm Fraser, K.C.M.G.
Secretary.— R. C. Hare.
Books of Reference.
Annual Tear-Book.
Annual Blue Book.
Census of the Colony of Western Australia, taken on the 6th April, 1881. Fol. Perth.
Favenc (Ernest), Western Australia : its Past History, Present Trade and Resource* ,
and its Future Position in the Australian Group. 8ydney, 1887.
Nicolay (Rev. C. O.), Handbook of Western Australia. Perth (W. A.), 1880.
The Year-Book of Western Australia. Perth, 1893.
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AUSTRALASIAN FEDERATION 30f
Australian Defence.
Sydney is a first-class naval station, the head-quarters of the
British fleet in Australasia. In 1892 there were 12 imperial war
vessels on the station. By the " Australasian Naval Force Act,"
which was assented to on December 20, 1887, a fleet of five fast
cruisers, each of 2,575 tons displacement and 7,500 horse-power,
and two torpedo gunboats on the most improved modern build, each
of 735 tons and 4,500 horse-power, are to be equipped for the
Australian seas. An agreement which has been entered into for
a period of ten years, afterwards terminable by two years' notice,
provides that the vessels shall be built by the British Govern-
ment, and that those of the Australian colonies who are parties
to the agreement shall pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent, on
the original cost, and all costs of maintenance. Upon the termi-
nation of the agreement the vessels will remain the property of
the British Government. These vessels — the cruisers Katoomba,
Tauranga, Bingarooma, Mildura, and Wallaroo, and the torpedo-
gunboats Boomerang and Karakatta — are attached to the Aus-
tralian Squadron. Under the agreement with the colonies they
are not to be removed from the station in case of war. Accord-
ing to a Parliamentary return of August 14, 1893, the expendi-
ture of the contributing colonies upon sea-going force was as
follows :— New South Wales (1890), 11,419J.; Victoria (1890-91),
45,287J.; Queensland (1890-91), 15,519J.; South Australia
(1890-91), 13,514J.
Australasian Federation.
The question of the Federation of the Australian Colonies is by no means
new. Among the proposals made when the scheme for granting responsible
government to Australia was originally discussed, about the year 1852, was
one for the establishment of a General Assembly to make laws in relation to
intercolonial questions. The proposition was, however, involved with others
of a more doubtful nature, and consequently sank out of sight, until in
various ways, especially in regard to postal matters and defence, the bene-
fits of united action among the Colonies of the Australasian group became
more apparent. Some years ago, as the result of an Intercolonial Conference,
the matter came before the Imperial Parliament, and a measure was passed
permitting the formation of a Federal Council, to which any Colony could
send delegates. The first meeting of the Federal Council was held at
Hobart, in January, 1886. The Colonies represented were Victoria, Queens-
land, Tasmania, Western Australia, and Fiji South Australia sent repre-
sentatives to a subsequent meeting. The Federal Council met four times in
all, and discussed several matters of intercolonial interest ; but as it was
purely a deliberative body, without authority to legislate, it failed to satisfy
the advocates of Federation as an active political principle. In February,
1890, a Conference, consisting of representatives of each of the seven Colonies
of Australasia, was held in Melbourne. An address to the Queen was adopted
expressing loyalty and attachment, and inclosing resolutions, which affirmed
x 2
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i
departments.
Australasia : Despatch on the subject of a Draft Bill to constitute a Federal Council of
Australasia. London, 1884.
Australasian Statistics, published annually, with Report, by H. H. Hayter, C.M.G..
Government Statist of Victoria. Melbourne.
Australasian Statistics, published annually, by T. A. Coghlan, A.M.InstC.B., Govern-
ment Statistician of New 8outh Wales. Sydney.
Colonial Office List. Published annually. London.
Federal Council of Australasia, Session 1886. Official Record of Debates. Hobmrt, 1886
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom
Annnal. London.
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Samoa Islands, Tonga Islands, and the various small groups in Melanesia.
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PART THE SECOND
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
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313
AFGHANISTAN.
Afghanistan is a country of Asia lying between parallels 30° and 38° 20'
of north latitude, and 60° 30' and 74 30' of east longitude. On the
north-east, the boundary is uncertain ; but from about longitude 70° westward
to Khamiab the Oxus is the northern limit. From Khamiab, the line, as drawn
by the Afghan Boundary Commission, runs in a south-westerly direction to
Zulfikar, on the river Hari-Rud, and thence south to Kuh Malik-i-Siyah, a
conspicuous peak south-east of the Helmand river. Here the boundary turns
round and runs generally eastwardly to the Kwaja Amran range. The eastern
boundary of Afghanistan has long remained uncertain, but the basis of a
delimitation was settled, in 1893, at a conference between the Ameer, Abdur
Rahman, and Sir Mortimer Durand. The Ameer agreed that Chitral, Bajaur,
Swat and Chilas should be included within the British sphere of political
influence, while he himself was to retain the Kunar valley as far north as
Asmar. The Ameer also withdrew his pretensions over Waziristan. The ex-
treme breadth of Afghanistan from north to south is about 500 miles ; its length
from the Herat frontier to the Khaibar Pass, about 600 miles. The surround-
ing countries are, on the north, the Central Asian States, under the influence
of Russia ; on the west, Persia ; on the south, British Baluchistan ; and on
the east, the mountain tribes scattered along the north-western frontier of
India.
Abdur Rahman Khan, G.C.B., G.C.S.I., the reigning Amir, is son of
Afzul Khan, and grandson of Dost Muhammad Khan. He was recognized as
Amir by the British Government in July 1880, after the events following on
the massacre of Sir L. Cavagnari
The origin of the Afghans is involved in obscurity. The Pathan
dynasties of Delhi form part of Indian history. The whole of Afghanistan
was conquered by Timur, Kabul remaining in the hands of his descendants,
and Kandahar being added to it by Sultan Babar in 1522. For the next
two centuries Kabul was held by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, and
Herat by Persia, while Kandahar repeatedly changed hands between the
two. Nadir Shah, the Persian, held the Afghan provinces till his assassina-
tion in 1747, after which the different provinces were formed into a single
empire under Ahmad Shah, Durani, including the Punjab and Kashmir on
the east, and extending to the Oxus on the north. The restoration of Shah
Shuja by the British forces under Sir John Keane in 1838 led to continued
insurrections against the new ruler, culminating in the terrible revolt
of 1841. In 1878 war was declared by England, and her troops eventually
captured Kabul. Sher Ali fled and died in Afghan Ttirkistan, his son
Yakdb Khan being acknowledged as Amir, while a British envoy and
escort was installed in the citadel of Kabul. On September 3, 1879, a
serious riot developed into a massacre of the envoy and his followers, and
a fresh invasion of the country took place. In 1880 the British forces were
withdrawn from the Khaibar and the Kuram, and from Kandahar to Quetta.
Abdur Rahman has since successfully maintained his position.
The government of Afghanistan is monarchical under one hereditary
prince, whose power varies with his own character and fortune. The domi-
nions are politically divided into the four provinces of Kabul, Turkistan, Herat,
and Kandahar, to which may be added the district of Badakshan with its
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TRADE
315
end of spring and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, millet, arzun
(Panieum italicum), Indian corn, &c. The castor-oil plant, madder, and the
assafcetida plant abound. Vast quantities of assafoetida are exported to
India.
The fruits, viz. the apple, pear, almond, peach, quince, apricot, plum,
cherry, pomegranate, grape, fig, mulberry, are produced in profuse abundance.
They form the principal food of a large class of the people throughout the
year, both in the fresn and preserved state, and in the latter condition are
exported in great quantities.
Northern Afghanistan is reputed to be tolerably rich in copper, and
lead is found in many parts. Iron of excellent quality comes from Bajaur
and the Farmuli district, and gold in small quantities is brought from Kanda-
har, the Laghman Hills, and Kunar. Badakshan was famous for its precious
stones.
The production of silks and the manufacture of felts, postins, carpets, and
rosaries are some of the principal industries. Silk is largely produced at
Kandahar, as well as felts, whion are distributed throughout the country, and
exported to the Punjab and Persia. The sheepskin postin manufacture is one
of the most important industries.
The trade routes of Afghanistan are as follows : —
From Persia by Mashad to Herat.
Bokhara by Merv to Herat.
,, by Karchi, Balkh, and Khulni to Kabul.
East Turkistan by Chitral to Jalalabad.
India by the Khaibar and Abkhana roads to Kabul.
„ by the Gumal Pass to Ghazni.
„ by the Bolan Pass and Sind-Pishin Railway to Kandahar.
Trade.
No accurate registration of the trade between Afghanistan and India has
yet been obtained. Of the trade carried by the Sind-Pishin Railway, amount-
ing in value to Rx. 2,500,000 in 1889-90, probably only one-sixth can be
classed as imports and exports between the two countries. The trade between
Northern Afghanistan (Kabul) and India, during the past five years ending
March 31, has been registered as follows : —
Imports from India
Exports to India .
». Rx. 1890. Rx.
526,800
187,300
796,500
332,200
1891. Rx.
459,870
208,600
1892. Rx. I 1893. Rx. I
I I
653,639
218,120
610,500
220,850
Of the above imports, the chief items are cotton goods, indigo, sugar, and
tea, mostly the China leaf. The exports include horses, spices, assafoetida,
fruits, and nuts. The heavy transit duties levied by the Amir prohibit
transit trade between India and the country north of the Oxus. A duty of
106 rupees is levied on every camel load (about 4501bs.) of Indian tea passing
through Kabul to Bokhara.
The trade between Kandahar and British India amounted in 1892-93 to
Rx. 297,657 imports from, and Rx. 234,428 exports to British India. Three-
fifths of the imports consist of cotton piece goods, foreign and Indian. The
imports of foreign are double the imports of Indian piece goods. Half the
exports consist of raw wool, the other half being mainly fruit and nuts.
The value of the trade between Russian Central Asia and Afghanistan is
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indeterminable, but it is stated that in 1890, 3,944,568 roubles' worth of
Russian merchandise was imported into Afghanistan from Bokhara ; while the
exports to Bokhara were valued at 3,983,270 roubles.
The rupee appears to be the usual currency, though Government demands
are often paid in kind. But little gold coinage is now current in Afghanistan.
The common gold currency is either Russian or Bokharan, with a limited
number of 6-rupee pieces struck by the late Amir.
The Khaibar and Bolan roads are excellent, and fit for wheeled traffic as
far as Kabul and Kandahar respectively. There is, however, no wheeled
carriage, except artillery, proper to the country, and merchandise is transported
on camel or pony back. There are practically no navigable rivers in Afghan-
istan, and timber is the only article of commerce conveyed by water, floated
down stream in rafts.
Books of Reference.
Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans, London, 1879 ; and The Races of Afghanistan, 1880.
Burnes, Cabool. 1843.
Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan. 4th edition. 1878.
Malleson, History of Afghanistan. 2nd edition. 1879.
Hensman, The Afghan War of 1879-80. London, 1881.
Major C. B. Yate, Northern Afghanistan. London, 1888.
Oliver, Across the Border, or Pathan and Biluch. London, 1890.
MacGregor (Sir C. M.) and Lockhart (Sir W.), Gazetteer of Afghanistan. Calcutta, 1882.
Parliamentary Papers, Afghanistan, 1873-1887.
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AFRICA, CENTRAL: INDEPENDENT
STATES.
There still remain certain independent States in Central Africa
about which it may be useful to give here such information as
is obtainable with respect to their political, religious, industrial,
and commercial condition. These are the Central Sudan
States — Bornu and Wadai (on which Kanem and Bagirmi are
dependent) ; Dahomey, in the Gold Coast interior. Under this
head may also be included the old Egyptian Sudan. In 1890,
Uganda, Unyoro, the northern half of Ruanda, and a small part
of Karagwe, were included in the sphere of the Imperial British
East African Company ; while the south half of Ruanda and the
rest of Karagwe were included in the German East African Pro-
tectorate. In 1891 Lunda (the Muata Yanvo's Kingdom) was
divided between Portugal and the Congo Free State. The region
lying between the eastern boundary of the French sphere in the
Sahara, the western limits of Egypt, the country of Fezzan in the
north, and the Central Sudan in the south, is still unannexed. It
contains the mountainous inhabited region of Tibesti.
CENTRAL SUDAN STATES.1
BORNU.
Bornu, that is, Bar-noa, or ' Land of Noah,' if not the largest, is the most
populous Mohammedan State in Central Sudan. It occupies the western and
southern sides of Lake Chad, being conterminous on the south-east with
Bagirmi, from which it is separated by the Shari River, and stretching thence
westwards to the Empire of Sokoto. Approximate area, 50,000 square miles ;
population estimated at over 5,000,000. The bulk of the inhabitants, who
call themselves Ka-nuri, that is, * People of Light, ' are of mixed Negro and
Dasa (southern Tibu) descent, and speak a Tibu dialect that has been reduced
to written form by the Protestant missionaries. The other chief elements of
the population are the Tuareg Berbers in the north ; the Arabs mainly in the
south-east ; the Makari and Marghi Negroes in the south ; the Wanga, Bedde,
and other pagan tribes in the east ; and in the centre the Magomi, who claim
kinship with the royal dynasty which for many centuries ruled over the
united Bornu and Kanem States. These and the Kanuri are regarded as the
most cultured people in Central Africa, and their woven fabrics, pottery, and
metal ware are highly prized throughout the Sudan.
The Sultan, whose official title is Mai, but who is more commonly spoken
of as the Sheikh, is in principle an absolute monarch. He is assisted in the
i For Sokoto, see Niger Territories, under the British Empire.
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EGYPTIAN SUDAN 319
Sliman are perhaps the fiercest marauders in the whole of North Africa. Mao,
residence of the political ageut of Wadai, lies in the centre of Kanem, about a
day's march south-east of Njinii, the capital of the State.
The Sultanate of Bagirmi, comprising the low-lying marshy region between
Lake Chad, the Lower Shari river, and the Sokoro hills west of Lake Fitri, has
an area of about 20,000 square miles, or 71,000 including the southern lands
inhabited by tributary pagan peoples, or to which slave-hunting expeditions are
regularly sent. The Barmaghe, as the natives of Bagirmi call themselves, are
all Mohammedan Negroes, who numbered 1,500,000 about the middle of the
century. Since then they have been greatly reduced by the wars with Wadai,
famines, and epidemics. Since 1871 the Sultan, who resides at Massenia
(Massena), near the left bank of the Lower Shari, has acknowledged the
suzerainty of the ruler of Wadai, from whom he receives his investiture.
Over his own subjects his power is absolute, the administration being carried
on chiefly by bands of eunuchs and other officials, who levy the taxes and
plunder the people with impunity. Organised slave-hunting razzias are also
periodically sent to the southern regions of the Upper Shari basin, occupied
by the Kimre, Sokoro, and many other pagan tribes.
By the Anglo-German Agreement the region embraced in the basin of
the Shari, which includes Bagirmi, is reserved to the German sphere of
influence.
References.
Barth (H.), Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa. In " Minerva Library. "
8. London, 1890.
Keltic (J. Scott), The Partition «>f Africa. London, 1893.
Naehtigal (Gustav), Sahara und Sudan. Vol.11. 2 vols. 8. Berlin, 1879-81.
Beeltu, Universal Geography. Vol. XII.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
Before the revolt of the Mahdi in 1882, the Khedival possessions beyond
Egypt proper comprised the whole of East Sudan and Nubia between Wadai
on the west and the Red Sea on the east (23°-40° E.), together with the north-
west section of Somaliland and the coast lands between Abyssinia and the
Gulf of Aden. This territory extended from the frontier of Upper Egypt for
a distance of nearly 1,400 miles southwards to Lake Albert Nyanza (3°-23° N.),
and had a total area of nearly 1,000,000 square miles, with a population
roughly estimated at from ten to twelve millions. It included the geo-
graphical regions of Darfur, on the Wadai frontier, reduced by Ziber Pasha
in 1874 ; Kordofan, between Darfur and the Upper Nile, reduced by Mehemet
Ali in 1821 ; Lower Nubia, which had always been politically dependent on
Egypt ; Upper Nubia with Senaar, reduced by Ismail Pasha in 1822 ; the
Zeriba lands of the White Nile basin, organised and administered by the
European lieutenants of the Khedival Government during the decade ending
1882, and partly held by Emin Pasha till the Stanley Relief Expedition of
1889 ; lastly, the Danakil (Afar), Adal, and Somali lands round about the
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, where the Egyptian authority was established only
in the immediate vicinity of the seaboard.
The Egyptian Sudan was placed under a Governor-General, whose official
residence was Khartum (population in 1882, 70,000), at the confluence of the
White and Blue Niles, and the territory was divided for administrative
purposes into twelve provinces,1 with area, population, and chief towns as
follows : —
MS. note by the late General Gordon.
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320
AFRICA, CENTRAL AND SOUTH
Province
Estimated area
in square miles
I'
Dongola .
Khartum .
Sawakin-Massawah
Kordofan .
Darfur
Senaar
Equatorial Province
Fazocli
Bahr-el-Gazal
Zeilah
Harrar
Berbera
Total Egyptian Sudan
100,000
80,000
100,000
200,000
450,000
20,000
Estimated
Population
1,000,000
350,000
.300,000
1,500,000
7,000,000
250,000
Capital
{New Dongola
Khartum
Massawah
El-Obeid
El-Fasher
{ Senaar
Lado
Mehemet Ali
Shekka
r Zeilah
-J Harrar
I Berberah
950,000 10,400,000
It is estimated that three-fifths of the population of the Sudan have, during
the last ten years, perished through war, famine, and slave-trading.
Since the Mahdi's revolt, Sawakin, Zeilah, and Berbera have been occupied
by the English, Massawah by the Italians, and the northern part of Dongola
by Egypt. Darfur appears to have reasserted its independence, the Equa-
torial Province has lapsed into barbarism. The greater part of the Equatorial
Province and of Darfur is by the Anglo-German agreement of 1890 and Anglo -
Italian agreement of 1891 included within the British sphere of influence.
Before the war a considerable trade was carried on with Egypt, the chief
exports being gold-dust, ostrich feathers, gums, hides, and skins ; the imports,
European and Oriental wares of all kinds. For Kordofan alone the total
exports were valued in 1881 at nearly 150,000/. Besides the great artery of
the Nile, the chief trade routes ran from Obeid to Khartum, from Berber to
Sawakin, from Sawakin up the Baraka Valley to Kassala, from Kassala to
Senaar, and thence down the Blue Nile to Khartum.
DAHOMEY.
The Kingdom of Dahomey, formerly the most powerful on the Slave Coast,
Upper Guinea, has in recent years been greatly reduced in size and strength,
especially by the long and disastrous wars waged against Abeokuta and other
petty Yoruba States on its eastern frontier. It now comprises an area of
about 4,000 square miles, with an estimated population of 250,000, extending
from Yoruba westwards to the river Volta, separating it from Ashanti, and
bordering northwards on the Wangera territory. It has an outlet on the
coast at Whydah. According to the recent treaty of delimitation between
British and French West African possessions, Dahomey is the Hinterland of
the French possession of Porto Novo.
The King exercises unlimited power. Besides ordinary troops, he main-
tains a body-guard of about 4,000 * Amazons,' who are noted for their courage
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DAHOMEY 321
and discipline. The natives, who are of pure Negro stock and fetish -wor-
shippers, belong to the Fon branch of the Ewe family, but have called them-
selves Dauma or Dahome since the foundation of the kingdom early in the
seventeenth century. They are industrious agriculturists, exporting through
Whydah the finest palm-oil produced in Upper Guinea. Maize, cattle, ivory,
and india-rubber also abound. Abomey, capital of the kingdom, lies seventy
miles north of Whydah, and about ten miles north-west of Kana (Kalmina),
the royal summer residence.
Early in 1890 complications arose with France respecting the disputed
stations of Porto Novo and Kotonu on the south coast ; but after a brief series
of hostilities peace was concluded in October 1890, Dahomey recognising the
French claims to those places, on condition of being paid an annuity of
20,000 francs. In 1892 hostilities again broke out, and a French military
expedition made its way to the capital of Dahomey, completely defeating the
native army and putting the king to flight. Military operations continued
during the year 1893. Several of the native tribes had submitted or claimed
French protection, and on January 25, 1894, the King Benhazin surrendered
unconditionally. As yet (February, 1894) no formal annexation of Dahomey
has been made by France ; but in January, 1894, a new king, Guthili, was
chosen by the assembled chiefs, and on January 15 was presented to the
population in the neighbourhood of Abomey in the name of the French
Government.
References.
Burton (Sir R. F.), Mission to Gelele, King of Dahome. 2 vols. Loudon, 186-1
Duncan (J.), Travels in Western Africa. 2 vols. 12. London, 1847.
Foa (M.), A Voyage up the Wheni River, 'Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.' Feb. 1889.
Keltic (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London, 1893.
Reclus (B.), Universal Geography. VoL XII.
8kertchley (J. A.), Dahomey as it is. 8. Loudon, 1874.
White (A. 8ilva), The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
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i
322
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
(Republica Argentina.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Argentine Republic, formerly known
by the name of ' Provincial Unidas del Rio de la Plata/ bears
date May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1860, when Buenos
Ayres joined the confederacy. By its provisions, the executive
power is left to a President, elected for six years by representa-
tives of the fourteen provinces, equal to double the number of
senators and deputies combined ; while the legislative authority
is vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a
House of Deputies, the former numbering 30, two from the
capital and from each province, elected by a special body of
electors in the capital, and by the legislatures in the provinces ;
and the latter 86 members elected by the people. By the Con-
stitution there should be one deputy for every 20,000 inhabit-
ants. A deputy must be 25 years of age, and have been a
citizen for four years. The deputies are elected for four years,
but one-half of the House must retire every two years.
Senators must be 30 years of age, have been citizens for six
years, and have an annual income of $2,000. One-third of the
Senate is renewed every three years. The two chambers meet
annually from May 1 to September 30. The members of both
the Senate and the House of Deputies are paid for their services,
each receiving $8,400 per annum. A Vice-President, elected in
the same manner and at the same time as the President, fills
the office of Chairman of the Senate, but has otherwise no
political power. The President is commander-in-chief of the
troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices, and
has the right of presentation to bishoprics ; he is responsible with
the Ministry for the acts of the executive ; both President and
Vice-President must be Roman Catholics, Argentine by birth, and
cannot be re-elected.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Saenz Pena entered on office October 16
1892.
Vice-President. — Sefior Unburn.
The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the President,
consists of five Secretaries of State — namely, of the Interior, Foreign Affairs]
Finance, War, and Justice.
The President has a salary of 36,000 dollars, the Vice-President of 18,000
dollars, and each of the five ministers of 16,800 dollars j>er annum.
Local Government.
The Constitution, with certain small exceptions, is identical with that oi
the United States. Such matters as affect the Republic as a whole are under
the superintendence of the Central Government. The governors of the
various provinces are invested with very extensive powers, and in their con-
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — AREA, ETC.
323
stitutional functions are independent of the central executive. They are not
appointed by the President of the Republic, but elected by the people of each
province for a term of three years and four years. The provinces elect their
own legislatures, and have complete control over their own affairs ; they
can contract loans (internal and external) under their sole and exclusive
responsibility.
Area and Population.
At the census of 1869 the population of the provinces
amounted to 1,736,922, exclusive of the national territories.
The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces
and nine territories actually composing the Argentine Republic,
their estimated area, and the number of inhabitants, mainly ac-
cording to an official estimate for 1887 : —
1
1 Provinces
I Area:
' Engl. sq. miles
Population
Population
per sq. mile
Littoral : Buenos Ayres (1890)
561,160
—
j Buenos Ayres(province) 63,000
1 Santa Fe (census 1887) , 18,000
850,000
13
240,332
13
Entre Rios
45,000
300,000
6*6
Corrientes .
54,000
290,000
5 3
j Andes : Bioja
31,500
100,000
3
Catamarca .
31,500
130,000
4
San Juan .
29,700
125,000
4
Mendoza .
54,000
160,000
3
Central : Cordova .
54,000
380,000
7
San Luis .
18,000
100,000
5 5
Santiago del Estero
31,500
160,000
5
Tucuman .
13,500
210,000
16
Northern : Salta
45,000
200,000
4*4
Jnjuy
27,000
| 515,700
90,000
3 3
Total
3,916,492
' ' f-5 - j
Territories
■
Misiones .
23,932
50,000
21 ,
Formosa ^
Chaco J
125,612
50,000
0-4
Pampa
Rio Negro ^
191,842
40,000
0 2
Neuquen /
Chubut \
268,000
30,000
0-11
Santa Cruz I
Tierra del Fuego /
4,086,492
Grand total
1,125 086
36
An official estimate of 1892 gives the total population at 4,257,000.
By a treaty concluded between the Argentine Republic and Chile in 1881
the latter recognises the right of the former to all the country east of the crest
of the eastern ridge of the Andes, including all Patagonia and the eastern part
of Tierra del Fuego.
Y 2
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20,000 Germans.
Religion.
Although the Constitution recognises the Roman Catholic religion as that
of the Sftate, all other creeds are tolerated. In 1891, 272,880 dollars were set
down in the budget for public worship. There are 1 archbishop and 5
suffragan bishops. For the instruction of the clergy there are 5 seminaries.
In 1888 civil marriage was established in the Republic.
Instruction.
Primary education is free, secular and compulsory for children from 6 to 14
years of age. In the capital and the 9 territories it is under the charge of a
national council of education, assisted by local school councils ; and in the
14 provinces under their respective governments. The elementary schools
are supported in the capital and each province by the taxes established in their
Education Acts, aided by large subsidies from the general Government. In
1890 the sums contributed by the general Government and the 14 provinces to
the support of the elementary education in the Republic amounted to
10,415,789 dollars. In 1892 there were 2,731 elementary schools, with 6,864
teachers and 228,439 pupils. Secondary or preparatory education is controlled
by the general Government, which maintains 16 lyceums (one in each province
and the capital), with 450 professors and 3,169 pupils in 1892. There are 2
universities, at Cordova ana Buenos Ay res, comprising (1891) faculties of law,
medicine, and engineering, with a total of 900 students ; a school of mines
(20 students), 2 colleges of agriculture, a naval, a military, and several
normal schools. There is a well-equipped national observatory at Cordoba,
and another at La Plata, museums at Buenos Ayres and La Plata, and a
meteorological bureau.
Justice.
Justice is exercised by a Supreme Court of five judges and an attorney,
general, which is also a court of appeal, and by a number of inferior and local
sourts, trial by jury being established by the Constitution for criminal cases.
Bach State has its own judicial system.
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FINANCE
325
In 1891 in Buenos Ayres, 3,800 criminal cases were tried. Of those tried
on criminal charges 3,436 were Italians, of whom 65 were tried for murder.
The average number of prisoners in the capital is 900.
Finance.
The ordinary revenue and expenditure are given as follows for
four years : —
' Revenue
I Expenditure .
1889
Dollars
74,676,706
50,687,544
1890
Dollars
73,407,670
92,8^3,846
1891
Dollars
70,921,650
79,008,141
1892
Dollars
117,900,000
124,600,000
The budget estimates hitherto have included only a part of
the expenditure, many payments being required in virtue of special
laws and agreements. The extent of the additional expenditure
in comparison with the budget estimates for three years is shown
in the following statement, in which gold is converted into cur-
rency at the rate of 230 per cent, premium : —
-
1890
1891
1892
Budget
Extra
Total .
Dollars
61,800,000
33,500,000
Dollars
91,500,000
34,900,000
Dollars
74,100,000
54,000,000
95,300,000
126,400,000
128,100,000
For 1893 the budget estimates were : revenue, 91,100,000
dollars ; expenditure, 75,100,000 dollars. For 1894 the estimates,
intended to include all expenditure, are as follows (gold at 230
per cent, premium) : —
Revenue
Dols. currency.
Expenditure
Dols. currency.
42,200,000
Import dues
78,600,000
Debt . . .
Export ,,
7,600,000
Army and navy
24,000,000
Dock dues, &c.
4,200,000
Schools .
9,900,000
Excise .
9,600,000
Foreign Affairs
1,300,000
City improvements
Interior .
21,500,000
tax .
3,000,000
Finance .
4,600,000
Stamps .
5,000,000
Sundries .
5,500,000
Local taxes
3,200,000
Post Office
2,800,000
Sundries .
2,000,000
116,000,000
Total .
Total .
109,000,000
Or 35,100,00C
dollars gold
Or 33,000,0<
)0 dollars gold
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 327
this volume (see Introductory Table) ; it consists of 2 port-defence armour-
clads (the old monitors El Plata and Los Andes) ; 3 armoured cruisers ;
2 second-class crui&ers ; 7 third-class cruisers a, and 5 b ; and 8 first-class,
and 4 second-class torpedo-boats.
The armoured cruiser Almirante Brown was built at Poplar in 1880,
is of 4,200 tons displacement, 5,380 horse-power, with 14 knots nominal speed,
and is protected by 9-inch steel-faced armour. In her central battery she
carries 6 12-ton breech-loading Armstrong guns, and has 2 other guns of the
same calibre mounted at the bow and stern respectively. She is also equipped
with Whitehead torpedoes and provided with the electric light. In July,
1892, there was launched at Elswick the cruiser Nueve de Julio, 3,575 tons
displacement, 14,500 indicated horse-power, and nominal speed 22*5 knots.
With natural draught (13,000 horse-power) this vessel obtained the high speed
of 21*9 knots. She carries 4 6-in. and 8 47-in. Q.F. guns, and 24
Hotchkiss 3 pr. and 1 pr. guns. At the same time the torpedo-gunboat
Aurora (500 tons), with 2,300 horse-power, and a speed of 18*5 knots, was
launched. The steel cruiser-rams Libertad and Independencia, launched by
Messrs. Laird Bros, at Birkenhead, respectively in 1890 and 1891, are very
remarkable vessels. They have a small displacement (2,500 tons), but are
powerfully armed, well protected, and handy ships. They carry 2 9J-in.
Krupp guns en barbette, and have a secondary armament of 4 4 "7 -in.
Armstrong quick-firers, 2 sponsoned out on each broadside, and 8 smaller
pieces. These were the first vessels to be provided with heavy guns
mounted for high-angle (40°) fire. The side and barbette protection is
8 -in. compound armouring. The torpedo-gunboat Rosales was lost at sea,
but Messrs. Laird are building a more powerful substitute. During the year
1893, the Los Andes and several torpedo-boats took part in the revolutionary
proceedings of the insurgents.
Production and Industry.
The area of land under cultivation in 1891, in the 14 provinces and 9
national territories, was 2,995,000 hectares (7,400,000 acres), or about one per
cent, of the total area of the country, which is set down at 289,420,341
hectares.
The total area under wheat in 1891 was 1,331,500 hectares ; maize,
688,000 hectares ; lucerne, 485,640 hectares; barley, &c, 161,880 hectares;
vines (1892), 34,400 hectares; sugar, 27,173 hectares. In 1892 the area
under wheat was 1,214,100 hectares.
The value of the agricultural products in 1893 was estimated at
117,000,000 dollars, and of the pastoral products at 105,000,000 dollars.
The total wheat yieldis put at 1,500,000 tons. In 1893 there were in the
Republic 22,000,000 cattle, 80,000,000 sheep, 5,200,000 horses, and 1,998,000
other animals, the total value being 494,160,000 dollars gold. In 1891 there
were slaughtered 1,962,147 head of cattle. The distillation of spirits from
maize is extending ; the output in 1892 was 30,000,000 litres at 40° (Cartier),
valued at 15,000,000 dollars. The number of industrial establishments in
the Republic is estimated at 347 with a capital of 40,700,000 dollars and
12,200 workmen. In the provinces of Buenos Ayres, Santa Fe, and Entre Rios
agricultural lands to the extent of 330,000 acres have been acquired by the
Jewish Colonisation Association. Of these lands about 180,000 acres are
occupied by about 1,000 Jewish families.
Coal (lignite) is found in several provinces, but not worked satisfactorily,
Petroleum is worked in Mendoza.
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328
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC,
Commerce. \
T*he following table shows the official values 'in thousands of
dollars gold of the imports and exports (exclusive of coin and
bullion) for five years, including re-exports : —
-
1888
1889 1890
1891
67,193
98,964
1892
91,388
112,693
Imports .
Exports .
123,400
100,100
164,600 i 142,300
122,815 104,528
Of the total imports in 1892 the value of 77,009,000 dollars,
and of the exports 72,069,000 dollars, passed through the port
of Buenos Ayres.
The imports and exports of coin and bullion have been as
follows : —
Years
Import
Gold 1
1
Silver
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1
44,613,897 |
11,576,906 1
6,946,812
8,885,388 j
!
196,253
172,853
204,489
370,220
Total
44,810,150
11,749,759
7,151,251
9,255,608
6,510, —
Export
Gold
8,492,374
27,816,546
5,009,358
1,183,891
I
Silver
242,126
615,705
274,542
519,204
Total
8,734,500 j
28,481,251
5,283,900
1,703,100 '
1,974,477 |
The following are the principal articles of import and export,
with their value, for two years : —
►
Imports
1891
1892
I Exports
1891
Dollars
1892
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
, Textiles and apparel
17,189,797
34,920,010
' Animals A their
| Food substances .
8,223,256
12,670,448
produce
68,797,049
76,211,928
1 Iron A manufactures
4,617,420
10,339,250
Agricultural
' Drinks .
3,687,198
6,038,115
j produce
18,425,573
26,747,023
Wood and manufac-
1 Manufactured
tures .
2,360,447
3,712,206
produce
4,150,431
4,928,175
Railway, telegraph,
A other material
Forest produce
i Mineral „
2,145,510
1,066,819
17,881,096
3,545,625
1,355,313
652,603
Pottery, glass, Ac.
1,202.952
1,618,790
* Various ,,
2,351,345
2,216,857
Chemical substances
2,405,485
4,026,624
Coal, coke, oil, Ac
4,143,808
6,095,642
Various (not includ-
ing coin A bullion)
1,878,900
1 2,778,848
Total .
67,192,818
91,388,210
Total .
98,964,249
112,692,948
Among the more important exports were the following : —
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COMMERCE
329
-
Wool
Sheep Skins
Wheat
Maize
Meat
1891 .
1892 .
Tons
138,100
154,600
Tons
24,200
32,100
Tons
405,000
495,000
Tons
66,000
446,000
Tons
66,400
77,700
The foreign trade in the Argentine Republic was mainly with
the following countries, to the following values in gold dollars : —
Countries
Imports from
1891
1892
Dollars
Dollars
Great Britain
28,317,'802
35,800,000
France
7,925,041
10,400,000
Germany .
6,204,889
10,600,000
Belgium .
6,475,951
6,700,000
United States .
3,446,691 ; 7,400,000
Italy .
4,205,165 , 8,400,000
Brazil
1,498,289 —
Exports to
1891 |
i
1892
i
Dollars ,
Dollars
14,797,740 !
19,700,000
23,681,722
26,400,000
11,434,228 ,
16,600,000
16,644,639 |
14,700,000
4,195,966 !
4,800,000
3,246,930 !
4,300,000
9,087,432
10,500,000
The commercial intercourse between the Argentine Republic
and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular
statement, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
£
4,129,802
8,416,112
1891
1892
£
4,540,358
5,651,605
Imports intoU.K.
from Argentina
Exports of British
produce to Ar-
gentina .
£
2,658,659
7,656,708
£
2,016,182
10,681,879
£
3,451,228
4,246,700
The staple Argentine imports into the United Kingdom are as follows : —
Tallow and stearine, 54,688?. in 1890; 92,160?. in 1891 ; 38,771?. in 1892;
fresh mutton, 822,486?. in 1890 ; 791,01U in 1891 ; 866,581?. in 1892 ; skins,
mainly sheep, 125,242?. in 1889; 127,366/. in 1890; 162,143?. in 1891 ;
109,320*. in 1892; bones, 50,91 3?. in 1890; 123,811?. in 1891; 68,101?.
in 1892 ; hides, 86,791?. in 1890; 120,081?. in 1891; 109,170?. in 1892;
69,813?. in 1890 ; 130,281?. in 1891 ; 172,799?. in 1892 ; wheat, 1,050,829?. in
1890 ; 1,105,756?. in 1891 ; 1,277,344?. in 1892 ; other sorts of grain,
1,531,917?. in 1890 ; 254,291?. in 1891 ; 1,127,912?. in 1892. The exportsof
British produce to the Argentine Republic consist chiefly of cottons, 977,891?.
in 1890; 1,095,495?. in 1891 ; 1,955,691?. in 1892; woollens, 441,859?. in
1890; 298,485?. in 1891; 569,545?. in 1892; iron, 2,463,858?. in 1890;
835,655?. in 1891 ; 667.176?. in 1892; and machinery, 1,000,612?. in 1890 ;
394,860?. in 1891 ; 381,950?. in 1892.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following are the statistics of the vessels entered and cleared in the
foreign trade at the ports of the Republic in 1890 and 1891 : —
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xne length ol railway open lor traffic in 18H3 was 8,U23 miles, which
connect the principal cities of the Republic with the capital. In 1892
the capital was 389,152,800 dollars; gross receipts 57,299,900 dollars, and
expenses 33,970,700 dollars. In 1892 the government paid the guaranteed
railways 3,259,700 dollars ; and the companies owed 17,598,700 dollars to the
Treasury, according to the terms of their concessions. Concessions have been
¥ ranted for 3,170 miles of line, some of which is under construction. Of the
rans-Andine line from Mendoza to Santa Rosa, 88 miles of the Argentine
section and 18 miles of the Chilian are open for traffic, 42 miles of line being
still required to unite the sections. The total cost of construction of the lines
open for traffic at the end of 1891 was 71,800,000/. The European capital
invested in the railways is put at 62, 500, 000 J. There were in 1891 173
miles of tramwav. The European capital in the tramways amounts to over
3,000,000J.
In 1891 there were in the Republic 20,415 miles of telegraph lines, of
which 11,250 miles were national ; 1,115 miles belonged to cable companies,
and 8,050 to railway companies. The number of telegraphic despatches was
2,340,000. A concession was granted Nov. 1889 to lay a direct cable from
Buenos Ayres to Europe.
The Post Office in the year 1891 carried 71,633,000 letters or 22 per head
of population, and the total postal movement was 126,000,000. There are
946 offices (post and telegraph). Revenue in 1892 : posts, 1,925,950 dollars ;
telegraphs, 796,421 dollars.
Honey and Credit.
By law of October 16, 1891, the old National Bank was placed in liquida-
tion, and a new bank, called 'Banco de la Nacion Argentina,' with a capital
of fifty million dollars was opened on December 1, 1891. In six months it
had 51 branches, had discounted to the extent of 50,000,000 dollars, and had
deposits to the amount of 20,000,000 dollars. The Banco Hipotecario, on
May 31, 1892, had cedulas in circulation amounting to 16,457,600 dollars
gold, and 75,321,700 dollars paper. In 1891 its profits were 157,451 dollars
gold and 853,875 dollars paper, and the reserve fund (with the profits) reached
the sum of 548,393 dollars gold and 3,486,909 dollars paper. There are 38
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 331
private and 14 State banks (exclusive of the old National Bank). According
to the Finance Minister's message, 1892, their condition was as follows : —
Private. State.
Dollars Gold. Dollars Gold.
Capital 36,100,000 ... 66,700,000
Deposits 54,400,000 ... 33,000,000
Discounts 51,100,000 ... 70,200,000
Profits 960,000 ... 4,600,000
Cash 24,000,000 ... 2,100,000
In the case of the old National Bank the deposits were 44,200,000 dollars
gold ; discounts, 51,500,000 dollars gold ; and cash 570,000 dollars gold.
In 1878 the Provincial Government of Buenos Ayres founded the
Municipal loan and savings bank, which in 1888 became the property of the
Municipality. Its capital is 300,000 dollars, and in 1891 its operations
reached 545,246 dollars.
The value of the notes in circulation in 1893 was put at 306,000,000
dollars, including 10,000,000 dollars in small notes.
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The silver Peso fiierte, or dollar of 100 centesimos is of the value of 45. at
par.
The 5-dollar gold piece weighs 8*0645 grammes '900 fine and therefore
contains 7 '25805 grammes of fine gold.
The silver dollar (like the French 5-franc piece) weighs 25 grammes "900
fine and thus contains 22*5 grammes of fine silver.
Professedly the standard of value is gold. The money in circulation is
chiefly inconvertible paper currency.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 101*40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Arroba = 25*35 ,, ,,
,, Fanega = 1J imperial bushel.
Since January 1, 1887, the use of the French metric system is compulsory.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the Argentine Republic in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Don Luis L.
Dominguez. Accredited May 8, 1886.
Secretary. — Florencio L. Dominguez.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Dublin,
Dundee, Edinburgh, Falmouth, Glasgow (C.G.), Hull, Leeds, Leith, London
(C.G.), Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Newport, Southampton ; Gibraltar,
Canada (C.G.), ^Sydney, Montreal.
2. Of Great Britain in the Argentine Republic.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Francis -J. Pakenham. Appointed February
1885.
Secretary. — George E. Welby.
Consul. — Ronald Bridgett.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Republic.
1. Official Publications.
Cenao municipal de la ciudad qe Buenos Aires. 2 v. 1887.
Cenao de la provincia de Santa Fe. 1887.
Censo de la provincia de Buenos Aires. 1881.
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2. NON-UFFICIAL 1TJBLICATION8.
Akert (C.E.), Argentine, Patagonian and Chilian Sketches. 8. London, 1893.
Bate* (H. W.), South America. London, 1882.
Child (Theodore), The Spanish American Republics. London, 1891.
Crawford (A.), Across the Pampas and the Andes. London, 1884.
Diareaux (Emile), Buenos Aires, la Pampa et la Patagonie. Paris, 1878.
Dominguez (L. L.), Historia Argentina. 4th edit. Buenos Ayres, 1870.
Gibzon (H.), History and Present 8tate of the Sheep-Breeding Industry in the Argentine
Republic. London, 1898.
Martinez (Alberto B.), El Presupuesto Nacional, Buenos Aires, 1890.
Mitrt (Bartolome). Historia de Belgrano. 4 oh ed. Buenos Ayres, 1887.
Mitri (B.), The Emancipation of South America. A Condensed Translation, by W.
Pilling, of The History of 8an Martin. London, 1893.
Mulhall (M. 6. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. London, 1893.
Mulhall (Mrs. M. G.), Between the Amazon and the Andes. London, 1884.
Paz (Ez. N.), and Mendonca (Manuel), Compte-Rendu de l'Exposition continentale de la
Republique Argentine. Buenos Ayres, 1882.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Geografia Argentina. Buenos Ayres, 1885.
Bumbold (Sir H.), The Great Silver River. London, 1888.
Sarmitnto (Domingo Faustino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the
Tyrants. Translated by Mrs. H. Mann. 8. London, 1868.
Turner (T. A.), Argentina and the Argentines. London, 1892.
Vincent (F.), Round and About 8onth America. Now York, 1890.
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333
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,
(Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Franz Josef I., Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary ;
born August 18, 1830 ; the son of Archduke Franz Karl, second
son of the late Emperor Franz I. of Austria, and of Archduchess
Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Proclaimed Emperor of Austria
after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I., and the renuncia-
tion of the crown by his father, December 2, 1848 ; crowned King
of Hungary, and took the oath on the Hungarian Constitution,
June 8, 1867. Married April 24, 1854, to Empress Elisabeth,
born December 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian of
Bavaria.
Heir Presumptive. — Archduke Karl Ludwig. See below.
Children of the Emperor.
I. Archduchess Gisela, born June 12, 1856 ; married April
20, 1873, to Prince Leopold, second son of Prince Luitpold of
Bavaria, born February 9, 1846.
II' Archduchess Maria Valeria, born April 22, 1868 ; married,
July 31, 1890, to Franz Salvator, Archduke of Austria-Tuscany.
Grandchild of the Emperor.
Archduchess Elisabeth, born September 2, 1883, only child of
the late Archduke Rudolph, Crown Prince, and Princess Stephanie,
second daughter of King Leopold II. of Belgium.
Brothers of tJie Emperor.
I. Archduke Karl Ludwig, cavalry general in the imperial
army; born July 30/ 1833; married (1) November 4, 1856, to
Princess Margaret, daughter of the late King Johann of Saxony ;
widower September 15, 1858 ; married (2) October 21, 1862, to
Princess Annunciata, born March 24, 1843, daughter of the late
King Ferdinando II. of Naples; widower May 4, 1871 ; married
(3) July 23, 1873, to Princess Maria, born August 24, 1855,
daughter of the late Prince Miguel of Braganza, Regent of
Portugal. Offspring of the second and third unions are six
children: — 1. Franz, born December 18,1863. 2. Otto, born
April 21, 1865 ; married October 2, 1886, to Princess Maria
Josepha, born May 31, 1867, the daughter of the Prince Georg
of Saxony; offspring, Karl, born August 17, 1887. 3. Ferdi-
nand Karl Ludwig, born December 27, 1868. 4. Margaret,
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334
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
born May 13, 1870. 5. Maria, born July 31, 1876. 6. Elisabeth,
born July 7, 1878.
II. Archduke Ludwig Victor, field-marshal-lieutenant in the
imperial army ; born May 15, 1842.
The imperial family of Austria descend from Rudolf von Habsburg, a
German count, bom 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire
in 1276. The male line died out in 1740 with Emperor Karl VI., whose only
daughter, Maria Theresa, gave her hand (1736) to Duke Franz of Lorraine and
Tuscany, afterwards Kaiser Franz I. of Germany, of the House of Lorraine,
who thereby became the founder of the new line of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Maria Theresa was succeeded, in 1780, by her son Joseph II., who, dying in
1790, left the crown to his brother Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his
son Franz I. ascended the throne, who reigned till 1835, and, having been
married four times, left a large family, the members of which and their
descendants form the present Imperial House. Franz was the first sovereign
who assumed the title of Emperor, or ' Kaiser,' of Austria, after having been
compelled by Napoleon to renounce the imperial crown of Germany, for more
than five centuries in the Habsburg family. The assumption of the title of
Emperor of Austria took place on August 1, 1804. Franz I. was succeeded
by his son, the Emperor Ferdinand I. (V. as King of Hungary), on whose
abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the crown fell to his nephew the present Emperor-
King Franz Josef I.
The present Emperor-King has a civil list of 9,300,000 florins : one moiety
of this sum, 4,650,000 florins, is paid to him as Emperor of Austria, out of
the revenues of Austria, and the other moiety as King of Hungary, out of the
revenues of Hungary.
The following is a list (for the first centuries not complete) of the sove-
reigns of Austria (Dukes and Archdukes of Austria, from 1526 also Kings of
Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria), from the date of the
feoffment of Dukes Albert I. and his brother Rudolf II. with the Duchy
of Austria by his father, Emperor of Germany, Rudolf of Habsburg, founder
of the dynasty : —
House of Habsburg.
Albert 1 1282
i
♦Rudolf II
♦Rudolf III
Friedrich (III. of Germany) .
* Leopold I
♦Albert II
♦Rudolf IV
♦Albert III
♦Albert IV
Albert V. (Albert II. of Ger-
many, King of Hungary and
of Bohemia)
*Ladislaus (King of Hungary
and of Bohemia)
Friedrich V. (Friedrich IV.
of Germany) .
Maximilian I.
Karl I. (Karl V. of Germany)
Ferdinand I.
1282
1293
1307
1314
1314
1358
1365
1395
1404
Maximilian II. 1564
Rudolf V. (Rudolf II. of Ger-
many) .... 1576
Matthias .... 1611
Ferdinand II. .1619
Ferdinand III. . 1637
Leopold 1 1657
Joseph 1 1705
Karl II. (VI. of Germany) . 1711
♦Maria Theresa . . 1740
House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
1439 Joseph II 1780
Leopold II 1790
1457 Franz I. (Franz II. of Ger-
1493 many) . 1792
1519 , ♦Ferdinand I. . . 1835
1520 i ♦Franz Josef I. . 1848
All except those marked with an asterisk likewise filled the throne of the
Holy Roman Empire.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 335
Constitution and Government
WHOLE MONARCHY.
Since 1867 the provinces of the monarchy have been united as
two States, politically, under the same dynasty, and having cer-
tain interests denned as common ; but otherwise each has its own
constitution, which is a limited monarchy.
Affairs common to the two parts of the monarchy are : —
(1) "Foreign affairs; (2) military and naval affairs, but ex-
cluding legislation concerning the army ; (3) Finance. Certain
other affairs are treated on similar principles : (1) Commercial
affairs ; (2) indirect taxation ; (3) the coinage ; (4) railways
which concern the interests of both ; (5) defence.
Transylvania has entered into legislative and administrative
union with Hungary. Croatia-Slavonia possesses an autonomy
as regards the internal administration of religion, instruction,
justice and police.
The common head in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is the
Emperor (Kaiser) of Austria and King of Hungary. The crown
is hereditary in the Habsburg-Lothringen dynasty, passing by
right of primogeniture and lineal succession to males and (on
failure of males) to females. The monarch must be a member of
the Roman Catholic Church. He is styled ' His Imperial and
Royal Apostolic Majesty, ' having a threefold title/ Emperor of
Austria, King of Bohemia, &&, and King of Hungary.'
The monarch exercises his legislative authority only with the
co-operation and consent of the representative bodies, i.e. the
Reichsrath, Reichstag, and the provincial Parliaments (Land-
tage). Legislation in affairs common to the Reichsrath and
Reichstag is accomplished by means of Delegations (Delegationen).
Of these there are two, each consisting of 60 members, of whom
20 are from each of the Upper Houses (the Austrian Herren-
haus and the Hungarian Magnatentaf el), and 40 from each of the
Lower Houses (the Austrian Abgeordnetenhaus and the Hun-
garian Repraesentantentafel). The members are appointed for
one year. The Delegations are summoned annually by the
Emperor, alternately at Vienna and Budapest. Their decisions
are communicated reciprocally in writing ; and if, after three such
interchanges, they do not agree, then the 120 delegates meet
together, and, without discussion, settle the matter by vote.
The common Ministry is responsible to the Delegations, and
Ministers may be impeached by them. Subject to the Delegations
are the three executive departments for common affairs. These
are: —
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336 AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and of the Imperial House for the
Whole Monarchy. — Count G. Kdlnoky de KorSspatak, Privy Councillor ; born
at Letowitz, in Moravia, December 29, 1832 ; entered the diplomatic service
1854 ; Secretary of Legation at Berlin 1857, and at London 1860-70 ;
Ambassador at St. Petersburg 1880-81. Appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs and of the Imperial House for the Wnole Monarchy November 21,
1881.
2. The Ministry of War for the Whole Monarchy. — General Edmund
Edl, v. Krieghammer, General of the Cavalry, Privy Councillor, Minister of
War for the Whole Monarchy.
3. The Ministry of Finance for the Whole Monarchy. — Benjamin dc K&llay,
Privy Councillor, born December 22, 1839. Appointed Minister of Finance
for the Whole Monarchy June 4, 1882.
The above Ministers are responsible for the discharge of their official
functions to the Delegations.
AUSTRIA PROPER.
I. Central Government.
The political representation is two-fold — (1) for all the Austrian provinces
(Reichsrath) ; (2) for each separate province (Landtage).
The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Monarchy,
consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House (Herrenhaus)
is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family who are of age, 19 in
number in 1893 ; 2nd, of a number of nobles — 68 in the present Reichsrath
— possessing large landed property, in whose families by nomination of
the Emperor the dignity is hereditary ; 3rd, of the archbishops, ten in
number, and bishops, seven in number, who are of princely title inherent
to their episcopal seat ; and 4th, of any other life-members nominated by
the Emperor, on account of being distinguished in art or science, or who
have rendered signal services to Church or State — 113 in 1893. The Lower
House (Abgeordnetenhaus) consists at present, under a law passed April 2,
1873, of 353 members, elected, partly directly and partly indirectly, by the
vote of all citizens who are 24 years of age and possessed of a small property
or particular individual qualification ; of these, 85 represent the landed
proprietors, 118 represent the towns, 21 the chambers of trade and commerce,
129 the rural districts. The constituencies which under that law elect the
representatives for the Austrian Lower House are divided into four classes.
These are, first, the rural districts, where the peasantry and small landholders
are the electors ; they choose a voter for every 500 inhabitants, these voters
electing the representatives ; secondly, the towns ; thirdly, the chambers of
commerce in the cities and large towns ; and fourthly, the large landed
proprietors, payers of from 50 to 250 florins taxes, according to the provinces
in which their estates are situated. In this last class females in possession
of their own property are entitled to vote. Under a law passed in 1882, the
franchise was extended to all male persons in towns and rural districts paying
direct taxes to the amount of 5 florins per annum ; but there are voters who
pay less taxes and some who pay none ; in the latter case they must have a
particular individual quali6cation. Bohemia sends 92 representatives to the
Reichsrath, being 1 representative to 63,512 inhabitants ;~Galicia 63, or 1 to
104,884 inhabitants ; Lower Austria 37, or 1 to 71,940 inhabitants ; Moravia
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — AUSTRIA PROPER 337
36, or 1 to 63,246 inhabitants; Styria 23, or 1 to 55,769 ; Tyrol 18, and
Upper Austria 17, being 1 to 45,149 and 45,624; Coastland 12, or 1 to
57,948 ; Krain (Carniola) 10, or 1 to 49,896 ; Schlesien (Silesia) 10, or 1 to
60,565 ; Karnthen (Carinthia) 9, or 1 to 40,112 ; Bukowina 9, or 1 to 71,843 ;
Dalmatia 9, or 1 to 58, 603 inhabitants. The smallest number of representa-
tives is from Vorarlberg, which sends 3, or 1 to 38,691 inhabitants. The
most highly represented province is Salzburg, which sends 5 members, or 1 to
34,702 inhabitants. The duration of the Lower House of the Reichsrath is
for the term of six years. Members of the Lower House receive 10 florins
(16*. Sd.) for each day's attendance, with an indemnity for travelling
expenses. In case of dissolution new elections must take place within
six months. The Emperor nominates the president and vice-president
of the Upper House of the Reichsrath, while those of the Lower House
are elected by the members. It is incumbent upon the head of the
State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The rights which, in consequence
of the diploma of Oct. 20,1860, and the 'Patent' of Feb. 26, 1861, have been
conferred upon the Reichsrath, are as follows : — 1st, Consent to all laws
relating to military duty ; 2nd, Co-operation in the legislation on trade and
commerce, customs, banking, postings telegraph, and railway matters ; 3rd,
Examination of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; ot
the bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds ; and general
control of the public debt. At present the rights of the Reichsrath are fixed
by the law of December 21, 1867. To give validity to bills passed by the
Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as the sanction
of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper and the Lower
House have the right to propose new laws on subjects within the competence
of the Reichsrath.
The Ministry for Austria Proper, as constituted November 11, 1893, is
as follows : —
1. Minister President. — Prince Alfred WindisckgrHtz.
2. Minister of the Interior. — Marquis Baequehem.
3. Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs — Chevalier de
Madeyski.
4. Minister of Finance. — Dr. von Plener.
5. Minister of Agriculture. — Count Julius Falkenhayn.
6. Minister of Commerce and National Economy. — Count Wurnibrand.
7. Minister of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung). — Field-marshal
Count Zeno von Welscrsheimb.
8. Minister of Justice. — Count Friedrich von ScJwcnbom.
9. Without portfolio. — Chevalier de Jaworski,
The responsibility of Ministers for acts committed in the discharge of
their official functions was established by a bill which received the sanction of
the Emperor on July 25, 1867.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — HUNGARY 339
HUNGARY.
I. Central and Provincial Government.
The Constitution of the eastern part of the monarchy, or the kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia-Slavonia, and Transylvania,
dates from the foundation of the kingdom, about 891. The first charter or
constitutional code is the ' Bulla Aurea ' of King Andrew II., granted in
1222, which defined the form of government as an aristocratic monarchy.
The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly suspended and partially
disregarded, until, at the end of the armed struggle of 1849, it was decreed to
be forfeited by the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860 ; and the present
sovereign, on June 8, 1867, swore to maintain the Constitution, and was
crowned King of Hungary.
The Hungarian Reichstag (Orszaggyules) has legislative authority for Hun-
gary, and for Croatia and Slavonia in matters which concern these provinces
in common with Hungary. It consists of an Upper House (Magnatentafel)
and a Lower House (Repraesentantentafel).
The House of Magnates, reformed by an Act passed in 1885, now includes
all hereditary peers who pay 3,000 fl. a year land tax ; 40 archbishops, bishops,
and other dignitaries of the Roman Catholic and Greek Churches ; 11 ecclesi-
astical and lay representatives of the Protestant Confessions ; 82 life peers
appointed by the Crown (a first batch of 50 was elected once for all by the
House itselt ; 17 members ex officio, being State dignitaries and high judges ;
3 delegates of Croatia-Slavonia ; and lastly, the archdukes who have attained
their majority. In the session of 1889-90 the number of archdukes was 20,
and there were 286 hereditary peers holding the property qualification.
The Lower House or House of Representatives of Hungary is composed of
representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all male citizens, of 20
years of age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, or on an
income varying with occupation ; but in all cases very low. Certain large
classes — professional, scientific, learned, and others — are entitled to vote with-
out other qualifications. The number of the electorate, according to the last
returns, was 821,241, or 1 in 18 of the population. New elections must take
place every five years. By the electoral law in force in the session of 1889, the
House of Representatives consisted of 453 members, of whom 413 were depu-
ties of Hungarian towns and districts, and 40 delegates of Croatia and Slavonia.
Members of the Lower House receive 2,400 florins (200Z.) a year, with an
allowance of 800 florins (66/. 13s.) for house rent, and they travel by State
and other railways at reduced rates.
The Reichstag is summoned annually by the King at Budapest. The
language of the Reichstag is Hungarian ; but the representatives of Croatia
and Slavonia may speak their own language.
The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry, consisting
(January 1893) of a president and nine departments, namely : —
The Presidency of the Council — Dr. Alexander fVekerle ; appointed Presi-
dent of the Council of Ministers, November 19, 1892.
1. The Ministry of Finance. — Dr. Alexander Wekerle; appointed April
9, 1889.
2. The Ministry of National Defence (Honved). — Baron Geza Fejirvdry ;
appointed October $8, 1884.
3. The Ministry near the King's person (ad lotus). — Count Louis Tisza ;
appointed December 1892.
4. The. Ministry of the Interior. — Charles de Hieronymi ; appointed
November 19, 1892.
z 2
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340 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
5. The Ministry of Education and of Public Worship.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Desiderius de Szildgyi ; appointed April 9,
1889.
7. The Ministry of Industry and Commerce. — Bala de Luk&cs; ap-
pointed July 1892
8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Count Andreas BethUn ; appointed April
1890.
9. The Minister for Croatia and Slavonia. — Emerich de Josipovich; ap-
pointed August 23, 1889.
The Croatian-Slavonian Provincial Diet, meeting annually at Agram
(Landtag), consists of 90 members, elected for five years, representing 21 town
districts and 69 rural districts, and of members (not more than one- third) with
Virilstimmen. The electors must have a low property qualification, be of
certain professions, or pay a small tax. Members with Virilstimmen are
certain ecclesiastical and political dignitaries, and the members of certain noble
families (Magnaten) possessing the right by inheritance or by royal nomination.
They must pay at least 1,000 fl. of land or property tax
II. Local Government.
In Hungary a distinction is observed between communes (Gemeinde),
which are large or small, or may be townships with regular magistrates, and
municipalities (Munizipien), which are regarded as communes of a higher order.
The communal electoral right is possessed by every inhabitant over twenty
years of age who for two years has paid the State tax. The representative
body is composed half of members elected for six years, and half of persons
who pay the highest taxes. The committee consists of members appointed, in
the towns for six years, in the rural communes for three years, with officials
appointed for life. The counties and towns invested with similar rights are
independent municipalities. Each has its council constituted similarly to the
representative body of the communes ; but. members are elected for ten years.
All electors for the Reichstag are qualified to vote. In Budapest they must be
able to read and write. The executive is in the hands of the official body of
the municipality, who sit and vote with the council (Ausschuss).
In Croatia and Slavonia each county has an assembly(Komitat8-Skuptschina)
similar to the Hungarian local representative bodies. The electoral qualifica-
tion is the same as for the Diet (Landtag). The municipalities within the
county (except Agram and Essek) send delegates, and the higher county
officials also sit and vote. In the rural communes the representative body is
the council, elected for three years ; in the towns for four years. In the
former the executive is in the hands of the magistrates ; in the latter, of the
municipal council.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The Austrian dominions — exclusive of the Turkish provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have been under the adminis-
tration of Austria-Hungary since 1878, but have not as yet been
formally incorporated with it — have an area of 622,310 square
kilometres, or 240,942 English square miles, with a population
at the census of December 31, 1890, of 41,231,342, or 171 per
square mile.
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AREA AND POPULATION
341
The following is the civil population of Austria-Hungary at
the three last censuses : —
Austria
1869
1880
1890
20,217,531
21,981,821
23,707,906
Hungary i 1
1869 i
1880
1890
15,417,327
15,642,102
17,349,398
Absolute increase
1,993,031
1,764,290
1,913,592
Yearly increase
per cent.
0*87
076
076
1,648,814
224,775
1,707,196
0-91
0*13
1-09
1 Including Croatia and Slavonia.
The following table gives the area, and total number of in-
habitants (civil and military), of the various provinces of the
Monarchy, after the returns of the censuses of December 31,
1880 and 1890 :—
Area:
Population, Dec. 31, 1890
Popula-
Provinces
English
square
Dec 31,
1880
tion per
sq. mile,
miles
Male
Female
Total
1890
Austria Proper :
Lower Austria .
7,654
2,330,621
1,307,913
1,353,886
2,661,799
347
Upper Austria .
Salzburg .
4,631
759,620
388,762
397,069
785,831
169
2,767
163,570
85,948
87,562
173,510
62
Styria.
8,670
1,213,597
635,967
646,741
1,282,708
14S
Carinthia .
4,005
348,730
176,473
184,535
361,008
91 ,
Carniola .
3,856
481,243
288,011
260,947
498,958
129
Coast land .
3,084
647,934
351,844
343,540
695,384
228
Tyrol and Vorarlberg
11,324
912,549
454,769
474,000
928,769
82
Bohemia
20,060
5,560,819
2,821,989
3,021,105
5,843,094
291
Moravia
8,583
2,153,407
1,087,340
1,189,530
2,276,870
264
Silesia
1,987
565,475
288,908
316,741
605,649
305
Galicia
30,307
5,958,907
3,260,433
3,347,383
6,607,816
218
Bukowina .
4,035
571,671
324,469
322,122
646,591
160
Dalraatia .
4,940
476,101
266,303
261,123
527,426
23,895,413
106
Total, Austria
115,908
22,144,244
11,089,129
12,206,284
206
Kingdom of Hungary :
Hungary (including
1
Transylvania) .
108,258
13,812,446
7,548,758
7,683,401
15,232,159
139 '
Croatia and Slavonia .
16,773
1,905,295
1,104,322
1,096,655
2,200,977
130
Town of Fiume .
8
21,634
14,891
15,446
80,337
3,625
Total, Hungary
125,089
15,739,375
8,667,971
8,795,502
17,468,473
139
Total, Austria-
|
Hungary .
240,942 |
37,883,619
20,357,100 '
21,001,786
41,3GS,S80
171
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Tne ethnical elements ot tne population on the basis ot
language was as follows in 1890 : —
Austria
Hungary
1890
1890
German
8,461,580
2,107,177
Bohemian,
Moravian &
Slovak .
5,472,871
1,910,279
Polish
3,719,232
—
Ruthenian .
3,105,221
383,392
Slovene
1,176,672
94,679
-
Austria
1890
Hungary
1890
Servian and
Croatian .
Italian and
Latin
Roumanian
Magyar
Gipsies
Others
644,926
675,305
209,110
8,139
2,604,260
2,591,905
7,426,730
82,256
94,679
There were 155,471 foreign residents in Austria at the com-
mencement of 1880, of whom 93,472 were Germans, 40,152
Italians, 11,654 Russians, 2,347 Turks, 2,287 Swiss, 1,947 British,
977 Greeks, 1 ,206 Americans. These are exclusive of Hungarians,
of whom there were 183,422.
Of the total population of Austria in 1880, 168,298 were
dependent on occupations connected with learning; 99,015 on
government service; 162,423 on military service; 6,161,246 on
agriculture, forestry, &c. ; 117,870 on mining and smelting;
2,157,098 on manufactures; 435,326 on commerce; 277,684 on
incomes from land, pensions, &c. ; 890,207 on domestic service ;
882,599 on day labour; 46,291 on unknown occupation; and
10,746,187 were dependent members of families. Of the total
population of Hungary in 1890 there were : —
In occupations connected with
learning
. Servants in occupations connected
with learning .
' Agriculture, forestry, &c.
I Mining industry and coramuni-
' munications .
Pensioners' Assistants.
I Day labourers .
Soldiers, gendarmerie
Other occupations
Unknown occupations
Supported by the Government
Earning
128,663
36,426
4,474,653
1,210,473
129,362
1,242,284
114,393
44,381
9,329
Supported
291,476
70,506
6,410,791
1,719,716
104,334 i
1,196,155
17,205
52,261
81,918
69,515
Total
420,139
106,932
10,905,444
2,960,189
273,696
2,438,439
131,598
96,592
91,247
69,515
7,389,914 ; 10,073,877 17,463,791
In Hungary in 1890 there were 891,0
101,491 tenant farmers, 580,217 farm
72 proprietors of farms,
servants, 334,846 day
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AREA AND POPULATION
343
labourers, 1,619,128 domestic servants, while 11,686 were em-
ployed in other ways in agricultural operations. The total
population of Hungary in 1890 consisted of: males, supporting,
5,354,341 ; supported, 3,199,441 ; females, supporting, 1,921,180 ;
supported, 6,879,436.
Practically belonging to the Austro- Hungarian monarchy, though not
incorporated with it by any treaty, is the small principality of Liechtenstein,
enclosed in the Austrian province of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, with an area of 70
English square miles and a population in 1886 of 9,593 (4,897 males and 4,696
females), nearly all Roman Catholics. The inhabitants of the principality pay
no taxes, nor are they liable to military service. The public debt amounts to
35,000 Austrian florins.
II. Movement op Population.
I. Births, Deaths, Marriages.
The following table exhibits, for the civil population, the
number of births, deaths, and marriages, with the surplus of births,
in both Austria Proper and the lands of the Hungarian Crown, for
a quinquennial period, according to the latest official returns : —
Austria Proper.
Year
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegiti- 1
mate
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
915,555
915,702
924,690
894,356
947,017
26,077
25,801
26,340
25,421
27,514
136,298 I
135,761 i
137,583 !
128,702 I
139,512 '
Marriages | Deaths
182,088
185,991
177,771
178,906
186,418
672,302
686,573
620,447
696,342
673,315
Surplus of
Living Births
217,176
203,328
277.903
172,593
246,188
The rate of illegitimacy varies from 44 per cent, in Carinthia,
27 in Salzburg, 26 in Lower Austria, 25 in Styria, 19 in Upper
Austria, to 3£ per cent, in Dalmatia.
Hungary.2
Year
Total
Births
I
Stillborn
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
758,231
759,662
767,884
714,421
756,204
13,151
14,026
12,904
13,105
14,002
Illegiti-
mate
61,819
61,911
61,468
60,042
63,426
Marriages
151,511
158,881
140,524
142,588
150,720
Deaths l
568,533
544,478
512,852
563,021
580,222
Surplus of
Births over
Deaths
176,547
201,158
242,128
151,400
175,982
The percentage of stillborn to total births in Hungary is about
1 -7. The rate of illegitimacy is 8 per cent, of the whole — con-
siderably less than in Austria.
t Excluding stillborn. 2 Including Croatia, Slavonia and Fiume.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
344
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Emigration.
The following are the emigration statistics of Austria-Hungary
for five years : —
Year
Total Emigrants
To N. America
To Argentine
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
44,394
48,567
55,667
74,002
78,524
39,087
41,665
42,170
63,119
70,711
2,498
2,333
4,225
1,918
216
According to United States statistics: in 1889, 26,424
Austrians and 15,746 Hungarians arrived there; in 1890,
38,125 Austrians and 24,994 Hungarians; in 1891, 43,163
Austrians, and 27,548 Hungarians.
III. Principal Towns.
The following were the populations of the principal towns on
December 31, 1890:—
Austria :—
; Krakau
76,025
Laibach
30,691
Vienna .
1,364,548
Czernowitz
57,403
Eolomea
30,160
Prague
184,109
Pilsen
50,693
Budweis
28,730
Trieste .
158,344
Linz .
47,560
Salzburg
27,741
Lemberg .
128,419
Pola.
39,273
Tarnopol .
26,097
Gratz
113,540
Przemysl .
35,619
Wiener-Neu8tadt25, 324
Briinn
ITTTWflA'DV • —
95,342
1 Reichenberg 31,033 Aussig
24,083
Budapest
506,384
Funfkirchen
33,780
Szegedin
87,210
Klausenburg
32,729
Maria-There8iopol
72,683
Mak6 .
32,725
Debreczin
56,996
B6k£s-Csaba
32,244
H6d-Mez6-Vasarhely .
55,483
Szertes
30,758
Pressburg
52,444
Kronstadt .
.
30,724
Kecskemet .
48,234
Miskolcz
30,444
Arad .
41,945
Fele^yhaza .
Kaschau
30,406
Temesvar
39,850
29,196
Grosswardein
38,219
Fiume .
.
29,001
Agram
.
37,369
Eeligion.
In Austria the relation of the State to the religious bodies is
regulated by the statutes of December 21, 1867, and of May 25,
1868. In these the leading principle is religious liberty, the
independence of the Church as regards the State, saving the rights
of the sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity. Full liberty
of faith and conscience is secured, and the enjoyment of civil
and political rights is independent of religious profession. Every
religious body legally recognised has the right of ordinary public
worship, the management of its own affairs, and the undisturbed
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RELIGION
345
possession of its premises^ endowments, and funds for the purposes
of worship, instruction, or charity. Recognised religious bodies
in Austria are: — The Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, Greek-
Oriental, Evangelical (Augsburg or Lutheran, and Helvetian or
Reformed), the Evangelical Brotherhood, the Gregorian-Armenian,
and the Jewish. The Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs will
grant legal recognition to any religious bodies if their doctrine,
worship, constitution, and designation contain nothing illegal or
immoral (Statute of May 20, 1874).
In Hungary there is perfect equality among all legally recog-
nised religions. These are : — The Roman Catholic, the Evan-
gelical (Augsburg and Helvetian), the Greek-Oriental, the
Gregorian-Armenian, the Unitarian, and the Jewish. Each has
the independent administration of its own affairs.
The following figures relate to 1885 and 1889 : —
I Austria, 1885 I Hungary, 1889 j
Priests, regular and secular :-
Roman Catholic Church
Greek Catholic Church
Greek Oriental Church
Members of orders : —
Male
Female ...
Protestant clergy .
Jewish clergy
15,732
2,332
543
6,565
10,281
230
5,464
2,463
2,494
2,029
2,246
3,722
769
The following table gives the division of the population
according to religion on the basis of the census of 1890 for
Austria and Hungary.
Austria, 1890
Hunga
In l.OOO's
8,820
ry, 1890
1 In 1,000's
. ! 18,934
per cent.
1 of pop.
' 79 2
1 percent, of
, Pop.
Roman Catholics
50-84
Greek Catholics
2,814
, 11-8
1,668
9*61
Armenian Catholics
3
—
—
Old Catholics
8
j —
—
Greek Oriental
545
1 2-4
2,632
15-17
Armenian Oriental
1
—
—
Evangelical .
436
1-8
3,430
19-77
Unitarian
—
-
61
0 36
Other Christian sects
6
—
—
Jews .
1 1,143
4-8 '
725
4-18
Others .
5
. r i
12
0 07
Total .
23,895
i
100 0 |
17,348
100 00
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346 AUSTKIA-HUNGARY
Instruction.
The educational organisation of Austria-Hungary comprises : —
(1) Elementary schools; (2) Gymnasia and Realschulen; (3)
JJniversities and colleges ; (4) Technical high schools ; and
(5) Schdbls for special subjects.
The progress of elementary education in Austria and in
Hungary between the census of 1880 and that of 1890 is shown
in the following statement : —
Population
Read and write . . 10,930,099
Readonly . . . ' 1,345,781
Neither read nor write . 9,858,364
Hungary
1880 1890
13,258,452 5,389,190. 7,326,372
1,031,624: 911,5571 557,854,
9,605,337' 9,341,355| 9,465,172:
22,134,244; 23,895,413| 15,642,102) 17,349,398;
The erection of elementary schools is incumbent on the school
districts. In both Austria and Hungary compulsory attendance
begins with the completion of the sixth year ; in Croatia and
Slavonia, of the seventh ; and continues in Austria generally, till
the completion of the fourteenth; but in Istria, Galicia, and
Dalmatia, as also in Hungary, till the completion of the twelfth
(Bukowina, thirteenth) year. Of these schools there are in
Austria two grades ; in Hungary, three.
In the elementary schools in Austria the subjects taught are religion, read-
ing, writing, language (Unterrichts-Sprache), arithmetic with elementary
geometry, some branches of natural history and physics, geography, history,
drawing, singing ; to boys, gymnastics ; to girls, domestic duties. The cost of
erecting and maintaining elementary and burgh schools, and the payment of
the teaching staff, are defrayed in different ways in different places ; but the
expense always falls ultimately on the communes or the land. In only a few
special cases are elementary schools supported by the State.
The following figures show the latest statistics of school attendance, and
the number of training colleges : —
1 - EIeta7" Teachers! Pupils 2£2a£ 'X?
| Schools ' School Age Colleges
Austria (1891) . 18,666 63,159 ! 3,156,618 3,655,958 70
Hungary (1891) 16,870 25,133 , 2,117,582 | 2,591,376 71
In Hungary there were besides, 729 institutions for the care of young children.
89 ' humanistic' schools,and 30 prison schools with a total attendance of 70,283.
The Gymnasia and Realschulen are schools whose practical purpose consists
especially in the preparation they supply for the universities and technical high
schools. The curriculum of the former extends over eight years ; of the latter,
over seven. They are, so far as they are public, maintained by the State, by
separate provinces, by the larger communes, or (in the case of confessional
schools) by ecclesiastical foundations, &c, eventually with a subvention from
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INSTRUCTION
347
the State. Private middle schools are included in the following table ; these
are under the same regulations as public schools :-
1892
Austria .
Hungary, exceptCroatia
j Monarchy.
Gymnasia
Realschulen
No.
"i^T
151
Teachers
3,554
2,477
Pupils
53,109
37,371
No.
77
109
Teachers
Pupils
20,296
7,890
28,186
1,438
665
2,103
328
6,031
90,480
In Austria-Hungary there are eleven universities maintained by the State,
each comprising four faculties— viz. theology, law, medicine, philosophy. In
some of the smaller, however, the faculty of medicine, and in some that
of theology, is absent.
Universities
Profes- 1
sors, Ac.
Austria (1892):
Vienna .
{German
Bohe-
mian
Graz
Cracow
Lemberg .
Innsbruck
Students
Universities
I Profes-
, sors, Ac.
374
152
152
135
122
73
105
4,919
1,248
2,354
1,323
1,196
1,193
849
Czernowitz
37
Total (Austria) . 1,150
Hungary (1891) :
Budapest .
Klausenburg .
Agram .
Total (Hungary) .
Students
301
13,3
185
62
49
296
3,464
621
413
4,498
In addition to the universities there are in Austria 45 theological colleges,
viz. : — 43 Catholic, 1 Greek Oriental, and 1 Protestant, with a total of 2,246
students ; in Hungary 55 theological colleges, viz. : — 36 Catholic, 4 Greek
Oriental, 14 Protestant, and 1 Jewish, with a total of 1,829 students. In
Hungary there are 11 law schools with 815 students.
There are seven Government technical high schools for various branches of
engineering and technical chemistry. In 1892 the numbers were : —
Vienna
Budapest
;
Bohemian
German .
Teachers
Students
94
789
77
718
70
380
47
189
Graz
Lemberg
Briinn .
Teachers Students
54
50
43
178
177
198
428 | 2,502
There are besides about 1,500 special technical institutes in Austria and
449 in Hungary, training in agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music,
mining, commerce, &c, with 150,000 students.
Included in these (1891) were 125 commercial schools in Austria and 98 in
Hungary; 702 industrial schools in Austria and 265 in Hungary ; 97 agri-
cultural schools in Austria and 39 in Hungary ; 8 forestry schools, 6
schools of mining, 3 nautical schools, and 8 veterinary schools in Austria ;
9 art schools in Hungary, and 342 music schools in Austria.
In Hungary, by the Trade Law of 1884, every commune, where there are
50 or more apprentices, is bound to provide special instruction. The first
schools were established in Budapest in 1887, and numbered 12, with 125
i
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348
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
teachers and 5, 173 pupils. In 1888 the numbers were 16 schools, 151 teachers,
and 6,459 pupils. In the other towns and countries of Hungary there were
229 schools for apprentices, with 1,237 teachers and 38,081 pupils.
In 1891, 1,864 periodicals of various kinds were published in Austria,
and 834 in Hungary. Of the former, 99 were daily papers.
In Hungary Proper 81 49 per cent, of the children were at elementary
schools in 1889. In the Hungarian elementary schools the language of
1,037,399 children was Magyar, 308,538 German, 242,257 Roumanian, 270,396
Slovenian, 154,949 Servian, Croatian, Ruthenian, or other language. There
were 100,099 Jewish children.
In 7,200 of the public elementary schools in Austria (1891) the language used
was German ; in 4,510 Czech«(mainly in Bohemia and Moravia) ; and in 4,656,
other Slav dialects ; 825 Italian, 96 Roumanian, 3 Magyar ; and in 416 more
than one language. According to official statistics, 86 per cent, of the chil-
dren of school age were attending school in Austria in 1891.
Justice and Crime.
In Austria the ordinary judicial authorities are : —
(1) The Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassation (Oberste
Gerichts-und Kassationshof) in Vienna. (2) The higher provincial courts
(Oberlandesgerichte). (3) The provincial and district courts (Landes- und
Kreisgerichte), and, in connection with these, the jury courts (Geschwo-
renengerichte). (4) The county courts (Bezirksgerichte). Of these, the
third and fourth groups are courts of first instance ; the second group consists
of courts of second instance. Courts of first instance act as courts of inquiry
and have summary jurisdiction. Courts of second instance are courts of
appeal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts
in their jurisdiction. The jury courts try certain cases where severe penalties
arc involved, political offences, and press offences. The county courts exercise
jurisdiction in cases of misdemeanour in the counties, and co-operate in pre-
liminary proceedings regarding crime.
There are in all for Austria 68 provincial and 916 county or district courts.
There exist also special courts for commercial, revenue, military, and other
matters.
In case of conflict between different authorities? the Imperial Court
(Reichsgericht) in Vienna has power to decide.
For Hungary with Fiume the judicial authorities are : — The Royal Court
( Kuria) in Budapest, of the highest instance in all civil and criminal matters ;
11 Royal Courts of Justice, of second instance. As courts of first instance, 65
courts (Gerichtshbfe), with collegiate judgeships ; 384 county courts
(Bezirksgerichte), with single judges ; 10 jury courts (Geschworenengerichte),
for press offences, besides an army special court.
Convictions
Of crimes
Of less serious offences
Of misdemeanours
Number of prisoners in penal
establishments at end of year :
Males .
Females ...
Austria
1888 • 1889
1 28,112 I 28,510 i
4,830 ' 4,936 ,
536,740 I 542,714
0,364 I
1,475
9,319 ,
1,436
1890
29,090
5,512
536,801
9,226
1,334
Hungary
1887
11,984
73,396
281,212
5,345
572
1880
12,195 ' 10,891'
78,854 ' 75,964
814,700 I —
5,660 I —
582 —
There are 16 penal establishments in Austria for males, ami 6 for females
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PAUPERISM — FINANCE
349
Pauperism.
The right to poor relief is defined by an imperial statute, but the regula-
tions for the apportionment of the cost are made by the separate provinces,
and are consequently very various. The funds first available are those of the
public institutions for the poor (Armeninstitutionen), derived from endow-
ments, voluntary contributions, the poors' third of the property left by in-
testate secular priests, and certain percentages on the proceeds of voluntary
sales. In some provinces the poors' funds are augmented from other sources,
e.g. theatre money (Spectakelgelder), hunting licences, dog certificates, and in
some large towns percentages on legacies over a fixed amount. When, in any
given case, these funds are exhausted, the commune of origin (Heimatsgemeinde)
must make provision. Those who are wholly or partially unfit for work may
be provided for in such manner as the commune judges propose. Besides
Crs' houses and money relief, there exists in many provinces, by custom or
constitutional rule, the practice of assigning the poor — in respect of board
and lodging — to each of the resident householders in fixed succession.
In some provinces unions (Verbande) have been formed by statute to
undertake certain burdens as to poor relief. By the erection of houses for
forwarding vagrants to their proper communes (Schubstationen) a great step
was taken towards the suppression of begging and vagrancy.
The following table shows the number of offices for the poor (Armenin-
stituten) in Austria during the five years 1886-90, the number of persons
relieved by them, and the amount distributed : —
Year
Institutes
Persons relieved
Distributed
Florins
1886
10,645
288,951
4,347,159
1887
10,488
290,674
4,517,204
1 1888
10,940
288,742
4,668,974
! 1889
10,961
281,467
4,609,262
1890
j
11,058
297,915
4,750,349
Besides these there were, in 1890, houses for the children of the poor,
orphan asylums, Kindergartens, &c, to the number of 1,192 and 1,822
poor houses (Yersorgungsanstal ten). In these, 53,152 persons were relieved,
3,931,416 fl. being spent upon them, the average being 0*21 fl. for one day's
maintenance for each person.
Finance.
There are three distinct budgets : the first, that of the Dele-
gations, for the whole monarchy ; the second, that of the
Reichsrath, for Austria ; and the third, that of the Hungarian
Diet, for the Kingdom of Hungary.
I. Whole Monarchy.
The cost of the administration of common affairs is borne by
both halves of the monarchy in a proportion agreed on from time
to time by the Reichsrath and Reichstag, and sanctioned by the
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350
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Emperor. By the agreement in force, the net proceeds of the
common customs are deducted from the amount required ; then
2 per cent, of the remainder is debited to Hungary ; and, lastly,
of this remainder 70 per cent, is paid by Austria, and 30 per cent,
by Hungary. A common loan may be taken, and the floating
debt, consisting of bills, is guaranteed jointly by both. The other
debts are not regarded as common ; but Hungary pays, on account
of ordinary debt contracted before 1868, a yearly sum of 30,312,920
florins.
The following table shows the expenditure, and the sources
from which the revenue was obtained, in thousands of florins,
for the years indicated, those for 1892, 1893, and 1894 being
the sanctioned estimates : —
Years
1870
109,119
1880 ! 1889 | 1890
1891 | 1892 1893 [ 1894
Expenditure
115,760 147,344 ! 140,910
142,529 136,469! 141,144
147,926
Revenue from cus-
! (
I
toms .
12,551 ! 4,908 39,78i' j 41,528
44,865
40,155i 42,283
44,370
Proportional con-
tribution of both
parts of the mon-
archy : —
,
Contribution of
1
>
Austria
67,598
76,044 71,799 i 68,175
66,998
66,071 67,819
69,202
Hungary .
28,970
34,808 ! 32,864 31,206
30,666
30,243 31,042
29,658
The budget estimates for the ' common affairs of the monarchy*
were as follows for the year 1894 : —
Sources of Revenue
Foreign Affairs .
War and Marine .
Finance
Board of Control
Surplus from customs
Florins
116,500
2,555,440
5,068
484
44,370,180
Sources of Revenue
Hungary's 2 per cent.
Austria's quota .
Hungary's quota
Total
Florins
2,017,566
69,202,528
29,658,226
147,925,992
Branches of Expenditure
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War { ^
Ministry of Finance .
Board of Control
Total
Ordinary
Florins
' 3,690,900
114,882,703
10,012,680
2,025,100 !
126.644 '
Extraordinary
Florins
46,400
14,576,565
2,565,000
Total
Florins
3,737,300
129,459,268 ,
12,577,680
2,025,100
126,644
130,738,027 17,187,965 147,925.990
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FINANCE
351
For the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 1892
the expenditure is estimated at 10, 136,1 49 florins, and revenue
10,187,450 florins. There was besides an extraordinary estimate
of 3,610,000 florins for 1894 for the expenses of the army in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
II. Austria and Hungary.
The following table shows the expenditure and revenue of
Austria and nui
ngary in
thousands or florins : —
Years
1880
1887
1888
1889
551,254
89,134
640,388
565,019
89,134
1890
1891
AUSTKIA.
' Expenditure: —
i Total in cash .
, , in bills .
432,075
41,303
473,378
445, 9?5
37,428
483,363
272,981
7,551
6,508
2,609
289,649
566,903
182,685
567,310
115,975
559,598
88,457
648,055
587,091 i
88,416 ,
Total .
749,588
580,946
170,569
683,285
675,507 |
1 Revenue: —
Total in cash .
,, in bills .
535,841
129,072
582,163
88,457
670,620
323,796
63,106
600,708
88,416 '
Total .
751,615
664,913
654,153
689,124
Hungary.
Expenditure : —
Ordinary
Transitory
Investments .
Extraordinary
expenditure
325,954
2,435
17,743
4,151
350,283
321,646
28,637
321,776
4,954
16,210
19,104
362,043
335,027
52,933
319,031
494,847
813,878
341,971
J473,5571
j
i
377,877 '
i
108,306 !
Total .
386,902
486,183
Revenue: —
Ordinary
1 Transitory
Extraordinary
214,822
17,529
84
373,223
46,949
403,333 •
83,321 !
1 Total .
1
262,435
350,283
387,960
815,528
420,172
486,654
Increase due to special financial operations.
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352
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Austria Proper.
The revenue and expenditure were given as follows in the
estimates for the year 1894-95 : —
i
Revenue
Florins
Ordinary
Council of Ministers
Ministry of Interior
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Worship
and Education
Ministry of Finance
Administration
Direct taxes :
Land tax
House tax
Industry tax
Income tax
Other taxes
Total direct taxes
Customs
Indirect taxes :
Excise .
Salt
Tobacco
Stamps .
Judicial fees .
Lottery.
Various .
Total indirect taxes
State properties
Ministry of Commerce :
Posts and telegraphs
Railways
Various .
Ministry of Agriculture :
Forests and domains
Mines .
Various .
Ministry of Justice .
Various .
742,600
1,071,352
314,405
6,157,204
3,294,849
35,890,000
30,713,000
11,659,000
28,698,000
3,085,000
110,045,000
43,404,777
108,865,080
21,007,602
86,616,450
20,442,000
37,419,000
16,678,000
2,571,500
293,599,632
5,178,830
36,825,000
123,857,130
3,506,880
5,001,960
7,910,921
643,358
1,007,000
309,035
Total ordinary revenue 602, 608, 033
Extraordinary revenue 1 6, 497, 746
Total revenue
619,105,779
Expenditure
Ordinary
Imperial household
Imperial Cabinet Chan-
cery
Reichsrath
Supreme Court .
Council of Ministers
Ministry of the Interior
Ministry of National
Defence
Ministry of Public
Worship and Edu-
cation :
Central Establish-
ments .
Public Worship
Education
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Finance .
Ministry of Justice .
Ministry of Commerce
Board of Control
Interest and sinking
fund of public debt
Management of ditto
Pensions and grants .
Subventions
Cisleithan portion of
the common expen-
diture of the
Empire, including
War and Foreign
Affairs .
Total ordinary expen-
diture .
Extraordinary expen-
diture ,
Total expenditure
Florins
4,650,000 ,
74,627
746,939
22,400
1,091,493
18,458,896
17,989,840
1,758,145
7,148,050
14,196,609
14,108,253
88,190,825
21,307,820
101,268,120
177,600
158,328,038
606,400
18,694,750
6,065,135
107,875,608
582,759,548
35,934,689
618,694,237
Hungary.
The budget estimates for the year 1894 give the sources of
revenue and branches of expenditure as follows : —
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FINANCE — PUBLIC DEBT
353
I
Revenue.
Ordinary revenue : Florins
State debts . . 3,602,001
Accountant-General's office —
Ministry ad lotus . 800
of the Interior 1,120,833
„ Finance . 289,541,012
„ Commerce 104,351,996
„ Agriculture 15,543,360
,, Instruction
and Public Worship 1,337,748
Florins
Ministry of Justice . 735,807
,, „ National
Defence . . . 371,540
Total of ordinary
revenue . . 416,608,097
Transitory revenue . 48,395,898
Grand total .465,003,942
Expenditure.
Ordinary expenditure :
Florins
Florins
Civil list .
4,650,000
Ministry for Croatia . 40,760
Cabinet chancery
74,627
„ of the Interior 13,304,360
Diet
1,731,625
„ of Finance . 67,694,963
Quota of common ex-
„ of Commerce 70,824,062
penditure
26,278,772
,, of Agriculture 15,960,034
Pensions chargeable on
,, of Instruction
the common exchequer 37, 032
and Public Worship 8,681,659
Pensions (Hungary) .
7,608,193
Ministry of Justice . 14,872,139
National debt .
126,941,363
„ of National
Debts of guaranteed
Defence . . . 13,797,861
railways now taken
over by the State .
13,670,807
Total of ordinary
Guaranteed railway
expenses . . 394,532,835
interests
644,657
Transitory expenditure 47, 576, 883
Administration of
Investments, total of . 16,351,972
Croatia .
7,159,702
Extraordinary common
Accountant-General's
expenditure . . 6,530,561
office .
144,545
Minister-Presidency .
355,420
Total . . . 469,992,554
Ministry ad lotus
60,304
This shows a surplus of 11,688 florins. The estimates of the
previous year were : — Revenue, 486,653,643 florins ; expenditure,
486,183,521 florins ; surplus, 11,688 florins.
III. Public Debt.
The following table shows the growth of the debt of the
monarchy in thousands of florins : —
-
1880
1890
1892
1893
General debt .
Austria's special debt
Hungary's „ „
tal .
2,755,828
408,616
1,093,834
2,761,667
1,058,813
1,930,115
2,788,405
1,075,500
2,218,719
2,823,792
1,219,184
4,258,278
5,750,595
6,081,624
Digitized by VjOOQIC
\
354 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
There is, besides, a common floating debt amounting in 1893
to 411,994,377 florins. The cost of the general debt in 1893
was estimated at 128,133,415 florins, of which 97,821,879 florins
was borne by Austria, and 30,311,536 florins by Hungary. The
cost of the special debt of Austria was estimated at 55,932,039
florins.
Defence.
I. Fbontibe.
Austria-Hungary lies in the heart of Europe. The total
length of frontier is 5,396 miles. In the S. the frontier line
towards the Adriatic Sea is 1,050 miles. The land frontier
is formed in the "W. by Bavaria, the canton of St. Gallen,
Lichtenstein, the Canton Graubiinden, and Italy ; in the S. by
Italy, Montenegro, Herzegovina, and Bosnia, Servia, and
Roumania ; in the E. by Roumania ; in the N.E. and N. by
Russia; in the N. by Prussia, and in the N.W. by Saxony.
Natural frontiers are the Fichtel Mountains, the Bohmerwald,
the Inn, and the Salzach towards Bavaria ; the Saale, the Alps,
and the Rhine towards St. Gall ; the High Alps towards
Graubiinden and Italy ; the Lago di Garda and Carnic Alps also
towards Italy; towards Herzegovina and Bosnia, the Dinoric
Alps, the Unna and Save ; towards Servia, Save and Danube ;
towards Roumania, the Banat, Siebenburgen, and Bucovinian
Carpathians ; towards Russia, the Dniester and Vistula ; towards
Prussia, the Riesen and Iser Gebirge ; towards Saxony, the Erz-
Gebirge.
The following are the chief territorial defences : — In Bohemia :
Josephstadt and Theresienstadt, fortified towns ; in Galicia :
Cracow, fortified and entrenched camp at Przemysl. Hungary
and Transylvania : on the left of the Theiss, Karlsburg,
Arad, and Temesvar ; on the Danube, Komorn, Peter-
wardein, and Orsova ; on the Drave, Essegg. Croatia : Brod,
Gradiska, Karlstadt on the right of the Save. In Dalmatia are
the coast fortifications of Zara, Ragusa, Cattaro, Sebenico,
Budua, and Lissa island ; in Istria, Pola, fortified naval harbour.
The Alpine frontiers in Tyrol have numerous defences on all
the routes, and also between Tyrol and the Adriatic. In Bosnia
and Herzegovina are numerous old fortifications. The Austrian
capital, Vienna, is undefended. Pola, the chief naval port,
is strongly fortified, both towards sea and land, and has been
recently enlarged, so as to be able to accommodate the entire
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356
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
the marine. There are besides 4 recruiting districts in Bosnia and Herze-
govina. The two Landwehrs have 186 battalions and 16 cavalry regiments
in Austria and Hungary, under separate administrations from the army,
for which, however, the recruits are taken out of the districts named
before. Each .infantry regiment has five battalions, so that the infantry
has 510 battalions. There are besides 30 battalions of ordinary chasseurs,
and one regiment forming 12 battalions of Tyrolean Chasseurs. There are
21 brigades, forming 42 regiments of cavalry, subdivided jinto squadrons ;
14 regiments of corps artillery, consisting in peace of 153 heavy, 28 light,
16 riding, and 12 mountain batteries, and 1 division of mountain batteries ;
6 regiments and 3 separate battalions of fortress artillery ; 15 battalions of
pioneers, and one regiment of 12 companies for constructing railway and
telegraph. The Hungarian Landwehr (Honv£d) has 94 battalions of infantry
forming 28 regiments, and 10 regiments of cavalry, each consisting of
6 squadrons. The following table shows the actual strength (officers and
men) of the Austro-Hungarian army in 1893 : —
Peace Footing
War Footing
-
Army
Land-
wehr
Total
Army
Land-
wehr
Land-
stunn
Total
Infantry
191,090
15,148
206,238
641,877
322,664
450,644
1,415,185
Cavalry
48,846
15,207
64,053
71,862
20,413
8,620
100,895
Field artillery .
i 27,267
—
27,267
81,569
—
—
81,569
Fortress artillery
7,766
—
7,766
22,446
4,428
—
26,874
Technical troops .
10,148
10,148
27,744
4,422
—
32,166
Train ....
8,874
—
3,874
45,586
—
—
45,586
Sanitary
6,919
—
6,910
21,608
—
—
21,608
Other special troops .
Staff officers, <fcc. .
7,072
_
7,072
\
4,116
—
4,116
6,500
] 8,200
—
29,700
Establishments .
Total .
9,844
—
9,844
20,000
1
316,942
30,355
847,297
939,192
855,127
459,264
1,753,583
The infantry is armed with the Mannlicher rifle.
In case of war the number of men who could be obliged to
serve in the Landsturm is over 4,000,000. In peace the number
of guns, exclusive of fortress artillery, is 912, in war 1,864. In
peace there are 58,414 horses, in war 279,8
k
in. Navy.
The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defensive force, maintained
in a state of high efficiency, and including a flotilla of monitors for the
Danube. It is administered by the Naval Department of the Ministry of
War. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola, and there are other establish-
ments upon the Dalmatian coast. There has been a gradual increase in the
naval expenditure, the votes of 1891 having been 11,550,941 fl., while the
estimates for 1894 are 12,477,680 fl. The policy pursued is to reconstruct
such of the old vessels as are capable of being adapted to modern require-
ments, and to replace others. Thus the estimates of 1894 include instalments
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DEFENCE — NAVY
357
for three so-called "coast-defence" armour clads, A, B, and C, which are to
take the place of the old* wooden ships Habsburg, Lissa, and the iron ship
Kaiser Max or Prince Eugen. Bating these last-named ships among the port-
defence vessels, and including the ships in course of construction, the Austrian-
Hungarian fleet is thus constituted 1 : —
Battleships, 1st Class . . . . . . . 1 "|
2nd „ 5V- 8
3rd „ 2j
Port-Defence Ships (including the Danube Monitors) . . 10
Cruisers 1st Class (a) 1\
>t 2nd „ U qq
„ 3rd „ (a) 16 f 66
,.„,.« W
Torpedo Boats, 1st Class 24^
2nd , 5 V 55
3rd „ 26j
106
The following table shows the armour-clad ships of the Austro-Hungarian
navy in similar arrangement to that adopted for the British navy. The ships
in italics are port defence vessels. The numbers following the names of the
others indicate the classes to which they have been assigned in the foregoing
table. Abbreviations : — b. broadside ; e. b. central battery ; bar. barbette ;
Q.F. quickfiring.
1
ft
1
P
Name
"3
i
i
II
.2 •
Q
o
1
-|
u
si
4
!
ce
•3
c
B
o
b.
Habsburg
1865
5,140
5
14 7-in., 4 3J
-in., 2 2|
-in.. -
- 3,500
lO'O
e.*b.
Li$»a ....
L869
6,080
6
129j-in., 4 3.
-in., 2 2
-in.. -
- 4,400
12-5
e.b.
Kaiser ....
L871
5,810
6
10 9-in., 6 3
-in., 2 2
-in.. J
\ 3,200
12-0
e.b.
Custoza . 3
1872
7,060
9
810-in., 6 3
-in., 2 2
-in.. 4
[ 4,400
14-0
e.b.
Erzherzog Albreoht 8
1872
5,940
9
8 9i-in., 6 3
-in., 2 2J
-in.. 4
[ 3,600
13-0
e.b.
Kaiser Max .
1875
3,550
8
8 84-in., 4 SJ
-in., 2 2
-in., i
: 2,700
12*5
e.b.
Don Juan de Austria .
1875
3,550
8
8 84-in., 4Sl
fin., 2 2\
-in.. *
I 2,700
125
e.b.
Print Eugen
1877
3,550
8
8 8i-in., 4 3
-in., 2 2\
-in., i
I 2,700
12-5
e.b.
Tegetthoff . . 2
1878
7,390
14
611-in., 6 3
-in., 2 2*
-in..
2 5,000
14-0
bar.
Rrzherzog Rudolf 1
1887
6,870
12
3 12-in., 6 *
-in.. 2 2
-in..
i 7,500
160
bar.
Erzherzogin Stefanie 2
"A,""B,"and"C."2
1887
5,060
5,550
9
212-in., 6 6-in., 2 2
t-in.. .
i 8,300
17*0
RlVKB MONITORS—
Leitha ....
1871
310
H
26-in.
- 200
8-0
Maros ....
1871
810 i 1$
2 6-in.
- 200
8*0
Koros ....
1892
448 ! -
24}-in., 2Q.P.
24}-in., 2Q.F.
- 1,250
10 0
Szamos
1892
448 —
- 1,250
10-0
First-class Cruiser—
.
ram.
Maria Theresia .
1893
5,250 —
29i-in., 6 6-in., 11 Q. P..
4 9,800
19-0
The sister ram-cruisers Kaiser Franz Josef and Kaiserin Elisabeth closely
resemble the Kaiserin und Konigin Maria Theresia, but being of less than
i For the system of classification adopted, see Introductory Table. Transports, training
Hhips, and other like vessels are not included.
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358
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
5,000 tons (actually 4,000) are not here counted as first-class cruisers. In the
artillery column given above machine guns are not indicated.
Personnel. — The peace-footing in 1893-94 is as follows : — Officers and
cadets, 706 ; petty officeis and men, including the engineer ratings, &c,
7,389; auditors, doctors, chaplains, paymasters, shipbuilding engineers, &c.,
443. Total, 8,538.
The Seewehr, corresponding to the Landwehr, was created in 1888, and the
term of service in army and navy are now alike.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The interests of agriculture fall to the care of the ministry of
that department, under which are numerous local organisations
for the direction and encouragement of the industry, besides many
private societies.
The cultivation of the soil is at the head of the industries of
the monarchy, since (if we include the forests) it furnishes employ-
ment to nearly three-tenths of the population ; and if family and
house servants be included, the proportion rises to more than half
the population in Austria, and still higher in Hungary.
According to an official statement of 1893 the ownership of
land in Hungary was as follows : —
Ownership
State .
Foundation .
Railways
Fideicommiss
Districts and Parishes
Companies
Church .
Educational .
Private .
Total
Acres
3,963,391
353,991
59,704
3,342,597
12,338,930
617,615
3,229,257
189,145
45,631,540
69,726,170
Percentage of
total area
5*68
•51
•10
4*79
17 69
•89
4*63
•27
65 44
100 00
According to a statement of 1888 the size of properties in
Hungary and the number of proprietors was : —
Number
Total Area.
Acres
Under 43 acres |
43 — 286 „ |
; 286 — 1,430 „ 1
J 1,430 — 14,300 ,,
! Over 14,300 ,, |
2,348,107
118,981
13,757
4,695
231
21,489,900
9,639,600
20,363,200
9,523,800
5,619,900
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — AGRICULTURE
359
As to the distribution of the soil, we have the following results taken
from the latest official figures : —
-
Percentage of total area
Arable and garden land .
Vineyard
Pastures and meadows
Woodlands ....
Lakes and fishponds .
Total area subject to taxation .
Exempt from taxes .
Totals ....
Anstrjla
36-7
0-8
23-8
32*6
0-4
Hungary
42-58
1-32
23-74
26*84
0 32
Whole
Monarchy
38 9
11
23 9
30*2
0 3
94*3
57
9470
5*30
94-4
5-6
100-0
100-00
100-0
The following tables show, for Austria and Hungary, the area in thousands
of hectares (2 47 acres) of the leading crops, the total produce in thousands of
hectolitres (2*75 bushels dry, 22 gallons liquid measure), or of metre-centners
(1 *96, or nearly 2 cwt ), and also the produce per hectare in hectolitres or
metre-centners ; excluding grasses of all kinds (for which see table, p.
360).
Austria, 1892
Hungary, 1892
Area in
Produce
Produce
Area in
Produce
Produce
—
1,000
in 1,000
hectare
in hectol.
1,000
in 1,000
hectare
in hectolitres
hectares
hectolitres
hectares
hectolitres
Hectolitres
Wheat .
1,125
17,681
15-7
8,064
50,239
16-40
Barley .
1,112
21,804
19-6
1,043
18,317
11-55
Oats
1,873
39,683
21-2
1,009
22,007
21-91
Rye
1,967
29,536
15-0
1,106
16,414
14-83
Pulse
281
3,462
12-3
47
584
12-42
Buckwheat .
193'
1,558
8-1
—
—
—
Maize
367
6,783
18-5
2,089
41,075
19 65
Other cereals .
Total cereals
Potatoes
97
1,469
15-1
—
—
—
7,015
121,976
-
8,358
457
148,636
-
1,099
95,3161
86-71
40,101
87'66
Sugar beet
256
55,1561
215-51
72
18,3681
184-841J
Beet (other) .
169
28,0731
166-11
131
80,0581
229-541
Vineyards
245
3,460
141
248
796
8-20
Tobacco .
8-2
57'31
17-91
40
5351
13-371
Hops
14-9
64-91
4-41
—
—
—
Hemp .
44-0
285-61
541
67
4731
7-011
Rape
35 4
408-31
11-51
52
345
10-38
i Metre-centners
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360
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The proportion of productive land in Austria is greatest in Dalmatia,
Silesia, Moravia, Bukowina, Bohemia, and Galicia ; least in Salzburg and
Tyrol.
The following table shows the average produce of the leading crops in
hectolitres per hectare for the ten years (1881-90) for Austria, and 1880-89 for
Hungary : —
-
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Oats
Make
Pulse
Potatoes
Wine
Sugar
Beet
Austria
Hungary
14-20
12*89
14-07
12-71
16-56
16*90
19-10
19*29
16-91
17-56
10-29
12-04
101-41
89-28
16-70
11-91
198-151
185-881
i Metre-centners.
Barley and wine are most largely exported, though in some years con-
siderable quantities of wheat are also exported.
The following table shows the statistics of live stock in 1890 of Austria,
and 1884 for Hungary and Croatia : —
_
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
Goats
Austria .
Hungary
Croatia .
1,548,197
1,748,859
217,112
8,643,936
4,879,038
712,805
3,186,787
10,594,831
588,638
3,549,700
4,803,639
468,053
1,035,832
270,192
99,424
The total value of the Austrian live stock was estimated at 487 million
florins. Both in Austria and Hungary the export of horses, cattle, and sheep
far exceeds the imports.
Silk-culture, by the law of 1885, is exclusively in the hands of the
Government. In Hungary, in 1892, 76,397 families were engaged in silk-
culture, as compared with 1,059 in 1879. In 1892 the produce of cocoons
was 970,248 kilogrammes, compared with 2,507 kilogrammes in 1879. The
produce of cocoons in Austria in 1891 was 1,506,524 kilogrammes.
There are 105 agricultural institutions in Austria, with 3,016 pupils
in 1891 ; 39 in Hungary, with 1,996 pupils.
i
i
II. FOEESTBY.
The administration of the forests and domains belonging to the State is
in the hands of (a) the Administrators of Forests and Domains (the heads of
husbandry) ; (b) the Direction of Forests and Domains ; (c) the Ministry of
Agriculture. Under the Administration of Domains and Forests is an
extensive association of forestry officials, and schools of various grades for
practical training in forestry.
feThe total area under forest in Austria (1890) is 9,782, 420 hectares, and of this
6,851,000 hectares are under pines, and 1,417,000 hectares under other trees.
In Hungary the total area is 9,183,000 hectares, of which 1,745,500 hectares
Digitized by VjOOQIC
FORESTKY — MINING
361
are under pines, and 4,824,300 hectares under other trees. The forests are
mostly situated in the Carpathians and the Alps, as also the central mountains
of Austria-Hungary. In 1892 the Hungarian exports of timber and forest
products amounted to 6,086,000 metric centners, valued at 24,176,000 florins,
and the imports to 2,604,000 metric centners, valued at 8,914,000 florins.
III. Mining.
Mines are worked for common coal chiefly in Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia,
and Galicia ; for brown coal in Bohemia, Styria, Upper Austria, Carniola,
and Moravia. Iron ore is worked in Styria, Bohemia, Carinthia, Moravia,
and Galicia ; silver ore in Bohemia ; quicksilver in Carniola ; copper ore
in Salzburg ; lead ore in Styria, Galicia, Bohemia ; zinc in Galicia,
Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg ; sulphur in Bohemia, Tyrol, and Vorarl-
berg ; manganese in Styria and Carniola ; alum in Bohemia ; graphite
in Bohemia ; petroleum and ozokerit in Galicia ; while the largest production
of salt is from Galicia, Upper Austria, and the Coast Land.
In mining (including the mines for rock-oil and wax) and metal works
there were employed in Austria in 1891, 123,661 persons (110,491 men, 7,280
women, 5,662 juveniles, and 228 children ; in smelting works 12,668 persons
(11,754 men, 376 women, 535 juveniles, and 3 children) ; in salt works 10,353
persons (6,929 men, 1,114 women, 1,388 juveniles, and 922 children). In
Hungary (1889) there were employed 48,173 persons in mining and smelting
works ; in salt works, 2,264.
The following table shows the value of the chief mineral and furnace
products in thousands of florins : —
-
Common
Goal
Brown
Coal
Raw
Iron
Lead
Quick-
silver
Zinc
Silver
Copper
Total
including
others
Austria :
1880
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
1891 .
1892 .
Hungary :
1880 .
1887 .
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
1891 .
19,336
23,970
26,648
30,401
32,685
31,680
15,375
20,741
22,861
27,639
80,769
30,097
15,253
21,841
23,577
27,811
24,881
24,417
-1,739
1,340
1,402
1,399
1,206
1,125
775
1,705
1,587
1,596
1,384
1,148
713
869
1,101
1,467
1,875
1,265
2,696
3,157
3,157
3,197
3,219
3,294
1,570
1,588
1,498
1,533
1,597
1,486
382
721
584
602
585
503
56,928
53,964
58,940
4,168
8,788
4,051
4,467
4,831
4,990
2,784
4,998
5,156
5,814
6,835
7,717
5,729
6,563
7,129
8,763
11,338
11,525
251
220
279
876
13
22
36
21
26
25
20
19
99
602
184
239
182
157
142
18,623
20,665
21,691
24,994
28,880
29,588
The total value of mining and furnace products in five years was as
follows in Austria in florins : —
— 1 1888 ! 1889
1890 I 1891 1892
Mining products! 53,963,781 58,939,809 68,166,825 73,495,532(70,438,556
Furnace . . | 30,579,407) 32,748, 497| 36,894,804| 33,776,439 32,903,184
Digitized by VjOOQIC
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COMMERCE
363
works — of which 633 were on a large scale — with 96,000 workers, and in
1889 2,350,000 spindles and 42,000 power-looms. There were in 1887
1,962 beer breweries, producing 293 J million gallons of beer; the export
of beer is ten times the import. There are 147,577 distilleries, mainly for
brandy, of which the export greatly exceeds the import. There are 49
manufactories of tobacco in the monarchy, but they do not supply the
demand, so that the imports exceed the exports.
Commerce.
The general commerce of the whole monarchy of Austria-
Hungary, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, comprising imports
and exports of merchandise, but not bullion, was as follows, in
millions of florins, in the years indicated : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
Tears
Imports
Exports
1870
1880
1885
1888
Florins
439 9
613-5
557*9
533-1
Florins
395*4
676-0
672-1
728-8
1889
1890
1891
1892
Florins
589-2
610-7
618*3
627*2
Florins
766-2
771-4
787-6
723-6
The following tables show the values of the leading articles of
import and export in millions of florins : —
Imports
Cotton
Wool
Coffee
Silk . • .
Tobacco, leaf.
Furs and hides, raw
Tobacco, manufactured .
Woollen yarn
Cotton yarn ....
Leather ....
Coal and coke
Grain
Silk goods ....
Wooflen goods
Pigments and tanning materials
Machinery ....
Hardware and clocks
Cattle
Books and newspapers .
1889
55*4
49-9
35*8
20-7
14-8
11-8
11-1
19-8
15-9
137
18-3
5-2
12-7
10-1
12-4
20-8
101
9'7
12-2
1890
1891
1892
63 5
49*5
48-6
39*7
37-1
36*1
38-0
38 9
35 9
21-1
20-9
22*4
15 6
16-7
20-5
10-1
17-5
23 0
8'4
4-9
3*1
17*9
177
19-4
15*2
13 9
13*9
12-6
15 3
16*2
257
24*4
24-3
11-2
7-2
5-9
12-2
12-1
12-6
9-6
12-0
12-7
11-4
10-9
11-9
18-1
17*6
18-7
11-4
12*7
12-2
11-6
16-7
11-2
12*4
13-0
137
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364
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Exports
1889
1890
1891
1892 |
Grain
82 0
79 9
80*4
69*3
Timber
62 9
61*7
63*5
55 6
Sugar. . . .
64 1
65*4
83*0
74 0
Hardware
27-9
27 5
216
23*7
Cattle
30*7
35*8
37 1
31-4
Woollen goods
25*3
22 5
169
17*3
Flour
27*8
21*6
15*2
7 2
Glass and glassware ....
14-8
15-4
190
18*3
Coal and coke
29*3
32 5
34 3
29 2
Wood wares
16*7
18-0
18-2
18*7
Wool
29*7
20 0
119
91 1
Wine
18-5
15*5
9 3
6 3
Iron and iron wares ....
13'8
20*6
17*5
12 5
14*5
14-3
16 0
17*2
Minerals
11-3
14*3
11-7
107
140
14-0
17*9
18'4
Eggs
14-5
162
16 0
23 4
12*3
12*4
137
126 |
Linen yarn
7'4
1 64
7 0
7-1 !
9 6
| 8*2
11-8
9 5
Silk wares
8*2
6-1
7*7
8-6
The value of gold, silver, and bullion exported in 1891 was
11,343,000 florins, the imports being 39,552,000 florins; in 1892
the exports were 17,938,000 florins, and the imports 83,995,000
florins.
In 1891 the imports into Hungary amounted to 502,780,000 florins, and
the exports to 545,207,000 florins. In 1892 the imports amounted to
519,384,000 florins, and the exports to 509,659,000 florins. Of cereals, pulse,
&c, the imports in 1891 were 16,566,000 florins, and exports, 207,536,000
florins; of cattle, imports 16,692,000 florins, exports 98,010,000 florins;
beverages imports 33,149,000 florins, exports 31,957,000 florins ; wool
and woollen goods, imports 39,958,000 florins, exports 16,889,000 florins ;
leather and leather goods, imports 24,669,000 florins, exports 5,144,000
florins ; clocks, scientific instruments, &c, imports 36,870,000 florins, ex-
ports 2,823,000 florins. Of the imports 21*82 per cent, in value were raw
material and 78*18 per cent, were manufactured:; of the exports 65*57 per
cent, in value were raw material and 34*43 per cent, manufactured.
The imports into Hungary from Austria were 427,523,000 florins, or 82*8
percent. ; the exports to Austria were 386,713,000 florins or 75*8 per cent, of
the whole. The imports from Germany were 24,659,000 florins, or 4*7 per
cent. ; and the exports to German) \\>re 60,428,000 florins, or 11*8 per
cent, of the whole. The imports fron< (Jroat Britain ^mostly cotton goods
and tobacco) were 6,478,000 florins, or 1 *2 per cent. ; and the exports to
Great Britain (mostly flour) were (J, 784,000 florins, or 1*8 per cent of the
whole. Other countries having con&i<U'ni1jlc ti i«le with Hungary are
Servia, France, Switzerland, Italy.
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COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
365
From the Board of Trade returns the direct trade of Austria-Hungary
with the United Kingdom is shown in the following table : —
-
1888
1889
1890
&
1891
1892
Imports into U. K.
£
£
£
£
from Austria-Hun-
gary ....
2,183,657
2,286,834
1,728,887
1,464,106
1,237,634
Exports of British pro-
duce to Austria-
Hungary .
929,958
1,019,842
1,283,209
1,227,967
1,142,638
The staple articles imported into the United Kingdom by Austria are
wheat flour, the total value of which in the year 1892 amounted to
712,0042., and wood 74,1492. The principal exports of British produce
to Austria are cotton manufactures (including yarn), 451, 903 J. ; iron,
58,1232. ; machinery, 127,9982. ; oil-seed, 40,8622. ; coals, 68,2482. ; woollen
goods, 71,3482. ; copper, 15,6802. ; leather, 11,0572. ; hardware, 11,9922., in
1892.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following table shows the condition of the Austro-Hungarian mer-
cantile service, including ooasting vessels : —
Tear
Steamers
Sailing Vessels
y Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
1880
1889
1890
1891
1892
113
171
173
175
1411
63,970
96,392
97,852
103,281
89,2191
8,079
9,851
10,207
9,977*
lO,^!1
267,468
160,799
152,716
104,064x
99,176!
* Austria alone.
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the commercial
marine of Austria-Hungary on Jan. 1, 1893 : —
Sea-going vessels .
Coasting vessels
Fishing vessels, &c.
Total .
Number
of vessels
274
1,684
8,575
10,533
Tonnage
214,180
50,195
21,040
285,415
Crews
5,658
5,168
20,710
31,536
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366 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The progress of navigation is shown as follows for Austria alone : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
1880
1888
1889
1890
1891
47,045
68,749
68,512
66,271
70,988
5,911,885
8,364,526
8,442,990
8,773,713
9,339,454
46,907
68,634
68,492
66,527
70,814
5,913,720
8,357,598
8,432,631
8,759,632
9,337,037
Of the vessels entered, an average of 85 per cent, and 89 per cent of
the tonnage, and of the vessels cleared 85 per cent, and 89 per cent, of the
tonnage were Austrian, Italy coming next, and Great Britain third.
For the port of Trieste alone in 1892, 7,706 vessels of 1,472,214 tons
entered, and 7,637 vessels of 1,463,127 tons cleared. At the port1 of Fiumle
in 1891, 4,616 vessels of 639,999 tons entered, and 4,459 of 774,114 tons
cleared.
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers and Canals.
In 1891 the total length of navigable rivers and canals in Austria was :
for rafts only, 2,384 miles; for vessels and rafts, 1,706 miles; total, 4,090
miles, of which 814 miles were navigable for steamers.
The total length of navigable rivers and canals in Hungary is 3,050
miles (for Danube navigation see under Roumania).
The river traffic of the monarchy during five years was as follows : —
Year
Danube Steam Navigation Company
Austr. North-West Steam
Navigation Company (Elbe)
Number of
Fassen-
Goods
and
ge
Head
of
Living
Animals
shipped
Number of
Goods
carried,
in metre-
centners
sd,
re-
ire
Steam-
boats
Tow-
boats
750
980
960
430
410
,380
10,438
11,797
11,706
3,717
8,915
33
36
88
40
40
41
162
166
166
166
167
164
8,862,468
4,040,213
4,951,001
5,307,483
6,268,719
6,528,473
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368
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The following are ^the telegraph statistics of Austria Hungary, and
Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1892 : —
-
Offices
Line
Wire
Messages
Austria ....
Hungary ....
Bosnia and Herzegovina .
No.
4,098
2,116
111
Miles
17,609
12,473
1,780
Miles
50,154
35,320
3,870
No.
10,835,302
5,671,579
425,696
Honey and Credit.
The following table shows the issues from the Austro-Hungarian mint
and the value of coin now in circulation : —
1888
1889
1890
1892
Gold
Silver (
f Four - ducat
pieces .
C Single-ducat
Franz- Josefs
d'or
Levantine
thalere.
Two -gulden
pieces .
Single-gulden
Twenty - kreu-
zer
.Ten-kreuzer
(Four - kreuzer
o££U±
Half-kreuzer
State notes in circula-
tion ....
Austro-Hungarian bank-
notes in circulation
Florins
686,671
1,482,571
936,291
2,840,150
146,900
6,572,046
508,162
183,800
16,200
336,800,000
425,674,000
Florins
598,771
1,606,982
1,706,447
1,522,003
293,886
5,052,537
551,906
241,990
10,000
357,231,680
434,679,000
Florins
907,949
1,794,528
861,458
985,166
207,860
4,163,886
624,116
91,010
870,861,103
445,934,000
Florins
} 2,591,876
8,394,795
849,828
} 5,948,515
I 665,137
I 411,207
378,844,091
455,222,220
343,970,577
477,987,590
The only State bank is the Austro-Hungarian, formerly the National
Bank. To secure a free loan, originally of eighty million florins, to the
State, the bank, during the continuance of its privilege, has the exclusive
right to issue bank-notes. This privilege lasts to December 31, 1897 ; and
by that time the debt of eighty millions must be cleared off. Of the sum
total of bank-notes in circulation, at least two-fifths must be covered by
the supply of metal, silver or gold, coined or in bullion. The State, under
certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits of the bank. From
these profits, first 5 per cent, on the share capital is paid to the shareholders,
of the remainder 8 per cent, is transferred to the reserve fund, and 2 per cent,
to the pension fund, and the dividend to the shareholders may be made up to
7 per cent. Whatever still remains is divided into two portions, one of which
to the shareholders and the other to the State, 70 per cent to
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MONEY AND CREDIT
369
Austria and 30 per cent, to Hungary. These last sums, however, are only
applied to the reduction of the deot of eighty millions mentioned above.
The following are the statistics of the Austro- Hungarian Bank for five
years, in thousands of florins : —
Liabilities
Assets
Capital
Reserve
Fund
Note
Circula-
tion
Mort-
gages
Total in-
cluding
others
Cash
Dis-
counted
Bills,&c.
State
Loan
Other
Loans
Total in-
cluding
others
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
90,000
90,000
90,000
90,000
90,000
18,843
18,965
18,967
18,952
32,498
425,674
434,679
445,934
455,222
477,988
100,678
104,469
107,866
110,872
117,997
657,752
682,349
687,899
701,283
744,939
233,002
241,445
244,490
245,931
289,155
167,807
178,881
166,619
190,189
171,917
79,236
79,003
78,170
77,419
77,351
105,752
111,363
114,273
116,798
121,457
657,752
682,349
687,399
701,283
744,939
The following are statistics for December 31, 1891, of the 51 Austrian and
for 1890 of the 172 Hungarian joint-stock and private banks, in thousands of
florins : —
Liabilities.
! -
Nominal
Capital
Paid-up
Reserve
Bills, Ac,
in cir-
culation
Credit
Accounts
current
Mort-
gages
Total, in-
cluding
others
Austria
Hungary .
274,500
51,817
210,807
46,147
50,469
7,404
169,070
8,670
330,883
79,380
505,429
27,760
1,318,994
286,890
Assets.
-
Bank
and Credit
Notes
Mortgage
Loans
Debit
Accounts
current
425,822
60,540
Cash in hand
Total,
including
others
Austria
Hungary
164,792
81,600
503,340
70,760
24,354
6,950
1,318,994
286,890
There are, besides, 1,489 alliance banks in Austria, and 591 in Hungary.
The following are the savings-bank statistics of Austria-Hungary :—
Austria I Hungary
1891
1890
1
1889 1 1890
1889 I 1888
No. of banks
Depositors at end of
year.
Amount deposited at
end of year (1,000 fls.)
438
2,481,438
1,335,926
430
2,397,591
1,282,759
414
2,299,306
1,235,515
45
429,070
435
406,315
424
386,122
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$70 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The following are the statistics of the post-office savings-banks :-
Austria
Hungary
1890
1801
1891
1892
No. of banks .
Depositors at end
of year
Value of deposits at
end of year, in
florins
4,657
801,014
55,456,940
4,767
867,107
62,332,165
3,000!
3,322,151
3,000l
213,268
4,905,418
i The number in 1887.
l
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
By law of August 2, 1892, the monetary system of Austria-Hungary was
reformed on a gold basis, though the standard coin, the crown (krone), is not
coined in gold.
The new coins with English equivalents are—*
Gold :—
The twenty-crown piece (weighing 6 775067 grammes '900 fine, and thus
containing 6 09756 grammes of fine gold) = 16s. &d.
The ten-crown piece = 8s, 4d.
The single ducat = 9 crowns 60 heller = 8s.
Silver :—
The single crown (weighing 5 grammes *835 fine, and thus containing*
4*175 grammes of fine silver) = 100 heller = half-a-gulden of the old
coinage = lOd.
The half-crown = 50 heller = 25 kreuzer = 5d.
Nickel :—
The twenty-heller piece = 10 kreuzer of the old coinage = 2d.
The ten-heller piece = 5 kreuzer of the old coinage = Id.
Bronze : —
The two-heller piece =s 1 kreuzer = $d.
The single heller piece = £ kreuzer = J$d.
Silver gulden or florins continue to be legal tender to any amount Silver
crown-pieces are accepted to any amount at Government offices, but in general
circulation they are legal tender only up to 50 crowns. The notes of the
State Bank are legal tender.
The metrical system of weights and measures is now legal and obligatory
in Austria-Hungary* The old weights and measures are : —
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BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 371
The Cmtner=l00 Pfund=56Q6 kg. = 123J lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Eimer . . .=56*50 litre = 14 94 wine gallons.
„ Joch . . . =5,754*64 square metre = 1*43 acre.
„ Metzen . . .=61*49 litre = 17 imperial bushel.
(The Klafter of wood =3 *41 cubic metre = 120 cubic feet.)
" W^t,00° AU8-} ='.•»■• -*- ={8>8^<>-^**
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Austria-Hungaby in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Francis Deym, accredited November 26, 1888.
Councillor. — Count Christoph Wydenbruck.
Secretaries. — Count Albert Mensdorff Pouilly-Dietrichstein and Count
Charles Kinsky.
Attache. — Count Alexander Palffy.
Military Attache". — Major-General Prince Louis Eszterhazy.
Naval AttaM. — Commander Leopold de Jedina.
Chancellor. — Baron Peter von Paumgartten.
Consul-General.— Baron A. de Rothschild.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Hull, Liverpool (C.G.) ; Adelaide, Bombay (C.G.), Calcutta, Cape Town,
Colombo, Durban, Hong Eong (C.G.), Melbourne, Montreal, Rangoon,
Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Austria-Hungary.
Ambassador. — Hon. Sir Edmund Monson, G.C.M.G., C.B ; Envoy to
Greece 1888, Envoy to Belgium 1892 ; appointed Ambassador to Austria-
Hungary, March 1893.
Secretary.— Hon. W. A. C. Barrington.
Military and Naval Attache. — Lt.-Col. D. F. R. Dawson. .
There are Consular representatives at Vienna (C.G.), Buda-Pest (C.G.),
Fiume, Trieste, Lissa.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
The Ottoman Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were, by the Treaty
of Berlin (July 13, 1878), handed over to the Austro-Hungarian Govern-
ment for administration and military occupation. The direction of the
administration of the two occupied provinces is exercised by the Bosnian
Bureau, entrusted to the Imperial Finance Minister in Vienna in the name
of the Emperor* Bang. The chief authority in the province itself, with its
seat in Sarajevo, is the provincial government (Landesregierung), in three
departments, for internal affairs, finance, and justice. For administration
purposes there are 6 district (Kreis) and 48 county (Bezirk) authorities.
The provincial government is provided with an advising body, composed
of the ecclesiastical dignitaries of Sarajevo and 12 representatives of the
populace. Similar councils are also provided for the district and county
authorities. (For Finance see the common Budget -of Austria-Hungary. )
Bosnia and Herzegovina contain six districts (Kreise), with an area of
23,262 square miles. The Sanjak of Novi-Bazar is occupied by an Austrian
military force, though administered civilly by Turkey. In 1885 the popu-
lation (without military) numbered 1,336,091 (705,025 males and 631,066
females) ; with military 1,360,000. Greek Oriental Christians, 571,250 ;
Mohammedans, 492,710 ; Roman Catholics, 265,788 ; Jews, 5,805 ; others,
538.
B b 2
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372 AUSTRIA-HUNGABY
On January 1, 1888, population was estimated at 1,404,000. The
nationality is Servian, only in the southern districts are Arnauts, and here
and there gipsies. The most populous towns are the capital, Sarajevo, with
(in 1885) 26,286 ; Mostar, 12,665 ; and Banjaluka, 11,357.
There is 1 higher gymnasium, 2 gymnasia, 4 commercial schools, 943
elementary schools, with 1 Greek-Oriental, and 1 Roman Catholic seminary
for priests, and 1 training college for teachers.
There is an upper court of justice in Sarajevo, the 6 district (Kreis)
courts and the county (Bezirk) authorities as courts of first instance.
In the budget of 1892 the revenue was estimated at 10,299,350 florins,
and the expenditure at 9,944,655 florins.
Agriculture is in a very low state of development, though the soil is
very fertile4 Maize, wheat, barley, oats, rye, millet and buckwheat, potatoes,
flax, hemp, and tobacco are cultivated.
Both provinces have a superabundance of fruit. The vine is grown in
Herzegovina, but the wine produced is insufficient for the local supply-
Dried plums are the chief article of export. Cattle-grazing is important
In 1879 there were, it is estimated, 158,034 horses, 3,134 asses and mules,
761,302 head of cattle, 775 buffaloes, 839,988 sheep, 522,123 goats, and
430,354 swine. Forest land occupies 45 per cent, of the whole area.
Minerals are abundant ; mining is now carried on for iron and copper,
manganese, chromium, antimony. There are salt-pits at Dolnja Tuzla.
In 1892 the imports amounted to 1,450, 000 1, (alimentary substances,
700, 000?., metal and machinery, 260,000Z.); exports, 1,179,700*. (animals
and animal products, 497,900/., dried plums, 232,000, staves 140,000Z.).
Bosnia and Herzegovina belong to the Austro-Hungarian customs
territory. There are 384 miles of railway, and 1,765 miles of telegraph lines.
In 1892 there were transmitted 7,009,240 letters and postcards, and
2,339,384 packets of printed matter and samples.
Military service is compulsory over 20 years of age. The native troops
comprise 12 infantry battalions (each of 9 companies), with a total of 5,040 men,
on peace footing. The Austro-Hungarian troops of occupation have at
present a strength of 28,648 men.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications. — Austbia-Hungary.
Almanach fiir die k. k. Kriegs-Marine, 1893. Pola, 1898.
Annuario Marittiino per l'anno 1893. Trieste, 1893.
Austria. Archivfur Consularwesen, Volkswirthschaffc and Statistik. ZLV. Jahrgang,
1893. Wien, 1893.
Bericbt liber die T&tigkeit des k. k. Ackerbau-Ministeriums in der Zeit vom 1. Jannar
1881 bis 31. December 1886. Wien, 1888.
Bericht tiber Triests Handel und Schiffahrt im Jahre 1892. Triest, 1893.
Commercio di Trieste nel 1892. Dal Ufficio Statistico. Trieste, 1893.
Civilrechtspflege. Ergebnisse der iin Jahre 1889. Vienna.
Das Ungarische Unterrichtswesen in den Studienjahren 1890-91 u. 1891-92. Aus dem
Bericht des Ministers. Pest, 1893.
Das Handelsmuseum. Hgg. vom. k. k. Handelsmusemn. Wien, 1893. Beilage : Com-
merzielle Berichte der k. u. k. Gonsular-Aemter.
Ungarische statistiscbe Mittheilungeu. Neue Folge. Band II. Ergebnisse der in den
Lander der ungarischen Krone am Anfange des Jahres 1891 durchgefiihrten Volkszahlung.
Budapest, 1893.
Hof- nnd Staatshandbuch der 6sterreicisch-ungarnischen Monarchie fur 1893. Wien,
1893.
Jahrbuch. Militar-5tatistisches, fur 1892. Hgg. vom. k. k. Kriegsministerium. Wien.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 373
Jahrbuch, Statistisches, der Stadt Wien flir das Jahr 1891. Bearbeitet von Sedlaczek
und Lowy. Wien, 1893.
Mittheilungen des K. Ung. Ministeriums flir Ackerban, Industrie und Handel. Monats-
heft Budapest, 1892.
Nachrichten ttber Industrie, Handel und Verkehr aus dem statistischen Departement im
k. k. Handels-Ministerium. Wien, 1898.
Navigazione e oommercio in porti Austriaci nel 1891. 4. Trieste, 1893.
Oesterreiohische Statistik. Bearbeitet von der k. k. Statistischen Central-Commission.
Wien, 1880-93.
Oesterreichisches Stadtebuch. Statistische Berichte der grosseren Oesterreichischen
Stadte. Redigirt unter Mitwirkung des Prasidenten der k. k. Statistischen Central-Corn*
mission, Dr. Karl Theodor Inamaavon Sternegg. Wien, 1892. VL Jahrgang.
Oesterreichisches Statistisches Handbuch. 11*« Jahrgang, 1892. Wien, 1893.
Statistisch.es Handbuch der Osterr.-Ung. Monarohie. Neue Folge. Wien, 1891.
Reichsgesetzblatt. Jahrgang, 1893.
Statistik ilber den Zustand und die Aratsthatigkeit der Finanzwache im Jahre 1891.
Vom k. k. Finanzministerium. Wien, 1892.
Statistische Mittheilungen ttber die Verhaltnisse Galiziens. Hgg. vom Statist. Bureau des
Galizisohen Landesausschusses. Redigirt von Pilat. XIV. Band. Lemberg, 1893.
Statistische Monatsschrift. Herausgegeben von der k. k. Statistischen Central-Coin*
mission. XIX. Jahrgang. Wien, 1893. •
Statistisches Jahrbuch des k. k. Ackerbau-Ministeriums ftir 1892. Wien, 1893.
Statistisches Jahrbuch flir Ungarn. 21ter Jahrgang, 1891. Budapest, 1892-93.
Ungarns Waaren-Verkehr. ... for das Jahr 1892. Budapest, 1893.
Hertslet (Sir Edward), Foreign Office List Published annually. London.
Protocols of Conferences held in London respecting the Navigation of the Danube.
London, 1883.
Reports from the British Consular and other Officers in Austria-Hungary for 1892, in
' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1893.
Trade of Austria-Hungary with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
Ergebnisse der Verzehrungssteuer im Jahre 1891. Zusammengestellet vom Finanzminis-
terium. Wien, 1893.
Publikactye Statlsttfkoga ureda kr. hrv. dalra. zemaljske Wade. I. -XVI I. U Zagrebu.
1870-92.
Volkszahlung, Ergebnisse der vom 31 December, 1890. Vienna.
2. Non-Offioial Publications.— Austria-Hunoaby.
Beer, Der Staatshaushalt Oesterreich-Ungarns seit 1868. Prag, 1881.
Beer, Die Finanzen Oesterreiohs im 19. Jahrhundert. Prag, 1877.
BraeheUi (EL F.), Statistische Skizze der Oesterreichisch-Ungarisohen Monarchie. 13.
Auflage. 8. Leipzig, 1892.
Chavanne (Dr.), Physikalisch-statistischer Handatlas der Oesterr.-Ungar. Monarchie.
Wien, 1882-88.
Chronik, Volkswirthschaftliche, von Oestergioh-Ungarn, 1887. Hgg. von Blau. Wien,
1888.
Clarke (Ernest), Agricultural Administration in Austria-Hungary, ' Journal of the R.
Agricultural Society,' January, 1891.
Compass, flnanzielles Jahrbuch. Gegrundet von Leonhardt, 1889. Hgg. von Heller.
Wien, 1890.
Czoernig (Freiherr von), Ethnographic der Oesterreichischen Monarchie, 3 vols. Wien,
1855-57.
Entwicklung von Industrie und Gewerbe in Oesterreich, 1848-88. Hgg. von der Com-
mission der Oewerbe-Ausstellung. Wien, 1888.
Export-Compass, 1890. Hgg. von Dora. Wien, 1890.
FUker (A), Die V61kerstamine der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie. 8. Wien,
1869.
Fiihrcr durch Ungarn und seine Nebenlander. Buda-Pestb,
Qtrrard (E.), Transylvania : The Land beyond the Forest. London, 1888.
Jackson (T. Q.), Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria. 3 vols. 8. London.
Hock, Statistisches Handbuch fur Karnten. Jahrgang I. Klagenfurt. 1886.
Honig. Die ost. ung. Lebensversicmerungsgesellschaften, 1888. Wien, 1889.
Hun/alvi (Dr. J.), A magyar-osztrak birodalom fSldraJza. 8. Pesth, 1886.
Kay (David), Austria-Hungary. London, 1880.
Konta (Ignaz), Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie. 21.
Jahrgang. Wien, 1891.
Lang, Statistik der Bevolkerung Ungarns. Budapest, 1885.
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374
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
L&ger (L.), Histoire de TAutriche-HoDgrie, depuis les origines jusqu'a l'annee 1878. 12.
Paris, 1879.
IAvy (Daniel), L'Autriche-Hongrie, ses institutions, Ac. Paris, 1872.
Loher (F. von), Die Magyaren und andere Ungarn. 8. Leipzig, 1874.
Lorenz (J. R. vA Atlas der Urproduction Oesterreichs. Wien, 1878.
Lorenz (J. R. v.), Die Bodencultur Oesterreichs. Wien, 1878.
Magyarland. By a Fellow of the Carpathian Society. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Mandello (Dr. Earl), Riickblicke auf die Entwickelung der Ungarischen Volkswirthschaft
Budapest, 1871-1891.
Marhe.au (Edouard), Slaves et Teutons. Paris, 1882
Monarchic. Die ost. ung. in Wort und Bild auf Anregung des Kronprinzen Rudolf.
Wien, 1886-90. Lieferung 1-116.
Nemenyi (A.), Das moderne Ungarn. Berlin, 1880.
Oesterreichisch-Ungari8che Revue. Jahrgang 1893. Redigirt von J. B. Meyer. Wien.
1898.
Patter son (Arthur J.), The Magyars ; their Country and its Institutions. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1870.
Peez (Dr. Alexander), Oesterreich und der Orient. 8. Wien, 1875.
Pollack, Die Bohmische Braunkohle in den letzten 25 Jahren, chronologisch-statistische
Tafel. Vom Jahre 1861 bis 1885. Teplitz (s.a.).
Prigl, Ortslexicon fiir die Kbnigreiche Kroatien und Slavonien. Nach amtlichen Quelle n.
Essek, 1888.
Beclus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographie Universelle. Vol. III. 8. Paris, 1878.
Romstorfer und Wiglitzky, Vergleichende graphische Statistik in ihrer Anwendung auf
das Herzogtum Bukowina. Wien, 1886.
Statistik d. ost. ung. Aktiengesellschaften. Aus dem 'Aktionar,' 1888-89. Frankfurt.
1890.
Strtgl, Statistische Notizen ftir Oesterreich. II. Wien, 1888.
Sturm (Albert). Culturbilder aus Budapest. Leipzig, 1875-76.
Sturm (Albert), Uj Orszaggyulesi Almanach. Budapest, 1887.
Ulbrich. Handbuch der osterreichischen Verwaltung. Wien, 1887-89.
Vdmbery (A.), Der Ursprung der Magyaren. Leipzig, 1882.
WerhowiUeh, Das Land Vorarlberg, Denkschrift. Innsbruck, 1887.
Whitman (Sidney), The Realm of the Habsburgs. 8. London, 1893.
Wirth (Max), Ungarn und seine Bodenschatze. Frankfort-on-Maine, 1785.
Worms (Baron Henry de), The Austro-Hungarian Empire. 8. London, 1877.
Zoricie, Statistische Skizze der Kbnigreiche Kroatien und Slavonien. Agram, 1885.
Bosnia and Herzeooyina.
Das Bauwesen in Bosnien und der Hercegovina, vom Baudepartement der Landesregier-
ung in Sarajevo, 1887.
Deutsches Handels-Archiv. Report on the Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1891, in
September part 1892. Berlin.
Ortschafts- und Bevolkerungsstatistik von Bosnien und Hercegovina. Amtliche
Ausgabe. 1885.
Blau (Dr. E. O. F. H.),Reisen in Bosnien und der Herzegowina. 8. Berlin, 1877.
Evans (A. J.), Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on foot. 8. London, 1876.
Haardt (V. von), Die Occupation Bosniens und der Herzegovina. 8. Vienna, 1878.
Laveleye, The Balkan Peninsula. London, 1887.
Sainte-Marie (E. de) L'Herzegovine. Paris, 1875.
Schwarz (Di. B.), Aus den Osten ; Reisenbriefen aus Ungarn, Ac. 8. Chemnitz, 1876.
Stillman (W. J.), Herzegovina and the late uprising. London, 1877.
Thoemmel (Gustav), Beschreibung des Vilajet Bosnien. 8. Vienna, 1867.
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376 BELGIUM
the Netherlands, that all the States of Europe recognised the
Kingdom of Belgium.
Constitution and Government.
According to the Constitution of 1831 Belgium is 'a consti-
tutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legisla-
tive power is vested in the King, the Senate, and the Chamber of
Representatives. The royal succession is in the direct male
line in the order of primogeniture. By marriage without the
King's consent, however, the right of succession is forfeited, but
may be restored by the King with the consent of the two
Chambers. The King's person is declared sacred; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government.
No act of the King can have effect unless countersigned
by one of his ministers, who thus becomes responsible for
it. The King convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers.
In default of male heirs, the King may nominate his successor
with the consent of the Chambers. If the successor be under
eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of majority,
the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nominating a
regent during the minority.
According to the law amending the constitution, promulgated
7th September, 1893, the Senate consists of members elected for
eight years, partly directly, and partly indirectly. The number of
Senators elected directly is proportioned to the population of
each province, and is equal to half the number of members of the
Chamber of Representatives. The constituent body is similar to
that which elects deputies to the Chamber, except that the
minimum age of electors may be fixed at thirty years.1 Senators
elected indirectly are chosen by the provincial councils, two for
each province with less than 500,000 inhabitants ; three for each
with a population up to 1,000,000 ; and four for each with over
1,000,000. No one, during two years preceding the election,
must have been a member of the council appointing him. All
senators must be at least forty years of age, and those elected
directly must pay not less than 1,200 francs in direct taxes, or
own immovable property in Belgium yielding an income of
12,000 francs. In provinces, however, where the number
eligible for the Senate would be less than one in 5,000 of
population, the list is extended to this proportion by admission
of the most highly taxed. Sons of the King, or failing these,
Belgian princes of the reigning branch of the Royal Family are
by right Senators at the age of eighteen, but have no voice in the
deliberations till the age of twenty-five years.
i A Bjll fixing tb,e agp at thirty i* about to be submitted to tb,e Legislature.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 377
The members of the Chamber of Representatives are elected
directly. Their number is proportioned to the population, and
cannot exceed one for every 40,000 inhabitants. They sit for
four years, one half retiring every two years, except that after a
dissolution a general election takes place. Every citizen over
twenty-five years of age, domiciled for not less than one year in
the same commune, and not legally disqualified, has a vote. Every
citizen over thirty-five years of age, married or widower, with legi-
timate issue, and paying at least 5 francs a year in house tax, has a
supplementary vote, as has also every citizen over twenty-five years
of age owning immovable property to the value of 2,000 francs, or
having a corresponding income from such property, or who for two
years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds
either directly or through the Savings Bank. Two supplementary
votes are given to citizens over twenty-five years of age who have
received a diploma or certificate of higher instruction, or who fill
or have filled offices or engaged in private professional practice,
implying at least average higher instruction. Deputies must be
not less than twenty-five years of age, and resident in Belgium.
Each deputy has an annual indemnity of 4,000 francs (160£), and
a free pass over Government railways between his home and
the place of Session.
Under the new law there will probably be about 1,200,000
electors.
The Senate and Chamber meet annually in the month of
November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but the King
has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and
of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. In the
latter case a new election must take place within forty days, and
a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjournment
cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers. Money bills and bills relating to the
contingent for the army originate in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives.
The Executive Government consists of seven departments, under the
following Ministers, appointed October 26, 1884, viz. : —
1. President of the Council and Minister of Finance. — M. A. Beernaert.
2. Minister of Justice. — M. J. Lejeune.
3. Minister of the Interior and of Instruction. — M. J. de Burlet.
4. Minister of War. — General J. J. Brassine.
5. Minister of Railways, Posts, and Telegraphs. — M. J. ff. P. van den
Peereboom.
6. Minister for Foreign Affairs. — Count de Me'rode.
7. Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Public Works. — M. L. de Bruyn.
Besides the above responsible heads of departments, there are a number of
' Ministres d'Etat,' without portfolio, who form a Privy Council called together
on special occasions by the sovereign. The acting ministers, as such, do not
form part of the Privy Council.
378
BELGIUM
Local Government,
The provinces and communes (2,596 in 1892) of Belgium have a large amount
of autonomous government. Provincial and communal electors l must be twenty-
one years of age, and pay direct taxes of 20 francs for the provinces and 10 for the
communes. A certain degree of education, and the occupation of certain
positions, entitle to vote without having to pay taxes. In the year 1892 there
were 25,451 provincial and 647,550 communal electors. To be eligible to the
Provincial or Communal Council, persons must be twenty-five years of age and
domiciled in the province or commune. Half the Provincial Council is renewed
every two years, and it meets fifteen days each year. There is a permanent
deputation of six members elected, which is presided over by the Governor of
the province. All provincial and communal interests, including local finances,
are under the care of the Council, as far as they are not provided for in the
general administration. The Communal Councils are. elected for six years,
half being renewed every three years. In each commune tnere is a college
composed of the burgomaster, president, and a certain number of aldermen,
corresponding to the permanent deputation of the Provincial Council, and both
are the organs of the central administration.
Area and Population.
Belgium has an area of 29,455 square kilometres, or 11,373
English square miles. The following table shows the population in
the various census years since 1846, with the absolute increase
and the rate per cent, of increase between each of these years : —
Census
Years
1846
1856
1866
Population
Total
Increase
Increase
per cent.
por annum
Census
Years
Population
Total
Increase
Increase
per cent,
per annum
4,337,196
4,529,461
4,827,833
192,265
298,372
•74
•65
I 1876
| 1880
1890
5,336,185
5,520,009
6,069,321
508,352
183,824
549,312
1-05
■85
•99
The kingdom is divided into nine provinces, the area and
population of which were as follows at the census of December
31, 1890, and on December 31, 1892, with population per square
mile at the latter date : —
Provinces
Area:
Eng. sq. miles
Population
Population per
sq. mile, 1892
1,093
Dec. 81, 1890
Dec. 81, 1892
Antwerp (Anvers)
699,919
726,233
664-4
Brabant
1,268
1,106,158
1,136,827
896*5
Flanders {£?
1,249
738,442
749,291
600-0
1,158
949,526
961,907
813-4
Hainaut
1,437
1,048,546
1,065,881
7417
Liege .
1,117
756,734
778,724
697-1
Limbourg .
931
222,814
225,000
241-5
Luxembourg
1,706
211,711
212,171
124-3
Namur
Total .
1,414
835,471
339,321
230 0
11,373
6,069,321
6,195,355
548*2
i As the law at present stands; but these electoral qualifications are now under the
consideration of the Legislature.
AREA AND POPULATION
379
In 1892 there were 3,090,466 males and 3,104,889 females.
According to the census returns of 1890 there are 2,485,072
Belgians who speak French only; 2,744,271 who speak Flemish
only; 32,206, German only; 700,997, French and Flemish;
58,590, French and German ; 7,028, Flemish and German ;
36,185 who speak all three languages; and 4,972 who do not
speak any of the three.
The census returns for 1890 according to occupation are
tabulated as follows: —
Mining and metal industries .
Industries connected with vegetable
products
Industries connected with animal
products
Mixed industries ....
Commerce
Professions and official occupations .
Various occupations and independent
Total .
Without profession or status
Grand total
Males
Females
277,997 15,266
226,818
38,806
282,881
215,559
505,847
509,261
2,057,169
1,151,093
3,208,262
35,442
13,415
190,878
111,532
153,440
362,246
Total
293,263
262,260
52,221
473,759
327,091
659,287
871,507
882,219 -
2,199,592
2,939,388
3,350,685
3,081,811
6,290,073
The difference between the above total and that of the popu-
lation of 1890 is no doubt accounted for by the fact that many
persons are entered under more than one head. It is estimated that
about 426,000 people are directly engaged in agricultural pursuits.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages in five years :-
Total
Illegiti-
Illegiti-
Surplus of
Year
Living
Still-born
mate
mate per
Deaths
Marriages
Births over
Births
(Living)
100 Births
Deaths
1888
177,586
8,482
15,336
874
121,097
42,427
54,489
1889
177,542
8,410
15,603
8'77
119,726
43,759
57,816
1890
176,595
8,224
15,246
8*63
126,545
44,596
50,050
1891
181,917
8,582
16,007
8-80
128,786
45,449
53,131
1892
177,485
8,497 15,703
8*85
133,693
47,209
43,792
The following table shows the immigration and emigration :-
1888
1889 | 1890
1891
1892
Immigration .
Emigration .
Excess of immigration .
21,213
23,041
22,150 21,458
23,190 ( 21,675
20,741
18,994
21,774
22,532
-758
-1,828
-1,040
-217
4-1,747
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380
BELGIUM
The following are the populations of the most important towns,
January 1, 1892 : —
Brussels and
suburbs . 488,188
Antwerp . 240,343
Liege . . 155,898
Ghent . . 151,811
Mechlin. . 52,001
] Verviers
Louvain
Seraing
Tournai
Courtrai
50,003
48,246
40,899
34,850
34,521
30,927
Namur
St. Nicolas
Alost
Ostend
Mons
Charleroy .
31,091
28,374
26,070
25,790
24,955
21,944
I
Religion.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants number only 10,000,
while the Jews number about 4,000. The State does not interfere
in any way with the internal affairs of either Catholic or Protes-
tant Churches. Full religious liberty is granted by the Constitu-
tion, and part of the income of the ministers of all denominations
is paid from the national treasury. The amount annually granted
in the budget is about 4,800,000 francs to Roman Catholics ; 85,000
francs to Protestants ; and 16,300 francs to Jews ; besides 60,000
francs for various ecclesiastical expenses. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees
and voluntary gifts.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses and
185 deaneries; there are 5,619 Catholic churches and chapels of
all kinds. In each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary, and there
are besides 10 smaller seminaries. At the census of 1890 there
were 1,643 convents in Belgium, of which number 218, with
4,579 inmates, were for men, and 1,425, with 24,562 inmates, for
women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the
greater number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is under a
synod composed of the clergymen of the body, and a representa-
tive from each of the congregations.
Instruction.
In the budget of 1891 the sum allotted for education is as
follows: — Superior education, 1,685,400 francs; middle-class
schools, 3,781,428 francs ; primary education, 10,764,301 francs.
There are four universities in the kingdom, three of them with
four * f acultes,' or branches of study, and one, Louvain, nursery
of the clergy, with five ; Ghent and Liege are State universities,
Brussels and Louvain free. The following table gives the number
of students attending the various ' faculty ' in each of the four
universities in the academical year 1892-93 : —
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INSTRUCTION
381
Universities
Students of
Total
Theology
Jurispru-
dence
Ph^y80- Medicine
Sciences
Brussels .
Ghent
• Liege
Louvain .
40
270
120
291
343
127
72
167
202
563
180
290
441
285
100
211
191
1,245
472
959
1,177
Attached to the universities are various special schools of en-
gineering, arts, manufactures, mining, <kc, with a combined at-
tendance of 1,042 students in 1892-93. Other special schools are
the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, with 1,416 stu-
dents in 1892; schools of design, 13,928 students; royal con-
servatoires and other schools of music, 14,869.
The following are the statistics for the end of 1892 of the
various classes of public schools : —
-
No.
Pupils || —
No.
Pupils.
Royal Athe-
i Middle-class
naeums and
' normal schools
4
132
colleges .
Mid die-class
35
7,216
Primary normal
schools .
—
49
2,562
schools (male) .
88
14,620
Primary schools .
5,797
640,845
Middle-class
Infant ,,
1,237
124,960
schools (female)
39
6,922
Adult ,,
1,649
70,945
Besides the above public schools there are many private or free
schools — about 80 colleges, 65 middle-class schools for boys, 150
institutions for girls, besides many infant, primary, and adult
schools, mostly under ecclesiastical care.
By a law of 1842 each commune was required to have at
least one primary school, and in 1884 an act was passed by
which the Government pays one-sixth, the province one-sixth,
and the commune four-sixths of the expenditure. The total sum
spent on elementary education in 1890 was 28,898,677 francs by
State, provinces, and communes, and including fees, <fcc.
There were in the school year 1891-92, 57 industrial schools,
with 16,694 pupils ; they are subsidised by the State, provinces)
and communes.
The proportion of the population above fifteen years who could
not read or write at the census of 1890 was 26*9 per cent., and
between seven and fifteen years 26*7 per cent. In the year 1893
there were 61,055 young men called out for military service, and
of this number 9,066 could neither read nor write ; 51,402 could
simply read and write ; and 587 for whom there is no return.
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382
BELGIUM
Justice and Crime.
Judges are appointed for life by the King from lists prepared by the Senate
and by the Court. There is one Court of Cassation for the whole kingdom.
There are three Courts of Appeal, and there are Assize Courts for criminal
cases. The country is divided into 26 judicial arrondissements or districts, in
each of which is a Court of first instance. In each canton there is a justice of
the peace, a police court, and a judge of the peace ; there are 215 such cantons.
There are, besides, special military, commercial, and other tribunals, repre-
sented by law. There is trial by jury in all criminal and political cases. The
Gendarmerie (2,414) and the Garde Civique are utilised for the maintenance of
internal order.
The following table shows the number of criminals sentenced at the Assize
Courts and Correctional Tribunals in the years stated : —
-
1870
1880
1887
1888
1889
1890
Assize Courts .
Correctional
Tribunals
105
22,255
137
34,108
127
39,996
130
40,273
127
40,753
97
40,275
The mean number of inmates of the various classes of prisons was : —
-
1870
1880
1888
1889
1890
1891
Central prisons .
Secondary ,,
Reformatories .
2,029
2,672
550
824
2,881
1,005
865
3,549
1,000
845
3,789
923
860
3,424
905
941
3,513
1391
i The correctional branch of the State charity schools annexed to the Ghent central
prison. In 1891 the reformatories were classed as charities, and no longer figure as penal
establishments.
Pauperism.
Apart from private charitable associations, which are numerous, public
charity is administered under precise regulations. The only public charitable
establishments are refuges, cUp&ts de mendicite, or alms-houses, hospitals, and
the bureaux de bienfaisance, the administrators of which are appointed by the
Communal Councils, while the provinces of the State contribute to maintain
certain classes of hospitals, refuges, or alms-houses, and asylums. It is the
duty of the commune to furnish assistance to its paupers. The bureaux de
bienfaisance received in donations and legacies 2,770,948 francs in 1889 ;
2,155,360 francs in 1890 ; 2,660,387 francs in 1891. Outdoor relief is pro-
vided under certain conditions. The statistics of the dipdts de mendicite for
the reception of beggars and vagabonds (adults) were as follows : —
Year
Total
Entries
Mean
Population
Expenditure
Year
Total
Entries
Mean
Population
Expenditure
1885
1887
1888
12,207
14,587
15,858
3,614
4,092
4,399
francs 1 ,
976,972 1 1889
1,107,869 || 1890
1,190,705 1891
16,795
17,124
18,253
4,740
4,644
4,378
francs
1,277,905
1,246,004
1,148,603
Digitized by VjOOQIC
FINANCE
383
State Finance.
The ordinary and extraordinary revenue and expenditure of
Belgium for the years stated are shown in the following table in
thousands of francs : —
1
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Ordinary
Extra-
ordinary
Total
Ordinary
Special
l,000fr.
25,064
90,899
37,335
36,922
41,309
51,112
82,663
63,445
Total
1870
1880
1885
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
l,000fr.
190,537
291,921
313,170
323,516
333,052
337,881
340,526
346,346
l,000fr.
14,905
102,294
19,915
17,648
13,615
49,155
37,878
55,601
l,000fr.
205,442
394,215
333,085
341,164
346,667
387,036
378,404
• 401,947
l,000fr.
191,844
292,009
313,916
309,216
314,284
322,176
335,231
338,723
l,000fr.
216,908
382,908
351,251
346,138
355,593
373,288
417,894
402,168
The following table gives the details of the amended budget
for the year 1894 : —
Ordinary Revenue
Francs
Ordinary Expenditure
Francs
i
Taxes, direct : —
Property taxes
24,812,000
Interest on public
Personal taxes
19,180,000
debt and sinking
Trade licences
6,800,000
fund .
107,613,522
Mines .
800,000
Civil list and dota-
Taxes, indirect : —
tions .
4,786,160
Customs
24,505,570
Ministry of Justice .
18,921,847
Excise .
42,182,409
,, Foreign
Succession duties .
19,575,000
Affairs .
2,515,828
Registration duties,
Ministry of Interior
&c. . . x .
20,200,000
and Public Instruc-
Stamps
6,050,000
tion
23,286,017
Various *
5,843,000
Ministry of Public
Tolls :—
Works .
17,513,468
Railways
139,000,000
Ministry of Railways,
Telegraphs .
5,850,000
Posts, and Tele-
Post Office .
11,095,820
graphs
103,411,772
Navigation and
Ministry of War
47,117,452
pilotage dues
2,710,000
,, Finance .
15,556,305
Capitals & revenues: —
Domains and forests
Gendarmerie .
4,367,600
1,310,000
Repayments, &c.
1,529,000
Unused amortisation
fund, securities,
national bank, &c.
15,723,000
Repayments
3,679,399
Total ordinary
Total ordinary ex-
revenue .
349,316,198
penditure
346,618,972
Digitized by VjOOQIC
384 BELGIUM
The following table shows the total amount of the national
liabilities of the kingdom in 1892 : —
Francs
Share of the Netherlands debt at 2J per cent. . 219,959,632
Loans at 3 per cent 609,017,835
Loans at 3 J per cent 1,297,843,707
Railway annuities at 4£ per cent. . . 250,192,000
Various 4,433,235
Total 2,314,854,124
Almost the entire debt of Belgium was raised for and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of State
railways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of
the debt, with the exception of the 2i per cent, old debt.
The total debt amounts to about 15 J. per head of population,
and the annual charge to about 10«. 9d. ; or, including civil and
military pensions, &c, to about 12*.. per head; but the interest
is more than covered by the revenue from railways alone. The
total exports of home produce average 101. per head.
Local Finance.
The provincial budgets for the year 1891 show a total revenue for all the
provinces of 17,421,688 francs, and a total expenditure of 15,770,751 francs,
thus leaving a surplus of 1,650,937 francs.
According to the communal budgets for 1392, the total revenues and
expenditures of the communes were : —
Francs. Francs.
Ordinary revenue . 118.738,507
Extraordinary revenue. 59, 239, 380
Total . . 177,977,887
Ordinary expenditure . 117,152,324
Extraordinary expenditure. 62, 124, 817
Total. . . 179,277,141
Defence.
The maritime frontier of Belgium is 42 miles in length ; the
Dutch frontier, north and east, 282 miles ; the German frontier,
in the east, 60 miles; the Luxembourg frontier, in the east,
80 miles ; and the French frontier, south and west, 384 miles.
The chief military arsenal of the kingdom is Antwerp, where also
are the fortified towns of Deridermonde and Diest. There are
fortifications at Liege, Huy, and Namur on the Meuse, and at
Mons, Tournai, and Ypres on the French frontier, and in 1887 an
extensive scheme for the further fortification of the Meuse was
resolved upon and is being carried out.
The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every
able man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable, and
also voluntary enlistment. Substitution is permitted. The an-
nual contingent required is about 13,300 men. The legal period
of service is eight years, of ~ which, however, two-thirds are
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
385
allowed, as a rule, on furlough. The country is divided into two
military circumscriptions or districts; the first comprising the
province of Anvers and the two Flanders', and the second the rest
of the country. There are military schools of various grades
and several establishments for special military education.
The following is the composition of the Belgian army, apart from the
general staff and the administrative and sanitary services : — Infantry : 1 regi-
ment of carabineers, of 4 active and three reserve battalions, each of 4 companies
and 1 depot ; 1 regiment of grenadiers, 3 regiments chasseurs-a-pied, 14 regi-
ments of the line, each of these three bodies of 3 active and 2 reserve battalions
each of 4 companies and 1 depflt ; 2 sedentary companies ; a corps of discipline and
correction of 14 companies ; a school for army cadets. Cavalry : 2 regiments of
chasseurs, 4 regiments of lancers, 2 regiments of guides, each of 5 active
squadrons and 1 depdt. Artillery: A special staff; 4 field regiments, 2 of 8
mounted batteries and 2 batteries of reserve, and 2 of 2 horse batteries, 7
mounted batteries, and 2 reserve mounted batteries; 1 reserve munition
battery and 1 depot ; each field battery consists of 6 guns ; 4 regiments of
fortress artillery, 3 of 14 active batteries each, 2 reserve batteries, and 1 depot,
and 1 regiment of 16 active batteries, 2 reserve, and 1 depot battery ; 4 special
companies — pontooners, artificers, mechanics, and armourers. Train, consist-
ing of a staff and 7 companies. Engineers : A special staff; 1 regiment of 3
battalions each and 4 companies of sappers and miners, 1 battalion of reserve
of 4 companies and a depdt ; 5 special companies, telegraphists, railway corps,
&c. The following is the peace-strength of the Belgian army in 1893 : —
Officers Bank and File
Total
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Artillery ....
Engineers ....
Gendarmerie
Others1 ....
1,916 ! 24,361
367 5,260
454 7,989
93 1,552
60 2,421
528 ! 2,224
26,277
5,627
8,443
1,645
2,481
2,752
Total ....
3,418 i 43,807
47,225
i General staff, train, administrative, military school, Ac.
For the army there are 7,200 horses and 200 guns, and for the gendarmerie
1,636 horses. In time of war the total strength is 154,780 men, 14,000
horses, and 240 guns.
Besides the standing army, there is a 'Garde Civique,' numbering,
March 31, 1892, 44,084 men, organised as far as possible in the communes,
and part of whose duties is to maintain the integrity and independence of
the territory ; it is only active in communes of over 10,000 inhabitants and in
fortified places.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In each province of Belgium there is an Agricultural Commission appointed
by the King ; delegates from which, along with specialists, form a supreme
council of agriculture. There are six special services connected with the
department of agriculture, dealing with forestry, clearing and planting, irriga-
tion, veterinary affairs, cultivation, and agricultural laboratories.
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386
BELGIUM
The tendency in Belgium is to a great subdivision of holdings ; these
increased from 572,550 in 1846, to 910,396 in 1880, the date of the latest
statistics. At that date the holdings of various sizes were as follows : — Less
than 1 hectare (2*47 acres) 594,376 ; from 1 to 5 hectares 226,088 ; from 5 to
10 hectares 48,390 ; from 10 to 20 hectares 25,893 ; from 23 to 50 hectares
12,186 ; above 50 hectares 3,403.
The area worked by owners increased by 94,650 hectares between 1866
and 1880. In 1880, 713,019 hectares were worked by owners, and 1,270,512
by farmers.
Of the 2,945,715 hectares which compose the area of Belgium, 67*34 per
cent are under cultivation, and 16*61 per cent, under forest, 7*88 per cent,
uncultivated, the rest roads, marshes, rivers, &c. The population connected
with agriculture in 1880 numbered 1,199,319, or 21*77 of the whole.
The soil is distributed as follows (in hectares) among various cultures (1880
the latest statistics) '• — Cereals, 934,663 ; peas, beans, &c, 33,093 ; sugar-beet,
32,627 ; flax, 40,078 ; other ornamental plants, 24,070 ; root plants, 36,153 ;
potatoes, 199,357 ; grasses, 536,000 ; heaths, brushwood, land not regularly
cultivated, &c, 231,964; fallow, groves, orchards, &c, 146,592; forests,
489,423. The principal cereals were wheat, 275,931 hectares ; oats, 249,486 ;
rye, 277,640. The mean product of these cereals in hectolitres per hectare,
and of sugar-beet in kilogrammes per hectare, was : —
1888
Wheat (winter) .
,, (summer) .
Oats .
Rye .
Sugar-beet (kilos.)
19*52
19*82
40*69
19*10
22,977
24*70
20*12
39*57
23 05
39,456
1890
24*79
21*02
43*55
25 10
31,553
1891
20 43
22*80
45*83
19*69
27,192
1892
26*72
22*80
38*24
28*24
30,511
In 1892 the yield of tobacco grown in Belgium was 4,176,392 kilogrammes.
The total value of agricultural products of every kind in 1880 was
1,412,224,000 francs; and of animal produce, 238,752,380 francs. The net
revenue from forests alone in 1890 was 4,830,884 francs.
In 1880 there were 271,974 horses, 1,382,815 horned cattle, 365,400 sheep,
and 646,375 pigs.
I
IE. Mining and Metals and other Industries.
There is a special department of the Ministry of Public Works for the
administration of industry. There are a Superior Council of Industry, a
Council of Mines, and a Council of Prud'hommes or specialists for advising
the State as to the interests of various industries.
The number of quarries in Belgium in 1892 was 1,631, workmen 29,012,
The number of workmen engaged in metallic mines in 1890 was 1,427 ; in
1891, 1,527 ; in 1892, 1,447. The quantity of iron ore produced in 1892 was
209,943 tons, valued at 1,093,100 francs. There were in 1892, 235 coal
mines in Belgium, of which 124 were worked. The number of work-people
in 1892 was 118,578, of whom 2,676 were women, 6,956 boys, and 219 girls,
working underground. The production of coal, and its value, were as
follows : —
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
387
1870
1S80
1889
1890
1891
1892
Tons (1000) .
Value in 1000 frs.
13,697
148,635
16,886
169,680
19,870
187,718
20,366
268,503
19,676
247,454
19,583
201,288
The quantity of iron ore imported in 1886 was 1,367,700 tons, in 1888
1,742,864 tons, in 1892 1 679,443 tons, mostly from Luxemburg.
The quantity and value of pig iron and manufactured iron produced were
as follows : —
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Pig iron
Tons
Value (1,000 fr.)
826,850
44,498
832,226
44,491
787,836
50,073
684,126
38,318
753,268
38,716
Manufactured iron
Tons
1,000 fr. .
547,818
70,057
577,204
80,819
514,311
82,988
497,380
72,602
479,008
64,879
Steel ingots
Tons
Million fr.
231,847
19,194
254,397
25,000
221,296
24,989
221,913
21,307
260,037
23,277
Steel rails, &c.
Tons
1,000 fr. .
185,417
22,605
214,561
29,178
201,817
31,278
206,305
29,111
208,281
27,601
In 1892 there were 18 pig-iron works in activity and 5 unemployed ; 27
blast furnaces active and 7 inactive ; number of workmen, 2,726.
For the manufacture of iron there were 507 works active and 158 inactive ;
the number of workmen employed being 15,453. There were 28 steel works
active and 13 inactive ; with 3,130 workmen.
The value of the zinc produced in 1892 was 46,568,000 francs, and the
workmen employed 4,088; value of lead, 2,690,000 francs; of silver from
lead, 4,380,000 francs ; number of workmen, 510.
In 1892 there were 122 sugar manufacturing establishments which turned
out 141,371,540 kilogrammes of raw sugar, and 36 refineries giving an output
of 47,119,430 kilogrammes. There were also 243 distilleries in operation,
whose output was 587,822 hectolitres of alcohol at 50° G.-L.
The total number of persons directly employed in manufacturing industries
of all kinds at the census of 1880 was 952,947, and the total annual value of
the produce was 2,175,437,896 francs.
In 1892 there were 336 vessels of 10,751 tons engaged in deep-sea fishery,
and the value of the fish caught was 3,216,541 francs.
Commerce.
The value of the general commerce in the year 1891 was,
imports 3,119,623,667 francs, and exports 2,847,005,898 francs ;
1892, imports 2,811,400,000 francs, and exports 2,644,300,000
francs. Of the general imports in 1892, those hy sea were valued
at 1,312,900,000 francs, and by land and river at 1,504,800,000
francs; of the exports, those by sea were valued at 1,115,200,000
Digitized by
388
BELGIUM
francs, by land and river 1,529,100,000 francs. The following
table shows the value of the imports for home consumption, the
exports of Belgian produce and manufactures, and the transit
trade, in millions of francs : —
| Imports
; Exports
Transit
Million frs
920-8
690-1
831-7
1880
Million fire
1,680-9
1,216-7
1,008-4
Million frs
1,534-3
1,243-7
1,556-3
1889
1890
Million frs
1,556-4
1,4585
1,554-5
Million frs
1,672-1
1,437-0
1,511-1
1891
Million frs
1,799-8
1,519-0
1,328-0
1892 |
Million frs
1,586-5 I
1,369-4 I
1,274-9
I
The leading articles of special commerce were as follows in the
year 1892 :—
Imports
1,000 francs
Exports
l-
Cereals and Flour
Raw textiles
Vegetable substances
Chemicals and drugs
Mineral substances
Resin and bitumen
Tissues, wool, cotton, silk
Timber
Hides, &c. .
Coffee
Animal substances
Metals
Living animals .
Meat .
Yarns, linen, wool, &c.
Wines
Coal, coke, &c. .
Manures
Vegetable oils
Dyes and Colours
Machinery .
Rice .
274,553
I Cereals and Flour
158,218
Yarns, wool, linen, &c.
93,812
Machinery .
87,424
Coal, coke, &c. .
70,350
Raw textiles
67,879
Tissues, cotton, wool, &c
60,097
Hides, &c. .
58,764
Iron .
58,485
Meat .
56,819 '
Sugar.
41,912 1
I Chemicals and drugs .
40,219 '
! Glass .
36,636
Vegetable substances .
34,394 .
Zinc .
27,245
! Animal substances
27,072
, Mineral substances
26,468 !
! Manures
25,380
i Steel .
15,804
, Living animals .
15,509
! Stone
14,340
J Resin and bitumen
13,013
Arms .
1,000 francs !
121,302
113,088
96,339
93,330
86,866
66,278
58,834
53,760
49,827
48,745
48,615
44,274
43,095
39,948
36,481
31,472
30,313
25,945
24,715
19,328
18,125
13,948
The imports into Great Britain from Belgium, and exports of
British produce and manufactures to Belgium, according to the
Board of Trade returns, are shown in the subjoined tabular state-
ment for five years : —
-
1888 ' 1889
1890 1891 | 1892
Imports into
Great Britain
I Exports of
British pro-
duce .
£ £
15,635,228 '17,674,877
6,789,533 1 7,160,132
£ > £
1
17,383,776 [17,253,265
i
i
7,638,712 7,374,495
■ -
£
17,013,967
6,942,667
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COMMERCE
389
The principal imports into Great Britain from Belgium, and
exports of British produce to Belgium were : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891 1 1892 !
Imports into Great
&
&
&
£ £ |
Britain :
Woollen yarn
1,383,124
1,531,795
1,242,399 1,254,881
1,236,894 i
Silk stuffs & rib-
1
bons
1,831,855
1,963,821
1,602,300
1,660,696
1,793,309 !
Flax .
640,755
769,184
759,812
893,196
815,861
Sugar .
632,334
1,077,180
942,393 731,521
764,804
Bar iron & manu-
factures .
669,214
892,539
869,803
823,476
761,035 1
Eggs .
492,332
567,955
585,032
540,699
629,264 ;
Poultry and Game
324,835
413,929
477,226
361,181
412,823 1
Exports to Belgium :
i 1
Cottons
1,211,742
1,121,542
1,089,731
1,040,776 ;1,003,870
Cotton yarns
587,061
846,150
806,794
610,470 ! 452,937
Woollens .
868,131
885,210
922,047
990,794 934,742
Machinery .
641,105
660,959
847,463
807,420 670,344
Iron .
359,990
370,527
441,044
292,806 244,138
Of foreign and colonial produce, amounting to 5,870,6 38£.
sent from Great Britain to Belgium in 1892, raw cotton was
valued at 371,406*., and wool at 3,073,243*.
The following table shows the respective shares of the leading
countries in the special commerce of Belgium in two years : —
Imports
1891
1892
1000 francs
1000 francs
France .
326,775
299,544
United States
199,918
206,534
Great Britain
199,478
182,617
Netherlands
196,617
178,706
Germany
179,568
167,823
British India
121,631
60,934
Russia .
116,310
73,749
Roumania
109,939
61,965
Argentine Republic
86,904
67,852
Sweden and Norway
r | 46,470
42,578
Brazil
32,142
35,316
Italy
24,358
20,570
Peru
22,110
26,198
Australia
19,607
14,187
Spain
Chile .
, 16,978
13,957
i 15,767
14,449
Egypt .
, 12,667
7,310
Switzerland
2,275
3,044
Exports
1891
1892
1000 francs
1000 francs
378,672
310,661
55,299
53,143
265,638
234,550
228,681
189,902
312,773
312,973
9,043
12,608
7,801
5,852
7,323
7,588
11,811
14,011
13,663
16,000
23,829
19,040
27,474
22,492
—
960
—
5,408
31,370
28,337
—
11,945
10,856
7,184
30,090
32,260
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS — MONEY AND CREDIT 391
The total receipts of its railways from 1835 to 1892 amounted to 3,170,642,149
francs, and the total expense of working its railways during the same period
was 1,859,469,465 francs.
The work of the Post Office in Belgium for three years was as follows : —
-
1890
1891
1892
Private letters
Official letters
Post-cards
Printed matter
Newspapers .
95,484,491
16,567,965
36,865,077
73,599,461
94,639,558
97,802,555
18,484,731
37,226,241
81,978,680
96,287,637
99,295,241
17,891,763
39,260,182
88,274,979
100,693,346
On January 1, 1893, there were 829 post offices in Belgium. The total
revenue of the Post Office in the year 1891 amounted to 17,021,805 francs,
in 1892 17,513,873 francs, and the expenditure in 1891, to 9,747,843 francs,
in 1892, 9,954,020 francs.
The telegraphs in Belgium carried 8,445,593 despatches, private and
official, in the year 1891, in 1892, 7,975,523. In 1892 the total length of public
telegraph lines was 4,617 miles, and the length of wires 22,739 miles. There
were at the same date 965 telegraph stations. Receipts (1892), 3,445,599
francs; expenses, 4,535,192 francs.
Money and Credit.
The nominal value of money minted and circulated in Belgium from
1832 to 1887 was: gold, 598,642,745 francs; silver, 556,342,745 francs;
copper and nickel, 15,273,826 francs; total, 1,170,259,316 francs. No
coinage has been minted recently.' The proportion of Belgian and of foreign
fractional silver coin (2, 1, and $ franc pieces) circulating in Belgium is indicated
by the results of an inquiry by the National Bank. Of silver fractional pieces
amounting to 349,217 francs received at the offices of the bank on September 1,
1893, 43 '53 per cent, in value was Belgian, 34*24 per cent. French, 17 '83 per
cent. Italian, 3 "65 per cent Swiss, 0 '745 per cent. Greek ; or 56 '465 per cent,
was foreign.
The one bank of emission in Belgium is the National Bank, instituted
1850. Its capital, entirely paid up, is 550 million francs. It is the cashier
of the State, and is authorised to carry on the usual banking operations.
The following are statistics of the bank in thousands of francs : —
•
Year
Cash
Bills, Ac.
Loans in
Public
Funds
Public
Funds
Notes in
Circulation
117,900
339,909
404,722
421,887
427,595
Credit
Current
Accounts
Reserve
1860
1 1880
1890
1891
1892
62,023
98,787
103,413
102,752
114,635
155,958
283,903
312,671
323,987
309,392
4,469
7,787
7,588
6,891
8,599
3,347
33,166
49,852
49,852
49,966
81,825
72,142
67,724
69,363
69,340
10,312
14,730
22,410
23,065
23,583
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Private Banks .
Joint-stock .
152,556
37,598
75,730 I 26,523
4,272 7,527
555,378
124,985
352,008
61,480
231,992
94,267
198,992
5,549
There are, besides agricultural banks, credit unions, and popular banks.
The following are the statistics of the State savings-banks, of which in 1890
there were 609 : —
vaoi. nAn/ttifAra Deposits at Reserve ;i V(ao„
Year ^epositors en(fof Year Fund I Year
1880
1885
| Francs
200,565 I 125,098,287
444,087 180,001,089
Depositors
Francs
3,774,740 1889
7,580,401 I 1890
657,307
731,057
Deposits at Reserve
end of year Fund
Francs
282,588,099
325,415,412
Francs
8,069,180
9,001,336
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The .Franc Par value 25 *22| to £1 sterling.
Belgium was one of the five Continental States — comprising, besides,
France, Italy, Greece, and Switzerland — which formed a Monetary League in
1865.
Weights and Measures.
The Kilogramme
Tonne .
Hectolitre ( Dry measure
\ Liquid measure
Metre .
Metre Cube
Kilometre
Hectare
Square Kilometre
= 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 2,200,,
= 275 imperial bushels.
= 22 imperial gallons.
= 3*28 feet.
= 35 '31 cubic feet
= 1,093 yards.
= 2*47 English acres.
= 247*11 English acres,
or 0*386 square mile.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Belgium in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron Wethnall, appointed February, 1894.
Charge" £ Affaires. — Count du Chastel de la Howarderie.
Secretary of Legation. — M. Joostens.
Consul- General in London. — F. H. Lenders.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 393
There are Consular representatives of Belgium in the following towns : —
Aberdeen, Dundee, Queenstown, Dunedin,
Belfast, Falmouth, Sheffield, Hong Kong,
Berwick, Glasgow, Southampton, Melbourne,
Birmingham, Hull, Adelaide, Quebec,
Bradford, Leith, Bombay, Singapore,
Bristol, Liverpool, Brisbane, Sydney,
Cardiff, Manchester, Calcutta, Wellington.
Devon, Newcastle, Cape Town,
Dublin, Portsmouth, Ceylon,
2. Of Great Britain in Belgium.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Sir F. R. Plunkett, K.C.M.G., Envoy and
Minister to Sweden and Norway, 1888 ; to Belgium, 1893.
Secretary. — C. F. Frederick Adam.
There is a Consul-General at Antwerp, and Vice-Consuls at Ghent, Liege,
Louvain, and Ostend.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Belgium.
1. Official Publications.
Almanach Royal Offlciel de Belgique, contenant les attributions et le personnel de tous
les services publics du royaume. Annee 1803. Bruxelles, 1893.
Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. Bruxelles, 1892.
Documents statistiques, publies par le depart, de l'lnterieur, avec le concours de la com-
mission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1857-69.
Moniteur beige.
Budgets provinciaux. Exercice 1893. Bruxelles, 1892.
Budgets des recettes et des depenses pour l'exercice 1894. Bruxelles, 1893.
Releve du chiffre officiel de la population en 1892. Bruxelles, 1893.
Rapport triennal sur la situation de l'instruction primaire en Belgique. Seizieme
Periode Triennale, 1888-89. Bruxelles, 1892.
Situation generale du tresor public au ler Janvier, 1893. Bruxelles, 1893.
Expose de la situation du royaume, periode 1841-50. 1 vol. Periode 1851-60. 3 vols.
Periode 1861-75. 2 vols. Publie par le Ministre de l'lnterieur. 8. Bruxelles, 1861-85.
Recensement general de la population au 31 Decembre, 1890. 4. Bruxelles, 1892.
Statistique de la Belgique. Population. Recensement general (31 Decembre, 1890).
Bruxelles, 1898. 2 vols.
Statistique de la Belgique. Agriculture. Recensement general de 1880. Bruxelles,
1885.
Statistique de la Belgique. Apenju de la situation de royaume dresse en Avril 1889
par les soins de la commission centrale de statistique de Belgique. Bruxelles, 1889.
Statistique generale des recettes et depenses du royaume, 1840-85. Bruxelles, 1889.
Tableau general du commerce avec les pays etrangers, pendant l'annee 1892, publie par le
Ministre des Finances. Bruxelles, 1893.
Compte-rendu des chemins de fer, postes, telegraphes et marine pour 1892. Bruxelles,
1893.
British Consular and Diplomatic Reports. Annual.
Trade of Belgium with the United Kingdom, in * Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1898.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Savory (Ch. Victor de), Histoire de la revolution beige de 1830. 8. Bruxelles, 1876.
Brialmont (A. H.), Situation militaire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1882.
Garcia de la Vega (D. de), Royaume de la Belgique. Brussels, 1883.
Harze (Em.), Statisque des mines, minieres, Ac, pour l'annee, 1891. "8. Bruxelles, 1892.
Meulemans (Aug.), La Belgique, ses ressources agricoles, industrielles et commerciales.
8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Motel (H. Q.), Histoire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1881.
Nicolai (E.), Les chemins de fer de l'etat en Belgique 1834-84. Etude historique, eeono-
mique et statistique. Bruxelles, 1885.
PoulletCE.), Histoire politique interne de la Belgique. Louvain, 1879.
Beelua (Elisee), Nouvelle geographie universelle. Tome IV. L'Europe du Nord-Ouest
Paris, 1879.
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395
BOLIVIA.
(ItEPtiBLICA BOLIVIANA).
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Bolivia bears date October 28, 1880. By
its provisions the executive power is vested in a President, elected for a term
of four years by direct popular vote ; while the legislative authority rests with
a Congress of two chambers, called the Senate, and the Chamber of Deputies.
The suffrage is possessed by all who can read and write. There are 16 Senators
and 64 Deputies. There are two Vice-Presidents and a ministry, divided into
five departments— of Foreign Relations and Worship ; Finance and Industry ;
Government and Colonisation ; Justice and Public Instruction ; War.
President of the Bepublic-SefLOT Mariano Baptista, nominated President
August 6, 1892.
t The supreme political, administrative, and military authority in each
department is vested in a prefect. The Republic is divided into nine
departments, 52 provinces and 374 cantons, administered respectively by
prefects, sub-prefects, and corregidores. The capital of each province has its
municipal council.
Area and Population.
The area of Bolivia was estimated in 1869 at 842,729 English square
miles, with a population of close upon two millions. The following table
gives after official returns of 1880-88, the area of each of the existing
provinces, with- their estimated population (excluding aboriginal Indians) :—
j Departmenl
I
ts
Area: English
square miles
Population
' La Paz de Ayacucho
171,200
346,139
i Potosi .
J 52,084
237,755
Oruro .
21,331
111,372
i Chuquisaca, or Sucre
i 39,871
123,347
' Cochabamba .
1 21,417
196,766
! Beni .
100,551
16,744
Santa-Cruz de la Sierra
126,305
97,185
! Tarija .
1 34,599
62,854
i
Tot
al
567,360
1,192,162
As a result of the war with Chile, 1879-80, Bolivia mortgaged to that
country all her coast territory. The aboriginal or Indian population
of Bolivia is estimated at a million ; the mestizos or mixed races at
500,000, and the whites about 500,000. They are mostly regarded as at least
nominally Christian. The present population may be estimated at about
2,300,000.
The population of La Paz is estimated at 45,000 ; Cochabamba 25,000 ;
Sucre (the capital), 17,000 ; Tarija, 8,000 ; Potosi, 12,000 ; Santa Cruz,
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COMMERCE — COMMUNICATIONS 397
Commerce.
The average value of the imports is estimated at 1,200, 000 J., and exports
1,800,000*. Two-thirds of the exports consist of silver. In 1889 the total
Bolivian exports by Buenos Ayres was 3,327,645 Argentine dollars, in 1890
823,192 dollars, mostly silver and gold. In the first half of 1890 the exports
from Bolivia by Arequipa amounted to 536,229 Peruvian soles, that of copper in
bars to 312,915 soles. The total imports by Buenos Ayres in 1889 amounted to
106,487 dollars, in 1890, 3,283 dollars ; about one-half was for textiles. Export
of silver bar and ore in 1888, 17,064,218 bolivianos; in 1889, 12,145,545
bolivianos. Nearly one-half of the imports are calculated to come from the
United Kingdom, mainly through the port of Arica in Peru. Considerable
trade is also done with France and Germany. The exports comprise, besides
silver, Peruvian bark, india-rubber, gum, coca and coffee, and copper, tin,
bismuth, and other ores.
In the Board of Trade Returns the trade of the United Kingdom with
Bolivia since 1888 has been included in the trade with Chile. The principal
imports from Bolivia into Great Britain are silver, tin, copper, and their ores,
alpaca, coca, and quinine bark. In the year 1888 the value of the imports of
copper, both ore and regulus, amounted to 49,948/. ; and of nitre to
74,530/. The British exports to the Republic consist chiefly of cotton
goods, of the value of 3,008Z. ; of iron, wrought and unwrought, of the
value of 51,424Z. ; machinery, 13,210/. ; coals, 7,642/. ; carriages, 13,753/.,
in 1888.
Communications.
A railway connects the Chilian port of Antofagasta, with the Bolivian
frontier at Ascotan, and it thence proceeds as far as Uyuni in Bolivian
territory ; from Uyuni there is a branch to Huanchaca where there is
one of the most important silver mines in the world. The extension of
this railway to Oruro, is now complete. Nearly 500 miles of this railway
are built in Bolivian territory. Besides this, concessions have been given
for other lines which are being studied and will, it is stated, soon begin to be
built — namely, from the city of La Paz to the Peruvian frontier, to join the
line from Mollendo on the Pacific coast to Puno on Lake Titicaca ; from the
River Paraguay, in the east of Bolivia, to the* city of Santa Cruz ; from
Oruro to Cochabamba ; and from Challapata near Oruro, to Potosi. A line
is also proposed from Uyuni to the Argentine frontier. New roads are being
constructed in many parts of the country.
There is a line of telegraph between Puno, on Lake Titicaca, and La
Paz, 145 miles, and from La Paz to Oruro, whence it is being continued to
Cochabamba ; another between the capital and Potosi and the Argentine
frontier on the one hand and the Pacific coast on the other. In 1891 there
were 83 post offices ; the number of letters, postcards, papers, &c. , transmitted
was : internal, 604,536 ; international, 294,414. Bolivia belongs to the postal
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Boliviano or Dollar, of 100 centavos, was struck on the basis of the
5-franc piece ; present value (Aug. 1 893) about 2s. The gold ounce is
nominally equal to 17 J silver pesos.
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ana prescriDea. Dy law, out wie oia opamsn system is aiso employ ea as
follows : —
The Libra = 1 '014 lbs. avoirdupois
„ Quintal =101*44 „ „
Arroba } of 25 pounds . . = 25*36 „
;' \ of wine or spirits . = 6*70 imperial gallons.
„ Gallon = 0*74 ,f gallon.
„ Vara = 0*927 yard.
,, Square Vara . = 0 "859 square yard.
Consular Representative.
Of Bolivia in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Francisco Suarez.
Great Britain has no representative in Bolivia.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia.
1. Official Publications.
Report on the Trade, Ac, of Bolivia in 1884-85, in ' Reports from the Consul of the United
States," January, 1886. Washington, 1886.
Report on the Trade of Bolivia in 1887, in ' Deutsches Handels-Archiv,' August, and on a
Projected Railway, October, 1888. Berlin, 1888.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bolivia, a paper in the ' Deutsche Kolonial-Zeitung,' Heft 18, 1886, p. 548. Berlin, 1886.-
Ballivian (Manuel V.) and IdiaqueM (Eduardo), Diccionario Geogriphico de la Republics
de Bolivia. La Paz, 1890.
Bonelli (L. H. de), Travels in Bolivia. 2 vols. London, 1854.
Church (Col. Geo. Earl), Papers and Documents relating to the Bolivian Loan, the National
Bolivian Navigation Company, Ac 8. London, 1873.
Dalence (M.), Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca, 1878.
jyOrbigny, Description geograflca, historica y estadistica de Bolivia. 1844.
D'Orbigny (A.), Voyage dans l'Amerique Meridionale. 9 vols. Paris, 1835-47.
Qrandidier (P.), Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.
Mathew* (Edward D.), Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, through Bolivia and Peru.
S. London, 1879.
Moreno (J. L.), Nociones de geografla de Bolivia. Sucre, 1889.
Buck (Ernesto O.), Guia General de Bolivia. Sucre, 1865.
Temple (E.), Travels in various Parts of Peru. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Ttchudi (J. J. von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1856.
Uriel (Comte C. d'), Sud Amerique: Sejours et voyages an Bresil, en Bolivie, Ac 12
Paris 187P.
Weddell (H. A.), Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie. Paris, 1853.
Wiener (Charles), Perou et Bolivie. Paris, 1880-
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399
BRAZIL.
(Estados TJnidos do Brazil.)
Constitution and Government.
In 1807 the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815 the
colony was declared * a kingdom ' ; and the Portuguese Court
having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled
at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son
of King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ' Perpetual Defender '
of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on
September 7, 1822, and was chosen 'Constitutional Emperor and
Perpetual Defender ' on October 12 following. In 1831 he abdi-
cated the crown in favour of his only son, Dom Pedro II., who
reigned as Emperor until November 15, 1889, when by a revolu-
tion he was dethroned, and he and his family exiled, and Brazil
declared a Republic under the title of the United States of
Brazil. Dom Pedro died in 1891.
By a decree of June 22, 1890, the Provisional Government convoked a
National Congress, which, in February, 1891, established a new Constitution,
whereby the Brazilian nation, adopting the federative republican form of
government, constituted itself as the United States of Brazil. Each of the
old Provinces forms a State, administered at its own expense without inter-
ference from the Federal Government save for defence, for the maintenance
of order, and for the execution of the Federal laws. Fiscal arrangements in
such matters as customs, stamps, rates of postage, and bank-note circulation
belong to the Union ; but the several states may impose duties on foreign
imports intended for consumption within their respective territories.
The legislative authority is exercised by the National Congress with the
sanction of the President of the Republic. Congress consists of the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate. It meets annually on the 3rd of May, without
being convoked, unless another day be fixed by law, and sits four months, but
may be prorogued or convoked extraordinarily No member of Congress, after
his election, can contract with the executive power or accept any commission or
paid office, except such as are diplomatic or military or imposed by law. If,
in ordinary circumstances, the acceptance of diplomatic or military office
would cause the loss of the legislative services of a member, the permission
of the Chamber is required. Nor can any member of Congress take part in
the administration of any company which is employed by the Federal
Government. Deputies and Senators are paid, and neither can be Ministers
of State. Deputies must have been Brazilian citizens for four years Senators
must be over thirty-five years of age and must have been citizens for six years
The Chamber of Deputies consists of 205 members elected for three years
by direct vote (providing for the representation of the minority), in a pro-
portion not greater than one to every 70,000 of population as shown by a
decennial census, but so that eventually no State will have less than four
representatives. It has the initiative in legislation relating to taxation.
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400
BRAZIL
The following table shows the number of Deputies from the different
States and from the Federal district : —
Deputies
Deputies
Amazonas
. 2
Alagoas. . . 6
Para
. 7
Sergipe ... 4
Maranhao
. 7
Bahia . .22
Piauhy .
. 4
Espirito Santo . 2
Ceara .
. 10
Rio de Janeiro . 17
Rio Grande do Norte 4
San Paulo . . 22
Parahyba
. 5
Parana ... 4
Pernambuco .
. 17
Santa Catharina 4
Rio Grande do Sul
Minas Geraes .
Goyaz .
Matto Grosso .
Federal District
Totals .
Deputies
16
37
3
2
10
205
\
Senators, 63 in 'number, are chosen by direct vote, three for each State,
and for the Federal district, for nine years, and the Senate is renewed to the
extent of one-third every three years. The Vice-President of the Republic is
President of the Senate.
The executive authority is exercised by the President of the Republic.
He must be a native of Brazil, over thirty-five years of age. His term of
office is four years, and he is not eligible for the succeeding term. The
President and the Vice-President are elected by the people directly, by an
absolute majority of votes. The election is held on the 1st of March in
the last year of each presidential period in accordance with forms prescribed
by law. No candidate must be related by blood or marriage, in the first or
second degree, to the actual president or vice-president, or to either who has
ceased to be so within six months.
The President has the nomination and dismissal of ministers, supreme
command of the army and navy, and, within certain limits, the power to
declare war and make peace. He (with the consent of Congress) appoints
the members of the Supreme Federal Tribunal and the diplomatic ministers.
No minister can appear in Congress, but must communicate by letter, or in
conference with commissions of the Chambers. Ministers are not responsible to
Congress or the Tribunals for advice given to the President of the Republic.
The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age,
duly enrolled, except beggars, ' illiterates,7 soldiers actually serving, and
members of monastic orders, &c., under vows of obedience.
President of tht Republic. — Marshal Floriano Peixoto, formerly Vice-Pre-
sident. By the resignation of Marshal da Fonseca, he became President,
November 23,1891, the term of office expiring November 15, 1894.
There are 6 Secretaries of State at the head of the following Departments : —
1. Finance, 2. Justice, Interior and Public Instruction, 3. War, 4. Marine,
5. Foreign Affairs, 6. Industry, Communications and Public Works.
In 1885 a bill was passed for the gradual extinction of slavery, and on
May 13, 1888, an act was passed repealing all former acts on the subject, and
abolishing slavery from the day of the promulgation of the law.
I. Local Government.
According to the new Constitution each State must be organised under
the republican form of government, and must have its administrative, legisla-
tive, and judicial authorities distinct and independent. The governors and
members of the legislatures must be elective ; the magistrates must not be
elective nor removable from office save by judicial sentence. The Federal
District is administered by a council elected by the citizens of the District, the
municipal executive authority being exercised by a Prefect appointed for four
years by the President of the Republic. There are in Brazil 892 municipali-
ties and 1,886 parishes.
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AREA AND POPULATION
401
Area and Population.
The census taken in 1872 was only a partial one, and its
results are not regarded as trustworthy. The total population is
given as 9,930,478— males, 5,123,869 ; females, 4,806,609. The
subjoined table gives the area and population of each of the
provinces of the Empire in 1872, and according to an official esti-
mate of 1888 :—
1
! State or Provinces
Area : Eng.
sq. in.
Population,
1872
Population,
1888
Density per
sq. m.,1888
Amazonas
732,460
57,610
80,654
O'll
Para
443,653
275,237
407,350
0 91
Maranhao
177,566
359,040
488,443
27
Piauhy .
116,218
202,222
266,933
2*2
Ceara
40,253
721,686
952,625
23 6
Rio Grande do Norte
22,195
233,979
308,852
13 9
Parahyba
28,854
376,226
496,618
17-0
Pernambuco .
49,625
841,539
1,110,831
22-0
Alagoas .
22,583
348,009
459,371
20 0
1 Sergipe .
7,370
176,243
232,640
31-0
Bahia
164,649
1,379,613
1,821,089
11-0
Espirito Santo
17,312
82,137
121,562
7 0
' Rio de Janeiro
26,634
782,724
1,164,468
437
Municipio Neutro
(City of Rio)
538
837,354
406,958
756 0
Santa Catharina
27,436
139,802
236,346
8*6
Rio Grande do Sul .
91,335
434,816
564,527
6*18
Minas Geraes .
222,160
2,039,735
3,018,807
13-58
Matto Grosso .
532,708
60,417
79,750
0-149
Goyaz .
288,546
160,935
211,721
0-77
Parana .
85,453
126,722
187,548
2-19
I San Paulo
112,330
837,354
1,386,242
12-34
Total .
3,209,878
9,930,478
14,002,335
4-36
This shows an apparent increase of 41 per cent, in sixteen years, or at the
rate of 2*56 per cent, per annum. According to an enumeration on August
13, 1892, the population of the State of Rio de Janeiro was 1,053,817 (540,416
males and 513,401 females), 5 per cent, being foreigners, chiefly Portuguese.
In 1892 the population of Rio de Janeiro was estimated at 800,000 ; of
Bahia, in 1890, 80,000 ; of Pernambuco, 190,000 ; Belem, 65,000 ; San Paulo,
35,000 ; Ceara, 35,000 ; Maranhao, 38,000 ; Porto Alegre, 45,000 ; Parahyba
40,000 ; Ouro Preto, 22,000.
At the census of 1872 there were 3,787,289 whites, 3,801,787 metis,
1,954,452 negroes, and 386,955 Indians. In the northern provinces the
Indian element preponderates, while in Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,
and Minas the negroes are numerous. At the seaports the chief part of the
population is of European descent.
n d
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live other special schools with 575 pupils. Connected with the observatory at
Rio is a school for astronomy and engineering. Secondary instruction is under
the charge of the provincial governments except in the capital. In most of the
chief towns of the states there is a middle-class school and a normal school,
besides many private middle-class schools. Primary instruction in the capital is
under the charge of the Government, and in the States under the municipal and
state authorities. According to the Constitution education is, at all stages,
under lay management, ana primary education is gratuitous. Compulsory
education now exists in several States. In 1889 there were, it was officially
stated, 7,500 public and private primary schools, attended by 800,000 pupils
in all. In 1881, oi the total population 1,902,455 were of school age (6 to
15). The number of illiterates is returned at 8,365,997, or 84 per cent, oi
the population.
Justice and Crime.
There is a supreme tribunal of Justice at Rio de Janeiro ; 11 courts oi
appeal throughout the country, which are courts of first and second instance,
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Finance.
The following table shows the actual revenue and expenditure
for to 1888-90, the (mainly actual) revenue and expenditure for
1891, and the expected revenue expenditure for 1892 and 1893 : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Milreis
Milreis
1888 .
. 144,969,654
146,047,490
1889 .
. 160,060,744
184,565,947
1890 .
. 195,253,406
220,645,874
1891 .
. 228,619,779
221,531,917
1892 .
. 224,967,000
268,058,000
1893 .
. 253,621,000
237,043,000
The proposed budget for 1894 was as follows :
i Revenue t Milreis ■
Expenditure
Milreis
Import duties & surtax .
Departments :
Interior and Justice .
Port charges, &c. . |
14,473,833
I Export taxes (gold, &c. )
1 Railways
;
Foreign Affairs .
1,815,992
Marine
17,846,200
: Post office & Telegraphs
War ...
29,959,815
Stamps
,
Industry .
100,716,824
1 New Tobacco stamps . i
Finance
85,645,244
Transfer taxes
i Tax on Salaries . . 1
, On Active Debt .
' Various
I Extraord. (fines, &c. )
Deposits, net balance .
|
1
Total . . . |
Total .
i
233,521,890 [
250,457,908
The extraordinary credits required by the Government are
given as follows : war (purchase of material, cost of war in Rio
Grande, &c), 44,694,000 milreis ; interior, 6,096,000 milreis ;
industry, 33,796,000 milreis ; foreign affairs, 400,000 milreis ;
marine, 30,184,000 milreis; finance, 1,429,000 milreis : total,
116,384,000 milreis.
From the report of the Minister of Finance it appears that
in May, 1893, the public debt stood as follows : —
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404 BRAZIL
Milreis
Foreign debt, £29,453,500, or (at par) . 261,809,111
Internal debt : —
Apolice8 gold, 4 per cent. . 124,642,000
Apolices paper, 4 and 5 per cent. . 261,953,400
Other debts 262,446,999
Total internal , 649,042,399
Total debt . . 910,851,510
Not included in this statement are : —
Treasury notes 215,111,964
Bank paper money 355,173,310
Giving a total of . . 1,481,136,784
To be deducted is the amount of unpaid assets 233,612,484
Net debt . . 1,247,624,300
The rate of interest on the Foreign Debt varies from 4 per cent, to 4} per
cent, that on the Internal Funded Debt from 4 per cent to 6 per cent.
According to the report of the Budget Commission, the cost of the service of
the external debt to be paid abroad is 3,099,0572. Other expenditure abroad
(guaranteed interest on railways, diplomatic body, purchases of war material,
&c), amounts to 2,451,1382., bringing the expenditure abroad in gold from
the Brazilian treasury Up to 5,550,1957.
The redemption of the foreign loans is to be effected by a sinking fund
of 1 per cent, per annum, to be applied by purchase of bonds in the market
when the price is under par, and when at or above par by drawings
by lots.
The internal debt is chiefly represented by bonds, called Apolices, inscribed
to the holder, and the payment of its capital and interest, which is provided
for by an annual vote of Congress, is under the charge of the sinking fund
department (Caixa da AmortisaeOo), independent of the Government, directed
by a committee, presided over by the Minister of Finance, and composed of
a general inspector and five large Brazilian bondholders.
The total revenue of all the provinces of Brazil in 1886-88 was 34,469,000
milreis, and expenditure 39,643,000 milreis. On January 29, 1893, the debt
of the State of Rio Grande do Sul was 6,710,903 milreis. The total provincial
debt in 1888 amounted to 53,030,000 milreis, of which 10,986,000 milreis was
floating debt
Defence.
Obligatory service in the army was introduced in 1875. The duration of
service is 6 years in the active army and 8 in the reserve. There are 36
battalions of infantry, with 1 transport company and 1 depdt company ; 12
regiments of cavalry, each of 4 squadrons, 2 cavalry corps of 4 companies,
5 garrison companies and 1 garrison squadron, 5 regiments of held artillery
and 5 battalions of fort artillery ; 2 pioneer battalions of engineers. In 1891
there were 1,600 officers and 28,877 men, besides 15,000 gendarmerie.
The Brazilian navy includes the two second-class battleships Riachuelo and
Aquidaban; the 9 local-defence armour-clads Bahia (1,000 tons), Sete do
Setembro (2,150 tons), Alagoas, Piauhy, Bio Grande, Maranhao, Pernambuco
(the last five being river monitors, 340 to 470 tons), Brazil and Lima-Barros
(both now floating batteries) ; the three second-class cruisers Almirantc
Tamandare (4,465 tons), Benjamin Constant (2,750 tons), and Ouanabara
(2,200 tons) — the first two of these new vessels, and the last dating from
1877 ; and, of vessels grouped as third-rlass cruisers in the book — 4 a, and
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE 405
18 b. These last are all small gunboats. The torpedo-flotilla consists oi 3
first-class and 5 second-class boats, besides 11 small vedette craft.
The revolt of the fleet in September 1893, headed by Admiral de Mello,
supported by Admiral Saldanha da Gama and many naval officers, is still
(December 1893) in progress. One insurgent ship, the monitor Javary, has
1 been sunk in Rio bay. On the other hand President Peixoto has added to the
fleet by purchase in the United States and elsewhere. The steamship El Cid,
re-named Nidheroy, and armed with a Zalinski dynamite gun ; the Britannia,
re-named America, which has been fitted as a cruiser ; the Ericsson sub-
marine gunboat Destroyer, re-named Pirating ; and some other vessels.
The sea-going turret-ships, Riachuelo (5,700 tons displacement), and
AquidaJban (5,000 tons), were built in England, the former launched in 1883
and completed in 1884, and the latter launched and completed in 1885.
Both vessels are protected by a belt of armour (steel-feced) having a maximum
thickness of 11 inches, and each has two turrets protected by 10-inch armour.
The principal armament consists of four 21 -ton breech-loading guns carried
in the turrets, and there is an auxiliary armament of six 5-ton breech loaders
in one ship, and four in the other, besides 17 machine-guns. Both vessels
are of steel, sheathed with wood and metal, and are capable of keeping the sea
for lone periods, and both possess all modern improvements in construc-
tion and equipment. The lost Javary was a powerful double-turreted ship ol
light draught, suitable for coast defence or river service, of about 3,500 tons
displacement, and 2,500 horse power. The cruiser Almirante Tamandare,
built in Brazil in 1890, is a vessel of 4,465 tons and 7,500 nominal horse-
power, with a very extensive quick-firing armament. The Solimoes was lost,
May 20, 1892, and the training ship Almirante Barroao in May, 1893.
There are five naval arsenals — at Rio de Janeiro, Para, Pernambuco, Bahia,
and Ladario de Matto Grosso.
Production and Industry.
Brazil is an agricultural country, though only a small fraction of its soil
has been brought under culture. Coffee is the chief product cultivated, and
after that sugar and tobacco. The yield of coffee for 1892 was estimated at
8,000,000 bags; for Bahia alone the coffee yield in 1893 was 300,000 bags,
and tobacco 303,200 bales. There are numerous central sugar factories with
Government guarantee of interest at 6 or 7 per cent. In Rio Grande do Sul
the cattle industry is important. The number killed in 1891 was 450,000,
and in 1892, 485,000. The number of hides, salted and dry, exported in
1891 was 685,541, and in 1892, 671,456. In 1891, 3,987,635 kilogrammes of
lard were exported and in 1892, 4,537,615 kilogrammes. Of dried beef, in
1891, 26,846,000 kilogrammes and in 1892, 28,754,000 kilogrammes were sent
for consumption in other parts of Brazil. In the same state are prosperous
fruit preserving establishments, tanneries and breweries. Both the forests
and mines of Brazil are of value, but little has been done to make use of them.
There are 4 important gold mines worked by English or French companies.
Of 3 of these the produce in 1891 was valued at 73,935Z. Vast quantities of
iron are known to exist, but they cannot be worked from want of fuel. Cotton
mills are on the increase ; in the State of Bahia there were at work in 1893 ten
mills with upwards of 800 looms.
Commerce.
In the five years from 1885-86 to 1890 the imports and ex-
ports were as follows : —
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4-06
BRAZIL
\
IraporU
Milreis
Exports
Milreis
1885-86 .
197,601,500
194,961,620
1886-87 (18 months) .
310,850,000
365,592,000
1888.
260,999,000
212,592,000
1889.
221,621,000
309,000,000
1890.
260,100,000
317,822,000
\
The Government levies on most national products an export
duty, while the import duties are very high.
The exports from Para in 1891 amounted to the value of 50,029,213
milreis, of which 15,496,660 milreis went to Great Britain. Of the total ex-
ports from Para, the value of 44,637,004 milreis consisted of India-rubber ;
3,501,658 milreis of cocoa ; 1,144,380 milreis of Brazil nuts. In the year
1891-92, 3,701,845 bags of coffee (each about 60 kilos.) were exported from
Rio Janeiro ; 3,588,007 bags from Santos ; 105,270 bags from Victoria
(Espirito Santo) direct. In 1892-93, 2,808,657 bags were exported from
Rio Janeiro; 3,411,498 from Santos; 185,606 from Victoria. In 1891-92
51,935 tons of sugar were exported from Pernambuco.
The trade of Brazil is mostly with Great Britain, the United States,
Germany, and France.
The amount of the commercial intercourse of Brazil with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, is shown in the subjoined
table, for each of the last five years : —
1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U. K. from
| Brazil.
| Exports of British pro-
j dace to Brazil .
£
5,206,899
6,256,297
£
5,070,628
6,232,816
£
4,350,675
7,458,628
£
4,249,909
8,290,089
£
3,511,941
7,910,32
The following are the values of the principal imports into Great Britain
from Brazil :— Raw cotton, 671,990/. in 1890 ; 681,005*. in 1891 ; 367,844/.
in 1892 ; unrefined sugar, 259,369/. in 1890 ; 306,912/. in 1891 ; 243,771/. in
1892; caoutchouc, in 1890 1,908,062/. ; in 1891, 1,765,450/. ; 1,729,366/. in
1892; coffee, in 1890 852,158/. ; in 1891, 592,890/. ; 571,027/. in 1892.
The most important article of British produce and manufacture exported
to Brazil are manufactured cotton, the value of which was 2,975,997/. in 1890 ;
2,573,083/. in 1891 ; 3,356,848/. in 1892 ; wrought and unwrought iron, of
the value of 1,045,546/. in 1891 ; 718,365/. in 1892 ; woollen manufactures,
of the value of 418,428/. in 1891 ; 411,193/. in 1892 ; coals, of the value of
605,421/. in 1891 ; 562,630/. in 1892 ; and machinery, of the value of
1,091,442/., in 1891 ; 763,236/. in 1892.
The customs duties upon all articles of British manufacture are very heavy,
averaging 45 per cent.
Shipping and navigation.
In 1892 there entered the ports of Rio Grande do Sul, in the foreign trade,
251 vessels of 80,283 tons (100 of 58,189 tons British), and cleared 196 of
79,764 tons (91 of 57,239 tons British); while in the coastwise trade 324
vessels of 174,920 tons entered and 354 of 164,724 tons cleared. In 1892
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MONEY, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 407
1,379 vessels, of 1,948,547 tons entered, and 1,187 vessels, of 1,856,347 tons
cleared the port of Rio Janeiro ; while 965 of 1,297,712 tons (212 of 330,788
tons British) entered and cleared the port of Bahia. The merchant navy in
1893 consisted of 553 vessels, of 196,981 tons, of which 179, *of 114,102 tons,
were steamers. From November, 1894, all coasting and river traffic will have
to be carried on under the Brazilian flag.
Internal Communications.
Brazil possessed in 1893 railways of a total length of 6,651 English miles
open for traffic, besides 3,815 miles in process of construction, 5,340 under
survey, and 9,071 to be surveyed. Of the lines open, 1,586 miles were State
lines, 1,815 miles were subventioned lines, and 3,250 miles were non-sub-
ventioned lines. Of those under construction, 600 miles were State lines,
and 2,485 were subventioned. Of the lines under survey, 3,650 miles appear
as subventioned, and 1,325 miles as non-subventioned. Most of the railways
have been constructed with the guarantee of the interest (mostly 6 and 7 per
cent.) on the capital by the Government. The total cost of all the lines up to
1888 has been 488,148,327 milreis, of which 195,636,000 milreis are for State
lines. The total receipts of the State railways alone in 1891 amounted to
21,733,383 milreis, and expenses to 14,229,521 milreis, but these expenses
consisted only of employes' salaries.
The telegraph system of the country is under control of the Government.
In 1891 there were 8,620 miles of line. There were 212 telegraph offices.
In 1891 there were 1,001,535 messages. Receipts (1890) 2,042,755 milreis ;
expenses and cost of construction, 2,883,950 milreis.
The Post Office carried of letters 18,822,148 ; of journals and other printed
matter 19,280,135, in the year 1890. There were 2,733 post-offices. Receipts,
1890, 3,243,421 milreis; expenses, 9,323,108 milreis.
Money and Credit.
The value of the coinage executed at the mint at Rio de Janeiro in 1890-91
was : —
-
Gold 1 Silver
Nickel
Bronze
1890 .
1891 .
Milreis ' Milreis
157,680 1 1,505,488
231,280 | 915,642
Milreis
259,653
522,100
Milreis
52,791
12,508
The circulation in Brazil is almost entirely paper money. The amount in
circulation (including Treasury notes) at the end of 1893 is stated at 570,285,274
milreis. In 1892 the two chief banks of issue, the Banco do Brazil and the
Banco do Republica were united as the Banco da Republica do Brazil, be-
coming responsible for the existing circulation, while the ultimate liability
rests with the Government. The capital of the new bank is stated at
190,000,000 milreis. In 1889 the savings-banks of the country held
22,851,000 milreis.
The par of exchange in the early years of this century was 5s. 7 id. per
milreis ; in 1833 it was fixed at 3s. l\d. ; and in 1846 the present rate,
2#. 2\d. was established The actual value in 1868 fell as low as 1.?. 2d. ; in
1891 it touched Is. Q\d. ; in 1892 (August), 10d., and (December), Is. lid.
The present low value, about 1*. , is attributed to the effects of rash financial
legislation and commercial speculation, as well as to the increase of the paper
currency and the decrease of bullion deposits in the Treasury.
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408 bkazil
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Milreis of 1,000 Eeis is of the value of 2*. 2\d.
The 10 milreis piece weighs 8*9648 grammes, *916 fine, and thus contains
8 '2178 grammes of fine gold.
The 2 milreis silver piece weighs 25 '5 grammes, *916 fine, and therefore
contains 23 '375 grammes of fine silver.
Professedly the standard of value is gold. Gold and silver coins have
almost entirely disappeared, the actual circulating medium being inconvertible
paper currency with nickel and bronze coins. English sovereigns are legal
tender.
Weights and Measures.
The French metric system, which became compulsory in 1872, was
adopted in 1862, and has been used since in all official departments. But the
ancient weights and measures are still partly employed. They are : —
The Libta
,, Arroba
,, Quintal
Alqueire (of Rio)
Oitava
1*012 lbs. avoirdupois.
32*38 „
129*54 „
1 imperial bushel.
55 '34 grains.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Brazil in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Councillor J. A. de Souza Correa, appointed 1890
Secretary. — Eduardo Lisboa.
Consul-General in Liverpool. — Baron de Rio Branco.
Consul in London. — Joaquin Corneiro de Mendoca.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Cork,
Dublin, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Manchester, Newcastle, South-
ampton, Adelaide, Bombay, Canada (C.G.), Cape Town, Hong Kong,
Melbourne, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Brazil.
Envoy and Minister. — G. Hugh Wyndham, C.B., appointed envoy to
Brazil, Feb. 1, 1888.
Secretary. — Geo. Greville.
There are Consular representatives at Rio de Janeiro (C.G.), Bahia, Para,
Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul, Santos, Ceara, Maranhao.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications.
Boletim da alfondega do Rio de Janeiro (weekly).
Colleccao das leis do Imperio do Brazil e colleccSo das decisoes do Govern o do Imperio
do Brazil. 8. Riode Janeiro, 1804-87.
Relatario apresentado a Assembler Geral Legislativa pelo Ministro de Estado dos Negocios
do Imperio. Ditto, da Agricnltura, Coinmercio e Obras Publicas. Rio de Janeiro, 1892.
Empire of Brazil at the Universal Exhibition of 1870 at Philadelphia. 8. Rio dc
Janeiro 1870.
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BOOK& OF REFERENCE 409
Recenseamento do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, 30 de Agosto, 1892. 8. Rio de Janeiro,
Reports on the Trade of Bahia, No. 1,290, and on the Trade of Rio Grande do Snl,
No. 1.263, and on the Trade and Finances of Brazil, No. 1,321 of Foreign Office Reports,
Annual Series. London, 1893.
Trade of Brazil with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the Year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abreu and Cabral. Brazil geografico-historico. Rio de Janeiro, 1884.
Agaeeiz (Louis), Journey in Brazil. 8. London, 1868.
Aravjo (Oscar d'), L'Idee Republicaine au Bresil. Paris, 1893. '
Bates (H. W.), South America. London, 1882.
BaU* (H. W.), The Naturalist on the River Amazon. London, 1864.
Bigg-Wither (Thomas P.), Pioneering in South Brazil. 8. London, 1878.
Brown (C. B.), and Lidstone (W.), Fifteen Thousand Miles on the Amazon and its Tribu-
taries. London, 1878.
Burton (Capt R_F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869.
Constitution des Etats-Unis du Bresil. Paris, 1891.
Dent (J. H.), A Tear in Brazil. London, 1886.
Fletcher (Rev. Jas. C.) and Kidder (Rev. D. P.), Brazil and the Brazilians. 9th ed. 8.
London, 1879.
Gallenga (A.), South America. London, 1880.
Hartt (Charles F.), Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil. Boston, 1870.
II Brasile. Rivista mens'Ue agricola, commerciale, industriale, e finanziaria. Rio de
Janeiro.
Keller (Franz), The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Fol. London, 1874.
Laemmert (Eduardo von), Almanak administrative, mercantil e industrial, da corte e
provincia do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro.
Le Bresil. Paris (published weekly).
Levatseur (B.), Le Bresil. Extract de la Grande Encyclopedic 2me edition accom-
pagnee d'un Appendice et d'un Album de Vues du Bresil. 4. Paris, 1889.
Orton (James), The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across the Continent of South America.
8. New York. 1876.
Ourem (Baron d'), Etude sur la Representation Proportionate au Bresil. Paris, 1887.
Ourem {Baron d')t Notice sur les Institutions de Prevoyance au Bresil. Paris, 1883.
Ourem (Baron d'), Quelques Notes sur les Bureaux de Statistique au Bresil. Paris, 1885.
Selys-Longchamps (W. de), Notes d'un voyage au Bresil. 8. Bruxelles, 1875.
Smith (H. H.), Brazil, the Amazon, and the Coast. London, 1880.
8odri (L.), The State of Para. London, 1893.
South American Journal Published weekly. London.
Vincent (Frank), Round and About South America. New York, 1890.
Wallace (Alfred R), Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro. 8. London, 1870.
Welle (J. W.), Three Thousand Miles through Brazil. London, 1886.
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410
CHILE.
(Repijblica db Chile.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Chile threw off allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810,
finally freeing itself from the yoke of Spain in 1818. The Con-
stitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
with a few subsequent amendments, establishes three powers in
the State — the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The
legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting
of two assemblies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The Senate is composed of members, elected for the term of six
years, in the proportion of one Senator for every three Deputies ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, composed of members chosen for
a period of three years, consists of one representative for every
30,000 of the population, or a fraction not inferior to 15,000
(raised by law of August 9, 1888) ; both bodies are chosen by
the same electors — the Chamber directly by departments, and
the Senate directly by provinces. Electors must be 21 years of
age, and can read and write. In 1887 there were 134,119
registered electors or 1 to 18 of the population. In the election
of deputies in March 1888, 89,977 citizens voted or 67 per cent,
of those who had the right to vote. Deputies must have an income
of 100 J. a year, and Senators 400£. The executive is exercised
by a President, elected for a term of five years. He has a
modified veto in legislation ; a bill returned to the chambers with
the President's objections may, by a two-thirds vote of the
members present (a majority of the members being present), be
sustained and become law.
President of the Republic. — Jorge Montt, for the period from
26 December, 1891 to 26 December, 1896.
The President of the Republic is chosen by indirect election,
and is not re-eligible. The people, in the first instance, nominate
their delegates by ballot, and the latter, in their turn, appoint
the chief of the State. The salary of the President is fixed at
18,000 pesos, with 12,000 pesos for expenses.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a
Council of State, and a Cabinet or Ministry, divided into seven
departments, under six Ministers, viz. : — Of the Interior ; of
Foreign Affairs; of Worship and Colonisation; of Justice and
Public Instruction ; of Finance ; of War and Marine ; of Industry
and Public Works. The Council of State consists of five members
nominated by the President, and six members chosen by the
Congress.
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xaica .
Curicd.
Colchagua .
O'Higgins .
Santiago .
Valparaiso .
Aconcagua
Coqnimbo .
Atacama .
Antofagasta 2
Tarapaca .
Tacna
Grand Total
xaica .
Curic6.
San Fernando
Rancagua .
Santiago . .
Valparaiso .
San Felipe .
Serena
Copiapo
Antofagasta
Iquique
Tacna .
a,o/8
133,11 Z
ioe,iJou
2,913
100,002
105,726
3,795
155,687
161,638
2,524
87,641
92,790
5,223
829,753
392,585
1,637
203,320
224,866
5,840
144,125
154,538
12,905
176,344
194,493
43,180
76,666
69,642
60,968
21,213
36,220
19,300
45,086
48,194
8,685
29,523
31,599
293,970
2,527,320
2,867,875
43-1
36 0
42 -C
36-7
74-9
137-2
26-4
15-0
1-6
O'O
2-5
3*6
1 Created by law of March 12, 1887.
2 Created a province by law of July 12, 1888.
The estimate for 1892 is based on the Census of 1885, which was admittedly
incomplete. The official estimate adds 15 per cent., or 399,889 for omissions,
and 50,000 as the number of Indians, bringing the total population of Chile
up to 3,317,264.
The territory of Antofagasta was taken from Bolivia during the last war,
and Tarapaca ceded by Peru in terms of the peace of Oct. 20, 1883. The
Peruvian province of Tacna is to continue in the possession of Chile for ten
years, at the end of which time a plebiscite is to decide to which country it
shall belong. Cliile claims possession of Easter Island, in the Pacific.
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412
CHILE
In 1885 there were in Chile 1,263,645 males and 1,263,675 females. At
the last census (1885) the foreign population amounted to 87,077 persons, of
whom 34,901 were Peruvians, 13,146 Bolivians, 9,835 Argentines, 6,808
German, 5,303 English, 4,198 French, 4,114 Italian, 2,508 Spanish, 1,275
Swiss, 1,164 Chinese, 924 Anglo-American, 674 Austrian, 434 Swedish and
Norwegian, and the rest from other countries of Europe and of America.
The total urban population in 1885 was 1,062,544, and the rural 1,464,776.
The two largest towns of Chile are Santiago, the capital, and Valparaiso,
the first of which had 250,000, and the second 150,000 inhabitants in 1890 ;
other towns are Talca, 24,000 ; Conception, 24,000 ; Chilian, 21,000 ; Serena,
17,000 ; Iquique, 16,000 ; Tacna, 14,000 ; San Felipe, 12,000 ; Copiapo,
10,000 ; Curico, 11,000.
The registration of births, marriages, and deaths in Chile began in 1885,
but the resulting statistics are acknowledged to be of little value. The most
recent official figures are :—
Year
1885
1886
1891
1892
Births
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
61,965
73,241
79,235
103,065
5,120
5,985
6,853
12,895
66,818
67,451
89,422
99,371
- 4,853
5,790
- 10,187
3,694
Religion.
The Roman Catholic is the religion of the State, but according to the
Constitution all religions are respected and protected. The clergy in charge
of dioceses and parishes are subsidised by the State. There is one archbishop
and three bishops. Civil marriage is the only form acknowledged by law.
Instruction.
Education is gratuitous and at the cost of the State. It is divided into
superior or professional, medium or secondary, and primary or elementary
instruction. Professional and secondary instruction is provided in the
University and the National Institute of Santiago, and in the lyceums and
colleges established in the capitals of provinces, and in some departments.
The branches included are law, mathematics, medicine, and fine arts. The
number of students inscribed for the study of these branches in 1891 was
2,245. The number of students at the National Institute and provincial
colleges in 1891 was 4,486. There are, besides, normal, agricultural, and
other special schools. There were in 1892 1,174 public primary schools in
the country, with 95,456 pupils, and an average attendance of 64,737,
and 2,048 teachers. There were also 418 private schools, with an attendance
of 24,344. At the census of 1885 there were 600,634 children between 6
and 15 years of age. At the census of 1885, 634,627 people could read and
write, and 96,636 could only read. The National Library contains over
70,000 volumes of printed books, and 24,048 manuscripts.
Justice and Grime.
There are, in addition to a High Court of Justice in the capital, six
Courts ot Appeal, Courts of First Instance in the departmental capitals, and
subordinate courts in the districts. The cost of the administration of justice
in Chile is 840,065 pesos a year. At the beginning of 1891 there were 518
convicts in the Penitentiary at Santiago.
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JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE — DEFENCE
Finance.
418
The public revenue is mainly derived from customs duties,
while the chief branches of expenditure are for the national debt
and public works and salaries.
The following, according to official statement, shows the income
and expenditure of Chile, for five years, in paper pesos : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesos
Pesos
1887
51,689,950
42,258,205
1888
50,182,614
46,135,501
1889
62,457,934
61,247,783
1890
59,255,783
75,063,376
1892
62,400,000
60,900,000
The estimated expenditure for 1893 in currency was 51,855,000 pesos, and
in gold 762, 134*.
The estimated income and expenditure of Chile for 1894 were : —
Revenue
Import duties
Export duties
Agricultural tax .
Stamps
Post-Office A Telegraphs
storage and Wharfage
Railways
Miscellaneous
Total .
Besides gold . .
Paper Pesos
1,426,385
Expenditure
Paper Pesos
Gold
Interior
4,736,924
£
Foreign Affairs, Wor-
ship, & Colonisation
879,569
35,980
Justice and Public In-
struction .
7,220,950
18,190
Finance
4,940,760
1,218,755
War ....
7,144,542
7,820
Marine
5,994,839
145,144
Industry and Public
Works
Total .
18,836,692
2,000
49,754,276
1,427,389
The paper peso was worth about Is. 3£d. in 1893.
On December 31, 1892, the public debt of Chile was :
External debt
Internal debt
. 55,373,560 silver pesos
. 53,167,054 paper pesos
Silver peso (1893) = 3s. 9d., paper peso = Is. 3J&
The interest on the external debt is at 4} and 5 pei
per cent.
Defence.
By the law of February 2, 1892, the strength of the army must not exceed
6,000 men, distributed between 3 regiments of artillery, 7 of infantry, 4 of
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414 CHILE
cavalry, and a corps of engineers. There are 6 generals of division, 6 of
brigade, 17 colonels, 75 lieut. -colonels, and 855 inferior officers. Besides the
regular army there is a National Guard, composed of citizens. In 1892 this
force consisted of— artillery 8,970, infantry 42,120 ; in all 51,090 men.
At the present time the Chilian fleet, including ships building, consists of
3 armourclads, 5 deck-protected cruisers, several small cruisers of the gunboat
class, and a small torpedo flotilla. Classified according to the system adopted in
this book (see Introductory Table), the actual strength is as follows : — 1 first-
class battleship (Capitan Prat) ; 1 port-defence armourclad (Huascar) ; 1 ar-
moured cruiser (Almirante Cochrane) ; 5 second-class crujsers ; 2 third-class
cruisers a, and 8 of the same class b ; 6 second-class and 3 third-class torpedo
boats, besides a few others for harbour service. The small battleship Capitan
Prat (6,900 tons), built at La Seyne, is a vessel of most interesting character,
combining a high speed (184 knots) with a powerful armament, and sufficient
protection. All her guns are worked either by electricity or by hand. Four
9 J-in. Canet guns, in armoured barbettes, are dispersed in the form of a lozenge,
one at the bows, one at the stern, and one on either broadside. Eight 4 J -in.
Q.F. guns are coupled in four closed turrets, and there are 24 smaller Q.F.
pieces, as well as machine guns. The ironclad Almirante Cochrane was
built at Hull in 1874 from the designs of Sir E. J. Reed ; 3,500 tons displace-
ment, 2,920 horse-power, 9-inch armour at the water-line, with six 18-ton and
4 Q F. guns ; speed 13 knots. The port-defence ironclad, Huascar, was
captured from the Peruvians in 1879 ; built 1865 ; 1,760 tons displacement,
1,050 horse-power ; has 44-inch armour at the water-line, and 5J-inch
on the turret, and is armed with two 8-inch and four 4] -inch Q.F. guns.
The protected cruiser, Esmeralda, was launched in June 1883, at the works
of Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co. ; 3,000 tons displacement, armour 1 inch
thick, engines 6,500 horse-power ; two 24-ton breech-loading guns, six 4-ton
guns besides machine-guns ; 18 knots an hour. The smaller second-class
sister cruisers (2,080 tons, 19 knots) Presidente Errazuriz and Presidente Pinto
have more recently been launched at La Seyne ; and, in September, 1893,
another cruiser (4,400 tons) was launched at Elswick. She has been named
the Blanco Encalada, and replaces the vessel of the same name which was
torpedoed in the late civil war.
Industry.
About 14 million of the population are engaged in agriculture. Chile
produces annually about 27 million bushels of wheat, and 8 million bushels
of other cereals, besides fruits, vegetables &c. In 1888, 66,030 gallons of
wine were exported. Over 500,000 head of cattle and 2,000,000 sheep, goats,
&c. are annually reared in the country. Of mineral produce the yield of fine
copper in 1890 was 26,120 tons ; in 1891, 19,875 tons ; the average of other
minerals is about 335,000 lbs. of silver, 1,000 lbs. of gold, 10 million tons of
coal.
The nitrate fields of Chile are estimated to cover 89,177 hectares, and to
contain 2,316 millions of metric quintals of the nitrate of commerce. The
total produce is stated to have been 550,000 tons in 1884 ; 420,000 in 1885 ;
443,000 in 1886; 702,000 in 1887; 773,000 in 1888; 903,000 in 1889;
1,009,000 in 1890 ; and 877,000 in 1891. A large amount of British capital
has recently been employed in developing the nitrate industry of Chile.
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COMMERCE
415
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports of Chile
(including bullion and specie) for five years (in pesos, valued conventionally at
about 3s. 2d.) :—
— 1 1888 ] 1889
1890 | 1891
1892
Imports . 60,717,698
i Exports . ! 73,089,934
Pesos
65,090,013
65,963,100
Pesos 1 Pesos
67,889,079 63,699,190
67,714,004 65,695,483
Pesos
78,003,104
64,205,038
The following table shows the leading imports and exports for two
years : —
Imports
1890
1891
Exports
1890 | 1891
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Textiles .
8,312,222
7,654,210
Mining products 58,979,200
51,188,920
Cattle
3,965,075
4,634,980
Agricultural ,,
2,670,000
8,872,300
Sugar
4,746,533
5,700,072 '
Animals and
Coal
3,174,676
3,917,808 1
animal ,,
2,957,200
3,078,200
Sacks
1,407,149
2,199,164
Specie
382,109
250,512
Wine
516,206
522,542
Re-exports
713,119
775,283
Tea
779,657
636,825
Iron goods
3,447,415
2,797,190 ,
Machinery
6,576,939
3,741,920 |
Timber .
877,307
460,416 |!
The following table shows the value of the principal articles of export for
five years: —
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Nitre
33,866,196
36,387,210
36,925,414
32,418,491
31,785,000
Copper in Bars
Pesos
3,878,439
15,689,329
7,618,840
4,872,964
5,007,000
Silver
Wheat
Pesos
7,723,957
4,906,791
4,335,218
4,506,771
5,435,000
Pesos
4,548,729
2,915,215
1,581,449
7,239,752
7,284,000
The trade of the leading ports was as follows in 1890 and 1891 :-
Valparaiso
Iquique
Pisagua .
Talcahuano
Coquimbo
Antofagasta
Coronel
. 1890 1
1891
Imports
Exports I
Imports
Pesos
Exports
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
46,814,702
8,674,151 1
41,063,437
7,966,780
5,261,482
25,523,856 i
7,232,009
23,305,786
1,152,908
14,001,461 :
1,591,357
10,839,476
6,347,418
1,664,367 :
5,221,845
6,574,168
2,127,398
4,852,761 |
2,456,474
3,764,582
1,817,453
2,586,683
2,419,734
2,567,094
835,047
3,805,714 1
517,827
3,498,975
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416
CHILE
For the years stated the foreign trade of Chile was distributed as follows :—
Countries
Great Britain
Germany
France
United States
Peru .
Argentine Republic
Brazil .
Italy .
Imports from Imports from
(1889) (1890)
Pesos I
27,892,000
14,789,000
6,549,000
3,842,000
3,582,000
5,236,000 !
513,000 I
696,000
29,479,000
15,680,000
6,845,000
5,217,000
2,293,000
4,435,000
727,000
446,000
Exports to
(1889)
Pesos
48,394,360
5,413,838
2,243,453
3,781,411
1,430,995
44,439
289,988
129,850
Exports to
(1890)
Pesos
46,035,857
6,356,470
2,324,455
8,540,075
2,164,725
35,808
79,548
43,252
The commercial intercourse between Chile and the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement in each of the last five years,
according to the Board of Trade returns :—
:
1 Imports
into
U.K.
from
, Chile .
.
: Exports
of
i British
pro-
! duce to Chile
i
1888 1 1889
1890 1 1891
1892
£
£
£
£
£
3,089,381
3,264,573
3,473,348
3,710,356
3,871,399
2,204,540
2,933,708
3,130,072
2,000,550
3,734,697
The staple articles of import from Chile into the United Kingdom are
copper and nitre. In the year 1892 the value of the total imports of copper
from Chile into Great Britain amounted to 792, 247 J. ; nitre, 885,749/. ; wheat
and barley, 1,009,207/.; silver ore, 336,425/. ; sugar of the value of 23,649/.;
chemical products, 157,068/. ; and wool, 138,264/.
The principal articles of British produce exported to Chile are cotton
and woollen manufactures and iron. In 1892 the total exports of cotton
fabrics to Chile were of the value of 1,405,092/.; of woollens, 571,279/.; of
iron, wrought and un wrought, 534,508/. ; coal, &c, 137,373/. ; hardware,
56,8857. ; machinery, 166,894/.
I
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Chile consisted, on January 1, 1893, of 147 vessels
(of 100 tons and above), of 108,626 tons, of which 41 were steamers, of
46,612 tons. In 1891 there entered the ports of the Republic in foreign
trade a total tonnage of 2,245,572 tons, and cleared 2,089,466 tons;
about three-tenths in number and tonnage were British, four-tenths
Chilian, and two-tenths of other nationalities. There are English, German,
and French lines of steamers from the coasts of Chile to Europe, through the
Straits of Magellan, and English and Chilian lines to Peru ana Panama.
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
417
Communications.
Chile was the first State in South America in the construction of railways.
In 1892 the total length of lines open for traffic was 1,735 English miles, of
which 686 belonged to the State. Of the Trans- Andine railway from Santa
Rosa to Mendoza, 18 miles of the Chilian section and 88 of the Argentine
section are open, 42 miles of line being still required to unite the sections.
The cost of the State lines to the end of 1890 was 58,827,349 pesos.
The post-office in 1891 transmitted 18,996,646 letters and 15,931,046
papers and printed matter. There were 516 post-offices open in 1891.
The length of telegraph lines was reported in 1892 at 13,730 miles, of
which 8,000 belonged to the State. The number of telegraph offices at the
same date was 411 (304 belonging to the State) ; during 1890 the telegraph
carried 619,429 messages, besides those of the private lines.
Money and Credit.
The number of banks of issue in Chile was 26 in 1892. Their joint capital
amounted to 38, 107, 060 pesos, and a registered issue of 1 1, 958, 361 pesos. There
are also a number of land banks which issue scrip payable to bearer and bearing
interest, and lend money secured as a first charge on landed property and
repayable at fixed periods. On 31 December, 1892, the circulation of these
banks was 115,534,700 pesos.
The events of 1891 disorganised the finances of Chile, and 67£ million
dollars paper money and small coin formed the principal currency. It is in-
tended to resume specie payment on July 1, 1896, and from January 1, 1897,
the paper currency will cease to be legal tender.
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The silver Peso of 100 Centavos is of the value of 3s. 9d.
Gold coins are 10, 5, 2, and 1 peso pieces called repectively the Condor,
Medio-Condor or Doblon, JEscudo, and Peso. The 5-peso gold piece weighs
7*6265 grammes '900 fine and therefore contains 6*8639 grammes of fine gold.
Silver coins are the peso, and the half, fifth, &c. of a peso. In 1893 practically
only paper money was in circulation. The paper peso in 1893 was worth
about 1*. 3Jd. The metallic currency is practically silver. The paper
currency is being redeemed.
In 1892 an Act was passed for the establishment of a new system of coinage
on a gold basis to come into use on 1 July, 1895. The unit of value will be
the gold peso. The doblon (=10 pesos) will be of the same weight and fine-
ness as the English sovereign (7*9881 grammes '916 fine) and English and
Australian sovereigns will be legal tender. The silver coinage will be *835 fine
and will be legal tender only up to 20 pesos.
Weights and Measures.
The Ounce = 1 '014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra . = 1 '014 lb.
„ Quintal . = 101*44 „
„ Vara = 0 '927 yard.
,, Square Vara . . . = 0 '859 square yard.
The metric system has been legally established in Chile, but the old
weights and measures are still in use to some extent.
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Vincent (Frank), Round and about South America. New York, 1890.
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419
CHINA.
(Chung Kwoh, * The Middle Kingdom/)
Reigning Emperor.
Tsait'ien, Emperor — Hwangti — of China; born 1871 ; the son of
Prince Ch'un, seventh brother of the Emperor Hien-Feng ; suc-
ceeded to the throne by proclamation, at the death of Emperor
T'ung-chi, January 22, 1875.
The present sovereign, reigning under the style of Kwangsii,
is the ninth Emperor of China of the Manchu dynasty of Ts'ing,
which overthrew the native dynasty of Ming, in the year 1644.
There exists no law of hereditary succession to the throne, but it
is left to each sovereign to appoint his successor from among the
members of his family of a younger generation than his own.
The late Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of his
age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of
arrangements directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the
Emperor Hien-Feng, predecessor and father of T'ung-chi, in con-
cert with Prince Ch'un, that the infant son of the latter was
made the nominal occupant of the throne. There were two
dowager Empresses concerned in the arrangements — the ' Eastern/
the Empress widow of Hien-Feng, and the ' Western,' the mother
of the T'ung-chi Emperor. The ' Western ' still lives, and has
lately withdrawn from power. Having become of age the young
Emperor nominally assumed government in March 1887. The
Emperor did not assume full control of the government till
February 1889, when the Empress Dowager withdrew. He was
married on February 26, 1889.
Government.
The laws of the Empire are laid down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien,
or ' Collected Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty,' which prescribe
the government of the State to be based upon the government of
the family.
The supreme direction of the Empire is vested in the Chun
Chi Ch'u, the Privy Council, or Grand Council. The adminis-
tration is under the supreme direction of the Nei-ko or Cabinet,
comprising four members, two of Manchu and two of Chinese
origin, besides two assistants from the Han-lin, or Great College,
B E 2
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AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
421
with an * are from Chinese official data for 1882 ; those with a t
have the population of 1879 ; Fukien is estimated on the basis of
the census of 1844.
Provinces
Area: English
square miles
Population
Population per
square mile
Chilit .
58,949
17,937,000
304
Shangtung *
65,104
36,247,835
557
Shansi * .
56,268
12,211,453
221
Honan* .
65,104
22,115,827
340
Kiangsu* . .
Nganhwei
44,500
20,905,171
470
48,461
20,596,288
425
Kiangsit
ChShkiang* .
72,176
24,534,118
840
39,150
11,588,692
296
Fukien with Formosa
58,480
25,790,556
482
Hupeh * .
70,450
33,865,005
473
Hunan* .
74,820
21,002,604
282
Shensit .
67,400
8,432,193
126
Kansut
125,450
9,285,377
74
Szechuen *
166,800
67,712,897
406
Kwangtung with Hainan *
79,456
29,706,249
377
Kwangsit
Kweicnowt
7-6,250
5,151,327
65
64,554
7,669,181
118
Yunnan t
Total .
107,969
11,721,576
108
1,386,841
386,853,029
289
After the settlement of the hostilities with France, Formosa
was separated from Fukien and made an independent (19th)
province under a governor.
According to a return of the Imperial Customs authorities,
the total number of foreigners resident in the open ports of China
was 9,945 at the end of 1892. Among them were 3,919 British
subjects, 1,312 Americans, 1,087 Japanese, 862 Frenchmen, 732
Germans, 659 Portuguese, and 315 Spaniards, all other nation-
alities being represented by very few members. About one-half
of the total number of foreigners resided at Shanghai.
Religion.
Three religions are acknowledged by the Chinese as indigenous and
adopted, viz. Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the Empire, and can
alone, with, his immediate representatives ana ministers, perform the great
religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the
public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian religion.
The Confucian is the State religion, if the respect paid to the memory of
the great teacher can be called religion at all. But distinct and totally
separate from the stated periodic observances of respect offered to the memory
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FINANCE — DEFENCE . 423
Finance.
The amount of the public revenue of China is not known. According
to one estimate the total receipts of the Government in recent years
averaged 25,000,0002., derived from taxes on land, grain, salt, and customs
duties. The land tax in the north does not exceed 3*. per acre yearly,
and the highest rate in the south is 135.
The following is an estimate of the ordinary revenue of the Chinese
Government : —
Haikwan taels
Land tax, portion payable in silver 20,000,000
Rice tribute 2,800,000
Salt taxes and levies '% . 9,600,000
Maritime customs under foreign supervision (including Likin
on opium) . . . 23,500,000
Native customs, maritime and inland 6,000,000
Transit levy on miscellaneous goods and opium, foreign and
native 11,000,000
Licences 2,000,000
Total normal revenue ...» 74,900,000
Other two sources resorted to in times of necessity are sale of office and
forced contributions among the wealthy ; the former was abolished by imperial
decree in 1878. The sale of brevet rank is, however, still in vogue.
The receipts from the foreign customs alone are made public. They
amounted to 7,872,257 haikwan taels, or 2,361,677/. (ex. 6.?.), in 1864, and,
gradually increasing, have risen to 23,167,892 haikwan taels (including
6,622,406 taels, opium Likin), or 5,442,0412. (ex. 4s. 8§rf.), in 1888, to
21,823,762 haikwan taels (including 6,085,290 taels, opium Likin), or
5,160,4102. (ex. 4s. 8jd.), in 1889, to 21,996,226 haikwan taels (including
6,129,071 taels, opium Likin), or 5,705,2712. (ex. 5s. 2\d.), in 1890, to
23,518,021 haikwan taels (including 6,197,906 taels, opium Likin), or
5,781,5132. (ex. 4s. lid.), in 1891, and to 22,689,054 haikwan taels (in-
cluding 5,667,007 taels, opium Likin), or 4,939,5962. (ex. 4s. 4\d.), in 1892.
The expenditure of the Government is mainly for the army, the mainten-
ance of which is estimated to cost 15,000,0002. per annum on the average.
China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. In December 1874, the
Government contracted a loan of 627,6752., bearing 8 per cent, interest,
secured by the customs revenue. A second 8 per cent, foreign loan, like-
wise secured on the customs, to the amount of 1,604,2762., was issued in
July 1878. Two silver loans have since been contracted, a loan of 1,505,0002.
in 1884, and loans amounting to about 2,250,0002. in 1886. In February
1887 a loan of 250,0002. was arranged in Germany. Various small silver
loans, generally for local viceroys, have also been floated in Shanghai and
Hong Kong. The total external debt is estimated at about 5,000,0002.
Defence.
Abmy.
According to Chinese official statistics the army is composed
as follows : —
1. The Eight Banners, including Manchus, Mongols, and the
Chinese who joined the invaders under the Emperor Shunchih in
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424 CHINA
a.d. 1644— total 323,800. Of these 100,000 are supposed to be
reviewed by the Emperor at Peking once a year. The number of
guards in the Forbidden City, each of whom holds military rank,
is given as 717.
2. The Ying Ping, or National Army, having 6,459 officers
and 650,000 privates. The pay of the infantry is from 5*. to 10*.
a month, and the cavalry receive about 11., out of which each
man must feed his horse, and replace it if the one originally
supplied by the Government is not forthcoming.
It is impossible to obtain any very reliable information about
the Chinese army, but it is stated that great improvements have
taken place since the last occasion upon which Chinese troops
were opposed to Europeans. Large quantities of foreign-made
arms have been purchased, and the arsenals in China, under
foreign supervision, are said to be daily turning out both arms
and ammunition. Captain Norman, in his book, 'Tonquin,'
divides the army as follows : —
I. The Active Army, comprising : —
1. The Army of Manchuria;
2. The Army of the Centre ; and
3. The Army of Turkestan.
II. The Territorial Army.
He gives the number of the Army of Manchuria as 70,000 men, divided
into two army corps, the head-quarters of the one being at Tsitsihar the
capital, and of the other at Monkden. Many of these troops are armed with
the Mauser rifle, and possess a liberal supply of Krupp 8 centimetre field
cannon. The Army of the Centre, having its headquarters at Kalgan, an
important town to the N. W. of Peking, is numbered at 50,000 men in time of
peace. This number, however, can be doubled in case of war. The men are
a hardy race, and are armed with Remington rifles. The Army of Turkestan
is employed in keeping order in the extreme western territories, and could not,
in all probability, be moved eastward in the event of war with a European
foe. The Territorial Army, or 'Braves,' is a kind of local militia, capable of
being raised to a strength of probably 600,000 men. The numbers are kept
down in time of peace to 200,000. The Tartar cavalry of the north are
mounted on undersized but sturdy ponies. The small size of their horses, and
their wretched equipment, render them no match for European cavalry.
Permanent Manchu garrisons under Manchu officers are established in a few
of the great cities on the coast and along the frontier.
Navy.
Within the last fifteen years China has acquired a considerable fleet, and
many of the ships are of a powerful character. The larger vessels have been
built in European yards, several of them in England, but the Imperial
arsenal of Foochow has produced torpedo-cruisers, gunboats, and despatch
vessels. The fleet is divided into the North Coast Squadron, the Foochow
Squadron, the Shanghai Flotilla, and the Canton Flotilla. The North Coast
Squadron consists of 4 barbette sea-going armour-clads, 2 of 7,280 tons, and
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 425
2 of 2,850 tons ; 1 turret ship of 2,320 tons ; 3 deck-protected cruisers, 2,300
and 2,500 tons ; 4 torpedo cruisers ; a torpedo flotilla ; and 11 gunboats, from
325 to 440 tons. The Foochow Squadron consists of ten cruisers of from
1,400 to 2,480 tons, 3 gunboats, 9 despatch boats, and 3 revenue cruisers ;
the Shanghai Flotilla, of an armoured frigate, 2,630 tons, a gunboat, 6
floating batteries (wood), and 3 transports ; and the Canton Flotilla, of 3
deck-protected cruisers and 13 gunboats. The naval strength of China,
adopting the system of classification used in this volume (sec Introductory
table), may be expressed thus : — Battleships, 1 first-class, 1 second-class,
3 third-class ; 9 port-defence vessels ; cruisers, 9 second-class, 12 third-class a,
and 35 b ; torpedo-boats, 2 first-class, 26 second-class, 18 third-class, and
2 smaller boats.
Production and Industry.
China is essentially an agricultural country, though no statistics as to
areas or crops exist. Wheat, barley, maize, and millet and other cereals are
chiefly cultivated in the north, and rice in the south. Sugar is cultivated in
Formosa and the south provinces. Opium has become a crop of increasing
importance. Tea is cultivated exclusively in the west and south, in Fu-
Chien, Hu-pei, Hu-Nan, Chiang-ksi, Cheh-Chiang, An-hui, Kuangtung, and
Sze-ch'wan. The culture of silk is equally important with that of tea. The
mulberry tree grows everywhere, but the best and the most silk comes from
Kuangtung, Sze-ch'wan, and Cheh-Chiang.
All the 19 provinces contain coal, and China may be regarded as one of
the first coal countries of the world. The coal mines at Kai-p'ing, Northern
Chihli, under foreign supervision, have been very productive ; at Keelung,
in Formosa, and at Hankow, coal mines have also been worked. There are
also considerable stores of iron and copper remaining to be worked, and in
Yunnan Japanese mining engineers have been employed to teach the people
how to apply modern methods to copper mining, which is an industry of some
antiquity m that province.
Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the
United Kingdom and the British colonies. The following table
shows the value of the foreign trade of China for the five years
1888-92 in haikwan taels : —
Imports . . .1 124,782,893 I 110,884,355
Exports . . .1 92,401,067 96,947,832
18911
127,093,481 I 134,003,863
87,144,480 | 100,947,849
18921
185,101,198 |
102,583,525
l These values are the actual market prices of the goods (imports and exports) in the ports
of China ; but for the purposes of comparison it is the value of the imports at the moment
of landing, and of the exports at the moment of shipping, that should be taken. For this
purpose from the imports there have to be deducted the costs incurred after landing,
namely, the expenses of landing, storing, and selling, and the duty paid ; and to the exports
there have to be added the importer's commission, the expenses of packing, storing, and
shipping, and the export duty. So dealt with, the value of the imports for 1891 comes to
115,023,051 haikwan taels, and that of the exports to 115,553,640 haikwan taels ; and the
value of the imports for 1892 comes to 116,786,112 haikwan taels, and that of the exports to
117,218,488 haikwan taels.
The sterling value of the foreign trade of China for 1892 shows a decline of over 6,000,0007. ,
owing to the fall in the rate of exchange, but the silver- purchasing power of commodities in
China appears not to have depreciated with the appreciation in the silver value of gold.
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426
CHINA
During 1892 the principal countries participated in the trade
of China as shown in the following table : —
imports from
Exports to
Total Trade
—
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
taels)
taels)
taels)
Great Britain
28,870,150
10,476,249
39,346,399
Hong Kong
69,816,916
40,701,434
110,518,350
India ....
13,861,094
1,402,891
15,263,985
United States of Ameriea
6,061,900
10,784,655
16,846,555
Continent of Europe
•
(without Russia)
5,128,142
17,166,540
22,294,682
Japan ....
6,702,302
8,053,732
14,756,034
Russia (in Europe and
Asia)
550,753
7,043,250
7,594,003
The imports from Hong Kong come originally from, and the exports to
that colony are further carried on to, Great Britain, Germany, France,
America, Australia, India, the Straits, and other countries.
The figures given above include the statistics of imports and exports at
the treaty ports for the whole year ; and also the like statistics of tne junk
trade of Hong Kong and Macao with the south of China (by the Kowloon and
Lappa custom houses).
The chief imports and exports are as follows (1892) : —
Imports
Haikwan taels
Exports
Haikwan taels
Opium .
27,418,152
Tea
25,983,500 '
Cotton goods .
52,707,432
Silk, raw & manufd
38,292,130 i
Raw cotton
1,157,001
Sugar
2,073,402
Woollen goods
4,794,230
Straw braid
2,056,856
Metals .
7,130,866
Hides, cow & buffalo
495,065
Coal
2,007,685
Paper
1,572,524
Oil, kerosene .
5,049,553
Clothing
1,592,969 1
Seaweed, fishery pro-
Chinaware and pot-
ducts, &c.
4,957,060
tery
1,084,008
e tea in 1892, 361,458 piculs (each 133} lbs.) went to Great Britain,
piculs to Russia, 307,923 piculs to the United States, 162,727 piculs
Kong, 119,822 piculs to Australia, out of a total of 1,622,681 piculs.
export of tea has been as follows to foreign countries in 1882-92,
»:— 1882, 2,017,151; 1883, 1,987,324; 1884, 2,016,218; 1885,
. ; 1886, 2,217,295 ; 1887, 2,153,037 ; 1888, 2,167,552 ; 1889,
; 1890, 1,665,396; 1891, 1,750,034; 1892, 1,622,681.
, has besides an extensive coasting trade, largely carried on by
ad other foreign as well as Chinese vessels, both junks and foreign-
sels. A considerable fleet of steamers belonging to a Chinese
is engaged in this, and occasionally participates in the foreign trade.
Britain has, in virtue of various treaties with the Chinese Govern-
b right of access to twenty-three ports of the Empire. The following
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^ET?
COMMERCE
427
is a list of thesd twenty -three ports, known as treaty ports, with the name of
the provinces in which they are situated, and the value of their direct foreign
imports and exports for 1892 : —
Names of Ports
Provinces
Population
Imports
Exports
Haikwan taels
Haikwan taels
Newchwang .
Shengking
60,000
360,266
1,172,813
Tient-sin
Chihli
950,000
2,247,120
4,089,178
Chefoo .
Shantung
33,500
1,252,727
720,199
Chung-king .
Szechuan
250,000
—
—
Ichang .
Hupeh
34,000
—
—
Hankow
a
800,000
347,635
3,224,582
Kiukiang
Kiangsi
53,000
6,650
—
Wuhu .
Anhwei
71,000
—
5,706
Nanking
Kiangsu
150,000
—
—
Chinkiang
»»
140,000
—
—
Shanghai
»>
400,000
78,553,106
43,326,831
Ningpo
Wenchow
ChShkiang
255,000
137,085
11,620
»»
80,000
—
—
Foochow
Fukien
636,000
3,432,482
4,913,170
Tamsui
Taiwan (For-
mosa)
100,000
1,534,416
346,173
Kelung
»»
70,000
—
—
Taiwan
»»
135,000
—
—
Tainan .
>»
100,000
1,133,471
752,062
Amoy .
Fukien
96,000
6,075,612
4,856,802
Swatow
Ewangtung
20,000
8,295,653
1,838,392
Canton .
»»
1,800,000
12,494,853
16,608,786
Eiungchow .
»»
40,500
861,773
413,228
Pakhoi
»»
25,000
3,128,334
581,725
Since April 1887 the customs stations in the vicinity of Hong Kong and
Macao have been placed under the management of the foreign customs.
Kowloon imports 13,468,368 haikwan taels, exports 17,290,632 haikwan taels ;
and Lappa imports 3,178,519 haikwan taels and exports 1,684,635 haikwan
taels. The same service has also been charged with the collection of the
so-called Likin (inland) tax on foreign opium imported, which is likely to
result in a considerable increase of the foreign maritime customs receipts.
In 1889 two new custom houses were opened on the Tungking frontier, one
at Lungchow, Kwangsi, the other at Mengtsz, Yunnan.
The value of their direct foreign imports and exports for 1892 was (in
haikwan taels) : —
Lungchow — imports 26,996, exports 10,991
Mengtsz —imports 887,606, exports 736,000
The port of Nanking, which the Chinese Government consented to throw
open by a treaty made with France in 1858, in which England participated
under the ' most favoured nation ' clause, had not been opened at the end of
1892.
The value of the total imports into the United Kingdom from China,
and of the exports of British and Irish produce and manufactures from
the United Kingdom to China (excluding Hong Kong and Macao), was as
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returns : —
-
1888
1889
1800
1801
£
4,713,508
6,456,508
1892
Imports into Great Britain
Exports of British produce
£
6,467,673
6,203,500
£
6,115,501
5,088,805
£
4,830,850
6,608,982
£
3,588,248
5,776,065
The imports into the United Kingdom from China are made up, to the
amount of nearly one-half, of tea. During the last five years the quantities
and value of the imports of tea into the United Kingdom were, from China,
as follows : —
Quantities
Value
lbs.
98,097,843
82,718,606
68,551,201
57,023,986
50,574,681
4,016,626
3,285,001
2.616,741
2,203,092
1,820,378
Besides tea, the only other important article of import into Great Britain
from China is raw silk, the value of which amounted to 928,225/. in 1888,
to 1,131,642*. in 1889, to 710,712/. in 1890, to 819,082*. in 1891, and to
461,8402. in 1892. Manufactured cotton and woollen goods, the former of
the value of 4,190,5352., and the latter of 573,4392., in the year 1892, con-
stituted the bulk of the exports of British produce to the Chinese Empire,
exclusive of the goods passing in transit through the colony of Hong Kong.
The collection of the revenue on the Chinese foreign trade and the
administration of the lights on the coast of China are under the management
of the Imperial Customs Department, the head of which is a foreigner (British),
under whom is a large staff of European, American, and Chinese subordinates,
the department being organised somewhat similarly to the English Civil
Service. It has an agency in London.
Shipping and Navigation.
During the year 1892, 37,927 vessels, of 29,440,575 tons (28,974 being
steamers of 28,410.156 tons), entered and cleared Chinese ports. Of these
18,973, of 19,316,815 tons, were British ; 14,532, of 6,561,190 tons, Chines** ;
2,016, of 1,466,133 tons, German ; 719, of 630,868 tons, Japanese ; 111, of
61,328 tons, American ; 144, of 252,920 tons, French.
Internal Communications.
China is traversed in all directions by numerous roads, and, though none
are paved or metalled, and all are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried
on partly over them, but chiefly by means of numerous canals and navigable
rivers. A first attempt to introduce railways into the country was made by
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 429
the construction, without the sanction of the Government of China, of a short
line from Shanghai to Woosung, twelve miles in length. It was opened for
traffic June 3, 1876, but closed again in 1877, and taken up after having been
purchased by the Chinese authorities. A small railway was constructed from
the K'ai-p'ing mines for conveyance of coal to Hokou, situated on the Petang,
a river ten miles north of the Peiho, and was subsequently extended to deep
water on the Petang. A continuation has been completed from Petang, vid
Taku, to Tientsin and Lin-si, and is being carried on to Shan-hai-kwan. In
the summer of 1889 the Emperor ordered the construction of a line across
the north-west of China from Peking to Hankow on the Yangtze River, and
committed the task to the two Viceroys of the provinces through which the
projected railway is to run, Li Hung Chang and Chang Chih-tung, the latter
official having been transferred to Hankow from the Viceroyalty of Canton
for the purpose. But up to the present moment no decided steps have been
taken to carry out the scheme. There are a few miles of railway in the island
of Formosa. The imperial Chinese telegraphs are being rapidly extended all
over the Empire. There is a line between Peking and Tientsin, one which
connects the capital with the principal places in Manchuria up to the Russian
frontier on the Amour and the Ussuri ; while Newchwang, Cnefoo, Shanghai,
Yangchow, Soochow, all the seven treaty ports on the Yangtze, Canton
Fatshan, Woochow, Lungchow, and all the principal cities in the Empire are
now connected with each other and with the capital. The line from Canton,
westerly has penetrated to Yunnan-fu, the capital of Yunnan province, and
beyond it to Manwyne, near the borders of Burmah. Shanghai is also in
communication with Foochow, Amoy, Kashing, Shaoshing, Ningpo, &c. Lines
have been constructed between Foochow and Canton, and between Taku, Port
Arthur, and Soul, the capital of Corea; and the line along the Yangtze
Valley has been extended to Chungking in Szechuen province. By an arrange-
ment recently made with the Russian telegraph authorities the Chinese and
Siberian lines in the Amour Valley were joined in the latter part of 1892, so
that there is now direct overland communication between Peking and Europe.
The postal work of the Empire is earned on, under the Minister of War,
by means of post-carts and runners. In the eighteen provinces are 8,000
offices for post-carts, and scattered over the whole of the Chinese territories
are 2,040 offices for runners. There are also numerous private postal couriers,
and during the winter a service between the office of the Foreign Customs at
Peking and the outports.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The sole official coinage and the monetary unit of China is the copper cash,
of which about 1,600 — 1,700 = 1 haikwan tael, and about 22 = 1 penny. The
silver sycee is the usual medium of exchange. Large payments are made by
weight of silver bullion, the standard being the Liang or tael, which varies
at different places. The haikwan (or customs) tael, being one tael weight of
pure silver, was equal in 1892 to 4s. ±\d., or 4 '59 haikwan tael to a pound
sterling.
By an Imperial decree, issued during 1890, the silver dollar coined at the
new Canton mint is made current all over the Empire. It is of the same
value as the Mexican and United States silver dollars, and as the Japanese
silver yen. Foreign coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken
by weight, except at the treaty ports.
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even liquids, such as oi£ spirits, -&c, are com-
monly bought and sold by weight.
Length.
10 Fun . . = 1 Tsun (inch).
10 Tsun . . = 1 Chih (foot) = 14*1 English inches by treaty.
10 Chih . . = 1 Chang = 2 fathoms.
1 Li . . = approximately 3 cables.
In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China, the Chih
of 14^ English inches has been adopted as the legal standard. The
standards of weight and length vary all over the Empire, the Chih, for
example, ranging from 9 to 16 English inches, and the Chang ( = 10 Chih)
in proportion ; but at the treaty ports the use of the foreign treaty standard
of Chih and Chang is becoming common.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of China in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Kung-Ta-jen.
Councillor of Legation. — Sir HaUiday Macartney, K.C.M.G.
Secretary. — Tingfan Chang.
2. Of Great Britain in China.
Envoy, Minister, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade. — N. R.
O'Conor, C.B., C.M.G., appointed April 1, 1892.
Secretary. — W. N. Beauclerk.
There are British Consular representatives at Peking, Amoy, Canton,
Chefoo, Chinkiang, Chung-king, Foo-chow, Hankow, Ichang, Kiukiang,
Kiung-chow, Newchwang, Ningpo, Pakhoi, Shanghai (C.G.), Swatow,
Tainan, Tamsui, Tien-tsin, Wenchow, Wuhu.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.
Catalogue of the Chinese Customs Collection at the Austro-Hungarian Universal Exhibi-
tion. Shanghai, 1873.
Catalogue of the Chinese Collection at the Paris Exhibition. Shanghai, 1878.
Catalogue of the Chinese Collection at the London Fisheries Exhibition. Shanghai, 1883.
And the International Health Exhibition. London, 1884.
Customs Gazette, Shanghai ; published quarterly.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 431
Reports and Statistics relating to Opium in China. Shanghai, 1881.
Returns of Trade at the Treaty Porte in China. Fart I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs
Revenue Statistics. Fart II. Statistics of each Fort Shanghai, published yearly.
Correspondence respecting the State of Affairs in China. London, 1885.
Report on the Culture, Production and Manufacture of Silk in China. Shanghai, 1881. 4.
Tariff Returns : a set of tables showing the bearing of the Chinese Customs Tariff of
1858 on the Trade of 1885. Shanghai, 1889. 4. 2 vols.
Opium : Historical Note, or the Poppy in China. 4. Shanghai, 1889.
English-Chinese Glossary of Technical Expressions. Shanghai.
Opium Trade, March Quarter, 1889. Shanghai
Ichang to Chungking, 1890. Shanghai.
Names of Places on the Coast and the Yangtze River. Shanghai.
Decennial Reports, 1882 to 1891. Shanghai, 1893.
Medical Reports. Shanghai, published half-yearly.
Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Presented to the House
of Commons. 4. London, 1871.
Commercial Reports from H.M. Consuls in China for 1890. 8. London, 1881.
Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Opium Trade in
China, dated Peking, February 25, 1878, in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. Hosie of a Journey through the Provinces of Ssu-Ch'uan, Yunnan, and
Kuei Chou, 1883. London, 1884 ; and through Central Ssu-Ch'uan in 1884. London, 1885.
Report by Mr. L. C. Hopkins on the Island of Formosa. London, 1885.
Report by Mr. H. E. Fulford on a Journey in Manchuria, China. No. 2. London, 1887.
Report by Mr. Bourne of a Journey in South- Western China. London, 1888.
Trade of Great Britain with China, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momein : a Narrative of the two-Expeditions to Western
China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace Brown. 8. London, 1876.
Baber (E. Colborne), Travels and Researches in Western China : in Supplementary Papers
of the Royal Geographical Society. London, 1883.
Bastian (Dr. A.), Die Volker des ostlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.
Boulger (D. C), A Short History of China. 8. London, 1893.
Bower (Captain H.), Across Tibet Geographical Journal Vol. 1. London, 1893.
Garni (L. de), Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans 1 'empire chinois. Paris, 1872. English
version, London, 1872.
China Review. Hong Kong.
China Recorder. Shanghai.
Chinese Army, the. In Blackwood's Magazine. May 1884.
Colquhoun (A. R.), Across Chryse : from Canton to Mandalay. 2 vols. London, 1883.
David (Abbe A.), Journal de mon troisieme voyage d'exploration dans l'empire chinois.
2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.
Davit (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8. London,
1857.
Dolittle (J.), Social Life of the Chinese. London, 1887.
Douglas (Prof. R. K.), China. London, 1887.
Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Commercial Re-
lations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.
Dunmore (Earl of), The Pamirs: being a Narrative of a Year's Expedition through
Kashmir, Western Tibet, Chinese Tartary, and Russian Central Asia, 2 vols. London,
1893.
Edkins (Joseph, D.D.), Religion in China, containing an Account of the three Religions
of the Chinese. 8. London, 1877.
Exner (A. HA Die Einnahmequellen und der Credit Chinas. Berlin, 1887.
Gill (Captain), The River of Golden Sand. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Oilmour (James), Among the Mongols. 8. London, 1888.
Gilmour (James), More about the Mongols. 8. London, 1893.
Gray (Ven. John Henry), China : a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the
People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
Oundry (R. 8.), China and her Neighbours. 8. London, 1893.
Hosie (A.), Three Years in Western China. London, 1890.
Hue (L'Abbe E. R.), L'empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.
James (H. E. M.), The Long White Mountain, or a Journey in Manchuria. London
1888.
Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai.
Journal of the Pekin Oriental Society. Pekin.
Keane (Prof. A. H.), and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.
LansdeU (H.), Chinese Central Asia : a Ride to Little Tibet. 2 vols. London, 1893.
Digitized by
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432
CHINA
Little (A.), Tlirough the Yangtze Gorges, or Trade and Travel in Western China. London,
1888.
Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second
Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.
Mayers (W. F.), The Chinese Government New edition by G. M. H. Playfair. Shanghai,
1886.
Neuere Nachrichten liber die Chinesische Armee. ' Internationale Revue fiber die ges-
ammten Armeen und Flotten.' Mai 1888. Cassel.
0$born (Capt Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8. London,
1860.
Pallu (Lieut. Leopold), Relation de l'expedition de Chine en I860, redigee d'apres les
documents officiels. 4. Paris, 1864.
Playfair (G. M. H.), Cities and Towns of China. Hong Kong, 1879.
Rectus (Elisee), Nouvelle geographie universelle. Tome VII. Paris, 1882.
Revenue of China, the. Hong Kong, 1885.
Richtkofen (Ferd. von), China: Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegrundeter
Studien. Vols. I., II. and IV., and Atlas. 4. Berlin, 1877-85.
Richtho/en (Ferd. von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and Nganhwei ; and on
Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.
Rocher (E.), La province chinoise de Yunnan. Paris, 1880.
Rockhill (W. W.), The Land of the Lamas. London, 1891.
Rom (Rev. J.), The Manchus ; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress.
London, 1880.
Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustande im Siiden und Osten Asien's. 8.
Stuttgart, 1871.
Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. Paris, 1872.
Simon (E.), China : Religious, Political, and Social. London, 1887.
Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to
China via Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.
Temple (Sir R.), Population Statistics of China, in Journal of the Statist Soc, vol. 48,
1885, p. 1.
Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom : a Survey of the Geography, Government,
Ac, of the Chinese Empire. Newed. 2 vols. London, 1883.
Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With
some Account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
Wilson (J. H.), Travels and Investigations in the Middle Kingdom. New York, 188&
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433
COLOMBIA.
(La Republtca de Colombia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Colombia gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and '
was officially constituted December 27, 1819. This vast Republic split up into
Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada, February 29, 1832.
The Constitution of April 1 1858, changed the Republic into a confederation
of eight States, under the name of Confederation Granadina. On September
20, 1861, the convention of Bogota brought out the confederation under the
new name of United States of New Granada, with nine States. On May 8,
1863, an improved Constitution was formed, and the States reverted to the old
name Colombia — United States of Colombia. The revolution of 1885 brought
about another change, and the National Council of Bogota, composed of three
delegates from each State, i>romulgated the Constitution of August 4, 1886.
The sovereignty of the nine States was abolished, and they became simple
departments, their -presidents, elected by ballot, being reduced to governors
under the direct nomination of the President of the Republic, the country
being now named the Republic of Colombia.
'file legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses, called the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, numbering 27
members, is composed of representatives of the nine departments, each
deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives, numbering 66
(subject to change) members, is elected for four years by universal suffrage,
each department forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000
inhabitants.
The President is chosen by electoral colleges, holds office for six years, and
exercises his executive functions through eight ministers, or secretaries, respon-
sible to Congress. Congress elects, for a term of two years, a substitute, who,
failing the president and vice-president during a presidential term, fills the
vacancy.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Rafael Nunez; fourth term of office,
1892—1898.
The departments have retained some of the prerogatives of their old
sovereignty, such as the entire management of their finances, &c. ; each is
presided over by a governor.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated to embrace 513,938 English square
miles, of which 330,756 square miles are north of the equator, and the
remainder south of the equator. According to a census taken in 1870, the
population at that date was 2,951,323, and an official estimate of 1881 gives it
as follows : —
F F
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COLOMBIA
Departments
Area:
English
square miles
Population
1881
Density
per square
mile
Capital
Population
1886
Antioquia. .
22,316
470,000
21
Medellin .
40,000
Bolivar . .
21,345
280,000
13
Cartagena
20,000
Boyaca . .
33,351
702,000
21
Tunja. .
8,000
Cauca . . .
257,462
621,000
2'4
Popayan .
10,000
Cundinamarca
79,810
569,000
7
Bogota .
120,000
Magdalena
24,440
90,000
37
Santa Marta
6,000
Panama . .
31,571
285,000
9
Panama .
30,000
Santander
16,409
555,600
35
Bucaramanga 20,000
Tolima . .
Total . .
18,069
306,000
17
Ibagud
12,000
504,773
3,878,600
9-9
This includes 220,000 uncivilised Indians, and the population, 80,000, of the
extensive territories attached to each State. There were 1,434,129 males and
1,517,194 females in 1870.
The capital, Bogota, lies 9,000 feet above the sea. The chief commercial
towns are Barranqullla (population 20,000) on a cation of the Magdalena and
connected with the coast by 20 miles of railway ; Cartagena (20,000) :
Medellin (40,000) in an important mining region ; Bucaramanga (20,000) ;
Cucuta (10,000), the last two being large coffee centres in Santander.
Religion and Education.
The religion of the nation is Roman Catholicism, other forms of religion
being permitted, so long as their exercise is * not contrary to Christian morals
nor to the law. ' There is a national university, which includes 4 colleges and
technical schools, with about 1,600 students. Belonging to Departments are
4 universities or colleges with 1,083 students ; there are 34 public and
numerous private colleges or institutes for secondary instruction. In 1893
there were 14 normal schools with 587 students, and 1,822 primary schools
with 114,331 pupils. Primary education is gratuitous but not compulsory.
>
Finance.
The following are the official estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
biennial periods indicated : —
Revenue
Expenditure
1889-90
Pesos
19,540,700
24,513,232
1891-92
1898-94
Pesos
26,831,656
26,979,325
Pesos
24,899,200
27,322,136
Official estimates in September, 1893, for the biennial period 1893-94, put
the revenue and expenditure at 30,580,000 pesos. The revenue is mainly
derived from customs duties.
According to official statement the internal debt on June 30, 1892, was :
consolidated, 5,044,660 pesos; floating, 6,254,169 pesos ; total 11,298,829
pesos. This is exclusive of paper currency amounting to 18,700,000 pesos.
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION^— COMMERCE
435
The external debt, mostly due to British creditors, stands thus : external
bonds of 1873, 1,913,5002. ; coupon arrears and interest certificates to January
1, 1893, 1,237,3762. ; total, 3,150,8762. Negotiations for a settlement of the
external debt have been in progress since June 1891, but a satisfactory
arrangement has not yet (September 1893) been arrived at.
Defence.
The strength of the national army is determined by Act of Congress each
session. The peace footing is 5, 500. In case of war the Executive can raise the
army to the strength which circumstances may require. Every able-bodied
Colombian is liable to military service.
Production.
Gold is found in all the departments. From Antioquia alone gold valued
at 40, 0002. is exported annually. Tolima is rich in silver. The average annual
output of gold and silver is about 650,0002. in value. It is estimated that
gold to the value of 125 millions sterling and silver to the value of 7 millions
have been exported since the sixteenth century.
The emerald mines of Muzo on the river Minero are said to yield to the
value of about 20,0002. yearly. The Pradera iron mines east of Bogota
produce about 70 tons of pig iron daily, and this is manufactured into cutlery
and hardware. The salt mines at Zipaguira, north of Bogota, are a govern-
ment monopoly and a great source of revenue, supplying nearly the whole of
Colombia with salt. In several of the departments there are extensive de-
posits of coal and petroleum.
Only a small section of the country is under cultivation. Much of the soil
is fertile, but of no present value, from want of means of communication and
transport. Agriculture is in a backward condition. Coffee, cocoa, tobacco,
vegetable ivory, rubber, and dyewoods are produced. In the central districts
European cattle and horses flourish.
Commerce.
The value of the foreign commerce of Colombia for five years has been as
follows : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Imports . .
Exports . .
Pesos
8,714,143
14,128,162
Pesos
10,116,760
15,506,610
Pesos
11,579,340
14,697,340
Pesos
12,854,180
17,583,170
Pesos
14,447,860
24,802,769
The principal imports are food-stuffs and textiles, and the chief exports are
coffee, cinchona (the export of which has rapidly declined), earth-nuts, corn,
silver ore, cacao, cotton dye-stuffs, live animals, tobacco. In the imports of
1891 Great Britain was represented by 5,413,060 pesos; France, 3,158,100
pesos ; the United States, 1,643,730 pesos ; Germany, 1,684,790 pesos. Of the
exports in 1891, 9,063,740 pesos went to Great Britain ; 8,245,180 pesos to the
United States ; 2,618,080 pesos to Germany ; 2,131,040 pesos to France. The
value of coffee exported in 1891 was 6,791,370 pesos ; hides 1,123,550 ;
precious metals 5,454,860 pesos ; tobacco 1,491,930 pesos.
Far more important than the direct commerce is the transit trade, passing
through the two ports of Panama and of Colon, which, united by railway,
f f 2
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436
COLOMBIA
connect the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. In 1889 the through traffic
was 192,845 tons, showing a falling off of 2,564 tons as compared with the
traffic of 1888, due to decrease in the New York trade. The traffic from the
Pacific is about two-thirds of that from the Atlantic.
The following table gives the total value of the imports into the United
Kingdom from Colombia, and of the exports of British home produce to
Colombia, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the last five
years : —
1888
I
1800
1891
i £ I £
Imports into United Kingdom I 872,445 245,290
Exports of British Produce . 1,126,441 '1,157,296
£ | £
804,261 ' 829,244
1,144,246 11,279,708
1892
£
457,094
1,105,487
Of the imports into the United Kingdom from Colombia, the most important
articles in 1892 were silver ore, of the value of 76,957Z. ; coffee, of the value
of 200,679Z. ; caoutchouc, 21,840Z. At the head of the articles of British
home produce exported to Colombia in 1892 were manufactured cotton goods,
of the value of 673,495Z. The other principal articles exported from Great
Britain to Colombia in 1892 were linen manufactures, of the value of 57,849/. ;
woollens, of the value of 72,077Z. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the
value of 47,344?. ; apparel and haberdashery, 35,173?.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1893 the merchant shipping of Colombia consisted of 2 steamers of
341 tons and 6 sailing vessels of 2, 587 tons.
In 1891 1,012 vessels of 769,311 tons (360 of 422,148 tons British) entered
the ports of Colombia, of which '639 of 741,708 tons were steamers (345 of
418,407 tons British) ; of the total tonnage 53 per cent, was British, 19 per
cent French, and 12 per cent. German.
The total length of railways in Colombia in 1892 was 218 miles. Three
railways are complete and in working order, and five others are partly con-
structed and in use. The roads of Colombia are simple mule tracks, but the
Government is employing soldiers to improve the main roads. Thirty-two
regular steamers visit Colombian ports every month ; of these 15 are English,
9 American, 4 German, 3 French, and 1 Spanish.
The Post Office of Colombia carried 1,771,645 letters and post-cards, 728,732
samples, printed matter, &c, 91,688 registered letters and packets in the year
1891.
There were 6,016 miles of telegraph in 1892, with 273 stations; in 1889
504,720 messages were carried.
Under the superintendence of M. de Lesseps, a company was formed in
1881 for the construction of a ship canal, 46 miles in length, across the
Isthmus of Panama, mainly following the line of the railway. The capital
received up to June 30, 1886, amounted to 772,545,412 francs ; and it was
expected that before the undertaking was completed this would have to be
nearly doubled. It was attempted to raise a loan of 600 million francs in
December 1888, but only a small portion of the sum was taken up. It was
sought to form a new company, out without success, so that the company
was compelled to go into liquidation and suspend payment and all operations
on the canal (from March 15, 1889). Provisional administrators were ap-
pointed by the Civil Tribunal for the Department of the Seine. In March,
1893, a further extension was granted for the organisation of a new company
to take over the business.
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STATISTICAL ANb OTHER BOOKS OP REFERENCE 437
Money and Credit
The amount of gold and silver coinage issued from the mints of Bogota and
Medellin (the only ones now open), from March 1885 to September 1889, has
been:— Gold (0*666 fine) 117,884 pesos; silver (0*885 fine) 726,849 ; silver
(0*500 fine) 3,364,407 ; total 4,209,140 pesos. No money has recently been
coined in Colombia, but in 1892 silver coinage was executed in Birmingham
for the Republic to the amount of 2,378,272 pesos. The whole amount of
money current in September, 1889, was reported as follows: — National
Bank notes, 11,932,780 pesos; notes of banks for which Government is
responsible, 729,526 pesos ; private and joint-stock bank notes 3,356,000 ;
nickel coinage, 3,120,000 ; silver and gold coins (0*835 and 0*900 fine) ;
locked up in banks, 3,055,000 ; silver and gold coin (mostly silver 0*500 fine) ;
in general circulation, 2,839,474 ; total 25,000,000 pesos.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The peso, or dollar, of 10 reals =5 francs =3*. 4d. actual price ; nominal
value, 4*. The peso or dollar of 10 reals is the legal tender, although the country
people and retail trade generally adopt the old dollar of 8 r., which is usually
meant unless peso fuerte or peso de ley is stipulated. Its nominal value is 4s.,
or 5 fr., but owing to the new coinage law reducing the fineness from 835
to 500 decimas, the Colombian dollar is really worth little above 2s., or
half its former value, except, of course, at Panama or Colon, where paper
has not yet been introduced. There the sol or Peruvian dollar is the legal
tender.
Coined money : —
Nickel. — 1J c, 2J c, 5 c, common in every-day use, and often at a premium
of 5 to 10 per cent.
Silver. — \ r., 1 r., 2 r., not coined at present.
All the foreign coins have long since disappeared, and any that arrive are
bought up at the ports at 90 to 100 per cent, premium.
Weights and Measures.
The metric system was introduced into the Republic in 1857, and the only
weights and measures recognised by the Government are these : — In custom-
house business the kilogramme, equal to 2,205 pounds avoirdupois, is the
standard. In ordinary commerce the arroba, of 25 pounds Spanish, or 124
kilos ; the quintal, of 100 pounds Spanish, or 50 kilos ; and the cargo, of 250
pounds Spanish, or 125 kilos, are generally used. The Colombian libra is
equal to 1*102 pound avoirdupois. As regards measures of length, the
Colombian vara, or 80 cm., is used for retailing purposes, although the English
yard is mostly employed, but in liquid measure the French litre is the legal
standard.
Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.
1. Op Colombia in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. —
Secretary of Legation and Charge oV Affaires (ad interim), — Senor Daniel
J. Reyes.
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438 COLOMBIA
2. Of Great Britain in Colombia.
Minister and Consul-Gteneral.—G. F. B. Jenner, appointed January 9, 1892
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Colombia.
1. Official Publications.
Colombia Bulletin No. 33 of the Bureau of the American Republics. 8. Washington
1892. Special bulletins of October and November, 1893, contain reports on coffee and coal
in Colombia.
Circulaire du Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres sur les mines d'or et d'argent de la Repub-
lique de Colombie. Bogota, 1886.
Bulletin du canal interoceanique. Paris, 1888.
Description histories, geographica y politica de la Republics de Colombia. Bogota, 1887
Constitution of the Republic of Colombia (August 7, 1886). Bogota.
Diario Official. Bogota, 1893.
Informe de Ministro de Fomento— del Ministro de Guerre ; del Ministro de Instruccion
Publics ; Ministro de Relacunes Exteriores ; Ministro de Oobieruo ; Ministro del Tesoro ; del
Ministro del Hacienda. Bogota, 1891.
Report by Mr. Scruggs, U.S. Minister at Bogota, on Colombia and its People, in ' Reports
of the United States Consuls,' Nos. 30. 81, and 82, 1883. Washington, 1883.
Report on the National Mining Code, in No. 103 of ' Reports on Subjects of General and
Commercial Interest.' London 1888.
Report on the Trade of Colombia, for 1891, in No. 1,148 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Re.
ports,' 1893.
Trade of Colombia with Great Britain, in * Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London,
1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
BaUi (H. W.), Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Bruyeker (P. de), Les mines d'or et d'argent de la Colombie. Extrait du Bull, de la Soc.
R. de la Geographic d'Anvers. Antwerp, 1888.
Cadena (P. J.), Anales diplomaticos de Colombia. Bogota, 1878.
Etguerra, Diccionario geograflco de los Estados Unidos de Colombia. Bogota, 1879.
Etienne (C. P.), Nouvefle-Grenade, apercu general sur la Colombie. Geneve, 1887.
Hall (Col. F.), Colombia; its Present State in respect of Climate, Soil, Ac 8. Philadelphia,
1871.
Has$aurek (F.), Four Tears among Spanish Americans. 12. New York, 1887.
Holton, Twenty Months in the Andes. New York.
Mosquera (General), Compendio de geografia, general, politica, fisica y special de los
Estados Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.
NuntM (R.) and Jahay (H.), La Republique de Colombie, Geograpbie, Histoire,
Organisation. Ac. Brussels, 1893.
Pereira (R. S.), Les Etats-Unis de Colombie. Paris, 1886.
Perez (Felipe), Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia.
Bogota, 1883.
Reclut (Armand), Panama et Darien. Paris, 1881.
Sodrigues (J. C). The Panama Canal. London, 1885.
8imon$ (F. A. A.), Goajira Peninsula. Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, Decem-
ber 1885.
Siston* (F. A. A.), Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Proceedings of Royal Geographical
Society, 1881.
White (R. B.), Notes on the Central Provinces of Colombia. Proceedings of Royal Geo.
graphical Society for 1883. London, 1883.
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439
CONGO INDEPENDENT STATE.
The Congo Independent State was constituted and denned by the General
Act of the International Conference, signed at Berlin February 26, 1885, by
which it was declared neutral and free to the trade of all nations, in conjunc-
tion with the rest of the basin of the River Congo. The Powers reserved to
themselves, until the end of a period of twenty years, the right of deciding if
freedom of entry shall be maintained or not. But an International Con-
ference, which met at Brussels in 1890, authorised the Government of the
Independent State to levy certain duties on imports. The Congo Independent
State was placed under the sovereignty of the King of the Belgians individually ;
but by will dated August 2, 1889, the King bequeathed to Belgium all his
sovereign rights in the State. On July 31, 1890, the territories of the
State were declared inalienable, and a Convention of July 3, 1890, between
Belgium and the Independent State, reserved to the former the right of an-
nexing the latter after a period of ten years.
The Central Government at Brussels consists of the King of the Belgians,
and three heads of departments, Foreign Affairs, Finance, and the Interior.
There is a local Government, consisting of the Governor-General, Vice-
Governor-General, State Inspector, General Secretary, Director of Justice,
Director of Finance, and Commander of the Forces. The seat of Govern-
ment is at Boma.
The precise boundaries of the Free State were defined by convention
between the International Association of the Congo and Germany, November
8, 1884 ; Great Britain, December 16, 1884 ; the Netherlands, December 27,
1884 ; France, February 5, 1885 ; Portugal, February 14, 1885, and May,
1891 ; by the declaration of neutrality of August, 1885 ; and by several
treaties concluded lately with the chiefs of the Welle country. The State
includes a small section on the north bank of the river from its mouth to
Manyanga ; French territory intervening between this last station and the
mouth of the Mobangi, whence the State extends northwards to the north-
eastern watershed of the Congo basin, eastwards to 30° E. long., southwards to
Lake Bangweolo (12° S.)> westwards (by arrangement with Portugal 1891) to
24° E., the source oftheKassai river, northwards along that river to7°S.,
then westwards to about 19° E., south to 8° S., west to the Kwango river,
which it follows to 5° 50' S., and then west to the south as far as the Congo at
Nokki. The area of the Independent State is estimated at 900,000 square
miles, with a population of 14,000,000. The European population (1891)
numbers 950, half being Belgian. The capital is at Boma, on the Lower
river.
The Congo is navigable for about 100 miles from its mouth to Vivi. Above
this, for over 200 miles, are numerous rapids, which render the river unnavigable
as far as Stanley Pool (Leopoldville). Above this there are about 1,000 miles
of navigable water, as far as Stanley Falls, while several of the great tribu-
taries are navigable over a considerable extent of their course. In 1888, a
survey, with the view to a construction of a railway 250 miles long, was com-
pleted between Vivi and Leopoldville at an average distance of 30 miles S. of
the river. Of this railway about 25 miles are now open for traffic.
The revenue and expenditure for 1893 were estimated at 5,440,681 francs ;
the revenue is derived mainly from a subsidy of two million francs annually
granted by the King of the Belgians, from an advance of money by the Belgian
Government, July 3, 1890, for a term of ten years at the rate of two million
francs a year, from taxes, and from the sale and letting of public lands.
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441
GOREA.
(Ch'ao-hsien, ob Kaoli.)
Government.
The reigning monarch, named Li-Hi in Chinese, succeeded King Shoal Shing
in 1864, and is the twenty-ninth in succession since the founding of the present
dynasty in 1392. The Monarchy is hereditary and absolute, modelled on that
of China, as is also the penal code. There is an hereditary aristocracy. In-
ternal affairs are administered, under the control of the King, by the Nei Wu
Fu, or Home Office, in the six Departments of Civil Affairs, Revenue, Ceremonies,
War, Justice, and Works. Foreign Affairs are conducted by the Foreign
Office, instituted in 1882, for international questions arising under recent
treaties.
Since early years Corea has acknowledged the suzerainty of China ; in the
seventeenth century renewed conditions of vassalage were accepted, ; and in
. the trade regulations of 1882, China's rights as suzerain were recapitulated and
accepted by Corea. Every king, as also his heir-apparent, applies for and
obtains investiture from the Emperor of China ; annual missions with tribute
are sent to Peking ; and no important step in the relations oi Corea with other
countries is taken without China's consent.
Area and Population.
Estimated area, 82,000 square miles ; population estimated at from
8,000,000 to 16,000,000. Recent statistics give 2, 356,267families and 10, 528, 937
inhabitants— 5,312,323 males and 5,216,614 females. The capital, Seoul,
has about 250,000 inhabitants. The foreign population consisted, in 1892,
of 9,890 Japanese, 2,556 Chinese, 51 British, 80 American, 28 French, and
26 German. The language of the people is intermediate between Mongolo-
Tartar and Japanese, and an alphabetical system of writing is used to some
extent ; but in all official writing, and in the correspondence of the upper
classes, the Chinese characters are used exclusively.
Religion and Instruction.
The worship of ancestors is observed with as much punctiliousness as in
China, but, otherwise, religion holds a low place in the kingdom. Neither
temples nor priests are allowed in the city of Seoul ; but in the country
there are numerous Buddhist monasteries. Confucianism is held in highest
esteem by the upper classes, and a knowledge of the classics of China is the
first aim of Corean scholars and aspirants for official station. There are about
20,000 Catholics and 300 Protestants. In 1890 an English Church mission
was established, with a bishop and ten other, members. In 1892 there were
about 40 Protestant missionaries (British and American), 20 Roman Catholic.
A government school for teaching English is conducted by an American
professor, and a government military school is under the charge of two ex-
officers of the United States army.
Finance.
The revenue is derived chiefly from the land tax, payable in kind ; the
sale of trade monopolies ; a poll tax, and other levies accruing chiefly to the
local authorities. The court and palace derive their income from the sale of
ginseng, this root being the subject of a government monopoly, and from the
customs on foreign trade. In 1892 the customs amounted to 438,413 dollars.
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442
COREA
Defence.
The standing army consists of about 5,000 men, stationed in Seoul. They
are drilled by two American instructors and native officers. Two regiments
are equipped with Remington rifles, and are fairly efficient. There is also a
battery of Gatling and one of Krupp guns. A force of 500 cavalry has been
organised, armed with carbines and swords. In theory about 1,200,000 men
are fit for military duty; and these should be supported by the population at
the rate of about two soldiers to three families ; but, in fact, not one-hundredth
of the men available perform military duties. Even of those who serve, the
work is chiefly that of messengers, tax-gatherers, and police.
The Corean Government has three merchant steamers which carry tribute
and rice to Chemulpo from the non-treaty ports.
Production and Commerce.
In the south of Corea, rice, wheat, beans, and grain of all kinds are
grown, besides tobacco ; in the north the chief crops are barley, millet, and
oats. Probably only half the available land is cultivated. Gold, copper,
iron, and coal abound, but no attempt is made to develop these resources.
In 1876 Corea concluded a treaty with Japan ; in 1882 China (Trade and
Frontier Regulations) and the United States ; in 1883 Germany and Great
Britain ; in 1884 Italy and Russia ; in 1886 France ; in 1892 Austria. An
overland Trade Convention has been concluded with Russia, whose frontier is
separated from that of Corea by the Tiumen River.
In these treaties Corea was treated with as an independent State. By
virtue of these treaties Seoul and the three ports of Jenchuan, Fusan, and
Yuensan are open to foreign commerce.
The total value of the trade (merchandise only) at the three ports has been
as follows : —
-
1888
1889 • 1890 | 1891
1892
Imports .
Exports .
Dollars
3,046,443
867,058
Dollars
3,317,815
1,233,841
Dollars j Dollars
4,727,839 5,256,468
3,550,478 3,366,344
Dollars
4,598,485
2,443,739
The imports in 1892 were : cotton goods, chiefly shirtings and muslins,
value 2,130,103 dollars ; woollen goods, 31,713 dollars ; miscellaneous piece
goods, 11,326 dollars; metals, 759,364 dollars; sundries, 1,665,979 dollars.
The chief exports were: beans, value 797,884 dollars; cow-hides, 291,080
dollars ; rice, 998,519 dollars.
The actual trade is much greater than that stated. The statistics refer
only to the three open ports, at which a customs service has been established,
conducted by foreigners detached from the Chinese customs service. No
account is taken of the trade at non-treaty ports, or of that on the Russian
and Chinese frontiers, or of the under- valuation of imports owing to "ad
valorem" duties. Government has a monopoly of the important product
ginseng, which is farmed out to a company and exported overland to China to
the value of about 40, 000 Z. annually. Of the total imports in 1892, 2,050,854
dollars were from China, 2,542,486 dollars from Japan, and 5,145 dollars from
Russian Manchuria. About 60 per cent, (in value) of the imports are goods of
British manufacture, and 30 per cent. Chinese and Japanese. Of the exports,
149,861 dollars were to China, 2,271,928 dollars to Japan, and 21,950 dollars
to Russian Manchuria. The export of gold (mostly to China) for 1892 as
declared at the customs was 852,751 dollars, but almost as much is said to be
taken away by junks and fishing vessels visiting the non-treaty ports.
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BOOKS OF REFERENCE CONCERNING COREA 443
The number of vessels entering from foreign countries in 1892 was
1,386 of 390,497 tons. The shipping is nearly all in Japanese hands ; three
British steamers of 426 tons (three visits of one small whaler), 15 German of
6,045 tons, 22 Norwegian of 9,768 tons, and 45 Russian of 24,855 tons
entered the three ports.
The number and tonnage of the vessels entered in 1892 was : — Steamers 538
of 358,771 tons ; sailing vessels, 131 of 8,278 tons ; junks, 717 of 23,448 tons ;
total, 1,386 of 390,497 tons.
Transport in the interior is by porters, pack-horses and oxen. Two river
steamers are being built for a Chinese company to ply on the Han river be-
tween Chemulpo and Riongsan, and there is a project for a tramway to con-
nect Riongsan and Seoul (3 miles). A telegraph line runs from Seoul north to
the Chinese frontier, connecting with the line to Shanghai ; another runs south
to Fusan, connecting with the cable to Japan ; a third from Seoul to Yuensan,
thence north to the capital of the north-east province, and will probably be
connected eventually with the Russian telegraph system at Novokievsk.
Money.
The legal currency is the copper cash, but the Mexican dollar and the
Japanese yen can, in some provinces, be changed. In remote districts only
silver ingots can be changed. About 560 old cash pieces are given for the
dollar or yen ; of the inferior 5-cash pieces recently coined, as many as 650
are given for a dollar. A new mint has been built at Chemulpo, and from
metal sent from Japan, specimens of a new coinage have been struck in silver,
nickel, and copper.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — N. R. O' Conor, C.B., C.M.G. (at
Peking).
British Consul-General at Seoul. — Walter C. Hillier.
Acting Consul-Oeneral at Seoul. — W. H. Wilkinson.
Acting Vice-Consul at Chemulpo. — H. H. Fox.
Books of Reference concerning Corea.
Annual Reports and Returns on the Trade in Foreign Vessels. Shanghai, 1893.
Campbell (C. W.), Report of a Journey in North Corea. Blue Book. China No. 2. 1891.
Carle* (W. R.), Life in Corea. London, 1888.
Dallet, Histoire de l'eglise de Coree. Paris, 1874. [This work contains much accurate
information concerning the political and social life, geography, and language of Corea].
Dictionnaire Coreen-Francais, par les missionaires de Coree de la Societe des Missions
Etrangeres de Paris. Yokohama, 1880. Grammaire Coreenne (by the same). Yokohama,
1881.
Oriffis (W. E.), Corea : the Hermit Nation. London, 1882.
Hall (J. C), A Visit to Corea in 1882, in Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, 1883.
Hamel (Hendrik), Relation du Naufrage d'un Vaisseau Holandois, &c, traduitc du
Flamand par M. Minutoli. 12. Paris, 1670. [This contains the earliest European account
of Corea. An English translation from the French is given in Vol. IV. of A. and J.
Churchill's Collection, fol., London, 1744, and in Vol. VII. of Pinkerton's Collection,
4, London, 1811]. •
Lowell (Perceval), Choson, the Land of the Morning Calm. A Sketch of Korea. London,
1883.
Oppert (Ernst), Corea : a Forbidden Land. 8. London, 1880.
Report for the Year 1892 on the Trade of Corea, 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.'
London, 1893.
Reports by Vice-Consul Carles on Journeys in Corea. London, 1885.
Rose (Rev. J.), History of Cotea. Paisley, n.d.
Scott (James), A Corean Manual. 2nd ed., London, 1892.
Scott (James), English-Corean Dictionary. Shanghai, 1891.
Underwood (H.), Concise Dictionary of the Corean Language. Shanghai, 1890.
Underwood (H. ), Grammar of Corean Language. Shanghai.
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FINANCE — INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE
445
Justice.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, two Appeal Courts,
and the Court of Cassation. There are also subordinate courts in tne separate
provinces, and local justices throughout the Republic. Capital punishment
cannot be inflicted.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure for four years have been : —
-
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Revenue . .
Expenditure .
Pesos
4,331,265
3,939,998
Pesos
5,195,865
4,995,343
Pesos
5,601,996
5,483,430
Pesos
5,808,474
5,814,643
For 1891-92 the principal items of revenue were, in pesos: — Customs,
2,143,164; spirits and tobacco, 2,185,670; of expenditure — public works,
549,287 ; education, 525,249 ; interior, 417,590 ; finance and trade, 415,215 ;
army, 431,590 ; police, 257,208.
The foreign debt of the Republic consisted of a six per cent, loan of the
nominal amount of 1,000, 000J., contracted in England in 1871 and a 7 per
cent, loan, of the nominal amount of 2,400,000Z. — issued at 82 — contracted in
1872. The amount outstanding in January 1887 was 2,691,300Z., and the
accumulated interest amounted to 2, 119,5122. This debt has been converted
into a total amount of 2,000,0002. sterling at 5 per cent. |from January 1, 1888,
and has been taken over by the Costa Rica Railway Company. The internal
debt on March 31, 1892, amounted to 2,811,100 pesos.
To facilitate agricultural operations and immigration, a concession has been
granted for an agricultural bank with a capital of 1,000,0002. The bank will
not only make advances on the security of lands and produce, but will bring
out colonists and settle them on lands which will be ceded to the company.
Defence.
Costa Rica has an army of 600 men, and on a war footing can command •
34,273 militia, as every male between 18 and 50 may be required to serve.
Industry and Commerce.
Almost anything can be grown in Costa Rica, but, the principal agricultural
products are coffee (378,224 quintals in 1892), bananas and sugar (162,804
quintals in 1891.) In 1890 there were 8,130 coffee plantations with
26,558,251 tons. Maize, rice, wheat, potatoes, are commonly cultivated.
Gold and silver mines are worked ; the annual value of the produce being
about 128,000 pesos. In 1892 the live stock consisted of 345,665 cattle,
77)043 horses, and 2,765 sheep, valued at, in all, 5,827,606 pesos.
The following is the vahie in pesos of the imports and exports for
five years : —
1888 1 . 1889
1890
1891
1892 |
i
Imports . .
Exports . -
5,201,922 j 6,306,408
5,713,792 1 6,965,371
6,337,500
10,290,760
8,351,029
9,664,607
5,389,749 j
9,113,948 1
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446 COSTA RICA
The most important export is coffee, the quantity exported in the year
1892, being valued at 8,024,651 pesos. Other exports were bananas, 707,282
pesos ; hides and skins, 90,249 pesos ; wood, 97,102 pesos ; coin and bullion,
68,047 pesos. Of the imports the value of 1,702,145 pesos was from Great
Britain, 1,295,682 pesos from the United States, 947,647 pesos from Germany,
and 526,382 pesos from France. Of the exports the value of 4,916,287 pesos
was to Great Britain, 3,642,896 pesos to the United States, and 386,737 pesos
to Germany.
The imports into the United Kingdom from Costa Rica, according to the
Board of Trade Returns, amounted in 1892 to 519,111Z., of which 504,307/.
was for coffee ; and the value of the domestic exports from the United King-
dom to Costa Rica amounted to 124,4782. ; the chief articles exported being
cottons, 34,6322. ; iron, 17,7192. ; woollens and worsteds, 11,7462. ;
machinery, 5,9242. (For earlier years see Guatemala.)
Shipping and Communications.
In 1893 Costa Rica had 2 merchant steamers of 528 tons and 1 sailing
vessel of 318 tons.
In 1892 the number of vessels which entered the ports of Limon and
Puntarenas was 372 of 388,499 tons. In 1891 the number entered was 395 of
411,539 tons (126 of 164,560 tons British) ; and cleared 398 of 416,116 tons
(128 of 165,347 tons British).
The railway system of Costa Rica extends from Limon, on the Atlantic coast,
inland to Alajuela, 147 miles. From Puntarenas, on the Pacific, a line ex-
tends to Esparza, 14 miles. This line is being continued to Alajuela, and
when it is completed there will be railway communication between the east
and west coasts. Other railways are projected.
In 1891 there were 50 post offices. Letters, &c. , despatched : interna],
838,051 ; external, 752,686.
There are (1891) telegraph lines of a total length of 630 English miles,
with 43 telegraph offices. The number of messages in 1891 was 222,231.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
There are two banks in Costa Rica, the Anglo-Costa Rican Bank, and the
Bank of Costa Rica, with a capital of 1,000,000 pesos, and 1,500,000 pesos
respectively.
The Peso or Dollar, of 100 Centavas : normal value, 4s. ; approximate
value, 2s. 10d., gold being at a premium of 90 to 95 per cent. In 1892 the
silver coinage executed at Birmingham for Costa Rica amounted to 138,091
pesos.
Weights and Measures.
The metric system is now in use ; the following are the old weights and
measures : —
The Libra . . . =1 '014 lb. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal .... =101*40 lbs. „
„ Arroba .... =25*35 „
,, Fanega .... =1J imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use, but the intro-
duction of the French metric system is contemplated.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 447
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Costa Rica in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — R. Fernandez. •
Consul-General. — John A. Le Lacheur.
There are Consular Representatives at Birmingham, Cardiff, Falmonth,
Gibraltar, Glasgow, Hull, Kingston (Jamaica), Liverpool, Manchester, Not-
tingham, Southampton, Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in Costa Rica.
Minister and Consul-General. — Audley C. Gosling, resident at Guatemala.
Consul. — Cecil Sharpe.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publications.
Anuario estadistico de la Republics de Costa Rica. San Jose.
Calvo (J. B.), Republics de Costa Rica. Apuntamientos geograflcos, estadfsticos e hist6-
ricos. San Jose, 1887. Censo General de la Rcpublica de Costa Rica. 18 Febrero, 1892.
San Jose, 1893.
Costa Rica— Bulletin No. 81 of the Bureau of the American Republics. 8. Washington,
1892.
Estadistica del comercio exterior de la Republica de Costa Rica. San Jose.
Memoria de la secretaria de gobernaci6n, policia y fomento. San Jose.
Memoria de la secretaria de guerra y marina. San Jose.
Memoria de la secretaria de hacienda y comercio. 5. San Jose.
Villavicencio (Enrique), Director of Statistical Bureau. Republica de Costa Rica. Afio
de 1886* San Jose, 1886.
Report, by Consul Sharpe on the Trade and Commerce of Costa Rica in 1892, in No. 1,219
* Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' 1893.
• Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
hates (H, W.), Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Belly (Felix), A travers l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1872.
Biolley (Paul), Costa Rica and her Future. Washington, 1889.
Boyle (Frederick), Ride across a Continent : a Personal Narrative of Wanderings through
Nicaragua and Costa Rica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Caceres (J. M.)t Geograffa de Centro-America. Paris, 1882.
Camphui* (G. W.), Costa Rica : The Country for Emigrants. London.
Frbbel (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-68.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Peralta (Manuel M.), Costa Rica : its Climate, Constitution, and Resources. With a
survey of its present financial position. 8. London, 1873.
Sckerzer (Karl, Ritter von), Statistisch-commerzielle Ergebnisse einer Reise um die
Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.
beherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten.
8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Wagner (Moritz), Die Republik Costa Rica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig, 1856.
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448
DENMARK
(KONGERIGET DANMARK.)
Reigning King
Christian IX.> born April 8, 1818, the fourth son of the late
Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstem-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, and
of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to the succession
of the crown of Denmark by the treaty of London of May 8,
1852, and by the Danish law of succession of July 31, 1853.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederik VII. ,
November 15, 1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to Queen Louise,
born September 7, 1817, the daughter of Landgrave Wilhelm of
Hesse-Cassel.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Frederik, heir apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married
July 28, 1869, to Princess Lowisa, daughter of King Carl XV.
of Sweden and Norway. Offspring of the union are : — 1. Prince
Christian, born September 26, 1870. 2. Prince Karl, born
August 3, 1872. 3. Princess Lowisa, born February 17, 1875.
4. Prince Harald, born October 8, 1876. 5. Prince Ingeborg,
born August 2, 1878. 6. Princess Thyra, born March 14, 1880.
7. Prince Gustav, born March 4, 1887. 8. Princess Dagmar,
born May 23, 1890.
II. Princess Alexandra, born December 1, 1844; married,
March 10, 1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.
III. Prince Wilhelm, born December 24, 1845; admiral in
the Danish navy ; elected King of the Hellenes, under the title
of GeorgiosL, by the Greek National Assembly, March 31, 1863 ;
married, October 27, 1867, to Olga Constantinowna, Grand-
Duchess of Russia.
IV. Princess Marie Dagmar (Empress Maria- Feod orovna),
born November 26, 1847 ; married, November 9, 1866, to Alex-
ander III., Emperor of Russia.
V. Princess Thyra, born September 29, 1853; married,
December 21, 1878, to Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumber-
land.
VI. Prince Waldemar, born October 27, 1858; married,
October 22, 1885, to Princess Marie d'Orleans, eldest daughter
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BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE KING
449
of the Due de Chartres, born January 13, 1865 ; offspring, Prince
Aage, born June 10, 1887 ; Prince Axel, born August 12, 1888 ;
Prince Erich, born November 8, 1890.
Brothers and Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Frederica, born October 9, 1811 ; married, October 30, 1834, to
Duke Alexander of Anhalt-Bernburg ; widow August 19, 1863.
II. Princess Louise, born November 18, 1820 ; nominated abbess of the
convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, August 3, 1860.
III. Prince Julius, born October 14, 1824 ; general in the Danish army.
IV. Prince Hans, bom December 5, 1825 ; general in the Danish army.
The crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In 1448,
after the death of the last male scion of the Princely House of Svend Estridsen
the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, in
whose family the royal dignity remained for more than four centuries, although
the crown was not rendered hereditary by right till the year 1660. The direct
male line of the house of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king,
Frederik VII., on November 15, 1863. In view of the death of the king
without direct heirs, the Great Powers of Europe, ' taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy, as connected
with the general interests of the balance of power in Europe, is of high im-
portance to the preservation of peace,' signed a treaty at London on May 8,
1852, by the terms of which the succession to the crown of Denmark was
made over to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg,
and to the direct male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of
Hesse Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark. In accordance with
this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown was adopted
by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31, 1853.
King Christian IX. has a civil list of 500,000 rigsdalers settled upon him
by vote of the Rigsdag, approved December 17, 1863. The heir apparent of
the crown has, in addition, an allowance of 60,000 rigsdalers, settled by law
of March 20, 1868.
Subjoined is a list of the Kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —
House of Oldenburg.
A.D.
A.I\
Christian I. .
. 1448
Christian V. .
. 1670
Hans
. 1481
Frederik IV. .
. 1699
Christian II. .
. 1513
Christian VI.
. 1730
Frederik I.
. 1523
Frederik V. .
. 1746
Christian III.
. 1533
Christian VII.
. 1766
Frederik II. .
. 1559
Frederik VI. .
. 1808
Christian IV. .
. 1588
Christian VIII. .
. 1839
Frederik III. .
. 1648
Frederik VII.
. 1848
House of Schlesung-ffolstein-Sonderburg-GlUcksburg.
Christian IX., 1863.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the
charter of June 5, 1849, which was modified in some important
respects in 1855 and 1863, but again restored, with various
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AREA AND POPULATION
451
2. Ministry ol the Interior. — M. Hoerring, appointed January, 1894.,
3. Ministry of Justice and for Iceland. — J. M. V. Nellemann, June 11, 1875.
4. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Baron Reedtz-Thott, June 3, 1892.
5. Ministry of War. — General J. J. Bahnsen, September 13, 1884.
6. Ministry of Marine. — Commander N. F. Rcvon, January 4, 1879.
7. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — A. H. Qoo$,
appointed July 11, 1891.
8. Ministry of Public Works. — H. P. Ingeralev, appointed January, 1894.
It is officially announced at Copenhagen that M. Hoerring, the Depart-
mental Chief of the Ministry of the Interior, has been appointed Minister of
that Department, in the room of M. Ingenlev, who is appointed Minister of
the newly-created Department of Public Works.
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for their acts,
and if impeached, and found guilty, cannot be pardoned without the consent
of the Folkething.
Denmark is divided into 18 counties (Amter), each of which is administered
by a Governor (Amtmand), and the counties into Hundreds (Herreder), each
with a portion of the Peace (Herredsfoged or Birkedommer). In the towns
there is a Mayor, appointed by the government, with or without aldermen.
The Hundreds are divided into parishes of which there are, in all, about 1,068.
Copenhagen forms a district by itself, and has its own form of administration.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland,
has its own constitution and administration, under a charter which
came into force August 1, 1874. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in the Althing, consisting of 36 members, 30 elected
by popular suffrage, and 6 nominated by the king. A minister for Iceland,
nominated by the king, is at the head of the administration ; while the highest
local authority is vested in the governor, who resides at Reikjavik. Besides him
there are two Amtmands for the western and the northern districts of Iceland.
Area and Population
The following table gives the area and population of Den-
mark, according to the last decennial census, taken February 1,
'1890:—
Divisions
City of Copenhagen (Kjbbenhavn)\
without suburbs . J
Islands in the Baltic
Peninsula of Jutland
Faeroe Islands (17 inhabited) .
Total.
Area
Snglish sq. in.
Population
1890
Population
per sq. m.
7*7
5,024
9,743
514
312,859
917,401
942,120
12,955
40,569
183
96
25
15,289
2,185,335 148
The population (excluding the Faeroes) consisted of 1,059,322
males and 1,112,983 females. The total population at the census
of 1870 was 1,794,723, and of 1880 1,980,259, showing an
increase during each of the two decennial periods of nearly 10
per cent., or 1 per cent, per annum. In Denmark proper the
town population has increased from 515,758 in J880 to 663,121
o o 2
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452
DENMARK
in 1890, Or at the rate of 28*7 per cent. ; while the rural popula-
tion has increased from 1,453,281 in 1880 to 1,509,084 in 1890,
or at the rate of 3*77 per cent. The population is almost entirely
Scandinavian ; in 1890, of the inhabitants of Denmark proper,
96*67 per cent, were born in Denmark, 0*06 per cent, were born
in the Colonies, 0*16 per cent, in Norway, 1*56 per cent, in
Sweden, 0*96 per cent, in Sleswig, 0*47 per cent, in other parts
of Germany, and 0*12 per cent, in other foreign countries. The
foreign-born population was thus 3*27 per cent, of the whole.
According to occupation the population of Denmark in 1890 was classified
thus: —
Royal Family
16
Immaterial production
... 135,790
Railways, posts, &c.
Agriculture
.. 26,644
.. 882,336
Industry
.. 534,428
Commerce
.. 172,929
Land transport
.. 16,086
Navigation
26,082
Fishing
.. 32,912
No occupation
Pensioners ...
Capitalists ...
Blind, deaf, &c.
Public paupers
In prisons ...
Total...
207,595
57,999
34,974
3,753
39,014
1,822
2,172,380
The population of the capital, Copenhagen (Kjbbenhavn), in 1890, was
312,859, or with suburbs, 375,251 ; Aarhaus, 83,308 ; Odense, 30,277 ; Aal-
borg, 19,503; Horsens, 17,290; Randers, 16,617.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and marriages,
with the surplus of births
bs over deaths, in five years :-
Tears
Total Births
Still Births
Marriages
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
69,417
69,220
69,237
68,111
62,664
2,000
1,792
1,852
1,735
1,727
14,726
15,091
15,233
14,975
14,941
Deaths
38,645
41,869
40,004
41,377
43,954
8mplus of I
Births over i
Deaths
28,772
25,559
27,381
24,999
23,983
k
Of the births 10 per cent, were illegitimate.
' Emigration carried off, chiefly to the United States, 8,659 in 1888 ; 8,967
in 1889 ; 10,298 in 1890 ; 10,382 in 1891 ; 10,422 in 1892.
Religion.
The established religion of Denmark is the Lutheran, which was intro-
duced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that time seized by the
Crown, to be delivered up to the university and other religious and educational
establishments. The affairs of the National Church are under the superin-
tendence of seven bishops. The bishops have no political character. Com-
plete religious toleration is extended to every sect, and no civil disabilities
attach to Dissenters. In 1885 there were 1,353 clergvmen.
According to the census of 1890, there were only 33,851 persons, or 1-5
per cent, of the population, not belonging to the National Church. Of this
number 10,624 belonged to other Lutheran denominations, 4,080 were Jews,
4,556 Anabaptists, 3,647 Roman Catholics, 2,609 Irvingites, 2,301 Methodists,
1,252 belonged to the German or French Reformed Church, 1,281 other
Christians, 941 Mormons, and 2,560 of no confession.
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Instruction — crime — finance
453
Instruction.
Elementary education has been widely diffused in Denmark since the
beginning of this century, and in 1814 it was made compulsory. The school
age is from 7 to 14. The public schools, maintained by communal rates are
free to children whose parents cannot afford to pay. Of elementary schools
there are about 2,940 (28 in Copenhagen, 132 in other towns, and 2,780 in
rural districts), with 231,940 pupils, or 123 per 1,000 of population. For
higher instruction there are : a veterinary and agricultural college at Copen-
hagen (founded 1892) with 22 teachers ; 21 agricultural or horticultural
schools ; 67 folkehojskoler or popular high schools ; 31 Latin schools (14
Government, 17 private) ; a college of pharmacy (founded 1892) with 7
teachers ; a Royal academy of arts (founded 1754) with 7 teachers ;
99 rcahkoler or technical and commercial schools. The folkehojskoler
are all private, but to them and the agricultural schools the state annually
makes a grant of about 300,000 kroner. To 72 of the realskoler grants are
made amounting in the year 1892-93 to 109,000 kroner, exclusive of the
cost of apparatus, inspection, &c. The University of Copenhagen founded
in 1479, has 5 faculties, to all of which, except theology, women are admitted
on equal terms with men. It has 40 professors and about 1,300 students.
Justice and Crime.
The lowest courts of justice in Denmark are those of the hundred or dis-
trict magistrates (herredtfogder and birkedommere) and town judges (byfogder).
From these courts an appeal lies to the superior court, or court of second in-
stance, in Viborg with 9 judges, and in Copenhagen with 17 judges. The
Copenhagen superior court, however, is identical witn that of the civic magis-
trates. The supreme court (Hojesteret) or court of final appeal, with a chiel
justice, 12 puisne judges, and 11 special judges sits in Copenhagen. Judges
under 65 years of age can be removed only by judicial sentence.
In 1890, 819 males and 1,078 females were convicted of crime.
Finance and Defence.
By the terms of the Constitution of Denmark the annual
financial budget, called the ' Finantslovforslag,' must be laid on
the table of the Folkething at the beginning of each session. As
to the annual financial accounts, called ' Statsregnskab,' the Con-
stitutional Charter prescribes them to be examined by four paid
revisers, two of whom are elected by the Folkething and two by
the Landsthing. Their report is submitted to both Chambers,
which, after due consideration, pass their resolution generally to
the effect that they have no remarks to make on the balance-sheet.
The following shows the actual revenue and expenditure for
the five years ending March 31, 1891 : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Kroner
Kroner
1887
54,769,601
58,091,289
1888
64,333,290
59,868,223
1889
55,934,903
60,162,412
1890
57,392,986
62,329,181
1891
56,811,602
66,287,089
The estimated revenue for 1892-93 was 54,683,727 kroner,
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454
DENMARK
and expenditure 58,578,341 kroner. The following is an abstract
of the budget for 1893-94 :-
Revenue
Kroner
Expenditure
Kroner
Balance of domain
1
Civil list and appa-
revenues
767,406 !
nages .
Rigsdag and Council
1,155,200
Interest on State as-
sets
4,515,716
of State
306,616
Direct taxes
9,763,500
Interest and expenses
Indirect taxes, mainly
i
on State debt
6,722,180
customs and excise.
37,609,000 1
Pensions, including
Balance of lotteries .
1,000,000
military invalids .
3,310,967
Revenue from Faeroe
1
38,778 |
522,546
Ministry of Foreign
Islands .
Affairs .
429,656
Separate revenues
Ministry of Interior .
5,227,946
Revenue from employ-
Ministry of Justice .
3,935,557
ment of property
and funding of debt
1
Ministry of Public
1,314,671 '
Worship & Instruction
3,625,449
i Ministry of War
10,631,950
Ministry of Marine .
6,690,726
Ministry of Finance .
3,516,304
Iceland .
88,664
Extraordinary State
expenditure .
5,133,702
Improvement of State
property and re-
duction of debt
Total revenue
3,453,742
55,531,618 |
Total expenditure
54,228,658
An important feature in the administration of the finances of the kingdom
is the maintenance of a reserve fund of a comparatively large amount. In
1867 it was 148,000,000 kroner; in 1877, 85,900,000 kroner; in 1887,
98,600,000 kroner. On the 31st of March, 1891) it stood at 33,210,169
kroner. The object of the reserve fund is to provide means at the disposal of
the Government in the event of sudden occurrences.
The public debt of Denmark has been incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary govern-
ment, and in part by railway undertakings and the construction of harbours,
lighthouses, and other works of public importance. The following table gives
the national liabilities at different periods, from 1870 to 1891 : —
Year
ndlng March 31
Capital of Debt
1870
18*0
18*5
Kroner
234,740,700
173,838,612
197,197,824
Year
ending March 31
1889
1890
1891
Capital of Debt
Kroner
190,331,149
188,148,541
186,610,992
The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The total foreign debt
amounted in 1891 to 10,294,250 kroner. The external debt is mostly at
4 per cent., and the internal mostly at 3 J per cent.
The entire charge of the debt for 1893-94 was set down as 6,722,180
kroner; after deducting productive investments, &c, the charge per head of
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ARMY AND NAVY
455
population would be about 2s. 9d. The investments of the State including
the reserve fund, amount to 68,826,059 kroner.
The army of Denmark consists of all the able-bodied young men of the
kingdom who have reached the age of 22 years. They are liable to service
for eight years in the regular army and its reserve, constituting the first line,
and for eight years subsequent in the extra reserve. The drilling is divided
into two periods : the first lasts six months for the infantry ; five months for
the field artillery and the engineers ; nine months and two weeks for the
cavalry ; and four months for the siege artillery and the technic corps. The
second period of drill, which is for only a portion of the recruits of each
branch of arms, notably those who have profited the least by the first course,
lasts nine months for the infantry, eleven months for the cavalry, and one
year for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to drill
each year during thirty to forty-five days. The kingdom is divided into two
divisions or commands, the eastern and the western, the former subdivided
into two and the latter into three brigades, and each brigade into two bat-
talions. Every brigade furnishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and
one regiment of cavalry.
The forces of the kingdom comprise 31 battalions of infantry of the line
with 11 of reserve ; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 3 squadrons active
and a depdt ; 2 regiments of field artillery, in 12 batteries, and 4 of
reserve, and 2 battalions with 6 companies of fortress artillery, and 5 com-
panies of reserve ; and 1 regiment of engineers. The strength of the army
(1892) is 1,200 officers and 41,750 men ; the war strength is 1,495 officers and
58,067 men. Including the Citizen Corps of Copenhagen and Bornholm
Island, the total war strength is about 60,000 men, exclusive of the extra
reserve, only called out in emergencies, and numbering 16,500 officers and men.
The Danish fleet is maintained for purposes of coast-defence. The naval
estimates for 1893-94 reach the sum of 2,004,465 kroner, and are chiefly for
maintenance and completion, providing only for the laying down of a
patrol-boat and two steam launches. The fleet is thus constituted, according
to the system of classification adopted in this book (see introductory table) :
Battleship, 1 second-class ; port defence ships, 6 ; 3 first-class armoured
cruisers b ; 6 third-class cruisers a ; and 14 of the same class b ; torpedo
boats, 6 first-class, 4 second-class, 2 third-class, and some smaller. The
following are the armoured vessels of the Danish Navy. Those in italic arc
relegated to the port defence class ; 6. roadside, c. b. central battery, t. turret
bar. barbette, Q.F. quick-firing.
II
Name
Ab$alon .
»Rolf Krdke
Danmark.
Lindormen
Qorm
Odin.
c b Helgoland
ARMOURED
CRUISERS.
Tordenekjold .
IverHvitfeldt.
Unnamed
I
a
I'
h
Q
_520
Extreme
thickness
Armour in
Inches.
1862
2*
1863
1,830
H
1864
4,700
4
1868
2,050
5
1870
2,350
7
1872
3,050
8
1878
5,300
12
1880
2,400
8
1886
3,250
Hi
—
4,500
12
Armament
2 5in. ; 2 Sin.
2 9-ton ; 2 Sin.
12 9-ton; 12 6in.
2 13-ton ; 4 Sin.
2 18-ton ; 4 24in. Q.F.
4 18-ton ; 4 sjin. Q.F.
(1 36-ton; 4 22-ton; 4 Sin. ;
I 2 2Jin. Q.F.
•Ii!
&8*
500
700
1,000
1,500
1,600
2,200
4,000
1 52-ton ; 4 4f in.
228-ton;44fin.;2 24in.Q.F.! 4
2 28-ton ; 4 4f in. |4
11-0
8-0
8-0
12 0
12-2
12*4
13-4
| 2,600 14-0
I 5,100 15-6 '
I 5,100 15-5
The Tordensky'old is a remarkable ship having no side-armour,
in an armoured barbette the heaviest gun in the Danish Navy.
but carrying
The deck
i
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456
Denmark
protected cruisers Geiser, Hekla, and Heimdal (1,270 tons), Fyen (2,540 tons),
and Valkyrien (2,850 tons) have been built, like most other Danish vessels,
at Copenhagen. The Heimdal is still in hand.
Production and Industry.
The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the state of
the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into larger estates, but
encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out of landed preperty, and
leaves the tenant entire control of his land so long as the rent is paid.
Of the total area of Denmark 80 per cent, is productive ; about one-sixth
of the unproductive area is peat bogs. Of the productive area 6 per cent, is
forest, and of the remainder less than one-half is arable, and the remainder
pasture and meadows. The total area under corn crops, according to latest
returns, was 3,029,404 acres ; potatoes, 128,849 acres ; clover, 456,585 acres ;
bare fallow, 637,696 acres; meadows, &c, 2,625,865 acres. The leading
crops in 1891 were oats, 33,059,265 bushels ; barley, 22,571,447 bushels ; rye,
18,677,262 bushels ; wheat, 4,514,152 bushels ; potatoes, 13,913,122 bushels ;
other roots, 85,453,952 bushels ; besides vegetables, hay and clover. The total
value of the produce in 1891 was 365,214 kroner ; in 1890, 305,802 kroner.
On July 16, 1888, there were in Denmark proper, 375,533 horses,
1,459,527 head of cattle, 1,225,196 sheep, 13,405 goats, and 770,785 swine.
(In 1881 there were 1,470,078 cattle, and in 1871, 1,238,898.)
In 1892 there were exported 11,578 horses, 108,988 head of cattle, 9,998
sheep and lambs, and 185,844 swine.
In 1892 there were in Denmark 116 distilleries (Copenhagen 33), whose
output of brandy, reduced to 8°, was 7,435,388 gallons (34,973,605 potter).
In the same year 19,570 tons of beet sugar were produced at 6 sugar
factories.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value, according to official
returns, of the imports and the exports of home produce (in-
cluding precious metal) for six years.
Years
1887
1888
1889
Imports
Kroner
250,698,077
274,363,759 ,
304,327,851
Exports
Kroner
183,103,840
186,596,793
209,319,456
fears
1890
1891
1892
Imports
Exports
Kroner
307,031,194
334,613,378
324,537,214
Kroner
233,837,937
249,033,125
252,318,525
The commerce of Denmark was divided among the following
classes in 1891 and 1892 :—
\
Imports,
1891
Imports,
1892
Exports,
1891
Foods ....
Manufactured articles
Raw products . . .
Means of production
(machinery, &c.) .
Total
1,000 kroner 1,000 kroner \ 1,000 kroner
130,900 127,900 ' 197,200
71,700 71,100 ' 13,300
108,800 106,300 25,600 <
23,200
334,600
19,300
324,600
12,900
249,000
Exports,
1892
1,000 kroner
204,300
12,800
24,700
10,500
252,300
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The principal articles of import and export, with their re-
spective values, were as follows : —
Imports, 1891
Colonial goods
Textile manufactures
Metals and hardware .
Wood & manufactures
Coal.
Animals .
Pork, butter, eggs, lard
Cereals
Kroner
29,515,324
4,954,380
39,572,377
30,517,240
17,656,800
23,255,172
6,028,370
28,640,863
42,423,268
Imports, 1892 Exports, 1891
Kroner
32,329,546
5,121,784
42,275,171
27,074,748
17,039,472
21,699,997
4,185,840
30,932,802
32,397,638
Kroner
7,615,992
2,213,315
5,120,352
4,792,821
3,233,252
2,519,455
45,669,690
123,101,309
17,499,693
Exports, 1892
Kroner ;
8,413,574 !
2,327,868
5,362,303
4,737,599
4,002,801
2,003,824
40,463,626
132,571,067
19,348,872
The following table shows the distribution of Danish foreign
trade : —
Countries
i
Imports,
1891
Imports,
1892
Exports,
1891
Exports,
1892
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Germany .
United Kingdom
110,694,756
103,821,806
68,176,181
67,030,702
69,032,205
68,079,641
132,138,623
135,699,983
Sweden and Norway .
52,807,841
63,617,733
31,831,904.
10,457,640
United States .
19,434,307
28,628,557
2,263,512
1,419,399
Rest of America
683,116
1,504,335
45,150
39,860
Russia
35,748,894
18,850,964
2,720,607
3,404,511
Holland .
7,652,363
7,988,246
504,723
282,060
Belgium .
6,792,603
7,505,250
1,324,332
918,925
France
9,332,816
10,439,401
2,372,617
1,263,302
Danish Colonies
3,587,685
4,068,350
4,416,900
4,241,633
The value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Denmark (in-
cluding Iceland, the Faeroe Islands, and Greenland), and of the domestic
exports from the United Kingdom to Denmark, is shown in the subjoined
table in each of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
_
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into Gt. Britain
Exports of British pro-
duce ....
i
£ | £
7,061,396 7,846,877
2,082,626 1 2,364,409
<
7,753,389 1 7,936,787
2,539,467 1 2,617,220
£
8,041,662
2,622,435
The imports of butter into Great Britain from Denmark rose from 767,190/.
iu 1870 to 4,848,735Z. in 1892. In 1892 the imports of live animals from
Denmark amounted to the value of 80,549Z. (in 1891, 369,658Z.)> comprising
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i
458 DENMARK
48,100/. for sheep and 13,172Z. for horses. The import of eggs has risen from
67,6542. in 1878 to 413,4692. in 1892. The import of lard was 141,5032. in
1886, 2,2422. in 1890, 3,0722. in 1891, and 9,725?. in 1892. Of British
exports to Denmark in 1892, cotton manufactures and yarn amounted to
478,2992., coal to 726,7542., iron, wrought and unwrought, to 206,9412.,
sugar, 120,7722., and woollens, including yam, 270,5392.
Shipping and Navigation.
On December 31, 1892, Denmark and colonies possessed 3,648 vessels (of
4 tons and upwards) of 318,837 registered tons in her merchant marine, of
which 361 of 119,038 tons were steamers. In 1892, 28,691 vessels of
2,033,592 tons cargo (589 of 310,575 tons cargo British) entered the Danish
gorts, and 28,866 vessels of 558,096 tons cargo (620 of 33,177 tons cargo
ritish) cleared, besides 30, 949 coasting vessels entered, and 31,904 cleared.
Internal Communications.
There are (1892) railways of a total length of 1,289 English miles open
for traffic in the kingdom. Of this total, about 992 English miles belong
to the State, the total cost of which up to March 31, 1890, was 164,141,474
kroner.
The Post Office in the year 1891 carried 49,543,000 letters and post-cards,
and 56,478,000 samples and printed matter. There are 803 post-offices. The
State Telegraphs in 1892 carried 1,673,038 messages, of which 623,910 were
internal, 1,013,061 international, 36,067 official The total length of tele-
graph lines at the end of 1891 was 3,674 English miles (2,816 belonging
to the State), and the length of wire 10,280 English miles. At the same
date there were 375 telegraph offices, of which 168 belonged to the State,
and 207 to railway companies.
Money and Credit.
On 31 July, 1892, the accounts of the National Bank balanced at
122,236,077 kroner. The assets included 22,421,123 kroner in bullion, and
28,736,252 in specie. The liabilities included 78,000,000 kroner note issue,
27,000,000 kroner of capital, and 3,000,000 kroner reserve fund. In Den-
mark there are about 40 other banks for commercial, agricultural, industrial,
and other purposes. In 1891 there were 540 savings banks, with 886,291
depositors, and deposits amounting to 509,953,949 kroner.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The monetary unit, the Krone of 100 ore, is of the value of Is. l$d., or
about 18 kroner to the pound sterling.
Gold coins are 20 and 10-kroner pieces. The 20-kroner piece weighs
8*960572 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 8 '0645 grammes of fine gold.
The 2-kroner silver piece, or Rigsdaler, weighs 15 grammes '800 fine,
and thus contains 12 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is gold. Silver is legal tender up to 20 kroner.
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COLONIES
459
The Pund
= 100 Pund =
TGnde grain
„ oil
„ butter
„ coal
Pot . . .
Viertel . .
Ship Last .
Weights and Measukes.
= 1000 Kvint = 1000 Ort = 1*1023 lb. avoirdupois. The Centner
110*23 lb. avoirdupois.
= 3*827 bush.
= 28*9189 gal.
= 246 *9179 lbs. av.
= 4-6775 bush.
= 0*2126 gal.
= 1*7011 „
= 2 tons.
Alen(= 2Fod).
Kubikfod . .
Tondepand . .
Begister-Toniov
sailing ships
Register- Toniov
steamers . .
= 0*6864 yard.
= 1*0918 eft.
= 1*36 acre.
= 1 ton reg.
= 0*89 „
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Denmabk in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — F. C. Bille, accredited 1890.
Secretary of Legation. — Count Ahlefeld-Laurwig.
Attache'. — Christian August Gosch.
; Consul-General in London. — E. A. Delcomyn.
There are Consuls at Belfast, Edinburgh (C.G.), Hull (C;G.), Liverpool,
Auckland (N.Z.), Bombay, Brisbane, Calcutta, Cape Town, Halifax (N.S.),
Hong Kong, Kingston (Jamaica), Madeira, Malta, Melbourne, Montreal,
Singapore, Sydney, Wellington (N.Z.).
2. Of Great Britain in Denmark.
Envoy and Minister. — Charles Stewart Scott, C.B., Envoy at Berne, May
1, 1888 ; at Copenhagen, January 1, 1893.
Secretary.— Sir F. C. E. Denys, Bart.
There are Consuls at Copenhagen, Reikjavik (Iceland), St. Thomas (West
Indies).
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of territories in Europe and
America. Their area and population in October, 1890, and the value of their
imports into and exports from Denmark in 1892, according to Danish returns,
were : —
Colonies
Area
English sq. m.
i
Iceland .
Greenland
West Indies
Total .
39,756
i 46,740
! 118
I
86,614
Population
70,927
10,516
32,786
Imports,
1892
Exports,
1892
Kroner
2,607,509
486,581
522,820
Kroner
2,995,864
377,389
181,464
114,229 3,616,910 3,554,717
The West Indian Islands, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, are in-
liabited mostly by free negroes engaged in the cultivation of the sugar-cane ;
but the trade with Denmark, formerly considerable, has fallen off in recent
years. The imports, &c, from the Danish West Indies into the United King-
dom amounted to 2,384?. in 1890 ; 595?. in 1891 ; and 1,048/. in 1892 ; and
Digitized by. VjOOQ IC
I
460 DENMARK
that of the exports of British produce to these islands to 114,5082. in 1890 ;
57,914Z. in 1891 ; and 77,4522. in 1892. The chief article of import into
Great Britain from these islands was unrefined sugar, valued at 98,7552. in
1882 ; but nil in 1892 ; while the British exports are mainly cotton goods, to
the value of 22,4262., and coals, 8,3162. in 1892.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Official Publications.
Apergu preliminaire des principaux resultats de recensement da lcr fevrier 1890 en
Danemark. Copenhague, 1890. .
Justice criminelle, 1886-90. 4. Copenhagen.
Kongelig Dansk Hof og Statscalender. Kjobenhavn, 1893.
Sammendrag af statistlske Oplysninger. 8. Kjdbenhavn, 1893.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Kongerigets Vare-lndfbrsel og Udforsel saint den indenlandske
Frembringelse af Braendeviin og Boesakker i Aaret 1892. Udglvet af det Statistiske
Bureau.— Kongerigets Handels-Flaade og Skibsfart i Aaret 1892. 4. Kjobenhavn
1893.
Folkemangden i Kongeriget Danmark den lste Februar, 1880. Kjobenhavn, 1883.
Report on the Finances of Denmark, No. 984, and on the Trade of Denmark, No. 1138,
of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports/ 1892.
Trade of Denmark with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Andersen (L.), Copenhagen and its Environs. London.
Both, Kongeriget Danmark, en historisk-topographisk Beskrivelse. 2 vols. Copeu-
hagen, 1882-85.
Dahlman (F. CA Geschichte von Danemark. 3 vols. 8. Gotha, 1840-1843.
OaJlenga (A.), The Invasion of Denmark in 1864. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Handbook for Denmark— Murray's. 8. London.
National 5kbnomisk Tidsskrift. Kjobenhavn, 1893.
Otti (E. CA Denmark and Iceland. 8vo. London, 1881.
Petersen (C. P. NA Love og andre offentlige Kundgjorelser, Ac, vedkommende Landvae-
senet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. KJobennavn, 1865.
Trap (J. P.), Statistisk-topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark. 2nd cd. 4 vols
8. Kjobenhavn, 1872-78.
Weitemeyer (H.), Danemark ; Geschichte und Beschreibung. 12. (Of this there is an
English translation.)
Nansen (F.), The First Crossing of Greenland. London, 1891.
„ „ Eskimo Life. 8. London, 1893.
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461
ECUADOR.
(Republic a del Ecuador.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Ecuador was constituted May 11, 1830, in consequence of
a civil war which separated the members of the original Republic of Colombia,
founded by Simon Bolivar, by uniting the Presidency of Quito to the Vice-
Royalty of New Grenada, and the Captaincy-General of Venezuela, when they
threw off the Spanish yoke. A Boundary Treaty was concluded between
Peru and Ecuador on the 2nd of May, 1890, and sanctioned by the Ecuadorian
Congress, but it still lacks ratification by Peru (September 1893). Ecuador
is also involved in a dispute with the Republic of Colombia respecting
certain territories on the left bank of the river Napo. By its Constitution,
dating 1884, with modifications in 1887, the executive is vested in a
President, elected for the term of four years, while the legislative power
is given to a Congress of two Houses ; the first consisting of two senators
for each province (chosen for four years, one-half retiring every two
years), and the second of deputies, on the basis of one deputy for every
30,000 inhabitants, chosen for two years ; both elected by adults who can
read and write and are Roman Catholics. The Congress meets on the
10th of June of every other year at Quito, the capital and seat of the
Government, without being summoned by the Government. The election of
the President takes place in a direct manner by the people, and that of the
Vice-President, whose term of office is also four years, by the same procedure,
but two years after that of the President, so that he is a member of two
distinct administrations. The Vice-President in certain cases may be called
upon to occupy the Presidential chair. He also discharges the duties of
President of the Council of State.
President of the Republic. — Seiior Luis Cordero, elected June 30, 1892.
The President, who receives a salary of 12,000 sucres a year, theoretically
exercises his functions through a Cabinet of five ministers, who, together with
himself, may be impeached by Congress, and who, with other seven
members, form a Council of State. Each minister receives a salary of 2,880
sucres a year. The President has the .power of veto, but if Congress insist on
a vetoed bill becoming law, he has no alternative but to give his assent to it.
He may summon an Extraordinary Congress for a specified purpose, but he
cannot dissolve the Chambers or shorten their sittings. By the terms of the
Constitution privileges of rank and race are not allowed to exist within the
Republic, but most of the Indians are virtually in bondage.
The Provinces are administered by Governors, appointed by the Govern-
ment ; their subdivisions, or cantons, by political chiefs ; and the parishes by
political lieutenants. The Galapagos Archipelago is under a territorial chief.
Area and Population.
The area of Ecuador is about 120,000 square miles, divided into sixteen
provinces and one territory, with about 1,270,000 inhabitants — whites
100,000, mixed 300,000, Indians 870,000. Included in the above statement
are the Galapagos or Tortoise Islands, with an area of 2,400 square miles, and
a population of about 200.
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462
ECUADOR
k
The population of the Republic is distributed as follows : —
Provinces Pop. Provinces Pop. Provinces * Pop.
Carchi . 36,000 CaSar . . 64,014 Guayas 98,042
Imbabura 67,940 Azuay . . 132,400 Manabi 64,123
Pichincha . 205,000 Loja 66,456 Esmeraldas . 14,553
Leon . . 109,600 Bolivar. 43,000 Oriente . 80,000
Tungurahua . 103,033 Bios . 32,800
Chimborazo . 122,300 Oro . 32,600 1,271,861
The chief towns are the capital, Quito (40,000), Guayaquil (45,000), Cuenca
(25,000), Riobamba (12,000), Ambato, Loja, and Latacunga (each about
10,000).
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the Republic, according to the Constitution, is the Roman
Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Its income, in substitution for
tithes, is annually provided for in the estimates. Primary education is gratui-
tous and obligatory. There is a University in Quito with 32 professors and 216
students, and University bodies in Cuenca and Guayaquil. There are 9 schools
for higher education, 35 secondary, and 1,088 primary schools; the total
number of teachers is 1,498, and of pupils 68,380.
There are commercial and technical schools in Quito and Guayaquil.
Justice and Crime.
The appellate courts are the Supreme Court in Quito, and six superior
courts at different centres. The inferior courts deal with criminal, civil,
and commercial cases. In the Republic there are 33 cantonal and 359 parochial
justices, and 85 solicitors admitted to practice. There is a consular court in
Quito and one in Guayaquil.
In the one penitentiary of the Republic, which is in Quito, there were on
October 9, 1893, 140 men and 18 women convicted of serious crimes.
Finance.
For 1891 the revenue is stated at 3,584,365 sucres, and the expenditure at
3,945,591 sucres. For 1892 the estimated revenue was 3,983,560 sucres, or
£572,365, and expenditure 4,192,300 sucres or £602,842. For the first six
months of 1892 the actual revenue was 1,511,653 sucres, and expenditure
1,960,486 sucres.
The foreign liabilities of the Republic are made up of a debt of 1,824,000/.,
which amount formed the part of the debt assigned to Ecuador on its secession
from Colombia in 1830. In 1854 an arrangement was made with the bond-
holders, under which this debt was recognised by Ecuador, but in 1867 service
of this debt ceased. The arrears of interest amounted in 1891 to 428,6401.
By an arrangement with the British bondholders, July 29, 1892, the capital
of the foreign debt was reduced to 750,000/.. Every bond has attached 50
half yearly coupons at the following rates of interest : — 4£ per cent for five
years, 4} per cent, for the next five years, and 5 per cent for the following 15
years, with J per cent sinking fund during the first five years, and 1 per
cent, afterwards. When the 50 coupons are exhausted, the Government of
Ecuador must provide for the outstanding bonds such coupons as may be
necessary to represent the interest for the time required for the total extinction
of the debt. The internal debt amounts to about 5,000,000 sucres.
Defence.
The Ecuadorian army numbers 3,341 officers and men. This force is com-
posed of 1 brigade of fortress and 1 of field artillery, 4 battalions of infimtcy
2 columns of light infantry, and a regiment of cavalry.
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463
The navy consists of a cruiser, which cannot be classified, a torpedo launch,
two small gunboats for river service, and a transport, which vessels are
manned by about 128 men. The national guard is said to consist of 30,000
men.
Commerce.
The staple produce of Ecuador is cocoa, but coffee, sugar, and rice are suc-
cessfully cultivated. Ecuador is eminently auriferous. The gold mines at
Zaruma send about 12,000Z. yearly to England. Gold washing is carried on by
several native companies. American companies have been formed to work the
mines at Cachavi, Uimbi and Playa de Oro. Petroleum is so abundant on the
coast near Guayaquil that it lies in pools, but is hardly worked. The country
is known to be also rich in silver, copper, iron, lead ana coal. Mining operations
are regulated by the law of August 24, 1892.
The value of the foreign trade in five years has been : —
-
1888
1889 I 1890
1891
1892
Imports .
Exports .
Sucres
9,100,000
Sucres ' Sucres | Snorts
9,681,450 | 10,061,352 | 7,241,095
7,910,205 | 9,761,634 7,^51,800
Sucres
10,324,800
The chief imports (1891) were : cotton and other tissues, 2,074,510
sucres ; provisions, 1,091,440 sucres. In 1891 25£ per cent, of the imports
were from, and 12-& per cent, of the exports were to Great Britain. Tho>
chief exports (1891) were: Cocoa, 4,544,398 sucres ; coffee, 659,061 sucres :
gold and silver, 532,536 sucres ; India rubber, 415,776 sucres ; hides, 107,312
sucres; straw hats, 315,874 sucres ; sugar, 154,531 sucres.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Ecuador in 1890 and
1891, with the leading countries : —
Countries
Imports into Ecuador
Chili .
Colombia
France
Germany
Great Britain
Peru
Spain .
United States
1890
Sucres
365,101
107,370
2,464,064
1,318,932
2,671,566
930,545
221,944
1,607,461
1891
Sucres
246,045
46,637
1,780,563
1,042,359
1,828,816
512,016
180,819
1,496,062
Exports from Ecuador
1891
Sucres
459,130
334,255
2,280,218
1,403,891
1,729,914
574,251
1,842,350
930,560
Sucres
411,488
213,884
2,493,243
1,091,575
935,315
189,046
599,349
999,410
The total value of the imports from Ecuador into Great Britain, and of the
exports of British produce to Ecuador, was as follows in each of the last five
years, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
i
1892
Imports into Great Britain
Exports of British pro-
duce to Ecuador .
£
132,360
365,622
£
72,430
266,176
£
72,843
290,743
£
110,238
259,871
£
128,032 |
257,632 I
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464
ECUADOR
The chief articles of import from Ecuador into Great Britain consist of cocoa,
of the value of 193,9752. in 1886, 28,62U in 1889, 44,544Z. in 1890, 69,335*.
in 1891 ; 64,572Z. in 1892, Peruvian bark has declined from 100,346Z. in 1882
to 3,0992. in 1892. Of the exports of British produce to Ecuador, cotton
goods, to the value of 159,936Z., and iron, wrought and unwrought, 21,1222.,
formed the principal articles in 1892.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following is the movement of national and foreign shipping at the eleven
ports of Ecuador in 1891, which includes the whole of the national vessels
engaged in trade, except river craft and very small coasting vessels : —
British
National .
Foreign .
Total .
Entered
Cleared
Sailing
Steamers
Total
Sailing
Steamers
Total
No.
2
176
58
Tons
1,523
8,394
16,765
No.
305
65
Tons
247,534
99,357
No.
807
176
123
606
Tons
249,057
8,394
116,122
No.
1
182
56
239
Tons
1,299
8,898
16,558
No.
302
73
Tons
240,100
109,893
No.
303
182
129
Tons
241,399
8,898
12C,451
376,748
236
26,682
370
346,891
378,573
•26,755
875
349,993
614
I
Internal Communications.
The roads of the country are mostly bridle-roads only, and often impass-
able for half the year. The one highway is from Quito towards Guayaquil,
for a distance of 115 miles, but the work of thus connecting the capital and
the port has long been discontinued. There is river communication throughout
the principal agricultural districts on the low grounds to the west of the
Cordillera by the rivers Guayas, Daule, and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by
river steamers in the rainy season), and other small affluents thereof. Naviga-
tion of these inland waters is carried on by about 17 American and Ecuadorian-
built side-wheel and screw steamers, and a large fleet of canoes and other small
craft.
A railway is open from Duran (opposite Guayaquil) to Chimbo, 63 miles ; the
prolongation, begun some years ago, has been discontinued. The company had
a privSege from the State and neld the salt mines, yielding about 100,000
sucres net yearly. The privilege has expired, the State has resumed possession
of the salt mines, work is suspended, and the line itself has been seized by the
Government. A French syndicate obtained permission to continue the line
eventually to Quito ; but the necessary funds were not obtained, and the
scheme has quite collapsed. The physical difficulties in the way of a line from
Guayaquil to Quito are very great. It is understood that the Government
intends to prolong the line by employing its own staff, and not by contract.
The total length of telegraphs is about 1,074 miles, Quito being connected
with Guayaquil and the coast, with the Republic of Colombia, and by cable
with the rest of the world. A telephonic system with 400 subscribers is
established at Guayaquil.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MONEY AND CREDIT — WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 465
Money and Credit.
Ecuador having no mint, the coin of the country is minted at Birmingham,
in Chile and in Peru. The total silver coinage minted in the four years
ending with 1889 was about 1,835,000 sucres. The value minted in 1890
was 77,000Z.; in 1892, 43,000?. The amount of silver coin in circulation is
estimated at about 1,800,000 sucres or 260,000?, The two Guayaquil banks
had in their vaults on December 31, 1892, the sum of 1,488,904 sucres or
212,700?.
There are three banks authorised to issue notes for circulation, viz., the
Banco del Ecuador, capital 2,000,000 sucres ; Banco International, capital
800,000 sucres ; Banco de la Union, capital 240,000 sucres. The authorised
issue of notes depends on the stock of silver in the vaults of the bank, and
the banks are bound by law to hold one-third of the value of their circulation
in coin, silver or gold. During 1885-9 the issue was exactly 246,658 sucres
in each year. The banks are in no way related to the State, except that they
have to present a monthly statement of balances of silver in deposit and
notes in circulation. They constantly make loans for general or specific
objects to the Government, and the debt due on this account to the Bank
of Ecuador on December 31, 1892, was 1,396,274 sucres, and to the Banco
International 650,000 sucres The cash deposited in the two banks on June
30, 1891, was: — Banco del Ecuador, 1,521,157 sucres; Banco International
424,729 sucres. The accounts of the Banco del Ecuador (August 31, 1892)
balanced at 6,375,558 sucres ; of the Banco International (July 30, 1892) at
2,737,500 sucres ; and of the Banco de la Union (September 30, 1892) at
846,533 sucres.
There are no private banks, but two savings banks have been started in
Guayaquil, not related in any way to the Government.
The amount of notes in circulation for five years was as follows : —
Years
1 Bank of Ecuador
Banco International
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Sucr6s £
I 2,084,504 = 297,900
1,685,366 = 241,000
I 2,132,560 = 328,090
1,868,395 = 267,000
2,301,675 = 302,095
i
1 Sucres £
859,176 = 122,700
! 853,264 = 121,900
1 860,148 = 132,330
868,640 = 124,080
1 1,199,786 = 157,472 1
Money, Weights and Measures.
The unit of the monetary Bystem is the sucri of 100 cents, Value about
3*. ±d. It is composed of 9 parts silver and 1 of alloy. Other silver coins
are 50, 20, 10, 6-cent pieces. There are nickel 5, 1 and £»cent. pieces, and
2 and 1 cent bronze coins. There is no gold in circulation.
By a law of December 6, 1856, the French metrical system of weights and
measures was made the legal standard of the Republic ; but is not adopted by
commerce.
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466
ECUADOR
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Ecuador in Great Britain.
Consul-General — London, Pedio A. Merino, accredited July 9, 1885.
There are Consular Representatives at Birmingham, Hull, Liverpool, Man-
chester, Southampton, and Falmouth.
2. Of Great Britain in Ecuador
Minister and ConsuUGeneral. — William H. D. Haggard.
Consul at Guayaquil. — Geo. Chambers.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.
1. Official Publications.
Geografia y Geologia del Ecuador, publlcado por orden del Supremo Gobierno de la
Republica, por Dr. Teodoro Wolf. Leipsic, 1893.
Reports on Ecuador in Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, and Miscellaneous Series.
London, 189S.
Trade of Ecuador with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 189S ' Imp. 4. Lon-
don, 1698.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 18S2.
Campos, Galena de Ecuatorianos celebres. Guayaquil, 1881.
Cevcdlot, Compendio del resumen de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1885.
CevaUo*, Resumen de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1886. 6 v.
Ecuador in 1861. Report of Mr. G. E. Church to the United States Government. Re
printed in South American Journal. London, 1888.
Flemming (B.), Wanderungen in Ecuador. 8. Leipzig, 1872*
Gerstacker (Friedrich), Achtzehn Monate in Sud-Amerika. 3 vols* 8. Leipzig, 1863.
Gonzalez Uaurez, Historia ecclesiastica del Ecuador. Quito, 1881.
Hastaurelc (F.), Four Years among Spanish Americans. 3rd edition. Cincinnati, 1881;
Herrera (P.), Apuntes para la historia de Quito. Quito, 1674.
Oviedo y Valdiz, Historia de las Indias. Madrid, 1885. 4 v.
Sehwarda (T.), Reise urn die Erde. Vol. HI. 8. Braunschweig, 1861.
Sinuon (Alfred), Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador. London, 1887.
Ternaugc-CompansCL.), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduite de l'Espagnol. (Velasco :
Historia del reino de Quito.) 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Wagner,(MoTitz Friedrich), Reiseu in Eucador; in ' Zeitschrift furallgemeine Erdkunde. -
Vol. xvi. Berlin, 1864.
Whymper (Edward), Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator. Loudon, 1892.
\
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467
FRANCE.
Constitution and Government
I. Centbal.
Since the overthrow of Napoleon HI. on September 4, 1870,
France has been under a Republican form of government, con-
firmed on February 25, and June 16, 1875, by an organic law
{Constitution Wallon), which has been partially modified in June
1879, August 1884, June 1885, and July 1889. It vests the
legislative power in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate,
and the executive in the President of the Republic and the
Ministry.
The President is elected for seven years, by a majority of
votes, by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in a
National Assembly, or Congress. He promulgates the laws voted
by both Chambers, and ensures their execution. He selects a
Ministry from the Chamber, appoints to all civil and military
posts, has the right of individual pardon, and is responsible only
in case of high treason. The President concludes treaties with
foreign Powers, but cannot declare war without the previous
assent of both Chambers. Every act of the President has to be
countersigned by a Minister. With the consent of the Senate
he can dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. In case of vacancy,
the two Chambers united immediately elect a new President. *
President of the Republic — Marie Francois Sadi Carnot, born
at Limoges, 1837 \ studied at the Ecole Polytechnique and the
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees ; Under-Secretary of Public Works*
1887 ; Minister of Public Works, 1880-82 ; Minister of FinaDce,
1882, and again 1886. Elected President of the Republic,
December 3, 1887.
The Ministry, as constituted, December 2, 1893, consists of
the following members : —
1. President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs
• — M. Casimir-Perier.
2. Minister of the Interior. — M. Raynal.
3. Minister of Finance. — M. Burdeau.
4. Minister of Public Instruction and Worship. — M. Spuller,
5. Minister of Justice. — M. Antonin Dubost.
6. Minister of War. — General Mercier.
7. Minister of Marine and Colonies. — Admiral Lefevre*
8. Minister of Commerce, — M. Marty.
h b 2
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468
FRANCE
House of Bourbon.
Henri IV.
1589-1810
Louis XIII. , 'le Juste* .
1610-1643
Louis XIV., 'le Grand' .
1643-1715
Louis XV.
1716-1774
Louis XVI. (+1793) .
1774-1792
First Republic
Convention .
1792-1795
Directoire . . .
1795-1799
Consulate
1799-1804
Empire.
Napoleon I. (+ 1821) .
1804-1814
House of Bourbon restored.
Louis XVIII.
1814-1824
Charles X. ( + 1836)
1824-1830
\
9. Minister of Agriculture. — M. Viger.
10. Minister of Public Works. — M. Jonnart.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns and Governments of
France, from the accession of the House of Bourbon : —
House of Bourbon-Orleans.
Louis Philippe (+ 1850) 1830-1848
Second Republic.
Provisional Government,
Feb.— Dec. . . 1848
Louis Napoleon . . 1848-1852
Empire restored.
Napoleon III. (died 1873) 1852-1870
Third Republic.
Government of National
Defence . . 1870-1871
Louis A. Thiers, President 1871-1873
Marshal MacMahon ,, 1873-1879
F. J. P Jules Grevy „ 1879-1887
M. F. Sadi Carnot „ 1887
The Chamber of Deputies is elected for four years, by uni-
versal suffrage, and each citizen 21 years old, who can prove a
six months1 residence in any one town or commune, and not
otherwise disqualified, has the right of vote. Deputies must
be citizens and not under 25 years of age. The manner of
election of Deputies has been modified several times since
1871. The scrutin de liste, under which each elector votes for
as many Deputies as the entire department has to elect, was
introduced in 1871. In 1876 it was replaced by the scrutin
d'arrondissement, under which each department is divided into a
number of cbrrondissements, each elector voting for one Deputy
only; in 1885 there was a return to the scrutin de liste, and
in 1889 the uni-nominal vote was reintroduced. In 1889 it
was enacted that each candidate is bound to make, within the
fortnight which precedes the elections, a declaration as to his
being a candidate for a given constituency, and for one con-
stituency only — all votes which eventually may be given for him
in other constituencies being reckoned as void. Multiple elections
and elections of persons previously condemned by the law courts
are thus rendered impossible. The Chamber verifies the powers
of its members. In each constituency the votes are cast up and
the Deputy proclaimed elected by a commission of Councillors*
General appointed by the prefect of the department.
The Chamber is now composed of 584 Deputies ; each * arron-
dissement ' elects one Deputy, and if its population is in excess of
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 469
100,000, it is divided into two constituencies. There were
10,387,330 inscribed electors in 1889, and 7,953,382 voted.
The Senate is composed of 300 members, elected for nine
years from citizens 40 years old, one-third retiring every three
years. The election of the Senators is indirect, and is made by
an electoral body composed (1) of delegates chosen by the Muni-
cipal Council of each commune in proportion to the population ;
and (2) of the Deputies, Councillors-General, and District Coun-
cillors of the department. Besides the 225 Departmental
Senators elected in this way, there were, according to the law of
1875, 75 Senators elected for life by the united two Chambers ;
but by the Senate Bill of 1884 it was enacted that vacancies
arising among the Life Senatorships would be filled by the elec-
tion of ordinary nine-years Senators. The Princes of deposed
dynasties are precluded from sitting in either House.
The Senate and Chamber of Deputies assemble every year on
the second Tuesday in January, unless a previous summons is
made by the President of the Republic, and they must remain in
session at least five months out of the twelve. . The President is
bound to convoke them if the demand is made by one-half of the
number of members composing each Chamber. The President
can adjourn the Chambers, but the adjournment cannot exceed the
term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same session.
Bills may be presented either in the Chamber or Senate
by the Government, or on the initiative of private members. In
the first case they are remitted to the bureaux for examination ;
in the second, they are first submitted to a commission of parlia-
mentary initiative. Financial laws must be first presented to and
voted by the Chamber of Deputies.
The Chamber can be dissolved by the President upon
advice of the Senate. The President and the Ministers may be
impeached by the Chamber of high treason, in which case the
Senate acts as a High Court of Justice. The same function is
vested in the Senate for all other cases of high treason.
Senators and Deputies are paid 9,000 francs (£360) a year,
and the Presidents of the two Chambers receive, in addition,
72,000 francs (£2,840) for the expense of entertainment. Mem-
bers of both Chambers travel free on all State railways. The
dotation of the President of the Republic is 600,000 francs, with
a further allowance of 600,000 francs for his expenses.
France has, besides, a special institution under the name of
Gori8eil d'$tat, which was introduced by Napoleon I., and has
been maintained since. It is presided over by the Minister of
Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests
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470
FRANCE
(Maitres de Requites), and Auditors, all appointed by the Presi-
dent of the Republic. Its duty is to give opinion upon such
questions, chiefly those connected with administration, as may
be submitted to it by the Government, It is judge in the last
resort in administrative suits, and it prepares the rules for the
public administration.
II, Local Govebnment.
For administrative purposes France is divided into 86 departments, or 87
if the 'territory of Belfort (a remnant of the department of Haut-Rhin) be
considered as a separate department. Since 1889 the three departments of
Algeria are also treated, for most purposes, as part of France proper. The
department has representatives of all the Ministries, and is placed under a
Prefect, nominated by Government, and having wide and undefined functions.
He is assisted by a Prefectorial Council, whose advice he may take without
being bound to follow it. The Prefect is a representative of the Executive,
and, as such, supervises the execution of the laws, issues police regulations,
nominates subordinate officials, and has under his control all officials of the
State. There is a Sub-prefect in every arrondissement, except capitals of
departments.
The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of
which vary very much. There are 36,140 communes, and new ones cannot
be created otherwise than by law. Most of them (31,488) have less than
1,500 inhabitants, and 17,181 have even less than 500 ; while 99 communes
only have more than 20,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune
are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 10 to 36 members, elected
by universal suffrage, and by the scrutin de liste ; but each act of the Council
must receive the approval of the Prefect, while many must be submitted to the
Council General, or even to the President of the Republic, before becoming
lawful. Even the Commune's quota of direct taxation is settled by persons
(repartiteurs) chosen by the Prefect from among the lists of candidates
drawn up by the Municipal Council.
Each Municipal Council elects a Mayor, who is both the representative
of the commune and the agent of the central government. He is the head
of the local police under the orders of the Prefect.
In Paris the Municipal Council is composed of 80 members ; each of the
20 arrondissements into which the city is subdivided has its own Mayor.
The place of the Mayor of Paris is taken by the Prefect of Police. Lyons has
an elected Mayor, but the control of the police is vested in the Prefect of the
department of the Rhone.
The next unit is the canton (2,871 in France), which is composed of an
average of 12 communes, although the larger communes are, on the contrary,
divided into several cantons. It is a seat of a justice of the peace.
The district, or arrondissement (362 in France), has an elected conseil
d' arrondissement, whose chief function is to allot among the communes their
respective parts in the direct taxes assigned to each arrondissement by
the Council General. That body stands under the control of the Sub-
prefect. A varying number of arrondissements form a department, which
has its conseil giniral renewed by universal suffrage to the extent of one-
Jialf every three years, These conseil* deliberate upon all economical affairs
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
471
of the department, the repartition of the direct taxes among the arrondisse*
merits, the roads, normal schools, and undertakings for the relief of the poor.
Their decisions are controlled by the Prefect, and may be annulled by the
President of the Republic.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition,
The area of France has changed but little since the treaties
of 1815, In 1860, after the Italian War, it was increased by
the annexation of Savoie and Nice from Italy; and by the
treaty of May 10, 1871, France lost the entire department of the
Bas-Rhin, two cvrrondissements, with a fraction of a third, of the
Haut-Khin, and the greater portion of the department of Mo-
selle, making altogether an area of 5,590 square miles and
1,600,000 inhabitants, part of whom emigrated into France during
the next few years.
The following table gives the area, in English square miles,
and the legal population (including those present and absent) of
the 87 departments of France according to the census returns of
May 31, 1886, and April 12, 1891 :—
1
Area:
Population
Population per
Departments
Engl. sq.
miles
an ii ota mill*
May 31, 1886
April 12, 1891
1891
Ain
2,239
364,408
356,907
159 4
Aisne
2,839
555,925
545,493
192 1
Allier .
2,822
424,582
424,382
150*4
Alpes (Basses-)
2,685
129,494
124,285
46-3
Alpes (Hautes-)
2,158
122,924
115,522
53-5
Alpes-Maritimes
Ardeche
* 1,482
238,057
258,571
174-3
2,136
375,472
371,269
173-8
Ardennes
2,020
332,759
324,923
160-8
Ariege .
1,890
237,619
227,491
120 3
Aube .
2,317
257,374
255,548
110*3
Aude .
2,438
332,080
317,372
130 2
Aveyron
Belfort (territ. de) .
3,376
415,826
400,467
118-6
235
79,758
83,670
356 0
Bouches-du-Rhone
1,971
604,857
630,622
319*9
Calvados
2,132
437,267
428,945
201-2
Cantal .
2,217
241,742
239,601
108-1
Charente
2,294
366,408
360,259
157*0
Charente-Inferienre
2,635
462,803
456,202
173 2
Cher .
2,780
355,349
359,276
1293
Correze ,
2,265
326,494
328,119
144-8
Corse .
. 3,377
278,501
288,596
85 M
C6te*d'Or
3,383
381,574
376,866
111-4
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FRANCE
Area:
Population
Population per
square mile,
.Departments
Engl. sq.
—
miles
2,659
May 31, 1886
April 12, 1891
1891 J
Cdtes-du-Nord
628,256
618,652
232*6
Creuse .
2,150
284,942
284,660
1324
Dordogne
. 3,546
492,205
478,471
134-9
Doubs .
. ! 2,018
310,968
303,081
150-2
Dr6me .
. , 2,518
314,615
306,419
121-7
Eiire
2,300
358,829
349,471
152 0 i
Eure-et-Loir .
2,268
283,719
284,683
125-5 I
Finistere
2,595
707,820
727,012
2801
Gard .
; 2,253
417,099
419,388
186-1 I
Garonne (Haute-)
2,429
481,169
472,383
194-4
Gers
2,425
274,391
261,084
107*7
Gironde
3,761
775,845
793,528
211-0
Herault
2,393
439,044
461,651
192 9
Ille-et-Vilaine
2,597
621,384
626,875
241-3
Indre
2,624
296,147
292,868
111-6
Indre-et-Loire
2,361 •
340,921
337,298
142-8 ,
Isere
3,201 i
581,680
572,145
1787
Jura
1,928
281,292
273,028
141-6
Landes .
3,599 1
302,266
297,842
82-7 J
Loir-et-Cher .
.2,452 i
279,214
280,358
114*2
Loire .
1,838
603,384
616,227
335-2
Loire (Haute-)
1,916
320,063
316,735
165-3
Loire-Inferieure
2,654 !
643,884
645,263
243 1
Loiret .
2,614
374,875
377,718
144*5
Lot
2,012
271,514
253,885
126*1
Lot-et-Garonne
2,067
307,437
295,360
142-8
Lozere .
1,996
141,264
135,527
67-8
Maine-et- Loire
2,749
527,680
518,589
188 6
Manche .
2,289
520,865
513,815
224 5
Maine .
3,159
429,494
434,692
187 6
Marne (Haute-)
2,402
247,781
243,533
101*3
Mayenne
1,996 ;
340,063
332,387
1665
Meurthe-et-Mosclle
2,025 ,
431,693
444,150
219*2
Meuse .
2,405 !
291,971
* 292,253
121*5
Morbihan
2,625 .
535,256
544,470
207*3
Nievre .
2,632
347,645
343,581
130*5
Nord .
2,193 '
1,670,184
1,736,341
7917
Oise
2,261
403,146
401,835
177 6
Orne
2,354 ,
367,248
354,387
150-5
Pas-de-Calais
2,551
853,526
874,364
342*7
Puy-de-D6me
3,070
570,964
564,266
183*8
Pyrenees (Basses-)
2,943
432,999
425,027
144*4
Pyrenees (Hautes-)
1,749
234,825
225,861
129 1
Pyrenees-Orientale
Rh6ne .
3 1,592
211,187
210,125
131-9
1,077
772,912
806,737
749 0
Sadne (Haute-)
2,062
290,954
280,856
136-2
Sa6ne-et-Loire
3,302
625,885
619,523
187*6
Sarthe- .
2,396
436,111
429,737
179-3
Savoie .
2,224
267,428
263,297
118-4
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AREA AND POPULATION
473
Area;
Population
Population per
Departments
English sq.
sq. mile,
miles
May 31, 1886
April 12, 1891
1891
Savoie (Haute-)
1,667
275,018
268,267
160*9
Seine .
183*6
2,961,089
3,141,595
17,111*1
Seine-InfeVieure .
2,330
833,386
839,876
360*4
Seine-et-Marne
2,215
355,136
356,709
161*0
Seine-et-Oise
i 2,164
618,089
628,590
290-5
Sevres (Deux)
| 2,317
353,766
354,282
152-9
Somme
| 2,379
548,982
546,495
229 8
Tarn .
! 2,217
358,757
346,739
156-4
Tarn-et-Garonnc .
i 1,436
214,046
206,596
143*8
Var
i 2,349
283,689
288,336
122-7
Vaucluse
1,370
241,787
235,411
171-8
Vendue
2,588
434,808
442,355
171*0
Vienne
2,691
342,785
344,355
127*9
Vienne (Haute-) .
2,130
363,182
372,878
175-0
I Vosges .
2,266
413,707
410,196
181-0
Yonne .
2,868
355,364
344,688
120-2
Total
204,092
38,218,903
38,343,192
187-8
The population actually present at the date of the Census in 1886 was
37,886,566, and in 1891, 38,095,156.
It will be seen that between 1886 and 1891 there has been a decrease of
population in 55 departments, and an increase in 82. In 1891 there were
362 arrondissements, 2,881 cantons, and 36,144 communes.
Notwithstanding a moderate death-rate, the population of France increases
more slowly than that of most States of Western Europe, owing to the low rate
of births. Between the years 1811 and 1820 the average annual surplus of births
over deaths was 5*7 per thousand of population ; between 1851 and 1860 it
was 2 9 ; and between 1881 and 1885 it was 1*6. The average number of
births per marriage was (1881-85) about 3.
The changes of area and population since 1801 (date of the first census taken)
are seen from the following table. The third, fourth, and fifth columns give
[in brackets] for the first five censuses the population, its density, and its
average annual increase on the present territory of France, and are thus compar-
able with the data for the censuses posterior to the loss of Alsace and Lorraine.
Dates
Area : sq. miles
Population
Inhabitants
per sq. mile
Annual Increase
per 10,000 inhabits.
1801
204,765
27,849,008
134
__
[26,930,756]
[132]
—
1821
—
30,461,875
149
57
[29,871,176]
[146]
[55]
1841
—
34,230,178
167
62
[88,406,864]
[164]
[58]
1861
209,625
37,446,313
178
37 |
[35,844,902]
[176]
[36]
1866
—
38,192,064
182
40
[36,495,489]
[179]
[36]
—961
1872
204,092
36,102,921
177
[-17]1
1876
—
86,905,788
181
54 j
1881
—
37,672,048
184
41 !
1886
—
38,218,903
187
29
1891
—
38,343,192
187-8
6-5
i Decrease,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
474
FRANCE
The foreigners residing in France constitute 2*97 per cent, of the
aggregate population. The numbers in 1891 were : —
Belgians
Italians
Germans
Swiss
Spaniards
English
Luxembourgeois
465,860
286,042
83,333
83,117
77,736
39,687
31,248
Russians .
Austro-Hungarian .
Miscellaneous .
Total (1891) .
„ (1886) .
„ (1851) .
14,357
11,909
36,922
1,130,211
1,126,531
k 379,289
Of the total in 1891, 420,842 were born in France. The number of French
citizens abroad in 1891 was 517,000.
Occupations of Population. — According to the results of the census of
1886, it appears that of the total population the number engaged in agricul-
ture amounted to 17,698,402 ; in industry, 9,289,206 ; transport, 1,020,721 ;
trade, 4,247,764; public forces, 613,362; public administration, 711,027 ;
liberal professions, 1,094,233 ; independent persons, 2,295,966 ; without
profession, 237,899 ; not classed, 490,374 ; of unknown professions, 231,805,
II. Movement of the Population.
Births, DecUhSy and Marriages.
Tear
Marriages
Total
Births
"offiSfj *****
Surplus of
Births
over Deaths
StiU.born
1870
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
223,705
276,848
272,934
269,332
285,458
290,319
943,515
882,639
880,579
838,059
866,377
855,847
70,415 j 1,046,909
74,919 837,867
73,571 ' 794,933
71,086 876,505
73,936 ! 876,882
73,785 875,888
-103,394
44,772
85,520
-88,446
-10,505
20,041
i
42,070
42,449
40,535
42,472
41,925
I
The movement of the population is very unequal over France, and from
year to year the deaths are in excess of the births in from 32 to 60 depart-
ments out of 87.
In 1892 the birth-rate for all France was 22 3 per 1,000 inhabitants, the
rate varying from 13 9 in Gers to 28 in Finistere, Morbihan, Pas de Calais,
Nord, Seine Inferieure. The death-rate for all France was 22*8 per 1,000
inhabitants, and the excess of deaths over births was 0'5 per 1,000 inhabitants.
On the average there were 977 births for every 1,000 deaths, the extremes
being 1,370 in Morbihan, and 630 in Gers.
Illegitimate births formed 8*6 per cent, of all births, as against 7*5 per cent,
in 1881; they reached as much as 24*5 per cent in the department of the Seine
(Paris), while in Ardeche the proportion was only 1*9 per cent, and in Lot
2*3 per cent. The average with foreigners in France was 12*3 per 100 births.
The number of divorces is rapidly increasing ; it was 4,708 in 1888, 4,786
in 1889, 5,457 in 1890, 5,752 in 1891, and 5,772 in 1892 (7*7 per 10,000
households), the aggregate number of 38,995 divorces having been registered
since the new law was voted in 1884.
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ABEA AND POPULATION
475
Emigration.
Jn the five years 1885-89, 335,368 emigrants, of whom 79,240 were French,
left the ports of France. In 1890 to 1892 the numbers of French emigrants,
with their destinations were as follows : —
-
United
States.
Chile and
Peru.
Argentine
and Uruguay.
Other
Countries.
Total.
1890
1891
j 1892
8,085
2,950
2,798
2,895
666
155
14,001
2,073
2,106
579
528
469
20,560
6,217
5,528
The total number of emigrants from French ports in 1890 was 72,512 ;
1891, 57,815; 1892, 39,146.
As in other countries of Europe, there is a steady movement from the
country towards the cities. In 1846 the rural population constituted 75*58
per cent, of the total, and the urban 24*42 per cent. ; while in 1886 the
former was 64*05, and the latter 35*95. In 1881, of the total increase of
766,260, more than two-thirds, or 561,869, belonged to the 47 towns of more
than 30,000 inhabitants.
III. Principal Towns.
The following, according to the census of 1891, are the towns with a com-
munal population over 30,000 : —
Paris .
2,447,957
Montpellier .
69,258
Lyon .
Marseille
. 416,029
Rennes
69,232
. 403,749
Tourcoing .
65,477
Bordeaux
. 252,415
Dijon
65,428
Lille .
. 201,211
Orleans
63,705
Toulouse
. 149,791
Grenoble
60,439
St Etiennc
. 133,443
Tours .
60,335
Nantes
. 122,750
Le Mans
57,412
Le Havre
. 116,369
Calais .
56,867
Roubaix
. 114,917
Besancon
56,055
Rouen
. 112,352
Versailles
51,679
Reims
. 104,186
St. Denis .
50,992
Nice .
88,273
Troyes
50,330
Nancy
. 87,110
Clermont-Ferrand
Amiens
. 83,654
50,119
Toulon
. 77,747
St. Quintin .
47,551
Brest .
. 75,854
Beziers
45,475
Limoges
. 72,697
Bourges
45,342
Angers
. 72,669
Boulogne
45,205
Nimes
, 71,623
Caen .
45,201
Avignon
Lorient
Levallois-Perret
Dunquerque .
Cherbourg
Poitiers
Angouleme
Cette .
Perpignan
Rocnefort
Boulogne-sur-
Seine
Pau .
Plrigueux
Roanne
St. Nazaire .
Clichy
Laval
43,453
42,116
39,857
39,498
38,554
37,497
36,690
36,541
33,878
33,334
32,569
32,111
31,439
31,380
30,935
30,608
30,374
The aggregate population of these 56 towns is 6,862,822, and the increase
during 1886-91, 340,396. Of the 36,144 communes in France, only 232 have
a population over 10,000.
Religion.
The population of France, at the census of December 1881,
consisted of 29,201,703 Roman Catholics, being 78*50 per cent,
of the total population ; 692,800 Protestants, or 1*8 per cent, of
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I
476 FRANCE
the population, as compared with 584,757 in 1872 ; of 53,436
Jews, and 7,684,906 persons ' who declined to make any declara-
tion of religious belief.' This was the first census at which ' non-
prof essants ' were registered as such. On former occasions it had
been customary to class all who had refused to state what their
religion was, or who had denied having any religion, as Roman
Catholic. The number of persons set down as belonging to
' various creeds ' was 33,042.
All religions are equal by law, and any sect which numbers
100,000 adherents is entitled to a grant ; but at present only the
Boman Catholics, Protestants, and Jews have State allowances,
In the Budget for 1894 these grants were as follows : —
Francs
Administration, &c. . 258,000
Roman Catholic worship, and places of worship . 42,261,523
Protestant worship ,, ,, . 1,541,984
Jewish worship ,, ,, . 167,533
Total 44,229,040
There are 17 archbishops and 67 bishops ; and of the Boman
Catholic Church on January 1, 1890, the secular clergy numbered
in all 50,420, besides 4,376 teachers and 9,526 pupils in the
ecclesiastical seminaries. The value of the total gifts and legacies
made to the Church during the present century up to 1882 is
23,976,733 francs. The Protestants of the Augsburg Confession,
or Lutherans, are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General
Consistory ; while the members of the Reformed Church, or
Calvinists, are under a Council of Administration, the seat of
which is at Paris. In 1890 there were 700 Protestant pastors,
and 57 Jewish rabbis and assistants. In the Protestant Theo-
logical Faculty there were 915 students in 1891.
Instruction.
Public education in France is entirely under the supervision
of the Government. The highest schools, or universities, go by
the name of ' facultes de Petat.' There are 1 5 ' facultes des lettres,'
at Paris, Aix, Besancon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Iille,
Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Bennes, and
Toulouse. At all of these, except Aix, are also ' facultes des
sciences/ besides one at Marseilles and one at Chambery, where
letters and sciences are combined. There are also 2 ' facultes '
of Protestant theology, 15 'facultes de droit/ and 6 ' facultes de
medicine/ In 1890 there were 4,570 students of law; 6,590
students of medicine; 2,214 students of pharmacy. To the
support of the facultes the sum of 11,600,370 francs was set
down in the budget of 1891. The Boman Catholic theological
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477
1 facultes ' were suppressed in 1885, but the Catholic universities
exist still on certain conditions. (See under Religion.)
Among the 295,707 young men examined on the conscription
list of 1890, 8*7 per cent, could neither read nor write.
Elementary schools existed before the Revolution in the
towns and in many of the rural parishes of France, but little
was done for the advancement of education till near the middle
of this century. In 1833 a law was passed requiring every
commune to maintain at least one primary school, every town
one higher primary school, and every department one primary
normal school. A law of 1850 obliged every commune with a
population of 800 (extended in 1867 to communes with a
population of 500) to have a school for girls. Since 1878
elementary education has advanced rapidly ; many schools have
been built, the number of teachers and pupils has increased, and
the standard of education has been raised. In 1881 primary in-
struction was made free, and in 1882, obligatory for children
from 6 to 13 years of age. In 1886 the system of education
was reorganised, and it was ordained that all public schools
should be under the charge of laymen. In 1891 there were only
58 communes which had no primary school, public or private.
In 1891 the total number of children of school age was found to
be 4,654,000. In 1890, 4,544,775 children of school age were
enrolled in primary and infant schools, besides 70,900 in Algeria.
About 78,000 are taught in higher schools, and nearly 10,000 at
home, while many children between 11 and 13 years of age dis-
continue attendance at school, having received certificates of
primary instruction. The number of untaught children is thus
very small. The following table shows the number of the
various classes of schools and the number of pupils in France
(including Algeria) for the school year 1890-91 : —
_
Public
Schools
Private
Schools
Total
Pupils
Elementary : —
Infant schools
Primary schools .
Total elementary
Secondary public : —
Lycees ....
Communal colleges
For girls
Total secondary .
2,616
67,359
2,724
14,672
5,340
; 81,990
|
709,579
5,593,883
69,975
17,396
87,330
6,303,462
50,992
32,873
I 7,043
105
238
50
—
!
i
393
"~
1
90,908
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478 FRANCE
•
The total number of elementary pupils (1890-91) includes
41,018 receiving higher primary instruction.
There was, it will be seen, one elementary school for every
445 inhabitants, and one pupil in every 6 of the population. The
number of primary public schools directed by clericals was in
1891 reduced to 595 for boys, 6,501 for girls, and 615 mixed. In
private education the number of lay schools was 788 for boys,
2,311 for girls, 512 mixed ; and of clerical schools 1,999 for boys,
8,521 for girls, 249 mixed. The total number of teachers in lay
primary schools was 96,778, in clerical schools 46,692, in 1890-91.
There were in 1890 85 normal schools for males, and 83 for
females. In 6,485 communes education is provided for adult
males, and in 994 for adult females, the total number of pupils
in 1888-9 being 152,162 males and 25,080 females. There are
besides numerous technical, industrial, and other special schools.
The public funds, communal, departmental, and State, de-
voted to primary instruction in France amounted in 1857 to
16,523,969 francs, in 1878 to 59,216,449 francs, and in 1890 to
162,681,000 francs (including Algeria).
Justice and Crime.
The Courts of First Instance in France are those of the
Justices of Peace and the Police Court, where all petty offences
are disposed of. The Police Correctional Courts pronounce upon
all graver cases of misdemeanour (dilits), including cases involv-
ing several years' imprisonment. They have no jury, and con-
sist of 3 judges. In all general cases, the preliminary inquiry
is made in secresy by an examining magistrate (juge d' instruction),
who may dismiss the case or send it for trial. The Court of
Assizes is assisted by 12 jurors, who decide by simple majority.
The highest courts are the 26 Courts of Appeal, composed each of
one President and 4 Councillors for all criminal cases which have
been tried without a jury, and by one Court of Cassation which
sits at Paris, and is composed of a First President, 3 Presidents
of Sections, and 45 Councillors, for all criminal cases tried by
jury.
All Judges are nominated by the President of the Republic.
They can be removed only by a decision of the Court of Cas-
sation constituted as the Con&eU Superieur of the magistracy.
The agencies for the prosecution of misdemeanours and crimes in 1888
appeared as follows: — Gendarmes, 20,919; commissaires de police, 1,087;
agents de police, 14,111 ; gardes champetres, 31,522 ; private sworn 'gardes,'
38,751 ; forest gardes, 7,649 ; fishing police, 5,085 ; customs officials, 21,648 ;
total, 140,772
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PAUPERISM — FINANCE 479
The following table shows the number of persons convicted before the
various courts in the years given : —
Tear i Assize Courts | Correctional Tribunals
Police Courts
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
3,082
3,028
3,128
3,179
3,034
195,725
211,797
210,805
216,461
215,993
470,904
1 450,773
! 451,369
1 443,763
429,988
The French penal institutions consist, first, of Houses of Arrest (3,094
chambres de stirete and 35 dipdts de sdrete). Next come 380 Departmental
Prisons, also styled maisons d'arrit, de justice and de correction, where both
persons awaiting trial and those condemned to less than one year's imprison-
ment are kept, as also a number of boys and girls transferred from, or going to
be transferred to, reformatories. The reformatories are 11 for boys and 3 for
girls, belonging to the State, and 21 for boys and 9 for girls rented to private
persons and institutions. The Central Prisons (maisons deforce et de correc-
tion), where all prisoners condemned to more than one year's imprisonment
are kept, provided with large industrial establishments for the work of
prisoners, are 16 for men and 5 for women. To the same category belong the
agricultural penitentiaries recently introduced in Corsica.
All persons condemned to hard labour and many condemned to ' reclusion '
are sent to New Caledonia or Guiana (military and recidivates) ; the <Up6t de
formats of St. Martin-de-Re is a depot for transferred hard-labour convicts.
The prison population in France on January 1, 1888 (last figures published),
was 44,248, of whom 6,461 were females; 24,967 were in Departmental
Prisons ; 18,182 in Central Prisons ; 6,099 (1887) in reformatories. There are
about 13,000 in New Caledonia and Guiana.
Pauperism.
There is no Government system of poor relief in France. The poor are
assisted partly through public 'bureaux de bienfaisance ' and partly by
private and ecclesiastical charity. They are partly under the care of the
communes and partly of the departments, both of which contribute, and
ultimately under the supervision of Government. The funds of the ' bureaux
de bienfaisance ' are partly derived from endowments, partly from communal
contributions, and partly from public and private charity. In 1888 there
were 15,138 of such bureaux, with a total revenue of 38,359,101 francs, the
expenditure amounting to 35,893,331 francs. The number of poor relieved
was 1,647,720. Public assistance is also rendered to poor or destitute
children. At the end of 1888 there were 2,068 sick children in hospital,
59,535 domiciled in the country, and 44,598 who were being assisted at their
homes. The total expenditure amounted to 17,159,681 francs. There are
also public establishments for the sick and for aged persons and imbeciles.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
The revenues of the State consist of : (1) four chief direct
taxes, forming 15 per cent, of the revenue : (a) the land tax ;
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480
FRANCE
(b) the ' personnelle mobiliere,' consisting of a capitation tax of
from 1 fr. 50 c. to 4 fr. 60 c, levied upon each person, not a
pauper, and of a house tax ; (c) the door and window tax ; and
(d) trade-licences. There are also the ' additional centimes ' (so
many centimes per franc levied, intended for local budgets) ; (2)
indirect taxes (about 62 per cent, of the revenue); (3) State
monopolies : tobacco, gunpowder, post and telegraphs (about 20
per cent, of revenue) ; (4) the income from national land ;
and (5) various sources, such as a few State manufactures, State
railways, and so on. To the above must be added, the extra-
ordinary receipts — chiefly loans — the revenue inscribed 'pour
ordre,' being transferences from one branch of the Administration
to another.
The following table shows the budget estimates for the
revenue for 1894 and the corresponding estimates for 1893 : —
1894
1893
Land tax : —
Land .
Buildings .
Personal property .
Doors and windows
Trade licences
Tax ' divertissement '
Carriages, horses, and other special taxes
Total, direct taxes
Registration ....
Stamps
Customs ...
Other indirect taxes
Tax of 4 per cent, on movables
Sugar
Total, indirect taxes
State monopolies, posts, and telegraphs
Domains and forests .
Various revenues .
Total, ordinary revenue
Francs
118,288,391
78,322,583
88,191,343
57,155,514
. 122,751,282
1,052,650
! 35,257,520
Francs
118,522,206
77,565,248
87,500,937
56,797,110
121,804,802
1,055,500
31,568,660
501,019,288
494,814,463
> 548,499,600
1 161,785,000
' 465,726,130
601,865,350
69,249,000
203,393,600
540,276,500
163,437,500
491,536,000
582,250,100
70,393,000
195,983,400
2,050,518,680
2,043,876,500
628,901,980
47,428,020
57,268,512
615,619,050
45,883,300
34,820,435
3,285,136,475
3,235,018,748
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FINANCE
481
-
1894
1893
Exceptional Resources ....
Receipts d'ordre
Total, general budget
Total, Algeria
Francs
29,669,402
74,366,928
Francs
64,289,854
3,389,172,805
3,299,303,602
48,291,150
48,855,020
• General total .....
3,437,463,955
3,348,158,622
The following table shows the budget estimates of the ex-
penditure for 1894 and the corresponding estimates for 1893 : —
Public debt
President, Chamber, and Senate .
Ministries :
Justice ......
Religion ......
Foreign Affairs
Interior, France
Finance
War, ordinary
,, extraordinary ....
Marine
Colonies
Public Instruction ....
Fine Arts
Commerce, Industry, Posts, Telegraphs
Agriculture
Public Works, ordinary
,, „ extraordinary
Expenses of Regie, collecting taxes, &c. .
Repayments, &c
Total, Algeria
General total
1894
Francs
1,284,509,114
13,171,720
35,022,100
44,229,040
16,274,800
69,746,699
19,492,860
584,227,630
52,474,000
267,571,528
73,483,355
180,335,727
8,157,045
25,855,345
29,120,140
81,119,914
179,322,350
360,430,208
42,240,800
3,366,784,375
70,466,729
3,437,351,104
1893
Francs
1,298,146,159
13,235,520
34,819,500
43,786,057
15,564,800
65,236,824
19,534,220
585,018,698
60,138,000
224,395,000
72,624,747
183,859,965
8,090,055
20,343,010
29,202,130
78,847,924
136,628,650
349,779,500
43,542,600
3,282,743,359
64,948,129
3,347,691,488
The following figures, published by the Direction Generate de
la Comptabilite Publique in February 1893, do not include the
1 budget sur ressources speciales,' and represent the actual verified
revenue (inclusive of loans) and expenditure for 12 years : —
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482
FRANCE
Tears
Revenue
Total
Expenditure
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Total.
Borrowed
Francs
2,956,923,947
2,988,374,978
2,980,477,689
3,037,973,018
3,032,014,444
3,056,635,831
2,940,291,981
2,968,477,833
3,107,534,722
3,108,072,541
3,229,372,253
3,364,014,678
Francs
573,899,336
797,069,391
663,624,875
614,965,704
416,781,288
263,626,782
229,133,507
275,405,732
160,256,078
163,253,131
146,389,175
Francs
3,530,823,283
3,785,444,869
3,644,102,564
3,652,938,722
3,448,795,732
3,320,262,613
3,169,425,488
3,243,883,565
3,267,790,800
3,271,325,672
8,375,761,428
3,364,014,678
Francs
8,364,577,722
3,616,401,846
3,686,650,040
3,715,366,615
3,538,714,027
3,466,923,058
3,293,561,815
3,260,964,639
3,220,594,184
3,247,131,879
3,287,908,978
3,258,171,024
36,770,163,915
from preceding
4,304,404,999
widgets .
41,074,568,914
349,273,402
40,956,965,822
Nettc
)tals
40,725,295,512
40,956,965,822
Since 1869 the budget has nearly doubled. To the budget of 1894 is
annexed a statement, snowing the deficits of the ordinary budgets from the
period anterior to 1814 down to the end of 1891, as follows : —
i
Period
Government
Deficit
Before 1815
1815 to 1829
1830,, 1847
1848,, 1851
1852,, 1869
1870,, 1891
Napoleon I. and previously
Louis XVIII. and Charles X. .
Louis Philippe ....
The Second Republic
Napoleon III
Total ....
The Third Republic, surplus .
Total deficits
Francs
99,678,480
269,801,915
519,067,077
29,399,140
93,921,998
1,011,868,611
180,908,005
830,960,606
These figures, however, do not represent the actual deficits arising from
the difference between the ordinary revenue and the total expenditure, nor
even those arising from the differences between the total revenue and total
expenditure. Moreover, almost uninterruptedly, so as to make it the rule and
not the exception, the budgets voted by the representatives of the nation have
shown a small surplus, while the 'compte dennitif,' published a number of
years afterwards, has exhibited a large deficit
The following table shows the progress during the century of the French
national debt and its yearly charge :—
Digitized by VjOOQIC
FINANCE
483
Date
Period
Nominal Capital
Interest
Millions of
Millions of
Francs
Francs
Sept 23, 1800
First Republic
714
36
Jan. 1, 1815 1
Napoleon I
1,272
64
Aug. 1, 1830
Louis XVIII, and Charles X.
4,426
199
Feb. 24, 1848
Louis Philippe
5,913
244
Jan. 1, 1852
Second Republic .
Napoleon III.
5,516
239
Jan. 1, 1871
12,454
386
Jan. 1, 1889
Third Republic
21,251
739
The following table shows the interest and annuities to be paid under the
various heads of the public debt, according to the budget estimates of 1894 : —
Consolidated debt : Francs
4£ per cent 305,540,276
3 456,126,943
Redeemable debt 301,270,824
Floating debt 221,571,071
Total ...... 1,284,509,114
According to a statement by M. Poincare, the debt of France, capitalised,
amounted on January 1, 1893, to 30,611,685,122 francs.
The total debt would thus amount to about £31 18*., and the interest and
annuities to about £1 6*. per head of the population.
II. Local Finance.
The total ordinary revenue (estimated) of all the communes reached
675,009,532 francs in 1891, while che total communal debt was 3,224,088,832
francs on March 31, 1890. The revenue of Paris was 264, 691, 174, and its debt
1,872,336,971 francs ; the revenue of Lyons (1889), was 11,773,686 francs ;
Marseilles, 13,041,035 francs ; Bordeaux, 9,055,733 francs. As to the depart-
ments, their aggregate revenues reached in 1891 257,846,707 francs, the expen-
diture 257,563,295 francs, while their aggregate debts amounted to 535,738,156
francs.
The revenue and expenditure of the city of Paris in 1890 were as
follows : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
Ordinary 277,039,175
Extraordinary:
General .... 8,939,272
Special .... 36,299,670
Total . .
Balance from 1889
Total resources
. 317,278,117
. 102,038,470
. 419,316,587
Francs I
Municipal debt . . . 106,036,110
Other ordin. expendi-
ture 162,407,282
Extraordinary . . . 8,782,562
From special funds . 43,429,421
Total
320,655,375
The estimated ordinary expenditure for 1891 was 264,691,174 francs ; for
1892, 271,770,046 francs ; for 1893, 283,253,008 francs. The extraordinary
expenditure for 1893 was estimated at 1,262,500 francs.
I I 2
Digitized by VjOOQIC
I
fications.' Paris, which is considered as the centre of defence, is
surrounded by a wall which has 97 bastions, 17 old forts, and 38
new advance forts or batteries, the whole forming two entrenched
camps at St. Denis and Versailles.
y Google
Digitized by ^
DEFENCE 485
The following are the strong places on the various frontiers : —
On the German frontier : first class fortresses, Belfort, Verdun,
Briancon ; second class, Langres ; third class, Toul, Auxonne ;
and 9 fourth-class places. Belgian frontier: first class, Lille,
Dunkirk, Arras, Douai; second class, Cambrai, Valenciennes,
Givet, St. Omer, Mezieres, Sedan, Longuy, Soissons ; third class,
Gravelines, Conde, Landrecies, Rocroi, Montme'dy, Peronne ; and
6 fourth-class places. Italian frontier : first class, Lyon, Grenoble,
Besanc/m; and 11 detached forts. Mediterranean coast, first
class, Toulon (naval harbour); second class, Antibes; and 21
fourth-class forts. Spanish frontier: first class, Perpignan,
Bayonne ; third class, St. Jean, Pied-de-Port ; and 10 fourth-
class forts. Atlantic coast : first class, Rochef ort, Lorient, Brest ;
second class, Oleron, La Rochelle, Belle Isle ; third class, He de
Rhe, Fort Louis ; and 17 fourth-class forts. The Channel coast :
first class, Cherbourg; second class, St. Malo, Havre; and 16
fourth-class forts.
IL Army.
The military forces of France are organised on the basis of
laws voted by the National Assembly in 1872, supplemented by
further organisation laws, passed in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, and
1889. These laws enact universal liability to arms. Substitu-
tion and enlistment for money are forbidden, and it is ordered
that every Frenchman not declared unfit for military service may
be called up, from the age of twenty to that of forty-five years, to
enter the active army or the reserves. By the law of 1882, sup-
plemented by those of 1889 and 1892, the yearly contingent must
serve 3 years in the Active Army, 10 in the Reserve of the Active
Army, 6 in the Territorial Army, and 6 in the Territorial Reserve.
The Active Army is composed of all the young men, not otherwise
exempted, who have reached the age of twenty, and the Reserves
of those who have passed through the Active Army. Neither the
Active Army nor its Reserves are in any way localised, but drawn
from and distributed over the whole of France. On the other hand,
the Territorial Army and its Reserves are confined to fixed regions,
determined from time to time by administrative enactments.
Students and pupils of certain higher schools, and seminarists,
are required to serve only one year, on condition of completing
their studies and obtaining a certain rank before the age of
twenty-six years. All soldiers in the Active Army who have
learnt their duties, and who can read and write, may be sent on
furlough, at the end of a year, for an indefinite time.
Digitized by
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Digitized by
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DEFENCE
487
France
Algeria
Tunis
Total
ym^
^^
^^
^
—
ll
i
si
1
j|
|
|
©
a
*!
©
«
©
*i
&
General Staff.
4,062
(3,848)
3,471
863
(274)
375
74
(56)
82
4,499
(3,678)
3,928
Military Schools .
3,303
(590)
2,387
(-)
—
1-)
—
3,303
(590)
2,337
Unclassed amidst
the troops .
2,845
(2,097)
125
745
(509)
296
100
(98)
75
8,190
(2,704)
496
Army Corps:
Infantry .
284,998
(11,276)
6,496
36,451
(846)
378
8,883
(255)
239
330,282
(12,877)
7,108
Administrative .
11,825
(-)
~~
3,551
(-)
—
484
(-)
— '
15,860
(-)
—
Cavalry
67,655
(3,439)
59,408
8,244
(371)
8,134
1,863
(96)
1,707
77,762
(3,906)
69,249
Artillery .
75,986
(3,648)
33,679
2,697
(54)
1,424
851
(17)
473
79,534
(3,719)
85,576
Engineers .
11,181
(418)
8,296
892
747
(12)
2,806
300
825
(4)
922
140
12,253
(434)
12,024
1,382
Train .
5,200
2,674
918
8,792
Total Army Corps
(361)
(39)
(12)
5
459,941
105,675
54,496
12,905
18,278
3,477
Total Active Army
(19,142)
(1,822)
(884)
(
5
469,651
111,608
55,604
13,576
13,452
3,634
(25,177)
(2,105)
(538)
(
Gendarmerie .
21,584
(621)
8,050
10,540
1,108
(28)
867
154
_(3)
94
Garde Republicaine
740
Grand Total .
(83)
(-)
(-)
564,603
494,285
122,888
56,712
14,443
13,606
3,728
141,059
(25,881)
(2,133)
(541)
(28,555)
Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the total effective for 1894 is
494,235 for the Active Army, and 25,635 for the Gendarmerie and Garde
Republicaine.
The number of men liable to military service is estimated as follows : —
active army and its reserve, 2,350,000 ; territorial army, 900,000 ; territorial
reserve, 1,100,000 ; total, 4,350,000 men, of whom about 2,500,000 would be
available.
Navy.
The French navy is under the supreme direction of the Minister of Marine,
who is assisted by a Chief of the Staff, this officer being at the same time
Director of the Minister's Cabinet. The Staff is divided into three sections —
the first charged with intelligence concerning foreign navies, and the coast
defences of foreign powers ; the second chiefly with French coast defences, and
colonial affairs (which are under the Minister's direction) ; and the third with
the French navy afloat, training) mobilization, and operations of the fleet.
The Cabinet includes a special staff, and an administrative bureau. The
central administration also embraces the department of control, and director-
ate of personnel, materiel, and artillery, the inspectorate of works, the finance
department,- the services of submarine defences, hydrography, and other speci
Digitized by
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438
FRANCE
sections. In addition to these are the Superior Council of the navy, and the
committee of inspectors-geneta!, with a series of particular inspectorates, the
council of works, and a number of special and permanent technical and pro-
fessional committees. For purposes of administration the French coasts are
divided into five maritime arrondissements, having their headquarters at the
naval ports of Cherbourg, Brest, Lorient, Rochefort, and Toulon, at each of
which the Government has important shipbuilding establishments. At the
head of each arrondissement is a vice-admiral, with the title of Maritime
Prefect, who is responsible for the port administration and the coast defences,
mobile and fixed. The chief torpedo-stations are Cherbourg, Dunkirk, Brest,
Lorient, Rochefort, Toulon, and Corsica, as well as Algiers and Bona, which
are not attached to the arrondissements. The naval forces afloat are the
active and reserve squadrons of the Mediterranean, the northern squadron in
the Channel, the " flying division" for training, and the divisions of the
Atlantic, the Pacific, the Far East, Cochin China, and the Indian Ocean ; and
there are ships on local stations.
Since 1872, when the votes were 121,484,000 francs, there has been, with
fluctuations, a progressive increase in the naval expenditure of France. In
round millions of francs the following have been the naval votes since 1880 : —
1880, 186 ; 1881, 193 ; 1882, 202 ; 1883, 232 ; 1884, 254 ; 1885, 266 ; 1886,
233 ; 1887, 211 ; 1888, 194 ; 1889, 199 ; 1890, 201 ; 1891, 222 ; 189 i, 219 ;
1893, 255. The total credits for the year 1894 are 267,371,528 francs. Pro-
vision is made for 1,837 executive officers (including 16 vice-admirals, 30 rear-
admirals, 115 capitairusde vaisseau, and 217 capitaines de frigate), and for 247
principal engineer officers, progressive increase being stipulated for this
branch ; also for 41,536 rank and file (40,132 in 1883), including 31,686 sea-
men and petty officers, and 7,104 engine-room artificers and stokers, these last
being increased from 6,615 in 1893. Of the seaman class, 26,536, and of the
engine-room ratings, 5,614 men will be afloat. The total number of vessels
building and contemplated, as inscribed in the budget of 1894, is 99, includ-
ing 51 torpedo-boats, and of these the following are the new vessels assigned
to the financial year: — 3 battleships, 5 second-class cruisers, 1 third-class
cruiser, 1 sea-going torpedo-boat, 5 first-class and 4 second-class torpedo-boats,
as well as 9 boats for the transport Foudre, 1 second-class despatch vessel,
and 3 river gunboats.
The French navy stands next in importance to that of Great Britain. It
therefore becomes of much importance to compare the two. With the British
navy will be found a tabular statement of its strength, constructed upon a
plan fully explained in the Introductory Table. The following statement of
the strength of the French navy, including ships building and projected,
but excluding transports and non-service vessels, is strictly analogous.
k
Battleships, 1st Class
. 23 '
„ * 2nd Class
. . 8 V .
. 34
„ 3rd Class
. 3 J
Port Defence Ships .
19
Cruisers, 1st Class (a)
:>i}-
18
„ 2nd Class
. 37
„ 3rd Class (a;
. 65
. 112
Torpedo Craft, 1st Class
.
. 45
„ „ 2nd Class
. 148
- .
. 231
,, „ 3rd Class.
. 38 4
Total
. 451
Digitized by VjOOQlC
DEFENCE
489
The French navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by volun-
tary enlistment. By the channel of the 'Inscription Maritime,' which was
introduced by Colbert, and on the lists of which are the names of all male
individuals of the ' maritime population ' — that is, men and youths devoted
to a seafaring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age — France is provided
with a reserve of 114,000 men, of whom about 25,500 are serving with the
fleet. The time of service in the navy for the ' Inscrits ' is the same as that
in the army, with similar conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs, and
leave of absence for lengthened periods. It is enacted by the law of 1872
that a certain number of young men liable to service in the Active Army
may select instead the naval service, if recognised fit for the duties, even if
not enrolled in the ' Inscription Maritime.'
The tables which follow of the French armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged chronologically, like the similar tables for the British
navy. The ships named in italics in the first list are port-defence vessels.
The numbers following the names of the others indicate the classes to which
they have been assigned in the foregoing statement of strength. Abbre-
viations : &., broadside ; c. b.} central battery ; t. turret ; bar, barbette ;
Q.F., quick-firing. In the column of armaments machine guns are not
given.
1
Name
I
1*9
111
Armament
il
it
h
1
1
Knots
1 *•
Onondaga .
1862
2,590
12
4 9*4in
...
600
6-0
1 e. b.
Heroine
1863
5,900
6
8 9*4 in. ; 8 7'4in.; 4 5'5in. .
3,318
13-0
i bar.
TfUtU .
1867
8,910
6
6 7'4in. ; 4 5'5in. .
1,700
12*0
bar.
Ocian .
1868
7,810
8
4 10-6in. ; 4 9'4in. ; 8 5*5in. ;
3Q.F
4
4,000
110
bar.
Marengo
1869
7,860
8
4 10-6in. ; 4 9'4in. ; 7 5'5in. .
4
4,000
12-8
1 bar.
Suffren(3) .
1870
7,800
8
4 10'6in. ; 4 9*4in. ; 6 5'5in. .
4
4,200
14-0
t.
BtUer .
1870
3,590
II
2 9'4in
2
1,800
12-0
t.
BouUdogue .
1872
3,510
Ditto
2
1,800
12-0
e. 6.
Friediand(S)
1878
8,990
9
8 10*6in. ; 8 5'5in.
4
4,500
13-0
e. b.
Richelieu (3)
1873
9,130
8*
6 10-6in. ; 5 9'4in. ; 6 5'5in.
4
4,000
13-0
t.
Tonnerre
1875
5,820
13
2 10-6in. ; 4 l*8in. Q.F.
2
3,600
12-9
e. h.
Colbert (2) .
1875
8,920
8*
8 10'6in. ; 2 9'4in. ; 6 5'5in.
2Q.F
4
5,000
14*4
e. b.
Trident (2) .
1876
8,900
8*
Ditto, ditto ....
6
5,000
14-1
e. b.
Redoutable (2) .
1876
9,300
14
8 10'6in. ; 6 5 5in. ; 2 Q.F. .
4
6,200
14-8
t.
TempSte
1876
4,870
13
2 10'6in.; 4 1-8in. Q.F.
2
2,000
120
t.
Fulminant (2)
1877
5,820
13
2 10-6in.; 4 1-8in. Q.F.
2 183in. ; 4 l'8in. Q.F.
2
4 000
18-0
t.
Vengeur
1878
4,710
13
2
2,000
10-9
bar.
AmiralDuperre(2)
1879
11,070
22
4 13-3in.; 1 6'2in.; 14 5'5in.;
2 Q.F
4
7,000
15-0
e. b.
Devastation (2) .
1879
10,580
15
4 125in. ; 4 10*6in. ; 6 5'5in.;
2Q.F. ....
4
8,300
15-0
bar.
Tonnant
1880
5,090
18
2 13-Sin. ....
2,000
11-0
bar.
Terrible (2) .
1881
7,770
20
2 16*5in. ; 8 3*9in. and 2
l'8in. Q.F.
5
6,500
14*5
e. b.
Courbet(l) .
1882
10,520
15
4 12 5in.; 4 10'6in.; 6 5-5in.;
2 Q.F
5
8,000
16-0
bar.
Amiral Baudin (1)
1883
11,900
22
3 14 5in. (75-ton); and 4
6-2in., 85*5in.,and 9 l'8in.
Q.F
4
8,300
15-0
bar.
Indomptable (1) .
1883 7*590
20
2 165in.; 8 3'9in. and 2
1
1-Sin. in Q.F. .
5
6,500
14-5 J
Digitized by VjOOQIC
490
FRANCE
Name
bar.
• bar.
I bar.
s
Furieux (2)
Caiman (1) .
Requin(l) .
Formidable (1)
Hoche (1) .
Neptune (1) .
Marcean (1) .
Magenta m
Brennus (1) .
Bouvines (1)
Valmy (1) .
Jemmapes (1)
Maasena (1) .
Charles Martel (1)
Jaureguiberry (1)
Trehouart (1)
Bouvet(l) .
Lazare Carnot (1)
►Henri Quatre (1) .
•Charlemagne (1) '.
♦Saint Louis (1)
Futie .
Flamme
Grenade
Aehiron
Oocyte .
Mitraille
Phligtton .
Styx .
■s
c
If!
to
III
h g a
1883
1885
5,780
7,640
20
20
1885
1885
7,740
11,910
20
22
1886
10,650
18
1887
10,620
18
1887
1889
1891
1892
10,620
10,610
10,980
6,610
18
18
18
1892
1892
6,590
6,900
18
18
1892
11,780
18
1898
1898
1893
11,800
11,820
6,610;
18
18
18
12,205
18
11,820
18
10,780
1884
1884
1885
1885
10,780
10,780
1,410
1,120
1,090
1,720
"8
8
8
8
1886
1886
1890
1,710
1,130
1,790
8
8
8
1890
1,790
8
Armament
2 13-3in ; 5 Q.F. .
2 16-Mn. ; 8 3*9in. and 21
l-8in. Q.F. .
Ditto, ditto .
3 14 5in (75-ton); 4'6'2in.
and 5 smaller Q.F. .
2 13-8in.; 2 10*6in.; 18 5'5in.
8Q.F. ...
4 13-Sin. ; 17 55in and
14 smaller Q.F.
Ditto, ditto .
Ditto, ditto .
3 13-3in. ; 10 62in. ; 12 Q.F.
2 ll'8in.; 8 3'9iu. and
lSin.Q.F .
Ditto, ditto .
2 13-3in.; 8 8*9in. and 41'8in
Q.F
2 11'8iu.; 2 10'6in.; 8 3'9in.
Q.F
2 ll*8in. ; 2 10*6in. ; 16 Q.F.
Ditto, ditto .
2 ll'8in. ; 8 3*9in. and
l-8in. Q.F.
2 ll-8in.; 2 10-6in.; 8 5'5in
and 82 smaller Q.F. .
2 ll-8in. ; 2 10*6in. ; 8 5*5in
and 16 smaller Q.F. .
4 ll-8in.; 10 5*5in. and 32
smaller Q.F.
Ditto, ditto .
Ditto, ditto .
1 9'4in. ; 1 8-5in. .
Ditto, ditto .
Ditto, ditto .
1 106in. ; 3 3'9in. and
smaller Q.F.
Ditto, ditto .
1 9-4in. ; 1 8 5in. .
1 10*6in. ; 1 5*5in. and
smaller Q.F.
Ditto, ditto. .
11
it
n
2
4,600
"5
6,500
6,500
5
9,600
4
11,000
4
4
4
5
11,000
11,000
11,000
18,500
2
2
8,000
8,000
2
8,000
4
6
6
11,000
13,000
18,270
2
8,000
4
11,600
6
18,270
"i
1
1
14,000
14,000
14,000
1,500
1,500
1,500
"i
1,600
1,600
1,500
1,600
1,600
l!
* Programme of 1894.
Knots
14-0
15-0 '
15-0 •
15*0
17*0
16-5
16-5
160
17 5
170
17 0
16-5
180
.175
180
170
18*0
18*0
180
180
18*0
12*0 :
12-0 ;
12-0 '
13-0
13 0
12*0
13*0
ISO
The first-class cruisers a, in the following list, are all of 5,000 tons or more,
with a sea-speed, of at least 15 knots. They are deck-protected. The ships
named in italics are also armoured. Certain of these are inferior in displace-
ment, and some in speed, to the others. The older ones are admitted as first-
class armoured cruisers b, mainly for convoying purposes, in the foregoing
estimate of strength. The letters a and b in the first column have reference
to these categories.
Digitized by
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DEFENCE
491
OS
en
3
Name
1
3
Displace-
ment.
Tons
Armament
o <o
1|
Is
11
Knots
b.
La GcUUsonitre .
1872
4,720
6 9'4in. ; 6 5'5in. .
2,400
14-0
b.
Victorieuse .
1875
4,670
6 9-4in.; 17*4in.; 6 5'5in. .
"4
2,400
18-0
b.
Triomphante
1877
4,650
Ditto, ditto .
4
2,400
13-0
b.
Turenne
1879
6,360
4 9*4in.; 2 7'4in.; 6 5 5in. .
2
4,400
14-0
b.
Bayard
1880
6,010
4 9-4in.; 2 7*4in.; 6 5'5in. ;
2 2-5in. Q.P. .
2
4,400
12-0
b.
Vauban
1882
6,210
4 9*4in.; 1 7*4in.; 6 5'6in. .
2
4,400
14-0
b.
Duguetelin .
1888
6,210
4 94in.; 1 7'4in.; 6 55in. ;
18'5in
2
4,400
14-0
a.
Tage .
1886
7,255
6 6-2in.; 10 5"5in.; 5 Q.P. .
7
12,500
19-0
a.
Cecille .
1887
5,790
8 6'2in.; 10 5*5in.; 5 l'8in.
Q.P
4
11,000
20-0
a.
Dupuy de L6me .
1890
6,600
2 _7-4in. ; 6 6*2in. Q.F. ; 8
"smaller Q.P.
4
14,000
20*0
a.
Latouche-Triville
1892
4,660
2 7'4in. ; 6 5'5in. and 8
smaller Q.P.
5
8,000
19-0
b.
Charner
1893
4,650
Ditto, ditto .
5
8,000
19-0
b.
Bruix .
4,650
Ditto, ditto ....
5
8,000
190
b.
Chanzy.
4,650
Ditto, ditto .
5
8,000
19 0
a.
Pothuau
5,200
2 7-4in. ; 10*5 5in. and 24
smaller Q.F. .
8,500
19 0
a.
D'Entrecasteaux .
7,900
2 9-4in. ; 12 5'5in. and 16
smaller Q.P. .
13,500
19-0
a.
Jeanne d'Are
8,700
Ditto, ditto .
13,500
19'0
a.
•Foudre
5,970
8 3-9in. ; 4 2'5in. ; and 4
l-8in. Q.F. • .
6
9,000
19-5
Torpedo transport.
Among recent French battleships the ffoche (10,650 tons) presents a re-
markable type, distinguished by very imposing character, resulting from her
colossal super-structure. Her guns are well above the water-line, and can be
fought in all weathers ; but, on the other hand, her great height makes her a
conspicuous object. Her two 13*3 in. guns are severally fore and aft in closed
revolving turrets, with a firing arc of about 260 degrees, while the two 10*6 in.
guns firing both right ahead and astern, are disposed on either broadside
in barbette turrets protected by shields. The 5*5 in. guns are in a pro-
tected battery, nine on each broadside. Like other French battleships, which
differ in this respect from our own, the Hoche is protected by a complete steel
belt. Her engines, of 11,000 horse-power, give her a speed of about
17 knots with forced draught. Closely analagousare the sister ships Neptune,
Marceau, and Magenta. These have a like disposition of armament — the
heaviest guns at the angle of a lozenge, but all mounted en barbette. The
Brennus differs from the ships named in having her three heavy guns in
closed turrets, of which one is forward of the foremost fighting mast, while
the others are severally on either quarter. The fighting tops, reached by
spiral staircases within the masts, as well as the superstructure, bristle
with machine-guns.
The Massina and Bouvet, in hand respectively at St. Nazaire and the
Chantiers de la Loire, are still more powerful vessels, and they have this
peculiarity — shared by the cruiser Dupuy de L6me, the German deck-protected
cruiser Kaiserin Augusta, and certain Italian vessels — that they have three
screws, and have propelling machinery divided into three parts. The follow-
ing are the dimensions of the Bouvet, which is a little larger than the
Masstna — length, 382ft. 3in. ; beam, 70ft. 3in. ; displacement, 12,205 tons.
In these ships the heavy guns are disposed, as in the Neptune, but the pieces
of the secondary armament are also in closed turrets. The protection of the
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492 PRANCE
Massina consists of a Schneider steel belt (9Jin. to 17 Jin.), 15Jin. to 15jin.
on the four large turrets, and 4in. on the smaller turrets. Beneath the armoured
deck, which is 3$ inches in extreme thickness, is a secondary splinter-proof
deck. The Charles Martel, which is closely resembled by the JaurSguiberry,
and the Lazare Carnot, is the largest vessel ever launched from a French State
dockyard. She was designed by M. Huin, who is also the author of the plans
of the Hoche, Neptune, Marceau, Magenta, Brennus, and Bouvet. The Charles
Martel may be described as an elongated Hoche, but, in her upper works, she
resembles the Marceau. The following are her principal characteristics : —
Length 392ft. 6in., beam 71ft. 2in., stern draught 27ft. 6in., displacement
11,800 tons, speed 17 knots with 9,500 horse-power, and 18 knots with forced
draught (13,500 horse power). The protection of the ship consists of an over-
all steel belt 17 '71 in. thick, and further broadside plating about 4in. thick
intended to protect the armoured deck (which is 275in. thick) from the direct
action of high explosive shells. A gun of 11*81 in. is in the forward turret,
which stands about 26 feet above the water-line, and another of the same
calibre is aft, raised some 9ft. 6in., while amidships on either side is a gun of
10*6 in. In addition, on each broadside are four quick-firing guns of 5'5in. in
turrets, protected by 3'93in. of steel. The artillery is completed by four quick-
firing pieces of 2'55in., and twenty Hotchkiss guns of 21*85in., and 1*45 in.
placed in the tops and on the superstructure. The whole of the artillery will
be of types subsequent to the year 1887. In general aspect the Charles Martel
is high at the bows, but has low freeboard at the stern. The Jaureguiberry,
designed by M. Lagane, is a most interesting vessel. All her guns are worked
either by hand or by electricity. This last innovation was suggested by the
Chilian CapUan Prat. Eight of her secondary guns are coupled in closed
turrets ; and in the three battleships of the Programme of 1894 this disposition
is made for the heavy guns. It is usual in English battleships, but has not
hitherto been adopted in Prance.
Of French cruisers the Dupuy de L&me, which has been very unfortunate
at her steam trials, presents a most interesting type. Not only has she three
screws, but she is provided with what is practically a complete coat of armour,
and has both an armoured and a splinter-proof deck. Her guns are well
protected, and are admirably disposed for use in any direction, and are besides
of great penetrating power. When this cruiser is afloat, after reboilering, she
will be a most efficient fighting machine. Many of her characteristics are
found in the somewhat smaller armoured, turtle-back-decked cruisers Latouchc-
Tremlle, Charner, and their sisters, as well as the Pothuau, which is now in
hand, and is a little larger than these. France also possesses some interesting
types of deck-protected cruisers. The Ctcille and Tage are swift and power-
ful vessels ; the D' Entrecasteaux (7,900 tons) sheathed and coppered for
distant service, will be a most efficient ship, but she is to be surpassed by
the Jeanne cCArc, which is to be enlarged to 8,700 tons. Of cruisers a
little smaller the Davout, My, and Suchet are among the most efficient.
France has recently added to her navy some very swift torpedo-boats, and
is still energetically building. It may be added that her first-class boats
are generally considerably larger than English boats of the same class.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
Of the total area of France (52,857,199 hectares) 8,397,131
hectares are under forests and 36,977,098 hectares under all kinds
of crops, fallow, and grasses. The following tables show the
area under the leading crops and the production for f o
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FRANCE
The annual production of wine and cider appears as follows for the last
10 years (the wine compared with 1875) : —
Year
Hectares
under
Vines
Wine
thousands of
hectolitres
Wine Import,
hectolitres
Wine Export,
hectolitres
Cider.
thousands of
hectolitres
1875
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
18931
2,246,963
2,040,759
1,990,586
1,959,102
1,944,150
1,843,580
1,817,787
1,816,544
1,764,363
1,792,816
1,793,299
82,727
34,781
28,536
25,063
24,333
30,102
23,224
27,416
30,167
28,891
50,070
272,730
8,129,874
8,183,666
11,042,091
12,282,286
12,064,000
10,470,000
10,830,462
12,278,376
9,278,769
3,717,590
2,471,765
2,602,773
2,601,565
2,401,918
2,118,000
2,166,000
2,162,129
2,149,268
1,840,237
11,907
19,955
8,301
13,437
9,767
3,701
11,095
9,280
15,141
31,609
* First ten months.
The value of the crop of chestnuts, walnuts, olives, cider-apples, plums,
and mulberries in 1892 was estimated at 223,993,800 francs'.
During the last ten years the number of farm animals in France has
varied little, with the exception of sheep, which have decreased 35 per cent.,
and pigs, which have increased 15 per cent. On December 31, 1892, the
numbers were: Horses, 2,852,632; cattle, 13,364,434; sheep, 21,504,956;
pigs, 6,337,100 ; goats, 1,528,560.
Silk culture is carried on in 24 departments of France — most extensively
ni Drdme, Gard, Ardeche, and Vaucluse. About 141,500 persons are em-
ployed in this industry ; the production of cocoons in 1892 was 7,305,086 kilo-
grammes ; 357,978 kilogrammes of cocoons were exported, valued at 8,669,274
francs, and 65,822 kilogrammes of silkworms' eggs, valued at 5,529,048 francs.
>
II. Mining and Metals.
In France there are (1890) 463 mines (out of 1,372 conceded mines) in
work, with (1891) 145,500 workers. The annual yield was estimated in 1891
at 30,050,000 tons, valued at 380,300,000 francs, as against 346,400,000 francs
in 1890. The quarries employed same time 113,000 workers, and their annual
yield was (1890) valued at 164,000,000 francs.
The following are statistics of the leading mineral and metal products : —
Year
Coal
Iron Ore
Pig Iron
Finished Iron
Steel
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
■ 1886
19,910,000
2,285,648
1,507,850
767,214
466,913
1887
20,288,000
2,579,000
1,610,851
774,260
525,646
1888
22,952,000
2,842,000
1,683,349
816,973
517,294
1889
23,851,912
3,070,389
1,733,964
808,724
529,302 !
1890
26,083,000:
3,471,718
1,970,160
823,360
566,197 '
1891
26,025,000l
—
1,897,000
833,000
638,000
Including lignite.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
495
III. Manufactures.
Textile Industries. — The culture of flax and hemp being on the decrease
in France, there were imported in 1891, 186,831 quintals of hemp, 707,280
quintals of flax, and 642,422 quintals of jute. The three industries taken
together employed in 1886, 365 establishments (spindles, machine looms, and
hand looms).
For the woollen, cotton, and silk industries the official figures for 1887
are as follows : —
-
Woollens
Cottons
Silks
Works ....
1,256
Number of mills
1,987
895
1,016
Operatives
Horse-power .
109,372
121,543
103,819
40,466
63,112
23,777
Spindles
3,151,871
5,039,263
1,109,466
Power looms .
44,682
72,784
51,399
Hand looms .
25,399
28,213
44,257
The value of imports and exports of cotton in millions of francs appears
i follows : —
Tears
Imports
Exports
Yam
Cloth
Yarn
Cloth
83*8
106 2
116-2
110*4
1012
95 2
1877-86
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
38-0
25*8
29 0
31-2
29 6
22 5
67 9
41*0
413
410
44*8
38*6
2*4
27
3-1
3 0
3-2
2 8
The annual production of cocoons has been as follows in kilogrammes :
In 1886, 8,269,862; 1887, 8,575,673; 1888, 9,549,906; 1889, 7,409,830;
1890, 7,799,423; 1891, 6,883,587.
The values of the yearly imports and exports of woollens and silks in
millions of francs are seen from the subjoined table : —
Years
Woollens
Silks
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Yarn
Cloth
Yarn
Cloth
Cloth
Cloth
1877-86
17*0
77 3
38-1
349*0
40-9
251-0
1888
14-1
65 2
37-2
323 4
50*5
223*2
1889
12*9
67*8
55*5
364*4
58 1 ,
260-8
1890
10*2
66*9
34-7
361-3
63 9
273-9
1891
141
74-9
22-3
327*0
687
245*7
1892
12 1
55 9
207
328-5
62-2
249-2
Sugar. — In 1891-92 there were 368 sugar works (including 1 distillery),
employing altogether 49,386 operatives (3,158 children), and 48,685 horse-
power. The yield of sugar during the last 12 years (expressed in thousands
of kilogrammes of refined sugar) was : —
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FRANCE
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
1880-81
1881-82
1882-83
331,000
393,000
423,000
1883-84
1884-85
1885-86
474,000
318,000
309,000
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
506,000
400,000
412,524
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
699,366
615,242
577,821
IV. Fisheries.
In 1890 the number of boats engaged in the French fishing was 25,043 of
196,215 tons ; of which 365 of 47,658 tons were engaged in tne cod fisheries.
The number of fishermen on board was 88,890, and of those on shore 57,741.
The total value of the fish caught was 107,563,446 francs.
In 1892, in the cod fishing, 530 boats were employed, and the weight of
363,320 metric quintals was caught. In the herring fishing there were em-
ployed 594 vessels of 20,412 tons, with 7,175 men, and the weight caught
amounted to 505,603 metric quintals.
Commerce.
In its registration of foreign trade, the French administration
distinguishes between General Trade, which includes all goods
entering or leaving France (from and to foreign countries and
colonies), and the Special Trade, which includes only those im-
ported goods which are intended, or are supposed to be intended,
for home use and those exported goods which are of French
origin. The value of each appears as follows : —
Years
General Commerce
Special Commerce
Imports
Exports
Imports Exports
Million francs
Million francs
Million francs
Million francs
Average 1883-87
5,223
4,244
4,294
3,254
1888
5,187
4,298
4,107
3,246
1889
5,320
4,803
4,317
3,704
1890
5,452
4,840
4,437 3,753
1891
5,938
4,730
4,768 i 3,570
1892
5,136
4,551
4,188
3,461
The chief subdivisions of the special trade during the last five
years are seen from the following table, in millions of francs : —
— 1 Imports
Exports
Food products
Raw ,,
Manufactured goods
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,507
2,021
579
1,441
2,262
613
1,445
2,342
650
1,653
2,419
696
1,400
2,178
615
727
813
1,707
837
941
1,926
855
899
1,999
809
835
1,926
759
823
1,879
Total . .
4,107
4,317
4,437
4,768
4,188
3,247
3,704
3,753
8,570
3,461
The chief articles of import for home use and exports of home
produce for the same years are seen from the following in millions
of francs : —
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497
1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports : —
Wine ....
438
384
350
401
305
Raw wool
329
371
337
340
319
Cereals
375
366
364
532
487
Raw silk
192
292
240
249
258
Raw cotton .
158
203
206
204
207
Timber and wood .
166
173
158
251
104
1 Hides and furs
135
180
211
215
147
Oil seeds
146
155
192
200
154
Coffee ....
131
145
156
149
145
Coal and coke
143
212
248
190
185
Ores ....
34
36
43
44
64
Cattle . .
78
86
69
60
55
Sugar, foreign and colonial
78
65
46
55
60
Textiles, woollen .
65
68
67
75
56
,, silks
50
58
64
69
62
,, cotton .
41
41
41
45
39
Flax ....
69
57
58
49
62
Exports : —
Textiles, woollen .
323
364
361
327
329
„ silk
223
261
274
246
249
,, cotton .
106
116
110
101
96
Wine ....
242
251
269
246
214
Raw silk and yarn
117
139
125
109
132
Raw wool and yarn
131
169
121
109
120
Small ware .
129
145
155
152
157
Leather goods
135
135
146
139
112
Leather
92
108
112
107
114
Linen and cloth .
87
103
125
133
130
Metal goods, tools
71
85
89
89
82
Cheese and butter
91
112
118
92
88
Spirits ....
65
67
71
75
66
Sugar, refined
Skins and furs
48
68
62
50
55
63
68
76
79
74
Chemical produce .
46
49
50
52
59
The chief imports for home use and exports of home goods are to and from
the following countries, in millions of francs : —
i
1889
1890
1891
1892
-
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports from:
1 United Kingdom .
Export* to :
538
627
589
580
United Kingdom .
996
1,026
1,013
1,027
1 Belgium.
475
500
487
888
Belgium.
571
538
500
502
Spain
United States
355
354
412
277
Germany
United States
342
342
364
355
807
817
486
534
278
329
248
240
Germany
838
351
367
337
Switzerland .
230
248
235
227
Italy .
134
122
124
182
Italy .
144
150
126
138
British India.
186
210
250
201
Spain .
194
158
181
135
Argentine Republic
219
210
198
177
Argentine Republic
170
103
52
62
Russia .
210
195
212
166
Algeria .
179
195
207
190
Algeria .
201
i
208 187
195
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According to value of the general imports and exports, their distribution
appears from the following, in millions or francs : —
-
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports : —
By sea : French ships .
j Foreign .
Total by sea
,, land .
Exports: —
By sea : French ships .
„ Foreign .
Total by sea
,, land .
1,606
2,064
1,576
2,246
1,658
2,640
1,550
2,148
8,670
1,650
3,822
1,631
4,298
' 1,640
3,698
1,438
1,780
1,466
1,794
1,513
1,740
1,466
1,741
1,360
3,246
1,557
3,307
1,584
3,206
1,525
3,101
1,450
The share of the principal French ports and Customs House in the general
trade of 1892 was as follows — imports and exports combined — in millions of
francs : —
. 531 I Dieppe . . 194
. 444 Belfort, P.C. . 169
. 246 Cette . . .165
. 194 I St. Nazaire.. . 151
Marseilles .
. 1,948
Dunkerque
Le Havre .
. 1,617
Boulogne
Paris.
744
Rouen
Bordeaux .
630
Calais .
The imports and exports of coin and bullion were as follows in 1892 : —
-
Gold
Silver
Total
Imports .
Exports .
Francs
387,596,197
111,167,764
Francs
120,027,785
102,084,487
Francs
507,628,982
213,252,251
The transit trade in 1892 reached the value of 546 million francs.
The subjoined statement shows, according to the Board of Trade returns,
the value of the imports into the United Kingdom from France, and of the do-
mestic exports from the United Kingdom to France, in the years indicated : —
-
1881
1888 1889
1
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U.K.
from France
Exports of British
produce toFrance
£
39,984,187
10,970,025
* i £
88,865,296, 46,780,227
14,810,598) 14,561,294
£
44,828,148
16,567,927
£
44,777,460
16,429,665
£
48,519,180
14,686,894
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The total exports to i France from the United Kingdom amounted to
24,232,815*. in 1888 ; 22,232,605*. in 1889 ; 24,710,803 in 1890 ; 24,336,676Z.
in 1891 ; 21,337,350*. in 1892.
The following table gives the declared value, in pounds sterling, of the
eight staple articles imported into the United Kingdom from France in each
of the last four years : —
Staple Imports into U. E.
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
, Silk manufactures .
7,178,021
7,147,067
7,214,266
7,447,481
Woollen ,, .
6,418,345
6,025,578
5,831,761
5,602,296
Butter .
3,073,473
2,847,144
3,038,063
3,027,648
Wine ....
3,122,076
3,240,167
3,253,747
2,859,897
Sugar, refined .
2,489,278
2,185,822
1,774,854
1,512,078
Leather and manufactures
1,893,270
1,790,724
1,581,672
1,560,396
Eggs ....
1,181,345
1,270,092
1,259,009
1,437,203
Brandy ....
1,276,674
1,340,684
1,359,593
1,291,554
These eight articles constitute about two-thirds of the total imports from
France into the United Kingdom. The total quantity of wine imported into
the United Kingdom from France in 1892 was 5,760,567 gallons, being 33 "2
per cent, of the total quantity of wine imported into the United Kingdom.
The following table exhibits the value of the principal articles of British
produce exported from the United Kingdom to France in each of the last
four years : —
Staple Exports from U. E.
1889
1890
1891 j 1892
Woollen manufactures and
£
£
£
£
yarn ....
Metals (chiefly iron and
copper)
Coals ...
Cotton manufactures and
3,326,462
946,894
1,896,210
3,037,176
1,764,931
2,987,664
2,934,552
1,320,609
2,972,112
2,631,691
1,519,835
2,719,915
yarn . . . •
Machinery
Chemicals
1,213,215
1,011,560
525,029
1,321,126
1,295,708
723,710
1,680,820
1,618,095
482,347
1,195,230
1,054,469
387,587
Shipping and Navigation.
On December 31, 189 2, the French mercantile navy consisted of
14,117 sailing vessels, of 407,044 tons, and with crews 68,570,
1,161 steamers of 498,562 tons, and crews numbering 14,460.
Of the sailing vessels 218 of 25,571 tons were engaged in the
European seas, and 306 of 142,321 tons in ocean navigation ; of
the steamers 240 of 168,608 tons were engaged in European seas,
and 173 of 283,174 tons in ocean navigation. The rest were
employed in the coasting trade, in port service, or in the fisheries.
K K 2
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Of the sailing vessels and steamers 12,483 were not over 50
tons.
The following table shows the navigation at French ports in
1891 and 1892 :—
Entered
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels 1 Tonnage
1891
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade 1
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
52,361
8,730
5,129,254
4,587,437
15,337
623
987,324
116,381
67,698
9,358
6,116,578
4,703,818
61,091
20,240
9,716,691
10,421,707
15,960
2,563
1,103,705
475,082
77,051
22,803
10,820,396
10,896,789
81,331
20,138,398
18,523
1,578,787
99,854
21,717,185
1892
French: —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade l
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
Cleared
1891
French .« —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade 1
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
50,323
8,164
5,420,875
4,323,588
13,342
729
921,503
183,286
63,665
8,893
6,842,378
4,456,874
58,487
17,568
9,744,463
8,837,473
14,071
2,875
1,054,789
535,383
72,558
20,443
10,799,252
9,872,856
76,055
18,581,936
16,946
1,590,172
93,001
20,172,108
52,361
8,340
5,129,254
4,461,511
15,337
1,636
987,324
538,862
67,698
9,976
6,116,578
5,000,373
60,701
14,263
9,590,765
5,664,830
16,973
8,838
1,526,186
5,337,066
77,674
23,101
11,116,591
11,001,896
74,964
15,255,595
25,811
6,863,252
100,775
22,118,847
1892
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade *
Total French
Foreign vessels .
Total .
50,323
7,893
58,216
13,315
5,420,875
4,131,762
13,342
1,478
921,503
533,243
63,665
9,371
6,342,378
4,665,005
9,552,637
4,989,253
14,820
7,761
1,454,746
4,636,536
73,036
21,076
11,007,383
9,625,789
71,531
14,541,890
22,581
6,091,282
94,112
20,683,172
Inclusive of colonies and maritime flshinp.
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501
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers, Railways, etc.
In 1893 there were in France 38,072,271 kilometres of national roads.
Navigable rivers, 8,877 kilometres ; actually navigated (1893), 7,522
kilometres ; canals, 4,805 kilometres.
The navigation on the rivers and canals is on a steady increase, as seen
from the following figures of yearly traffic (in millions of metric tons) : —
Year
Canals
Rivers
Total
1879
1,104
919
2,023
1887
1,707
1,366
3,073
1888
1,751
1,428
3,180
1889
1,789
1,448
3,238
1890
1,900
1,316
3,216
1891
2,000
1,537
3,537
1892
2,083
1,526
3,609
By a law passed June 11, 1842, the work of constructing railways was left
mainly to private companies, superintended, and if necessary assisted in their
operations, by the State ; which, moreover, also constructs and partly works
railways on its own account.
The French railways grew from 9,086 kilometres in 1860 to 34,791 kilo-
metres in 1893, of which 2,728 kilometres belonged to the State, besides
3, 150 of local interest.
The gross receipts, expenditure, and net revenue of the French railways
are given in the following table, in millions of francs : —
Year
Receipts
Expenditure
Net Revenue
1875
848-1
425-9
422*2
1880
1,034*9
515-6
519-0
1885
1,044*3
568-5
475-8
1889
1,144*4
588*8
555 6
1890
1,127*6
—
—
1891
1,163-8
—
—
1892
1,137-8
—
—
1893
1,159-5
—
—
The number, of passengers in 1889 was 244,164,701 ; the weight of the
goods carried was 87,043,706 tons (89,100,000 tons in 1883).
On 31 December, 1892, the length of tramways worked was *for goods and
passengers, 868 kilometres ; for passengers only, 696 kilometres ; total, 1,564
kilometres.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
On January 1, 1891, France and Algeria had 7,449 post-offices, besides
88 movable offices, and 58,464 letter-boxes. The postal and telegraph receipts
lor France alone in 1891 amounted to 197,837,606 francs, and expenditure to
143,045,846 francs. The number of letters, &c, carried in 1891 was :—
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502
FRANCE
_L
Letters ....
Registered letters, &c.
Post-cards ....
Printed matter, samples, &c.
Total ....
Internal
(1,000*8)
608,804
20,445
41,310
878,558
1 549,117
International
Total
(1,000's)
130,387
3,327
3,935
115,033
0,000*8)
739,191 1
23,772
45,245
993,591
1,801,799
252,682
The total length of the telegraphic lines on January 1, 1893, was 59,693
miles, with 197,622 miles of wire. There were 10,589 telegraph offices, and in
1892 there were despatched 45,328,888 telegrams, of which 33,439,947 were
internal, 5,306,337 international, 1,571,168 in transit, and 5,011,436 were
official. There are 237 miles of pneumatic tubes in Paris. The number of
subscribers to the telephonic systems in 1890 was 11,439, and 152,538 inter-
urban conversations were held.
Honey and Credit.
The total amount of coin put into circulation by France from 1795 till
January vl, 1893, was 8,831,462,370 francs gold, and 5,534,675,124
francs silver. The French money coined in 1892 amounted to 4,714,120
francs, of which 200,000 francs was bronze. The proportion of silver coin of
each of the members of the Latin Union in circulation in France is indicated
by the results of an inquiry made on September 14, 1893, by the Government
offices, the railway companies, the banks of France and Algeria, and other
banking companies. The total nominal value of the silver coin examined was
6,043,967 francs, and it was found that 58*9 per cent, was French, 28*8 per
cent. Italian, 6*5 per cent. Belgian, 4 0 per cent. Swiss, and 1*8 per cent.
Greek.
The statistics of private banking are too unsatisfactory to be given.
The private savings-banks numbered 544 (with 1,074 branch offices) in
January, 1891 ; and on December 31, 1893, the number of depositors was
6,173,054, to the value of 3,143,370,267 francs, thus giving an average of 509
francs for each account. The postal savings-banks, introduced in 1881, had,
December 31, 1893, 2,095,622 accounts, to the value of 607,871,925 francs,
thus showing an average of 285 francs per account.
The Bank of France, founded in 1806, has the monopoly of emitting bank
notes. Its capital is estimated at 182,500,000 francs.
The situation of the bank on September 30, 1893, was : —
Cash : 1,000 francs 1,000 franca
Gold 1,695,800
Silver 1,270,500
2,966,300
Notes to bearer in circulation 3,467,800
Accounts current and deposits 363,700-
Portfolio : French and foreign paper .... 526,200
Advances on mortgage 297,800
Treasury account, current and deposits . . 114,600-
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
503
The nominal value of the money coined in France during the last five
years has been : —
Year
Gold
Silver
'Bronze
Total
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Francs
17,477,800
20,602,800
17,422,020
4,514,120
50,943,360
Francs
370
Francs
200,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
200,000
Francs
17,678,170 '
20,802,800
17,622,020 '
4,714,120
51,143,360
110,960,100
370
1,000,000
111,960,470
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Monetary Union between France, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy,
was formed in 1865, and was joined by Greece in 1868, The convention
was renewed in 1878, 1885, and 1890, and unless again renewed, will end in
1895.
The countries in the Union have their gold and silver coins of the same
weight and fineness, and each in its public offices, accepts payment in the
coin, gold or (with the limitation stated below) silver of the others. When
the term of the convention expires, each may return to each of the others the
silver money which it has received from them respectively ; and must accept
its own silver coin in return, or if the supply of this is insufficient, be repaid
in gold.
The coinage system of the Latin Monetary Union is followed also in
Finland, Roumania, Servia, Spain, and, partially, in several of the South
American Republics.
The Franc of 100 centimes is of the value of 9jd. or 25 '225 francs to the
pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 20, 10, and 5 franc pieces. The 20 franc
gold piece weighs 6*4516 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 5 '80645
grammes of fine gold.
Silver coins are 5, 2, 1, and half franc pieces. The 5-franc silver piece
weighs 25 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 22*5 grammes of fine silver.
The franc piece weighs 5 grammes *835 fine, and contains 4*175 grammes of
fine silver.
Bronze coins are 10 and 5 centime pieces.
There is a double standard of value, gold and silver, the ratio being
theoretically 15 J to 1. Of silver coins, however, only 5-franc pieces are legal
tender, and of these the free coinage has been suspended since 1876.
Weights and Measures.
Gramme . . =
Kilogramme . =
Quintal MUriqyi* =
Tonncau . -
Litre, Liquid . =
15'43 gr. tr.
2*205 lbs. av.
220J „ „
2,205 lbs.
1*76 pint.
22 gallons.
2*75 bushels.
Mitre . %
Kilometre .
Metre Cube \
SUre J
Hectare
Kilometre Carre"
= 39*37 inches.
= *621 mile.
= 35*31 cubic ft.
= 2 '47 acres.
= "386 sq. mile.
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BOOKS OF REFERENCE — ANDORRA 505
Ministere des Finances : Coniptes generaux de radininistration des finances. Paris, 1892.
Ministere de rAgricnlture : Bulletin, Paris, 1893.
Resum6 des etats de situation de l'enseignement primaire pour I'annee scolaire 1889-90,
et 1890-91. Paris, 1892.
Situation economique et commerciale de la France. Expose comparatif pour les quinze
annees de la periode 1865-79. Paris, 1881.
Stati8tiques coloniales pour I'annee 1890. Paris, 1893.
Tableau du commerce general de la France, avecses colonies et les puissances etrangeres,
pendant I'annee 1892. 4. Paris, 1893.
Tableau general des mouvements du cabotage pendant I'annee 1892. Direction generate
des douanes et des contributions indirectes. 4. Paris, 1893.
Tableaux de population, de culture, de commerce, et de navigation, sur les colonies
franchises. Paris, 1893.
Hertelet (Sir Edward, C.B.), The Foreign Office List. Published annually. London.
Report by Mr. L. S. Sackrille West on the Tenure of Land in France, dated Paris, Nov.
19, 1869 ; in « Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the
several Countries of Europe/ Parti. Fol. London, 1870.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London, 1893.
Reports on the Relations between Capital and Labour, No. 258, and Poultry and Dairy
Farms, No. 295 of Foreign Office Reports, Miscellaneous Series. London, 1893.
Trade of France with the United Kingdom, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892/ Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Annuaire de l'economie sociale. 8. Paris, 1893.
Block (Maurice), Annuaire de l'economie politique et de la statistique. 1893. 16. Paris,
1892.
Carnet de l'officier de marine. 1892. Paris, 1892.
Cucheval-Clarigny (M.), Instruction publique en France. 8. Paris, 1883.
Delarbre (J.), La marine militaire de la France. 8. Paris, 1881.
Detchampi (L.), Histoire de la Question Coloniale en France. Paris, 1891.
Dupont (P.), Annuaire de la marine pour 1892. 8. Paris, 1892.
FoviUe (A. de), La France actuelle. Paris, 1889.
Gafferel (Paul), Les colonies franchises. 4th edition. Paris, 1888.
HSlie (F. A.), Les constitutions de la France. 8. Paris, 1878.
Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris. Paris, 1892.
Kaufmann (R. F.), Die Finanzen Frankreichs. Leipzig, 1882.
Kleine (E.), Les richesses de la France. 12. Paris, 1872.
Laugel (Auguste), La France politique et sociale. 8. Paris, 1878.
Lavergne (Leonce de), Economic rurale de la France. 4me ed. 18. Paris, 1878.
Lebon (A.) and Pelet (P.), France as it is. London, 1888.
L'Economiste francais. Paris, 1893.
Loitne (C. de), Histoire politique de France. Paris, 1886.
Levauewr (E. ), La France et ses colonies. 3 vols. Paris, 1890-91.
Levauewr (E.), La Production Brute Agricole de la France. Paris, 1891.
Loua (Toussaint), La France sociale et economique. Paris, 1888.
Molard (J.), Puissance Militaire des Etats de l'Europe. Paris, 1893.
Prat (Tn. de), Annuaire protestant : Statistique general des diverses branches du pro-
testantisms francais. 8. Paris, 1891.
Seclm (Elisee), La France. Vol. II. of * Nouvelle geograph© universelle/ 8. Paris, 1877
Statistique de la production de la soie en France et a l'6tranger. Recoltedel892. Lyons.
1892.
Vignon (Lu), Les colonies franchises, leur commerce, leur situation economique, Ieur
utilite pour la metropole, leur avenir. Paris, 1885.
Vignon (L.), L'Expansion de la France. Paris, 1891.
Viihrer CM. A.), Histoire de la dette publique en France. Paris, 1886.
ANDORRA.
The republic of Andorra, which is under the joint suzerainty of France
and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel, has an area of 175 square miles and a
population of about 6,000. It is governed by a council of twenty-four
members elected for four years by four heads of families in each parish. The
council elect a first and second syndic to preside ; the executive power is
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506
FRANCE: — COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
vested in the first syndic, while the judicial power is exercised by a civil
judge and two vicars or priests. France and the Bishop of Urgel appoint
each a vicar and a civil judge alternately. A permanent delegate, moreover,
has charge of the interests of France in the republic.
Colonies and Dependencies.
The colonial possessions and protectorates of France (includ-
ing Algeria), dispersed over Asia, Africa, America, and Polynesia,
embrace, inclusive of countries under protection and spheres of
influence, a total area of 2,405,000 square miles. Not reckoned
as a colony is Algeria, which has a government and laws distinct
from the other colonial possessions, being looked upon as a part
of France. Algeria, as well as all the colonies proper, are
represented in the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and con-
sidered to form, politically, a part of France. The estimated
area and population of the various colonies and countries under
protection, together with the date of their first settlement or
acquisition, is shown in the subjoined table (on page 507), com-
piled from the latest official returns.
In 1890 the trade of the colonies was : —
Trade with
Trade with
Trade with
Total Trade
Colonies
France
French Colonies
Foreign Countries
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
1,000
Imports
Exports
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
Cochin-China 1
Indo-China J
16,715
2,319
170
3
43,364
54,673
60,248
56,995
French India .
772
11,352
20
161
3,845
5,587
4,638
17,099
Mayotte .
100
1,475
60
42
341
46
562
1,563
Nossi Be .
298
505
45
41
1,682
1,554
2,025
1,900
Ste. Marie.
Reunion .
9,921
1,519
227
324
20,166
1,433.
30,314
17,276
New Caledonia .
4,777
1,349
—
—
6,313
5,792
11,090
7,141
Tahiti
1,129
305
—
3
2,744
3,200
3,878
8,507
Guinea & Congo.
3,069
2,440
—
—
4,262
5,185
7,331
7,625
Senegal
5,823
10,247
96
234
9,272
2,035
15,191
12,517
Gniana
4,071
3,999
112
22
3,706
288
7,890
4,309
Martinique
10,658
21.920
1,357
250
18,247
1,180
30,261
23,350 1
Guadeloupe
39,656
20,572
1,136
279
12,457
518
23,249
21,370 J
St. Pierre andl
Miquelon J
3,835
9,043
69
2,179
10,196
6,113 14,100
17,335
Total .
70,884
180,846
[3,292
1
3,538
136,595
87,604 | 210,772
191,968
\
The special trade of France with French Colonies in 1892 amounted to
140,230,156 francs for- imports, and 85,269,283 francs for exports. Including
Algeria and Tunis, the total amount of imports was 358,391,056 francs, auu
of exports 295,604,255 francs.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
507
I. Colonies.
In Asia : —
French India
Cochin-China
Tonqnin
Siam .
Total of Asia .
In Africa : —
Algeria ....
Senegal and Rivieres du Sud
French Soudan and Niger ,
Gaboon and Guinea Coast .
Congo Region
Reunion ....
Mayotte
Nossi-Be*
Ste. Marie
Obock.
Total of Africa
In America : —
Guiana, or Cayenne
Guadeloupe and Dependencies
Martinque ....
St. Pierre and Miquelon
Total of America .
In Oceania; —
New Caledonia
Marquesas Islands
Tahiti and Moorea
Raiatea ....
Tubuai and Raivavae .
Tuamotu and Gambier Islands
Wallis Islands
Total of Oceania .
Total of colonies (with Algeria)
II. Protected Countries
and Spheres of Influence.
Tunis .
Madagascar
Annam .
Cambodia
Comoro Isles .
Sahara Region
Year of
Acquisition
1679
1861
1884
1893
1830
1637
1880-90
1843
1884
1649
1843
1841
1643
1864
1626
1634
1635
1635
1854
1841
1880
1888
1881
1881
1887
Total, protected countries
Total, colonies and protected
countries ....
1881
1887
1884
1862
1886
1890-91
Area in
Square Miles
203
23,000
34,700
80,000>
137,903
184,474f
386,000
258,620
1,000
143
118
64
46,320
876,734
46,850
720
380
90
48,040
7,700
480
455
80
390
60
9,165
1,071,843
45,000
228,500
106,250
800
1,000,000
1,412,940
2,484,783
Population
283,053
1,876,639
12,000,000
3,000,000
17,159,692
4,124,732
5,048,000
5,000,000
167,847
8,708
7,700
7,667
200,000
14,564,654
29,650
165,761
175,863
5,929
377,203
62,752
5,145
11,181
881
6,536
3,500
92,995
32,194,544
1,500,000
3,500,000
5,000,900
1,500,000
47,000
14,547,000
43,741,544
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508
FRANCE : — INDIA — INDO-CHINA
In the budget for 1894 the expenditure for the Colonial Service, exclusive
of Algeria and Cambodia, was estimated at 73,483,355 francs, while the
contribution of the colonies to the civil and military expenditure which they
occasion and to the general charges of the state was fixed at 145, 000 francs. In
addition, the Marine Budget has to bear certain colonial expenses, while each
colony has a large budget of its own, insufficient to meet the colonial expenses.
The only possessions of commercial importance, besides Algeria and
Tunis, are Cochin-China, the islands of Reunion and Madagascar on the
coast of Africa, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies. The
exports from and imports to French colonies are seen from the table on
page 506 ; where more recent statistics are available they are given under
separate heads.
The total imports from French colonies and dependencies (exclusive of
Algeria and Tunis) into Great Britain amounted in 1892 to 50, 768 J., and the
exports from Great Britain to these possessions to 719,2962,
The following are more detailed notices of the colonies, dependencies, and
spheres of influence, arranged under Asia, Africa, America, and Aus-
tralasia and Oceania.
Tondichery
. 41,253
Nedounkadou
33,487
Karical .
. 34,719
*Shandernagar
. 25,395
Oulgaret
. 46,529
Bahour .
27,129
Villenour
. 35,983
ASIA.
FSEHCH IVDIA.
The French possessions in India, as established by the treaties of 1814
and 1815, consist of five separate towns, which cover an aggregate of 50,803
hectares (about 200 square miles), and had on December 31, 1888, the follow-
ing estimated populations : —
~~ "" * "" " * " "" La Grande Aldee 23, 260
*Mah6 . 8,349
•Yanaon . . 4,199
Total, 280,303.
Of this total less than 1,000 are Europeans. The colonies are divided
into five cUpendances, the chief towns of which are marked with an asterisk
in the above table, and ten communes, having municipal institutions. The
Governor of the colony resides at Pondichery. The colony is represented by
one senator and one deputy. Local revenue and expenditure (budget of 1893)
2,046,944 francs ; expenditure of France (budget of 1894), 337,726 francs ;
debt 300,000 francs. The chief exports from Pondichery are oil seeds. The
imports in 1890 amounted to 4,637,956 francs (771,991 francs from France),
and total exports, 17,099,046 francs (11,351,528 francs to France). At the
ports of Pondichery, Karikal, and Mahe" in 1890 659 vessels of 559,302 tons
entered and 659 of 576,179 tons cleared. In 1891 there were 5 post offices,
through which 76,225 letters, &c, passed.
FSEHCH IHDO-CHIHA.
Under this designation the French dependencies of Cochin-China, Ton-
quin, Annam, and Cambodia have, to a certain extent, been incorporated.
There is a Superior Council of Indo-China, which fixes the budget of Cochin-
China, and advises as to the budgets of Annam, Tonquin, and Cambodia.
In 1887 the French possessions in Indo-China, including Annam and
Cambodia, were united into a Customs Union ; the external trade of the
Union reached in 1890 60,248,460 francs for imports, and 56,995,119 francs
for exports ; in 1891, imports, 67,034,567 francs ; exports, 68,647,791 francs.
Of the total foreign trade in 1891, 24 per cent, was with France.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
ANNAM — CAMBODIA — COCHIN-CHINA 509
ANVAM.
French intervention in the affairs of Annam, which began as early as
1787, was terminated by a treaty, signed on June 6, 1884, and ratified at
Hue on February 23, 1886, by which a French protectorate has been estab-
lished over Annam. Prince Bun Can was proclaimed King on January 31,
1889, under the title of Tham Thai*. The ports of Turane, Qui-Nhon, and
Xuan Day are opened to European commerce, and the former has been con-
ceded to France ; French troops occupy part of the citadel of Hu6, the
capital (population 30,000). Annamite functionaries administer all the
internal affairs of Annam. The area of Annam proper is about 27,020 square
miles, and of the territory more or less dependent, about 19,300 square miles.
Population estimated at 2,000,000 by some, and at 5,000,000 by others ;
the latter being considered the more probable. It is Annamite in the towns
and along the coast, and consists of various tribes of Moi's in the hilly tracts.
There are 420,000 Roman Catholics. There are 23,230 soldiers, of whom
11,830 are natives. A French company has (1891) been formed for working
coal mines at Turane. Chief productions besides cereals are cinnamon bark,
cotton, sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco, and seeds. Imports (1891) 4,261,388 francs ;
exports, 8,652,428 francs. The chief imports are rice, cotton, yarn, cottons,
opium, and paper ; all from China and Japan.
CAMBODIA.
Area, 38,600 square miles; population from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000, con-
sisting of several indigenous races, 30,000 Malays, 100,000 Chinese and
Annamites. The country is under King Norodom, who recognised the
French protectorate in 1863, and it is divided into 32 arrondissements. The
two chief towns are Pnom-Penh (population 30, 000), the capital of the terri-
tory, and Eampot, its only seaport. Revenue, 1888, 3,275,000 francs; ex-
penditure, 3,059,236 francs. French troops, 300. The chief culture is rice,
betel, tobacco, indigo, sugar tree, and silk tree. Imports (1891) 1,161,219
francs ; exports, 310,735 francs. Salt fish, cotton, beans, tobaacco, rice. The
trade statistics are included in those of Indo-China. The imports comprise
salt, wine, tea, textiles, arms, and pottery.
COCHIN-CHHTA.
The area of French Cochin-China is estimated at 23,082 square miles.
The whole is divided into 4 provinces, Saigon, Mytho, Vinh-Long, and
Bassac ; and these into 21 arrondissements. The colony is represented by
one deputy. The total population in 1891 was estimated at 2,034,453 con-
sisting chiefly of Annamites, but including Cambodians, Chinese, Malays
and Malabarians. The French population is under 3,000. There were 628
schools, with 115 European and 1,183 native teachers, and 25,397 pupils. The
Catholic population numbered 5,800, and the Buddhists, 1,688,270. There
were 1,830 French troops, and about 2,800 Annamite soldiers. Of the total
area about one-sixth (or 995,933 hectares) is cultivated. The chief crop is rice
— 9,866,000 piculs in 1892, exported mostly to China, Europe, and Singapore.
Cotton, hides, fish, pepper, copra are also articles of export. In 1887 the
colony had 143,270 oxen and' buffaloes. Narrow gauge tramway lines are in
operation in Saigon and its neighbourhood, and concessions have been granted
for their extension. Imports in 1892, 38,255,664 francs; exports 81,464,560
francs. At Saigon in 1892 there entered 402 vessels of 466,451 tons (140 of
171,129 tons British, and 151 of 149,864 tons German), exclusive of the Mes-
sageries Maritimes. There are in the colony 51 miles of railway, and 1, 840
miles of telegraph line, with 73 telegraph offices, Telegrams (1892) 197,692.
At Saigon there are 5 banks or bank-agencies. In the local budget of 1893 the
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£10 FRANCE : — ALGERIA
annual revenue and expenditure balanced at 30, 366, 204 francs. Expenditure of
France (budget 1894) 3,160,340 francs. The French budget for 1894 requires
the sum of 4,700,000 francs to be paid by Cochin-China towards the military
expenditure of Annam and Tonquin.
This territory, annexed to France in 1884, has an area of 84,740 square •
miles, and is divided into fourteen provinces, with 8,000 villages and a popu-
lation estimated at 9,000,000. There are 400,000 Roman Catholics. Chief
town Hanoi, an agglomeration of many villages, with a population of 150,000.
Revenue (1888) of Tonquin and Annam 17,321,000 francs, expenditure,
17,034,620 francs. There were 18,555 troops in 1892, including 6,500
native soldiers. The chief crop is rice, 1,060,000 piculs in 1892, exported
mostly to Hong-Kong. Other products are sugar-cane, silk tree, cotton,
various fruit trees, and tobacco. There are copper and iron mines of good
quality. French companies work coal mines at Hongay, near Haiphong, and
at Kebao. The chief industries are silk, cotton, sugar, pepper, and oils. In
1891 the imports into Tonquin amounted to 25,159,300 francs ; exports
11,828,513 francs. In 1892 the imports into Annam and Tonquin together
amounted to 37,000,000 francs ; exports 20,000,000 francs. The transit trade
to and from Yunnan amounted to 5,000,000 and 3,200,000 francs respectively.
At Haiphong in 1892 there entered (exclusive of Chinese vessels) 177 steamers
and 2 sailing vessels ; of these 71 were French, 57 German, and 42 Danish.
The Phnlang-Thuong-Langson railway, about 62 miles long, is being con-
structed. In Annam and Tonquin in 1891 there were 58 post offices through
which 1,803,447 letters, &c., passed. Local revenue (1892), including extra-
ordinary receipts, 8,821,743 piastres. The expenditure of France for Annam
and Tonquin in the budget of 1894 was 24,450,000 francs, of which 450,000
francs was for the Tonquin submarine telegraph cable, the remainder being
for the military and maritime services.
Books of Reference on French IndoChina.
Deuteches Handels-Archiv. for August, 1898. Berlin.
Doudart de Lagrle, Voyage de l'Exploration en Indo-Chine, 1866-68. 2 vols. Paris, 1873.
Mouhot (A. H.), Voyage dans les Royanmes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos et autres
parties centrales de l'Indo-Chine. 8. Paris, 1868.
Richtho/en (Ft. von), Snr les Provinces Sud-Ouest dela Chine.
Truong-Vinh-Kjf (P. J. B.). Petit Cours de Geographic de la Basse Cochinchine. 8.
Saigon, 1875. Abrege de Grammaire Annamite; Cours Pratique de Langue Annamite!
Saigon, 1867 and 1868.
AFRICA.
ALOSBIA.
(L' A LGEBIE.)
Government
A civil Governor-General at present administers the government of
Algeria, which is now regarded as a detached part of France rather than as a
colony. A small extent of territory in the Sahara is still administered by the
military authorities, represented by the Commandant of the 1 9th Army Corps. '
Governor-General of Algeria.— M. Jules Cambon, appointed April, 1801.
The French Chambers have alone the right of legislating for Algeria,
while such matters as do not come within the legislative power are regulated
by decree of the President of the Republic. The Governor-General is assisted
by a council, whose function is purely consultative. A Superior Council
meeting once a year, to which delegates are sent by each of the provincial
general councils, is charged with the duty of discussing and voting the
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RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION — CRIME
511
colonial budget. Each department sends one senator and two deputies to the
National Assembly.
Area and Population.
The boundaries of Algeria are not very well denned, large portions of the
territory in the outlying districts being claimed both by the French Govern-
ment and the nomad tribes who inhabit it and hold themselves unconquered.
The colony is divided officially into three departments, consisting as a whole
of the 'Territoire civil,' and a 'Territoire de commandement.' The follow-
ing table gives the area of each of the three departments of Algeria, according
to the Census of 1891 : —
-
Area, sq.
miles
Population
Pop.
per sq.
mile
22
21
23
Civil Dept.
MilitaryDept
Total
Algiers .
Oran
Constantino .
Total
65,929
44,616
73,929
1,275,650
817,450
1,543,867
192,477
124,616
170,672
1,468,127
942,066
1,714,539
184,474
3,636,967
487,765
4,124,732
22
The total population in 1884 was 3,817,306. The Civil territory is
constantly increased in area by taking in sections of the Military Territory.
Of the population in 1886, 2,014,013 were males and 1,791,671 females. In
1884 the marriages among whites were 3,543, the births 15,618, and deaths
13,123, showing an excess of 2,495 births over deaths. In 1891, of the total
population, there were 267,672 of French origin or naturalisation, 47,459
naturalised Jews, 3,559,687 French indigenous subjects, Moroccans 14,645,
besides Tunisians, Spaniards, Italians, Anglo-Maltese, and Germans.
The population of the city of Algiers was 74,792 in 1886 ; Oran, 67,681 ;
Constantine, 44,960 ; Bdne, 29,640 ; Tlemgen, 28,204 ; Philippeville, 22,177 ;
Blidah, 24,804 ; Sidibel-Abbes, 21,595.
Religion and Instruction.
The native population is chiefly Mussulman. The grants for religious
purposes provided for in the budget of 1894 were : to Catholics 802,200
irancs, Protestants 94,383 francs, Jews 25,600 francs, Mussulmans 310,430
francs ; total 1,232,613 francs.
At the Academy of Algiers in 1888 were 223 students. Jn 1888-89 there
were 1,876 pupils at the 4 lycees of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine ; 8 com-
munal colleges with 1,015 pupils, and one college for girls at Oran with 98
pupils; in 1889, 958 (113 private, mostly clerical) primary schools, with
78,001 pupils; and 154 infant schools, with 24,354 pupils. There are 76
public primary schools for the natives with 8,963 pupils (910 girls). Of the
total children of school age (6-13), 611,720 receive no instruction ; of these
585,389 were Mussulmans. The budget for 1894 provided for an expenditure
of 5,651,798 francs on Instruction in Algeria.
Crime.
Before the Assize Courts in 1888, 498 persons were convicted of crime ;
before the correctional tribunals, 12,109 (4,236 to fines) ; before the police
courts, 52,494 (45,263 to fines). For the maintenance of order there are
1,271 gendarmes, 74 police commissaires, 814 police agents, 329 maires, 2,603
police officials of various kinds, and 1,061 custom-house officers.
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FRANCE : — ALGERIA
Finance. .
The receipts of the Government are derived chiefly from direct taxes,
customs, and monopolies. The natives pay only direct taxes. The budget
for 1893 estimated the revenue at 48,855,020 francs, and the expenditure at
64,948,129 francs, the departments of Public Debt, War, and Marine being
excluded from the estimates.
The revenue and expenditure according to the budget for 1894 were : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Direct Taxes
Customs
Other Indirect Taxes
Monopolies .
Domains and Forests
Various
Receipts d'ordre .
Total
Francs.
12,933,475
10,833,200
11,528,708
5,222,917
3,109,700
1,004,650
3,658,500
Ministries : Francs.
Justice . . . 2,747,450
Interior . . . 11,503,647
Instruction, Worship,
&c. . 6,947,806
Agriculture . . 1,799,190
Public Works. . 31,081,000
Others . . . 690,100
Regie and Tax-collecting 14, 71 1, 736
Repayments, &c. . ■ 985,800
48,291,150
Total
70,466,729
Defence.
The military force in Algeria constitutes the 19th Army Corps ; in time of
war it can be divided into two. It consists of 53 battalions of infantry, 52
squadrons of cavalry, 16 batteries of artillery, and a due proportion of other
subsidiary branches — in all about 54,000 men and 15,000 horses. The strictly
local forces consist of 4 regiments of 'Zouaves,' 3 regiments of 'Tirailleurs
indigenes,' 8 battalions of 'Infanterie legere d'Afrique,' and 2 foreign legions ;
of these the Tirailleurs or Turcos only are native. There are also 3 regiments
of Spahis, corresponding closely to the Indian irregular cavalry.
Industry.
A great part of the land of Algeria is held undivided by Arab tribes by the
tenure called 'arch ' or c sabega.' Freehold property, "melk," is not common.
Most of the State lands have, under various systems, been appropriated to
colonists. The population engaged in agriculture in 1891 was 3,262,478. about
187,000 being Europeans. About 20,000,000 hectares are occupied by the
agricultural population. The principal crops and the area cultivated in 1891
are shown in the following table : —
Crop
Wheat (metric quintals)
Barley
Potatoes
Other cereals.
Vines .... (hectolitres)
Tobacco (1890) . . . (kilogr.)
Total area cultivated
Quantity
I
Area,
hectares
7,126,140
1,258,135
9,235,863
1,426,866
1,029,610
135,915
184,874
7,117
4,018,969
109,459
2,618,952
6,301
2,938,793
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COMMERCE
513
Alfa grass is a natural product of the country, and extensively collected.
Less important agricultural industries are the cultivation of olives (6,500,000
grafted trees), flax, colza and other oil seeds, cotton, ramie and silk.
There are 3,247,692 hectares under forest, nearly one-fourth being in re-
mote districts and unworked. Of the remainder 1,754,256 hectares belong to
the State, 78,685 hectares to communes, and 468,395 hectares to private
persons. Of the forest area much is so only in name, and the value of the
total produce is small. In 1892 there were in Algeria 358,002 horses and
mules, 259,094 camels, 1,233,051 cattle, 8,869,671 sheep, and 3,709,600 goats.
The total animal stock amounted to 14,805,449, of which 14,117,025 be-
longed to natives.
In 1889, 2,710 persons were employed in mines ; 351,800 tons of iron ore
were produced, worth 2,457,190 francs ; 22,836 tons of other ores (blende,
galena, copper, silver), to the value of 1,426,475 francs.
Commerce.
The commerce of Algeria, like that of France, is divided into general
(total imports and exports), and special (imports for home use and exports of
home produce). The former was as follows, 1892 (in francs) : —
-
Imports from
Exports to
France
Foreign countries and French colonies .
Total
189,689,134
63,437,284
200,191,040
43,776,124
253,076,418
243,967,164
The total special commerce was as follows for five years (in francs) : —
Years
Total
Foreign Countries and French Colonies
Imports
Exports
Imports from
Exports to
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
234,908,120
237,417,000
260,090,131
269,021,767
239,757,317
197,699,565
229,789,000
260,099,131
222,844,445
233,076,538
54,391,844
58,754,000
65,226,032
61,929,108
50,118,183
33,254,943
29,229,000
40,428,500
36,142,062
32,885,498
The special trade of France with Algeria, and of Algeria with various
foreign countries in 1892 was : —
-
Imports
from
Exports to
-
Imports
from
Exports to
France
Tunis .
Russia
Great Britain
Spain .
Italy .
Francs
189,689,184
5,949,801
426,097
6,412,571
5,184,733
1,189,786
Francs
200,191,040
1,866,076
1,074,555
13,413,648
2,351,671
2,151,390
Morocco .
Turkey
Belgium
United States .
Austria
Francs
7,497,250
629,645
255,040
1,352,814
1,927,112
Francs
' 168,342
39,208
4,099,410
2,152,384
280,047
The principal imports into France in 1892 were : cereals, 38,436,213 francs ;
wines, 84,751,035 francs; animals, 29,040,526 francs; wool, 10,537,249
francs. The chief exports from France were: cotton goods, 25,239,134
francs ^leather goods, 11,135,894 francs; metal goods, 8,988,688 francs;
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514
FRANCE : — ALGERIA
haberdashery, 7,836,186 francs. The subjoined statement shows the com-
merce of Algeria with Great Britain and Ireland in each of the last five years.
-
1888
1889
1800
1891
1892
Imports into United King-
dom from Algeria
Exports of British produce
to Algeria .
£
636,371
252,255
£
658,082
286,418
£
890,612
329,876
£
673,970
887,086
£
674,087
333,774
The most important articles of import into Great Britain in 1892 were : —
esparto and other fibres, for making paper, of the value of 363,948/. (including
rags) ; iron ore, of the value of 113,720/. ; barley, 76,546/. ; copper ore,
3,752Z.; lead ore, 15,786Z. The British exports to Algeria consist prin-
cipally of cotton fabrics and coal, the former of the value of 126,579/.,
and the latter of 171,340/., in the year 1892.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892, 3,663 vessels, of 2,261,070 tons, entered Algerian ports from
abroad, and 3,656, of 2,212,512 tons, cleared; of the vessels entered, 2,214,
of 1,401,227 tons, belonged to France, and 509, of 506,858 tons, belonged to
Great Britain. There is also a very large coasting trade. On January 1,
1893, the mercantile marine of Algiers consisted of 597 vessels, of 8,935 tons.
In 1893 there were 2,922,965 kilometres of national roads in Algeria.
In 1892 there were 1,956 English miles of railway open for traffic in-
cluding the Tunisian extension of 140 miles. The total receipts in 1892
amounted to 26,445,599 francs.
The postal and telegraph revenue for 1891 was 4,022,070 francs, and the
expenditure 4,060,394 francs.
In 1891 there passed through the post office, in the internal service
11,162,729 letters, post cards, &c, and 9,334,341 packets of printed matter ;
and in the international service 651,942 letters and post cards, &c, and
375,940 packets of printed matter.
The telegraph of Algeria, including branches into Tunis, consisted in 1890
of 4,310 miles of line and 10,000 miles of wire, with 356 offices. The ' reseau
algero-tunisien ' of telegraphs is worked by a private company subventioned
by the French Government.
In the savings-banks of Algeria on December 31, 1889, there were 16,971
depositors ; the amount due to whom was 4,865,593 francs, or an average of
286 francs to each.
British Consul- General for Algeria and Tunis. — Lieut. -Col. Sir R. Lam-
bert Playfair, K.C.M.G., residing at Algiers.
Vice-Consul at Algiers, — E. G. B. Maxse.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of France only are used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria.
1. Official Publications
Annuaire administratif de l'Algerie. 16. Alger, 1898.
Annuaire general de l'Algerie, but des documents offlciels. 8.
Annuaire statistiqne de la France, 1892. Paris, 1892.
Journal offlcieL
Expose de la situation generate de l'Algerie. 1892.
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CONGO AND GABUN — GOLD COAST TERRITORIES 515
Tableau de la situation des etablissements franchises. 19 vols., 4to, from 1838 to 1866 : the
coutinuatiou bears the title 'Statistique generate <le I'Algerie, ' published every two or three
years,
Reports by the Commission d'Etude des Questions Algeriennes :— Depositions du 1 Mai
au 20 Juillet, 1891 ; Report by M. Combes on the primary instruction of the natives ;
Report on the Bank of Algeria ; Report by Jules Ferry on the Government of Algeria ;
Report by M. Clamageran on the fiscal regime of Algeria ; Report by Jules Guichard on the
Regime Forestier of Algeria. Paris, 1892.
Reports on the Commerce and Agriculture of Algeria, Nob. 1180 and 1196 of ' Diplomatic
and Consular Reports.' London, 1893.
Trade of Algeria with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. Lon-
don, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Clamageran (I. J.), L'Algerie : Impressions de voyage. 8. Paris, 1874.
Darette (Rodolphe), De la propriete en Algerie. Loi du 16 juin 1851 ct Seuatus-consulte
du 22 avril 1863. 2eedit. 18. Paris, 1866.
Duval (Jules), L'Algerie et les colonies francaises. 8. Paris, 1877.
Fillias (A.), L'Algerie ancienne et modeme. 12. Alger, 1875.
Gaffarel(F.), L'Algerie : histoire, conquSte, colonisation. Paris, 1883.
Harris (George W.), Practical Guide to Algiers. 4th ed. 8. London, 1893.
Laveleye (Emile de), L'Algerie et Tunisie. Paris, 1887.
Lavigne (Albert), Questions algeriennes. 8. Paris, 1872.
Maltzan (Heinr. Freiherr von), Drei Jahreim Nordwesten von Afrika : Reisenin Algerien
und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Pease (A B.), Biskra and the Oases and Desert of the Zibans. London, 1893.
Play/air (Sir R. L.), Handbook (Murray's) of Algeria and Tunis. London, 1887.
PJayfair (Sir R. Lambert), Bibliography of Algeria, published by the Royal Geographical
Society. London, 188a
Prax (V.), Etude eur la Question Algerienne. 8. Bone, 1892.
Quinemaut (N.), Du peuplement et de la vrai colonisation de I'Algerie. 8. Constantine,
1871.
Keclw (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Tome XI. L'Afriquo septentrionale. Paris, 1886.
Sabatier (C), Touat, Sahara et Soudan. Paris, 1891.
Bautayra (B.), Rugues (H.), et Lapra (P.), Legislation de I'Algerie. 2 vols. Paris, 1883-84.
Seguin(L. G.), WalkB in Algeria. 8. London, 1878.
Shaw (Thomas, D.D., Ac.), Travels or Observations relating to several Parts of Barbary
and the Levant. Oxford, 1838-46.
Tehihateheff(M..), L'Algerie et Tunis. Paris, 1880.
Villot (Capitaine), Moeurs, coutumes et institutions des indigenes d' Algerie. 12. Paris,
1872.
FRENCH CONGO AND GABUN.
The French Congo and Gabun region is one continuous and connected
territory. The right bank of the Congo from Brazzaville to the mouth of the
Mobangi is French, and north to 4° N. along the Mobangi, and an almost
straight line to the coast along the second degree embraces the Gabun. The
total area is 250,000 square miles. There are twenty-seven stations established
in this region, on the coast, the Congo, and other places, eleven of them being
on the Ogove. The number of the native population is estimated at 6, 900, 000 ;
there are 300 Europeans besides the garrison. The country is covered with
extensive forests. The only exports are the natural products — caoutchouc,
ivory, ebony,, santal wood, palmettos, palm-oil, and gum copal. In 1890,
the oils and gums exported amounted to 2,082,936 francs. According
to a report in 1893 by a delegate of the Marseilles Chamber of Commerce to
the Congo, the exports from the colony amount to between seven and eight
million francs, and the imports to about three million francs. The
only roads are native footpaths. There are eight schools for boys and two for
girls, with 400 pupils. Post offices, 25; letters, &c, transmitted (1891),
178,460. Localbudget, 1893, 2,392,846 francs; expenditure of France (budget
of 1894), 1,862,270 francs.
Gold Coast Territories. See Senegal, <fcc., p. 522.
L L 2
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516 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
MADAGASCAR.
Reigning Sovereign.
Queen Ranavalona (or Ranavalona) EX, born in 1861; appointed suc-
cessor by the late Queen Ranavalona II., succeeded to the throne on her death,
July 13, 1883 ; shortly after married the Prime Minister, Rainilaiarivony, and
was crowned November 22.
Government.
Madagascar began to be of commercial importance to Europe about the
year 1810, when Radama I. succeeded in reducing a large part of the island
to the sway of the sovereigns of the Hova, the most advanced, though probably
not the most numerous, of the various Malagasy races. His widow, Queen
Ranavalona I., obtained the sovereign power in 1829, and until her death, in
1861, intercourse with foreigners was discouraged. She was succeeded by
Radama II., and he by his wife Rasoherina, on whose death, in 1868, Ranava-
lona II. obtained the throne. The present queen is great-grand-daughter of
Rahety, sister of King Andrianampoinimenna (1787-1810). At various
Ssriodis, 1820, 1861, 1865, and 1868, treaties have been concluded with Great
ritain, the United States, and France. By a treaty signed at Tamatave,
December 12, 1885, a French Resident-General, with a small military escort,
resides at the capital, and the foreign relations of the country are claimed to be
regulated by France, which occupies a district around the Bay of Diego-Suarez
as a colony (see p. 520). By the Anglo-French Agreement of August 5, 1890,
the protectorate of France over Madagascar was recognised by Great Britain ;
but the Native Government steadily refuses to recognise any protectorate by
France, and will not issue any exequatur to foreign consuls through the French
resident The native Government retains absolute independence in all
domestic legislation and control of the other tribes of the country.
The government is an absolute monarchy, modified and tempered by
customs and usages having the force of law ; and during the last quarter of a
century the power of the Sovereign has been gradually limited and controlled.
The Sovereign is advised by her Prime Minister, who is the real source of all
political power ; he is assisted by a number of ministers, who act as heads of
departments — Education, Justice, the Interior, Foreign Affairs, &c — but
these are only deputies of the Prime Minister, and can originate nothing
without his permission. The succession to the Crown is hereditary in the
royal house, but not necessarily in direct succession ; the reigning Sovereign
may designate his or her successor.
At a large number of the chief towns of the interior, and at all the ports,
governors are placed by the central Government, and these are all directly
responsible to the Prime Minister. The number of these governors has been
greatly increased during the last two or three years. With regard to local
matters, these are still much under the control of the heads of tribes, and on
any important occasion public assemblies of the whole people are called
together to consult. Although these have no defined authority, the opinion
of the majority has a distinct weight and influence. Among the Be'tsileo and
other subject tribes, the representatives of the old chiefs are still held in much
honour, in almost idolatrous reverence, by the people.
Area and Population.
Madagascar, the third largest island in the world (reckoning Australia as
a continent), is situated on the south-eastern side of Africa, from which it is
separated by the Mozambique Channel, the least distance between- island and
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RELIGION AND EDUCATION 517
continent being 230 miles ; total length, 975 miles ; breadth at the broadest
point, 358 miles.
The area of the island, with its adjacent islands, is estimated at 228,500
square miles, and the population, according to the most trustworthy esti-
mates, at 3,500,000 ; other estimates vary from 2,500,000 to 5,000,000.
No census has ever been undertaken by the native Government, and it
resents any attempt to do so by foreigners. It is therefore only by vague and
uncertain estimates that any idea can be formed of the population, either of
the island as a whole or of that of particular districts. There are reasons for
thinking that the population of Imerina was decreasing during the san-
guinary reign of Queen Ranavalona I. (1828-1861) ; it is, however, believed
that the population is now slowly increasing in consequence of the spread of
education, civilisation, and Christian teaching. The female population
seems in excess of the male. A number of foreign residents live on the
coasts, chiefly Creoles from Mauritius and Reunion, mostly English subjects.
The most powerful, intelligent, and enterprising tribe is the Hova, whose
language, allied to the Malayan and Oceanic tongues, is understood over a
large part of the island, and who have been dominant for the last fifty years.
The only unsubdued territories are in the south and south-west, but steps
have been taken to bring them into subjection. The people are divided into
a great many clans, who seldom intermarry. The Hovas are estimated to
number 1,000,000 ; the other races, more or less mixed, are the Sakalavas in
the west, 1,000,000 ; the Betsileos, 600,000 ; Bara, 200,000 ; Betsimi-
saraka, 400,000 ; other southern tribes, 200,000. In the coast towns are
many Arab traders, and there are besides many negroes from Africa introduced
as slaves. The capital, Antananarivo, in the interior, is estimated to have,
with suburbs, a population of about 100,000. The principal port is Tama-
tave, on the east coast, with a population of 10,000. Mojanga, the chief
port on the north-west coast, has also about 10,000 inhabitants. Slavery
exists in a patriarchal form.
Beligion and Education.
A large portion of the Hova and of the other tribes in the central districts
have been Christianised, and Christianity is acknowledged and protected by
the Government. There is no State Church, although the Queen and princi-
pal officers of government are connected with the churches formed by the
London Missionary Society, which comprise the vast majority of the profess-
ing Christians of the country. These are not dependent on Government
except to a small extent. The system of Church polity, which has slowly
developed itself, is rather a combination of Independency, Presbyterianism,
and Episcopacy. No State aid is given to religion or to education, except in
freeing recognised pastors and teachers from compulsory Government service.
An Anglican mission works chiefly on the east coast, with a bishop and
cathedral at Antananarivo. A Roman Catholic bishop is also stationed at
the capital. There are about 38 missionaries of the L.M.S. in Madagascar,
16 of the Friends' Mission, 13 of the Anglican Mission, 50 of the Norwegian
Lutherans, and about 53 priests and brothers of the R. C. Mission, as well as
several sisters of mercy. TheL.M.S. Mission has about 750 native pastors
and about 100 evangelists or native missionaries stationed in various parts of
the country, many of them in quite heathen districts. There are about
450,000 Protestants, and about 50,0.00 Roman Catholics. Three-fifths of the
Malagasy are still pagans.
Schools have been established, and education is compulsory wherever the
influence of the central Government is effective. AH the Missionary Societies
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518 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
at work in Madagascar have colleges and high schools, the latter both for
lx>ys and girls, in all of which education is given freely, with but nominal
charges for books, &c. Almost every congregation, except the smallest and
weakest, has its school. The L.M.S. has also an industrial school for teach-
ing handicrafts. Hospitals, leper asylums, and medical schools are connected
with the L.M.S., Friends', Lutheran, and Anglican Missions, and there are now
a number of trained native doctors and surgeons. It is estimated that there
are about 1,800 schools, and about 170,000 children under instruction, but it
is difficult to get the statistics of the Roman Catholic Mission.
The production of books is as yet almost entirely confined to the printing
offices of the different Missionary Societies at work in the island. Each of
these has a press, from which works chiefly educational and religious are
constantly being issued. Excluding pamphlets and lesser publications, about
400 separate works have been issued from the various presses, with an aggre-
gate number of 48,000 pp. Half of these are L.M.S., and a fourth Friends'
publications. Six monthly magazines, three weekly newspapers, and a Govern-
ment gazette at irregular intervals, comprise the periodical literature of
Madagascar. The yearly issues of the L.M. S. press from 1870 to 1880 averaged
150,000 copies of various publications, and those of the Friends' press about
67,000 copies.
Justice.
Judges are appointed by the Sovereign, and a code of laws was printed
in 1881. Justice is dispensed in a simple form by local authorities, but
there are no statistics available showing crime. Owing to the increaing pres-
sure of forced Government service and the levies of soldiers, there has of late
been an alarming increase in crimes of violence, and an increasing number of
banditti in large armed bands, who have desolated some parts of the country.
A Bill establishing French tribunals in Madagascar, with jurisdiction in
all cases affecting Europeans, was passed by the French Chamber on
March 12, 1891. The Hova Government is, however, opposed to these claims,
and no attempt has yet been made to carry them into effect.
Finance.
The chief source of revenue is the customs, and a small poll tax is paid ;
and during the last two or three years considerable sums have been obtained
from the royalties paid by gold miners and from licenses to dig for gold ;
but the personal service which every Malagasy has to render is the mainstay
of the Government. The only fixed payments are those made to the Queen,
the Prime Minister, and the Army. In 1886 the Malagasy Government
borrowed from the Paris Comptoir d'Escompte a sum of 15 million francs, of
which 10 million went to pay the indemnity to France. No statistics of
public revenue are obtainable.
Defence.
The standing army is estimated to consist of 20,000 men, most of whom
are now armed with modern rifles. An English and a French officer are
employed to train cadets. A number of rifled Armstrong cannon of small
calibre have been purchased, as well as some mitrailleuse guns and others of
the most recent type. There is no cavalry force. During the present year
two gunboats have been purchased from the French Government. During
the French invasion the number of men mobilised exceeded 50,000 ; they were
trained by English officers.
Production and Industry.
Of minerals, gold, copper, iron, lead (galena), sulphur, graphite, and a
lignite have been found. The yield of gold has increased very considerably
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COMMERCE — MONEY AND BANKS 519
within the last few years, and so also has that of copper. It seems probable
that many parts of the island are very rich in valuable ores. Cattle breeding
and agriculture are the chief occupations of the people ; rice, sugar, coffee,
cotton, and sweet potatoes being cultivated. The forests abound with many
valuable woods, while tropical and sub-tropical products are plentiful. Con-
cessions of forest land on the north-east coast have been made to European
companies, who are now felling the valuable timber and planting on the cleared
ground. Silk and cotton weaving are carried on, and the manufacture of
textures from the wrfia palm fibre, and of metal-work. At present, however,
no machinery is used for the making of textile fabrics. All are literally manu-
factures, and carried on by the simple spindle and loom in use from a very
remote period. And so with the manufacture and workiug of iron and other
metals.
Commerce.
The chief exports are cattle, india-rubber, hides, horns, coffee, lard, sugar,
vanilla, wax, gum, copal, rice, and seeds. The chief imports are cotton goods,
rum, crockery, and metal goods. The trade is chiefly with Mauritius,
Reunion, Great Britain, and France ; there has also been recently consider-
able and increasing trade with the United States. • A French return gives the
exports for 1888 at 174,170Z., including skins, 70,430J.; caoutchouc, 54,648Z.;
rofia, 16,043Z. ; wax, 11,200Z. ; oxen, 9,760Z. ; the imports at 162,030Z.,
including cotton, 71, 540 J. In 1884 the value of the imports into Great
Britain from Madagascar was 15,229*. ; in 1890, 98,833?.; in 1891, 118,827Z.;
in 1892, 120,610Z. ; and exports from Great Britain to Madagascar 1,412/.
in 1884 ; 84,733*. in 1890 ; 117,391*. in 1891 ; 87,471*. in 1892 The im-
ports from Madagascar were, in 1892, caoutchouc, 75,872*.; hemp, 8,578*. ;
sugar, 7,256*.; the exports to Madagascar, cottons, 76,379*. in 1892.
Shipping and Communications.
There are as yet no roads in Madagascar in the European sense of the
word — only rough paths from one part of the country to the other — and no
beasts or wheeled vehicles are employed. All passengers and goods are
carried on the shoulders of m&romlta or bearers, except where the rivers or
coast lagoons allow the use of canoes made of the hollowed-out trunk of a
large tree. On the coast outrigged canoes are employed, and also built boats
with the planks tied together (on the south-east coast). A considerable
traffic is carried on on the west coast by Arab dhows. Turtle fishing is
practised by the Sakalava on the west coast.
No Government post-office exists, but postal communication is kept up
by the consular officers of the English and FVench Governments. An electric
telegraph, made by a French company, connects Tamatave and the capital,
and this is to be taken over by the native Government after a certain period.
It is about 180 miles in length.
Money and Banks.
The Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris has an agency at Antanana.
rivo and Tamatave.
The only legal coin is the silver 5-franc piece, but the Italian 5 -lire piece
and Belgian, Greek, and other coins of equal value are also in circulation.
For smaller sums the coin is cut up into fractional parts, and weighed as
required.
Consular and other Representatives.
1. Of Madagascar in Great Britain.
Consul in London.— &. Procter.
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MAYOTTE AND THE COMORO ISLANDS— REUNION 521
stated to have increased from 3,000 in 1887 to about 8,000 in 1889. The
chief town of the colony is Antsirame. The commerce is unimportant. Local
budget (1893) : income and expenditure, 128,410 francs. Expenditure of
France (budget of 1894), .2,283,628 francs. In 1888 the colonies of Nossi-
Be and Ste. Marie were, for administrative purposes, made dependencies of
Diego-Suarez.
Nossi-Be Island, close to west coast of Madagascar, with an area of 113
square miles, has 7,803 inhabitants, chiefly Malagasy and Africans. Chief
productions, sugar-cane, coffee, and rice. Imports (1890), 2,025,388 francs
exports, 1,900,298 francs. Local budget (1893), 205, 000 francs ; expenditure
of France (budget of 1894), 72,606 francs.
St. Marie, on the north coast of Madagascar, was taken by France as
early as 1648. It covers 64 square miles ; population, 7,667 ; chief export,
cloves. Imports (1889), 145,795 francs; exports, 109,492 francs. Local
budget (1893), 90,000 francs ; expenditure of France (budget of 1894), 35,000
francs.
MAYOTTE AND THE COMORO ISLANDS.
The island of Mayotte (149 square miles) has a population (1889) of
12,270 inhabitants. The chief production is cane-sugar ; it has 11 sugar
works and distilleries) The imports (1890), 561,600 francs ; exports, chiefly
of sugar and vanilla, 1,563,096 francs.
The Comoro Islands, situated half-way between Madagascar and the
African coast, consist of 4 larger and a number of smaller islands. They
were taken under French protection in 1886. The population is estimated at
47,000, chiefly Mussulmans.
The local budget of Mayotte (1893) amounted to 260,420 francs ; expendi-
ture of France (budget of 1894), 97,495 francs.
REUNION.
Reunion, about 420 miles east of Madagascar, has belonged to France since
1764. It is represented by a senator and two deputies. It has an area of
965 square miles and population (1892) of 171,731 (23,161 British Indians,
5,617 natives of Madagascar, 9,769 Africans, 412 Chinese. The towns are
under the French municipal law. The chief port, Pointe-des-Galets, is con-
nected by a railway of 78 miles with St. Benoit and St. Pierre. The chief
productions are sugar-cane (38,402 tons of sugar exported in 1892), coffee,
cacao, vanilla, spices. In 1887 the live stock on the island was 2,511 horses,
7,552 mules, 8,402 oxen, 15,580 sheep, and 12,392 goats. The total imports
in 1890 amounted to 30,314,456 francs ; and exports, 17,275,826. Imports
in 1892, 22,240,000 francs; exports, 15,734,800 francs. Shipping entered
(1892), 127 vessels of 131,724 tons; cleared, 107 of 133,810 tons.
The local budget for 1893 showed income and expenditure : ordinary,
4,513,950 francs; extraordinary, 4,508,942 francs. • The expenditure of
France (budget 1894) was 4,348,137 francs.
OBOCK
Is a French colony on the Red Sea coast of Africa, on the Gulf of Aden, and
including the Bay of Tajurah. The territory embraces 3,860 square miles,
with a population of 22,370. There is a trade with Shoa and other countries
in the interior. The expenditure of France for Obock in the budget of 1894
amounts to 489,348 francs.
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522 FRANCE: — SENEGAL, ETC.
SENEGAL, RIVIERES DU SUD, THE SETTLEMENT ON THE GUINEA
COAST, THE FRENCH SOUDAN, AND THE FRENCH SAHARA.
With the exception of the British colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone, and the
Gold Coast, Portuguese Guinea, and Liberia, France claims the whole of West
Africa from Cape Blanco to Togo Land, and inland to the Upper and Middle
Niger, and considerable areas to the east of the Upper Niger, including the
Kingdom of Kong and neighbouring territories. By the Anglo-French
arrangement of August 5, 1890, Great Britain recognises as within the French
sphere of influence the whole region to the south of Tunis and Algeria north
of a line from Say, on the Middle Niger, to Barrawa, on Lake Chad, including
all the territories which belong to Sokoto. The line dividing French territory
from British in the region included in the bend of the Niger has not been
agreed upon. The French Sahara may embrace about one million square
miles, mostly desert. Several railway projects from Algeria to the Niger are
under consideration. The total area claimed by France in West Africa is
about 550,000 square miles. It is divided into Senegal, Rivieres du Sud,
French Soudan and the protectorates attached thereto, the Guinea Coast
territories.
Senegal and Rivieres du 8ud are divided into (1) countries occupied, (2)
countries annexed, (3) countries protected. The first are divided into com-
munes and territories, the former being St. Louis, Dakar, Rufisque, and
the island of Goree, and the latter being various stations and ports in the
coast region and up the Senegal, and the districts around within range of
cannon-shot. The annexed countries are Walo, Northern Cayor, Toro, Dimar,
and Damga.
Senegal proper (the colony) includes several stations on the river as far as
Matam, with a certain area of land around each, and the coast from the north
of Cape Verd to Gambia in the south. These, with the settled portion of
Rivieres du Sud, embrace over 14,700 square miles, with a population of
174,000, of whom 135,000 are in Senegal. But included in Senegal and
Rivieres du Sud are various protected states, which give a total area of 54,000
square miles, with a population in 1891 of 1,100,000. There is a Governor-
General in Senegal, assisted by a Colonial Council. There are 2,168 troops
(including natives) with 82 officers. The chief town of Senegal is St Louis ;
population, 20,000. Dakar (population, 2,000) is an important centre. The
colony is represented by one deputy. At high water the Senegal is navigable
for small vessels into the interior. In 1892 there were 246 miles of railway,
574 miles of telegraph line, 1,022 miles of wire, and 21 telegraph offices.
Fruits and grains (5,655,780 francs in 1890), oils and gums (3,647,000
francs), india-rubber, woods, and skins are the chief exports ; foods, drinks,
and textiles (4,624,185 francs in 1890) are the chief imports. Local budget
for 1893, 3,421,155 francs; expenditure of France (budget for 1894),
6,226,057 francs ; debt, 517,657 francs.
Rivieres du Snd. — From January 1, 1890, the territory on the coast from
11° to nearly 9° N. (except the Los Islands, which belong to Great Britain),
and inland along and between the rivers as far as the Fouta Diallon, has been
detached from Senegal and formed into a separate colony under the name of
Rivieres du Sud, with Conakry for its capital. The population of the colony
proper (the coast region) is given as 47, 541. With it are united (January 1892)
for administrative purposes the French settlements on the Gold Coast and on
the Bight of Benin, the whole being known officially as French Guinea and
Dependencies. The cost to France in 1894 was 941,175 francs. The pro-
ducts are similar to those of Senegal. Imports (1890), 4,332,604 francs
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Tunis 523
(cottons 1,720,316 francs); exports, 4,002,071 francs (caoutchouc 2,487,740
francs). A telegraph cable connects Conakry, on the Isle of Tombo, with
Sierra Leone ana Senegal.
- Gold Coast and Bight of Benin Settlements.— From January 1, 1890,
the French settlements on the Gulf of Guinea have been divided into two
colonies, consisting of the Gold Coast Settlements — Grand-Bassam, Assinie,
Grand-Lahou, and Jackeville ; and the Bight of Benin Settlements — Porto-
Novo, Kotonu, Grand-Popo, and Agoue. For Kotonu and Porto-Novo
France pays an annuity of 2,000 francs to the King of Dahomey. For ad-
ministrative purposes each of these colonies forms a dependency of Rivieres du
Sud and hence the name of French Guinea. They are administered (since January
1892) by a Governor, who has also command over the protectorate of Fouta
Jallon. The total area of the Gold Coast and Benin Settlements is given at
25,000 square miles (which includes protectorates, as only a few stations are in
actual possession), and the united colonial population at 772. The imports of
the Gold Coast Settlements in 1890 amounted to 2,801,000 francs ; and of the
Bight of Benin Settlements to 3,489,894 francs. Of the two colonies, in 1889,
the exports were valued at 2, 742, 278 francs, and the imports at 3, 692, 510 francs.
In 1891 France took possession of the strip of coast (about 100 miles) between
her Gold Coast Settlements and Liberia.
The French Soudan includes the Upper Senegal, and all the countries in
the Upper and Middle Niger, and the states which extend inland from Senegal
and the Rivieres du Sud. It is divided into annexed territories and protec-
torates. The annexed territories, mostly in the Upper Senegal, embrace an area
of 54,000 square miles, and a population of 360,000 ; the protectorates were esti-
mated to have an area of 230,000 square miles, and a population of 2 J millions.
The administration of the French Soudan is entrusted to a Superior Military
Commandant, who resides at Kayes, in the Senegal, under the authority of
the Governor of Senegal. There is a railway from Kayes to Bafoulabe, 94
miles, which it was originally intended to carry on to the Niger. The local
revenues amount to about 400,000r francs yearly. According to the budget for
1894, the annual cost to France of the occupation of the French Soudan is
6, 219, 222 francs.
TUNIS.
(Afrikija.)
Bey.
Sidi Ali, son of Bey Sidy Ahsin ; born October 5, 1817 ; succeeded his
brother, Sidi Mohained-es-Sadok, October 28, 1882. "
The reigning family of Tunis, occupants of the throne since 1691, descend
from Ben Ali Turki, a native of the Isle of Crete, who made himself master of
the country, acknowledging, however, the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey,
in existence since^ 1575. Sidy Ahsin obtained an imperial, firman, dated
October 25, 1871, which liberated him from the payment of tribute, but
clearly established his position as a vassal of the Sublime Porte,
Government*
After the French invasion of the country in the spring of 1881, the treaty
of Kasr-es-Said (May 12, 1881), confirmed by decrees of April 22, 1882, placed
Tunis under the protectorate of France. The French representative is called
Minister Resident, and with two secretaries practically administers the govern-
ment of the country under the direction of the French Foreign Office, which
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INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
525
Industry.
The chief industry is agriculture. In 1890, wheat and barley occupied
over 1,000,000 hectares, or one-sixth of the cultivated land; vineyards, 3,170
hectares, yielding 105,142 hectolitres (1891), mostly for local consumption.
On December 31, 1889, the farm animals numbered 1,560,364, viz. : — horses,
31,185 ; asses and mules, 79,740 ; cattle, 156,552 ; sheep, 761,094 ; goats,
427,450 ; camels, 86,617 ; swine, 1,726.
The fisheries are mostly in the hands of Italians. They produced in 1892
sardines, 155,280 kilogrammes, value 33,900 francs; anchovies, 317,920
kilogrammes, value 201,000 francs J sponges and sepia, 1,284,000 francs.
Commerce.
The amount and distribution of the foreign trade of Tunis for the year
ending October 12, 1891, and for the financial year (which corresponds with
the calendar year) 1892, were : —
-
Tear ending October, 12, 1891.
1802 »
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
France
20,046,592
25,118,507
20,773,870
20,964,880
Algeria
Malta . .
993,001
6,020,977
2,664,955
6,104,968
7,836,020
686,507
4,365,189
964,680
Italy .
3,778,130
3,247,141
4,672,952
3,097,765
Austria
1,704,619
31,228
1,591,467
73,932
Great Britain
555,884
5,692,219
1,401,583
2,603,677
Belgium
868,081
1,082,070
1,096,689
317,673
Other countries .
Total .
2,332,763
2,592,040
2,755,917
3,074,929
38,115,090
44,465,689
39,322,622
37,202,504
In 1892 the chief imports were : — cotton goods, 4,800,000 francs ; woollen
fabrics, 1,200,000 francs; groats and semolina, 3,300,000 ; flour, 1,300,000 ;
raw and thrown silk, 1,400,000; wines, 1,100,000; sugar, 1,900,000; hides,
1,100,000. The chief exports were :— Wheat, 8,000,000 francs; barley,
4,000,000 francs; olive oil, 7,200,000 francs; dried vegetables, 2,900,000
francs ; tan, 2, 500, 000 francs ; esparto grass, 1,900,000 francs ; wines, 1,200,000
francs (1890, 236,130 francs ; 1889, 39,768 francs).
The commercial intercourse between Tunis and the United Kingdom in
each of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, was as
follows : —
-
1888
1889
1800
1891
1892
Imports into United
Kingdom fromTunis
Exports of British
produce to Tunis .
£
137,395
55,605
£
115,491
88,231
£
246,718
164,617
£
204,211
174,745
£
131,858
111,298
The principal imports into Great Britain in 1892 were : esparto grass and
other materials for making paper, of the value of 92,6632. The principal
British export to Tunis consisted of cotton manufactures, of the value of
78,803*.
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527
AMERICA.
GUADELOUPE AND DEPENDENCIES.
Guadeloupe, situated in the Lesser Antilles, has an area of 94, 600 hectares
360 sq. m.) ; it is surrounded by a number of smaller islands — Marie Galante,
Les Saintes, Degrade, &c. — the total area being 722 square miles. It is
under a governor and an elected council, and is under French law ;
represented by a senator and two deputies. There are 49 primary schools
with 5,575 boys and 4,178 girls. The colony is divided into arrondisse-
ments, cantons, and communes ; its chief town is Pointe-a-Pitre. Revenue
and expenditure balanced at 5,629,069 francs in the local budget of 1893;
debt, 1,000,000 francs; expenditure of France (budget of 1894), 1,604,372*
francs. Chief cultures : sugar-cane (47,438,024 kilogrammes of sugar, 1890),
coffee, cacao, vanilla, spices, manioc, bananas, sweet potatoes, rice, indian
corn, and vegetables ; cotton, the ramie fibre, tobacco, and india-rubber to a
very limited extent ; forest rich in excellent timber. There were, in 1887,
7,306 horses, 19,578 horned cattle, 9,819 sheep, and 18,365 swine. Railways,
60 miles.
GUIANA.
Population estimated at 10,600 inhabitants at Cayenne, and about 15,000
in the interior, in addition to a few mountain tribes. Population of the
penitentiaries and the liberated convicts about 4,400. The colony is under
a governor, and is represented by one deputy. It is poorly cultivated, and its
trade insignificant. In 1890, 42,844 ounces of gold were exported to France.
Local budget, 2,027,868 francs in 1893, the expenditure of France (budget for
1894} being 1,356,666 francs.
MARTINIQUE.
The colony is under a governor and municipal councils with elected
General Council ; divided into 32 communes. Represented by a senator and
two deputies. Area 381 square miles ; population in 1888, 175,891 (84,138
males and 91,253 females), with floating population of 2,456 ; only 652
were born in France. Birth rate, 34 per 1,000, and death rate, 29. Several
primary schools and lyceums for boys and girls, with 4,850 male and 3,970
female pupils. Chief commercial town, St. Pierre (20,000 inhabitants).
Sugar-cane (49,548 hectares in 1889), manioc, sweet potatoes, and bananas
are the chief culture, 13,453 hectares being under the food-producing crops.
Coffee, cacao, and tobacco also grown to a limited extent. In 1889 there were
12 miles of railway. The exports are mainly cod to Paris. The local budget
for 1893 was 4,942,019 francs ; expenditure of France (budget of 1894),
2,512,748 francs ; civil and judicial services, 359,858 francs ; the rest of the
expenditure was almost entirely for military purposes ; debt, 435,000 francs.
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528 FRANCE: — AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA
8T. PIERRE AND MIQTTE10N.
Two small islands close to the south coast of Newfoundland. Chief business
cod fishing, chiefly in ships from France ; total value in 1890, 11,084,518
francs. The weight of cod was 26,514,043 kilogrammes, and of oil 338,844
kilogrammes. Estimated local revenue (1893), 519,845 francs ; expenditure
the same ; expenditure of France (budget 1894), 277,300 francs.
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
HEW CALEDONIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
New Caledonia is a French penal colony, and the government is entirely in
the hands of the Governor Area, 6, 000 square miles. Population (1889) : colo-
nists, 5,585; officials and soldiers, 3,476; natives, 41,874; imported labourers,
1,825 ; freed convicts, 2,515 ; convicts, 7,477 ; total, 62,752. Capital, Noumea,
4,000 inhabitants. The expenditure of the mother country in the budget of
1894 amounted to 3,003,933 francs; the local budget for 1893 was 2,899,024
francs. Coal, and other minerals are worked, rough ore, nickel, chrome, and
cobalt being largely exported to Europe and Australia. About 1, 900 square miles
are appropriated to natives and colonists ; 600 square miles of land suited for
agriculture or pasturage remain uncultivated ; the rest is mostly forest or
mountain. Wheat, maize, and other cereals are cultivated, as also pine-
apples, coffee, sugar, coco-nuts, cotton, manioc, vanilla, vines, and other
sub-tropical cultures. There are 120,000 head of cattle. In 1891 the imports
were valued at 456,707Z. (199,284*. from France). The chief articles were :—
haberdashery, 131,8502. ; wines and spirits, 91,579Z. ; flour and dried vege-
tables, 40, 204Z. ; alimentary goods, £43,7882. Exports, 345,1652. (32,1312.
to France). Chief exports: — nickel, 269,6052. j»preserved meat, 25, 427 £
(17,1222. to France) ; chrome ore, 13,0322. ; silver lead ore, 7,0862. In 1891
153 vessels of 133,249 tons (99 of 71,205 tons British) entered, and 131 of
126,768 tons (99 of 71,205 tons British) cleared at the port of Noumea.
Dependencies of New Caledonia are : — The Isle of Pines, area 58 square
miles, 44 miles to the south-east ; the Loyalty Archipelago, three principal
and many smaller islands, total area 756 square miles, 100 miles to the east ;
the Huon Islands, 150 miles to the north-east, and the Chesterfield
Islands, 500 miles to the north-west, both groups uninhabited and covered
with guano ; the Wallis Archipelago, north-east of Fiji, placed under the
protectorate of France definitively in 1887.
SOCIETY ISLANDS AND NEIGHBOURING GROUPS.
These are officially known as the French Establishments in Oceania.
They consist of the Society Islands — Tahiti, Moorea, the Tetiaroa Islands,
and Meetia — and Raiatea and Tubuai-Moru, Huahine, Bora-Bora, and other
islands to the north-west
The Marquesas, Tuamotu, Gambier, and Tubuai groups, and the island of
Rapa.
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SOCIETY ISLANDS AND NEIGHBOURING GROUPS 529
Tahiti, the principal of these islands, has an area of 412 square miles, and
Moorea, 50 square miles. Population of Tahiti, 11,200 ; Moorea, 1,600.
There is a Commandant-General for all the establishments in Oceania, with a
council for consultation. There is also a general council elected by universal
suffrage. The chief town and port of Tahiti is Papeete. The expenditure
of France (budget for 1894) is 834,612 francs. The local budget for 1898
amounted to 1,143, 950 francs. The total exports in 1892 amounted to 162,890/.
The chief exports were: — mother-of-pearl, 70, 9502. ; copra, 53,4752. ; cotton,
21,3842. ; vanilla, 4,7522. ; while cottons, preserved meat, flour, and wines are
imported.
In Tahiti and Moorea 7,000 acres are under cultivation, the chief crops
being cotton, sugar, and coffee.
In 1892 15 vessels of 7,240 tons entered, and 17 of 7,976 tons cleared the
port of Papeete.
Kerguelen, about 50 S. lat. and 70 E. long, was annexed by France in
February, 1893. It is a desolate island, but contains abundance of coal.
M M
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530
I
GERMAN EMPIRE.
(Deutsches Reich.)
Reigning Emperor and King.
Wilhelm II., German Emperor, and King of Prussia, born
January 27, 1859, became German Emperor June 15, 1888 (see
Prussia).
Heir Apparent.
Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882, eldest son of
the Emperor-King (see Prussia).
The imperial throne, after the extinction of the Carlovingian
line, was filled by election, though with a tendency towards the
hereditary principle of succession. At first the Emperor was
chosen by the vote of all the Princes and Peers of the Reich ;
but the mode came to be changed in the fourteenth century,
when a limited number of Princes, fixed at seven for a time, and
afterwards enlarged to eight (nine from 1692 to 1777), assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being
acknowledged, were called Electors. With the overthrow of the
old Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Electoral
dignity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was re-
tained sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, the
last of them dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. The election of
Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as the German Emperor (1871) was
by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation,
on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The
imperial dignity is now hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern,
and follows the law of primogeniture. An essential difference
between the old and the new German Empire consists in the
exclusion of Austria from the latter.
Since Charlemagne was crowned ' Kaiser ' at Rome, on
Christmas Day in the year 800, there have been the following
Emperors : —
House of Charlemagne.
Karl I. , ' Der Grosse ' 800-814
Ludwig I., ' Der Fromme ' 814-840
Ludwig II., * Der Deutsche 848-876
Karl II., 'DerKahle . 876-877
Karl, 'DerDicke' . . 881-887
Arnulf .... 887-899
Ludwig III., * Das Kind ' 900-911
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
531
House of Franconia.
Konrad I. 911-918
House of Saxony.
Heinrich I., 'Der Vogel-
steller' . . . 919-936
Otto I. , ' Der Grosse ' . 936-973
Otto II. ... 973-983
Otto III. . . . 983-1002
Heinrich II. . . . 1002-1024
House of Franconia.
Konrad II., 'DerSalier'. 1024-1039
Heinrich III. . . 1039-1056
Heinrich IV. . . . 1056-1106
Heinrich V. . . . 1106-1125
House of Saxony.
Lothar II., ' Der Sachse ' 1125-1137
House of Hohenstaufen.
Konrad III. . . . 1138-1152
FriedrichL, 'Barbarossa' 1152-1190
Heinrich VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philipp .... 1198-1208
Otto IV., 'von Wittels-
bach' .... 1208-1212
Friedrichll. . . . 1212-1250
Konrad IV. . . . 1250-1254
First Interregnum.
Wilhelm of Holland . 1254-1256
Richard of Cornwall . 1256-1272
House of Habsburg.
Rudolf I. . . . 1273-1291
House of Nassau.
Adolf
1292-1298
House of Habsburg.
Albrechtl. . . . 1298-1308
Houses of Luxemburg and Bavaria.
Heinrich VII. . . 1308-1313
LudwiglV., 'DerBaier'. 1313-1347
Karl IV. . . . 1348-1378
Second Interregnum.
Wenceslaus of Bohemia . 1378-1400
Ruprecht 'Von der Pfalz' 1400-1410
Sigmund of Brandenburg. 1410-1437
House
Albrecht II. .
Friedrich III.
Maximilian I.
KarlV. .
Ferdinand I. .
Maximilian II.
Rudolf II. .
Matthias
Ferdinand II.
Ferdinand III.
Leopold I.
Joseph I.
Karl VI.
of Habsburg.
. 1438-1439
. 1440-1493
. 1493-1519
. 1519-1556
. 1556-1564
. 1564-1576
. 1576-1612
. 1612-1619
. 1619-1637
. 1637-1657
. 1657-1705
. 1705-1711
. 1711-1740
House of Bavaria.
Karl VII. . . 1742-1745
House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Franz 1 1745-1765
Joseph II. . . . 1765-1790
Leopold II. . . . 1790-1792
Franz II. . . . 1792-1806
Third Interregnum.
Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815
German 'Bund' . .1815-1866
North German Confedera-
tion ... 1866-1871
House of Hohenzollern.
Wilhelm I. . . . 1871-1888
Friedrich . 1888 (March-June)
Wilhelm II. . . 1888 (June)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Empire bears date April 16, 1871.
By its terms, all the States of Germany ' form an eternal union
for the protection of the realm and the care of the welfare of
the German people.' The supreme direction of the military and
political affairs of the Empire is vested in the King of Prussia,
who, in this capacity, bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser.
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532
GERMAN EMPIRE
i
According to Art. II. of the Constitution, ' the Emperor repre-
sents the Empire internationally,' and can declare war, if
defensive, and make peace, as well as enter into treaties with
other nations, and appoint and receive ambassadors. To declare
war, if not merely defensive, the Kaiser must have the consent
of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in which body, together
with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, are vested the
legislative functions of the Empire. The Emperor has no veto
on laws passed by these bodies. The Bundesrath represents the
individual States of Germany, and the Reichstag the German
nation. The 58 members of the Bundesrath are appointed by
the Governments of the individual States for each session, while
the members of the Reichstag, 397 in number (about one for
every 124,505 inhabitants), are elected by universal suffrage and
ballot, for the term of five years. By the law of March 19,
1888, which came into force in 1890, the duration of the legis-
lative period is five years. The various States of Germany are
represented as follows in the Bundesrath and the Reichstag : —
States of the Empire
Number of
Members in
Bundesrath
Kingdom of Prussia .
,, ,, Bavaria
„ Saxony.
„ „ Wiirttemberg
Grand-Duchy of Baden .
,, ,, Mecklenburg-Schwerin
,, „ Saxe- Weimar .
,, „ Mecklenburg-Strelitz
,, „ Oldenburg
Duchy of Brunswick
,, ,, Saxe-Meiningen
,, „ Saxe-Altenburg
,, ,, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .
,, ,, Anhalt ....
Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
,, ,, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
„ ,, Waldeck .
,, ,, Reuss Aelterer Linie
,, ,, Reuss Jungerer linie
Schaumburg-Lippe
Lippe
jubeck
Free town of Lubec*
,, ,, ,, Bremen
„ „ „ Hamburg .
Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine
Total
17
6
4
4
3
3
2
58
Digitized.
Number of
Deputies in
Reichstag
236
48
23
17
14
9
6
3
1
3
3
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
15
ized_b^GOl_
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 533
Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrath by four commissioners
(Kommissdre) without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter.
The total number of electors to the Reichstag inscribed on the lists was
10,145,877, or 21*7 per cent, of the population of 1885, at the general election
of 1890, while the number of actual voters was 7,261,659 at the same election,
or 71 '6 per cent, of the total electors. Of the 897 electoral districts, 21 con-
sist solely of towns, 107 of districts, each containing a town of at least
20,000 inhabitants, and 269 of districts without any large towns. In 252
districts Protestantism is predominant, and in the remainder Roman
Catholicism claims the majority. Of electoral districts with 60,000 of a
population and under, there were 5 in 1890 ; between 60,000 and 80,000, 29 ;
between 80,000 and 100,000, 72 ; between 100,000 and 120,000, 130 ; between
120,000 and 140,000, 104 ; between 140,000 and 160,000, 21 ; and above
160,000, 36. Of electoral districts with 12,000 voters or less, there were 8 in
1890 ; 12,000-16,000, 24 ; 16,000-20,000, 58 ; 20,000-24,000, 118 ; 24,000-
27,000, 97 ; 28,000-32,000, 45 ; above 32,000 voters 52.
Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked
by the Emperor. The Emperor has the right to prorogue and dissolve,
after a vote by the Bundesrath, the Reichstag. Without consent of the
Reichstag the prorogation may not exceed thirty days ; while in case of disso-
lution new elections must take place within sixty days, and a new session
must open within ninety days. All laws for the Empire must receive the
votes of an absolute majority of the Bundesrath and the Reichstag. The
Bundesrath is presided over by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the Empire,
and the President of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies.
The laws of the Empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the Reichstag, to
take effect must receive the assent of the Emperor, and be countersigned
when promulgated by the Chancellor of the Empire. All the members of
the Bundesrath have the right to be present at the deliberations of the
Reichstag.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State : they do
not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under
the general supervision of the Chancellor.
1. Chancellor of the Empire. — General Count George von Caprvoi. — General
George von Caprivi de Caprera de Montecucculi, born 1831 ; entered the army
1849 ; Field-Officer of the General Staff of the 1st Army, 1866 ; Chief of Staff
to the 10th Corps, 1870 ; Commander of 30th Division at Metz, 1888 : ap-
pointed head of the Admiralty, 1884 ; appointed Chancellor of the Empire,
March 20, 1890.
2. Ministry for Foreign Affairs. — Herr Freiherr Marschall von Bieberstein.
3. Imperial Some Office and ' Representative of the Chancellor.* — Herr Dr.
von Boetticher.
4. Imperial Admiralty. — Herr Hollmann. Admiral Commanding-in-
Chief. — Herr Freiherr von der GoUz.
5. Imperial Ministry of Justice. — Herr Nieberding.
6. Imperial Treasury. — Count von Posadowsky- Wehner.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus : —
7. Imperial Post-Office. — Herr Dr. von Stephan.
8. Imperial Railways. — Herr Dr. Schulz.
9. Imperial Exchequer. — Herr von Wolff.
10. Imperial Invalid Fund. — Dr. Rdsing.
11. Imperial Bank. — President, Herr Dr. Koch*
12. Imperial Debt Commission. — President, Herr Meinecke.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-
rath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as
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534
GERMAN EMPIRE
such has twelve standing committees — namely, for army and fortifications ; for
naval matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways, posts,
and telegraphs ; civil and criminal law ; financial accounts ; foreign affairs ;
for Alsace-Lorraine ; for the Constitution ; for the Standing orders ; and for
railway tariffs. Each committee consists of representatives of at least four
States of the Empire ; but the foreign affairs committee includes only the
representatives of Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg, and two , other represen-
tatives to be elected every year.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table gives the area and population of the
twenty-five States of Germany in the order of their magnitude,
and of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, as returned at the two
census-periods of 1885 and 1890 : —
i
States of the Empire
Area
English
sq. miles
Population
Dec 1, 1885
Population
Dec. 1, 1890
Density
persq.
mile 1890
Prussia (with Heligoland)
134,463
28,318,470
29,957,367
222 8
Bavaria ....
29,282
5,420,199
5,594,982
191 1
Wurttemberg
7,528
1,995,185
2,036,522
270 5
Baden .
5,821
1,601,255
1,657,867
284*8
Saxony .
5,787
3,182,003
3,502,684
605*2
Mecklenhurg-Schwerin
5,135
575,152
578,342
112 6
Hesse .
2,965
956,611
992,883
334 8
Oldenburg .
Brunswick .
2,479
341,525
354,968
143-2
1,424
372,452
403,773
283*5
Saxe* Weimar
1,388
313,946
326,091
284*8
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1,131
98,371
97,978
86*6
Saxe-Meiningen .
953
214,884
223,832
234-8
Anhalt .
906
248,166
271,963
3001
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
755
198,829
206,513
273 5
Saxe-Altenburg
511
161,460
170,864
332*4
Lippe .
Waldeck
469
123,212
128,495
278*9
433
56,575
57,281
132 4
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
363
83,836
85,863
236*5
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen .
333
73,606
75,510
2267
Reuss-Schleiz
319
110,598
119,811
375 6
Schaumberg-Lippe
131
37,204
39,163
298*9
Reuss-Greiz .
122
55,904
62,754
514*3
Hamburg
158
518,620
622,530
3,9491
Lubeck .
115
67,658
76,485
665 1
Bremen
99
165,628
180,443
1,822 6
Alsace-Lorraine
5,668
1,564,355
1,603,506
282*9
Total .
•
208,788
46,855,704
49,428,470
2367 |
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AREA AND POPULATION
535
The population of the lands now included in the German
Empire (without Heligoland) was 24,831,396 in 1816, and
31,589,547 in 1837, showing an average annual increase of
nearly 1*3 per cent. The following table shows the actual
increase in population at various periods, with the annual rate of
increase per cent. The small increase in 1867-71 is explained by
the intervention of the war with France.
Year
Increase
Annual Bate
per cent.
Year
Increase
Annual Bate
per cent.
1858
1867
1871
1875
5,371,195
3,220,083
970,171
1,668,388
075
0*97
0*61
1
1880
1885
1890
2,506,701
1,621,643
2,570,680
1-14
0-7
107
The increase of population during 1885-90 was greatest in
Hamburg, Liibeck, Eeuss Elder Branch, Sachsen, Anhalt,
Bremen, Reuss Younger Branch, and Brunswick. In Mecklen-
burg Strelitz there was a decrease.
The number of inhabited houses in 1890 was 5,790,689, and
of households 10,617,923. Of the total population (in 1885) 437
per cent, lived in towns of 2,000 inhabitants and above; in 1880,
41 per cent. Of every 100 inhabitants there lived in —
-
No.ofTowns
1880
NaofTowns
1885
No.ofTowns
1890
Large towns l .
Medium ,,
Small ,,
Country „
Other places
14
102
641
1,950
7*24
8*90
12 54
12-71
58 61
21
116
683
1,951
9 5
8*9
12*9
12*4
56*3
26
135
733
1,997
12 1
9-8
13-1
120
53 0
i For the official signification of these names see p. 588.
Of the total population in 1890, 24,230,832 were males and 25,197,638
were females. Boys under 10 years of age numbered 5,993,681 ; girls,
5,966,226 ; men over 80 years of age numbered 90,161 ; women, 119,289.
With respect to conjugal condition, the following was the distribution in
1890 :—
-
Males
Females
Total
Unmarried
Married . . * .
Widowed
Divorced and separated
15,058,108
8,872,486
774,967
25,271
14,591,560
8,398,607
2,157,870
49,601
29,649,668
16,771,093
2,932,837
74,872 |
i
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536
GERMAN EMPIRE
According to the occupation-census of June 5, 1882, the population of
Germany was divided as in the table below. Of the total, 18,986,494 were
actually engaged in the various occupations.
t-
;,
l-
Mining,
Metal
Works,
and other
Indus-
tries.
Com-
merce
and
Trade.
Do-
mestic
and
other
Service
Pro-
fessions
Without
Profes-
sion or
Occupa-
tion
Total
124
9,393,750
2,725,344
090,892
1,305,657
1,267,810
27,287,860
Bavaria. . . .
2,643,968
37,297
1,492,391
435,701
38,908
242,890
377,606
5,268,761
Saxony. . . .
578,592
23,786
1,695,895
360,675
53,584
148,861
153,929
8,014,822 i
Wiirttemberg .
927,282
15,642
674,080
143,258
11,254
95,714
90,239
1,957,469
Baden ....
752,489
13,086
491,957
140,870
18,161
77,785
64,250
1,558,598
Hesse ....
381,995
4,365
339,809
98,631
14,895
54,730
35,332
929,757
Meckl.-Schwerin
293,348
10,728
137,189
47,783
20,808
32,135
38,007
574,998
Saxe-Weimar . .
132,057
3,162
114,835
23,939
4,086
16,066
13,595
807,740
Meckl.-Strelitz .
49,244
1,886
25,142
8,432
3,643
5,653
5,167
99,167
Oldenburg . .
Brunswick . .
174,526
1,816
94,609
33,631
3,909
15,766
13,160
387,427
113,177
6,885
146,616
88,467
4,443
18,071
22,102
349,761
Saxe-Meiningen .
67,819
4,113
92,806
15,146
9,955
9,285
7,227
206,251
Saxe-Altenburg .
54,579
1,458
71,780
14,287
1,644
6,523
5,640
155,811
S.-Coburg-Gotha
65,796
3,880
90,279
16,480
2,988
9,838
8,850
198,111
Anhalt ....
75,987
2,481
104,956
24,129
3,451
12,382
13,456
236,792
Sch.-Rudolstadt
28,701
1,302
38,239
5,654
1,459
3,536
2,200
81,091
Schw.-Sondersh.
27,959
1,673
29,108
5,320
834
3,747
2,859
71,500 '
Waldeck . . .
30,378
537
16,255
3,673
839
3,089
1,914
56,685
Reuss-Oreiz . .
10,734
492
32,298
3,990
1,043
1,664
1,136
51,857
Reuss-Schleiz .
26,287
1,758
56,415
8,755
1,290
4,491
3,688
102,684
Schaumb-Lippe.
12,543
933
15,410
2,605
413
2,242
1,570
35,716
Lippe ....
45,733
609
46,308
6,318
1,501
4,396
4,092
108,957
Liibeck. . . .
8,976
879
23,305
18,580
2,234
4,549
5,868
64,891 1
Bremen. . . .
11,985
99
75,935
47,114
2,968
11,478
10,637
160,216 •
Hamburg . . .
20,530
1,948
195,491
159,721
26,48€
28,712
38,628
466,516
Alsace-Lorraine.
627,800
17,803
663,272
142,627
16,606
104,212
67,260
1,589,580 !
Total Empire .
18,840,818
384,637
16,058,080
1
4,581,080 938,264
2,222,982
2,246,22245,222,118
i
The bulk of the German population is (on the basis of language) Teutonic ;
but in Prussia, chiefly in the eastern provinces, there were in December, 1890,
2,922,475 Slavs (Poles, Masnrians, and Cassubians), 117,637 Lithuanians,
65,254 Wends, 74,069 Moravians and Czechs ; while throughout Prussia
were 138,134 Danes, 40,124 Dutch, 10,972 Walloons, and 34,725 English,
French, Swedish, &c. The total non-Germanic population was 3,403,390, or
nearly 7 per cent, of the whole population.
On December 1, 1890, Germany contained 512,668 persons born elsewhere,
the birthplaces of whom were as follows : —
Great Britain and Ireland. 15,748
Sweden and Norway . 14,615
Luxemburg . 12,704
Other European Lands . 26,535
United States . . 17,646
Elsewhere .11,439
Besides 126 born at sea, and 5,716 of unknown nationality. In 1885 the
number of foreign-born residents was 434,525 ; subjects of foreign powers
were 372,792.
Austria .
. 207,135
Russia .
. 53,227
Netherlands .
. 56,437
Switzerland .
41,613
France .
. 32,130
Denmark
23,439
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AREA AND POPULATION
537
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the movement of the population of thev
Empire during five years : —
Year
Marriages
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
370,659
376,654
389,339
395,356
399,398
1,825,561
1,828,379
1,838,439
1,820,264
1,903,160
68,482
66,972
65,869
61,011
62,988
172,118
169,645
170,572
165,672
172,456
1,220,406
1,209,798
1,218,956
1,260,017
1,227,409
605,155
618,581
619,483
560,247
675,751
Of the children born in 1891, 980,816 were boys, and 922,843 girls.
Emigration, which in recent years assumed larger proportions in Germany
than in any other country in Europe, after declining for some time received
a new impetus in 1880 and 1881. The number of emigrants in 1881, viz.,
220,902, is the highest total yet reached in any one year. The following
table shows the annual number of German emigrants for five years : —
Tears
Average
Total
Destination
United
States
Brazil
Other
American
Countries
Africa
Asia
Australia
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
108,951
96,070
97,103
120,089
116,889
99,800
90,285
89,962
113,046
111,806
1,129
2,412
4,117
3,779
796
1,922
2,243
1,914
2,130
2,765
331
422
471
599
476
280
262
165
97
120
539
496
474
488
376
The great majority of the emigrants sail from German ports and Antwerp.
In 1888-92, 18,277 embarked at Rotterdam or Amsterdam ; and in 1888-92,
a yearly average of 5,051 at French ports, notably Havre and Bordeaux.
The emigrants of 1892 by way of German ports, Antwerp, Rotterdam and
Amsterdam, comprised 61,882 males, 49,512 females. The number of
families was 16,524, including 61,447 persons. During the 72 years
from 1820 to 1891 the total emigration to the United States, which
absorbs the best classes of emigrants, numbered about 5,000,000 in-
dividuals, and during the last twelve years 1,517,788. It is calcu-
lated that each represented, on the average, a money value of 200 marks,
or 10/., so that the total, loss by this emigration amounted to nearly
50,000,000/. The number of emigrants to Brazil during the last twenty years
(1873-92) has been 40,119.
Of the emigrants in 1892 (not including those who sailed from French
ports) the principal States sent as follows : —
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GERMAN EMPIRE
Prussia . 76,196 Saxony . . 4,920 Oldenburg . 1,296
Bavaria . . 10,057 Hesse . . 1,716 Bremen . . 1,053
Wiirttemberg . 5,728 Meck.-Schwerin 1,329 Alsace-Lorraine. 922
Baden . . 4,654 Hamburg . . 2,110
In 1892, 151,412 emigrants other than Germans embarked at German
ports.
III. Principal Towns.
German towns are officially distinguished as large towns (with 100,000
inhabitants and upwards) ; medium towns (20,000-100,000 inhabitants) :
small towns (5,000-20,000 inhabitants), and country towns (2,000-5,000 in-
habitants). In 1890, only 1 town had over 1,000,000 inhabitants ; 6 others
over 250,000 ; 19 others over 100,000 ; 21 between 50,000 and 100,000 ; and
103 between 20,000 and 50,000. The 26 'large towns' with the States to
which they belong, are : —
Town
State
Pop. | Town
State
Pop.
Berlin .
Prussia .
1,578,794
| Stuttgart
Wiirttem-
Munich.
Bavaria .
349,024
berg .
139,817
Breslau .
Prussia .
335,186
Chemnitz
Saxony .
138,954
Hamburg1 .
Hamburg
323,923
Elberfeld .
Prussia .
125,899
Leipzig 2
Saxony .
295, 0252
Bremen
Bremen .
125,684
Cologne
Dresden
Prussia ;
281,681
Strassburg .
Alsace-
Saxony .
276,522
Lorraine
123,500
Magdeburg .
Prussia .
202,234
Danzig .
Prussia .
120,338
Frankfurt-on-
, Stettin .
116,228
Main .
179,985
Barmen.
116,144
Hanover
163,593
Crefeld .
105,376
Konigsberg .
161,666
Aachen .
103,470
Diisseldorf
144,642
Halle-a.-S. .
101,401
Altona .
143,249
Brunswick .
Brunswick
101,047
Nuremberg .
Bavaria .
142,590
i With out-lying suburbs (Vororte) 569,260.
2 With suburbs, incorporated January 1, 1891, Leipzig had in 1890, 354,899 inhabitants
For further details see under the separate States.
i
Religion.
The Constitution provides for entire liberty of conscience and
for complete social equality among all religious confessions. The
relation between Church and State varies in different parts of
the Empire. The order of the Jesuits is interdicted in all parts
of Germany, and all convents and religious orders, except those
engaged in nursing the sick and purely contemplative orders,
have been suppressed. There are five Roman Catholic arch-
bishops, and twenty bishoprics. The ' Old Catholics ' have a
bishop at Bonn.
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RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
539
The following are the results of three complete religious
censuses : —
Creed
1871
PerCt.
of Pop.
1880
PerCt.
of Pop.
1890
PerCt.
of Pop.
Protestants
Roman Catholics
Other Christians
Jews .
Others and un-
classified
25,581,685
14,869,292
82,158
512,153
17,156
62 3
36 1
0 2
1-24
0*04
28,331,152
16,232,651
78,031
561,612
30,615
62 6
35 9
0 2
12
•01
31,026,810
17,674,921
145,540
567,884
13,315
62-8
35 8
•29
1-1
03
Adherents of the Greek Church are included in ' Roman Catholics/
Roman Catholics are (1890) in the majority in only three of the German
States, and form more than 20 per cent, of the population in only four
others, as follows : —
A. States with 20 per Cent
of Roman Catholics.
States
Prot. p. Ct.
Rom. Cath.
p. Ct.
Other Chris-
tians
Jews p. Ct.
Others p. Ct.
Oldenburg
Wtirttemberg .
77 31
21*91
•34
•44
•006
69 10
29 94
•33
•62
•009
Hesse
67*09
29*58
•74
2 57
•019
Prussia .
64-20
34-22
•32
1-24
•016
B. Predominantly R
oman Catholic.
Alsace-Lorraine
21-05
76-53
•23
216
•025
Bavaria .
28*10
70-83
•10
•96
•009
Baden .
86 11
62*02
•24
1-61
•017
In all the other States the Roman Catholics form less than 3 '8 per cent,
of the population. (For farther particulars, see the various States.)
Instruction.
Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany.
The laws of Prussia, which provide for the establishment of
elementary schools (Volksschulen), supported from the local rates,
in every town and village, and compel all parents to send their
children to these or other schools, have been adopted, with slight
modifications, in all the States of the Empire. The school age is
from six to fourteen. The system of secondary education is also
practically homogeneous. Above the elementary schools rank
the middle schools of the towns, the Bwrgerschulen and H'dhere
Biirgerschulen, which fit their pupils for business life. Children
of the working classes may continue their education at the
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GERMAN EMPIRE
FortbUdungs-Schulen or continuation schools, which are open in
the evening or other convenient time. The Gymnasia are the
most fully developed classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine
years' course for the universities and the learned professions.
The Progymnasia differ from these only in not having the highest
classes. In the Eealgymnasia, Latin, but not Greek, is taught,
and what are usually termed ' modern subjects ' have more time
devoted to them. Bealprogymnasia have a similar course, but
have no class corresponding to the highest class in the preceding.
In the OberreaUchvIen and Becdschtden Latin is wholly displaced
in favour of modern languages. In 1 893, 1 ,009 secondary schools,
including 56 private schools, possessed the right of granting cer-
tificates to pupils, entitling them to serve in the army as one-year
volunteers. The teachers in German schools are required to hold
a Government certificate, and to have undergone a year's pro-
bation. Higher schools for girls are called Hdfoere Tochtersckulen.
Besides these there are numerous Gewerbeschulen or technical
schools, Polytechnica, normal schools, seminaries, and the uni-
versities. The total number of children of school age in 1885
was 8,609,198.
No official statistics of the number of schools, pupils, teachers, &c, are
issued for the entire Empire ; but particulars on these heads will be found
under some of the separate States. The number of elementary schools was
estimated in 1891 at 56,660, of pupils attending them 7,925,000, and of
teachers 120,030. The immediate expenditure on elementary schools was
about 242,400,000 marks, of which 69,305,000 marks came from State funds.
In 1891 the number of secondary schools was as follows [Brachelli, ^tatistische
Skizze des Deutschen Reichs, 7th ed.] : —
Gymnasia
. 427
Oberrealschulen
14
Progymnasia
Realgymnasia .
. 185
. 126
Realschulen
Hohere Burgerschulen
. 238
. 95
Bealprogymnasia
. 107
i
Among the more important special and technical schools in 1891 were 9
technical nigh-schools and polytechnics ; 31 middle schools of agriculture ; 15
schools of mining ; 15 schools of architecture and building ; 9 academies of
forestry ; 23 schools of art and art-industry {Kunst and Kunstgewerbe-Schulrn) :
and 7 public music-schools. There are also numerous smaller as well as
private agricultural, music, &c, schools, and a large number of artisans' or
trade schools. There is a naval academy and school at Kiel, and military
academies at Berlin and Munich ; besides 47 schools of navigation, 9 military
schools, and 9 cadet institutions.
It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation of the united
German army, that of all recruits of the year 1891-92 only 0*45 per cent,
could neither read nor write. In Esfct and West Prussia and in Poaen the
percentage ranged from 1'58 to 2*75 ? in all the other States the number was
less than 1 per cent. In Alsace-Lorraine it was only 1*29 per cent in
1882-83, and 0*35 in 1891-92.
There are 21 universities in the German Empire, besides the Lyceum
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541
Hosianum at Braunsberg (10 teachers and about forty students), which has
only faculties of theology (Roman Catholic) and philosophy.
The following table gives the number of teachers for the summer half year
1893, and the number of students for the winter half-year 1892-93.
Professors
Students
Universities
and
Teachers
Theology
Jurisprudence
Medicine
Philosophy
1,532
Total
Berlin .
368
620
1,470
1,254
4,876
Bonn
134
267
290
271
430
1,258
Breslau .
145
320
292
276
331
1,219
Erlangen
64
276
238
438
147
1,099
Freiburg
105
215
195
349
239
998
Giessen .
69
78
164
148
125
515
Gottingen
118
157
161
181
216
715
Greifswald
80
251
69
382
76
778
Halle .
132
596
200
263
498
1,557
Heidelberg
127
65
302
249
357
973
Jena
85
102
123
205
201
631
Kiel
85
68
75
245
100
488
Konigsberg
96
126
160
232
142
660
Leipzig .
184
451
1,078
928
850
3,307
Marburg .
97
123
187
247
280
837
Munich .
174
135
1,255
1,414
574
3,378
Miinster .
45
264
—
—
150
414
Rostock .
45
49
68
135
161
413
Strassburg
126
119
245
327
178
869
Tubingen
94
478
393
224
90
1,185
Wiirzburg
78
136
260
807
127
1,330
There were besides a certain number of non-matriculated students — the
majority, 2,985, at the University of Berlin.
In four universities, namely, Freiburg, Munich, Miinster, and Wiirzburg,
the faculties of theology are Roman Catholic ; three are mixed, both Pro-
testant and Roman Catholic — Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen ; and the remain-
ing fourteen are Protestant.
Justice and Crime.
In terms of Judicature Acts in 1877 and 1879 a uniform
system of law courts was adopted throughout the Empire not
later than January 1, 1879, though, with the exception of the
Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government
of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not
to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is
also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys
uniform codes of commercial and criminal law, though no uniform
code of civil law has yet been adopted.
The lowest courts of first instance are the Amtsgerichte, each with a single
judge, competent to try petty civil and criminal cases. There was on January 1,
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FINANCE
543
-
Heads of Fami-
lies and Single
Paupers
Dependants
Total
PerCent.
of
Population
Bavaria .
Alsace-Lorraine
Other states .
Total.
86,098
39,047
761,426
65,452
34,442
605,921
151,550
73,489
1,367,347
2*80
470
3 43
886,571
705,815
1,592,386
3-40
As preventive measures under this head must be mentioned the imperial
laws introducing the compulsory insurance of workmen against sickness
and insurance against accidents by employers (1883), and the compul-
sory insurance of workmen by the workmen themselves against old age
(1888).
Finance.
The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed from the
revenues arising from customs, certain branches of the excise,
and the profits of the posts, telegraphs, and State railways. The
individual States are assessed to make up any deficit in proportion
to population.
The following tables exhibit the revenue and expenditure (in
thousands of marks) for five years, the figures for the last two
years being taken from the budget estimates : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Years
Ordinary
Eztraord.
(loans, Ac.)
Total
Ordinary
Extraord.
(military,
Ac)
Total
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
1898-94
1,000 M. •
956,259
1,066,483
1,091,561
1,053,997
1,085,525
1,000 M.
250,142
186,784
322,335
154,422
169,475
1,000 M.
1,206,401
1,258,217
1,413,896
1,208,419
1,255,000
1,000 M.
928,006
1,018,498
1,085,184
1,069,305
1,089,672
1,000 M.
182,669
335,123
159,870
154,422
169,475
1,000 M.
1,110,675
1,853,621
1,245,054
1,223,727
1,259,147
The amounts raised by customs, excise, and
thousands of marks) : —
stamps were as follows (in
-
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Estimated
1892-93 1898-94
Customs and excise . .
Stamps . . . .
586,912
42,454
625,224
35,384
641,244
33,782
603,834
37,109
602,920
36,514
Total
629,366
660,608
675,026
640,943
639,434
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DEFENCE 545
For the end of 1891-92 the total funded debt amounted to 1,685,567,400
marks, and to meet the extraordinary expenditure a loan of 79,505,800 marks
was granted. The debt bears interest at 4 per cent. , and some of it 3J and 3 per
cent. Besides the funded there exists an unfunded debt, represented by
' Reichs-Kassenscheine,' or imperial treasure bills, outstanding on March 31,
1892, to the amount of 120,000,000 marks.
As a set off against the debt of the Empire there exists a variety of in-
vested funds. These comprise (end of 1890-91) the lund for invalids,
470,221,300 marks, besides 3,412,950 Frankfort florins and 347,026 silver ;
and a fund for Parliament buildings, 12,589,249 marks. The war treasure
fund, 120,000,000 marks, is not invested, but preserved in gold at Spandau.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Germany has a total frontier length of 4,570 miles. On the
north it is bounded by the North Sea (293 miles), Denmark (47
miles), and the Baltic (927 miles) ; on the south well-defined
mountain-ranges and the Lake of Constance separate it from
Austria (1,403 miles) and Switzerland (256 miles). On the re-
maining sides, however, the boundaries are chiefly conventional,
except in the south-west, where the Vosges Mountains separate
Germany and France. On the east Germany is bounded by
Russia for 843 miles ; on the west by France (242 miles), Luxem-
burg (111 miles), Belgium (70 miles), and Holland (377 miles).
Some of the coast defences and batteries have been placed
under the jurisdiction of the admiralty. The Empire is at
present divided into ten 'fortress districts ' (Festungs-Inspec-
tionen), each including a certain area with fortified places. The
following is a list of these districts, and the names of the fortresses
in each, the fortified places of the first class, serving as camps,
being distinguished by italics, while those specially designed for
railway protection or obstruction are marked by asterisks (*), and
coast fortresses by a dagger (t) : —
1. Konigsberg: Konigsberg, Danzig, f Pillau,t Memel,t Boy en. 2
Posen : Posen, Glogau,* Neisse, Glatz. 3. Beklin : Spandau, Magdeburg,
Torgau,* Kilstrin. 4. Mainz : Maim, Ulm, Rastatt. 5. Metz : Metz, Dieden-
hofen,* Bitsch.* 6. Cologne (Koln) : Cologne, Koblenz, Wesel,* Saarlouis.*
7. Kiel : Kiel, Friedrichsort,t Cuxhaven,t Geestemiinde,t Wilhelmshaven,t
Swinemiinde.+ 8. Thorn : Thorn, Graudenz, Vistula Passages (Weichseluber-
gange), Dirschau. 9. Strassburg: Strassburg : New Breisach. 10. Munich
(Miinchen) : Ingolstadt, Germerskeim.*
It will be seen that the Empire has 17 fortified places of the
first class, serving as fortified camps, and 19 other fortresses.
These fortresses are all connected with each other by means
of underground telegraphs, while strategical railway lines lead
from the principal military centres towards the frontiers.
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546 GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Army.
The 63rd Article of the Constitution of 1871 enacts that.* the
whole of the land forces of the Empire shall form a united army
in war and peace, under the orders of the Kaiser/ The Prussian
War Office discharges also the functions of an Imperial War Office,
but Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirttemberg have War Ministers of
their own. The military budgets of the two last named are, how-
ever, prepared in Berlin, and Bavaria is obliged to vote military
supplies in a fixed proportion to the other budgets. The
Sovereigns of these three Kingdoms have the right to select the
lower grades of officers, and the King of Bavaria, by a
convention signed November 23, 1870, reserved to himself the
special privilege of superintending the general administration of
the Bavarian contingent to the German army. But the approval
of the Kaiser must be obtained to all appointments, and nothing
affecting the superior direction of the troops of any State of the
Empire can be done without his consent. All German troops are
bound by the Constitution to obey unconditionally the orders of
the Kaiser, and must swear accordingly the oath of fidelity. But
this oath to the Kaiser is not imposed upon the Bavarian troops
in time of peace. Art. 65 of the Constitution gives the Emperor
the right of ordering the erection of fortresses in any part of
the Empire ; and Art. 68 invests him with the power, in case of
threatened disturbance of order, to declare any country or district
in a state of siege. The constitution of the army is regulated by
various military laws passed between 1867 and 1888 ; the Prussian
military legislation before 1871 being extended to the Empire.
By the Constitution of April 16, 1871, it is enacted that 'every German
is liable to service — and no substitution is allowed.' Every German capable
of bearing arras has to be in the standing army (or navy) for seven years, as a
rule from the finished twentieth till the commencing twenty-eighth year of
his age, though liability to service begins on the completion of the seven-
teenth year. Of the seven years, three must be spent in active service and
the remaining four in the army of reserve. Conscripts, whose conduct or pro-
ficiency earns them the privilege, are sometimes discharged from active service
at the end of two years, though liable to recall. They are familiarly known
as ' Kbnigs Urlauber. * After quitting the army of reserve, the conscript has
to form part of the Landwehr for another five years in the first class or * ban/
and up to his thirty-ninth year in the second ' ban.'
About 400,000 young men reach the age of twenty every year, and when
the numbers of those morally or physically unfit to serve, of volunteers, and
of emigrants, are deducted, about 300,000 are left liable for service. Of these,
however, owing to the legal limitation of the peace strength, only a certain
number (chosen by lot) join the army, the remainder are drafted into the
Frsatztruppen, a kind of reserve, where the period of service is twelve years.
Men in the Ersatztruppen are liable to three periods of drill (of ten, six, and
four weeks respectively) ; but as financial considerations allow of only a cer-
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DEFEKCE
547
tain number being so drilled, many receive no military training at all. At the
end of twelve years the trained members of the Ersatz pass into the first ban
of the Landsturm, the untrained into the second ban. By the Army Act of
July, 1803, the annual levies would be increased by about 60,000 men, and
the period of service under arms of the infantry would be reduced from 3 to
2 years, that of the cavalry and horse artillery being 3 years as before.
One-year volunteers, of whom about 8,000 join annually, serve at their own
charges, and are not reckoned in the legal peace strength. Non-commissioned
officers are generally appointed from men desiring to make the army their
profession.
All able-bodied men between the age of seventeen and forty-five, who arc
neither in the standing army nor the reserves, must belong to the Landsturm,
which is only called out in the event of an invasion of Germany. The Land-
sturm is divided into two classes or ' bans ; ' to the first ban belong those be-
tween the ages of seventeen and thirty-nine ; to the second those between
thirty-nine and forty-five.
The following table shows the strength and organisation of the imperial
army on peace the footing in 1893-94 : —
. __ ^
! Peace Footing.
Officers
Rank and File
Horses
1 Infantry, 173 regiments .
10,572
317,034
| Rifles, 19 battalions .
410
11,148
—
I Bezirkskommandos, 288 .
659
5,351
—
■ Surgeons, Instructors, &c. .
—
2,194
335,727
—
1 Total Infantry .
11,641
j Cavalry, 93 regiments
2,350
65,316
63,620
1 , , special services (in -
1 eluding officers)
—
833
—
i Field Artillery, 43 regiments
2,369
48,384
26,104
! ,, special ser-
, vices (including officers) .
—
725
—
1 Foot Artillery, 14 regiments
and 3 battalions
728
17,157
30
Foot Artillery special ser-
vices (including officers) .
—
96
—
Pioneers, 20 battalions, 2
, railway regiments, includ-
ing 1 balloon detachment,
1 railway battalion, and 2
railway companies .
588
12,874
—
, Special Pioneer services
—
102
—
Train, 21 battalions .
299
6,836
3,996
Special train services .
—
69
—
Special formations
Non -regimental officers, &c.
460
2,869
—
2,227
20,662
235
491,223
—
Total .
93,750
By the law of July 15, 1890, to continue in force to March 31, 1894, the
peace strength of the imperial army is 486,983 men, besides officers, surgeons,
paymasters, &c.
N N 2
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DEFENCE
549
North Sea stations. The chief naval establishments are at Kiel on the Baltic
and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea, and the strategic canal which is being
cut across the Schleswig-Holstein neck from Kiel to the Elbe will facilitate
the transference of forces from one base to the other. For administrative
purposes the German littoral has been divided into six inspectorates, viz. —
(1) East and West Prussia, (2) Pomerania and Mecklenburg, (3) Liibeck and
Eastern Schleswig-Holstein, (4) Western Schleswig-Holstein, (5) the district of
the Elbe and the Weser, and (6) the Jade, the East Frisian Islands, and Heli-
goland. The chief torpedo stations are at Friedrichsort, Wilhelmshaven, Kiel,
Stralsund, and Danzig. The manoeuvring squadron consists of eight ships, and
the cruising squadron of four, and there are nine vessels on foreign stations.
In the year 1888-89 a programme was laid down for practically a new
fleet, including 4 first-class barbette battle-ships of about 10,000 tons, 10
* coast-defence armourclads of 3,600 tons, 8 cruiser-corvettes of 6,052 tons,
5 cruisers of 1,580 tons, and smaller vessels, but provision has not been made
for all of these. In addition there are, 2 cruisers of the Bussard class to
replace the Eber and Adler, lost at Samoa, as well as other ships projected,
to replace vessels removed from the first list of the fleet.
The personnel provided for is as follows : — 646 executive officers (including
5 vice-admirals and 10 rear-admirals), 75 engineer officers, 40 officers of
marines, 52 ordnance constructors, 31 torpedo and mining officers, 179
others ; in all, 1,023 officers. Also 8,622 cadets, petty officers, and seamen ;
5,623 seamen-gunners, marines, torpedo-service men, &c. ; 4,224 dockyard
hands ; in all, 18,469 men.
In the following tabular statement of the strength of the German fleet,
only those projected vessels have been included for which votes have already
been made by the Reichstag. But it should be remembered that the pro-
gramme of 1888-89, though retarded by adverse votes, is still operative. The
system upon which the table has been constructed is explained in the Intro-
ductory Table. Non-effective vessels and transports are not included. The
' port defence ships ' are old ironclads and armoured gun-vessels : —
Battleships, 1st class 4
,, 2nd class 8
,, 3rd class 2
Port defence ships
Cruisers, 1st class (a) 1
.. (ft) 8
,, 2nd class
,, 3rd class (a) 22
„ (ft) 3
Torpedo-craft, 1st class l 77
„ 2nd class 64
14
The table which follows of the German armour-clad fleet is arranged in
a manner similar to that adopted in the case of the British and French navies.
The ships named in italics are classed as port defence vessels in the foregoing
statement of strength. The numbers following the names of the others in-
dicate the several classes to which they have been assigned. Abbreviations : —
b. broadside ; c.b. central battery; t. turret ; bar. barbette ; Q.F. quick firing.
Light and machine guns are not given. The armament consists of Krupp
guns:—
* Including 'division boats.'
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550
GERMAN EMPIRE
©
Q
Name
I
a
9
!
5
Extreme
Armouring
Armament
■SB
©\|
HP?
IS
A o
n
1-2
on
Tons
Inches
i
b.
Arminiua .
1864
1,570
n
4 8-2 in.
—
1,200
110
e.b.
Friedrieh Carl .
1867
5,900
5
1 8-2 in. (13-ton); 15
82 in. (9-ton)
4
3,500
123
e.b.
*Kronprinz
1867
5,480
5
do. do.
4
4,800
122
b.
Konig Wilhelm . 3
1868
9,600
12
18 94 in. ; 5 8 "2 in.
(13-ton); 6 5 9 in.
5
8,000 ' 14-7
t.
Preussen . . 3
1873
6,660
10*
4 102 in. ; 2 6-6 in. ;
4 3 4 in. Q.F.
4
5,400
13-9
t.
Friedrieh der Grosse 2
1874
6,660
10*
do. do.
4
5,400
14 2
e.b.
Kaiser . . 2
1874
7,550
10
8 102 in. ; 1 82 in. ;
7 5"9 in.
5
8,000
137
e.b.
Dentschland . 2
1874
7,550
10
do. do.
5
8,000
137
bar.
Sachsen . . 2
1877
7,280
»
6 10-2 in. ; 4 41 in.
Q.F.
4
5,600 1 14 0
bar.
Bayern . . 2
1878
7,2.30
16
do. do.
4
5,600 135
bar.
Wurttemberg . 2
1878
7,280
16
do. do.
4
5,600 135
bar.
Baden . . 2
1880
7,280
16
do. do.
4
5,600 I 135
bar.
Oldenburg . 2
1884
5,120
12
8 9-4 in.; 2 3 4 in.
Q.F.
4
3,900 135
bar.
Brandenburg . 1
1891
9,840
15}
6 11 in. ; 16 4-1 Q.F. ;
8 34 Q.F.
9,500
160
bar.
Kurfurst Friedrieh
Wilhelm 1
1891
9,840
15|
do. do.
7
9,500 ' 16-0
bar.'
Weissenburg . 1
1891
9,840
16}.
do. do.
7
9,500 ' 160
bar.
Worth 1
1892
9,840
15}
do. do.
7
9,500
160
bar.
BaHlUk, Biene, Ca-,
maleon, Crocodil, ]
Hummel, Miicke,
18761
to
i
Natter, Salaman- V
1,090
8
1 11 8 in. (35-ton)
1
700
9*0
i
der, Shorpion, Ft- [
1881 11
1
per,We*pe— 11 ar-
1
moured gunboats /
I
k
Germany has but one cruiser of the character of vessels accepted, for pur-
poses of comparison, as first-class cruisers a in this book, viz. those of at least
5,000 tons displacement, with a sea-speed of fifteen knots or more. This is
the triple-screw- cruiser-corvette Kaiserin Augusta, for the Irene and Prinzess
Wilhelm are somewhat inferior both in displacement and speed. The other
first-class cruisers b in the following list are the Panzerfahrzeuge of the
Siegfried class, which are often described as coast-defence vessels. In a sense
they doubtless are so, but their general characteristics seem to lift them rather
into the class of vessels described as first-class armoured cruisers in this book.
The letters a and b in the first column have reference to the two sections of
first-ciass.cruisers : —
1 "3
Name . %
£ gg
Armament
i*
\i
a ®
eWp-
Kaiserin Augusta
1892
6,050
12 5-9 in. ; 8 34 Q.F.
5
12,000
22-0 1
Siegfried
1889
3,600
3 9*4 in. ; 6 34 Q.F
4
4,800
160
Beowulf
1890
3,600
do. do.
4
4,800
160
Frithjof
1891
3,600
do. do.
4
4,800
16-0
Hildebrand
1892
3,600
do. do.
4
4,800
160
Heimdal
1892
3,000
do. do.
4
4,800
16-0
Hagen .
1893
3,600
do. do.
4
4,800
160
T.
—
3,600
do. do.
4
4,800
161) |
V.
—
3.»VO0
do. do.
4
4.800
161) 1
Digitized by VjOOQIC
DEFENCE 551
Germany also subsidises, as auxiliary merchant cruisers, seveu vessels with
a nominal speed of from 19§ to 20 knots or more, viz. the Fiirst Bismarck
and Normannia (10,500 tons), and the Columbia and Augusta Victoria (9,500
tons), belonging to the Hamburg-American Steam Ship Company, and the
North-German Lloyd steamers Spree, Havel, and Lahn (7,700 to 8,900 tons).
These are to be severally armed, in case of war, with 8 5*9 in. } 4 4*9 in.,
2 3*1 in. Q.F., and 2 2*2 in. Q.F. Krupp guns.
The early German battleships were built abroad — the Fricdrich Carl at
La Seyne in 1887, and the Kronprinz, Konig Wilhelm, Kaiser, and Deutsch-
land in the Thames ; but the ships of the new programme are being con-
structed not only in German yards, but almost exclusively of German
materials. The old Konig Wilhelm, built at the Thames Ironworks, was de-
signed by Sir E. J. Reed, and carries 29 Krupp guns, exclusive of light pieces.
The armour is 12 inches thick amidships, tapering gradually to a thickness of
7 inches at 7 feet below the water-line. Behind the bowsprit, and midway
between the main and the mizzen masts, are two bulkheads each of 6 -inch
armour and 18 inches of teak ; the forward one continues from the lower
deck up through the main deck, and rises to the height of 7 feet above the
spar deck, where it is curved into a shield, pierced with port-holes for cannon
and loopholes for musketry. Within this shield are two guns, which can
be used to fire fore and aft, or as broadside guns.
The turret-ships, Fricdrich der Grosse and Preussen, were built at Kiel and
Stettin during the years 1873 and 1874. Each has two turrets, with armour
of the thickness of 8 and 10i inches, 9 inches side plating, and 7 inches
fore and aft, while the armament consists of four 18-ton guns in the turrets
and two 5J-ton guns placed fore and aft. The Kaiser and Deuischland were
launched at Poplar in 1874. They are sister ships, 280 feet long, constructed
after the designs of Sir Edward J. Reed.
Of these, the Brandenburg battleships are steel-built, with complete
belt, double bottom, transverse and longitudinal bulk-heads, and about
120 water-tight compartments. Their heaviest plating (compound) is of
15} inches, and the three protected barbette gun emplacements have 11}
inches plating. These are in the axis of the ship, and the heavy guns are
placed in them in pairs. The forward gun is raised considerably, and behind
it lies the battery. The dimensions of these ships are — length, 254 feet
4 inches ; beam, 64 feet ; draught, 24 feet 7 inches. The Siegfried ships are
provided with powerful rams, and, having their works raised very high amid-
ships, present a somewhat singular appearance. They are protected by water- •
tight compartments and cofferdams tilled with cellulose, and have an end-to-
end belt with an extreme thickness of 9£ inches. The heavy guns are placed,
two forward in an oval barbette, and one aft in a pear-shaped barbette, and
the lighter pieces on the forecastle and poop and at the corners of the super-
structure. The cruiser-corvettes of the Kaiserin Augusta type will be steel-
built, planked, and coppered, and will have two fighting-masts. They will
be long and swift vessels, and the Kaiserin Augusta herself has the special
feature of being provided with three independent screws, like the French
Dupuy de L&me, a speed of ten knots being attainable with the middle one
alone. The protection of these vessels will be an armoured deck below the
water-line, and their principal guns will be disposed in battery. The Bussard
cruisers have their offensive strength in their ram, and in their chief guns,
which are disposed two forward, two aft, and two on each broadside (in
sponsons).
The German navy is manned by the obligatory service of the maritime
population (scemannische Bevblkerung) — sailors, fishermen, ships' carpenters,
and others ; and also of the semi-maritime population — that is, of those who
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
553
-
1889-90
1890-91
1,960,181
1891-92
1892-93
Wheat
1,956,441
1,885,284
1,975,652
Rye .
5,801,889
5,820,317
5,479,677
5,678,733
Barley
1,685,000
1,664,188
1,806,695
1,690,096
Oats .
3,886,627
3,904,020
4,154,683
3,987,719
Buckwheat
201,991
194,576
190,202
180,290
Potatoes
2,917,720
2,905,870
2, 922, r 66
2,929,808
Hay .
5,909,337
5,909,543
5,906,277
5,892,717
Beetroot (sugar) .
,, (fodder)
—
—
—
—
396,779
398,896
408,317
417,467
Vines
120,935
120,300
119,294
118,292
Tobacco
17,397
20,114
18,533
—
Hops .
45,797
44,505
43,640
43,434
The total yield of their products in the years indicated, in metric tons (1
metric ton = 2,200 lbs. or '984 an English ton), or hectolitres (hectolitre =
22 gallons), and in tons or hectolitres per hectare, was as follows : —
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
Tons
Per
Hect
Tons
Per
Hect.
2,333,757i 1*24
Tons
3,162,885
Per
Hect,
1-60
Wheat .
2 13
1-21
2 21
1-44
Rye .
5 26
0-92
5 78
1-01
4,782,804 0-87
6,327,712
1-20
Barley.
1 19
1-15
2 32
1-37
2,517,374
1-39
2,420,736
1-43
Oats .
4 24
1-08
4 44
1-26
5,279,340
1-27
4,743,036
119
Buckwheat .
97
0-61
02
0-56
104,652
0-55
89,641
0-50
Potatoes • .
26 65
9-12
23 83
8-03
18,558,379
6-35
27,988,557
9-55
Hay .
18 30
3-12
18 88
3-19
18,715,112
3-17
16,833,897
2-86
Beetroot (sugar) .
„ (fodder)
9 39
—
10 19
—
9,488,002
—
9,789,515
—
7 22
18-62
7 96
19-37
7,332,284
17*96
7,403,148
17-99
Tobacco
12
2 24
72
211
34,774
1-68
—
—
Hops .
83
He rs
0-78
31
0-56
21,944
0-50
24,515
0-56
Wine .
2 69
16-7
2 93
24-7
743,462 6-3
1
1,673,626
14-1
The number of domestic animals in Germany on December 10, 1892,
was : —
States
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Swine
Goats
- ■ -'-
Prussia .
2,647,388
9,850,960
10,092,568
7,704,354
1,953,748
Bavaria .
368,636
3,333,953
. 965,772
1,356,674
268,992
Saxony .
148,417
664,077
104,882
433,435
128,482
Alsace-Lorraine
137,342
486,951
97,293
370,277
62,055
Wiirttemberg .
101,625 970,059
384,335
394,402
69,987
Baden
64,089! 635,015
98,369
390,761
102,574
Other States .
350,442 1,555,681
2,031,844
1,406,901 491,884
Total, 1892 .
3,817,939
17,496,696
13,775,063
12,056,804! 3,077,722
Total, 1883 .
3,522,545
15,786,764
19,189,715
9, 206,1 95 1 2,640,99
/'• »,;"
554
GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Forestry.
Forestry in Germany is an industry of great importance, conducted under
the care of the State on scientific methods. About 34,347,000 acres or 25*7
per cent, of the area of the empire, were estimated to be occupied by
forests in 1889. In South and Central Germany from 30 to 38 per cent, of the
surface is covered with forests : and in parts of Prussia 20 per cent. From
forests and domains alone Prussia receives a revenue of about 4 millions
sterling.
III. Mining.
The great bulk of the minerals raised in Germany is produced in Prussia,
where the chief mining districts are Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Silesia,
for coal and iron, the Harz for silver and copper, and Silesia for zinc. Saxony
has coal, iron, and silver mines ; and Lorraine rich coal-fields.
The annual quantities of the principal minerals raised in five years arc
shown in the following table, the returns for 1892 being provisional only : —
1888
1890
1891
1892
Coal .
Lignite .
Iron Ore
Zinc ore
Lead ore
Copper ore .
Rock Salt
Potassic salt .
Other products
J Tons
'65,386,100
116,574,000
[10,664,300
667,800
161,800
530,900
! 414,600
I 1,235,300
| 231,400
1 Tons
67,342,200
17,631,100
11,002,200
708,800
! 169,600
| 573,300
544,600
1,185,700
I 256,600
Tons
70,237,800
19,053,000
11,406,100
759,400
168,200
596,100
557,100
1,274,900
269,700
! Tons
73,715,700
120,536,600
10,657,500
i 793,500
I 159,200
587,600
1 666,800
1,371,300
273,900
Tons
71,327,800
20,977,900
11,339,200
800,200 .
163,400
567,600 •
659,300
1,351,100
256,300
The total value of the minerals raised in Germany and Luxemburg in 1891
was 776 million marks, in 1892 711 million marks.
The following table shows particulars of the production of the foundries
in Germany and Luxemburg in 1891 and the number of foundries engaged
principally or partly with each metal in 1891 : —
Pig iron
Zinc
Lead
Copper
Silver
Tin.
Sulphur and
acid
I < Foundries engaged
Quantity in Value in 1,000 ]891 , Average No.
metric tons ' marks Hands
1891 1801 n. . _ 1 _ .. I 1891
Chiefly Partly (
sillph.
4,641,217
139,353
95,615
24,092
445
287
232,428
62,557
23,266
27,812
58,998
525
469,652 , 16,279
102
28
13
7
7
2
61
15
7
24,773
5
9,586
10
2,983
6
3,471
16
2,504
2
28
3,604
I b I f .
"in. • ■» 1 *.«<«»
itTzed'bytjTXJgte"
Digitized
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
555
In addition to the above, about 3,077 kilograms of gold, valued at
8,567,993 marks were produced. Nickel, bismuth, vitriol, and other chemical
manufactures were produced to a total weight of 27,006 tons, and to a total
value of 10,277,869 marks.
The total value of the productions of the foundries of all kinds in 1891
was 440,710,535 marks. The total quantity of finished iron produced in
Germany in 1891 was 5,063,631 metric tons, and its value 709,046,607
marks. In 1891 there were in Germany and Luxemburg 1,527 works pro-
ducing finished iron, including steel- works. Over 195,041 men are employed
in connection with the various stages of iron, besides 35,390 iron-miners.
In connection with coal and lignite mining alone the average number of
hands engaged was 318,909 in 1891.
IV. Fisheries.
The German fisheries are not important. In 1875 the fishing population
was 19,623 ; in 1882 it was 13,392. In 1892 (January 1) 446 boats (17,011
tons), with an aggregate crew of 1,868, were engaged in deep-sea fishing in the
North Sea for cod and herrings. The Baltic fisheries are more developed. In
1892 fresh fish to the value of 4,926,000 marks were exported, while the im-
ports of fresh fish were valued at 13,651,000 marks, of salted herrings at
27,994,000 marks, of other salted, preserved, and dried fish at 3,756,000
marks, and of oysters and all other marine shell-fish at 2,071,000 marks.
V. Manufactures.
The chief seats of the German iron manufacture are in Prussia, Alsace-
Lorraine, Bavaria, and Saxony. Steel is made in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony
is the leading State in the production of textiles, but Westphalia and
Silesia also produce linen ; Alsace-Lorraine Wurttemberg, and Baden produce
cotton goods. Woollens are manufactured in several Prussian provinces ; silk
in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace, and Baden. Beetroot sugar is an important
manufacture in Prussia, Brunswick, and Anhalt ; glass, porcelain, and earthen-
ware in Silesia, Thuringia, and Saxony ; clocks and wooden ware in Wurt-
temburg and Bavaria ; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.
The following table shows the number per 10,000 inhabitants of some of
the leading German States engaged in the principal manufactures according
to the census of occupation in 1882. Additional information should be looked
for under the various States : —
f
Iron Manu-
facture
Machi-
nery, In-
struments
Textile
Paper
Leather
and India-
rubber
24-6
20*5
32-6
31-9
30-7
20-3
Wooden
ware
91-0
107-0
128-2
1377
119-6
110-1
| Prussia .
Bavaria .
Wurttemberg .
Saxony .
' Baden
Alsace-Lorraine
89*3
69-4
88-9
91 1
68-5
88-5
85-4
71*8
55*5
87-2
138-9
94-4
100*5
156 9
114*7
1716
781-8
152*2
463-6
2013
17*9
16-6
27*8
61-0
25-8
20-4
22-2
German Empire
78-7
26 9 1 103 9
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Digitized by
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COMMERCE
\*7
places, having been then incorporated. A few districts in Baden,
with a population of 3,867, and a small part of the jrort of
Hamburg (190 inhabitants) remain still unincluded. Included
in the Zollverein is the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, and also
the Austrian communes of Jungholz and Mittelberg.
The following table shows (in thousands of marks) the com-
merce for five years : —
1
Special Trade
Imports Exports
General Trade*
1
Imports
Exports
I 1888
! 1889
i 1890
1891
1 1892
3,435,877 3,352,602
4,087,060 ! 3,256,421
4,272,910 3,409,584
4,403,404 3,339,755
4,227,004 | 3,150,104
5,094,216
5,671,740
5,844,690
4,970,754
4,863,081
4,811,600
4,938,701
3,731,759
Germany had besides a direct transit-trade, valued in 1891 at
1,312,184,000 marks.
The following are the principal details of the special commerce
for 1891 and 1892 :—
18
Imports in
91
Exports in
1892
Imports in
Exports in
1,000 marks
I 246,833
1,000 marks
22,708
1,000 marks
1,000 marks
\ Living animals
261,113
25,125
Animal products .
l 120,491
23,549
119,838
24,799
• Articles of consumption .
| 1,266,474
416,226
1,242,990
344,704
Seeds and plants .
40,409
25,973
48,925
29,855
Fuel ....
116,234
155,230
98,251
134,705
' Fats and oils .
244,970
29,695
221,502
25,654
; Raw and manufactured ma
terials : —
Chemicals, drugs, &c.
Stone, clay, and glass
264,670
277,973
266,365
286,043
59,864
112,664
59,028
110,254
Metals and metal wares
i 447,949
528,895
388,160
512,105
Wooden wares .
204,088
108,942
224,309
101,200
Paper goods
1 14,296
88,237
16,781
92,194
Leather, &c.
1 196,448
231,690
172,923
206,870
Textiles .
1,016,644
954,867
962.323
903,953
Caoutchouc, &c.
34,567
25,023
34,105
26,406
Machinery, instruments, &c.
65,343
156,901
54,401
155,332
Hardware, &c.
33,414
86,898
24,919
77,600
Literature, art, &c.
30,710
93,755
31,071
92,773
Various ....
4,408,404
529
3,339,755
—
532
3,150,104
Total
4,227,004
Digitized by V
jOOQle
DDtt
GERMAN EMPIRE
All tlie receipts of the Zollverein are paid into a common
exchequer, and distributed, pro rata of population, among the
States of the Empire. The chief sources of revenue are customs
duties, only on imports, and taxes upon spirits, beer (malt), salt,
sugar manufactured from beetroot, and tobacco, <fcc Since 1879
Germany has been protectionist in her commercial policy. The
gross produce of the customs in 1890-91 was 389,424,000
marks; and in 1891-92, 406,448,000 marks, or 9*6 per cent,
of the total value of imports^
The combined imports of gold and silver (included in the
above) amount to 233,539,000 marks, and exports 163,650,000
marks for 1891, and 189,082,000 and 195,173,000 marks for
1892.
Some of the leading imports and exports under the above
heads were, in thousands of marks value, as follows in 1892 : —
g /Horses .
ofi IS wine .
ISIWheat .
'3 Uye. . .
1,000
Marks
62,778
98,028
199,221
88,864
a, .HopS
£ Sugar .
o< Coal and coke.
x (Aniline dyes .
W vWooden goods.
30,137
179,807
129,078
52,558
43,461
I 1,000
I Marks
Barley
Coffee (raw)
Petroleum
Raw hides
1 72,926 ', Cotton (raw)
' 196,471 I Wool .
, 60,738 I Woollen yarn
92,691 \\ Raw silk .
I 1,000
I Marks
195,763
251,516
94,077
I 94,145
Paper . . . 58,149,
Leather goods . . S5,928 i
Cotton cloth (coarse) 67,181
Mixed silk and cot-j
ton cloth . .. 109,947 |
Woollen fabrics
(unprinted) . , 148,078
Hosiery . . 98,432
Haberdashery . 88,245
The special commerce of the Zollverein (all but a fractional
area of Hamburg and Bremen were included October 1888) was
divided as follows in 1891 and 1892 : —
1891
• 1892
Countries
-
- -
Imports
from
Exports to
Imports
from
Exports to
*
• 1000 Marks
1000 Marks
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
German Free Ports .
17,686
54,472
16,861
38,167
Great Britain .
676,810
696,066
620,971
639,995
Austria-Hungary
598,859
347,809
575,407
376,561
Russia
580,396
262,605
383,386
239,485
Switzerland
144,895
184,616
141,592
173,757
Belgium .
Netherlands .
251,789
153,315
208,221
140,728
. , 282,116
268,404
212,066
233,806
France and Algeria .
1 261,878
237,998
262,297
202,868
Italy ...
. 134,143
88,654
134,572
91,231
Norway ami Sweden
1 71,997
113,541
75,434
105,315
Denmark .
75,404
73,458
76,166
75,641
Spain
34,872
| 49,260
40,743
40,558
Digitized by VjOOQIC
COMMERCE
559
Countries
Balkan Peninsula (includ-
ing Greece, Montenegro,
and Turkey in Asia)
Portugal .
British India .
Rest of Asia .
Africa (except Algeria)
North and Central America
South America and West
Indies ....
Australia.
Other countries
Total
Imports
from
1,000 Marks
52,629
12,417
157,001
44,732
55,424
492,537
410,117
39,185
8,517
Exports to
1892
Imports
from
Exports to
1,000 Marks
105,135
16,192
33,094
62,847
28,751
396,702
127,051
29,487
10,298
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
98.581
92,512
13.298
7,412
149,861
45,813
64,320
649,494
32,278
61,164
28,682
379,158
365,577
85,494
6,850
158,461
20,754
11,571
4,403,404 3,339,755 '4,227,004 j 3,150,104
The following table shows the amount of the commercial
intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom in five
years, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
Imports from
Germany into
U.K. .
Exports of Brit-
ish produce to
Germany
£
26,724,347
15,731,788
£
27,104,832
18,343,243
1890
£
26,073,331
1891
1892
£ £ |
27,031,743[ 25,726,738
19,293,626 18,804,329
17,583,412
Including foreign and colonial produce, the total exports from the
United Kingdom to Germany in 1892 amounted to 29,641, 81 4£.
The following tables give the declared value of the principal articles
imported into the United Kingdom from, and exported from the United King-
dom to Germany in five years : —
Staple Imports into U.K.
from Germany
I
1892
!
Cereals and flour
Sugar
Animals, live .
Bacon and hams
Eggs and butter
Timber .
Zinc
Woollen manufactures 691,378
£
3,244,459!
6,539,015:
839,454!
652,833
2,073,532'
1,078,847|
554,010!
£ • £
2,445,758 1,319,727
8,773,220. 8,503,237;
396,835
186,552)
1,484,620
1,387,824
613,661
574,472;
136,899
4,937,
1,412,930!
1,309,243'
562,213
670,444
£ I
835,6761
9,517,563
135,169'
13,026
1,397,885!
1,223,644
623,524
767,284,
£
636,663
9,546,819
136,996
13,655
1,541,054
1,324,941
407,307
774,483
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Cotton manufactures
and yarn
Woollen inanufac-
I tures and yarn
i Iron, wrought and
I unwrought .
Herrings .
j Machinery
Coals, cinders, &c. .
£
2,477,229
2,757,267
871,245
757,531
1,699,457
1,070,582
£ £
2,874,967! 2,808,715
3,012,764 2,769,392
1,291,520 1,532,169
822,230! 906,342
1,731,774 1,851,890
1,403,855, 1,888,320
£
2,692,490
2,721,630
1,038,861
913,221
1,578,761
£
2,455,169
2,911,962
931,091
807,771
1,427,514
2,247,948 1,825,407
Other exports of British produce to Germany in 1892 are alkali, 42,971/. ;
chemicals, 260,742*. ; hardwares, 115,565*. ; leather, 295,363*. ; linen and
linen goods, 494,259*. ; oils, 478,117*. ; wool, 1,077,499*.
Great Britain exported to Germany foreign and colonial cotton valued at
688,116*. ; wool at 5,226,469*. in 1892. Tea exported to Germany from Great
Britain declined from 1,082,950*. in 1884 to 299,600*. in 1892.
The ports of Hamburg and Bremen are the chief gates of commercial
intercourse of Germany with the United Kingdom.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following was the distribution of the mercantile navy of Germany on
January 1, 1891, 1892, and 1893.
1
Baltic Ports
North Sea Ports
Total Shipping
Number 1 Tonnage
Number
I
Tonnage . Number
Tonnage
1891 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
863
378
1,241
809
387
186,032
149,130
335,162
172,524
154,605
1,894
518
2,412
1,889
554
523,729
574,522
1,098,251
2,757
896
3,653
709,761
723,652
Totals .
1,433,413
1892 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
531,750
610,106
2,698
941
704,274,
764,711)
Totals .
1,196
760
392
1,152
327,129
2,443
1,982
594
1,141,856
3,639 j 1,468,985
1893 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
160,950
156,658
564,232 ' 2,742 725,182
629,739 986 786,397
Totals
317,608
2,576 |l,193,971
, 3,728
1,511,579
Of the total shipping in 1891, 2,227 of 362,114 tons ; in 1892, 2,189 of
342,626 tons ; in 1893, 2, 132 of 328, 771 tons belonged to Prussian ports. The
total number of sailors in the merchant navy in 1893 was 41,635.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
The size of the various ships in 1893 was as follows : —
561
-
Under 100
Tons
100-500
Tons
500-1,000
Tons
1,000-2,000
Tons
2,000 Tons
and over
Sailing vessels
Steamers
1,669
233
640
237
183
216
232
197
18
103
Of the sailing vessels 413 were totally of iron or steel ; of the steamers
977 were of iron or steel.
The following table shows the shipping of the German Empire, in which
each vessel, if it entered several ports on a single voyage, is counted only
once : —
1890 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
1891 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
1892 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
With Cargoes
' In Ballast
Total
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
54,834
46,512
12,015,880
9,092,935
10,041
18,406
1,065,027
4,017,764
64,875
64,918
13,080,907
13,110,699
56,564
47,580
13,290,531
9,724,023
10,172
19,172
1,188,089
4,766,299
66,736
66,752
14,478,620
14,490,322
56,263
47,756
13,101,500
9,549,567
9,664
17,825
1,085,907
4,559,383
65,927
65,581
14,187,407
14,108,950
The number and tonnage of foreign shipping of the German Empire
entered and cleared as compared with national shipping were as follows
in 1892 :—
Foreign ships
Entered
Cleared
With Cargoes
In Ballast
With Cargoes
In Ballast
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
British
Danish
Swedish
Dutch
Norwegian .
Russian
4,868
4,675
2,809
1,105
1,047
567
3,945,963
772,315
596,031
194,143
483,080
167,785
251
1,286
133
192
61
10
262,168
96,882
34,748
19,458
26,987
2,785
2,900
3,831
1,379
941
677
237
2,044,305
639,769
361,780
182,565
262,654
74,067
2,192
2,149
1,560
303
412
327
2,146,123
224,856
270,652
28,434
185,348
87.789
3,013,404
1,545,979
Total, includ-
ing other
foreign .
German ships
15,809
40,954
6,289,175
6,812,325
1,938
7,726
446,318
639, 5h9
10,189
37,617
3,683,810
5,865,757
7,023
10,802
The shipping at the seven principal ports of Germany was as follows in
1892 :—
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562
GERMAN EMPIRE
With Cargoes
In Ballast \ Total
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Hamburg i1 —
Entered
8,137
5,343,485
692
339,868
8,829
5,683,353 ,
Cleared
6,928
4,074,332
2,129
1,668,489 9,057 ' 5,742,821
Stettin :—
i
Entered
3,659
1,206,370
103
271,171 3,762 1,233,541 ;
Cleared
2,831
871,566
869
358,920 1 3,700 1,230,486
Bremen : 2 —
i
Entered
2,772
1,260,157
323
98,034 3,095 1,358,191 |
Cleared
1,973
1,046,197
1,087
304,658
3,060 1,350,855 ■
Kiel :—
j
Entered
3,491
580,137
120
11,543
3,611 591,680 }
Cleared
2,184
329,186
1,450
251,540
3,634 ( 580,726
Ltibeck : 8 —
Entered
2,349
505,335
76
11,628 , 2,425 516,963
Cleared
1,708
343,149
719
181,087 j 2,427 524,236
Neufahrwasser
>
(Dantzig) : —
Entered
1,349
497,956
233
86,522 ' 1,582 ! 584,478 »
Cleared
1,382
457,745
194
119,353 | 1,576 577,098 '
Entered
1,141
316,000
189
81,556 i 1,330 397,556
Cleared
1,331
aven.
404,448
66
Includi
22,000 1 1,397 426,448
i Including Cuxh
tig Bremerhaven and Vegesack.
3 Including Travemunde.
The vessels engaged in the coasting trade and inland navigation (not in-
cluded in the above tables) on January 1, 1893, numbered 22,848, of which
22,378 had an aggregate burden of 2,760,553 tons.
Internal Communications.
I. Railways.
The great majority of the German railways are now owned by the Imperial
or State Governments. Out of 26,971 miles of railway completed and open
for traffic, only 3,123 miles belonged to private companies, and of these 296
were worked by Government. Narrow-gauge lines measured 717 miles
(Government lines 312 miles) in 1891-92.
The mileage and financial condition of German railways (including narrow-
gauge lines) are shown as follows, for five years ending 1891-92 : —
Years
\
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Total Length,
in English
miles
24,711
25,358
25,958
26,627
26,971
Total Capital,
in 1,000 marks
9,938,253
10,116,246
10,304,442
10,510,359
10,726,246
Expenditure
(1,000 marks)
587,973
635,813
703,916
805,339
876,054
Receipts
(1,000 marks)
1,094,442
1,172,188
1,271,086
1,307,416
1,348,864
Percentage
on Capital
of Surplus ,
5-17
530
5*50
478
4*41
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
563
The total length in May 1892 was 27,100 miles.
Certain lines not open to public traffic, which in 1891-92 measured 1,692
miles, are not included in the above figures. In 1891-92 228,977,000 metric
tons of goods, including live cattle, were carried by German railways, and
paid 883,604,000 marks. The number of passengers conveyed in 1891-92 was
464,013,000, yielding 356,333,000 marks. In these numbers narrow-gauge
lines are not included.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
The postal and telegraphic services in Bavaria and Wiirttemberg are re-
tained in the hands of their respective Governments ; but all other parts of
the Empire are united to form an imperial postal district (BeichspostgeHet).
The following table shows the number of employes and offices of the post and
telegraph services for the year 1892 : —
Reichspostgebiet
Bavaria .
Wiirttemberg .
Total in Empire .
Employes
137,028
11,382
5,707
154,117
No. of Post
Offices
25,113
1,889
642
27,644
No. of Boxes
No. of Tele-
graph Offices
78,001
9,929
4,272
16,391
1,748
600
92,202 18,739
The amount of business transacted by the post-offices is illustrated by the
following statistics of articles transmitted by post, and the value of post-office
orders, in marks, for the year 1892 : —
Reichspostgebiet
Letters
Post Cards
Printed matter .
Samples .
Journals .
Total, includ-
ing other de-
spatches
Money sent
(marks)
Bavaria
1,056,011,260, 112,125,000
363,746,2481 23,913,450
438,402,965
28,674,306
757,253,683
32,001,480
2,405,300
103,976,768
Wiirttemberg
2,853,004,807 294,528,302
18,952,846,6551,708,804,039
40,185,860
12,805,052
18,630,915
832,624
43,550,387
126,998,190
782,813,985
Total
1,208,322,120,
400,464,750!
489,035,360'
31,912,230
904,780,838'
3,274,531,299|
21,444,464,6791
The financial condition of the united postal and telegraphic services in
1892-93 was as follows :—
-
Reichspostgebiet
Bavaria
Wurttemberg Empire
....
Receipts .
Expenditure
Surplus
246,586,442
229,026,740
21,791,867
19,601,220
10,916,996 1 279,295,305
9,578,087 258,206,047
17,559,702
2,190,647
1,338,909 | 21,089,258
o o 2
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364
GERMAN EMPIRE
The following are the telegraph statistics for the year 1892 : —
-
Telegraph
Lines, English
miles
Telegraph
Wires, English
miles
Inland
Telegrams
Foreign
Telegrams
Reichspostgebiet .
Bavaria
Wiirttemberg
Total in Empire
63,415
7,039
2,744
231,121
21,625
6,882
19,536,954
1,697,125
975,065
8,342,786
456,417
166,753
73,198
259,628
22,209,144
8,965,956
Honey and Credit.
The following table shows the value (in thousands of marks) of the money
coined since the foundation of the present Empire : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Copper
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Total (since
1872) .
Withdrawn
144,288-7
202,379-2
99,349 2
59,988*3
37,243-2
4,156-0
744-0
4,786-8
5,201-1
4,300 8
3,115*5
2,5955
1,436-7
1,9516
49,561-3
2-0
293 0
452 6
372 8
171-6
433 6
153,038*5
206,691-3
102,317*5
66,383-4
44,829*5
2,627,370 0
3,151-3
475,251*5
13,035-7
11,975-4
o-i
3,164,158*2
16,189-1
Surplus
2,624,218*7
462,215*8
49,559 3
11,9753
3,147,969*1
The amount of the above total removed from circulation through export,
melting, or loss cannot be estimated. Certain coins previously in circulation
are still legal tender, though they are gradually being withdrawn from circu-
lation. Their total value is estimated (1889) at between 410,000,000 and
500,000,000 marks (1881) in * Vereinsthaler,' coined in Austria before the end
of 1867.
The following table shows the average financial condition of the note-
issuing banks (Noteribanken), in thousands of marks : —
Liabilities
Year
I 1888
' 1889 I
1890 .
1891 I
Bks.
Capital
Reserve
Fund
Notes in
Circula-
tion
Total
including
other Lia-
bilities
16
16
18
9
•
262,932
263,144
231,325
221,815
222,494
42,615
48,488
42,701
48,547
45,590
1,149,109
1,206,312
1,196,976
1,179,387
1,194,019
1,917,218
1,988,087
1,902,470
1,959,899
2,087,806
Assets
i
i
Coin &
Bullion
979,383
948,301
871,960
965,025
1,017,482
Notes of
State A
other
Banks
Bills
Total
including
other
Assets
1,924,359
1,996,725
1,917,404
1,974,598
2,047,521
49,460
48,964
48,253
48,161
51,521
700,068
773,757
771,248
745,264
769,451
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DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 565
' Reichskassenscheine,' small paper notes for 5, 20 and 50 marks, were in
circulation at the end of March 1892 to the value of 120,000,000 marks.
Owing to the establishment of a tax upon bank-notes issued in excess of a
certain proportion to the reserve fund, the number of note-issuing banks is
only 9 (1892). At the end of 1889 the notes of these banks in circulation
represented a value of 1,312,203,400 marks.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Mark, of 100 Pfennige is of the value of 11 id., or 20*43 marks to the
pound sterling The Thaler is 3 marks.
Gold coins are 20, 10, and 5-mark pieces, called respectively doppel-krone,
krone, and halb-krone. The 20-mark piece weighs 7 '96495 grammes '900 fine,
and consequently contains 7 '16846 grammes of fine gold.
Silver coins are 5, 2, and 1-mark pieces, and 50 and 20 -pfennige. The
mark weighs 5 '5 grammes '900 fine, and thus contains 5 grammes of fine silver.
Nickel coins are 10 and 5-pfennige pieces. There are bronze coins of
smaller denominations.
The standard of value is gold, but old thalers are still legal tender. Other
silver is legal tender only up to 20 marks.
Weights and Measures.
The metrical system of weights and measures came into force in Germany
on January 1, 1872. The names of the metrical weights and measures and the
British equivalents are : —
The Gram = 15*43 grains troy.
,, Kilogram .... = 2 *205 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonne, 1,000 Kg. . = 2,200 lbs. = 19*7 cwt.
,, Liter, Mass . . = 1 *76 imperial pint.
,, Meter, Stab . . . = 3*28 feet or 39*37 inches.
,, Kilometer = 1,094 yards ('621 mile), or nearly 5 fur-
longs.
,, Hektar . = 2'47 acres.
,, Quadrat, or Square, Kilometer = 247 acres, or 2$ sq. kil. to 1 sq. mile.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Germany in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Paul v. Hatzfeldt-Wildenburg, accredited Nov. 23,
1885.
Secretary and Councillor. — Count Wolff v. Metternich.
Military and Naval AttacIU. — Korvetten-Kapitau Giilich.
Director of Chancery. — Wilhelm Adolph Schmettau,
Conml-Gfeneral. — W. Jordan.
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566
GERMAN EMPIRE: — FOREIGN DEPENDENCIES
Germany has also Consular representatives at the following among other
places in the British Empire : —
Gibraltar
Hong Kong
Halifax (N.S.)
Kingston (Jamaica)
Madras
Melbourne
Montreal
Quebec
Rangoon
Singapore
Sydney
Wellington (N.Z.)
Aberdeen
Peter head
Belfast
Plymouth
Bradford
Southampton
Cardiff
Sunderland
Dublin
Aden
Dundee
Adelaide
Glasgow
Auckland
Hull
Bombay
Leith
Brisbane
Liverpool
Calcutta
London
Cape Town
Manchester
jCeylon
D'Urban
Newcastle
2. Of Great Britain in Germany.
Ambassador.— Right Hon. Sir Edward Baldwin Malet, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
Secretary of Legation at Pekin, 1871-73 ; Athens, 1873-75 ; Rome, 1875-78 ;
Constantinople, 1878-79 ; Agent and Consul-General in Egypt, 1879-83 ;
appointed Minister Plenipotentiary in the Diplomatic Service, October 10,
1879 ; Envoy and Minister to Belgium, August 29, 1883 ; appointed to
Berlin, September 20, 1884.
Secretary. — M. le M. H. Gosselin, C.B.
Military Attache-.— Col. L. V. Swaine, C.B.
Naval Attache. — Captain G. le Clerc Egerton, R.N.
Commercial AUacJU. — Sir J. A. Crowe, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Consul-General. — Julius L. Schwabach.
There are also Consular representatives of the United Kingdom at the
following places : —
Danzig Mannheim Lubeck
Diisseldorf Bremen Breslau
Frankfort-on-Main(C.G.) Bremerhaven Wismar
Hamburg (C.G.) Kiel Husum
Stettin Leipsic (C.G.) Swinemiinde
Foreign Dependencies.
In 1884 Germany began to extend her empire beyond the bounds of Europe.
Of colonies in the proper sense of the term she has none ; but she has de-
clared her protection over various areas or spheres of influence in Africa and
in the Western Pacific, within which a few factories and trading posts, and
in some cases some plantations, have been established by Germans and other
Europeans. The following is a list of the various foreign regions at present
(December 1891) under the protection or influence of Germany, the estimates
given being necessarily vague : —
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TOGOLAND
567
-
Date of
Acquisition
In Africa :—
Togoland .
Cameroons
German South-West
Africa .
German East Africa .
TotalAfricanPossessions
1884
1884
1884-90
1885-90
1884-90
In the Poet fie : —
Kaiser WiUielm's Land
Bismarck Archipelago
Solomon Islands.
Marshall Islands, etc.
Total Pacific Possessions
Total Foreign Depen-
dencies
1885-80
1885
1886
1886
1884-86
Method of
Government
Imperial Commissioner
Imperial Governor
Imperial Commissioner
Imperial Governor
_ Imperial Commis-
sioners.
Estimated
Area
16,000
130,000
850,000
400,000
Estimated
Population
500,000
2,600,000
200,000
2,900,000
6,200,000
110,000
190,000
90,000
16,000
896,000
1
72,000
19,000
9,000
150
100,150
406,000
996,150
0,606,000
Togoland.
Togoland, with Little Popo and Porto Seguro, situated on the Slave Coast,
in Upper Guinea, has an estimated area of 16,000 square miles, and an
estimated population of 500,000 It extends from long. 0°30'E. to long.
1° 41' E., and from the Atlantic coast to about lat. 7° 20' K, though the
boundary towards the interior is by no means definitely fixed. Declared a
German protectorate in 1884, it is placed under an imperial commissioner,
assisted by a secretary, an inspector of customs, and a local council of repre-
sentatives of the merchants. Little Popo is regarded as the capital ; Lome
is the chief port, and Porto Seguro and Bagida are also on the coast. Togo,
the principal native town, which has given name to the region, is situated on
Lake Togo, and is said to have 8,000 inhabitants. An armed police force
of negroes has been organised. Maize, yams, tapioca, ginger, and bananas
are cultivated to some extent by the natives, most of whom are Ewe
negroes ; and cocoa, oil-palms, caoutchouc, and dye-woods grow in the
forests ; but the country is still entirely unexploited, and the only
commerce is the barter trade for palm-oil and ivory, earned on by a few fac-
tories on the coast. On August 1, 1887, an import tax was imposed upon
European goods. In 1892-93 the revenue, chiefly from customs, amounted to
218,034 marks, against 146,374 marks in 1891-92. Budget revenue for
1893-94, 143,000 marks. The imports for the year 1892 were of the value of
2,135,945 marks, the exports 2,411,542 marks. In 1890-91, imports 1,156,320
marks ; exports 1,650,000 marks. The chief articles imported were cottons,
spirits, tobacco, salt, gunpowder. In 1892, 167 vessels of 174,526 tons (66 of
69,761 tons German, ana 63 of 76,831 tons British) entered and cleared the
port of Little Popo.
Cameroons.
The Cameroons region, with a coast line of 120 miles on the Bight of Biafra,
between the Campo River and the Rio del Rey, is bounded on the north-east
Digitized by VjOOQIC
568 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
by a treaty-line running north -east to about 30 miles east of Yola on the
Upper Benue, whence a further line of demarcation has been drawn to the
southern shore of Lake Chad (see under Niger Territories, p. 190). On
the south the boundary line runs inland due east from the mouth of the
Campo River to about the meridian of long. 15° E., which may be regarded
as the eastern or inland limit of the protectorate. The area is estimated at
130,000 square miles ; the population at 2,600,000. In 1893 there
were 203 whites, of whom 147 German, 26 English. It became a German
protectorate in 1884, and is placed under an imperial governor, assisted by a
chancellor, two secretaries, and a local council of three representative mer-
chants. The country is fertile, and numerous valuable African vegetable
productions grow in profusion. Plantations of cacao and tobacco have
been formed by the Deutsche Plantagen-Gesellschaft (1886), and numerous
factories cany on an active trade in ivory and palm-oil. On January 1, 1888,
an import duty was imposed on European goods, and from this the revenue
is mainly derived. The revenue in 1892-93 was 500,485 marks. Budget
revenue for 1893-94, 580,000 marks. The chief town is Cameroons, and in
the south Batanga. Bimbia and Bakundu-town are other important trading
stations, and Aqua-town and Bell-town are the principal native settlements.
In 1892, 26 German vessels of 36,285 tons and 38 British vessels of 51,442
tons entered the ports of Cameroons. Total tonnage entered, 87,999.
In 1892 the imports into the Cameroons region amounted to 4,470,822
marks; and exports to 4,263,784 marks. The chief imports were cottons
(926,498), spirits, gunpowder, fire-arms, salt, tobacco, rice, iron wares,
and colonial produce. The whole value of the trade of German West
Africa (including Togoland and German South-West Africa) with Germany
in 1891 was : exports to Germany 5,597,000 marks ; imports from Germany
3,643,000 marks.
German South-West Africa.
This region extends along the coast for about 930 miles, exclusive of
Walfisch Bay, which is British. The Orange River forms the south
boundary to long. 20° E. ; the east boundary goes north along the 20° till
it meets the 22nd parallel of S. lat. ; it then turns east till it meets long. 21°
E., which it follows north to the 18th parallel ; it then goes east to the Chohe
River, which it follows to the Zambesi. The northern boundary is formed by
the Cunene River as far as the Humbe cataracts ; then east to the Cubango
and the Katima rapids of the Zambesi. The total area is estimated at 850,000
square miles and the population at 200,000. Budget revenue for 1893-94,
273,300 marks, mostly from Imperial funds. The whole southern part and
much of the east is barren and desert. The coast lands are hold by
the * Deutsche Kolonial Gesellschaft fur Siidwest Africa,' which has given the
special names of Deutsch-Namaland to the southern part of its territories,
and Deutsch-Damaraland to the northern. An Anglo-German company has
obtained from the German Government (1892) a concession of the northern
part of the territory. The two chief harbours in German possession
are Sandwich Harbour and Angra Pequeiia, or Luderitz Bay. Damaraland
is well adapted for cattle-rearing. Copper has been found, though the
expense of working it has hitherto rendered the discovery almost useless.
Rumours of the discovery of gold attracted numerous immigrants, aud
traces of other minerals have been observed. But the mineral, agri-
cultural, and commercial development of this region lies still in the future.
An imperial commissioner exercises a nominal authority in the protectorate
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WESTERN PACIFIC 569
German East Africa.
The German sphere of influence in East Africa, with an estimated area of
400,000 square miles, and an estimated population of 2,900,000, is bounded
on the north by a treaty line, defined in 1886 and 1890, running north-west
from the Umbe River, by the north of Kilima-Njaro, to the east shore of the
Victoria Nyanza, and to the W. of this lake, following the parallel of 1° S.
lat., to the boundary of the Congo State, making a loop, however, so as to
pass S. of Mount Mfumbiro. On the West it is bounded by Lake Tan-
ganyika, and on the S. by a line (defined 1890) joining the S. end of that
lake with the N. end of Lake Nyassa and running to the N. of the
Stevenson Road, and by the Rovuma River. The narrow strip of territory
on the coast was leased by the Sultan of Zanzibar to the Germans for fifty
years, from April 1888, with its harbours and customs, but the Sultan's rights
were acquired by Germany in 1890 for a payment of 4,000,000 marks. Most
of the interior of this vast region is quite unexploited except by Arab dealers
in slaves and ivory. The German East Africa Company, founded in 1885,
had established fifteen stations, but most of them were ruined and abandoned
on the outbreak of the natives in 1889 ; peace being restored in 1890, com-
mercial enterprise has again begun, the German Government granting subsidies
for railways and steamers, and in other ways supporting the operations of
the company. The German Empire is represented in this region by an
Imperial Governor. The chief seaports are Dar-es-Salaam, Bagamoyo,
Saadani, Pangani, Kiloa, Lindi, Mikindani, and Tanga. The total value of
the trade of German East Africa (exports and imports) from April 1 to Decem-
ber 31, 1892 (II.— IV. quarter) was 3,967,878 dollars, of which 2,118,691
dollars for imports, and 1,849,187 dollars for exports. The value of the im-
ports in the year ending August 17, 1890, was 2,654,919 dollars ; 1891,
2,820,264 dollars ; the value of the exports in 1890 was 5,015,915 rupees, in
1891, 2,353,000 dollars. The most important exports are ivory (II. —
IV. quarter 1892, 861,956 dollars), and caoutchouc (II. — IV. quarter 1892,
211,514 dollars), copal gum, sesame seed. The chief imports are cottons,
colonial wares, rice, spirits, wine and beer. The exports from Bagamoyo
amounted to 825,553 dollars. In 1891 the value of tne exports to Germany
was 208,000 marks, and imports from Germany 2,062,000 marks.
Karagwe, one of the large Central African States formed after the dissolu-
tion of the former Empire of Kitwara, lies mainly within the German Sphere
of Influence as delimited northwards by the Anglo-German Agreement of July
1, 1890. Near the capital the Arabs have founded the trading station of
Kufro (Kafuro), where they take ivory, coffee, and other produce in exchange
for salt, textiles, and European wares.
In the Western Pacific.
1. Kaiser WilhelrrCs Land.
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, the northern, section of south-east New Guinea,
was declared a German protectorate in 1884. Including Long Island, Dam-
pier Island, and some other small islands, it has an estimated area of 72,000
square miles, and a population of about 110,000. Its development has been
entrusted to the German New Guinea Company, which has extended its
operations also to other German possessions in this ocean. The chief execu-
tive official is the Imperial Commissioner, under whom are several magistrates.
Areca and sago palms, bamboos, ebony, and other woods are among the
natural riches of the protectorate. Tobacco has hitherto been the most suc-
cessful cultivated crop. Horses, cattle, and goats flourish on the island,
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570 GERMAN EMPIRE: — ALSACE-LORRAINE
which seems less adapted for sheep. Three steamers and several sailing ships
are engaged in the trade of the New Gninea Company. The chief harbours
are Finschhafen, Konstantinhafen, and Hatzfeldhafen. In 1891 the im-
ports of the New Guinea Company from European ports amounted to
327,282 marks.
2. Bismarck. Archipelago.
In November 1884 a German Protectorate was declared over the New
Britain Archipelago and several adjacent groups of islands, which were then
renamed together the Bismarck Archipelago. The aggregate area is estimated
at 19,000 square miles, and the population at 190,000. The chief islands of
this archipelago are Neu Pommern (formerly New Britain), Neu Meck-
lenburg (New Ireland), Neu Lauenburg (Duke of York Islands), and Vischer,
Gerrit Denys, Admiralty, Anchorite, Commerson, Hermit, and other islands
The New Guinea Company has a trading station at Mioko in New Lauenburg.
The chief exports are copra and cocoa-nut fibre. In 1891 the imports of the
New Guinea Company amounted to 1,017,022 marks.
3. Solomon Island*.
Germany owns the more northerly part of this group, including the
islands of Bougainville, Choiseul, Isabel or Mahaga, and various smaller
islands. The aggregate area under the German flag is estimated at 9,000
square miles, and the population at 90,000. Sandal wood and tortoiseshell
are the chief commercial products. The islands are placed under the officials
of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land.
4. Marshall Islands.
The Marshall Islands, consisting of two chains or rows of lagoon islands,
known respectively as Ratack (with thirteen islands) and Ralick (with eleven
islands), have belonged to Germany since 1885. The aggregate area is
estimated at 150 square miles, and the population at 16,000. The chief island
and seat of the German imperial commissioner is Jaluit. Copra is the chief
article of trade. In 1891, 75 vessels of 9,535 tons entered the port of
Jaluit. Imports 1891, 653,000 marks ; exports, 603,977 marks.
STATES OP GERMANY.
ALSACE-LORBAINE.
(Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen.)
Constitution.
The fundamental laws under which the Reichsland, or Imperial Land,
of Alsace-Lorraine is governed were voted by the German Reichstag June 9,
1871, June 20, 1872, June 25, 1873, May 2, 1877, July 4, 1879, and
September 28, 1885. By the law of June 9, 1871, it is enacted, 'The pro-
vinces of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded by France in the peace preliminaries
of February 26, 1871, under limits definitely fixed in the Treaty of Peace
of May 10, 1871, shall be for ever united with the German Empire.' The
Constitution of the German Empire was introduced in Alsace-Lorraine on
January 1, 1874.
The administration of Alsace-Lorraine is under a Governor-General,
bearing the title of 'Statthalter.'
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ALSACE-LORRAINE
571
Stattkalter of Alsace-Lorraine. — Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfttrst, born
March 31, 1819 ; Doctor in Law ; Ambassador from the German Empire to
the French Republic, 1874-85. Appointed Governor of Alsace-Lorraine
July 22, 1885 ; assumed office November 1885.
According to the constitutional law of July 4, 1879, the Emperor appoints
the Statthalter, who exercises power as the representative of the Imperial
Government, having his residence at Strassburg. A Ministry composed
of three departments, with a responsible Secretary of State at its head, acts
under the Statthalter, who also is assisted by a Council of State, comprising
the Statthalter as President, the Secretary of State at the head of the
Ministry, the chief provincial officials, and eight to twelve other members
appointed by the Emperor, of whom three are presented by the Landesausschuss,
or Provincial Committee. This Committee, which attends to local legislation,
consists of 58 members.
Area and Population.
The Reichsland has an area of 14,507 square kilometers or 5,600 English
square miles. It is administratively divided into three Bezirke, or districts,
called Ober-Elsass, Unter-Elsass, and Lothringen, the first of which is sub-
divided into six, and the other two each into eight Kreise, or circles. The
following table shows the area, population, and the inhabitants per square
mile of each of the districts and of the whole : —
Districts
Ober-Elsass
Unter-Elsass
Lothringen
Area, English
square miles
Population
Density per
sq. mile
1890
1885
1890
1,370
1,866
2,431
5,668
462,549
612,077
489,729
471,609
621,505
510,392
344 2
333 1
210*0
Total .
1,564,355
1,603,506
282-9
The annual increase of population from 1875 to 1880 amounted to 0'45 per
cent., while from 1880 to 1885 there was a yearly decrease of 0*03 per cent., and
from 1885 to 1890 an annual increase of 0*5 per cent. Of the population in
1890, 805,986 were males and 797,520 (or 98 '9 per 100 males) were females.
According to an official estimate (1890), 210,000 are of French origin
(Sprachstamme), and 1,393,000 of German origin. Foreigners numbered
46,463 in 1890, a larger number in proportion to population than any of
the other States of the Empire. The garrison consisted of 67,354 men.
In 1890, 43 #1 per cent, of the population resided in towns of 2,000 in-
habitants and upwards ; 56*9 per cent, in rural communes. The three
largest towns are Strassburg (123,500 inhabitants in 1890), the capital of
Alsace-Lorraine ; Miilhausen (76,892 inhabitants), in Ober-Elsass ; and Metz
(60,186 inhabitants), in Lothringen. Marriages, 1892, 11,001 ; births, 49,104 ;
deaths (exclusive of still-born), 37,861 ; surplus of births, 9,605. Of the
births, 1,638 (3*3 per cent.) were still-born, and 4,105 (8-3 per cent.) were
illegitimate. The emigration via German and Dutch ports to extra-Euro-
pean countries was as follows in 1885-92 : —
1 1885
1886
1887
1888 1 1889
738
602
883
937 934
923
| 1891 j 1S92>
| 1,138
922
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GERMAN EMPIRE: — ANHALT
Religion, Instruction, Justice and Grime, Poor-relief.
At the census of December 1, 1890, there were in the Reichslaml
1,227,225 Catholics, 337,476 Protestants, 3,757 members of other Christian
sects, 34,645 Jews ; other religions, 7, and 396 unclassified. (See also
German Empire, pp. 538-42.)
In 1892 the Eieichsland contained a university (at Strassburg, see German
Empire, p. 541), 17 Gymnasia, 5 Progymnasia, 3 higher schools, 5 Realschulen,
1 agricultural school, 9 seminaries, 4 preparatory schools for teachers, 60 higher
girls' schools, 2,867 elementary schools, 431 infant schools, 102 finishing
schools, 23 intermediate schools, 4 institutions for the deaf and dumb, 1 for
the blind.
Alsace-Lorraine has an Oberlandesgericht at Colmar, and six Land-
geiichte. In 1891, 10,079 persons, i.e. 89 per 10,000 inhabitants above
the age of 12 years, were convicted of crime.
In 1885, 39,047 persons, with 34,442 dependents (in all 4*7 per cent, of
the population), received public poor-relief.
Finance.
The budget estimates of public revenue of Alsace-Lorraine in the year
ending March 31, 1894, amounted to 51,479,105 marks, and the estimates of
expenditure to 49,647,620 marks. There was also an extraordinary revenue
of 1,339,000 marks, and an expenditure of 3,170,485 marks. More than half
of the total revenue is derived from customs and indirect taxes, while one;of
the largest branches of expenditure is for public instruction.
Alsace-Lorraine has a debt consisting of 3 per cent, rentes in circulation
to the amount of 761,271 marks, equivalent, if capitalised, to a debt of
25,375,700 marks.
Production and Industry.
On June 5, 1882, the number of separate farms was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Above 100 Hectares
Total
98,310
122,488
12,674
394
233,866
These farms supported a population of 627,800, of whom 302,593 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Alsace-Lorraine yields the usual cereals,
and it is also a great wine-producing country. Of the 1,697 communes,
1,042 have vineyards. In '1891-92, 1,485 hectares were planted with
tobacco, and yielded 3,576 metric tons of dried tobacco.
The cotton manufacture in Alsace-Lorraine is the most important in
Germany ; woollens are produced on a smaller scale. In 1892 minerals to the
value of 15,030,256 marks (provisional figures) were raised in the Reichslaml.
There were 954 miles of railway in Alsace-Lorraine in 1892, of which
889 belonged to the State.
ANHALT.
(Hkrzogthum Anhalt.)
Reigning Duke.
Friedrich, bora April 29, 1831, the son of Duke Leopold of Anhalt
and of Princess Friederike of Prussia. Succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, May 22, 1871 ; married, April 22, 1854, to Princess
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ANHALT
573
Antoinette of Saxe-Altenburg, born April 17, 1838. Children of the Duke : —
I. Prince Friedrich, born August 19, 1856 ; married, July 2, 1889, to
Princess Mary of Baden, born July 26, 1865. II. Princess Elisabeth, born
September 7, 1857 ; married, April 17, 1877, to the Hereditary Grand-duke
of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. III. Prince Edward, born April 18, 1861. IV.
Prince Aribert, born June 18, 1864 ; married, July 6, 1891, to Princess Louise of
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, born August 12, 1872. V.
Princess Alexandra, born April 4, 1868. Grandchild of the Duke : — Princess
Antoinette, born March 3, 1885, daughter'of the late Prince Leopold, the Duke's
eldest son, and Elizabeth, daughter of the Landgrave of Hesse.
The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernhard, son of the celebrated
Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg, who died in 1211. The family,
in the course of time, split into numerous branches, now reduced to the
present line. At the establishment of the Germanic Confederation, in 1815,
there were three reigning Dukes of Anhalt — namely, of Anhalt-Cothen,
Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau. The first of these lines became
extinct in 1847, and the second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former
house of Anhalt-Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806 the
Princes of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt separated his property from that of the
State by decree of June 28, 1869. The entailed property belonging to the
ducal family is the sole resource of the Duke. Part of it, called * the select
entail,' yielding about 600,000 marks, cannot be sold by the Duke without
the approbation of the Diet. To the entailed property belong very large pri-
vate estates in Prussia and Hungary, embracing an area of 280 square miles.
Constitution.
The Duchy has a Constitution, proclaimed September 17, 1859, and
modified by decrees of September 17, 1863, and February 13, 1872, which
give legislative power to a Diet composed of 36 members, of whom two are
appointed by the Duke, eight are representatives of landowners who pay
the highest taxes, two of the highest taxed inhabitants belonging to the
mercantile and industrial classes, fourteen of the other inhabitants of
towns, and ten of the rural districts. The executive power is entirely in the
hands of the Duke, who governs through a Minister of State.
Area and Population.
The Duchy comprises an area of 906 English square miles, with a popu-
lation of 271,963 at the census of December 1890. In 1880 the population was
232,592, and in 1885 it was 248,166. From 1880 to 1885 the increase was at
the rate of 1*34 per cent, per annum, and from 1885 to 1890 at the rate of
1'92 per cent, per annum. Of the population in 1890, 134,071 were males,
and 137,892 (or 102*8 per 100 males) were females. Marriages (1891) 2,420 ;
births, 10,619 ; deaths, 6,001 ; surplus of births, 4,618. Among the births are
320 (3*01 per cent.) still-born, and 917 (8*64 per cent.) illegitimate.
The following are the emigration statistics : —
1884
1885
1886
1887
92
1888
1889
1890
1891
187
113
82
101
67
96
162
The capital, Dessau, had 34,658 inhabitants in 1890. Nearly the whole of
the inhabitants belong to the Reformed Protestant Church, there being (1890)
8,875 Catholics and 1,580 Jews.
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574 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BADEN
The number of separate farms in 1882 was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare 1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares Over 100 Hectares
Total
19,489 | 7,817
.2,320
174
29,800
These farms supported a population of 75,937, of whom 32,932 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
There were 185 miles of railway in April 1891.
Finance.
The budget estimates for the financial year 1893-94 stated the income of
the State at 19,724,000 marks, of which 7,389,987 marks are derived
from State property, and the rest chiefly from indirect taxes. The amount of
the direct taxes is about 566,500 marks. The expenditure of the State is
11,762,000 marks. The income for the German Empire is 5,062,000 marks,
the expenditure the same. The public debt amounted, on June 30, 1893, to
1,408,653 marks, largely covered by productive investments.
British Minister Plenipotentiary, — Right Hon. Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G. _
BADEN.
(Grossherzogthum Baden.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich I., born September 9, 1826, second son of Grand-duke Leopold I.
and of Grand-Duchess Sophie Princess of Sweden. Regent, April 24, 1852 ;
ascended the throne of Baden at the death of his father, September 5, 1856.
Married, September 20, 1856, to Grand-duchess Luise, born December 3, 1838,
the daughter of Wilhelm I., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia.
Offspring: — I. Friedrich,boYJi July 9, 1857 ; married, September 20, 1885, to
Hilda, daughter of the Grand-duke of Luxemburg, Duke of Nassau. II.
Victoria, born August 7, 1862 ; married, September 20, 1881, to Crown
Prince Gustaf of Sweden.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke.
I. Princess Alexandrine, born December 6, 1820 ; married, May 3, 1842, to
the late Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. II. Prince Wilhelm, born De-
cember 18, 1829 ; married, February 11, 1863, to Princess Maria Romano vska,
born October 16, 1841, daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg.
Offspring of the union are two children : — I. Princess Marie, born July 26,
1865 ; married, July 2, 1889, to Friedrich, Hereditary Prince of Anhalt.
II. Prince Maximilian, bom July 10, 1867. III. Prince Karl, born March 9,
1832 ; married, May 17, 1871, to Rosalie von Beust, elevated Countess von
Rhena, born June 10, 1845. IV. Princess Marie, born Nov. 20, 1834 ;
married, Sept. 11, 1858, to Prince Ernst of Leiningen.
The Grand-dukes of Baden are descendants of the Dukes of Zaehringen,
who flourished in the 11th and 12th centuries. Till the end of last century,
Baden was a Margraviate divided into two or more lines ; since then it has been
united, and in the changes which preceded and followed the dissolution of the
former German Empire its territory received various additions, and its ruler
took the title of Elector in 1803, and of Grand-duke in 1806. Baden was a
member of the Confederation of the Rhine, and, from 1815 to 1866, of the
German Confederation. In 1866 Baden sided with Austria, but soon made
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BADEN
575
peace with Prussia. The predecessors of the present Grand-duke during the
last two centuries are as follows : —
KarlWilhelm . 1709-1738 I Karl . 1811-1818 I Leopold . 1830-1852
Karl Friedrich . 1738-1811 | Ludwig 1818-1830 | Ludwig II. 1852-1856
The Grand-duke is in the receipt of a civil list of 1,897,698 marks, which
includes the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the Grand -
duke, the legislative authority is shared by him with a representative assembly
(Landtag), composed of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning family who are of age ; the heads of the mediatised
families ; eight members elected by the territorial nobility ; the Roman
Catholic Archbishop ; the prelate of the Protestant Church ; two deputies
of Universities ; and eight members nominated by the Grand-duke. The
Second Chamber is composed of 63 representatives of the people, 22
of whom are elected by towns, and 41 by rural districts. Every citizen not
convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has a vote in the elections.
The elections are indirect : the citizens nominating the Wahlmanner, or
deputy- electors, and the latter the representatives. The members of the
Second Chamber are elected for four years, one-half of the number retiring at
the end of every two years. The Chambers must be called together at least
once every two years. Members of both Chambers whose seats are not here-
ditary, receive an allowance of 12s. a day and travelling expenses.
The executive is composed of four departments — the Ministers of the
Interior, of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, and of Justice, Ecclesiastical Affairs
and Instruction. The ministers are individually and collectively responsible
for their actions.
For general administrative purposes the Grand-duchy contains 52
' Amtsbezirke,' superintended by four general commissioners (Landes-
Kommissare). For purposes of local government it is divided into 11 circles
(Kreise), and 1,578 communes (Gemeinden), 115 communal cities, and 1,463
parishioners.
Area and Population.
The following table shows the area and population of the whole, and of
the four commissioners' districts : —
District
Area:
Square miles
Population
Pop. per
square mile 1890
1885
1890
Konstanz
Freiburg
Karlsruhe .
Mannheim .
Total .
1,609
1,830
993
1,389
5,821
281,036'
460,384
421,784
438,051
281,770
469,515
445,156
461,426
175-1
256 6
448-3
332 2
1,601,255
1,657,867
284-8
Adding the part of the Lake of Constance next to Baden the area is
5,962 square* miles.
Between 1880 and 1885 the annual rate of increase was 0*39 per cent.;
between 1885 and 1890 the increase was 56,612, or at the rate of 0*71 per cent.
per annum. Of the population in 1890, 42*59 percent, lived in communities
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The number of marriages in Baden in 1892 was 12,318, births, 56,392,
deaths, 39,008, excess of births over deaths, 17,384. Included in the births
were 1,534, or 272 per cent., still-born, and 4,697, or 8 33 per cent., illegiti-
mate children.
Emigration from Baden to extra-European countries is estimated as
follows : —
i
i 1886
1887 1 1888 | 1889 ' 1890
1891
1892
I 4,500
5,400 | 6,000 1 6,000
5,500
6,000
5,500
Beligion and Instruction.
Nearly two-thirds of the population are Catholic, somewhat more than
one-third Protestant. At the census of 1890 there were 1,028,119 Catholics,
597,518 Protestants, 5,217 of other Christian sects, 26,735 Jews, and 278
others.
The Grand-duke is Protestant, and head of the Evangelical or Protestant
Church, which is governed by a synod (with 56 members), and whose affairs
are administered by a board (Oberkirchenrath). The Roman Catholic Church
has an Archbishop (at Freiburg). The Protestant Church has 365 parishes, the
Roman Catholic Church 772 ; the former are divided among 24 deaneries, the
latter among 35. The State maintains the Archbishop and his chapter (91,993
marks yearly), and contributes 500,000 marks yearly to the income of the
Catholic and Protestant parochial clergy. There are a certain number of ' Old
Catholic ' parishes, to which the State contributes yearly 24,000 marks. The
Jews have 11 rabbinates, and receive for their worship yearly 9,200 marks
from the State.
Instruction is general and compulsory. The elementary schools are
maintained by the communities, supplemented by the State, and administered
by local authorities under the inspection of Government. The following table
shows the public schools in Baden for 1891-92 : —
I
Universities ....
Gymnasia and Progymnasia
Realgymnasia and Realschulen .
Other middle schools (hohere Burger
schulen)
Elementary schools
Technical academy
Technical, agricultural, and other
special schools ....
Number
2
16
9
31
1,635
1
139
Teachers
191
328
199
359
5,570
75
497
Students A
Pupils
2,546
4,510
8,807
4,877
319,789
640
12,398
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FINANCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
577
Besides 34 private middle schools, with 301 teachers and 3,688 pupils, and
9 private elementary schools, with 39 teachers and 695 pupils.
Finance.
The Budget is* voted for a period of two years. The sources of ordinary
and extraordinary revenue and branches of expenditure were estimated for
1893 as follows :—
Revenue
Marks
Expenditure
Marks
Direct taxes .
10,869,621
^interest
Indirect taxes
9,659,006
General debt) and
' —
Domains (Crown land)
Railway debt j amorti-
18,370,788
and saltworks
8,582,155
l sation
Justice and Police .
4,355,079
Civil list and appanages
1,876,269
Railways (net)
14,297,316
Ministry of State .
329,304
Ministry of Justice.
4,897,130
„ „ Justice, Wor-
,, „ Interior
2,637,021
ship, and Education .
15,870,579
,, ,, Finance
3,721,843
Ministry of Interior
12,799,996
Chamber of Accounts
230
„ „ Finance
2,675,238
Share in Customs of the
Chamber of Accounts .
105,165
German Empire .
11,314,870
Charges of collection of
revenue
11,388,869
Pensions
3,263,090
Contribution to German
Empire
Total expenditure .
11,636,979
Total revenue .
70,334,271
78,316,277
In 1893, 7,000,000 marks, taken up on loan, were destined for railway
construction.
The direct taxes are a land tax, house tax, trade tax, rent tax, and
income tax ; the indirect taxes are chiefly excise on wine, beer, and meat,
registry, duties on succession.
Baden has no public debt, except the railway debt, amounting at the
beginning of 1893 to 330,365,034 marks.
Production and Industry.
56*3 per cent, of the area is under cultivation, 36*7 per cent, forests,
7'0 per cent, uncultivated (houses, roads, water, &c). Arable land occupies
579,950 hectares, vineyards 19,903, chestnut plantations 939, meadows
199,876, pastures 39,073, and forests 547,887 hectares (of which 96,309 belong
to the State, 251,244 to the communities, 18,660 to other bodies, and 181,674
to private persons).
The total number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one house-
hold, was in the year 1882 as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
Between 1 and 10
Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
232,287
80,153
139,179
12,872
83
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578
GERMAN EMPIRE: — BAVARIA
These forms supported 752,489 persons, of whom 328,091 were actually
engaged in agriculture. The chief crops, with the number of hectares under
eacn, in 1892, were : —
Crops
Hectares
Crops
Hectares
Wheat (incl. Spelt).
Rye
Barley .
106,700
43,300
59,300
Oats
Beetroot and turnips
Potatoes .
65,200
73,363
88,000
In the same year 292,200 hectares were under hay crops,- and 5, 770 hectares
under tobacco ; turnips, hemp, hops, and chicory are also grown. The
mineral produce consists almost solely of salt and building-stone.
The principal manufactures are silk ribbons, felt and straw hats, brushes,
leather, paper and cardboard, clocks, musical instruments, machinery,
chemicals, and cigars.
Communications.
Mannheim is situated at the head of regular navigation on the Rhine, and
has a large river port ; 1892, arrival 2,290,823 tons, departure 520,725 tons.
At the end of 1892 the total length of railways in Baden was 923 miles, of
which 801 miles belonged to the State of Baden, besides 67 miles of railway
on neighbouring territories. The State operates its own railways and the
private railways situated in the country. The whole length of these rail-
ways is 904 miles, which had (in 1892) an income of 47,065,440 marks,
and an expenditure of 32,966,509 marks, leaving a surplus of 14,098,931
marks. The net revenue of the railways belonging to the. State serves espe-
cially to cover the interest and sinking fund of the railway debt. The
capital invested by the State in railways is 444 million marks.
British Charge" d 'Affaires. — G. W. Buchanan.
Consul. — Herr Ladenburg (Mannheim).
BAVAEIA.
(KONIGBEICH BAYERN.)
Reigning King.
Otto Wilhelm Luitpold, born April 27, 1848 ; succeeded his brother,
Ludwig II., on June 13, 1886.
Eegent.
Prince Luitpold. (See below.)
Uncle and Cousins of the King.
Prince Luitpold, born March 12, 1821 ; appointed Regent June 10, 1886 ;
married, April 15, 1844, to Archduchess Augusta of Austria, Princess of
Tuscany, who died April 26, 1864. Offspring of the union are four chil-
I. Prince Ludwig, born January 7, 1845 ; married, February 20, 1868, to
Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, of the branch of Modena, born
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 579
July 2, 1849, of which marriage there are issue eleven children-: — 1. Prince
Rupprechty born May 18, 1869. 2. Princess Adelgunda, born October 17,.
1870. 3. Princess Marie, born July 6, 1872. 4. Prince Karl, born April 1,
1874. 5. Prince Franz, born October 10, 1875. 6. Princess Matilda, born
August 17, 1877. 7. Prince Wolfgang, born July 2, 1879. 8. Princess.
Hildegard, born March 5, 1881. 9. Princess Wiltrud, born November 10,
1S84. 10. Princess Helmtrude, born March 22, 1886. 11. Princess Gonde^
linde, born August 26, 1891.
II. Prince Leopold, born February 9, 1846, Inspector-General of the 4th
•' army district ' (Armee-Inspection) of the German army; married April 20,
1873, to Archduchess Gisela of Austria-Hungary, eldest daughter of the
Emperor-King Franz Joseph I. Offspring of the union are : — 1. Princess
Elizabeth, born January 8, 1874. 2. Princess Augusta, born April 28, 1875 ;
married November 15, 1893, to Archduke Joseph Augustus of Austria. 3.
Prince George, born April 2, 1880. 4. Prince Konrad, born November 22, 1883.
III. Theresa, born November 12, 1850 ; abbess of the chapter royal of St.
Anne at Munich.
-IV. ArmUph, born July 6, 1852; Lieut. -General 1st Division in the
infantry of the Bavarian army ; married April 12, 1882, to Princess Theresa
of Liechtenstein. Offspring, Prince Heinrich, born June 24, 1884.
The late Prince Adalbert, brother of Prince Luitpold, married to Princess
Amelia, Infanta of Spain, left the following issue : — 1. Prince Ludwig Ferdi-
nand, born October 22, 1859 ; married April 2, 1883, to Maria della Paz,
Infanta of Spain ; offspring, Prince Ferdinand, born May 10, 1884 ; Prince -
Adalbert, born June 3, 1886 ; Princess Maria del Pilar, born March 13, 1891.
2. Prince Alphons, born January 24, 1862 ; married April 15, 1891, to Princess
Louise of Orleans, daughter of the Duke of Alencon. 3. Princess Isabella,
born August 31, 1863 ; married April 14, 1883, to Prince Tommaso of Savoy,
Duke of Genoa. 4. Princess Elvira, born November 22, 1868 ; married De-
cember 28, 1891, to Count Rodolph of Wrbna and Freudenthal. 5. Princess
Clara, born October 11, 1874 ; abbess of the chapter royal of St. Anne at
Wiirzburg.
United with the royal family of Bavaria is the branch line of the Dukes
in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Zweibrucken-Birkenfeld. The head
of this house is Prince Karl Theodor, born August 9, 1839, son of the late
Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, and married (1) February 11, 1865, to Sophia,
Princess of Saxony ; (2) April 29, 1874, to Maria Josepha, Princess of
Braganza.
The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants of the ancient
Counts of Wittelsbach, who flourished in the twelfth century. Duke Maxi-
milian I. of Bavaria was elevated to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman
Empire in the Thirty Years' War ; and Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised
to the rank of king by Napoleon I. in 1805.
The civil list of the King, and allowances to other members of the royal
family, are fixed at present at 5,403,986 marks.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 26, 1818 ; but since
that time various modifications have been introduced. The Crown is here-
ditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole executive power ; but
his ministers are responsible for all his acts. The legislative functions are
exercised jointly by the king and Parliament, the latter consisting of an Upper
and a Lower House. The Upper House — Chamber of ' Reichsrathe, or
councillors of the realm — formed in 1893 of 10 princes of the royal family, 3
crown dignitaries, the 2 archbishops, the heads of 19 old noble families, and
p p 2
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AREA AND POPULATION
581
The urban and rural population was thus distributed at the censuses of
1880 and 1890 :—
Census
No. of
Towns
No. of
Rural
Communes
Towns, Ac, with 2,000
inhabitants and over
Communes, Ac, with less
than 2,000 inhabitants
No.
224
209
Population
Per cent,
of pop.
No.
7,808
7,812
Population
Per oent,
of pop.
1880
1890
412
244
7,791
7,777
1,462,410
1,782,463
27-7
31-9
3,822,368
3,812,519
72-3
68-1
In 1890 the urban population was thus distributed : —
-
No.
Population 1890
—
No.
Population 1890
410,245
415,283
Large towns1 .
Medium ,, .
2
10
493,184
393,938
Small towns .
Country „ .
41
191
l Bee p. 588 for official signification of these terms.
In 1890 the population included 2,731,120 males and 2,863,862 females ;
i.e., 104*9 females per 100 males. With respect to conjugal condition, the
following was the distribution : —
—
Males
Females
; Total
Unmarried .
Married . . . .
Widowed
Divorced and separated .
1,721,213
911,803
96,734
1,370
1,721,850
912,900
226,816
2,296
3,443,063
1,824,703
323,550
3,666
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536. In 1890 the number of foreigners in Bavaria (exclusive of
other Germans) was 74,313.
There is a large emigration from Bavaria. The emigration vi& German
ports and Antwerp was as follows in the undernoted. years : —
1885 1 1886 | 1887 1 1888 1 1889 1 1890 1 1891 1892
9,939 8,068 13,350
12,249 10,586 | 9,725
10,756 10,057
The population of the principal towns of the kingdom was as follows at
the census of December 1, 1890 : —
Towns
Dec. 1, 1890
Towns
Dec. 1, 1890
Munich (Miinchen)
Nuremberg (Niirnberg)
Augsburg .
Wiirzburg .
Furth .
Ratisbon (Regensburg).
350,594
142,590
75,629
61,039
43,206
37,/934
Kaiserslautern .
Bamberg .
Ludwigshafen
Bayreuth .
Hof .
Pirmasens .
37,047
35,815
33,216
24,556
24,455
21,041
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FINANCE — ABMY
583
Reichsgericht. This court, which has its seat at Munich, has a bench of 18
judges. Subject to its jurisdiction are 5 Oberlandesgerichte and 28 Land-
gerichte.
In 1890 there were 52,603 criminal convictions in Bavaria, i.e. 133 '7
per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve.
In 1891 the number of poor receiving relief was 180,92irthe sum ex-
pended on them being 7,540,028 marks. Of the total number 113,291 were
permanent paupers.
Finance.
The Bavarian budget is voted for a period of two years. . The gross public
revenue of Bavaria for the financial year ending December 31, 1883, was
277,447,131 marks, with an expenditure of 234,082,935. The revised expen-
diture for 1887 was 245,946,302 marks. For 1888 the revised revenue was
281,982,302 marks,, and expenditure 259,439,€jl2 marks. For 1889 the
revised revenue was 306,367,706 marks, and expenditure 260,821,481 marks.
The estimates for each of the years 1890 and 1891 provided for revenue and
expenditure of 280,291,642 marks. The sources of revenue and branches of
expenditure were estimated as follows for each of the financial years 1892 and
1893:—
Sources of Revenue
Marks
Direct taxes
Indirect .
State railways, post.
telegraphs, mines,
&c.
State domains
Miscellaneous receipts
36,989,260
96,352,150
141,287,247
29,973,514
1,690,100
Branches of Expenditure
Marks
Total gross revenue
Public debt . .
Civil list and appanages .
Council of State
Diet ....
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
,, Justice. •
,, Interior
,, Finance
„ Worship and
Education .
Pensions and allowances .
Contribution to Imperial \
expenditure . /
Charges of collection or
Revenue
Various expenses .
49,787,500
5,403,986
24,800
430,627
615,555
13,672,001
21,885,657
3,919,300
23,592,320
9,603,877
42,238,920
131,343,232
/ 396,496
1 3,378, 0001
306,292,271 | Total expenditure .
306,292,271
l Increase in number of State-officials and schoolmasters.
The direct taxes are a trade-tax, house-tax, land-tax, and income-tax.
The debt of Bavaria amounted to 1,332,144,326 marks at the end of 1891,
and to 1,340,161,177 marks at the end of 1889. Of this amount 967,511,657
marks is railway debt. The greater number of the railways in Bavaria, con-
structed at a cost of 801,500,000 marks, are the property of the State. For
five or six years the annual receipts from the railways have exceeded the
charges for the railway debt, in some years by as much as 6,000,000 marks.
Army.
The Bavarian army forms an integral part of the Imperial army, having,
in peace, its own administration. The military supplies, though voted by
the Bavarian Parliament, must bear a fixed proportion to the amount voted
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584
GERMAN EMPIRE: — BAVARIA
for the rest of Germany by the Reichstag (see page 546). The Bavarian troops
form the 1st and 2nd Bavarian army-corps, not numbered consecutively with
the other German army-corps ; and there are certain differences in the matter
of uniform permitted to the Bavarian troop. The administration of the
fortresses in Bavaria is also in the hands of the Bavarian Government during
peace.
The contribution of Bavaria to the Imperial army in 1893 was as
follows in officers and men : —
Infantry
Jager
Landwehr
Cavalry
Artillery
Officers
1,337
36
69
256
395
Men
Officers
41,690
Pioneers .
72
1,232
Train
36
592
Special .
384
7,111
9,124
Total
. 2,535
Men
2,000
1,126
162
63,037
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of Bavaria, nearly one-half is under cultivation, one-
sixth under grass, and one-third under forests. The number of separate
farms in 1882 was as follows : —
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
100 Hect. A over
594
Total
174,056
374,907
131,964
681,521
These farms supported a population of 2,665,123, of whom 1,355,466
were actually engaged in agriculture. The areas (in hectares) under the
chief crops, and the yield per hectare in metric tons, in 1890, with the
annual average for 1878-87, were as follows : —
-
1892
Average
Yield
1878-87
-
1892
Average
Yield
1878-87
Area, in hect
Yield
Area, in hect.
Yield
Wheat
Rye
Barley
322,453
543,615
351,267
1-61
1-50
1-54
132
1-12
1-29
Oats
Potatoes
Hops
450,648
300,094
26,815
137
12-20
0*48
1*21
9-47
048
\
Vines occupied 22,331 hectares in 1892, and yielded 339,732 hectolitres,
as against 846,550 hectolitres in 1890 of wine ; 345,403 hectares were planted
with tobacco, yielding 7,000 metric tons (2,000 lbs.) of dried leaf.
The total value of the leading mining products of Bavaria in 1889 was
6,548,577 marks.
The brewing of beer is a highly important industry in Bavaria (see Ger-
man Emvire, p. 556). The average quantity manufactured is 278,000,000
gallons, of which 27,000,000 are exported. In 1891-92, 10,228 distilleries
produced 170,585 hectolitres of alcohol.
In 1891 Bavaria had 3,485 miles of railway, of which 2,982 belonged to
the State.
British Minister Resident. — Victor A. W. Drummond, appointed 1886.
Consul. — John S Smith.
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BREMEN — AREA AND POPULATION
585
BREMEN.
(Freie Stadt Bremen.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Bremen form a republic, governed, under a
Constitution proclaimed March 5, 1849, and revised February 21, 1854,
November 17, 1875, December 1, 1878, and May 27, 1879, by a Senate of
sixteen members, forming the executive, and the ' Burgerschaft ' (or Convent
of Burgesses) of 150 members, invested with the power of legislation. The
Convent is returned by the votes of all the citizens, divided into classes. The
citizens who have studied at a university return 14 members ; the merchants
42 members ; the mechanics and manufacturers 22 members, and the other
tax-paying inhabitants of the Free City the rest. The Convent and Senate
elect the sixteen members of the Senate, ten of whom at least must be lawyers.
Two burgomasters, the first elected for four years, and the second for the same
Seriod, direct the affairs of the Senate, through a Ministry divided into twelve
epartments — namely, Foreign Affairs, Church and Education, Justice,
Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary Administration, Military Affairs,
Commerce and Shipping, Ports and Railways, Public Works, Industry, and
Poor Laws. All the ministers are senators.
Area and Population.
The State embraces an area of 99 English square miles. The population
amounted in 1875 to 142,220, inclusive of a Prussian garrison ; in 1880 it was
156,723 ; on December 1, 1885, it was 165,628 ; on December 1, 1890, it was
180,443. The increase of population from 1871 to 1875 was larger than in any
other State of Germany, reaching the high rate of 3*82 per cent, per annum ;
but it sank afterwards, for in the five years from 1885 to 1890 the increase was
but 1*64 per annum. Of the total population in 1890, 88,144 were males,
92,299 females— ie. 104*7 females per 100 males. Marriages, 1892, 1,657,
births, 5,796 — 181 (3*12 per cent.) still-born, 355 (6*12 percent.) illegitimate;
deaths, 3,510 ; surplus, 2,286.
Bremen, with Bremerhaven, is one of the chief outlets of German emigra-
tion. The following table shows the emigration statistics for three years : —
J Year
From Bremen
itself
Other
Germans
1 1890
1891
1892
772
1,006
961
46,909
58,073
58,267
Foreigners
i
Total
i
92,729
79,378
67,801
140,410 |
138,457
127,029
i
The foreign emigrants were chiefly natives of Austria-Hungary, Russia,
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.
Religion, Justice, and Crime.
On Dec. 1, 1890, Bremen contained 169,991 Protestants (94 2 per cent.),
8,018 Roman Catholics (4*4 per cent), 1,360 other Christians, 1,031 Jews, and
43 'unclassified.'
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586 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BREMEN — BRUNSWICK
Bremen contains two Amtsgerichte and a Landgericht, whence appeals lie
to the ' Hanseatische Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. In 1892, 3,714 persons
were convicted of crime— i.e. 203 per 10,000 inhabitants. In 1885, 3,959
persons, with 7,282 dependents, received public poor-relief.
Finance.
In 1892-93 the revenue was 19,023,732 marks, and expenditure 26,657,783
marks, including 7,555,376 of extraordinary expenses. More than one-third
of the revenue is raised from direct taxes, one-half of which is income-tax.
The chief branch of expenditure is for interest and reduction of the public
debt. The latter amounted, in 1892, to 90,274,800 marks. The whole of
the debt, which bears interest at 3£ and 4£ per cent. , was incurred for con-
structing railways, harbours, and other public works.
Commerce and Shipping.
Next to that of Hamburg, the port of Bremen is the largest for the inter-
national trade of Germany. About 66 per cent, of the commerce of Bremen is
carried on under the German, and about 29 per cent, under the British flag.
The aggregate value of the imports in 1892 was 719,494,492 marks, of which
52,669,483 marks were from Great Britain ; and of exports, 684,824,487 marks,
of which 29,270,906 marks went to Great Britain.
The number of merchant vessels belonging to the State of Bremen on Jan.
1, 1893, was 405, of 406,172 tons, the number including 180 steamers of an
aggregate burthen of 201,124 tons. Of the steamers sailing under the Bremen
and German flag, 72 (aggregate tonnage 127,874) belong to the navigation
company called the ' North-German Lloyd,' which maintains communication
between Bremen and various ports in North and South America, Eastern
Asia, and Australia ; 24 steamers belong to the ' Hansa ' Company, plying to
Madras and Calcutta, and 26 to the * Neptun ' Company, trading with
European ports.
British Consul-General. — Hon. Charles S. Dundas (Hamburg).
British Vice-Consuls. — (Bremen) Herr Boyes, (Brake) Herr Gross, (Bremer-
haven) Herr Schwoon.
BRUNSWICK.
(Braunschweig.)
Begent.
Prince Albrecnt, born May 8, 1837 ; son of the late Prince Albrecht of
Prussia, brother of the first German Emperor Wilhelm I., and Marianne,
daughter of the late William I., King of the Netherlands, Field-Marshal in
the German army. Married, April 19, 1873, to Princess Maria, Duchess of
Saxony, daughter of Duke Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg. Unanimously elected
regent of the Duchy by the Diet, October 21, 1885 ; assumed the reins of
government November 2, 1885. The children of the regent are : 1, Prince
Friedrich Hcinrich, born July 15, 1874 ; 2, Prince Joachim Albrecht, born
September 27, 1876 ; 3, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born July 12, 1880.
The last Duke of Brunswick was Wilhelm I., born April 25, 1806, the
second son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm and of Princess Marie of Baden ;
ascended the throne April 25, 1881, and died October 18, 1884.
The heir to Brunswick is the Duke of Cumberland, excluded owing to his
refusal to give up claim to the throne of Hanover. Duke of Cambridge, the
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CONSTITUTION — AKEA AND POPULATION 587
nearer agnate heir, also not accepted owing to his refusal to give up his
English appointments and residence.
The. ducal house of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, extinct on the death of
"Wilhelm I., was long one of the most ancient and illustrious of the Germanic
Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion, possessed, in the twelfth
century, the united duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, with other territories in
the North of Germany ; but having refused to aid the Emperor Friedrich
Barbarossa in his wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived
of the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial domains,
the principalities of Brunswick and Luneburg. These possessions were, on the
death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between the two sons of the latter, who
became the founders of the lines of Brunswick-Liineburg, Elder Line, and
Brunswick- Luneburg, Younger Line, the former of which was represented in the
ducal house of Brunswick, while the latter is merged in the royal family of
Great Britain.
The Brunswick regency law of February 16, 1879, enacts that in case the
legitimate heir to the Brunswick throne be absent or prevented from assuming
the government, a Council of Regency, consisting of the Ministers of State
and the Presidents of the Landtag and of the Supreme Court, should cany on
the government ; while the German Emperor should assume command of the
military forces in the Duchy. If the rightful heir, after the space of a year, is
unable to claim the throne, the Brunswick Landtag shall elect a regent from
the non-reigning members of German reigning families.
The late Duke of Brunswick was one of the wealthiest of German
sovereigns, having been in possession of the principality of Oels, in Silesia,
now belonging to the Prussian Crown, and vast private estates and domains in
the same district and adjoining, bequeathed to the King of Saxony.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1832, but was
modified by the fundamental laws of November 22, 1851, and March 26, 1888.
The legislative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting, according to the
law of 1851, of forty-six members. Of these, twenty-one are elected by those
who are highest taxed ; three by the Protestant clergy ; ten by the inhabitants
of towns, and twelve by those of rural districts. The Chamber meets,
according to the law of 1888, every two years, and the deputies hold their
mandate for four years. The executive is represented by a responsible
Staatsministorium, or Ministry of State, consisting at present of three depart-
ments, namely — of State, Foreign Affairs and Finance, of Justice and Eccle-
siastical Affairs, and of the Interior.
Area and Population.
The Duchy has an area of 1,424 English square miles, with a population of
403,77,3 inhabitants (201,428 males, 202,345 females), according to the census
of December 1, 1890. The increase was at the rate of 1 '32 per cent, per
annum in the five years 1880-85, and 1*68 in 1885-90. Marriages, 1892,
3,573 ; births, 14,834 ; deaths, 9,426 ; surplus, 4,896. Included in the births
are 512 (3*46 per cent.) still-born, and 1,566 (10*56 per cent.) illegitimate
children. Emigrants 1884, 449; 1885, 279; 1886, 252; 1887, 238; 1888,
322 ; 1889, 268; 1890, 305 ; 1891, 254; 1892, 333. Nearly the whole of
the inhabitants of the Duchy are members of the Lutheran Church, there
being only 16,419 Catholics in 1890.
The capital of the Duchy, the town of Brunswick (Braunschweig), had
101,047 inhabitants at the Census of Dec. 1, 1890.
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588 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BRUNSWICK — HAMBURG
Finance.
The budget is voted by the Chamber for the period of two years, but each
year separate. For the year from April 1, 1893, to April 1, 1894, the revenue
and expenditure of the State were made to balance at 13,170,000 marks. Not
included in the budget estimates is the civil list of the Duke — 1,125,000
marks. The public debt of the Duchy, without regard to a premium-loan
repayable in rates of 1,200,000 marks yearly till 1924, at the commencement
of 1893 was 27,394,188 marks, four-fifths of which were contracted for the
establishment of railways ; the productive capital of the State was at the same
time 42,512,000 marks, besides an annuity of 2,625,000 marks till 1934,
stipulated at the sale of the railways of the State.
Production and Industry.
Brunswick numbered on June 5, 1882, 63,611 agricultural enclosures each
under one household, having a population of 113,177, of whom 59,643 were
actively engaged on the farms. Of these farms, 34,129 were less than 1
hectare, 14,149 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, 5,168 from 10 to less
than 100 hectares, and 165 had an area each of 100 hectares and upwards.
The chief crops are wheat (22,488 hectares in 1890-91), rye (38,503), and
oats (28,270). The produce in 1892 was :— wheat, 57,703,800 kilogrammes ;
rye, 89,752,100 ; barley, 24,413,300; oats, 62,749,200.
In 1892 minerals were raised to the value of 3,321,150 marks.
There were 234 miles of railway in 1892.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Right Hon. Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
Consul -General — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
HAMBURG.
(Fbeie und Hanse-Stadt Hamburg.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Hamburg is a republic. The present Con-
stitution was published on September 28, 1860, and came into force on
January 1, 1861 ; a revision was published on October 13, 1879. According
to the terms of this fundamental law, the government— Staatsgewalt — is
entrusted, in common, to two Chambers of Representatives, the Senate
and the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises
chiefly, but not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen mem-
bers, one half of whose number must have studied law Or finance, while seven
out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants. The
members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses ; but a
senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years. A first and second
burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the meetings of
the Senate. No burgomaster can be in office longer than two years ; and no
member of the Senate is allowed to hold any public office whatever. The
House of Burgesses consists of 160 members, 80 of whom are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax-paying citizens. Of the remaining 80 members,
40 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house-property in the city
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COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
591
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
Imports
Exports
Great Britain .
France .
Holland .
German Ports .
North Europe .
Other European
Ports .
Total for Europe
2,118-8
114*8
47*6
104*7
226 3
613*8
781-4
38-4
528
181*6
281-4
125-9
United States .
Brazil
Other Ameri-
can Ports
Total for
America .
Asia
Africa
Australia .
876-9
102*1
689*1
360*7
102 1
241*7
1,668*1
704-5
451*3
119*1
26 3
130-7
74*7
49-4
3,226 0
1,461*5
The total number of vessels which entered and cleared at Hamburg during
each of five years was as follows : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
7,524
8,079
8,176
8,673
8,569
4,355,511
4,809,892
5,202,825
5,762,369
5,639,010
7,517
8,079
8,185
8,684
8,565
4,347,723
4,826,906
5,214,271
5,766,318
5,640,163
15,041
16,158
16,361
17,357
17,134
8,702,234
9,636,798
10,417,096
11,528,687
11,279,173
The following is the number and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared
with cargoes only : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
6,517
6,947
6,978
7,368
7,175
4,050,479
4,469,698
4,815,327
5,310,657
5,203,044
5,735
5,871
6,040
6,238
6,036
3,335,481
3,496,303
3,831,535
4,176,775
3,941,981
12,252
12,818
13,018
13,606
13,211
7,385,960
7,966,001
8,646,862
9,487,432
9,145,025
The number and tonnage of British vessels that entered and cleared at
Hamburg were as follows : —
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Entered
With Cargoes
Ships Tons
2,633
2,831
2,827
2,980
2,996
1,859,966
2,028,220
2,151,634
2,416,329
2,473,994
In Ballast
Ships Tons
252
238
226
244
176
128,534
137,381
196,759
216,118
162,765
Cleared
With Cargoes
Ships
2,170
2,107
2,160
2,162
2,027
Tons
1,429,063
1,420,697
1,567,587
1,664,305
1,518,121
In Ballast
Ships Tons
697
956
892
1,049
1,138
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545,999
741,366
782,897
955,430
1,115,712
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592
GERMAN EMPIRE: — HESSE
The total number of sea-going vessels, above 17*65 registered tons, which
belonged to the port of Hamburg, was as follows on December 31 of the years
1888-92 :—
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
r
rotal
Tonnage
i
No. of |
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Crews
1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
266 j 147,099
262 | 156,204
268 164,650
273 175,975
275 194,482
227
258
297
305
323
234,908
293,535
356,755
377,439
392,932
493
520
565
578
598
382,007
449,739
521,405
553,414
587,414
9,780
11,220
12,786 i
13,507 I
13,963 1
In 1893 there were 23 miles of railway.
British Consul-General. — Hon. Charles S. Dundas.
>
HESSE.
(Grossherzogthum Hessen.)
Reigning Grand-Duke. — Ernst Ludwig, born November 25, 1868 ; the
son of Grand-duke Ludwig IV. and of Princess Alice, second daughter of
Queen Victoria, of Great Britain and Ireland ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, March 13, 1892.
Sisters of the Grand-duke. — I. Victoria, born April 5, 1868 ; married to
Prince Ludwig of Battenberg, April 30, 1884. II. Elizabeth, born November
I, 1864 ; married to the Grand-duke Sergius Alexandrovitch of Russia, June
15, 1884. III. Irene, born July 11, 1866, married to Prince Heinrich of
Prussia, May 24, 1888. IV. Alix, born June 6, 1872.
Uncles of the Grand-dukc. — I. Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838 ;
married, Feb. 28, 1878, to Caroline Willich, created Freifrau zu Nidda ;
widower, Jan. 6, 1879 ; remarried, Sept. 20, 1892, to Emily Hrzik, created
Frau von Dornberg ; offspring, Charles, Count of Nidda, born Jan. 4, 1879.
II. Prince WUhelm, born Nov. 16, 1845, married, Feb. 24, 1884, to Josephine
Bender, created Frau von Lichtenberg.
Children of Prince Alexander, uncle of the late Grand-duke Ludwig IV.
(died Dec. 15, 1888) and Princess Julia von Battenberg, born Nov. 12, 1825.
Offspring of the union are1: — 1. Marie, born July 15, 1852; married,
April 29, 1871, to Count Gustaf von Erbach-Schbnberg. 2. Ludwig,
born May 24, 1854, commander in the British navy ; married to Princess
Victoria of Hesse, April 30, 1884 ; offspring, Alice, born February 25, 1885 ;
Louise, born July 13, 1889 ; George, born Nov. 6, 1892. 3. Heinrich, bom
October 5, 1858 ; married, July 23, 1885, to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain ;
offspring, Alexander, born Nov. 23, 1886 ; Victoria, born Oct. 24, 1887 ;
Leopold, born May 21, 1889 ; Maurice, born October 3, 1891. 4. Franz Josef,
born September 24, 1861.
The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke given
them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable increase of
territory. At the Congress of Vienna this grant was confirmed, after some
i Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria, 1879-36, afterwards Count Hartenau, died Nov. 16,
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CONSTITUTION — AREA AND POPULATION
593
negotiations. The reigning family are not possessed of much private
property, but dependent almost entirely upon the grant of the civil list,
amounting to 1,367,857 marks, the sum including allowances to the
princes.
Constitution.
The Constitution bears date December 17, 1820 ; but was modified in 1856,
1862, and 1872. The legislative power is vested in two Chambers, the first
composed of the princes of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble
houses, the Roman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University, two members elected by the noble landowners,
and a number (twelve) of life-members, nominated by the Grand-duke ; while
the second consists of ten deputies of the eight larger towns, and forty repre-
sentatives of the smaller towns and rural districts. Members of both Cham-
bers whose seats are not hereditary, and who do not reside at the seat of the
Legislature, receive an allowance of 9s. a day.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into three departments,
namely, of the Grand-ducal House and Foreign Affairs ; of the Interior and of
Justice ; and of Finance.
Area and Population.
The area and population were as follows on December 1, 1880, 1885, and
1890 :—
Sq. Miles
Population
Pop.
per sq.
mile,
1890
1880
1885
1890
Upper Hesse (Oberhessen)
Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen) .
Starkentrarg
Total
1,269
581
1,166
264,614
277,152
394 574
263,044
291,189
402,378
265,912
307,329
419,642
209-5
578*8
359*9
2,966
936,340
956,611
992,883
334 '8
There were 492,348 males and 500,535 females in 1890. Increase from 1875
to 1880 at the rate of 1*14 per cent, per annum ; from 1880 to 1885 at the rate
of 0*43 per cent. ; from 1885 to 1890 at the rate of 0*76 per cent. There were
8,237 marriages in Hesse in 1892, 32,718 births and 23,385 deaths, leaving a
surplus of 9,333 births. Among the births are 1,153, or 3*83 per cent.,
stillborn, and 2,420, or 7 '40 per cent., illegitimate children. Emigrants, 3,175
in 1884, 2,503 in 1885, 1,725 in 1886, 2,167 in 1887, 2,220 in 1888, 2,011
in 1889, 2,122 in 1890, 1,992 in 1891, and 1,716 in 1892.
The largest towns of the Grand-duchy are Mayence or Mainz, with 72,059 ;
Darmstadt, the capital, 56,399 (including Bessungen) ; Offenbach, 35,085 ;
Worms, 25,474 ; Giessen, 20,571 inhabitants, at the census of December 1,
1890.
Religion and Instruction.
Of the population in 1890, 666,118 were Protestants; 293,651 Catholics;
7,390 other Christian sects; 25,531 Jews; and 193 unclassified, or of 'no
religion. '
Hesse has a university at Giessen, with 553 martriculated students and 52
Q Q
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594 GERMAN EMPIRE: — HESSE — LIPPE
' listeners ' in 1893, a technical university at Darmstadt, with 497 students
and 111 'hoapitants* in 1893. There are 993 public elementary schools
(1892), and 906 advanced elementary schools, besides 32 higher schools.^
finance.
The budget is granted for the term of three years. The revenue for the
financial period 1891-94 was estimated at 24,653,219 marks in ordinary,
7,421,971 marks in extraordinary, per annum ; and the expenditure at
24,129,751 marks in ordinary, 4,626,913 marks in extraordinary, per annum.
The public debt amounted to 35,332,747 marks in 1893, of which 31,545,020
marks are railway debt ; against this are active funds of the State amount-
ing to 4,492,669 marks. The total annual charge of the debt in the budget
of 1891-94 is 1,127,385 marks in ordinary, and 2,094,587 marks in extra-
ordinary.
Production and Industry.
The number of agricultural enclosures, each under one household, was
(1882) 128,526, with a population of 381,995, of whom 156,296 were actively
engaged on the farms. Of these farms 54,029 were less than 1 hectare each ;
65,199 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, and 9,174 from 10 to less than
100 hectares, while there were 124 having a surface of 100 hectares and
upwards. The chief crops are wheat (40,996 hectares in 1891-92), rye,
(62,880), barley (57,425), oats (46,158), and potatoes (67,129). Minerals to the
value of 1,828,207 marks, salt of 590,625 marks were raised in 1891.
Hesse has 595 miles of railway, of which 234 belong to the State.
British Charge" <T Affaires. — G. W. Buchanan.
Consul-General. — Sir Charles Oppenheimer (Frankfort).
LIPPE.
(FtiRSTENTHUM LlPPE.)
Reigning Prince.
Waldemar, born April 18, 1824, the second son of Prince Leopold and of
Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his brother, December 8, 1875 ; married, November 9, 1858, to Princess
Sophie, born August 7, 1884, daughter of the late* Margrave Wilhelm of
Baden. The only living brother of the reigning Prince is Prince Alexander,
born January 16, 1831, formerly captain in the Hanoverian army.
The house of Lippe is the eldest branch of the ancient family of Iippe,
from which proceeded in the seventeenth century the still flourishing
collateral lineages of Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe-Biesterfeld, Ac The Prince
has not a civil list. For the expenses of the court, &c., are allotted the
revenues arising from the Domanium (farms, forests, &c. ), which, according to
the covenant of June 24, 1868, are indivisible and inalienable entail estate of
the Prince's house, the usufruct and administration of which belong to the
reigning Prince.
Constitution.
A charter of rights was granted to Iippe by decree of July 6, 1886, partly
replaced by the electoral law of June 3, 1876, according to which the Diet is
composed of twenty-one members, who are elected in three divisions deter-
mined by the scale of the rates. The discussions are public. To the Chamber
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LIPPE — Lt)BECK
595
belongs the right of taking part in legislation and the levying of taxes ;
otherwise its functions are consultative. A minister presides over the
government.
Area and Population.
The population at the census of December 1, 1890, numbered 128,495,
living on an area of 469 English square miles. At the census of 1880, the
inhabitants numbered 120,216, showing an increase at the rate of 0*5 per cent,
per annum. Of the population 62,978 were males, and 65,517 (or 104 per 100
males) females. Marriages, 1892, 1,110 ; births 4,723 (178 stillborn, 236
illegitimate) ; deaths, 2,676 ; surplus, 2,047.
The emigration statistics are as follows : —
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
317
176
58
122
28
49
47
166
The capital, Detmold, has 9,735 inhabitants (1890). Except 4,332
Catholics and 989 Jews (1890), the people are Protestants.
Finance and Industry.
The budget is arranged for two years. For 1893 the revenue was estimated
at 1,153,659 marks, and expenditure 1,140,917 marks.
In 1882 the separate farms were as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares 1 10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
14,567
7,210
1,515
29
23,321
These farms supported a population of 45,733, of whom 19,619 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Railways, 18 miles.
British Consul-General. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
LXJBECE.
(Fbkie und Hanse-Stadt Lubeck.)
Constitution.
The free city and State of Lubeck form a Republic, governed according
to a Constitution proclaimed December 30, 1848, revised December 29,
1851, and April 7, 1875. The main features of this charter are two repre-
sentative bodies — first, the Senate, exercising the executive, and, secondly,
the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising, together with the
Senate, the legislative authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen
members, elected for life, and presided over by one burgomaster, who holds
office for two years. There are 120 members in the House of Burgesses,
chosen by all citizens of the town. A committee of thirty burgesses, pre-
sided over by a chairman elected for one year, has the duty of represent-
ing the legislative assembly in the intervals of the ordinary sessions, and
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GERMAN EMPIRE: — LUBECK
of carrying on all active business. The government is in the hands of the
Senate, but the House of Burgesses has the right of initiative in all measures
relative to the public expenditure, foreign treaties, and general legislation.
To the passing of every new law the sanction of the Senate and the House of
Burgesses is required.
Area and Population.
The State comprises a territory of 115 English square miles, of which
the population in 1880 was 63,571, including a garrison ; on December 1,
1890, the population was 76,485 (37,471 males and 39,014 females). The city
proper had 39,743, and the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of
territory surrounded by Prussia, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg, 12,415
inhabitants in 1875 ; in 1880 the city had increased to 51,055, in 1885 to
55,399, and in 1890 to 63,590. In the four years from 1871 to 1875 the
population increased at the rate of 2*28 per cent, per annum ; in the five years
from 1875 to 1880 at the rate of 2*34 per cent. ; in 1880-85 at 1 29 per cent. ;
and in 1885-90 at 14*79 per cent.
In the State of Liibeck the movement of population during four years was
as follows : —
Year
Marriages
Births
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
Emigration
1889
1890
1891
1892
586
623
619
620
2,331
2,470
2,611
2,569
1,374
1,602
1,707
1,455
957
868
904
914
80
77
105
85
In 1892 there were 222 illegitimate births, or 8*6 per cent, of the total
births, and 70 still-births, or 2*7 per cent.
Religion, Instruction, Justice, and Pauperism.
On December 1, 1890, Protestants numbered 74,544 (97*5 per cent.),
Roman Catholics 1,143 (1 '5 per cent. ), other Christians 122, Jews 654, and
'unclassified' 22. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14.
In the city and suburbs there are (1890) 18 elementary schools (9 for each
sex), with 6,778 pupils ; for boys 1 gymnasium (601 pupils), 1 Hohere Biirger-
schule (233 pupils), 1 private higher school (522 pupils), and 3 public
middle schools ; for girls there are 4 private high schools and several private
middle schools. There are also a public technical school for apprentices,
and 2 private commercial schools. Three daily newspapers, one weekly and
one bi-weekly periodical, are published in the city. Liibeck contains an
Amtsgericht and a Landgericht, whence the appeal lies to the ' Hanseatisches
Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. The police force number 181 men, and
in 1890 cost 240,620 marks ; 1891, 240,113 marks ; 1892, 235,322 marks. In
1890, 585 ; 1891, 544 ; 1892, 603 criminals were convicted. In 1890, 1,100 ;
1891, 1,023 persons received poor-relief from the State ' Armen-Anstalt,'
which spent, in 1890, 105,495 marks ; in 1891, 95,022 marks out of a
revenue of 118,347 marks.
Finance.
The estimated revenue for the year 1893 amounted to 3,750,703 marks,
and the expenditure to the same amount. About one-sixth of the revenue is
derived from public domains, chiefly forests ; one-fourth from interest ; and
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MECKLENBURG-SCHWEBIN
597
the rest mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-fourth is for
the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting, in 1892,
to 9,549,407*10 marks.
Commerce and Shipping.
The total commerce of Liibeck was as follows : —
Year
Imports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
Exports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
kilogrammes
marks
kilogrammes
marks
1875
486,756
194,435
276,324
160,314
1885
594,487
190,690
400,576
167,139
1890
803,184
222,858
524,613
202,228
1891
836,891
225,273
516,101
196,393
1892
805,301
225,512
496,539
199,761
Imports by sea in 1892, 62,825,977 marks ; exports, 122,604,205 marks.
The chief articles of commerce are timber, corn, coal and coke, iron, and
colonial produce. The bulk of the direct trade of Liibeck is carried on
with Denmark, Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden and Norway. (For the ship-
ping statistics see under Germany. ) The number of vessels arriving under the
British flag in 1892 was 30 of 20,403 registered tons. The number of vessels
belonging to the port of Liibeck at the end of 1892 was 37, with an aggregate
tonnage of 18,156, of which 31 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 14,689,
were steamers.
The State contained 29 miles of railway in 1892, belonging to private
companies.
British Vice-Consul. — H. L. Behncke.
MECKLENBUBG-SCHWEBIN.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg-Schwerin.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich Franz III.', born March 19, 1851 ; son of Friedrich Franz II. and
Princess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz ; succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, April 15, 1883 ; married, January 24, 1879, to Grand-duchess
Anastasia, born July 28, 1860, daughter of Grand-duke Michael of Russia.
Offspring : 1. Alexandrine, born December 24, 1879. 2. Friedrich Franz,
born April 9, 1882. 3. Cecile, born September 20, 1886.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — I. Paul Friedrich, born Sep-
tember 19, 1852 ; married May 5, 1881, to the Duchess Maria of Windisch-
Graetz. Offspring : 1. Paul Friedrich, born May 12, 1882. 2. Marie Antoi-
nette, born May 28, 1884. 3. Heinrich Borwin, born December 16, 1885.
Duke Paul in 1884 renounced all hereditary rights to the Grand-duchy
for himself and his descendants ; he himself became a Roman Catholic.
II. Marie, born May 14, 1854 ; married August 28, 1874, to Grand-duke
Vladimir, second son of Alexander II., Emperor of Russia. III. Johann
Albrecht, born December 8, 1857 ; married, November 6, 1886, to Duchess
Elizabeth, daughter of the Grand-duke of Saxe-Weimai-Eisenach. IV.
Elisabeth, born August 10, 1869. V. Friedrich Wilhelm, born April 5,
1871. VI. Adolf Friedrich, born October 10, 1873. VII. Heinrich, born
April 19, 1876.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning family in
Western Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest sovereign
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GERMAN EMPIRE : — MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN
house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-dukes style them-
selves Princes of the Wends. The genealogical table of the reigning Grand-
dukes begins with Niklot, who died 1160, and comprises 25 generations. The
title of Grand-duke was assumed in 1815.
Constitution.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the * Union* of 1523,
the 'Reversales' of 1572 and 1621, and the charters of 1755 and Nov. 28,
1817. Part of the legislative power (only in the Domain has the Grand-
duke the whole legislative power) is in the hands of the Diet — ' Landtag. *
There is only one Diet for both Grand-duchies, and it assembles every year
for a few weeks ; when it is not in actual session it is represented by a
committee of nine members — 'Engerer Ausschuss.' Seats and votes in the
Diet belong to the Ritterschaft — that is, the proprietors of Rittergiiter, or
Knights' Estates — and to the Landschaft, consisting of the burgomasters of
the 48 towns. The Ritterschaft has nearly 800 members, but only a few of
them take seats in the Diet. The Domain has not a representation of its own.
The only elected representatives of the people are the 6 deputies returned to
the German Reichstag.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four departments,
appointed by, and responsible to, the Grand-duke alone.
Area and Population.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin is situated on the north-east coast of the Empire.
The total area is 5,135 English square miles. There is no other administra-
tive division than that springing from the ownership of the soil, in which
respect the country is divided as follows, with population in 1890 :— Grand-
ducal Domains, 191,195; Knights' Estates (Rittergiiter), 119,194; Convent
Estates (Klostergiiter), 8,442 ; Town Estates, 259,511. Total, 578,342. Aver-
age density, 112*6 per square mile. Though the average density is low, and
the soil very fertile, there was a gradual decrease of population up to 1875,
and again in 1880-85, though between 1875 and 1880 there was a large
increase. Population : 1867, 560,628 ; 1871, 557,707 ; 1875, 553,785 ; 1880,
577,055 ; 1885, 575,152 ; 1890, 578,342. Of the total population in 1890,
42 '7 per cent, lived in towns of 2,000 inhabitants or upwards, 57*3 per cent, in
rural communes ; 78,052 lived in medium towns, 73,352 in small towns, and
94,270 in country towns. The rural population was thus 332,668. The chief
towns are Rostock (44,409 inhabitants), Schwerin (33,643 inhabitants), the
capital, Wismar (16,787 inhabitants), and Gustrow (14,568 inhabitants). In
1890 the population included 285,092 males and 293,250 females, Le. 102*9
females per 100 males.
More than one-half of the people are engaged in agriculture and cattlo
rearing, as is shown in the table on p. 536. In 1890 there were 2,628
foreigners in Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Marriages, 1891, 4,552 ; total births,
17,306 ; stillborn, 578 (3*3 per cent.) ; illegitimate, 2,168 (12 '5 per cent.) ;
total deaths, 11,916 ; surplus of births, 5,390.
The numbers of emigrants, via German and Dutch ports and Antwerp, for
eight years were as follows : —
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
2,221
1,238
1,419
1,144
1,226
1,133
1,536
1,329
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Religion and Instruction.
Nearly all the inhabitants are Protestants. In 1890 there were : Roman
Catholics, 5,034 ; Jews, 2,182 ; other Christians, 905. The State Church is
Protestant. There are 478 Protestant churches and 346 clergymen. The
parishes are generally well endowed with landed property.
There are about 1,315 elqmentary schools in the Grand-duchy ; Gymnasia,
7 with 1,782 pupils ; Realschulen, 9 with 1,838 pupils ; normal schools, 2
with 204 pupils ; navigation schools, 2 ; agricultural schools, 2 ; architectural
school, 1. There are besides several middle and special schools. There is a
university at Rostock (see German Empire).
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
The Grand-duchy contains 43 Amtsgerichte, 3 Landgerichte, and 1 Ober-
landesgericht at Rostock, which is also the supreme court for Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. There are also certain special military and ecclesiastical tribunals. «
In 1889, 3,229 criminals were convicted, i.e. 76*2 per 10,000 inhabitants over
12 years of age. On October 31, 1890, 374 persons were in prison — 304 men,
55 women, and 15 children.
The Grand-duchy is divided into about 1,700 poor-law districts. In 1885,
14,475 heads of families, or solitary paupers, with 8,735 dependents, were
relieved at a total cost of 1,308,488 marks. A poor-rate, averaging about 1
per cent, on incomes, may be levied by the poor law districts.
Finance.
There exists no general budget for the Grand-duchy. There are three
systems of finance, entirely distinct. 1. That of the Grand-duke, estimated
for 1893-94 at 17,900,000 marks. 2. The financial administration of the
States, the resources of which are very small. 3. The common budget of
the Grand-duke and States, the receipts and expenditure of which balance at
3, 828, 800 marks (for 1893-94). On July 1 , 1893, the public debt was estimated
at 82,153,500 marks. The interest of the railway debt (10,801,800 marks),
and of the consolidated loan of 1886, amounting to 12,000,000 marks, is
covered by the annuity of 960,000 marks paid by the State railways, and
the remaining debt is more than covered by the State funds.
Production.
Of the total surface of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, arable and garden-land
occupy 759,138 hectares ; pasturage, 108,512 ; woods, 226,562 ; heath and
waste land, 77,736 ; uncultivated land, 158,426. On June 5, 1882, the
number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one household, was
as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
62,409
20,919
8,459
1,310
93,097
These farms had an aggregate area of 1,059,043 hectares, and supported
293,348 persons, of whom 116,135 were actively engaged upon them.
The areas in hectares under the principal crops were as Follows in 1890 : —
Wheat, 43,633; rye, 167,344; barley, 17,717; oats, 112,901; potatoes,
42,699 ; hay, 108,512. In 1891 the yield was (in quintals) .-—wheat, 775,051 ;
rye, 2,284,706 ; barley, 348,071 ; oats, 1,363,566 ; potatoes, 4,044,643 ; hay,
6 694,354.
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600 GERMAN EMPIRE : — MECKLENBURG -STRELITZ
In 1892 the railways measured 622 miles.
Consul-General. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
(Grosshebzogthum Mecklenburg-Strelitz.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrieh Wilhelm I., born October 17, 1819 ; the son of Grand-duke
Georg and of Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the
tJeath of his father, September 6, 1860 ; married June 28, 1843, to Augusta,
born July 19, 1822, the daughter Of the late Duke Adolphus of Cambridge.
Offspring : Adolf Friedrieh, born July 22, 1848 ; married April 17, 1877,
to Princess Elizabeth of Ahhalt, born September 7, 1857, of which union
there is offspring : Mary Augusta, born May 8, 1878 ; Jutta, born January 24,
1880 ; Adolf Friedrieh, born June 17, 1882 ; and Carl Barwin, born October
10, 1888.
The reigning house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was founded, in 1701, by
Duke Adolf Friedrieh, youngest son of Duke Adolf Friedrieh I. of Meck-
lenburg. There being no law of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was
unable to prevent the division of the country, which was protested against by
subsequent Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Grand-duke is, however,
one of the wealthiest of German sovereigns, more than one-half of the country
being his private property.
Constitution and Finance.
The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of which
Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners and town magistrates, while
the second, Ratzeburg, has no representative Constitution (see Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin). Of the 48 burgomasters and nearly 800 members of the
Ritterschaft, 7 burgomasters and over 60 proprietors of Rittergiiter belong to
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is exercised
by him through his Government, at the head of which is a 'Minister of
State. ' Accounts of public income and expenditure are never made known,
and the whole State revenue forms the civil list of the Grand-duke ; the debt
is estimated at 6,000,000 marks.
Area, Population, &c.
The area of the country is 2,929 square kilometres, or 1,131 English square
miles, the ownership of which territory is divided between the sovereign,
the feudal proprietors, and the corporations of certain towns, in the following
manner : — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke ; 353 to the titled and
untitled nobles ; and 117 to the town corporations.
The population in 1875 was 95,673 ; in 1880, 100,269 ; in 1885, 98,371 ;
on DecemW 1, 1890, it was 97,978 ; it was decreasing steadily, through
emigration, previous to 1875, although there is a less density than in any
other State of the German Empire, less than 100 inhabitants living on this
square mile. During the census period, 1871-75, the decrease of population
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AREA AND POPULATION — OLDENBURG
601
was at the rate of 0*35 per cent, per annum. During 1875-80 there was an
increase at the rate of 0*94 per cent, per annum, and m 1880-85 a decrease of
0*39 per cent, per annum. Of the total population in 1890, 47,971 were
males, and 50,007 were females, or 103*9 females per 100 males. Marriages,
1891, 752 ; births, 3,180 ; deaths, 2,154 ; surplus of births, 1,026. Among
the births were 111 (3*49 per cent.) still-born, and 391 (12*29 per cent.)
illegitimate children.
The emigration statistics for eight years are as follows : —
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
391
149
155
241
262
198
333
175
With the exception of 654 Catholics and 489 Jews (1890), the people are
Protestants. The capital, Neu Strelitz, had 9,481 inhabitants in 1890.
Fully one-half of the population are engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing,
&c, and only 38*4 per cent, live in towns with 2,000 inhabitants or upwards.
In 1882 the agricultural tenements were divided as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
13,576
2,519
1,411
215
17,721
These farms supported 49,244 persons, of whom 19,142 were actively
engaged upon them.
Mecklenburg-Strelitz has 114 English miles of railway.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Right Hon. Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
ConsuUOenerah — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
OLDENBURG.
(Geossherzogthum Oldenburg.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1827 ; the son of Grand-
duke August and of Princess Ida of Anhalt-Bernburg ; succeeded to the
throne at the death of his father, February 27, 1853 ; married, February 10,
1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826, daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-
Altenburg. Offspring : I. Prince August, heir-apparent, born November 16,
1852 ; married, February 18, 1878, to Princess Elizabeth, born February 8,
1857, second daughter of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia ; issue a daughter,
Sophia, born February 2, 1879. II. Prince Oeorg, born June 27, 1855.
The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to Denmark,
Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from "Wittekind, the cele-
brated leader of the heathen Saxons against Charlemagne. In the fifteenth
century a scion of the House of Oldenburg, Count Christian VIII., was elected
Xing of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The main line became extinct with
Count Anton Gunther, in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to
the King of Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paul of Russia, in
1773, in exchange for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-
duke then (1773) gave Oldenburg to his cousin, Prince Friedrich August of
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RELIGION A^D INSTRUCTION — PRODUCTION
603
Religion and Instruction
In 1890 Oldenburg contained 274,410 Protestants (77*3 per cent.), 77,766
Roman Catholics (21 9), 1,208 other Christians (0 4), 1,552 Jews (0*4), and 32
(0*1) unclassified. The State Church (Protestant) is under the Ministry for
Ecclesiastical Affairs.
The following table shows the higher schools of Oldenburg in 1891 : —
Gymnasia ....
Realschulen
Hohere Biirgerschulen .
Hohere Tbchterschulen
{Protestant .
Catholic
Burger and agricultural school
Normal •
No.
No. of Teachers
73
36
23
33
10
3
11
No. of Pupils
917
704
494
504
115
43
76
In addition to these are a middle * Stadtschule' for boys, with 18 teachers
and 587 pupils ; two Stadtschulen for girls, with 24 teachers and 562 pupils ;
and a school of navigation, with 6 teachers and 70 pupils.
Justice and Pauperism.
Oldenburg contains an Oberlandesgericht and a Landgericht. The Amts-
gerichte of Liibeck and Birkenfeld are under the jurisdiction of the Landge-
richte at Liibeck and Saarbriicken respectively. In 1891, 2,243 persons, or
90*6 per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve, were convicted of crime.
In 1885, 7,471 persons, with 5,282 dependents (in all 3*73 of the population),
received public poor-relief.
Production.
Of the total area, 552,880 hectares are cultivated ; about half the
population are engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing, &c. In June 1882,
the number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one household, was
as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
23,529
26,657
7,773
67
50,262
These farms supported 174,562 persons, of whom 71,879 were actively
engaged upon them.
Oldenburg had 192 miles of railway on January 1, 1893, of which all but
25 miles were under the direction of the State.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Right Hon. Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
Consul- General. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
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604 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
PRUSSIA.
(KotflGREICH PfiEUSSEN.)
Eeigning King.
Wilhelm II., born Jan. 27, 1859, eldest son of Friedrich III.,
German Emperor and King of Prussia — who was eldest son of
Wilhelm I., and was born Oct. 18, 1831, married, Jan. 25, 1858,
to Victoria (Empress and Queen Friedrich), Princess Royal of
Great Britain, succeeded his father March 9, 1888, and died June
15, 1888, when he was succeeded by his son, Prince Friedrich
Wilhelm, under the title of Wilhelm II. The Emperor married,
Feb. 27, 1881, Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Augustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858, daughter of the late Duke
Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg.
Children of the King.
1. Prince FriedricJi Wilhelm Victor August Ernst, born May
6, 1882, Crown Prince of the German Empire and of Prussia ;
2. Prince WilJielm Eitelr Friedrich Christum Karl, born July 7,
1883 ; 3. Prince Adalbert Ferdinand Berengar Victor, born July
14, 1884; 4. Prince August Wilhelm Heinrich Gimiher Victor,
born Jan. 29, 1887 ; 5. Prince Oscar Karl Gustav Adolf, born
July 27, 1888 ; 6. Prince Joachim Franz Humbert, born Dec. 17,
1890; 7. Princess Viktoria Luise, born Sept. 13, 1892.
Brother and Sisters of the King.
1. Princess Charlotte, born July 24, 1860; married, Feb. 18,
1878, to Prince Bernhard, eldest son of Duke George II. of Saxe-
Meiningen 2. Prince Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862 ; married,
May 24, 1888, to Princess Irene, daughter of the late Grand-duke
Ludwig IV. of Hesse ; offspring of the union is a son, Waldemar,
born March 20, 1889. 3. Princess Victoria, born April 12, 1866 ;
married, Nov. 19, 1890, to Prince Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe.
4. Princess Sophie, born June 14, 1870; married, Oct. 27, 1889,
to Crown-Prince Konstantin of Greece, Duke of Sparta. 5. Prin-
cess Margarethe, born April 22, 1872, married, Jan. 25, 1893, to
Prince Friedrich Karl Ludwig of Hesse.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Luise, born Dec. 3, 1838; married, Sept. 20, 1856, to
Grand-duke Friedrich of Baden.
The Kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor,
Count Friedrich I., built the family castle of Hohenzollern, near
the Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohen-
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ROYAL FAMILY 605
zollern, Friedrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of
the Holy Roman Empire in 1273, and received the Burggraviate
of Nuremberg in fief ; and his great-grandson, Friedrich VI., was
invested by Kaiser Sigmund, in 1415, with the province of
Brandenburg, and obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A cen-
tury after, in 1511, the Teutonic Knights, owners of the large
province of Prussia, on the Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht, a
younger son of the family of Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-
Master, and he, after a while, declared himself hereditary prince.
The early extinction of the male line of Albrecht brought the
province of Prussia by marriage to the Electors of Brandenburg,
who, by early adopting Protestantism, acquired a very important
position as leaders of the new faith in Northern Germany. In
the seventeenth century, the Hohenzollern territories became
greatly enlarged by Friedrich Wilhelm, ' the Great Elector, ' under
whose fostering care arose the first standing army in Central
Europe. The Great Elector, after a reign extending from 1640 to
1688, left a country of one and a half million inhabitants, a vast
treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops to his son, Friedrich L,
who put the kingly crown on his head at Kbnigsberg on January
18, 1701. The first King of Prussia made few efforts to in-
crease the territory left him by the Great Elector ; but his suc-
cessor, Friedrich Wilhelm I., acquired a treasure of nine millions
of thalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling, bought family
domains to the amount of five million thalers, and raised the annual
income of the country to six millions, three-fourths of which sum,
however, had to be spent on the army. After adding part of
Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son and
successor, Friedrich II., called ' the Great, ' a State of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half million inhabitants. Friedrich
II. added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a
quarter million of souls ; and this, and the large territory gained
in the first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square
miles, with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants.
Under the reign of Friedrich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm II. ,
the State was enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of
Anspach and Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in
another partition of Poland, which raised its area to the extent
of nearly 100,000 square miles, with about nine millions of souls.
Under Friedrich Wilhelm III., nearly one-half of this State and
population was taken by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna
not only restored the loss, but added part of the Kingdom of
Saxony, the Rhineland, and Swedish Pomerania, moulding
Prussia into two separate pieces of territory, of a total area of
i
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606
GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
106,820 square miles. This was shaped into a compact State of
134, 463 square miles, with a population of 22,769,436, by the war
of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the Kings of Prussia enjoyed the whole
income of the State domains, amounting to about a million sterling per annum.
By a degree of Jan. 17, 1820, King Friedrich Wilhelm III. fixed the Krondo-
tations at the total sum of 2,573,098| thalers, which was sanctioned on Jan.
31, 1850, by Art. 59 of the Constitution ; remaining, as before, dependent on the
revenue derived from domains and forests. The amount of the civil list was
fixed by Art. 59 of the Constitution of Jan. 31, 1850 ; but by law of April 30,
1859, it was raised 500,000 thalers, by law of Jan. 27, 1868, 1,000,000 thalers,
and by law of Feb. 20, 1889, a further 3,500,000 marks. At present the total
' Krondotations Rente/ as far as it figures in the budgets, amounts to 15,719,296
marks, or 770,5542. The reigning house is also in possession of a vast amount
of private property, comprising castles, forests, and great landed estates in
various parts of the kingdom, known as * Fideikommiss- und-Schatullgiiter,'
the revenue from which mainly serves to defray the expenditure of the court
and the members of the royal family.
The Royal Fideikommiss was last regulated by Cabinet Order of Aug. 30,
1843. Besides this the Royal Crown treasure, founded by King Friedrich
Wilhelm III., consists of a capital of 6 millions, which has since consider-
ably increased, and also the family Fideikommiss, likewise founded by King
Friedrich Wilhelm III., for the benefit of princes born afterwards. It
comprises the domains of Flatow, Krojanke, and Frauendorf, as well as
the Fideikommiss founded by the late Prince Karl (Glienicke). Finally,
the Royal House is also entitled to the House Fideikommiss of the Hohen-
zollern princes.
Dating from King Friedrich I. of Prussia (Elector Friedrich III. of
Brandenburg), there have been the following
Sovereigns of the House of Hohenzollern.
Friedrich I.
Friedrich Wilhelm I.
Friedrich II., called
Great '
Friedrich Wilhelm II.
'the
1701
1713
1740
1786
Friedrich Wilhelm III. . 1797
Friedrich Wilhelm IV. . 1840
Wilhelm I. . . . 1861
Friedrich III. (Mar. 9-June 15) 1888
Wilhelm II. . . . 1888
Constitution and Government
The present Constitution of Prussia was drawn up by the
Government of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-opera-
tion of a Constituent Assembly, sitting August-December 1849,
and was proclaimed Jan. 31, 1850 ; but subsequently modified by
royal decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 May
7 and 24, 1853 ; June 10, 1854; May 30, 1855; April 14 and
30, 1856; May 18, 1857; May 17, 1867; March 27, 1872;
April 5, 1873 ; June 18, 1875 ; Feb. 19, 1879 ; and May 27,
1888. These fundamental laws vest the executive and part of
the legislative authority in a king, who attains his majority upon
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 607
accomplishing his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in
the male line, according to primogeniture. In the exercise of the
government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap-
pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares
with a representative assembly, the Landtag, composed of two
Chambers, the first called the ' Herrenhaus, ' or House of Lords,
and the second the ' Abgeordnetenhaus/ or Chamber of Deputies.
The assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite for all
laws. Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted
to the second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected en bloc
by the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in
the Government and in each of the Chambers.
The first Chamber, according to the original draft of the Constitution,
was to consist of adult princes of the royal family, and of the heads of
Prussian houses deriving directly from the former Empire, as well as of
those heads of families that, by royal ordinance, should be appointed to
seats and votes in the Chamber, according to the rights of primogeniture
and lineal descent. Besides these hereditary members, there were to be
ninety deputies directly elected by electoral districts, consisting of a num-
ber of electors who pay the highest taxes to' the State ; and, in addition, other
thirty members elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
towns. This original composition of the 'House of Lords* was greatly
modified by the royal decree of Oct. 12, 1854, which brought into life the
Upper Chamber in its present form. It is composed of, first, the princes of
the royal family who are of age, including the scions of the formerly sovereign
famines of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; secondly,
the chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress of
Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads of the
territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some fifty members ;
fourthly, a number of life-peers, chosen by the king from among the rich
landowners, great manufacturers, and ' national celebrities ' ; fifthly, eight
titled noblemen elected in the eight provinces of Prussia by the resident
landowners of all degrees ; sixthly, the representatives of the universities, the
heads of 'chapters,' and the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand
inhabitants : and seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by
the king for life, or for a more or less restricted period.
The second Chamber consists of 433 members — 352 for the old kingdom, 80
added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed provinces, and 1 in 1876 for
Lauenburg ; the proportion to the population is now (1890) 1 to every 69,181.
Every Prussian wno has attained his twenty-fifth year, and is qualified to vote for
the municipal elections of his place of domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect
elector. Persons who are entitled to vote for municipal elections in several
parishes can only exercise the right of indirect elector, or ' Urwahler,' in one.
One direct elector, or ' Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete number of
250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes, according
to the respective amount of direct taxes paid by each ; arranged in such
manner that each category pays one-third of the whole amount of direct
taxes levied on the whole. The first category consist of all electors who
pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole ; the second,
of those who pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the
second third ; the third of all the lowest taxed, who, together, complete
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608 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
the last class. Each class may be divided into several electoral circles,
none of which must, however, exceed 500 * Urwahler.' Direct electors
may be nominated in each division of the circle from the number of persons
entitled to vote indirectly, without regard to special divisions. The repre-
sentatives are chosen by the direct electors. Tne legislative period of the
second Chamber is limited to five years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a
member of the second Chamber who has completed his thirtieth year, who
has not forfeited the enjoyment of full civic rights through a judicial sen-
tence, and who has paid taxes during three* years to the State. The Chamber
must be re-elected within six months of the expiration of their legislative
period, or after being dissolved. In either case former members are re-
eligible. The Chambers are to be regularly convoked by the king during the
month of November ; and in extraordinary session, as often as circumstances
may require. The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by
the king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers are
to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously. Each
Chamber has to prove the qualification of its members, and to decide
thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of business and discipline, and
elect their own presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries. Functionaries
do not require leave of absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member
accepts paid functions, or a higher office connected with increased salary,
he vacates his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the
same by a new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The
sittings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the proposition
of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret deliberation.
Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the legal majority of its
members is not present. Each Chamber has a right to present addresses
to the king. No one can deliver a petition or address to the Chambers, or
to either of them, in person. Each Chamber can refer documents addressed
to it to the ministers, and demand explanations relative to complaints
contained therein. Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions
of investigation of facts for its own information. The members of both
Chambers are held to be representatives of the whole population. They
vote according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescriptions
or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for their votes
or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No member of the
Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to examination or arrest
for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless seized in the act, or within
twenty-four hours of the same. All criminal proceedings against members
of the Chambers, and all examination or civil arrest, must be suspended
during the session, should the Chamber whom it may concern so demand.
Members of the second Chamber receive and must accept travelling expenses
and diet money from the State, according to a scale fixed by law, amounting
to 15 marks, or 15 shillings, per day.
The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium, or
Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the king, and
hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsministerium is divided into ten
departments, as follows : —
1. President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of State, and Minister
of the Interior. — Count Botbo zu Eulenhurg, born July 31, 1831 ; 1864 entered
the Ministry of the Interior ; 1869 Regierungsprasident at Wiesbaden ; 1873
Oberprasident at Hanover ; March 30, 1878, Minister of the Interior till
February, 1881 ; August, 1881, Oberprasident at Cassel ; March 24, 1892,
President of the Council of Ministers ; August 9, 1892, Minister of the Interior.
2. Vice-President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of State, and Jm-
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 609
perial Secretary of State for the Interim. — Dr. Karl Heinrich von Boetticher,
born January 6, 1833 ; studied jurisprudence and entered the State service
1856 ; 1873 Landdrost at Hanover ; 1876 Regierungsprasident at Schles-
wig ; 1879 Oberprasident of Schleswig-Holstein ; September 1880 Imperial
Secretary of State for the Interior ; 1881 'representative' of the Chancellor
of the Empire.
3. Minister of War. — General Bronsart von Schellingdorf ; appointed
October, 1893.
4. Minister of Public Works. — Herr Thielen, born 1831 ; member of various
railway directorates, 1864-1882 ; president of railway directors at Elberfeld,
1882 ; then, 1887, at Hanover ; appointed Minister June 22, 1891.
5. Minister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. — Karl Heinrich von
Hcyden-Cadow, born March 16, 1839 ; March 1877 Landesdirector of
Pomerania ; 1881 President of the Regierung at Frankfurt ; member of the
Staatsrath and of the Generalsynode of the Evangelical Church ; since 1866
member of the House of Commons ; appointed Minister November 18, 1890.
6. Minister of Justice. — Dr. Hermann von Schelling, born April 19, 1824 ;
studied philosophy and jurisprudence ; entered the State service 1844, and
1864 the Ministry of Justice ; 1875 Vice-President of the Prussian Obertribunal ;
1877 Unterstaatssekretar, and November 1879 Secretary of State in the
Imperial Department of Justice. Appointed Minister 1889.
7. Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs, Instruction, and Medicinal Affairs. —
Dr. Julius Robert Bosse, born July 12, 1832 ; 1868 Amtshauptman ; 1870
Konsistorialrath at Hanover ; 1872 Oberprasidialrath ; 1876 entered the
Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs ; 1879 Councillor in the State Ministry ;
May 1, 1881, Direktor to the Imperial State Secretary for the Interior ; 1889
Unterstaatssekretar ; October 28, 1890, Wirklicher Geheimer Rath ;
January 19, 1891, Imperial State Secretary for Justice ; appointed Minister
March 24, 1892.
8. Minister of Finance. — Dr. Johannes M iquel, born February 21, 1829 ;
studied jurisprudence ; entered the State service 1851 ; 1854-64 lawyer and
advocate ; 1870-78 director of the Diskonto-Gesellschaft (Berlin), Member of
the Herrenhaus, Oberburgermeister of Frankfurt-am-Main. Appointed Mini-
ster June 1890.
9. Minister of State and Imperial Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. —
Freiherr MarschaJl von Bieberstein, born 1842 ; entered the State service 1865 ;
1882 Attorney-General at Mannheim ; 1878-81 Member of the Reichstag ; 1883
Ambassador of Baden at Berlin. Appointed Secretary of State and Minister
of State June 1890.
10. Minister of Commerce. — Freiherr von Berlepsch, born March 80, 1843 ;
entered the State service ; was Landrathat Kattowitz ; President of the County
of Diisseldorf ; Oberprasident of the Rhine 1889 ; since 1884 Member of the
Staatsrath. Appointed February 1890.
The salary of the President of the Council is 54,000 marks, and that ot
each of the other ministers 36,000 marks.
Local Government.
Each of the provinces of the Kingdom is placed under the superintendence
of an ' Oberprasident,' or governor, who has a salary of 21,000 marks. Each
province has also a military commandant, a superior court of justice, a director
of taxes, and a consistory, all appointed by the king. The provinces are sub-
divided into Regierungsbezdrke, or counties, and these again into ' Kreise ' or
circles, and the latter into Amtsbezirke or Burgermeistereien, these again into
Gemeinden or Gutsbezirke. Each county has a president and an administra-
R R
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GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
tive board or council; and the further subdivisions have also their local
authorities. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the elections
must be confirmed by the Government.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table exhibits the area and population of the
whole and of each of the 14 provinces : —
Provinces
Area:
Eng. Sq.
Miles
Population
Pop.
1885
1890
per Square ,
Mile, 1890
East Prussia (Ostpreuss
West Prussia (Westpre
Berlin .
Brandenburg
Pomerania (Pommern)
Posen .
Silesia (Schlesien)
Saxony (Sachsen).
Schleswig-Holstein
Heligoland 1
Hanover (Hannover)
Westphalia (Westfalen
Hesse-Nassau
Rhine (Rheinland)
Hohenzollern
Total .
;en) .
ossen)
) !
14,275
9,846
24
15,376
11,623
11,178
15,557
9,746
7,273
(1)
14,853
7,798
6,055
10,418
441
1,959,475
1,408,229
1,315,287
2,342,411
1,505,575
1,715,618
4,112,219
2,428,367
1,150,306
2,172,702
2,204,580
1,592,454
4,344,527
66,720
l',958,663
1,433,681
1,578,794
2,541,788
1,520,889
1,751,642
4,224,458
2,580,010
1,217,437
(2,086)
2,278,361
2,428,661
1,664,426
4,710,391
66,085
137*2
145*6
65,788-1
165*4
130-8
156*7
2714
264-7
167-4
133*4
811-4
274-8
452 1
1500
134,463
28,318,470
29,955,281
223 |
i Heligoland is attached to Schleswig-Holstein.
At the close of the reign of Friedrich I., first King of Prussia,
the Kingdom had an area of about 43,400 square miles, and a
population of 1,731,000. The following table illustrates the de-
velopment of Prussia since the beginning of the present century.
The figures for 1797 are estimated merely.
Year
Area in Sq. Miles
Population
Average per
Sq. Mile
Percentage of
Annual Increase
1797
118,000
8,700,000
737
__
1816
106,820
10,349,031
96-7
1-0
1831
106,820
13,038,070
122-0
17
1858
106,820
17,739,018
166*0
1-3
1861
106,820
18,491,220
1731
1-4
1867
134,463
23,971,837
177 5
4-8
1871
134,463
24,643,623
182-5
0-65
1875
134,463
25,742,464
191-4
104
1880
184,463
27,279,111
202-8
1-24
1885
134,463
28,318,470
210*6
076
1890
134,463
29,955,281
223
1-15
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AREA AND POPULATION
611
Of the total population in 1890, 48*5 per cent, lived in towns and rural
communes of 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, and 51 '5 per cent, in communes
with less than 2,000 inhabitants.
While the town population increased at the rate of 1 *74 per cent, per annum
between 1880 and 1885, the country population increased at the rate of 0*22
per cent, per annum. The town population in 1890 was 11,786,061, showing
a rate of increase of 2*33 per cent, per annum since 1885, while the rate of
increase in the country districts was only 0 '46 per cent, per annum.
The urban and rural population were distributed as follows at the census
periods, 1880, 1885 and 1890 :—
Census
No. of
Towns
Nos. Rural
Communes
Towns and Communes, with
2,000 Inhabitants and upwards
Communes, Ac, with less
than 2,000 Inhabitants
No.
Pop.
Per Ct.
No.
Pop.
PerCt
1880
1885
1890
1,287
1,280
1,263
54,7841
55,0022
53,640 3
1,615
1,648
1,726
11,614,385
12,754,674
14,529,598
42-6
45-0
48-5
53,169
53,722
53,177
15,664,726
15,563,796
15,425,683
57-4
55-0
51-5
i Including 15,829 separate 'Gutsbezirke.'
2 Including 16,403 separate ' Gutsbezirke.'
3 Including 16,559 separate ' Gutsbezirke.
The urban population was thus distributed in 1890 :
-
No.
Pop. 1890
-
No.
Pop. 1890
!
I Large towns1
| Medium ,,
i
16
76
3,979,886
2,721,908
Small towns
Country „
319
507
3,018,096
1,581,742
i See p. 588 for the official signification of these terms.
In 1885 the population included 13,893,604 males and 14,424,866 females
— i.e. 103*8 females per 100 males ; in 1890 there were 14,702,151 males and
15,253,130 females — i.e., 103*7 females per 100 males. With respect to con-
jugal condition the following was the distribution in 1890 : —
-
Males
Females
Total
j Unmarried ....
1 Married
! Widowed ....
i Divorced or separated
9,160,469
5,075,364
450,203
16,115
8,804,992
5,097,416
1,319,068
31,654
17,965,461
10,172,780
1,769,271
47,769
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536, and some particulars as to race on the same page.
In 1890 the number of foreigners (exclusive of other Germans) resident in
Prussia was 164,798, of whom 49,194 were Austrians and Hungarians, 34,392
Dutch, 10,347 Russians, 31,439 Danes, 6,507 Swedes and Norwegians, 7,414
British, 4,932 Belgians, 5,066 Americans (United States), 6,096 Swiss, and
1,708 French.
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GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the movement of the population for the five
years 1887-91 :— TJL
Year
Marriages
Total Births
Still-born
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
229,999
233,421
240,996
244,657
245,906
1,129,073
1,133,998
1,136,588
1,130,120
1,177,209
43,914
42,780
42,084
37,962
39,046
92,645
90,526
90,413
87,512
90,150
730,225
708,209
724,803
755,105
728,463
398,848
425,789
411,785
375,015
448,746
In 1891 3*32 per cent, of the total births were still-born, and 7 *66 per cent,
illegitimate.
The emigration from Prussia by German ports, Dutch ports, and Antwerp
was in 1888, 63,103 ; in 1889, 57,957 ; in 1890, 59,702 ; in 1891, 78,141;
and in 1892, 76,196. The following table, indicating the emigrants from
each province in 1892, shows that the northern provinces contribute most
largely :— ;
Posen 15,211
West Prussia . . . 13,491
Pomerania .... 9,854
Hanover .... 7,255
Brandenburg (with Berlin) . 6,828
Rhine 5,877
Schleswig-Holstein . . 3,931
Silesia .
. 3,254
Westphalia .
. 2,883
Hesse-Nassau
. 2,811
Saxony
East Prussia
. 2,487
. 2,805
Hohenzollern
59
III. Principal Towns.
The following table gives the population within the present (1890) limits
of the 28 principal towns as at the census of December 1, 1890 : —
Towns
i
Population
1,578,794 |
Towns
Population
Berlin
Aachen
103,470
I Breslau
335,186
Halle-on-Saale
101,401
! Cologne (Koln) .
Magdeburg.
281,681
Dortmund .
89,663
202,234
Essen.
78,706
Frankfort-on-Main
179,985
Charlottenburg
76,859
, Hanover
163,593
Kassel
72,477
Konigsberg .
Diisseldorf .
161,666
Erfurt
72,360
144,642
Posen
69,627
Altona
143,249 '
1 Kiel .
69,172
Elberfeld .
125,899
| Wiesbaden .
64,670
Danzig
120,338
' Gorlitz
62,185
Stettin
116,228
' Duisburg .
69,285
Barmen
116,144
Frankfort-on-Oder
55,788
Krefeld
105,376 I
Potsdam .
54,125
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RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 613
ion.
Absolute religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution.
Nearly two-thirds of the regulation are Protestants, and rather over
one-third Roman C&tholmt. The numbers and proportions of the
different creeds at the^lnsus of 1885 were as follows : — Protest-
ants, 18,244,405, or 64*4 per cent. ; Roman Catholics and Greek
(Oriental) Catholics, 9,621,763, or 339 per cent. ; other Chris-
tians, 82,030, or '29 per cent. ; Jews, 366,575, or 1*29 per cent. ;
others and unknown, 3,697. In 1890 there were 19,230,376
Protestants, 10,252,807 Roman Catholics and Greek (Oriental)
Catholics, 95,349 other Christians, 372,058 Jews, and 4,691 others
and unknown. Protestants are in a decided majority in the pro-
vinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Brandenburg, Saxony,
Berlin, Hanover, East Prussia, and Hesse-Nassau (from 97*6 to
69*5 per cent.) ; Roman Catholics are in the majority in
Hohenzollern (95 per cent.), Rhineland (71), Posen (66), Silesia
(53), Westphalia (51), and West Prussia (50). Jews are most
numerous in Berlin (5'0 per cent.), Hesse-Nassau (2*7), Posen
(2-5), West Prussia (1-5), and Silesia (1-1).
The Evangelical or Protestant Church is the State Church, and since 1817
has consisted of a fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies, from which,
however, there are still a few dissenters. It is governed by ' consistories,' or
boards appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, and general synods representing the old
provinces only. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the various
provinces. In the Upper Rhenish ecclesiastical province it is fixed by a
concordat between the Government and Pope Pius VII. In every part of the
Monarchy the Crown has reserved to itself a control over the election of
bishops and priests. There were in 1880, 9,146 Protestant ministers and 8,800
Roman Catholic priests, besides 300 monks and 4,600 nuns. The higher
Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the Prince Bishop of Breslau receiving
34,000 marks a year, and the other bishops about 22,700 marks. The incomes
of the parochial clergy mostly arise from endowments. In the budget of
1888-89 the sum of 3,928,883 marks is set down as direct expenditure in
Evangelical Churches, and 1,297,306 marks for the Catholic Church.
Instruction.
Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every town,
or community in town or country, must maintain a school sup-
ported by local rates, supplemented by the State, and adminis-
tered by the local authorities, who are elected by the citizens, and
called aldermen or town councillors. All parents are compelled
to send their children to one of these elementary schools, in which
all fees are now abolished. No compulsion exists in reference to
a higher educational institution than elementary schools, but
parents who send more than one child to any school supported by
the community have, in many cases, a reduction made in the
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INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE, CRIME, PAUPERISM
615
According to the Constitution of 1850, all persons are at liberty to teach, or
to form establishments for instruction, provided they can prove to the
authorities their ntoral, scientific, and technical qualifications. But private
as well as public establishments for education are placed under the super-
intendence of the Minister of Public Instruction, while all public teachers are
considered, directly or indirectly, State servants.
In the budget of 1891-92 the sum of 83,905,473 marks was set down for
instruction of all categories. Of this amount 78,628,177 marks are ordinary
or permanent expenditure. On the ordinary expenditure there were allotted
to Universities, 7,954,775 marks ; higher institutions, 6,302,085 marks ;
elementary instruction, 58,448,637 marks ; technical schools of the upper and
lower grade, 5,922,680 marks. The total cost of public instruction in Prussia
in the year 1891-92 was 232,526,000 marks, as follows :— Universities,
14,117,000 ; higher institutions, 31,309,000 ; elementary and middle schools,
177,100,000; technical schools, 10,000,000.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Prussia contains 15 Oberlandesgerichte (see German Empire, p. 541). The
Oberlandesgericht at Berlin is called the Kammergerickt, and serves as an
ultimate appeal court for summary convictions ; though for all cases the court
of final instance is the Reichsgericht at Leipzig. The prosecution in all
criminal cases is conducted by Staatsanwalte, or public prosecutors, paid
by the State. In 1889 there were 228,038 criminal convictions in Prussia,
or 112*8 for every 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve. In 1885,
528,257 persons, with 425,035 dependents, received public poor-relief; i.e.
3 *36 per cent, of the population were paupers. The following table shows
the criminal (1889) and pauper (1885) statistics for the different pro-
Provinces
Criminals
Paupers
Persons
Convicted
Per
Heads of
Total
10,000
Inhab.
Families and
Solitaries
Dependents
per
Cent.
East Prussia .
24,289
174'0
45,349
33,132
4-00
West Prussia
17,122
176*4
31,378
23,100
3-86
Berlin (City).
13,947
1314
55,083
32,124
6-63
Brandenburg. .
17,172
102-3
36,536
25,483
2-64
Pomerania .
10,909
103*3
28,038
22,305
3-34
Posen .
20,303
173*2
27,106
23,910
2-97
Silesia .
40,783
137*5
74,406
53,854
311
Saxony v
17,357
99-7
32,616
25,628
2*89
Schleswig-Holstein
7,504
91*4
25,314
17,634
3-73
Hanover
13,088
84-1
30,507
23,011
2-46
Westphalia .
11,157
72-4
31,777
32,565
2*91
Hesse-Nassau
10,047
88-8
25,962
17,770
274
Rhineland .
24,013
77-9
83,075
93,628
4-06
Hohenzollern
347
72-9
1,115
891
3-00
From these figures it will be seen that there is little or no local connection
between the highest or lowest returns of paupers and criminals.
Finance.
The following table gives the revenue and expenditure during
each of the six years ending March 31 from 1888 to 1893;
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FINANCE — ARMY
617
The total expenditure amounts to< 3Z. per head of population. The direct
taxes amount almost to 6*. per head. The income-tax averages about 1*. &d.
per head of population. The other direct taxes are a land tax, a house tax,
and a trading tax.
The expenditure for the army and navy is not entered in the budget of
Prussia, but forms part of the budget of the Empire.
The public debt of the Kingdom, inclusive of the provinces annexed in
1866, was, according to the budget of 1893-94, as follows : —
-
Amount
Sinking Fund
Marks
Marks
National debt bearing interest :
State Treasure Bills ....
40,278,900
5,188,168
j Consolidated debt at 4 per cent.
31,592,667,850
—
,, ,, 3J per cent.
913,792,550
—
. ,, ,, 3 percent.
495,000,000
—
Non-consolidated loans
6,912,750
3,674,877
Preference loan of 1855 .
5,220,000
2,214,000
War debt of the Kurmark and
Neumark
310,686
100,947
State railway debt ....
173,004,228
2,922,962
Debt of provinces annexed in 1866 .
Total national debt .
16,586,467
2,978,498
6,243,773,430
17,079,453
The charges for interest, amortisation, and management of the debt
amounted to 279,489,050 marks in the financial year 1893-94.
The debt amounts to over 9Z. 18*. per head of population, and the annual
charge to 9s. per head.
Army.
The military organisation of the Kingdom, dating from the year 1814, is
based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing arms, shall receive
military instruction and enter the army for a certain number of years. The
conditions of service have been already described under Grerman Empire.
The peace strength of the Prussian contingent of the Imperial army was
given as follows in the budget estimates of 1893-94 : —
Infantry of the Line .
Riflemen, or ' Jager' .
Bezirks-Kommandos .
Cavalry ....
! Artillery (field and fortress)
< Engineers ....
Military Train, &c.
Total
Officers,
Surgeons, <fec.
Men
Horses
9,792
244,958
364
8,339
—
509
4,134
—
2,488
51,206
49,922
3,059
50,853
20,678
552
10,050
—
2,618
7,301
3,192
19,382
376,841
73,792
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
619
in 1848 to 65,442,558 tons in 1892, and the output of lignite in the same time
from 8,118,553 tons to 17,219,033 tons.
Considerable quantities of iron are also raised in Prussia, chiefly in the
Rhine Province, Westphalia, Silesia, Hanover, and Hesse-Nassau. The follow-
ing table shows the quantities (in metric tons) and the values (in marks) of
the coal and iron ore raised, and of the pig-iron produced in 1891-92 : —
1891
1892
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Coal
Lignite .
Iron ore .
Pig iron .
67,528,015
16,739,984
3,903,811
3,288,441
527,225,051
48,568,357
24,828,950
175,329,432
65,442,558
17,219,033
4,081,306
3,439,081
470,709,883
47,652,132
25,554,146
170,062,203
Prussia yields about one-half (139,725 tons in 1892) of the world's annual
production of zinc ; and copper (21,559 tons) and lead (87,983 tons) are also
found. The total value of the mining products in 1892 was 614,042,250
marks.
Commerce.
The trade of Prussia forms an important part of the general trade of the
German customs district (Zollverein), which now includes the whole of the
Empire. This is carried on through the various ports of the Baltic and North
Seas, through many navigable rivers and canals, and an extensive network of
roads, railways, and telegraphs. There are 84 chambers and corporations of
commerce in the large towns of the Kingdom. The most important
commercial towns are Berlin, Konigsberg, Danzig, Stettin, Posen, Breslau,
Magdeburg, Altona, Hanover, Frankfort-on-Main, Cologne, Elberfeld, and
Barmen. There are no separate statistics for the trade of Prussia ; it is
included in that of Germany.
Internal Communications.
The railway system of Prussia is extensive and complete. On April 1,
1893, the length of the system open for traffic was as follows : —
R .ilways Miles.
1. Owned or administered by the State . . . 16,900
2. Owned and administered by private companies . 1,467
Total .... 18,367
In 1878 the lines owned by the State had a length of only 3,066 miles,
while those owned by private companies extended to 11,066 miles.
The whole of the railways of Prussia will in time become national property.
As will be seen from the budget statement, a very large revenue is derived by
the State from the railways.
BETJSS-GREIZ,BEUSS-SCHLEIZ, SAXE-ALTENBUBG, SAXE-COBUBG-
OOTHA, and SAXE-MEININGEN. For these see under THUBINGIAN
STATES.
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AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION, ETC.
621
other persons of the same income ; and twenty-one by the other inhabitants.
The first-mentioned ten deputies are elected directly, the remaining twenty-one
indirectly. All citizens over twenty-five years of age have the franchise. The
Chamber meets every three years. The executive, acting under the orders of
the Grand-duke, but responsible to the representatives of the country, is
divided into three departments.
The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period of three years. That
from 1893 to 1895 comprises an annual income and an annual expenditure of
8,733,584 marks. The State forests yield a large income, while there is a
graduated tax on all incomes, the estimates for which are based on a total
income for the population of 93,567,670 marks. The public debt amounted to
5,083,671 marks on July 1, 1891. The debt is more than covered by the
productive capital of the State.
Area and Population.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,388 English square miles, and consists
of the three detached districts of Weimar, Eisenach, and Neustadt, to which
belong also 24 smaller exclaves. The population was 292,933 in 1875 ;
309,577 in 1880 ; 313,946 on December 1, 1885 ; 326,091 on December 1, 1890.
During the years from 1875 to 1880 the increase was at the rate of 110 per
cent, per annum, 0*28 in 1880-85, 077 in 1885-90. Of the population in
1890, 157,905 were males and 168,186 females; i.e. 106*5 females per 100
males. Foreigners numbered 1,326. Marriages, 1892, 2,673 ; births, 11,501 ;
deaths, 7,321 ; surplus of births, 4,180. Among the births 402 (3 '50 per
cent.) were still-born, and 1,066 (9*27 per cent.) illegitimate.
In 1890, 37 per cent, of the population lived in towns with 2,000 inhabitants
and upwards, and 63 per cent, in rural communes. The town of Weimar,
capital and largest town of the Grand-duchy, had 24,546 inhabitants at
the census of December 1, 1890. The number of emigrants in eight years was
as follows : —
1885
1886 1 1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
424
267
354
368
137
98
97
173
Religion, Instruction, Justice, and Grime.
In 1890 Saxe-Weimar contained 312,738 Protestants (95*9 per cent.),
11,641 Catholics (3*6 per cent.), 418 other Christians, 1,252 Jews, and 42
unclassified.
The University at Jena (see Germany, p. 541) is common to the four Saxon
Duchies. The public schools in the Grand-duchy at the close of 1891-92
were as follows : —
Schools
No.
Teachers
Pupils
Elementary schools
Gymnasia ....
Eealgymnasia
Hohere Burgerschulen (2 private)
Normal schools
Drawing schools .
Deaf-mute and blind asylum .
461
3
2
4
2
2
1
880
50
28
47
34
8
11
53,540
684
486
603
177
493
53
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GERMAN EMPIRE: — SAXONY
Saxe-Weimar contains two Landgerichte, while the district of Neustadt
is subject to the jurisdiction of the Landgericht at Genu The Ober-
landesgericht at Jena is a common court of appeal for the four Saxon
Duchies, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the two Reuss Principalities, and parts of
Prussia. In 1888, 2,010 persons, i.e. 801 per 10,000 inhabitants above the
age of 12, were convicted of crime in Saxe-Weimar. In 1885, 4,198 persons,
with 2,601 dependents, received public poor relief, i.e. 21*66 per 1,000
inhabitants.
Production.
Nearly one-half of the population are supported by agriculture, and
224,625 hectares, or nearly two-thirds of the entire area, are cultivated. The
number of separate agricultural tenements on June 5, 1882, was as follows :—
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect. ■ 10-100 Heck | Over 100 Hect
Total
14,632
19,408 6,016
147
40,203
These farms supported a population of 132,057, of whom 55,417 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
There were 193 miles of railway in 1892.
British, Minister Plenipotentiary. — Right Hon. Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G.
Consul-General. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
• SAXOffY.
(K5NIGREICH SACHSEN.)
Reigning King.
Albert, born April 23, 1828 ; eldest son of King Johann and of Queen
Amalie, daughter of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. Educated for a
military career, and entered the army of Saxony 1843, and of the Confederated
States of Northern Germany 1867. Commander of the German army of the
Meuse in the war against France, 1870-71. Nominated field-marshal in the
German army 1871. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of his father,
October 29, 1873. Married June 18, 1853, to Queen Caroline, born August 5,
1833, daughter of Prince Gustav of Vasa.
Sister and Brother of the King.
I. Princess Elisabeth, born February 4, 1830 ; married April 22, 1850, to
Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia ; widow February 10, 1855.
II. Prince Georg, Duke of Saxony, born August 8, 1832 ; married May
11, 1859, to Infanta Maria Anna, born July 21, 1843 (died February 5, 1884),
daughter of King Ferdinand of Portugal. Nominated field-marshal in the
German army June 15, 1888. Offspring of the union are six children :— 1.
Princess Matilde, born March 19, 1863. 2. Prince Friedrich August, born
May 25, 1865 ; married November 21, 1891, to Princess Luise of Tuscany,
born September 2, 1870. 3. Princess Maria Josefa, born May 31, 1867;
married October 2, 1886, to Archduke Otto of Austria. 4. Prince Johann
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 623
Georg, born July 10, 1869. 5. Prince Max, born November 17, 1870.
6. Prince Albert, born February 25, 1875.
The royal house of Saxony counts amongst the oldest reigning families in
Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early as the beginning of the
tenth century ; but the house subsequently spread into numerous branches,
the elder of which, called the Ernestine line, is represented at this moment
by the ducal families of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen,
and Saxe- Weimar ; while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers
of the Kingdom of Saxony. In 1806 the Elector Friedrich Augustus III.
(1763-1827), on entering the Confederation of the Rhine, assumed the title of
King of Saxony, which was confirmed in 1815. The following were the
predecessors of the present King : —
Friedrich August I. . . . (1763)1806-1827
Antony 1827-1836
Friedrich August II. . . . 1836-1854
Johann 1854-1873
King Albert has a civil list of 3,142,300 marks per annum. Exclusive
of this sum are the appanages, or dotations of the princes and princesses,
amounting annually to (1892-93) 504,669 marks. The formerly royal domains
consisting chiefly of extensive forests, became, in 1830, the property of the
State.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Saxony dates from September 4, 1831 ; but has
undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of June 19, 1846 ; March
31, 1849 ; May 5, 1851 ; November 27, 1860 ; October 19, 1861 ; December
3, 1868 ; and October 12, 1874. According to the terms of the Constitution,
the crown is hereditary in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter,
also in the female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eight-
eenth year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes the
regency. The legislature is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter
, consisting of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the
blood royal ; the proprietors of mediatised domains, now held by five owners ;
twelve deputies elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates ; ten noble pro-
prietors and five other members without restriction nominated by the King for
life ; the burgomasters of eight towns ; and the superintendents and deputies
of four collegiate institutions, of the University of Leipzig, and of the Roman
Catholic chapter of St. Peter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of
thirty-five deputies of towns and forty-five representatives of rural communes.
The qualification for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election
to the same, is the possession of a landed estate worth at least 3,000 marks a
year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the ex-officio deputies
of chapters and universities. To be a member of the Lower House, no fixed
income is required ; and electors are all men above twenty-five years of age
who pay three marks annual land-tax or other direct contributions, or who own
land with a dwelling-house. The members of both Houses, with the excep-
tion of the hereditary and certain of the ex-officio members, are each allowed 12
marks per day during the sittings of Parliament, and an allowance for travelling
expenses. Both Houses have the right to make propositions for new laws.
No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the sanction of both
Chambers.
The executive is in the King and a Council of Ministers, namely, the
Ministers of Justice, of Finance, of the Interior, of War, of Foreign Affairs, of
Education, and Ecclesiastical Affairs.
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AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
625
Wends, most of them in the district of Bautzen. In 1890 there were (beside:
other Germans) 70,275 foreigners.
The movement of the population is shown in the following table : —
Year
Marriages
Total Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
Surplus
of
Births
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
30,153
30,327
31,790
32,436
31,630
142,677
145,697
147,978
145,661
152,854
5,311
5,506
5,339
5,147
5,374
18,388
18,384
18,661
17,863
18,916
93,640
92,387
95,331
98,586
94,887
49,037
53,310
52,647
47,075
57,967
The emigration from Saxony, embarking at German and Dutch ports, was
as follows : —
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890 1 1891
1S92
2,885
2,388
2,434
2,297
2,367
2,577 | 4,126
4,920
There were, in December, 1890, eleven towns with a population, according
to the provisional results of the census, of more than 20,000, namely : —
Leipzig l
357,122
Zittau .
25,394
Dresden2 .
289,844
Glauchau .
. 23,405
Chemnitz .
138,954
Meerane .
. 22,446
Plauen
47,007
Bautzen .
. 21,516
Zwickau
44,198
Reichenbach .
. 21,496
Freiberg
28,955
i With suburbs incorporated in 1891 and 1892.
2 With suburbs incorporated in 1892.
Religion.
Although the royal family is Roman Catholic in religion, the vast majority
of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants. The distribution of the different
creeds was as follows in 1890 : — Protestants, 3,337,850, or 95 3 per cent. ;
Roman Catholics, 128,509 or 3*67 per cent. ; other Catholics, 873; other
Christians, 11,519, or '33 per cent. ; Jews, 9,368, or '28 per cent. ; unclas-
sified, 664. In 1890 the Kingdom contained 1,260 Moravian Brethren or
Herrnhuter, mostly at Herrnhut, the chief seat of this sect. Catholic Apos-
tolics number 3,074 and 'Old Catholics' 243. The head of the State
(Protestant) Church are the ministers ' in evangelicis. ' . The chief governing
body is the Landes-Consistorium or National Consistory at Dresden ; and it
also has a representative Synod {Synode) with 29 clerical and 35 lay members.
Ecclesiastically the Kingdom is divided into 974 parishes.
Instruction.
The Kingdom is divided into 28 school-inspection districts. At the end of
1891 there were in Saxonv 2,171 public Protestant and 39 Roman Catholic
common schools (Voiksscnuien), 77 private and chapter schools, and 1943
advanced common schools (Fortbildungsschulen), or altogether 4,230 common
r^ s
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMUNICATIONS 627
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
94,783
69,171
28,209
758
192,921
These farms supported a population of 578,592, of whom 285,414 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
The areas (in hectares) under the chief crops, and the yield per hectare in
metric tons (of 1,000 kilogrammes) at the undernoted dates were as follows : —
t
Area : Yield in metric tons
1891
1892 | 1891
1892
Aver. 1878-80
Wheat .
Rye
Barley
Oats
Potatoes
Hay, &c
49,200
210,740
31,981
189,606
118,370
170,953
50,844
211,434
30,763
186,974
120,355
171,198
1-85
1*38
1-62
1-74
8-88
3*12
219
170
1-73
1-48
10-68
279
1*64
131
1-48
1*51
10-08
3-16
On May 1, 1892, the factory hands in Saxony were returned at 364,636,
of whom 241,088 were males and 123,548 females ; 146,167 were engaged in the
textile industry, 44,566 in the manufacture of machinery and tools, 35,842 in
industries connected with stone and earth, and 25,261 in those connected with
paper and leather. The total number of factories and industrial establish-
ments was 13,806, of which 5,301 had steam power. The following shows the
mining statistics for five years : —
Year
Goal Mines
Other Mines
Total
No. of
Mines
Hands
Production in
metric tons
Value
in 1,000
marks
No. of
Mines
Hands
Pro-
duce
in
1,000
marks
No. of
Mines
Hands
Pro-
duce in
1,000
marks
Coal
Lignite
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
158
153
145
148
152
21,706
21,387
22,281
22,765
24,062
4,293,112
4,358,825
4,234,713
4,150,842
4,366,819
766,732
839,968
849,521
848,053
864,376
37,453
88,999
40,353
43,696
46.462
131
182
130
132
112
7,673
7,408
7,169
6,939
7,009
5,039
5,095
4,990
5,620
5,609
289
285
275
280
264
29,379
28,795
29,450
29,704
31,071
42,492
44,094
45,343
49,316
52,071
In 1891 the Saxon iron-foundries produced 176,518 metric tons of finished
iron, representing a value of 31,064,818 marks. In 1891-92, 737 breweries
produced 4,002,701 hectolitres of beer ; and 616 distilleries consumed
107,919,000 kilogrammes of raw material in the manufacture of spirits.
Communications.
At the end of 1892 there were 1,738 miles of railway in Saxony, of which
1,662 miles belonged to the State, and 75 miles belonged to companies but
were worked by the State.
British Minister Besident. — George Strachey.
British Consul-General. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
s s 2
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628 GERMAN EMPIRE : — SOHAUMBTJRG-LIPPE
SCHAVMBVKG-LIPFE.
(FiJBSTENTHUM SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE.)
Beigning Prince.
Georg, born October 10, 1846, son of Prince Adolph Georg; suc-
ceeded his father May 8, 1893 ; married, April 16, 1882, to Princess
Maria Anna, of Saxe- Altenburg, born March 14, 1864. — Offspring: — 1, Prince
Adolph, born February 23, 1883. 2. Prince Moritz, born March 11, 1884.
3. Prince Wolrad, bom April 19, 1887. 4. Prince Stephan, born June 21,
1891. Mother of the Reigning Prince: — Princess ffermine, born Sept.
29, 1827, daughter of the late Prince George Heinrich of Waldeck. — Brothers
and Sister of the Reigning Prince. — 1. Princess ffermine, born Oct. 5, 1845 ;
married, Feb. 16, 1876, to Maximilian, Duke of Wiirttemberg, who died
28 July, 1888. 2. Prince ffermann, born May 19, 1848. 3. Prince Otto,
born Sept. 13, 1854. 4. Prince Adolph, born July 20, 1859 ; married,
November 19, 1890, to Princess Victoria of Prussia, daughter of the late
Emperor Friedrich III. The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a
count of the same name who lived in the sixteenth century.
Constitution and Finance.
The Principality has a Constitution, dated November 17, 1868, under
which there is a legislative Diet of 15 members, two of whom are appointed by
the Prince, one nominated by the nobility, one by the clergy, one by certain
functionaries, and the rest elected by the people. To the Prince belongs part
of the legislative and all the executive authority.
For the financial year 1893-94 the actual revenue was stated at 1,096,516
marks, and the actual expenditure at 819,251 marks. There was in 1891 a
public debt of 510,000 marks.
Area and Population.
The census of 1875 gave a population of 33,133 ; of 1880, of 35,374 ; of
1885, of 37,204 ; and of 1890, of 39,183 (19,435 males, 19,728 females), on an
area of 131 English square miles. Marriages, 1890, 304 ; births, 1,304 ;
deaths, 761 ; surplus of births, 543. Of the births 19 (1*4 per cent.) were
stillborn, and 54 (4*14 per cent.) illegitimate. Emigrants, 1883, 122 ; 1884,
42 ; 1885, 75 ; 1886, 45 ; 1887, 103 ; 1888, 66 ; 1889, 31 ; 1890, 35. Except
607 Catholics and 366 Jews (1890) the inhabitants are Protestant. Buckeburg,
the residence town, has 5,186 inhabitants (1890).
Agricultural enclosures (1882), 6,433, with a population of 12,548, of
whom 5,088 were actively engaged on the farms. Of these enclosures 3,609
were less than 1 hectare each ; 2,211 ranged from 1 to less than 10 ; 607 from
10 to less than 100 hectares ; while only 6 had an area of 100 hectares and
upwards.
The State has 15 miles of railway.
British Consul-General. — Hon. Charles S. Dundas (Hamburg).
SCHWABZBITBG-BUDOLSTADT and SCHWABZBUBG-SONDEBS
HAUSEN, see under THUBINGIAN STATES.
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629
THE THUELNGIAN STATES.
The Grand-Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, the Duchies of Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and Saxe-Altenburg, and the Principalities of Scbwarzburg-
Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Reuss-Greiz (altere Linie), and Reuss-
Schleiz-Lobenstein (jilngere Linie), situated close beside each other in the part
of Central Germany known as Thuringia (Thiiringen), are frequently grouped
together as the Thuringian States. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, the largest and
most important, has been separately treated ; but the other seven are here
given together for the sake of more convenient comparison. The reigning
family, constitution, and revenue of each are first given separately, followed
by the tabulated statistics.
REUSS, Elder Branch.
(FiJRSTENTHTTM RBTJ88 — AELTERE LlNIE.)
Reigning Prince. — Heinrich XXII., born March 28, 1846 ; the son of
Prince Heinrich XX. and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-Hombnrg ; succeeded
his father Nov. 8, 1859 ; married, Oct. 8, 1872, to Princess Ida of Schaumburg-
Lippe, born July 28, 1852 ; died September 28, 1891.— Offspring :— I. Hein-
richXXIY., born March 20, 1878. II. Emma, born Jan. 17, 1881. IIL
Maria, born March 26, 1882. IV. Caroline, born July 13, 1884. V. Hermine,
born Dec. 17, 1887. VI. Ida, born Sept. 4, 1891.
The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the old prefects of
Weida, who were imperial functionaries and afterwards free lords. All the
heads of the house, ever since the commencement of the eleventh century,
have been called Heinrich, In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family
council, that the figures should not run higher than a hundred, beginning
afterwards again at one. The present sovereign of Reuss-Greiz has no civil
list, but a great part of the territory over which he reigns is his private property.
Constitution and Finanoe. — The Constitution, bearing date March 28,
1867, provides for a legislative body of 12 members, 3 nominated by the
sovereign, 2 by the nobility, 3 elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts. The
public revenue, balanced by the expenditure, was set down as 1,229,708 marks,
for 1894. There is a public debt of 139,800 marks.
There are 22 miles of railway.
BETJSS, Younger Branch.
(FURSTENTHUM REUSS— JiJNGERE LlNIE.)
Reigning Prince. — Heinrioh XIV., born May 28, 1832 ; the son of Prince
Heinrich LXVII. and of Princess Adelaide ; succeeded his father July 11,
1867 ; married, Feb. 6, 1858, to Princess Louise of Wiirttemberg, who died
July 10, 1886. Offspring : — I. Prince Heinrich XXVII., born November 10,
1858 ; married November 11, 1884, to Princess Elise, born September 4, 1864,
daughter of Prince Hermann of Hohenlohe-Langenburg ; three children. II.
Princess Elisabeth, born October 27, 1859 ; married. November 17, 1877, to
Prince Hermann of Solms-Braunfels.
The reigning house forms a younger branch of the Reuss family. As in
Reuss-Greiz, a great part of the territory of the Principality is the private
property of the reigning family.
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630 GERMAN EMPIRE: — THURINGIAN STATES
All the princes are called Heinrich, and to distinguish them they have
numbers attached to their names, beginning and ending in each century.
Number I. is given to the first prince of the branch born in the century,
and the numbers follow in the oraer of birth until the century is finished,
when they begin again with number I.
Constitution and Finance. — The Principality has a Constitution, pro-
claimed November 30, 1849, and modified April 14, 1852, and June 20, 1856.
Under it restricted legislative rights are granted to a Diet of sixteen mem-
bers, of whom three are elected by those paying the highest income-tax,
and twelve by the inhabitants in general. The head of the collateral
Reuss-Kostritz family is hereditarily a member. The Prince has the sole
executive and part of the legislative power. In the administration of the
State a cabinet of three members acts under his direction.
The annual estimated public income was given as 2,091,400 marks
for the financial period 1893-95, with an expenditure of 2,080,051 marks.
There is a public debt (1893) of 1,040,550 marks. Railways (1892), 46
miles.
SAXE-ALTEHBTTBCh
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Altenburg.)
Reigning Duke. — Ernst, born September 16, 1826 ; the son of Duke Georg
of Saxe-Altenburg and Princess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Suc-
ceeded to the throne at the death of his father, August 3, 1853 ; married
April 28, 1853, to Princess Agnes, of Anhalt-Dessau, born June 24, 1824.
Offspring : — Princess Marie, born Aug. 2, 1854 ; married April 19, 1873,
to Prince Albrecht of Prussia, Regent of Brunswick. Brother of the Duke ;
Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829 ; married October 15, 1862, to Princess
Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has issue three daughters and a
son — 1. Maria Anna, born March 14, 1864, married April 16, 1882, to Prince
George of Schaumburg-Lippe ; 2. Elizabeth, born January 25, 1865,
married April 17, 1884, to Grand-duke Constantino of Russia ; 3. Ernst,
born August 31, 1871 ; 4. Louise, born August 11. 1873.
There was a separate Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg from 1603 till 1672, but
its territories were afterwards incorporated with Saxe-Gotha until 1826,
when the Duke of Hildburghausen, which had been a separate Duchy since
1680, exchanged Hildburghausen for Altenburg, and became Duke Frederick
of Saxe-Altenburg. In 1874 the Duke resigned his right to a civil list,
in exchange for a charge upon the State or crown-domains (Domanen-
fideicommiss).
Constitution and Finance. — The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831,
but was altered at subsequent periods. The legislative authority is vested
in a Chamber composed of thirty representatives, of whom nine are chosen
by the highest taxed inhabitants, nine by the inhabitants of towns, and
twelve by those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years,
and the deputies are elected for two sessions.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely — 1, of the
Ducal House, Foreign and Home Affairs ; 2, of Justice ; 3, of Finance. The
budget is voted for three years, the estimates for the period 1893-95,
exhibiting an annual revenue of 8,847,110 marks, and an expenditure of
the same amount. Two-thirds of the revenue are derived from the State
domains and the remainder from indirect taxes. The public debt in July
1898 amounted to 887,450 marks, covered seven times over by the active
funds of the State.
Many of the inhabitants of the Duchy are of Slavonic origin. The peasants
are reputed to be more wealthy than those of any other part of Germany,
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SAXE-COBURG AND GOTHA 631
and the rule prevails among them of the youngest son becoming the heir
to the landed property of the father. Estates are Kept for generations in the
same family, and seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has
been declining in numbers for the last thirty years.
There are 102 miles of railway.
British Consul-General. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
8AXE-C0BURG AND GOTHA.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha.)
Reigning Duke. — Alfred, born August 6, 1844, son of Prince Albert and
Queen Victoria of Great Britain ; succeeded his uncle, Ernest II., August 22,
1893 ; married January 23, 1874, to the Grand Duchess Marie, daughter of
the Emperor Alexander II. of Russia. Offspring : — 1, Alfred, born October
15, 1874 ; 2, Marie, born October 29, 1875 ; married January 11, 1893, to
Prince Ferdinand of Roumania; 3, Victoria, born November 25, 1876; 4,
Alexandra, born September 1, 1878 ; 5, Beatrice, born April 20, 1884.
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was
Duke John Ernst, seventh son of Duke Ernst the Pious, who succeeded
his brother Albrecht, Ernst's second son, in 1699, in the Duchy of Saxe-
Coburg, to which he added Saalfeld. John Ernst's two sons ruled in com-
mon, under the title Dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld ; but their single successor
Ernst Frederick I. (1764-1800) introduced the principle of primogeniture.
On the extinction of the line of Saxe-Gotha in 1826, Ernst III. received
Gotha in exchange for Saalfeld, which was assigned to Saxe-Meiningen,
and assumed the title of Ernst I. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The family is
in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly by Duke
Ernst I., to whom the Congress of Vienna made a present of the Princi-
pality of Lichtenberg. This Principality he sold, September 22, 1834,
to the King of Prussia, for a sum of two million thalers, and other advantages.
The reigning Duke has a civil list of 100,000 marks out of the income of the
Gotha domains, 100,503 marks is paid into the public exchequer, while the
rest is divided between the Duke and the State. The Duke further receives
one-half of the excess of revenue over expenditure from the Coburg domain
lands.
Constitution and Finance. — The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law
of the two Duchies, proclaimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in
the Duke in conjunction with two separate chambers, one for the Duchy of
Coburg and the other for the Duchy of Gotha. For the common affairs of
the two Duchies the two Chambers meet in common. The Coburg Chamber
consists of eleven, and that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as
many electoral divisions, by the indirect vote of all the electors. Every
man above the age of twenty-five who pays direct taxes has a vote, and
every fully-qualified citizen above thirty may be elected a deputy to the
Landtag or Chamber. Deputies resident in Coburg or Gotha receive six
marks per diem, the others ten marks per diem and travelling expenses.
New elections take place every four years. The two assemblies meet separately,
usually in the first and last years of their duration, otherwise when necessary ;
the ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the towns of Coburg and of
Gotha.
The domain budget is voted for the term of four years for Gotha and for
Coburg, and in the financial State-accounts a distinction is made between
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632 GERMAN EMPIRE: — THURINGIAN STATES
domain-revenue and State-revenue. The annual domain revenue for Coburg
1891-97 is estimated at 420,500 marks, and expenditure 236,500 marks;
revenue for Gotha 1893-97, 2,144,226 marks, expenditure 1,182,425 marks.
The special State revenue for each year from 1893 to 1897 for Coburg is set
down at 812,700 marks, and for Gotha at 1,959,924 marks ; while the common
State-revenue of .Coburg and Gotha is set down at 2,012,182 marks, and
expenditure 2,647,190 marks. The public debt, in 1891, -amounted to
3,213,829 marks for Coburg, and to 140,198 marks for Gotha, both being
largely covered by productive investments.
There are 110 miles of railway.
British Charge* d% Affaires.— k. Condie Stephen, C.B., C.M.G.
Consul-General. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
8AXE-MEININGKH.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Meiningen.)
Reigning Duke. — Georg II., born April 2, 1826 ; the son of Duke Bernhard
I. Succeeded, on the abdication of his father, September 20, 1866. Married,
(1) May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who died March 80, 1855 ;
(2) October 23, 1858, to Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, born July
7, 1839, who died February 10, 1872 ; (3) morganatically, March 18, 1873, to
Ellen Franz, Baroness von Heldburg. Offspring (first marriage) : — I. Prince
Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ; married February 18, 1878, to Princess
Charlotte, eldest daughter of the late German Emperor Friedrich WiUielm ;
offspring of the union is a daughter, Feodora, born May 12, 1879. II.
Princess Marie Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853. (Second marriage)
III. Prince Ernst, born September 27, 1859 ; married morganatically Sept.
20, 1892, to Katharina Feusen, Baroness von Saalfeld. IV. Prince Friedrich,
bom October 12, 1861 ; married April 25, 1889 to Adelheid, Countess of Lippe
Biesterfeld, offspring two daughters and a son, Georg, born October 11, 1892.
The line of Saxe-Meiningen was founded by Duke Bernhard, third son of
Ernst I. of Saxony, surnamed the Pious, the friend and companion in arms
of King Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. The Duchy was only one-tnird its present
size up to the year 1826, when, by the extinction of the ancient family of
Saxe-Gotha, the territories of Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the father
of the present Duke. The Duke has a civil list of 394,286 marks paid out of
the produce of the State domains. Besides these he receives the lialf of the
surplus, which is estimated for the financial year 1893 at 390,450 marks.
Constitution and Finance. — The charter of the Duchy bears date
August 23, 1829, and is supplemented by the laws of 1870 and 1873. It
provides for a legislative organization, consisting of one Chamber of
twenty-four representatives. Four of these are elected by those who pay
the highest land and property tax, and four by those who pay income tax
on an income of 3,000 marks or more ; sixteen by all other inhabitants.
The Chamber meets as often as necessary, and in any case for the arrange-
ment of the budget every three years, and new elections take place every six.
The budget for the financial year 1893 stated the revenue at
marks, and the expenditure at 6,601,470 marks. More than one-third of
the revenue is drawn from State domains belonging to the ducal family.
The chief items of expenditure are Matrikularbeitrage (or contributions) for
the Empire (estimated to 1,551,490 marks), the interest of the public debt,
530,000 marks, and the expenses for the administration of the State. The
debt in 1892 amounted to 11,788,074 marks. Most of the debt is covered by
productive State capital.
There are 157 miles of railway.
British Consul-General — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
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SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN 633
SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.
(FtfRSTENTHUM SCHWABZBUEG-RUDOLSTADT. )
Reigning Prince. — Gunther, born August 21, 1852, succeeded his cousin
Prince Georg, Jan. 19, 1890 ; married Decemb3r 10, 1891, to Princess Anna
Luise of Schdnburg-Waldenburg.
The Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt line is a younger branch of the house of
Schwarzburg, being descended from Albert VII., 1605, who died in the middle
of the seventeenth century. The present sovereign has a civil list of 291,817
marks, exclusive of the revenue of the State domains, which are the property
of the reigning family.
Constitution and Finance. — The fundamental law of the Principality is
the Constitution of March 21, 1854, modified November 16, 1870. For all
legislative measures the Prince has to obtain the consent of a Chamber of
Representatives of sixteen members, four of whom are elected by the highest
assessed inhabitants, and the rest returned by the general population. The
deputies are elected for three years.
There are triennial budgets. For the period 1891-93 the annual public
income and expenditure were settled at 2,542,950 marks each. There is
a public debt of 4,038,688 marks, half of which is covered by productive
investments.
There are 19 miles of railway.
SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN.
(FUKSTBNTHUM SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. )
Prince. — Karl Gunther, born August 7, 1830 ; succeeded his
father, Prince Gunther Friedrich Carl II., July 17, 1880 ; married, June 12,
1869, to Princess Maria of Saxe-Altenburg, born June 28, 1845.
Brother and Sisters of the Prince. — I. Princess Elisabeth, born March 22,
1829. II. Prince Leopold, born July 2, 1832. III. Princess Marie, born
June 14, 1837.
The princes of the house of Schwarzburg belong to a very ancient and
wealthy family. The small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the
Congress of Vienna. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
amounts to 500,000 marks, being nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the
country. The Prince is, moreover, in possession of a very large income from
private estates in Bohemia and Mecklenburg.
Constitution and Finance. — The Principality has a Constitution, granted
July 8, 1857, under which restricted legislative rights are given to a Diet com-
posed of fifteen members, five of whom are appointed by the Prince, five
elected by certain highly-taxed landowners and others, and five elected by the
inhabitants in general. The sole executive and part of the legislative power is in
the hands of the Prince, who exercises his authority through a Government
divided into five departments.
The budget accounts are settled for the term of four years. In the period
1892-95 the annual revenue was estimated to amount to 2,764,455 marks, and
the annual expenditure to the same. There is a public debt (1893) of 2,723,444
marks.
There are 49 miles of railway
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RELIGION — CRIME AND PAUPERISM
635
Emigration.
I
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
47
1890
1891
1
Reuss (altere Linie)
44
43
44
41
66
117
Reuss (jiingere Linie) .
Saxe-Altenburg ....
98
94
125
114
138
206
248
77
76
62
60
65
117
112
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
277
217
246
234 ! 276
206
238
Saxe-Meiningen .....
212 174
241
232
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
145
101
82
63
91
94
116
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
77
57
49
51
73
118
61
Religion.
On December 1, 1890, the following was the distribution of creeds : —
I
Protestants
Catholics
Other
Christians
Jews
Unclas-
sified.
i
No.
Per
Cent
No.
Per
Cent
! Reuss (altere
Linie) .
1 Reuss (jiingere
1 Linie) .
j Saxe-Altenburg .
Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha .
Saxe-Meiningen .
j Schwarzburg-
| Rudolstadt
j Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen
61,572
118,072
168,549
202,444
219,207
, 85,342
74,615
98*1
98*5
98*6
98*4
97*8
99 4
98*8
936
1,181
2,091
2,909
2,780
397
636
1*49
0*99
1-22
1-24
136
0*46
0-84
175
386
161
577
274
43
26
62
147
45
549
1,560
71
228
9
25
18
34
9
10
5
Crime and Pauperism.
The following table shows the number of convicted criminals in 1891,
and the number of paupers in 1885, in each of the seven minor Thuringian
States :—
No. of
No. per
10,000 In-
hab. above
12 years
No. of
Depend-
Percent-
—
Convic-
Paupers
ants of
age of
tions
Relieved
Paupers
Paupers
Reuss {altere Linie) .
446
102*5
743
596
2-39
„ (jiingere Linie .
Saxe-Altenburg. .
752
89-6
1,464
1,105
2-82
1,129
93-5
1.703
1,219
1-81
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
1,348
91-5
2,511
2,037
2-28
Saxe-Meiningen .
1,922
123-1
2,618
2,028
216
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .
882
148-1
847
722
3-11
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
582
110-0
796
586
1-87
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WALDECK — WttBTTEMBERG
637
Constitution and Finance. — The charter of the Principality was granted
August 17, 1852. It provided for a legislative assembly of forty-one members
but this number is now reduced to fifteen, with authority restricted to purely
local affairs. In terms of the ' Treaty of Accession ' all public officials are
appointed by the King of Prussia, and take the oath of fidelity to him.
Prussia also manages the finances of the Principality.
I
Estimated Bevenue
Marks
1,312,272
The expenditure is estimated at exactly equal to the revenue.
The debt on July 1, 1893, was 2,160,000 marks.
Area and Population. — The Principality has an area of 433 English square
miles.
It is thus divided for administrative purposes into circles : — Waldeck :
Twiste, population, 16,583; Eisenberge, population, 17,683; Eder, popula-
tion, 14,913 ; PyrmorU: population, 8,102— total, 57,281.
Of the population in 1890, 27,432 were males, and 29,849 females — i.e.,
108*8 females per 100 males.
In 1885 the inhabitants numbered 56,575 ; in 1880, 56,522 ; in 1871,
56,224. Marriages, 1891, 388 ; births, 1,891 (77, or 4'1 per cent., stillborn,
and 135, or 7*1 per cent, illegitimate) ; deaths, -3,151 ; surplus, 740. Emi-
grants, 1884, 170 ; 1885, 197 ; 1886, 100 ; 1887, 91 ; 1888, 91 ; 1889, 99 ;
1890, 83 ; 1891, 85. Except 1,658 Catholics and 753 Jews, the people are
Protestants. The residence town, Arolsen, has 2,620 inhabitants.
On June 5, 1882, the number of separate agricultural tenements was as
follows : —
Below 1 Hect.
3,743
1-10 Hect.
4,088
10-100 Hect. Over 100 Hect.
1,590
34
Total.
9,455
These farms supported 30,378 persons, of whom 11,539 were actively
engaged in agriculture. Bailways, 6 miles.
British Charge' d* Affaires.— A. C. Stephen, C.B., C.M.G.
Consul-General. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
WTJRTTEMBERG.
(KONIORBICH WtJRTTEMBERG. )
Reigning King.
Wilhelm II., King of Wiirttemberg, born February 25, 1848 ; son ot the
late Prince Friedrich of Wiirttemberg (cousin of the late king Karl I.) and
Princess Katharine of Wiirttemberg (sister of the late king) ; ascended the
throne on the death of Karl I., October 6, 1891. Married (1), February 15,
1877, to Princess 3/arieofWaideck-Pyrmont, who died April 30, 1882 ; issue
of this union, Princess Pauline, born December 19, 1877 ; (2), April 8, 1886
Princess Charlotte of Schaumburg-Lippe, born October 10, 1864.
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I
638 GERMAN EMPIRE: — WURTTEMBERG
Aunt of the King.
Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826 ; married June 17, 1851, to
Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar ; issue : — 1. Princess Pauline, born July 25,
1852. 2. Wilhelm,.born December 31, 1853. 3. Prince Bernard, born
October 10, 1855. 4. Prince Alexander, born June 22, 1857. 5. Prince
Ernest, born August 9, 1859. 6. Princess Olga, born September 8, 1869.
The former Duchy and Electorate of Wiirttemberg was erected into a
Kingdom by the Peace of Pressburg, 1805, and by a decree of January 1, 1806
The civil list of the king amounts to 2,014,203 marks, or 100,7102., with
additional grants of 142,306 marks, or 7,1152., for the other members of the
royal family.
Constitution and Government.
Wiirttemberg is a constitutional hereditary Monarchy, the Constitution oi
which bears date September 25, 1819. It vests certain powers in the
Landstande, or two ' Estates ' of the realm, called together every three years, or
oftener if necessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is com-
posed of the princes of the royal family, of the heads of twenty mediatised
nouses which were before 1806 endowed with votes in the Imperial Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king hereditarily or for life, which
number, however, must not exceed one-third of that of the two other categories
(there are now eight, two hereditary). The Second Chamber, or House of
Deputies (Abgeordneten), consists of thirteen members of the nobility, elected
by the Ritterschaft (Equestrian Order) of the Kingdom : six dignitaries of the
Evangelical clergy ; three dignitaries of the Catholic clergy ; the chancellor of
the University of Tubingen ; seven deputies of towns ('gute Stadte'), and
sixty-three of districts ('Oberamter'), elected by all citizens over twenty-five
years of age by secret ballot. All the members of the Second Chamber are
chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; property qualifica-
tion is not necessary. The president of the Upper Chamber is appointed by
the king, the vice-president is elected by the Chamber from among the
hereditary members ; the president and vice-president of the Second Chamber
are both elected by the deputies. The debates of both Chambers are public.
Whenever the Chambers are not sitting they are represented by a committee
of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both Chambers, two members
of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House. A special court of justice, called
the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed guardian of the Constitution. It is com-
posed of a president and twelve members, six of whom, together with the
president, are nominated by the king, while the other six are elected by the
combined Chambers. Members of both Chambers receive an allowance of
9s. 2d. a day during the session and travelling expenses, but to hereditary
members of the Upper Chamber payment is made on application only.
The executive of the Kingdom is a Ministry of State composed of six
ministerial departments. The heads of the six departments are the Ministers
of Justice ; of Foreign Affairs and the Royal House, to whose province belongs
also the administration of the State railways, posts, and telegraphs ; of the
Interior ; of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; of War ; and of
Finance. There is also a Privy Council, of which the Ministers are members,
and which the sovereign has a right to consult on all occasions.
For administrative purposes the country is divided into 4 circles (Kreise),
64 districts (Oberamter), and 1.910 communes (Gemeinden).
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639
Area and Population.
Wiirttemberg has an area of 7,528 English square miles.
The following table shows the area and population of the whole and of each
of the four ' circles ' (Kreise) : —
Ereise
Area
inSq.
Miles
Population
Density |
per Sq. j
Mile
1885
1890
Neckar ....
Black Forest (Schwarz-
wald) ....
Jagst ....
Danube (Donau) .
1,284
1,842
1,983
2,419
639,398
475,277
405,085
475,425
665,049
481,334
402,991
487,148
518*0
261*3
203 2
201-4
Total .
7,528
1,995,185
2,036,522
270-5
The increase of population between 1885 and 1890, amounting on the whole
to only 0*41 per cent, per annum, varied greatly in the four circles of the
Kingdom. Between 1885 and 1890 there was an increase of 25,651 in the
Neckar circle, but a decrease of 2,094 in the Jagst circle. The total increase
in the Kingdom during the fifty years from 1840 to 1890 was very slight, and
at one period, from 1849 to 1855, there was a decline of population.
Of the total population in 1890, 790,149, or 38 8 per cent, live in towns
of 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, and 1,246,373, or 61 2 per cent., in rural
communes.
In 1890 the population included 981,844 males and 1,054,678 females.
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536. In 1890 the number of foreigners was 12,226.
The movement of the population for the five years 1887-91 is thus
shown • —
j Year
Marriages
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
13,169
13,578
13,747
14,274
14,169
71,165
70,458
69,089
72,489
71,826
2,484
2,422
2,309
2,368
.2,419
7,202
7,060
6,911
7,321
7,494
52,323
54,402
51,571
52,368
54,346
18,842
16,056
17,518
20,121
17,480
The emigration from Wiirttemberg, chiefly to the United States of America,
was as follows for eight years: —
j 1886
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1 5,104
3,717
6,018
6,445
5,629
5,987
6,182
5,728
The population in 1890 of the eight largest towns was as follows :
Stuttgart
Ulm
Heilbronn
Esslingen
139,817
36,191
29,941
22,234
Cannstatt
Reutlingen
Ludwigsburg
Gmund .
20,265
18,542
17,418
16,817
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FINANCE
641
marks; estimated expenditure, 1891-92, 65,648,603 marks. The estimated
revenue and expenditure for two years ending March 31, 1894, are as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
Forests, Farms, Mines, Metal and Salt Works
Commercial Revenues — Railway : net re-
ceipts
Post Office, Telegraph, Steamers .
Miscellaneous
Direct Taxes — on Lands, Rents, Buildings,
Trades
Income Tax
Indirect Taxes — Excise
Dog Tax
Tax on Taverns
Duties on Successions, &c. .
German Empire : — Quotas from Customs, &c.
Total Revenue
1893-94
Marks
7,696,498
Marks
7,696,498
13,006,995
1,589,790
791,743
13,242,572
1,883,214
600,000
8,148,960
5,498,415
1,756,000
199,100
9,330,620
2,850,000
14,388,830
9,092,000
6,127,453
1,756,000
199,100
9,330,620
2,850,000
14,388,830
65,256,951
67,166,287
1894-95
Branches of Expenditure
Civil List
Appanages and Dowries ....
National Debt — Interest and Sinking Fund .
Annuities and Compensations
Pensions — Ecclesiastical, Civil, and Military
Others
Ministry of Justice
,, Foreign Affairs ....
,, the Interior ....
,, Worship and Education
,, Finance .....
Parliament, Expenses of ... .
Reserve Fund
German Empire — Matricular contribution to
Postage
Total Expenditure
1893-94
Marks
2,014,203
142,306
19,597,633
338,551
2,465,500
539,909
4,121,178
186,498
7,285,815
10,547,308
3,514,732
372,838
70,000
15,584,229
420,000
67,200,700
1894-95
Marks
2,014,203
142,306
20,380,029
301,039
2,527,000
549,909
4,121,178
164,898
7,172,824
10,538,685
3,514,732
373,659
70,000
16,839,000
420,000
69,129,462
The capital of the public debt was estimated to amount to 446,626,057
marks on April 1, 1893, of which the bulk bears interest at 4 per cent.
The debt of the Kingdom is divided into two portions— namely, the general
debt and the railway debt. The latter, forming by far the largest portion of
the total, amounted' to 405,241,973 marks on April 1, 1893. The total debt
amounts to about 219 marks, or £11 per head of the population, and the charge
(interest and sinking fund) for 1893-94 to 19,873,633 marks, or about 10/- per
head. The net income of the railways, all expenses deducted, amounts to
T T
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GEBMAN EMPIRE : — WURTTEMBERG
(1891-92) 11,377,442 marks, covering 60 per cent, of the interest charge of the
whole public debt, and nearly 68 per cent, of the interest charge of the railway
debt alone,
Army.
The total strength of the Wiirttemberg corps d'armee (the 13th of Ger-
many) had on the peace footing, 1892, 20,737 men, 4,058 horses, and 120 guns.
In 1892-93 there were 7,903 recruits.
Industry.
Wiirttemberg is primarily an agricultural State, and 4,720 square miles, or
about two-thirds of the entire area, are under cultivation, and about three-
tenths under forest. On June 5, 1882, the total number of agricultural
tenements, each cultivated by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
110,086
Between 1 and
10 Hectares
172,412
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
25,479
Above 100
Hectares
Total
141
308,118
These farms supported 923,252 persons, of whom 387,454 were actively
engaged upon them.
The areas under the principal crops (in hectares), and the yield (in metric
tons) per hectare in 1892-93, and the average annual yield for 1878-87 are as
follows : —
1892-93
Average
Yield,
1878-87
1892-98
Average
Hectares
32,489
36,686
98,321
138,090
181,900
Yield
perhect.
Hectares
Yield
perhect
Yield,
1878-87
Wheat
Rye .
Barley
Oats .
Spelt
1-47
1-36
1-54
1-21
1*30
1-28
1-13
1-43
1*22
1-08
Potatoes .
Hay .
Clover, etc.
Hops
87,911
289,983
114,614
5,658
1413
4*05
4 21
0*67
8*42
4*17
5*0
0*61
\
In 1892-93 vines occupied 17,556 hectares, and yielded 57,148 hectolitres
of wine.
In 1891-92, 6,748 breweries produced 3,454,304 hectolitres of beer. The
total value of the minerals raised in the kingdom in 1892 was 1,017,366 marks.
In 1891-2, there were in Wiirttemberg 1,636 kilom. of railway, all, except
555 kilom., the property of the State, which owns, moreover, 171 kilom. in
neighbouring States.
British Minister. — Victor A. W. Drumraond (residing at Munich).
Consul— Albert v. Kaulla.
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643
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Germany.
1. Official Publications.— Germany.
Amtliche Liste der Schiffe der Deutschen Kriegs- und Handelsmarine, mit ihren Unter-
scheidungs-Signalen. Abgeschlossen am 1. Januai 1803. Herausgegeben im Reichsamt des
Innern. Berlin, 1893.
Denkschrift tiber die Deutschen Schutzgebiete. Reichstagsdrucksache. 6. Legislatur-
Periode, II. Session, 1884-86, Nr. 44. Berlin.
Deutscher Reichs- und K6nigl. Preussischer Staats-Anzeiger. Berlin, 1893.
Deutsches Handelsarchiv. Zeitschrift filr Handel und Gewerbe. Herausgegeben vom
Reichsamt des Innern. Berlin (monthly).
Die Deutsche Armee und die Kaiserliche Marine. Eintheilung, Truppen, Ac. Bearbeitet
in der kartographischen Abtheilung der Konigl. Landesaufhahme. Berlin, 1889.
Genealogie der Europaischen Regentenhauser fur 1898. 8. Berlin, 1893.
Handbuch fiir das Deutsche Reich auf das Jahr 1893. Bearbeitet im Reichsamt des
Innern. Berlin, 1893.
Handbuch fur die Deutsche Handelsmarine auf das Jahr 1892. Herausgegeben im Reichs-
amt des Innern. Berlin, 1893.
Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Konigreichs Bayern. 8. Munchen, 1892.
Kalender und Statistisches Jahrbuch filr das Konigreich Bachsen auf das Jahr 1894
Dresden, 1898.
Koniglich-Preussischer Staats-Kalender fiii 1893. 8. Berlin, 1893.
K6niglich-Wilrttembergi8ches Hof- und Staats-Handbuch. Herausgeg. von dem Konigl.
Stati8ti8chen Landesamt. 8. Stuttgart, 1892.
Wiirttembergische Jahrbiicher fur Statistik u. Landeskunde. Herausgegeben von dem-
selben. Stuttgart, 1893.
Monatshefte zur Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen
Statistischen Amt. Jahrgang 1893. Berlin, 1893.
Preussische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Koniglichen Statistischen Bureau in Berlin.
Fol. Berlin, 1893.
Staatshandbuch fur das Konigreich Sachsen. Dresden, 1898.
Btatistik der Deutschen Reichs-Post und Telegraphen-Verwaltung fur das Kalenderjahr
1892: 4. Berlin, 1893.
Statistik der im Betriebe beflndlichen Eisenbahnen Deutschlands. Bearbeitet im Reichs-
Eisenbahn Amt. Betriebsjahr 1891-92. Berlin, 1893.
Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statist. Amt. Neue
Folge. Band 1-45 to end of 1891.
Statistik des Hamburgischen Staats. 4. Hamburg, 1891.
Statistisches Handbuch filr den Preussischen Staat. Berlin, 1893.
Statistisches Handbuch ftir Elsass-Lothringen. Strassburg, 1891.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statis-
tischen Amt. Jahrgang, 1893. Berlin. 1893.
Vorlaufige Ergebnisse der Volkszahlung vom 1. December 1885 im Konigreiche Preussen.
Berlin, 1886.
Zeitschrift des Konigl. Preussischen Statistischen Bureaus. 4. Berlin, 1893.
Zeitschrift des K. Sachsischen Statistischen Bureaus. 4. Leipzig, 1893.
Hertslet (Sir Edward, C.B.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1898.
Weissbuch. Official Correspondence relating to German Possessions in Africa and the
Pacific, and to the Congo, Egypt, and East Asia. 11 vols. Berlin, 1884-1891.
Trade of Germany with the United Kingdom ; in • Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892. ' London
1893. '
Foreign Dependencies.
Angra Pequefia. Copy of Despatch from the Earl of Derby to H.M.'s High Commission
in 8. Africa relative to the Establishment of a German Protectorate at Angra Pequefla and
along the Coast. London, 1884.
Arrangement between Great Britain and Germany relative to their respective Spheres in
Africa. London. 1885. The same with reference to New Guinea. London, 1885.
Correspondence relating to Zanzibar. London, 1885.
Correspondence respecting Affairs in the Cameroons. London, 1885.
Deutsches Kolonialblatt. Berlin 1891 (fortnightly).
2. Non-Official Publications.— Germany.
Baring-Gould (8.), Germany, Past and Present. 2 vols. 8. London, 1881.
Brachclli (Bitter von), Statistische Skizze des Deutschen Reichs. 7th edition. Leipzig
1892. B*
Bruckner, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Kolonialpolitik und des Export. Berlin, 1887-91.
Carlyle (T.), History of Frederick the Great. 10 vols. London.
T T 2
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GERMAN EMPIRE : — WURTTEMBERG
Droyeen (J. G.), Geschichte des Preussischen Politik. 5 vols. Leipzig.
Export, Organ des Centralvereins tar Handelsgeographie tind Forderung Deutsche-
Interessen im Auslande. Berlin (weekly).
Firek$ (A. Freiherr von), Die Volkskraft Deutschland's nnd Frankreich's. Statistische
Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1875.
Franco-German War, 1870-71. Authorised translation. 4 vols. London, 1881 -83.
Gothaischer genealogischer Hof-Kalender auf das Jahr 1692. Gotha, 1893.
Herzog von Mecklenburg-Strelit* (Carl Michael), Die Statistik des Militar-Ersatz-
Geschaftes im Deutschen Keiche. Leipzig, 1887.
Hue de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung nnd Verwaltung in Preussen und dem Deutschen
Reiche. 5. Auflage. Berlin, 1886.
KoUmann (P.), Das Herzogthum Oldenburg in seiner wirthschaftlichen Entwickelung.
8. Oldenburg, 1893.
Legoyt (Alfred), Forces materielles de l'Empire d'AUemagne. 18 Paris, 1878.
Lowe (Charles), Life of Prince Bismarck. 2 vols. London, 1888.
Mitteilungen ans den Deutschen Schutzgebieten. Berlin, 1889-91.
Morhain,De l'Empire Allemand : sa Constitution et son Administration. Paris, 1886.
Neumann (G.), Geographisches Lexicon des Deutschen Beichs. 2 vols. 8.
NicoUon (A.), A Sketch of the German Constitution, and of the Events in Germany from
1815 to 1871. 8. London, 1875.
BeeluM (Elisee), NouveUe Geographie universelle. VoL III. Paris, 1878.
8ybel (H. von), Die Begrundung des Deutschen Beichs. 5 vols. Berlin, 1890.
Treittehke (H. von), Deutsche Geschichte im 19 ten Jahrhundert. Leipzig.
Waitz (Georg), Deutsche Vei-fassungsgeschichte. 5 vols. 8. Kiel, 1871-74.
Whitman (Sidney), Imperial Germany. London, 1889.
Foreign Dependencies.
Baumann (Oscar), In Deutsch Ostafrika wahrend des Aufttandes. 8. Vienna, 1890.
Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete. 8. Berlin, 1691.
Buttner (C. G.), Das Hinterland von Walfischbai und Angra Pequefia. Heidelberg, 1884.
Demay (Charles), Histoire de la Colonisation Allemande. Paris, 1690.
Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, Organ der Deutschen Kotonialgesellschaft. Berlin (fort-
nightly). "^
Dilthey (R.), Der Wirthschaftliche Werth von Deutsch. Ost-Afrika. Diisseldorf, 1889.
Frenzel und Mende. Deutschland s Kolonien. Hannover, 1889.
Kosehiteky (Max von), Deutsche EolonJalgeschichte. Leipzig, 1887 and 1888.
Meinecke (G.), Koloniales Jahrbuch. Berlin, 1690-91.
Nachrichten uber Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und den Bismarck- Archipel. Herausgegeben
von der Neu-Guinea Kompagnie. Berlin (at intervals).
Wagner, Deutsch-Ostafrika. 2. Auflage. Berlin, 1888.
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645
GREECE.
(Kingdom of the Hellenes.)
Beigning King.
Georgios 1., born December 24, 1845, the second son (Wil-
helm) of Prince Christian of Sohleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, present King of Denmark ; elected King of the
Hellenes by the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30),
1863; accepted the crown, through his father the King of Den-
mark, acting as his guardian, June 4, 1863 ; declared of age by
decree of the National Assembly, June 27, 1863; landed in
Greece November 2, 1863; married, October 27, 1867, to Queen
Olga, born August 22 (September 3), 1851, the eldest daughter
of Grand-duke Constantine of Russia, brother of the late Emperor
Alexander II.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, heir-apparent, born
August 2, 1868 ; married October 27, 1889, to Princess Sophia,
Princess of Prussia. Offspring : — 1. Prince Georgios, born July
19, 1890. 2. Prince Alexander, born August 1, 1893. II.
Prince Georgios, born June 24, 1869. III. Prince Nicolaos,
born January 21, 1872. IV. Princess Marin, born March 3,
1876. V. Prince Andreas, born February 1, 1882. VI. Prince
Christopheros, born August 10, 1888.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863,
a civil list of 1,125,000 drachmai was settled on King Georgios I.,
to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Russia
added 4,000Z. each, making the total income of the sovereign
of Greece about 52,000J. per annum. An annuity of 200,000
drachmai is allowed to the heir-apparent since he came of age in
August 1886.
Greece, a province of the Turkish Empire since the commencement of the
16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection of 1821-29, and by
the Protocol of London, of February 3, 1830, was declared a kingdom, under
the protection of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Coburg having declined the crown of Greece, on the ground that the boun-
daries proposed were insufficient, and especially excluded the island of Crete,
it was offered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of Bavaria, who ascended the
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AREA AND POPULATION
647
The Ministry as constituted November 11, 1893, is as follows : —
President of the Council and Minister of Finance. — M. Ch. Tricoupis.
Minister of the Interior. — M. Bovphides.
Minister of Justice. — M. Stephanou.
Minister of Foreign Affairs. — M. Stephanou, ad interim.
Minister of Public Instruction. — M. Kaliphronos.
Minister of Marine. — M. Boutoulis.
Minister of War. — M. Tsamados.
Area and Population.
Greece, at the census of 1889, had a total population of 2,187,208 —
1,133,625 males and 1,053,583 females— living on an area of 25,041 English
square miles. The territory detached from Turkey, consisting of most of
Thessaly and a strip of Epirus, was added to Greece by a treaty with Turkey,
executed — under pressure of the Great Powers — June 14, 1881. The King-
dom, excluding these, is divided into 17 monarchies. In 1879 and 1889 the
area and population were as follows : —
Area :
Pop.
Monarchies
English
square
Population
18791
Population
1889
per sq.
mile,
miles
1889
Northern Greece : —
Attica and Boeotia
2,472
185,364
257,764
104
Phocis and Phthiotis .
2,044
128,440
136,470
67
Acarnania and JEtolia .
3,013
138,444
162,020
34
Peloponnesus : —
Argolis and Corinth
Achaia and Elis .
1,442
136,081
144,836
100
1,901
181,632
210,713
111
Arcadia ....
2,020
148,905
148,285
73
Messenia ....
1,221
155,760
183,232
150
Laconia ....
1,679
121,116
126,888
75
Islands : —
Euboea and Sporades
2,216
95,136
103,442
47
Cyclades ....
923
132,020
131,508
142
Corfu
431
106,109
114,535
266
Zanthe (Zakynthos)
Cephalonia (Kephallonia)
Soldiers and seamen
277
44,522
44,070
160
302
80,543
80,178
265
—
95,703
—
—
■ Thessaly: —
Arta
395
31,178
32,890
83
Trikalla ....
2,200
117,109
143,143
65
Larissa
2,478
145,706
168,034
68
Natives abroad
Total ....
—
5,685
—
—
25,041
1,979,453
2,187,208
87
Thessaly, 1881.
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INSTRUCTION — FINANCE
649
of the State, but complete toleration and liberty of worship is guaranteed to all
other sects. Nominally, the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of
Constantinople, though he now exercises no governing authority ; he is
elected by the votes of the bishops and optimates subject to the Sultan ; his
jurisdiction extends over Thrace and other countries, including Bosnia, as
well as the greater part of Asia Minor. The real ecclesiastical authority,
formerly exercised by him in Greece, was annulled by the resolutions of a
National Synod, held at Nauplia in 1833, which vested the government of the
Orthodox Church, within the limits of the Kingdom, in a permanent
council, called the Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens and
four archbishops and bishops, who must during their year of office reside at
the seat of the executive. The Orthodox Church has nine archbishops and
eight bishops in Northern Greece ; six archbishops and six bishops in the
Peloponnesus ; one archbishop and five bishops in the islands of the Greek
Archipelago ; and five archbishops and ten bishops in the Ionian Islands.
There are 161 monasteries and nunneries, with 2,620 monks and 485 nuns.
Instruction.
All children between the ages of five and twelve years must attend school,
but the law is not well enforced in country districts. Of the army recruits 30
per cent, are illiterate, and 15 per cent, can read only.
There are (1892) 2,745 primary schools, 295 secondary schools and a uni-
versity. The total number of teachers is 3,680, and of pupils, 139,385, of
whom 22,100 are females. The average number of students who pass the
university examinations is 440.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the Kingdom were
as follows in the years from 1885 to 1893, according to official
returns (the figures for 1892-93 are only estimates) : —
Yea
Revenue
Expenditure j
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai
1885
61,110,128
316,901
61,427,029
127,677,749
1886
63,103,542
32,464,426
95,567,968
131,295,723
1887
82,558,371
93,360,420
175,910,791
92,951,915
1888
89,445,986
4,119,822
93,565,808
108,975,436
1889
83,269,911
99,300,373
182,570,284
107,317,616
1890
79,548,045
43,224,000
122,772,045
129,358,573
1891
89,725,769
12,900,000
102,625,769
125,106,600
1892
90,950,200
1,280,000
92,230,200
114,545,646
1893
111,701,939
105,701,939
—
—
The following table gives the budget estimates for 1893 : —
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FINANCE
651
This does not include the loan of 100,392,833 drachmai granted by the
three powers in 1833, the amount outstanding not being clearly ascertained.
The amount required for the interest and amortisation of the public debt
in 1892 was 31,133,549 drachmai gold, and 3,778,060 drachmai paper.
In June, 1893, the Government failed to meet its liabilities, and in
December provisional measures were submitted to the Legislature for a
readjustment of the debt. It was proposed that 30 per cent, in gold should
be paid to all creditors of the gold loans, and that all loans in paper should be
paid in full. The loan of 16,500,000 drachmai raised in 1892 was converted
into a paper loan. The funding loan was annulled, and a definite agreement
with the creditors was being negociated.
The total indebtedness per head of population in 1893 was 323*53
drachmai, or 12Z. 18$. lOd. ; and the annual charge about 12*. 5d. per head.
Municipal taxation is limited to 2£ per cent, on Government direct taxa-
tion, and an octroi of 2 per cent, on articles of consumption calculated on a
Government valuation.
The municipal revenues amount to 17,180,802 drachmai, and the debts to
19,164,264 drachmai.
Defence.
I. Army.
There is universal liability to service on all able-bodied males aged 21
years and upwards. The total service is for 19 years, of which 2 years (with
considerable terms of leave) must be passed with the colours, 8 and 7 years in
the reserve, and the remainder in the militia or Landwehr.
The nominal strength of the army in 1893 was : —
Non-com-
Branches of the Military Service
Officers
missioned
Officers
Total
War Office 204
36
240
Infantry
. , 857
15,182
16,039
Cavalry
93
1,053
1,146
Artillery
222
2,065
2,287
Engineers
101
1,112
1,213
General Services .
i 206
295
501
Military Schools .
54
168
222
Gendarmerie .
143
3,086
3,229
Total . 1,880
22,997
24,877
There were at the same time 3,739 horses and mules, and 120 guns.
By the terms of a law passed by the Boule in the session of 1887, the
numerical strength of the army on the peace footing was fixed at 24,076 men,
comprising 16,136 infantry, 4,877 cavalry, and 3,063 artillerymen and engi-
neers. On the war footing, the strength could be mobilised to 100,000 men.
The reserve forces alone give a total of 104,500 men, and behind these is
what is called the territorial army, numbering 146,000 men.
II. Navy.
The navy consists of five armour-clad vessels. Of these the oldest (1867
and 1869) are the Basileus Qeorgios (1,770 tons), carrying two 10-ton Krupp
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652
GREECE
guns on the upper deck, with 4 light and 2 machine guns, speed 12 knots ;
and a wooden vessel, the Basilissa Olga (2,060 tons), carrying four 5J-ton
and two 3i-ton Krupp guns, speed 10 knots. The steel-built Hydra (4,885
tons), and her sister- ships the Spctsai and Psara, were built in France in
1889-90. Each is protected by an over-all steel belt of 11 8 in. at the water-
line, above which is another belt 2*9 in. thick. Each carries three 10*6 in. and
four 5*9 in. Canet guns, besides seven 6 pdr. quick-firers, and 18 other small
and machine guns. There are 30 torpedo boats, 1 torpedo depdt and school,
a ad 2 Nordenfeldt submarine torpedo boats. Of unprotected vessels there
a?e 2 corvettes (1,300 and' 1,800 tons), 2 cruisers (1,000 tons each), launched
1884-85; 12 gun-boats (6 built 1881-84, the rest old) ; 3 revenue vessels
(1884) ; a steel yacht, built in 1868, and an iron transport, besides miscel-
laneous craft. According to the system of classification adopted in this book,
Greece thus possesses 2 port-defence armourclads ; 3 first-class cruisers, a
(armoured) ; 4 third-class cruisers a and 16 b ; and 1 of torpedo craft, 6 first-
class, 6 second class, and 6 third class, besides 12 boats less than 80 feet in
length. In 1892 the navy was manned by 147 officers and cadets, 26 engi-
neer officers, 41 paymasters and others, 13 medical officers, 540 petty officers,
2,869 sailors, stokers, and workmen. The navy is manned partly by con-
scription from the people of the sea-coast and partly by enlistment. In 1887
the period of service was made two years instead of one.
Production and Industry.
Greece is mainly an agricultural country, and the existing manufactures
are few and unimportant.
According to an official report of 1893, the acreage of agricultural produc-
tion is approximately as follows : —
Crop
Acres
Yield
Cereals
Cotton
Tobacco
Vineyards
Currants
Olives .
Figs, &c.
Various
Fallow.
Forest .
1,111,500
14,800
12,000
336,000
168,000
432,000
52,000
211,400
1,200,000
2,025,400
Bush. 20,250,000
Lbs. 16,000,000
Gall. 66,000,000
Lbs. 350,000,000
,, 15,000,000
,, 60,000,000
—
5,563,100
—
There are, besides, about 5,000,000 acres of pasture and 3,000,000 acres of
waste land. By the draining of Lake Copais about 60.000 acres of alluvial
soil have (1893) been added to the surrounding province.
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
653
While there are a few large proprietors in Greece, the land is to a large
extent in the hands of peasant proprietors. On the whole, agriculture is in a
backward state, though the soil is of unusual fertility. The average production
of cereals for the whole of Greece is: — wheat, 7,000,000 bushels; barley,
3,000,000 bushels; rye, 825,000 bushels; for the old provinces 2,700,000
bushels of maize ; mezlin, 1,380,000 bushels. The most favoured and best
cultivated crop is the currant, which covers vast districts.
According to the latest official returns, there are 95,000 horses, 337,000
cattle, 45,000 mules, 109,000 asses, 6,000,000 sheep and goats, and 45,000
pigs.
The chief mineral produce in 1890 was: manganese iron, 207,509 tons;
zinc, 30,744 tons ; lead, 14,208 tons ; manganese oxide, 13,547 tons ; silicate
of magnesia, 8,734 tons ; baryte, 4,581 tons; while, sulphur, galena, chrome
and other minerals were also worked
Commerce.
The total value of the special commerce of Greece in 1891 was : — Imports,
140,350,000 drachmai ; and exports, 107,451,000 drachmai. In 1§92 the
figures were — imports, 119,306,000 drachmai ; exports, 82,261,000 drachmai.
The special commerce foi 1890 and 1891 was as follows with the leading
countries : —
-
Imports,
Exports,
Imports,
Exports,
1890
1890
1891
1891
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai
Russia
21,408,000
917,000
27,169,100
3,178,450
United Kingdom
33,237,000
33,021,000
40,325,075
49,774,500
Austria-Hungary
Turkey and Egypt
16,691,000
8,598,000
18,526,600
7,228,625
19,712,000
12,682,000
21,490,775
8,404,400
France
10,255,000
21,440,000
12,628,325
25,554,025
Italy ....
5,109,000
1,518,000
4,220,275
1,828,350
Germany .
5,651,000
2,372,000
7,185,600
2,797,925
Belgium .
4,009,000
6,008,000
3,337,925
926,300
United States
1,667,000
5,702,000
3,393,550
4,026,725
Holland .
1,861,000
1,518,000
354,025
2,993,400
Other countries .
1,186,000
2,016,000
1,728,425
777,000
120,786,000
95,792,000
140,359,675
107,489,700
The following table shows the principal classes of special imports and
exports and their values in 1892 : —
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654
GREECE
Imports
Drachmai
Cereals
23,575,000
Yarns and textiles .
22,804,000
Minerals and metals .
12,186,000
Timber, &c.
5,608,000
Chemicals and drugs.
6,870,000
Metal goods
5,555,000
Prepared Fish ,
5,037,000
Animals .
4,159,000
Hides
4,717,000
Coffee
3,039,000
Paper
2,328,000
Rice ....
2,261,000
Earthenware
1,053,000
Exports
Drachmai
Currants
Ores.
Olive oil
Wine
Tobacco
Fi^
Silk.
Gall-nuts
Olives
40,749,000
17,491,000
2,242,000
3,276,000
2,174,000
1,642,000
2,510,000
1,626,000
1,576,000
923,000
The, value of the imports into the United Kingdom from Greece, and of the
domestic exports from the United Kingdom to Greece in each of the last five
years, according to the Board of Trade returns, was : —
Imports into U. K.
from Greece .
Exports of British
produce to Greece .
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
1,962,798
2,166,486
1,826,984
1,157,572
1,124,571
921,872
The staple article of import from Greece into the United Kingdom is currants,
the value of which in 1892 amounted to 1,327,3662. Other articles of import
in 1892 were :— raisins, 27,6702. ; olive oil, 10,7192. ; lead, 100,489*. ; silver
ore, 99,9672. ; sponges, 42,4772. ; zinc ore, 30,1762. Of the exports from the
United Kingdom to Greece in 1892, cotton goods and yarns were valued at
384,2692. ; woollens and worsteds, 107,8122. ; coal, 151,9972. ; iron, 65,5912. ;
machinery, 43,6082.
Navigation and Shipping.
The merchant navy of Greece in 1893 numbered 116 steamers, of 83,508 net
tonnage, and 944 sailing vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 249, 878 tons. The
total number of vessels that entered Greek ports in 1892 was 6,582 of 2,788,815
tons, and cleared 5,482 of 2,340,720 tons. Of the vessels entered 2,639 of
369,172 tons were Greek. More than half the trade is through the port of
Piraeus. A considerable amount of the carrying trade of the Black Sea and
the Eastern ports of the Mediterranean is under the Greek flag.
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COMMERCE — NAVIGATION AND SHIPPING
655
Internal Communications.
Recently the internal communication by roads has greatly improved ;
there are now about 2,043 miles of roads. In 1893 the canal across the
Isthmus of Corinth (about 4 miles) was opened for traffic.
Railways were open for traffic in 1893 for a length of 568' miles, of which
92 miles belonged to the State, while 306 miles were under construction.
The Athens-Larissa railway, the main line in Greece, is intended to bring
that country into immediate communication with the rest of Europe.
The telegraphic lines, land and submarine, were of a total length of 4, 751
English miles, at the end of 1892 ; length of wire, 5,630 miles. The number
of offices was 191. They despatched 817,034 inland telegrams, and 347,829
international, in the year 1892. Receipts, 987,132 drachmai ; expenses,
(including rural post) 1,971,200 drachmai.
Of post offices there existed 296 at the end of 1891, and there passed
through the post in that year 8,984,000 letters, besides 338,000 post-cards,
7,397,000 samples, journals, and printed matter. The receipts were 1,463,217
drachmai; expenses, 1,560,473 drachmai.
Money and Credit.
The National, the Ionian, and the Epiro-Thessalian Banks are authorised
to issue notes for forced currency to the amount of 88,000,000 drachmai,
including 14,000,000 drachmai in notes under 5 drachmai.
The forced currency was begun in July 1877, was withdrawn December
1884, and again circulated September 1885. The small note circulation was
begun in June 1886.
During five years the average loans to the Government, <the average
amounts of the bank notes in circulation, and the average rates of exchange
were as follows : —
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Loans to Government Bank Note Ciiculation
Drachmai
72,059,96?
67,573,463
78,491,013
77,158,828
85,500,000
Drachmai
117,491,570
113,217,610
120,852,298
137,728,486
144,229,000
Rate of Exchange
1-2650
1-2225
1-2325
1-2975
1-4275
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
Greece entered in 1868 the Latin Monetary Union.
The Drachma, of 100 lepta, is equivalent to the franc (25,225 francs =
11. sterling). 100 new drachmai = 112 old drachmai.
By Koyal decree of January 30, 1893, the gold coins of Great Britain,
Austria, Germany, Denmark, Russia, Spain, Turkey, Egypt, and the United
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 657
Kirkwall (Viscount), Four Tears in the Ionian Islands : their Political and Social Con-
dition, with a History of the British Protectorate. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Matuoku (Alex.), Rapport sur l'etat de la statistique en Grece presente auCongres Inter-
national de Statistique de St.-Petersbourg en 1872. 8. Athenes, 1872.
MansoUu (A.), La Grece a Tezposition universelle de Paris en 1878. 8. Paris, 1878.
Maurer(Q. L. von), Das Griechische Volkin offentlicher und privatrechtlicher Beziehung
3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.
Murray'* Handbook for Greece. 2 vols. London, 1884.
Reelut (Blisee), Geographie universelle. Vol. I. Paris, 1877.
Schmidt (Dr. Julius), Beitrage zur physicalischen Geographie von Griechonland.
8. Leipzig, 1864-70.
Sergeant (Lewis), New Greece. 8. London. 1878.
Tuckerman (Charles K.), The Greeks of To-day. 8. London, 1878.
Wyae (8ir Thomas), Impressions of Greece. 8 London. 1871.
V V
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FINANCE — COMMERCE
659
Finance.
The net public revenue in the year 1892 was 8,657,446 dollars, and ex-
penditure 9,672,263. For 1893 the estimated revenue was 8,760,578 dollars,
and expenditure 8,704,847 dollars. Nearly half of the revenue is from
customs, and over one-third from taxes on spirits, tobacco, &c. ; while
seven-tenths of the expenditure is for public debt, instruction, and war.
The Public Debt of Guatemala on December 31, 1892, was returned as
follows : —
Dollars*
External Debt, £896,000 (at par =) 4,480,000
Internal Consolidated 6, 195, 600
Floating Debt 1,215,808
Various Loans and Debts 5, 223, 875
Total 17,115,284
In 1891 the service of the public debt cost 1,041,625 dollars.
Defence.
The army of Guatemala, the cost of which is about one-tenth of the total
public expenditure, consists (1891) of 3,718 officers and men. There is,
besides, a reserve militia of 67,300 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
The number of owners who possess immovable property of the value of
more than 1,Q00 dollars in 1885 was returned at 6,157, the total value of
these holdings being given at 38,741,431 dollars.
The soil in general is exceedingly fertile. In 1892, 115,681 acres were
under coffee, yielding 74,652,985 lbs. ; 25,560 acres under sugar-cane, yield-
ing 6,064,080 lbs. of refined sugar, 37,991,770 lbs. of coarse sugar, and
4,802,800 lb3. of molasses ; tobacco, 2520 acres, yielding 979,682 lbs. 'cocoa,
5,161 acres, yielding 637,582 lbs. ; maize, 173,640 acres, yielding
180,662,295 lbs. ; wheat, 16,081 acres, yielding 10,047,125 lbs. ; also rice,
cotton, rubber, banana, and cocoa-nuts. Coffee growing is extending, over 20
per cent, of the owners of coffee estates being Germans. There are 1,098,930
acres of forest belonging to the municipalities of Guatemala.
Gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, and other minerals exist, but are little
worked.
Commerce.
The following are the statistics of trade, in dollars, for the years indicated,
including bullion and specie : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports .
Exports .
.5,459,568
7,239,977
7,586,661
13,247,657
7,639,833
14,401,534
7,807,000
14,175,399
6,010,233
14,869,324
u uv2
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GUATEMALA
The chief imports in 1892 were cotton-cloth and yarn, 901,522 dollars ;
flour, 207,800 dollars ; wrought iron, 283,247 dollars ; wines, 242,292 dollars ;
groceries, 177,627 dollars; machinery, 161,545 dollars; silver bullion,
1,030,856 dollars. The imports from Great Britain were valued at 812,888
dollars; from the United States, 1,035,096 dollars; from Germany, 969,264
dollars; from France, 795,176 dollars; from Central America, 130,760
dollars. The chief export was coffee, valued at 13,765,983 dollars (in 1891
13,112,500 dollars). The sugar and fruit trades have also been much
developed.
The imports into the United Kingdom from Guatemala (according to the
Board of Trade Returns) amounted in 1892 to 311,406Z. of which 308,713*.
was for coffee. The domestic exports from the United Kingdom to Guatemala
amounted to 250,809*., the chief articles exported being cottons, 123,606/.;
iron, 25,674*.; cotton yarn, 22,855*.; machinery, 17,184*. The value -of the
commercial intercourse of the Republic with the United Kingdom before 1892
is not reported in the Board of Trade Returns. That of the whole of ' Central
America ' with the United Kingdom for the last five years is shown in the
following table : —
1S88
"I"
Imports from Central America
into United Kingdom .
Exports of British produce to
Central America .
£
1,137,234
945,207
1,181,703
1890
I
1,320,305 | 1,400,130
087,168 ! 1,144,948
£
1,089,255
829,152
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892, 469 vessels of 749,457 tons entered the ports of the Republic,
The vessels belonged mostly to the United States.
There is a line of railway from San Jose" through Escuintla to the capital
(72 miles), a line from Champerico to Retalhuleu (27 miles), and one from
Retalhuleu to San Filipe. The total length of line is about 118 miles.
Several projected lines of rail have been approved of by the Assembly. The
Government guarantees a subsidy of about 1,630Z. per mile. There are a
few good roads, but away from the railway most of the traffic is on
mule-back.
There were in 1892, 171 post-offices. The total postal movement (lexers,
cards, parcels, &c, received and delivered) in 1892 was 2,998,924. Of
telegraphs there were 2,475 miles, with 119 offices, in 1892 ; the number of
messages was 623,505.
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
On December 31, 1891, the accounts of the Banco Internacional balanced
at 5,860,767 pesos; of the Banco Columbiano of Guatemala, at 10,697,880
pesos ; of the Banco de Occidente at Quezaltenango, at 1,269,390 pesos.
Money.
Tlie Dollar or Peso, of 100 Centavcu . nominal value, As. ;
real value 6 4 pesos =£1.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 661
Weights and Measures.
The Spanish Libra of 16 ounces
,, Arroba of 25 libras
,, Quintal of 4 arrobas
,, Tinelada of 20 quintals
Fanega
= 1 '014 lb. avoirdupois,
= 25-35 lb.
= 101-40
= 18-10 cwt
= 1£ imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Guatemala in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Seiior Fernando Cruz, accredited May 28, 1892 ;
accredited also to France, and resident in Paris.
Secretary. — Domingo Estrada.
Consul-General. — Benjamin Isaac, accredited December 27, 1879.
There are also Consular representatives at Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
Southampton, Plymouth, Birmingham, Cardiff, Newport.
2. Of Great Britain in Guatemala.
Minister and Consul-General to the several Republics of Central America,
Audley C. Gosling. Secretary of Legation at Copenhagen 1881 ; Secretary of
Embassy at Madrid 1887, and at St. Petersburg 1888 ; appointed to Central
America 1890.
Hon. Attache'. — Cecil Gosling.
There is a British Consul at Quezaltenango and a Vice-Consul at
Livingston.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Guatemala.
1. Official Publications.
Guatemala. No. 32 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of the American Republics.
Washington, 1892.
Informe de laDireccion de Bstadistica. Guatemala, 1893.
Informe de la Secretaria de Fomento. Guatemala, 1893.
Memorias de los Secretaries de Estado del Gobierno de la republica de Guatemala
(Gobernacion y Justicia ; Instruccion Publica ; Guerra ; Hacienda ; Relaciones Exteriores),
Guatemala, 1893.
Movimiento de poblacion habido en los pueblos de la republica de Guatemala durante el
ano de 1892. Guatemala, 1893.
Report on Guatemala, No. 1,245. Annual Series, Foreign Office Reports, London, 1898,
Trade of Central America with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom for the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
BernouiUi (Dr. Gustav), Briefe aus Guatemala, in Dr. Peterraann's 'Mittheilungen/ 4.
Gotha, 1868-69.
BernouiUi (Dr. Gustav), Reise in der Republik Guatemala, in Dr. A. Petermanu'g
'Mittheiiungen.' 4. Gotha, 1873.
Brigham (T.), Guatemala. The Land of the Quetzal. London, 1887.
Frbbel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Gonzalez (Dario), Geografla de Centre- America. San Salvador, 1877.
Laftritre (J.), De Paris a Guatemala, Notes de voyage au centre de PAmerique. 8.
Paris, 1877.
' Lemale (G.), Guia geograflca de los centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala.
Guatemala, 1882.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central- America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelet (L), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
BtQll (Otto), Guatemala. Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-83. Leipzig
1886. * g>
Whetham (J. W. Boddam), Across Central America. 8. London, 1877.
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*m
DEFENCE — COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATIONS
663
The budget estimate of expenditure for 1891-92 was 7,958,314, and for
1892-93, 8,498,524 dollars currency.
On December 31, 1892, the public debt is as follows :— External debt at
5 per cent., 4,471,312 dollars; internal at 5 per cent., 4,406,083 dollars;
floating (currency), 802,714 dollars; (gold), 186,960 dollars; short loans,
3,085,482 dollars; paper currency, 4,040,795 dollars; total, 16,993,347
dollars, or about 8,520,833*. A plan for the conversion of the whole floating
debt (about 3,000,000 dollars gold) into an external debt payable in Paris is
under consideration.
Defence.
The army, under a ' law of reorganisation ' passed by the National
Assembly in 1878, consists, nominally, of 6,828 men, chiefly infantry.
There is a special 'Guard of the Government,' numbering 650 men, com-
manded by 10 generals, who also act as aides-de-camp to the President o
the Republic. The Republic possesses a flotilla of six small vessels, which
may be ranked as third-class cruisers. The most recent are the Dessalines
(1,200 tons) dating from 1883 ; the Tousmint L'Ouverture from 1886 ; and
the Capois-la-Mort. The last-named a despatch gun-boat, with her sister the
Alexandre PitUm (since lost) was launched at Havre early in 1893.
Commerce and Communications.
The value of imports and exports for four years were approximately as
follows in dollars gold : —
— 1 1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports ... | 6,000,000
Exports . . . ' 12,000,000
19,500,000
15,000,000
14,200,000
12,400,000
12,446,000
12,656,000
The principal articles exported were (1892) coffee, 70,000,000 lbs. ;
logwood, 115,000,000 lbs. ; cocoa, 4,100,000 lbs. ; cotton, 1,400,000 lbs. ;
mahogany, 26,000 feet.
There is no report of the exact value of the commercial intercourse of the
Republic with the United Kingdom in the * Annual Statement ' published
by the Board of Trade, which gives Haiti and Santo Domingo together.
But as the population of the latter State is only about one-fourth of that
of Haiti, an estimate may be made of the exports and imports of each
during the last five years from the statement given in the following table : —
-
1888 j 18S9
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
£
Imports from Haiti and
Santo Domingo into U. K.
Exports of British pro-
duce to Haiti and
80,442
47,123
89,593
44,757
40,971
Santo Domingo .
310,069
249,624
528,357
320,998
247,971
I.
The chief imports into the United Kingdom in 1892 were logwood, valued at
7,200*. ; mahogany and other woods, 32,883*. The staple article of British
produce exported to Haiti and Santo Domingo consists of cotton manufactures,
valued at 214,516*. in 1888 ; 162,790Z. in 1889 ; 356,078*. in 1890 ; 164,388*.
in 1891 ; 139,675*. in 1892 ; and linens, 17,763*. in 1888 ; 13,200*. in 1889 ;
22,248*, in 1890 ; 19,276*. in 1891 j 14,522*, in 1892,
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Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Haiti.
1. Official Publications.
Report on Haiti in ' Reports from the Consuls of the United States,' No. 82. Washington,
1S87.
Report on the Trade and Finances of Haiti, in ' Reports on Subjects of General Interest,
No. 52. London, 1887.
Report on Trade and Shipping of Haiti, in « Deutsches Handels-Archiv,' August, 1898.
Berlin.
Report on Trade of Haiti, in No. 1240 of Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, 1893.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with the United Kingdom, in 'Annual Statement of
the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ardouin (Beaubrun), Etudes sur l'histoire de Haiti. 10 vols. Paris, 1853-61.
Bonneau (Alex.), Haiti, ses progres, son avenir. 8. Paris, 1862.
Fortunat (Dante), Nouvelle geographie de l'ile de Haiti. Port-au-Prince, 1888.
Handelmann (J.), Geschichte von Haiti. 8. Kiel, 1856.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present ; with a glance at Haiti. 8. pp. 511 .
London, 1873.
Madiou (N.), Histoire de Haiti. 3 vols. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1847.
Nan (K.), Histoire des Caziques de Haiti. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1855.
St. John (Sir Spenser), Haiti, or the Black Republic. London, 1884
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065
HAWAII.
(Hawaii-Nei.)
Reigning Monarch, Constitution, and Government.1
Queen Liliuokalani, eldest sister of the late King Kalakaua I., born
September 2, 1838 ; married to His Excellency John 0. Dominis, Governor
of Oahn, who died August 27, 1891 ; succeeded to the throne January 20,
1891, on the death of King Kalakaua.
Under Kamehameha I. the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands were united
into one kingdom. The second king of the name and his queen died in
England, 1823. Under Kamehameha III. the integrity of the kingdom was
recognised by England, France, and the United States, and subsequently
by other Governments. This king gave his subjects a constitution in 1840,
which was revised and extended in 1852, and on his death in 1854 was suc-
ceeded by his nephew, Kamehameha IV., the husband of Queen Emma,
who died in 1863. His brother, Kamehameha V., succeeded, and proclaimed
a revised constitution, August 20, 1864. On his death in 1872, without
issue, Prince Lunalilo was chosen, on whose death in 1874 the late King
Kalakaua was elected, and he was succeeded in 1891 by the present
queen.
The Government is a constitutional monarchy. In 1887 a new Consti-
tution was granted. The executive power of the kingdom is vested in the
Sovereign and his Cabinet. The present Cabinet consists of a Minister ot
Foreign Affairs, Minister of Interior, Minister of Finance, Attorney-General.
No act of the sovereign can become law unless countersigned by one of the
members of the Cabinet. The Ministers are appointed by the Sovereign, but
are removable only on a vote of want of confidence by the Legislature, by
resignation, or by the death of the Sovereign. The Ministers are ex officio
members of the House of Nobles, and as such have seats in the Legislature ;
they have the right to speak and vote on all questions except on a motion of
4 want of confidence.' The Legislature of the kingdom is composed of 24
members of the House of Nobles and 24 Representatives, which, with the 4
Ministers, make a total of 52, all sitting together. Members of both Houses
are elected by popular vote. The qualification of an elector for Noble is an
income of 600 dollars a year, or the ownership of 3,000 dollars worth of
i On January 15, 1893, the Queen attempted to force the Cabinet to approve of a new-
Constitution. This they declined to do. A Committee of Public Safety was formed, and a
deputation sent to Washington to ask the United States Government to annex Hawaii. On
January 17 the Committee issued a proclamation to the following effect :—
(1) The Hawaiian monarchical system of government is hereby abrogated.
(2) A provisional Government for the control and management of public affairs and the
protection of the public peace is hereby established until the terms of union with the United
States of America have been negotiated and agreed upon.
(3) Such provisional Government shall consist of an Executive Council of four members,
who shall administer the executive departments of the Government, with an advisory
council of 14. who shall havo general legislative authority.
(4} All officers of the late Government are to exercise their functions except the queen,
Marshall Wilson, and the members of the Cabinet.
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I
The budget is voted for a biennial period. The following shows the
revenue and expenditure in dollars for the last five financial periods : —
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COMMERCE, SHIPPING, AND COMMUNICATIONS
667
-
1882-84
1884-86
1886-88
1888-90
1890-92
Revenue
Expenditure .
3,092,085
2,216,406
3,010,655
2,988,722
4,812,576
4,712,285
3,632,197
3,250,510
4,408,033
4,095,891
Estimated revenue, 1890-92, 2,770,282 dollars; expenditure 2,768,054
dollars. The revenue is largely derived from customs (1,204,305 dollars in
1890-92) and internal taxes (963,495 dollars in 1890-92), while the largest
item of expenditure was for the interior (1,641,848 dollars in 1890-92). The
debt on March 31, 1892, consisted of 2,314,000 dollars bonded debt, and
903,162 dollars due to depositors in Postal Savings Bank. The interest varies
from 5 to 12 per cent
Commerce, Shipping, and Communications.
The islands are to a great extent mountainous and volcanic, but the
soil is highly fertile and productive. Sugar and rice are the staple industries,
while coffee, hides, bananas, and wool are also exported. The following
table shows the commerce (in thousands of dollars) and shipping for
five years : —
-
Imports
Native Exports
Customs
Receipts
1,000 dollars
Ships Entered
Tonnage
1,000 dollars
1,000 dollars
1888
4,541
11,631
546
246
221,148
1889
5,439
14,040
550
288
223,567
1890
6,962
13,143
696
295
230,120
1891
7,439
10,107
733
310
284,155
1892
4,684
7,960
494
262
238,622
The chief exports in 1892 were :— Sugar, 7,276,594 dollars ; rice, 463,652
dollars; bananas, 104,945 dollars; and wool, 32,185 dollars; the imports
are mainly groceries and provisions, clothing, grain, timber, machinery,
hardware, cotton goods. 91 per cent, of the trade is with the United
States.
Steamers connect the islands with the American continent, Australasia,
and China. In the inter-island traffic 20 steamers and 28 sailing vessels are
constantly engaged. In 1891 there were 51 registered vessels belonging to the
islands, of 13,429 tons. There are about 56 miles of railway in the islands
of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu. There are telegraphs in the islands of
Maui, Hawaii, between Hawaii and Oahu, and round the latter island ;
total length 250 miles ; nearly every family in Honolulu has its telephone.
In the two years April 1, 1888, to March 31, 1890, the total number of
letters, &c, transmitted and received by the Post Office was 3,159,034 ;
there were 54 post-offices. Postal savings-banks, 1890 ; depositors, 2,641 ;
amount, 956,999 dollars. Honolulu is lighted by electricity and has lines
of tramways. The various islands will shortly be connected by telegraphic
cabler
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668 HAWAII
Currency.
Hitherto, gold and silver coins of all nations have passed current in the
Hawaiian Islands as legal tender, either at their real or nominal value ; but
from December 1, 1884, only gold coins of the United States are legal
tender for more than 10 dollars, and only Hawaiian and United States
silver coins for smaller amounts. Paper money is not in use, except in the
form of treasury certificates for coin deposited there.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Hawaii in Great Britain.
Ghargi d Affaires. — Abraham Hoffnung, November 9, 1886.
Secretary. --Sidney B. Francis Hoffnung.
Gonsul in London. — M. Hopkins.
2. Of Great Britain in Hawaii.
Minister Resident and Gonsul-General. — Major James H. Wodehouse.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Hawaii.
1. Official Publications.
Biennial Reports to the Hawaiian Legislature of 1892. Honolulu, 1892.
Annual Report of the Collector of Customs of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, 1893.
Report on Hawaii in ' Deutsches Handels-Archiv ' for July, 1893. Berlin.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Andri (A.), Les lies Hawiai. Gand, 1886.
Bastian (Adolf), Zur Kenntniss Hawaii's. Berlin, 1883.
Bird (Miss I.), The Hawaiian Archipelago. London, 1878.
Brassey (Lady), A Voyage in the Sunbeam. London, 1880.
Bowser (G.), Hawaiian Kingdom, Statistical Directory, Ac. San Francisco, 1880.
Dutton (Capt. C. U. S. A.), Hawaiian Volcanoes. Washington, D.C., 1885.
Ellis (W.) Tour through Hawaii. London, 1827.
Ellis (W.), Polynesian Researches. 4 vols. London, 1831.
' Fornander (C), Origin of the Polynesian Nations. 3 vols. London, 1885.
Gordon Cumming (Miss C. F.), Fire Fountains : the Kingdom of Hawaii. 2 vols. London ,
1883.
Hopkins (Manley), History of Hawaii. 2nd edition. London, 1866.
Jarvis (J. J.), History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, 1847.
Luther (H. Gulik, M.D.), Climate, &c., of the Hawaiian Islands. New York, 1855.
Mine (Albert), L'archipel des iles Hawal ou Sandwich. Bordeaux, 1885.
Monnier (Marcel), Un printemps sur le Pacifique. Hes Hawaii. Paris, 1885.
Thrum (T. G.), Hawaiian Annual. Honolulu.
Varigny (C. de), Quatorze ans aux iles Sandwich. Paris.
Whitney (H. M.), The Hawaiian Guide Rook. Honolulu, 1890.
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669
HONDURAS.
(Republica de Honduras.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Honduras, established January 11, 1839, before the dis-
solution of the Confederation of Central America in 1839, is governed under
a charter proclaimed November 1, 1880. It gives the legislative power to a
Congress of Deputies composed of 37 members. The executive authority
rests with a President, nominated and elected by popular vote for four years.
President of the Bepublie* — General Domingo F&squez. Assumed office
April 1893. His presidency is constitutionally ratified for the term September
1893 to 1897.
The administration of the Republic is carried on by a Council of ministers,
to whom are entrusted the departments of Foreign Affairs, Interior, Public
Works, War, Finance, Public Instruction, and Justice.
The active army consists of 500 men with 20,000 militia.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is calculated to embrace about 43, 000 English square
miles, with a population, in 1889, of 396,048, or about 9 inhabitants to the
square mile. The Republic is divided into 13 departments, 56 districts, 210
municipalities. The bulk of the inhabitants consists of aboriginal ' Indians,'
and the sparse European-descended population, mainly of Spanish origin, is
in the small ports on the Pacific coast, and in the town of Santa Rosas in
the tobacco districts of Gracias. The capital of the Republic is the ancient
town of Tegucigalpa, with 12,600 inhabitants, situate nearly in the centre of
the State. It is the chief station on the planned inter-oceanic railway.
Other ports are Amapala, Puerto Cortes, TrujiUo, Roaton, and Utila.
Instruction and Crime.
There is a university, eight colleges (three of them for females), and about .
600 schools with 23, 000 scholars. In 1 889, 1, 1 44 persons were tried for offences.
Of these 288 were condemned to lengthened periods of imprisonment (28 for
homicide).
Finance.
The finances of the Republic are in great disorder, owing to wars with
Guatemala and San Salvador and the civil war of 1892-93. The actual
revenue for 1889 (year ended 30 July) was 1,432,522 dollars ; 1891, 1,850,163
dollars; 1892, 1,764,137 dollars. For 1891 the expenditure was 2,983,570
dollars ; 1892, 2,603,650 dollars. The revenue is drawn from customs and
excise duties.
The foreign debt of Honduras consisted of English loans amounting to
3,222,000Z , and a French loan of 2,176,570*., or a total of 5,398,570*. No
interest has been paid since 1872, and its accumulation had reached in 1893 the
amount of over 8,109,000*. The internal debt in 1892 amounted to 2,742,574
dollars.
Production and Commerce.
Agriculture is in a primitive condition. The chief products are tobacco,
sugar, maize, bananas ; while indigo, rice, wheat are grown in small quantities.
Cattle breeding is carried on extensively, and dairy farming on a small scale.
The mineral resources of Honduras are great — gold, silver, copper, lead, iron,
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670 HONDURAS
antimony being found in almost every department. Deposits of brown and
other coal have also been found. There are about 17 important mining
companies at work, but statistics of their operations are not procurable. In
September, 1892, 7,586 lbs. of gold, valued at 82,000 dollars, were shipped at
the port of AmapaLa. The mining code of 1888 is in force.
There are no complete trade statistics for Honduras. For the year 1892
(ended 30 July), the imports are given at 2,005,000 dollars. For 1891 the
exports amounted to 2,667,000 dollars; 1892, 1,873,000 dollars. In 1892
the chief exports were : live stock, 667,340 dollars ; bananas, 211,940 dollars ;
cocoanuts, 91,990 dollars; tobacco, 49,314 dollars; coffee, 41,393 dollars;
sarsaparilla, 19,883 dollars; silver, 732,059 dollars; gold, 19,657 dollars.
More than half the trade, both import and export, is with the United States,
and the remainder mostly with neighbouring Republics.
In 1892, 943 vessels of 267,023 tons (153 vessels British and 201 United
States) entered the five ports of the Republic.
The imports into the United Kingdom from Honduras (according to the
Board of Trade Returns) amounted in 1892 to £13,274, of which £12,410
was for mahogany. The domestic exports from the United Kingdom to
Honduras amounted to £54,919, the chief article exported being cotton,
£37,696. (For earlier years see Guatemala.) The gold and silver mines
of the country are officially stated to be in a fair way of development.
Communications.
In 1890 there were 56 post-offices ; receipts 19,436 dollars, expenses
157,851 dollars. There are 1,800 miles of telegraphs, with 70 offices. There
is a railway from Puerto Cortez to San Pedro Sula, 37 miles. A concession
has been granted for the construction of a railway of 93 miles from Tegucigalpa
to the Pacific, and another for a line in the Mosquitia Territory.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Silver Dollar, of 100 cents (nominal value, 4*., real value 3*. 4rf.),
weighs 25 grammes, *900 fine. There are also 20-, 5-, and 1-peso gold
pieces, of the weight and fineness of the corresponding French coins. The
coinage of silver in Honduras during eleven years, 1879-89, was 743,173
dollars. Gold coined in the two years, 1888-89, 1,118 dollars.
Weights and Measures.
The Arroba { for ™ne ' = of imperial gallonS*
I „ Oil • — xf ,, ,,
,, Square Vara . . = 1*90 vara = 1 yard.
,, Fanega . = 1J imperial bushel.
Diplomatic and Consular Bepresentatives.
1. Of Honduras in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — W. Binney.
There is a Consul at Manchester.
2. Of Great Britain in Honduras.
Minister and Consul-General. — Audley C. Gosling.
Consuls. — William Melhado (Truxillo) ; Robert McLachlan (Omoa) }
Samuel Humber (Tegucigalpa).
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671
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Honduras.
1. Official Publications.
Annuario Estadistico for 1889, by A. R. Vallejo. Tagucigalpi, 1893.
Gaceta Oflcial de Honduras.
Report on the Economic Condition of Honduras, No. 1,814 Foreign Office Reports,
Annual Series. London, 1893.
Trade of Central America with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom in the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Frobel (Julius), Seven Tears' Travel in Central America. 8. London, 1853.
Gonzalez (D.), Geograffa de Centro-America. San Salvador, 1878.
Lombard (Thomas R.), The New Honduras. New York, 1887.
Mart (WiUielm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Pelletier (Consul E.), Honduras et ses ports. Documents officiels sur le chemin-de-fer
interoceanique. 8. Paris, 1869.
Beiehardt (M.), Centro-America. 8. Braunschweig, 1851.
Seherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
SolUra (Maria), A Lady's Ride across Spanish Honduras. London, 1884.
Hquier (E. G.), Honduras : Descriptive, Historical, and Statistical. 8. London 1870.
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672
ITALY.
(Regno d'Italia.)
Reigning King.
UmbertO I., born March 14, 1844, the eldest son of King Vittorio
Emanuele II. of Italy and of Archduchess Adelaide of Austria.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 9,
1878. Married, April 22, 1868, to Queen Margherita, born
November 20, 1851, the only daughter of the late Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa.
Son of the King.
Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, born November 11,
1869.
Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Clotilde, born March 2, 1843 ; married, January
30, 1859, to the late Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul
Bonaparte ; widow, March 17, 1891 ; offspring of the union are
Napoleon Victor, born July 18, 1862 ; Louis, born July 16, 1864 ;
and Maria Lsetizia, born December 20, 1866 ; married, September
11, 1888, to Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta ; widow, January 18,
1890.
II. Princess Pia, born October 16, 1847 ; married, September
27, 1862, to the late King Luis I. of Portugal \ widow, October
19, 1889.
Nephews of the King.
Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta, born January 13,
1869 ; Prince Vittorio Emanuele, Count of Turin, born November
24, 1870 ; Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of Abbruzzi, born January
30, 1873 ; Prince Umberto Maria, Count of Salemi, born June
22, 1889 — children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Elisabetta, born February 4, 1830, the daughter of
King Johann of Saxony; married, April 30, 1850, to Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa ; widow, February 10, 1855 ;
re-married, in 1856, to the Marquis of Rapallo. Offspring of the
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 673
first union are : — 1. Princess Margherita, born November 20,
1851 ; married, April 22, 1868, to King Umberto I. 2. Prince
Toinmaso of Savoy, Duke of Genoa, vice-admiral, born February 6,
1854 ; married, April 14, 1883, to Princess Isabella, daughter of
the late Prince Adalbert of Bavaria ; offspring, Prince Ferdinando
Umberto, born April 21, 1884.
The origin of the reigning house is not historically established ; but most
genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, who, in the eleventh
century, established himself on the western slope of the Alps, between Mont
Blanc and Lake Leman. In the end of the eleventh century the Prince of
Savoy acquired the countries of Turin and Susa. Count Amadeus, in 1388,
founded a law of primogeniture which greatly strengthened the family,
leading to the immediate acquisition of the territory of Nice. In 1416 the
Counts of Savoy adopted the title of Duke ; in 1418 they acquired the
Principality of Piedmont ; and in 1713 they obtained the island of Sicily,
with the title of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of
Sardinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached. Genoa
and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian Crown at the peace
of 1815. The direct male line of the House of Savoy died out with King
Carlo Felix in 1831, and, the existing Salic law prohibiting the accession of
females, the crown fell to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the house of Savoy-
Carignano, a branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Carlo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto, the first of
the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne March 23, 1849, in favour
of his son, the late King Vittorio Emanuele II. By the Peace of Zurich,
November 10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained Lombardy, with
the exception of Mantua, part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma
and Modena. On March 11, 1860, annexation to Sardinia was voted by
plebiscite in Parma, Modena, the Romagna, and Tuscany ; on October 21,
Sicily and Naples (including Benevcnto and Pontecorvo, part of the Papal
States), and on November 4, Marche and Umbria. The first Italian Parlia-
ment assembled in February 1861, and declared (March 17, 1861) Vittorio
Emanuele King of Italy. The remaining part of Lombardy and Venetia
were added to his dominions in 1866 (October 21). Finally, the Papal States
(Province of Rome), having been taken possession of by an Italian army
(September 20, 1870), after the retreat of the French garrison, were, after a
plebiscite, annexed to the Kingdom October 2.
The ' Dotazione della Corona, ' or civil list of the King, has been settled at
15,050,000 lire. Out of this the children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke
of Aosta, have an ' Appannaggio,' or State allowance, of 400,000 lire; his
cousin Prince Tommaso, Duke of Genoa,, an allowance of 400,000 lire. The
greater part of the private domains of the reigning family were given up to
the State in 1848.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Italy is an expansion of the
' Statuto fondamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by
King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to
this charter, the executive power of the State belongs exclusively
to the Sovereign, and is exercised by him through responsible.
x x
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 675
executive to call the Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers
has the right of introducing new bills, the same as the Government ; but all
money bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower House ; but
they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings of both Chambers
are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an absolute majority of the members
are present. »
The executive power is exercised, under the King, by a ministry divided
into 11 departments. The ministry, constituted December 15, 1893, is as
follows : — *
1. President of the Council and Minister of Interior.' — Signor CrispL
2. Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Baron Blanc
3. Minister of the Treasury.*— Signor Sonnino (ad interim),
4. Minister of Finance, — Signor Sonnino.
5. Minister of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Signor Collenda di
Taverna.
6. Minister of War. — General Mocenni.
7. Minister of Marine. — Admiral Morin.
8. Minister of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture. — Signor Boselli.
9. Minister of Public Instruction. — Signor Bacclli.
10. Minister of Public Works. — Signor Saracco.
11. Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. — Signor Ferraris.
Local Government.
The two principal elective local administrative bodies are the communal
councils and the provincial councils. According to the law of February 10,
1889, each commune has a communal council, a municipal council, and a
syndic. Both the communal councils and the municipal councils vary accord-
ing to population, the members of the latter being selected by the former
from among themselves. The syndic is the head of the communal adminis-
tration, and is a Government official ; he is elected by the communal council
from among its own members, by secret vote, in all the chief communes of
provinces and districts, and in other communes having more than 10,000
inhabitants. In other communes the syndic is appointed by the King from
among the communal councillors. Each province has a provincial council
and a provincial commission, the numbers varying according to population.
The council elects its president and other officials. The provincial commission
is elected by the council from its own members. It conducts the business of
the province when the latter is not sitting. Both communal and provincial
councillors are elected for five years, one-fifth being renewed every year. The
x x 2
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1800
1816
1825
1838
JTUjJUJtttlUU
18,124,000
18,383,000
19,727,000
21,975,000
ucuu per
annum
0-089
0*812
0 876
.rupuiHuuit
1848 ] 23,617,000
1861 I 25,000,000
1871 I 26,800,000
1881 28,460,000
cenu per
annum
0747
0-450
0 400
0619
The Kingdom of Italy is divided into 69 provinces, the names
of which, with area (as determined by a recent survey executed by
the Italian Government) in English square miles, population in
1881, estimated population, and density per square mile in 1892,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
677
are
«,i« given in the subjoined table, which is classified according to
the old compartimenti, not now recognised as legal divisions :—
Provinces and \ Area m
Compartimenti ^g™
Alessandria
Cuneo
Novara
Torino
Piedmont
Genova .
Porto Maurizio
Liguria
Bergamo
Brescia
Como
Cremona
Mantova
Mil a no
Pavia
Sondrio
Lombardy
Belluno
Padova
Rovi^o
Treviso
Udine
Venezia
Verona
Vicenza
Venice
Bologna
Ferrara
Forli
Modena
Parma
Piacenza
Ravenna
Reggio Emilia
Emilia
Perugia(Umbria) |
1,950
2,882
2,553
3,955
11,340
1,582
455
2,037
1,098
1,845
1,091
695
912
1,223
1,290
1,232
9,386
1,293
823
685
960
2,541
934
1,188
1,052
Population, Present : Census 1881
Males | Females Total
374,060
321,423
327,010
566,175
1,528,668
376,408]
65,630'
355,650
313,977
348,916
523,039
1,541,582
383,714
729,710
635,400
675,926
1,029,214
3,070,250
, . 760,122
66,6211 132,251
442,038!
196,915
240,669
256,444
152,526
151,328
567,367
237,527
59,189
1,861,965
82,677
201,652
109,602
192,128
247,340
178,551
202,769
200,461
450,335 892,373
193,860;
230,899
258,606
149,612
144,400
547,624
232,304
61,345
390,775
471,568
515,050
302,138
295,728
1,114,991
469,831
120,534
1,818,650
91,463'
196,110!
108,098
183,576)
254,405
178,157
191,296
195,888
3,680,615
174,140
397,762
217,700
375,704
501,745
356,708
394,065
396,349
9,476
1,415,180
1,448
232,557
1,012
117,453
725
128,628
987
141,308
1,250
135,355
954
116,668
715
115,143
• 876
123,622
1,398,993
224,917
113,354
122,482
137,946
131,951
110,049
110,621
121,337
7,967
3,748
1,110,734. 1,072,657
294,019| 278,041
2,814,173
457,474
230.807
251,110
279,254
267,306
226,717
225,764
244,959
Estimated
Population
1892
Population
1892, per
square mile
780,333|
655,455
737,721
1,097,479
3,270,988
816,394
142,200
400*17
227 43
288*96
277-49
288-45
958,594
417,196
489,438
559,745
305,899
308,974
1,247,166
497,238
131,605
3,957,261
176,097
437,703
238,274
403,519
525,802
379,254
425,697
436,538
3,022,884
486,059
249,488
271,200
287,462
272,040
229,039
223,478
249,816
2,183,391 2,268,582
516 05
312 53
470 59
379-96
265-28
51306
440-14
338 79
1,01976
385-46
10682
421-61
13619
531*84 I
347-85
420 33
206-93
406-05
358 33
41496
319 00
335-68
246 53
374-07
29125
217'63
240-08
312-56
285-18
284-75
572,060, 597,9301 15953
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Roma
Aquila degli
Abruzzi
Chieti
Teramo .
Abruzzi e
Molise
Avellino .
Benevento
Caserta .
Napoli
Salerno .
Campania
Ban delle Puglie
Foggia .
Lecoe
Apulia
Potenza (Basili
cata)
Catanzaro
Cosenza
Reggiodi Calabria
Calabria
4,663
480,689
422,783
903,472
9»4,400
377,068
378,593
349,290
265,017
1,369,968
5213 25
2,484
1,691
1,138
1,067
6,380
164,263
176,287
168,920
127,319
188,764
189,147
175,028
127,487
353,027
365,434
343,948
254,806
151 -80
223 89
306 93
248 38
636,789
680,426
1,317,215
214-73 |
1,172
818
2,033
350
1,916
6,289
2,065
2,688
2,623
7,376
194,349
118,799
353,618
498,978
266,129
198,270
119,626
360,513
502,267
284,028
392,619
238,425
714,131
1,001,245
550,157
412,242
245,834
736,960
1,115,007
568,541
35174
300 53
362 50
3,185 73
296 73
1,431,873
338,285
177,873
276,193
1,464,704
341,214
178,394
277,105
2,896,577
3,078,584
489 52
679,499
356,267
553,298
1,589,064
773,080
397,205
626,950
1,797,245
374 37
14777
230 02
792,351
796,713
272,883
243 66
3,845
251,621
524,504
541,865
14093 i
2,030
2,568
1,221
216,283
214,433
184,660
217,692
236,752
188,063
433,975
451,185
872,723
460,029
465,842
395,167
226 62
18140 i
323 64
5,819
615,376
642,507
1,257,883
1,321,038
227 02 .
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AREA AND POPULATION
679
Provinces and
Compartimenti
Area in
square
miles
Population, Present : Census 1881
Estimated
Population
1892
Population
1892, per
square mile
Males
Females
Total
Caltanisetta
Catania
Girgenti
Messina
Palermo
Siracusa
Trapani
Sicily .
Cagliari
Sassari
Sardinia
Total .
1,263
1,917
1,172
1,246
1,948
1,442
948
136,493
280,014
156,034
227,934
352,722
173,295
141,612
129,886
283,443
156,453
232,990
346,429
168,231
142,365
1,459,797
266,379
563,457
312,487
460,924
699,151
341,526
283,977
312,904
648,761
340,534
509,587
801,204
401,224
350,726
24775
338 43
290-56
408-98
41180
278-24
369 96
9,936
1,468,104
2,927,901
3,364,940
338-66
5,204
4,090
217,497
134,891
203,138
126,476
420,635
261,367
453,839
282,575
87*21
69-09
9,294
110,623
352,388
329,614
682,002
736,414
79-24
14,265,383
14,194,245
28,459,628
30,535,848
276 04
At the time of the census of 1881, the resident or legal population was
28,953,480. The number of foreigners in Italy was 59,956, of whom 16,092
were Austrians, 12,104 Swiss, 10,781 French, 7,302 English, 5,234 Germans,
1,387 Russians, 1,286 Americans (United States), 1,212 Greeks, 922 Spaniards,
and the rest mainly Turks, Belgians, Swedes and Norwegians, Dutch,
Egyptians, Argentines, Brazilians.
The administrative divisions of Italy are provinces, territories (circondari),
districts (distretti), and communes. There are 69 provinces : of which 60 are
divided into territories, and 9 (the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of
Venetia) into districts. There are 197 territories (circondari), and 87 districts
(distretti). The territories (circondari) and districts are divided into communes
(comuni), of which at the census of 1881 there were 8,259; the number at
present (September, 1893) is 8,255.
The population of Italy is in general perfectly homogeneous. According to
statistics of 1861, the exceptions are : about 100,000 of French origin, in the
territories of Aosta, Pinerolo, and Susa, in the province of Torino ; from 3,000
to 4,000 of Teutonic origin in some communes of the territories (circondari) of
Domodossola and Varallo, in the province of Novara, and of Aosta, in the
province of Torino; from 55,000 to 60,000 of Albanian origin, in a dozen
communes of Nearer Calabria, and in some communes of the provinces of
Foggia, Avellino, Potenza, and Palermo; from 20,000 to 25,000 of Greek
origin, in a few communes of Nearer and Further Calabria, and of the province
of Lecce ; lastly, from 7,000 to 8,000 of Spanish (Catalan) origin, settled in
Alghero in the province of Sassari, in Sardinia.
The population over 16 years of age in 1881 was 19,301,420 ; of these
7,047,163 were unmarried, 10,361,039 were married, and 1,893,218 were
widowers or widows. Of the whole population, 16,205,371 or 56*9 per cent,
were unmarried ; 10,361,039 or 36*5 per cent, were married ; and 1,893,218 or
6 *6 per cent, were widowers or widows.
The numbers of inhabitants at the different centres do not in Italian
statistics afford a sufficient basis for distinguishing between the urban and rural
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AREA AND POPULATION
Number of proprietors in Italy on December 31, 1881 :-
681
Land
Buildings
Land and
Buildings
Total
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Total
Agriculturists
Pensioners and
persons of
means .
Other categories
Total .
219,828
26,370
102,088
181,181
70,311
183,524
204,895
27,988
249,725
S9.406
54,702
185,768
1,033,758
289,985
579,885
227,175
268,783
274,165
1,457,476
344,293
981,698
417,762
888,746
593,457
1,875,238
733,089
1,525,155
347,786
335,016
482,058
299,876
1,903,623
765,073
2,733,467
1,399,965
4,188,432
II. Movement of Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Marriages
236,883
230,451
221,972
227,656
228,299
Births Living
Stillborn
Deaths
exclusive
of the
Stillborn
820,431
768,068
795,911
795,327
800,304
Surplus of
Bii ths
Legitimate
Illegiti-
mate and
Exposed
Total
1,037,150
1,064,798
1,004,255
1,052,098
1,031,125
82,413
84,399
78,848
80,041
77,809
1,119,563
1,149,197
1,083,103
1,132,139
1,108,934
42,007
43,945
42,117
44,360
44,325
299,132
381,129
287,192
336,812
308,630
The numbers for 1892 are provisional.
2. Emigration.
The following table shows the numbers of emigrants from Italy to various
parts of the world, according to Italian statistics, for six years : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Europe
North Africa
82,474
82,941
92,631
100,259
103,885
107,025
2,875
3,089
2,177
2,020
2,131
\
America —
United States \
Canada . J
38,853
34,292
25,881
48,019
\ 44,359
( 163
Mexico, Colom-
bia, Venezuela,
.
CentralAmerica
1,245
640
1,037
926
2,036
Brazil
31,445
97,730
16,953
16,233
108,414
; 116,642
Chili and Peru .
313
359
375
3,334
896
The Argentine,
Uruguay, and
Paraguay
54,499
65,958
75,058
41,352
27,542
America(country
not named)
3,108
5,285
3,877
4,553
3,062
/
Other countries .
853
442
423
548
1,143
Total
215,665
290,736
218,412
217,244
293,631
223,667
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KELIGION 683
San Marino.— Embraced in the area of Italy is the independent Republic,
and one of the oldest States in Europe, San Marino. It has an area of 32
square miles, and a population of about 8,200 (1891). Its annual revenue is
about 227,000 lire, and expenditure 226,000. It has no public debt. In
1872 it concluded a treaty of protective friendship with the Kingdom of Italy,
Religion.
The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State
religion of Italy ; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since
the establishment of the Kingdom, and more especially since
the suppression of the temporal government of the Supreme
Pontiff, have subordinated the power of the Church and clergy
to the authority of the civil government, and secured perfect
religious freedom to the adherents of all creeds without exception.
However, scarcely any other creeds as yet exist but Roman
Catholicism. At the census of 1881, of the total population about
62,000 were Protestants and 38,000 Jews. Of the Protestants
22,000 belonged to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont, about
10,000 to the other evangelical Italian Churches, and 30,000 be-
longed to foreign Protestant bodies. In 1861 (exclusive of Veneto
and the province of Rome) the total number of Protestants was
32,684, and Jews 22,458 ; and in 1871 (inclusive of Yeneto and
Rome), 58,651 Protestants, and 35,356 Jews.
Under the Roman Pontiff, the Catholic episcopal hierarchy in Italy con-
sists of 49 archbishoprics and 221 bishoprics, besides the 6 cardinal -bishops
who have sees near Rome. Of these 76 are immediately subject to the
Apostolic See, 12 being archbishoprics. There are altogether 37 metropolitan
sees. All these prelates are appointed by the Pope, on the advice of a council
of Cardinals. But the royal exequatur is necessary to the installation of a bishop
or archbishop. The number of parishes in 1881 was 20,465 ; of churches and
chapels, 55,263; of parochial clergy, 76,560.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has greatly dwindled since the
year 1850, when the Siccardi bill, abolishing external ecclesiastical jurisdiction
and clerical privileges, passed the Sardinian Chambers. This law was ex-
tended, in 1861, over the whole Kingdom, and had the effect of rapidly dimi-
nishing the numbers as well as the incomes of the clergy.
In 1865 there were 2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for
men and 876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of
whom 14,807 were men and 14,184 women. The mendicant orders numbered
8,229 persons, comprised in the above-mentioned total. A law for the entire
suppression of all religious houses throughout the Kingdom was adopted by
the Italian Parliament in 1866. This law provided a small pension to all
religious persons having taken regular vows before January 18, 1864. Several
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684 ITALY
monasteries were temporarily set aside for such monks, friars, or nuns as
might wish to continue their conventual life. All collegiate chapters were
likewise dissolved. Under certain regulations the property of these suppressed
corporations was transferred to the State.
See and Chuech op Rome.
The ' Statuto fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article, that ' the
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole religion of the State. ' By
the terms of the Royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that ' Rome and
the Roman Provinces shall constitute an integral part of the Kingdom of
Italy, ' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged supreme head of the
Church, preserving his former rank and dignity as an independent sovereign
prince. Furthermore, by a bill that became law May 13, 1871, there was
guaranteed to His Holiness and his successors for ever, besides possession of the
Vatican and Lateran palaces and the villa of Castel Gandolfo, a yearly income
of 3,225,000 lire or 129,000/., which allowance (whose arrears, if not lapsing
by prescription after five years, would in 1894 amount to 74,175,000 lire, or
2,967,000/.) still remains unclaimed and unpaid.
Supreme Pontiff. — Leone XIII. (Gioacchino Fecci), born at Carpineto in
the diocese of Anagni, March 2, 1810, son of Count Luigi Pecci ; conse-
crated Archbishop of Damiata 1843 ; Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium 1843-46 ;
Bishop of Perugia 1846 ; proclaimed Cardinal December 19, 1853 ; elected
Supreme Pontiff, as successor of Pio IX., February 20, 1878 ; crowned
March 3 following.
The election of a Pope ordinarily is by scrutiny. Each Cardinal in conclave
writes on a ticket his own name with that of the Cardinal whom he chooses.
These tickets, folded and sealed, are laid in a chalice which stands on the
altar of the conclave chapel ; and each elector approaching the altar repeats a
prescribed form of oath. Thereupon the tickets are taken from the chalice by
scrutators appointed from the electing body ; the tickets are compared with
the number of Cardinals present, and when it is found that any Cardinal has
two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected. Should none
have received the needful number of votes, another process is gone through,
viz., access — so called because any Cardinal may accede to the choice of
another by filling up another ticket made for that purpose. The present
Pontiff, Leone XIII., was chosen by unanimity. He is regarded as the 263rd
Pope (or thereabouts) from St. Peter.
The rise of the Roman Pontificate, as an avowed temporal sovereignty, dates
from the year 755, when Pippin, King of the Franks, gave to PopeStefano;III.
the Exarchate and Pentapolis (or Romagna), conquered from the Lombards,
to which Charles the Great added part of Tuscany and Sabina ; and long
after, in 1102, Countess Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy- See
her ample territories. Rome, however, with the Roman duchy, came practi-
cally under the Pope's civil dominion in the days of Gregorio the Great
(590-604). In 1860 the whole Pontifical State comprised an area of about
16,000 square miles, with a population of 3,125,000 souls ; thenceforth,
until 1870, about 5,000 square miles and 692,000 souls.
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RELIGION
685
From the accession of Martino V., 213th in the usual list of Pontiffs, to
Leone XIII., 263rd in the list, the Popes have been as follows : —
No. in
the list
213
Name of Pontiff
Nation-
ality
Year of
Election
No. in
the list
239
Name of Pontiff
Nation-
ality
Year of
Election
Martino V.
Italian
1417
Leone XI.
Italian
1605
214
Eugenio IV. .
1431
240
Paolo V.
n
1605
215
Niccol6 V.
)>
1447
241
Gregorio XV. .
1621
216
Calisto III. .
Spanish
1455
242
Urbano VIII.
1623
217
PioII. .
Italian
1458
243
Innocenzo X. .
}}
1644
218-
Paolo II.
1464
244
Alessandro VI I.
1655
219
Sisto IV.
1471
245
Clemente IX.
1667
220
InnocenzoVIII.
if
1484
246
Clemente X. .
jt
1670
221
Alessandro VI.
Spanish
1492
247
Innocenzo XL
yi
1676
222
Pio III. .
Italian
1503
248
AlessandroVIII
f}
1689
223
Giulio II.
a
1503
249
Innocenzo XII.
jt
1691
224
Leone X.
tt
1513
250
Clemente XI.
jt
1700
225
Adriano VI. .
Dutch
1522
251
InnocenzoXIII.
}i
1721
226
Clemente VII.
Italian
1523
252
BenedettoXIII.
tt
1724
227
Paolo III. .
j>
1534
253
Clemente XII.
1730
228
Giulio III'. .
tt
1550
1 254
BenedettoXIV.
fj
1740
229
Marcello II. .
1555
255
Clemente XIII.
tt
1758
230
Paolo IV.
it
1555
256
ClementeXIV.
it
1769
231
Pio IV. .
tt
1559
257
Pio VI. .
1775
232
PioV. .
tt
1566
258
Pio VII.
1800
233
Gregorio XIII.
11
1572
259
Leone XII. .
1823
234
Sisto V.
It
1585
260
Pio VIII.
it
1829
235
UrbanoVII. .
11
1590
261
Gregorio XVI.
Pio IX. .
1831
236
Gregorio XIV.
tl
1590
262
.
1846
237
Innocenzo IX.
1
1591
263
Leone XIII. .
1878
238
ClementeVIII.
it
1592
The Bishop of Rome, or Pope, by Roman Catholics accounted Vicar' of
Jesus Christ upon earth and Successor of St. Peter, is the absolute and
irresponsible ruler of the Roman Catholic Church. His ex cathedrd definitions
on matters of faith or morals are held to be infallible, and there is no appeal
against his judgments. The Roman Pontiff seeks advice from the Sacred
College of Cardinals, consisting, when complete, of seventy members, namely,
six cardinal-bishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons, but
hardly ever comprising the full number. In November 1893 the Sacred College
consisted of five cardinal-bishops, fifty- two cardinal-priests, and five cardinal-
deacons. The following list gives the names of these sixty-two cardinals : —
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Religion
687
Name*
Cardinal- Prints — cont.
Patrick Francis Moran
Alexandre Taschereau
Benoit M. Langenieux
James Gibbons .
Serafino Vannutelli .
Gaetano Aloisi-MaO
sella . . /
Camillo Siciliano di\
Rende . . /
Mariano Rampolla\
del Tindaro . J
Agostino Bausa .
G iuseppe Benedetto \
Dusmet . . J
Francois Marie Ben-\
jamin Richard /
Peter Lambert Goossens
Franz de Paula von\
Schbnborn . /
Vincenzo Vannutelli .
Sebastiano Galeati
Albin Dunajewski
Anton Joseph Gruscha
Luigi Ruffo-Scilla
Giuseppe Guarino
Mario Mocenni .
Amilcare Malagola .
Angelo di Pietro
Benito Sanz y Fores .
Guillaume Rene \
Mcignan . J
Leon Benoit Charles)
Office or Dignity
Thomas
Philipp Krementz
Ignazio Persico
/
I
Michael Logue .
Luigi Galimberti
Claudius Vaszary
Herbert Vaughan
Georg Kopp
Victor Lucieu Sul- )
pice Lecot J
Joseph Christian)
Ernest Bourret
Lorenz Sctylauch
Giuseppe Sarto .
Giuseppe Maria
Granniello
Archbp. of Sydney .
,, Quebec .
„ Reims .
,, Baltimore
,, Bologna .
Prefect of theCongr. \
of Sacred Rites . /
Archbp. of Benevento
Pontifical Secretary \
of State . . /
Archbp. of Florence .
,, Catania .
,, Paris
,, Mechlin .
,, Prague .
Archbp. of Ravenna .
Bishop of Cracow
Archbp. of Vienna .
Archbp. of Messina .
Archbp. of Fermo .
Archbp. of Seville .
,. Tours .
Nationality
Preb. Con^
gences an<
Relics
Rouen .
Koln .
. Indul-)
I Sacred V
Archbp. of Armagh .
Archbp. of Gran
,, Westminster
Bishop of Breslau .
Archbp. of Bordeaux
Bishop of Rodez
,, Gross- Wardein
.. Mantua
Irish
Canadian
French .
American
Italian .
French .
Belgian .
Bohemian
Italian .
Polish .
Austrian.
Italian .
Spanish .
French .
»>
German .
Italian .
Irish
Italian .
Hungarian
English .
German .
French .
Hungarian
Italian .
Year of
Birth
1830
1820
1824
1834
1834
1826
1847
1843
1821
1818
1819
1827
1844
1836
1824
1817
1820
1840
1827
1823
1840
1828
1828
1817
1826
1819
1823
1840
1836
1832
1832
1837
1831
1827
1824
1835
Year of
Crea-
tion
1885
1886
1886
1886
1887
1887
1887
1887
1887
1889
1889
1889
1889
1889
1890
1890
1891
1891
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1893
1834 1893
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RELIGION
689
III. Bishoprics.
Latin Rite : —
Graeco-Roumanian Rite
3
Immediately subject to the
Graeco-Ruthenian Rite
6
Holy See
86
Under Patriarchs :
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical
Armenian Rite .
. 16
Provinces
622
Graeco-Melchite Rite .
8
Oriental Mite : —
Syriac Rite .
6
Immediately subject to the
Syro-Chaldaic Rite
10
Holy See :
Syro-Maronite Rite
2
Graeco-Ruthenian Rite .
2
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical
761
Provinces :
Besides the above sees, and 16 sees 'nullius dioeceseos,' there are now 7
Apostolic Delegations, 116 Apostolic Vicariates, and 36 Apostolic Prefectures,
most of them held by titular archbishops and bishops (formerly called 'in
partibus infidelium ').
The summary of actual dignitaries stands as follows for February 1893
(each dignitary being reckoned under his highest rank and title) :—
Sacred College of Cardinals . . . . , . .63
Patriarchs of either Rite 8
Archbishops and Bishops of the Latin Rite, Residential 799
Archbishops and Bishops of the Oriental Rite . . 55
Archbishops and Bishops, Titular .... 324
Archbishops and Bishops having a title no longer . 12
Prelates Nullius Dioeceseos 7
Total
1,268
The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is earned on
by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, composed
of Cardinals, with Consultors and Officials. There are now twenty Sacred
Congregations, viz., Inquisition or Holy Office, Consistorial, Apostolic
Visitation, Bishops and Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State of
Regulars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for Eastern* Rite,
Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Regular Discipline, Indulgences and Sacred
Relics, Examination of Bishops, Fabric of St. Peter's, Lauretana, Extra-
ordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies.
The apostolic delegations, vicariates, and prefectures throughout the
world stand under the 'Congregatio de Propaganda Fide' in Rome. At
present they are distributed as follows : —
Continents, &c.
Europe
Asia
Africa
America
Oceania
Total
Apostolic
Delegations
Apostolic
Apostolic
Vicariates
Prefectures
11
4
52
8
24
18
16
4
13
2
116
36
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INSTRUCTION
691
was expended by the State 6,110,083 lire ; by the Provinces 284,047 lire ; by
the Communes 55,374,809 lire : total, 61,768,939 lire.
The attendance at elementary schools (public and private) has, in the
last 27 years, risen from 1,000,000 to 2,400,000 ; or, allowing for the
increase of population, there has been an increase of 80 per cent, in school
attendance.
The percentage of illiterates, male and female, over five years fo* 1861,
over six for 1871 and 1881, and over twenty years of age, in 1861, 1871, and
1881, was :—
Year
Over 5 Years
Over 20 Years
1861
1871
1881
Male
68-09
61*86
54*56
Female
81*27
7173
69*32
Male
65*47
60 17
53 89
Female
81*52
77*18
72-93
The percentage of illiterate conscripts, and of illiterates married, at
various intervals from 1866 to 1889 was as follows : —
Year
Illiterate Conscripts
Illiterates Married
Male
Female
1866
64 01
59-96
78-97
1871
56-74
5773
76-73
1881
47*74
48-24
69 90
1890
41-10
41-37
6013
1891
—
41-12
59-16
According to the census of 1881 the number of the population above six
years of age who could not read nor write in Upper Italy was 40*85 per cent. ;
Middle Italy, 64*61 per cent. ; South Italy, 79*46 per cent. ; and in the
Islands, 80*91 per cent. The smallest percentage of illiterates above six
years was in Piedmont, 32*27, and the largest in Basilicata, 85'18.
The following are the statistics of elementary (including normal) schools
in 1889-90, and for higher schools in 1890-91 : —
Number
Teachers
Pupils
Males
Females
Total
Asili for infants
2,296
5,892
140,937
137,267
278,204
Public primary day
schools : — Regular .
45,267
46,458
1,141,760
962,533
2,104,293
Do. irregular
2,931
2,908
47,802
36,835
84,637
Private do.
8,196
8,715
63,537
122,296
184,833
Evening and holiday
schools .
8,839
8,861
209,330
87,518
296,848
Normal schools .
141
1,472
1,908
13,276
15,184
Licei.
310
1,800
—
—
15,014
Ginnasi .
733
4,520
—
—
56,737
Technical institutes .
73
1,312
—
—
8,354
Technical schools
397
2,948
—
—
33,627
Naval mercantile do.
21
180
—
—
1,420
Y Y 2
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692
ITALY
The following is a list of the twenty-one universities of Italy, with
statistics for 1890-91:—
Date of
No. of
Students
__
Founda-
Teach-
and
tion.
ers
Auditors
State'Univer-
sities : —
Bologna .
1200
66
1,375
Cagliari .
1626
30
147
Catania
1434
50
584
Genoa
1243
61
970
Macerata .
1290
10
124
Messina
1549
45
329
Modena .
1678
42
292
Naples
Padua
1224
89
4,595
1222
63
1,316
Palermo .
1805
65
1,253
Parma
1521
41
276
Pavia
1300
56
1,095
Date of
No. of
Students
—
Founda-
Teach-
and
tion.
ers
Auditors
Pisa .
1338
64
728
Rome
1303
81
1,543
Sassari
1677
23
123
Siena
1300
27
225
Turin
1404
75
2,114
Free Univer-
sities : —
Camerino .
1727
20
101
Ferrara
1391
19
56
Perugia
1276
21
179
Urbino
1564
18
93
Total .
966
17,518 1
There were besides (1891) 11 superior collegiate institutions, with 2,094
students ; 11 superior special schools, with 858 students ; 32 special and
practical schools of agriculture (1893), with 887 students ; 4 schools of mining
(1892), with 101 students ; 172 industrial and commercial schools (1890),
with 23,227 students ; 15 Government fine art institutes (1892), with 3,810
students ; 6 Government institutes and conservatoires of music (1892), with
780 students.
In 1891 there were in Italy 32 Government libraries, with 943,903 readers,
who had 1,167,462 books given out.
On December 31, 1891, there were in Italy 1,779 periodical publications.
Of these, 139 were daily ; 148 twice or thrice weekly ; 589 weekly ; 28
thrice a month ; 280 fortnightly ; 415 monthly ; 90 at intervals of two or
more months; 90 occasionally ; 512 were political; 307 were economic,
juridical, or on social science ; 184 agricultural ; 182 religious ; 180 literary
and scientific ; 119 medical ; 30 musical and dramatic ; 11 of the fine arts;
15 military ; 11 of geography and travels ; 45 humorous (non-political). Of
the whole number, 31 were in Italian and a local dialect (10 Neapolitan) ;
10 in a local dialect only ; 24 in Italian and a foreign language (12 French) ;
39 in foreign languages only (20 French, 6 English).
In 1892 there were 9,742 books published in Italy, comprising 816
religious books; 1,110 scholastic and educational; 557 historical and
geographical ; 448 biographical ; 1,492 of poetry and general literature ; 356
in mathematical, physical, and. natural science; 705 in medicine; 1,059 in
agriculture, the industries, commerce, &c.
Justice and Crime.
In Italy, justice in penal matters is administered in the first instance by
the Pretori, by the penal tribunals, and by the courts of assize ; on appeal,
by the penal tribunals, and by the courts of appeal. The highest court
is the Court of Cassation, which confines itself to inquiring whether the fonui
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JUSTICE AND CRIME
693
prescribed by law have been observed. The new penal code came into force
on January 1, 1890, abolishing the distinction between crimes and misde-
meanours (crimini e delitti).
The Pretori have jurisdiction concerning all delicts (delitti) punishable by
imprisonment not exceeding three months, or banishment not exceeding one
year, or by fine not exceeding 1,000 lire. The penal tribunals have juris-
diction in the first instance in offences punishable by imprisonment from
three to five years, with or without another year's banishment, or by fine
exceeding 1,000 lire. The courts of assize have jurisdiction in the first
instance in all proceedings concerning crimes brought before them by direct
citation, or by sentence of the sections of accusation (sezioni d' accusa).
They have exclusive jurisdiction concerning offences against the internal and
external security of the State, and all crimes of a serious character. Appeal
is allowed to the penal tribunals from the sentences of the Pretori, and to
the courts of appeal from those of the penal tribunals. The courts of cassa-
tion have power to annul, for illegality, sentences passed by the inferior
courts, and to decide questions of jurisdiction or competency. This court can
also decide regarding sentences passed by the supreme military and naval
court.
Italy is divided, for the administration of justice, into 20 appeal court
districts, each of which is subdivided into tribunal districts, 162 in all, and
these again into mandamenti, each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 1, 548
in all.
Table showing the number of persons convicted of crimes before the
various classes of courts, during five years : —
Convictions
Year
Total
Before the
Pretori
Before the
Tribunali
(first instance)
Before the
Corti d'Assise
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
315,359
340,381
351,218
335,918
360,338
259,387
282,646
292,041
270,613
290,625
50,426
52,369
54,088
62,080
66,475
5,546
5,366
5,089
3,225
3,238
The number of prisons or penitentiaries, with number of inmates, on June
30, 1891, is given as follows : —
I
Prisons or Penitentiaries
Number
Inmates
Male
Female
Total
Lock-ups
Penal establishments
Correctional establishments for the
young :
Government reformatories .
Private reformatories .
Penal colonies (Colonie di Coatti) .
1,729
91
8
35
8
27,058
29,039
1,016
2,343
2,960
2,387
1,384
96
2,000
29,445
30,419
1,072
4,343
2,960
Total
1,871
62,412
5,827
68,239
M
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694 ITALY
Pauperism.
In Italy legal charity, in the sense of a right in the poor to be supported
by the parish or commune, or of an obligation on the commune to relieve the
poor, does not exist. Exceptions to this rule are in favour of forsaken
children and the sick poor, the former being maintained and the latter
supplied with medical attendance at the expense of the province or commune.
Public charity in general is exercised through the permanent charitable
foundations, called * Opere pie,' regulated by the law of July 17, 1890. These
are very unequally distributed in the different provinces, and their operation is
in the manner prescribed and in the territory named in the deeds of founda-
tion, or by the statutes in force. A thorough inquiry into their financial
position was made in 1880. The general results were : — Leaving out of
account institutions intended for lending, or for the encouragement of saving
(that is. monti di pieta, monti frumentari, casse di prestanze agrarie), there
were 2i,638 opere pie, with a gross capital of about 2,000,000,000 francs.
Their income and expenses were : —
Lire.
Gross income 89,673,307
Burdens (not charitable) . . . 7,838,000
Taxes, &c 15,131,255
Expenses of administration . . 16,076,779
Total disbursement . . 39,046,034
Balance free . . . 50,627,273
Added to this net income were casual legacies, contributions from private
benefactors, subsidies from communes (for hospitals), &c, all of which receipts
are spent annually, and thus the sum at the disposal of the opere pie in 1880
amounted to 96,395,470 lire.
The property of these foundations is constantly increasing. In the space
of twelve years (1881-92) the new legacies amounted to 209,466,922 lire. In
1889 the communes spent about 42,683,917 lire, and the provinces about
20,273,500 lire in charity (in 1891 the provinces spent about 20,724,960 lire) ;
over one-fourth of the former sum and over three-fourths of the latter being
disposed of through the opere pie.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Direct taxes are those on lands, on houses, and on incomes
derived from movable capital and labour. The tax on lands,
amounting to about 96 millions, with an additional tenth, is spread
over the 9 cadastral compartimenti. That on houses is at the
rate of 12 5 per cent, (with three-tenths additional) of the amount
taxable, which is two-thirds of the real annual value in the case of
factories, and three-fourths in the case of dwelling-houses. The
tax on incomes from movable capital and labour is 13 '2 per cent,
of the sum taxable. This, in incomes from capital alone, is the
Digitized by VjOOQIC
FINANCE
695
whole amount stated as income ; in those from capital and labour
(trade, industries), it is six-eighths, and in those from labour alone
(professions), it is five-eighths of the income stated. In the case
of State, provincial, or communal employes, half the income is
taxable. The communes and provinces also tax lands and build-
ings. The State grants to the communes one-tenth of the proceeds
of the tax on incomes as compensation for other communal re-
venues made over to the State by various laws.
The principal indirect taxes are: — the customs duties, the
octroi, the taxes on manufactures, the salt and tobacco monopolies,
lotto.
The financial year of Italy ends on June 30. The following
table exhibits the total ordinary revenue and expenditure of
the Kingdom, together with the annual difference in each of the
last seven years, the budget estimates being given for the last
two years : —
Years
Total Revenue
Total Expenditure
Difference
Lire
Lire
Lire
1887-88
1,936,724,649
1,993,875,769
- 57,151,120
1888-89
1,866,670,029
2,097,131,115
-230,461,086
1889-90
1,903,170,131
1,879,636,028
+ 23,584,103
1890-91
1,898,177,802
1.852,446,332
+ 45,731,470
1891-92
1,747,951,589
1.796,090,394
- 48,138,805
1892-93
1,666,122,471
1,694,275,629
- 28,153,158
1893-94
1,755,676,344
1,753,058,303
+ 2,618,041
The following table gives an abstract of the official budget ac-
counts for the year ending June 30, 1894, showing the principal
sources of revenue and chief branches of expenditure : —
Revenue
Revenue— cotU.
Lire
Lire
A. Ordinary revenue : —
Taxes on transactions
1st Category : l
Succession duties
37,300,000
State property
10,843,333
Registration
61,000,000
State railways
74,251,900
Stamps
73,300,000
Various
4,011,044
Railway tax
18,440,000
Various
29,140,550
Direct taxes :
Indirect taxes :
Land tax .
106,400,000
Excise
31,000,000
House tax .
85,600,000
Customs .
240,350,000
Income tax
236,036,531
Octrois
Tobacco (mono-
66,687,867
poly)
193,500,000
i The revenue and the expenditure of each Ministry are divided into four categories :—
1. Effective receipts or expenditure ; 2. Movement of capital ; S. Construction of railways,
Ac ; 4. Receipts or expenditure d'ordre.
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FINANCE
697
Expenditure
Ordinary expendi-
ture : —
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
Interest on con-
solidated debt .
Interest on re-
deemable debt .
Railway annuities .
Floating debt
Fixed annuities .
Civil list and appa-
Lirc
->'
Senate and Cham-
ber of Deputies
General expenses
Reserve fund
Various
Total 1st Cate-
gory
4th Category
{d'ordre)
Total Ministry! "
of Treasury /
Ministry of Finance :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
General expendi-
ture
Annuities, &c.
Expenses of collec-
tion .
Total 1st Cate-! "
gory /
4th Category
Total Ministry! "
of Finance /
Ministry of Justice,
&c. .
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
Ministry of Public
Instruction
Ministry of the
Interior .
Ministry of Public
Works
450,088,410
80,380,909
27,570,366
101,979,155
79,470,893
15,050,000
2,160,000
16,409,761
3,000,000
1,884,625
780,994,119
21,599,115
802,593,234
18,415,537
3,355,000
147,166,196
168,936,733
29,665,693
198,602,426
33,461,285
9,024,004
41,226,498
53,576,836
30,940,576
Expenditure — cont.
Ministry of Posts
and Telegraphs .
Ministry of War .
Ministry of Marine
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry,
and Commerce .
Total ordinary \
Lire
52,745,490
237,453,329
98,451,087
9,383,479
"^"^"n 1,567, 458,244
expenditure J f
B. Extraordinary ex-
penditure : —
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture)
2nd Category
(movement of
capital) :
Redemption of
debts
Otherdisbursements
Total 2nd Cate-! "
gory J
Total Ministry!
of Treasury / _
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of Justice,
&c. .
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
Ministry of Public
Instruction
Ministry of the
Interior .
Ministry of Public
Works
Ministry of Posts
and Telegraphs .
Ministry of War .
Ministry of Marine
Ministiy of Agricul-
ture, Commerce,
and Industry .
Total extraor- !
dinary ex- V
penditure J
Total expendi-\
ture J
12,177,154
71,863,529
11,137,764
83,001,293
95,178,447
3,037,162
91,566
26,167
732,884
1,516,206
71,966,920
I
400 I
4,900/000
6,940,000 J
!
1,210,307
185,600,059
1,753,058,303 I
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DEFENCE 699
The capital of the consolidated and redeemable debt amounted
to 11,782,883,231 lire on July 1, 1893, or about 471,315,329*.
sterling.
The debt per head of population is 15*. 8s. 8d., and the
interest 15s. 7d. The value per head of the special exports in
1892 was 1*. 5*.
11. Local Finance.
The total revenue of the communes of Italy in 1889 amounted, according
to official reports, to 640,340,410 lire ; the revenue of the provinces amounted
to 118,625,599 lire in 1889, to 120,183,166 in 1890, and to 128,509,261 in
1891. The debts of the communes in 1890 (January 1) amounted to
1,037 ,449,263 lire ; of the provinces to 170,439,703 lire.
III. Public Property.
On June 30, 1892, the property of the State was as follows : —
Estimated Value.
Lire
Financial assets (Treasury) 429,292,063
Property, immovable, movable, loans and various
titlos . 636,393,277
Property of industrial nature 1,504,016,246
Material in use in army and navy .... 1,160,364,553
Property used in the service of the State . . 668,647,285
Total. . . . 4,398,713,424
In the financial year 1891-92 the revenue from State property was : —
Railways, 169,114,390 lire; ecclesiastical, 3,345,544 lire ; various, 12,743,991
lire ; total, 85,203,925.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The extent of the land frontier of Italy is as follows : — French
frontier 495 kilometres ; Swiss 655 ; Austro-Hungarian 750 ;
frontier of San Marino 38*5 ; in all (exclusive of San Marino)
1,900 kilometres. The coast line of the peninsula measures
3,657 kilometres; of Sicily, 1,098; of Sardinia, 1,017 ; of Elba
and the small islands, 1,013; the total length of coast is thus
6,785 kilometres.
On the Continental frontier of Italy the principal passes of
the Alps are defended by fortifications distributed according to a
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59,842 were unfit to serve ; 92,968 were assigned to the first category ; 6,955
to the second ; and 77,348 to the third.1 Youths who have received a superior
education are allowed to serve as one-year volunteers on payment of a sum
fixed annually but never exceeding 2,000 lire for cavalry, or 1,500 lire for
others. They may fulfil their period of service at any time after their seven -
1 These are official figures, but their total leaves 10,000 men unaccounted for.
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DEFENCE 701
teenth up to their twenty-sixth year. They belong to the first category. Non-
commissioned officers engage to serve five years ; by continuing their service
for twelve years they have a right to government employment ; and after
twenty years service they are entitled to a pension. Officers are chiefly drawn
from the military institutes.
The army consists of twelve army corps as follows : — I. Turin, II. Alexan-
dria, III. Milan, IV. Placentia, V. Verona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona, VIII.
Florence, IX. Rome, X. Naples, XL Bari, XII. Palermo. Each army corps
contains two divisions, and each division comprises from two to five military
districts of which there are in all eighty-seven.
1. The Permanent Army consists of the general staff ; corps of the general
staff ; Infantry : 96 regiments of the line and 12 regiments of bersaglieri,
each regiment of 3 battalions of 4 companies, 1 depdt, and 1 staff ; 7 regi-
ments of Alpine troops divided into 22 battalions, in 75 companies, and
7 depdt companies ; 87 military districts with 98 companies.
Cavalry : — 24 regiments of 6 squadrons and 1 depdt and 1 staff ; 6 depdts
for remounts.
Artillery: — 12 regiments of divisional field artillery, each of 1 staff and 2
brigades (8 batteries), 1 company of train, and 1 depdt ; 12 regiments of army
corps field artillery, of 1 staff and 2 brigades (8 batteries) ; 1 brigade of train
(2 companies) and 1 depdt ; 1 regiment of horse artillery, of 1 staff', 3 mounted
brigades (6 batteries), 1 brigade of train (4 companies) and 1 depdt; 1
regiment of mountain artillery, of 1 staff, 3 brigades (9 batteries), 1 depdt ;
5 regiments of fortress artillery, 2 of these composed each of 1 staff, 4 brigades
(16 companies), and 1 depdt, the other 3 each of 1 staff, 3 brigades (12 com-
panies), and 1 depdt ; 5 companies of artillery mechanics, and 1 company of
veterans.
Engineers : — 4 engineer regiments, 2 of them of 1 staff, 6 brigades of
sappers (18 companies), 1 brigade of train (2 companies), and 1 depdt ; the 3rd
regiment of 1 staff, 3 sapper brigades (7 companies), 3 brigades (6 companies) of
telegraphists and 1 of specialists, 1 brigade train (3 companies), and 1 depdt ;
the 4th regiment of 1 staff, 3 brigades of pontooners (8 companies), 1 railway
brigade (4 companies), 1 lagoon brigade (2 companies), 1 train brigade (3 com-
panies), and 1 depdt.
Carabineers : — 11 territorial legions, 1 legion of cadets, and 1 depdt.
Sanitary corps, 12 companies and 1 Sardinian platoon ; commissariat, 12
companies ; veterinary corps ; administrative corps ; invalids and veterans,
4 companies and 1 staff ; establishments and institutes of instruction ; dis-
ciplinary establishments, 11 companies and 1 house of correction.
2. The Mobile Militia consists of Infantry : — 48 regiments of the line of
3 battalions of 4 companies ; 18 battalions of bersaglieri of 4 companies ;
22 companies of Alpine troops.
Artillery : — 13 brigades of field artillery of 4 batteries ; 14 companies of
train ; 36 companies of fortress artillery ; 3 brigades of mountain artillery of 3
batteries.
Engineers : — 7 brigades of sappers with 21 companies ; 2 railway com-
panies ; 3 companies of telegraphists ; 4 companies of pontooners ; 1 lagoon
company ; 4 companies of train.
Sanitary corps of 12 companies, and commissariat corps of 12 companies.
Special militia of Sardinia ;-r-3 regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of
4 companies ; 1 battalion of bersaglieri of 4 companies ; 1 squadron of
cavalry ; 1 brigade of field artillery of 2 batteries, and 1 company of train ;
1 brigade of fortress artillery of 4 companies ; 1 company of engineers ; 1
sanitary company ; and 1 commissariat company.
3. The Territorial Militia consists of 320 battalions of infantry of 4 com-
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702
ITALY
panies ; 22 battalions of Alpine troops with 75 companies ; 100 companies of
fortress artillery and 20 brigade commands ; BO companies of engineers and
6 brigade commands ; 13 sanitary companies ; 13 commissariat companies.
The following is the official statement of the strength of the Italian army
for June 1892 :—
-
Permanent Army
Militia
Under
Arms
On
Unlimited
Leave
Mobile
Territorial
Officers.
Effective
14,448
—
242
5,836
Half-Pay
191
—
—
—
Supplementary ....
—
5,279
3,918
—
Auxiliary
—
—
2,188
—
Reserve
Total officers
Troops.
—
—
—
4,920
14,639
5,279
6,348
10,756
Carabineers
22,739
4,812
719
11,330
Infantry
107,249
327,045
276,178
435,711
Bersaglieri
13,114
31,930
43,606
27,037
Alpine troops ....
Military districts ....
8,828
33,866
29,851
21,859
10,257
31,103
—
—
Unassigned
—
21,146
72,364
1,039,885
Sardinia Island Militia
—
—
20,304
—
Cavalry
24,131
13,352
—
39,016
Artillery
30,970
89,513
53,091
38,597
Engineers
7,604
22,499
12,452
7,457
Military schools ....
1,437
—
—
—
Sanitary corps ....
2,320
7,938
9,666
8,263
Commissariat ....
1,868
4,574
2,189
2,561
Invalid and veteran corps .
229
—
—
—
Penal establishments and disci-
plinary companies .
2,424
—
—
—
Guards (Policemen, &c.)
Total troops
Grand total
—
6,903
4,759
8,606
233,170
594,181
525,179
1,640,322
247,809
599,460
531,527
1,651,078
3,02
9,874
>
' In May, 1893, the effective strength of the Italian army (including the
African corps) was put at 14,563 officers and 263,592 men ; total, 278,155.
The special African corps on January 1, 1893, was composed as follows : —
1 company of carabineers, 1 battalion of chasseurs, 4 battalions of infantry
(native), 2 squadrons of cavalry (native), 2 mountain batteries (native) each
of 4 guns, 1 company of artillery mechanics, 1 of sappers, 1 of specialist
engineers, 1 sanitary and 1 commissariat section, and 1 train company. The
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DEFENCE
703
force contained in all 222 officers (33 native), 6,098 men, (4,192 natives), and
1, 138 horses and mules.
The Italian army is provided with the Vetterli repeating rifle (the Vital
system) and sword bayonet.
III. Navy.
By a royal decree promulgated on May 4, 1893, the naval administration is
thus organised : The naval general secretaryship has at its head the Assistant
Secretary for the Navy, under whom are an admiral as chief of the staff ; a
medical inspector at the head of the sanitary service ; a major-general or
colonel of military engineers at the head of a section having charge of the
engineering works of the naval stations ; and two officials directing the
sections of account. An admiral is chief of a special department administering
matters concerning the personnel, an inspector-general of the genio navale
of that dealing with naval construction, and an admiral of that devoted to
ordnance and equipment. A civil official administers the department of the
merchant marine, which is under the direction of the assistant secretary for
the navy. For purposes of local naval administration and defence the Italian
littoral is divided into three prefectures : 1, Spezia ; 2, Naples ; 3, Venice.
The station of the second prefecture will be removed from Naples to Taranto
as soon as the arsenal at the latter place is completed. By a royal decree of
August 14, 1893, the vessels of the Italian fleet have been apportioned, for
administrative purposes, between the three prefectures and Taranto. There
are torpedo stations all round the Italian coasts, the head stations being at
Spezia, Maddalena, Gaeta, Messina, Taranto, Ancona, and Venice. The
Permanent Squadron consists of two active divisions and one reserve division,
with two torpedo flotillas ; the Manoeuvre Squadron of two divisions (in-
cluding the reserve division of the Permanent Squadron) and two flotillas, in
commission during part of the year only ; and the Training Squadron of three
cruisers. There are vessels also on the American, Red Sea, and Indo-Chinese
Stations, and a single ship is at Constantinople.
The following tabular statement of the strength of the Italian Navy, in-
cluding ships built and building, but excluding training ships, transports, and
non-effective vessels, is framed on the same plan as similar tables given for the
British, French, German, and other navies. It is unnecessary to describe this
plan here, since it is fully explained in the introductory table.
Battleships, 1st Class
„ 2nd Class .
„ 3rd Class
Port defence ships .
Cruisers, 1st Class (a)
„ (b) .
,, 2nd Class .
„ 3rd Class (a) .
„ (b) .
Torpedo-craft, 1st Class .
„ ,, 2nd Class
„ „ 3rd Class1
1}
31
8
100
36
4
12
4
9
15
39
140
Total
l Also 19 less than 80 feet in length.
219
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704
ITALY
The tables which follow of the Italian armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged chronologically, after the manner of other similar tables
in this book. In the first table, the ships named in italics are those classified
as port defence vessels, in the foregoing statement of strength, and the figures
following the names of the others indicate the several battleship classes to
which they have been assigned. Abbreviations : c. b., central battery ; t.
turret; bar., barbette; Q.F., quick-firing. In the column of armament
machine guns are not given : —
Name
.2 »H
Armament
ff
8&
* C
OP
I
120
125
12T*
120
15 0.
15T»
ISO
184
170
161
16-4)
180
19-0
180
18-0
18u
t
eb
eb
eb
t
t
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
bar
Affondatore
Soma
PaUetro
Principe Amadeo
Duilio . . 2
Dandolo . . 2
Italia . . 2
Lepanto . . 1
RuggierodiLauria 1
Andrea Doria . 1
Francesco Morosini 1
Re Umberto . 1
Sardegna . 1
Sicilia . . 1
Ammiraglio di Saint-
Bon 1
Emannele Filiberto 1
1865
1865
1871
1872
1876
1878
1880
1882
1884
1885
1885
1889
1891
1891
4,376
5,370
6,180
5,880
11,138
11,202
15,900
15,900
11,000
11,000
11,000
13,251
18,251
13,298
9,800
9,800
5
5
9
9
22
22
19
19
18
18
18
14
14
14
10
10
2 9-8in. (28-ton) ; 6 4'7in.Q.F.
9 8 6in. (13-ton); 6 light guns.
1 llin. (25-ton); 6 98in./
(18-ton); 6 light . .\
4 I7'7in. (100-ton) ; 3 47in. I
Q.F.;21ight. . .\
416'9in. (100-ton); 8 5'9in.?
\ (4-ton); 4 4«7in. Q.F. ;{
12 224in. Q.F. . .(
4 16-9in. (105-ton); 2 6'9in.)
f (4-ton);4 47in. Q.F. .\
U 133in.(67-ton); 8 5*9in.; 16/
} 4-7in.,2 29in., 10 22in.,{
) &71-45in.Q.F.;81ight.l
\4 lOin. ; 8 5*9in., 8 47in.
/ and 16 2*21n. Q.F. .
8,240
3,000
8,496
3,418
7,500
7,500
18,000
18,000
10,000
10,500
10,000
19,500
22,800
19,500
18,500
13,500
The first-class cruisers a in the following list are all of 5,000 tons or more,
with a sea-speed of at least 15 knots. They are deck-protected, and all the
Italian first -class cruisers have more or less of side -armouring. Certain of
those included are inferior in displacement, and some in speed, to the others.
These are admitted as first-class cruisers 6, mainly for convoying purposes, in.
the foregoing estimate of strength. The letters a and b in the first column
have reference to these categories.
s
§
Name
b
Castelfidardo
San Martina .
b
b
Maria Pia .
b
Aneona .
b
Marco Polo .
a
Carlo Alberto
a
Vittor PieanL
a
Vareee .
a
Giuseppe Garibaldi
I
J*i
a
p«2 o
g6H
1863
4,180
1863
4,230
1863
4,200
1864
4,390
1892
4,580
—
6,500
—
6,500
—
6,500
-_
6,500
Armament
1 a
6 5'9in. ; 6 47in. Q.F.
}8 5-9in.;5 4-7in. Q.F. .{
6 5-9in. ; 6 4-7in. Q.F.
6 5 9in. Q.F. ; 10 4'7in. Q.F.
fl2 5*9in. Q.F. ; 6 4*7in. Q.F.
*3
si
2 !
8 I
3 I
2,120
1,080
3,060
2,470
10,000
13,000
13,000
13,000
120
11 -Oi
12i)'
ISO
19*0
20*0
20*0
20-0
6 13,000 , 200
The turret battleships Duilio and Dandolo are of the central citadel type,
represented in our own navy by the Inflexible, to which they are superior in
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PRODUCTION OR INDUSTRY 705
speed and armament Their four 100-ton Armstrong guns are coupled in two
closed turrets amidships, which are placed somewhat diagonally in relation to
one another, their axes a little on either side of the keel-line. In the Italia
and Lepanto, which are the heaviest of Italian battleships (15,900 tons), and
among the largest war-ships afloat, there is a like disposition of the heavy
guns, but the protective casemate is an irregular ellipse, standing diagonally
athwartships ; and the barbette turrets are further apart, the forward one on
the starboard side and the other placed a little further astern and to port. Ex-
cept upon the casemate and at the base of the funnels, these ships have no
vertical armour, the protection being given by a 4-inch steel deck below the
water-line. The Ruggiero di Lauria and her two sisters are smaller battle-
ships (11,000 tons), but their four Armstrong guns are still heavier (105 tons).
These are mounted in couples in a similar manner in two protected barbettes
before and abaft the single fighting mast, and severally on the starboard and
port sides. The vital parts of the ships are protected by eighteen inches of
vertical compound armouring. They have thus an advantage over the colossal
Italia and Lepanto, which, through deficiency of side-armouring, are subject
to serious damage to the substructure of the heavy guns, The Be Umberto,
Sardegna, and Sicilia are among the most powerful battleships in the world.
They may be regarded as enlarged Benbows. Their heaviest guns, however, are of
67 tons, and are mounted in pairs in polygonal inclined barbettes fore and aft in
the keel-line of the ship. The new battleship Ammiraglio di Saint-Bon
marks a change in Italian ship-building policy. The protection is better, and
the construction of monster armour-clads seems to be abandoned, for the
ship has a displacement of but 9,800 tons. The over-all steel belt is to be 9 J
inches thick at the water-line, and the redoubts are to have 4-inch plating, and
the maximum thickness of the protective deck will be 3 inches. The heavy
guns will be coupled in turrets at either end of a redoubt, which will contain
the secondary armament.
The Budget for 1893-94 provides for some slight increase in the number of
officers. The Stato Maggiore Generate (including 7 vice-admirals and 17 rear-
admirals) will number 750, the naval constructors (ufficiale ingegneri) 74, the
engineering branch (ufficiale macchinisti) 204, the pay branch {corpo di com-
missariato) 310, and the medical staff 161 — being in all 1,499, compared with
1,427 in 1891. The petty officers and men number more than 20,000.
Production or Industry.
1. Agriculture.
The systems of cultivation in Italy may be reduced to three : — 1. The
system of peasant proprietorship (coltivazione per economia o a mano propria) ;
2. That of partnership (colonia parziaria) ; 3. That of rent (amtto).
Feasant proprietorship is most common in Piedmont and Liguria, but is found
in many other parts of Italy ; in the province of Rome, the Abruzzi and
Molise, Campania, Apulia, the Basilicata, Calabria, and in Sicily and Sardinia.
This system tends to become more general. The system of partnership or
colonia parziaria, more especially in the form of mezzadria, consists in a form
of partnership between the proprietor and the cultivator. No wages are paid,
profits and losses are equally divided, the families of the two partners sub-
sisting, it may be, entirely on the common produce of the cultivation. This
system is general in Tuscany, the Marches, and Umbria ; it prevails over other
systems in Emilia, and is frequently found in the sub-mountain (pede montane)
regions of Lombardy and Venetia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, in Campania and
in Sicily. It is almost unknown in the Basilicata, little practised in Apulia,
Calabria, and Sardinia, and has been entirely abandoned in the two most
advanced centres of cultivation in the south, viz : — Barese and the province of
Naples. Various modifications of the system exist in different parts of Italy.
z z
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riiomoaray, is carried on an over iwtiy. in ioyz mere were 03 1,869 persons
employed in rearing silkworms, and 175,000 skilled and other workers (in-
cluding 120,386 women and 36,586 children) were employed in the treatment
I
and manufacture of silk. The total weight of the cocoon harvest was : — in
1889, 75,678,000 lhs. ; in 1890, 89,866,800 lhs. ; in 1891, 85,494,748 lbs. ; in
1892, 69,283,000 lbs. ; in 1893, 92,000,000 lbs.
In the census of December 31, 1881, there were 5,024,826 males of 15 years
of age and upwards described as engaged in agriculture. The entire agricul-
tural population, male and female, of 15 years and upwards, was thus
about 10,000,000. According to last census the number of persons of
Digitized by VjOOQIC
PRODUCTION OB INDUSTRY
707
15 years of age and upwards was to the whole population in the ratio of
678 to 1,000 ; thus the whole agricultural population was computed to be
14,900,000.
II. FORESTRY.
The forestry department is under the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Industry, and Commerce, with a council (consiglio forestale) consisting of the
Director of Agriculture, the higher forestry inspectors, and a legal adviser.
The executive of the department consists of inspectors of various classes and 190
guards with 25 officers (brigadieri).
The forest area is about 4,175,000 hectares. The yield from the forests,
including both those free from and those under the forest regulations (vincolo),
is valued at about 90,000,000 lire, as follows: —
Useful timber
Firewood
Charcoal
Cubic metres
1,374,547
6,289,341
3,019,148
Lire
17,062,006
20,632,380
18,133,294
Secondary produce, "j
excluding chest- J-
nuts . . J
Quintals
; 15,527,404
32,174,111
Total . . 88,001,791
The ascertained values of produce, agricultural, animal, and forest, are thus
in round numbers — Cereals, fibres, wine, fruit, &c, 3,230,000,000 lire ;
animals, wool, milk, cocoons, &c, 1,424, 000, 000 lire; forest yield, 88,000,000
lire: total, 4,742,000,000 lire. The value of accessory agricultural produce,,
such as vegetables, fungi, poultry, eggs, &c, is not known, but the export*'
alone of such produce amount to about 80,000,000 lire annually.
III. Mines and Minerals.
The following table gives the mineral production in 1891 :—
Mineral
Mines.
Tons
Lire
Employes
Iron ore ...
Copper and manganese ore .
Zinc ore . ... )
Lead ore i
Silver OTe ....
Gold ore ...
Antimony ore
Mercury and iron pyrites
Mineral fuel (anthracite, &c. ) .
Sulphur ....
Salt, graphite, boric acid, and
others ....
Totals . . ...
43
43
114
10
20
27
15
39
611
65
216,486
55,488
120,685
30,233
2,006
7,729
782
20,198
289,286
395,528
83,710
2,767,187
2,893,929
12,720,605
5,984,231
. 1,973,484
466,378
323,219
2,052,588
2,205,851
44,525,456
3,977,798
2,269
2,177
| 10,552
1,278
440
357
1,032
2,386
35,813
2,149
977
1,222,131
79,890,726
58,453
The value of the mineral products was: — in 1878, 55,078,461 lire;
1885, 58,979,950 lire; 1887, 49,977,119; 1888, 52,377,908; 1889,
53,554,255; 1890, 63,826,933; 1891, 79,890,726. The quarries of Italy,
especially its marble quarries, employ about 20,000 men ; the annual output
being valued at a million sterling.
IV. Fisheries.
On December 31, 1892, the number of vessels and boats employed in
fishing was 20,529, with an aggregate, tonnage of 55,863. .These numbers
z z 2
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Digitized by
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COMMERCE
709
Imports
Exports
Lire
.
Lire
Horses .
11,612,800
Animals, swine
4,492,180
Cotton yarn .
2,904,563
Zinc ore .
14,314,320
Oil, mineral refined
12,662,841
Lead ore .
1,205,100
Rice
120,680
Grain, wheat .
125,000
Railway materials
1,440,179
„ other .
4,524,895
Indigo .
5,460,000
Oil, olive
525,445
Silkworms' eggs 01
i
♦
cards .
2,421,750
The following table shows, in thousands of lire, the value of
the special trade with the leading countries in 1892 : —
France .
United Kingdom .
Austria
Germany
Russia .
Switzerland .
United States and Canada
Turkey, Servia, Roumania
Belgium
Argentine Republic
Central America .
British Possessions in Asia
Egypt ....
Spain and Gibraltar
Imports from
1,000 lire
204,486
244,759
127,311
144,077
124,271
51,993
78,791
38,772
27,259
20,573
14,177
66,299
18,556
9,215
Export to
1,000 lire
187,390
114,428
109,411
147,848
10,225
178,365
100,147
15,888
25,572
25,876
643
14,620
10,713
11,017
The value of the imports into Great Britain from Italy, and of the exports
of domestic produce and manufactures from Great Britain to Italy for five
years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the following
table :—
-
1888
* £
3,418,371
5«762,941
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports from Italy .
Exports of British
produce to Italy .
£
3,230,131
7,113,040
£
3,093,918
7,757,862
£
3,419,281
6,296,560
£
3,284,486
5,564,487
The principal articles of import into Great Britain from Italy in the year
1892 were :— Olive oil, of the value of 483,473/. ; hemp, 307,069Z. ; oranges
Digitized by VjOOQIC
710
ITALY
and lemons, 417,710?. ; sulphur, 145, 695?. ; chemical products, 103,973?. ;
shumac, 126,344?. ; other dyes, 115,788/. ; wine, 95,804?. ; almonds,
80,658?.; stones, 144,698?. ; and iron ore, 17,921?. The value of the cotton
manufactures and yarn exported from Great Britain to Italy in the year 1892
amounted to 737,480?. ; coals, 1,931,923?. ; iron, wrought and un wrought
529,555?. ; woollen manufactures, 552,107?. ; machinery, 486,829?. ; refined
sugar, of the value ol 54,760?. ; arms, ammunition, &c, 11,049?. ; fish,
154,134?. ; copper, wrought and unwrought, 64,977?.
The following table shows the re-exportation and transit, in thousands of
lire, for eight years : —
I -
1885
1886
Lire
75,232
48,418
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
| Re-exportation
Transit .
Lire
54,211
69,867
Lire
87,262
50,046
Lire
78,012
53,115
Lire
121,055
55,111
Lire
106,485
60,821
Lire
73,650
71,208
Lire
69,693
51,465
Navigation and Shipping.
On January 1, 1892 there were on the registers of the mercantile marine
6,624 vessels, classified as follows : —
For long sea voyages .
For long coasting voyages .
For short voyages, fishing,
Ac
Totals .
> Or according to tonnage : — j
! Vessels over 1,000 tons
! „ 601 to 1,000 tons
„ 101 to 500 tons
! „ 51 to 100 tons
i „ 1 to 50 tons .
Totals
Sailing Vessels
No.
493
291
5,524
Tons
325,568
96,981
187,272
6,308
4.
322
742
625
4,570
609,821
61,470
220,322
200,720
47,216
80,093
• 6,808
609,821
Over 2,000
1,001—2,000
401—1,000
101— 400
1— 100
Steam Vessels
No.
77
201
Tons
128,319
29,773
43,351
Total
No.
970
829
5,725
201,443 i 6,624
Tons
493,887
126,754 <
230,623
811,264
20 I 48,770
65 | 93,681
62 , 40,792
62 16,286
107 I 2,955
887
804
687
4,677
316 201,443 6,624 811,264
110,240
314,003
241,472
62,501
83,048
I
In 1892 there entered Italian ports 111,621 Italian vessels of 15,585,040
sons, and 9,478 foreign vessels of 7,450,091 tons ; in all 121,099 vessels of
23,043,131 tons. There cleared from Italian ports 110,466 Italian vessels of
15,891,490 tons, and 9,429 foreign vessels of 7,405,599 tons ; in all 119,895
vessels of 23,297,089 tons.
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
711
At the principal Italian ports the number of vessels entering and clearing
in 1892 were : —
Port
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Genoa
Leghorn .
Naples .
Messina .
Palermo .
Venice .
6,470
4,101
4,825
4,301
3,796
3,411
3,214,138
890,415
1,819,147
1,622,822
1,436,554
919,022
6,307
3,975
4,784
4,270
3,755
3,325
3,148,739
1,220,939
1,786,547
1,634,848
1,428,090
964,656
Of the Italian steam tonnage, more than half belongs to the 'Italian
General Navigation ' (Societa Florio e Rubattino— Genoa and Palermo). '
Internal Communications. '■
I. Railways.
A large portion of the Italian railways belong to the State, but in accord-
ance with a law of April 27, 1885, the working of the State lines has been
transferred to private enterprise. The contracts are for 60 years, but at the
end of 20 and 40 years they may be terminated.
On January 1, 1890, there were 8,407 kilometres of State railway, 155
kilometres jointly State and companies', and 4,484 kilometres of companies'
railway ; in all, 13,046 kilometres. The length of the principal lines,
January 1, 1893, was: — Mediterranean, 5,136 kilometres; Adriatic, 5,402
kilometres ; Sicilian, 905 kilometres ; Sardinian, 414 kilometres ; various,
2,130 kilometres ; total, 13,987 kilometres.
In 1889 the total receipts were 254,748,017 lire, of which 99,506,926 lire
were for passenger traffic. In the same year the expenses were 168,394,065
lire. By slow trains there were forwarded 16,296,311 tons of goods, and by
fast trains 9,053,480 quintals of goods. The number of passengers was in all
50,989,457.
Up to January 1, 1891, there had been constructed 2,539 kilometres of
tramway.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
During the year ending June 30, 1892, there were transmitted 182,509,254
letters and post-cards, to which 38,428,689 Government official letters have to
be added. There were sent also 4,624,616 manuscript papers, 189,341,829
periodicals and other printed matter, and 6,148,743 parcels. The money orders
numbered 7,689,409, value 665,687,676 lire. On June 30, 1892, there were
5,917 post-offices.
The public telegraph service is a monopoly of the Government, certain con-
cessions, however, being made to the railway and tramway companies. On
June 30, 1892, the length of line and wire on land was : —
Kilometres
Government lines 35,507
Railway ,, 2,601
Kilometres
wire 111,982
33,557
Tota
38,108
145,539
i
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712
ITALY
During the year ending June 30, 1892, there were despatched from Govern-
ment and railway telegraph offices 7,456,248 private telegrams inland, and
there were sent or received from abroad 1,546,201 telegrams. Number of
State offices, 2,816 ; other offices, 1,980.
The gross revenue from posts and telegraphs was 63,804,314 lire ; the
expenditure was 53,591,322 lire ; and the net revenue 10,212,992 lire.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of State notes and bank notes in
circulation at the end of each of the last five years in thousands of lire : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
State notes .
Bank notes .
1,000 Lire
346,338
1,074,877
1,000 Lire
344,185
1,114,123
1,000 Lire
342,809
1,126,440
1,000 Lire
341,949
1,121,601
1,000 Lire
341,414
1,138,385
Gold was coined to the value of 2,433,950 lire in 1888 ; 1,364,400 lire in
1890 ; 653,220 lire in 1891 ; 674,120 lire in 1892. Neither silver nor bronze
has been coined in recent years.
The total coinage from 1862 to the end of 1892 was : gold, 425,508,710
lire; silver, 595,505,397 lire; bronze, 76,676,905 lire; total, 1,097,691,012
lire. The re-coinage was 28,954,834 lire.
There is no national bank in Italy. According to the law of August 10,
1893, there are only three banks of issue : the Banca d* Italia (formea by the
fusion of the two Tuscan banks with the Banque Nationale du Royaume
d'ltalie), the Banco di Napoli, and the Banco di Sicilia. Formerly there were
six banks authorised to issue notes. The following table shows the state of
the assets and liabilities of those six banks on December 31, 1892, in thousands
of lire : —
1 -
Assets
-
Liabilities
1,000 Lire
1,000 Lire
Cash and reserve .
483,796
Capital
315,750
Bills ....
598,872 '
Notes in circulation
1,138,385
Credits.
250,064 ,
Accounts current .
401,846
Deposits
1,057,436 ■
Titles and valuables
Various securities .
970,817 I
deposited .
1,057,436
Various
441,245
Total
3,361,085
Total .
3,354,662
\
There are 738 co-operative credit societies and popular banks, with assets at
the end of 1890 amounting to 758,415,269 lire, and liabilities 749,668,867 lire ;
159 ordinary credit companies, with assets 1,816,011,347 lire, and liabilities
1,804,176,319 lire. Eleven agrarian credit companies had assets (1891)
54,232,552 lire, and liabilities 54,094,952 lire. There were 10 credit foncier
companies with assets 1,039,644,603 lire, and liabilities 1,032,007,990 lire
(1891).
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
713
The post-office savings-banks have been in operation since January 1, 1876.
Private savings-banks are subject to certain statutory rules and to Government
inspection. The following table shows the number of post-office savings-banks
on December 31, 1891, with the numbers of their depositors and amount depo-
sited at that date, and the deposits and repayments made during the year, with
the like statistics for the ordinary and co-operative savings-banks in 1891 :—
-
Offices
Depositors
Total
Deposits
Deposits
during year
Repayments
during year
Post-office savings-banks
Ordinary „ „
Co-operative „ „
4,594
993
T3T
2,312,323
1,415,308
425,147
Lire
333,683,978
1,177,218,675
808,806,017
Lire
211,429,462
395,898,331
336,512,845
Lire
201,186,526
384,468,969
333,254,126
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those of France,
the names only being altered, the franc changing into the lira, divided into 100
centesimi, the kilogramme into the chilogramma, the metre into the metro, the
hectare into the ettaro, and so on. The British equivalents are —
Money.
.The Lira of 100 Centesimi; intrinsic value, 25*224*. to 11. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Orammo
Chilogramma
Quintale Mctrico .
Tonnellata .
Litro, Liquid Measure .
Metro ....
Chihnnetro .
Metro Cubo\
Stero f
Ettaro or Hectare
Sqitare Chilometro
= 15-434 grains troy.
= 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 220 „
= 2, 200 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 0*22 imperial gallon.
= 22
= 2*75 „ bushels.
3 -28 feet or 39 '37 inches
= 1,093 yards.
35-31 cubic feet.
= 2*47 acres.
= 0*386 square mile.
(2*59 sq. chilo. = 1 sq. mile).
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Italy in Great Britain,
Ambassador. — Count Tornielli-Brusati de Vergano ; appointed January,
1890.
Councillor. — Count de Hierschel de Minerbi.
Secretary. — Marquis R. Paulucci de Calboli.
Attache'. — Don Andrea Corsini, Duke of Casigliano.
Naval Attaehd. — Captain Peraico.
There are Consular representatives at London (CO.), Dublin, Glasgow,
Liverpool (C.G.), Aden, Bombay, Calcutta (C.G.), Cape Town, Colombo,
Gibraltar, Halifax, Melbourne, Rangoon, Singapore.
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i
714 ITALY
2. Of Great Britain in Italy.
Ambassador.— Sir Francis Clare Ford, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Envoy and
Minister to Brazil 1879-81 ; to Greece 1881-84 ; to Spain 1884-92 : Ambas-
sador to Turkey, 1892-93 ; to Italy, November, 1893.
Secretary.— Hon. H. G. Edwardes.
Military Attache-.— Col. J. R. Slade,.R.A., C.B.
Naval Attache'. — G. le Clerc Egerton.
There are Consular representatives at Rome, Brindisi, Cagliari, Florence
(C.G.), Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, Palermo.
Foreign Dependencies.
The dominion of Italy in Africa extends, on the coast of the Red Sea, from
Cape Kasar (18° 2' N.) to the southern limit of the Sultanate of Raheita,
on the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb (12° 30' N.). The length of coast is about
670 miles, and the population, which is to a great extent nomadic, is roughly
estimated at 219,600 ; Massowah, the seat of government, having 4,400 in-
habitants of whom 600 are European (exclusive of the garrison), and 480
Asiatic. By various decrees between January 1, 1890, and December 8,
1892, the Italian possessions on the Red Sea are constituted as the Colony of
Eritrea, with an autonomous administration and the management of its own
finance. The central government is represented by a civil governor, nomin-
ated by the King ; but the military and naval commandants correspond
directly with the Italian Minister of War. For the year 1891-92 the revenue
and expenditure of the colony were each 2, 376, 082 lire. Of the revenue 906, 148
lire was from customs ; 419,934 lire from taxes, &c, while 1,050,000 lire was
contributed by the mother country. For 1892-93 the total revenue was
estimated at 1,951,750 lire, to which 670,000 lire would be contributed by
Italy. The total expenditure of Italy on account of its Red Sea possessions,
including postal, military, and naval services, from 1887-88 to 1891-92 is put
at 125,327,315 lire (£5,013,100), that for the year 1891-92 being 15,898,262
lire. Throughout the colony agriculture is in a very primitive condition.
The tropical climate and the general scarcity of water during the summer
months necessitate works for irrigation before crops can be raised with
success. Pasture is abundant but the pastoral population is essentially nomadic
Camels, oxen, sheep, goats, are common, and the produce, consisting of meat,
hides, butter, supplies articles of local trade. Pearl-fishing is carried on
at Massowah and the Dahlak archipelago to the annual value of from 200,000
lire for pearls, and 600,000 lire for mother-of-pearl. This trade is chiefly in
the hands of Banians (Indians). Trade of Massowah in 1891 : imports by land
and sea, 12,542,933 lire ; 1892, 10,903,015 lire. In 1892, in the foreign
trade, 427 vessels of 99,894 tons (73 of 16,689 tons Italian) entered, and 422
of 97,464 tons (74 of 15,708 tons Italian) cleared, There are 17 miles of
military railway from Massowah to Saate. In 1891-92 there were trans-
mitted 129,436 letters and post-cards, 8,348 manuscript and other packets,
and 37,306 pieces of official correspondence. There is a telegraph line of 515
kilometres from Massowah to Assab, and of 101 kilometres from Assab to
Perim. In 1891-92 there were 5,764 messages.
The legal currency consists of Italian coins and those of the Latin Union ;
but in actual circulation are Maria Theresa dollars and Anglo-Indian and
Egyptian money. The Italian mint has issued coin amounting to
6,879,995 lire, under the denominations of Eritrean dollars (= 5 lire),
and ^, A» A> d°llar pieces.
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ABYSSINIA AND SHOA
715
In February, 1889, the Sultan of Obbia, on the Somali coast (5° 33' N. to
2° 30' N.), put his sultanate under the protection of Italy. In April; 1889,
the protectorate was extended to the country between 5° 33' N. and 8° 3' N.
by treaty with the Sultan of the Mijertain Somalis. In August, 1892, the
Somali coast, from the sultanate of Obbia to the mouth of the Juba was
ceded to Italy by the Sultan of Zanzibar, and the administration of the
region was taken over in September, 1893. The boundary between the
spheres of influence of Italy and Great Britain in East Africa, settled
March 24, 1891, ascends the channel of the Juba from its mouth to 6° N. ;
thence it follows the parallel of 6° N. as far as 35° E., whence it goes north
to the Blue Nile.
In consequence of a treaty of May 2," 1889, and a subsequent convention,
ratified February 25, 1890, the region comprising Abyssinia and Shoa is within
the Italian sphere of influence.
The area and population of the territories under Italian influence (in-
cluding Abyssinia and Shoa) are estimated as follows : —
Possessions :
Country around Massowah, with Keren and
Asmara 3,100 250,000
Dahlak Archipelago 420 2,000
Assab Territory 580 6,800
Protectorate :
Territory of the Habab, Bogos, • Beni- Amer, &c. 1 8, 000 200, 000
Territory of the Af&r or Danakil, including
the Sultanate of Aussa .... 34,000 200,000
Somali and Gallaland (according to Anglo-
Italian agreement) 300,000 600,000
Kingdom of Abyssinia (Tigre, Lasta, Amhara,
Gojam, Shoa, Kaffa, Harrar, &c.) . 190,000 5,000,000
Total 546,100 6,258,800
ABYSSINIA AND sfiOA.
The ancient empire of Abyssinia, or ' Ethiopia, ' includes the Kingdoms of
Tigre\ with Lasta, in the north-east ; Amhara, with Gojam, in the west and
centre ; Shoa in the south ; besides the outlying territories and dependencies
of the Bogos, Shoho, Mensa, Barea, Bazen (Kunama), Habab, and Beni- Amer
in the north ; the Shankalla in the west ; the Galla and Kaffa lands beyond
Shoa, and the Af&r (Danakil) and Adal country occupying the lowlands
between Abyssinia proper and the coast.
After the overthrow of Theodore, King of Amhara, by the English in 1868,
the suzerain power passed to Prince Kassai of Tigre, who assumed the old title
of Negus Negust (' King of Kings'), and was crowned in 1872 as Johannes II.,
Emperor of Ethiopia. After the death of this potentate in 1889, Menelek II.,
King of Shoa, became the supreme ruler of Abyssinia, which region has practi-
cally become an Italian protectorate in virtue of the treaty of May 2, 1889,
confirmed and extended in October of the same year by a convention for ' mutual
protection ' between Menelek and Umberto I., King of Italy. The political
institutions are essentially of a feudal character, analogous to those of
medisBval Europe.
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716 ITALY: — ABYSSINIA AND SHOA
Since the conversion of the Abyssinians in the fourth century they have re-
mained members of the Alexandrian Church. The Abuna, or head of the Church,
is always a Copt, appointed and consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria,
but his influence is controlled by the Echegheh, a native ecclesiastical dignitary,
who presides over the religious orders, numbering about 12,000 monks. The
Falashas appear to have been converted at a very early date by Jewish
missionaries, and still practise many Jewish rites.
Education is restricted to the teaching of the secular and regular clergy,
who instruct a limited number of children in grammar, choral singing, poetry,
and the recitation of Bible texts. This education is gratuitous, and those to
whom it is imparted constitute the somewhat influential class of dabtara or
literati. There is no special class" of magistrates or judges, justice being
entirely administered by the provincial governors, landed proprietors, and
8hum, or petty chiefs. Besides the chiefs and their retainers summoned in
time of war, the king maintains a permanent army of Wottoader or ' merce-
naries,' most of whom are now armed with rifles instead of the national
weapons, shield and lance.
There is comparatively little land under tillage, pasturage being the chief
pursuit of the people, who raise large herds of cattle, as well as sheep and
goats. Wild indigo, coffee, cotton, the sugar-cane, date-palm, and vine thrive
well in many districts, but are nowhere extensively cultivated. The forests
abound in valuable trees. The chief exports are skins, ivory, butter, gums,
mules, forwarded mainly through Massowah, The exports from Great Britain
to Abyssinia in 1891 amounted to 18,0532., in 1892, 12,202. Besides Maria
Theresa pieces, bales of cloth and salt are still used as currency. Towns are
numerous, but are all of small size, scarcely any with a population of over 5,000.
The most important, politically and commercially, are : Gondar, capital of
Amhara, 5,000 ; Adua, capital of Tigre\ 3,000 ; Aksum, ancient capital of the
Ethiopian Empire, 5,000 ; Antalo, former capital of Tigre, 1,000 ; Ankober,
former capital of Shoa, 7,000 ; Licheh, present capital of Shoa, 3,000 ; Debra-
Tabor, Magdala, and Makalle, occasional royal residences ; Besso and Sokoto,
1,500, important trading centres ; Amba-Mariam, 4,000 ; Mahdera-Mariam,
4,000.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official Publications.
Censimenti della Popolazione del Regno d' Italia— 1861, 1871, 1881, eseguiti a cant della
Direzione Generale di Statistica.
Censimenti degli Italiani all' estero, 1871, 1881. Id.
Emigrazione e Colonic — Rapports di RR. Agenti diplomatici e consolari publieati dal
Ministero degli Affari esteri. 1893.
Superflcie del Regno d' Italia valutata nel 1884. Pubblicazione dell' Istituto Geografleo
Militare (Firenze).
L' Italia economica negli anni 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, e 1873, 5 volumi. The first four
years are by Dr. Pietro Maestri ; the volume for 1873 is an official publication issued by the
Ufficio della Statistica Generale d' Italia.
Annuario statistico italiano, anni 1878, 1881, 1884,1886, 1887-88, 1889.90, e 1892. Pab-
blicazione della Direzione Generale della Statistica.
Annali di Statistica. 10 volumes of the first series, 25 of the second series, 15 of the third
series, and 63 of the 4th series are now published (September 15, 1893). Id.
Saggio di bibliog. statistica italiana. 3a edizione accrescluta. Rome, 1889. Pabbli-
cazione della Direzione Generale di Statistica.
Annuario dei Minister! delle Finalize e del Tesoro. Statistica flnanziaria. Pubblicazione
annuale (cessata nel 1891).
Annuario militare e Annuario ufficiale della Regia Marina. Pubblicazione annuale dei
rispettivi Ministeri.
Relazione sulle leve e sulle vicende del R°. Esercito. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero
della Guerre.
Relazione sulle leve di mare. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero della Marina.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 71 7
Relazione intorno ai servizi poatale e telegrafloo ed al servizio dellecasse postali di ri-
spannio. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero delle Poste e del Telegran.
Relazione sull' esercizio e sulle costruzioni delle strade ferrate italiane. Pubblicazione
annuale del Ministero del Lavori Pubblici.
Bollettino dei prodotti delle ferrovie. Pubblicazione mensile del Ministero dei Lavori
Pubblici.
8tati di Previsione dell' Entrata e della Spesa, e Conti Qenerali Consuntivi. Pubblicazioni
annuali del Ministero del Tesoro.
La Gerarchia Cattolica, la Famiglia e la Gappella Pontificia. Rome. Pubblicazione
annuale dell' Autorita ecclesiastica.
Movimento dello Stato civile. Pubblicazione annuale della Direzione Oenerale della
Statistica.
Statistica dell' istmzione. Id.
Statistica giudiziaria civile e commerciale e Statistica giudiziaria penale. Pubblicazioni
annuali della Direzione Oenerale di Statistica.
Statistica della Stampa periodica. Pubblicazione biennale. Id.
Atti della Giunta per 1' inchiesta agraria e sulla condizione della classe agricola. Rome.
1880-84.
Bollettino di notizie agrarie. Pubblicazione periodica del Ministero di Agricoltura,
Industria e Commercio (Direzione Generate dell' Agricoltura).
Rivista del servizio minerario. Pubblicazione annuale. Id.
Bollettino di notizie sul credito e la previdenza. Pubblicazione mensile del Ministero di
Agricoltura, Ind. e Comm.
Le Societa cooperative di credito e banohe popolari, le* Societa ordinarie di credito, le
Societa ed Istituti di credito agrario e gli Istituti di credito fondiario. Pubblicazione
annuale. Id.
Statistica delle Casse di Risparmio. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero di Agricoltura,
Ind. e Comm.
Atti della Commission! d' inchiesta sull' esercizio delle ferrovie italiane.
Relazioni sulle strade comunali, provinciali e nazionali. Pubblicazione annuale del
Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici.
Atti della Commissione d' inchiesta sulla marina mercantile.
Sulle oondizioni della marina mercantile italiana. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero
della Marina.
Movimento della navigazione nei Porti del Regno. Pubblicazione annuale del Ministero
delle Finanze.
Movimento commerciale del Regno d' Italia. Id.
Statistica dei Bilanoi comunali. Pubblicazione annuale della Direzione Generale della
Statistics,
Statistica dei Biianci provinciali. Id.
Statistica dei Debiti comunali e provinciali. Pubblicazione periodica della Direzione
Generale della Statistica.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, for 1892. London, 1898.
Reports on the Condition of Labour in Italy in Foreign Office Reports. Nob. 211 and
276 Miscellaneous Series. London, 1892 and 1898.
Trade of Italy with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the Tear 1892.'
Imp. 4. London, 1898.
HerUUt (Sir B.), Foreign Office List London, 1893.
Foreign Dependencies.
Document! diplomatic! presentati al Parlamento italiano dal Presidente del Consiglio,
Ministro ad interim degli Affari Ester! (Crisp!) di concerto col Ministro della Guerra
(Bertole-Viale). Massaua. Seduta del 24 aprile 1888. Id. id. Seconda sessione 1887-88.
N. XVII. (Document!).
Id. id. id. Massaua (2a serie). Seduta dell' 8 novembre 1888. Id. id. id. N. XVIII.
bis (idA
Id. id. id. L' oceupasione di Keren e dell' Amaru. Seduta del 17 Dicembre 1889.
Id. id. quarta sessione 1889-90. N. XIV. (id.)L
Id. id. id. Etiopia. Id. id. id. id. N. XV. (id.).
Memoria sull' ordinamento politico-amministrativo e sulle condizion! economiche di
Massaua, presentata alia Camera dei Deputati dal Ministro degli Affari Esteri (Di Robilant),
nella tornata del 80 giugno 1886. Atti parlament&ri—- Legislature XVI. Prima sessione
1886, Doc X.
Possedimenti e protettorati europei in Africa, 1890. Raccolte di notizie geografiche,
storiche, politiche militari sulle region! costiere africane, corredate di 38 disegni intercalati
nel testo e di 6 carte separate. 2a edizione. Pubblicazione del Coipo di Stato Maggiore
italiano. Roma, tip. Voghera, 1890.
Provedimenti per la costitnzione e 1' ordinamento di una Colonia italiana in Assab.
Ministero degli Anari Eateri, 1882.
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718 ITALY
Possessi e Protettorati in Africa. Estratto dall* Annuario statistico italiano, anno
1892 (which contains a list of official documents relating to the colony of Eritrea). Roma,
1898.
2. Non-Official Publications.— Italy
Amati Amato, Dizionario corograflco dell' Italia. Milano, Vallardi, s. d. 8 vols. in4to.
Antinori (Giuseppe), La Sicilia, Quistioni echonomiche, amministrative, e politiche.
8. Palermo, 1877.
Antinori (Giuseppe), Studii SocialL 8. Napoli, 1885.
Beauelerk(Dr. W. N.), Rural Italy ; an Account of the present Agricultural Condition of
the Kingdom. London, 1888.
Bodio (L.)> Di alcuni indici misuratori del movimento economico in Italia. 8a edizione
riveduta ed ampliata. Roma, tipografla Nazionale di G. Bertero, 1892.
Bertolotti (Giuseppe), Statistics ecclesiastica d' Italia. Savona, 1885.
Cant* (Ce&are), Storia degli Italiani. [Gives the history up to the union of Italy, 1870].
15 vols. 8. Torino, 1877.
CoUetta (Pietro), History of the Kingdom of Naples. Tr. by H. Horner. 2 vols. 8
Edinburgh, 1860.
Daru (P.), Histoire de la Republique de Venise. 9 vols. 8. Paris, 1858.
. Elliot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Italy. 2 vols. 8. London, 1871. Diary of
an Idle Woman in Sicily. 2 vols. 8. London, 1881.
Gallenga (A.), History of Piedmont. 8 vols. 8. London, 1885.
Gallenga (A.), Italy, Present and Future. 8. London, 1887.
Gallenga (A.), Italy Revisited. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
Gli Albori della Vita italiana. [A series of essays by various writers on the origin of the
Communes of Florence, Milan, Venice ; the origin of Monarchy in Piedmont and Naples ;
the Papal Power and the Commune of Rome ; the Religious Orders and Heresy]. 2 vols.
8. Milan, 1890 91.
Oregorovius (Ferdinand), Geschiohte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter. 4th edition. 4 vols
8. Stuttgart, 1886.
Laveleye (Emile de), L'ltalie actuelle. 8. Paris, 1881.
Morpurgo (Emilio), La finanza italiana dalla fondazione del regno flno a quest! giorni.
8. Roma, 1874.
Simwndi (J. C. L. Sismonde de), Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du Moyen Age.
16 vols. 8. Paris, 1826.
ViUari (Pasquale), Le Lettere meridional! ed altri Scritti sulla Questione Sociale in
Italia. 2d. Ed 8. Torino, 1885.
ViUari (I.), Here and There in Italy and over the Border. 8. London, 1893.
Foreign Dependencies.
Bent (Theodore), The Sacred City of the Ethiopians ; a visit to Aksum in Abyssinia in
1898. 8. London, 1893.
BUrn (H. A.), The Captive Missionary. 8. London, 1868.
Bruce (James), Travels to discover the Sources of the Nile, 1768-73. 5 vols. 4. Edin-
burgh, 1790.
Bohlft (G.), Meine Mission nach Abessinien, Ac, 1880-81. 8. Leipzig, 1883.
D'Abbadie (Antoine), Geodesie d'Ethiopie, and numerous other memoirs.
Wilkins (H. St ClairX Reconnoitring in Abyssinia. 8. London, 1870.
Blanford (W. T.), The Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia. 8. London, 1870.
Heuglin (M. Theodor von), Reise in Nordosh-Afrika. 2 vols. 8. Brunswick, 1877.
rtiippell (W. P. E. S.), Reise in Abyssinien. 2 vols. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1832-40.
Mnnuiger (W.), Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1869, and other writings.
Le/ebvre (Theophile), Voyage en Abyssinie 1839-48. 6 vols. Paris, 1845-64.
Baffray (Achille), Afrique Oriental!, Abyssinie. 12. Paris, 1876.
HarrU (Sir W. Cornwallis), The Highlands of Ethiopia. 3 vols. 8. London, 1844.
Hartmann (Robert), Abyssinien und die iibrigen Gebiete der OstkUste Afrikaa In
Vol. XIV. of Das Wissen dei Gegenwart. Leipzig, 1883.
8Urn (Henry A.), Wanderings among the Falashas of Abyssinia. 8. London, 1862.
Lejean (GA Voyage en Abyssinie. (1862-64). 4. Paris, 1872.
Li Jean (Guillaume), Theodore II., le nonvel Empire d* Abyssinie et les Interets
Francais dans le sud de la Mer Rouge. 12. Paris, 1865.
Leva$»evr (Prof. E.), The Area and Population of Ethiopia, in Bulletin of the Inter-
national Statistical Institute.
Riclui, Universal Geography. Vol. X.
Cora (G.X Several Special Maps of Assab, Massowah, Afar Country, and of the other
Italian Possessions and adjoining Countries, published in Turin from 1881 to 1890.
Mawtja (G.), I miei Trentaclnque anni di Missions nelT Alta Etiopia. 7 vols. Fol.
Rome, 1885-89.
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719
JAPAN.
(NlPHON.)
Reigning Sovereign.
The Japanese claim that their empire was founded by the first
Emperor Jimmu 660 b.c, and that the dynasty founded by him
still reigns. It was revived in the year 1868, when the now
ruling (dejwre) sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power
of the Shiogun (the de facto sovereign), who had held the ruling
power in successive families since the twelfth century; and in
1871 the feudal system (Hoken Seiji) was entirely suppressed.
The sovereign bears the name of Kotei, or Emperor ; but the ap-
pellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is
the ancient title of Mikado, or ' The Honourable Gate.'
Mikado of Japan. — Mutsuhito, born at Kyoto, November 3,
1852; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, Feb. 13, 1867; mar-
ried, Feb. 9, 1869, to Princess Haruko, born May 28, 1850,,
daughter of Prince Ichijo.
Offspring. — Prince Yoshihito, born Aug. 31, 1877 ; proclaimed
the Crown Prince (Kotaishi), Nov. 3, 1878; Princess Masako,
born Sept. 30, 1888; Princess Fusako, born Jan. 29, 1890;
Princess Nobuko, born Aug. 7, 1891.
By the Imperial House Law of February 11, 1889, the suc-
cession to the throne has been definitely fixed upon the male de-
scendants. In case of failure of direct descendants, the throne
devolves upon the nearest Prince and his descendants. The civil
list for 1892-93 amounts to 3,000,000 yen.
Constitution and Government.
The system of government of the Japanese Empire was that
of an Absolute Monarchy. A Constitution was, however, pro-
mulgated on February 11, 1889.
By this Constitution the Emperor is the head of the Empire,
combining in himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercising
the whole of the executive powers with the advice and assistance
of the Cabinet Ministers, who are responsible to him, and are
appointed by himself. There is also a Privy Council, who de-
liberate upon important matters of State when they have been
consulted by the Emperor, The Emperor can declare war, make
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720 JAPAN
peace, and conclude treaties. The Emperor exercises the legisla-
tive power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. It is the
prerogative of the Emperor to give sanction to laws, to convoke
the Imperial Diet, to open, close, and prorogue it, and to dissolve
the House of Representatives. The Imperial Diet consists of
two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives.
Every law requires the ponsent of the Imperial Diet. Both
Houses may respectively initiate projects of law, can make re-
presentations to the Government as to laws or upon any other
subject, and may present addresses to the Emperor.
The House of Peers is composed of (1) male members of the Imperial
amily of the age of 20 and upwards ; (2) princes and marquises of the age of
25 and upwards (11 princes and 28 marquises) ; (3) counts, viscounts, and
barons of the age of 25 and upwards, and who have been elected by the
members of their respective orders, never to exceed one-fifth of each order (80
counts, 355 viscounts, 29 barons) ; (4) persons above the age of 30 years, who
have been nominated members by the Emperor for meritorious services to the
State or for erudition ; (5) persons who shall have been elected in each Fu and
Ken from among and by the 15 male inhabitants thereof, of above the age of
30 years, paying therein the highest amount of direct national taxes on Land,
industry, or trade, and have been nominated by the Emperor. The term of
membership under (3) and (5) is seven years ; under (1), (2), and (4) for life.
The number of members under (4) and (5) not to exceed the number of other
members. The entire membership of the House of Peers is to be about 300.
The members of the House of Representatives number 300, a fixed number
being returned from each election district The proportion of the number of
members to the population is about one member to 128,000. The qualifica-
tions of electors are (1) male Japanese subjects of not less than full 25 years of
age ; (2) fixed permanent and actual residence in the Fu or Ken for not less
than a year ; (3) payment of direct national taxes to the amount of not less
than 15 yen for one year in the Fu or Ken, and in case of income tax for three
years.
The qualifications of persons eligible for election are generally the same as
those of electors, except that they must be of not less than 30 years, and need
not have fixed residence in the Fu or Ken. The term of membership is four
years.
Disqualified for members of the House of Representatives are officials of
the Imperial Household, judges, auditors, officials connected with the collec-
tion of taxes, police officials, officials of electoral districts within their own
districts, military and naval officers, and priests or ministers of religion. The
President and Vice-President of tne House of Peers are nominated by the
Emperor from among the members, and President and Vice-President of the
House of Representatives are nominated by the Emperor from among three
candidates elected by the House. The Presidents of both Houses receive an
annual salary of 4,000 yen ; Vice-Presidents, 2,000 yen ; elected and nomi-
nated members of the House of Peers and members of the House of Repre-
sentatives, 800 yen, besides travelling expenses. No one is allowed to decline
these annual allowances.
The Imperial Diet has control over the finances and the administration of
justice. Voting is by secret ballot, and the system is that of scrvtin de liak.
The Diet must be assembled once every year.
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LOCAL GOVERNMENT — AREA AND POPULATION
721
Local Government.
At the head of local administration in the provinces are the governors, one
of them residing in. each of the 46 districts (3 Fus and 43 Kens) into which
Japan is divided. In 1879, city and prefectural assemblies were created, based
on the principle of election ; their power is confined to fixing the estimates off
the local rates, subject to the confirmation of the governors, and finally of the
Minister of the Interior. Eligible to the assembly are all male citizens 25
years of age, resident in the district at least three consecutive years, and pay-
ing land tax of more than ten yen annually. The franchise is conferred on all
male citizens of 20 years residing in the district, and paying more than five
yen land tax. Annually, or in every other year, governors are summoned to
the Department of the Interior to deliberate upon matters of local administra-
tion. Each district is subdivided into cities (kv)t and counties {gun)t each
with its chief magistrate (cho), who manages local affairs. The Island of
Hokkaidd (Yezo) has a governor and a special organisation.
To further carry out the principle of decentralisation and self-government
a system of local administration in shi (municipality), cho (town), and son
(village) was established by Imperial Rescript, April 17, 1888, which came
into effect April 1, 1889, and is to be applied gradually according to the
circumstances and requirements of these localities.
Area and Population.
The Empire is geographically divided into the four islands of
Honshiu or Nippon, the central and most important territory;
Kiushiu, ' the nine provinces/ the south-western island ; Shikoku,
* the four states/ the southern island ; and Hokkaid6 (Yezo) to
the north of Honshiu; besides the Iiukiu, Sado, Awaji, Oki,
Tsushima, and Bonin Islands. Administratively there exists a
division into three 'Fu* and forty-three 'Ken/ or prefectures.
There is also a political division into 85 provinces, 42 urban
and 804 rural arrondissements, 1,284 towns, and 13,773 villages
(number of villages of Okinawa prefecture excluded) (1892).
The population of Japan has increased as follows since
1880 :—
Yew
Population
(Dec 81)
Annual
Increase
per cent.
Year
Population
(Dec 81)
Annual
Increase
per cent.
1887
1888
1889
39,069,007
39,607,234
40,072,020
1-46
1-38
117
1890
1891
1892
40,453,461
40,718,677
40,718,677
0*95
0*66
0-66
The total area of Japan, according to the official returns of
December 31, 1891, is 147,655 square miles, with a population of
3 A
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722
JAPAN
40,718,677 (20,563,416 males, and 20,155,261 females),
population of the six divisions is as follows : —
The
-
Sq. m.
Population
Pop.
per
sq. m.
-
Sq. m.
Population
Pop.
per
sq. m.
Central Nippon
Northern „
Western „
86,600
30,204
20,681
15,776,541
6,190,028
9,279,740
431
204
448
Shikoku .
Kiushiui.
Hokkaidd
Grand tot.
7,081
16,840
36,299
2,887,897
6,270,863
314,108
416
372
8
Total Nippon
87,485
81,246,809
357
1
147,655
40,718,677
275 J
On December 31, 1891, the population was divided among the various
classes as follows :— Imperial family, 45 (not included in the total population) ;
kwazoku, or nobles, 3,824 ; shizoku, or knights (formerly retainers of the
daimios), 2,059,386 ; common people, 38,705,438. The number of foreigners
in 1892 was 9,803, of whom 5,574 were Chinese, 1,728 English, 958 Ameri-
cans, 480 Germans, 404 French, 157 Portuguese, 458 Europeans of other
nationalities, and 44 natives of Pacific Islands. The number of Japanese
residents abroad in 1892 was 32,146.
The following table gives the statistics of the births, deaths, and mar-
riages for five years : —
Year
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Excess of Births
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,058,137
1,172,729
1,209,910
1,145,374
1,086,775
753,456
752,834
808,680
823,718
853,139
334,149
330,246
340,445
325,141
325,651
304,681
419,895
401,230
321,656
233,636
In 1888 the still-births (not included in the above) numbered 60,865, and
living illegitimate, 49,767 ; in 1889 the former 77,495, the latter 63,754 ; in
1890 the former 85,251, the latter 68,498 ; in 1891, the former 91,752, the
latter 66,253 ; in 1892, the former 91,389, the latter 63,122.
The following is a list of the cities with a population over 30,000 in
1892 :—
i
Tokio .
Osaka .
Kioto .
Nagaya.
Yokohama
Kobe .
Kanasawa
Hirosima
Sendai .
Nagasaki
Tokusima
Toyama
1,161,800
Hakodate
. 57,943
483,609
Kumamoto
) . 56,618
297,527
Kagoshimi
Wakayam
i . 56,157
179,174
a . 55,668
142,965
Fukuoka
. 54,855
132,627
Niigata
. 47,201
93,531
Okayama
. 47,002
90,154
Sakai
. 44,990
64,476
Naha
. 42,973
60,581
Fukui
. 41,594
59,969
Shizuoka
. 38,331
59,090
Matsuye
. 35,459
Takamatsu
Matsuyama
Akamagasek
Kofe
Kochi
Mayebashi
Morioka .
Otsu
Utsunomiya
Gifu
Hirosaki .
34,625
34,573
33,113
33,055
33,039
32,531
31,886
31,851
31,268
30,994
30,500
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INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
723
Religion.
By the new Constitution absolute freedom of religious belief and practice
is secured, so long as it is not prejudicial to peace and order. The chief
forms of religion are — (1) Shintoism, with 10 sects ; (2) Buddhism, with 12
sects and 40 creeds. There is no State religion, and no State support. The
1 principal Shinto temples are, however, maintained by State or local authorities.
In 1891— Shinto temples, 193,153; priests, 14,700; students, 1,386.
Buddhist temples, 71,859 ; priests, 52,511 ; students, 10,382. There are
also numerous Roman Catholics, adherents of the Greek Church, and
Protestants.
Instruction.
Elementary education is compulsory; The number of children of school
age (6-14) on December 31, 1891, was 7,220,450. The following are the
educational statistics for 1891 : —
Institutes
1 Number
Teaching Staff
Students and Pupils
Elementary schools
25,374
69,608
3,153,813
Lower middle
57
815
14,379
Higher „
»
7
314
4,442*
High girls'
. ' 29
332
2,768
Normal
. . 1 49
669
5,354
Technical
a
. ' 88
1,683
18,447
Special
3)
1,682
4,300
85,806
University
i>
. . 3
248
1,385
Kindergarton
j>
147
317
8,662
The University consists of a University Hall, Colleges of Law, Science,
Medicine, Literature, and Engineering. It is supported by Government.
The bulk of the elementary and higher schools are also supported by Govern-
ment and by local rates. One of the normal schools is for high school
teachers.
In 1891 there were 20 libraries in Japan, with 181,942 volumes. In 1891,
22,568 books of various kinds, and 716 periodicals, monthly, weekly, daily,
were published. Of the periodicals 199,168,371 copies were issued.
Justice and Crime.
A system of justice founded on modern jurisprudence has been established.
Judges are irremovable,' except by way of criminal or disciplinary punishment.
There is a Court of Cassation at Tokio, which takes cognisance of civil and
criminal appeals. There are seven courts of appeal, having appellate jurisdic-
tion over civil and criminal cases decided in the courts of first instance.
There are 48 courts of first instance, one in each Fu or Ken, with branch courts
in some Fus and Kens having unlimited original civil jurisdiction. As
criminal courts they try and decide all lesser crimes, and also make pre-
liminary examination of serious crimes. Courts of peace (299), established in
principal towns and villages of every Fu and Ken, take cognisance of all petty
3 a 2
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724
JAPAN
offences. Once in three months criminal courts are constituted in courts of
appeal, and sometimes in courts of first instance, a president and four judges,
to try serious crimes.
A few judges of high rank are directly appointed by the Emperor, some
are appointed by him on nomination by the Minister of Justice, and the rest
are appointed by the Minister of Justice. The following are the criminal
statistics for five years : —
-
188T
1888
1889 1 1890 1891
Serious crimes
Lesser ,,
4,397
79,72a
3,174
73,279
2,431 ! 3,260 ! 3,260
86,555 I 137,268 1 154,087
Total .
84,120 | 76,453 | 88,986 140,528 157,678
There are eight State prisons (one temporary), 159 local prisons, reforma-
tories at least in each Fu and Ken, also 7 military prisons, and 4 naval
• prisons. Number of prisoners of all kinds, convicted and accused, and those
in reformatories, at the close of 1891 : — Men, 68,642 ; women, 4,611 ; total,
73,253.
Pauperism.
Government annually sets aside 1,200,000 yen for a relief fund, 300,000 yen
contributed by the central Government, and 900,000 yen by the local govern-
ments. Landowners are besides taxed for relief rates to the amount of
900,000 yen. The amount thus distributed in 1890-91 was 224,307 yen
for food to 8,218,835 persons (counting the same person as different for each
day), 166,738 yen for provisional dwellings to 38,196 families, 56,175 yen
for instruments of agriculture to 12,263 families, 196,806 yen for seed grain
to 95,797 families, 46,634 yen for subsidy of land tax to 35,916 persons,
184,565 yen for loan of land tax to 49,368 persons, and 72,870 yen for miscel-
laneous purposes. The central Government also grants relief to the extremely
poor, the helpless, and friendless; in 1890-91, 17,488 persons were thus
relieved, to the amount of 128,872 yen, as compared with 6,018 persons and
44,800 in 1883-84 ; and besides, 784,423 persons were assisted from the
relief fund, to the amount of 948,095 yen. In the end of 1890, 5,431 found-
lings were being maintained. There is a workhouse in Tokio, with 511 paupers
at the end of 1891, as compared with 108 in 1884 ; income, 1890-91, 15,374
yen ; expenditure, 13,036 yen.
Finance.
I. Imperial.
The following are the revenue and expenditure for five years,
the amounts for the last year being estimates : —
1889-90
Ten
Yen
1890-91
1891-92
1892-98
Ten
Ten I Ten
Revenue. . ' 92,956,933 96,687,979:106,470,354 98,732,423 86,507,009,
Expenditure . | 81,504,024 79,713,672 82,125,403 83,555,891 86,167,981
In this table the revenue for each year includes the surplus of the previous
year, as follows:— 1888-89, 6, 073, 242 yen; 1889-90, 4,348,975 yen ; 1890-91,
20,598,721 yen ; 1891-92, 15,844,885 yen ; 1892-93, 5,805,536 yen.
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FINANCE
725
The following are the budget estimates for the year ending 31 March,
1894 :—
Revenue
Yen
Expenditure
Yen
Land-tax .
38,693,966
Public debt repayment
4,890,074
Income-tax
1,083,196
,, ,, interest&fees
15,129,904
Bank licences
220,730
Civil list and Shinto
Stamp duties
604,084
temples .
3,206,808
Tax on sake, malt, and
Cabinet, Privy Council,
soy.
16,818,517
Board of Auditors,
Tax on tobacco .
1,835,169
and Court of Admin-
Other inland revenue .
2,869,819
istrative Litigation .
673,254
Customs
4,550,655
Imperial Diet
569,558
Post and Telegraphs .
6,326,361
Ministry of For. Affairs
660,885
State Services .
3,587,219
,, ,, Interior .
763,772
Forests
1,061,402
Tokio police department
276,641
Various licences, fees,
Provincial government
4,921,458
and others
2,042,839
Ministry of Finance .
4,126,336
State property, and
miscellaneous .
War
12,810,664
838,352
.,, Marine
5,639,989
Interest received from
,, Justice
3,573,239
deposits .
943,750
,, Education
941,836
Temporary revenue .
2,759,532
,, Agriculture
and Commerce
990,040
Ministry of Post and
Telegraphs
5,710,034
Hokkaidd government
1,530,067
Annuities and pensions
1,379,508
Redemption of paper
currency .
1,000,000
Exceptional :
Bridges, &c, .
1,557,321
Defences
7,743,007
Various
3,753,710
Total .
84,235,591
Total .
Surplus of previous year
3,809,642
81,848,105
The public debt of Japan stood as follows on March 31, 1892 : — Home debt :
7£ per cent., 10,000,000 yen ; 7 per cent., 13,923,900 yen ; 6 per cent,
46,613,505 yen ; 5 per cent., 159,598,120 yen ; 4 per cent., 10,535,925 yen ;
no interest, 28,583,635 yen; total, 269,255,085 yen. Foreign debt: 7 per
cent, 4,488,624 yen. Total, 273,743,709 yen. Paper currency, 25,702,384
yen.
II. Local.
The estimated revenue of Fu and Ken for 1892-93 is 18,045,920 yen, and
expenditure 18,055,166 yen. The Treasury is to grant to local governments
1,099,431 yen. The actual revenue for 1890-91 of Ku, Cho, and Son was
22,785,366 yen, and expenditure 21,312,406 yen.
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726 JAPAN
Defence.
The Emperor has the supreme command of the army and
navy. Since the restoration of Imperial authority and the con-
sequent abolition of the feudal system, the army of the Empire
has been organised on a uniform system on the basis of con-
scription. According to the present law, all males of the age
of 20 are liable to serve in the standing army for seven years, of
which three must be spent in active service, and the remaining
four in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve
they have to form part of the landwehr for another five years ;
and every male from 17 up to 40 years of age, who is not either
in the line, the reserve, or the Icmdwehr, must belong to the
landstwrm, and is liable to be called to service in times of national
emergency.
The army is composed of the Imperial Guard and six divisions. In
1892 it was as follows : — The Imperial Guard (2 brigades or 4
regiments of infantry, 1 squadron of cavalry, 1 regiment of artillery,
1 company of engineers, and a band of music) consists of 262
officers, 5,945 non-commissioned officers and men, with 40 field guns
and 558 horses. The six divisions consist of — infentry, 12 brigades or 24
regiments, 1,699 officers, 36,226 non-commissioned officers and men ; cavalry,
6 squadrons, 62 officers, 1,240 non-commissioned officers and men, 1,146
horses; artillery, 8 regiments, 291 officers, 5,137 non-commissioned
'officers and men, 240 field and 120 mountain guns, 1,655 horses ; engineers,
6 battalions, 97 officers, 2,078 non-commissioned officers and men ; train, 6
squadrons, 113 officers, 1,995 non-commissioned officers and men, 1,746
horses ; a band of music (51 non-commissioned officers and men). Including
miscellaneous services, the total strength on the peace footing is 3,662 officers.
62,441 non-commissioned officers and men, 314 field guns, 156 mountain guns,
8,791 horses. There are besides, 6 battalions of gendarmes, of 51 officers, 1,007
non-commissioned officers and men, 88 horses, and 4 battalions of yeomanry,
with 80 officers, 3,210 non-commissioned officers and men. There are a staff
college, military college, cadet college, military school, gunnery school, a
school for non-commissioned officers, &c, with 1,878 students. The reserve
has a strength of 99,554, and the landwehr of 99,176.
All the fire-arms, ordnance, and ammunition used in the Imperial army
are manufactured at the arsenals of Tokio and Osaka. The rifle now used in
the army is the M urate rifle, which was invented in Japan a few years ago.
The Japanese fleet is a purely defensive force of the " mobile " character,
there being no coast-defence vessels of the class so called in England. It con-
sists of 5 ships, which may be classed as armoured cruisers, one of these being
a wooden vessel, 9 second-class cruisers (between 2,000 and 5,000 tons), and
22 vessels which, according to the classification adopted in this book, may be
ranked as third-class ^cruisers. Of these 15 have a speed of 10 knots or more.
The torpedo flotilla includes 1 first-class boat (i.e., above 125 feet in length),
and 40 of the second-class (between 100 and 125 feet).
Japan is divided into two naval districts, at the head of each of which is a
vice-minister, subject to the naval minister at Tokio. There is an important
admiralty department at Yokohama ; the principal dockyard is at Yokosuka,
and the naval school is at Tokio
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
727-
The following are the principal vessels of the Japanese navy. Those named •
in italics are armoured ; those with a prefixed are deck-protected.
—
Material
Launched
Tons
Indicated
Horse-
power
Number
of Guns
Knots per
hour
Riujo .
Composite
1864
2,800
800
7
9
] Fuso
Iron
1877
3,787
8,500
11
13
1 Kongo .
Composite
1879
2,284
2,034
9
12
Hi-yei .
„
„
,,
2,227
9
12
Tschiyoda
Steel
1889
2,440
5,600
24
19
iNaniwa
1885
3,750
7,650
10
19
aTakachiho
,,
M
7,650
10
19
altsukushima
tt
1890
4,277
5,400
28
16
, aMatsushima
1 •>
1891
}>
,f
28
16
| aHashidate
u
M
M
18
16
; *Akitsnshima
1892
4,150
8,400
12
19
aToshino
tJ
»>
4,150
15,000
34
22*
22*
1 oNew ship
Tsukushi
M
Building
4,200
15,000
34
M
1882
1,350
2,900
6
17
Kaimon
Wood
1882
1,460
1,250
7
12
Tenrio .
1883
1,580
1,165
7
12
Takao .
Composite
1885
1,760
2,300
5
15
Tamato
fJ
„
1,680
1,600
7
18
Katsuragi
„
>i
1,680
1,600
7
13
Masashi
1886
1,680
1,600
7
13
Yayeyama
Steel
1889
1,800
5,400
3
20
Shiodo .
i»
Building
2,400
8,500
24
19
The sister ships Hashidctie, Itsukuskima, and Matsushima (the first built
at Yokosuka, the others at La Seyne) are of a special class of coast-defence
protected cruisers. They displace 4,277 tons, are 295 feet in length, and
measure 50 feet 6 inches in beam. Each carries one gun of 12J inches, and
has a powerful quick-firing armament The protection consists of a 2-inch
steel deck. The Akitsushima, built in Japan, is a like vessel, but of greater
speed (19 knots). The steel cruiser Yoskino, built at Elswick, is analogous
inplan to the Argentine 9 de Julio and 25 de Afayo, but is larger and provided
with a double bottom. Her length is 350 feet, her beam 46 feet 6 inches,
and she has a displacement of about 4,000 tons. Her armament consists of four
6-inch guns (one on the poop and one on the forecastle, each with a firing arc
of 270 , and the other two sponsoned out on either bow), eight guns of
4*7 inches, twenty-two 3-pounders, all on the quick-firing principle, and five
torpedo tubes. The final six hours' natural-draught trial gave a mean speed
of 21 -6 knots.
Production and Industry.
The land is cultivated chiefly by peasant proprietors, tenancy being rare.
The land is thus officially divided, in acres : — Public land : Crown land,
8,956,162 ; used for Government purposes, 194,361 ; forests, 28,745,354 ;
open field, 14,375,745; miscellaneous, 176,400; total, 52,448,022 acres.
Private land : under cultivation, 11,508,565; homesteads, 857,573; forests,
15,686,603 ; open field, 2,552,371 ; miscellaneous, 53,111 ; total, 30,658,223
acres. (Private land of Miye, Aichi, and Gifu prefectures not included in the
above, owing to the damages of earthquake of the year.) The public lands
include only those surveyed, and the private only those taxed.
The following are some agricultural statistics for 1888-92 :—
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JAPAN
Rice (acres) .
„ (bushels)
Wheat (acres)
„ (bushels)
Barley (acres)
„ (bushels)
Rye (acres) .
„ (bushels
Tea (in kwan*)
Sugar (in kwan »)
Silk: cocoons (in koku2)
„ raw (in kwan 1)
1889
>29
249
J51
)08
286
m
L70
L90
>64
$23
273
581
27
42
36
59
!01
182
160
83
19
i61
572
.67
1891
104
18 56
18
l1 (62
.59.
4 30
;78
3 66
J98
13',314J37
1,580,240 .
1.542,831J
1892
i 1 kwan = 8-28 pounds avoir. 2 1 koku = 4*96 bushels.
The number of cattle in 1888 was 1,011,261 ; in 1889, 1,021,503 ; in
1890, 1,044,976 ; in 1891, 1,057,422 ; and of horses in 1888, 1,529,999 ; in
1889, 1,541,342 ; in 1890, 1,546,368 ; in 1891, 1,547,661.
The mineral and metal products in the fiscal year, 1889-90, were as
follows : —
-
Official Mines
Private Mines
Gold mornm^1 ....
63,419
141,177
Silver „
1,641,350
9,806,665
Copper kwan9
.
9,487
4,324,919
Iron ,, .
811,003
4,832,557
Lead ,, .
—
160,453
Coal „ .
49,876,173
600,823,032
Antimony ,, .
493,804
51,486
Sulphur „
—
4,537,799
i 120 momme = 1 lb. avoirdupois. 2 1 kwan = 8*28 lbs.
Silk, cotton, and other textiles were manufactured to the value ot
5,987,582 yen in 1884; 17,825,645 yen in 1886; 27,475,408 yen in 1887;
57,654,054 yen in 1888 ; in 1889, 39,344,840 yen ; in 1890, 33,040.151 yen.
Cotton yarn was manufactured in 1886 to the extent of 785,424 kwan, in 1888,
1,593,103 kwan, in 1889, 3,358,042 kwan, in 1890, 5,232,588 kwan, and in
1891, 8,163,093 kwan.
In 1887 there were 277,698 fishing-boats, and 865,189 ^persons wholly or
partially engaged in fishing. Some of the products were : — (1891) salt fish,
8,405,562 kwan; dried fish, &c, 8,726,149 kwan ; fish manure, 34,070,628
kwan ; fish oil, 1,067,918 kwan ; sea-weed, &c, 8,702,800 kwan.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the foreign trade of
Japan for five years : —
i
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports .
Exports .
Total .
Yen
65,416,238
64,891,678
Yen
66,041,584
69,306,894
Yen
81,670,354
55,791,847
Yen
62,880,670
78,738,054
Yen
71,276,943
90,404,735
130,307,916
135,348,478
137,462,201
141.618,724
161,681,678
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COMMERCE
729
The commercial intercourse of Japan is mainly with the
following countries, and to the following values in 1891 and
1892 j—
i
Exports to
Imports from
1891
1892
1891
1892
Yen
Yen
Yen
Yen
N. America ' .
31,138,422
39,763,378
6,860,883
. 6,018,808
Great Britain
5,633,137
3,921,753
19,996,051
20,789,332
China
5,825,851
6,358,860
8,798,428
12,509,410
France
15,120,075
18,093,694
2,834,025
3,620,500
East Indies and Siam .
989,001
1,425,775
5,642,551
7,666,386
Germany .
1,456,596
940,783
5,127,476
6,375,048
Corea ....
1,466,040
1,410,699
4,032,922
3,046,340
Russia
315,837
585,695
884,621
835,895
Switzerland
259,036
159,584
549,970
713,660
Italy ....
754,780
1,254,331
111,887
67,680
Austria
291,566
341,932
27,611
10,265
Australia- .
757,101
731,659
228,844
272,787
Holland .
15,301*
19,550
44,341
17,600
Belgium
69,376
50,125
688,958
951,587
The foreign commerce of Japan is carried on through the open ports of
Yokohama, Kobe', Osaka, Nagasaki, Hakodate, Niigata, and 18 other ports.
The following table shows the chief articles of the foreign commerce for 1891
and 1892 :—
Exports
1891
1892
Imports
1891
Yen
1892
Yen
Yen
Yen
Raw silk & cocoons,
Cotton yarn .
5,589,290
7,131,980
Ac
82,089,655
89,858,082
„ piece goods.
1,761,653
2,941,808
Tea ....
7,083,050
7,525,816
Sugar
Calico
7,811,307
9,604,350
Rice
6,218,495
4,162,732
1,656,681
1,727,186
Coal.
4,749,785
4,571,984
Wool and woollen
Copper .
Dried fish
2,828,880
2,499,748
goods .
3,519,959
5,620,637
2,299,079
2,201,346
Leather .
952,402
1,199,883
Porcelain, lacqner,
! Metals .
5,164,802
5,015,110
bronze, Ac. .
2,177,955
2,309,155
Glass
879,075
204,430
Seaweed .
767,416
994,626
Tobacco .
273,149
818,891
Camphor .
Mushrooms .
1,629,105
1,274,753
Petroleum
4,585,720
8,328,398
559,853
564,746
Drugs
2,092,031
2,354,344
Drugs & chemicals .
877,012
912,754
Dyes and paint
1,083,465
1,486,459
Vegetable wax
316,835
285,567
Machinery, ships,
wneat and other
Ac.
3,982,825
2,997,999
cereals .
259,974
104,082
Beverages and pro-
Tobacco (leaf).
88,175
95,820
visions .
7,423,578
6,203,198
Fish oil .
175,802
248,621
Other articles .
16,654,784 21,088,779
Fans
364,324
841,567
Silk textiles .
4,782,459
8,251,096
Other articles .
Total .
11,525,745
14,207,745
Total
78,738,053
90,404,735
62,880,671
71,276,942
The exports of bullion and specie in 1891 amounted to 1,452, 964 yen (1892,
9,729,753 yen), and imports to 13,888,526 yen (1892, 22,883,757 yen).
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom, according to the Board oi
Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table for five years : —
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MONEY AND CREDIT
The following are the postal statistics for five years : —
731
Years
Letters
Newspapers
and
Pamphlets
Books
2,796,627
2,565,178
1,986,437
1,957,168
1,752,727
Parcels
Income
Expen-
diture
Officers
1891
1890
1889
1888
1887
186,495,595
172,606,883
154,441,419
135,605,934
116,572,888
49,082,176
41,255,681
27,066,852
21,278,224
18,248,805
305,484
216,745
93,029
106,107
59,266
Yen
5,049,360
4,637,968
3,859,282
3,272,067
2,669,782
Yen
4,119,621
4,817,102
3,086,384
1,633,588
8,424
5,608
6,544
5,467
5,502
All open ports and other important cities and towns are connected with
each other and with Europe by lines of telegraph. In March, 1892, there
were 7,671 miles of telegraph with 22,244 miles of wire, besides 238
miles of submarine cable, with 320 miles of wire. The number of telegrams
carried was 4,523,430 in the year 1892. There were 524 offices in Japan.
In March, 1893, there were 376 miles of telephone (3,234 miles of wire),
with 4 exchange offices, 20 calling offices, and 1,504 subscribers.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows in yen the amount of coinage issued in the
fiscal years stated (ending 31st March) : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Gold coins .
Silver „ .
Nickel „ .
Copper,, .
977,718
10,229,983
234,763
857,196
10,353,377
500,000
1,724,082
7,226,416
2,100,000
886,000
8,448,617
1,667,226
1,124,835
8,815,781
500,125
Total
11,442,464
11,710,573
11,050,498
11,001,843
10,440,741
The total coinage issued from the mint from its foundation in 1870 up to
1892, exclusive of re-coinage, amounted to 188,891,364 yen.
The paper money in circulation consists of Treasury notes, Kokuritsu
Ginko notes, or notes of the National banks, and Nippon Ginko (or Bank ol
Japan) notes, exchangeable for silver on presentation. The amount in circu-
lation on 1st April, 1892, was 136,161,150 yen.
In 1891 the Nippon Ginko, or Bank of Japan, had a paid-up capital of
10,000,000 yen ; notes in circulation, 103,843,080 yen ; loans, 11,747,551 yen ;
deposits, 5,730,493 yen. The Kokuritsu Ginko (134 branches), paid-up
capital, 48,701,100 yen ; notes in circulation, 24,846,468 yen ; deposits,
38,765,574 yen ; loans, 66,173,259 yen. The Shokin Ginko, or Specie Bank,
paid-up capital, 4,500,000 yen ; loans, 4, 534, 546 yen ; deposits, 5,532,472 yen.
At the end of 1891 there were 252 private banks, with capital 18,976,616
yen. In 1891, 41,053 persons deposited 3.742,255 yen, and withdrew
2,293,435 yen during the year from the Kokuritsu Ginko, which does business
also as savings banks. In the same year 843,320 persons deposited 30,587,700
yen and withdrew 10,437,852 yen during the year from the post-offices,
which act as savings banks,
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732
JAPAN
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in common use throughout Japan, and
the British equivalents, are —
Money.
The Yen, or Dollar, of 100 sens, is of the nominal value of 4s. ; actual
value about 3*. 4d.
Gold coins are 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1-yen pieces. The 5-yen gold piece
weighs 8*3 grammes, about '900 fine, and contains 7*5 grammes of fine
gold. The gold yen is the unit of account. Silver coins are the yen, and
50, 20, 10, and 5-sen pieces. The silver yen weighs 26*9564 grammes *900
fine, and thus contains 24*3737 grammes of fine silver.
Trade dollars are also coined weighing 27*2156 grammes, '900 fine, and
thus containing 24*4940 grammes of fine silver.
The 5-sen piece is also coined in nickel. Copper coins are 2, 1, half, and
tenth-sen pieces, the last, called the rin, being the smallest coin used.
Paper currency of various denominations, corresponding to the coins, is in
general use, and is now at par with silver. Practically the standard of value
is silver.
Weights and Measures.
The Kin =160 mommi
„ Kwan = 1,000 „
,, Shaku
' „ SUn ...
„ Ken = Qshaku .
„ CM = 60 hen
„ Ri = 36 ch6
„ Risq.
,, Ch6, land measure
,, Koku, liquid
„ dry
„ To, liquid
„ „ dry
1 *325 lb. avoirdupois.
8*281 lbs.
•994 foot.
1,193 inches.
5*965 feet.
^ mile, 5*4229 chains.
2*44 miles.
5*9552 sq. miles.
2 *45 acres.
39*7033 gallons.
4 9629 bushels.
3*9703 gallons.
1 9708 peck.
It is stated to be the intention of the Government to introduce into
Japan at an early period a new system of weights and measures, based on the
metric system.
Diplomatic Bepresentatives.
1. Of Japan in Great Britain.
Erwoy and Minister. — Viscount Kawase (absent).
Charge' oV Affaires ad interim. — Yasuya Uchida.
Secretary. — Masanosuke* Akiyama.
Naval Attache. — Yendo Kitaro.
2. Of Great Britain in Japan.
Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul-General. — Hugh Fraser,
appointed Envoy Extraordinary, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul-
General, April 30, 1888.
Secretary. — Maurice W. E. de Bunsen.
There are Consular Representatives at Hakodate Niigata, Hiogo, Osaka,
Nagasaki, and Yokohama.
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733
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.
1. Official Publications.
Constitution of the Empire of Japan. Tokio, 1889.
General Outlines of Education in Japan. Tokio, 1884.
Grieraon (Capt. J. M.), The Armed Strength of Japan. London, 1886.
Reports on the Trade of Japan in Nos. 1,268, 1,255, 1,260, 1,277 of Annual Series,
and on the National Debt of Japan in No. 299 Miscellaneous Series, Foreign Office Reports.
London, 1893.
Reports of the various Government Departments, 1891-92 and 1892-93. .
Resume statistique de l'empire du Japon. Annual. Tokio.
Returns of the Foreign Commerce and Trade of Japan for the year 1892. Tokio, 1898.
Trade of Japan with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade and Navi-
gation of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year
1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adam* (F. O.), History of Japan, from the earliest period to the present time. 2 vols.
8. London, 1875.
Alcock (Sir Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a Narrative of a three years'
Residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1863.
Arnold (Sir Edwin), Seas and Lands. 2 vols. London, 1891.
Bird (Miss J. L.), Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Caron, Account of Japan (1635). In Vol. VII. of Pinkerton's Collection. 4. London,
1811.
Dixon (W. G.), The Land of the Morning. Edinburgh, 1882.
Du Pin (M.), Le Japon : Moeura, coutumes, rapports avec les Europeens. 8. Paris,
1868.
Eden (C. H.), Japan : Historical and Descriptive. 8. London, 1877.
Griffls (Wm. Elliot), The Mikado's Empire. 8. New York, 1876.
Heine (W.), Japan : Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Landes und seiner Bewohner. Fol.
Leipzig, 1873.
Landor (A. H. Savage), Alone with the Hairy Ainu. London, 1893.
Leupe (P. A.), Reise van Maarten Gerritz-Uries in 1643 naar net noorden en oosten van
Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1868.
Metehnikoff (L.), Empire Japonais. Geneva, 1881.
Mossman (Samuel), New Japan : the Land of the Rising Sun. 8. London, 1875.
Norman (HA The Real Japan. London, 1891.
Reelue (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Vol. VII. L'Asie orientale. Paris, 1882.
Reed (Sir E. J.), Japan : its History, Traditions, and Religions, with the Narrative of a
Visit in 1879. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Rein (Dr. J.), Japan nach Reisen und Studien. Vol. I. 1880. Vol. II. 1886.
8atow (E. M.) and Howe* (Lieut. A. G. S.), Handbook for Travellers in Central and
Northern Japan. London, 1884.
Siebold (Ph. Franz von), Nippon : Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan. 8. Ley den,
1884-87.
Taylor (B.), Japan in our Day. 8. New York, 1871.
Titrtngh (Isaac), Nipon o da! its! ran, ou annales des empereurs du Japon. Ouvr. corr.
Burrorigmaljaponais-chinoisparM. J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834.
Usrtle (J.), A travera le Japon. Paris, 1893.
WUUerstorf-Urbair (Baron von), Reise der oesterreichischen Fregatte Nowura um die
Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Beschreibender Theil von Dr. Karl v. Scherzer.
2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.
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>
734
LIBERIA.
(United States of Liberia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Liberia is on the model of that of the
United States of America. The executive is vested in a President, and the
legislative power in a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The President and the House of Representatives
are elected for two years, and the Senate for four years. There are 13 members
of the Lower House, and 8 of the Upper House. The President must be
thirty-five years of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars,
or 1201.
President of Liberia. — Joseph James Cheeseman, for the term 1892 — 94.
The President is assisted in his executive function by five ministers — the
Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of the In-
terior, the Attorney-General, and the Postmaster-General.
Area and Population.
Liberia has about 500 miles of coast line, arid extends back 200 miles on an
average, with an area of about 14,360 square miles. The total population is
estimated to number 1,068,000, all of the African race, and of which number
18,000 are Americo-Liberians, and the remaining 1,050,000 aboriginal in-
habitants. Monrovia, the capital, has an estimated population (1891) of
5,000. Other towns are Robertsport, 1,200 ; Buchnam and Edma, 5,000 ;
and Harper, 3,000, with suburbs, 8,550.
For defence every citizen from 16 to 50 years of age capable of bearing
arms is liable to serve, and in 1892 a small steel gunboat of 150 tons, armed
with 4 Nordenfeldt quick-firing guns, was built for the Republic.
Finance.
For 1883 the revenue was officially returned at 34,8022., and expenditure
at 31,4932. ; for 1884, revenue 38,0002., expenditure 32,5002. ; and for 1885,
revenue 40,0002., and expenditure 32,5002. For 1888 the revenue was esti-
mated at 35,0002., and expenditure 33,0002. The principal part of the
revenue is derived from customs duties, while the expenditure embraces chiefly
the cost of the general administration. A debt of £100,000 at 7 per cent
was contracted in 1871 ; of this the interest, unpaid since August, 1874,
amounts to £133,000.
Commerce.
The principal exports are coffee, palm oil, palm nuts, cocoa, sugar, arrow-
root, ivory, hides. . The exports and imports combined probably do not
exceed 500,0002. The quantity of coffee exported in 1889 reached one million
pounds, one half of which went to Germany.
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COMMERCE — MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 735
There are no statistics regarding the extent of the commercial relations of
the Republic with the United Kingdom, the 'Annual Statement of Trade*
issued dv the Board of Trade not mentioning Liberia, but only ' Western
Coast of Africa ' (excluding the British and other colonies, but including,
prior to 1891, the Congo Free State and the Niger Protectorates). The value
of the trade thus indicated was as follows in five years : —
- 1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1
£
£
£
£
£
Imports into i
U.K. from
W. Africa . ,
851,942
908,545
971,051
411,043
338,718
Exports of ;
British pro-
duce to W. '
Africa . . i
768,916
769,737
971,259
339,270
221,793
The chief articles of import from Western Africa to Great Britain in 1892
were palm oil of the value of 72,380Z, ; nuts, 11, 162 J. ; caoutchouc,
108, 355 J. ; ivory, 51,939Z. The British exports to Western Africa consist
mainly of cotton manufactures, of the value ol 116, 210 J. in 1892.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money chiefly used is that of Great Britain, but accounts aro kept
generally in American dollars and cents. There is a large paper currency.
Gold is bought and sold by Usanos, 314*76 English troy grain, each of
16 Akis.
Weights and measures are mostly British. In the trade with the interior
of Africa, the Ardeb is the chief measure of capacity for dry goods. The
Qvndar Ardeb contains 10 Madegas, or 120 Uckieh, or 1,440 Dirncms, and is
equal to 7 *7473 British imperial pints. The Kuba is the chief liquid measure ;
it is equal to 1 *7887 British imperial pint.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Libbbia in Gbeat Bbitain.
Envoy and M inistcr. —Edward Wilmot Blyden, accredited May 14, 1892.
Consul-General. — Henry Hayman.
There are Consuls in London, Birmingham, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull,
Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Sheffield,
Southampton, Swansea.
2. Of Gbeat Bbitain in Libebia.
Consul. — Sir Francis Fleming, K.C.M.G., Governor of Sierra Leone.
Vice-Consul at Monrovia. — Dr. C. Stedman.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.
1. Official Publication.
Trade and Commerce of Great Britain with Western Africa, in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the yeaf
1882.' Imp. 4. London, 1808.
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736
LIBERIA — LUXEMBURG
2. Non-Official Publications.
Blyden (E. W.), Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. London, 1887.
Bdttikofer (J.), Liberia. Amsterdam, 1890.
Die Negerrepublic Liberia, in ' Unsere Zeit,' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858. ,
Hutchinson (E.), Impressions of Western Africa. 8. London, 1858.
Johnston (Keith), Africa. London, 1882.
Ritter (Karl), Begriindung und gegenwartige Zustande der Republic Liberia, in ' Zeit-
schrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde,' Vol. I. 8. Leipzig, 1853.
Schwarz(DT. B.), Einiges uber das interne Leben der Eingebornen Liberias, « Deutsche
Kolonialzeitnng,' Dec. 15, 1887. Berlin.
Stockwell (G. 8.), The Republic of Liberia: its Geography, Climate, Soil, and Produc-
tions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 1868.
Wauwermans (Colonel H.), Liberia, histoire de la fondation d'un etat negre libre.
Brussels, 1885.
Wilson (J.), Western Africa. 8. London, 1856.
LTTXEMBTTRG.
Reigning Grand^duke. — Adolfi Duke of Nassau, born July 24, 1817,
married, April 23, 1861, to Adelaide, Princess of Anhalt ; succeeded Novem-
ber 23, 1890, on the death of King Willem III. of the Netherlands, who was
also Grand-duke of Luxemburg. Offspring. — 1. Prince Wilhelm, born April
22, 1852. II. Princess Hilda, born November 5, 1864 ; married September
20, 1885, to Frederick, son of the Grand Duke of Baden.
The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation.
There is a Chamber of Deputies in the Grand Duchy of 45 members, elected
directly by the cantons for six years, the half renewed every three years. By
the Treaty of London, 1867, Luxemburg is declared neutral territory. It has
an area of 998 square miles, and a population (Dec. 1, 1890) of 211,088
(105,419 males and 105,669 females), or 212 inhabitants to the square mile.
The population is Catholic, save 1,058 Protestants, 1,009 Jews, and 100
belonging to other sects. The chief town, Luxemburg, has 18,187 inhabitants.
The revenue for 1891 was 11,519,924 francs, and expenditure 9, 000, 824 francs.
In the budget estimates for 1893 the revenue is set down at 9,547,400
francs, and the expenditure at 8,498,133 francs. There is a debt of about
16,170,000 francs, contracted mainly for the construction of railways. For
commercial purposes Luxemburg is included in the German Zollverein. There
are 270 miles of railway, and 974 miles of telegraph wire.
t
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737
MEXICO.
(Repijblica Mexicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Mexico bears date February 5, 1857,
with subsequent modifications down to October 1887. By its
terms Mexico is declared a federative republic, divided into States
— 19 at the outset, but at present 27 in number, with 2 territories
and the Federal District — each of which has a right to manage
its own local affairs, while the whole are bound together in one
body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers
of the supreme Government are divided into three branches, the
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power is
vested in a Congress consisting of a House of Representatives
and a Senate, and the executive in a President. Representatives
elected by the suffrage of all respectable male adults, at the rate
of one member for 40,000 inhabitants, hold their places for two
years. The qualifications requisite are, to be twenty-five years
of age, and a resident in the State. The Senate consists of fifty-
six members, two for each State, of at least thirty years of age,
who are returned in the same manner as the deputies. The
members of both Houses receive salaries of 3,000 dollars a year.
The President is elected by electors popularly chosen in a general
election, holds office for four years, and, according to an amend-
ment of the Constitution in 1887, may be elected for two con-
secutive terms of four years each. In the event of a vacancy in
the presidency otherwise than by lapse of time, the succession is
vested in the President and Vice-President of the Senate and in
the Chairman of the Standing Committee of Congress succes-
sively. Congress has to meet annually from April 1 to May 30,
and from September 16 to December 15, and a permanent com-
mittee of both Houses sits during the recesses.
President of the Republic. — General D. Porfirio Diaz ; first
elected in 1876 ; present term, December 1, 1892, to November 30,
1896.
The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President and a Council, by seven Secretaries of State, heads of
the Departments of Foreign Affairs, War and Marine, Finance
and Public Credit, Fomento, Colonisation and Industry, Govern-
ment Justice and Public Instruction, and Communications and
Public Works.
3 B
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738
MEXICO
Local Government.
Each separate State has its own internal constitution, government, and
laws. Each has its governor and legislature popularly elected under rules
similar to those of the Federation ; and the civil and criminal code in force in
the Federal District prevail, with few exceptions (Vera Cruz and the State of
Mexico), in the different States.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the census population for 1879,
and an official estimate of the area and of the population in
1891 :—
\
Area, in
square miles
Census
Estimated
Population
Name of State
Population,
1879
Population,
1891
per square
mile, 1891
Atlantic States : —
Tamaulipas
32,128
140,137
189,139
5-8
Vera Cruz .
29,201
542,918
633,369
21*6
Tabasco
10,072
104,747
114,028
113
Campeche .
18,087
90,413
91,180
5 0
Yucatan
Total .
35,203
302,315
286,418
8-1
124,692
1,180,530
1,314,134
10 5
Inland States : —
1
Chihuahua .
87,802
225,541
284,262
3 2
Coahuila
63,569
130,026
177,797
28
Nuevo Leon
23,592
203,284
271,987
ii-5 ;
Durango
38,009
190,846
288,511
7 6
Zacatecas .
24,757
422,506
526,966
212
San Luis Potosi
25,316
516,486
546,447
215
Aguascalientes
2,950
140,430
121,926
41-3
Guanajuato
11,370
834,845
968,113
85-1 |
Queretaro .
3,556
203,250
213,525
60 4 !
Hidalgo
8,917
427,350
494,212
55-4
Mexico
9,247
710,579
778,969
84 2
Federal District
463
351,804
447,132
9618
Morelos
2,773
159,160
151,540
54 6
Tlaxcala .
1,595
138,988
147,998
92-8
Puebla
12,204
784,466
839,468
687
Total .
316,125
5,439,561
7,258,843
22*9
Pacific States : —
Lower California (Ter.)
58,328
30,208
36,445
0'6
Sonora
76,900
115,424
165,892
2 1
Sinaloa
33,671
186,491
223,684
6*6
Tepic (Ter.)
11,275
—
134,701
11*8
Jalisco
31,846
983,484
1,159,341
36*4
Colima
2,272
65,827
69,547
306 j
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BELIGION AND INSTRUCTION
739
Name of State
Area, in
square miles
Census
Population,
1879
Estimated
Population,
1891
Population
per square >
mile, 1891
Pacific States : — contd.
Michoacan .
Guerrero
Oaxaca
Chiapas
Total.
Islands ....
Grand Total
22,874
24,996
35,382
27,222
661,534
295,590
744,000
205,362
834,923
335,640
809,629
299,941
36 5
13 2
22-8
11-0
324,768
1,420
3,287,920
3,069,743
9'7
767,005
9,908,011
11,642,720
151
In 1874 the population was returned at 9,343,470; in 1882 there were
5,072,054 males, 5,375,930 females. In 1892 the population was estimated
at 11,885,607. Of the total population 19 per cent, are of pure, or nearly
pure, white race, 43 per cent, of mixed race, and 38 per cent, of Indian
race. The Indians are stated to be rapidly decreasing ; forming, it was stated,
in 1874, one-half the population, in 1882 they were returned at 3,765,044.
Distinctions of race are abolished by the Constitution of 1824. Of the mixed
and Indian race only a very small proportion can be regarded as civilised.
The chief cities are the capital, Mexico, with a population (according to
the census of 1890) of 326,913 (153,766 males and 173,147 females), of whom
7215 were of foreign origin ; Guadalajara, 95,000 ; Puebla, 78,530 ; San
Luis Potosi, 62,573 ; Guanajuato, 52,112 ; Leon, 47,739 ; Monterey, 41,700 ;
Aguascalientes, 32,355 ; Merida, 32,000 ; Vera Cruz, 29,000 ; Oaxaca, 28,827 ;
Morelia, 26,974 ; Colima, 25,124 ; Pachuca, 25,000 ; Jalapa, 18,000.
There are many difficulties in the way of successful colonisation, and a
large proportion of immigrants in recent years have left the country. In 1887
the number of Spaniards resident in Mexico was 9,553.
Religion and Instruction.
The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic, but the Church is independ-
ent of the State, and there is toleration of all other religions. In 1889 there
were 10,112 Roman Catholic churches and chapels and 119 Protestant churches
in the Republic. No ecclesiastical body can acquire landed property. On
August 12, 1890, there were in the municipality of Mexico 320,143 Catholics
and 2,623 Protestants.
In almost all the States education is free and compulsory, but the law has
not been strictly enforced. In the municipality of Mexico there were in
1890, 15,268 persons who could read only, and 176,692 persons who could
neither read nor write. Primary instruction is mostly at the expense of
the municipalities, but the Federal Government makes frequent grants, and
many schools are under the care of beneficent societies. In 1888 there were
10,726 primary schools, with 543,977 pupils. In 1889 there were 7,334
Government and municipal schools, with 412,789 pupils. Higher education
is carried on in secondary schools and seminaries, and in colleges for professional
instruction, including schools of law, medicine, engineering, mining, fine arts,
agriculture, commerce, arts and trades, music. There are also one military
and two naval colleges. The number attending these higher schools is stated
at 21,000. The entire sum spent on education is given (1889) at 3,512,000
3 b 2
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740
MEXICO
dollars, contributed by the Federal Government, the municipality of Mexico.,
and the State Governments and municipalities.
In 1892 there were in the Republic the National Library, with 159,000
volumes, and 12 other libraries with over 10,000 volumes each. There were
in that year 19 museums for scientific and educational purposes, and 3 meteoro-
logical observatories. The number of newspapers published was 328, of which
3 were in English, 2 in French, and 1 in German. *
Justice.
The federal courts are the Supreme Court (of which the judges are chosen
for a period of six years), and the circuit and district courts. .
State Finance
Of the revenue in recent years about 58 per cent, has been
derived from customs, 35 per cent, from internal taxation, and
7 per cent, from other sources. Of the expenditure about 44 per
cent, has gone to the administration of the government, over 46
per cent, to the service of the debt, and nearly 10 per cent, to
railway subventions.
The revenue and expenditure for five years (estimates for the
last three years) have been : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
1888-89 .
. 34,374,783 .
. 75,823,310
1889-90 .
. 38,586,601 .
. 79,331,566
1890-91 .
. 37,391,805 .
. 64,074,724
1891-92 .
. 41,550,000 .
. 38,377,365
1892-93 .
. 40,870,000 .
. 40,367,047
1893-94 .
. 40,060,000 .
. 41,076,260
The following are the budget estimates of revenue and expen-
diture for the year ending June 30, 1895 : —
Revenuf
ExrENDITU
RE
Dollars
Dollars
Customs .
. 19,995,000
Legislative power
1,035,638
Tolls
1,550,000
Executive ,,
49,977
Stamps
14,629,053
Judicial ,, .
478,084
Direct taxes
1,500,000
Foreign Affairs .
540,966 1
Posts and Telegraphs
1,730,000
Home Department
2,587,236 |
Mint .
1,105,000
Justice and Education .
1,591,152 ,
Various
2,065,000
Puhlic Works
655,487
Balance from 1893-94.
500,000
Finance
22,385,996 '
War and Navy .
10,402,866 ,
Posts and Telegraphs
3,286,968 1
Extraord. (net) .
1
40,000
43,074,053
48,054*371 1
\
The capital of the puhlic deht on June 30, 1891, according to a British
consular report, was as follows :— external deht (including £2,700,000
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FINANCE — DEFENCE
741
Tehuantepec Railway bonds at 5 per cent,), £19,200,000 ; internal debt,
consolidated 3 per cent., 27,025,150 dollars; other interest-bearing debt,
8,012,613 dollars ; non-interest- bearing debt, 27,894,896 ; total internal,
62,932,659 dollars. The total debt on Jnne 30, 1892, according to a state-
ment of the Mexican Treasury, was as follows : —
Dollars.
External debt, £16,500,000 (at par =) . . . 82,500,000
Internal Debt :
Consolidated 3 per cent 31,692,850
Railway Bonds 22,689,875
Railway Debts 15,926,608
Other Debts 21,640,177
Total internal 91,949,510
Total Debt 174,449,510
On September, 30, 1893, at the current rate of exchange, the total debt
stood at £25,000,000 sterling.
In June, 1893, a law was passed authorising measures for the completion
of the consolidation of the debt, the Government being empowered to raise a
foreign loan of £2, 500, 000 if necessary, for the arrangement of the floating debt.
The total cost of the debt for the year 1892, including loss on exchange, is
stated at 10,361,249 dollars. Thus the capital of the debt is about 15 dollars/
and its cost about 90 cents per head of the population.
The fiscal value of property in Mexico in 1891 is given as follows : —
Urban, 260,552,200 dollars; rural, 237,312,996 dollars; total, 497,865,196
dollars ; the fiscal value being taken as one-third less than the actual value.
Local Finance.
The revenues of the State Governments and of the municipalities of Mexico
have been as follows : —
Years
States.
Municipalities.
1881
1882
1889
1890
Dollars
8,839,955
9,885,787
15,324,100
16,174,322
Dollars.
7,064,168
7,715,456
12,780,267
13,367,761
Of the City of Mexico in the years 1891 and 1892 the revenue was
3,252,812 dollars, and 3,195,436 dollars ; the expenditure being the same.
Defence.
The army consists (1893) of infantry, 22,801; artillery, 1,480; rural
guards or police, 2,020; gendarmerie, 2,208; staff, secretaries, &c, 1,372;
total, 29,881. There are 2,942 officers. The total fighting strength, in-
cluding reserves, is stated to be 131,523 infantry, 25,790 dragoons, and
3,650 artillery. Every Mexican capable of carrying arms is liable for military
service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year. There is a fleet of 2 despatch
vessels (launched 1875) and 2 unarmoured gun-vessels (launched 1874), each
of 425 tons and 425 horse-power, and severally armed with a 3 -ton muzzle-
loading gun, and 4 small breech-loaders; there are also a transport of 1,200
tons, a police steamer, and a 7 -knot gunboat. A steel training ship, the
Zaragoza (1,200 tons), was built at Havre in 1891, and 5 first-class torpedo-
boats have been ordered in England. The fleet is manned by 84 officers and
416 men.
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742 MEXICO
Production and Industry.
Mexico has been estimated to contain 479 square leagues of forest, 18,134
square leagues of mountain -land, and 4,822 square leagues of uncultivated
land. The climate and soil are fitted for very varied produce, but, as regards
crops usually grown in cold countries, agriculture is in Mexico in a very
primitive condition. Provision is made for the sale and occupation of public
lands by a law of July 22, 1863. The demarcation of such lands is carried
out by public companies, the third part of the area demarcated being ceded to
them for expenses incurred From 1877 to 1892, 15,689,631 hectares of the
public lands were adjudicated for agricultural or other purposes, the number
of titles being 6,093, and the proceeds of adjudication $2,028,408. In
1892 there were 25 colonies, consisting of 1,266 families, and a population of
10,985. In 1892, with the assistance of the Government, there were intro-
duced into Mexico 1,181,000 plants of vines, 26,000 of olives, and 6,200 of
other fruit trees, while vine-prunings, and seeds of vegetables and of silk-
worms were distributed gratuituously. The chief agricultural products are
maize, barley, wheat, beans. The cultivation of coffee and of tobacco is
extending. In 1891, 13,778 tons of coffee were exported from Vera Cruz, and
in 1892, 8,315 tons. The State of Vera Cruz produces annually about 3,125
tons of tobacco, about half of which is exported raw. Henequen is grown
chiefly in Yucatan, where the production of fibre in 1891 was 310,000
bales, each containing from 350 to 380 English pounds. From the area
recently planted it is calculated that the production will increase by over
20,000 bales annually till 1895. Other products are cotton, sugar-cane, rice,
cocoa, vanilla. Large numbers of cattle are reared in Mexico for the United
States. In 1883, in Northern Mexico alone, on an area of 300,000 square
miles, there were 1,500,000 cattle, 2,500,000 goats, 1,000,000 horses, and
1,000,000 sheep. In the whole of Mexico in 1883 there were 20,574 cattle
ranches, valued at 103,000,000Z.
Mexico is rich in minerals, gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, quicksilver, tin,
cobalt, antimony, sulphur, coal, petroleum, being either worked or known to
exist. There are upwards of 990 mining enterprises in the country, employing
upwards of 200,000 men. The total export of metals in the twelve years
ended June 30, 1892, amounted to $401,096,632, of which $10,123,924 was
Dor gold coin and bullion (including $745,047 foreign gold coin), and
$323,520,728 for silver coin and bullion (including $1,847,137 foreign silver
coin). The silver ore exported in those years was valued at $48,720,592, lead
$6,399,632, copper $4,105,116 There are eleven mints in Mexico, and every
producer is free to have his bullion coined, the mints receiving 4 '62 per cent,
for gold, and 4*41 per cent, for silver. Mining operations, whether for gold
and silver, or other metals, as lead, copper, tin, zinc, are carried on under the
provisions of the mining law, which came into force July 1, 1892. Between
July 1, 1892, and January 31, 1893, there were 2,505 applications for
concessions, embracing an area of 16,963 hectares. Up to the end of
November 1892 433 new agreements had been made, while there were in force
114 contracts formed under the former law. In 1891 there were formed in
London 8 new companies (railway, land, mining, &c), representing a total
capital of £1,871,000 for operations wholly or in part in Mexico. In the
years 1886-92 the registered capital of such companies amounted to
£63,214,827. The deposits, in bonds of the public debt, to guarantee the
fulfilment of mining contracts, amounted at the end of 1892 to $618,720,
of which the sum of $126,773 was forfeited through the default of the
concessionaries.
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COMMERCE
743
In 1892 there were in Mexico 140 textile factories employing 15,086
persons ; there were also 7 paper mills and 2 earthenware factories.
Commerce.
The following table shows the total imports and exports and the proportion
of precious metals and other produce in the exports of Mexico during the last
five years : —
Years
Total Imports
Exports
Merchandise
Precious Metals
Total
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
1892-93
Dollars
40,024,894
52,018,659
Dollars
21,373,148
23,878,098
27,020,023
26,330,411
31,004,916
Dollars
38,785,275
38,621,290
36,256,372
49,137,304
56,504,306
Dollars
60,158,423
62,499,388
63,276,395
75,467,715 |
87,509,221
The trade of Mexico, including precious metals, is chiefly with the fol-
lowing countries: —
Countries
Imports from
Exports to
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
United States .
England .
France
Germany .
Spain
Other countries.
Dollars
22,669,000
6,338,000
4,957,000
2,843,000
1,921,000
1,297,000
Dollars
29,080,276
8,535,376
6,233,908
3,678,684
2,576,289
2,007,000
Dollars
44,983,086
10,882,728
3,653,551
2,786,875
515,194
455,853
Dollars
49,932,665
15,267,956
4,644,386
4,344,231
661,850
616,627
The following table shows the value of the principal articles exported in
1891-92 and 1892-93 :—
-
1891-92
1892-93
-
1891-92
1892-93
Dollars
Dollars
|
Dollars
Dollars
Henequen .
6,358,220
8,893,071
J Lead, argent.
1,457,879
7,402,641
Coffee
5,514,355
8,727,119
i Copper
860,379
—
Hides
1,931,791
2,067,156
J Wood
1,676,351
1,673,738
Gum
703,572
—
' Silver Ore .
10,478,264
10,940,750
Tobacco .
1,746,928
1,459,690
Silver
8,018,766
6,732,801
Vanilla
969,612
—
1 Silver Coin
26,478,376
27,170,865
Ixtle
617,300
—
i
i
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744
MEXICO
The subjoined table shows the value of the trade between Mexico and the
United Kingdom in each of the last five years, according to the Board of
Trade returns : —
Imports into U.K.
from Mexico
Experts of British
produce toMexico
1888
£
455,167
1,257,969
1889
1890
1891
£ I £ £
465,994 I 542,979 \ 493,453
1,512,756 ; 1,906,317 1,695,774
454,070 I
1,289,293
The principal articles of import from Mexico into the United Kingdom in
the year 1892 were mahogany, of the value of 170, 209 J. ; silver ore, 131,5852. ;
hemp and other vegetable substances, 33,7722. ; tobacco, 1,9422. The chief
exports from Great Britain to Mexico were : cotton, of the value of 460,7742. ;
linens, of the value of 49,2052. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value
of 216,5982. ; machinery, 136,4512. ; and woollens, 70,3062.
Shipping and Communications.
The mercantile marine of Mexico in 1890 of vessels over 100 tons comprised
16 steamers of 6,952 tons gross tonnage, and 16 sailing vessels of 3,302
tons net tonnage. The shipping includes also many small vessels engaged in
the coasting trade. In 1891-92, including the coasting trade, 8,413 vessels
of 2,899,038 tons entered the various ports of Mexico.
In 1893 there were 6,900 miles of railway. The capital invested up to
1891 by English companies was 14,601,3802., and by American companies
245,126,249 U.S. dollars. In 1892 21,700,000 passengers, and 3,100,000
tons of goods were conveyed, the gross proceeds being 23,600,000 dollars.
The total length of telegraph lines in 1893 was 37,880 English miles, of
which 24,840 miles belonged to the Federal Government, the remainder
belonging, in about equal parts, to the States, companies, and the railways.
There were in all about 800 offices. The telephone had a network of 5,186
miles.
In 1892 there were 1,411 post-offices. The post, inland and international,
carried in 1891 115,422,050 letters, and postcards. The receipts were
1,142,182 dollars, expenditure 1,211,277 dollars.
\
Money and Credit.
There are 11 mints in the Republic, coining on an average $25,000,000
annually. Most of the silver exported is shipped in the shape of dollars,
which find their way chiefly to China and the smaller communities in Indo-
china and the Eastern Archipelago.
The following table shows the coinage by Mexican mints for ten
years : —
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MONEY AND CREDIT
745
Tears
Silver
Gold
Copper
Total
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1882-83
24,083,921
407,600
—
24,491,521
1883-84
25,377,378
328,698
—
25,706,076
1884-85
25,840,727
423,250
—
26,263,977
1885-86
26,991,804
367,490
8,500
27,367,794
1886-87
26,844,031
398,647
191,296
27,433,974 '
1887-88
25,862,977
316,818
85,000
26,264,795 1
1888-89
26,031,252
334,972
129,844
26,496,068
1889-90
24,323,506
243,298
134,632
24,701,436
1890-91
24,237,449
308,083
218,869
24,7oM02
1891-92
-
25,527,018
291,940
156,694
25,975,652
There are 10 banks in Mexico. The situation of the three most important
of them was as follows on August 31, 1893 : —
-
Banco Nacional
Banco Hipotecano
Banco de Londres
Assets
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Capital not paid up
12,000,000
1,500,000
—
Cash ....
11,946,116
626,843
4,403,386
Notes ....
11,328,184
1,611,350
7,887,990
Advances
2,334,942
2,771,557
—
Debts ....
17,433,895
1,551,932
6,531,396
Property
Total
Liabilities
200,000
107,800
119,180
55,243,137
8,169,482
17,941,952
Capital ....
20,000,000
5,000,000
3,000,000
Notes in circulation
14,315,304
—
7,668,325
Bonds ....
—
1,953,600
—
Debts ....
17,367,280
1,191,482
6,273,627
Reserve fund
Total
3,560,554
55,243,138
25,000
1,000,000
8,169,482
17,941,952
Concessions have been granted to a number of new banks in several of
the States for the purpose of advancing loans for agricultural and mining
purposes.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The silver peso or dollar of 100 centavos is of the nominal value of 45. ;
actual value variable.
The 10-peso gold piece weighs 27*0643 grammes, "875 fine, and thus con-
tains 23*6813 grammes of fine gold.
The silver peso weighs 27*073 grammes, *902 fine, and thus contains
24*419 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is silver. There is no paper currency except
ordinary bank notes.
The weights and measures of the metric system were introduced in
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\
746 Mexico
1884 ; but the old Spanish measures are still in use. The principal ones are
these : —
Weight. 1 libra = 0*46 kilogramme = 1*014 lb. avoirdupois.
1 arroba = 25 libras = 25 '357 lbs. avoirdupois.
For gold and silver: —
1 marco = J libra = 4,608 granos.
1 ochava = 6 tomines.
1 tomin = 12 granos.
20 granos = 1 French gramme.
Length. 1 vara = 0*837 metre = 2 ft. 8^ English in.
1 legua comun = 6,666§ varas.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Mexico in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. —
Chargi d Affaires ad interim. — Don Cayetano Romero.
Secretary. — L. F. Rivas.
Consul- General in London. — A. Melgarejo.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow, Great
Grimsby, Liverpool, Manchester, Newport, Southampton, Gibraltar, Hong-
kong.
2. Of Great Britain in Mexico.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. P. Le Poer Trench.
Secretary. — Godfrey Davison Bland.
There are Consular representatives in Mexico City and Vera Cruz, and
Vice-Consuls at Campechey, Frontera, Laguna de Terminos, Mazatlan,
Progreso, Tuxpan, Tehuantepec, Tampico, and Tonola.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.
1. Official Publications.
Anales del ministerio de fomento, colonizacion, industria y comercio. 8. Mexico, 1893.
Boletin del ministerio de fomento de la Republica Mexicana. Fol. Mexico. 1893.
Boletin semestral de la estadistica de la Republica Mexicana, a cargo del Dr. Antonio
Penaflel Mexico, 1898.
Comercio exterior de Mexico. Fol. Mexico. 1898.
Cuadro geografico, estadistica descriptivo e historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos.
A. G. Cubas. Mexico, 1889.
Datos mercan tiles. Mexico, 1893.
Estadistica general de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico, 1898.
Importaciones, 1889-90. Mexico, 1893.
Memoria del Secretario del despacho de hacienda. FoL Mexico, 1893.
Reports by Mr. Carden on the Finances of Mexico, 1881-1891, in No. 1,150 ' Annual
Series' ; on the Trade of Mexico (City) in No. 1,301 ' Annual Series' ; and on Depreciation
of Silver, in No. 302, 'Miscellaneous Series,' Foreign Office Reports. London, 1893.
Report on the Trade of Vera Cruz in No. 1,218 ' Annual Series,' Foreign Qffice Reports,
London, 1893.
Circularsarelating to Mexican Mining Laws, No. 284, ' Miscellaneous Series,' Foreign
Office Reports, 1898.
Statistique descriptive et historique des Etats Mexicains de Garcia Cubas. 1889.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Mexico, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' 4.
London, 1893.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF KEFERENCE 747
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boletin de la sociedad de geograffa y estadistica de la Republica Mexicana. 8. Mexico,
1878-93.
Bancroft (H. H.) A Popular History of the Mexican People. 8. London.
Brocklehurtt (T. U.), Mexico To-day. London, 1883.
Castro (Lorenzo), The Republic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882.
Charnay (D.) Ancient Cities of the New World. Tr. 8. London.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien et moderne. 18. Paris, 1886.
Conkling (Howard), Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883.
Conkling (A. R.), Appleton's Guide to Mexico. New York, 1890.
El economists Mexicano, weekly. Mexico.
Flint (H. M.), Mexico under Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1867.
Gooch (F. C), Face to Face with the Mexicans. London, 1890.
Griffin (8. B.), Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.
Qringo (A.) Through the Land of the Aztecs, or Life and Travel in Mexico. London,
1892.
Hamilton (L. L. C), Hamilton's Mexican Handbook. London, 1884.
Kozhevar (B.), Report on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1886.
La Bedolliere (Emile G. de), Histoire de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris, 1866.
Ober (F. AA Travels in Mexico. Boston, U.S., 1884.
Prescott (W. H.), History of the Conquest of Mexico. 8. London.
Batzel (Fried.), Aus Mexico, Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-75. Breslau, 1878.
S cob el (A.), DieVerkehrswegeMexicosundihrewirtschaftliche Bedeutung. In 'Deutsche
Geographische Blatter." Band X., Heft 1. Bremen, 1887.
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748 )
MONACO.
Prince Albert, born November 13, 1848 ; succeeded his father, Prince
Charles III., September 10, 1889 ; married (1) to Lady Mary Douglas
Hamilton, September 1, 1869 ; 1 (2) to Alice Duchess-Dowager de Richelieu.
{Son by first wife, Prince Louis, born July 12, 1870.
Monaco is a small Principality in the Mediterranean, surrounded by the
French Departement of Alpes Maritimes excepting on the side towards the sea.
From 968 it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. In 1715 it passed into the
female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter of Antony I., heiress of Monaco,
marrying Jacques de Gayon Matignon, Count of Thorigny, who took the
name and arms of Grimaldi. Antony I died in 1731, Louise Hippolyte
only reigning ten months and dying in 1732. She was succeeded by her
husband under the name of Honorius III., who also succeeded Antony I. as
Due di Valentinois. This prince was dispossessed by the French Revolution in
1792, and died in 1795. In 1814 the Principality was re-established, but
placed under the protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of
Vienna (1815).
In 1848 Mentone and Roquebrune revolted, and declared themselves free
towns ; in 1861 Charles III. ceded his rights over them to France, and the
Principality thus became an enclave of France, when the Sardinian garrison
was withdrawn and the Protectorate came to an end.
Ever since the year 1819 the Government of the Principality have adopted
the French Codes and possessed a Court of First Instance, as well as a Juge de
Paix's Court. A Court of Appeal is constituted by the Prince's appointment
of two Paris judges who act as such when necessary.
The Principality has its own coinage which is current since 1876 in all the
States of the Latin Union ; it also issues its own separate postage-stamps.
There is a Governor-General and a Council of State.
The area is eight square miles. Population, 1890, 13,304. Towns :
Monaco, 3,292 ; Condamine, 6,218 ; Monte Carlo, 3,794.
There is a Roman Catholic bishop. Exclusive of the 'guard of honour,'
the troops consist of 5 officers and 70 men. Olive oil, oranges, citrons, and
perfumes are exported. The revenue is mainly derived from the gaming
tables.
Consul- General for Monaco in London. — C. H. Piesse.
British Consul- General. — J. C. Harris (residing at Nice).
i The religious marriage was annulled by the Court of Rome (Papal Court) on January 3,
1880, and the civil marriage declared dissolved by decree of the reigning Prince on
July 28, 1880.
t
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749
MONTENEGRO.
(Cbnagoea — Kaba-dagh.)
Reigning Prince.
Nicholas I., Petrovic Njegos, born October 7 (September 25), 1841 ;
educated at Trieste and Paris ; proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor
of his uncle, Danilo I., August 14, 1860. Married, November 8, 1860, to
Milena Pitrovna Vucoticova, born May 4, 1847, daughter of Peter Vukotic,
senator, and Vice-President of the Council of State. Offspring of the union
are six daughters and three sons, Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent, born June
29, 1871 ; Mirko, born April 17, 1879 ; Peter, born 1889.
The supreme power has been retained in the family of Petrovic NjegoS,
descending collaterally, since the time of Danilo Petrovic, who, being pro-
claimed Vladika, or prince-bishop, of Montenegro in 1697, liberated the country
from the Turks, and, having established himself as both spiritual and tem-
poral ruler, entered into a religious and political alliance with Russia. His
successors retained the theocratic power till the death of Peter Petrovid II.
(October 31, 1851), last Vladika of Montenegro, a ruler of great wisdom, as
well as a widely celebrated poet. He was succeeded by his nephew, Danilo I.,
who abandoned the title of Vladika, together with the spiritual functions
attached to it, and substituted that of Gospodar, or Prince. At the same time
Danilo I., to throw off a remnant of nominal dependency upon Turkey,
acknowledged by his predecessors, obtained the formal recognition of his new
title from Russia. Danilo I., assassinated August 13, 1860, was succeeded by
his nephew, second Gospodar of Montenegro.
The following is the complete list of the Petrovid dynasty, with their
dates : —
Vladikas or Prince-Bishops.
Danilo . . . 1697-1735 I Peter I. (St. Peter) . 1782-1830
Sava and Vassili . . 1735-1782 | Peter II. (Vladika Rade) 1830-1851
Danilo I. (Kniaz and Gospodar) 1851-1860
Nicholas I. (reigning Prince, nephew of the last)
Former rulers of Montenegro possessed the whole of the revenues of the
country, and, in fact, this system obtains still, although laws have from time
to time been passed regulating both the Prince's annual civil list and the public
expenditure. Prince Nicholas's nominal yearly income is fixed for the present
at 9,000 ducats, or 4,100J. A yearly sum of 48,000 roubles, or 4,800/., has
been received by Montenegro from Russia since the Crimean war, as a reward
for its friendly attitude during that period. The Austrian Government is
stated to contribute about 80,000 florins per annum towards the construction
of carriage roads in Montenegro.
Government.
'Hie Constitution of the country, dating from 1852, with changes effected
in 1855 and 1879, is nominally that of a limited monarchy, resting on a
patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests with the reigning Prince,
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50
MONTENEGRO
while the legislative power is vested, according to an ' Administrative Statute '
proclaimed March 21, 1879, in a State Council of eight members, one half of
them being nominated by the Prince, and the other elected by the male in-
habitants who are bearing, or have borne, arms. Practically, all depends on
the absolute will of the Prince. The inhabitants are divided into 40 tribes,
each governed by elected 'elders,' and a chief or captain of district called
Knje£, who acts as magistrate in peace and is commander in war. By the
* Administrative Statute ' of I "^ "
eight military commands.
y 1879, the country was divided into 80 districts and
Area and Population.
The area of Montenegro is estimated to embrace 8,630 English square
miles, inclusive of the annexations effected by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
Its extreme length, from the northernmost point of Piwa to the Boyana, is
little more than 100, and its width, from Grahovo to the Lim, about 80
English miles. It is bordered on the south or south-east by the Turkish
Vilayets of Scutari and Kossovo (North Albania), on the east by the Sanjak of
Novi Bazar, and on the north-west by the Herzegovina. On the west it is
separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of Austrian territory forming
the extremity of Dalmatia (Bocche di Cattaro, Budua, Spizza), excepting in
the recently (1878-81) acquired districts of Antivari and Dulcigno, where it
possesses a seaboard some 28 miles in length. The total population was stated
in official returns to number 220,000 in 1879. The population having de-
creased owing to emigration and other causes, a recent estimate puts it at
200,000. The capitalis Cettinje\ with 1,200 population ; Podgoritza, 6,000 ;
Dulcigno, 5,000 ; Niksid, 3,000 ; Danilograd, 600. The population is mainly
pastoral and agricultural. The Montenegrins belong almost entirely to the
Servian branch of the Slav race.
►
Religion.
The Church is nominally independent of the State, except that the bishops
are appointed by the Prince ; but the personal authority of the latter is all-
pervading. The principal monasteries are possessed of sufficient property for
their maintenance, aided by occasional contributions from Russia. The rural
. clergy are maintained by the communities. Orthodox Montenegro is divided
into two dioceses, Cettinje and Ostrog, but actually the cure of both. sees is
united in the hands of the Metropolitan Bishop of Cettinje\ The former see
comprises 8 sub-districts, called proto-presbyteries, with 84 parishes, and the
latter into 9 such districts with 75 parishes. The Roman Catholic Arch-
bishopric of Antivari contains 10 parishes, all of which are situated in the
districts recently acquired from Turkey, in which there are likewise 10 Mus-
sulman parishes.
Religion
Number of
Churches
Number of
Clergy
Adherents '
Greek Orthodox
Mohammedan .
Roman Catholic
177
19
10
180
33
13
188,100
8,500
3,400 |
206
226
200,000
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INSTRUCTION — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 751
Instruction.
Schools for elementary education are supported by Government ; education
is compulsory and free ; there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000
male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed
to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium
or college for boys at Cettinje^ and a girls' high school maintained at the
charge of the Empress of Russia.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
There are district courts in four or five of the principal towns. In rural
districts justice is administered in the first instance by the local knezes, but
the * Veliki Sud,' or supreme court at Cettinje, has jurisdiction, both appellate
and concurrent, over the whole principality, and in the last resort there lies
an appeal to the Prince in person. There are no judicial statistics, but crime
in general is rare.
There is no regular provision for p<for relief. The Government, however,
annually undertakes a certain number of public works, such as roads, bridges,
&c. , at which the indigent are invited to labour, being paid mostly in grain,
procured for that purpose fi;om Russia. Russian charity also does much.
Finance.
No official returns are published regarding the public revenue and expen-
diture. Reliable estimates state the former at 600,000 Austrian florins, or
about 50,000£., derived chiefly from land and cattle taxes, the salt monopoly,
and customs duties. 70,000Z. is owed to Russia for grain supplied in 1879.
Defence.
There exists no standing army, but all the inhabitants, not physically
unfitted, are trained as soldiers, and liable to be called under arms. Recently
the Moslem inhabitants of Dulcigno have been exempted from military
service on payment of a capitation tax. The number of trained men is put at
35,870 infantry, and 856 artillery. About 25,000 men are in the first class.
There are about 40,000 rifles in the country :— 20,000 Werndl, 10,000
Kruka, 10,000 Snider and Peabody-Martini. The artillery consists of 2 siege
guns, 2 bronze Russian 12-pounders, 12 steel and 6 bronze Krupp guns, and
24 mountain guns.
Production and Industry.
Agriculture is of the most primitive kind. The cultivated land is mostly
the property of the cultivators, the Croatian system of domestic communism
being generally prevalent. In some districts, however, the land is split up
into diminutive peasant-holdings, while in a few the metayer system is met
with, but large estates nowhere exist. The principal crops grown are maize,
oats, potatoes, barley, and buckwheat. The vine is cultivated successfully in
the Tchermnitchka Nahie, and the district of Podgoritza, and the olive about
Antivari and Dulcigno. The uncultivable area consists, in the east, of forest
and mountain pasturage, and, in the west, of bare limestone sparsely sprinkled
with brushwood and stunted scrub. There are no sea-fisheries. Any small
manufactures that exist are only for local consumption. Live stock of all
kinds are reared : there are 360,000 sheep and goats ; 60,000 cattle ; 8,000
swine ; 3,000 horses.
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752 MONTENEGRO
Commerce.
The customs tariff is 4 per cent, ad valorem on all merchandise. The ex-
ports are valued at about 200,000Z., imports at 20,0002. The principal exports
are shumac, flea powder (Pyrethrum roseum), smoked sardines (scoranze),
smoked mutton, cattle, sheep, goats, cheese, wool, hides, skins, and furs.
Communications.
There are excellent carriage roads from Budua and Cattaro to Cettinje, and
from Cettinje* by Rieka, near Lake Scutari, to Podgoritza, and to NikSiSh
— and from Antivari to Vir Bazar on Lake Scutari, and bridle roads over the
rest of the principality. There are 280 miles of telegraph in the country,
with 15 offices.
Honey.
Montenegro has no coinage of its Wn ; Austrian paper is the principal
medium of exchange. Turkish silver is also current, but little gold of any
kind is in circulation, as it is difficult to change. There is no bank of any
kind in the country.
British Chargt d' Affaires. — Robert J. Kennedy, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro.
Andric (M.), Geschichte des Fiirstenthums Montenegro. 8. Wien, 1853.
Brown (H. C), A Winter in Albania. London, 1888.
Delarue (H.), Le Montenegro. 8. Paris, 1862.
Denton (Rev. William), Montenegro : its People and their History. 8. London, 1877.
Evans (A. J.), Illyrian Letters. 8. London, 1878.
Frilley (G.) and Wlahovitz (Ivan), Le Montenegro Contemporain. Paris.
Kohl (J. Geo.), Beise nach Montenegro. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1851.
Kovaleveky (Egor Petrovich), Montenegro and the Slavonic Countries. (Russia.) 8.
St. Petersburg, 1872.
Krasintki (Walerjan Skorobohaty), Montenegro and the Slavonians of Turkey. S.
London, 1858.
Neigebaur (H.), Die Siidslawen und deren Lander. 8. Leipzig, 1851.
Schwarz (Dr. B.), Montenegro, Schilderung einer Reise durch das Innere nebst Entwnrf
einer Geographie des Landes. 8. Leipzig, 1883.
8estak (J. F.) and 8cherbs (F.), Militarische Beschreibung des Paschaliks Herzegovina und
des Fiirstenthums Cernagora. 8. Wien. 1862.
Strangford (Viscountess), The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic in 1863, with a Visit to
Montenegro. 8. London, 1864.
Marnier, Lettres sur l'Adriatique et le Montenegro.
Lenormant, Turcs et Montenegrins.
Yriarte (Ch.), Les Bords de l'Adriatique et le Montenegro.
D'Avril (Baron), La France au Montenegro.
Wilkinson (Sir Gardner), Dalmatia and Montenegro. London, 1848,
Win? field (W, F-), Tour in Palmatja, Ac London, 1850.
I
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753
MOROCCO.
(Maghrib-el- Aksa.— El Gharb.)
Reigning Saltan.
tfuley-Hassan, born 1831, eldest son of Sultan Sidi-Mohamed ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, September 17, 1873.
The present Sultan of Morocco — known to his subjects under the title of
'Emir-al-Munienin,' or Prince of True Believers — is the fourteenth of the
dynasty of the Aiides, founded by Muley-Achmet, and the thirty-fifth lineal
descendant of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. His three pre-
decessors were : —
Sultan Reign
Muley-Soliman . . 1794-1822
Muley-Abderrahman . 1822-1859
Sultan Reign
Sidi-Muley-Mohanied . 1859-187 *
The Shereefian umbrella is hereditary in the family of the Sharifs of Fileli,
or Tafilet. Each Sultan is supposed, prior to death, to indicate the member
of the Shereefian family who, according to his conscientious belief, will best
replace him. This succession is, however, elective, and all members of the
Shereefian family are eligible. Generally the late Sultan's nominee is elected
by public acclamation at noonday prayers the Friday after the Sultan's death,
as tne nominee has probably possession of imperial treasure, and is supported
by the black bodyguard, from among whom the large majority of court officials
are selected.
Government.
. The form of government of the Sultanate, or Empire of Morocco, is in
reality an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or religious.
The Sultan is chief of the State, as well as head of the religion. As spiritual
ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority not being limited, as in
Turkey and other countries following the religion of Mahomet, by the ex-
pounders of the Koran, the class of * Uiema,' under the * Sheik-ul- Islam. ' The
Sultan has six ministers, whom he consults if he deems it prudent to do so ;
otherwise they are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. They are the
Vizier, the Ministers for Foreign Affairs and Home Affairs, Chief Chamberlain,
Chief Treasurer, and Chief Administrator of Customs. The Sultan's revenue
is estimated at 500,000/. per annum, derived from monopolies, taxes, tithes,
and presents.
Area and Population.
The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the southern
frontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled. According to the most recent
investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000 English
sajiara miles. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from 2,500,000
to 9,400,000 ; it is generally considered to be about 5,000,000 souls, although
Dr. llohlfs, in the * Geographische Mittheilungen ' (1883), maintains that
the population is not more than 2,750,000. An estimate of 1889 gives the
following results : — The region of the old kingdom of Fez, 3,200,000 ; of
Morocco, 3,900,000 ; of Tafilet and the Sogclmfwa country, 850,000 ; of Sus,
Adrar, and the Northern Draa, 1,450,000 ; total, 9,400,000. Again, as to
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754
MOROCCO
race : — Berbers and Tuaregs, 3,000,000 ; Sheila Berbers, 2,200,000 ; Arabs
(1) pure nomadic Bedouins, 700,000 ; (2) Mued, 3,000,000 ; Jews, 150,000 ;
negroes, 200,000. The number of Christians is very small, not exceeding
1,500. Much of the interior of Morocco is unknown to Europeans. Fez, the
capital, has a population of about 140,000, and Tangier about 30,000.
Religion
The Sultan of Morocco and his subjects are of the Malekite sect of Sunnite
Mohammedans. The differences are chiefly in the attitudes assumed during
the recital of prayers.
Defenoe.
The Sultan's army, which is quartered at the capital where he may happen
to reside, is composed of about 10,000 Askar or disciplined infantry, under the
command of an Englishman, and 400 disciplined cavalry ; a few batteries of
field guns commanded by three French officers, and 2,000 irregular cavalry.
Two Italian artillery officers and an Italian civil engineer have been recently
lent to the Sultan by the Italian Government to assist in the establishment of
a small-arms factory at Fez. A Spanish military commissioner also is engaged
on topographical works, either at Tetuan or Fez, according to the direction of
the Spanish Government. There is also a Spanish engineer officer and mili-
tary doctor, and a German engineer officer with the Sultan. In addition to
these forces there are in the Empire about 8,000 militia cavalry and 10,000
infantry. Every year several of the governors of provinces are ordered to
assemble their contingents to accompany the Sultan in his progress from Fez
to Morocco. The irregular cavalry and infantry which could be collected in
time of war would amount to about 40,000, in addition to the forces already
enumerated. There is no commissariat.
Commerce.
The foreign trade is largely with Great Britain and France, that with
Germany being on the increase in recent years ; Great Britain's share is about
three-fourths of the whole trade.
The value of the imports in 1892 was* 1,87 0,1 88 J., and of the exports
1,539, 709Z. The following table shows the value of the trade and the shipping
of Morocco at the different ports in 1892, including specie and precious
metals : —
\
Ports
Imports
Exports
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Tangier
Tetuan
Laraiche
Rabat .
Mogador
Casa Blanca
Mazagan
Saffi .
£
524,784
63,663
229,270
192,931
255,199
282,545
220,111
101,685
£
250,471
8,881
89,853
42,469
235,864
461,530
260,501
190,140
935
150
212
100
111
384
319
157
256,153
7,934
68,156
57,554
88,635
188,436
153,217
80,062
927
145
212
98
110
381
319
158
254,814
7,833
68,156
57,510
88,523
191,925
158,217
80,312
Total .
1,870,188
1,539,709
2,368
900,147
2,350
902,290
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COMMERCE — MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 755
The following are the principal imports and exports of Morocco in 1892 : —
Imports
Exports
£
£
Candles
39,397 |
Almonds
58,287
Coffee
8,427 !
Barley
138,332
•Cotton goods
593,030 |
Beans
329,223
Glass & earthenware .
16,106
Dates
10,338
Hides
7,135
Eggs .
38,549
Iron and iron goods, &c.
17,587
Gums.
30,360
Silk, manufactured
46,530
Maize.
64,003
Silk, raw .
26,245
Olive oil
5,880
Sugar
333,511
Oxen .
64,140
Tea ...
86,700
Seed, canary
29,818
Wines, spirits, ales, &c.
11,382 ;
Skins, goat
86,106
Woollen cloth .
47,537 |
Slippers
22,395
Hardware .
20,740
Wax, bees' .
39,556
Flour.
15,387 !
Wheat
22,616
Groceries .
12,222 ;
Wool .
121,113
i
Woollen stuffs .
51,200
The value of the trade between Morocco and the United Kingdom in each
of the last five years, according to the Board of Trade returns, was : —
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U. K.
from Morocco
Exports of British
produce to Morocco
£
506,812
513,092
£
956,019
572,133
£
668,034
638,387
£
611,445
592,767
£
755,404
583,386
The chief articles of import into the United Kingdom from Morocco in
1892 were maize and beans, of the value of 357,077?. ; barley, 96,994?. ; gum,
28,542?. ; almonds, 50,774?. ; wool, 88,138?. The staple article of British
export to Morocco consists of cotton manufactures, to the value of 454,908?. in
1892.
In 1883 the Sultan granted the claim of Spain to the small territory of
Santa Cruz de Mar Pequefta, south of Mogador, but Spain has not yet taken
advantage of the cession. On the North coast of Morocco, Spain occupies
positions at Ceuta and Melilla.
Postal services, under the control of the Moorish, British, or French
Government, have been begun, and now six couriers a week pass in each
direction between Fez and Tangier, while a bi-weekly service extends to
Elksar, Laraiche, and other towns.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Monet.
The Blanked or Muzoona = 6 Floos Approximate English value = -j-J^d.
The Ounce or Okia = 4 BlankeeU „ „ „ = ffod*
The Mitkal = 10 Ounces „ „ „ = 3^^.
Spanish and French money are current in Morocco.
3 o 2
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I
756 morocco
Weights and Measures.
The Kintar by which is sold the produce of weight of the country, 100
Rotals, equal to 168 lb. English.
The Kintar by which is sold the articles of weight of importation is 100
Rotate, equal to 112 lb. English.
The JDrah, 8 Tomins, about 22 English inches.
Grain is sold by measure.
The actual Tangin, almost 8 Tomins, equal to HJ English bushel.
Oil is sold, wholesale, by the kula ; that of Tangier actually weighs
28 rotals, 47 lb. English, and is equal to about 5^fr British imperial gallons.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Of Great Britain in Morocco.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Ernest Satow,
C.M.G., appointed June, 1893.
Consul at Tangier.— R. E. White.
There is also a Consul at Dar-el-Baida ; Vice-Consuls at Fez, Laraichc,
Rabat, Mogador, Mazagan, and Sam ; and a Consular Agent at Tetuan.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Morocco.
1. Official Publications.
Reports on Morocco in Nos. 1221 and 1304 of Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series.
London, 1893.
Trade of Morocco with the United Kingdom, an ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amicit (E. de), Maroccc. 8. Milano, 1878. London, 1882.
Bontal (S.), Morocco as it is. With an Account of Sir Charles Euan Smith's Recent
Mission to Fez. London, 1892.
De Campou (Ludovic), Un empire qui croule, le Maroc contemporain. Paris, 1886.
De Foucauld (Vicomte Ch.), Reconnaissance au Maroc, 1888-1884. Paris, 1888.
Erckmann (Jules, capit), Le Maroc moderne. Paris.
Harris (A.), The Land of an African Sultan : Travels in Morocco, 1887-89. 8. London.
1889.
Hooker (Sir Joseph D.), Journal of a Tour in Morocco. 8. London, 1878.
Lena (Dr. O.), Timbuktu. Leipzig, 1884.
Maltzan (Heinrich, Freiherr von), Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika : Reisen in
Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Martiniere (H. M. P. de la), Morocco : Journeys to the Kingdom of Fez and to the Court
of Mulai-Hassan, with Itineraries constructed by the Author, and a Bibliography of Morocco
from 1844 to 1887, with a Preface by Dr. Cole Trotter, 93rd Highlanders. London, 1889.
Rohlfs (Gerhard), Land und Volk in Afrika. 8. Bremen, 1870.
,, ,, Mein erster Aufenthalt in Marokko. 8. Bremen, 1873. [English
translation, Adventures in Morocco, Ac. 8. London, 1874.]
i, „ Reise durch Marokko, Arc. 8. Bremen, 1868.
,, ,, Quer durch Afrika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1874.
8tutfield (Hugh E. M.), El Maghreb ; 1,200 Miles' Ride through Morocco. London, 1886.
Thomson ( Joseph), Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco. London, 1889.
Trotter (Capt. P. D.), Our Mission to the Court of Morocco. Edinburgh, 1881.
Watson (R. H-X A Visit to Wazan. London, 1880.
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757
NEPAL.
An independent Kingdom in the Himalayas, between 26° 25' and 30° 17' N.
lat., and between 80° 6' and 88° 14' of E. long. ; its greatest length 500 miles,
its greatest breath about 150 ; bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by
Sikkim, on the south and west by British India.
The nominal sovereign is the Maharaj Adiraj, Surendra Bikram Shamsher
Jang, succeeded 1884 ; the real power being in the hands of his minister, Bir
Shamsher.
The Gurkhas, a Rdjptit race from Kashmir, conquered Nepal in the
latter half of the last century, and have maintained their power to this day
About 1790 a Gurkha army invaded Tibet ; and to avenge this affront the
Chinese Emperor, Kuen Lung, in 1791, sent an army into Nepal, which
compelled the Gtirkhas to submit to the terms of peace, by which they
were bound to pay tribute to China. This tribute is still sent, but only at
irregular intervals. The relations between the Indian Government and the
Gurkha rulers of Nepal date from the time of the Chinese invasion, when
Lord Cornwallis endeavoured, but without success, to avert hostilities. A
commercial treaty, however, between India and Nepal was signed in 1792. An
English envoy was sent to reside at Khatmandu, but was recalled two years
later. A frontier outrage, in 1814, compelled the Indian Government to declare
war ; and a British force advanced to within three marches of the capital.
Peace was signed in March 1816. Since then the relations of the English
with Nepal have been on the whole friendly ; and during the Indian Mutiny,
the Prime Minister, Sir Jang Bahadur, sent a detachment of Gurkha
troops to assist in the suppression of the rebellion in Oudh. Jang Bahadur
died in 1877, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Sir Ranodip Singh,
who was overthrown and murdered in a revolution which occurred in
November 1885. Since then the Prime Minister Bir Shamsher has been in
power.
The government of Nepal is that of a military oligarchy. The chief power
is in thehands of a mayor of the palace, or prime minister ; the Maharaj Adiraj
being merely titular sovereign. In accordance with the treaty between Nepal
and the Government of India, an English Resident lives in the capital, and is
permitted to have a small guard of Indian sepoys ; but he has no right of
interference in the affairs of the State.
Area about 54,000 square miles ; population estimated at 2,000,000. The
races of Nepal, besides the dominant Gurkhas, include earlier inhabitants of
Tartar origin, such as Magars, Gurangs, and Newars.
Chief town, Khatmandu.
Hinduism of an early type is the religion of the Gurkhas, and is gradually
but steadily overlaying the Buddhism of the primitive inhabitants.
There is a standing irregular army in Nepal, with an estimated strength of
13,000. Besides this, a force of 17,000 regulars is said to be stationed near
the capital. The troops are equipped with Enfield rifles of local manufacture ;
and there is a limited number of small field-pieces.
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758
NEPAL
The trade of Nepal with British India during three years ending March 31,
1893, has been as follows in tens of rupees (excluding treasure) : —
—
1891. Rz.
1892. Rz.
1898. Rz.
Imports from India .
Exports to India
1,285,800
1,719,500
1,884,000
1,557,500
1,182,167
1,844,987
The principal articles of export are rice, oil seeds, clarified butter, ponies,
timber, musk, borax. The chief imports are raw cotton, twist, and piece
goods, woollens, shawls, tobacco, sheet copper, and tea.
The silver mohar is valued at 6 annas 8 pice of British Indian currency.
Copper pice of varying value are also coined. The Indian rupee passes
current in southern Nepal.
Books of Reference.
Essays on the Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepaul and Tibet, by Brian Hodg-
son. London, 1874.
Sketches from Nepaul, Historical and Descriptive, by H. A. Oldfield. London, 1880.
History of Nepaul, translated by Dr. D. Wright. Cambridge, 1877.
Short History of India and the Frontier States, by J. Talboys Wheeler. London, 1880,
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759
NETHERLANDS (THE).
(KONINKEIJK DEE NeDEELANDEN.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria, born August 31, 1880,
daughter of the late King Willem III. and of his second wife,
Princess Emma, born August 2, 1858, daughter of Prince George
Yictor of Waldeck ; succeeded to the throne on the death of her
father, November 23, 1890.
Queen Regent during the Minority of the Queen.
Adelhaid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia, Princess of Waldeck and
Pyrmont, Queen-Dowager, mother of the Queen, took oath as
Queen Regent, December 8, 1890.
Aunt of the Queen.
Princess Sophie, sister of the late King Willem, born April
8, 1824 ; married October 8, 1842, to Grand-duke Karl Alexander
of Saxe-Weimar, born June 24, 1818.
The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of Orange,
descends from a German Count Walram, who lived in the eleventh century.
Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of the branch of Otto, Count ol
Nassau, with Jane of Polanen, in 1404, the family acquired the barony of
Breda, and thereby became settled in the Netherlands. The alliance with
another heiress, only^sister of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of
Chalons, brought to /the house a rich province in the south of France ; and a
third matrimonial union, that of Prince Willem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II., led to the transfer of the crown of Great Britain
to that prince. Previous to this period, the members of the family had
acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands under the name
of 'stadtnolders,' or governors. The dignity was formally declared to be
hereditary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V., had to fly
to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican army. The
family did not return till November, 1813, when the fate of the republic,
released from French supremacy, was under discussion at the Congress of
Vienna. After various diplomatic negotiations, the Belgian provinces,
subject before the French revolution to the House of Austria, were ordered by
the Congress to be annexed to the territory of the republic, and the whole to
be erected into a kingdom, with the son of the last stadtholder, Willem V., as
hereditary sovereign. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed King of the
Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815, and recognised as
sovereign by all the Powers of Europe. The established unipn between the
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GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 761
the Session of the States-General. The Second Chamber of the
States-General numbers 100 deputies, and is elected directly from
among all the male citizens who are 30 years of age, and are not
deprived by judicial sentence of their eligibility or the adminis-
tration and the disposal of their property. Voters are all male
citizens, 23 years of age, who have paid either a ground-tax of at
least 10 guilders, or a direct tax (personal) to an amount higher
than the sum which gives partial exemption from taxation, and
which varies according to population, or who are lodgers accord-
ing to the precepts of the law. The total, number of electors,
according to the new Constitution, is 290,000, which gives 1
voter in about 15 persons. The members of the Second Chamber
receive an annual allowance of 2,000 guilders (£166), besides tra-
velling expenses. They are elected for 4 years, and retire in a
body, whereas the First Chamber is elected for 9 years, and every
three years one-third retire by rotation. The Sovereign has the
power to dissolve both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them,
being bound only to order new elections within 40 days, and to
convoke the new meeting within two months.
The Government and the Second Chamber only have the right
of introducing new bills ; the functions of the Upper Chamber
being restricted to approving or rejecting them, without the right
of inserting amendments. The meetings of both Chambers are
public, though each of them, by the decision of the majority, may
form itself into a private committee. The ministers can attend
at the meetings of both Chambers, but they have only a delibera-
tive voice, unless they are members. Alterations in the Consti-
tution can be made only by a bill declaring that there is reason
for introducing those alterations, followed by a dissolution of the
Chambers and a second confirmation by the new States-General
by two-thirds of the votes. Unless it is expressly declared, the
laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the colonies.
The executive authority, belonging to the Sovereign, is exercised by a
responsible Council of Ministers. There are eight heads of departments in
the Ministerial Council, namely : —
1. The Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Ministerial Council.
—Dr. G. van Tienhoven ; appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
2. The Minister of tlie Interior. — Dr. J. P. Tak van Poortvliet ; appointed
Aug. 20, 1891.
3. The Minister of Finance. — Dr. N. G. Picrson ; appointed Aug. 20
1891.
4. The Minister of Justice. — Dr. H. J. Smidt ; appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
5. The Minister of the Colonics. — Dr. W. K. Baron van Dedcm ; ap-
pointed Aug. 20, 1891.
6. The Minister of Marine. — J. C. Jansen ; appointed Aug. 20, 1891,
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762 NETHERLANDS
7. The Minister of War.—k. L. W. Seyffardt ; appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
8. The Minister of Public Works and Commerce (Waterstaat).— C. Lely ;
appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
Each of the above Ministers has an annual salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,0002.
There is a State Council— ' Raad van State ' — of 14 members, appointed by the
Sovereign, of which the Sovereign is president, and which is consulted on all
legislative and a great number of executive matters,
II. Local Government.
The territory of the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces and 1,123
communes.
Each province has its own representative body, ' the Provincial States. '
The members are elected for 6 years, directly from among the male Dutch
inhabitants -of the province who are 25 years of age, one-half of the members
retiring every 3 years. The practice is the same as that for the Second
Chamber. Voters must be inhabitants of the province. The number of
members varies according to the population of the province, from 80 for
Holland (South) to 35 for Drenthe. The Provincial States are entitled to
make ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes
according to legal precepts. All provincial ordinances must be approved by
the King. The Provincial States exercise a right of control over the munici-
palities. They also elect the members of the First Chamber of the States*
General, and are bound to see the common law executed in their provinces.
They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent commission com-
posed of 6 of their members, called the ' Deputed States,' is charged with the
executive power in the province and the daily administration of its affairs.
Both the Deputed as well as the Provincial States are presided over by a
Commissioner of the Sovereign, who in the former assembly has a deciding
vote, but in the latter named only a deliberative voice. He is the chief
magistrate in the province. Only the members of the Deputed States
receive an allowance.
The communes form each a Corporation with its own interests and rights,
subject to the general law. In each commune is a Council, elected for six
years directly, by the same voters as for the Provincial States, provided they
inhabit the commune ; one-third of the Council retiring every two years.
All the male Dutch inhabitants 23 years of age are eligible, the number of
members varying from 7 to 39, according to the population. The Council has
a right of making and enforcing by-laws concerning the communal welfare.
The Council may raise taxes according to rules prescribed by common law ;
besides each commune receives a fixed annual allowance out of the State
Treasury. All by-laws can be vetoed by the Sovereign. The Municipal
Budget and the resolutions to alienate municipal property require the appro-
bation of the Deputed States of the province. The Council meets in public as
often as may be necessary, and is presided over by a Mayor, appointed by the
Sovereign for 6 years. The executive power is vested in a college formed by
the Mayor and 2, 3, or 4 Aldermen (wethouders), elected by the Council';
this college is also charged with the execution of the common law. The
Municipal Police is under the authority of the Mayor ; as a State functionary
the Mayor supervises the actions of the Council ; he may suspend their
resolutions for 30 days, but is bound to inform the Deputed States of the
province.
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763
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following is the population at various census periods : —
1829
. 2,613,487
1869
. 3,579,529
1839
. 2,860,559
1879
. 4,012,693
1849
. 3,056,879
1889
. 4,511,415
1859
. 3,309,128
The rate of increase in each year, since 1872, has been, in
1880, 0-6; in 1881, 1*3; inv 1882, 1-4; in 1883, 1-2; in 1884,
1-3 ; in 1885, 1-4; in 1886, 1-3; in 1887, 1-4 : in 1888, 1-2 ;
in 1889, 0-9; in 1890, H8; in 1891, 1-25; in 1892, 1-03.
The following table shows the area and the population of
the eleven provinces of the kingdom, according to the census of
December 31, 1889, and to the communal population tables on
December 31, 1892 :—
Area:
English
square miles
Population
Provinces
Dec. 81, 1889
Dec. SI, 1892
Per sq. mile
North Brabant
1,980
509,628
519,022
262*1
Guelders
1,965
512,202
523,039
266*2
South Holland
1,166
949,641
1,002,144
859*5
North Holland
1,070
829,489
877,896
820*5
Zealand
690
199,234
202,709
293-8
Utrecht
534
221,007
229,054
428*9
Friesland
1,282
335,558
336,296
262 3
Overyssel
1,291
295,445
302,508
234 3
Groningen
790
272,786
279,397
353-7
Drenthe
1,030
130,704
135,658
131-7
Limburg
850
255,721
261,853
308-1
Total
12,648
4,511,415
4,669,576
369*2
Of the total population in 1892 there were 2,309,547 males
and 2,360,029 females.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively large urban popula-
tion, especially in the provinces of North and South Holland.
Population of
Percentage
Percentage
Tear
the 21 principal
of the whole
Population
of the whole
Towns i
Population
Population
Dec. 31, 1869
936,801
26*1
•2,642,728
73-8
„ „ 1879
1,115,627
27*8
2,897,066
72-1
i, „ 1889
1,411,584
31-2
3,099,831
68*7
„ „ 1891
1,474,749
31-9
3,146,995
68-1
„ „ 1892
1,506,703
32-2
3,162,873
67*8
* The towns with a population of more than 20,000 inhabitants.
4
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Year
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
North America
South
America
4,298
5,050
3,282
3,923
6,211
330
4,020
167
Australia
Africa
i
1 Total
4,628
—
41
I 9,111
—
77
1 3,526
—
152
i 4,705
—
l 79
1 6,290
In 1892, 2,773 were males, 1,821 females, and 1,696 children.
The total number of emigrants, Dutch and foreigners, sailed
from Dutch ports was, in 1892, 28,327.
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POPULATION — RELIGION
765
III. Principal Towns.
On December 31, 1892, the following towns had a population of more than
20,000 inhabitants, namely : —
Amsterdam . 437,892
Rotterdam 222,233
The Hague . 169,828
('sGravenhage)
Utrecht . . 89,436
Groningen . 57,967
Haarlem . 55,311
Arnhem . 51,687
Leiden .
44,198
Bois-le- Due's
j(Herto-
Tilburg .
35,068
genbosch)
. 28,340
Maestricht
32,757
Zwolle .
. 27,706
Nimeguen
34,128
Schiedam
. 25,280
Dordrecht
34,125
Breda
. 23,438
. 23,708
Leeuwarde
30,712
Deventer
Delft .
30,398
Helder .
. 23,709
Niewer Amstel
28,782
Religion.
According to the terms of the Constitution, entire liberty of conscience
and complete social equality are granted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The royal family and the majority of the inhabitants belong to the
Reformed Church. The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian ;
while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, of Utrecht, and four
bishops, of Haarlem, Breda, Roermond, and 'sHertogenbqsch. The salaries of
several British Presbyterian ministers, settled in the Netherlands, and whose
churches are incorporated with the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of
the public funds. For Protestant Churches the sum of 1,381,851 guilders is
set down in the Budget for 1894 ; for Roman Catholics, 576,735 gl. ; and for
12,775.
Religious Bodies
, Dutch Reformed Ch. .
Walloon Church
English Presbyterian
Church .
Scotch Church .
1 Various Protestant
I bodies . . .•
I Roman Catholic Ch. .
Jansenists
Jews .
Divisions
Number of
Clergy
1892.
1 1 synod, 10 provin-
|_ cial districts, 44
| classes, and 1,347
J parishes
626 churches
1 archbishopric, 4
bishoprics, 1,029
churches . . !
1 archbishopric, 2 '
bishoprics. 26
churches . .
12 districts, 177 I
churches
492
2,377
27
137
Number of
Adherents
according to
the Census of
I 1,60. ,
. 2,194,649
j 10,299
370
199
! 522,608
! 1,596,482
I
7,687
i
97,324
Belonging to other religious bodies, or of unknown creed, were 82,366
persons.
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766
NETHERLANDS
Instruction.
Public instruction (primary) is given in all places where needed, but
education is not compulsory nor necessarily free ; religious convictions are
respected.
From the beginning of this century elementary schools have been more
or less under State regulation and inspection. In 1806, and more expressly
in 1848, secular instruction was separated from religious or sectarian
instruction. Elementary education is now regulated by the Primary
Instruction Act, passed in 1857, supplemented by an Act of 1878, and
again considerably altered by the Act of December 1889. By the last
Act public instruction is diminished and a greater share in the education of
the youths left to private instruction, which is now supported by the State.
According to the regulations of the present Act the cost of public primary
instruction is borne jointly by the State and the communes, the State con-
tributing to the salaries of the teachers and being responsible for 25 per cent,
to the costs of founding or purchasing schools.
The following table is taken from the Government returns for 1891-92 :—
Institutions
Number
Teaching Staff
Pupils or Students
Universities (public) 1 .
4
166
2,828
Classical Schools .
29
428
2,567
Secondary Day and Evening
Schools
38
414
4,835
Navigation Schools
Middle Class Schools .
11
59
359
73
941
7,644
Polytechnicum
1
24
245
Elementary Schools :
Public ....
2,976
13,039
458,739
Private ....
1,316
5,209
200,363
Infant Schools :
Public ....
130
800
23,421
Private ....
863
2,500
79,187
i Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam.
Besides the schools named in the table, there is a great number of special
schools— viz., agricultural (1), horticultural (2), deaf and dumb (3) and
blind (1) schools, 1 school for philology, geology, and demography of the East
Indies (for the Indian Civil Service), several military scnools, a national
Academy of Art, a royal school of music, a national normal school for draw-
ing teachers, several technical schools and normal schools for the training of
teachers. Since 1880 there is also a private university, with 87 students in 1891.
I
1888
1889
1890
1891
£
£
£
£
On Primary Education —
The Government spent .
374,618
364,542
364,300
461,308
The Communes spent .
On Normal Schools were
579,580
568,601
575,055
645,816
spent in all
98,311
89,654
83,801
81,706
The total expenses for Edu-
cation were : —
For the State
589,041
578,583
587,583
692,666
For the Communes
722,218
710,333
719,833
793,250
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JUSTICE AND CRIME — PAUPERISM
767
Of the conscripts called out in 1891, 6*5 per cent, could neither read nor
write, the percentage being highest in Drenthe, 13 *1. Of the total number
of children from 6 to 12 years (school age) on 31 December, 1891, 10 per
cent, received no elementary instruction. In 1884 it was 12*70.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of
Appeal), by 5 courts of justice, by 23 district tribunals, and by 106 cantonal
courts ; trial by jury is unknown in Holland.
The number of penal sentences pronounced was :
By the Cantonal
Courts
District Tribunals Courts of Justice
High Court
1890
1891
1892
69,249
69,104
77,585
15,253
15,750
17,422
813
807
888
256
252
290
The number of persons convicted was : —
By the Cantonal Courts
By the District Tribunals
1
1
Male
Female
Male
Female
1 1890
1891
| 1892
63,499
61,943
71,538
7,408
7,679
8,373
14,958
15,339
17,042
1,950
2,089
2,215
The number of prisons in 1892 was 31, of houses of detention 46. The
number of inmates in the prisons at the end of 1892 was 2,014 males and
195 females ; in the houses of detention, 715 males and 46 females. There
are also 5 State-work-establishments specially for drunkards, beggars and
vagabonds. The number of inmates was, at the end of 1892, 3,598.
Children under 16 years are placed, if necessary, in the 3 State reform-
atories ; they numbered in 1892 425 boys and 99 girls.
There are both State and communal police. The State police consists of
field-constables and cavalry. The former are spread over the country, the
latter guard the frontiers (eastern and southern).
The cavalry police (marechausse) numbers about 15 officers and 701 men.
There are about 782 — appointed and paid by the Government — field-con-
stables, divided into 107 brigades Besides each commune has its own field-
constables or police force.
Pauperism.
The relief of the poor is largely effected by the religious societies and
organised private charity. The State does not interfere, except when no
relief is to be obtained from private charity ; in that case the pauper must be
supported by the commune where he is living. The communes grant small
subsidies to the private societies ; there is no poor rate in the Netherlands.
Mendicity and vagabondage are treated as a crime, and persons so convicted
can be placed in a State-work establishment. Workhouses for the poor are
found in many communes.
The number of poor relieved, either temporarily or continuously, during
the year 1890 Was 243,743 or 5 '34 per cent, of the total population. In 1889
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768
NETHERLANDS
it was 5*08 percent, in 1888 5*12 per cent. ; in 1887 6 13 per cent. ; in 1885
211,520, or 4*94 per cent.; in 1884, 209,797, or 4*96 per cent. ; in 1883,
214,516, or 5*13 percent. The average number in the years 1877-81 was
209,875.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure in five years were : —
Revenue.
Year
Ordinary-
Guilders
1888
120,435,101
1889-
122,780,333
1890
124,487,805
1891
129,450,298
1892
131,072,806
I Extraord. (loans, Ac.) |
Total
Guilders
3,445,000
1,800,000
19,973,251
690,000
570,000
Guilders
123,880,101
124,580,333
144,461,056
130,140,289
131,642,806
Expenditure.
Year
1888
1889
1890
! 1891
I 1892
Defence
Guilders
31,740,066
33,443,780
33,031,970
36,229,284
35,783,384
Debt
I Public Works j General
Guilders
35,602,241
32,731,093
34,018,172
34,113,746
56,444,208
Guilders
15,672,658
14,337,892
54,583,939
13,408,446
11,366,319
Guilders
43,554,282
43,586,255
45,052,333
47,202,957
48,447,353
Total
Guilders
126,569,247
124,099,020
166,686,414
130.954,433
152,041,264
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
years 1893 (October) and 1894 (October) were as follows : —
Branches of Ex-
penditure
Civil list
1 Legislative body
| and Royal cabinet
Department of Po
reign Affairs
1 Department of Jus
tice
r Department of In-
♦ terior .
Department of Ma-
rine
■ Department of Fi
nance .
Department of War
*■ Department of Pub-
, lie Works, Ac.
Department of Colo-
nies
Public Debt .
Contingencies
Total expenditure
1893
1894
Guilders
804,000
Guilders
804,000
660,506
666,872
783,862
784,929
Sources of Revenue
I 1894
5,488,669
12,308,424
15,697,423
18,906,632
22,598,227
5,364,574
12,860,117
15,619,355
19,031,217
22,323,776
22,346,853 22,052,550 /
I
1,352,531 '
35,242,898
50,000 1
1,431,075 j
35,055,359 '
50,000 I
136,034,827
* These taxes were
Direct taxes :—
Land tax .
Personal .
Patents .
Tax on capital >
Tax on incomes
from trades, pro-
fessions, &c.i
Excise duties
Indirect taxes . ,
Import duties . i
Tax on gold and '
silver.
Domains
Post omce
Telegraph service .
State lottery .
Shooting and fish-
ing licences . i
Pilot dues .
Dues on mines
State railways
Miscellaneous re- '
ceipts . . . I
Total revenue
Guilders Guilders
12.592.600
11,614,000
4,528,000 '
"" I
11,740,000
11,611,000
1, -456,000
6,800,000
44,665,000 '
23,638,000
5,736,250
230,850
2,330,000
7,400,000 ,
1,359,000
661,500
136,000
1,400,000
6,930
3,945,000
3,067,000
41,950,000
19,677,000
5,761,000
215,81 .'j
2,335,000
7,570,000
1,363,000
661,500
132,000
1,400,000
4,51 :.
3,950,000
7,683,350 , 8,569,89*.
127,926,490 128,263,725
introduced in 1893aby
FINANCE
769
The share of the direct taxes, excise, indirect taxes, and cus-
toms duties in the revenue for five years 1888-92 was : —
Year
Direct Taxes
Excise
Indirect Taxes
Customs Duties
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1888
27,133,713
43,401,346
23,892,739
5,117,435
1889
27,610,382
44,136,909
24,056,939
5,282,966
1890
28,212,782
43,550,730
23,998,658
5,711,952
1891
28,479,008
44,223,364
25,884,255
5,801,238
1892
28,581,428
44,527,474
27,463,005
5,776,407
The amount of these taxes per head of the population was, in
1892, 22-77 guilders.
The expenditure of the ' Department for the Colonies ' entered
in the budget estimates only refers to the central administration.
There is a separate budget for the great colonial possessions in
the East Indies, voted as such by the States-General. The finan-
cial estimates for the year 1894 calculated the total revenue at
125,131,594 guilders, with an expenditure of 139,099,200 guilders.
The expenditure of 1894 is distributed between the colonies and
the mother country in the following proportions : —
Guilders
114,763,511
24,336,689
Administrative and other expenses in the colonies
Home Government expenditure ....
Total expenditure . . . 139,099,200
In the budget for 1894 the national debt is given as follows : —
_
Nominal Capital
Annual Interest
Funded Debt
2 J per cent, debt
«* ti if it
3 J ,, ,, redeemable ditto
3J „ „ debtofl886 and 1891
5 ,, ,, l debt of appropriated
6 „ „ t railway.
Total.
Floating debt ....
Annuities
Paper money ....
Sinking fund ....
Total debt .
Guilders
626,008,900
93,412,250
1,635,000
377,050,400
294,000
2,719,693
Guilders
15,650,222
2,802,367
69,475
13,209,264
14,847
166,624
1,101,120,243
15,000,000
31,912,799
60,000
69,759
3,032,800
1,116,120,243
35,055,358
The following table shows the interest and sinking fund for
the last six years : —
3 D
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of a law of 1861, is formed partly by conscription and partly
by enlistment, the volunteers forming the stock, but not the
majority of the troops. The men drawn by conscription, at the
age of nineteen, have to serve, nominally, five years ; but really
only for twelve months, meeting afterwards for six weeks
annually for practice, during four years. Besides the regular
army, there exists a militia — ' schutterij ' — mainly for internal
defence, divided into two classes. The first, the ' active militia '
(dienstdoende), exists in communes of 2,500 inhabitants and
more ; in the others there is a ' resting ' (rustende) militia. All
men from 25 to 30 belong to the militia, from 30 to 35 to the
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DEFENCE
771
reserve. The militia is subdivided into three parts (bans) :
(1) the unmarried men and widowers without children ; (2) the
married men and widowers with few children, who are supposed
not to be absolutely necessary for their family or the exercise of
their profession ; (3) the married men and widowers with children
belonging to the militia. The militia numbers 2 per cent, of
the population. Besides . this there is the * landstorm/ consist-
ing of all capable of bearing arms, and the ' Society of Sharp-
shooters/ corresponding somewhat to the English ' Volunteers.'
The regular army on footing of war consisted on July 1,
1893, of 47,343 infantry, 3,199 cavalry, 1,574 engineers, 15,934
artillery ; in all, about 69,000 men, including special services,
but excluding officers.
In peace the total number of the army was, on the same date
in 1893. only2Q,151 men and about 1,750 officers.
Included in the infantry are 1 regiment of guards, and 8
regiments of the line ; there are 3 regiments of cavalry, 1 battalion
of sappers and miners, 3 regiments of field artillery, 4 of fortress
artillery, 1 corps of light-horse artillery, 1 corps of pontooneers,
and 1 corps of torpedoists (see under Colonies).
III. Navy.
The Navy is maintained for a double purpose — viz, the pro-
tection of the Zuyder Zee, the Hollandsch Diep, and the coast
generally; and the defence of the Dutch East Indies. These
latter contribute to the maintenance of that division of it known
as the Indian Marine. The fleet, built and building, consists of
six sea-going turret and barbette rams (ranging between 3,400
and 5,200 tons), which may be ranked as armoured cruisers ; 22
small port and local defence rams, monitors, and armoured gun-
boats ; a large number of small unprotected cruisers and gun-
boats, and a torpedo-flotilla ; besides guard, training and special
service vessels. Classified according to the system adopted in this
book (see Introductory Table), the effective floating strength of the
Netherlands, including the Indian Marine, may be thus stated : —
Port Defence Ships.
Cruisers, 1st Class (a) None)
„ W 6 )
„ 2nd Class .
„ 3rd Class (a) 10 )
(b) 67 *
Torpedo-craft, 1st Class 6 .
„ 2nd Class 14 I
3rd Class1 3 /
* Also 20 less tUan 80 feet in length.
. 22
. 6
. 5
. 77
. 23
133
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772
NETHERLANDS
The following is a complete list of the armour-clad fleet of the Netherlands.
The first six are sea-going vessels ; the rest are purely for local defence.
Displace-
ment, or
Armour
Thickness at
water-line
Heaviest Guns
Tonnage
Number
Calibre
inches
centimetres
Eoning der Ne-
fi
281
12/
derlanden
5,400
8
Prinz Hendrik .
3,375
4i
ft
23 \
12/
Koningin Wil-
helmina
4,600
9 J (turret)
{I
28 & 21\
17 /
3 New Ships .
3,400
6
3
21
Stier
2,069
6
1
28
Schorpioen
2,175
0
1
28
Buffel .
2,198
6
1
28
Guinea .
2,378
6
1
28
ReinierClaeszen
2,490
5
2
21 & 17
Draak .
2,156
8
2
28
Matador .
1,935
5ft
2
28
Luipaard
1,525
5ft
1
28
Hijena .
1,566
5ft
1
28
Panter
1,566
5ft
1
28
Haai
1,566
5ft
1
28
Wesp
1,566
5ft
1
28
Krokodil .
1,530
5ft
1
28
Heiligerlee
1,530
5ft
1
28
Tijger
1,414
5ft
1
28
Cerberus .
1,530
5ft
1
28
Bloedhond
1,530
54
1
28
Rhenus .
367
5
2
12
Isala
367
5
2
12
Mosa
367
5
2
12
Merva
367
5
2
}2
Vahalis .
340
4
2
7,5
Indicated
Nominal
Horse-
Speed-
Knots
power
5,400
119
2,000
12*1
5,900
17'0
20 0
2,257
12-4
2,225
120
2,000
12 4
2,000
12*2
2,400
16*5
807
8 5
691
7 5
680
7*3
654
7 3
650
7'3
672
7 3
744
7 3
630
8 0
630
8 0
684
9*5
617
8 0
680
80 l
310
7*5
306
7 5
400
7 5
395
7 5
243
6 0
The navy is officered by 3 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals ('schouten-bij-
nacht'), 25 captains, 36 commanders, 337 lieutenants, 104 midshipmen,
besides engineers, surgeons, &c, and about 6,000 seamen. The marine infantry
consists of 61 officers, and about 2,200 non-commissioned officers and privates.
Both seamen and marines are recruited by enlistment, conscription being
allowed, but not actually in force.
The Government of the Netherlands spends from two to three million
florins annually in strengthening its various means of defence.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The surface of the Netherlands was divided in 1888 (latest available statistics)
as follows (in hectares, 1 hectare = 2*47 acres) : — Uncultivated land (heath)
712,523; water and morass, 126,868; dykes and roads, 44,309; untaxed
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
773
land, 92,353 ; building land, houses, &c, 37,850 ; land under culture,
859,844; pasture, 1,144,066; gardens and orchards, 54,124; forest, 226,968.
Total, 3,298,906 h. a.
Large estates prevail in the provinces of Zealand, South Holland,
Groningen, and North Holland ; small estates in North Brabant, Guelders,
Limburg, and Overyssel.
In 1891 the number of estates was : —
Under
5 hectares
From 5 to
10 hectares
From 10 to
20 hectares
From 20 to From 40 to
40 hectares 75 hectares
From 75 to
100 hectares
Above 100
hectares
77,201
34,023
29,775
18,361
6,426
441
206
42*1 per cent, of all estates being held by farmers, and 57*9 per cent, by the
owners. In 1888 the percentage was 41 *5 and 58*5
The total number of cattle in 1891 was 1,532,100 ; of horses, 271,900 ; of
sheep, 810,600 ; and of pigs, 987,900.
The areas under the principal crops, in hectares, were as follows : —
-
1891
1890 | 1889
1888
1887
Average,
1871-80
Wheat
85,583
84,841
85,376
84,655
85,194
86,421
Rye .
Winter barley .
183,506
203,598
202,971
202,435
204,018
196,112
19,547
28,489
28,878
29,758
30,226
26,667
Summer barley .
25,706
13,749
15,515 15,214
14,851
21,034
Oats .
152,709
115,052
114,967 114,097
115,448
113,627
Potatoes .
149,584
145,460
148,219
148,968
147,386
135,310
Buckwheat
43,563
44,853
46,425
46,941
48,078
65,135
Beans
44,477
36,195
36,129
36,670
36,598
36,814
Peas .
28,009
26,601
25,166
25,489
22,769
16,493
Rapeseed .
2,249
8,216
5,220
5,292
7,334
12,690
Flax .
14,433
16,312
17,070
16,024
15,582
1J8,530
Beetroot .
22,531
28,100
23,588
21,925
19,135
13,904
Tobacco
657
892
1,107
1,282
1,300 1,676
Madder
408
394
567
727
898 2,295
The" mean yield of these products was, per hectare, in hectolitres (1 hec-
tolitre =2 75 bushels) : —
| 1891
1890
1889
1888
1887
Average,
1871-80
Wheat
21-1
22-5
267
21-8
28-5
22-0
Rye .
159
19*2
19-6
17*2
23 3
17'3
Winter barley .
37 5
371
42-8
35 6
46*1
39-0
Summer barley .
327
29*7
31-0
28 9
30*5
28-8
Oats .
42-7
40-5
41-0
387
37-0
38-3
Potatoes .
107*0
130-0
155*0
110-0
183-0
1360
Buckwheat
12-8
12-9
18-1
14-4
8-8
17-4
Beans
25-9
24-9
25-2
25-1
25-0
21-7
Peas .
163
18-9
27-9
197
26-7
20-5
Rapeseed .
20 5
28-2
25-2
22 2
25 2
21-3
Flax (kilo.) .
415-0
415-0
546 0
445-0
530-0
476 0
Beetroot ,,
,18,680-0
26,050-0
32,790-0
17,100 0
23,100-0
26,260-0
Tobacco ,,
1,655-0
1,815-0
2,409 0
1,969-0
2,132-0
2,247 0
Madder ,,
2,090-0
2,945-0
2,513 0
2,550-0
2,800 0
2,500-0
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774
NETHERLANDS
The value of imports and exports of the leading agricultural products in
1892 and 1891 was as follows (in guilders) :—
-
1892
1891
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Wheat .
85,830,000
55,606,000
96,706,000
54,304,000
Flour wheat and
rye
36,735,000
7,670,000
39,226,000
12,413,000
Rye .
35,415,000
16,420,000
52,220,000
21,444,000
Barley
15,884,000
8,838,000
18,458,000
9,294,000
Oats .
2,714,000
4,453,000
7,966,000
7,272,000
Potatoes .
584,000
733,000
733,000
769,000
Potato-flour
1,521,000
8,163,000
1,516,000
8,874,000
Buckwheat
3,015,000
750,000
3,608,000
1,400,000
Flax .
1,458,000
18,154,000
1,175,000
18,880,000
Beetroot .
I
82,000
1,358,000
95,000
815,000
The import of bulbs, shrubs, and trees was valued for 1891 at 311,000 gl.,
the export at 4,438,090 gl. ; for 1892 312,000, and 5,295,000 gl. ; vegetables
at 640,000 gl. import and 17,979,000 gl. export in 1891, and 1,340,, 000 and
21,235,000 gl. in 1892.
II. Mining.
A few coal mines are found in the province of Limburg ; they belong to
the State. The quantity of coal extracted in 1892 was 56,840,000 kilos.,
valued at 249,370 gl. ; clear revenue, 87,405 gl. ; part of the State, 16,202 gl.
III. Fisheries.
In 1892, 4,647 vessels of all kinds were engaged in the fisheries, with
crews numbering about 16,142. The produce of the herring fishery in the
North Sea was valued at 5,519,500 guilders. The total number of oysters
produced in 1892 amounted to 12,700,000 ; one-fourth part of it exported to
England.
IV. Manufactures.
There are no official returns of the manufacturing industries. According
to the last reports there were, in 1892, 514 distilleries, 12 sugar refineries, 30
beet-sugar manufactories, 52 salt works, 514 breweries, 97 vinegar manu-
factories, 91 soap manufactories, and 3 wine manufactories.
The total number of manufactories which made use of steam-engines at the
end of 1892 was 3,788 ; the number of engines, 4,511.
Commerce.
The Netherlands is a free-trading country. A few duties are
levied, but they have only a fiscal, not a protectionist character.
The duties amount usually to 5 per cent, of the value of manu-
factured articles, and nihil or only 2£ per cent, if these articles
are used for the industries of the country.
No official returns are kept of the value of the general trade,
but only of the weight of the goods. The growth of the total
commerce of the Netherlands may be seen from the fact that in
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COMMERCE
775
1872 the total imports were estimated at 6,451 million kilo-
grammes, and the exports at 2,956 millions ; while in 1892 the
former were 15,711 million kilogrammes, and the latter 9,009
millions, exclusive of goods in transit.
The following are the estimates of the imports for home con-
sumption and the exports of home produce for five years : —
Year
Imports
Exports
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Guilders
1,272,093,000
1,245,287,000
1,299,750,000
1,356,058,000
1,282,000,000
Guilders
1,114,806,000
1,094,078,000
1,087,532,000
1,140,473,000
1,134,000,000
The values of the leading articles of import and export in
1891-1892 were (in thousands of guilders) : —
Imports,
Exports,
| 1891
1891
Iron and steel of all kinds 124,146
83,016
Textiles, raw and manu-
i
factured
112,323
108,591
Cereals and flour
230,622
118,371
Coal
45,110
2,549
Rice
40,677
12,085
Mineral oil
8,086
251
Coffee
34,613
20,403
Butter
2,315
13,246
Margarine
14,567
55,327
Sugar
35,092
f 43, 533
Cheese
101
10,687
Drugs
Gold and silver
1 222,580
157,222
20,509
3,000
Vegetables
! 640-
18,723
Wood
28,107
16,841
Skins
21,523
21,836
Indigo
6,664
4,743
Copper
40,865
24,686
Paper
3,280
23,946
Soot, grease, tallow, suet .
20,126
4,736
Saltpetre ,
16,811
14,480
Zinc . . .
10,316
8,435
Tobacco ....
8,232
2,731
Tin
11,944
10,671
Colours (painters' wares) .
11,151
10,401
Flax ....
1,846
18,879
Seeds (colza, linseed, &c.) .
35,645
12,446
Imports,
Exports,
1892 |
1892
120,682
76,015
97,653
126,055
176,578
92,978
42,720
2,425
37,698
11,212
8,750
164
31,734
19,155
2,277
9,643
23,170
55,899
43,285
47,279
86
10,331
176,064
135,889
15,057
4,223
1,340
21,235
29,404
16,149
19,319
20,135
7,645
7,181
38,978
19,550
3,268
20,911
19,147
4,823
14,458
12,299
10,134
8,534
7,810
3,699
12,692
10,976
10,570
9,584
1,458
18,154
22,298
8,143
The following table shows the value of the imports and
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776
NETHERLANDS
exports of the great classes of products in 1891 and 1892 (in
1,000 gl.) :—
-
Imports
Exports
1891
1,000 G.
362,299
249,343
204,276
328,752
1892
1891
1892
Food products .
Raw materials .
Manufactured products .
Miscellaneous .
1,000 G.
332,350
239,889
197,161
302,573
1,000 G.
307,512
161,335
241,891
220,560
1,000 G.
300,486
153,985
227,841
206,371
For the last five years the returns were, in millions of kilo-
grammes : —
Tear
i
Total Imports
Total Exports •
Re-exports
Transit
1838
1889
1890
1891
1892
13,484
13,849
14,612
15,877
15,711
7,323
7,643
8,298
8,616
9,009
384
424
468
520
625
2,004
1,948
2,028
2,386 ,
2,713
The following table shows the value of the trade with the
leading countries for the last five years, in millions of guilders : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Percentage
1892
Imports for home consump-
tion from —
Prussia ....
284*8
242 0
247*1
250-6
249 3
19-4
Great Britain .
341-4
297 4
283-6
270 3
266*5
20-8
Belgium ....
157 3
176*6
195-2
186*1
184-3
14*4
Dutch East Indies .
118-2
142*6
159*5
225*1
177-2
13-8
Russia ....
126 2
1127
112-1
119-2
38 5
3 0
United States of America
62-2
76-0
98-4
92-5
148 9
11-6
British India .
29 5
29 8
38-0
42 0
41-9
3 3
France ....
17*7
22 5
24-2
22 5
20 9
1-6
Hamburg
31-0
25 2
21-2
18-4
19 6
1-5
Exports to —
Prussia ....
511-3
477-2
498-5
5322
487*2
43 0
Great Britain .
298-3
284-7
270 5
295 8
325*8
287
Belgium ....
146-4
140-1
148*0
1497
160*4
14 1
United States of America
38*4
22-2
23-7
20*7
23 3
2 1
Dutch East Indies .
47*0
69 1
53 2
63*6
62 5
5-5
Hamburg
17-9
19*0
17 3
18-1
15-1
1-3
France ....
110
10-9
10-8
8-8
9 0
0*8
Italy ....
8-2
87
10-8
4*6
47
0 4
Russia ....
4-5
17-4
5-5
3-6
3 1
0*3
I
The total value of the imports from the Netherlands into Great Britain, and
of the exports of British and Irish produce to the Netherlands, in each of
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COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
777
the last five years is shown in the table following, according to the Board
of Trade returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
£
Imports into
U. K. from
Netherlands .
26,070,872
26,679,216
25,900,924
27,301,657
28,820,921
Exports of
British pro-
duce to Neth-
erlands . .
8,511,863
9,704,264
10,121,160
9,463,300
8,836,020
The principal articles of import into the United Kingdom from the Nether-
lands in the year 1892 were: Butter, 750,314Z. ; margarine, 3,360,707*.;
living animals, principally oxen and sheep, 68,185Z. (653,238Z. in 1891) ; cheese,
678,573*. ; gin, 58,523*. ; sugar, 1,973,202*. ; iron and steel goods, 1,046,978*. ;
woollen manufactures, 2,872,199*. ; cotton manufactures, 1,036,682*. ; leather
and leather goods, 1,558,218*. ; enumerated also as imports from the Netherlands
into Great Britain, in the official returns, are silk manufactures of various
kinds, chiefly stuffs and ribbons, 1,849,701*. in 1892, but these must be con-
sidered as principally goods in transit, coming from the Rhenish provinces of
Prussia, the seat of the German silk industry. The principal articles of
British home produce exported to the Netherlands in the year 1892 were
cotton goods, and yarn, of the value of 2,271,393*. ; iron, wrought and
unwrought, of the value of 685,452*. ; woollen-yarn and manufactures, of
the value of 1,430,805*. ; and machinery, 614,350*. A considerable amount
of these British imports are not for consumption in the Netherlands, but pass in
transit to Germany.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels belonging to the mercantile navy at
the end of 1892 was : —
Sailing vessels 447, of 349,000 cubic metres tonnage ; steamers
150, of 479,000 cubic metres (1 cubic metre = -354 English ton).
The following table gives the number and tonnage of vessels
which entered and cleared the ports of the Netherlands : —
| Entered.
Year
With Cargoes
In Ballast
No.
Tonnage
(cubic metres)
No.
Tonnage
(cubic metres)
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
8,348
8,517
8,711
8,802
8,729
13,873,000
14,275,000
14,878,000
15,824,000
16,223,000
728
665
764
563
638
583,000
501,000
535,000
361,000
571,000
Total
No.
9,076 I
9,182 I
9,475 I
9,365 I
9,367 I
Tonnage
(cubic metres)
14,456,000
14,775,000
15,413,000
16,168,000
16,794,000
Cleared.
1888
6,045
8,468,000
2,973
5,946,000
9,018
14,413,000 j
1889
5,842
8,357,000
3,070
6,202,000
8,912
14,559,000 |
1890
5,931
8,511,000
3,272
6,745,000
9,203
15,256,000
1891
5,799
8,731,000
3,463
7,370,000
9,262
16,101,000
1892
6,364
9,873,000
2,925
6,856,000
9,289
16,729,000
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778
NETHERLANDS
Of the total number in 1892, 2,743 Dutch vessels entered
with a tonnage of 5,109,000 cubic metres, and 6,624 foreign
vessels with a tonnage of 11,686,000 cubic metres ; 2,755 Dutch
vessels cleared, with a tonnage of 5,121,000 cubic metres, and
6,534 foreign vessels with a tonnage of 11,608,000 cubic metres.
The vessels with cargoes which entered at the chief ports were
as follows : —
Entered
Port
1892
1891
Number
Tonnage
(cubic metres)
per cent.
Number
Tonnage
(cubic metres)
pr.cnt.
51-2
18'8 '
13 2 !
i
1
I
45-7!
205 |
224 1
I
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing .
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing .
4,078
1,476
897
2,830
1,048
890
8,321,000
2,892,000
2,047,000
4,634,000
1,883,000
2,066,000
513
17*8
12 6
%rcd
46-9
19-1
20*9
4,208
1,569
830
2,686
1,027
790
8,109,000
2,976,000
2,094,000
3,992,000
1,791,000
1,959,000
The number of Dutch vessels engaged in the carrying trade
between foreign ports was, in 1891, 2,158, with a tonnage of
3,760,000 cubic metres. The coasting trade is of no importance.
Internal Communications.
I. Canals and Railways,
The length of navigable water (canals excluded) is about 3,000 miles.
The total extent of the canals is 1,907,170 miles ; of roads, 17,473 miles.
In 1891 the total length of the tramway lines was 598 miles; 37,171
passengers were carried, and 244,466 millions of kilogrammes of goods.
Their revenue amounts to 4,149,000 guilders.
The total outlay upon the State railways up to 1892 was 262,674,000
guilders.
In 1891 the railways had a length of 1,630 miles, whereof the State
owned 873 miles, and private companies the remainder.
I
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
779.
Year
Revenue
(guilders)
Expenditure
(guilders)
Goods carried
(kilogrammes)
Passengers
carried
1888
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1889
State Railway Co. . ,
Private railway cos.
1890
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.1
1891
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1892
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
13,538,000
13,864,000
13,788,000
14,033,000
14,872,000
12,431,000
19,674,000
12,548,000
19,743,000
12,733,000
6,552,000
7,297,000
6,766,000
7,595,000
7,833,000
7,300,000
18,382,000
9,834,000
18,896,000
10,195,000
4,556,000,000
3,493,000,000
4,531,000,000
3,786,000,000
4,715,000,000
2,376,000,000
4,902,000,000
2,724,000,000
4,908,000,000
5,886,000
12,596,000
6,202,000
13,248,000
6,664,000
10,306,000
11,111,000
11,007,000
10,929,000
i In 1890 one of the private companies was appropriated by the State.
II. Post and Telegraphs.
The postal traffic was as follows in the years named : —
Letters
Post Cards
Newspapers and
Printed Matter
Parcels
Letters with
Money Orders
1888
Internal .
i Foreign .
| 1889
! Internal.
1 Foreign .
, 1890
Internal .
Foreign .
1891
Internal .
1 Foreign .
! 1892
Internal .
Foreign .
50,641,000
15,159,000
50,711,000
16,182,000
50,850,000
16,519,000
50,917,000
16,998,000
52,361,000
17,589,000
23,283,273
3,611,857
24,672,510
3,785,849
26,569,738
4,077,776
28,364,552
4,164,436
29,020,601
4,389,798
75,879,000
6,785,000
78,752,000
7,541,046
83,496,000
7,580,000
86,227,000
8,593,000
95,593,000
9,530,000
3,189,410
333,666
3,341,861
370,941
3,480,506
394,445
3,598,159
432,565
3,592,755
474,742
918,249
663,739
958,137
676,843
980,327
687,003
1,003,965
739,656
1,034,608
803,579
The receipts of the Post Office in 1892 were 7,184,090 guilders, the ex-
penditure 5,685,362 guilders.
There are several private telegraph lines, but most of the lines are owned
by the State. The length of State lines on Dec. 31, 1892, was 3,398 miles, the
length of wires 12,098 miles. The number of State offices was, on December 31,
1892, 473. The number of paid messages by State lines in 1892 was
4,302,978. The receipts of the State amounted in the same year to 1,353,924
guilders, and the ordinary expenses to 1,881,580 guilders.
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780
NETHERLANDS
Honey and Credit.
The money in general circulation is chiefly silver. Before 1875 the
Netherlands had the silver standard ; but a bill which passed the States-
General in the session of 1875 allowed an unrestricted coinage of ten-guilder
pieces in gold, whereas the coinage of silver was suspended for an unlimited
time.
The total circulation in thousands of guilders was as follows : —
Paper money
Paper money
Jan. 1
Silver, Ac
Gold
issued
by the State
issued
by the Bank
Total
1,000 guilders
1,000 guilders
1,000 guilders
1,000 guilders
207,233
1,000 guilders
1889
60,337
24,437
11,737
303,744
1890
60,985
24,366
11,577
213,810
310,738
1891
60,544
24,255
14,486
204,940
303,225
1892
57,649
24,056
14,750
203,288
299,743
1893
53,995
23,773
13,960
197,547
289,275
Value of money minted during the following years (in thousands of
guilders) : —
For the
Total
value
Total number
Year
Gold
Silver
Copper
East India
of pieces
Colonies
(in thousands)
1840-70
372,235
17,939
390,078
1,282,681
1871-80
74,300
97,325
1,220
—
172,649
146,433
1881-90
4,030
1,433
840
2,660
8,955
111,768
1891
—
200
25
715
940
12,260
1892
—
3,900
50
—
3,950
11,300
State Banks are unknown. The Bank of the Netherlands is a private
institution, but it is the only one which has received the right of issuing
bank-notes, by a bill of 1863, for a period of 25 years, in 1888 prolonged for
15 years, with continuation for 10 years if the contract is not broken by one
of the parties two years before the beginning of a new period. The Bank does
the same business as other banks, only with more guarantees. Two-fifths of
the paper money in circulation must be covered. It has agencies in all
places of importance.
\
Tear
(Nation i T0tei^f??geS
March 31 March 31
Stock of Gold i Stock of Silver
in July ' in July
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1,000 guilders 1,000 guilders 1,000 guilders ! 1,000 guilders
204,368 1 296,530 , 66,470 79,300
208,449 1 299,822 | 61,720 65,620 j
194,680 320,117 ! 47,050 69,140 1
189,125 i 345,278 38,580 85,480 ,
193,452 | 353,516 , 33,790 85,090 |
i
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MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
781
The capital amounts to 20,000,000 guilders, the reserve fund to 5,000,000
guilders. The Bank keeps the State -Treasury and the cash of the State
Postal Savings-Bank. It receives 5 per cent, of the clear gains ; the remainder
is divided between the State and the Bank.
Besides the Bank of the Netherlands there are 13 private banks. Their
subscribed capital was, at the end of 1892, 7,158,456 guilders, the value of
deposits 15,279,950 guilders.
There are many savincs-banks, all private. Besides these there is a State
postal savings-bank, established in 1881. The following table gives some par-
ticulars of both : —
1
Tear
Number of
Banks
Amount
deposited
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
Amount
withdrawn
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
Total De-
posits at
end of year
(in 1,000
gldrs.)
Number of
Depositors at
end of year
Amount
per inhabi-
tant
1889
Private banks .
259
16,156
15,822
59,593
297,238
13'29gl.
State P. S. B.
11,480
8,336
17,523
241,175
3-88,,
1890
Private banks .
256
16,161
15,929
61,545
301,928
13-48,,
State P. S. B.
12,973
9,739
21,250
281,870
465,,
1891
Private banks .
255
15,724
16,687
62,370
311,599
13-49,,
State P. S. B.
13,559
11,367
24,014
319,106
5-20,,
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The standard coin is the 10-florin piece weighing 6*720 grammes, '900 fine,
and thus containing 6*048 grammes of fine gold. The unit of the silver coin-
age is the florin, weighing 10 grammes, *945 fine and containing 9 "45 grammes
of tine silver.
Gold is leg-al tender, and the silver coins issued before 1875.
The principal coins are : —
The gulden, guilder, or florin of 100 cents. =1 sh. 8d. ; or 12 g. =£1
The rijksdaalder = 2 J guilders.
The gold-piece of ten guilders.
£ guilder, \ guilder, ^ guilder (dubbeltje), -fa guilder (stuivertje).
Cent coins are : 1 cent, J cent, and 2£ cents.
Weights and Measures.
The metric system of weights and measures, and, with trifling changes,
the metric denominations are adopted in the Netherlands.
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782 , NETHERLANDS: — EAST INDIES
Diplomatic and Consular Eepresentatives.
1. Of the Netherlands in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron W. de Goldstein of Oldenaller.
Councillor of Legation. — W. F, A. Baron Gevers.
Chancellor. — J. van den Berg.
Consul- General in London. — J. W. May.
Netherlands Consular representatives are at the following places in the
United Kingdom : —
Aberdeen.
Cork.
Belfast.
Dublin.
Birmingham.
Dundee.
Bradford.
Glasgow.
Bristol.
Harwich.
Cardiff
Hull.
Leith.
Plymouth.
Limerick.
Portsmouth
Liverpool.
(Southampton).
London.
Sunderland.
Manchester.
Yarmouth.
Newcastle.
Swansea.
2. Of Great Britain in the Netherlands.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Horace Rumbold, Bart., G.C.M.G. ; accredited
June 5, 1888.
Secretary. — Hon. M. H. Herbert.
British Consular representatives are placed in the following places in the
Netherlands : —
Amsterdam. The Hague (V.C.). Maassluis.
Brouwershaven. Harlingen. Neuzen.
Dordrecht. Helder. Rotterdam.
Flushing (V. C. ). HeUevoetsluis. Texel (V. C. ).
Groningen.
i
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands, situated in the
East Indies and the West Indies, embrace an area of 766,137
English square miles. The total population, according to the
last returns, was, approximately, 33,000,000, or about seven times
as large as that of the mother country.
DUTCH SA8T INDIES.
The Dutch possessions in Asia, forming the territory of Dutch East India
(Nederlandsch Oost Indie), are situated between 6° N. and 11° S. latitude,
and between 95° and 141° E. longitude.
In 1602 the Dutch created their East India Company. This Company
conquered successively the Dutch East Indies, and ruled them during nearly
two centuries. After the dissolution of the Company in 1798 the Dutch
possessions were governed by the mother-country.
Government and Constitution.
Politically, the territory, which is under the sovereignty of the Nether-
lands, is divided in (1) Lands under direct government ; (2) Vassal lands ;
(3) Confederated lands.
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GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 783
With regard to administration, the Dutch possessions in the East Indies
are divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and dessas (vil-
lages). They are also very often divided into : (1) Java and Madura ; (2)
the Outposts — Sumatra, Borneo, Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Banca, Billiton,
Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, the small Sunda Islands, and a part of New
Guinea.
Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands,
was formerly administered, politically and socially, on a system established
by General Johannes Graaf Van den Bosch in 1832, and known as the 'cul-
ture system.' It was based in principle on the officially superintended
labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a sufficiency of food
for themselves, but a large quantity of colonial produce best suited for the
European market. That ' culture system ' comprised the forced labour of
the natives employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo, pepper, tea,
tobacco, and other articles. At present, the labour of the natives is only
required for the produce of coffee, which is sold by the Government partly in
the colonies, but mostly in the Netherlands, By the terms of a bill which
passed the Legislature of the Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of
the sugar-cane is now totally abolished.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura — is
divided into twenty-two provinces, or residencies, each governed by a
Resident, assisted by several Assistant-Residents (except the Resident of one
of these provinces, Krawang, who has no Assistant- Resident), and a number
of subordinate officials, called Contr61eurs. All these functionaries must have
gone through an examination previous to their appointment by the Govern-
ment. The Resident and his assistants exercise almost absolute control over
the province in their charge ; not, however, directly, but by means of a vast
hierarchy of native officials. There is a regular and unceasing personal
intercourse between the native chiefs and the Contr61eurs, who act as the
immediate agents of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries
or percentages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives. In
the ' Outposts ' the ' culture ' system has never been introduced, except in
the province of Sumatra, west coast, and in the Residency of Menado (island
of Celebes), where also the labour of the natives is required for the produce
of coffee. These Outposts are administered by functionaries with the titles of
1 Governor, ' ' Resident, ' ' Assistant-Resident, ' ' Contr61eur, ' &c.
The superior administration and executive authority of Dutch India rests
in the hands of a Governor-General. He is assisted by a Council of five
members, partly of a legislative, partly of an advisory character. The mem-
bers of the Council, however, have no share in the executive.
Governor-General. — Jhr. C. H. A. vander Wyck, appointed July, 15, 1893.
The Governor-General represents not only the executive power of govern-
ment, but he has a right of passing laws and regulations for the administra-
tion of the colony, so far as this power is not reserved to the legislature of the
mother-country. But he is bound to adhere to the constitutional principles
on which the Dutch Indies are governed, and which are laid down in the
( Regulations for the Government of Netherlands India,' passed by the King
and States-General of the mother-country in 1854,
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of Java — including
Madura — and of the Outposts : —
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784
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Island of
Sumatra
Java and Madura .
Sumatra, West Coast
Sumatra, East Coast
Benkulen
Lampongs
Palembang ,
Atjeh ....
Riau-Lingga Archipelago
Banca
Billiton
Borneo, West Coast
Borneo, South and East Districts
Island of / Celebes .
Celebes \Menado
Molucca Islands
Timor Archipelago
Bali and Lombok
New Guinea to 141° E. long.6 .
Area:
English
square miles
Total
50,848
46,200
16,282
9,576
9,975
61,152
6,370
17,325
4,977
2,500
58,926
144,788
45,150
26,000
42,420
21,840
3,990
150,755 s
719,674
Population at
the end of 1891
24,133,685
1,275,91s1
306, 381s
157,927s
130,677!
664,310!
444,738s
97,928*
83,416*
40,373l
419,363s
870,139s
387,469s
538,424s
364, 366*
37,1224
1,250,343s
200,000s
32,000,000s
i Tolerably accurate. 2 Approximately. 8 Mere conjecture.
* Without the non-Christianised natives.
5 New Guinea belongs to the residency of Ternate, Molucca Islands.
o Approximate total. The population of several unexplored countries is not included.
The total number of Europeans and persons assimilated to them at the
beginning of 1891 was 32,022 males and 25,895 females; of these 29,666
males and 25,389 females were Dutch, of whom 23,295 males and 22,435
females were born in the East Indies ; of the remainder, 1,183 were German,
246 French, 236 English, 187 Swiss ; the remainder being mostly Belgians,
Austrians, and Africans. Of the remaining population 450,833 were Chinese,
22,201 Arabs, and 10,465 other Orientals, and about 30,000,000 natives.
The movement of population between Europeans and persons assimilated
to them, by marriages, births, and deaths, was as follows : —
—
Marriages
Perl,000
Births
Perl,000
Deaths
Perl,000
1007 /Java and Madura
lb8/ \ Outposts .
380
9*1
2,178
52 3
1,189
27 4
61
57
656
614
377
85 3
ioqq /Java and Madura
1888 | Outposts .
380
9*0
2,211
52 3
1,560
36-9
62
5-6
568
59 6
394
418
to on fJava and Madura
1889 \ Outposts .
389
8*9
2,116
48*6
1,458
88*2
83
7 2
531
45*8
465 ! 401
10ft. fJava and Madura
1890 \ Outposts .
423 | 9*2
2,157
467
1,408 I 30*5
78 , 6*5
683
57*2
439 , 367
ioai /Java and Madura
1891 \ Outposts .
429 ' 9'2
2,135
45-8
1,673 , 35*9
78 6*7
665
57*2
443 j 88-0
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RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 785
The European population1 of the three principal towns of Java was, in
1891, Batavia, 8,821 ; Samarang, 3,600 ; Soerabaya, 5,913.
The whole population of Java is legally divided into Europeans and
persons assimilated with them, and natives and persons assimilated with
these. The former are generally living under the same laws as the inhabi-
tants of the mother-country, while in the jurisdiction of the latter the
Indian customs and institutions are considered. The division of the whole
population into these two classes is a fundamental principle in the policy
of the administration, and enacted in the code specifying the limits and
conditions for legislation in Dutch East India. The Governor-General,
however, is, in agreement with the Council, authorised to make individual
exceptions on this rule.
Beligion.
According to the terms of the regulations for the government of Nether*
lands India, entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The Reformed Church counts 32 ministers and 24 assistants, the
Roman Catholic 23 curates and 11 priests, not salaried out of the public
funds. The number of Christians among the natives and foreign Orientals
Was : —
In Java and Madura in 1873 . 5,673, and in 1891 (1 Jan.) 17,271
„ the Outposts „ „ . 148,672 „ „ . . 255,288
In 1891, 96 missionaries of various societies were Working to propagate
Christianity in the Dutch East Indies. In the same year 6,547 natives went
to Mekka on pilgrimage, whereof 4,254 returned.
Instruction.
For the education of Europeans and persons assimilated with them there
were in 1891, 7 middle schools, with 565 pupils The cost of these schools
to the Government in the same year was 459,586 guilders, and the revenue
out of the school fees 65,289 guilders.
In 1891 there were for Europeans 119 mixed public elementary schools,
and 28 for girls only, with 17 private schools, or a total of 164 elementary
schools. The 147 public schools had a teaching staff of 470, and an attend-
ance of 12,721 pupils, and the 17 private schools a teaching staff of 106,
and an attendance of 2, 439 pupils. The cost of the public elementary schools
was, in 1891, 2,021,619 and the income 220,037 guilders.
The following statement relates to schools for natives : —
In 1891 Dutch India had 6 normal schools, with 33 teachers and 224
pupils ; besides there were 4 schools for sons of native chiefs, with 217 pupils.
The elementary schools for natives were, for Java and Madura, in 1875 :
104 Government schools, with 14,906 pupils, and 132 private schools, with
6,978 pupils ; and in 1891, 203 Government schools with 34,607 pupils, and
140 private schools with 15,106 pupils. In the Outposts in 1881, 281 Govern-
ment schools with 19,437 pupils, and 205 private schools with 10,696
pupils; and in 1890, 313 Government schools with 38,160 pupils, and 368
private schools with 19,607 pupils. In 1891 there were in Java and Madura
87 private schools subventioned with 8,659 pupils, and 77 non-subventioned
i Of the Chinese and other Orientals no statistics have been taken since 1887.
3 E
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786
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
with 3,447 pupils. In 1875 the Government spent 803,906 guilders for the
education of natives, and in 1891 1,074,891 guilders.
For foreign Orientals there were in 1891 about 305 schools with 5, 624 pupils.
The total of Mohammedan schools (religious) at Java and Madura was in 1891,
18,285, with 281,119 pupils, and in 1886 17,388 schools with 231,871 pupils.
Justioe and Crime.
The administration of justice is based on the principle that Europeans
and persons assimilated with them are subject to laws nearly similar to those
of the mother-country, while the natives are subject to their own customs
and institutions. The administration of justice for Europeans is entrusted to
European judges, while for natives their own chiefs have a large share in the
trial of cases.
There is a High Court of Justice at Batavia — courts of justice at Batavia,
Samarang, Soerabaya, Padang, and Makassar — Resident and Regent courts,
courts of circuit, district courts, and courts of priests.
The number of natives condemned for serious crimes in 1890 was 16,354 ;
for police offences* 8,310; while it was in 1879, 11,770 and 6,880. There
are 303 prisons ; their population was 26,485 at the end of 1890.
The relations of the State to pauperism are limited to subvention to Pro-
testant and Catholic orphan -houses ; 96,300 guilders is set down in the
budget for 1894.
Finanoe.
The local revenue is derived from land, taxes on houses and estates,
from licences, customs duties, personal imposts, the Government monopolies
of salt and opium, railways, and a number of indirect taxes. But the chief part
of the large profits is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of
coffee, grown under the ' culture system/ and sold in India and Europe.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for 1870, 1880,
and 1888-92 :—
Revenue
Guilders
123,525,000
146,838,000
121,690,000
132,332,000
137,789,090
116,349,304
127,088,842
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficit
Guilders 1
Guilders
115,765,000
+ 7,760,000
146,936,000
98,000
128,348,000
- 6,658,000
129,133,000
+ 3,199,000
127,736,000
+ 10,053,000
131,262,899
- 14,913,595
136,258,891 i
- 9,170,049
The percentage of the different sources of revenue is shown in the follow-
ing table : —
Monopolies1 | Products2 , Other Receipts; Total
I
29 4
34 3
34-5
21-4
267
9-8
110
13 1
13 9
146
100
100
100
100
100
i Opium and salt.
2 Coffee, cinchona, and tin.
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FINANCE — DEFENCE 787
The total revenue, according to the budget estimates for 1894, is
125,131,594 guilders, and the expenditure 139,099,200 guilders, showing a
deficit of 13,967,606 guilders.
The sources of revenue were stated as follows in, the budget for the year
1894 :—
Guilders
Receipts in the Netherlands from sales of Government coffee
(11,815,872 guilders), cinchona (138,600 guilders), tin
(6,051,291 guilders), railways (965,000 guilders), share of the
State in the profits of the Biliton Company (1,000,000
guilders), various (1,222,371 guilders), total . . . . 21,193,134
Receipts in India from sales of opium (17,779,000 guilders),
import, export, and excise duties (13,639,000 guilders), land
revenues (17,982,000 guilders), sales of coffee in Java, &c.
(9,045,000 guilders), sales of salt (8,376,000 guilders), rail-
ways (8, 400, 500), from all other sources (28, 716, 960 guilders). 103, 938, 460
Total revenue .... 125,131,594
About one-third of the annual expenditure is for the army and navy, and
another third for the general administration, both in Java and in the Nether-
lands.
Defence.
The army is purely colonial. At the end of 1891 the strength of the army
was 1,385 officers and 33,403 sub-officers and soldiers, comprising 13,593
Europeans, 57 Africans, 2,336 Amboinese, and 17,417 natives. The number of
horses was 1,232, of mules, 150. No portion of the regular army of the Nether-
lands is allowed to be sent on colonial service ; but individual soldiers are
at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding officers, and they
form the nucleus of the army of Dutch India. The native and European
soldiers are not divided into separate corps, but generally mixed together,
though in separate companies in the same battalions. The artillery is com-
posed' of European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are
Europeans and natives.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in Dutch
India, is divided into field, garrison, and depot battalions. Each battalion is
composed of four companies, two companies consisting of European soldiers
and two of natives, or one of Europeans and three of natives. The * half-
castes ' are on a footing of perfect equality with the Europeans. The whole
of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the exception of a few
natives of high rank to whom honorary ranks are given ; in each of the com-
panies composed of natives, at least one-half of the non-commissioned officers
must also be Europeans. A military academy is established at Meester
Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion.
Unlike the army, which is purely colonial, the navy in Dutch India is
partly colonial, partly belonging to the royal navy, and its expenses are
therefore borne partly by the mother-country and partly by the colony.
(See "Defence," mother-country.) The personnel in the Dutch Indies num-
bers 3,996 men, thus divided: 1,808 Europeans and 772 natives with the
Indian marine (23 ships), 1, 134 Europeans and 282 natives with the auxiliary
squadron (4 ships).
• •' X E 2 t« '
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788
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Production and Industry.
The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government property,
and it is principally in the residencies in the western part of Java that there are
private estates, chiefly owned by Europeans and by Chinese. The bulk of the
people are agricultural labourers. The Government or private landowners can
enforce one day's gratuitous work out of seven, or more, from all the labourers
on their estates ; in 1882 the greater part of these enforced services for the
Government was abolished, in return for the payment of one guilder per head
yearly. Great power is vested in the Resident and his European and native
officials to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.
The extent of the soil of Java and Madura regularly cultivated by the
natives was, in 1891, 6,276,356 acres (1J acre = 1 bahu). From 1887-91 the
increase of various cultures was as follows, in acres : —
Year
Rice
Maize
1,604,891
1,557,050
1,711,227
1,880,121
1,704,340
Arachis
Various
plants
Sugar-
cane
107,957
124,979
124,386
154,516
157,797
Tobacco
Indigo
Cotton
Total
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
5,084.339
4,825,630
4,810,974
4,388,552
4,406,566
393,219
458,367
385,045
430,981
460,346
1,056,945
1,043,178
1,033,070
1,225,810
1,069,694
182,654
269,132
194,243
180,135
208,428
43,554
43,086
42,278
50,198
49,892
42,659
52,767
28,572
30,850
33,939
8,516,218
8,369,189
8,329,795
8,341,163
8,090,502
Owing to the * agrarian law* (1870), which has afforded opportunity to
private energy for obtaining waste lands on hereditary lease (emphyteusis) for
seventv-five years, private agriculture has greatly increased in recent years, as
well in Java as in the Outposts. In 1891 were ceded in Java to 178 com-
panies, 213,785 acres ; to 374 Europeans, 332,214 acres ; 41 Chinese, 27,027
acres ; 2 Europeans and Chinese, 1,107 acres; 4 natives, 2,600 acres — total,
576,892 acres. Since 1816 no land in Java has been alienated by the Govern-
ment. The lands now the property of Europeans have an extent of 1,946,455
acres, of Chinese, 762,349 acres, and of other foreign Orientals, 36,279 acres.
The change from the Government culture of sugar to private culture is
shown by the following table : —
Year
Government
Estates, in
acres
Private Estates
of the Natives,
in acres
| Government
j Tear i Estates, in
1 j acres
Private Estates
of the Natives,
in acres
1879
1884
1886
67,669
41,139
30,458
7,805
34,510
39,835
I 1888
, 1890
1891
19,563
9,611
4,761
50,459
61,941
62,634
>
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In 1891 there were in Java 224 sugar estates, with a total yield of
7,039,115 picols.
The production of coffee in Dutch India in 1891 was, in picols : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTBY
789
-
Government
Lands
Free Cultivation
by the natives
Lands on Em-
phyteusis and
on Lease
Private Lands
11,109
168
458
Java .
Sumatra
Celebes, &c.
Total .
1890 .
1889 .
1888 .
381,048
45,042
4,116
36,691
86,000
292,044
8,976
1,766
430,206
161,696
647,395
671,799
122,691 302,786
867,418
11,735
The production of cinchona, in kilogrammes, in Java was as follows : —
Year
Government
Lands on Emphyteusis
Private Lands
Plantations
Production
Plantations
Production
Plantations
Production
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
8
8
8
8
8
351,656
370,899
351,751
267,281
286,101
74
81
85
118
126
859,144
1,862,727
1,966,514
2,436,375
2,810,636
2
3
3
2
5
13,562
16,888
34,692
26,578
37,500
The production of tobacco, in kilogrammes, was as follows :
Year.
In Java.
In Sumatra (Deli, etc.).
Plantations.
Production.
Plantations.
Production.
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
98
118
105
102
84
8,901,786
12,556,826
9,603,743
14,377,369
8,156,542
126
201
261
276
170
12,428,819
16,648,980
16,933,038
21,016,937
20,536,601
The production of tea in Java, in kilogrammes, was as follows : — 1884,
2,667,685; 1885, 2,450,585; 1886, 3,351,627; 1887, 3,297,684; 1888,
3,014,209; 1889, 3,717,137; 1890, 3,241,287; 1891, 3,331,570.
The production of 1891 was obtained from 58 plantations.
There were 166 indigo plantations in 1891, yielding 733,852 kilogrammes
of indigo ; in 1889, 151 plantations and 741,861 kilogrammes.
The production of the tin mines of Banca and Billiton delivered to the
government is shown by the following table, in picols : —
Years
Workmen
Total Product
Years
Workmen
Total Product
1886-7
1887-8
1888-9
13,528
14,870
15,720
166,283
162,237
145,158
1889-9
1890-91
1891-92
16,846
17,617
18,040
185,970
203,678
199,869
There were, in 1891-92, 368 mines, the produce being about equally
divided between Banca and Billiton.
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790
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
\
At the end of 1890 there were in Java in all about 2,634,637 buffaloes,
2,353,477 oxen and cows, and 534,617 horses. Horses are never used in India
for agricultural purposes.
In 1891 there were 3 Government and 39 private printing-offices, 41 ice or
mineral water manufacturers, 9 soap factors, 12 arak distillers, 10 saw mills,
and 140 rice mills. The industrial establishments in Dutch India- used, in
1891, 1,523 steam engines.
Commeroe.
No difference is made between Dutch and foreign imports and vessels.
There is a tariff of 6 per cent, on certain goods ; on some articles there is a
small export duty, including coffee, sugar, and tobacco.
The following table shows the value of the general import and export
during the years 1887-91, in guilders : —
Imports
Government
Year
Merchan-
dise
Specie
8,000,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
Total
3,274,397
4,141,871
13,009,445
9,602,351
9,147,703
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
3,274,397
4,141,871
5,009,445
5,602,351
8,147,703
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
19,802,907
20,358,278
33,072,175
17,148,178
22,160,395
19,802,907
20,858,278
33,072,175
17,148,178
22,160,395
Merchan-
dise
116,381,561
119,336,104
139,914,805
141,822,087
157,488,304
Exports
166,619,387
163,070,339
164,131,047
158,747,522
188,668,650
Private
Specie
6,623,442
16,152,075
20,460,521
9,249,279
10,844,900
786,493
668,816
459,392
653,920
13,331,725
Total
123,005,003
185,488,179
169,875,326
150,571,366
168,283,204
167,355,880
163,739,155
164,590,439
159,401,442
202,000,375*
Grand
Total
126,279,400
139,630,050
178,884,771
160,178,717
177,480,907
187,158,787
184,097,433
197,662,614 ,
176,549,620
224.160,170 ,
The principal articles of export are sugar, coffee, tea, rice, indigo, cinchona,
tobacco, and tin. With the exception of rice, about one-half of which is
shipped for Borneo and China, nearly four-fifths of these exports go to the
Netherlands.
The subjoined table shows the value of the trade of Java with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the last five
years : —
- •
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into
U. K. from
£
£
£
£
£
Java .
2,894,902
2,233,744
1,223,035
1,901,961
1,534,726
Exports of
British pro-
duce to Java
1,576,850
1,525,243
1,469,206
2,205,655
1,957,831
The chief and almost sole article of import into the United Kingdom is un-
refined sugar ; in 1882 of the value of 3,579,119*. ; in 1889, 1,904,323/. ; in
1890, 979,886*. ; in 1891, 1,628,647*. ; in 1892, 1,368,357/. The staple
article of British home produce exported to Java is manufactured cotton ;
including cotton yarns, of the value of 1,331,547/. ; machinery, of 216,838/. :
iron, wrought and unwrought, of 67,937/. ; coals, 74,560/. ; woollens,
40,601/. ; manure, 61,642/., in the year 1892.
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791
Shipping and Communications.
The following table shows the navigation at the various ports of Nether-
lands India in 1891 and 1890, and the share of England in it : —
Year
-
Entered
Whereof, from England :
Number | Capacity in M3
Number
Capacity in M»
1891 1
1890 |
Steamers
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Sailing vessels
3,258 i 3,673,000
198 ] 400,000
3,063 3,033,000
219 1 422,000
393
38
212
51
1,332,000
118,000
905,000
173,000
At the end of 1891 the total length of railways (State and private) opened
for traffic was about 850 English miles ; the revenues were 11,525,074 guilders.
There are about 300 post-offices ; the number of letters carried in 1890 and
1891 for internal intercourse was 5,134,527 and 5,174,793, while 4,015,117
and 4,399,731 newspapers, samples, &c, for the interior passed through the
various post-offices in the Dutch Indies during the same years. In 1891
and 1891, 1,242,348 and 1,360,673 letters were carried for foreign postal
intercourse.
There were 6,851 kilometres of telegraph lines in Dutch India in 1891
with 100 offices ; the number of messages was 545,692. There are 27 telephone
offices.
Money and Credit.
The 'Java Bank,' established in 1828, has a capital of 6,000,000 guilders,
and a reserve of 709,438 guilders. The Government has a control over the
administration. Two-fifths of the amount of the notes, assignats, and credits
must be covered by specie or bullion. In December, 1892, the value of the
notes in circulation was 45,423,000 guilders, and of the bank operations
18,465,000. There are two other Dutch banks, besides branches of British
banks.
In the savings-banks, in 1891, there were 13,272 depositors.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Weights and Measukes.
The Amsterdamsch Pond . = 1 *09 lb. avoirdupois.
„ Pikol . . . = 133$ „
„ Catty . . . = 1J „ „
„ Tjengkal . . . = 4 yards
The only legal coins, as well as the weights and measures, of Dutch
India are those of the Netherlands.
Consular Representatives.
British Consul at Batavia. — N. MacNeill.
Vice-Consul at Samarang. — F. C. Bonhote.
Vice-Consul at Sourabaya. — A. J. Warren,
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SURINAM — CURAgAO
793
men. The navy consists of a few guard ships, with some vessels of the royal
navy.
In 1891 sugar was produced on 14 plantations of 1,630 hectares to the
amount of 7,867,044 kilogrammes ; cacao on 382 plantations and 246 small
properties of 11,942 hectares to the amount of 2,247,098 kilogrammes. The
other productions were bananas, 401,182 bundles ; coffee, 8,490 kilogrammes ;
rice, 16,274 kilogrammes; corn, 149,194 kilogrammes ; rhum, 394,401 litres ;
and melasse, 1,366,821 litres.
For gold mining were granted, at the end of 1891, 293 concessions, com-
prising 192,217 hectares. In that year the export of gold was 820,983
grammes, valued at 1,124,746 guilders. This export was : to the Netherlands,
709,013 grammes ; to Great Britain, 76,853 grammes. The declared value
since the beginning of the gold industry (1876) to the end of 1891 is
14,901,825 guilders.
In 1891 there entered 207 vessels of 83,000 tons, and cleared 207 ships of
83,000 tons. The following table shows the value of the imports and exports
during the years 1887-91 : —
Year
Import
Export
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
5,052,621 guilders
4,346,840
4,893,355
5,366,258
5,873,335
3,539,502 guilders
3,316,377
3,521,867
4,272,692
3,994,616
In 1892 the imports into the United Kingdom from the Dutch West
Indies, including Curacao, were valued at 19,195£. ; and exports from the
United Kingdom of British produce or manufacture to the Dutch West Indies,
125,049!.
The colonial savings-bank had, at the end of 1891, a balance of 414,425
guilders, of which 140,380 guilders belonged to immigrated coolies.
In 1891 there entered the port of Paramaribo 207 vessels of 82,802 tons
(108 of 19,165 tons British), and cleared 207 vessels of 83,220 tons (105 of
18,988 tons British).
The communication between several districts of the colony is carried on by
vessels and small steamers.
In 1891 were received 67,776 letters, 1,360 postcards, 188,234 prints, and
2,398 samples; and sent off 78,788 letters, 1,601 postcards, 82,163 prints,
and 1,321 samples.
British Consul at Paramaribo. — E. W. Smith Delacour.
Curasao.
The colony of Curasao consists of the islands Curasao, Bonaire, Aruba, St,
Martin (as far as it belongs to the Netherlands), St WLstache. and Saba, lying
north from the coast of Venezuela.
Square
Miles
210
Population
Dec. 31, 1891
Curacao ....
26,584
Bonaire ....
95
3,979
Aruba ....
69
7,886
St. Martin l .
17
3,881
St. Eustache .
7
1,613
Saba ....
5
1,910
Only the southern part belongs to the Netherlands, the northern to France
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794 NETHERLANDS
The colony is governed by a Governor, assisted by a Council composed of
the Attorney-General and three members, all nominated by the Sovereign.
There is also a Colonial Council consisting of the members of the Council
and eight members nominated by the Sovereign. The different islands of
the colony, except Curacao, are placed under chiefs called 'gezaghebbers/
nominated by the Sovereign.
At the end of 1891 there were 37,496 Roman Catholics, 7,764 Protestants,
791 Jews. The number of schools was 29, with 4,636 pupils. At the same
period the number of prisoners was 45.
The revenue is derived from import, export, and excise duties, taxes on
land, and some indirect taxes. In the Budget for 1893 the revenue is estima.
ted at 695,000, and the expenditure also at 695,000 guilders ; the difference, if
there is any, is supplied by the mother-country.
The militia (Schutterij) of the Isle of Curacao consisted at the end of 1891
of 27 officers and 369 men ; the garrison of 9 officers and 198 men. A vessel
of the royal navy is always cruising and visiting the different islands.
The imports in Curasao in 1891 were valued at 4,059,400 guilders ; the
exports (excluding Curacao) at 475,336 guilders. The chief produce are
maize, beans, pulse, cattle, salt, and lime.
There entered the different islands in 1891, 2,590 vessels of 1,253,000
cubic metres. In 1891, 108,679 letters and 279,583 newspapers arrived, and
109,975 and 472,603 were despatched.
British Consul at Curasao. — J. Jesurun.
I
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands and its Colonies.
1. Official Publications
(1) The Netherlands.
Bijdragen tot de algemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Jaargang 1889. 's Gravenhage.
Gerechtelvjke Statistiek van net Koninkryk der Nederlanden. s Gravenhage, 1892.
Statistiek van net Gevangeniswezen. 1892.
Staatsalmanak voor net Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1893. Met magtiging van de
regering nit offlciele opgaven zamengesteld. 's Gravenhage.
Uitkom8ten der 7e tienjaarl : volkstelling van 1889-90 in het koninkrfyk der Neder-
landen. 's Gravenhage, 1891.
Staatsbegrooting voor het dienstjjaar 1894. 's Gravenhage.
Statistiek van den in-, nit- en doorover over 1892.
Statistiek van den Handel en de Scheepvaart van het Koninkryk der Nederlanden.
*8 Gravenhage, 1892.
Verzameling van Consnlaire en andere Berigten en Verslagen over Nijverheid, Handel en
Scheepvaart. Uitgegeven door het Ministerie van Buitenlandsche Zaken. Jaargang 1892.
4. 's Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsche Zeevisscherijen over 1892. 4. *s Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Landbonw in Nederland over 1887, 1888, and 1889, opgemaakt op last van
den Minister van Handel en Ntf verheid. 8. 's Gravenhage. 1892.
Verelag der Maatschappy tol Expl. van Staatsspoorwegen over 1892
Verslag van den Raad v Tvezicht op de Spoorwegdiensten over 1892.
Verslag van den Staat der hoogere, middelbare en lagere scholen over 1892.
Jaarcijfers over 1892 door de Centrale Commissie voor de 8tatistiek.
Verslag der Nederlandsche Bank. 1892.
Report by Mr. Sydney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on land laws and landed property,
dated The Hague, December 20, 1869; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting
the Tenure of Land in the several Countries of Europe.' Fart I. FoL London, 1870.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHEB BOOKS OF REFERENCE 795
Reports on the Finances of the Netherlands in No. 1,149; Trade of Amsterdam in No-
1,288 of Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London, 1893.
Trade of the United Kingdom with the Netherlands ; in c Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.
Imp. 4. London, 1893.
(2) Colonies.
Holland. East Indies. Colonial Possessions. Admiralty, Naval Intelligence Depart-
ment. London, 1888.
Koloniaal Verslag van 1892. 's Gravenhage, 1893.
Begrooting van Ned. Indie voor 1894.
Jaoroijfers voor 1892 door de Centrale Commissie voor de Statistiek.
Jaarboek van het mtfnwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie. Uitgegeven op last van Z.
Exc. den Minister van Kolonien. 1888. Amsterdam, 1889.
Naamregister van Nederlandsche-Indie voor 1892. Batavia.
Regeerings-Almanak voor Nederlandsoh.Indie. 1893. Batavia.
Resume van het onderzoek naar de rechten van den inlander op den grond op Java en
Madoera. Batavia. 1890.
Statistiek van den Handel, de Scheepvaart en de In- en Uitvoerrechten over 1891.
Batavia.
Verslag omtrent den gouvernements post- en telegraafdienst in N.I. over 1891. Batavia,
1891.
Verslag van den dienst der Staats spoorwegen op Java over 1891. Batavia, 1892.
Algemeen verslag van den staat van het middelbaar en lager onderwys voor europeanen
en met dezen gelijkgestelden in N.I. over 1891. Batavia, 1892.
Algemeen vijfjarig verslag van het inlandsch onderwtjs in N.I. over 1873-1877 (Batavia,
1880), en over 1878-1882 (Batavia, 1885).
Verslag over het jaar 1891, samengesteld door de Kamer van koophandel en ntfverheid te
Batavia. Batavia, 1892.
Report for 1893 on the Finances of Netherlands-India in No. 1,168 ; Trade of Java in 1,190,
of Paramaribo in 1,307, of Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
(1) The Netherlands.
Algemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging voor de Statistiek
in Nederland. 8. Leiden, 1869-82.
Heusden (A. van), Handboek der aardrijkskunde, staatsinrigting, staatshuishouding en
statistiek van het koningryk der Nederlanden. 8. Haarlem, 1877.
Jaarcijfers over 1892 »n vorige jaren, omtrent Bevolking, Landbouw, Handel, &c.
Uitgegeven dooi de Vereeniging voor de Statistiek in Nederland.
Motley (J. L.), The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 8 vols. 8. London, 1858.
Motley (J. L.), History of the United Netherlands. 4 vols. London, 1869.
Staatkundig en staathuishoudkundig Jaarboekje. Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging voor de
Statistiek in Nederland. 8. Amsterdam.
Wood (C. W.), Through Holland. 8. London, 1877.
(2) Colonies.
Aardrijkskundig en statistisch woordenbo ek van Ned. Indie. Amsterdam, 1861.
Bickmore (H. S.), Travels in the East Indian Archipelago. 8. London, 1868.
Tydschrift van het koninkly'k instituut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Neder-
landsch-Indie. 's Gravenhage, 1852-93.
Jaarcijfers over 1891 en vorige jaren omtrent de kolonien. Uitgegeven door de Vereeni-
ging voor de Statistiek in Nederland.
Keuchenius (Dr. L. W. C), Handelingen betrefTende het reglement op het beleid der re-
gering van Nederlandsch Indie. 3 vol. Utrecht, 1857.
Bool (H. J.), Regeringsreglement van Ned. Indie. Zalt-Bommel, 1876.
DeJonge (Jhr. M. J. K. J.), De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch gezag over Java II.— VII.
The Hague, 1869-75.
De Louter (Dr. J.), Handleiding tot de kennis van het staats- en administratiefrecht van
Ned. Indie, 's Gravenhage, 1884.
Der enter ( J Sz., S. van), Bydragen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op Java, op
last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D. Fransen van de Putte bijeenverzameld.
8. Zalt-Bommel, 1865.
Gorkom (van), De Oost-Indische Cultures in betrekking tot handel en nijverheid,
Amsterdam, 1881
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NICARAGUA.
(Eepublica de Nicaragua.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua was proclaimed on August
19, 1858. It vests the legislative power in a Congress of two Houses, the
upper called the Senate, comprising 18 members, and the lower, called the
House of Representatives, 21 members. Both branches of the Legislature arc
elected by universal suffrage, the members of the House of Representatives for
the term of four, and those of the Senate for six years. The executive power
is with a President elected for four years.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Roberto Sacaza, was elected for the term
1892-96. In May, 1893, owing to civil war, he resigned, and General Zelaya
became provisional President, In August it was agreed that a President should
be elected in constitutional form.
The President exercises his functions through a council of responsible
ministers, composed of the four departments of Foreign Affairs and Public
Instruction ; Finance ; Interior, Justice, War, and Marine ; Public Works.
The active army consists of 1,200 men, with a reserve of 10,000 men, and
a militia or national guard of 5,000.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 49, 500 English square miles, and
the population (1889) 282,845 (136,249 males, 146,596 females) or including
uncivilised Indians 312,845, giving about 7 inhabitants per square mile. The
great mass of the population consists of aboriginal * Indians,' mulattoes,
negroes, and mixed races, and the number of Europeans and their descend*
ants is very small and on the decrease. There are few towns, and the chief
occupation of the inhabitants is the rearing of cattle, carried on in a rude
fashion. The old capital of the Republic is the city of Leon, ten miles from
the Pacific, surrounded by five active volcanoes, and partly in ruins ; its
population is 25,000. At present the seat of government is the town of
Managua, situated on the southern border of the great lake of the same name,
with about 18,000 inhabitants.
Instruction.
According to an official statement of 1887 there were 251 schools with
11,914 pupils. There are, besides, two higher schools for boys and one for
girls.
Finanoe.
In 1889 the revenue was 4,406,320 dollars, and the expenditure 4,723,892
dollars. Two-thirds of the total annual revenue are derived from Government
monopolies on spirits, tobacco, and gunpowder, and the remainder chiefly from
import duties and a tax on slaughtered cattle. The expenditure is principally
for the maintenance of an army of 2,000 men, and the payment of interest on
the public debt.
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A canal has been begun to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts.
There are 1,700 miles of telegraph lines in the Republic, with 59 stations.
There are 91 miles of railway open in the Republic, which cost 2,700,000 dollars.
One line extends from Corinto, on the Pacific, to Momotombo, 58 miles, and
another from Manaqua, the capital, to Granada, 33 miles. Concessions have
been granted for a line from San Miguellito to the head waters of the Blue
River, 100 miles ; for another from the Pueblos district to Masaya, 25 miles ;
and for a third from Momotombo to the head waters of the Rio Grande, 200
miles. The first and second concessions are accompanied with Government
guarantees, and all three with large grants of land. In 1891 there were 53
post offices.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The system of money is the same as in Honduras, though Mexican,
Chilian, Peruvian, and other South American dollars and five-franc pieces
circulate freely ; there is also a paper currency. From January 7, 1893, the
metric system of weights and measures will be in use.
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ORANGE FREE STATE.
(Oranje-Vrijstaat.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic known as the Orange Free State, founded originally by Boers
who quitted Cape Colony in 1836 and following years, is separated from the
Cape Colony by the Orange River, has British Basutoland and Natal on the
east, the Transvaal on the north, and Transvaal and Griqualand West on the
west. Its independence was declared on February 23, 1854, and a Constitu-
tion was proclaimed April 10, 1854, and revised February 9, 1866, and May 8,
1879. The legislative authority is vested in a popular Assembly, the Volks-
raad, of 57 members, elected by suffrage of the burghers (adult white males)
for four years from every district, town, and ward, or field-cornetcy in the
country districts. Every two years one-half of the members vacate their seats
and an election takes place. The members of the Volksraad receive pay at the
rate of 21. per day. Eligible are burghers 25 years of age, owners of real
property to the value of 5007. Voters must be white burghers by birth or
naturalisation, be owners of real property of not less than 150Z., or lessees of
real property of an annual rental of 36Z. , or have a yearly income of not less
than 200Z., or be owners of personal property of the value of 300Z., and have
been in the State for not less than three years. The executive is vested in a
President chosen for five years by universal suffrage, who is assisted by an
Executive Council. The Executive Council consists of the Government Secre-
tary, the Landrost of the capital, and three unofficial members appointed by
the Volksraad, one every year for three years.
President of the Republic. — F. W. Beitzt first sworn into office January 10,
1889 ; re-elected November 22, 1893.
There is a Landrost or Governor appointed to each of the districts (19) of
the Republic by the President, the appointment requiring the confirmation of
the Volksraad. In every ward there are commissioners for various purposes,
the members of which are elected by the burghers.
Area and Population.
The area of the Free State is estimated at 48,326 square miles ; it is divided
into 19 districts. At a census taken in 1890 the white population was found
to be 77,716 — 40,571 males and 37,145 females. Of the population 51,910 were
born in the Free State and 21,116 in the Cape Colony. There were besides
129,787 natives in the State— 67,791 males and 61,996 females— making a
total population of 207,503. The capital, Bloemfontein, had 2,077 white
inhabitants in 1890 and 1,382 natives. Of the white population 10,761 were
returned in 1890 as directly engaged in agriculture, while there were 41,817
' coloured servants.'
Immigration is on the increase, mainly from Germany and England.
3 F
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802 ORANGE FREE STATE
Religion.
The Government contributes 9,000?. for religious purposes. The State is
divided into 36 parochial districts for ecclesiastical purposes. There are about
80 churches. The principal body is the Dutch Reformed Church with 68,940
adherents ; of Wesleyans there are 753 ; English Episcopalians 1,353 ;
Lutherans 312 ; Roman Catholics 466 ; Jews 113.
Instruction.
The system of education is national. Small grants are also made to the
Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches. The Government schools are
managed by elected local boards, which choose the teachers, who are ap-
pointed by the President, if he is satisfied with their qualifications. Education
is not compulsory nor free except for very poor children. In 1892-93 34,500/.
was allotted to education, a portion of which consisted of interest on a capital
of 200,000Z. set apart by the Volksraad for this purpose. Besides this
amount a considerable sum was spent upon school buildings under the Public
Works Department. There are no foundations, properly so called, for educa-
tion. In 1892-93 there were 137 Government schools, inclusive of the two
higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein, with 4,088 pupils and
181 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on certain conditions. In
1892-93 there were 43 such schools, with 717 pupils. The Grey College, the
highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the matriculation examina-
tion of the Cape University ; there is a similar school for girls.
At the census of 1890 45,015 of the white population could read and write.
2,721 only read, 23,722 (of whom 19,508 were under 7 years of age) could
neither read nor write, while 6,258 were not specified.
There is a good public library in Bloemfontein, and small libraries in
several villages.
There is a Government Gazette, one daily and two bi-weekly papers.
Justice and Crime.
The Roman Dutch law prevails. The superior courts of the country are
the High Courts of Justice, with three judges, and the circuit courts. The
inferior courts are the court of the Landdrost and the court of Landdrost and
Heemraden. The circuit courts, at which the judges of the High Court
preside in turn, are held twice a year in the chief town of every district. In
these courts criminal cases are tried before a jury. The court of Landdrost
and Heemraden consists of the Landdrost (a stipendiary magistrate) and two
assessors. The Landdrost's court thus has both civil and criminal jurisdiction.
There are also justices of the peace who try minor offences and settle minor
disputes.
There are no statistics of crime. There are police-constables in every town,
and mounted police patrol the country.
Finance.
|The following is a statement of revenue and expenditure for the five years
1888-89 to 1892-93 (ending February) :—
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PARAGUAY.
(Rep^blica del Paraguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish rule in 1811,
and after a short government by two consuls, the supreme power was seized,
in 1815, by Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, who exercised autocratic
sway as dictator till his death, September 20, 1840. Dr. Francia's reign was
followed by an interregnum, which lasted till 1842, when a National Congress,
meeting at the capital Asuncion, elected two nephews of the Dictator, Don
Mariano Roque Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the
Republic. Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, a new Constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole President ; he was continued
by another election, March 14, 1857. At the death of Don Carlos, September
10, 1862, his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, born 1827, succeeded to the
supreme power. President Lopez, in 1864, began a dispute with the Govern-
ment of Brazil, the consequence of which was the entry of a Brazilian army,
united with forces of the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the
Republic, June 1865. After a struggle of five years, Lopez was defeated and
killed at the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870.
A new Constitution was proclaimed on November 25, 1870. The legisla-
tive authority is vested in a Congress of two Houses, a Senate and a House of
Deputies, the executive being entrusted to a President, elected for the term of
four years, with a non-active Vice-President at his side. The Senate and
Chamber of Deputies are elected directly by the people, the former in the ratio
of one representative to 12,000 inhabitants, and the latter one to 6,000 in-
habitants, though in the case of the sparsely populated divisions a greater
ratio is permitted. The Senators and Deputies receive each 200Z. per annum.
President of the Republic. — Don Juan G. Gonzales, for the term 1890-04.
The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of responsible
ministers, five in number, presiding over the departments of the Interior, of
Finance, of Worship and Justice, of War, and of Foreign Affairs. The
President receives a salary of 1,900Z., the Vice-President 960Z., and each of
the ministers 600 1, a year ; but the total administrative expenses are stated not
to exceed 5,000Z.
The country is divided into 23 counties [partidos), which are governed by
chiefs and justices of the peace, assisted by municipal councils.
Area and Population.
The area of Paraguay is 98,000 square miles. An enumeration made by the
Government in 1857 showed the population to number 1,337,439 souls. At
the beginning of 1873 the number of inhabitants, according to an official re-
turn (regarded as exaggerated), was reduced to 221,079, comprising 28,746
men and 106,254 women over fifteen years of age, with 86,079 children, the
enormous disproportion between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of the
population, telling the results of the war. A very imperfect census of March
1, 1887, gives the population as 329,645 — 155,425 men and 174,220 women.
There are besides 60,000 semi-civilised and 70,000 uncivilised Indians. In
1893 the population was estimated at 480,000. 01' foreigners in Paraguay in
1887, there were 5,000 Argentines, 2,000 Italians, 600 Brazilians, 740
Germans, 500 French, 400 Swiss, and 100 English. The country is divided
into 23 electoral districts. The population of the capital, Asuncion, was
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PARAGUAY
24,838 in 1886 ; other towns are Villa Rica, 11,000 ; Concepcion, 11,000 ;
San Pedro, 12,000 ; Luque, 8,000 — including their districts. In 1887 there
were 1,809 marriages, 9,365 births (65 per cent, illegitimate), and 4,463
deaths. In the eleven years 1881-1891 there were 5,957 immigrants of whom
1,657 were Italians, 1,342 Germans, 955 French, 850 Spaniards. The total
number in 1891 was 448, and in 1892, 539. Nearly three-fourths of the
territory was national property ; but in recent years most of it has been
sold, much of it in very large estates,
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The Roman Catholic Church is the established religion of the State, but
the free exercise of other religions is permitted. Education is free and com-
pulsory. In 1887 only 20 per cent, of the adult Paraguayans and 60 per cent,
of adult foreigners could read and write. There were in 1891 292 public elemen-
tary schools, with 18,944 pupils and 448 teachers. There are, besides, over 100
schools subsidised by the Council of Education, and at Asuncion there is a
National College, with 15 professors and 150 students. The amount spent by
Government on public instruction in 1890-91 was 314,615 dollars.
Asuncion has also a public library and five newspapers.
A High Court of Justice, and various inferior tribunals, with local magis-
trates, exercise judicial functions. In 1887, 1,091 persons were tried for offences,
51 of them for serious crime.
Finance.
The revenue is derived from customs, stamps and other dues, and from the
sale of land and yerbales. The revenue and expenditure for four years are
officially given as follows : —
-
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Revenue .
Expenditure
Dollars
3,551,445
2,791,558
Dollars
4,124,764
4,252,797
Dollars
1,736,113
2,116,357
Dollars
2,731,507
3,829,569
The external debt on January 1, 1893, amounted to 26,523,712 pesos, in-
cluding the consolidated English debt. The Government failed to pay the
interest due July 1, 1892, on the English debt. This debt stands at 831,100J.
and the interest arrears up to January 1, 1893, at 25.000Z. The internal debt
in 1892 was 1,367,689 pesos.
Defence.
The army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and artillery, maintained chiefly to
preserve internal order, consists of 82 officers and 1,345 men. Every citizen
from 20 to 35 years of age is liable to military service. There is a screw
steamer of 440 tens and 4 guns, and 2 small steamers on the river.
Production and Industry.
The number of horned cattle in Paraguay in 1891 was 861,954 ; horses
99,693, mules and asses 4,621, sheep 62,920, goats 14,656, pigs 10,778. Besides
yerba matd, the chief products are : — maize, of which 8,229,823 acres were
cultivated in 1890, manioc 7,015,862 acres, beans 2,574,962 acres, tobacco
1,980,611 acres, sugar cane 887,796 acres, mani 719,816 acres, potatoes and
vegetables 540,894 acres, rice 371,492 acres, lucerne 192,736 acres, cotton
126,313 acres, coffee 69,970 acres. In 1890-91 public lands and yerbales were
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PERSIA.
(IrAn.)
Reigning Shah.
N&sr ed-din, born Monday, 6 Safar, a.h. 1247 = 17-18 July,
1831 ; eldest son of Muhammed Shah; succeeded to the throne at
the death of his father, September 10, 1848. Coronation at
Teheran, October 20, 1848.
Children of the Shdh. — I. Muzafer ed-din, heir-apparent
(Yaliahd), born 14 Jemadi II. a.h. 1269 = March 25, 1853,
and has four sons and fifteen daughters. II. Mas'ud, Zil es-Sultan,
born 20 Safar 1266 = January 5, 1850, and has five sons and.
six daughters. III. Kamran, Naib es-Saltaneh, born 19 Zilkadeh
1272 = July 22, 1856, and has one son and three daughters.
IV. Salar es-Saltaneh, born 13 Jemadi II. 1299 = May 2, 1882.
V. Rukn es-Saltaneh, born 16 Rabi< II. 1301 = February 14,
1883. VI. Sultan Ahmed Mirza, born 1891. There are also
fourteen daughters.
The royal family is very numerous : there are some thousands
of princes and princesses, but the official year-book only mentions
three brothers, two sisters, 140 uncles, great-uncles, and cousins
of the Shah.
The Shah of Persia, — by his official title, * Shahinshah/ or king
of kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of
the lives and goods of all his subjects. The whole revenue of
the country being at their disposal, recent sovereigns of Persia
have 'been able to amass a large private fortune. That of the
present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to five or
six millions sterling, most of it represented by diamonds, the
largest, the Derya i Nur, of 186 carats, and the Taj i Man, of 146
carats, and other precious stones, forming the crown jewels.
The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty
of the Kajars, which took possession of the crown after a civil
war extending over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date
of accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty
was as follows : —
1. Agha Muhammed . . 1794 3. Muhammed, grandson of Fath
2. Fath Ali, nephew of Agha Ali 1835
Muhammed . . . 1797 4. Nasr ed-din,sonof Muhamniedl848
It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to
overrule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown,
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of nineteen ministers.
The country is divided into twenty-two large and ten small provinces,
which are governed by governors-general, who are directly responsible to the
central Government, and can nominate the lieutenant-governors of the districts
comprised in their own governments-general. Some of the governments-general
are very small, and do not bear subdivision into districts, &c. ; others are very
large, and comprise several provinces. Governors-general and lieutenant-
governors are generally called Hakim, the former also often have the title
of Wali, Ferman Ferma, &c. A lieutenant-governor is sometimes called
Naib el-Hukiimah ; one of a small district is a Zabit. Every town has a
mayor or chief magistrate called Kalantar, or Darogha, or Beglerbeggi.
Every quarter of a town or parish, and every village, has a chief who is
called Kedkhoda. These officers, whose chief duty is the collection of the
revenue, are generally appointed by the lieutenant-governors, but sometimes
elected by the citizens. Most of the governors have a vizir or a pishkar, a
man of experience, to whom are entrusted the accounts and the details of the
government. The chiefs of nomad tribes are called Ilkhani, Ilbeggi, Wall,
Serdar, Sheikh, Tushmal ; they are responsible for the collection of the
revenues to the governors of the province in which their tribe resides.
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AftEA AND fcOfctrLATION— RELIGION 811
Area and Population.
According to the latest and most trustworthy estimates, the
country — extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and
for 900 miles from east to west — contains an area of 628,000
square miles. A vast portion of this area is an absolute
desert, and the population is everywhere so scanty as not to
exceed, on the average, twelve inhabitants to the square mile.
According to the latest estimates, based on personal observation
of travellers and statistics of the Persian Home Office, the popu-
lation of Persia numbered in 1881 : —
Inhabitants of cities 1,963,800
Population belonging to wandering tribes . . 1,909,800
Inhabitants of villages and country districts . . 3,780,000
Total population .... 7,653,600
The population in 1891 is estimated at about 9,000,000.
The number of Europeans residing in Persia does not exceed
800.
The principal cities of Persia are : — Teheran, with 210,000
Tabriz, with 180,000; Ispahan, Meshed, each with 60,000
Barfurush, with 50,000; Kerman, Yezd, each with 40,000
Hamadan, Shiraz, Kazvin, Kom, Kashan, Resht, each with
25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Of the nomads 260,000 are Arabs,
720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700 Baluchis and
Gipsies, 234,000 Lurs.
Religion.
Of the population about 8 millions belong to the Shia'h faith, 800,000
Sunnis, 9,000 Parsis (Guebres), 20,000 Jews, 43,000 Armenians, and 23,000
Nestorians.
The Mahometans of Persia are mostly of the sect called Shia'h, differing
to some extent in religious doctrine, ana more in historical belief, from the
inhabitants of the Turkish Empire, who are called Sunni. The Persian priest-
hood (Ulema) is very powerful, and works steadily against all progress. Any
person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws may act as a
priest (Mulla). As soon as such a priest becomes known for his just interpreta-
tion of the divine law, and for his knowledge of the traditions and articles of
faith, he is called a Mujtahid, a chief priest. There are many Mujtahids in
Persia, sometimes several in one town ; there are, however, only four or five
whose decisions are accepted as final. The highest authority, the chief priest
of all, is the Mujtahid who resides at Kerbelfi, near Baghdad, and some con-
sider him the vicegerent of the Prophet, the representative of the Imam. The
Shah and the Government have no voice in the matter of appointing the
Mujtahids, but the Sheikh-el-Islam, chief judge, and the Imam-i-Jum'ah,
chief of the great mosque (Masjed-i-Jam'ah) of a city, are appointed by Govern-
ment. Under the Imam-i-Jum'ah are the pish nemaz or khatib (leader of
public prayers and reader of the Khutbeh, the Friday oration), the mu'azzin
(crier for prayers), and sometimes the Mutavalli (guardian of the mosque).
This latter, as well as the mu'azzin, need not necessarily be a priest. All
mosques and shrines have some endowments (wakf ), and out of the proceeds
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DEFENCE — COMMERCE 813
which should serve for the payment of an indemnity to the Tobacco Regie
Company of Persia. The loan, guaranteed by the Customs receipts of Southern
Persia and the Persian Gulf, will be repayable in eighty half-yearly instal-
ments together with 6 per cent, interest.
Defence.
The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of War,
numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery (20 batteries),
54,700 the infantry (78 battalions), 25,200 the cavalry, regular and irregular,
and 7,200 militia (24 battalions). Of these troops, however, only half are
liable to be called for service, while the actual number embodied — that is, the
standing army — does not exceed 24,500. The number liable to be called for
service is as follows: — Infantry, 35,400 ; irregular cavalry, but more or less
drilled, 3,300 ; undrilled levies, 12,130 ; artillery, 2,500 ; camel artillery, 90 ;
engineers, 100 ; total, 53,520.
By a decree of the Shah, issued in July 1875, it was ordered that the army
should for the future be raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies,
and that a term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old
system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life ; but the
decree has never been enforced.
The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts. A
province furnishes several regiments ; a tribe gives one and sometimes two,
and a district contributes one. The commanding officers are generally selected
from the chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised. The
Christians, Jews, and Parsis, as well as the Mussulman inhabitants of the
Kashan and Yezd districts, are exempt from all military service. The army
has been under the training of European officers of different nationalities for
the last thirty years or more.
The navy consists of 2 vessels, built at Bremerhaven — the Perscpolis, screw
steamship, 600 tons, 450 horse-power, armed with four 3-inch guns ; and the
Xusa, a river steamer, on the river Karun, of 30 horse-power.
Production and Industry.
Besides wheat, barley, rice, fruits, and gums, Persia produces silk, the
annual yield, chiefly from the Caspian provinces, being about 606,1001bs.
About two-thirds of this quantity is exported. The opium industry is on the
increase. In 1870 there were exported 800 boxes of 150 lbs. each ; in 1891 the
export amounted to 10,000 cases, the qpium sent to Europe being prepared for
medicinal purposes, and that to China for smoking. Tobacco is exported
annually to the amount of 5,500 tons ; cotton, 9,934,400 lbs. ; wool, 1,200,000
fleeces, weighing 7,714,000 lbs., about one- third to Bombay and the remainder,
mixed with Turkish wool, chiefly to Marseilles. Persian carpets, of which
there are about thirty different kinds, are all made by hand, and the design
varies with each carpet. The export of these carpets in 1888 reached the
value of 140,000Z.
Commerce.
The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan ; the
principal ports, Bender Abbas, Lingah, and Bushire on the Persian Gulf, and
Enzel£ Meshed i Sar, and Bender i Gez on the Caspian. There are no official
returns of the value of the total imports and exports ; the revenue from the
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COMMERCE — MONEY AND CREDIT
815
628,970/.; the leading exports, opium, 338,5942.; raw cotton, 43,5632.; and
tobacco, 38,4182. From Shiraz the chief exports were opium, 285,0002.; raw
cotton,. 64,2202.; wool, 17,8122. Chief imports : cotton goods, 575,1872.;
sugar, 143,2502. ; metals, 65,0122. ; woollen goods, 19,3752. Chief exports
from Lingah : pearls, 303,1252.; cotton goods, 82,9372.; grain and pulse,
43,2502. Imports: pearls, 303,7502.; cotton goods, 91,9372. Chief exports
from Bender Abbas : opium, 37,3002. ; wool, 25,0002. Imports : cotton goods,
90,6302. ; tea, 104,7872. The imports at Resht, on the Caspian Sea, amounted
in 1892 to 806,3272. (sugar, 747,5012.; petroleum, 21,3122.) ; and the exports
to 294,0532. (rice, 192,1042. ). In the eleven months ending February 20, 1893,
the imports into Tabriz (chiefly cotton and woollen goods, tea, sugar)
amounted to 2,909,000 tomans, or (1 toman = 5s. 24<2.) 756,3002.; and the
exports (chiefly Persian cotton manufactures, carpets, shawls, tobacco)
amounted to 1,188,130 tomans, or 308,9002.
The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom in each of the last
five years was as follows, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U.K.
from Persia .
Exports of British
produce to Persia
£
102,232
194,432
£
169,751
309,334
£
104,475
362,669
£
163,639
469,396
£
243,984
311,169
The direct imports from Persia into Great Britain in 1892 consisted mainly
of opium, valued at 27,4422., wheat, 55,4542. in 1889, and 17,7652. in 1890 ;
52,4712. in 1891, 42,4122. in 1892 ; shells, 21,8892. in 1891, 52,4842. in 1892.
Cotton goods, of the value of 263,0322., and copper (wrought and unwrought),
15,3922., were the staple articles of British export to Persia in 1892.
Money and Credit.
The Shah in 1889 granted a concession to Baron Julius de Reuter for the
formation of an Imperial Bank of Persia, with head office at Teheran and
branches in the chief cities. The bank was formed in the autumn of the same
year, and incorporated by Royal Charter granted by H.M. the Queen, and
dated September 2, 1889. The authorised capital is 4 millions sterling, which
may be increased. The bank has the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes —
not exceeding 800,0002. without the assent of the Persian Government. The
issue of notes shall be at first on the basis of the silver kr&n. The coin in
reserve for two years must be 50 per cent., afterwards 33 per cent. The bank
has the exclusive right of working throughout the Empire the iron, copper,
lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese, borax, and asbestos mines, not
already conceded. It started business in Persia in October 1889, in April 1890
took over the Persian business of the New Oriental Bank Corporation (London),
which had established branches and agencies in Persia in the summer of 1888,
and now has branches at Tabriz, Resht, Meshed, Ispahan, Yezd, Shiraz,
Bushire, Baghdad, Basrah, Bombay, and Calcutta ; and agencies at several
other towns. The mining rights have been ceded to the Persian Bank Mining
Rights Corporation, Limited, which was formed in April 1890. In 1892 the
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DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES
817
Values calculated at average ex-
change for 1892-98, 88 Krans=£l.
0'158d.
0'315d.
0*631d.
l*263d.
l'579d.
3 158d.
6 315c?.
Is. 0*630d.
2s. 7*575rf.
Coins issued by the Mint
Copper :— PHI
Shdht = 2PAl .
Two Shdhts = ± PHI .
Four Shdhts = {l {Abbdsst)
Silver :— Five Shdhis=lO PHl = \ Krdn
Ten Shdhts=b Krdn
One Krdn = 20 Shdhts
Two Krdns
Five Krdns
Five-sh&hi, ten-shahi, and five-kran pieces are rarely coined.
Gold :—
\ Toman, £ Toman, 1 Toman, 2, 5 and 10 Tomans.
The Toman is nominally worth 10 Krdns ; very few gold pieces are in cir-
culation, and a gold Toman is at present worth 15} Krdns = Is. 6d.
Accounts are reckoned in dinars, an imaginary coin, the ten-thousandth
part of a toman of ten krans. A kran therefore =1,000 dinars ; one shahi=
50 dinars.
Weights and Measures.
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into 24 nakhods
(2 '96 grains) of 4 gandum ('74 grain) each. Sixteen miskals make a sir,
and 5 sir make an abbassf, also called wakkeh, kervankeh. Most articles
are bought and sold by a weight called batman or man. The mans most
frequently in use are : —
Man~i- Tabriz = 8 Abbdssts
Man-i-Noh Abbdsst = 9 Abbdssts
Man-i-Kohneh (the old man)
Man-i-Shdh=2 Tabriz Mans
Man-i-Bey = 4 ,,
Man-i-Bender Abbdsst
Man~i~Hdsheml = 16 Mans of
Corn, straw, coal, &c, are sold by Kharvdr =100 Tabriz Mans = 649'
The unit of measure is the zar or gez ; of this standard several are in
use. The most common is the one of 40 '95 inches ; another, used in
Azerbaijan, equals 44'09 inches. A farsakh theoretically =6, 000 zar of
40*95 inches = 3 '87 miles. Some calculate the farsakh at 6,000 zar of 44 '09
inches = 4*17 miles.
The measure of surface is jerib = 1,000 to 1,066 square zar of 40*95
inches = 1,294 to 1,379 square yards.
Diplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of Persia in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Mirza Mohamed Ali Khan Ala-es-Sultaneh, accredited
March 4, 1890.
Secretaries. — Mirza Lutf Ali Khan and Hussein Kuli Khan.
GonsuUOeneral. —
2. Of Great Britain in Persia.
Teherdn : Envoy, Minister, and ConsuUGeneral.-^ix Frank Lascelles,
G.C.M.G. Appointed July 24, 1891.
Secretary of Legation, — Conyngham Greene,
2nd Secretary.— H. M. Ellicombe
3rd „ E. M. Grant Duff.
Oriental Secretary. — S. Churchill.
3 o
= 640 Miskdls
« 6*49
lbs.
= 720
» 7*30
>»
= 1,000
= 1014
»t
= 1,280
= 12'98
a
= 2,560
= 25*96
ft
- 840
= 8'52
tt
720
= 116'80
*»
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819
PERU*
(Republica del Peru.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Peru, formerly the most important of the Spanish
Viceroyalties in South America, issued its declaration of indepen-
dence July 28, 1821 ; but it was not till after a war, protracted
till 1824, that the country gained its actual freedom from Spanish
rule. The Republic is politically divided into departments, and
the departments into provinces. The present Constitution, pro-
claimed October 16, 1856, was revised November 25, 1860. It is
modelled on that of the "United States, the legislative power
being vested in a Senate and a House of Representatives, the
former composed of deputies of the provinces, in the proportion
of one for every 30,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 15,000,
and the latter of representatives nominated by the electoral
colleges of the provinces of each department, at the rate of two
when the department has two provinces, and one more for every
other two provinces. The parochial electoral colleges choose
deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send represent
tativeg to Congress, and elect the municipal councils as well.
The executive power is entrusted to a President. There are
two Vice-Presidents, who take the place of the President only in
case of his death or incapacity, and they are elected for four years.
President of the Republic. — General Remigio Morales Bermu*
dez, August 10, 1890, to 1894.
Vice-Presidents. — Senor Pedro Solar and Colonel Borgono.
The President exercises his executive functions through a
Cabinet of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The
ministers are those of the Interior, War, Foreign Affairs, Justice
and Finance. None of the President's acts have any value with-
out the signature of a minister.
Area and Population.
It is estimated that 57 per cent, of the population of Peru are aborigines
or 'Indians,' and that 23 per cent, belong to mixed races, 'Cholos' and
' Zambos.' The remaining 20 per cent, are chiefly descendants of Spaniards,
the rest including, besides 18,000 Europeans, 50,000 Asiatics, chiefly Chinese.
At the enumeration of 1876 the population of the capital, Lima, was returned
at 101,488, Callao 33,502 ( 6 805 in 1890), Arequipa 29,237, Cuzco 18,370.
The Republic is divided into nineteen departments, the area and
population of which were reported as follows at the last census taken (in
1876) :~
8 G 2
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FINANCE
821
cent., on the rent derived from real property. Of the actual
revenue and expenditure of the Government there were until
recently no official returns, but it is known that there were large
annual deficits, the profits from the sale of guano not proving
sufficiently large to cover the cost of immense public works, in-
cluding a railway to the summit of the Andes, besides the payment
of interest of a large debt.
The revenue and expenditure for three years, ended May 31,
were estimated as follows : —
1890
1891 1892
,' Soles
Revenue . . : 6,957,350
Expenditure . 6,073,966
Soles
8,608,043
8,179,981
Soles
7,104,423
6,572,927
The estimated revenue and expenditure for 1893 were as
follows : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Soles
Customs ....
Taxes
State property
Telegraphs
Posts ...
Various ....
Soles
Congress. . , . 353,893
Government f . . 953,918
Ministry Foreign Affairs . 222,927
„ Justice . . 917,821
„ Hacienda . . 2,241,869
„ Army and Navy 3,337,421
Total ordinary . . 7,279,393
Extraordinary . . 1,547,368
! Total Revenue . . 8,826,761
Total . . 8,027,849
The revenue is mostly from customs.
The public debt of Peru is divided into internal and
external. The internal liabilities (1888) were estimated officially
at over 109,287,000 soles, excluding 83,747,000 soles paper money,
the paper sole being equivalent to only 2%d. The outstanding
foreign debt is made up of two loans, contracted in England in
1870 and 1872 :—
Foreign Loan.
Railway 6 per cent, loan of 1870
„ 5 per cent, loan of 1872
Total
Outstanding Principal.
£
. 11,141,580
. 20,437,500
31,579,080
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822 peru
The two loans of 1870 and 1872 were secured on the gnano deposits (now in
possession of Chile) and the general resources of Peru. No interest having been
?aid on the foreign debt since 1876, the arrears in 1889 amounted to 22, 998, 65 1Z.
n Januaiy, 1890, by the final ratification of the Grace-Donoughmore contract,
Peru was released of all responsibility for the two loans, and the bondholders had
ceded to them all the railways, guano deposits, mines, and lands of the State
for 66 years. In 1882 an arrangement was made with Chile that a portion of
the proceeds of the guano deposits should be paid as interest to the bond-
holders, and in 1883 a small amount was sent to England. In 1890 a further
artangement was made with the Chilian Government in favour of the bond-
holders, but certain disputed claims supported by the French Government
delayed the settlement. In October, 1892, it was decided to refer these
claims to the President of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Swiss Con-
federation for arbitration. In July, 1893, it was announced that 630,0002.
Chilian 4$ per cent, bonds having been received by the Peruvian Corporation
from the Chilian Government, distribution of these bonds would be made to
holders of " Chilian Assets Certificates" at the rate of 11. 10s. per cent, for
every " nominal 100Z. of the Peruvian loan of 1870, and 11. 5s. per cent, for
every nominal 100Z. of the Peruvian loan of 1872. "Balance Certificates"
would also be issued entitling holders to share in such moneys in the Bank of
England as might be available for distribution under the arbitration required
by the Chilian Government.
Defence.
The army of the Republic is composed of six battalions of infantry,
numbering 2,400 men ; oi two regiments of cavalry, numbering 600 men ;
of two brigades of artillery, numbering 500 men ; and of a gendarmerie of
2,400 men, forming a total of 5,900 men.
The Peruvian navy now consists of one cruiser of 1,700 tons displace-
ment) one steamer, and one training frigate.
Industry.
The staple productions of Peru are cotton, coffee, cocoa, rice, sugar,
tobacco, wines and spirits, maize ; and the manufacture of cocaine is carried
on at Callao. Besides the above articles there are in the country india-
rubber, cinchona, dyes, medicinal plants, and the alpaca and vicuna. The
guano deposits are to a great extent exhausted, and the nitre province of
Tarapaca now belongs to Chile. The guano deposits on the islands of
Huanillos, Punta Lobos, Pabellon de Pica, and Lobos de Afuera, are stated to
have been delivered over to Peru by the Chilian Government.
The total number of mines held in Peru in 1886 was 1,456 ; in 1889,
2,599 ; in 1890, 2,911 ; in 1891, 4,187. Of the mines claimed in 1891, 427
were gold mines or washings, 46 gold and silver, 2,641 silver, 18 silver and
copper, 25 silver and lead, zinc, or quicksilver, 28 copper, 20 quicksilver,
613 petroleum, 278 coal, 60 salt, 14 sulphur, 17 various. Gold is found in
16 of the 19 departments of Peru, but mining operations are now, in general,
attended with little success. Many gold fields have been abandoned or are
worked only by natives. In the department of Junin the mines of Cerro de
Pasco, a ridge of gravelly sand, yield 31 to 52 grm. to the metric ton. The
Montes Claros mines in Arcquipa are worked by a company mostly with
English capital, and good results are expected. The most important silver
mines in active working are those at Cerro de Pasco, Castrovireina, and
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imports into me umtea ivingaom irom rem are : — sugar, jl,38U,ozzj.
in 1879; 412,246*. in 1890; 298,336*. in 1891; 524,173/. in 1892;
sheep and alpaca wool, 272,233*. in 1890 ; 282,591*. in 1891 ; 259,801?.
in 1892; raw cotton, 233,898*. in 1890; 157,914?. in 1891; 290,092*. in
1892 ; copper, .unwrought or part wrought, 356,896*. in 1878 ; 32,602*. in
1890; 20,422*. in 1891; 20,295*. in 1892; silver ore, 28,678*. in 1890;
83,256*. in 1891 ; 73,585*. in 1892.
The chief exports from Great Britain to Peru are : — cotton goods, 429,281*.
in 1890 ; 414,283*. in 1891 ; 331,840*. in 1892 ; woollens, 129,373*. in 1890 ;
132,813*. in 1891 ; 104,223*. in 1892 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 82,884*.
in 1892 ; machinery, 34,901*.
Shipping and Navigation.
At the port of Callao in 1892, 594 vessels of 627,375 tons (218 vessels of
268,565 tons British) entered, and 586 vessels of 618,689 tons (217 of
268,463 tons British) cleared. There entered also 789 coasting vessels of
9,084 tons. The port of Mollendo was visited in 1892 by 348 vessels of
27,000 tons (159 British of 12,198 tons).
The merchant navy of Peru now (1893) consists of 2 steamers of 2,262
gross tonnage and 38 sailing vessels of 10,145 tons ; and it is expected that
the increase will be progressive, as, according to a concession contained in
the law of November 9, 1888, foreigners are allowed to own vessels carrying
the Peruvian flag.
Internal Communications.
In 1892 the total working length of the Peruvian railways was 882
miles, of which 760 miles belong to the State. The gross receipts of the
railways in which the Peruvian Corporation is interested (the Central,
Southern, Trujillo, and Pascamayo Railways), and the steamers on Lake
Titicaca, in the year ended June 30, 1892, amounted to 348,500*., and ex-
penses to 215,000*., the net receipts (including a guarantee payment) being
160,092*., while the leased lines yielded as rent 3,247*. The Peruvian rail-
ways, including those ceded to Chile, cost about 36 millions sterling.
The length of State telegraph lines in 1893 was 1,080 miles. There are
36 telegraph offices. The telegraph cable laid on the west coast of America
has stations at Paita, Callao, Lima, and Mollendo, and thus Peru is placed
in direct communication with the telegraphic system of the world. A telephone
system is in operation between Callao and Lima,
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 825
In 1891, 1,156,900 letters, post-cards, journals, &c. (exclusive of internal
communications) passed through the Post Office ; there are 314 offices.
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Money (Silver Coins).
The Sole . . = 100 centesimos ; nominal value, 4s.; real value,
October 14, 1893, <L§\d.
,, Medio Sole = 50 ,,
,, Peseta . =■ 20 „
,, Heal . . = 10 . „ .
,, Medio Real = 5 ,,
In the beginning of 1888 the paper money was withdrawn from circulation,
except as payment of 5 per cent, of customs duties, at the rate of 35 paper
soles for one of silver. The currency is in convertible silver.
Weights and Measures.
The Ounce
,, Libra
,, Quintal
Arroba { $f Pounds-
Gallon
Vara
Square Vara
f wine or spirit!
1 '014 ounce avoirdupois.
1-014 lb.
101*44 lbs.
25-36 „
6*70 imperial gallons.
0*74 ,, gallon.
0-927 yard.
0 *859 square yard.
The French metric system of weights and measures was established by
law in 1860, but has not yet come into general use, except for the customs
tariff.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Peru in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister —
Charge* d? Affaires. — Wenceslao Melendez.
Attachi.— Eduardo Ford North.
Naval Attach.6. — Captain U. Delboy.
Consul-Qeneral in London. — F. A. Pezet.
Consul. — A. R. Robertson.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Dundee,
Glasgow, Liverpool, Queenstown, Southampton, Gibraltar, Hong Kong, Mel-
bourne, Montreal, Port Elizabeth, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Peru.
Minister and Consul-Qeneral. — Sir Charles Edward Mansfield, K.C.M.G.
Appointed December 24, 1884.
There is a Consul at Callao and Vice- Consuls at Payta, Arequipa, Mollendo,
Fisco.
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827
PORTUGAL.
(Reino de Portugal e Algarves.)
Reigning King.
Carlos I., born September 28, 1863, son of King Luis Land
his Queen Maria Pia, daughter of the late King Vittorio Emanuele
of Italy, who still survives ; married, May 22, 1886, Marie Am^lie,
daughter of Philippe Due d' Orleans, Comte de Paris ; succeeded to
the throne October 19, 1889.
Children of the King.
I. Luis Felippe, Duke of Braganza, born March 21, 1887.
II. Manuel, born November 15, 1889.
Brother of the King.
Prince Affonso Hmriques, Duke of Oporto, born July 31, 1865.
Aunt of the King. .
Princess Antonia, born February 17, 1845 ; married, Septem-
ber 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, born
September 22, 1835. Offspring of the union are three sons: —
1. Prince Wilhelm, born March 7, 1864. 2. Prince Ferdinand,
born August 24, 1865. 3. Prince Karl, born September 1,
1868.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of Braganza,
which dates from the end of the fourteenth century, at which period Affonso,
an illegitimate son of King Joao, or John I., was created by his father
Count of Barcedos, Lord of Guimaraens, and by King Affonzo V., Duke of
Braganza (1442). When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the House of
Av^s, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his successor,
Cardinal Henrique, Philip II. of Spain became King of Portugal in virtue of
his descent from a Portuguese princess. After 60 years' union under the same
kings with Spain, the people of Portugal revolted, and proclaimed Dom Joao,
the then Duke of Braganza, as their national king, he being the nearest
Portuguese heir to the throne. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of
Joao IV., to which Portuguese historians appended the title of ' the Restorer,'
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 829
can only appoint 1 peer for every 3 vacancies that take place.
Peers living at the time when the law was passed, and their
immediate successors, will continue to enjoy the right of sitting in
the Chamber of Peers. There will be 50 elective peers, who must
be chosen from one of the classes from which the King, under the
law of May 3, 1878, may select life peers. They must possess
certain property or literary qualifications, and be over 35 years of
age. Five of these peers mentioned above are to be chosen in-
directly by the University of Coimbra and certain other Portu-
guese scientific bodies. The delegates to meet at Lisbon. The
remaining 45 peers will likewise be chosen indirectly by the
different administrative districts. The delegates for Lisbon will
return 4 peers ; those for Oporto, 3 ; those for the other districts,
2 each. The members of the second Chamber are chosen in direct
election, by all citizens twenty-one years of age who can read or
write, possessing a clear annual income of 100 milreis, and by
heads of families ; electors must register themselves. The depu-
ties must have an income of at least 390 milreis per annum ; but
lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the
learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental
Portugal is divided into ninety-four electoral districts, which,
with Madeira and the Azores, return 149 deputies, or 1 deputy to
30,540 people. Deputies, with the exception of those for the
Colonies (13 in number), receive no remuneration, but are entitled
to free passage by State railways or vessels to or from Lisbon.
The municipalities may however, if necessary, grant a subsidy not
exceeding 3$333 (14*. lOd.) per day to provincial deputies. The
annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections must take
place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolution a
new Parliament must be called together immediately. The General
Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without the inter-
vention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law
passed twice by both Houses.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a responsible Cabinet,
divided into seven departments, in charge of the following ministries : —
Premier and Minister of Finance. — E. R. Hintze Ribreio.
Foreign Affairs, — Frederico Arouca.
Interior. — F. F. Pinto Castello Branco.
Justice and Worship. — A. d'Azevedo Castello JBranco.
War. — Colonel L. A. Pimentel Pinto.
Marine and Colonies. — J. A. de Brissic dos Neves Ferreira.
Public Works, Industry, and Commerce. —Carlos Lobo d'Avila.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice of a
Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting, when full, of thirteen ordinary
and three extraordinary members, nominated for life. The leading ministers,-
past and present, generally form part of the Privy Council.
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estimate for 1881, are given in the following table :-
Area in
Population
sq. miles
1
1878
1881
Entre Minho-e-Douro : —
Vianna do Castello ....
Braga
Porto
Tras-os-Montes : —
Villa Real
Braganza
Beira: —
Aveiro
Vizeu
Coimbra
Guarda ....
Castello Branco . .
•
Estremadura : —
Leiria
Santarem
Lisbon
Alemtejo : —
Portalegre
Evora
867
1,058
882
201,390
319,464
461,881
211,539
336,248
v 466,981
2,807
982,735
1,014,768
1,718
575
224,628
168,651
393,279
225,090
171,586
2,293
396,676
1,124
1,920
1,500
2,146
2,558
257,049
371,571
292,037
228,494
173,983
270,266
872,208
307,426
334,368
178,164
9,248
1,323,134
1,377,432
1,343
2,651
2,882
192,982
220,881
498,059
199,645 |
227,943
518,884 '
6,876
911,922
946,472
2,484
2,738
4,209
101,126
106,858
142,119
350,103
i
105,247
112,735
149,187
9,431
367,169
Carried iorward .
30,655
3,961,173
4,102,517
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AREA AND POPULATION
831
Provinces and Districts
Area in
sq. miles
Population
1878
'1881
Brought forward
Algarve (Faro)
30,655
1,873
3,961,173
199,142
4,102,517
204,037
Total Continent ....
32,528
4,160,315
4,306,554
Islands : —
Azores
Madeira (Funchal) ....
Total Islands ....
Grand total ....
1,005
505
259,800
130,584
390,384
269,401
132,223
1,510
401,624
34,038
4,550,699
4,708,178
The population increased only 4*1 per cent, in the nine years
from 1869 to 1878, or at the average rate of less than J per
cent, per annum. The increase between 1878 and 1881 was 3 40
per cent., or at the rate of 115 per cent, per annum. Of the total
population, mainland and islands, in 1878, 2,175,829 were males,
and 2,374,870 females. The average density in the mainland
(1881) is 124 per square mile; it is greatest in province Minho,
358 per square mile ; and least in Alemtejo, where it is only 39
per square mile. The only non-Portuguese element in the popu-
lation of any consequence is the gipsies ; there are about 3,000
negroes in the coast towns. The population in the north is mainly
Galician ; further south there has been considerable intermixture
with Arabs, Jews, as also with French, English, Dutch, and
Frisians.
Portugal had in 1878 two towns with a population of above 20,000 —
Lisbon, with 246,343 ; and Oporto, with 105,838 inhabitants ; the population
of Braga was 19,755 ; Louie, 14,448 ; Coimbra, 13,369 ; Evora, 13,046 ;
Funchal (Madeira), 19,752 ; Ponta Delgada (Azores), 17,635. The total urban
population on the mainland in 1878 was 490,386, and rural 3,669,929.
Movement of the Population.
In 1889 there were 34,857 marriages ; in 1890, 35,769 in Portugal,
including 2,881 in 1889 and 3,097 in 1890 in the Azores and Madeira. The
average for 1890 was 9*02 marriages per 1,000 of population.
The following table derived from official statistics shows the numbers of
births and deaths in Continental Portugal and the Azores and Madeira for
two years : —
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INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME 833
Instruction.
The superintendence of public instruction is under the management of a
superior council of education, at the head of which is the Minister of the In-
terior. Public education is entirely free from the supervision and control of
the Church. By a law enacted in 1844, it is compulsory on parents to send
their children to a place of public instruction ; but this prescription is far
from being enforced, and only a very small fraction of the children of the
middle and lower classes really attend school. According to official returns of
the total population, at the close of 1878 the number of illiterate inhabitants
in Portugal and its islands is stated to be 3,751,774, or 82 per cent, of the
total population, including, however, young children. The total school
population in 1885 was 332,281. There were in Portugal and the adjacent
islands in 1890 3,864 public primary schools for children with 181,738 pupils,
of whom 123,693 were boys. There were also 175 primary schools for adults
with 6,774 pupils. In addition to these there are about 1,600 private primary
schools witn over 60,000 pupils. For secondary instruction there aTe (1891)
for boys 108 lycees with 52,241 pupils and 231 communal colleges with 32,873
pupils ; while for girls there are 24 lycees with 8,955 pupils, and 26 colleges
with 3,088 pupils. There are, besides, 3 municipal schools, 23 official lycees,
and 5 normal schools, with, in all, 3,592 pupils. There are also (1883) 18
clerical schools with 2,038 pupils. At Lisbon there is a school of literature
and one of fine art, the former with 21 and the latter with (including evening
classes) 436 pupils in 1892. There are medical schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and
Funchal with 280 pupils (1892) ; technical schools at Lisbon and Oporto with
566 pupils ; industrial schools at Lisbon and Oporto with 839 pupils ; and in
other towns 23 industrial schools with 4,856 pupils. There are also (1892) 7
agricultural schools with 187 pupils. At Lisbon there is a military college
with (1892) 226 pupils, an army school with 320 pupils, a naval school with a
school for officers attached, having 93 pupils, and 11 other schools for special
military or naval instruction. The University of Coimbra (founded in 1290),
has faculties of theology (49 students in 1892), law (496 students), medicine
(124), mathematics (165), and philosophy (332 students.)
The expenditure of the Ministry of Public Instruction, according to the
budget of 1890-91, is 1,102,283 milreis, exclusive of 643,223 milreis to be
expended through other ministries.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by means of a supreme {tribunal, which sits in
Lisbon and decides cases for the whole Portuguese dominions ; Courts of
'Relac&o,' three in number (similar to the French f Cour de Cassation '), at
Lisbon, Oporto, and in the Azores ; and courts of first instance in all district
towns.
In 1886 there were 11,385 convictions. . The commonest offences were :
—Wounding, 2,497 ; offences against the person, 1,723 ; theft, 1,405 ;
defamation, 1,021.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure for five years (estimated for the
last two) were : —
3 H
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834
POETUGAL
Revenue
Expenditure
Years
t™1™* i ortt^y
Total
™"** 1 «£,
Total
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92T
1892-93
Milreis
37,812,343
39,234,695
39,787,876
42,085,000
46,724,159
Milreis
79,497
200,600
76,585
Milreis
37,891,840
39,435,295
39,864,460
42,085,000
46,724,159
Milreis
! 39,165,358
42,735,654
42,760,588
46,742,000
48,018,961
Milreis
11,256,273
11,578,940
8,611,794
5,500,000
Milreis
50,681,631
54,314,594
51,372,382
52,242,000
48,018,961
The following are the revised estimates for 1893-94 : —
Revenue
Direct taxes :
Property tax
Industrial tax
On annuities
Other taxes
Registration .
Stamps .
Indirect taxes :
Import duties
Lisbon octroi
Export duties
Other duties
Additional taxes .
National property :
Railways
Posts and Telegraphs
Various
Receipts d'ordrc
Total .
Milreis
. 3,107,000
, 1,170,000
4,576,380
2,322,050
2,002,000
1,708,500
15,299,600
2,122,500
380,400
3,058,160
1,725,800
1,593,000
1,059,000
1,078,304
3,924,562
43,839,456
Expenditure ' Milreis
Civil list . . . 525,000
Cortes .... 99,674
Int. chargeable on Treasury 3,463,800
Consolidated debt
Amortisable „
Annuities, &c.
Ministry of Finance
,, ,, Interior
12,352,555
5,692,758
17,805
3,573,799
2,279,022
1,029,329
5,123,474
„ ,, Justice.
„ „ War . .
:, ,, Marine and
Colonies . 3,523,575
„ ,, Foreign Affairs 390,209
„ Public Works 4,741,964
Savings Bank . . 60,465
Total ordinary .
Extraordinary .
Total
42,963,433
1,866,595
44,830,028
The following are statistics of the Portuguese National Debt, showing its
amount at various periods : —
1853
1858
1863
1868
1873
1878
1883
1888
1889
1890
3 % Consolidated Fund
Internal
External
Milreis
25,704,627
58,152,425
90,053,802
135,499,946
204,507,489
226,291,802
235,681,119 :
261,790,497 j
261,761,197
258,086,897
Amortisable
•7.
5°/.. 4*7„, 4%
1 and various
. Floating Debt
Milreis
3,667,435
11,290,714
17,182,619
22,671,750 I
31,571,908 I
34,228,666 I
43,513,350 I
47,306,708 :
46,366,708 I
46,366,759
Milreis
Milreis
2,034,000
14,743,120
16,273,360 l
1,377,270
31,435,020
53,614,890
87,018,082
104,172,464*
Milreis
12,683,972
19,565,172
1 Paid up by conversion.
a All the oldfc6 •/. debt is converted into 4} % bonds.
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DEFENCE 835
The annual interest on the debt (exclusive of amortisation) was 18,904,300
milreis.
To amortise the floating debt, a new debt was issued in 1890, at 4£ % f°r
36,000,000 milreis, upon the tobacco revenue. The proceeds of this loan were
absorbed, the floating debt in 1891 being 23,011,608 milreis. In the 40 years
1853 to 1892 the proceeds of loans obtained by Portugal (including the floating
debt) amounted to 312,168,000 milreis, or nearly 8,000,000 milreis annually.
In 1891 the finances became quite deranged, and steps were taken for the
reduction of the amount of interest payable. The law of February 26, 1892,
reduced by 30 per cent, the interest on the internal public debt payable in
currency, and that of April 20, 1893, reduced by 66§ per cent, the interest on
the external debt to befpaid in gold. An Act of May 20, 1893, provided for
the re-establishment of the Board of Public Credit to consist of 5 members,
three of whom should be elected by the holders of consolidated bonds. The
same Act provided among other concessions, that the proceeds over 11,400,000
milreis, arising from certain import and export duties should be distributed
proportionally at the rate of 50 per cent, in current money among the bonds
of the external funded debt.
The nominal amount of the debt in June 1893, and the nominal amount
of the annual charge were : —
Nominal Amount.
Nominal Charge.
External .
Internal .
Milreis
281,824,700
244,886,060
Milreis
9,557,242
7,596,453
Total .
526,710,760
17,153,695
Measures have been taken with a view to retrenchment ; the Ministry of
Public Instruction has been merged in that of the Interior ; new tariffs for
the colonies have been adopted ; the contract for the works at the port of
Lisbon has been rescinded; the payment of members of parliament sup-
pressed ; and no new employ^ of the government has been appointed.
Defence.
The fortified places of the first class in Portugal are Lisbon
(Monsanto, San Juliao-da-Bavra, and the maritime works), Elvas,
Peniche, Valenca, and Almeida. The defences of Lisbon are the
only thoroughly modern ones, and are not yet complete ; there are
several naval harbours.
The army of the Kingdom is formed partly by conscription
and partly by voluntary enlistment. Its organisation is based
on the law of June 23, 1864, modified by subsequent laws in
1868, 1869, 1875, 1877, 1884, and 1885. The law of Dec. 31,
1884, is now the fundamental one for the general organisation of
the army. The conscription is ruled by the law of 1887, modified
in 1891, and in 1892. All young men of 21 years of age,
with certain exceptions, are obliged to serve. The contingent
for 1892-93 numbered 14,264 men. The effective is fixed
3 h 2
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\
836 PORTUGAL
annually by the Cortes. By the law of 1884 the army consists
of 24 regiments of infantry, 12 regiments of chasseurs, 10 regi-
ments of cavalry, 3 regiments of mounted artillery, 1 brigade
of mountain artillery, 1 regiment and 4 batteries of garrison
artillery, and 1 regiment of engineers. The duration of
service is 12 years, 3 with the active army, 5 in the
first, and 4 in the second reserve. The strength of the army,
including the Municipal Guards and the Fiscal Guard, was in
1892 34,970 officers and men of all ranks. There were 4,762
horses and mules. The war effective is about 150,000 men,
12,690 horses and mules, and 264 guns. There are maintained
in the colonies 8,880 officers and men, besides native troops.
The navy of Portugal comprises : — 1 armoured cruiser, the
Vasco da Gama ; 4 second class protected cruisers (building) ; 26
vessels which may be grouped as 3rd class cruisers, one only of
which has a sea-speed of more than 10 knots (these including 6
corvettes and 20 gunboats) ; 5 first class torpedo boats, 3 of the
second class, and 1 of the third-class, besides 2 smaller and a
submarine-boat. In addition there are several training ships,
transports, &c.
The largest war-ship of the Portuguese navy is the ironclad cruiser
Vasco da Gama, built at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall, and launched
in December 1875. She is plated with armour 11 inches thick on central
battery, and a belt from 10 to 7 inches thick, and carries 2 18-ton guns, 1
4-ton, 2 Hotchkiss, quick-firing guns, and 2 machine guns. Her displace-
ment is 2,420 tons, and her speed 13 knots.
The navy was (1892) officered by 2 vice-admirals, 5 rear-admirals,
16 captains, 25 frigate captains, 35 lieutenant-captains, 80 lieutenants, 50
sub-lieutenants, besides midshipmen, surgeons, engineers, &c; and had 3,500
sailors, exclusive of 400 men in the colonies.
Production and Industry.
Of the whole area of Portugal 2 '2 per cent, is under vineyards ; 7*2 per
cent, under fruit trees; 12 '5 per cent, under cereals; 2*7 per cent under
pulse and other crops; 26*7 per cent, pasture and fallow; and 2*9 per
cent, under forest; 45*8 per cent, waste. In Alemtejo and Estremadura
and the mountainous districts of other provinces are wide tracts of com-
mon and waste lands, and it is asserted that from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000
hectares, now uncultivated, are susceptible of cultivation.
There are four modes of land tenure commonly in use : — Peasant pro-
prietorship, tenant farming, metayage, and emphyteusis. In the north-
ern half of Portugal, peasant proprietorship and emphyteusis prevail,
where land is much subdivided and the 'petite culture' practised In the
south large properties and tenant farming are common. In the peculiar
system called aforamento or emphyteusis the contract arises whenever
the owner of any real property transfers the dominium utile to another
person who binds himself to pay to the owner a certain fixed rent called
foro or canon. The landlord, retaining only the dominium directum of
the land, parts with all his rights in the holding except that of receiving
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COMMERCE
837
quit-rent, the right to distrain if the quit-rent be withheld, and the right
of eviction if the foro be unpaid for more than five years. Subject to
these rights of the landlord, tiie tenant is master of the holding, which
he can cultivate, improve, exchange, or sell ; but in case of sale the landlord
has a right of pre-emption, compensated by a corresponding right in the tenant
should the quit-rent be offered for sale. This system is very old — modifica-
tions having been introduced by the civil code in 1868.
The chief cereal and animal produce of the country are : — In the north,
maize and oxen ; in the mountainous region, rye and sheep and goats ; in
the central region, wheat and maize ; and in the south, wheat and swine,
which fatten in the vast acorn woods. Throughout Portugal wine is pro-
duced in large and increasing quantities. In 1888 there were exported of
common wines 1,438,702 hectolitres; of the finer wines of Oporto 268,029
hectolitres, and from Madeira 24,139 hectolitres, the whole value amounting
to 2, 878, 384 J. After wine, cork is perhaps the most important product, the
value exported in 1886 amounting to 148, 000 J. Olive oil, figs, tomatoes are
largely produced, as are oranges, onions, and potatoes.
Portugal possesses considerable mineral wealth, but coal is scarce, and,
for want of fuel and cheap transport, valuable mines remain unworked.
The quantity of iron ore produced in 1889 was 1,588 tons, valued 440J. ;
copper ore, 181,520 tons, value 97, 470 J. ; zinc ore, 6 tons, value 340Z.; anti-
mony ore, 1,509 tons, value 32, 010 J. ; manganese ore, 5,893 tons, value
17,820J.; lead ore, 1,308 tons, value 9,745J. ; gold ore, 13 tons, value 77/.
Common salt gypsum, lime, and marble are exported. The number of con-
cessions of mines existing in 1885 was 432 ; and the area conceded extended
over 49,446 hectares. The quantity of ore produced in that year was 104,595
metric tons, of the value of 1,007,398 milreis ; of which 88,576 metric tons
were exported and the remainder kept for home use. The number of persons
employed in mining work was 5,450, of whom 4,859 were males (483 under
15), and 591 females (113 under 15). The machinery employed in mining
consisted of 22 hydraulic machines and 71 steam engines of (in all) 2,732
horse-power.
There are three cotton factories at work for exportation to Angola. The
population engaged in industries of various kinds, exclusive of agriculture,
in 1881 was 90,998. In 1886 there were granted 126 patents for inventions,
and 219 trade marks were registered.
Portugal has about 4,000 vessels engaged in fishing, and the exports of
sardines and herrings are considerable.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the general imports and
exports for the five years 1887-91 : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Milreis
Milreis
1887
44,394,871
28,216,513
1888
47,981,438
32,955,776
1889
51,458,456
32,843,141
1890
55,733,225
32,648,929
1891
50,024,000
31,872,000
The imports for consumption in 1891 were valued at 39,529,946
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SHIPPING — MONEY AND CREDIT
839
Wine is the staple article of import from Portugal into the United Kingdom,
the value amounting in 1892 to 1,750,805/. Other imports from Portugal
are:— Oxen, 20,328/. ; copper ore and regulus, 216,104/. ; cork, 326,648/.;
fruits, 94,081/. ; fish, 198,051/. ; onions, 82,841/. ; wool, 75,177/. : caout-
chouc, 133,046/. in 1892. The exports of British home produce to Portugal
embrace cotton goods and yarn to the value of 292,000/. ; iron, wrought and
unwrought, valued at 227,580/. ; woollens and worsted, 21,395/. ; butter,
36,350/. ; coal, 258,980/. ; machinery, 117,716/. in 1892.
The subjoined table shows the quantity and declared value of wine
imported into the United Kingdom from Portugal in each of the last five
jrears : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Gallons
£
1888
3,163,536
939,013
1889
4,203,844
1,340,080
1890
3,991,359
1,189,397
1891
4,329,169
1,275,552
1892
5,560,654
1,750,805
In 1892 the total imports of wine from all countries into the United
Kingdom amounted to 17,319,477 gallons, valued at 6,019,559/.; conse-
quently the imports from Portugal were 32 per cent, of the total quantity,
and 29 per cent, of the total value of the wine imported.
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted on January 1, 1893, of 186
registered vessels (including 44 steamers) of 104,394 total tonnage.
Including vessels calling at different ports, there entered the ports of
Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira from abroad in 1891, 2,554 sailing vessels
of 363,000 tons, and 3,708 steamers of 5,181,000 tons, total 6,262 vessels of
5,544,000 tons ; and cleared 2,720 sailing vessels of 351,000 tons, and 3,721
steamers of 5,187,000 tons, total 6,441 vessels of 5,538,000 tons. In the
coasting trade there entered 4,870 vessels of 1,014,000 tons, and cleared 4,833
vessels of 1,000,000 tons.
Internal Communications.
The length of railways open for traffic in 1891 was 1,334 miles, of which
505 miles belonged to the State. There were 106 miles in course of construc-
tion. All the railways receive subventions from the State.
The number of post-offices in the Kingdom in December 1891 was 3,091.
There were 29,065,000 letters, 5,061,000 post-cards, and 25,455,000 news-
papers, samples, &c, carried in the year 1891. The number of telegraph
offices at the end of 1889 was 366. There were at the same date 3,985 miles
of line and 8,839 miles of wire. The number of telegrams transmitted,
received, and in transit in the year 1889 was 1,354,827.
Money and Credit.
At the end of October 1890 the Portuguese Savings Bank had 11,314
accounts, with deposits amounting to 2.450,355 milreis.
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840 PORTUGAL
At the beginning of 1890 there were 37 banks with cash in hand
14,637,868 milreis, bills 35,756,712 milreis, loans on security 5,316,431
milreis, deposits 36,797,849 milreis, note circulation 12,109,624 milreis. On
September 30, 1893, the situation of the Bank of Portugal was as follows : —
Metallic stock 8,090,000 milreis, note circulation 51,894,000 milreis, accounts
current and deposits 1,584,000 milreis, commercial account 11,070,000 milreis,
advances on securities 6,804,000 milreis, balance against Treasury 12,384,000
milreis.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Milreis, or 1,000 Reis is of the value of 4s. 5d.t or about 4*5 milreis
to the £1 sterling. Large sums are expressed in Contos (1,000 milreis of the
value of £222 4s. bd.
Gold coins are 10, 5, 2, and 1 milreis pieces, called the corda, meia coroa,
&c. The gold 5 milreis piece weighs 8*8675 grammes, '916 fine, and conse-
quently contains 8*12854 grammes of fine gold.
Silver coins are 5, 2, 1, and half-testoon (testao) pieces, or 500, 200, and
50-reis pieces. The 5-testoon piece weighs 12*5 grammes, *916 fine and there-
fore contains 11 4583 grammes of fine silver.
Bronze coins are 40, 20, 10, and 5 reis pieces.
The standard of value is gold. The English sovereign is legal tender for
4,500 reis. In the present derangement of the monetary system, Bank of
Portugal paper is chiefly in circulation.
Weights and Measures.
The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard.
The
chief old measures still in use are : —
The Libra . .= 1*012 lb. avoirdupois.
Ahn*ulj> f of Lisbon = 8*7 imperial gallons.
" *imuae \ „ Oporto = 5*6
„ Alquiere . . = 0*36 „ bushel.
•
„ Moio . . . = 2*78 „ quarters.
fl
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Portugal in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister— Senhor Luis de Soveral, appointed Envoy and
Minister to Great Britain, January 1891.
Is* Secretary. — Senhor C. Cyrillo Machado.
2nd Secretary. — A. de Castro.
Attach*.— Baron de Costa Ricci.
Consul-General in London. — Ferreira Pinto Basto.
There are Consular representatives at Bristol, Cork, Dublin, Dundee,
Leith, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool, Newcastle, Southampton ; Bombay, Cape of
Good Hope, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Newfoundland, New Zealand,
Quebec, Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Portugal.
Envoy and Minister.— Sir H. G. MacDonell, K.C.M.G., C.B., appointed to
Lisbon January 1, 1893.
Secretary. — C. Conway Thornton.
There are Consular representatives at Lisbon, Oporto ; Beira, Loanda,
Lorenzo Marques, Macao. Madeira, Mozambique, Quilimane, St. Michael's
(Azores), St. Vincent (Cape Verdes).
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DEPENDENCIES
841
Dependencies.
The colonial possessions of Portugal, situated in Africa and Asia, are
as follows : —
Colonial Possessions
Possessions in Africa :
Cape Verde Islands (1885) .
Guinea (1885)
Prince's and St. Thomas'Islands (1878-9)
Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, Mossa-
medes, and Congo ....
East Africa
Total, Africa .
Area :
English square
miles
1,650
14,000
454
457,500
281,700
735,304
Possessions in Asia :
In India— Goa (1887) .
Damao, Diu, &c. (1887)
Indian Archipelago (Timor, &c.)
China : Macao, &c. (1878-85)
Total, Asia
Total, Colonies
. I
1,447
158
6,290
5
7,900
743,204
Population
110,930
800,000 I
21,040 I
2,000,000
1,500,000 1
4,431,970 ;
494,836
77,454
300,000
67,030
939,320
5,371,200
The following table shows the colonial budgets for the year 1891-92, and
the colonial imports into and exports from Portugal in 1 890 : —
Ordinary and
Colonies
Revenue
1991-92
Extraordinary
Expenditure
Imports
Exports
1891-92.
Milreis
Milreis
Milreis
'Milreis
Angola
1,157,756
1,271,903
3,272,798
2,385,748
Cape Verde
289,272
260,218
142,160
374,336
Guinea
37,196
204,516
18,314
59,889
St. Thomas
213,740
217,521
1,400,372
354,834
East Africa
705,836
1,338,023
81,944
314,156
India (Goa)
919,687
898,183
98,811
24,885
Macao and Timor
461,322
504,821
2,500
2,142
Total .
3,784,809
4,695,185
5,016,899
3,515,990
The imports into Timor in 1892 amounted to 512,296 milreis, and the
exports to 357,716 milreis.
In 1890-91, 743 vessels of 172,042 tons entered, and 720 of 172,568 tons
cleared at the ports of Goa.
The value of the trade between the United Kingdom and the Portuguese
possessions in 1892 was : —
Imports into
U. K. from
Exports fron
U. K. to
1
i
Imports into
U. K. from
Exports from
U. K. to
Azores
Madeira
West African
£
69,880
65,099
26,692
£
55,326
83,050
317,908
East African
Indian
Macao
Total .
£
20,055
nil
8,085
£
190,694 i
24,552 ,
35 1
289,811
671,565 |
I
The total imports into Angola in 1891 amounted to 1,140,000*. and the
exports to 860,200*.
In Angola there were in 1892 150 miles of railway in operation and 230
in construction or projected. A telegraph cable between the Cape of Good
Hope and Loanda has been laid, completing the telegraphic circuit of Africa.
There are 260 miles of telegraph in the colony.
The area of Mozambique and dependencies is that within the limits of the
arrangement between Great Britain and Portugal of June 1891. (See South
Africa, British and Central Africa, British Zambesia.)
By a decree of September 30, 1891, the Colony of Mozambique was
constituted as the State of East Africa (Estado d' Africa Oriental), and
divided into two provinces, viz., that of Mozambique, north of the river
Zambezi, with the city of the same name for its capital, and that of Lourenco
Marques, south of the Zambezi, with the town of that name for its capital.
The State is administered by a royal commissioner appointed for three years,
and residing in the capitals of tne provinces alternately. The province of
Mozambique includes, besides the districts of Mozambique and Quilimane,
three intendencies in the region conceded September 26, 1891, to the Cape
Delgado Company ; while the province of Lourenco Marques includes,
besides the district of that name, three intendencies in the region conceded
July 30, 1891, to the Inhambane Company, and three in the region conceded
February 11 and July 30, 1891, to the Mozambique Company. The State has
a colonial military force and a small navy. Every settlement on the coast
has its municipality, police, tribunals of justice, and other administrative
authorities, civil and ecclesiastical.
In 1892 the imports into Mozambique were valued at 642,576 milreis, and
the exports at 397,758 milreis. At Lourenco Marques in 1892 the imports of
merchandise amounted to 345,852, and exports to 50,680*.; of specie, imports
130,000*., exports 170,000*.
The chief articles imported into the colony were cotton goods, spirits,
beer, and wine. The chief articles exported were oil-nuts and seeds, caout-
chouc, and ivory.
In 1891 there entered the port of Mozambique 157 vessels of 196,415 tons
(27 of 26,980 tons British), and cleared 146 of 128,856 tons (24 of 20,670 tons
British). At the port of Lourenco Marques, in 1892, there entered and cleared
219 vessels of 283,701 tons (160 of 197,934 tons British).
In 1892 the colony had 57 miles of railway (Delagoa Bay) open. This
line is being continued to Pretoria, the additional 290 miles being undertaken
by the Netnerlands Company ; about 80 miles of the extension are finished,
and the line will probably be completed by the end of 1894.
There are 230 miles of telegraph in East Africa, and 55 under construction.
Consul to Portuguese Possessions in West Africa south of the Gulf of
Guinea. — W. C. Pickersgill, C.B., residing at Loanda.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 843
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications. Portugal.
Colleccjio de Tratados, conuencas, contractus, e actos publicos celebrados entre a corte
de Portugal e as mais Potencias d'esde 1640 ate ao presente. Per Borges de Castro e Judice
Byker, 30 vols. 1856-1879
Nova CollecQao de Tratados, &c. 2 vols. 1890-1891.
Annuario da Direcgao Geral da Administragao civil e politica do Ministerio do Reino.
Annuario estadistico de Portugal, 1884-1887. Ministerio das obras publicas, Lisboa.
Boletim da Direcc.ao Geral de Agriculture, 1891 e 1892.
Estadistica de Portugal — Commercio do continente do reino e ilhas adjacentes com
paizes estrangeiros, &c. From 1880 to 1890. Lisboa, 1892.
Annuario Estatistico da Direccjio Geral das contribuicas directas. Ministerio da Fazende.
From 1877 to 1887.
Contas de gerencia de anno economico de 1891-1892.
Diario das Camaras. Lisbon, 1892.
Boletim estatistico (monthly) da Direcgao Geral das Alfandegas (Nov. 1892).
Orcamento geral e proposta de lei das receitas e das despezas ordinarias do estado na
metropole para o exercicio de 1893-94. Lisbon, 1893.
Conta Geral de administracjLo flnanceira do Estado. 1891-1892.
O movimento da populacao nos annos de 1889 e 1890 publicado pela Direcgao Geral de
Commercio e Industria. Lisbon, 1892.
Foreign Office Reports, Annual and Miscellaneous Series. London, 1893.
Hertslet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List Published annually. London.
Trade of Portugal with the United Kingdom ; in « Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
Dependencies.
Boletim official da Provincia de Angola.
Boletim official da Provincia de Mocambique.
Correspondence respecting Portuguese Claims in South Africa. London, 1889.
Correspondence respecting the Delagoa Bay Railway. London, 1889.
Documentos apresentados as Cortes na sessSo legislativa de 1891 : negocios d' Africa.
Corresp. com a Inglaterra : negocios de Mocambique, dos Matabeles e Amatongas. 1 vol.
Negocios da Africa oriental e»-central. 1 vol. Negociaccoes do tratado com a Inglaterra.
1 vol.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Aldama-Ayala (G. de), Compendio geographico-estadistico de Portugal e sus posesiones
ultramarinas. 8. Madrid, 1880.
Crawfurd (Oswald), Portugal : Old and New. 8. London, 1880.
Round the Calendar in Portugal. London, 1890.
Eschwege (Wilhelm L. von), Portugal : ein Staats- und Sittengemalde, nach dreissigjah-
rigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.
Sereulano (Alexandre), Historia de Portugal desde o comeco da Monarchia ateao flm do
reinado de AfTonso III. (1097-1279). 4 vols. Lisbon, 1863.
Lavigne (Germond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1883.
MacMurdo (E.), History of Portugal. 2 vols. 8. London.
Morse 8tephens (H.), Portugal : Story of the Nations Series. London, 1890. - j
Oliveira Martins (J. P.), Historia de Portugal. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1880.
(J. P.), Portugal contemporaneo. 2 vols. Lisbon, 1881.
Historia da Civilisac&o iberica. Lisbon, 1879.
Politica e economica nacional. Porto, 1885.
Pinheiro Chages, Historia de Portugal. 8 v. (2 ed.).
Dependencies.
As colonias Portuguezas. Revista illustrada. Lisbon. Published monthly.
Corvo (Andrade), Colonias Portuguezas. 4 vols. Lisbon, 1883-87.
La TeiUais (C. de), Etude historique, economique et politique sur les colonies portugaises,
»eur passe, Ieur avenir. 8. Paris, 1872.
Oliveira Martins (J. P.), O Brasil e as colonias portuguezas. Lisbon, 1888.
Portugal em Africa. Porto, 1891.
- — — Portugal nos mares. Lisbon, 1889.
Monteiro (J. J.), Angola and the River Congo. 2 vols. 8. London, 1875.
Monteiro (Rose), Delagoa Bay, its Natives and Natural History. 8. London, 1891.
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AREA AND POPULATION
845
of those electors having property yielding annually at least 80Z. ; the second,
of those persons, whose income from property is from 32 J. to SOL per annum.
Both Senators and Deputies receive 25 lei (francs) for each day of actual
attendance, besides free railway passes and expenses for posting. The
King has a suspensive veto over all laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies
and the Senate. The executive is vested in a council of eight ministers, and
a President who is Prime Minister.
Local Government.
For purposes of local government "Wallachia is divided into seventeen,
Moldavia into thirteen, and Dobrogea into two districts, each of which has a
prefect, a receiver of taxes, and a civil tribunal. (The chief difference between
Dobrogea and the other districts is that it does not elect senators or deputies. )
In Roumania there are 227 arrondissements (plasi) and 2,979 communes, 71
urban and 2,908 rural. The appellations 'urban' and 'rural* do not
depend on the number of inhabitants, but are given by law.
Area and Population.
The area and population of Roumania are only known by estimates.
The total actual area is 48,307 square miles, and the estimated popula-
tion (1893), including Dobruja, is 5,800,000. A census will be taken in
1895. The Roumanian is a Latin dialect, with many Slavonic words ; it was
introduced by the Roman colonists who settled in Dacia in the time of Trajan.
The people themselves, though of mixed origin, may now be regarded as
homogeneous. Roumanians are spread extensively in the neighbouring
countries — Transylvania, Hungary, Servia, Bulgaria ; their total number
probably reaches 9 millions. Included in the population of Roumania Proper
are 4J million Roumanians, about 300,000 Jews, 200,000 Gipsies, 50,000
Bulgarians, 20,000 Germans, 37,400 Austrians, 20,000 Greeks, 15,000 Arme-
nians, 2,000 French, 1,500 Magyars, 1,000 English, besides about 3,000
Italians, Turks, Poles, Tartars, &c. The total population of the Dobruja
is estimated at 200,000, comprising about 77,000 Roumanians, 30,000 Bul-
garians, 30,000 Turks, 10,000 Lipovani (Russian heretics), 9,000 Greeks, 3,000
Germans, and 4,000 Jews, in 1889-90.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages, with surplus of births
over deaths, was as follows (including the Dobruja) in each of the last five
years : —
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1 1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
219,658
213,222
204,667
228,283
211,407
158,674
142,869
150,786
162,287
187,543
38,336
41,122
38,644
44,267
41,276
60,984
70,353
53,881
65,996
23,864
Not included in the births and deaths are the still-born, over 1 per
cent, of the total births. The illegitimate births are (1890) about 6 per cent,
of the total number.
According to the results of an inquiry for fiscal purposes in 1890, the
population of the principal towns was as follows : — Bucharest, the capital and
seat of Government, 194,633; Jassy, 72,892; Galatz, 59,143; Braila,
46,715 ; Botosani, 31,024 ; Ploesti, 34,474 ; Craiova, 30,081 ; Berlad,
20,008 ; Focsani, 17,039. These numbers, however, are regarded as too low.
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846
ROUMANIA
Religion.
Of the total population of Roumania Proper 4,529,000 belong to the
Orthodox Greek Church, 114,200 are Roman Catholics, 13,800 Protestants,
8,000 Armenians, 6,000 Lipovani (Russian heretics), 300,000 Jews, 2,000
Mahometans. The government of the Greek Church rests with two arch-
bishops, the first of them styled the Primate of Roumania, and the second
the Archbishop of Moldavia. There are, besides, six bishops of the National
Church, and one Roman Catholic bishop. •*•
Instruction.
Education is free and compulsory 'wherever there are schools,' but is still
in a very backward condition. In 1891 there were 3,566 primary schools,
with 220,683 pupils, or 3*97 per cent, of the total population (in Great
Britain the proportion is 12*8 per cent). There are 8 normal schools, with
770 pupils ; 52 high schools, with 10,227 pupils ; 2 universities (Bucharest
and Jassy), with faculties in law, philosophy, science, and medicine, and
having about 110 professors and teachers and 900 students.
Finance.
The chief sources of revenue consist in direct and indirect taxes, and the
profits derived from the extensive State domains and valuable salt-mines, and
from the salt and tobacco monopolies. A tax, at the rate of 6 lei (4*. 9d.) per
head, called 'Contribution for means of Communication,' is, with certain
exceptions, levied on all persons over 21 years of age. There is an income
tax of 6 per cent, on houses, 5 per cent, for property farmed by a resident
owner, 6 per cent, for property let by an owner resident in Roumania, and 12
per cent, for estates whose owners reside abroad. The following table shows the
revenue and expenditure for the last five years ending March 31 (old style) : —
-
1887-8
1888-9
1889-90 | 1890-91
1891-92
Revenue
Expenditure
Lei
139,569,639
140,201,995
Lei
159,076,892
161,173,463
Lei' ' Lei
159,849,907|170,353,796
158,770,924162,116,869
Lei
180,147,096
168,404,894
The estimate of revenue for 1892-93 was 175,713,000 lei, and expenditure
179,600,000 lei ; for 1893-94, revenue and expenditure 188,379,600 lei.
The following are the budget estimates for 1894-95 : —
Revenue.
EXPENDITTJBB.
Lei
Lei
Direct taxes .
. 31,995,000
Public Debt .
69,896,176
Indirect ,, .
. 56,600,000
Council of Ministers
66,500
State monopolies .
48,700,000
Ministries : —
Ministries : —
War.
41,354,072
Agriculture, &c.
. 28,862,600
Finance .
25,424,325
Public Works .
. 14,007,000
Worship and Public
Interior .
9,454,000
Instruction .
25,119,227
Finance .
2,765,000
Interior .
19,370,693
War .
1,389,000
Public Works .
6,317,200
Foreign Affairs .
218,100
Justice
5,787,830
Justice
2,500
Agriculture, &c.
5,645,936
Various
. 8,316,065
Foreign Affairs .
Fund for supplementary
1,681,589
credit
1,645,717
Total .
202,309,265
Total.
202,309,265
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FINANCE — DEFENCE 84*7
The public debt of Roumania amounted on April 1, 1893, to 1,032,519,125
lei. Of the total amount more than half has been contracted for public
works, mainly railways. The remainder has been contracted to cover deficits,
reduce unfunded debt, and pay off peasant freeholds.
Defence.
The entire military strength of Roumania consists of the Active Army,
divided into Permanent and Territorial, each with its reserve ; the Militia and
the levte en masse. Every Roumanian from his 21st to his 46th year is liable
to military service. He must enter (as decided by lot) either the permanent
army for 3 years of active service, the territorial infantry for 5 years of active
service, or the territorial cavalry for 4 years of active service, and afterwards,
till the age of 30, serve in the reserve of the army to which he belongs.
Every retired officer must serve in the reserve till the age of 37. From their
30th to their 36th year conscripts and all young men who have not been
conscripts, belong to the militia, and from the 36th to the 46th year to the
Gloata or levie en masse. The army is also kept up to its strength by the
enlistment of volunteers and the re-enlistment of men in the reserve.
According to the organisation in force since 1891, the army consists of
Infantry : 4 battalions of rifles or chasseurs ; 33 regiments of infantry
(Dorobantzi), of 3 battalions each, 1 permanent, 2 territorial, and 1 platoon
not in the ranks ; Cavalry : 3 regiments of hussars (Roshiori) ; 12 regiments
of light cavalry (Calarashi), of which 4 consist of 4 permanent squadrons and
1 territorial, and 8 consist of 1 permanent squadron and 3 territorial (there
are, besides, 2 territorial squadrons in Dobrogea) ; Gendarmerie : 2 companies
on foot, and 3 squadrons mounted ; Artillery : 12 regiments of field artillery,
with 60 batteries and 1 regiment of siege artillery ; Engineers : 2 regiments.
The Administrative Troops consist of 40 officers, 3 companies of artificers,
and 4 squadrons of train. The Hospital Service has 80 officers, 18 employes,
and 4 companies. The strength of the permanent army in time of peace is
2,936 officers, 335 employes, 48,500 men, 13,200 horses, and 600 guns. The
Territorial Army consists of 81,843 men and 4,401 horses; The Militia has
33 regiments of infantry. The strength of the lev6e en masse is not definitely
fixed. The infantry is armed with the Peabody-Martini rifle, model 1879 ;
but the Government has recently adopted the Mannlicher rifle, model 1891.
For army purposes Roumania is divided into 4 districts, to each of which
is attached a corps d'armee ; each corps d'armee is in 2 divisions, and each
division is in 2 brigades. In Dobrogea there is«another corps d'armee.
Roumania has in the navy the Elisabeta, launched at Elswick in 1887,
a shot-protected cruiser of 1,320 tons displacement and 4,900 horse-power
3£-inch armour at the belt, four 6-inch and 8 machine guns ; the Mircea,
training ship, a composite brig of 350 tons. There are besides 4 other small
vessels, 2 torpedo-boats, 3 gunboats, each of 45 tons, and three others building
at Blackwall. There are 46 officers and 1,480 sailors, and a naval reserve of
200 men.
Production and Industry.
Of the total population of Roumania 70 per cent, are employed in agri-
culture. There are 654,000 heads of families who are freehold proprietors
Of the total area 68 per cent is productive, and 29 per cent, under culture,
21 per cent, under grass, and 16 '9 per cent, under forest. In the year
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SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS
849
The following table, taken from the Board of Trade Returns, shows the
value of the imports into Great Britain from Roumania, and of the exports
from Great Britain to Roumania, for five years : —
Imports into Great Britain 3, 569,206
Exports to Roumania . 989,594
1889
3,204,776
1,258,359
1890
£
4,447,159
1,270,271
1891
£
5,038,091
1,676,964
£
2,973,79
1,332,590
The principal British exports to Roumania are cotton goods and yarn,
640,207*. in 1890 ; 867,5192. in 1891 ; 703,082Z. in 1892 ; woollens, 57,5702.
in 1890 ; 122,419Z. in 1891 ; 86,8862. in 1892 ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
143,7072. in 1889 ; 165,2952. in 1890 ; 117,5862. in 1891 ; 154,2802. in 1892 ;
coals, 89,4342. in 1889 ; 145,5082. in 1890 ; 180,5992. in 1891; 167,6812. in
1892. The leading imports into Great Britain from Roumania are barley,
544,4482. in 1890 ; 903,5732. in 1891 ; 414,2762. in 1892 ; maize, 2,032,0282.
in 1890 ; 3,569,8592. in 1891; 2,181,8972. in 1892 ; and wheat 1,075,5572. in
1889 ; 1,815,7702. in 1890 ; 468,2632. in 1891; and 248,1052. in 1892.
Shipping and Communications.
The total number of vessels that entered the ports of Roumania in 1892
was 25,654 of 5,727,517 tons, and the number that cleared was 25,170 of
5,688,193 tons. In 1893 the merchant navy of Roumania consisted of 265
vessels of 50,700 tons, including 30 steamers of 1,900 tons.
The navigation of the Danube is carried on under regulations agreed to at
the Berlin Conference of 1878, and subsequently modified at a conference of
the delegates of the leading Powers (Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia,
France, Italy, and Turkey), which met in London in 1883. From its mouths
to the Iron Gates it is regarded as an international highway, the interests
of the several States being specially provided for. The navigation, except
that of the northern branch, is under the superintendence of a mixed com-
mission of one delegate each for Austria, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Servia,
with a delegate appointed for six months by the signatory Powers in turn.
The commission has its seat at Giurgevo, in Roumania. The arrangement
lasts for 21 years from April 1883. The total tonnage trading with the
Danube in 1881 was 793,454 tons, of which 498,994 tons were British. In
1892, 1,532 vessels of 1,427,087 tons cleared from the Danube at Sulina. Of
these, 638 of 866,758 tons were British ; 224 of 199,491 tons Greek ; 97 of
82,804 tons Austrian ; 340 of 76,075 tons Turkish.
In 1893 Roumania had 1,598 miles of State railway, besides 340 under
construction and 680 conceded. The State has now the control and working
of all the railways in Roumania.
In 1892 there were 352 post-offices, through which there passed 15,645,630
letters, 4,787,565 post-cards, 7,960,771 papers, specimens, &c, and parcels.
In 1892 there were 3,524 miles of telegraph lines, and 8,000 miles of wire, on
which 1,590,525 messages were forwarded. The number of offices was 411.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The decimal system was introduced into Roumania in 1876, the unit of
the monetary system being the leu, equivalent to the franc. The Russian
silver rouble is legal tender for 4 lei, and the Russian half-imperial for
3 I
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851
RUSSIA.
(Empire of All the Russias.)
Reigning Emperor.
Alexander III., Emperor of All the Russias, born February
26 (March 10 new style), 1845, the eldest son of Emperor
Alexander II. and of Princess Maria, daughter of the late Grand-
duke of Hesse-Darmstadt ; ascended the throne at the death of his
father (by assassination) March 1 (March 13, new style), 1881, _
and was crowned at Moscow May *27, 1883 ; married November 9,
1866, to Maria Dagmar, born November 26, 1847, daughter of
King Christian IX. of Denmark.
Children of the Emperor.
I. Grand-duke Nicholas, heir-apparent, born May 6 (May 18),
1868.
n. Grand-duke George, born April 27 (May 9), 1871.
III. Grand-duchess Xenia, born March 25 (April 6), 1875.
IV. Grand-duke Michael, born November 22 (December 4),
1878.
V. Grand-duchess Olga, born June 1 (June 13), 1882.
Brothers and Sister of the Emperor.
I. Grand-duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April 22), 1847;
married August 16 (August 28), 1874, to Princess Marie of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Offspring of the union are three sons
and one daughter: — 1. Cyril, born September 30 (October 12),
1876. 2. Boris, born November 12 (November 24), 1877. 3.
Andreas, born May 2 (May 14), 1879. 4. Helene, born January
17 (January 29), 1882.
II. Grand-duke Alexis, high admiral, born January 2 (January
14), 1850.
III. Grand-duchess Maria, born October 5 (October 17), 1853 ;
married January 21, 1874, to the Duke of Edinburgh, son of
Queen Victoria of Great Britain.
IV. Grand-duke Sergius, born April 29 (May 11), 1857;
married June 3 (June 15), 1884, to Princess Elizabeth of Hesse
Darmstadt.
3 i 2
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REIGNING EMPEROR — CONSTITUTION
853
who became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the
grandfather of a third, Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German
Srincesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the reigning
onses of Wiirttemberg, Baden, and Prussia.
The emperor is in possession of the revenue from the Crown domains, con-
sisting of more than a million of square miles of cultivated land and forests,
besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and producing a vast revenue, the
actual amount of which is, however, unknown, as no reference to the subject
is made in the budgets or finance accounts, the Crown domains being con-
sidered the private property of the imperial family.
The following have been the Tsars and Emi>erors of Russia, from the time
of election of Michael Romanof. Tsar Peter I. was the first ruler who adopted,
in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.
House of Romanof-
-Male Line.
Ivan VI.
1740
Michael .
1613 ,
Elizabeth
1741
Alexei .
Feodor .
1040
1676 '
House of Romanof -Holstein.
Ivan and Peter I
1682
Peter III.
1762
Peter I. .
1689
Catherine II. .
1762
Catherine I. .
1725
Paul
1796
Peter II.
1727
Alexander I. .
1801
Nicholas I.
1825
House of Romanof—
Female Line.
Alexander II.
1855
Anne
1730
Alexander III.
1881
Constitution and Government.
The government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in
the emperor, whose will alone is law. There are, however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the present reigning
house have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of
the Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular
descent, by the right of primogeniture, with preference of male
oyer female heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued
by Peter I., February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to
select his successor to the throne from among the members of the
imperial family, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture.
Another fundamental law of the realm proclaimed by Peter I. is
that every sovereign of Russia, with his consort and children,
must be a member of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes
and princesses of the imperial house, according to a decree of
Alexander I., must obtain the consent of the emperor to any
marriage they may contract ; otherwise the issue of such union
cannot inherit the throne. By an ancient law of Russia, the
heir-apparent is held to be of age at the end of the sixteenth
year, and the other members of the reigning family with the
completed twentieth year.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 855
of Georgia (Caucasus), and of Poland (Kholni and Warsaw), and
several bishops sitting in turn. All its decisions run in the
emperor's name, and have no force till approved by him. The
President of the Holy Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod and
St. Petersburg.
The fourth board of government is the Committee of Ministers.
It consists of all the ministers, who are —
1. The Ministry of the Imperial House and Imperial Domains. — General
Count Forontzoff-Dashkoff, aide-de-camp of the Emperor ; appointed Minister
of the Imperial House in succession to Count Alexander Alderberg, March
29, 1881.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — State's Secretary, Actual Privy
Councillor Nicolas Carlovich De Giers ; appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs
April 1882.
3. The Ministry of War. — General Vannovski, aide-de-camp of the
Emperor ; appointed Minister of War March 29, 1881.
4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Vice- Admiral Tchikhatchofft appointed
December 1888.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — Actual Privy Councillor Durnovo, ap-
pointed May 18, 1889.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Actual Privy Councillor Delyanoff,
appointed 1882.
7. The Ministry of Finance. — Actual Privy Councillor Wittct appointed 1892.
8. The Ministry of Justice. — Privy Councillor N. V. Muravioff, ap-
pointed 1893.
9. The Ministry of Agriculture and State's Domains. — Privy Councillor
Yermoloff, appointed 1893.
10. The Ministry of Public Works and Railways. — Privy Councillor
Krivoshein, appointed 1892.
11. The Department of General Control. — Actual Privy Councillor Filipoff,
appointed Comptroller-General 1889.
12. The Procurator-General of the Holy Synod. — K. P. Pobyedonostseff.
Besides the Ministers, four Grand Dukes, and six functionaries, chiefly
ex-ministers, form part of the Committee, of which Actual Privy Councillor
Bunge is President.
Minister and State Secretary for Finland. — General-Lieutenant VonDaehn.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers who supply
their place on certain occasions. They all communicate directly with the
sovereign.
The emperor has two Private Cabinets, one of which is occupied with
charitable affairs, and the other is devoted to public instruction of girls and to
the administration of the institutions established by the late Empress Maria,
mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, there is the Imperial Head-
Quarters (Glavnaya Kvartira), and a Cabinet, which is entrusted also with
the reception of petitions presented to the emperor, formerly received by a
special Court of Requests (abolished in 1884). According to a law of May
19, 1888, a special Imperial Cabinet having four sections (Administrative,
Economical, Agricultural and Manufacturing, and Legislative) has been created,
instead of the same departments in the Ministry of Imperial Household.
Local Government.
The Empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are at present in European Russia (in-
cluding Poland and Finland) 68 governments, with 635 districts {uyezd),
2 otdyeU, and 1 okrug, also considered as separate governments. Some of
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 857
district, and further to the Senate. In 1889 an important change was made
in the above organisation. Justices of Peace have been replaced in twenty
provinces of Central Russia by Chiefs of the District (uyezdnyi nachalnik),
nominated by the administration from among candidates taken from the
nobility, recommended by the nobility, and endowed with wide disciplinary
powers against the peasants ; in the cities, except St. Petersburg, Moscow, ana
Odessa, special 'town magistrates' {gorodskoi sudia), nominated in the>same
way, are to take the place of the former Justices of Peace. As to the peasants'
tribunals (volostnoi sud), they are placed in direct subjection to the ' Chiefs of
the Districts.' The same measure has been extended in 1890 and 1891 over
all the provinces endowed with provincial institutions (zemstvos).
The administration of the economical affairs of the district and province
are, to some extent, in the hands of zemstvos, or the district and provincial
assemblies, composed of representatives elected by the peasantry, the house-
holders in the towns, and the landed proprietors. Their executive power is
entrusted to provincial and district ' Upravas.' The president of the nobility
of the district, or of the province, presides ex officio over the zemstvos of the
district, or of the province. Important modifications, increasing the powers
of noble landowners in the affairs of the zemstvos, reducing the numbers of
representatives, and limiting their powers, were introduced in 1890.
The towns and cities have municipal institutions of their own, organised
on nearly the same principles as the zemstvos. All house-owners are divided
into three classes, each of which represents an equal amount of real property,
and each class elects an equal number of representatives to the Dumas ; the
latter elect their executive the Uprava.
During the years 1883-86 the institutions of the zemstvo were in force in
34 provinces (361 districts) of European Russia. The number of electors
was : 40,172 landowners, 48,091 urban population, and 196,773 peasants.
As to the number of votes given to the above electors, it appears that 64 per
cent, of all votes belong to peasants, 12 per cent, to nobles, 10 percent, to
merchants, 5 per cent, to the clergy, and 4 per cent, to artisans. Of the
13,196 elected members of the Assemblies of the zemstvos, 35 per cent,
belonged to the nobility, 15 per cent, to the class of the ' merchants,' and 38
per cent, to the peasantry. The Executives of the zemstvos (the upravas) have
1,263 members, out of wnom two- thirds are peasants in East Russia, while in
Middle Russia from two-thirds to three-quarters of the members are nobles.
The 34 provincial executives have 137 members (98 nobles, 21 officials,
9 merchants, 3 artisans, and 2 peasants).
Finland l. — The Grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia
by the treaty of Frederickshamn, September 17, 1809, has preserved, by
special grant of Alexander I. in 1810 (renewed by his successors), some
remains of its ancient Constitution, dating from the year 1772, reformed in
1789, and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882. This charter provides for a
national parliament, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the
burghers, and the peasants, convoked by the 'Grand-duke,' Emperor of
Russia, for four months. They discuss the schemes of laws proposed by the
emperor, who has the right of veto. The unanimous assent of all four
chambers is necessary for making changes in the Constitution and for levying
new taxes. The national representatives have been regularly convoked, since
1861, every four or five years ; the last time they met was in 1888. The
schemes of laws are elaborated by the 'State's Secretariat of Finland,'
which sits at St. Petersburg, and consists of the State Secretary and four
members nominated by the Crown (two of them being proposed by the
Senate). The Senate, which sits at Helsingfors, under the presidency of the
i For farther details on Finland, see end of Rwria.
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858
RUSSIA
Governor-General, is nominated by the Crown. It is the superior adminis-
trative power in Finland, and consists of two departments, Justice and
Finance, which have under them the administration of posts, railways, canals,
custom-houses, hygiene, and the tribunals. The military department is under
the Russian Ministry of War, and the Foreign Affairs under the Russian
Chancellor Finland has its own money and system of custom-houses.
Recent laws have, however, altered this to some extent. (See Finland.)
Poland. — Poland, which had a Constitution of its own from 1815 to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date of the
last remnant of its administrative independence. Finally, by ukase of the
Emperor, dated Feb. 23, 1868, the government of Poland was absolutely
incorporated with that of Russia.
Baltic Provinces, — The Baltic Provinces have some institutions for self-
government of their own. They have, however, been gradually curtailed,
and the privileges of the provinces in jxriice and school matters, chiefly
vested in the nobility, have been taken away by a law of June 21, 1888, the
judicial and police rights of the landlords having been transferred to
functionaries nominated by the State. By a law of July 21, 1889, the last
vestiges of manorial justice and of tribunals under the German-speaking
nobility have been abolished, but the Law of Justice of 1864, which is in
force in Russia, has been but partially applied to the provinces, so as to
maintain the administration of justice under the central Government. The
Russian language has been rendered obligatory in the official correspondence
of all parish, municipal, and provincial administration ; so also in the Dorpat
University, which was deprived in December 1889 of its privileges of self-
government, and the gymnasia in 1890. In April, 1893, new Committees for
peasants' affairs were introduced, with the same powers as in Russian Govern-
ments.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The Russian Empire comprises one-seventh of the land-surface
of the globe, and covers, with internal waters, an area of 8,644,100
English square miles. There has been no general census of /the
population since 1859, but various enumerations, chiefly made by
the statistical committees, furnish an approximately correct return
of the people. According to these, the total population of the
Empire numbered in 1887 113,354,649 inhabitants.
The rapidity of growth of the population of the Empire (its
acquisitions being included in the figures of population) is seen
from the following, the years being census years : —
\
Population
14,000.000
16,000,000
19,000,000
28,000,000
36,000,000
Year
1812
1815
1835
1851
1859
Population
41,000,000
45,000,000
60,000,000
68,000,000
74,000,000
Since that period the population of the Empire is estimated as
follows : —
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AREA AND POPULATION
859
Years
European
Russia
Poland
1867
1870-721
1882-83 a
1886
Average^
Yearly )
Increase 1
63,658,934
65,704,559
77,879,521
85,282,101
1,081,158
5,705,607
6,026,421
7,083,475
8,319,797
130,710
Finland
1,794,911
1,832,138
2,142,093
2,232,378
Caucasus
4,583,640
4,898,832
6,534,853
7,458,151
I
21,873 , 143,725 3j 140,
Central
Asia
2,626,246
4,566,096
5,237,354
5,532,021
Siberia
3,327,627
3,428,867
4,093,535
4,493,667
Total
81,696,965
86,451,413
102,970,831
113,317,115
1,581,057
1 Finland, 1872 ; Caucasus, 1871 ; Russia, Poland, Siberia, and Central Asia, 1870.
3 Finland, 1883 ; Caucasus, 1883 ; Russia, Poland, Siberia, and Central Asia, 1882.
a Increased by annexations and better registration.
The following table exhibits the details of official estimates —
referring to the year 1890 — concerning the area and population of
the various political and geographical divisions of the Empire of
Russia (Statistical Committee's Estimates in 1893 :) —
Province
1. European
Russia (1890). -
Archangelsk
(1892)
Astrakhan .
Bessarabia .
Chernigoff .
Courland .
Don, Region of .
Ekaterinoslaf
Bsthonia .
Grodno (1892) .
Kaluga
Kazan (1891) .
Kieff .
Kostroma .
Kovno
Kursk (1891)
Kharkoff(1892) .
Kherson
Livonia
Minsk (1892)
Moghilev .
Moscow
N\jni-Novgorod
Novgorod .
Olonetz
Orel (1893) .
Orenburg .
Penza
Perm .
Podolia
Poltava
Pskoff
Ryazan
St. Petersburg .
I Samara . .
Popula- I "33 ".
tion § §f
1 331,505
91,327
17,619
20,233
10,535
61,886
26,148
7,818
14,931
11,942
24,601
19,691
32,702
15,692
17,937
21,041
27,523
18,158
35,293
18,551
12,859
19,797
47,236
57,439
18,042
73,816
14,997
128,211
16,224
19,265 ! 2,8
17,069 1,0
16,255 "
20,760
58,321
1,1
2,:
<
2,(
1,!
1,5
2,2
3,1
1,8
1,5
2,(3
2,5
2,2
1,2
1,8
1,3
2,2
1,5
1,2
3
2,1
1,3
1,5
2,8
2,6
1,411
""0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
3
7
1
6
95
112
69
33
76 |. Vi
50
101
104
90
1,9
1,61
2,6
)| 159
) 43
)l 101
; | 148
) 121
) 81
)
51
75
171
79
26
6
119
19
107
21
161
150
59
119
81
46
VI
i Vc
1 Vc
j Vc
Vy
! Ya
j Sej
I To
]
' Ka
I Ki'
Lo
■ Lu
Pic
Pl<
Ra
Sie
J Su1
Wa
Tol
1 8,256,562, exclusive of military, in 1890.
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860
RUSSIA
Province
I 3. Grand-Duchy
of Finland :—
Abo-Rjorneborg
Kuopio
Nyland
St. Michel .
Tavastehus
Uleaborg .
Viborg
Vasa .
Finland (1890)
Total European
Russia .
4. Russia in Asia:
Kuban (1889) .
Stavropol .
Terek (1891)
Northern Cau-
casia
Baku (1886-89) .
Daghestan (1890)
Elizabethpol(1890)
Erivan (1886)
I Kara (1890).
I Kutais (1886-90)
Tiflis (1886)
I Zakataly (1890)
Trans-Caucasia .
Caucasus .
English
square
miles
9,385
16,499
4,586
8,819
8,334
63,971
16,627
16,084
Popula-
tion
144,255
2,095,504
89,277
23,398
26,822
99,531,929
89,497
15,095
11,332
16,721
10,075
7,808
13,968
15,806
1,541
395,474
44
290,654
21
289,456
56
180,920
fl7
257,851
37
246,993
4
351,600
39
417,192
28
2,380,140
1,408,718
672,358
779,171
2,860,247
777,556
609,380
793,969
670,400
212,000
998,620
875,181
74,449
91,846 5,011,555
19
47
32
180,843 | 7,871,802 ; 46
I
! Akmolinsk(1889) I 229,609
Semipalatinsk . 1 184,631
Turgai (1889) . ' 176,219
! Uralsk (1889) . I 139,168
■ Lake Aral . . j 26,166
500,180
576,578
364,660
559,552
Kirghiz Steppe . ' 755,793 ' 2,000,970
Province
Area :
English
square
miles
Samarcand . 26,627
Ferganah . 85,654
Semirechensk . '152,280
Syr-Daria . 194,858
Turkestan
Trans-Caspian
Caspian Sea .
Total, Central
Asian dominions
Tobolsk (1889)
Tomsk (1889) .
Western Siberia
Irkutsk .
Transbaikalia .
Yakutsk (1892)
Yeniseisk
Eastern Siberia
Amur (1891) .
409,414
214,237
169,881
1,548,825
539,659
831,159
870,818
287,061
236,868
1,538,897
987,186
3,044,512
172,848
Primorskaya . 715,982
Amur Region,
about .
Sakhalin (1890)
Total, Siberia
Total, Asiatic
dominions .
Popula-
tion
680,135 25
775,600 22
671,878! 4
1,214,300] 6
3,341,913 S
276,709 j 1
5,619,592 3
1,313,400 2
1,299,729 3
2,623,129) 3
421,187' 1
545,388 2
280,200 -2
458,572 -4
1,705, 297 1 *;»
_ . i __ _
87,705 *3
102,786- '1
29,336
190,491 -1
19,644* f*
4,833,496 4,538,561 "9
6,564,778 17,694,981 9
, Grand Total, ,
! Russian Empire 8,660,282 117,561,874 13
I
The total population of the Empire must bo now (January 1893) no less
than 126,000,000. J
The internal waters (lakes and estuaries) occupy the following areas, in
square miles :— In European Russia, 25,804 ; in Finland, 18,471 Tin Siberia,
18,863 ; and in Central Asia, 19,855. The Seas of Azov, Caspian, and Lake
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AREA AND POPULATION
861
Aral cover an aggregate surface of 210,025 square miles. The superficies of
all Russian provinces have been carefully revised by General Strelbitzky ; his
figures are given in the above for Russia in Asia ; those for European Russia
very slightly differ from the above, the total area of the Russian provinces of
European Russia, with all islands and deltas, being now given at 1,902,227
English square miles.
For the ethnical elements of the population,, see Year-book 1885, p. 416.
The populations of the Caucasus appear as follows, according to recent
investigations : —
" " ' " Jews . . 50,992
Kartvelians : —
Georgians . 310,499
Mingrelians . 200,092
Imeretes . 373,141
Pshaves, Khev-
zurs . . 20,079
Western Moun- Tartars . 126,000
taineers . 188,083 Kalmuks . 10,707
1,915,614
8,910
23,613
42,562
127,430
Russians
Poles .
Germans
Greeks
Iranians :
Ossets
Persians, Tatis,
Talyshins 132,792
Kurds . 10,097
Armenians . 803,696
The chief nationalities of Transcaucasia were as follows in 1886-90 : —
Eastern Moun
taineers .
Tartars
Turks
Turcomans,
&c.
Northern
Tartars .
Kalmuks .
707,619
1,027,828
75,980
44,046
Russians
Greeks .
Kurds .
Ossets .
Armenians
Jews
Georgians
140,095
57,156
97,499
76,130
965,167
33,663
400,487
Imeretes
Gurians
Ajares .
Mingrelians
Aphasians
Svanetes
419,967
74,171
59,495
214,601
29,260
14,035
Samurzakanes
Turcomans
Turks.
Tartars
Tatis .
Talyshins
27,247
10,174
75,863
1,107,232
124,693
88,449
The remaining nationalities number less than 10,000 each : —
According to a recent partial census, the Jews number 2,843,364 in the
western and south-western provinces of Russia (2,261,863 in towns), that is
11 '3 per cent, of the aggregate population ; 77,275 in the three townships of
Odessa (73,389, i.e. 35*1 per cent, of population), Kertch, and Sebastopol ;
and 431,800 in five governments only of Poland out of ten (11 per cent, of
population). Their aggregate number in Russia would thus exceed 3£ millions.
By a law of March 28, 1892, serfdom, which continued to exist among the
Kalmucks, has been abolished. The assets of taxes have been given to the
assemblies of the Uluses, and a certain retribution is to be paid by the State
to the former serf owners.
II. Movement op the Population.
The statistics of marriages, births, and deaths for 1890, if not otherwise
mentioned, appear as follows : —
1
1
Marriages
Births
1,580,305
77,860
209,242
306,791
130,780
Birth-
rate
Deaths
Death-
rate
34 2
19-8
31*0
27.2
Surplas
, Russia in Europe
and Poland .
Finland .
Siberia .
1 Caucasus.
Central Asia
I (incomplete) .
I
867.4761
16,099
23,481!
56,550i
8,540!
46*8
33 8
45-5
38-8
3,347,356
46,479
142,871
215,408
85,046
1,232,949
31,3812
66,371
91,383
45,734
J Total .
j 972,146
5,304,978
—
3,887,160
—
1,467,818
i In 1889.
a Immigrated, 62,272; emigrated, 62,248.
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The average surplus for the years 1884-1887 was : 1,663,327 in European
Russia, 157,979 in Poland, and 38,130 in Finland, giving thus a yearly
surplus of more than 2,000,000 for the Empire.
The maximum mortality was in Perm (45), Tobolsk and Orenburg (44),
Stavropol (above 40) ; and the minimum in Baku, Elisabethpol, Erivan,
Vitebsk (16), and Courland (18). The maximum births were in Kuban (63),
Orenburg, Samara, and Tobolsk (60 to 54), while in several provinces it was
more than 50 in the thousand.
It is estimated that over 25 per cent, of all new-born children die before
reaching the age of one year, and over 40 per cent, before reaching five years.
According to official statistics there was in Russia an excess of emigration
over immigration in the case of Russians of 1,146,052 in 33 years (1856-1888),
and a surplus of immigration of 2,304,717 foreigners during the same time.
Emigration is on the increase. Of late the Russians, especially Jews, con-
tributed a large part to the flow of emigrants into the United States ; in
Great Britain the Russians numbered in 1881 nearly as many as the French
(15,271, much increased since). During the years 1871-85 8,767,605
foreigners entered Russia, but only 7,525,360 left, showing thus an immigra-
tion of 1,242,245 (563,345 Germans, 447,736 Austrians, 9,395 English, and
nearly 100,000 Persians). The surplus of foreigners who entered Russia
during the years 1886-88 (2,478,430^ over those who left was 278,947, while
the surplus of Russian subjects who left Russia (1,413,018) over those who
returned was 136,129.
The emigration to Siberia can be judged upon by the following numbers of
emigrants carried on board the Obi and Irtysh steamers t —
Years
Persons
Years
Persons
1885
9,678
1889
30,410
1886
. 11,829
1890
. 36,000
1887
. 13,910
1891
60,000
1888
. 26,129
1892
. 100,000
>
III. Pbincipal Towns.
The great majority of the population of Russia being agriculturists, they
dwell in villages, and in 1890 the division of population in urban and rural,
as also the division according to sex, in 1888, appeared as follows : —
-
In Towns
In the Country
Males
42,499,324
4,084,393
1,171,541
3,986,705
2,146,411
2,448,085
Females
European Russia
Poland .
Finland .
Caucasus .
Siberia (1885) .
C. Asia (1885) .
10,505,700
1,464,700
235,227
770,114
345,071
651,831
77,648,200
6,791,800
2,144,913
6,788,011
3,968,609
4,675,267
42,895,885
4,223,729
1,208,599
3,502,933
2,167,269
2,879,013
Total
13,972,643
102,016,800
56,336,459
56,877,428
The aggregate number of settlements reached, in 1886, 555,990 in the
Empire ; of these 1,281 (468 in Poland) had municipal institutions. The
following are the populations of the principal towns, mostly according to
estimates of 1890, if not otherwise mentioned : —
Digitized by VjOOQlC
AREA AND POPULATION — BELIGION
863
Russia in Europe —
Towns Population
St. Petersburg
(1892) l 1,035,439
Moscow . . 822,397
Warsaw (1891) 2 490,417
Odessa (1892) . 332,690
Kharkoff . . 194,385
Kieff(1891) . 183,640
Riga . . 180,278
Lodz (1891) . 136,091
Kazan . . 134,359
Saratoff . . 123,410
Kishineff. . 117,108
Vilna(1888) . 109,526
Astrakhan(1891) 104,856
Samara (1891) . 99,856
Berditcheff(1891) 98,824
Yaroslav (with
suburbs) . 81,504
Orel . . . 79,135
Nikolaieff . 76,578
Nijni-Novgorod 73,033
Diinaburg
(Dvinsk) . 72,518
Minsk . . 75,048
Rostoff onDon('88)66, 781
Tula . . 66,111
Orenburg (1891) 62,534
Kherson (1891) 62,244
Byelostok(1891) 60,462
Kovno . . 58,758
Bobruisk . . 58,549
Vitebsk (1888) . 58,495
Elisabethgrad . 58,418
Jitomir . . 57,790
Voronej . . 56,770
Krementchug('91) 54,831
Lublin (1891) . 53,137
Kursk . . 52,657
Reval . . 52,404
Grodno . . 49,788
Ekaterinoslav . 49,660
Towns Population
Taganrog (1888) 48,999
Cronstadt 48,276
Penza 47,701
Moghilev (1891) 45,311
Nyejin . . 44,794
Akkerman . 44,433
Brest-Litovsk . 43,715
Poltava (1891) . 43,563
Tver . . 40,962
Dorpat(1891) . 40,884
Tambov . . 40,876
Kaluga . . 40,610
Tsaritsyn. . 40,130
Nijnetaghilsk . 40,000
Perm . 39,750
Simbirsk . . 39,395
Simpheropol . 38,638
Novotcherkask 38,476
Volsk . . 37,832
Smolensk . 37,741
Kamenets-
Podolsk . 36,630
Elets (1893) . 35,870
Kozlov . 35,053
Izmail . . 35,024
Sebastopol (1885) 33,803
Ivanovo- Vozne-
sensk . . 32,579
Libau (1888) . 32,540
Syzran . . 32,530
Pinsk . . 32,480
Rybinsk . . 32,111
Kostroma . 31,981
Ufa . . 31,628
Serghievsk . 31,413
Balta . . 31,319
Bendery . . 31,300
Kostroma. . 31,196
Gomel (1891) . 30,830
Rjev. . . 30,278
Ryazan . . 30,270
Kertch . . 27,149
Towns Population
Finland (1890)—
Helsingfors . 61,583
Abo . . 28,946
Tammerfors . 19,041
Viborg . . 17,984
Russia in Asia —
Tiflis (1892) .' 145,731
Tashkend (1885) 121,410
Baku (1892) . 103,000
Ekaterinodar . 66,308
Omsk . 54,721
Kokand (1885). 54,043
Irkutsk . . 50,274
Vladikavkaz . 44,207
Tomsk . . 41,856
Ekaterinburg . 36,750
Stavropol (1892) 35,612
Tumen . . 35,369
Khodjent (1885) 34,800
Yeisk . . 34,288
Samarcand 3
(1883) . . 33,117
Namangan . 33,017
Andidjan . 32,683
Shusha . . 32,040
Nukha (1892) . 25,894
Uralsk . . 26,034
Marghelan . 26,080
Maikop (1892) . 24,482
Alexandropol
(1892) . . 24,230
Kutais(1892) . 22,643
Vyernyi . . 22,279
Shemakha (1892) 22,139
Djizak . . 21,800
Tobolsk . . 21,336
Anapa . . 20,614
Elisabethpol
(1892) . . 20,294
Blagoveschensk. 20,212
Batum . . 20,167
Zlatoust (1890) . 20,000
There are 39 more towns with populations of from 20,000 to 30,000 in-
habitants in European Russia.
Religion.
The established religion of the Empire is the Gweco-Russian, officially
called the Orthodox- Catholic Faith. It has its own independent synod, but
maintains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The Holy Synod, the
board of government of the Church, was established with the concurrence of
the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs.
i With suburbs. 2 528,133, including military. 3 Russian part, 10,130
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privilege of proposing candidates; and ne transfers and dismisses persons
from their offices in certain cases. But he has never claimed the right of
deciding theological and dogmatic questions. Practically, the Procurator of
the Holy Synod enjoys wide powers in Church matters.
The points in which the Grseco-Russian Church differs from the Roman
Catholic faith are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its not
enforcing the celibacy of the clergy, and its authorising all individuals to read
and study the Scriptures in the vernacular tongue. With the exception of
the restraints laid on the Jews, all religions may be freely professed in the
Empire. The dissenters have been and are still, however, severely perse-
cuted, though recently some liberty has been extended to those of the
4 United Church.' It is estimated that there are more than 12,000,000
dissenters in Great Russia alone. The affairs of the Roman Catholic Church
are entrusted to a Collegium, and those of the Lutheran Church to a Con-
sistory, both settled at St. Petersburg. Roman Catholics are most numerous
in the former Polish provinces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and
Mohammedans in Eastern and Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost
entirely settled in the towns and larger villages of the western and south-
western provinces.
There are no exact figures as to the numbers of adherents of different creeds
— many dissenters being inscribed under the head of Greek Orthodox ; they
are only estimated as follows : —
Creed | Total
Orthodox Greek Catholics (1888), without army and navy . j 69,808,407
United Church and Armenians I 55,000
Roman Catholics I 8,300,000
Protestants | 2,950,000 i
Jews , 3,000,000
Mohammedans 2,600,000
26,000
I.
In Poland the adherents of different religions appeared as follows in
1890 :—
Roman Catholics 6,214,504
Jews 1,134,268
Protestants 445,013
Greek Church (without the troops) . . . 398,885
Various 478
Unaccounted for, floating population . . . 63,414
Total, exclusive of military . . . 8,256,562
I
The Russian Empire is divided into 62 bishoprics (cparchiya), which,
according to the last published report, for 1890-91 (Off. Mess., Jan. 10 and
11, 1894), were under 3 metropolitans, 12 archbishops, and 47 bishops ; the
latter had under them 38 vicars ; all of them are of the monastic clergy.
There were, in 1891, 50,720 churches both public and private (of which:
cathedrals, 695 ; parish churches, 35,229 ; churches at cemeteries and in private
houses, hospitals, &c, 9,709; yedinovyertsy's, or nonconformists recognised
by Church, 248, and 18,612 chapels), with 52,333 priests and deacons, and
43,615 cantors, &c. No less than 896 churches and 918 chapels were built
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in 1890 and 1891. The monasteries numbered 497, and had 6,865 monks
and 4,512 aspirants, and 228 nunneries with 7,300 nuns and 20, 268 aspirants.
The management of Church affairs is in the hands of 56 "consistoriae."
The adherents of different religions in Northern Caucasia and Trans-
caucasia appeared as follows in 1886-90 : —
1
Northern Caucasia, exclusive
of Stavropol
Transcaucasia
Terek
290,966
26,946
12,968
2,532
6,134
5,587
409,553
631
Kuban
Orthodox Greeks
Raskolniks
Armenian Gregorian
,, Catholics
Roman ,,
Mennonites
Lutherians
Jews
Sunnite Mussulmans
Shiite ,,
Yezides .
Various .
1,252,600
16,177
11,385
6,328
1,105
7,778
5,573
107,544
174
1,481,066
57,105
955,239
30,676
12,445
14,000
37,066
1,544,137
805,746
11,449
7,787
Total .
755,317
1,408,718
4,958,721
Other religions had in 1888 the following numbers of churches and
clergy :—
Churches Priests
Roman Catholic . . 5,156 3,629
Lutherans (excl. Finland) 1,866 605
Armenian . . . 1,275 2,025
Mussulman
Jewish
Karaims .
Churches Priests
9,254 16,914
6,319 5,673
35 35
The Holy Synod has a capital of about 5,000,000/. sterling at its disposal,
and the income of the churches amounted in 1891 to over 13,000,000 roubles,
out of which 7,085,175 were received as donations to churches. The
expenditure of the Synod in 1892 was : 13,995,321 roubles contributed by the
Imperial budget (for schools, 1,737,260 roubles ; Armenian clergy, 14,204
roubles; Catholic clergy, 1,560,340 roubles; Lutheran clergy, 121,282
roubles ; Mussulman clergy, 50,955 roubles), and 6,833,068 roubles con-
tributed by the Synod, chiefly for schools. The total expenditure was
20,788,253 roubles.
Instruction.
Most of the schools in the Empire are under the Ministry of Public In-
struction, and the Empire is divided into 14 educational districts (St. Peters-
burg, Moscow, Kazan, Orenburg, Kharkoff, Odessa, Kieff, Yilna, Warsaw,
Dorpat, Caucasus, Turkestan, West Siberia, and East Siberia). However,
many special schools are under separate Ministries. The total contribution for
education from the various Ministries was 43,884,534 roubles in the budget
for 1893.
Finland has a university of its own (see Finland). Nearly 4,000 students
are either supported by bursaries or dispensed from paying fees.
3 K
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866
RUSSIA
The statistical data relative to education in Russia are extremely incom-
plete, the Caucasian educational district being the only one which publishes
full information. The latest more or less complete data published by the
Ministry of Education are relative to 1887.
The high and middle schools of the Empire (exclusive of Finland) are
given in the subjoined table partly for the year 1891-92 and partly for previous
years : —
Number
Teaching
Staff
Pupils and
Students
Universities (1891) (without Odessa)
Special high schools
Ladies' university colleges (1890)
Theological academies (1890)
Medical academy (1890) .
Military academies (1890).
Agricultural academy
Engineering .
Total high schools (still incomplete)
Normal schools ....
Normal seminaries with practical
schools
Gymnasia and progymnasia
Realschulen
Technical and professional
Theological seminaries
Military and naval schools
Total middle-class schools for boys
Girls' gymnasia and progymnasia
,, institutes ....
9
10
1
4
1
4
1
1
923
190
127
=
13,259
2,096
400
761
764
464
306
238
31
_
19,561
78
822
5,586
239
90
44
54
113
2,815
1,408
1,054
68,682
18,827
4,769
15,983
21,109
618
—
134,956
343
30
t
70,174
7,911
Total middle-class schools for girls
373
— | 78,085
According to other information, the number of schools and scholars
appears as follows in 1891-92 : — •
European Russia
Poland
Caucasus .
Siberia
Turkestan .
Middle Schools Professional
Priiuar)
i
pils
JNcofi ^H* No. of
^P"8 No. of
Pu
'Schools. _ i , .Schools
1 Boys Girls (
Boys
„f , (Schools
Girls
3,670 39,003
32 -
401 —
75' —
15, —
Boys
570,150
Girls
843 I 119,126 76,451 ' 842
54 11,161 4,648 IS
51 ' 9,088 4,«29 19
55 . 3,610 3,791 17
13 j 1,430 1,024 7
82,010
2,390
1,462
849
276
455,167
Total .
1,016 1 144,415 JS9,473 368
36,987
8,832 1 —
-
-
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The ladies* colleges, providing full University education, were closed by
Imperial order in 1887-88. One of them has been reopened at St. Petersburg.
The expenses for the middle schools are contributed by the State Exchequer
to the amount of 25 per cent, of the aggregate expenditure for the gymnasia,
progymnasia, and technical schools, the remainder being made up by fees
(about 30 per cent. ) and by donations of the zemstvos, the municipalities, and
so on. The Cossack schools (gymnasia and primary schools both for boys and
girls) had 117,926 pupils in 1890 ; they are maintained by the separate voiskos,
which, moreover, maintain a number of their pupils in the governmental
schools. The total expenditure of the voiskos for schools was 2,730,314
roubles in 1890. The Church contributed the sum of 1,889,000 roubles in
1889, the costs for the schools under the Holy Synod being paid by either the
Exchequer or the zemstvos and the village communities.
The education in Caucasia appeared as follows, according to the official
report for 1891, issued by the School Administration : — There were 19 lyceums,
gymnasia, and Realschulen, 5 normal schools, 16 lyceums and gymnasia for
girls, with a total of 11,134 pupils (6,605 boys, 4,529 girls) ; 35 town schools
(6,700 pupils), 7 professional and 3 naval schools (696 pupils), 5 schools for
Mountaneers (565 boys) ; 95 private schools, with 3,739 boys, and 1,139
girls ; 905 (44,900 boys, 11,505 girls) primary schools ; 147 Armenian schools ;
434 various schools ; 1,866 Mussulman and Jewish schools.
The statistics of primary education in Russia are as follows for 1887 : —
Ministry of Public Education-
District schools .
Town ....
Primary
Holy Synod —
Boys' schools
Girls' „ . .
Parish „ ....
Schools for indigenes
Various . . . .
Jewish schools —
State . ....
Private and communal
Primary schools under the military .
Cossacks' schools —
For boys
For girls
Total, primary education
No. of Schools
181
442
24,329
181
53
15,471
3,415
35
77
1,165
22
1,280
236
46,880
Boys
13,857
52,217
1,219,663
31,593
Girls
339, 5141
9,474
408,721
52,681
1,526
4,198
17,279
993
52,343
1,451,609
10,325
793
1,063
5,686
43
16,338
383,236
408,721
i Figures for the Dorpat educational district wanting.
The total number of pupils in the schools of the Empire exclusive of
Finland, was estimated in 1887-88 to be 2,472,627 (1,944,057 males, and
527,570 females) ; but these figures are incomplete. It thus appears that only
3 k 2
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868 Russia
2 per cent, of the aggregate population are at school, and in 1888 only 20 per
cent, of the recruits could read and write.
A certain extension has been given of late to schools conducted by the
clergy, the masters of which receive the rights of teaching by lettres d'obe'diencc
of the bishops. They attained the number of 19,058 in 1890, and had about
600,000 pupils. The zemstvos maintained no less than 22,000 schools. In
European Russia there is one primary school for each 2,500 inhabitants
and one for each 3,345 inhabitants in Siberia (1,446 schools, 49,118 pupils).
A scheme of technical schools was elaborated in 1888, and a scheme of
commercial and industrial schools has been introduced since 1889.
By a law, April 24, 1890, the middle schools of the Baltic provinces have
been transformed entirely on the plan of Russian gymnasia.
The Press. — There were published in the Russian Empire (exclusive of
Finland) in 1892 9,588 books, with an aggregate of 30,639,530 copies. Of
these there were in Russian 7,188 works, 24,819,933 copies, the remainder
being in different languages, the relative proportions being as follows in
1889 :— in Polish 723 works, 1,836,088 copies ; Hebrew 474 works, 1,132,192
copies; German 377 works, 744,380 copies; Lettish 203 works, 767,570
copies ; Esthonian 115 works, 544,410 copies.
Periodicals numbered 743 in 1892 (exclusive of Finland), in the following
languages : 589 in Russian, 69 in Polish, 44 in German, 11 in Esthonian, 7 in
Lettish, 9 in French, 5 in Armenian, 2 in Jewish, 3 in Georgian, 1 in Finnish,
2 in Russian, German, and Polish, 1 in Russian, German, and Lettish, 1 in Tartai
and Russian, 1 in Russian and Turkish, and 1 in Russian and French. In
Tiflis, there were 12 periodicals : 4 Russian (7,600 copies), 3 Georgian (1,740
copies), and 5 Armenian (3,850 copies).
Justice and Crime.
The organisation of justice was totally reformed by the law of 1864 ; but
the action of that law has not yet been extended to the governments oi
Olonets, Vologda, Astrakhan, Ufa, and Orenburg, and has been applied but
in a modified form (in 1889) to the Baltic Provinces and the government of
Arkhangelsk. In the above-named governments the Justice of Peace has
been introduced, but the other tribunals remain in the old state. The
report of the Ministry of Justice for the years 1886 and 1887, published
in August 1889, thus embraces only 59 provinces of European Russia,
Poland, and Caucasia (89,601,400 inhabitants), and 64 provinces for justices
of the peace. No juries are allowed in Poland and the Caucasus ; the justices
of peace are nominated by the Government in the provinces which have
no zemstvos. In Poland there are judges of peace in the towns only,
their functions in the villages being performed by Gmina courts, elected by
the inhabitants of the Gmina. Siberia has maintained the tribunals of old';
in the Steppe Provinces there are district judges, while courts of higher
instance are represented by the Justice Department of the provincial
administration.
There were in 1891 2 appeal departments of the Senate, 10 high courts, 85
courts of first instance. There were besides — 1,280 inquiry judges and 1,345
notaries ; 2,126 actual and 3,652 honorary justices of peace. In the unreformed
tribunals there were 604 judges, 129 public prosecutors, and 156 inquiry
judges.
The activity of the various tribunals in 1887, so far as criminal affairs are
concerned, according to the official report, was as follows, the figures for pro-
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secutions, &c, being very incomplete : — Before the courts of justices of the
peace there were 785,871 convictions; before the Gmina courts, 207,009
criminal prosecutions were terminated ; 172,073 before the courts of first
instance; 241 political criminal affairs before the high courts, besides 4,947
appeals ; and 10,796 criminal affairs before the Senate.
A new law, dated June 21, 1889, limited to some extent the functions
of the juries, especially as regards the crimes committed by the representatives
of nobility in their elective functions.
By a law of April 6, 1891, reformed courts as well as chiefs of districts have
been introduced in the provinces of the Kirghize Steppes.
According to the last report of the Chief Administration for Prisons the
Russian Empire had, in 1891, 875 prisons (of which 126 were in Poland), and
the prison population on January 1, 1891, appeared as follows : —
- i
Men
22,149
54,095
14,315
5,764
740
998
98,061
Women
1
Under judgment . . . \
Condemned to imprisonment
,, ,, exile . . . '
Waiting transport to Siberia . '
Kept by order of Administration , ,
Voluntarily following'their parents ,
or husbands
Total
1,607
5,573
1,003
529
23
1,373
10,108
Of these, nearly 1,200 were insane. In the course of 1891, 719,001
persons entered the prisons, and 713,441 left (each prisoner being counted
several times as he is transferred from one prison to another), so that on
January 1, 1892, the prison population numbered 113,729, distributed as fol-
lows : — lock-ups in Russia, 81,785; lock-ups in Poland, 9,476; hard labour
prisons, 6,033 ; correction houses, 10,575 ; depdts, 5,860. The highest figure
attained on a given day in all prisons was 152,064 inmates, exclusive of the
children. For exile to Siberia, 20, 727 persons reached the prison of Tiumen
(whence they are distributed over Siberia), and 9,649 were sent further east.
Of the 16,077 prisoners brought to Tiumen in 1888, 2,000 were hard-labour
convicts, the remainder being — runaways, 1,913 ; condemned to exile by courts,
3,119 ; exiled by order of Administration, 3,205 common law and 636 political
exiles ; women and children following exiles, 5,184. In 1890, 1,349 convicts
and persons sent into exile by order of the Administration (89 women) were con-
veyed to the island of Sakhalin, on board steamers (out of them, 144 women).
The average population of the hard-labour convict prisons was 17,363.
Besides, 746 children were kept in 16 reformatories. In the convict island of
Sakhalin at the end of 1889 there were 6,360 male and 712 female hard-labour
convicts, and 2,830 male and 423 female released convicts ; to these must be
added more than 600 women who followed their husbands, with about 1,500
children. In 1891, the population in Sakhalin attained 5,865 convicts, 6,760
released convicts, and 6,167 free indigenes and settlers, who had nearly 5,000
acres under culture. The actual expenditure for prisons reached in 1890 the
sum of 15,575,105 roubles, of which only 875,000 roubles were obtained
through the work of prisoners and convicts.
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FINANCE
871
been introduced in the disposition of the budget in 1892, and the
' recettes d'ordre* have been abolished in 1891 : —
Actual Ordinary Revenue.
Sources of Revenue
. Taxes:—
A. Direct.
Land and forests .
Trade licences
5 per cent, on capital
B. Indirect.
Spirits
Tobacco
Sugar .
Other excise duties
(naphtha, matches)
Custom duties
Stamp duties
Transfer duties .
Passports, railway
taxes, &c. .
State Monopolies : —
Mining ,
Mint .
Posts .
Telegraphs .
3. State Domains : —
Rent for domains
Sales of „
Crown forests
Crown mines
State railways
Crown capitals and
banking operations
Crown's part in private
railways .
4. Redemption of Land :
Liberated serfs .
Crown peasants .
5. Miscellaneous : —
Railway debts .
Banking operations
Crown debts
Aid from municipal!
ties
Various
6. ' Recettes d'ordre *
2.
1,000
roubles
40,478
31,783
11,608
! 265,126
, 28,127
17,073
9,320
141,310
20,118
j 16,217
31,466
2,560
164
18,359
10,507
!
9,452
691
15,402
7,267
22,330
43,052
49,218
54,557
8,774
20,758
11,510
19,467
2,170
1890
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles
42,810
42,958
32,856
34,339
12,012
11,916
274,920
268,381
28,178
27,768
17,959
21,629
13,777
15,288
138,051
141,939
20,613
21,231
15,985
15,990
22,466
23,882
2,796
3,135
394
802
19,249
19,794
10,296
10,497
10,290
10,194
880
910
17,130
16,734
7,200
8,198
33,425
49 318
—
—
42,415
49,332
49,550
11,391
19,096
14,046
17,028
2,921
Total ordinary revenue . 898,532 927,035
40,967
47,265
38,747
16,231
17,117
16,051
18,663
3,741
1891
1892
1,000
roubles
1,000
roubles
41,962
34,430
12,151
43,561
35,402
12,381
247,522
28,572
20,857
269,046
29,480
27,703
14,865
128,662
25,201
15,096
18,092
130,552
26,665
17,461
21,811
22,416
2,940
225
3,250
522
21,146
11,311
21,892
11,875
12,650
905
16,921
9,258
60,693
13,553
1,109
18,769
9,660
74,408
11,286
22,232
4,636
4,505
34,851
35,930
35,767
41,325
33,362
32,190
19,742
21,407
16,933
9,346
17,156
7,788
1 894,263
970,164
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FINANCE
873
The balance of the total revenue and expenditure for the last live years, in
metallic and paper money, is given as follows in the above-mentioned Con-
troller's Report. The sign ( +) shows an excess of revenue over the expendi-
ture ; the sign ( - ) shows the reverse : —
Comparison of Revenue and Expenditure.
Years
In Gold and Silver
In Paper Money
Balance of Ordinary Revenue and
Roubles
Roubles
Expenditure.
1888
+ 6,859,668
+ 54,294,145
1889
+ 17,993,685
+ 65,310,461
1890
+ 29,738,337
+ 38,994,269
1891
+ 32,015,308
+ 2,463,103
1892
+ 37,450,343
+ 15,223,069
Balance for Five Years ....
+ 124,057,340
+ 176,285,047
Balance of Extraordinary Revenue and
Expenditure.
1888
+ 310,971
- 33,555,469
1889
+ 26,711,755
- 85,189,130
1890
- 18,044,792
+ 4,732,949
1891
-55,881,648
- 92,593,904
1892
+ 58,049,922
-104,535,617 |
Balance for Five Years ....
+ 11,046,248
-311,141,271 1
Total Balance
+ 135,103,588
-134,856,224
The surplus in the ordinary revenue in comparison with the estimates is due
in 1892 to the low estimates of the same. The surplus in the payments of
the liberated serfs attained 4,201,106 roubles ; in the excise duties on spirits
26,475,226, and on sugar 6,528,636 roubles. The famine of the preceding
year involved the Government in an extraordinary expenditure of 162,000,000
roubles for relief only, and no less than 87,474,219 roubles were spent in 1892
for the same purpose, in addition to an outlay of 25,087,568 roubles spent in
new railways and 8,300,000 roubles in public works, such as the deepening of
the ports and the defences at Vheorrostok, Libau, Odessa, Batum, Riga,
Theodosia, Taganrog, and Nikolaieff.
The detailed budget estimates for the years 1893 and 1894 appear as
follows : —
Revenue.
Sources of Revenue
1 1893
I
1894
I. Ordinary revenue :
Direct taxes —
Land and personal
Trade licences
On capital ....
Roubles
|
. , 44,703,249
37,732,431
. | 12,515,000
Roubles
49,450,365
38,863,878
12,952,000
Total direct taxes
94,950,680 101,266,243
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Reimbursement of railways' and other
loans i 72,097,394
Miscellaneous . . . . . • 6,413,565
Total ordinary revenue
II. Extraordinary revenue :
War contributions ....
Perpetual deposits at the Bank of
Russia
Special capitals returning to Treasury .
Railways' debts . .
Total extraordinary revenue
To meet extraordinary expenditure
Total revenue ....
961,222,143
3,536,335
1,200,000
5,937,574
69,868,243
6,218,206
1,004,823,277
3,337,139
1,500,000
14,927,801
10,670,909
19,764,940
68,562,333
59,013,309
1,040,458,385
1,083,601,526
l The custom duties and other revenue in gold are calculated at lr. 70c for the rouble in
gold in 1693 and lr. 00c in 1894; the silver rouble is taken at lr. 19c in 1893, and lr. 00c.
in 1894.
►
The extraordinary expenditure is met by sums disposable at the Treasury,
from the last 3 p.c. loan in gold.
The estimated increase in Tevenue is due, (1) to a new tax on houses in
towns ; (2) to revenue expected from the four railways bought by the State
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in 1893 ; (3) to an increase in the redemption payments of the peasants, due
to a good crop ; and (4) to small foreseen increases in the taxes on trades,
excise on tobacco and sugar, post and telegraphs, and from the Crown
forests.
EXPENDITUBE.
Branches of Expenditure
I. Ordinary expenditure :
1. Public debt-
fa) Interest and capital, State debts
(b) ,, railway obligations
2. Higher institutions of the State
3. Holy Synod
4. Ministry of the Imperial Household
5. „
,, Foreign Affairs
6. „
„ War .
7. „
„ Navy ....
8. „
,, Finances
9. „
,, State Domains
10. „
,, Interior
11. „
,, Public Instruction
12. „
,, Ways & Communications
13. •„
,, Justice
14. State Control
15. Direction of studs ....
Unforeseen
189S
1894
Roubles
.195,102,010
69,223,637
2,115,165
11,887,004
10,560,000
5,289,909
232,937,030
49,892,803
122,572,579
25,458,305
82,352,659
22,411,434
70,800,814
25,310,830
4,466,043
1,310,163
16,000,000
Total ordinary expenditure . 947,690,385
II. Extraordinary expenditure :
1. For railways and ports .
2. Reform of armament
3. Special reserves of food supplies
Total extraordinary expenditure
Total expenditure .
62,161,000
29,607,000
1,000,000
92,768,000
1,040,458,385
Roubles
191,891,866
65,985,218
2,210,451
12,606,924
10,560,000
5,013,198
240,336,411
51,231,393
130,383,267
28,864,096
85,362,817
22,217,935
90,597,046
26,071,909
4,854,548
1,535,871
11,500,000
981,222,950
66,678,576
34,700,000
1,000,000
102,378,576
1,083,601,526
As a whole, the aggregate ordinary expenditure, apart from outlay on public
works, has increased between the years 1877 and 1893 from 587 million roubles
to 1, 105 million roubles, the burden of the public debt having meanwhile in-
creased from 114 millions to 258 millions.
The Public Debt of Russia consists of loans contracted at various periods
from 1798 to 1891 (many of which have been converted), the Polish obliga-
tions of 1844, and Liquidation Certificates of 1831-52, bonds of State rail-
ways, and the paper currency. A detailed statement of the condition of
these debts on January 1, 1893, was given in the Year Book for 1892,
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XVUUU1A
pp. 873-876. On January 1, 1893, they amounted to 2,489,700Z. sterling,
541,502,000 francs, 1,275,399,075 roubles gold, and 3,079,800,785 roubles
paper. The operations of the years 1889-92 are summed up as follows in
Controller's report [Official Messenger, December, 1893, and January, 1894) :—
-
Gold
Silver
Paper
Looms converted :
5J per cent. .
5 per cent.
4£ per cent.
Treasury bonds
Total .
New loans concluded/or
nominal sum of:
4 per cent.
Sums realised, &c.
Cost of conversion
Roubles
704,052,369
121,507,438
Roubles
38,281,000
Roubles
65,174,900
364,599,900
24,000,000
825,559,807
865,939,000
38,281,000
453,774,800
( = 1,817,545,211)
454,000,000
( = 1,839,502,400)
769,171,098
—
—
56,650,010
2,839,502
75,217,590
(=169,037,848)
Reckoning the pound sterling as equal to 6r. 40c. in gold, the rouble in
gold as equal to lr. 60c. in paper money, and the silver rouble as equal to
lr. 12c. in paper money, the Minister of Finances gives (in the Off. Mess., Dec.
21, 1893) all liabilities of the Empire, inclusive of the debt for the redemption
of land, as follows, in paper money, on January 1, 1892, and January 1,1893 : —
-
- —
Jan. 1, 1892
Roubles
Paid in 1892
Jan. 1, 1893
Roubles
Roubles
State debt, inclusive of
the paper currency
gold
651,783,502
4,258,496
722,482,756
t Ditto
paper
2,545,954,456
16,611,481
2,536,487,787
Railway obligations
gold
845,958,734
2,015,984
843,942,750
Ditto
paper
74,900,000
100,000
149,800,000
Redemption of land
Total .
paper
paper
492,611,340
9,177,224
491,625,716
5,477,199,973
35,927,872 5,684,194,313
The new debts contracted in the same year were : —
(1) State debt, one interior 3 p.c. loan for 75,057,750 roubles in gold, tier-
petual deposits to the Bank (2,590,112), and 4 p c. loan for 4,554,700 roubles ;
and (2) Railways, a 4 J p.c. consolidated interior loan for 75,000,000 roubles
in gold, and 5 p.c. treasury bonds for 1,191,600 roubles.
The money in the Imperial Treasury was ; —
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DEFENCE
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-
Jan. 1, 1892
Jan. 1, 1893
Gold ......
Silver
Paper roubles
Roubles
114,663,260
5,813,047
141,593,453
Roubles
126,267,968
8,188,600
151,529,871
Deducting from this sum the outlays which had to be made according to
previous estimates, the ready cash at the Treasury amounted to 92,378,558
paper roubles.
As to the liabilities to the State, they were as follows on January 1, 1893 : —
Roubles
Military contributions from Khiva . . . 1,255,760 paper.
Turkey
Railways ....
Redemption of peasants' lands
Debts of local treasuries
Various
183,634,570 gold.
/ 392,534,994 gold.
\ 1,026,047,379 paper.
1,668,891,616 paper.
107,651,293 paper.
/ 7,211,346 gold.
\ 266,006,136 paper.
Total
4,003,261,631 paper.
During the year 1893, a new debt of over 50,000,000 in gold has been con-
tracted for the conversion of the 6 p.c. bonds of 1883 (loan of August 21,
1893).
The payments of interest and capital for the State and railway debts in the
budget estimates for 1894 appear as follows : —
State Debt.
A. Loans concluded in metallic value : —
Exterior, interest and capital
Interior ,, ,, .
Obligations of State railways, interest and
capital
Banking expenses
Loss on the depreciation of the paper rouble
Roubles, gold. Paper roubles.
20,878,103 —
5,227,823 —
3,703,129
20,246
17,897,581
Total A. .
B. Loans concluded in paper roubles :
Exterior, interest and capital .
Interior „ „
Total B. .
47,726,882
3,037,773
141,127,211
144,164,984
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878 BUSSIA
Railway Debt (to be repaid by the railways).
Railway obligations, interest and capital 35,906,884 —
Banking expenses 29,884 —
Loss on the depreciation of the paper rouble — 21 , 562, 060
4$ per cent, consolidated loans . . — 6,929,750
Total railway debt ... — 64,428,578
Payments for old coupons and obligations
not drawn by their owners in former years — 1,556, 640
Grand Total ... — 257,877,084
On December 27, 1893, the Treasury had in cash : —
Gold and metallic obligations . . 233,413,503 roubles
Silver 8,942,201 „
Paper and obligations in paper roubles. 50,635,635 ,,
II. Local Finance.
The actual annual receipts of the provincial assemblies (the zemstvos), which
were 32J million roubles in 1881, reached 47,291,233 in 1887, of which
26,916,181 roubles were levied in land taxes (out of 43*8 millions foreseen in
the estimates), 5,982,565 from various other taxes, and 5,760,580 only from
taxation of trade. Of the 585,300,000 acres which pay the land tax,
235,000,000 acres belonging to peasants pay an average of 6*3 copecks per acre,
while the 351,000,000 acres belonging to landlords pay an average of 3*3
copecks per acre. The aggregate expenses of the zemstvos reached the same
year 44,131,775 roubles, that is, an average of 1*6 rouble per male of popula-
tion. Of that, 11 per cent, was spent for the administration of the zemstvos,
23 per cent, for hygiene and medical help, 17 per cent, for education, and 37
per cent, for obligatory expenses.
The aggregate budgets of the towns of European Russia and Poland reached
in 1887 48,570,494 roubles of income and 49,517,111 roubles of expenditure
Only 5 towns have each an income above one million roubles. The aggregate
debt of all towns reached in 1882 26,842,177 roubles.
The expenses of the village communities have been tabulated for 46
provinces of Russia proper for 1881 ; they reached the sum of 324 million
roubles ; that is an average of lr. 16c. per male soul of population.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Russia has an extensive frontier both by sea and land, pro-
tected by numerous fortifications of various classes. On the west,
Poland is defended by a system of four strongholds, sometimes
called the Polish Quadrilateral — Nbvogeorgievsk on the right
bank of the Vistula ; the fortifications of Warsaw ; Ivangorod
on both sides of the Vistula ; Brest-Litovski on the Bug. As the
Vistula line remained unprotected on the rear from a possible
invasion through Eastern Prussia, new fortifications have been
raised in the rear of these fortresses. Western Poland, to the
west of the Vistula, remained also quite unprotected, but new
fortifications are being raised now about Kielce, at the foot of
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DEFENCE 879
the Lysa-Gora Mountains in south-west Poland. There are
numerous other fortified places, mostly neglected, on the Vistula
and Bug.
Between Poland and the Duna is the citadel of Vilna, while
other works are being carried out on the river Nieman. The
river Duna is defended at its mouth, at Biga, Dunaburg, and
Vitebsk. On the west frontier, south of Poland, are several old
fortified places which are being restored. The lower course of
the Dniester is defended at Bendery and Akkermann ; behind
this line are Bobruisk and Kieff ; the entrance to the Dnieper and
the Bug is defended by Kinburn and Ochakov. The Baltic coasts
are defended at Biga, Dunamunde, Reval, Narva, Cronstadt,
Viborg, Fredericksham, Bochtensalm Island, Sveaborg Islands,
Hangoeudd, Abo, and the Aland Islands. The Black Sea coast is
defended by the batteries of Odessa and extensive strong works
at Nikolaieff ; in the Crimea Sebastopol has been refortified, and
the Isthmus of Perekop has various lines of defence, while small
fortifications are found at Kertch, Yenikale, Kaffa, Azov, and
Taganrog. There are numerous fortified posts on the Caucasian
coast, the chief of which is Poti, at the mouth of the Bion.
Batum has now a large arsenal and is fortified. The Caucasus
itself has numerous fortifications of varying importance :
Yekaterinodar on the Kuban ; Adagan, Krymskaya, and Bakan
on affluents of the left bank of that river ; Vladikavkaz on the
Terek, and Nalchik on one of its left affluents ; Derbend on the
Caspian ; Gunib and Deshlagar in Daghestan ; Tiflis ; Akaltsik,
Alexandropol, Erivan, and the recent annexations Kars, Ardahan,
and Batum. In the Asiatic dominions are Krasnovodsk and
Chikishlar on the Caspian; Chat, Kizil-Arvat, Askabad, and
Sarakhs on the Persian frontier ; Nukus and Petro-Alexandrovsk
on the Khiva frontier; on that of Bokhara, Katykurgan and
Samarkand, Ura-tube and Khojent ; on that of Kashgar, Karakol
and Naryn. In the interior of Bussian Turkestan are several
fortified places, as at Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, and Tashkent.
All these latter are earthworks, of importance only against the
Asiatic neighbours of Bussia. On the Pacific coast there are
fortifications at Nikolaievsk, at the mouth of the Amour, and
Vladivostok.
n. aemy.
Since January 13, 1874, military service has been rendered
obligatory for all men from their 21st year. With the modifica-
tions introduced in that law on October 30, 1876, and June 26,
1888, military service is organised as follows : — Out of about
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DEFENCE 881
Finnish troops form 9 battalions of riflemen, each with 18 officers and 505
men, and number in all 4,833 and 1 regiment of dragoons. In 1886 obliga-
tory military service was extended to the natives of the Caucasus, but, accord-
ing to the law of Jiine 9, 1887, the Mussulman population of Caucasia has had
a tax imposed of 528,000 roubles, to be paid from January 1, 1890, instead of
military service.
The Russian army is divided into : (a) field troops ; (b) fortress troops ;.
(c) local troops ; (d) reserve ; (e) second reserve or Zapas ; (/) auxiliary corps*
Its numerical forces, both in time of peace and war, are as follows : —
Peace-footing.
The peace-footing in 1892 was as follows : —
I. European Army,
(A.) Field Troops : (a) Infantry.— 193 regiments (12 of the guard), divided
into 48 divisions ; each regiment has 4 battalions (of 4 companies each) and
1 detachment of non-combatants. Total, 772 battalions, 351,074 combatants,
13,510 officers, and the musicians ; 20 regiments of army riflemen of 2 battalions
each = 40 battalions, 23,580 combatants, 660 officers ; 8 battalions of riflemen
(4 guard, and 4 Caucasian), 3,584 combatants, 152 officers ; and 6 battalions
of Cossacks = 4,410 combatants, being thus a total of 818 battalions of
infantry, 382,648 combatants.
(b) Cavalry. — 58 regiments (4 of cuirassiers [4 sq. each], 2 hussars, uhlans,
and 50 dragoons), of 6 squadrons each — the 6th squadrons being 'cadre'
troops = 340 squadrons, 69,740 combatants: 1 Finnish • dragoon regiment,
870 men ; and 37 J Cossack regiments (221 sotnias or squadrons), 34,790 com-
batants ; being a total of 519 squadrons, 84,926 combatants of cavalry. 4
squadrons of Crimea Tartars and Ossetians, being a total of 1,424 combatants,
must be added to the above. The cavalry is divided into 21 divisions (2 of the
guard and 14 of the army, which includes 1 Cossack regiment each), 1 Caucasian
(4 regiments of dragoons), and 4 Cossack divisions (16 Cossack regiments). All
the cavalry is kept in time of peace on the war-footing of 144 armed men in the
squadron, ready to be moved at once after the addition of a few harness-
horses, while 56 squadrons (one in each regular regiment) remain for the for-
mation of reserves. The 32 Cossack regiments have with them 14 mounted
batteries incorporated into the cavalry divisions. Two new dragoon regiments
have been formed in July 1891.
(e) Artillery. — 51J field artillery brigades, 96 heavy, 194 light, and 15
mountain batteries of 8 guns each. Of these 30 are kept on a war footing of
S guns each, and 276 have horses for 4 guns each = 1,240 guns, 63,143 com-
liatants ; 43 mounted batteries, including the 14 above-mentioned mounted
Cossack batteries =258 guns, 6,794 men ; 5 sortie batteries, 2 guns each, 560
men ; and 12 field mortar batteries in 3 regiments, 8 guns each, both in time
of peace and war =96 mortars, 2,067 men; thus being a total of 355 field
batteries, 1,408 guns, and 96 mortars, 72,664 men.
(d) The Engineers* Corps, reorganised in 1888. comprises : 17 battalions of
sappers, each of 5 companies (about 125 men each) ; 8 battalions of pontonecrs,
each of 2 companies, having each 102 carts and one bridge 700 feet long ;
17 field telegraph companies (40 miles wire and 2 stations in each) ; 1 tele-
graph instruction company ; 4 battalions of railway engineers ; 8 torpedo com-
jianies ; 1 aeronautic park ; and 6 engineer trains (parks) divided into 60
sections, each of which has the tools, &c, necessary for an infantry division 'T
3 L
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882 RUSSIA
being a total of 34 J battalions (5 brigades), with trains and 23 parks =19,325
men.
(e) The Train comprises : 5 train cadre battalions =20 companies =1,995
men ; 48 flying artillery parks, of 4 divisions each ; 15 mobile artillery
parks for cadres, 4 divisions in each ; 3 siege-parks, 2 in European Russia
(12 8-inch guns, 60 heavy and 144 light 6-inch guns, 116 4-inch guns,
and 130 mortars in each), and 1 Caucasian (320 guns and mortars) ; 2 siege
engineer-parks, being, together with the hospital detachment, a total of
35,130 men.
The total of the Field Troops of the European Army is thus 619,173
combatants, and about 28,000 officers.
(B.) The Cossacks, first calling under arms, comprise : —
Don Cossacks : 19 regiments, 110 squadrons of cavalry, 8 mounted
batteries, 48 guns ; and 1 reserve battery, 3 guns ; total, 17,792 combatants.
Kuban : 11 regiments and 3 squadrons of cavalry =69 squadrons ; 4 bat-
talions, of 4 sotnias each, and 10 cadre detachments (220 men) ; and 5
mounted batteries, 20 guns ; total, 13,575 combatants.
Terek : 4 regiments and 1 squadron = 25 squadrons and 1 mounted battery,
8 guns ; total, 3,759 combatants.
Astrakhan : 4 squadrons, 602 combatants.
Orenburg: 6 regiments and 3 squadrons =33 squadrons, and 3 horse
batteries, 14 guns ; total, 6,232 combatants.
Ural : 3 regiments and 2 squadrons =19 squadrons, 2,808 combatants.
Siberian : 3 regiments = 18 squadrons, 2,697 combatants.
Semiretchensk : 1 regiment =4 squadrons, 650 combatants.
Transbaikalia : 1 regiment =6 squadrons and 2 horse batteries, 1,983 com-
batants.
Amur : 2 squadrons, 655 combatants.
Usuri (formed in 1889, formerly part of the Amur Voisko) : 2 companies,
about 240 combatants.
Total, 288 squadrons, 20 infantry companies, and 20 horse batteries =
52,184 combatants; out of which 4} battalions, 185 squadrons, and 14
batteries (32,736 combatants) must be deducted. That is, 103 squadrons and
6 batteries, 19,448 combatants, after the deduction of the Cossack forces in-
coqwrated into the field troops.
(C.) The Reserve Teoops have been reorganised in 1889, so as to have
100 battalions ready to muster as many regiments in case of mobilisation ;
while those of Caucasus have so been reorganised (partly by re-forming the
local militia) that the Caucasus military district, which formerly could muster
but 10 regiments for the field, will have 16 regiments fit for action outside
Caucasia.
They comprise now : — Infantry: — 23 regiments = 46 battalions (12 Cauca-
sian and 2 fortress artillery) and 101 battalions (10 Caucasian and 24 fortress
artillery), being a total of 147 battalions, 73,933 combatants and 754 horses.
Cavalry :— 65 cadre squadrons, 8,422 men. Artillery: — 6 heavy and 31
light batteries, and 2 batteries of Zapas, 148 guns, 7,668 men ; 56 fortress
artillery battalions and 8 companies of the same (about 23,500 men.)
Engineers : — 9 companies and 4 half companies of fortress sappers ; 6 fortress
telegraph parks ; 2 ballooning parks, and 10 torpedo companies, 4,113 men.
The three armies of the Asiatic dominions are seen in the following table,
in which the total peace-footing of the army is recapitulated : —
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Peace Footing, 1892. Total Troops and Reserve.
< Men I
Combatants!
Horses
I. European Army:—
General staff and chief command .
831J Infantry battalions (52 riflemen) .
121 Reserve battalions \
26 Fortress infantry battalions . J
566 Cavalry squadrons (21 0 Cossack hundreds)
65 Squadrons of 2nd reserve ' cadres '
367 Field batteries
37 Reserve and 2 second reserve
batteries ....
200 Fortress artillery companies
122 Engineers' companies ....
11 Fortress sappers \
10 Torpedo companies ... J
20 Telegraph, 6 engineers', and 3 balloon-
ing parks
20 Tram € cadre ' companies .
6 Gendarmes' squadrons ....
116 Detachments of frontier guards, &c.
Total European army .
II. Army in Asiatic Dominions.
Military districts, Amur and Irkutsk : —
20J Infantry and riflemen battalions (8 line,
10 riflemen, 2J Cossacks) .
3 Reserve infantry battalions of local
troops
12 Cossack squadrons, 6 Transbarkalia, 4
Amur, 2 Usuri
6 Artillery batteries (4 regular, 2 mounted
Cossacks)
1 Sappers' company ....
Total East Siberia
Military District, Omsk : —
8 Infantry battalions ....
3 Reserve infantry battalions .
22 Cossack squadrons (18 Siberian, 4 Semi
retchensk)
6 Artillery batteries (3 light, 1 mountain,
2 mounted)
1 Sappers' company ....
Total West Siberia .
ana won-
Comhatants
1,920
16,081
403,708
5,401
4,865
87,945
754
4,022
351
2,296
100,605
8,422
68,021
86,619
8,811
23,962
429
650
705
7,668
23,500
16,197
2,013
395
115
2,823
33
107
75
18
860
1,290
1,995
270
28,500
40
400
138
11,400
30,574
750,944
139,966
539
20,722
i
1,114
117
1,556
15
72
1,519
1,509
38
7
1,030
166
576
4
773
24,993
3,218
184
156
3,832
2,088
72
20
172
3,653
3,721
38
7
1,060
166
586
4
557
10,799
4,403
3 L 2
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24 uossacK squadrons (8 Transcaspian, rz
Orenburg, 4 Ural) ....
9 Artillery batteries (2 heavy, 4 light, 2
mountain, 1 mounted)
4 Sappers' and 10 railway companies
Total Turkestan .
Total, Asiatic Dominions .
III. Akmy of Finland :
8 Battalion of riflemen \
2 Fortress infantry ... J
6 Squadrons dragoons ....
4 Batteries
16 Companies of fortress artillery
Detachment of sappers
1
Total
Total peace-footing .
1 192
4,041
3,829
! 55
83
1,621
1,880
500
32
j 1,280
38,468
5,971
| 2,610
74,260
13,592
1 222
6,082
57
! 43
24
52
4
817
720
2,224
96
9,939
667
196
345
920
1 33,529
835,143
155,478
(D.) The Local and Auxiliary Tkoups comprise : 14,110 men of
infantry ; 12,319 of cavalry (inclusive of 6 squadrons, 7,969 men of gen-
darmes) ; 25,310 men of fortress-troops ; 37,800 frontier-guards (reorganised in
1889) ; and numerous local detachments.
Total local and auxiliary troops in the Empire above 105,000 men and
officers.
War-footing.
According to the new organisation, the war-footing of each unit is as
follows : —
— Officers Combat- Non-com- excluli?e
ante batante \ oftniu
\
■ The Infantry Regiment (4 batt. ) .
79
3,867
156
i 166
,, Riflemen Battalion .
21
960
54
50
,, Dragoon Regiment (6 squad.) .
36
920
70
, 1,025
,, Cossack Cavalry Regiment (6 j
,
sotnias) . . . . I
28
889
82
1,103
,, Heavy Battery (8 guns) . . ,
6
237
23
44
,, Light Battery (8 guns) . . I
6
205
23
i 44
,, Mounted Battery (6 guns) . |
5
180
28
I 131
! ,, Sapper Battalion (1 gun) . •
23
959
81
108
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DEFENCE
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The estimated war-footing for 1892 appears as follows :-
Combatants
'(Officers, Sub-
— ! officers,
| Musicians
1 included)
Horses
Guns
1 Field troops : —
General staff and chief command
855 battalions of infantiy and rifle-
men
34 line battalions ....
360 squadrons of regular cavalry
353 field artillery batteries (exclusive
of the 16 sally batteries and inclu-
sive of 6 foot mountain batteries) .
1 36} engineer battalions, 8 torpedo
! companies, and 6 railway battalions
All trains and siege-parks
3,500
843,263
33,388
57,467
77,594
29,944
146,298
1,500
41,699
1,972
64,244
72,607
7,016
189,545
2,824
1,238
185 squadrons of Cossacks (28,192
men and 34,144 horses) with
their 14 mounted batteries (2,570
men and 1,834 horses and 84 guns)
81,762
35,978
84
925J battalions, 545 squadrons, 383
batteries
1,263,213
378,583
4,146
Cossacks (all three divisions) : —
348 squadrons of Don
196 „ „ Kuban.
48 companies of Kuban infantry,
about
66 squadrons of Terek .
12 „ ,, Astrakan
49 „ „ Ural
104 ,, „ Orenburg
93 ,, of Siberian, Semi-
ryetchensk, Transbaikalian, Amur,
and Usuri Cossacks
38 horse batteries ....
1 30 Transbaikal and 6 Amur companies
53,092
29,129
9,084
9,864
1,794
7,545
15,595
14,185
7,030
6,696
58,013
33,835
1,716
11,734
2,115
8,463
17,999
16,182
9,538
240
246
868 squadrons, 84 companies, and
38 horse batteries ; or, exclusive
i of the 185 squadrons and 14
horse batteries mentioned under
the above heading
First Reserve : —
| 105 regiments of infantry = 508
j battalions
| 109 battalions of infantry
20 heavy and 172 light batteries
! 34 sapper companies
3 railway battalions =12 companies
(154,014)
122,252
406,956
106,166"
20,052
8,194
3,210
(159,835)
113,857
19,584
872
18,092
782
147
(246)
162
736 ,
z I
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886
RUSSIA
527 battalions, 46 engineer com-
panies, and 92 batteries of First
Reserve, about . . . . | 544,578
Fortress Troops: —
135 infantry battalions . . . 130,491
8 Finnish landwehr battalions . . , 6,616
54 artillery battalions . . • 71,766
16 sally battalions . . . 2,048
39,519
567
1,168
736
128
143 battalions, 54 artillery battalions,
and 16 batteries ....
Second Reserve, or ' Zapas * : —
It consists of ' cadres ' for instruction,
organised in time of war. If
mobilised, it must supply the sub-
joined contingents : —
201 infantry and riflemen battalions
112 squadrons.
1 Finnish squadron .
48 batteries
4 sapper battalions .
56 cavalry detachments
210,921
227,783
20,720
184
29,136
5,160
7,560
Total about .... 290,493
Local Troops : —
Peace-footing — the war-footing being '
dependent upon many causes not
to be foreseen . . . I 101,039
1,735 , 128
1,005 |
23,856 ,
181
3,360 ,
32
7,560 ■
28,602
192
192
15,500 —
Total war-footing
2,532,496
577,796 5,264
According to other estimates, the relative forces of the Euro-
pean and Asiatic armies are as follows : —
Officers.
Men,
Combatants,
and non-
Combatants
Horses.
European Army i 51,353
East Siberia ! 1,034
West Siberia ] 773
Turkestan ! 1,286
Finnish Army ' 511
2,359,720
44,224
32,438
51,610
24,151
462,917
7,807
13,425
10,680
2,586
Total war-footing
54,957
2,512,143
497,415
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DEFENCE 887
Altogether it is considered as probable that in case of war European Russia
could have in the first line of battle 19 army corps reinforced each by one
division, thus making an army 1,355,000 men strong. The reserve troops,
together, with about 400,000 men of the militia, might give a second army in
the second battle-line, about 1,100,000 men strong.
A new law submitting the employes on railways to military authority in
case of mobilisation was promulgated on March 12, 1890.
By a law, May 15, 1891, a new rank of subaltern officers, nominated in
case of war out of sub-officers not entitled by education to the grade of
officers (zauryad-praporschiki), as well as of clerks of the same kind in the
military administration (zauryad-tehiTWvniki), has been introduced. They are
intended to fill the several thousands of places of both officers and officials
which would be vacant in case of mobilisation.
During the year 1892 new measures have been taken for the speedier for-
mation of the militia in case of war ; standing ' cadres ' are to be formed, and
a new (3rd) ' mortar regiment ' has been formed on the western frontier.
During the year 1893, the staffs of 15 reserve brigades of infantry have been
formed ; the 51 reserve battalions of the army in Russia and 8 in Caucasus
will enter into these brigades.
III. Navy.
The Russian Navy is subject to special conditions such as do not affect the
navies of other Powers. Owing to the geographical situation of the Empire,
and the widely separated seas which wash its coasts, Russia is obliged to main-
tain four distinct fleets or flotillas; each with its own organization. Of these
the most important in regard to Western relations is the Baltic Fleet, which
comprises eight first-class battleships, including four new and powerful
vessels, which are still in the hands of the constructors, and a considerable
number of armoured coast-defence vessels, as well as a large torpedo flotilla.
It also includes the Rurik (10,900 tons), which is the most powerful armoured
cruiser yet afloat. The chief base of the Baltic Fleet is Cronstadt, which is
heavily fortified, as are Dunamiinde, Wiborg, Sweaborg, and other Baltic
ports. The Gulf of Finland is usually blocked by ice from November to April,
whereby the operations of the fleet are impeded, but an ice-free port at Libau,
in Courland, has recently been inaugurated, and^ when completed, is to form
the principal station of the Baltic Fleet. It is further in contemplation to
establish a naval port on the Arctic coast of Russian Lapland, which is free
from ice throughout the year, and thus to give the fleet free access to the
Atlantic Ocean. If this object be accomplished, a special Arctic Fleet must
be constituted.
The Black Sea Fleet, which has no access to the Mediterranean except by the
exercise of force, is also being largely augmented. To the first battleships of
this fleet the powerful armour-clads Ocorgi Pobiedonosetz, Dvenadzat Apostoloff,
and Tri Sviatitelia have been added, andtheParw and another large battleship
are to be built. Here also are the two circular local defence ironclads, Admiral
Popoff&nd Novgorod,wit\i a considerable torpedo flotilla. In this sea,Sebastopol
has been strongly fortified ; Nicolaieff, Kinburn, and Ochakoff have reecived
important defensive works ; Kertch and Yenikale have been made very strong,
and Azov, Poti, and Batoum are to be strengthened. Upon the Pacific coast
Russia maintains the Siberian flotilla, consisting of small cruisers and sloops,
with some torpedo craft, having its base at the strong naval port of Vladivostok ;
and there is a flotilla also in the Caspian Sea, which, ensures the communica-
tions of the Trans-Caspian railway between Baku and Usun Ada, and would
have its purpose in operations against Persia.
A notable event m the history of the Russian Navy in the year 1893 was
the visit of a squadron, under the command of Admiral Avellan, to Toulon,
consisting of the battleship Nicolas I. (flag), the cruisers Pamiat Azova%
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DEFENCE
889
The Caspian flotilla, which is not included in the above statement, consists
of a few small gunboats and steamships, but on the part of Persia has
practically nothing opposed to it.
The tables which follow of the Russian armour-clad fleet and first-class
cruisers are arranged in chronological order, like similar tables in this book.
In the first table the coast-defence vessels (named in italics) follow the battle-
ships. The numbers after the names of the last named indicate the classes to
which they have been assigned in the foregoing statement of strength. The
ships marked by an asterisk (*) are in the Black Sea ; all the others belong to
the Baltic Fleet. Abbreviations: b., broadside ; c. 6., central battery ; t.,
turret; bar., barbette ; cir.t circular; a.g.t armoured gunboat ; Q.F., quick-
firing. In the column of armament machine guns are not given.
o
a
Name. '
|
i
l
.29 a S
.2 Seh
P
«a°
m
Armament
O oe
1?
00 i Indicated
g horse-power
5
II
0Q
14-5
t.
Peter Veliky (3) .1
1872
8,750
14
4 12in. ; 13 Q.P. .
. 1
bar.
Catherine II. • (1).
1886
10,150
18
6 12in. ; 7 6in. ; 8 Q.F.
. 7
11,500
16-0
bar.
Tche8ine * (1)
1886
10,150
18
Ditto .
. 7
11,500
16-0
bar.
Sinope*(l).
1887
10,150
18
Ditto .
. 7
11,500
160
bar.
Alexander II. (1) .
1887
8,440
14
212in.;4 9in.;8 6in.; 8
Q.F. 5
8,000
160
i t. Nicolas 1.(1)
1889
8,440
14
212in.;4 9in.;8 6in.;10
Q.F. 6
8,000
160
bar. I Gangut(l) .
1890
6,600
16
1 12in. ; 4 9in. ; 16 Q.F
. 5
8,300
165
bar. i Dvenadzat Apos-
! toloff* (1)
1890
8,100
14
4 12in. ; 4 6in. ; 8 Q.F. .
. 6
11,500
166
bar. ! Georgi Pobiedo-
nosetz* (1)
1891
10,280
16
6 12in. ; 7 6in. ; 8 Q.F.
• 7
15,000
16*0
t. ! Navarin (1) .
1891
10,000
16
4 12in. ; 8 6in. ; 14 Q.F
. 6
9,000
160
bar. TriSviatitelia*(l)
t. Petropavlovsk (1)
1893
12,000
16
4 12in. ; 8 6in. ; 20 Q.F
. 7
10,600
160
12,000
16
4 12in. ; 8 7'8in. ; 24 Q.I
\ . 6
10,600
16 0
t. Poltava (1) .
12,000
16
Ditto .
. 6
10,600
160
t. Sevastopol (1)
12,000
16
Ditto .
• 6
10,600
160
t. Sissoi Veliky (1) .
...
12,000
16
4 12in. ; 6 6in. ; 16 Q.F
. 6
10,600
160
bar. Paris * (1) .
12,000
Heaviest guns, 12in.
. 6
...
175
bar. "X"*(l) .
12,000
Ditto .
. 6
17*5
b. Pervenetz
1863
3,280
"4
6 8in. ; 9 6in. ; 7 Q.F.
1,070
90
b. , Kreml .
1864
3,660
4i
8 8in. ; 13 6in. ; 5 Q.F.
1,120
85
b. ' Netron-Menya
1864
3,500
4
14 8in. ; 4 Q.F. .
1,630
80
t. Bronenotetz .
1864
1,480
ii
2 9in. ; 4 Q.F.
480
6'0
t. Perun .
1864
1,550
ii
Ditto .
340
60
t. Latnik.
1864
1,510
ii
Ditto .
490
60
t. i Bemertch
1864
1,520
6
Ditto .
700
8-0
t. \ Vieschun
1864
1,450
11
Ditto .
530
60
t. Koldun
1864
1,670
11
Ditto .
480
60
t. StreUtz
1864
1,430
11
Ditto .
445
6-0
t. Lava
1864
1,590
11
2 9in. ; 2 Q.F.
335
7'2
i. ' Uragan
1864
1,480
11
Ditto .
430
6 0
t. > Edinorog
1864
1,410
11
Ditto .
460
60
b. Tijun .
1864
1,590
11
2 9in. .
450
60
t. > Teharodeyka
1867
2,030
6
2 9in. ; 4 Q.F.
700
8'7
<•• b. ' Knyas Pojarsky .
1867
5,000
4*
4 8in. ; 2 6in. ; 10 Q.F.
2,840
125
t. Admiral Lazareff.
1867
3,560
6
1 8 llin. ; 6 Q.F. .
2,000
101
t , Admiral Qreig
1868
3,590
6
Ditto .
2,030
103
t. ' Admiral Spiridoff
1 1868
3,740
6
2 llin. ; 6 Q.F. .
2,010 1108
t. 1 Admiral Tchiteha-
1
.
1 goff .
1868
8,510
6
i Ditto .
2,060 10-8
eir. Novgorod* .
i 1873
2,700
11
! 2 llin. ; 8 Q.F. .
1 2 12 in. ; 2 Q.F. .
2,000 ' 6*5
eir. , Admiral Popoff* .
1875
3,590
18
3,070 ' 82
, «• g \ Grotiastchy .
1890
1,490
5
19in. ;16in.;8Q.F.
'. '. "2
2,000 140
a. g. 1 Oremiastchy
1892
; 1,490
5
1 Ditto .
. 2
2,000 ! 14-0
a.g
Otvajny
1892
1 1,490
1 5
1 1 9in. ; 1 6 in. ; 10 Q.F.
. 2
2,000 |140
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890
RUSSIA
The first-class cruisers a in the following list are all of 5,000 tons or more,
with a sea speed of at least 15 knots. The vessels named in italics are
armoured. Certain of these last are inferior iu speed, and also in displace-
ment, to the others, but are admitted as first-class cruisers b mainly for con-
voying purposes, in the foregoing statement of strength. The letters a and b
in the first column have reference to these categories. All those named
belong to the Baltic fleet.
I 3
\
Name
J
I General Admiral
j Qerzog Edinburgaki.
j Minin
Vladimir Monomach
j Dmitri Dotukoi
I Admiral Naehimoff .
! Admiral Komiloff .
I Pamiat Azova .
| Rurik
Admiral Oushakoff" . 1893
Admiral Seniavin
I Rurik No. 2.
I Rurik No. 3
4,600
4,600
6,170
5,750
j 5,800
7,780
5,030
6,000
10,900
4,020
4,020
12,130
12,095
Armament
*5 * *2 o
*l
"PI I
6 8in. ; 2 6in. ; 10 Q.F. .
4 Sin. ; 5 6in. ; 18 Q.F. .
4 Sin. ; 12 6in. ; 16 Q.F.
4 8in. ; 12 6in. ; 18 Q.F.
2 8in. ; 12 6in. ; 16 Q.F.
8 8in. ; 10 6in. ; 16 Q.F.
2 8in. ; 14 6in. ; 6 Q.F. ,
2 8in. ; 13 6in. ; 14 Q.F.
4 8in. ; 16 6in. ; 4 4
16 Q.F.
2 9in. ;4 6in. ;0Q.F.
Ditto .
4 Sin. ; 16 6in. ; 4 4
16 Q.F.
Ditto .
• 2
.1 2
4,470
5,220 '
.| ...
5,290
.1 2
7,000
.1 4
) S
in •
7,000
9,000
8,260
11,000
• 1 5
■1 4
13,200
5,000
J 4
in •'
5,000
5
15,000
"! r>
15,000
ISM
ill
12-0
12 5
12-0
15-0
15T»
17*5
18-5
18-0
18-5
lti-0
16-0
19-0
19 0
* Nominally coast-defence armour-clads.
The energies of Russia were for many years devoted to the construction
of coast-defence monitors in the Baltic. The old Knyas Pojarsky, a central-
battery vessel, was joined in 1872 by the mastless turret-ship Peter the Great.
Fifteen years later the powerful sister ships Alexander II. and Nicolas I.
were added. These bear some resemblance to our own Hero. They displace
8,440 tons, are 326 feet long and 67 feet in beam, and have end-to-end com-
pound belts 9 feet high, with an extreme thickness of 14 inches, upon a
12-inch oak backing. The Alexander II. carries her two 50-ton guns en
barbette near the bows, while the same guns in the sister ship are coupled in
a closed turret in the same position. The four 19-ton guns are placed at the
corners of the battery with 14-inch protection, but the other guns are unpro-
tected. The Gangut is a smaller barbette ship (6,600 tons), partially belted,
carrying a single 12-inch gun, but with a powerful quick-firing armament.
The turret battleship Navarin displaces 10,000 tons, and is armed with four
heavy guns coupled fore and aft. The extreme thickness of side armouring
is 16 inches, and there is 12-inch plating in the barbettes. The sister battle-
ships, Petropavlovsk, Poltava, and Sevastopol, of 12,000 tons, heavily armoured,
and carrying four 12-inch guns as well as a powerful secondary and quick-
firing armament, which are still in the hands of the constructors, will, with
the Sissoi Veliky, be the most powerful vessels in the Baltic Fleet.
The great want of a suitable fleet in the Black Sea led the Russians, in
disregard of the stipulations of the Treaty of Paris, to lay down the three
powerful battleships, Catherine II., Tchesmc, and Sinope, which were
launched in 1886-87. The following are the dimensions of these remarkable
vessels: displacement, 10,150 tons; length between the perpendiculars,
320 feet ; beam, 69 feet ; draught, 25 feet. The compound armour l>elt has
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 891
a maximum thickness of 16 inches, and the triangular redoubt is plated with
10 inches. This redoubt or citadel is a special feature. It presents its base
to the bows, and, inasmuch as two 12-inch 56 ton guns are coupled en barbette
at each of the angles, the bow fire is exceedingly powerful. Of the seven
6 -inch guns, four are also disposed for bow fire, and three directed astern.
The later battleship, Dvenadzat Apostoloff (Twelve Apostles), which is smaller
(8,100 tons), but carries four of the heavy guns coupled in turrets, steamed
16*6 knots at her trials without pressure and without reaching the estimated
horse -power. The Qeorgi Pobiedonosetz (George the Victorious), launched in
1891 (10,280 tons), is armed with six 56-ton guns, and is of a modified Sinope
type. The Tri Sviatitelia (Three Saints) is of a still more powerful type
(357 feet 6 inches long and 72 feet beam, with a 16-inch belt), and the Black
Sea Fleet is to be strengthened by two other new ships.
Next to these ships come the armoured cruisers, but it should be noted that
in the Russian system of classification many battleships are so described. The
Duke of Edinburgh and the Gineral- Admiral are each 285 feet long and 49
feet broad, built of iron and sheathed with wood. Each has a complete 6-inch
belt, and has amidships a protected overhanging barbette battery, mounting
the heaviest guns at its corners and the lighter ones between them.
The belted cruiser Pamiat Azova or Remembrance of Azoff, is 377 feet
long. She is an improved Dmitri Donskoi, and carries her two 8-inch guns
in sponsoned barbettes on either broadside. The Rurik, launched 1892, is
the largest and most powerful cruiser yet afloat. She is 435 feet long, 67 feet
beam, and has 25 feet 9 inches draught. The armour at the water-line is 10
inches thick for 80 per cent, of the ship's length. Her armament is very
strong, and she will carry 2,000 tons of coal, being enough for 20,000 miles
steaming at 10 knots. But the Russians, not satisfied with this monster
cruiser, are proceeding with two still larger Ruriks. The ramships Admiral
Oushakoff and Admiral Seniavin, built as coast-defence vessels, are, in fact,
armoured cruisers having a powerful armament and respectable speed.
The so-called Russian "Volunteer Fleet" constitutes a factor that must
not be underrated in Russia's next war with any other Power. The ships of
the Volunteer Fleet, about twelve in number, are, in peace-time, mercnant-
men, which can, in time of war, be easily armed and used for doing the work
of cruisers. They provide for the regular traffic between Odessa and
Vladivostok, and run, in addition, the tea trade and passenger traffic between
China and the Black Sea, besides being employed in peace as transports for
troops, particularly for carrying recruits and Reserve men between Odessa
and Batoum. The connection of this fleet with the State was formerly
much too loose, in consequence of which a new organisation of it took place
in 1886, whereby the Volunteer Fleet is under the Admiralty, but has its
own management and capital.
Production and Industry.
I. Agricultural.
According to official data of 1892, the whole territory of the
50 Governments of European Russia proper, exclusive of the
islands of Arkhangelsk, and the pasture grounds of the
Kalmucks and Kirghizes (40,925,060 acres), was distributed
among different owners, as follows : —
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892
RUSSIA
J Owners.
Area
Acres
410,801,867
19,890,835
373,310,496
294,504,582
Unfit for Culture, Roads, &c.
The State .
The Imperial Family .
The Peasants
Private Owners .
Acres
139,397,498
35,545,735
35,115,557
Total .
1,098,507,780
210,058,770
In Poland 55 per cent, of the area is arable land. One-half
of the total area is private property, two-fifths belong to peasants,
and one-tenth to the State and various institutions.
The state of the redemption operation among the village communities of
liberated serfs is seen from the following accounts up till October 1, 1893.
The accounts are shown separately for Russia and the Western provinces, where
the conditions of redemption were more liberal for the peasants, according to
the laws of 1863.
Number of male peasants who redeemed the
land with State help
Number of acres redeemed .
Value of the land, in roubles .
Average price of the allotment
Average size of allotment, in acres
Average price of the acre
Average former debt of the landowner to the
State mortgage bank, per allotment .
Average sum paid to the landlord, per allot-
ment
Russia
| Western Provs.
6,637,973
2,526,514
61,544,610
27,505,195
703,645,091
1 185,572,593
106r. Oc.
1 64r. 56c.
9 4
| 100
llr. 40c.
6r. 50c.
37r. 33c.
' 26r. 99c.
68r. 67c
37r. 57c
Moreover, 102,396 leaseholders redeemed their allotments (1,882,574 acres),
for the sum of 21,243,401 roubles, in South Russia and the Western Pro-
vinces, according to the laws of 1868-88, which recognise private ownership of
land.
In 1892, the total land and that held in private ownership was as follows : —
Nature of Land
Total
In private ownership
Arable ....
Orchards, meadow, graz-
ing, &c.
Forests, &c. .
Unfit for culture, roads,
&c
Acres
287,969,552
174,958,734
425,520,714
210,058,770
Per cent
26 2
15*9
38-8
19*1
Acres
80,063,271
68,628,269
110,697,486
35,115,566
Per cent,
27 3
23 2
37 6
11-9
Total .
1,098,507,780 1 lOO'O
294,504,582
100*0
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
893
In Central Russia 66 per cent, of the arable land .is under crops ; in South
Russia 78 per cent. ; in North and in South-east Russia 10 per cent. ; and in
Astrakhan only 8 per cent.
Crops. — The cereal crops of Russia in Europe (exclusive of Finland)
for the last three years are seen from the following, in thousands of quar-
ters : —
I
European Russia, 1888 .
1889 .
„ 1890 .
1891 .
„ „ 1892 .
18901.
Poland, 1888 .
1891
1892
Wheat
Rye
88,000
Barley
17,036
Oats
Various
24,816
Total
80,859
66,411
227,123
21,647
66,846
14,016
59,805
16,348
178,157
25,813
81,617
19,776
65,555
19,603
212,354
20,49(5
60,474
17,012
51,971
15,252
165,205
28,557
71,031
20,427
52,845
19,110
191,970
20,400
98,895
28,978
84,590
20,792
248,655
1,722
5,804
1,405
4,212
1,001
14,146
1,618
4,545
943
2,628
429
10,163
1,582
5,509
1,487
4,361
1,143
14,033
1,587
4,991
1,347
3,939
588
12,412
2,962
7,569
2,303
5,242
1,182
19,258
38,006 I
36,722 !
40,105 i
34,973
55,789
20,011
19,515
21,282
14,799
27,418
i Preliminary estimates.
According to the data published on last New Year's Day by the Statistical
Committee, the crop of 1893 for the autumn sowings exceeded by 20 per cent,
the average crops for 1888-92.
North Caucasus becomes more and more a granary for Russia, and the crops
of 1892 in the three provinces of Kuban, Stavropol, and Terek were: —
Wheat, 7,654,800, rye, 1,185,200, barley, 2,333,000, oats, 2,054,300, various,
1,069,300 ; total, 15,296,600 quarters, potatoes, 714,600 quarters.
The amount of hay gathered in 1892 attained 30,000,000 tons in European
Russia, and 335,000 tons in Poland.
In 1891 124,121 acres were under tobacco in Russia, Siberia, and Caucasia,
yielding only 1,061,300 cwt., as against 1,287,500 cwt. (120,025 acres) in
1890, 1,624,000 in 1887, and 1,298,240 in 1886. There were in 1890 no less
than 340 tobacco factories, which worked 1,307,200 cwt. of tobacco, and
manufactured no less than 1,133,200 cwt. of tobacco, cigars, &c. (2,377,955,000
cigars, cigarettes, and tobacco.) 3,436 cwt. of Russian tobacco was exported,
so also 32,219,700 cigarettes and 221,500 cigars. Under vineyards there were
about 16,000,000 acres, but only 361,000 acres were under proper culture.
The yield was 4,550,000 gallons, of which 150,000 were produced in Crimea.
The cotton crops in Turkestan covered, in 1888, 214,115 acres, and yielded
325,148 cwt. of raw cotton, one half of which is the American, and the other
half the local cotton tree. They increased in 1889, attaining 136,840 acres
in Ferganah alone, the crop being 567,000 cwt. of new cotton (nearly 330,000
cwt. American), and have increased since — the crops of new cotton in the
Marghelan district above (Ferganah) attaining in 1891, 397,200 cwt. (205,060
cwt. American). Ten establishments for purifying cotton yielded same year
150,000 cwt. of pure and pressed cotton. In 1892 there were over 270,000
acres under cotton tree plantation, and the crop attained nearly 650, 000 cwt.
Attempts at raising cotton have also been made in Transcaucasia, the crop of
1891 attaining 2,900 cwt. in Elizabethpol, and 200,000 cwt. in Erivan.
In 1888 Russia in Europe (without Poland) had 19,633,340 horses,
24,609,260 horned cattle, 44,465,450 sheep (about 9*5 millions of fine breeds),
and 9,243,000 swine, showing thus a notable diminution against 1882.
Poland had, same year, 1,204,340 horses, 3,013,400 horned cattle, 3,754,665
sheep, and 1,499,100 swine.
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894
RUSSIA
II. Forests.
Of the total area of European Russia, nearly one-third is under forest. It
appears from recent investigation that the following areas are under forest in
European Russia, Poland, Finland, and Caucasia (the two latter incomplete) : —
European Russia, 422,307,000 acres ; Poland, 6,706,000 ; Finland, 50,498,000 ;
Caucasia, 18,666,000 : total, 498,177,000 acres. On Jan. 1, 1893, the area of
forests under Crown management in Russia attained 612,091,400 acres, out of
which 42,289,200 acres were under regular treatment.
The decrease of the area under forest since the beginning of the century is
reckoned at about 23 per cent.
An important measure was taken in 1888 for the protection of forests, most
of which have been placed under a special committee appointed in each province
of European Russia. Some forest lands have been recognised as * protective *
for rivers, &c, and they can in no case be destroyed, felling of timber in these
tracts being submitted to severe regulations.
i
III. Mining and Metals.
The soil of Russia is rich in ores of all kinds, and mining industry is steadily
increasing. The statistics during the years 1880 and 1886-90 are given in the
following table : —
Year
Gold
Plati-
Silver
Kilogrammes
1880
1886
1887
1892
43,276
33,448
34,856
35,151
38,003
39,394
39,016
42,996
2,947 10,107
4,317 13,336
4,242 15,380
2,687 15,135
2,622 I 13,857
— 13,776
4,183 —
4,357 —
Lead Zinc
Cop-
per
Tons
,146
4,256
777
4,195
974
3,567
787
6,284
569
6,343
825
—
—
3,697
—
5,059
3,203
4,571
4,911
5,957
5,978
SSL *-
Steel
Col 1*3?"! Wt
Thousands of tons
448
532
602
656
734
5,318 I 876
4,681 I 871
4,199 . 995
292
307
363
242
354
213
359
201
423
258
421
365
319
259
—
—
3,289 i 352
4,567 1,972
4,462 • 2,690
3,496 3,132
4,496 3,209
5,938 3,857
6,126 4,301 i —
6,800 4,490 l,40.i
779
1,197 i
1,135
1,096
1,370
1,361 '
Gold is obtained chiefly in Siberia (60,557 E. lbs. in 1891, and 63,432 lbs.
in 1890) and the Ural Mountains (25,414 lbs. in 1891, and 23,212 in 1890),
where one-fifth of the whole is obtained from pulverized rocks ; silver
from the following districts, with the amount obtained 1890 : Altai and
Nertchinsk, 26,570 lbs. ; Semipalatinsk, 2,635 lbs. ; Caucasus, 1,116 lbs. ;
total, 30,321 lbs. Copper was obtained chiefly in the Urals (2,602 tons in
1892) and the Caucasus (1,670 tons). Cobalt is found in the Elisabethpol
government of Caucasia (3,609 lbs. in 1889) ; also manganese ore (76,790 tons
of ore). Mercury was extracted in S. Russia to the amount of 692,280 lbs.
in 1891, and 733,824 lbs. in 1892 ; tin, 12 tons in Finland. Zinc comes
entirely from Poland. Of the salt extracted in 1892, 735,000 tons were from
South Russia ; 257,400 from Astrakhan; 298,500 from Perm; 34,700 from
Caucasia ; 27,000 from Orenburg; the remainder being from Turkestan, the
Transcaspian region, Siberia, North Russia, and Poland. In 1892 17,000
workers were employed in the salt works.
The province of Ekaterinoslav grows to be an important centre of iron
mining. In 1890 it yielded 204,250 tons of pig iron, 26,070 of iron, and 70,380
tons of steel. The manufacture of agricultural machinery, which was valued
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 895
at 2\ million roubles in 1867, rose to nearly 10 million roubles in 1885, and
has much increased since.
The coal mines on the Don are yearly extending ; in 1884 they occupied
13,950 men and 135 engines, the produce reaching 1,624,720 tons, but it rose
to 3,507,000 tons in 1892. The total extraction of coal in 1892 was :—
Coal, 6,093,900 tons ; anthracite, 622,400 tons ; brown coal, &c, 87,300 tons :
total, 6,803,600 tons, distributed as follows :— Don, 3,507,000; Poland,
2,837,300; Ural, 230,000; Moscow, 176,800; Altai, 19,200; Caucasus,
16,700 ; Sakhalin, 12,500 ; Kieff, Kirghiz Steppe and Olonets, 13,700
tons. Strong measures have been taken to increase the local con-
sumption of Russian coal and coke by imposing a duty of 98 '5d. per ton
of coal imported through the Black Sea, 47rf. through the Western frontier,
and 23'5c£. through the Baltic Sea, and by reducing the tariffs of railway
shipping of Russian coal from the Don mines. The import of foreign coal
and coke has thus been reduced as follows : —
Imports of
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Tons
Tons
1,550,000 |
1,848,000
1,515,000
1,502,800
1,410,900
158,000
194,000
199,000
199,900
226,500
During the last three years the annual consumption of fuel in the Moscow
manufacturing region was about 1,000,000 tons of wood, 80,000 tons of
English coal, 80,000 tons of Russian coal, and about 80,000 tons of
naphtha refuse. The Caspian naphtha industry is also extending very
rapidly, and new naphtha wells are now worked in Northern Caucasus (26,700
tons in 1890) ; its various products are also better utilised, as seen from the
following figures : —
Year |
I
Raw Naphtha
Tons
Kerosine Oil
Tons
1887 '
2,676,000
714,000
1888
3,128,000
822,000
1889
3,405,000
986,000
(Baku alone) 1890
3,890,000
1,076,200
1891
4,301,000
—
1892
4,490,000
—
The number of persons engaged in the mining and working of minerals
was 420,000 in 1888, and the number of water and steam engines in the
Empire respectively was 1,099 and 1,855, showing an aggregate of more than
100,000 horse-power.
IV. Manufactures.
The number of all kinds of manufactories, mines, and industrial establish-
ments in European Russia (without Poland and Finland) was 62,801 in 1885,
employing 994,787 workpeople, and producing a value of 1,121,040,270
roubles. The 20,381 manufactories of Poland employed 139,650 workmen,
and produced a value of 185,822,200 roubles. Transcaucasia had. in 1891
9,333 manufactories, mostly small, with 40,284 workmen, producing a value
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896
RUSSIA
of 40,003,900 roubles, chiefly in silk ; while the 6,496 manufactories of Fin-
land yielded in 1890, 6,681,700Z.
According to another estimate, which takes no account of the mining
industries, nor of those which pay excise duties (spirits, beer, sugar, and
tobacco), the manufactories of the Empire having a yearly productivity of
more than 1,000 roubles each appeared as follows : —
Year
1887
1890
Numbers
People
employed
21,247
22,510
789,322
852,726
Yearly Production
Roubles
1,119,952,000
1,263,964,000
Average Production
per Workman
Roubles
1,419
1,408
The various branches of the above were as follows in the year 1890 (same
ligures for 1887, in Statesman's Year Book, 1893) : —
I
1890
Articles of food
Animal produce
Textiles .
Stones, glass, &c.
Metals
Wood
Chemicals
Various
Total, 1890
„ 1887
i Numbers
9,478
3,806
3,234
2,380
1,424
1,121
689
378
22,510
21,247
People employed Production
86,011
39,684
459,250
72,361
117,537
36,101
26,291
15,431
852,726
789,313
Roubles
363,925,000
74,292,000
541,996,000
32,543,000
148,822,000
33,377,000:
29,822,000
39,187,000
1,268,961,000
1,119,952,000
The growth of the cotton industry is best seen from the following : —
Years I Spinning
Weaving "Wag* I «»*">*
Dyeing
Total
Roubles
Roubles
Roubles 1 Roubles
Roubles
1880
74,100,000
99,700,000
61,100,000 5,500,000
240,400,000
1885
97,400,000
98,000,000
59,500,000 3,300,000
258,200,000
1889
187,600,000
222,300,000
72,800,000 | 4,400,000 487,100,000
i
Of the people employed in 1890 there were 18,676 boys, 8,702 girls,
213,462 women, and 611,886 men. The small manufactories having a yearly
production of less than 1,000 roubles numbered in 1890 64,000, with 106,619
people employed.
In 1889 the textile industries of Russia and Poland had 3,799,416 spindles
and 191,290 looms. All textile industries were represented by 2,979 factories,
the yearly production of which attained 522,007,000 roubles (52,200,700/.).
They were concentrated chiefly in the two governments of Moscow and
Vladimir (yearly production 131,150,000 roubles, and more than one-half
of the total cotton industry of Russia), Piotrkov in Poland (38,818,000
roubles), St. Petersburg (23,610,000 roubles), Kostroma and Esthonia (about
1 4, 000, 000 roubles each). The cotton industry proper is valued at 260, 000, 000
roubles per year.
Poland had in 1892 3,197 manufectories, which employed 120,670 workers.
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COMMERCE
897
The manufacture of machinery and metallic goods is steadily developing,
and the working of metals altogether appeared as follows in 1888 : —
No. of Yearly
Factories Produce
Foundries ... 175 . . 4,319,000 roubles.
Machinery ,
Wire and nails
Copper ware .
Bells .
Various metals
Jewellery
372
81
193
38
385
58
54,220,000
10,720,000
9,404,000
943,000
12,181,000
2,965,000
Total . . . 1,294 . 94,772,000 „
For the same year the ironworks yielded in addition to the above : cast-
iron goods, 1,236,100 cwt. ; iron and steel goods, 3,100,600 cwt. ; wire,
304,120 cwt. ; glazed goods, 66,130 cwt. The small workshops are not taken
into account in the above.
The production of spirit in 1892-3 was in decrease of the preceding years,
29,450,000 gallons of pore alcohol being obtained in 1,894 distilleries. In
there were 1,233 beer breweries, and 528 meathe breweries. The former
produced 87,282,100 gallons, while the production of the latter is quite in-
significant.
There were 224 sugar works in Russia and Poland. Their operation in
1892-U3, is seen from the following : — Acres under beetroot, about 800,000 ;
sugar obtained, 6,911,540 cwts., (as against 10,685,780 cwts. in 1891-92),
out of which 304, 4'00 cwts. in Poland ; refined sugar, 921,600 cwts., as against
5,725,200 cwts. in 1889.
The sugar works employed altogether 70,805 men, 9,516 women, and
2,160 children in 1889.
Only rta part of all corn exported from Russia during the last 4 years
was exported in the shape of flour. There were in Russia and Poland in
1889 5,000 flour mills, each yielding more than 670 cwit. of flour per year.
Out of them, 979 steam mills, producing 1,076,000 tons of flour, and 4,020
water mills, 1,209,000 tons. Most of the latter have steam motors in reserve.
Out of the above, 497 mills (1,000,000 tons) used rollers for grinding.
Commerce.
The following table gives the average yearly imports and
exports of Russia for 1872-81, and for each of the years 1888 to
1892, in her trade with Europe, Asia, and Finland (bullion not
included, nor the external trade of Finland) : —
Years
Exports
Imports
Paper roubles
Paper roubles
1872-76
381,198,800
471,643,000
1876-81
555,793,000
528,971,400
1888
793,900,000
390,700,000
1889
766,300,000
436,987,000
1890
703,968,000
416,084,000
1891
720,937,000
378,549,000
1892
489,409,718
403,879,940
3 M
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898
RUSSIA
The chief trade of the Empire is carried on through its
European frontier, as seen from the following table in thousands
of roubles. But the European frontier does not include the
Caucasus, so that the rapidly increasing exports of grain, and
especially of naphtha, from the ports of the Caucasus appear in the
exports from the Asiatic frontier, although both are exported to
Europe. On the other side, the arrivals of tea from China to
Odessa or St. Petersburg appear in the imports to the European
frontier.
Exports
Through European frontier
,, Asiatic ,,
Trade with Finland .
Total .
Imports
From European frontier .
,, Asiatic ,,
Trade with Finland .
Total .
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,000
roubles
728,000
46,500
19,300
1,000
roubles
687,085
61,303
17,614
1,000
roubles
610,450
77,872
16,715
1,000
roubles
627,300
77,241
16,396
1,000
roubles
399,639
68,672
21,099
793,800
766,002
705,037
720,937
489,410
332,300
47,000
11,400
373,674
50,086
13,256
361,402
41,281
13,386
326,297
39,456
12,793
346,475
45,456
11,949
390,700
437,016
416,069
378,546
403,880
The following tables, giving the value of exports and imports,
in thousands of paper roubles, to and from Europe (European
frontier, exclusive of Caucasus) for the last eleven years,
will better show the character of the foreign trade of Russia : —
Exports.
-
1882-86
1887-89
1890
1891
1892
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles
roubles , roubles
roubles
Articles of food
323,623
400,493
351,047
381,101
168,530
Raw and half- manufac-
' tured articles
190,254
222,274
232,541
209,784 195,738
Animals ....
14,787
12,597
10,832
15,805
15,177
Manufactured goods .
Total .
8,031
17,843
16,033 20,610
20,194
536,695 , 661,206
610,453 | 627,300
399,639
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COMMERCE
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Imposts.
-
1882-86
1887-89
1890
1891
1892
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
roubles
Articles ofjbod
108,711
52,952
59,496
54,363
53,347
Raw and half- manufac-
tured articles
254,646
230,246
232,532
203,187
223,040
Animals ....
435
535
431
336
259
Manufactured goods .
Total .
92,564
64,007
68,943
68,411
» 69,829
456,356
347,740
361,402
326,297
346,475
To render these figures comparable with one another, the value of the
same exports and imports for the same years, but in gold, is given in the
subjoined table : —
Exports, Valued in Gold.
-
1882-86
1887-89
1890 ' 1891
1892
Articles of food
Raw and half- manufac-
tured articles
Animals ....
Manufactured goods .
Total .
1,000
roubles
202,320
118,887
9,247
5,002
1,000
roubles
245,030
134,300
7,600
10,830
1,000
roubles
253,700
168,000
7,800
11,600
1,000
roubles
275,300
151,600
11,400
14,900
1,000
roubles
110,878
128,776
9,985
13,286
335,456
397,760
441,100 j 453,200
262,925
Imports, Valued in Gold.
-
1882-86
1887-89 1 1890
1891
1892
1,000
1,000 j 1,000
1,000
1,000
roubles
roubles ; roubles
roubles
roubles
Articles of food
67,885
31,800 | 40,700
39,280
35,097
Raw and half - manufac-
tured articles
159,085
138,400 167,500
146,800
146,796
Animals ....
272
330 i 300
240
170
Manufactured goods .
Total .
56,940
38,670' 49,400
49,440
45,940
284,182 I 209,200 : 257,900
i !
235,760
228,003
The exports during the first nine months of 1893 attained 395,910,000
roubles, as against 316,836,000 in 1892, and 538,901,000 in 1891. The im-
ports during the same months were 314,391,000 roubles, as against 272,864,000
in 1892, and 268,811,000 in 1892.
For the last six years grain has formed, on the average, 55 per cent, in
Value of the aggregate exports to Europe, 587 per cent, in 1888, and 51 in
1889.
The official figures of grain exports being now given in units of weight, the .
exports from European Russia, Caucasus, and to Finland in 1892, as well as
during the two preceding years are given in the subjoined table : —
3 M 2
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i
900
RUSSIA
-
1890
1S01
1892.
Cwts.
Cwts.
Cwt8.
Wheat ....
58,653,100
56,780,700
26,297,180
Rye
24,797,500
21,927,500
3,890,600
Barley .
19,561,500
14,823,900
14,176,000
Oats
16,696,200
14,819,900
^,619,500
Maize .
6,644,600
9,096,000
6,958,380
Peas
1,219,800
2,149,200
808,420
Various groats
543,600
373,100
113,040
Flour .
1,808,500
1,725,300
2,168,400
Other grain products
4,448,700
134,373,600
3,904,800
2,302,780
Total .
•
125,600,400
63,334,300
The export of naphtha for the last five years (from Russia and Caucasus as
well) will be seen from the following table : —
Year
Raw Naphtha
Oils for
Lighting
Oils for 1 w .
Greasing | waste
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Cwt.
23,860
none
134,000
166,000
5,480
Cwt.
8,593,670
11,161,600
12,713,000
14,414,700
15,190,000
Cwt. ; Cwt.
871,580 : 1,423,200
1,111,500 1,933,000
1,472,000 929,000
1,631,500 ! 986,600
1,982,400 | 795,000
Cwt.
10,912,300
14,206,100
15,248,000
17,198,300
17,972,880
The export of eggs (chiefly to Germany, France, and Austria) is acquir-
ing every year a greater importance, as seen from the following figures of
exports for the last seven years : —
Year
No. of Eggs
Value
Preserved Eggs in Tins
Roubles
Cwt.
Roubles
1888
678,217,000
11,589,000
24,280
409,000
1889
609,000,000
9,975,000
28,370
387,000
1890
755,000,000
12,358,000
27,800
361,000
1891
833,100,000
12,662,000
20,640
> 255,000
1892
739,229,560
12,217,614
12,556
164,770
The export of horses attained 56,400 horses and ponies in 1892.
The following table shows the relative importance of the chief exports
from European Russia during the last three years : —
Exports from European Russia and Northern Caucasia.
18901
Corn, flour, sarrazin, &c.
Fish and caviare .
Butter and eggs
Alcohol and gin
Various articles of food ,
Roubles
338,506,000
4,791,000
16,632,000
5,744,000
19,377,000
18911
Roubles
352,583,000
3,168,000
17,526,000
5,629,000
34,633,000s
Roubles
164,158,508
4,021,373
15,571,737
1,653,900 |
13,842,841
Articles of food . . 384,060,000 | 413,539,000 I 199,248,359 \
1 Including exports to Finland. s Sugar, 23,456,000 roubles (5,772,019 in 1892).
Digitized by VjOOQIC
COMMERCE
901
1
18901
Roubles
18911
18921
Roubles
Roubles
Timber and wooden goods
53,707,000
43,658,000
49,018,000
Raw metals (platinum mercy.)
2,288,000
2,034,000
2,464,000
Oleaginous grains, chiefly lin-
seed and grass seeds .
44,310,000
33,689,000
23,071,000
Flax
I 60,998,000
52,573,000
56,114,000
Hemp
I 17,754,000
18,012,000
15,203,000
Tallow
1,069,000
914,000
717,000
Bristle, hair, and feather
12,336,000
11,126,000
10,365,000
Wool
! 15,755,000
15,612,000
11,830,000
Furs
4,911,000
5,921,000
4,431,000
Naphtha and naphtha oils, &c.
! 27,301,000
30,165,000
26,812,000
Various ....
Raw and half-manu-
: 29,482,000
77,397,000
33,566,000
factured goods .
269,911,000
245,901,000
232,599,000
i Including exports to Finland.
The principal imports into European Russia and the Black Sea frontier
of Caucasia are shown in the following table : —
Imports to European Russia and Northern Caucasia.
18901
18911
Roubles
18921
Roubles
Roubles
Rice
392,000
457,000 s
763,000 a
Other grain and flour
1,007,000
1,166,000
947,000
Fruits and vegetables
6,041,000
5,234,000
5,589,000
Fish
9,559,000
9,220,000
11,648,000
Tea
18,809,000
17,889,0008
14,031,000 2
Coffee
5,607,000
5,435,000
6,209,000
Tobacco
3,701,000
2,115,000
2,558,000
Wine and spirits
9,095,000
9,258,000
8,410,000
Raw cotton ....
79,868,000
70,727,000
84,600,000
Cotton yarn and wadding
9,019,000
5,261,000
3,954,000
"Wool, raw and yarn
22.071,000
18,361,000
8,669,000
Silk, raw and yarn .
8,671,000
8,238,000
11,571,000
Raw jute .
1,247,000
1,773,000
1,131,000
Leather
7,586,000
5,855,000
5,668,000
Oil, cocoa, palm, and glycerine
1,768,000
1,469,000
842,000
Colours
14,659,000
12,971,000
12,964,000
Chemicals ....
12,496,000
11,699,000
13,295,000
Oil, olive and others
4,551,000
5,748,000
5,179,000
Coal and coke
12,512,000
12,069,000
12,054,000
Raw metals ....
33,637,000
28,116,000
33,817,000
Sheet iron ....
4,396,000
2,907,000
3,205,000
Manufactured goods : —
Cotton Goods ....
3,043,000
2,634,000
2,307,000
Other textile goods
6,814,000
6,797,000
5,280,000
Iron and steel goods
11,556,000
13,435,000 4
11,563,000
Machinery ....
21,378,000
21,586,000
24,752,000
~~~~ i Including imports from Fir
land.
2 Moreover, 15,723,000 roubles' worth through Siberia (11,788.000 in 1891).
3 Moreover, 2,808,000 roubles* worth from Persia in 1891, and 2,575,000 in 1892,
* All metal goods (14,446,000 in JS90).
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902
RUSSIA
The imports and exports by the frontier of Asia were as follows in 1891
and 1892 in thousands of roubles : —
1801
1892
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
Tea
14,379
10
18,783
22
Tissues .
2,860
5,678
2,897
7,183
Textiles .
. 2,054
2,475
2,841
2,059
Skins and furs
1,514
1,107
1,512
1,107 '
Fruits, &c.
2,944
164
1,066
113 1
Cereals, &c.
2,688
24,424
3,018
17,019 !
Various .
13,017
43,383
15,339
41,169 '
Precious metals
5,377
5,774
3,015
4,316
Total
44,833
83,015
48,471
72,988
The total exports and imports of gold, silver, and bullion, not included in
the above, imported and exported to and from European Russia and the
Black Sea frontier of the Caucasus, are as follows, in gold roubles : —
-
Exports
Imports 1
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
i
34,452,000
17,400,000
20,928,000
194,000
177,000
29,500,000
9,300,000
23,127,000
77,463,000
110,531,000
The amount of customs duties levied in the Empire, chiefly in gold and
partly in paper roubles, appears as follows : —
)■
Roubles
-
Roubles
Gold j Paper j'
Gold Paper
1887
1888
1889
64,170,467
77,565,803
80,239,219
2,285,155 •!
1,691,919 |!
1,644,009 |
1890
1891
1892
82,690,494 1 1,373,089
79,265,268 | 1,619,156
82,420,750 1 697,023
i
The following table shows the value of the imports from, and exports to,
the countries named, through the European and Asiatic frontier, including
the trade with Finland, in 1891 and 1892, in thousands of roubles :—
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COMMERCE
903
-
1891
1892
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
Germany ....
103,269
192,932
101,653
138,239
United Kingdom
83,060
179,905
101,178
118,524
France . . . .
16,691
48,906
18,491
35,110
Austria-Hungary
15,903
34,001
15,200
24,073
Belgium ....
Netherlands .
6,678
23,069
5,199
14,940
3,099
44,064
3,790
19,450
Turkey ....
6,306
20,616
9,675
15,910
Italy ....
10,596
32,398
9,226
19,635
Sweden and Norway
4,903
10,312
7,016
6,551
Denmark.
1,291
10,111
1,614
4,841
Greece ....
1,084
10,251
1,030
6,812
Roumania
1,544
8,899
1,458
4,943
United States .
39,731
2,019
35,780
2,535
China ....
28,967
4,220
27,886
4,782
Persia ....
10,854
9,957
12,359
9,340
Other countries
Total
44,570
89,277
52,325
, 63,625
378,546
720,937
403,613
1 489,410
(Finland)
(12,793)
(16,396)
(11,948)
1 (21,098)
Transit Trade .
21,30
6,000
18,454,000
The steady increase of customs duties from 1884 to 1891 is seen from
the following table, which gives the proportions between the customs
duties levied and the values of the imports, and thus illustrates the steady
increase of the tariffs : —
Years
Percentage of Custom Duties levied to the Declared
Values of Imports
Articles
of Food
Goods used for
Industry
Manufactured
Goods
Total Average
Per Cent
Per Cent.
Per Cent
Per Cent.
1884
36
12
20
20
1887
75
17
34
29
1888
81
19
31
31
1889
71
19
28
28
1890
86
23
34
35
1891
82
25
35
35
The imports from Russia into the United Kingdom, and the exports of
British home produce to Russia, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
are shown in the subjoined table : —
. Imports from Russia
into U. K. .
i Exports to Russia
1 from U. K. ,
1888
£
26,315,213
4,810,075
1891
27,154,490
£ ! £
23,750,868 ,24,110,251
5,332,251 . 5,751,601 5,407,402
1892
£
15,122,677
5,357,018
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904
RUSSIA
The chief artiole of import from Russia into the United Kingdom is grain,
mainly wheat, oats, and barley, as follows : —
-
1888
1880
1890
1801
1892
Wheat
Oats .
Barley
£
8,128,448
3,655,311
2,663,731
£
8,000,894
3,865,488
1,799,389
£
7,481,537
2,660,499
2,154,380
£
6,433,804
3,367,844
2,029,399
£
1,470,425
1,601,346
1,167,314
Other articles of import into Great Britain from Russia in the year 1892
were flax, to the value of 1,440,476*. ; wood and timber, 3,262,777*. ; flax seed,
rape and linseed, 581,409*.; wool, 724,910*.; petroleum, 539,6052.; sugar,
280, 7871. Minor articles of import into Great Britain are tallow and steanne,
bristles, oordage and twine, oil-seed cake, and tar. The principal British
exports to Russia in the year 1892 were iron, wrought and un wrought, of the
value of 522,948*.; lead, 134,431*.; cotton stuffs and yarn, of the value of
350,321*.; woollens, with worsteds and yarn, of the value of 157,003*.; coal,
799,640*.; machinery, 1,227,782*.; alkali, 123,084*.; fish, 164,971*.
The quantities of grain and flour imported from Russia into the United
Kingdom in each of the five years 1888 to 1892, from both the northern and
southern ports of the Empire, were as follows : — 54,632,590 cwts. in 1888 ;
47,171,452 cwts. in 1889 ; 39,420,085 cwts. in 1890 ; 37,567,234 cwts. in
1891 ; 18,456,411 cwts. in 1892.
The chief Russian fair is that of Nijni Novgorod. In 1891 the
goods shipped to the fair were valued at 168,211,000 roubles, as against
181,256,830 roubles in 1890. Of that there remained unsold goods to the
value of 11,262,000 roubles (7,039,840 roubles in 1890). The chief items
in Russian goods were : Russian cottons, 21,634,000 roubles ; woollen goods,
14,814,000 roubles ; linen and hemp goods, 4,301,000 roubles ; silk and
silk goods, 5,471,000 roubles ; furs, 3,423,000 roubles ; leather and leather
ware, 7,419,000 roubles. Metals : 21,563,000 roubles ; glass and earthen-
ware, 6,290,000 roubles Of articles of foreign production, those of Europe
were valued at 6,928,000 roubles ; those of Asia (mostly tea from China), at
24,181,000 roubles. In 1892 the total business done at the fair amounted to
177,000,000 roubles. The quantity of goods sent was, however, 14 per cent.
less than in 1891.
Shipping and navigation.
In 1893 the registered mercantile marine of Russia consisted of 242
steamers, of 211,664 tons gross, and 948 sailing vessels, of 280,538 tons net ;
total, 1,190 vessels, of 492,202 tons. About one-fourth of the vessels were
engaged in trading to foreign countries, and the remainder coasting vessels,
many of them belonging to Greeks, sailing under the Russian flag.
In 1892 the navigation in the ports of Russia and the Black Sea coast of
the Caucasus appeared as follows for vessels above 20 tons.
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
905
-
Numbers
Tons
Of these under Russian Flag
Numbers
Tons
Vessels entered : —
White Sea
Baltic Sea
Black and Azov Seas .
Total
Vessels cleared : —
White Sea
Baltic Sea
Black and Azov Seas .
Total
594
4,566
3,357
105,800
2,406,000
2,781,000
231
720
354
18,030
223,000
30M00
8,517
5,292,800
1,305
549,130
578
4,538
3,283
200,200
2,412,000
2,818,000
213
692
318
17,100
223,000
320,100
8,399
5,430,200
1,223
560,200
The Caspian ports were entered in 1892 by 7,705 steamers and 5,024 sail-
ing vessels ; total, 4,826,000 tons. The ports of the Pacific (Vhadivostok and
Nikolai vsk) were visited by 149 steamers and 17 sailing vessels ; total,
121,030 tons. In the coasting trade the ports of the White, the Baltic, and
the Black Sea were entered by 37,414 vessels (14,292,900 tons) in 1892.
The yearly returns (imports and exports) of the five chief ports of Russia
for the last six years (in millions of roubles) is seen from the following : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1892
St. Petersburg
131
139
144
153
108
Odessa .
—
—
—
176
116
Libau .
42
76
76
57
45
Riga .
73
75
72
75
59
Reval
89
61
63
74
37
Batum .
—
—
—
37
34
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers and Canals.
In 1891, 81,733 smaller vessels, and 138,688 rafts were unloaded
at the river ports, the value of merchandise thus transported exceeding
199,600,000 roubles, and its total weight, 161,815,000 tons. The steam navi-
gation on Russian rivers has rapidly developed of late. While there were in
1874 only 691 steamers (50,900 horse- power) plying on Russian rivers, their
number reached in 1886 1,507 steamers (1,824 steamers in 1891), 86,400
nominal horse-power, capable of receiving a load of 115,000 tons, and valued
at 50,427,500 roubles. Of these 979 have been built in Russia, and 340 are
heated with naphtha, 432 with coal, and 692 with wood.
In 1891 Russia had 33,463 English miles of navigable rivers, and 453
miles of canals. The traffic on the rivers of European Russia proper (exclusive
of Poland, Finland, and Caucasus) was in tons :-—
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906
RUSSIA
-
Total
Corn
2,558,500
2,664,500
2,670,000
2,570,000
2,227,000
Fuel Wood
Timber
Naphtha
1885
1886
1888
1889
1890
8,381,500
8,610,500
8,995,200
9,908,000
9,719,000
1,918,500
2,220,000
2,075,000
2,230,000
3,510,000
898,000
711,000
953,000
1,090,000
876,000
722,500
543,500
730,000
984,000
714,000
To this must be added the timber transported on rafts : 8,550,000 tons in
1889, 6,940,000 tons in 1890, and 7,004,000 tons in 1891.
Of the whole river traffic (including rafts) of European Russia, 67 per
oent. falls upon the system of the Volga and the Neva — tne remainder being :
28 per cent, on the Dnieper-Nyemen and Dvina system, 3 per cent only
on the Don, 1.4 per cent, on the Dniester, and 1*1 on the Narova.
In 1889 the sum of 13,000,000 roubles was assigned for the reconstruction
of the Mariinsk system of canals (connecting the Volga with St. Petersburg),
so as to permit the passage of vessels 220 feet long and with 6 feet draught of
water.
The river fleet of European Russia and Poland consists of 1,943 steamers,
thus distributed in the different basins : Volga, 1,096 ; Neva and lakes, 225 ;
Dnieper, 236 ; Don, 146 ; Northern Dvina, 82 ; Western Dvina, 62 ; Vistula,
28 ; Dniester, 16 ; Lakes Pskov and Chudskoye, 13 ; Nyeman, 13 ; Narova,
5 ; Urals, Eastern Slope, 3.
In 1893 102 steamers navigated on the rivers of West Siberia, the traffic
attaining an aggregate of 322,000 tons, and 66 steamers plied on the rivers
of East Siberia.
The naphtha flotilla of the Caspian Sea numbers 57 steamers and 263
sailing vessels, which have transported above 30,000,000 cwt. of naphtha.
I
II. Railways.
The activity of the Russian railways, exclusive of the Transcaspian railway
and those of Finland, is seen from the following table, which shows the
length, gross receipts, working expenses, and net receipts, as also the numbei
of passengers and amounts of goods carried for the last six years, according to
the last figures published by the Ministry of Ways and Communications.
Years
E. miles
1886
16,249
1887
16,818
1888
17,338
1889
17,594
1890
18,059
1891
18,441
Gross
Receipts
Paper Roubles
224,551,356
288,382,754
282,690,784
284,530,638
296,087,000
Working
Expenses
Paper Roubles
142,185,127
144,264,141
160,057,685
168,832,542
171,774,282
177,651,000
Net Receipts
Passengers
Paper Roubles
Persons
82,866,229
86,841,875
108,722,558
37,184,773
123,325,068
42,966,255
113,858,242
45,005,162
112,756,356
46,505,000
118,436,000
47,942,765
Goods
carried
Tons
41,289,200
48,682,000
64,160,000
67,473,000
67,381,000
69,848,000
In 1880-88 a railway for military purposes was constructed from Uzun-ada
on the S.E. shore of the Caspian, by Kizil Arvat, Merv, and Charjui, on the
Amu-daria, to Samarcand, vid Bokhara, the whole distance of desert crossed
by the line being 890 miles. The cost of the railway was 46,120,000 roubles.
and its rolling stock is represented by 110 locomotives and 1,080 carriages.
The latest official returns show that at the beginning of 1892 Russia had
the following length of railways, in English miles : — Opened in Russia, Poland,
and Caucasia, 18,441 (of which private, 11,617, and State railways, 6,824) ;
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS 907
in Finland, 1,210 ; in Transcaspian region, 890 ; total, 20,741. The following
railways were building : private, various on the Dniester, 245 miles ; Ryazan-
Kazan, 552 miles ; Kursk- Voronej, 153 miles ; branches of Kurvk-Kiev trunk,
219 miles ; Petrovsk- Vladikavkaz, 166 miles ; mineral waters branch of
Vladikavkaz, 40 miles ; Tamhoff-Kamyshin and Saratoff-Uralse, 650 miles ;
various, 13 miles ; and second metals on a length of 744 miles ; State :
Tchelyabinsk-Qmsk, 492 miles ; Poland, 87 miles ; Siberian, from Vladivostok
up the Usuri, 258 miles (63 miles opened in 1893) ; various, 56 miles ; total,
2,932 miles ; Finland, 252 miles.
In 1891 the Kursk-Kharkov- Azov line (506 miles), and the Libau-Romny
line (800 miles), were bought by the State ; so also the lines Warsaw-Tizaspol,
and Orel-Gryazi, in 1892.
The rolling stock on January 1, 1892, was: 6,996 steam engines, 7,788
fvassengers' carriages, 147,124 goods carriages.
The capital spent for the construction of all the Russian railways (exclusive
of Finland and Transcaspian) reached on January 1, 1893, 1,622,039,000
metallic roubles and 588,585,000 paper roubles, or about 2,024,000,000 metallic
roubles (316,887,500/.). On January 1, 1893, the share of the State in the
private railways, constructed with the aid of the State (11,280 miles), was as
follows : —
Metallic roubles Paper roubles
Shares guaranteed by the State . 215,817,000 91,812,000
Obligations 291,200,000 42,387,000
Consolidated obligations taken by
the State 982,084,000 71,481,000
Loans to railway companies , . 50,418,000 268,304,000
Total 1,539,519,000 473,984,000
= 1,856,000,000 metallic roubles.
which sum represents 92 per cent, of the total cost of these railways. It
appears considerably lower than in previous years, on account of several lines
of railways having been bought by the State. The yearly guarantee upon
this capital was 87,154,480 paper roubles.
The debts of the railways to the State (for guarantee, obligations, and
loans) attained on January 1, 1893, 944,028,461 paper roubles.
In 1891 the State's guarantee to the railways was 62,095,000 metallic and
16,729,000 paper roubles ; but owing to the recent purchases of railways the
sum paid was only 7,655,361 roubles in 1892.
The charters granted to railway companies are for the most part terminable
after between 75 and 85 years ; but some small companies have charters only
for 37 years.
The chief line which was begun in 1892 was the Siberian railway, which
is now in construction from Vladivostok up the Usuri river, and in its western
part, between Omsk and Tchelyabinsk — this last place being already con-
nected by rail with Samara, vid the iron works of Zlatoust and Mias and
Ufa. The new trunk will have a length of 4,950 miles, and cost 22,385,000
roubles. The termination of the whole line across Siberia to the Pacific is
expected by the year 1905, the total cost being estimated at 150,000,000
roubles, of which 30,000,000 roubles are inserted m the estimates for 1893.
In order to avoid ruinous tariff wars between various railway companies,
a law was promulgated on August 17, 1889, giving to the Administration the
right to interfere when necessary.
The number of accidents was, in 1891, 658 killed and 1,533 wounded.
The railways employ an aggregate of 259,719 employees and servants.
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908
RUSSIA
The State railways in 1890 and 1891 gave the following results, in roubles :
Revenue .
Expenditure
Net income
1890
72,508,516
45,406,209
27,102,307
1891
78,130,258
46,023,232
32,107,026
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
The following are the postal statistics for 1891 : — Number of offices, 6,557.
Sent out.
Interior.
International.
Letters and Postcards .
Letters with Money .
Value, Roubles . . .
Periodicals & Book Post
217,980,000
13,462,000
4,162,245,000
152,690,000
29,949
616,000
199,047,740
17,143,000
The length of State telegraph lines in Russia on January 1, 1891, was
88,280 English miles, and the length of wire 172,360 English miles. Of
the total system, about nineteen -twentieths were the property of the State.
There were at the same date 3,796 telegraph offices. The total number of
telegrams earned in 1890 was 10,103,810. The length of the telephone lines
attained 1,376 miles, and the number of telephone messages was 109,950. The
actual receipts and expenditure of the posts and telegraphs combined have
been as follows for years : —
Years
Income
Expenditure
Roubles
Roubles
1885
25,255,423
24,768,100
1886
i 25,587,711
24,779,303
1887
26,935,729
24,615,911
1888
! 28,866,884
24,412,649
1889
29,554,650
24,328,493
1890
30,925,903
25,219,619
\
Money and Credit.
The amount of money coined at the mint in 1891 was 6,446,668 roubles,
as against 30,371,856 roubles in 1890. It included gold, 2,735,140 roubles :
silver, 3,486,508 roubles ; copper, 225,000 roubles. The amount of metallic
money in circulation is not known. As to paper money, it amounted, on
January 1, i 892, to 1,121,295,384, roubles, covered by 286,505,032 roubles
in gold and silver, leaving thus uncovered 568,527,206 paper roubles.
1. The Bank of Russia acts in a double capacity — of State Bank and of a
commercial bank. Its accounts, inplusive of those of its 95 branches, on
Pecember 28, 1893, were :—
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MONEY AND CBEDIT 909
A. Emission of paper currency: —
Liabilities — Roubles
Paper, roubles in circulation ... 780,018,488
Do., temporary emissions ...... 150,000,000
_A AAA t" *a i
Metallic fund 211,505,032
Do., for temporary emissions 150,000,000
Debt of the Treasury for paper money. . . . 568,513,456
B. Commercial operations .— Total 930,018,488
Liabilities —
Roubles
Foundation capital 25,000,000
Reserve „ 3,000,000
Paper money, temporary emission .... 266,263,146
Capital for building new house 1,072,352
Current accounts, private and State's .... 286,289,910
Unredeemable deposits 99,452,781
Interest bearing deposits 38,009,150
Interest due and various transferable sums . . . 18,246,831
Transfers 66,680,693
Sums of the Polish Bank 2,515,000
Interest for the current year's operations . . 14,388,985
Profits of 1892 5,584,775
Miscellaneous 731,760
Assets— Total 827,235,383
Cash : paper money 117,037,347
„ gold and silver 31,315,187
Difference on gold for guarantee of paper money . . 58,704,817
Sums at Bankers' abroad 14,920,278
Discounted bills 151,625,724
Paid on current accounts guaranteed by securities . . 43,349,240
Loans under securities 73,298,323
Bonds, &c., belonging to the Bank . . , .228,360,555
Accounts of the Branches of the Bank . . . . 64,503,144
Miscellaneous 44,120,768
* Total 827,235,383
Deposited in trust 1,486,195,457
2. The Savings Banks in towns (682) all under the Ministry of Finance,
had 256,712,274 (174,053 deposits) roubles of deposits on April 1, 1893.
On Jan. 1, 1892, the postal savings banks had 107,818 deposits for
10,625,656 roubles, as against 2,356,789 in 1891.
3. State Banks for mortgage loans to the nobility, on July 1, 1892,
showed accounts balancing at 211,036,430 roubles, the loans granted amount-
ing to 196,398,300 roubles (177,717,428 roubles in 1892).
4. Land Batik for the purchase of land by the peasants. — Up to January
1, 1893, the bank had made 9,896 loans to village communities, associa-
tions, and separate individuals, representing an aggregate of 268,499 house-
holders. They bought 4,704,107 acres, valued at 82,729,146 roubles, of which
65,171,629 roubles were lent by the bank, and 17,557,517 roubles paid by the
buyers.
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)
910 BUSSIA
No full accounts of the operations of the private banks are available. The
accounts published by the 29 chief banking companies show an aggregate return
of 25,811,100,000 roubles, with an aggregate foundation capitalof 94,200,000
roubles. Their dividends vary from 6 to 15 per cent.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
# Money.
The legal unit of money is the silver Rouble of 100 Kopecks. It is of the
value of Za. 2*054c£., but in official calculations 6*40 roubles are taken as
equal to the pound sterling.
Gold coins are the imperial and half imperial of 10 and 5 roubles. The
half -imperial weighs 6*544041 grammes '916 fine, and contains, therefore,
5 998704 grammes of fine gold. The new imperial weighs 12*902 grammes
•900 fine, and consequently contains 11*6118 grammes of fine gold.
The silver rouble weighs 20*7315 grammes '86806 fine, or (in the new
coinage) 19*9957 grammes '900 fine, and consequently contains 17*994
grammes of fine silver. Besides the silver rouble, inconvertible credit notes
are legal tender. In circulation there is little else than paper money
(100, 25, 10, 5, 3, and 1 rouble notes), the average value being about 10
roubles to the pound sterling. In 1890 the value of a paper rouble was
27'09d. For budget purposes the official value in 1891 was 1*60 paper to 1
silver rouble, or 22*43d.
Weights, and Measures.
1 Verst (500 sajenes) . . = 3,500 ft, or two-thirds of a statute
mile (0*6629).
1 Sajene (3 arshins) . . = 7 feet English.
1 Arshin (16 vershok) . . = 28 inches.
1 Square vent . . . = 0*43941 square mile.
1 Dessiatine . = 2*69972 English acres.
1 Pound (96 zolotniks = S2 lot) = & of a pound English (0*90283 lb.).
x poo* (40 poum. • {z^^
63 Poods =1 ton.
1 Ship Last . = about 2 tons (1 '8900).
1 Vedro (8 shtoffs) . . . = 2f imperial gallons (2*707).
1 Tchetvert (8 tchetnerUcs) . =5*77 imperial bushels, or ^imperial
quarter (0*72186).
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Russia in Gkeat Britain.
Ambassador. — His Excellency Privy Councillor Georges de Staal, accre-
dited July 1, 1884.
Councillor of Embassy. — M. Bouteneflf. First Secretary. — M. Kroupensky.
Military Attache. — Lieut-Colonel Yermoloff.
Naval AUaclti. — Captain Rojestvensky.
Consul-General. — A. de Volborth.
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FINLAND
911
Russia has also consular representatives at : —
Aberdeen, V.C.
Belfast, V.C.
Bristol, V.C
Cardiff, V.C.
Cork, V.C.
Dublin, V.C.
Dundee, V.C.
Glasgow, V.C.
Hull, V.C.
Leith, V.C.
Liverpool, C.
Newcastle, V.C.
Plymouth, V.C.
Southampton, V.C.
Cape Town, C.
Gibraltar, C,
Hong Kong, C.
Malta, C.
Melbourne, C.
Singapore, V.C.
Sydney, C.
2. Of Great Britain in Russia.
Ambassador. —
Secretary of Embassy. — Henry Howard, C.B.
Military Attache:— Major W. H. Waters, R.A.
Commercial Attache. — Edward FitzGerald Law.
Consul and Translator. — J. Michell.
There are also British Consular representatives at : —
Abo, V.C.
Archangel, V.C.
Bjorneborg, V.C
Cronstadt, V.C.
Helsingfors, V.C.
Moscow, V.C.
Revel, V.C.
Odessa, C.G.
Batum, C.
Kertch, V.C.
Poti, V.C.
Sebastopol, V.C.
Riga, C.
Taganrog, C.
Warsaw, C. G.
FINLAND.
The Government of Finland and her relations to the Empire have been
referred to on page 857 ; its area and population given on page 860 ; and its
army on page 879. Of the total area 11*15 per cent, is under lakes. Accord-
ing to a law of August 14, 1890, the circulation of Russian paper roubles and
silver money has been rendered obligatory. The penal code, elaborated by the
Senate, which had to be promulgated on January 1, 1891, has been stopped by
the Russian Government till further notice. In 1891 the postal administration
of Finland was subjected to the Russian Ministry of Interior.
Population.
The gradual increase of the population is seen from the following : —
Tears
In Towns
In Country
Total
1830
76,489
1,295,588
1,372,077
1870
131,603
1,637,166
1,768,769
1880
173,401
1,887,381
2,060,782
1887
211,589
2,059,323
2,270,912
1888
218,280
2,087,636
2,305,916
1889
226,689
2,111,715
2,338,404
18901
235,227
2,144,913
2,380,140
i December 31, 1890.
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912
RUSSIA : — FINLAND
Of the total population there were at end of 1890 : — Lutherans, 2,334,547 ;
Greek Orthodox and raskolniks, 45,132 ; Roman Catholics, 461.
The chief towns, with population, of Finland are : — Helsingfors (with
Sveaborg), 61,583 ; Abo, 28,946 ; Tammerfors, 19,041 ; Wiborg, 17,984 ; Ulea-
borg, 12,483 ; Bjbrneborg, 10,458 ; Nikolaistad (Wasa), 9,409 ; Kuopio, 9,050.
The movement of the population in 1886-90 was as follows :—
Years
Marriages
Births
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
16,248
17,179
16,748
16,099
16,885
80,776
84,102
80,172
77,881
77,860
Deaths
51,714 '
45,253
47,417
45,679
46,479
Excess of Births
29,062
38,849
32,755
32,102
31,405
Immigration in 1890, 52,272. Emigration, 52,248.
In 1888 there were about 1,966,000 Finns, 332,000 Swedes, 4,650 Russians,
1,800 Germans, 1,000 Laps.
Instruction.
In 1892 Finland had 1 university, with 1,757 students ; 1 polytechnic, 130
students ; 21 lyceums (16 State), 3,950 pupils ; 9 progymnasiums, 1,050
Eupils ; 23 real schools, 775 pupils ; 60 girls' schools, 4,463 pupils ; 825
igher primary schools, with 51,689 pupils; 4 normal schools, with
459 pupils. There are besides 7 navigation schools, with 152 pupils ; 6
commercial schools, with 247 male and 217 female pupils ; 39 evening and
Sunday professional schools, with 1,287 pupils ; 2 agricultural institutes,
12 agricultural and 17 dairy schools, with 375 male and 175 female pupils ;
5 trade schools, with 292 pupils. Out of 470,382 children of school
age (from 7 to 16 years old), only 21,523 received no education.
There were, in 1892, 61 Swedish and 84 Finnish newspapers and reviews
published.
Pauperism and Crime.
The number of paupers in 1890 supported by the village communities was
79,557 (3*3 per cent, of the population) ; and the total cost was 2,586,896
marks.
The prison population, at the end of 1890, was 1,471 men and 569 women,
while the number of sentences pronounced for crimes in 1890 was 1,755, and
for minor offences 19,690.
Finance.
i
The estimated revenue for 1892 was 59,908,875 marks (15,394,786 marks
being left from previous budgets), and expenditure the same (20,377,477 marks
being left for the next year). Of the revenue, 5,496,100 marks came from
direct taxes ; 21,568,000 marks indirect taxes. The chief items of expenditure
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INDUSTRY— COMMERCE
912a
are military affairs, 7,192,126 marks ; civil administration, 8,034,817 marks ;
worship and education, 6,234,756 ; public debt, 4,093,507.
The public debt on January 1, 1892, amounted to 77,736,801 marks, as
against 85,130,944 marks on January 1, 1890 ; of which 4,150,200 marks
internal.
Industry.
The land was divided in 1890 among 114,582 owners (345 nobles, 2,218
Burger, 111,557 peasants, and 297 foreigners in 1888), and the landed property
was distributed as follows : — Less than 12 J acres, 34,032 persons (as against
42, 592 in 1885) ; from 12ito 62£ acres, 55,055 persons, from 62 J to 250 acres,
21,468 persons ; more than 250 acres, 4,027 persons. Small farmers, 69,936.
The crop of 1890 was in hectolitres :— Wheat, 51,162; rye, 4,518,220;
barley, 2,311,684 ; oats, 5,518,477 ; sarrazin, 16,053 ; peas, 143,739 ; potatoes,
6,068,241 ; flax, 1,890 tons ; hemp, 1,000 tons.
Of domestic animals Finland had : — Horses, 262,559 ; horned cattle,
928,276 ; sheep, 1,054,027 ; swine, 194,192 ; reindeer, 85,859 ; goats, 15,266 ;
poultry, 299,970.
The crown forests cover 14,187,864 hectares. Their maintenance cost
578,763 francs, and the income derived from them was 2,170,089 francs. In
1890 there were 222 saw mills with water motors, and 189 steam mills, as
against 117 in 1888. They give occupation to 9,704 workers, and their aggre-
gate production was 1,226,065 cubic metres of timber, as against 3,003,354
cubic metres in 1889.
The annual produce of pig-iron and iron, in metric tons, for seven years,
was : —
Years
Ore
Pig-iron
Iron
1884
46,632
22,706
24,470
1885
29,536
24,379
26,329
1886
27,716
18,052
17,056
1887
30,531
20,711
15,436
1888
34,859
19,685
11,707
1889
48,693
15,060
12,227
1890
59,435
23,749
16,948
Finland had in 1890, 6,496 large and small manufactures, employing an
aggregate of 59,176 workers, and yielding an aggregate product of 167,042,524
marks (6,681,701Z.). The chief were :—
-
No. of
Establishments
No. of
Workers
Production
Marks
Iron and mechanical works
945
10,039
25,294,234
Textiles ....
48
6,445
21,269,333
Wood and bone industries .
662
12,762
37,857,557
Distilleries and breweries .
134
2,015
9,916,413
Paper ....
118
3,764
13,826,493
Leather ....
678
2,596
11,082,228
The total amount of steam engines attained 698 ; horse-power, 12,018.
3m*
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912&
RUSSIA : — FINLAND
Commerce.
The exterior trade of Finland appears as follows, in thousands of marks
(francs) : —
,
1889
1890
1891
~~
Imports
Exports
Imports j Exports
Imports
Exports
from
to
from to
from
to
Russia
53,699
36,566
47,256 36,363
52,461 36,143
Sweden and Norway
9,470
8,859 12,319 7,346 10,603
6,162
Denmark
2,398
7,493 3,384 ' 10,959 3,668
15,031
Germany
38,122 8,071 44,782 • 5,987
46,836
7,313
Great Britain .
18,788 23,104 23,007
17,650
21,514
19,019
Spain
1,773
5,907
1,860
4,670
1,577
4,723
1 France .
810
7,721
1,494
4,710
1,426
11,272
Various .
8,420
5,016
6,499
140,602
4,736
92,421
8,432
4,535
Total .
133,480
102,737
146,527
104,198
The chief items of export are : timber (44,784,500 marks in 1891, as
against 28,699,000 in 1887), butter and meat (16,267,300), paper, paper
mass, and cardboard (8,625,900), iron and iron goods (4,212,100), corn and
flour (7,076,600), cottons (4,209,900), leather, hides, tar, and pitch.
The chief imports were : — Corn and flour (27,807,400 marks) coffee,
colonial goods, and grocery (26,840,000), metals, chiefly iron, and hardware
(13,006,400), cotton and other tissues (17,669,000), raw cotton (8,325,500),
machinery (6,125,600), chemicals, leather ware, tobacco, colours, and oils.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels which entered and cleared the ports of Finland in
1891 was as follows : —
I
-
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tons
No.
8,974
995
Tons
Finnish .
Russian .
Foreign .
Total .
8,451
1,148
2,034
1,181,758
40,505
769,276
1,228,540
39,385
775,540
11,633
1,991 539
12,010
2,048,465
The Finnish commercial navy numbered on January 1, 1892, 1,711 sailing
vessels of 225,639 tons, and 386 steamers, 9,291 horse-power, 25,743 tons;
total, 2,097 vessels of 251,382 tons.
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DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA 91 2c
Internal Communications.
For internal communications Finland has a remarkable system of lakes
connected with each other and with the Gulf of Finland by canals. The
number of vessels passing through the canals of Finland every year is from
15,000 to 19,000 (17,845 in 1891), and the net revenue from the canals varies
from 230,000 to 600,000 marks every year (236,502 in 1891).
At the end of 1891 there were 1,930 kilometres of railways, all but 33
kilometres belonging to the State. The traffic in 1891 was 2,600,311 pas-
sengers and 1, 033, 620 tons of goods. The total cost of the State railways to the
end of 1891 was 145,210,115 marks. The total revenue of the same in 1891
was 12,732,490 marks, and the total expenditure 8,204,907 marks.
Finland had 421 post-offices in 1890, and revenue and expenses were
respectively 1,547,529 and 1,096,436 marks ; united letters, post-cards, and
under- wrappers, 9,379,745 ; registered letters and parcels, 619,954 ; journals,
7,576,148.
The 136 savings-banks had on December 31, 1890, 77,031 depositors, with
aggregate deposits of 41,348,856 marks.
Money, Weights, &c.
The markka of 100 penni is of the value of a franc, 9jd. The standard
is gold, and the markka, though not coined in gold, is the unit.
Gold coins are 20 and 10-markka pieces. They contain "2903225 grammes
of fine gold to the markka.
Silver coins are 2, 1, J, and J -markka pieces.
Copper coins are 10, 5, and 1 -penni pieces.
The paper currency is exchangeable at par against gold or silver.
The unit of linear measure is the foot, which is = 0 '2969 metre, or very
nearly equal to the English foot. 1 verst (3,600 Finn, feet) = nearly § of a
statute mile ; 1 tunnland (56,000 square Finn, feet) = nearly 1\ acre (0*49364
hectare) ; 1 tunna (63 kannor) = nearly 4 J bushels (1 "6488 hectolitre ; 1
skalpund=TV<r of Eng. lb. (425 01 grammes); 1 centner (100 skalpund=5
li8pund)=^i^ of Eng. ton (45*501 kilogrammes). Metric measures are now
in general use.
RUSSIAN DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
The following two States in Central Asia are under the suzerainty of
Russia : —
BOKHABA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between N. latitude 41° and
37°, and between E. longitude 62° and 72°, bounded on the north by the Russian
province of Turkestan, on the east by the Pamir, on the south by Afghanistan,
and on the west by the Kara Kum desert.
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912d RUSSIA
The reigning sovereign is the Ameer Sayid Abdul Ahad, fourth son of the
late Ameer, by a slave girl ; born about 1860, educated in Russia, succeeded
his father in 1885.
The modern State of Bokhara was founded by the Usbegs in the fifteenth
century, after the power of the Golden Horde had been crushed by Tamurlane.
The dynasty of Manguts, to which the present ruler belongs, dates from the
end of the last century. Mir Muzaffar-ed-din in 1866 proclaimed a holy war
against the Russians, who thereupon invaded his dominions, and forced
him to sign a treaty ceding the territory now forming the Russian district of
Syr Daria, to consent to the demand for a war indemnity, and to permit
Russian trade. In 1873 a further treaty was signed, in virtue of which no
foreigner was to be admitted to Bokhara without a Russian passport, and the
State became practically a Russian dependency.
Ameers of Bokhara.— -Sayid Ameer Hyder, 1799-1826 ; Mir Hussein, 1826 ;
Mir Omir, 1826-27 ; Mir Nasrulla, 1827-60 ; Muzaffer-ed-din, 1860-85.
Area about 92,000 square miles, population about 2,500,000. Chief towns
—Bokhara, 100,000 ; Karshi, 25,000 ; Khuzar, Shahr-i-Sabz, Hissar, 10,000 ;
Charjui, Karakul, Kermine.
The religion is Mahomedan.
The Ameer has 20,000 troops, of which 4,000 are quartered in the city. A
proportion of the troops are armed with Russian rifles and have been taught
the Russian drill.
Bokhara produces corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, and hemp ; and breeds goats,
sheep, horses, and camels. The yearly produce of cotton is said to be about
32,000 tons, of silk 967 tons. Gold, salt, alum, and sulphur are the chief
minerals found in the country.
The following figures show the trade of Bokhara in 1887 : —
Imports. — From Russia, 10,600,000 roubles ; from Persia, 5,475,000
roubles ; from Afghanistan and India, 600,000 roubles ; total imports,
16,675,000 roubles.
Exports.— To Russia, 12,500,000 roubles; to Persia 2,120,000; to
Afghanistan and India, 420,000 roubles ; total exports, 15,040,000 roubles.
In 1890 the exports, Russian and native, from Bokhara to Afghanistan,
are said to have been 3,944,568 roubles ; the imports (largely Anglo-Indian)
from Bokhara to Afghanistan 4,884,270 roubles.
The yearly imports of green tea, mostly from India, are said to amount to
1,125 tons. The imports from India also include indigo, Dacca muslins, drugs,
shawls, and kincobs. Bokhara exports raw silk to India, the quantity
exported in one year being estimated at 34 tons. The exports of cotton in
1888 were 122,000 bales. By the treaty of 1873 all merchandise belonging
to Russian traders, whether imported or exported, pays a duty of 24 per cent.
ad valorem. No other tax or import duty can be levied on Russian goods,
which are also exempt from all transit duty. The Ameer has forbidden the
import of spirituous liquors except for the use of the Russian Embassy.
The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway now runs through Bokhara from
Charjui, on theOxus, to a station within a few miles of the capital, and thence
to Samarkand ; the distance from Charjui to the Russian frontier station of
Katti Eurghan being about 186 miles.
Jj3 There is a telegraph line from Samarkand to Bokhara, the capital.
Russian paper roubles are current everywhere. The Bokhara silver tenga
is valued at 5d.
Russian Political Resident, M. Lessar.
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KHIVA 913
Books of Reference concerning Bokhara.
Burnet (Sir Alexander), Travels into Bokhara. 1839.
VamMry, History of Bokhara. London, 1873.
Curzon (Hon. G.), Rnssia in Central Asia. 1889.
Le Metturitr (Col. A.), From London to Bokhara, 1889.
KHIVA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between N. latitude 43° 40
and 41°, and E. longitude 58° and 61° 50'. Extreme length 200 miles ; ex-
treme breadth 140 miles ; bounded on the north by the Aral Sea, on the east
by the river Oxus, on the south and west by the Russian Trans-Caspian
province.
Syed Mahomed Rahim Khan succeeded his father in 1865 as reigning
sovereign ; born about 1845.
Russian relations with the Khanate of Khiva — an Usbeg State, founded,
like that of Bokhara, on the ruins of Tamurlane's Central Asian Empire —
date from the beginning of the 18th century, when, according to Russian
writers, the Khivan Khans first acknowledged the Czar's supremacy. In 1872,
on the pretext that the Khivans had aided the rebellious Kirghiz, an expedi-
tion advanced to the capital, bombarded the fortifications, and compelled the
Khan to sign a treaty which puts the Khanate under Russian control. A war
indemnity of about 274,000Z. was also exacted. This heavy obligation, still
being liquidated by yearly instalments, has frequently involved the Khan in
disputes with his subjects, and Russian troops have more than once crossed the
frontier to afford him aid and support.
The Khans of Khiva have ocen Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1806-25 ; Alia
Kuli Khan, 1825-42 ; Rahim Kuli Khan, 1842-45 ; Mohamed Arnin Khan,
1845-55 ; Abdulla Khan, 1855-56 ; Kutlugh Murad Khan, 1856 ; Seyid Mo.
hamed Khan, 1856-65 ; Seyid Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1865.
Area, 22,320 square miles; population estimated at 700,000, including
400,000 nomad Turcomans. Chief towns — Khiva, 4,000-5,000 ; New Urgenj,
3,000 ; Hazar Asp, and Kungrad.
The religion is Mahomedan.
The annual production of silk is said to be about 48 tons ; of cotton, about
8,064 tons.
The exports of cotton in 1888 were 57,000 bales.
Books of Reference concerning Khiva.
Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva, by Capt J. Abbott. London, 1884.
A Ride to Khiva, by Colonel Burnaby. London, 1884.
The Shores of the Lake Aral, by Major Herbert Wood. London, 1876.
Bechu (B.), Nouvelle geographie universelle. L'Asie Rusae. 1881.
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\
914
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Russia.
1. Official Publications.
Russian.
Annual (Pamyatnaya Knijka) of the Ministry of the Navy for 1893. St Petersburg, 1893.
Annuals (Vremennik) of the Central Statistical Committee. St Petersburg, 1878-92.
Collection of Materials (Sbornik Svedeniy) for Russia for 1887 and 1888, published by the
Central Statistical Committee. St. Petersburg, 1891.
The Year 1891 with Relation to Agriculture. Also The Tear 1892. Published by the
Department of Agriculture. St. Petersburg, 1892.
Materials for a Statistic to the Empire of Russia. Published by the Statistical Depart-
ment of the Ministry of the Interior. 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-92 :—
Movement of Population in 1884 ; Prices on Land in 1882-87 ; The Zemstvos in 1886 ; Move-
ment of Population in 1886 ; Crops of 1889 compared to those of 1883-87 ; Crops of 1891 ; &c
Statistics of the Landed Property and Inhabited Places of the Russian Empire, with
maps, &o. Published by the Statistical Department St. Petersburg, 1861-86.
Sketch of the Exterior Trade (Obzor vnyeshnei Torgovli) for 1891, and Exterior Trade
on the European Frontier in 1892, published by the Ministry of Finances. St Petersburg,
1893.
Statistical Annual (Vremennik) of Caucasus. Tiflis, 1893.
Statistical Materials published by the Provincial Statistical Committees.
Statistics (Svod Statuticheskikh Svedenig) relative to the judicial institutions in 1887.
St. Petersburg, 1892.
Yearly Report of the Caucasus Administration about the Schools in 1891. Tiflis, 1893.
Official Messenger, periodical published by the Ministry of Interior.
Vyestnik Finansof, periodical published by the Ministry of Finances.
Sbornik of Materials for the Description of Caucasus and its Inhabitants- Tiflis ;
13th and 14th vols., published in 1892.
Kaufmann (Dr.), Financial Statistics of Russia for 1862-84, published by the Central
Statistical Committee. St Petersburg, 1886.
I. Kaufmann. The value of paper money of Russia for the last 50 years (Vekselnyie
Kursy Bossii), publ. in Vremennik of the Central Stat Committee. St. Petersburg, 1892.
The actual Income and Expenditure for 1886-91, in. Of. Messenger and Vyestnik Finantof
for 1892.
Statistical Reports (Sbornik) of the Ministry of Ways and Communications, voL xxx.-xxxi.
(Transport of Goods on Railways and Canals in 1891.) St Petersburg, 1893. (With maps.)
The Russian River Steamers in 1886. St Petersburg, 1889.
Reports of the Medical Department for 1891. St Petersburg, 1893.
Report of the Prison Administration for 1891. St. Petersburg, 1898.
A. Haspuan and Baron Noleken, Law (Pologenie) of the New Organisation of Peasants'
Tribunals in the Baltic Provinces, with a Summary of Motives. Published by Ministry of
Justice. St Petersburg. 8. 2 vols. 1889.
Postal and Telegraph Statistics for 1890. St Petersburg, 1893.
Report of the Finances of the Zemstvos for 1871-80, 1881-83, 1886-87. St Petersburg,
1884-90.
Annual of the Zemstvos for 1888 (Zemskiy Ejegodnik). St Petersburg, 1890.
Institutions of the Navy(Swd morekikh Poetanovleniy), 18 volumes. St Petersburg, 1888.
History of the Ministry of Domains for the Fifty Years of its Existence. St Petersburg, 1SS7
Krivenko, Short Description of the Governmental Institutions of Russia, 2nd edit St.
Petersburg, 1889.
Materials (8vod Materialov) relative to the Economical Conditions of the Peasants of
Transcaucasia. 5 vols. Tiflis, 1886-91.
Materials (Materialy) relative to the Economical Conditions of the Peasants and
Indigenes of West Siberia. 18 parts. St Petersburg, 1888-92.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 915
Collections of Laws (8bornik uzakoneniy) issued on July 12, 1889, on the Peasants' Insti-
tutions and Justices of the Peace. Edited by the Ministry of Interior. St Petersburg, 1890.
Russian Mining Industry in 1890, published by the Mining Department. St Petersburg,1892#
Memoirs and Bulletins of the Russian Geographical Society and its Branches in
Caucasus and Siberia.
Historical Review (Istoricheskiy Obzor) of the Measures taken by Government for Food
Supply in Russia. Vol. I. St. Petersburg, 1892. Edited by Ministry of Interior.
Collection of Materials (Sbornik Materialov) for the Description of the land and In-
habitants of Caucasus. Edited by the Ministry of Instruction. 17 vols. Tiflis, 1880-98.
French, English, %c.
Annuaire des finances russes : budget, credit, commerce, chemins de fer. Par A. Vesse-
lovsky, secretaire du comite scientifique du ministere des finances. 8. St. Petersburg, 1891.
Report on the Fair at Nishni Novgorod, in Deutsches Handels-Archiv for May 1892-
Berlin.
The Industries, Manufactures, and Trade of Russia. Published by the Ministry of
Finance for the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago. Editor of the English
translation, J. M. Crawford, United States Consul-General to Russia. 5 vols. St
Petersburg, 1893.
The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, Catalogue of the Russian Section. Pub-
lished by the Imperial Commission, Ministry of Finance, St Petersburg, 1893.
Statistik Arbok for Finland, utgifven af Statistiska Centralbyran. 1891. Helsingfors,1893.
HerUUt (Sir Edward), Foreign Office List Published annually. London, 1894.
Qrierson (Captain J. M.), Armed Strength of Russia (with two maps). London, 1886.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports of the Foreign Office for 1892. London, 1893.
Trade of Russia with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
8. Koulibine, Apercu preliminaire de l'industrie minerale en 1890. St Petersburg, 1892.
Review (Obzor) of the Transcaspian Region in 1890. St Petersburg, 1892.
2. Non- Official Publications.
Biir (K. E. von) and Helmersen (Gr. von), Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Russischen Reichs.
25 vols. 8. St Petersburg, 1852-72.
Besobrazof, Etudes sur l'economie nationale de la Russie en 1877-79. St Petersburg, 1884.
Brzezki, The Debts of the Russian Empire. St. Petersburg, 1884. (Russian.) •
ChUbotoski Slownik geograflczny Kr61ewstwa Polskiego i innych kraj6w slowianskieh.
12 vols. Warsaw, 1892.
Bomjkoffy Income from Custom Duties dnring the years 1822 to 1890. St Petersburg,
1892. (Russian.)
Erdmann (Dr.), System des Privatrechts der Ostseeprovinzen. Bd. I. Riga, 1889.
Erman (Georg Adolf), Archiv fur die wissenschaftliche Kunde Russlands. 25 vols. 8.
Berlin, 1841-68.
Goremyhin, Laws relative to the Peasantry issued since 1859. St Petersburg, 1891.
(Russian.)
Iliin (A.), Detailed Atlas of Russia, with plans of chief towns. St Petersburg, 1886.
(Russian.)
I*$aeff(A. A.), Emigration and its Importance for the Economy of the Russian Nation.
St. Petersburg, 1891. (Russian.)
LansdeU (H.), Russian Central Asia. London, 1885.
Leroy-Beaulieu (Anatole), L'empire des Tsars et les Russes. 2 vols. Paris, 1882.
Matthaei (Fr.), Die wirthschaftlichen Hulfsquellen Russlands. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1887.
MorfiU (W. R.), Poland. In Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1893.
3 N 2
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916
RUSSIA
Pauly (J. N.), Description ethnographique des peuplesde la Russie. 8. St Petersburg, 1862
Ilaffalovich (Arthur), Les finances de la Russie depuis la derniere guerre d'Orient,
1876-83. Paris, 1883. Also articles in the Journal des Eeonomistes.
Rambaud (Alfred), The History of Russia from its Origin to the year 1877. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1879.
Rectus (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Tome V. L'Europe Scandinave et Rnsse,
revised to date in 1885. VI. I/Asie Russe. Paris, 1880-81. And Appendix to the Russian
translation, by MM. Beketoff, Rogdanoff, Woeikoff, and others. St. Petersburg, 1884.
Rottger (Carl), Russische Revue. Monatsschrift fur die Kunde Russlands. 8. 8t-
Petersburg, 1872-92.
Roskoschny, Russland, Land und Leute. Leipzig, 1886 ; Die Wolga. Leipzig, 1887.
' Russkiy Kalendar,' published in December each year.
Samson-HimmeUtierna, Russia under Alexander III. [Translation from the German].
8. London, 1893.
8emenoff(S. P.), The Emancipation of Peasants. Vol. I. St. Petersburg, 1889.
Schuyler (Eugene), Turkestan : Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkestan, Khokand,
Bukhara, and Kuldja. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
Semenof (P. P.), Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire.
(Russian.) 5 vols. 8. St Petersburg, 1863-84.
Stchapof (A.), The Intellectual Development of the Russian People. (Russian.) 8. 8t.
Petersburg, 1870.
Strelbitzky (M.), Superficies de l'Europe. St Petersburg, 1882.
Thun, Industrie Central-Russlands.
Wallace (Mackenzie), Russia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
Wishav (F. J.), Out of Doors in Tsarland. 8. London, 1893.
Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony. Second edition. St Petersburg, 1892. (Russian.)
Yanson, Comparative Statistics. Vol. II. St. Petersburg, 1880. Researches into the
Allotments of Peasants. St Petersburg, 1882. (Russian.)
Ungern^Stemberg, Vine Culture in Crimea. St Petersburg, 1888. (Russian.)
8.M. Zhitkoff, Short Review of Russia's Water-communications. Published by the
Engineering Institute. St Petersburg, 1892. With maps. (Russian.)
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917
SALVADOR.
(ReP<JBLICA DEL SALVADOR.)
Constitution and Government.
In 1853 the Central American Federation, which had comprised the States of
Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, was dissolved,
and Salvador became an independent Republic. The Constitution, proclaimed
in 1864, and modified in 1880, 1883, and 1886, vests the legislative power
in a Congress of 70 Deputies, 42 of whom are proprietors. The election is
for one year, and by universal suffrage. The executive is in the hands of
a President, whose tenure of office is limited to four years.
President of the Republic. — General Carlos Ezeta, elected for the period
from March 1, 1891, to March 1, 1895.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are carried on, under the
President, by a ministry of four members, having charge of the departments
of : — The Exterior, Justice, and Worship ; War and Finance ; Interior and
Fomento ; Instruction and Beneficence.
The army numbers 4,000 men, and the militia 15,000. There is one
custom-house cruiser.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 7,225 English square miles,
divided into 14 departments. The population, according to a census of
January 1, 1886, was 651,130 (318,329 males and 332,801 females), giving
an average of 89 inhabitants to the square mile, being twenty times that of
the average of the other States of Central America. The census returns for
1892 are still incomplete. An official estimate makes the population
780,426. Aboriginal and mixed races constitute the bulk of the population,
among whom live about 20,000 whites or descendants of Europeans. The
capital is San Salvador, founded in 1528, with 20,000 inhabitants (1892).
The city in 1854 was overwhelmed by volcanic disturbances, and most of
the inhabitants erected new dwellings on a neighbouring site, at present
called Nueva San Salvador. The new capital suffered similarly in 1873,
and again in 1879.
Instruction and Justice.
Education is free and obligatory. In 1893 there were in Salvador 585
primary schools, with 29,427 pupils ; 18 higher schools (including 2 normal
and 3 technical schools) with 1,200 pupils; and a national university
with faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, natural sciences, and engineering,
attended by 180 students.
In the capital is a national library and museum, and in the Republic 13
newspapers are published.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, by several sub-
ordinate courts, and by local justices.
Finance.
The following are the official figures of the revenue and expenditure for
five years : —
-
| 1888
Dollars
3,794,710
I 2,889,092
1889
Dollars
4,070,342
4,038,157
1890
1891
1892
Revenue ....
Expenditure . . .
Dollars
4,151,457
5,442,315
Dollars
7,454,418
7,447,823
Dollars
6,895,703
6,784,529
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918
SALVADOR
The revenue is derived mostly from customs duties. The expenditure for
1892 was for :— Administration, 4,052,073 dollars; public credit, 2,732,456
dollars.
At the beginning of 1891 the internal debt amounted to about 7,500,000
dollars. In that year a Committee of Bondholders was authorised to issue,
in exchange for bonds of the public debt, bonds of Salvador to the amount of
8,000,000 dollars. Of this amount only 3,779,500 dollars were issued, and,
on January 1, 1893, the amount in circulation was 3,614,000 dollars. The
external debt is about £300,000, and the interest is paid with regularity.
In July, 1893, the Government published a project for an internal loan of
1,000,000 dollars, offering a premium of 10 per cent., and interest 12 per
cent, per annum, with the issue of guarantee bonds, redeemable one-half
with a new tax on spirits, the other naif with 10 per cent, of the import
duties. The tobacco and other taxes are already farmed out.
Production and Commerce.
The population of Salvador is largely engaged in agriculture. The chief
produce exported in 1892 was : — Coffee, 180,458 packages ; indigo, 9,587
packages; sugar, 12,279 packages; tobacco, manufactured, 1,170 packages ;
unmanufactured, 2,491 packages. The mineral wealth of the Republic
includes gold, silver, copper, iron, mercury. The mines and quarries in opera-
tion number 180.
The imports and exports have been as follows for five years : —
Imports
Exports
1888
Dollars
6,081,547
6,707,024
1890
1891
Dollars Dollars
2,886,050 2,405,202
5,673,786 I 7,578,734 \
Dollars
3,200,094
7,072,578
1892
Dollars
2,320,941
6,838,259 :
To the imports in 1892 Great Britain contributed 758,230 dollars ; the
United States, 878,770 dollars; France, 426,438 dollars; Germany, 268,380
dollars. Of the exports, 2,878,648 dollars went to the United States;
797,810 dollars to Great Britain ; 953,998 dollars to France ; 787,480 dollars
to Germany. The principal imports in 1892 were cotton goods, 877,470
dollars. The principal exports in 1892 were : — Coffee, 4,526,760 dollars ;
indigo, 1,150,170 dollars.
The imports into the United Kingdom from Salvador (according to the
Board of Trade Returns) amounted in 1892 to 186,454*., of which 104,252*.
was for dye stuffs, and 80,901*. for coffee. The domestic exports from the
the United Kingdom to Salvador amounted to 270,207*. ; the chief articles ex-
ported being cottons, 176,234*.; iron, 17,706*. ; woollens, 19,675*. ; ma-
chinery, 9,907*. (For earlier years see Guatemala.)
)
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892, 618 vessels entered the ports of the Republic, and as many
cleared.
A railway connects the port of Acajutla with the inland towns of Santa
Anna and Ateos 53 miles, and is nearly completed to San Tecla. Receipts
in 1892, 191,558 dollars ; expenses, 131,876 dollars. There are over 2,000
miles of good road in the Republic. Salvador joined the postal union in
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 919
1879. In 1892 there were 54 principal receiving offices, and 759,289
letters, and 922,608 packets were transmitted. In 1892 there were in Salvador
131 telegraph stations and a network of 2,421 miles of wire. There were
602, 947 messages transmitted. There are 897 miles of telephone wire.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 eentavos, approximate value 4*., real value 6|
dollars =11.
The gold coins of England, Germany, the Latin Union, Spain, several
South American Republics, and Mexico, by decree, are received at par ; those
of the United States generally at 5 per cent premium. The Central Ameri-
can Mint (Limited), established August, 1892, had issued up to March, 1893,
10,000 dollars in gold coinage, and 70,585 dollars in silver. In July, 1893,
the company contracted to coin in silver 1,000,000 dollars a year for 5 years
in "colones" and half "colones" *900 fine, and smaller pieces '835 fine.
A law passed September 30, 1892, adopting the gold standard, and requiring
taxes to be paid in gold or its equivalent, is still in abeyance.
Weights and Measures.
Libra . . = 1*014 lb. av. I Arroba . . = 25*35 lb. av.
Quintal. . = 101*40 lbs. av. | Fanega . . = 1 J bushel.
In 1885 the metrical system of weights and measures was introduced.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Salvador in Great Britain.
Consul-General and Agent. — L. Alexander Campbell.
There are consular agents at London, Falmouth, Southampton, Manchester,
Nottingham, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Glasgow.
2. Of Great Britain in Salvador.
Minister and Consul-General. — Audley C. Gosling.
Consul. — Charles S. H. Campbell (San Salvador).
Statistioal and other Books of Reference concerning Salvador.
Constitucion politica de la Republica del Salvador decretada por el Congreso Nacion
Constituyente el 4 de Diciembre de 1888.
Leyes, Ordenes y Resoluciones de los Poderes Legislatives y Ejecutivos en 1889. 8.
San Salvador, 1802.
American Consular Reports for February, August, September, and October, 1803.
Washington.
Report on Salvador for 1802, in No. 1281 Annual Series, Foreign Office Reports.
London, 1893.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1802. Imp. 4. London, 1803.
Gonzalez (Dr. D.), Oeografia de Ceutro- America. San Salvador, 1678.
Guzman (D.), Apuntamientos sobre la topografla flsica de la rep. del Salvador. San
Salvador, 1883.
Laferrtire (J.). De Paris a Guatemala. 8. Paris, 1877.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1850.
Reyes (Rafael). Nociones de hist6ria del Salvador. San Salvador, 1886.
Scherztr (Karl Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaateu
Nicaragua, Honduras und Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
8quicr(E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
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SAMOA.
Reigning King. — Malietoa Laupepa, restored November 9, 1889.
Group of 14 volcanic islands in the South Pacific, the chief of which are
Upolu, Savaii, and Tutuila. At a Samoan conference at Berlin in 1889, at
which Great Britain, Germany, and the United States were represented, an
Act was signed (June 14), guaranteeing the neutrality of the islands, in which
the citizens of the three signatory Powers have equal rights of residence,
trade, and personal protection. The three Powers recognise the independence
of the Samoan Government, and the free rights of the natives to elect their
chief or king, and choose the form of government according to their own laws
and customs. A supreme court is established, consisting of one judge, who
is styled Chief Justice of Samoa. To this Court are referred (1) all civil suits
concerning real property situated in Samoa ; (2) all civil suits of any kind^ be-
tween natives and foreigners, or between foreigners of different nationalities ;
(3) all crimes and offences committed by natives against foreigners, or com-
mitted by such foreigners as are not subject to any consular jurisdiction.
All future alienation of lands is prohibited, with certain specified excep-
tions. A local administration is provided for the municipal district of Apia.
Apia in the island of Upolu is the capital and centre of government.
Area, 1,701 square miles ; population, about 36,000, of which 16,600 in
Upolu, 12,500 in Savaii, 3,750 in Tutuila. The natives are Polynesians.
There were in 1891, 235 British-born subjects (163 males and 72 females),
about 90 Germans, and a few of other nationalities. The natives are all
Christians (Protestant and Roman Catholic), and schools are attached to
the churches. Revenue from taxes and customs duties on the foreign popula-
tion in 1891 5,6702. The trade is in the hands of German and British firms, and
British trade is increasing. Imports, 1891, 70,712Z. ; exports, 34,6472. Im-
ports, 1892, 67,3182. (39,2592. from Great Britain and Colonies); exports,
36,3562. Of the imports only 462. came from the United Kingdom ; 20,5282.
came from Australia, and 18,6842. from New Zealand. Chief imports, haber-
dashery, trinkets, lumber, galvanised roofing, and tinned provisions ; chief
exports, copra, cotton, and coffee. During 1892 many acres were planted with
cacao, with a view to export. In 1892 104 vessels of 85,565 tons (30 of
28,936 tons British) excluding men-of-war and coasting vessels entered the
port of Apia ; in 1891, 93 vessels (41 British) entered. During 1892 the
whole of the improved steam communication with New Zealand, Australia,
and California continued in operation. New Zealand is reached in five days,
Australia in eight.
British Consul. — T. B. Cusack-Smith, Deputy Commissioner for Samoa
and Union Group.
The Berlin Treaty made the American coinage the standard of exchange in
Samoa. English silver and United States, English, and German gold are
exclusively in circulation. The Chilian coinage has been exported from the
eountry.
Books of Reference.
Bastian (Adolf), Einiges aus Samoa und andem Inseln der Sudaee. 8. Berlin, 1880.
Blue Book for Samoa, 1893. .
Churchward (W. B.Y. My Consulate in Samoa.
Fii%Joy' s South Pacific Dictionary.
Meinecke, Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans.
Papers on Samoa, published by the United States Foreign Office.
Report of the Berlin Conference relating to Samoa. London, 1890.
Stevetuon (R. L.), A Footnote to History : Eight Years of Trouble iu Samoa. S.
London, 1892.
Turner (Rev. G.), Nineteen Years in Polynesia. London, 1884.
Wallace (A. R.), Australasia.
William* (Rev. J.), Missionary Enterprise in the South Sea Islands.
Foreign Office Annual Series. Report on the Trade of 8ainoa, No. 1064, 1892 ; and
Report 1262, 1893.
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921
SANTO DOMINGO.
(Republica Dominicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Santo Domingo, founded in 1844, is governed under a Con-
stitution bearing date November 18, 1844, re-proclaimed, with changes,
November 14, 1865 (after a revolution which expelled the troops of Spain,
who held possession of the country for the two previous years), and again in
1879, 1880, 1881, and 1887. By the terms of the Constitution the legislative
power of the Republic is vested in a National Congress of 22 deputies. The
members are chosen by direct popular vote, with restricted suffrage, in the
ratio of two for each province and two for each district, for the term of two
years. But the powers of the National Congress only embrace the general
affairs of the Republic.
The executive of the Republic is vested in a President chosen by
universal suffrage for the term of four years. During the past few years,
according to the British Consular Reports, the country has been going on
prosperously, and become comparatively quiet.
President of 'the Republic. — General Ulisses Heureaux, elected 1886.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are in charge of a ministry
appointed by the President. The Ministry is composed of the heads of the
departments of the Interior and Police, Finance and Commerce, Justice and
Public Instruction, War and Marine, Public Works and Foreign Affairs.
Each province and district is administered by a governor appointed by
the President. The various communes, cantons, and sections are presided
over by prefects or magistrates appointed by the governors. The communes
have municipal corporations elected by the inhabitants.
Area and Population.
The area of Santo Domingo, which embraces the eastern portion of the
island of Haiti — the western division forming the Republic of Haiti — is
estimated at 18,045 English square miles, with a population in 1888 officially
estimated at 610,000 inhabitants, or about 34 to the square mile.
The Republic is divided into six provinces and five maritime districts.
The population, unlike that of the neighbouring Haiti, is mainly composed of
a mixed race of the original Spanish inhabitants and the aborigines, of
mulattoes and of negroes, the latter being less in number ; the whites, or
European-descended inhabitants, are comparatively numerous, and owing to
their influence the Spanish language prevails, though in the towns both
French and English are spoken. The capital of the Republic is the city of
Santo Domingo, founded 1494, at the mouth of the river Ozama, with 25,000
inhabitants according to official statement ; Puerto Plata, the chief port,
has 15,000 inhabitants.
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922 SANTO DOMINGO
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, other forms of religion being
permitted under certain restrictions There are 54 parishes.
Primary instruction is gratuitous and obligatory, being supported by the
communes and by central aid. The public or state schools are primary,
superior, technical schools, normal schools, and a professional school with
the character of a university. On December 31, 1884, when the last school
census was taken, there were 201 municipal schools for primary instruction,
with 7,708 pupils. It is estimated that there are now 300 schools with about
10,000 pupils.
There are several literary societies in the capital and other towns ; and in
the Republic there are published about 40 newspapers.
Justice.
The chief judicial power resides in the Supreme Court of Justice, which
consists of a president and 4 justices chosen by Congress, and 1 (ministro fiscal)
appointed by the executive — all these appointments being only for the presi-
dential period. The territory of the Republic is divided into 11 judicial
districts, each having its own tribunal or court of first instance, and these
districts are subdivided into communes, each with a local justice (alcalde), a
secretary and bailiff (alguacil).
Finance.
The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties. The revenue
for 1890 was 3,828,329 dollars, and expenditure 3,837,300 dollars. In
January, 1889, the internal debt was returned at 1,282,952 dollars, and the
' public debt ' (also internal) at 1,648,423 dollars. The international debt on
January 1, 1891, was 213,295 dollars. The foreign debt at the end of 1890
amounted, according to the official statement of the Council of Foreign Bond-
holders, to 714,3002., with unpaid interest amounting to 680,0002. Under
decree of September, 1890, a new 6 per cent, loan was contracted, for
900,000/., of which 540,0002. was to meet the cost of construction of a rail-
way from Puerto Plata to Santiago, 108,0002. to provide for the amortisation
of the internal debt, and the remainder for other treasury purposes, including
the service of the loans of 1888 and 1890. In March, 1893, the Dominican
Government failed to pay the coupons due on these two loans from January,
1892.
Defence.
There is a small army of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, a regiment being
stationed in the capital of each province. There are also reserve corps, and
universal liability to serve in case of foreign war.
Production and Industry.
The total area, including adjacent islands, being estimated at about
60,000 square kilometres, the cultivable area is about 50,000 square kilo-
metres. Tobacco culture is declining, while the production of coffee and
cocoa as well as of cane-sugar is on the increase ; some attention has recently
been given to cattle -raising and* dairy produce ; the principal industries are
connected with agriculture and forestry. Large sugar plantations and factories
are in full work in the south and west of the Republic.
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COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATIONS 923
Commerce.
The commerce of the Republic is small, owing in part to customs duties
of a prohibitory character. The principal articles of export are lignum vit»,
logwood, mahogany, coffee, fustic, sugar, tobacco, and cocoa.
In 1892 the total imports into the Republic of Santo Domingo were valued
at 402,347*., and the exports at 607, 132*.
The exports from the city of Santo Domingo in 1892 amounted to
153,773Z., and from Macoris, to 240,000*. The chief articles of export and
the quantities in 1892 were :— Coffee, 406,367 lbs. ; cocoa, 136,547 lbs. ; sugar,
28,250 tons from Macoris, and 11,115 tons from Santo Domingo ; honey, 57,400
gallons ; mahogany, 223, 209 feet ; lancewood spars, 812,000 tons ; hides, 8,124 ;
tobacco, 6,750 lbs. The imports into Santo Domingo in 1892 amounted to
295,000*. according to the Custom-house statistics, but probably 30 per cent,
should be added to this amount. They consisted of cotton and linen goods,
hardware, earthenware, breadstuff's, &c.
From Puerto Plata in 1892 the chief exports were :— Tobacco, 5,837,089 lbs. ;
coffee (to Europe and New York), 377,353 lbs. ; mahogany, 733,817 feet;
cocoa, 221,1001bs. ; hides, 11,230 ; sugar, 768,790 lbs. The total value of
exports was 104,777*. ; and of imports, hardware, provisions, &c, 80,465*.
In the 'Annual Statement of the Board of Trade,' the exports to and
imports from Great Britain are added to those of Haiti.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892 227 vessels, of 127,470 tons (24, of 6,496 tons, British), entered,
and 224 of 128,693 tons cleared, the port of Santo Domingo. In 1892 129
vessels, of 147,347 tons, entered and cleared at the port of Puerto Plata.
The interior is officially stated to be well supplied with roads. A railway
is completed between Samana and La Vega (72 miles), and is being carried on
to Santiago, and another line is contemplated between Barahona and the salt
mountain of ' Cerro de Sal.'
The Republic entered the Postal Union in 1880. In 1889 there were in
the Republic, besides the General Post Office, 12 central and 46 subordinate
post offices. In 1889 the inland letters, printed packets, &c, numbered
204,546 ; and the international 182,015. The total number transmitted in
1888 was 275,312 ; in 1887, 186,824.
The telegraph, in the hands of the Antilles Telegraphic Company, is in
operation between Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata, with intermediate
stations, the total length being 229 miles. Several other inland lines are in
project. The foreign telegraphic system in operation is that of the French
Submarine Telegraphic Company.
Telephonic communication is carried on at Puerto Plata, Santiago, and
Santo Domingo.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The National Bank, in return for cash advances made to the government
has the privilege of selling government stamped paper and postage stamps,
and of collecting 5 per cent, tax on import duties. Its notes circulate freely.
The money in use is mainly that of Spain, the United States, Mexico,
and France.
Quintal = 4 arrobes = 100 lbs. (of 16 oz. ) = 46 kilograms.
For liquids the arrobe=32 cuartille8=25-498 litres =4*110 gallons.
The metrical system is coming into use.
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924 SANTO DOMINGO
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Santo Domingo in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Miguel Ventura ; appointed July 20, 1876.
2. Of Great Britain in Santo Domingo.
Consul. — David Coen ; appointed 1874.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Santo
Domingo.
1. Official Publications.
La Republique Dominicaine. Par Francisco Alvarez Leal. Paris, 1888.
Report on the Trade of Santo Domingo, in No. 1240 of Foreign Office Reports,
Annual Series. London, 1893.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom for the year 1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present ; with a Glance at Haiti 8. pp.
511. London, 1873.
Jordan (Wilhelm), Geschichte der Insel Haiti. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1849.
Keim (D. B. Randolph), Santo Domingo. Pen Pictures and Leaves of Travel. 12.
Philadelphia, 1871.
Monte y Tejada (Antonio), Historia de Santo Domingo, desde su descubrimiento hasta
nuestros dias. Tomo I. (all published). 8. Habana, 1853.
Abad (Jose Ramon), La Republica Dominicana, resefia general geograflco-estadistica. &
Santo Domingo, 1889.
Merino (Padre). Elementos fie geografia fisica, politica e historica de la Republica Do-
minicana. Santo Domingo, 1889.
Garcia (Jose Gabriel), Compendio de la historia de Santo Domingo, escrito para el uso de
las escuelas de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo, 1879*
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SERVIA.
(Kraljevstvo Sbbiya.)
Aeigning Sovereign and Family.
Alexander L, King of Servia, born August 14 (new style),
1876 ; son of Milan I., King of Servia, born August 22, 1854,
the son of Milos Obrenovic, grandson of Jefrem, half-brother of
Prince Milos. King Milan succeeded to the throne as Prince
Milan Obrenovic IV., confirmed by the election of the Servian
National Assembly, after the assassination of his uncle, Prince
Michail Obrenovic III., June 20, 1868 ; was proclaimed King
March 6, 1882; married October 17, 1875, to Natalie, born
1859, daughter of Colonel Keschko, of the Russian Imperial
Guard; divorced October 24, 1888. King Milan abdicated
March 6, 1889, and proclaimed his son Alexander King of Servia,
under a regency until he should attain his majority (18 years).
King Alexander, on April 13, 1893, being then in his seventeenth
year, took the royal authority into his own hands.
The present ruler of Servia is the fifth of his dynasty, which
was founded by Milos Todorovic' ObrenoviS, leader of the Ser-
vians in the war of insurrection to throw off the yoke of Turkey,
which had lasted since 1459. The war lasted from 1815 to 1829,
when the Turkish Government was compelled to grant virtual
independence to Servia. By the terms of the treaty, signed
September 14, 1829, Milos T. Obrenovic was acknowledged
Prince of Servia, and by a subsequent Firman of the Sultan dated
August 15, 1830, the dignity was made hereditary in his family.
The independence of Servia from Turkey was established by
article 34 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, and was
solemnly proclaimed by Prince (afterwards King) Milan at his
capital, August 22, 1878. The King's civil list amounts to
1,200,000 dinars.
Constitution and Government.
By the Constitution voted by the Great National Assembly January 2,
1889 (December 22, 1888, old style), and signed by the King on the 3rd, the
executive power is vested in the King, assisted by a council of eight Ministers,
who are, individually and collectively, responsible to the nation. The legis-
lative authority is exercised by the King, in conjunction with the National
Assembly, or ' Narodna-Skupshtina.' The State Council, or Senate, consists
of 16 members, 8 nominated by the King, and 8 chosen by the Assembly ; it
examines and elaborates the projects of laws, and authorises extraordinary
loans for the municipalities. This body is always sitting. The ordinary
National Assembly is composed of deputies elected by the people, indirectly
and by ballot. Each county can elect one deputy to every 4,500 tax-paying
males, but should the surplus be over 3,000, this number is also entitled to a
deputy. The voting is by scrutin de liste. Each county must be represented
by at least two deputies holding University degrees, and are called the qualified
deputies. Every male Servian 21 years of age, paying 15 dinars in direct
taxes, is entitled to vote ; and every Servian of 30 years, paying 30 dinars in
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SERVIA
direct taxes, is eligible to the ordinary National Assembly. The ordinary
Assembly meets each year on November 1, and elections take place every third
year on September 14. There is also a Great National Assembly, which meets
when it is necessary. The number of its representatives is double the number
fixed for the ordinary Skupshtina, and the restriction as to University degrees
does not apply. The deputies receive travelling expenses and a salary
of 10 dinars a day. Personal liberty, liberty of the press and conscience are
guaranteed.
Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs, War and Marine. —
M. Simitch. The other ministries are for Finance, Public Works, Commerce,
Instruction.
Counties, districts, and municipalities have their own administrative
assemblies. For administrative purposes, according to the new Constitution,
Servia is divided into 15 provinces or counties, 1,290 communes, which
include 4,029 villages and 74 towns or cities.
Area and Population.
The area of the Kingdom of Servia amounts to 19,050 square miles. From
the administrative point of view Servia is divided into 15 provinces, the
capital, Belgrade, and Nisch city, which have their own administration.
The following table shows the area and population of the provinces accord-
ing to the census taken on the 1st January, 1893 : —
Population
Okrag
Area in
Total
Pop. per
(Province)
sq. m.
4
Male
Female
aq. m.
Belgrade City
31,545
24,770
56,375
14,093-7
Valjevo
1,121
59,990
56,795
116,785
104*2
Vranja
1,620
77,514
74,628
154,142
95 8
Kragouyevatz
927
74,146
70,466
144,612
156*0
Kraina
1,257
47,309
45,203
92,512
73-6
Krouchevatz
1,256
79,705
75,713
155,418
123-8,
Pirot .
1,214
62,865
60,044
122,909
101-2
PodrinjS
1,800
91,772
88,812
180,584
188 8
PozareVatz
1,404
107,645
102,900
210,345
150-0
Roudnik
2,056
80,293
76,823
157,116
764
Toplitza
Ushitze . .
1,400
65,327
61,880
126,707
905!
1,676
71,917
71,154
143,071
85*4 ;
Tzrnareka
555
36,195
34,644
70,839
127 6 j
Morava
1,200
85,257
81,270
166,527
138-8 !
Podunavlje (Danube)
1,246
109,405
104,760
214,165
1718
Timok .
810
48,614
46,377
94,991
1178
Nisch City .
Total .
4
11,622
9,774
21,396
5,849*0
19,050
1,143,661
1,083,080
2,226,741
116-9
Of the total population 18*52 inhabited towns and 86*48 lived in the
country. In 1890, 57*29 per cent, of the males and 58*16 per cent of the
females were unmarried ; 38*27 per cent, males and 40*02 per cent females
married ; 8*44 per cent, males and 6*82 per cent females widowed and
divorced. As to occupation, 26*30 per cent of the town population and
97 -20 per cent of the country population are dependent on agriculture.
Of the total population 16*81 per cent, is engaged in trade ; 10*82 per cent,
in occupations connected with food ; 16*22 per cent connected with clothing ;
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AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
927
14*20 per cent, connected with moulding of iron and metal work ; 4*31 per
cent, teachers and clergy ; 8*16 per cent, officials. As to race, in 1891 there
were 1,955,944 Servians (who, according to language, are Slavonic by race),
143,684 Roumanians, 37,581 Gipsies, 6,878 Germans, 2,929 Albanians and
Turks, 4,510 Jews, 1,359 Bulgarians, 9,676 other foreigners.
The principal towns (1891) are the capital, Belgrade, 54,249 inhabitants ;
Nisch, 19,877 ; Kragujevatz, 12,669 ; Leskovatz, 12,132 ; Pozarevatz, 11,134 ;
Pirot, 9,930; Shabatz, 9,669; Vranja, 9,500; Smederevo, 6,726; Ushitze,
6,627 ; Valjevo, 6,006 ; Kroushevatz, 5,998 ; Zaichar, 5,858 ; Alexinatz, 5,762.
Movement of Population.
Year
Total liv-
ing Births
Illegiti-
mate living
Stillborn
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus
1887
93,911
900
1,360
22,555
50,481
43,430
1888
94,865
933
1,447
22,727
50,700
45,165
1889
93,724
988
1,315
21,753
54,093
39,631
1890
87,018
916
1,312
21,555
57,723
32,295
1891
98,538
1,123
589
23,196
58,149
40,389
1892
93,833
973
1,033
20,934
74,128
19,705
There are no trustworthy statistics of emigration and immigration. For
1892 the number of emigrants is given as 3,982.
Religion.
The State religion of Servia is Greek-orthodox. According to the census
of 1891 there were of the total population : — Greek-orthodox, 2,127,744 ;
Catholics, 11,596; Protestants, 1,149 ; Jews, 4,652 ; Mohammedans, 16,764.
To the last belong, besides the Arnauts and Turks, almost all the gipsies.
The Church is governed by the Synod of Bishops, all the ecclesiastical
officials being under the control of the Minister of Education and Public
Worship. There is unrestricted liberty of conscience.
Instruction.
Elementary education in Servia is compulsory, and, in all the schools under
the Ministry of Education, including the University, education is free. In
the year 1891-92 the numbers of these schools, and of their teaching staff and
pupils, were as follows : —
No.
Teachers
Pupils
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Total
Elementary Schools
Middle Schools :
Lower Gymnasiums .
Higher „
Technical Schools
High School for Girls.
Normal Schools .
Theological Seminary
Total of Middle Sch.
University :
Philosophical Faculty
Jurisprudence .
Technical .
Total of University .
803
14
10
2
2
2
1
31
909
106
)•
388
569
10
I-
52
1,478
116
V 324
64,214
2,014
| 3,512
487
70
11,064
358
1 588
896
75,278
2,372
J 4,050
487
70
440
| 37
6,083
6,979
166
360
81
37
557
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928
SERVIA
The school attendance was, however, considerably less than that indicated
in the table, over 16 per cent of the children at the elementary schools, and
about 12 per cent, of the pupils at the middle schools having discontinued
attendance before the end of the year. Of the elementary schools only 63
were girls' schools, but in the villages the girls are taught with the boys. Of
the female teachers, 362 were engaged in boys' schools. On the average there
is in Servia one elementary school for every 2,827 inhabitants, and in 1890-91
there was one enrolled pupil for every 31 inhabitants, there being one boy
enrolled for every 19 of the male population, and one girl for every 100 of
the female population.
Other Government schools are: the Military Academy, the Commercial
School, the School of Wine Culture, the Agricultural School, and the Cadastral
School. There are also several private schools, elementary and other, and an
orphanage supported by voluntary contributions.
The cost of the elementary schools is defrayed partly by the State and
partly by the municipalities, the State paying the teachers' salaries and the
municipalities providing for all other expenditure. The cost of the other
Sublic schools is borne entirely by the State. For the year 1891-92 the expen-
iture was as follows : —
Dinars.
Elementary schools, expenditure by the State .... 1,642,556
„ ,, „ from Communal Bates . 890,282
Total
Middle Schools, Expenditure by the State
University „ „
2,532,838
1,103,112
287,740
Total 3,923,696
In 1874 only 4 per cent of the population could read and write ; in 1884
it was found that 10 per cent, of the population could read and write.
There is in Belgrade a national library and museum. There were 40 news-
papers (political and otherwise) in 1888. About 258 books were published in 1888.
Justice and Crime.
The judges are appointed by the king, but according to the Constitution
cannot be removed against their will There are 22 courts of first instance in
Servia, a court of appeal, a court of cassation, and a tribunal of commerce.
In all the courts of first instance there were in 1891 12,909 civil cases ; there
were in the same year 7,068 criminal cases with 12,675 criminals. Of these
3,448 were condemned.
Pauperism.
There is no pauperism in Servia in the sense in which it is understood in
the West ; the poorest have some sort of freehold property. There are a few
poor people in Belgrade, but neither their property nor their number has
necessitated an institution like a workhouse. There is a free town hospital.
Finance.
For five years the State revenue and expenditure were estimated as follows: —
Year
Dinars
Revenue | Expenditure
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
38,512,855 1 38,561,407
46,196,864 46,196,864
46,196,864 46,196,864
57,527,084 57,527,084
60,135,840 60,107,472
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■MP
FINANCE — DEFENCE
The State derives the largest revenue from direct taxation which is imposed
on land and income.
The following is the budget estimate for 1893 : —
Revenue \ Dinars Expenditure Dinars
Direct imposts
Customs .
Octroi
Law courts
Tobacco monopoly
Salt monopoly
Printing house and
manufactory of
gunpowder .
Railway .
Mines
Posts and telegraphs
State property .
State produce .
State mortgage trust
Arrears, State pro-
perty .
Unforeseen revenue .
Dinars
22,186,470
3,700,000
3,166,000
2,400,000
9,100,000
3,000,000
I 160,000
6,000,000
1,165,000
950,000
595,000
513,000
620,000
5,200,000
1,380,370
Total
I
60,135,840
Civil list .
Interest and annuities
on public debt
Dotations
National Assembly, &c.
General Credits .
Pensions, &c.
Ministries :
Justice .
Foreign Affairs
Finance
War
Instruction and Public
worship .
Interior • .
Public Works .
Commerce and Agri
culture .
I Supplementary credit.
Total
1,200,000
} 20,466,180
1,200,000
337,910
280,782
1,930,600
2,023,000
1,192,000
5,568,000
11,327,000
| 3,819,000
2,683,000
4,828,000
) 3,252,000
60,107,472
2,609,251
62,716,723
The revenue for 1894 is estimated at 63,755,600 dinars, and expenditure at
63,736,339 dinars.
According to an official report the consolidated debt of Servia amounted
(January 1893) to 324,956,542 dinars. Of this amount 155,310,000 dinars
are railways loans.
Defence.
There are fortresses at Belgrade, Semendria, Nisch, Schabatz, Kladovo,
Bela Palanka, and Pirot.
The King is Commander-in-Chief of the army, which in time of peace is
under the entire control of the Minister of War. The whole army is divided
into three classes. The first, the standing army and its reserves, according to
the reorganisation of 1886, consisting of men from 20 to 28 years of age ; the
second class is composed of those who have served in the active army, from
28 to 37 years of age ; the third class, from 37 to 50 years of age, only called
on under extraordinary necessity. The first class has 5 divisions, 1 active ;
the second, 5 divisions ; the third, 60 battalions ; and each of these has its
assigned district. Each division (called Moravska, Drinska, Dounavska,
Shumadiska, and Timochka) of the first and second class has 3 regiments
of infantry, and each regiment consists of 4 battalions ; consequently each
division consists of 3 regiments of infantry = 12 battalions ; 1 regiment of
cavalry = 12 squadrons ; 1 field artillery regiment = 8 batteries ; 1 company
of pioneers and pontooneers ; 1 field ambulance company ; 1 transport
squadron ; 1 regiment of fortress artillery ; besides various special companies.
All males of 20 years, with few exceptions, are obliged to serve in these
3 o
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930 SERVIA
classes. After two years' service in the active army they pass into the
reserve of the first class. Reserves of the first class have 30 days' service
annually, and the second class is called up for 8 days annually. The standing
cadre of the army consists of 15 battalions of infantry, 6 squadrons of cavalry,
30 field batteries, 3 mountain batteries, 1 fortress half-battalion, 1 pioneers
battalion, 1 pontooneers half-battalion, 5 sanitary companies, 5 transport
squadrons, and 1 pyrotechnic company. The battalions are in 5 regiments,
and every territorial division has thus 1 regiment. Every division has also
1 regiment of 4 field batteries. All the batteries have 6 guns each. The
strength of the standing cadre is about 18,000 men. On active footing the
cadre is augmented by its first-class reserve, and thus raised to a strength of
100,000 men. The strength of the second class is 55,000 men. The third
class has 12 battalions in each division, and has also a strength of about
55,000 men. This whole army of three classes, numbering together 210,000
men, is always in whole or in part on either a peace, an extraordinary, or a
war footing, and either class is available for active service as required for the
defence of the country when called on by the royal ukase in conformity with
the law. Officers 900. A gendarme force of about 800 strong has been dis-
tributed throughout the country since 1883. There are 110 batteries of 6 guns
each — 52 batteries (45 field and 7 mountain) being of the ' De Bange ' pattern.
These guns were made in France at the Caille factory. The infantry are armed
with the Koka-Mauser rifles, and the cavalry with carbines of the same pattern.
The Government possesses 130,000 of these rifles.
Production and Industry.
Servia is an agricultural country, and has almost no manufacturing industry.
There are no large estates in Servia ; every peasant cultivates his own freehold.
The holdings vary in size from 10 to 30 acres mostly.
According to a return of 1887, of the total area (over 12,000,000 acres)
6,125,931 acres were cornland and vineyards ; 1,466,132 woods and forests ;
902,627 fallow land ; 741,086 lands reserved for public roads and State forests,
the total occupied area being 10,566,488 acres. For the different cereals the
area (in hectares) and the produce (in thousands of kilogrammes) in 1889
were : maize, area 298,496, produce 477,593 ; wheat, area 186,860, produce
249,310 ; rye, area 25,769, produce 27,500 ; barley and oats, area 99,157,
produce 118,093.
Vine-culture is important, but the wines are not well treated. The
annual produce is about 6,000,000 gallons, about one-third of which is
exported.
About 185,000 acres are under orchard. In 1888 25,000 tons of plums
were produced and 16,942 tons exported.
Large numbers of cattle, sheep, and pigs are reared and exported. On
January 1st, 1891, there were in Servia 163,891 horses ; 1,588 asses and
mules ; 819,251 head of cattle, 8,494 buffaloes ; 2,963,904 sheep ; 908,603
pigs ; and 509,738 goats. Establishments for breeding and feeding pigs have
been erected at various places in connection with the line of railway.
The forests of Servia are undergoing rapid destruction. The national and
communal forests are supervised by the administrative authorities. Cask
staves are exported to Austria in great quantities.
Servia has considerable mineral resources, including various kinds of coal,
but almost entirely undeveloped ; besides coal there are iron, lead, quicksilver,
antimony, gold, asbestos, copper, and oil shales. Various concessions have
been made to private companies for working mines.
Manufacturing industry is in its infancy. There were 12 breweries at the
end of 1888.
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COMMERCE
931
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports of Servia
for five years : —
Year
Imports
Exports
-
Dinars
Dinars
1888
33,183,879
38,909,100
1889
34,843,436
39,065,883
1890 '
38,044,748
45,840,550
1891
42,806,000
52,480,000
1892
37,069,634
46,451,656
In 1892 the transit trade amounted to 17,635,000 dinars.
The following table shows the value of the leading imports and exports in
1892 :—
Imports
Exports
Agricultural produce and fruit*
Animals and animal produce
Colonial produce
Hides, skins, leather, &c .
Cotton goods .
Wool and woollen goods .
Foods and drinks
Metals ....
Apparel ....
Pottery, glass, Ac. .
Wood and wood- work
i
Dinars
1,280,182
337,368
4,022,995
2,978,092
6,502,476
2,869,108
661,582
4,152,504
2,035,735
2,270,716
2,099,585
Dinars
20,279,640
19,033,288
2,744,780
941,413
51,809
1,531,882
417,521
28,556
501,085
834,405
The following table shows the value of the trade with different countries
in thousands of dinars for three years : —
Imports from
Exports to
Countries
1890
1891
1892
1890
1891
1892
Austria
22,820
28,903
21,955
39,398
45,154
40,749
America
1,622
1,447
1,612
80
325
—
Belgium .
211
261
517
—
—
19
Bosnia
70
60
103
454
294
174
Bulgaria
1,192
154
92
807
887
487
Greece
50
64
94
—
—
—
Great Britain
4,888
4,323
3,759
210
110
29
Italy
367
548
701
20
31
21
Germany .
2,868
1,798
3,846
811
1,538
1,184
Roumania .
977
1,190
892
277
210
545
Russia
1,057
1,314
719
—
—
—
Turkey
1,057
2,055
1,775
3,338
1,800
2,962
France
257
175
478
353
2,073
282
Switzerland
Total .
609
514
518
92
58
—
38,045
42,806
37,062
45,840
52,480
46,452
3 o 2
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932 SERVIA
Communications.
Servia has at present (1892) one principal railway line, Belgrade -Nisch-
Vranja, 230 miles in length, and several secondary branches ; Nisch-Pirot,
59 miles ; Smederevo-Velika Plana, 28 miles ; Lapovo-Kragonjevatz, 19 miles :
total 336 miles. Cost of construction up to 1892, 90,810,708 dinars.
Of highways there are 3,495 miles. Of rivers only those bordering on
Servia are navigable, viz. Danube, 198 miles; Save, 90 miles; and Drina.
106 miles. The navigation on the Danube and Save is in the hands of
several foreign steam companies. The State possesses only one steamer, which
is used exclusively for military purposes
There were 3,127*2 kilometres of telegraph line and 5,984*6 kilometres of
wire, with 143 stations, at the end of 1892. In 1892, 653,449 messages
were transmitted.
There were 107 post-offices in 1892. In 1892 there were 16,933,528
transmissions by letter and book post ; the value sent by parcel post was
205,340,277 dinars. The post and telegraph receipts for 1892 amounted to
1,035,913 dinars, and expenditure to 1,375,457 dinars.
Honey and Credit.
Servia has a coinage of its own, minted according to the International
Coinage Convention of December 11 and 23, 1865. In circulation are gold
coins (milan d'or) of 10 and 20 dinars apiece ; silver coins of 5, 2, 1, and
0*5 dinar ; copper of 10, 5, and 1 para ; and nickel of 20, 10, and 5 paras. A
sum of 22,734,737 dinars has been minted up to the present (1889) and put
into circulation.
Public credit is assisted by various monetary establishments, of which, in
1890, there were 43. The principal place is occupied by the first privileged
National Bank of the Kingdom of Servia in Belgrade, with a paid-up capital
of 20,000,000 dinars. It is entitled to issue bank notes, of which there are
(1889) 28,597,840 dinars in circulation, with a metallic reserve of 4,596,000
dinars. Besides the National Bank there were in 1889 4 bank establishments,
10 bank associations, and 22 savings-banks.
Honey, Weights, and Measures.
Servia accepted, by the law of June 20, 1875, the French decimal system
for its moneys, weights, and measures. The Servian dinar is equal to one
franc ; the gold milan to French gold pieces of 20 francs ; there are also silver
coins of 5, 2, and 1 dinar, and 50 centimes (para), and copper and nickel
coins of 20, 10, and 5 centimes.
The decimal weights and measures (kilogram, metre, &c.) have been in
practical use only since the commencement of 1883.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Servia in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. —
Charge" d' Affaires in London. — M. Alex. Z. Yovitchich.
Attache— M. D. M. Yankovich.
Consul-General for Great Britain and Ireland. — M. Nicholas S.
Iovanovitch.
Consul-General for London, 42a, Bloomsbury -square, 1V.C. — H. \T.
Christmas.
There are Consular representatives of Servia in Manchester, and Melbourne,
Australia.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE
2. Of Great Britain in Sebvia.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Edmund D. V. Fane,
appointed January 1, 1893.
Second Secretary. — A. F. G. Leveson-Gower.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Servia.
1. Official Publications.
Almanac for 1891 (Servian).
Srpske Novine (Official Gazette).
Drzavopis Srbije (Servian Statistics). Vols. I.— XIX. Belgrade, 1863-93.
Statistike Kraljevine Srbije. Vols. 1.— III. Belgrade, 1892-93.
Report by Hon. Alan Johnstone on Servian Railways in Part I. of ' Reports from H.M.'s
Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad,* 1886; and the State of Servian Finances, in
Part IV. of ' Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation,' 1886.
Report by Mr. R. D. G. Macdonald on the Trade of Servia in 1889-90 in No. 1,046 of
* Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1892.
Report by the Belgian Minister to Servia, M. Bmile de Borchgrave : Le Royaume de
Serbie. Bruxelles, 1883.
Millet (Ren6), La Serbe economique et commerciale. Paris, 1889.
"For the King and Fatherland" (in Servian), a semi-official publication, relating the
historical events of the 1st and 2nd April, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bulme (M.), La principaute de Serbie. 8. Paris, 1880.
Boskoviteh (St.), La mission de Serbie dans la question d 'Orient. Florence, 1887.
Courriere (C.), Histoire de la litterature contemporaine chez les Slaves. Paris, 1879.
Gambier (J. W., Captain, R. V.), Servia. London, 1878.
Holland (Thomas Brskine), The European Concert on the Eastern Question. Oxford, 1885.
Jakchieh (Vladimir), Recueil statistique sur les contrees serbes. 8. Belgrade, 1875.
Kanitz (F.), Serbien : Historische-ethnographische Reisestudien aus den Jahren 1859-68.
S. Leipzig, 1868.
Karic(V.), Srbya (a description of the country, people, and state, in Servian). Belgrade
1888.
Lave ley e (Emile de), The Balkan Peninsula. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Mackenzie (A. Muir), Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey in Europe. 3rd edition.
2 vols. London, 1887.
Mijatovitch (Elodie Lawton), The History of Modern Serbia. 8. London, 1872.
Milichevich (M. G.), The Principality of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1876.
Milichevich (M. G.), The Kingdom of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1884.
Minchin (J. G. C), The Growth of Freedom in the Balkan Peninsula. London, 1886.
Otadgbina (the Fatherland). Servian Monthly Periodical. Edited by Dr. Vladan
Georgevich since 1875.
Pearson (Miss E. M.) and McLaughlin (Miss L. E.), Service in Servia under the Red
Cross. London, 1877.
Ranke (Leopold), The History of Servia and the Servian Revolution. London, 1853,
translated by Mrs. Alex. L. Kerr.
Reinach (J.), La Serbie et le Montenegro. Paris, 1876.
Right (Dr. Alfred), Adventures in Servia. London, 1884.
Saluabury (Philip H. B.), Two months with Tohernajeff in Servia. London, 1877.
Taillandier (Saint-Rene), La Serbie au XIXe siecle. Paris, 1872.
Yovanovich (Vladimir), Les Serbes, &c. Paris, 1870.
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934
SIAM.
(Sayam, ok Muang-Thai.)
Reigning King.
Chulalongkorn I. (Somdetch Phra Paramindr Maha), born September 21,
1853 ; the eldest son of the late King, Maha Mongkut, and of Queen Raniphii
(Krora Somdetch Pratape Surin) ; succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, October 1, 1868.
Children of the King.
Children of H.M. the Queen.
I. Prince Somdetch Chowfa Maha Vajirunhis, bora June 27, 1878,
designated as Crown Prince in January 1887.
II. Prince Chowfa Samodh-Diwongse Warotai, born June 9, 1881.
III. Princess Walai-ulongkorn, born April 1883.
IV. Princess Siraponsophon, born July 9, 1887.
Children of the Second Queen.
I. Prince Chowfa Maha Chirarwoot, January 1, 1880.
II. Prince Chowfa Chakrapongse Poowanar, March 3, 1881.
III. Prince Chowfa Aradang Dacharwoot, May 1889 ; and others.
Brothers of the King.
I. Somdetch Chowfa Chaturant Rasmi, born January 14, 1857.
Title : Krom Pra Chakrayadipongse.
II. Somdetch Chowfa Bhanurangse Swangwongse, born January 13,
1860. Title: Krom Pra Bhanupandhwongse Varadej.
There are also twenty half-brothers of the king.
The royal dignity is nominally hereditary, but does not descend always
from the father to the eldest son, each sovereign being invested with the
Srivilege of nominating his own successor. The reigning king has reintro-
uced the practice of nominating the Crown Prince, early in his reign, the
child chosen for this dignity being the eldest son of the Queen. This step,
taken in 1887, will have the effect of increasing the stability and order of
things, and of establishing the reigning dynasty.
Government.
According to the law of May 8, 1874, the legislative power is exercised by
the King in conjunction with a Council of Ministers (Senabodi), who have
charge of the departments of War and Marine, Foreign Affairs, Home
Government, Justice, Agriculture, the Royal House, and Finance. The
Council of State consists of the ministers, 10 to 20 members appointed by
the King, and 6 princes of the royal house. The formation of a Cabinet
has been inaugurated, including: Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Justice,
'Public Instruction, Finance, Public Works, War, Home Affairs, and Police
and Gaol Commissioner ; each portfolio being held by one of the King's half-
brothers. The advantage lies in the tendency towards clearer demarcation
of responsibility and of departmental control.
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AREA AND POPULATION 935
Kedah, Patani, Kelantan, and Tringganu, in the Malay Peninsula,
acknowledge the sovereignty of Siam, and send revenues to Bangkok. The
Laos (Shan) States of Luang Prabang, Chienginai, Lakon, Lampoonchai,
Nam, Pree, and others stand in a similar position towards the Government
in Bangkok.
The Siamese dominions are divided into 41 provinces or districts,
each having a Governor, deriving authority direct from the King, and having
under him subordinate governors over the various parts of his district. Of
these provinces or districts the authority is divided thus : — Under the
Minister of the North. — (a) Thirty-seven first-class districts, with Siamese
Governors, having numerous sub-districts, (b) Thirty-seven first-class dis-
tricts, with Laosian Governors, having numerous sub-districts. Under the
Minister of the South. — (c) Nineteen first-class districts, with Siamese
Governors, having numerous sub-districts, (d) Twelve first-class districts,
with Malay Governors or rajahs, as the case may be. — Under the Minister
of Foreign Affairs. — (e) Twelve other districts with Siamese Governors.
These three ministers usually remain in Bangkok, and make occasional
tours. Several of the tributary districts are administered by their own princes ;
but of late years centralisation has greatly increased. Commissioners, chosen by
the King, are now frequently sent from Bangkok to these tributary provinces,
both to those in the north, as Chiengmai, and those in the south, as Singora,
and others, with very full powers.
Area and Population
The limits of the Kingdom of Siam have varied much at different periods
of its history, most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less
independent. The boundary between Burma and N.W. Siam was delimited
in 1891 by a Commission, and, by the treaty of September, 1893, the River
Mekong was constituted the boundary between Siam and the French posses-
sions. The total area, including the country between the Mekong and the
An nam hills, now acknowledged to belong to France, is estimated at about
300,000 square miles, about 60,000 square miles being in the Malay Pt ninsula.
Negotiations are now (December, 1893) in progress for the delimitation of a
neutral state between the British and French territories north of Siam. The
territory appropriated by France in 1893 covers about 100,000 square miles,
leaving 200,000 square miles as the area which remains to Siam. The num-
bers of the population are still more imperfectly known than the extent of
territory, and the difficulty of any correct result is the greater on account of
the Oriental custom of numbering only the men. The latest foreign estimates
give the population of the Kingdom, before the French annexation, as
follows, in round numbers: — 2,500,000 Siamese; 1,000,000 Chinese;
2,000,000 Laotians ; 1,000,000 Malays ; immigrant Burmese, Indians, and
Cambodians bringing the total up to about 8,000,000. The total popula-
tion of Siam as it now stands may be estimated at 5,000,000. The most
populous region is the Men am valley. Bangkok, the capital, has about
200,000 inhabitants. Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai', or Muang-Thai,
which means ' free,' or ' the kingdom of the free.' The word Siam is probably
identical with Shan, applied in Burma to the Lao race, as well as to the Shan
proper and the Siamese.
The prevailing religion is Buddhism. In recent years the results of
Western civilisation have to some extent been introduced. Some few young
Siamese have been sent to schools, and also to study at arts and technical
trades, and the leading professions in England, Germany, and France.
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i
936 siam
Education has been making considerable advance of late years. The
capital possesses three large Government schools, where English is taught.
Siamese education has been systematised and reduced to a code. Throughout
the country it is still chiefly in the hands of the priests. The Siamese
language is now firmly established as the official language over the whole
country. The Minister of Public Instruction has also under his charge
several large Government hospitals, which have been lately established by
the King.
Finance.
The King's revenue may be estimated at about 2,000,0002. a year, of
which sum the land tax produces 287,000Z. ; tax on fruit trees, 65,0002. ;
spirits, 100,000Z. ; opium, 120,000Z. ; gambling, 100,0002. ; customs, 143,000/.;
tin-mines, 90,0002. ; edible birds' -nests, 27,0002. ; fisheries, 27,0002. All the
taxes, with the exception of the customs duties, are farmed. There is no
public debt, and power has only lately been granted to the Hong Kong and
Shanghai Bank's local branch to issue a limited amount of paper money. The
expenditure is stated to keep within the receipts.
Defence.
There is a standing army of about 12,000 men, and the people generally
are liable to be called out as required, but there is no armed militia. Every
male inhabitant, from the age of 21 upwards, is obliged to serve the State for
three months a year. The following individuals are, however, exempted : —
Members of the priesthood, the Chinese settlers who pay a commutation tax,
slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable to service, and those
who purchase exemption by a fine of from six to eight ticals a month, or by
furnishing a slave or some other person not subject to the conscription as a
substitute. It is stated that the Government possesses upwards of 80,000
stand of arms, besides a considerable stock of cannon. The army is to some
extent officered by Europeans, and has very largely increased of late years io
efficiency and in numbers, and in the character of its equipments.
Siam possesses 2 screw corvettes, of 1,000 tons and 8 guns each, several
gunboats (mostly in bad condition), officered chiefly by Europeans, and some
sea-going steam yachts. To these she has recently added (1892) the cruiser-
yacht Maha Chakrkri, a ram-ship, of 2,400 tons, 298 feet long, and 40 feet
beam, having a speed of 15 knots, and armed with 4 4*7 inch Armstrongs and
8 6 pdr. quick-firers. She has two fighting masts. The small cruiser Makut
Hajakaniar was bought in 1891. At the mouth of the Menam river are
the Paknam forts. The river has a bar which prevents ships of more than
13 feet draught from ascending to Bangkok.
Production and Industry.
There is comparatively little industry in the country, mainly owing to the
state of serfdom in which the population is kept by the local governors.
Throughout the whole of Siam the natives are liable to forced labour for a
certain period of the year, varying from one to three months, in consequence
of which the land, rich in many parts, is badly cultivated. This state of
things will no doubt be greatly ameliorated as soon as means of transit to the
port and the capital are improved. Domestic slavery is in gradual process
of abolition, such slavery as exists being entirely debt slavery. By an
edict of the present King no person born on or after his Majesty's accession
can be legally held in slavery beyond the age of 21. But free labour is still
very hard to obtain in any quantities. Chinese coolies do the chief part of
both skilled and unskilled labour in the south, especially in the mills and in
mining ; while in the north forest work is confined almost entirely to Burmese,
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
937
Karens, and Khamus. Probably not more than one-twentieth of the land in
the delta of the Menam has hitherto been under cultivation ; but at the head
of the delta many canals for irrigation have recently been dug, and the region
has thus been rendered fit for rice-growing. The chief product of- the country
is rice (estimated at 500,000 to 700,000 tons in 1893), which forms the
national food and the staple article of export. Other produce is pepper
(1,175 tons exported in 1892), salt, dried fish, cattle, and sesame ; while, for
local consumption only, hemp, tobacco, cotton, and coffee are grown. Fruits
are abundant, including the durian, mangosteen, and mango. Much of
Upper Siam is dense forest, and the cutting of teak is an important industry.
Gold exists in some of the rivers, for the working of which concessions
have been granted to British and French companies. Gem-mining is carried
on in various districts in Eastern Siam. Tin and coal are known to exist in
the Malay Peninsula.
Commerce.
Nearly the whole of the trade is in the hands of foreigners, and in recent
years many Chinese, not subject like the natives to forced labour, have settled
in the country. The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital.
In 1891 the imports amounted to 1,440,7632., and in 1892 to 1,295,964/.
In 1891 the exports amounted to 1,696,8272., and in 1892 to 1,386,560/. The
chief imports and exports in these two years were as follows : —
Imports.
Cottons
Hardware
Kerosene
Silks .
Sugar .
Jewellery
Cotton yarn
Opium
Crockery
Gunny bags
| 1891
185)2
Exports.
1891
£
* 1
£
1 319,581
292,601 •
Rice .
1,083,373
- 33,752
83,748 |
Teak .
75,207
61,239
50,001
Pepper
Salt-fish
79,594
51,859
48,977
51,924
86,327
48,686 1
Woods
32,720
45,230
47,057 '
Bullocks
26,231
57,154
41,978 I
Teel seed .
5,499
, 88,000
85,406
Mussels
9,409
45,243
85,197
Hides .
26,939
26,426
29,318 ,
Dried fish .
14,299
£
956,075
62,793
53,482
37,494
31,825
27,390
23,108
22,407
20,003
11,054
In 1892 of the imports the value of 872,062/. was from Singapore, and
and 300,440/. from Hong Kong; of the exports 746,642/. was to Singapore,
and 495,571/. to Hong Kong. There is, in addition to the Bangkok trade,
a considerable trade on the northern frontiers with the British Shan states and
Yunnan.
The trade of the United Kingdom with Siam, according to the Board of
Trade Returns, was as follows during the last five years : —
f
Imports from Siam into
U. K
Exports of British pro-
duce to Siam
1888
1889 1890
1891
1892
£
£ £
£
£
294,112
290,566 193,146
' 1
100,695
52,205
52,763 70,299 75,802
98,759
110,120
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038 SIAM
Almost the only article of direct import from Siam into Great Britain in
the year 1892 was hewn teak-wood, valued at 47, 280 J. Among the direct
exports of British produce to Siam the chief articles in 1892 were machinery
and mill -work, of the value of 12,355Z. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
65,810Z. ; cottons, 3,8392. ; hardware, 1,4122. There is a large importation
of British piece-goods, transhipped at Singapore.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892, 292 vessels of 209,745 tons (248 of 182,354 tons British) entered,
and 288 of 201,145 tons (242 of 174,555 tons British) cleared at the port of
Bangkok.
The railway from Bangkok to Paknam (14 miles) was opened in April,
1893. In 1888 a survey for a railway from Bangkok to Chiengmai and other
northern and eastern provinces of Siam was commenced ; a line from Bangkok
to Ban Mai on the Patriew river has been sanctioned ; a railway is being
constructed from Bangkok to Korat (165 miles), a very rich undeveloped rice-
growing plateau, the line passing through excellent timber country. A con-
cession has also been given, and the survey executed, for a railway across
the Malay Peninsula from Singora to Kota Star, and thence to Kulim, a
distance of 136 miles. There is an electric tramway in Bangkok, worked
i
Telegraph lines liave been completed to the total length of 1,780 miles,
and Bangkok is now in communication with Chiengmai, Nakon-Lampang,
Korat, Nong-Khai, Sesopone, Chantabun, and Bangtaphan ; with Moulmein,
and Tavoy in Lower Burma ; and with Saigon in Anam ; though the work-
ing of the lines is subject to interruption. Lines are being laid from Nakhon-
sawan to Paklai and Luang-Prabang on the Mekong, and in the Malay
Peninsula from Bangtaphan to Singora, in all 710 miles.
There is a postal service in Bangkok, and in 1885 Siam joined the
International Postal Union. The mail service down the Malay Peninsula,
and also towards the north of Siam, has been largely developed. Post
offices, 1890, 98 ; letters &c. transmitted, internal 189,993, external 219,170.
In 1890 a parcel post service was established having connection with Singapore
and the international system.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Tical, or Bat . = 64 AUs, or 60 cents of a Mexican dollar ; average
rate of exchange, Is. Sd.
4 Ticals . = 1 Tamlung.
80 Ticals . = 1 Catty : these two last are moneys of account
The legal money of Siam is the tical, a silver coin, weighing 236 grains
troy, '910 fine. Otner silver coins from the Siamese mint now current are
the sailing and the fuang, the former one-fourth, the latter one-eighth of a
tical. Dollars are accepted in payment at the rate of 3 dollars for 5 ticals.
In 1891 bronze coinage to the value of 400,000 ticals was executed at Bir-
mingham. The Siamese mint is about to be extended for the coinage of gold,
silver, and bronze pieces. Paper money is current, the notes being of the
value of 1, 5, 10, 20, 40, 80, 400, and 800 ticals.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 939
Weights and Measures.
1 Chang = 2| lbs. avoirdupois ; 50 Chang = 1 hap. or 133£ lbs. ; 1 Niu
= 1 *66 English inch ; 1 Keup = 12 Niu; 1 Sok = 2 Keup ; 1 Wah = 2 Sok ;
1 Sen = 20 Wa; 1 Wah = 80 English inches ; 1 Yot - 400 &>w.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Si am in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — The Marquis de Mahayotha, May 14, 1892.
Secretary of Legation. — Count Yichit.
English Secretary. — Frederick W. Verney.
2. Of Great Britain in Siam.
Minister Resident and Consul-General. — Captain H. M. Jones, V.C. ;
appointed December, 1888.
Charge* d' Affaires ad interim, J. G. Scott, CLE.
Consul;— E. H. French.
Vice-Consul at Chiengmai. — W. J. Archer.
Consul for Kedah, &c— Allan M. Skinner, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
Report on the Trade of Bangkok and of Chiengmai} for 1892, No. 1267 of Foreign Office
Reports, Annual Series. London, 1893.
Trade of Siam with Great Britain in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892.' 4. London,
1893.
Alabaster (Henry), The Wheel of the Law. 8. London, 1871.
Bastian (Adolf), Die Volker von ostlichen Asien : Studien und Reisen. 6 vols. 8.
Leipzig, 1866-1871.
Bastian (Adolf), Geographische und Ethnologische Bilder. 8. Jena, 1878.
Bowring (John), The Kingdom and People of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.
Bock (Carl), Temples and Elephants. 1 vol. 8. London, 1884.
Colquhoun (A. R.), Among the Shans. London, 1885.
Coit (Mary L.), Siam, the Heart of Farther India. American Missionary Publication.
New York.
Crawford, Journal of an Embassy to Siam and Cochin-China. 2 vols. 8. 2nd edition.
1880.
Doudart de Lagree, Voyage d'exploration dans l'lndo-Chine. 2 vols. 4. Paris, 1873.
Gordon (Robert), The Economic Development of Siam, in the Journal of the Society of
Arts, No. 1,998, vol. zxxiz. London, 1891.
Qrihan (A.), Le royauine de Siam. 8. Paris, 1868.
La Loubere, Description du royaume de Siam. 12. Paris and Amsterdam, 1691.
La Loubere, A new Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam. Folio. London, 1693.
Leonowens, The English Governess at the Siamese Court. 8. Boston (Mass.), 1870.
Macarthy (J.), Paper on Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, March 1888.
Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cambodia and Laos,
during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
PaUegoix (D. J.), Description du royaume de Thai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1854.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses. [Chapter on Phra-Bat] 8. London, 1887.
Rectus (Elisee), Nouvelle geographic umverselle. Vol. VIII. L'Inde'et l'lndo-Chine.
Paris, 1883.
Satoto (E. M.), Essay towards a Bibliography of Siam. Singapore, 1886.
Scherzer CDt. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichenZustande im Siiden und Osten Asiens. 8.
Stuttgart, 1871.
Thomson (John), The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China, or Ten Years' Travels
Adventures, and Residence Abroad. 8. London, 1875.
Vincent (Frank), The Land of the White Elephant. New York. 1889.
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940
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC.
Constitution and Government.
The South African Republic, also known as the Transvaal, was originally
formed by part of the Boers, who left the Cape Colony in 1835 for Natal, but
quitted that colony on its annexation to the British Crown. In 1852 the in-
dependence of the Transvaal was recognised by the British Government, and
the constitution of the State is based on the ' Thirty-Three Articles,1 passed
May 23, 1849, and the 'Grondwet,' or Fundamental law of February 13, 1858.
The Constitution has since been frequently amended down to August 1891.
The legislative power of the State is now vested in two Volksraden of 24
members each. The five largest districts of the country elect two members,
and the 12 smaller districts one member for each Volksraad, while the Bar-
berton and Witwatersrand goldfields are represented by one member in each
Raad. They are elected for a term of four years, one half retiring every two
years. The franchise qualification for aliens for the Volksraad is : age 30
years, member of a Protestant Church, four years' residence in the Republic,
the oath of allegiance, naturalisation on payment of 51. , and possession of
landed property in the State. The qualifications for a member of the first
Volksraad are the same, except that a member must be born in the Republic or
a burgher of the State since May, 1876.. The members of the Second Chamber
are elected by burghers who for two years have been entitled to vote, who have
reached the age of 16 years. The members of the first Volksraad can only be
elected by burghers entitled to vote, who have obtained their burgher-right by
birth before or after the promulgation of the law, and who have attained the
age of sixteen. The Executive is vested in a President, elected for five
years by all enfranchised burghers, eligible for the first Volksraad, assisted by
a council consisting of three official members (the State Secretary, the Com-
mandant-General, rand the Minute-keeper), and two non-official members
elected by the first Volksraad.
On April 12, 1877, the Transvaal was annexed by the British Govern-
ment, against which in December 1880 the Boers took up arms, and
a treaty of peace was signed March 21, 1881. According to the conven-
tion ratified by the Volksraad, October 26, 1881, self-government was
restored to the Transvaal so far as regards internal affairs, the control
and management of external affairs being reserved to Her Majesty as
suzerain. A British resident was appointed, with functions analogous to
those of a Consul-General and Charge d'Affaires. Another convention with
the Government of Great Britain was signed in London February 27, 1884,
ratified by the Volksraad, August 8, by which the State is to be known as the
South African Republic, and the British suzerainty considerably restricted.
Instead of a Resident the British Government is represented by a Diplomatic
Agent.
State President. — S. J. Paul Kruger, elected for the third time Mav 12,
1893.
Executive Couiuiil. — Official members: P. J. Joubert, Com. -Gen.; Dr.
W. J. Leyds, State Sec. ; F. H. M. Kock, Minute Keeper. Unofficial : N. J.
Smit, M. A. Wolmaraus.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is, according to planimetrical computation ot
Jeppe's map, 113,642 square miles, divided into 18 districts, and its white
population, according to the rather incomplete census of 1 April, 1890, 119,12b,
of whom 66,498 are men and 52,630 women ; the native population in April,
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AREA AND POPULATION — FINANCE
941
1893, was estimated at 368,829. These figures, however, can be regarded as
only approximate until a better census is taken. The boundaries of the State
are denned in the convention of February 27, 1884 — since altered by a supple-
mentary convention, by which the former New Republic (Zululand) was
annexed to the South African Republic as a new district, named Vrijheid,
and by the terms of the Convention regarding Swaziland, ratified by the
Volksraad, August 20, 1890, by which a small portion of Swaziland and
Amatonga Land becomes part of the Transvaal, including an area of 10 miles
in radius at Kosi Bay. The seat of government is Pretoria, with a white
population of 5,000. The largest town is Johannesburg, the mining centre ot
Witwatersrand goldfields, with a population of 40,215 and a floating popula-
tion of 30,000 in the goldfields alone the Rand. The bulk of the population
of the Republic are engaged in agriculture.
Religion.
The United Dutch Reformed Church is the dominant religious body,
claiming 50,000 (.1891) of the population ; other Dutch Churches, 18,100 ;
English Church, 6,581 ; Wesleyans, 3,866 ; Catholic, 3,000 ; other Christian
Churches, 1,500 ; Jews, 2,000.
Instruction.
There are 12 English schools in Pretoria, and one or more in each of the
other towns. According to the report of the Superintendent of Education for
the year 1892, the sum of 34,962*. was spent for the education of 7,932
pupils. In 1892 there were 62 village schools and 422 ward schools,
besides a gymnasium with 29 pupils at Pretoria. The establishment of a
university is contemplated, and 20,000*. were voted for the purpose by the
Volksraad.
Finance.
The following table shows the ordinary revenue and expenditure for the
last h\ years : —
-
18S8
1889
1890
1891
1892
(6 months)
189S
Revenue .
! Expenditure
£
884,440
770,492
£
1,577,445
1,226,135
£
1,229,060
1,531,461
£
967,191
1,350,073
£
1,255,829
1,188,765
£
812,699
505,408
The credit balance being on June 30, 1893, 538,762*. The revenue is
derived from land sales, quit-rents, customs, hut-tax, stamps, transport dues,
and principally from licences on the goldfields. The revenue derived from
goldfields for the year 1889 amounted to 727, 132*. ; for 1890, 492,8302. ; for
1891, 405,397*. ; for 1892, 636,313/., for the first six months 1893, 290,8757.
The estimates for the complete year 1893 are set down as revenue 1,350,449*.,
and expenditure 1,221,193*.
The public debt in June 1893 was 7,098,800*., including the 5 per cent,
loan of 2,500,000*. effected by Rothschild in 1893, and the State guarantee for
the interest on the different railway lines. The State lands were valued
in 1884 at 400,*000*., but may now be valued at some millions, as the
principal goldfields at Barberton are on Government lands. The debt due to
Great Britain bears interest at 3£ per cent., and is to be extinguished by a
sinking fund of 3*. 0*. 9c*. per cent, in twenty-five years. The balance still
owing August 8, 1893, was 187,186*.
Defence.
The Republic has no standing army, with the exception of a small force of
horse artillery, all able-bodied citizens being called out in case of war. Ac-
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942 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC »
cording to the census of 1892, the number of able-bodied men between 16
and 60 years amounts to 23,923.
Production and Industry.
The South African Republic is specially favourable for agriculture as well
as stock-rearing, though its capacities in this respect are not yet developed.
It is estimated that 50,000 acres are under cultivation. The agricul-
tural produce, however, is not sufficient for the wants of the population.
There are about 30,000 forms, 16,000 of which belong to private individuals,
and the rest to the State.
Gold-digging is carried on to a great extent in the various goldtields,
principally Barberton and Witwatersrand. The export of gold through
Natal and the Cape Colony amounted in 1890 to 1,851,9052., in 1891
to 2,901,4702., in 1892 to 4,479,3092., and for the first eight months of the
year 1893, to 3,418, 1012. The output of W. W. Rand alone amounted to
230,640 oz. (value 807,2402.) in 1888, to 382,364 oz. (value 1,338,2742.) in
1889, to 494,392 oz. (value 1,730,3722.) in 1890, in 1891 to 729,238 oz. (value
2,552,3332.) ; in 1892, 1,210,869 oz. (value 4,297,6102.), and for the first
eight months of 1893, 927,209 oz. value 3,425,2312.). The total output of
the Republic in 1891 was 833,632 oz. (value 2,917,7022.) ; in 1892, 1,325,394
oz. (value 4,638,8792.). Excellent coal is found in the east of the country ;
iron is also known to abound, while lead and silver are worked in various
mines close to Pretoria.
Commerce.
The principal exports are wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers, ivory,
gold, and other minerals. The imports on which dues were charged in 1887,
amounted to 2,204,3272. ; in 1888 to 3,748,8302. ; in 1889 to 3,000,0002. ; in
1890 to about 3,500,0002.; in 1892 to 3,498,8012. The import duties
in 1890 amounted to 398,1902., in 1891 to 316,6102., in 1892 to 441,4362., ami
for the first seven months of 1893 to 392,2222.
Communications.
The southern boundary of the South African Republic is about 220 miles
from Durban, 536 from Port Elizabeth, and 698 from Cape Town ; while its
eastern boundary is not 40 miles from Delagoa Bay. A railway of 334
miles, through the Orange Free State, from Norvalspont, Orange River, vid
Bloemfontein, to Vaal River, constructed by the Cape Colony Government, has
by agreement with the South African Republic been continued to Pretoria,
vid Germiston, (78 mile3 and 1040 miles from Capetown). The Natal line ter-
minates at Charlestown, about 120 miles from the Springs, the eastern ter-
minus of the steam tram-line from Boksburg, vid Germiston and Johannesburg,
to Kriigersdorp. Of the line from Delagoa Bay to Pretoria, 80 miles from the
Portuguese boundary are open for traffic, 213 miles being still under construction.
In August 1893 there were about 200 miles of railways open for traffic.
The Republic is in telegraphic communication with the surrounding States
and Colonies as far north as Fort Salisbury, 150 miles south of the Zambesi
The lines within the State extend 1,681 miles. On December 81, 1892, there
were 41 offices and 174 officials. The Republic joined the Postal Union, in
1892.
Weights and measures are the same as in Cape Colony, the currency is
English money, and Government gold, silver, and bronze coin issued from a
mint established in Pretoria.
British Agent at Pretoria. — Sir Jacobus A. de Wet, K.C.M.G.
ConmUGeneral in London. — Montagu White.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 948
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
South African Republic.
1. Official Publications.
Convention between Her Majesty and the South African Republic. London, 1884.
Correspondence respecting the Debt due to H.M.'s Government by the Transvaal State.
London, 1882-83.
Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories. London,
1884.
Further Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories
(C. 4,275, 4,432, 4,588). London, 1885. (C. 4,643) 1886.
Jeppe (F.), Local Laws of the South African Republic, from 1849-1885, revised by Chief
Justice Kotze. Pretoria, 1887.
Kotze (J. G., Chief Justice), Local Laws of the South African Republic for 1886 and 1887.
Pretoria, 1888.
. Memoire descriptif sur l'avant-projet de la partie transvalienne du cheuiin de fer de
Lourenco Marques a Pretoria. Par J. Machado. Lisbon, 1885.
Precis of Information concerning South Africa, the Transvaal Territory, prepared by the
Intelligence Branch, War Office. London, January, 1878.
Appendix to Precis on the Transvaal. London, 1879.
Staats Almanak der Zuid Afrik. Republick voor het jaar 1892, samengesteld oplast der
Regeering door L.A.F.H. Van Wouw en A. G. Quarles de Quarles, Gonvts. Ambtenaren.
Pretoria, 1891.
Fourth Annual Report of the Witwatersrand Chamber of Mines for the year ending
December 31, 1892. Johannesburg.
Noble (John), Illustrated Official Handbook of the Cape and South Africa. 3. Capetown
and London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Al/ord (Charles J.), Geological Features of the Transvaal, South Africa. London, 1891.
Argus Annual and South African Directory for 1892. Cane Town, 1892.
Aubert (V. S.), La Republique sud-Africaino. Situation economique et comraerciale en
1889. Paris, 1889.
Baines (T.), The Gold Regions of South Africa. London, 1877.
Dove (Dr. Karl), Das Klima des aussertropischen Sudafrika. Gottingen,1888.
Jeppe (F.), Transvaal Almanac and Directory for 1889. Cape Town 1889.
Jeppe (F.), Notes on some of the Physical and Geological Features of the Transvaal, in
1 Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,' 1877.
Jeppe (F.), The Zoutpansberg Goldflelds, 'The Geographical Journal,' London, Sep-
tember, 1893.
Keltie (J. Scott), The Partition of Africa. London, 1893.
Knoehenhauer (B.), Die Goldfelder in Transvaal. Berlin, 1890.
Mackenzie (John), Austral Africa : Losing it or Ruling it. 2 vols. London, 188?.
Mather* (E. P.), Zambesia. London, 1891.
Mohr (Edward), To the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. London, 1875.
Morrieon (Pearse), A Visit to the Transvaal, Barberton, and Johannesburg and Back.
London, 1890.
Mailer (H. P. N.), Zuid Afrika, Reisherinneringen. Leiden, 1890.
NorrU-Newman (C. L.), With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State in
1880-81. London, 1882.
Sawyer (A. R.), Mining, Geological, and General Guide to the Murchison Range, London.
Silver's Handbook to South Africa. London, 1891.
Theal (George McCall), History of the Boers in South Africa. London. 1887.
Theal (G. McCall), History of South Africa. 4 vols. London. 1887-93.
SWAZILAND.
By the Convention of 1884, between the British Government and the Govern-
ment of the South African Republic, the independence of the Swazis in
Swaziland was recognised ; by that of 1890, the government of the white
population was vested in a mixed Commission ; and by that of September,
1893, the government of the South African Republic may obtain, by negotia-
tion with the Swazi Queen Regent and Council, without incorporation, rights,
and powers of jurisdiction, protection and administration over Swaziland, the
rights of the natives being respected, and the political privileges of burghers
of the South African Republic being conferred on British settlers in Swazi-
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944
land. The Convention of 1890 continues in force until June 30, 1894, unless
sooner terminated by Organic Proclamation of the Swazi Queen and Council.
The administration of the affairs of the Swazis is regulated according to
native laws and customs. The King, Ungwam, at the age of about fifteen
yeara^ succeeded in August, 1890. He is assisted by a council of over forty
chiefs, including his mother and the Queen-Regent.
The area of Swaziland is estimated at 6,150 square miles, and the popula-
tion at 60,000 natives, with 600 (in winter 1,500) whites. The army contains
about 12,000 men. In the year 1891-2 the revenue amounted to 17,370/.
including 14,000/. from the protecting governments) ; expenditure, 17,080/.
SPAIN.
(EsPAffA.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Alfonso XIII., son of the late King Alfonso XII. and Maria
Christina, daughter of the late Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of
Austria; born after his father's death, May 17, 1886, succeeding
by his birth, being a male, his eldest sister.
Queen Eegent.
Maria Christina, mother of the King. Took oath as Queen
Regent during the minority of her son.
Sisters of the King.
I. Maria-de-las-Mercedes, Queen till the birth of her brother,
born September 11, 1880.
II. Maria Teresa, born November 12, 1882.
Aunts of the King.
I. Infanta Isabel, born December 20, 1851 ; married, May 13, 1868, to
Gaetan, Count de Girgenti ; widow, November 26, 1871.
II. Infanta Afaria-de~la~Paz, born June 23, 1862 ; married, April 3, 1883,
to Prince Ludwig, eldest son of the late Prince Adalbert of Bavaria.
III. Infanta Eulalia, born February 12, 1864 ; married to Prince Antoine,
son of Prince Antoine d'Orleans, Due de Montpensier, March 6, 1886
(All sisters of the late King.)
Parents of the late King.
Queen Isabel, born October 10, 1880 ; the eldest daughter of King Fer-
nando VII. ; ascended the throne at the death of her father, September 29, 1833 :
assumed the government on being declared of age, November 8, 1843 ; exiled
September 30, 1868 ; abdicated in favour of her son, June 25, 1870.
Married, October 10, 1846, to her cousin Infante Francisco, born May 13,
1822.
Aunt of the. late King.
Infanta Luisa, born January 30, 1832, the second daughter of King
Fernando VII. ; married, October 10, 1846, to Prince Antoine d'Orleans, Dnc
de Montpensier, sixth son of King Louis Philippe of the French ; widow.
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GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION
945
February 4, 1890. Offspring of the union are two children: — 1. Princess
Isabelle, born September 21, 1848 ; married, May 30, 1864, to Prince Louis
Philippe, Comte de Paris, born August 24, 1838, eldest son of Prince
Ferdinand, Due d'Orleans. 2. Prince Antoine, born February 23, 1866.
Cousin of the late King.
Infante Don Carlos Maria-de-los-Dolores, bora March 30, 1848, the eldest
son of Infante Don Carlos, nephew of King Fernando VII. Married, February
4, 1867, to Princess Marguerite of Bourbon, daughter of Duke Carlos III. of
Parma. Offspring of the union are four daughters and a son, Prince Jaime,
born June 27, 1870.
The King, Alfonso XIII., has a civil list, fixed by the Cortes, 1886, of
7,000,000 pesetas, or 280,000?., exclusive of allowances to members of the
royal family ; the Queen Regent having the administration and usufruct of the
said sum until the King becomes of age. The annual grant to the Queen, as
mother to the King, was fixed by the Cortes, in 1886, at 250,000 pesetas.
The immediate successor was assigned 500,000 pesetas, and 250,000 to the
second sister, they having been Princesses of Asturias. The parents of the
late King, ex-Queen Isabel and her husband, have an allowance of 1,050,000
pesetas, or 42,0001. ; and the four Infantas, his sisters, of 800,000 pesetas, or
32, 0002. The total amount of the civil list and allowances to the relatives of
the late King was fixed by the Cortes in 1876 at 10,000,000 pesetas, or
400,0002. ; now it is 9,500,000 pesetas, or 380,0002.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of Spain, with
dates of their accession, since the foundation of the Spanish Monarchy by the
union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile : —
House of Aragon.
Fernando V. , * The Catholic ' 1512
House of Habsburg.
Carlos I.
Felipe II.
Felipe III. .
Felipe IV. .
Carlos II. .
1516
1556
1598
1621
1665
House of Bourbon.
Felipe V.
Fernando VI.
Carlos III.
Carlos IV. .
Fernando VII.
House of Bonaparte.
Joseph Bonaparte .
1700
1746
1759
1788
1808
1808
House of Bourbon.
Fernando VII., restored
1814
Isabel II
1833
Provisional Government
1868
Marshal Serrano, Regent
1869
House of Savoy.
Amadeo ....
1870
Republic.
Executive of the Cortes .
1873
Estanislao Figueras
1873
Pi y Margall, June 8
Nicolas Salmeron, July 18
1873
1873
Emilio Castelar, September 9 .
Marshal Serrano, January 4. .
1873
1874
House of Bourbon.
Alfonso XII
1875
Maria (pro tern.)
Alfonso XIII.
1886
1886
Government and Constitution.
I. Central Government.
The present Constitution of Spain, drawn up by the Govern-
ment and laid before a Cortes Constituyentes, elected for its
ratification, March 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It
3 r
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946 spain
consists of 89 articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that
Spain shall be a constitutional monarchy, the executive resting
in the King, and the power to make laws * in the Cortes with the
King/ The Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, equal
in authority. There are three classes of senators — first, senators
by their own right, or JSenadores de derecko propio; secondly,
100 life senators nominated by the Crown — these two categories
not to exceed 180 ; and thirdly, 180 senators, elected by the
Corporations of State — that is, the communal and provincial
states, the church, the universities, academies, <fcc. — and by the
largest payers of contributions. Senators in their own right are
the sons, if any, of the King and of the immediate heir to the
throne, who have attained their majority; Grandees who are so
in their own right and who can prove an annual renta of 60,000
pesetas, or 2,400/. ; captain-generals of the army ; admirals of
the navy ; the patriarch of the Indias and the archbishops ; the
presidents of the Council of State, of the Supreme Tribunal, of
the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino, and of the Supreme Council
of War and of the Navy, after two years of office. The elective
senators must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by
totality every time the Monarch dissolves that part of the Cortes.
The Congress is formed by deputies ' named in the electoral Juntas
in the form the law determines/ in the proportion of one to every
50,000 souls of the population. According to the law of June 26,
1890, the electoral qualification is held by all male Spaniards, 25
years of age, who enjoy full civil rights, and have been citizen*
of a municipality for at least two years. By a royal decree issued
August 8, 1878, the island of Cuba received the privilege of
sending deputies to the Cortes, in the proportion of one to every
40,000 free inhabitants paying 125 pesetas annually in taxes.
Members of Congress must be 25 years of age ; they are re-
eligible indefinitely, the elections being for 5 years. Deputies,
to the number of 10, are admitted who, although not elected for
any one district, have obtained a cumulative vote of more than
10,000 in several districts. Deputies to the number of 88 are
elected by scrutin de liste in 26 large districts, in which minorities
may be duly represented. There are in all 431 deputies. The
deputies cannot take State office, pensions, and salaries ; but the
ministers are exempted from this law. Both Congress and Senate
meet every year. The Monarch has the power of convoking
them, suspending them, or dissolving them; but in the latter
case a new Cortes must sit within three months. The Monarch
appoints the president and vice-presidents of the Senate from
members of the Senate only ; the Congress elects its own Officials.
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GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 947
The Monarch and each of the legislative chambers can take the
initiative in the laws. The Congress has the right of impeaching
the ministers before the Senate.
The Constitution of June 30, 1876, further enacts that the Monarch is
inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and that all his decrees must
be countersigned by one of them. The Cortes must approve his marriage
before he can contract it, and the King cannot marry any one excluded by
law from the succession to the crown. Should the lines of the legitimate
descendants of the late Alphonso XII. become extinct, the succession shall
be in this order — first, to his sisters ; next to his aunt and her legitimate
descendants ; and next to those of his uncles, the brothers of Fernando VII.,
'unless they have been excluded.' If all the lines become extinct, 'the
nation will elect its Monarch. '
The executive is vested, under the Monarch, in a Council of Ministers oi
nine members, appointed December 1892, as follows : —
President of the Council. — Sefior Sagasta.
Minister of Foreign Affairs. — S. Moret.
Minister of Justice. — R. Capdepon.
Minister of Finance. — Seiior Gamazo.
Minister of the Interior. — Seiior Lopez Puigecrxer.
Minister of War. — General Lopez Dominguez.
Minister of Public Works. —Seiior Moret.
Minister of the Colonies. — Seiior Maura.
Minister of Marine. — Admiral Pasquin.
II. Local Government.
The various provinces and communes of Spain are governed by the
provincial and municipal laws. Every commune has its own elected
Ayuntamiento, consisting of from five to thirty-nine Regidores, or Conce-
jales, and presided over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger
towns, several Tenientes Alcaldes. The entire municipal government, with
power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamientos. Half the members
are elected every two years, and they appoint the Alcalde, the executive
functionary, from their own body. In the larger towns he may be appointed
by the King. Members cannot be re-elected until after two years. Each
province of Spain has its own Parliament, the Diputacion Provincial, the
members of which are elected by the constituencies. The Diputaciones
Provinciales meet in annual session, and are permanently represented by
the Comission Provincial, a committee elected every year. The Constitution
of 1876 secures to the Diputaciones Provinciales and the Ayuntamientos
the government and administration of the respective provinces and com-
munes. Neither the national executive nor the Cortes have the right
to interfere in the established municipal and provincial administration,
except in the case of the action of the Diputaciones Provinciales and
Ayuntamientos going beyond the locally limited sphere to the injury of
general and permanent interests. In the Basque provinces self-government
has been almost abolished since the last civil war, and they are ruled as
the rest of Spain. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Constitution,
pressure is too frequently brought to bear upon the local elections by the
Central Government.
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Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of each of
the forty-nine provinces into which the Kingdom is divided,
according to the census of 1887 : —
Province
Area in
square
mil es
Alava
Albacete .
Alicante .
Almeria .
Avila
Badaioz .
Baleares .
Barcelona
Burgos .
Caceres .
Cadiz .
Ganarias . . ;
Castellon de la I
Plana .
Ciudad-Real
C6rdoba .
Corufla .
Gnenca .
Gerona .
Granada .
Guadalajara
Guipuzcoa
Huelva .
Huesca .
Jaen
Leon
Lerida .
1,205
5,972
2,098
8,302
2,981
8,687
1,860
2,985
5,650
8,018
2,809
2,808
2,446
7,840
5,190
3,079
6,725
2,272
4,937
4,870
728
4,122
5,878
5,184
6,167
4,775
Total I Pop. I
Popula- ; per sq.
tion, 1887 mile
92,915
229,102
433,050
339,452
193,093
481,508
312,593
902,970
338,551
339,793
429,872
291,625
292,437
292,291
420,728
613,881
242,460
806,588
484,688
201,518
181,845
254,831
255,187
437,842
380,637
285,417
78
39
206
102
64
55
168 i
301 |
59
42
152 I
102
110 I
37
81
199
35
134
98
41
249
61
43
84
61
Province
Logrofio .
Lugo
Madrid .
Malaga .
Murcia .
Navarra .
Orense .
Oviedo .
Palencia .
Pontevedra
Salamanca
Santander
Seg6via .
Sevilla .
S6ria
Tarragona
Teruel .
Toledo .
Valencia .
Valladolid
Vizcaya .
Zamora .
Zaragoza.
N. ft W. Coast
of Africa
Total
Area in
square
miles
1,945
3,787
2,997
2,824
4,478
6,046
2,789
4,091
3,126
1,739
4,940
2,118
2,714
5,295
8,836
2,451
5,491
5,586
4,352
3,043
849
4,135
6,607
13
Total Pop.
Popula- persq.'
tion, 1887 mile
181,465
432,165
682,644
519,977
491,436
304,122
405,127
595,420
188,845
443,385
314,472
244,274
154,443
544,815
151,530
348,579
241,865
359,562
733,978
267,148
235,659
270,072
415,195
93
113
228
183
109
50
147
145
60
254
63
114
56
102
39
142
44
64
168
87
277
65
62
5,280 391
197,670 17,565,632 , 88
There were in 1887, 8,612,524 males and 8,953,108 females.
The legal population as distinct from the population present was returned
at 17,673,838. The area of continental Spain is 191,100 square miles, and its
population (1887) 16,945,786.
The population of Ceuta, included in that of Cadiz, is 9,694. Besides
Ceuta, Spain has, on the African Coast, the Port of Penon de Velez, the
Alhucemas and Chafarinas Islands, and the port of Melilla. These African
possessions are used chiefly as convict stations. According to the census
returns of 1887, there were in Spain at that date only 25,824 resident
foreigners — the mass of them in four provinces — namely, Barcelona, Cadiz,
Gerona, and Madrid. The Basques in the North, numbering 440,000, differ
in race and language from the rest of Spain ; there are 60,000 Morescoes in
the South, 50,000 gipsies, and a small number of Jews.
In 1789 the population was estimated to number 10,061,480 ; in 1820 it
was 11,000,000 ; in 1828, 13,698,029 ; in 1846, 12,168,774, and it was at the
census of 1860, 15,658,531. At the census of 1877 the population amounted
to 16,634,345, being an increase of 976,814 in the course of seventeen years,
or at the rate of about 0*35 per cent, per annum ; in 1887 it was 17,565,632,
being an increase of 831,287 in ten years, or at the rate of 0*47 per cent.
per annum.
The following were the populations of the principal towns in 1887, viz :—
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RELIGION — INSTRUCTION
949
Town
i
Population
Town
Population
1 Madrid .
470,283 ,
Palma (Baleares)
60,514
i Barcelona .
272,481
Lorca
58,327
1 Valencia .
170,763
Valladolid
62,018
Sevilla
143,182
C6rdoba .
55,614
Malaga
134,016 !
Bilbao
50,772
Morcia
98,538 j
Oviedo
42,716
Zaragoza .
92,407
Santander
41,829
Granada .
73,006 '
Alicante .
39,638
Carthagena
84,171
Almeria .
37,241
! Cadiz.
62,531
Corufia
36,200
Jeres de la Fron-
1
Burgos
31,301
1 tera
61,708 ;
Statistics published by the Instituto Geographico y Estadistico of Spain
show that the population according to occupation in 1889 was as follows : —
Agricultural, 4,854,742; industrial (textile and mineral), 243,867; com-
mercial, 194,755 ; arts and trades, 823,310 ; domestic servants, 409,549 ;
merchant marine, 115,764 ; professional (legal, medical, &c), 84,510; public
employees, 97,257 ; asylum inmates, &c, 91,226 ; religious (Catholic),
72,077 ; private and railway employees, 49,565 ; teachers, &c, 39,136 ; leisure
classes, 29,918; hotel keepers, &c, 14,449; pupils at schools and colleges,
1,719,955 ; not stated, 8,728,519 ; t5tal, 17,568,599.
In 1892, according to official statistics, 66,406 persons left, and 58,148
persons entered Spain, the excess of emigration being thus 8,258. Emigration
from Spain is chiefly to Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina.
Religion.
The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the whole
population of the Kingdom adhere to that faith, except (in 1887) 6,654
Protestants, 402 Jews, 9,645 Rationalists, 510 of other religions, and 13,175
of religion not stated. There were in 1884 in Spain 32,435 priests in the
62 dioceses into which the country is divided ; 1,684 monks resident in 161
monastic houses, and 14,592 nuns in 1,027 convents. The number of
cathedrals was 65, of religious colleges 30, of churches 18,564, and of con-
vents, religious houses, sanctuaries, and other buildings of a religious character
11,202. According to Article 12 of the Constitution of 1876, a restricted
liberty of worship is allowed to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in
private, all public announcements of the same being strictly forbidden. The
Constitution likewise enacts that 'the nation binds itself to maintain the
worship and ministers of the Roman Catholic religion.' Resolutions of
former legislative bodies, not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that
the clergy of the Established Church are to be maintained by the State. On
the other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and
March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed, and their
property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These decrees gave rise to
a long dispute with the head of the Roman Catholic Church, which ended in
the sovereign pontiff conceding the principle of the measure. By a concordat
with Rome concluded in August 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised
to sell the whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates bearing
interest at the rate of 3 per cent.
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950 SPAIN
Instruction.
The latest census returns show that a large proportion of the inhabitants
are illiterate. In 1860 20 '0 per cent, of the population could read and write ;
4 *6 per cent, could read only ; and 75 *3 per cent, could neither read nor write.
In 1889, out of a population of 17,552,346 accounted for, 5,004,460 (3,317,855
males, and 1,686,615 females), or 28*5 percent, could read and write ; 608,005
(221,613 males, and 380,392 females), or 3*4 per cent, could read only ; and
11,945,871 (5,067,098 males, and 6,878,773 females), or 68*1 per cent, could
neither read nor write. •
By a law of 1857 an elaborate system of primary education was ordained :
education was to be compulsory, there was to be a primary school for every 500
inhabitants, and instruction was to be on a rigidly uniform plan. Compulsion
has never been enforced, and, partly from political causes and partly from the
wretched pay of most of the elementary teachers (10Z. to 20?. per "annum),
education is very inefficient. In 1881, however, several improvements were
introduced. Under the Minister of Public Works there is a Director-General
of Public Instruction, with a council ; there are ten educational districts, with
the universities as centres, 49 inspectoral districts, and numerous local educa-
tional authorities. The public and primary schools are supported mainly by
the municipalities, the total sum spent in each of the last three years on
primary education, including a small contribution by Government, being about
1,000,000Z. Most of the children are educated free. The following table
shows the number of schools in the years 1850, 1870, and 1880 : —
i
Year ■ Public Private Total
; 1850 13,334 4,100 17,434
I 1870 j 22,711 5,406 28,117
I 1880 23,132 6,696 29,828
i '
In 1885 (to which the latest issued reports refer) there were 24,529
public and 5,576 private primary schools, or 1 for every 560 inhabitants,
including 1,774 public and private schools for adults and Sunday schools
In 1885 there were 1,843,183 pupils on the books. Secondary education is
conducted in 'institutions,' or middle-class schools, somewhat like universi-
ties in their organisation ; there must be one of them in every province in
addition to private schools. These are largely attended, but the education
is inefficient. These institutions prepare for the universities, of which
there are ten, attended by 16,000 students. The fees largely cover the
expenses of the universities. Government also supports various special
schools — engineering, agriculture, architecture, fine arts, music, &c. In 1887
the total sum set apart for education in the budget was only 1,868,650
Finance.
The revenue of the Kingdom is raised by a system of direct
and indirect taxation, stamp duties, Government monopolies, and
income from State property. The direct taxes are imposed on
landed property, houses, live stock, industry, commerce, registra-
tion acts, titles of nobility, mortgages, and mineral produce.
The indirect taxes are derived from foreign imports, articles of
consumption, tolls, bridge and ferry dues.
There have been no accounts of the actual public revenue and
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FINANCE
951
expenditure of the Kingdom published since the year 1870-71,
but only budget estimates. There are, indeed, accounts of public
revenue and expenditure published monthly; but the public
accounts have not been approved by Parliament since 1865-67 ;
and the Tribunal de Guentas has not audited the accounts later
than 1868-69. According to official returns, the following were
the ordinary revenue and expenditure for the financial years
specified : —
Financial Tears
Revenue
Total Expenditure
Pesetas
Pesetas
1880-81
791,650,792
836,651,193
1886-87
887,305,572
910,363,783
1887-88
803,090,000
839,866,146
1888-89
851,667,932
848,657,985
1889-90
800,035,687
799,943,436
1891-92
779,475,860
832,911,687
The actual deficit for 1886-87 was 91,646,929 pesetas;
1887-88, 82,013,775 pesetas; 1888-89, over 122,450,636 pese-
tas; 1889-90, 61,738,611; 1890-91, 62,880,914; 1891-92,
53,435,827. For 1892-93 the estimated revenue was 747,960,550
pesetas, and expenditure 742,361,998 pesetas. The following are
the sanctioned estimates for 1893-94 : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesetas
Pesetas
Direct taxes on land,
Civil list .
9,500,000
trade, mines, Govern-
Cortes
1,526,585
ment salaries, regis-
Public debt
309,219,669
tration, &c.
291,423,473
Judicial expenses
1,817,231
Indirect taxes, cus-
Indemnities and pen-
toms, excise, &c.
281,768,000
sions
55,150,000
Tobacco monopoly,
Council of Ministers .
1,891,050
lottery, mint, and
Ministry of Foreign
minor sundries
129,940,000
Affairs .
4,710,143
Revenue from national
,, ,, Justice
52,608,061
property .
22,124,880
„ War.
133,872,215
From the public trea-
,, ,, Marine
22,502,951
sury
12,470,000
,, ,, Interior .
26,734,554
,, ,, Agriculture
76,619,932
,, ,, Finance .
14,821,168
Tax collecting .
26,846,252
Total .
Fernando Po
Total .
655,000
737,726,353
737,474,811
It was arranged in 1881-82 that the bulk of the Spanish debt
should be converted into a new series of 4 per cents. The follow-
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952
SPAIN
\
ing table shows the amount of the debt on January 1, 1893, and
the annual interest and amortisation : —
Name of Loan
Perpetual External at 4%
Perpetual Internal at 4 %
Amortisable at 4%
Due on public works
Due on public roads
Arrears due to employes .
Total .
Nominal
Capital in
pesetas
1,971,151,000
2,274,660,450
1,714,075,000
562,000
252,000
1,342,640
5,962,043,090
Interest, &c,
in pesetas
78,846,040
90,986,418
101,300,550
11,550
6,300
271,150,858
In addition to this, the consolidated debt at 5 per cent, due
to the United States of America amounts to 3,000,000 pesetas ;
the inscribed debts in favour of civil corporations and the
clergy amount to 725,836,000 pesetas ; the floating debt amounts
to 195,516,000 pesetas, and the State has incurred obligations in
respect to the island of Cuba estimated at over 10,000,000/.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The Spanish frontiers are defended by the following fortified
places : — On the north and north-west coast, Fuenterrabia, the
fortified port of Passages, and the military ports of Santona and
Santander, Ferrol, Coruiia, Vigo ; in the Basque country, between
the coast and the Ebro, are Bilbao and Vitoria ; in the country
on the left bank of the Ebro are Pamplona, Tafalla, Jaca,
Venasqua, Monzon, Puycerda, Seo de Urgel, Balaguer, and Lerida ;
between the Segre and the Mediterranean are Cardona, Hostalrich,
Oampredon, Bipoll, Gerona, Olot, Cartelfollit, Figueras; on the
Mediterranean, Palamos, Barcelona, Tarragona, Malaga, Almeria,
Carthagena, and Alicante; on the Ebro are Logrofio, Tudela,
Zaragoza, Mequinenza, and Tortosa ; south of the Ebro are
Burgos and Morella. Along the Portuguese frontier are Toro,
Ciudad Rodrigo, Valencia de Alcantara, Albuquerque, and
Badajoz ; Tarifa and Algeciras in the Strait of Gibraltar, and
Cadiz at its entrance.
II. Army.
Under the military law of July 1, 1885, the armed forces of Spain consist
of — 1. A permanent army ; 2. A first or active reserve ; 3. A second or
sedentary reserve. All Spaniards past the age of 19 are liable to be drawn
for the permanent army, in which they have to serve three years ; they then
pass for three years into the first or active reserve, and for six years into the
second reserve. By a payment of 1,500 pesetas any one may purchase
exemption from service. For the colonial army the total period of service is
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DEFENCE 953
eight years, four with the colours and four in the second reserve. By in-
creasing the number of depdt battalions, assigning to each reserve battalion a
special district, and making it the essential basis of regimental organisation,
both for recruits and for the reserves, it is hoped that in time Spain may be
able easily to mobilise in case of necessity an army of 1,083,595 men.
The Spanish regular army is composed as follows : —
Infantry : — 74 regiments of the line of 2 battalions ; 36 battalions of
chasseurs ; 136 battalions of reserves ; 68 recruiting squadrons. Each
battalion has 6 companies — 2 in skeleton only. There are also a disciplinary
battalion and a school of musketry.
Cavalry : — A squadron of royal guards (150 strong), 8 lancer regiments,
17 chasseur regiments, 4 dragoon regiments, 2 hussar regiments, in all 31
regiments of 4 squadrons each. There are also 28 reserve regiments, and
13 additional squadrons of various kinds.
Artillery: — 5 regiments of 4 batteries, and 5 regiments of 6 batteries,
2 horse batteries, 2 regiments of mountain artillery of 6 batteries, 1 siege
regiment, 12 fortress battalions (6 of 6 companies and 6 of 4 companies),
7 reserve regiments, 4 companies of workmen, and 2 companies attached to the
military academy and the central shooting school.
Engi7ieer8: — 4 regiments of 2 battalions of 4 companies, 4 reserve regiments,
1 regiment of pontooneers of 4 companies, 1 battalion each of railway engineers,
of telegraphists, and of workmen, and 1 brigade of topogjraphists ; 1 mixed
battalion of Cuba, 1 battalion of workmen of the Philippine Islands, and 1
special reserve battalion. There is a special body of engineer officers
numbering 451.
Administrative Corps: — 1 brigade of 15 sections. Civil Guard — partly
dependent on the Minister of War : — 16 infantry regiments and 15 cavalry
regiments, in all 130 companies. Sanitary Corps : — 1 brigade of 8 sections.
There are 447 doctors and 82 pharmacists in the army service. Carabineers —
for service on the frontier, and on the coast to act as custom-house officials : —
30 regiments of infantry, comprising 84 companies and in addition 7 mounted
companies. Territorial Army of the Canary Islands : — 1 battalion of chas-
seurs of 6 companies, and 6 reserve battalions of 4 companies. There is also
a volunteer militia in Ceuta.
The following is the strength of the regular army in peace and war : —
Permanent War
Carabineers . 13,503 13,503
Other formations 6,259 11,481
Permanent
War
Infantry .
. 51,162
959,667
Cavalry .
. 14,881
38,481
Artillery .
. 10,112
32,152
Engineers
. 4,315
12,807
Civil Guard
. 15,503
15,503
Total . 115,735 1,083,595
The contingent for 1892-93 is fixed at 90,873 men. A new regiment of
artillery is being formed. In peace there are 12,713 horses and 422 guns ; in
war 22,000 horses and 518 guns. For military purposes the Kingdom, with
the Islands, is divided into 14 districts, or 'capitanias generales,' at the head
of each of which stands a ' captain-general.' It is further subdivided into 14
territorial divisions for infantry, in each of which is a regimental dep8t ; for
the cavalry there are 24 districts, and 6 for Artillery.
The number of troops in the Philippines is 10,190, in Cuba 13,038, in Porto
Rico 3,129.
There are in Spain 13 military schools and colleges.
III. Navy.
The ship-building programme of 1887, involving an outlay of 225 million
pesetas, had on grounds of economy, to be modified, and a new programme
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954 spain
was authorised by royal decree in 1890. Spain is now possessed of a capable
little navy, which, with the completion of the ships in hand, will become a
formidable force. The following statement of its strength includes ships
built and building, but excludes training ships, transports, and non-effective
vessels : —
49
Battleship, 1st class . . 1
Port Defence Ships . . 2
Cruisers, 1st class (a) . 8 "
„ „ W. • 2
,, 2nd class
10
Cruisers, 3rd class (a) . 24
„ „ (h) . 25 .
Torpedo Craft, 1st class . 12 j
„ „ 2nd class . 27 5 40
,, ,. 3rd class . 1 j
108
According to the Spanish system of classification, certain vessels considered
in this country to belong to the cruiser category, are counted as battleships.
The single battleship credited to Spain in the above table is the fine vessel
Pelayo, launched at La Seyne in 1887. The following are her principal
characteristics: — Displacement, 9,900 tons; length, 330 ft. ; beam, 66 ft. ;
draught, 24 ft. 9 in ; engines, 6,800 nominal horse-power ; speed, 15*8 knots ;
principal armament, 2 12£-in., 2 11-in., 1 6£-in., and 124f-in. breech-loaders,
with 6 quick-firing guns ; protection, steel belt 18 in. maximum thickness,
and 11 in. on the barbettes. The 4 heavy guns are disposed on the French
system, i.e. singly on protected barbette turrets fore and aft, and onsponsoned
barbettes on either broadside. The 6£-in. gun is in the bows, and the 12
4|-in. pieces are in battery on either side. All the Spanish first-class cruisers
a are new vessels, and nearly all are still in the hands of the constructors,
four not yet being launched. Six of them are well protected by 12-in. steel
belts, and the heavy gun emplacements have 8-in. steel armouring. These —
the Infanta Maria Teresa, Vizcaya, AlmirarUe Oquendo, Cataluila, Cardcnal
Cisnero8f and Princesa de Asturias — are of 7,000 tons, 364 feet in length,
65 feet beam, 13,000 nominal horse-power, and 20 knots nominal
speed. The first-named, built at Bilbao, made 18*48 knots at her official
natural-draught trials, during eight hours' steaming at sea, thus slightly
exceeding the contract. In these cruisers two 11-in. guns are mounted
singly on barbette turrets fore and aft, and there are five 5£-in. guns
on each broadside, the pairs severally nearest to the bows and the stern
being sponsoned out, so as to fire severally in those directions, and have a
wide firing arc on the beam. The Emperador Carlos V.y launched in 1892,
and a sister ship not yet named, both in hand at Cadiz, are still more powerful
armoured cruisers (9,235 tons) of the Russian Rurik type, with a larger light
armament than the others, and engines of 15,000 horse-power, which are
expected to give a speed of 20 knots. The first-class cruisers b in the above
statement are the old broadside ships Numancia and Vitoria (dating from
1863 and 1867), which, having been reboilered, and having received new
armaments, are counted as cruisers mainly for convoying purposes. Of
smaller vessels Spain possesses three remarkable new second-class deck-
protected cruisers — the sister ships Reina Regente, Alfonso XIII., and
Lepanto (4, 800 tons), which have their guns very advantageously placed, and,
with 12,000 horse-power, are expected to steam at 20 knots. The third-class
cruisers a in the above statement include six 1,130-ton 14 -knot vessels of the
Infanta Isabel class, and the torpedo gunboats, of which four (of the Sharp-
shooter class) are in course of construction. In the b list the older and slower
gunboats are grouped, but Spain has, in addition, some 20 third-class gun-
boats of less than 100 tons displacement. Among the torpedo-boats the
Ariete (97 tons, 147 ft. 6 in. long) is a remarkable craft, built at Chiswick,
which steamed 26*1 knots at her trials.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE 955
The navy of Spain was manned in 1892 by 14,000 seamen and petty
officers, and 8,530 marines, and was officered by one admiral, 24 vice-
and rear-admirals, 148 captains, and 696 other naval officers; while the
engineering branch numbered 138 officers. The navy, like the army, is
recruited by conscription, naval districts for this purpose being formed along
the coast, among the seafaring population.
Production and Industry.
Of the soil of Spain 79*65 is classed as productive ; of this 33*8 per cent,
is devoted to agriculture and gardens, 3*7 vineyards, 1*6 olive culture, 19*7
natural grass, 20*8 fruits. Wheat, rye, barley, maize, esparto, flax, hemp,
and pulse are the leading crops. The vine is the most important culture
(24,210,162 hectolitres in 1891), while large quantities of oranges, raisins,
grapes, nuts, and olives are exported. Of animals, mules and asses and sheep
are imported.
The soil is subdivided among a very large number of proprietors. Of
3,426,083 recorded assessments to the property tax, there are 624,920
properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666 from 10 to 20 reales ;
642,377 from 20 to 40 reales; 788,184 from 40 to 100 reales; 416,546 from
100 to 200 reales ; 165,202 from 200 to 600 reales ; while the rest, to the
number of 279,188, are larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and
upwards. The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the hands of
273,760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.
In 1888 the Agricultural Department estimated the area under vines at
5,000,000 acres, and the total production of wine, 616,000,000 gallons.
Iron, quicksilver, lead, and copper are the most important minerals. In
1888, 5,609,876 tons of ore were produced, valued at 16,829,628 pesetas ; of
this 4,092,402 tons were exported ; the export in 1889 amounted to 4,633,698
tons. The produce of copper in 1888 amounted to 3,202,416 tons, valued at
19,214,496 pesetas ; the export of copper ore in 1888 was 756,943 tons ; in
1889, 720,622 tons. The bulk of these ores go to Great Britain. The value
of mining products at the mouth of the mines in 1887 was 120,372,948
pesetas, and in 1888 125,825,144 pesetas. The value of the lead mines in
1888 was 39,219,950 pesetas, and of argentiferous lead, 27,516,150 pesetas.
In 1888, 50,269 people were engaged in mining. The total value of the
metallurgical products in 1887 was 157,830,370 pesetas ; in 1888, 186,024,493
pesetas.
Commerce.
The total imports and exports of Spain were as follows in
five years :-
Imports
Pesetas
811,211,708
716,085,479
866,311,424
941,137,925
1,018,770,524
Exports
Pesetas
722,181,792
763,104,389
896,855,826
937,759,883
932,245,001
The total export of Spanish wines in 1891 amounted to
247,334,550 gallons ; of this, 218,484,640 gallons went to France,
and 4,333,524 gallons to Great Britain. In 1888 the agricultural
department estimated the area under vines at two million hec-
tares, and the total production of wine for the same year was
about 616,000,000 gallons, 638,000,000 in 1890.
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956
SPAIN
The following table shows the principal imports and exports
for 1892 :—
Imports
Cotton, raw
Cotton textiles
Cotton, jute, and
hemp yarn .
Woollen goods
Silk, row
Silk goods
Coal and coke .
Mineral oils
Iron and manufac-
tures .
Drugs and chemicals
Paper
Timber, staves
Timber, planks
Hides and skins
Animal fats
Manures .
Machinery
Wheat .
Other^cereals
Sugar
Cacao
Coffee
Spirits
Fish
Tobacco .
Pesetas
85,820,832
9,568,967
18,642,048
24,122,419
6,783,578
12,282,589
49,805,763
10,252,849
19,825,662
48,790,090
10,151,821
15,874,389
25,724,320
12,802,181
7,430,743
9,990,278
42,985,582
27,748,084
4,409,673
49,764,182
14,573,153
12,374,086
10,273,296
28,783,563
30,155,462
Exports
Minerals (including
ores) .
Silver (including
coin) .
Iron
Copper .
Quicksilver
Argentiferous lead
Other lead
Zinc
Drugs and chemicals
Cotton textiles
Wool
Paper
Cork
Wood
Boots and shoes
Almonds
Raisins .
Oranges .
Olive oil .
Wine
Conserves
Pesetas
82,235,692
41,749,160
5,757,647
24,934,760
9,204,892
41,092,813
24,001,559
1,690,428
29,546,652
40,267,232
10,067,414
11,246,831
25,863,060
7,234,123
25,506,208
11,447,975
18,603,545
13,445,571
14,471,700
191,213,800
10,654,934
►
The following table shows the shares of the leading countries
in the commerce of Spain in 1890 and 1891, in pesetas —
Country
1890 1891 > 1890 1891 '
Imports from
i
! 292,293,000
Imports from
Exports to Exports to
France
826,794,000
425,604,000 457,253,000 1
Great Britain
194,578,000
287,521,000
218,872,000 ' 175,993,000 !
United States
79,398,645
86,733,000
24,521,562 15,124,000 j
Germany
44,475,947
42,528,000
11,829,343 | 10,156,000
Belgium
40,472,983
38,484,000
21,445,419 , 17,471,000
Russia.
26,355,075
27,927,000
874,884 | 480,000
Italy .
1 16,888,250
28,567,000 ' 8,082,048 | 7,677,000
Sweden and Nor
. i
way .
j 37,189,609
31,625,000
1,488,978 3,456,000
Portugal
1 34,873,578
53,669,000
85,672,058 33,335,000
Turkey
' 8,851,492
8,467,000 — — •
Spanish Colonies
94,758,810 . 76,662,000 122,925,433 146,039,000
i !
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COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
957
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United Kingdom is
shown in the following table from the Board of Trade Returns : —
Imports into Great Britain
Exports of British produce
to Spain ....
£
11,050,100
3,522,288
£
11,558,857
4,220,162
£
12,508,533
4,999,705
1891
£
10,523,875
4,977,473
1892
£
10,916,636
4,672,988
The quantities and value of wine imported into the United Kingdom from
Spain were as follows in each of the last five years : —
Quantities
(gallons)
Value (£)
3,927,094
888,773
1890
3,803,346 4,007,085
866,037 908,825
4,066,356
858,382
1892
3,719,109
817,566
Besides wine, the following were the leading imports from Spain into the
United Kingdom in the last two years : —
-
1891
1892
£
£
Iron ore .
2,130,568
2,364,136
Fruits .
2,192,376
2,588,893
Lead
880,138
934,021
Rags, esparto,
&c. .
374,878
368,725
1891
i *
Iron & copper .
pyrites . ! 1,070,815 997,311
Copper ore, '
1892
regulus, &c.
Oxen & bulk
Quicksilver .
1,501,401' 1,487,882
134,971, 27,655
415,680 345,113
The chief British exports to Spain in 1892 were linen yarn and linens, of
the value of 261,378Z. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of
462,342Z. ; coals, of the value of 939,360?. ; machinery, 794,187 ; cotton
goods, of the value of 319,703*. ; and woollen, 283,178?.
Shipping and Navigation.
The mercliant navy of the Kingdom contained in 1893, of vessels over
100 tons, 414 steamers of 445,745 tons gross, and 463 sailing vessels of
117,659 tons net ; total, 877 vessels of 564,404 tons.
In 1892 there entered 17,367 vessels, of 11,585,712 tons, of which 8,024,
of 5,114,016 tons, carried the Spanish flag, and cleared 17,416 vessels, of
11,579,217 tons, of which 7,962, of 5,281,209 tons, earned the Spanish
flag.
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958 Spain
Internal Communications.
The length of railways in Spain on December 31, 1893, was 6,708 English
miles open for traffic. The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private
companies, but nearly all have obtained guarantees or subventions from the
Government.
The Post Office carried 118,459,000 letters, 842,000 post-cards, 185,000
registered letters of a declared value of 377,403,000 pesetas, and 74,670,000
papers, samples, &c, in the year 1891. There were 2,688 post-offices in
1891.
The length of lines of telegraphs in Spain on January 1, 1892, was
15,988 English miles ; and the length of wire 35,094 English miles. In the
year 1891 the total number of telegraph messages was 4,766,192, one-fourth of
the whole international, and one-fifth of the remaining number administrative
despatches. The number of telegraph offices was 1,177.
Money and Credit.
On September 30, 1893, the Bank of Spain had gold and silver to the
amount of 356,500,000 pesetas ; its note circulation amounted to 919,800,000
pesetas ; private accounts current and deposits, 353, 400, 000 pesetas ; portfolio,
129,700,000 pesetas; advances oh mortgages, 134,700,000 pesetas; treasury
accounts current and deposits, 37,900,000 pesetas.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Peseta of 100 Ccntesimos is of the value of a franc, 9Jd., or 25 '225
pesetas to the pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 20, 10, and 5-peseta pieces.
Silver coins are 5-peseta and single peseta pieces.
Both gold and silver coins are of the same weight and fineness as the corre-
sponding French coins.
Theoretically, there is a double standard of value, gold and silver, the
ratio being 15£ to 1. But of silver coins only the 5-peseta piece is legal
tender, and the coinage of this is restricted.
Weights and Measures.
On January 1, 1859, the metric system of weights and measures was
introduced in Spain. But, besides these, the old weights and measures are
still largely used. They are :— The Quintal = 101 *4 lbs. avoirdupois ; the
Libra = 1 *014 lbs. avoirdupois ; the Arroba, for wine = 3£ imperial gallons ;
for oil = 2} imperial gallons ; the Square Vara = 1 *09 vara = 1 yard ; the
Fanega = l£ imperial bushel.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Spain in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Don Cipriano del Mazo y Gherardi.
Second Secretary. — Don Carlos Gassend.
Attache'. — Vizconde de Monserrat.
Military AttachA. — Colonel F. Bermudez Reiiia.
There are Consular representatives at London (C.G.), Cardiff, Dublin,
Glasgow, Liverpool, Newcastle, Aberdeen, Newport, Swansea; Adelaide,
Bombay, Calcutta, • Cape Town, Hong Kong, Jamaica, Malta, Melbourne,
Quebec (C.G.), Singapore, Sydney.
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COLONIES
2. Of Great Bbitajn in Spain.
959
Ambassador.— Right Hon. Sir Henry Drummond- Wolff, G.C.B., G.G.M.G. ;
Envoy to Persia, 1887 to 1891 ; Envoy to Roumania, 1891-92. Appointed
"Ambassador to Spain January 1892.
Secretary,— Sir G. F. Bonham, Bart.
There are Consular representatives at Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, Cadiz,
Corufia, Fernando Po, Havana (C.G.), Malaga, Manila, Palma (Balearic
Islands), Porto Rico, Cuba (C.G.), Teneriffe.
Colonies.
The area and population of the various
i follows : —
Colonial Possessions
1. Possessions in America :
Cuba (1890) .
Porto Rico
Total, America
2. Possessions in Asia :
Philippine Islands .
Sulu Islands .
Caroline Islands and Palaos
Marianne Islands .
Area: English
square mi]
claimed by Spain are
iglisl
tiles.
41,656
3,550
Population
1,631,687
806,708
45,205 2,438,395
114,326
950
560
420
Total, Asia , . 116,256
3. Possessions in Africa :
Rio de Oro and Adrar ....
Ifni (near Cape Nun) ....
Fernando Po, Annabon, Corisco, Elobey,
San Juan
Total, Africa ....
Total Possessions ....
243,000
1 27
! 850
243,877
405,338
7,000,000
75,000
36,000
10,172
7,121,172
100,000
6,000
30,000
136,000
9,695,567
For administrative purposes the Canary Islands are considered part of
^ain. Rio de Oro and Adrar are under the governorship of the Canary
Islands, with a sub-govemor resident at Rio de Oro. The country on the
banks of the rivers Muni and Campo is claimed by Spain, but disputed by
France ; it lias an area of 69,000 square miles and a population of 500,000.
The extent of the Sulu Archipelago under the Spanish protection is
denned, in a protocol signed at Madrid, March 7, 1885, by representatives of
Great Britain, Germany, and Spain, as including all the islands lying between
the western extremity of the island of Mindanao on the one side, and the
islands of Borneo and Aragua on the other ; excluding all parts of Borneo,
and the islands within a zone of three maritime leagues of the coast.
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960 SPAIN : — CUBA AND PORTO RICO
CUBA AND FOBTO BICO.
Cuba is divided into three provinces, the south-east and central being the
richest and most populous, containing 22 cities and towns and 204 villages^
and hamlets. Ten per cent, of the area is cultivated, 7 per cent,
is unreclaimed, and 4 per cent, is under forests. There are large tracts of
country still unexplored The population of the island in 1877 was made up
as follows: Spaniards, 977,992; foreign whites, 10,632; Chinese, 43,811 ;
negroes, 489,249. A law passed in 1886 abolished slavery absolutely. The
capital, Havana, has (December 1887) 198,271 inhabitants, and the other most
important towns are Matanzas (1892), 27,000 ; Santiago de Cuba, 71,307 ;
Cienfuegos (1892), 27,430 ; Puerto Principe, 46,641 ; Holguin, 34,767 ;
Sancti Spiritu, 32,608 ; Cardenas (1892), 23,680. Education was made
obligatory in Cuba in 1880. The Cuban armed forces, which consist of in-
fantry, cavalry, and artillery (including a black militia battalion), are restiicted
on a peace footing to 20, 414 men.
The estimated revenue for 1893-94, was 24,440,759 pesos, of which
11,375,000 was from customs; expenditure, 25,984,239 pesos, of which
12,574,485 pesos was for the debt, 5,904,084 pesos for the Ministry of War,
and 4,015,034 pesos for the Ministry of the Interior. The debt is put at over
37,200,000*.
The number of landed estates on the island in 1892 was estimated at
90,960 of the value of 220,000,000 pesos, and rental of 17,000,000 pesos.
The live stock consisted of 584,725 horses and mules, 2,485,766 cattle, 78,494
sheep, and 570,194 pigs. The chief produce is sugar and tobacco. The
quantity of sugar produced in 1887 was 646,578 tons ; in 1888, 656,719 tons ;
in 1889, 544,300 tons; in 1890, 675,233 tons; in 1891, 823,096 tons. The
shipments of sugar in 1892 (year ended May 31) were 865,101 tons ; 1893,
742,108 tons. The export of tobacco in 1889 was 178,000 bales; 1890,
194,000 bales ; 1891, 205,000 bales ; 1892, 240,000 bales. The number of
Havana cigars exported in 1889 was 250,467,000 ; in 1890, 211,823,000 ; in
1891, 196,644,000; in 1892, 166,712,000. The total exports from Cuba in
1892 (according to a memoire of the Chamber of Commerce of Santiago de
Cuba) amounted to 89,652,514 pesos, of which 84,964,685 pesos was for vege-
table, 871,625 pesos for animal, and 3,485,924 pesos for mineral produce.
The import value was put at 56,265,315 pesos, of which 18,553,307 pesos was
from Spain, 16,245,880 pesos from the United States, 13,051,384 from Great
Britain, 2,250,901 from France, 1,000,000 from Belgium, and 669,000 from
Germany. The chief imports are rice, jerked beef, and flour.
The Spanish official returns state the value of the imports from Cuba into
Spain for 1891 to be 37,270,000 Spanish pesetas, and the exports from Spain to
Cuba 114,860,000 pesetas. In the district of Santiago de Cuba, at the end of
1891, the total number of mining titles issued was 296, with an extent of 13,727 '
hectares. Of the mines reported and claimed, 138 were iron, 88 manganese,
and 53 copper. In 1892, 1,104 vessels of 1,279,477 tons (224 of 196,167 tons
British) entered, and 1,108 vessels of 1,289,444 tons (226 of 196,966 tons
British, cleared at the port of Havana ; and 371 of 431,500 tons (170 of
176,000 tons British) entered the port of Santiago de Cuba. In Cuba there
are 2,810 miles of telegraph with 167 offices, and about 1,000 miles of railway.
Porto Rico is described as ' the healthiest of all the Antilles.' Its negro
population is estimated at over 300,000. An act for the abolition of slavery
was passed by the National Assembly on March 23, 1873. Chief town, San
Juan, 23,414 inhabitants ; Ponce, 37,545 ; San German, 30,146. The Porto
Rico budget for 1893-94 gave an estimated expenditure of 3,879,813 pesos, oi
which the Ministry of Finance absorbed 250,045 pesos, and War 1,050,006.
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PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 961
pesos, and an estimated income of 3,903,655 pesos, of which the customs were
estimated to produce 2,300,000 pesos, and direct and indirect taxes 1,358,800
pesos. The principal articles of export are coffee, of 5,297,565 pesos in 1891 ;
sugar, 3,126,135 pesos ; tobacco, 781,870 pesos. The total exports in
1891 were 9,885,995 pesos, and imports 16,864,765 pesos. The value of the
imports from Porto Rico into Spain in 1891 was 16,895,000 Spanish pesetas,
and the exports from Spain to Porto Rico 17,126,000 pesetas. In 1891, 1,311
vessels of 1,327,192 tons entered, and 1;275 vessels of 1,244,485 tons
cleared, Porto Rico.
The total value of the imports from Cuba and Porto Rico into the United
Kingdom in 1892 was 90,894*. (984,976*. in 1885) ; and the exports of British
produce thither were of the value of 1,478,171*.
The staple articles of import from Cuba and Porto Rico into the United
Kingdom are: — Unrefined sugar, the value of which was 2,299,764*. in 1879 ;
770,673*. in 1880 ; 222,944*. in 1888 ; 44,230*. in 1889 ; 31,597*. in 1890 ;
15,699*. in 1891 ; 9,650*. in 1892 ; tobacco, 249,261*. in 1885 ; 545*. in 1891 ;
433*. in 1892 ; wood, 36 358*. in 1892 ; rum, 19,479*. in 1892. The British
exports mainly comprise cotton manufactures, 473,886*. ; linens of 324,986*. ;
iron, wrought and unwrought, 171,415*. in 1892. In Porto Rico there are
470 miles of telegraph and 12 miles of railway.
The paper money in circulation in Cuba has (1893) been entirely withdrawn
British Consul-General (Havana) — Alexander Gollan.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
These islands extend almost due north and south from Formosa to Borneo
and the Moluccas, embracing an extent of 16° of latitude and 9° of longitude.
They are over 400 in number ; the two largest are Luzon (area 40,024 square
miles) and Mindanao. The capital of the Philippines, Manila, has 270,000
inhabitants (1880) ; other towns are Laoag, 36,639 ; San Miguel, 34,672 ;
Banang, 33,106 ; Cabecera, 29,057. There is a small resident Spanish popu-
lation, but a large number of Chinese. The native inhabitants are mostly of
the Malayan race, but there are some tribes of Negritos. The Government
is administered by a governor-general and a captain-general, and the 43
provinces are ruled by governors, alcaldes, or commandants, according to their
importance and position.
The estimated revenue of the Philippine Islands in 1893-94 was 12,899,546
pesos (dollars) and expenditure 13,350,794 pesos. There is an export duty on
tobacco, and a general duty of 50 per cent, on imports.
The chief products are hemp, 84,928 tons in 1891, 95,016 tons in 1892 ;
sugar, 2,662,625 piculs exported in 1891, 3,951,060 piculs in 1892: coffee
crop, 45,916 piculs in 1891, 21,223 piculs in 1892 ; tobacco-leaf exported,
196,067 quintals in 1891, 254,248 quintals in 1892; cigars exported,
97,740,000 in 1891; 137,059,000 in 1892; sapan-wood, 61,459 piculs in
1892 : indigo, 5,570 quintals in 1892.
The total value of exports in 1891 was 25,750,000 dollars; in 1892,
33,479,000 dollars. Chief exports in 1892 : hemp, 14,624,938 dollars ; sugar,
12,983,128 dollars; tobacco-leaf, 2,034,000 dollars. The total value of
imports in 1891 was 25,000,000 dollars; in 1892 27,000,000 dollars. The
chief imports are rice, flour, wines, dress, petroleum, coal. The value of the
imports from the Philippine Islands into Spain in 1891 was 22,497,000
pesetas; exports from Spain to Philippine Islands, 17,126,000 pesetas. The
total imports into Great Britain in 1892 were of the value of 2,130,915*.,
and the exports of British produce, 725,981*. The chief articles of import into
Great Britain in 1892 were hemp, of the value of 1,216,048*. and unrefined
3 Q
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962 spain
sugar, of the value of 824, 300*. Of the British exports in 1892, the value of
503,797/. was for cotton manufactures. In 1892, 483 vessels of 537,725 tons
(243 of 303,065 tons British) entered, and 471, of 525,069 tons (233 of
290,593 tons British) cleared the ports of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu. There are
720 miles of telegraph in the islands, and 70 miles of railway.
British Consul (Manila). — Willium Stigand.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications. — Spain.
Anuario oficial de correos y telegrafos de Espafia. Madrid, 1893.
Anttario de primera enseflanza correspondiente a 1886* Madrid, 1887.
Boletin mensual de estadistica demograflco-sanitaria de la peninsula e islas adjacentes.
Annual.
Censo de la poblacion en Espafia. 1887. Madrid, 1889.
Estadistica general de comercio exterior de Espafia, con sua provincias de Ultramar y
potencias extrangeras en 1891 ; formada por la Direccion General de Aduanas. 8. Madrid,
1892.
Estado general de la armada para el alio de 1893. Madrid, 1893.
Estadistica general de primera enseflanza correspondiente al decenio que termino en 31
de Diciembre de 1880. Madrid, 1883.
Estadistica mineral de Espafia, correspondiente al aflo de 1890. Madrid, 189S.
Qaeeta de Madrid. 1893.
Lista oficial de los bnques de guerra y mercantes de la marina Espafiola. Madrid, 1892.
Memoria sobre las obras publicas de 1891. Madrid, 1893.
Situation de los ferro-carriles en 1° de Enero de 1893. Madrid, 1893.
Presupuestos generates del estado para el alio econ6mico 1893-94. Madrid, 1893.
•>• Resena geograflca y estadistica de Espafia por la Direccion General del Institute
Geografico y Estadistico. Madrid, 1888.
Foreign Office Reports, Annnal 8eries. London, 1893.
Trade of Spain with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1891/ Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Davillier (Baron Ch.), L'Espagne. 4. Paris. 1873.
Elliot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Spain. 2 vols. 8. London, 1884.
Gallenga (A), Iberian Reminiscences. 2 vols. 8. London, 1883.
Gomez de Arteehe (J.), Geografla de Espafia. Madrid, 1880.
Espafia sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza e Historia. [A series of volumes by
various writers.] 8. Barcelona. 1885-87.
Lavigne (Gennond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1883.
Muro Martinez (J.). Constitutions de Espafia. 2 vols. Madrid, 1881.
Murray'* Handbook of Spain. London, 1888.
Polin (D. Jose Lopez), Dictionario estadistico municipal de Espafia. 4. Madrid, 1863.
Poole (S. Lane), The Moors in Spain. In the 8tory of the Nations Series. 8. London,
1886.
Reelue (Elisee), Geographie universelle. VoL I. Paris, 1879.
Salvani (J. T.), Espafia a fines del siglo xix. Madrid, 1891.
8eve (E.), La situation economique de l'Espagne. Bruxelles, 1887.
Webster (Rev. Wentworth), Spain, in 'Foreign Countries and British Possessions.*
London, 1882.
Willkomm (Heinrich Moritz), Das pyrenaische Halbinselland. 8. Leipzig, 188ft.
3. Colonies.
Foreman (John), The Philippine Islands. London, 1891.
Gallenga (A.), The Pearl of the Antilles [Cuba]. 8. London, 1873
Hazard (8.), Cuba with Pen and Pencil. London, 1873.
Jagor (F.), Reisen in den Philippines 8. Berlin, 1873.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses, or Scenes and Studies in Many Lands. [Chapter on Malay
Life in the Philippines]. 8. London, 1887.
Piron (Hippolyte), L'Isle de Cuba. Paris, 1876.
Bomera (D. W. J. de la), Vol. on Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines in Espafia, sus
Monumentos y Artes, &c. 8. Barcelona, 1887.
Report on the Trade of Philippine Islands, in Deutsche* Handel*- Arekiv for September,
1893. Berlin.
Report on the Philippine Islands, No. 1,289, and on Porto Rico, No. 1806. Annual
Series, Foreign Office Reports. London, 1893.
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963
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(SVEBIGE OCH NoRGE.)
Reigning King.
Oscar II., born January 21, 1829; the third son of King
Oscar I., and of Queen Josephine, daughter of Prince Eugene of
!Leuchtenberg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his
brother, King Carl XV., Sept. 18, 1872. Married June 6, 1857,
to Queen Sophia, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Duke
Wilhelm of Nassau.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Gvstaf, Duke of Wermland, born June 16, 1858.
Married Sept. 20, 1881, to Princess Victoria, born Aug. 7, 1862,
daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden. Issue, Prince Gustaf
Adolf, Duke of Scania, born Nov. 11, 1882; Prince Carl Wil-
Tielm, Duke of Sodermanland, born June 17, 1884; and Prince
Erik Ludvig Albert, Duke of Vestmanland, born April 20,
1889.
II. Prince Oscar, born Nov. 15, 1859. Renounced his suc-
cession to the throne and married March 15, 1888, Ebba Munck
of Fulkila, born Oct. 24, 1858.
III. Prince Carl, Duke of Westergbtland, born Feb. 27, 1861.
IV. Prince Eugen, Duke of Nerike, born Aug. 1, 1865.
King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte
Corvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte
Corvo, who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by
the Parliament of the Kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the
throne Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He
was succeeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only son
Oscar. The latter died July 8, 1859, and was succeeded by his
eldest son Carl XV., at whose premature death, without male
children, the crown fell to his next surviving brother, the present
King.
The royal family of Sweden and Norway have a civil list of
1,320,000 kronor, or 73,340£, from Sweden, and 483,531 kronor,
or 26,860/., from Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an annuity
of 300,000 kronor, or 16,666/., voted to King Carl XIV. and his
successors on the throne of Sweden.
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden,
with the dates of their accession, from the accession of the House
of Vasa : —
3 q 2
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064 SWEDEN AND NORWAY :— SWEDEN
House of Vasa.
GustafI 1521
Eric XIV. .
Johan III. .
Sigismund .
Carl IX. .
Gustaf II. Adolpli
Christina .
1560
1568
1592
Hause of Hesse,
Fredrik 1 1720
House of Holstein-GottoT}).
Adolph Fredrik . . . 1751
1599 i Gustaf III. . . 1771
1611 Gustaf IV. Adolf. . . 1792
1632 ' Carl XIII 1809
House of PfaUz. House of Ponte Corvo.
CailX 1654
Carl XI 1660
Carl XII 1697
Ulrika Eleonora . . . 1718
Carl XIV 1818
Oscar 1 1844
Carl XV 1859
Oscar II 1872
By the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to the King of
Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people did not recognise
this cession, and declared themselves independent. A Constituent Assembly
met at Eidsvold, and having adopted, on May 17, a Constitution, elected the
Danish Prince Christian Fredrik King of Norway. The Swedish troops, how-
ever, entered Norway without serious resistance, and, the foreign Powers re-
fusing to recognise the newly elected King, the Norwegians were obliged to
conclude, August 14, the Convention of Moss, by which the independency of
Norway in union with Sweden was solemnly proclaimed. An extraordinary
Storthing was then convoked, which adopted the modifications in the Constitu-
tion made necessary by the union with Sweden, and then elected King Carl XIII.
King of Norway, November 4, 1814. The following year was promulgated a
charter, the Riksakt, establishing new fundamental laws on the terms that the
union of the two Kingdoms be indissoluble and irrevocable, without prejudice,
however, to the separate government, constitution, and code of laws of either
Sweden or Norway.
The law of succession is the same in Sweden and Norway. In case of
absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets assemble for the election of the
future sovereign, and should they not be able to agree upon one person, an
equal number of Swedish and Norwegian deputies have to meet at the city of
Karlstad, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nomination to be
absolute. The common affairs are decided upon in a Council of State
composed of Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the
Council of State exercises the sovereign power until a regent or council of
regency is appointed by the united action of the Diets of Sweden and Norway.
1. SWEDEN.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The fundamental laws of the Kingdom of Sweden are : — 1. The
Constitution or RegertTigs-formen of June 6, 1809 ; 2. The
amended regulations for the formation of the Diet of June 22,
1866 ; 3. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810 ; and
4. The law on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812. Accord-
ing to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
Church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His
person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make
peace, after consulting the Council of State. He nominates to
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 965
all higher appointments, both military and civil ; concludes
foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the supreme Court
of Justice. The princes of the blood royal, however, are excluded
from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative power
in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
that power is exercised by the Diet in concert with the sovereign,
and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The
right of imposing taxes is, however, vested in the Diet. This
Diet, or Parliament of the realm, consists of two Chambers, both
elected by the people. The First Chamber consists (1894) of 148
members, or one deputy for every 30,000 of the population. The
election of the members takes place by the ' Landstings,' or pro-
vincial representations, 25 in number, and the municipal corpora-
tions of the towns, not already represented in the * Landstings,'
Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmo, Norrkoping and Gene. All members
of the First Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and must have
possessed for at least three years previous to the election either
real property to the taxed value of 80,000 kronor, or 4,444/., or
an annual income of 4,000 kronor, or 223/. They are elected for
the term of nine years, and obtain no payment for their services.
The Second Chamber consists (Autumn 1893) of 228 members, of
whom 83 are elected by the towns and 145 by the rural districts, one
representative being returned for every 10,000 of the population
of towns, one for every l Domsaga,' or rural district, of under
40,000 inhabitants, and two for rural districts of over 40,000 in-
habitants. All natives of Sweden, aged 21, possessing real
property to the taxed value of 1,000 kronor, or 567., or farming,
for a period of not less than five years, landed property to the
taxed value of 6,000 kronor, or 333/., or paying income tax on an
annual income of 800 kronor, or 45/., are electors; and all
natives, aged 25, possessing, and having possessed at least one
year previous to the election, the same qualifications, may be elected
members of the Second Chamber. The number of qualified
electors to the Second Chamber in 1890 was 288,096, or 6*0 of the
population; only 110,896, or 38*5 of the electors, actually voted.
In the smaller towns and country districts the election may either
be direct or indirect, according to the wish of the majority. The
election is for the term of three years, and the members obtain
salaries for their services, at the rate of 1,200 kronor, or 67/., for
each session of four months, or, in the case of an extra session
10 kronor (Us.) a day, besides travelling expenses. The
salaries and travelling expenses of the deputies are paid out of the
public purse. The members of both Chambers are elected by
ballot, both in town and country.
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966 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
The executive power is in the hands of the King, who acts under the advice
of a Council of State, the head of which is the Minister of State. It consists
of ten members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and three
without department, and is composed as follows : —
1. Erik Gustaf Bostrom, Minister of State ; appointed July 10, 1891.
2. Count Carl Lewenhaupt, Minister of Foreign Affairs ; appointed October
12, 1889.
3. August Ustergren, Minister of Justice ; appointed June 12, 1889.
4. Baron A. E. Mappe, Minister of War ; appointed June 22, 1892.
5.- Jarl Casimir Eugene Christcrson, Minister of Marine ; appointed
December 16, 1892.
6. Victor Lennart Groll, Minister of the Interior ; appointed October 12,
1889.
7. Baron Fredrik von £sseny Minister of Finance : appointed February 6,
1888.
8. Gustaf Fredrik Gilljam, Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs ; appointed November 6, 1891.
9. Baron Albert Lars Evert Akerhielm ; appointed September 28, 1888.
10. Sven Herman Wikblad ; appointed October 12, 1889.
All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the acts of
the Government.
II. Local Government.
The provincial administration is entrusted in Stockholm to a Governor-
General, and in each of the 24 governments to a prefect, who is nominated by
the King. As executive officers of the prefects there are 117 baillies (Krono-
fogdar) and 526 sub-officers (Lansman). The right of the people to regulate
their own local affairs is based on the communal law of March 21, 1862. Each
rural parish, and each town, forms a commune or municipality in which all
who pay the local taxes are voters. Each commune has a communal or muni-
cipal council. The communal assembly or municipal council decides on all
questions of administration, police and communal economy. Ecclesiastical
affairs and questions relating to primary schools are dealt with by the parish
assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish. When necessary the
communal councils and the parish assemblies hold joint meetings. Each
government has a general council which regulates the internal affairs of the
government. The council meets annually for a few days in September under
a president appointed by the King. The members are elected by the towns
and provincial districts. Towns having a population of over 25,000 are
administered separately by their municipal councils : these towns are Stockholm,
Gbteborg, Malm 6, Norrkoping and Gefle.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The first census took place in 1749, and it was repeated at
first every third year, and subsequently, after 1775, every fifth
year. At present, a general census is taken every ten years,
beside which there are annual numerations of the people.
The area and population of Sweden, according to the census
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AREA AND POPULATION
967
taken on December 31, 1890, and as estimated on December 31,
1892,
Governments (Lain)
Area: English
square miles
Population
Dec. 31, 1890
Population
Dec. 81, 1892
Pop. per
square mile
1891
Stockholm (city) . 13
246,454
252,574
19,428-8
Stockholm (rural district) 1 2,995
152,715
154,269
51*5
Upsala .... 2,053
121,091
121,614
59*2
Sodermanland .
! 2,631
154,991
157,077
59*7
Ostergotland
1 4,243
266,619
266,702
62*8
Jonkoping
Kronoberg
4,464
193,704
193,389
43 3
3,841
160,835
158,836
41-3
Kalmar .
4,438
232,847
229,230
51*5
Gotland .
1,203
51,337
51,074
42*5
Biekinge .
1,164
142,602
142,204
122*4
Kristianstad .
2,507
221,691
219,011
87'3
Malmohus
1,847
368,817
371,736
201-2
Halland .
1,899
136,106
136,210
71*7
Goteborg and Bohus
1,952
297,824
302,494
155-0
Elfsborg .
4,948
275,780
272,500
55-1
Skaraborg
Vermland
3,307
247,074
244,419
73-9
7,346
253,326
251,361
34-2
Orebro
3,521
182,557
183,554
52 1
Vestmanland .
2,623
137,453
138,737
52-9
Kopparberg
Gefleborg
11,421
197,449
200,403
17-5
7,418
206,924
210,574
28*4
Vesternorrland
9,530
208,763
212,028
22 2
Jemtland
19,593
100,455
101,171
5*1
Vesterbotten .
21,942
122,784
127,292
5-8
Norrbotten
40,563
104,783
108,406
2-6
Lakes Venern, Vettern, &c.
3,517
—
—
—
Total .
170,979
4,784,981
4,806,865
28-7
In 1892 there were 2,327,883 males and 2,478,982 females.
The growth of the population has been as follows :
Year
Population ;InS^?n™Ct*
* i per annum
Year
Population
Increase per ct.
per annum
1800
1820
1840
1850
2,347,303 ! —
2,584,690 05
3,138,887 1*07
3,482,541 j 1-09
1860
1870
1880
i 1890
3,859,728
4,168,525
4,565,668
4,784,981
108
0-80
0 95
0*50
With the exception of (1880) 16,976 Finns, 6,404 Lapps, and about 18,000
of foreign birth (mostly from Norway, Denmark, and Germany), the
Swedish population is entirely of the Scandinavian branch of the Aryan
family.
In 1880 the foreign-born population numbered 18,587, of whom 3,289
were born in Germany, 4,575 in Denmark, 4,433 in Norway, 3,402 in Finland,
1,039 in Russia, and 506 in England.
According to civil condition the population was divided as follows in
1890 :—
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RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME 9G0
Religion.
The mass of the population adhere to the Lutheran Protestant Church,
recognised as the State religion. There are 12 bishoprics, and 2,410 rural
parish churches and chapels in 1893. At the census of 1880, the number of
' Evangelical Lutherans ' was returned at 4,544,434, the Protestant Dissenters,
Baptists, Methodists, and others numbering 16,911, including 6,091
unbaptized children. Of other creeds, there were 810 Roman Catholics, 17
Greek-Catholics, 89 Irvingites, 2,993 Jews, and 414 Mormons. No civil dis-
abilities attach to those not of the national religion. The clergy are chiefly
supported from the parishes and the proceeds of the Church lands.
Instruction.
The Kingdom has two universities, at Upsala and Lund, the former
frequented by 1,561 and the latter by 669 students in the autumn of 1892.
Education is well advanced in Sweden. In 1892 there were 78 public high
schools, with 14,474 pupils ; 25 people's high schools, 927 pupils ; 12 normal
schools for elementary school teachers, 898 pupils ; 2 high and 6 elementary
technical schools ; 10 navigation schools, 321 pupils ; 19 institutions and
schools for deaf mutes and blinds ; besides medical schools, military schools,
veterinary and other special schools. Public elementary instruction is
gratuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under the
supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of having been privately
educated. In 1890 there were 10,702 elementary schools, with 13,797
teachers and 692,360 pupils. In 1891 the expenditure on elementary education
was 13,566,826 kronor, of which more than one-fourth came from the national
funds. Among the recruits (Bevaring) of 1890 only 0*12 per cent, were
unlettered, only 1 '09 per cent, unable to write.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is entirely independent of the Government.
Two functionaries, the Justitie-Kansler, or Chancellor of Justice, and the
Justitie-Ombudsman, or Attorney-General, exercise a control over the admin-
istration. The former, appointed by the King, acts also as a counsel for the
Crown ; while the latter, who is appointed by the Diet, has to extend a
general supervision over all the courts of law. The Kingdom, which possesses
one Supreme Court of Judicature, is divided into 3 high court districts and
207 district courts divisions, of which 90 are urban districts and 117 country
districts.
In town these district courts (or courts of first instance) are held by the
burgomaster and his assessors ; in the country by a judge and 12 jurors —
peasant proprietors — the judge alone deciding, unless the jurors unanimously
differ from him, when their decision prevails. In Sweden trial by jury only
exists for affairs of the press.
In 1891, 1,646 men and 248 women were sentenced for serious crimes ; at
the end of 1891, 2,049 hard-labour prisoners.
Pauperism.
Each commune is bound to assist children under 15 years of age, if their
circumstances require it, and all who from age or disease are unable to support
themselves. In other cases the communal poor board decides what course to
take. Each commune and each town (which may be divided) constitutes a
poor district, and in each is a board of public assistance. In 1891 these
districts possessed workhouses and similar establishments to the number of
1,831, capable of lodging 42,449 people.
The number of paupers in 1860 was 132,982 ; in 1870, 204,378 ; in 1880,
219,532 ; in 1891, 248,164. Of the last 73,911 were in the towns.
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970
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
Finance.
The budgets of revenue and expenditure for the years 1893
and 1894 were established as follows : —
>
Revenue
1893
1894
Expenditure
1893
Kronor
1894
Kronor ; Kronor
Kronor
Domains, railway,
land taxes, &c. .
20,455,000 18,907,000
(a) Ordinary :
;
Customs
37,500,000
37,000,000
Royal Household
1,320,000 ! 1,320,000
Post .
7,800,000
8,100,000
Justice
3,887,900 3,887,900
Stamps
3,500,000
3,500,000
Foreign Affairs .
606,750 ' 606,750
Impost on spirits,
Army
21,069,700
24,213,000
Ac .
15,500,000
16,300,000
Navy .
6,539,090
6,908,156
Impost on income
4,700,000
10,000,000
Interior
4,803,612
4,804,711
Net profit of the
Education and
State Bank
1,750,000
2,801,447
Ecclesiastical
Surplus from the
Affairs .
12,559,958
12,880,675
previous years .
5,818,000
53,453
Finance
16,534,966
16,809,066
Pensions .
(ft) Extraordinary .
(c) Expenditure thro'
2,915,550
3,099,755
70,287,526
74,580,013
15,739,474
10,686,887
the Riksgalds-
kontor :
Payment of
loans and Mis-
cellaneous
(Diet, &c.)
10,468,300
11,145,000
(d) Carried to float-
ing capital .
227,700
—
Fund for redeem-
ing of rents from
1
copyholds .
Fund for building
—
,
a new house for
the Diet and the
State Bank .
250,000 , 250,000
Fund for insurance
i
against accidents
! 1
of workers .
Total expenditure .
100,000 | 100,000 1
Total revenue .
97,023,000
96,661,900
1 -(
97,023,000 i 96,661,900 I
' 1
■
The extraordinary expenditure consisted of 2,314,086 kronor for the army,
1,419,444 kronor for the navy, and the remainder for the interior, public
worship, education, and pensions. The land tax (including the maintenance
of the army Indelta) amounts to an average of 2s. per head of the population.
The value of the land and house property of Sweden is thus returned for
1892 :—
Taxed : Kronor
Agricultural land in the country . . . 2,163,088,405
„ „ in the towns .... 43,371,150
Other real estate in the country . . . 328,264,475
„ „ „ in the towns .... 1,163,622,449
Total (1892)
. 3,698,346,479
FINANCE — DEFENCE
971
Untaxed real estate (1892) :
rSties^l^tt^zr
academies, &c. )In the towns
Total (1892) .
147,536,004
58,421,450
102,527,390
113,806,805
422,291,649
Grand total (1892) . . . 4,120,638,128
The expenditure for the Church is chiefly defrayed by the parishes and out oi
the revenue of landed estates belonging to the Church, and the amounts do
not appear in the budget estimates. A part of the cost for maintaining
the army Indelta also does not appear in the budget. The expenses for
public instruction are in great part defrayed by the parishes.
On January 1, 1893, the public liabilities of the Kingdom, contracted
entirely for railways, were as follows : —
Kronor
Funded railway loan of 1860 without interest . . 768,889
16,123,174
108,682,200
56,306,222
23,155,500
26,666,667
35,003,111
7,200,000
a it
,, 1878,, 4
a a
„ 1880 „ 4
a >>
,, 1886 ,, 3J
a a
„ 1887,, 3^
a it
„ 1888 „ 3
a a
„ 1890 „ 3£
Provisional loan
„ 1891 „ 4
Total . . . 273,905,763
All the loans are paid off gradually by means of sinking funds. The debt
amounts to about 21. 18s. per head of the population, and the interest to about
28. 6d. ; but as the railway receipts exceed two-thirds of the interest, the
charge per head is nominal.
The income of the communes in 1891 was 63,717,335 kronor, and the
expenditure 70,060,260 kronor. Their assets amounted to 266,673,069
kronor, and their debts to 164,825,031 kronor. The revenue of the provincial
representative bodies was 3,327,527 kronor, and expenditure 3,218,251
kronor ; their assets 11,961,018 kronor, and debts 3,522,369 kronor.
Defence.
The chief fortifications of Sweden are, on the coast, Karlskrona
with Kungsholmen and Westra Hastholmen, Stockholm with
Vaxholm and Oscar-Fredriksborg ; in the interior, Karlsborg,
near Lake Wetter.
The Swedish army is composed of three distinct classes of
troops. They are : —
1 . The Varfvade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the
royal lifeguards, two regiments of infantry, one battalion of
chasseurs, two battalions of infantry, one regiment of hussars,
the artillery, the engineers, and the train.
2. The Indelta, consisting of 21 regiments and one corps of
infantry, and 6 regiments of cavalry, of these, however, 3 in-
fantry regiments contain Varfvade troops, and 2 cavalry regiments
are to be re-organized as Varfvade regiments. The privates of
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yjwu uuiiiig uiio wiiuic pei'iuu vi service, bujxicuxjxiob t?Ai*7iiux.ug w
thirty years, but he may instead take money payment. There is
about 6 months' training for recruits in the infantry and 7
months' in the cavalry, after which they are annuajly called out
for 22 or 23 days' practice.
3. The Vampligtige, or conscription troops, drawn by annual
levy from the male population between the ages of 21 and 40
years, of which the first 12 classes are called Bevdring, the 8
others Landstorm. The right of purchasing substitutes, which
formerly existed, was abolished by the Diet in 1872. The
Vampligtige are divided among the Varfvade and the Indelta
troops, and are mobilised with these. The Bevdring undergoes
90 day's training, which in the navy and also in the cavalry is
completed in the first year ; in the other forces 68 days in the first
year and 22 in the second. The Landstorm is in time of war
formed in separate troops. Bevaring of first year, about 24,000
men; of the 12 years, about 228,000. Landstorm of the 8 years,
about 100,000.
The total strength of the armed forces of Sweden, according to
the re-organization carried out in 1892, consists of : —
1
| Permanent Army
Officers
Non-com-
missioned
Officers
00
"8
1
8
i ~
S3 *
Civil and
CivilMilitary
persons
Total
00
3
i
c
n
Generals .
9
9
1
— 1 30
General Staff and
I
1 i
Staff-College .
i 39
2
—
185
226 — i 81
Infantry .
1,232
1,132
1,280
23,612
199
27,755 — 242
Cavalry
! 232
210 149
4,615
60
5,266 — 5,320
Artillery .
1 298
255 167
3,272
141
4,133 240 1,000
Engineers .
1 77
58 1 21
821
13 j
990 — 87
Train
66
124 | 18
522
36 \
766 | — 112
Total
1,953
1,781 1 1,635
32,842
634
38,845
240 | 6,872
Reserves 1893 .
( 557
415'
1
13
985
—
—
.
The Swedish navy is maintained wholly for coast defence. In September
1892, a committee appointed to consider the subject recommended a con-
siderable increase in the floating strength, but the proposals were rejected by
the Lower House, and the votes cut down to one-third. The strength of the
Swedish navy, excluding training ships, transports, and non-effective vessels,
estimated upon the uniform plan adopted in this volume (which is fully ex-
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
973
plained in the Introductory Table), may be stated thus : — Battleships, nil ;
16 port-defence vessels ; 1 second class cruiser ; 10 third class cruisers a, and
8 6; torpedo boats, second class, 16, third class, 2 ; total 53.
The Goto, and Uvea, turret armour-clads, respectively of 3,070 and 2,900
tons displacement, with 11 J inches maximum armour, two 27-ton breech-load-
ing guns in a single turret, and four 6-inch guns on the upper deck, are, with
one exception, the largest ironclads of the Swedish navy. This exception is
the coast defence vessel Thule, which was launched in April 1892. She has
many points in common with the Oota and Svea, but is slightly larger, and is
provided with a ram. Her principal dimensions are : — Length, 261 feet ;
beam 48ft. 8in. ; draught, 16 feet ; displacement, 3,135 tons. The super-
structure and sides are protected by steel armour varying in thickness from
11 '6 to 7*7 inches. The principal armament consists of two 10-inch (27 -ton)
Armstrong B.L. guns coupled in a turret protected by 11 inches of steel, and
revolving through an arc of 292°. Engines of 3,200 I.H.P. are to give a speed
of 15 knots, or with forced draught, 16 knots. Next to these comes the
monitor Loke, of 1,580 tons displacement, and 430 horse-power, launched in
1871. The other three monitors, named John Ericsson, Thorddn, and Tirfing,
of earlier construction, are nearly the same size. They have 5 -inch armour
at the water-line, and each carries two 15-ton guns in a turret. In addition
are 9 armoured gun-vessels for coast defence, between 460 and 240 tons, and
dating from 1869-75. The most important of the unprotected vessels is the
second class cruiser (corvette) Freja (2,000 tons, 12 knots sea speed), launched
atMalmoinl886.
The personnel of the Royal Navy is divided into three classes, viz. : 1.
The Active List ; 2. The Reserve ; 3. The Bevaring. In 1892 on the active
list were 4 flag-officers, 6 kommendorer, 24 kommendbr-kaptener, 62 kaptener,
54 lieutenants, and 17 sub-lieutenants, while 107 commissioned officers
belonged to the Reserve. The naval Bevaring at the same date numbered
about 20,000 men.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The number of farms in cultivation in 1891 was 328,646 ; of these
there were of 2 hectares and under, 70,652 ; 2 to 20 hectares, 210,586 ; 20 to
100 hectares, 32, 280; 100 and above, 3,129. Of the total land area of Sweden
8 '1 per cent, is under cultivation, 4 '0 per cent, under natural meadows, and
44 '8 per cent, under forests, the products of which form a staple export.
The following table shows, in thousands of hectares, the area under the
chief crops in 1891, and, in thousands of hectolitres, the yield in 1892 : —
Barley
Oats
Mixed
Grain
Pulse
Potatoes
2212
5,015 3
806-2 ' 108-3
24,472-2 1 3,303-2
1
54-4
1,027-5
156-5
20,931-9
The value of all cereal crops in 1892 was estimated at 271 '7 million kronor.
At the end of 1891 Sweden had 489,045 horses, 2,420,110 head of cattle,
1,345,337 sheep and lambs, 655,373 pigs. In 1880 34,000 head of cattle and
29,000 sheep were exported, in 1891 respectively, 30,000 and 27,000.
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974
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
II. Mines and Minerals.
Mining is one of the most important departments of Swedish industry, and
the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant progress by the
introduction of new machinery. There were raised in the year 1891, through-
out the Kingdom, 985,255 tons of iron ore. The pig-iron produced amounted
to 486,680 tons ; the bar iron to 280,430 tons. Of iron ore in 1886 19,288,
in 1887 41,986, in 1888 117,350, in 1889 118,573, in 1890 187,732, in 1891
174,148 tons were exported ; of pig-iron, 58,139 in 1886, 49,285 in 1887,
49,099 in 1888, 79,378 in 1889, 60,125 in 1890, and 63,096 tons in 1891 ;
of bar iron, 165,067 in 1886, 193,738 in 1887, 188,005 in 1888, 200,426 in
1889, 185,135 in 1890, and 175,901 tons in 1891. There were also raised iu
1891 15,044 tons of silver and lead ore, 21,883 tons of copper ore, and 61,591
tons of zinc ore. There are not inconsiderable veins of coal in the southern
parts of Sweden, giving 2,475,412 hectolitres of coal in 1891. In 1891
there were 35,340 persons engaged in mining.
Commerce.
The total customs duties levied were in 1891 38,012,542 kronor, and iu
1892 37,297,733.
The imports and exports of Sweden were as follows in six years : —
Kronor
Imports . 301,366,000
Exports . I 228,398,000
Kronor I Kronor
297,410,000 ! 324,708,784
246,678,000 281,752,718
1891
Kronor Kronor | Kronor
376,963,711 377,187,739 369,698,254
301,725,097 304,591,863 323,498,0-2
The following were the values of the leading imports and exports for
two years : —
Textile manufactures
Corn and flour ....
I Colonial wares ....
I Raw textile material and yam
Minerals, mostly coal
! Metal goods, machinery, Ac. .
• Live animals and animal food .
, flair, hides, and other animal pro-
i ducts
I Metals, raw and partly wrought
Timber, wrought and unwrought
I Other articles . - . .
Imports
1890
Kronor
62,499,450
30,302,501
49,618,106
40,329,237
41,884,154
35,700,444
17,896,532
21,547,514
7,561,019
4,791,200
65,057,582
Total 877,187,739
Exports
Imports
ExporU
1890
1891
1891
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
7,366,013
57,795,721
8,335,352
8,950,163
38,157,613
21,822,054
496,998
49,702,615
1,261,314
1,227,778
34.754,697
1,194,144
6,046,136
41,109,919
5,902,624
10,617,724
34,975,697
9.301,23'
58,396,027
16,885,027
62,013,607
2,211,629
19,455,881
2,417,855
36,828,910
8,756,103
32,941,707
128,642,649
4,724,966
135,155,124
43,807,830
68,380,015
48,153,081
'304,591,863
369,698,254
823,498,082
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COMMERCE
975
The following shows the value of the trade with the principal countries
with which Sweden deals : —
1 Country
1890
1891
i
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
Kronor
Kronor | Kronor i Kronor
Great Britain
108,869,000
137,403,000
98,655,390 146,385,142
Germany
Denmark
118,322,000
36,677,000
119,835,976
37,875,775
44,084,000
33,231,000
44,620,028
37,391,401
Norway
32,833,000
18,093,000
33,565,261
17,427,757
Russia (including
Finland) .
29,718,000
11,847,000
27,316,044
10,739,530
France
7,933,000
24,422,000
9,056,602
34,404,272
Spain .
1,151,000
7,430,000
944,290
6,766,603
Other countries .
34,278,000
35,489,000
35,704,663
32,507,602
Total .
377,188,000
304,592,000
369,698,254
323,498,082
The following table shows the trade between Sweden and the United
Kingdom according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U. K.
from Sweden . . .
Exports of British pro-
duce to Sweden . .
£
8,185,431
2,376,936
£
9,207,047
2,768,369
£ 1 £ , £
8,473,656 ! 8,509,651 ' 8,230,651
3,061,976 | 2,988,449 j 2,988,449
The following table shows the chief articles of import into the United
Kingdom from Sweden : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
£
£
£
£
Wood & timber
3,497,371
4,481,337
3,951,710
3,501,180 I 3,895,326
Oats
480,604
450,251
311,768
853,312 !
491,275
Bar iron .
943,276
951,873
854,418
696,315
610,397
Iron and steel
i
manufactures
462,565
461,086
556,121
503,409
378,166
Pig iron .
137,021
282,216
196,489
206,753 |
193,523
Butter .
1,129,119
1,141,322
1,175,792
1,269,187
1,243,016
The leading exports of British home produce to Sweden in 1892 were iron,
wrought and unwrought, of the value of 400,240Z. ; coals of the value of
855,578?. ; cotton yarn and manufactures valued 308,922/. ; machinery
153,716*.
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976
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Sweden, at the end of 1892, of vessels over
100 tons had 1,479 of a burthen of 505,711 tons, of which total 947 of
283,559 tons were sailing vessels, and 532 of 222,152 tons were steamers in-
cluding small vessels. The port of Goteborg had the largest shipping in
1891 — namely, 312 vessels of 96,941 tons; and next to it came Stockholm,
possessing 244 vessels of a total burthen of 41,648 tons. In 1891 21,385
vessels cleared Swedish ports.
Vessels entered and cleared with cargoes, as follows : —
.
1888
1889
1890
1891
No. j Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No. ! Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Entered
! Cleared
10,140
18,160
2,173,314
3,726,935
11,484 2,389,013
19,164 ! 3,887,727
11,899
20,067
2,434,984
4,029,987
11,201
21,385
2,479,176
4,327,225
Internal Communications.
In 1891 74,268 ships and boats passed through the canals of Sweden.
At the end of 1892 the total length of railways in Sweden was 5,254 miles,
of which 1,770 miles belonged to the State. The receipts in 1891 were
49,130,834 kronor, and expenses 30,474,788 kronor. The total cost of con-
struction for the State railways to the end of 1891 was 265,069,683 kronor,
and for private railways 263,461,646 kronor. The total number of passengers
on the State railways in 1891 was 4,761,992 ; weight of goods carried on State
railways, 3,277,455 tons; private railways, 7,948,203 tons of goods, and
8,877,655 passengers.
All the telegraphs in Sweden, with the exception of those of private railway
companies, belong to the State. The total length of all the telegraph lines at the
end of 1891 was 5,477 miles, and of wires 14,600 miles. The number of de-
spatches sent in the year 1891 was 1,849,533. In 1891 there were 37,634
miles of wire and 24,987 instruments employed in the telephone service.
The Swedish Post Office carried 137,508,060 letters, post-cards, journals,
&c, in the year 1891. The number of post-offices at the end of the year was
2,337. The total receipts of the Post Office in 1891 amounted to 7,513,415
kronor, and the total expenditure to 7,192,363 kronor, leaving a surplus of
321,052 kronor.
Money and Credit.
The Riks Bank, or National Bank of Sweden, belongs entirely to the State
and is managed by directors elected annually by the Diet. It is a bank of
exchange to regulate financial relations with foreign countries, it accepts and
pays interest on deposits of money, and on sufficient security it lends money
for purposes in which there is no speculative element The Bank is under the
guarantee of the Diet, its capital and reserve capital are fixed by its constitu-
tion, and its note circulation is limited by the value of its metallic stock and
its assets in current accounts at home and abroad ; but its actual circulation is
kept far within this limit.
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MONEY AND CREDIT
977
The following table gives statistics of the National Bank, private banks, and
joint-stock banks in Sweden for January 1, 1893 : —
Assets
National Bank
Private Banks
Joint-stock
Banks
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Mortgages ....
—
51,575,211
—
Real estate ....
—
4,970,712
3,718,755
Coin and bullion
20,649,301
18,575,652
8,170,057
Accounts with other banks
11,809,681
26,196,446
12,514,573
State notes and bills
19,675,716
27,766,929
10,540,267
Stocks, shares, mortgages, &c. .
—
—
63,892,702
Bills
32,488,876
151,476,245
47,834,879
Loans, public obligations,
shares, &c
33,104,227
112,979,365
52,368,444
Cash credits, &c. .
Totals . ...
17,497,070
81,747,346
25,852,692
135,224,871
475,287,906
224,892,369
Liabilities
Bank notes and bills
45,344,642
68,188,792
2,778,485
Liabilities with other banks
3,662,222
36,055,616
11,622,503
Deposits
7,589,101
235,988,220
73,642,486
Capital . .
45,000,000
56,426,000
31,345,103
Reserve .....
5,000,000
12,242,779
11,144,674
Various liabilities
17,440,828
59,914,262
93,658,951
To further disposition
Totals ....
11,188,078
6,472,237
700,217
135,224,871
475,287,906
224,892,369
The savings-banks statistics (exclusive of Post Office) are as follows :
— i 1887
| Number of depositors
Deposits at end of year, kronor
Capital and reserve fund ,,
1,010,794
245,860,158
19,748,958
1888
1889
1,031,250 1,062,231
259,296,159 274,446,200
20,872,251 22,184,728
1890
1,089,421
281,726,996
23,648,545
At the end of 1891 the Post Office Savings Bank had 271,540 depositors
and 16,264,062 kronor of deposits.
3 R
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978 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
2. NORWAY.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The Constitution of Norway, called the Grundlov, bears date
November 4, 1814, with several modifications passed at various
times up to 1892. It vests the legislative power of the realm in
the Storthing, or Great Court, the representative of the sovereign
people. The King, however, possesses the right of veto over laws
passed by the Storthing, but only for a limited period. The
royal veto may be exercised twice ; but if the same bill pass three
Storthings formed by separate and subsequent elections, it becomes
the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King
has the command of the land and sea forces, and makes all
appointments, but, except in a few cases, is not allowed to nominate
any but Norwegians to public offices under the crown.
The Storthing assembles every year. New elections take
place every three years. The meetings take place suo jure, and
not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin in
February each year, and must receive the sanction of the King to
sit longer than two months. Every Norwegian citizen of twenty-
five years of age who in the year before the election has paid income
tax on an annual income of at least 500 kroner in the country
districts or 800 kroner in the towns (provided that he has resided
for one year in the electoral district at the time when the election
takes place, and that he does not belong to the household of
another as a servant), or who is or has been a public functionary,
or possesses property in land, or has been tenant of such property
for five years at least, or is a burgess of any town, or possesses
real property in a town to the value of 600 kroner, is entitled' to
elect. Under the same conditions citizens thirty years of age,
and settled in Norway for at least ten years, are entitled to be
elected. The mode of election is indirect. Towards the end of
every third year the people choose their deputies, at the rate of
one to fifty voters in towns, where the election is administered
Digitized by VjOOQIC
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 979
by the magistrate, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts,
where they meet in the parish church under the presidency of the
parish minister. The deputies afterwards assemble and elect
among themselves, or from among the other qualified voters of the
district, the Storthing representatives. No new election takes
place for vacancies, which are filled by the persons already
elected for that purpose, or, if not, who received the second
largest *number of votes. The number of electors in 1891 was
139,690, or 6'98 per cent, of total population, while 102,931
votes, or 73*7 per cent, of the whole number, were recorded. Of
the total male population, 45 per cent, are 25 years of age and
above. The Storthing has 114 members — 38 from towns, 76 from
rural districts.
The Storthing, when assembled, divides itself into two houses, the
' Lagthing ' and the * Odelsthing. ' The former is composed of one-fourth of
the members of the Storthing, and the other of the remaining three-fourths.
The Thing nominates its own presidents. The principal ordinary business
of the Storthing is to enact or repeal laws, to impose taxes, to supervise the
financial affairs of the kingdom, to vote the amounts required for the public
expenditure, and to examine treaties concluded with foreign Powers. Ques-
tions relating to laws must be considered by each house separately. The
inspection of public accounts and the revision of the Government, and impeach-
ment before the Rigsret, belong exclusively to the Odelsthing. All other
matters are settled by both houses in common sitting. Before pronouncing
its own dissolution, every Storthing elects five delegates, whose duty it is to
revise the public accounts. All new laws must first be laid before the Odels-
thing, from which they pass into the Lagthing to be either accepted or rejected.
If the Odelsthing and Lagthing do not agree, the two houses assemble in
common sitting to deliberate, and the final decision is given by a majority of
two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the
Constitution. The Lagthing and the ordinary members of the supreme court
of justice (Hbiesteret) form a high court of justice (the Rigsret) for the
impeachment and trial of Ministers, members of the Hbiesteret, and members
of the Storthing. While in session, every member of the Storthing has an
allowance of twelve kroner (13s. ±d. ) a day, besides travelling expenses.
The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority
through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers of State and at least
seven Councillors. Two of the Councillors, who change every year, together
with one of the Ministers, form a delegation of the Council of State, residing
at Stockholm, near the King. Ministers and Councillors of State are entitled
to be present in the Storthing and to take part in the discussions, when public,
but without a vote. The following are the members of the Council of
State :—
(1. ) Council of State at Kristiania.
Minister of State. — Emil Stang, appointed May 2, 1893.
Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Dr. Anton Christian
Bang, appointed May 2, 1893.
Department of Justice. — Dr. George Francis Hagcrup, appointed May 2,
1893.
3 b 2
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980 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
Department of the Interior. — Johan Henrich Paasche Thorne, appointee!
May 2, 1893.
Department of Public Works. — Peder NiUcn, appointed May 2, 1893.
Department of Finance and Customs. — Ole Andreas Furu, appointed May
2, 1893.
Department of Defence. — Lieutenant-Colonel Christian Wilhelm Engel
Bredal Olssbn, appointed May 2, 1893.
Revision of Public Accounts Department. — E. Stang, Minister of State,
(2.) Delegation of the Council at Stockholm.
Gregers Winther Wulfsberg Grainy Minister of State, appointed May 2,
1898.
Ernst Motzfeldt, appointed May 2, 1893.
Johannes Yinding Harbitz, appointed May 2, 1898.
II. Local Government.
The administrative division of the country is into twenty districts, each
governed by a chief executive functionary (Amtmand), viz., the towns of
Kristiania and Bergen, and 18 'Amts' (counties). They are subdivided
into 39 towns and 56 'Fogderier,' the latter comprising 22 * Ladesteder '
(ports). There are 504 rural communes (Herreder), mostly parishes or sub-
parishes (wards). The government of the Herred is vested in a council and a
body of representatives. The members (from three to nine) of the former (the
'FormffincT) are elected from the different wards within the Herred. The
representatives, who vote the expenditure of the Herred, are three times the
number of the Formaend. These bodies elect conjointly every year from among
the ' Formamd ' a chairman and a deputy chairman. All the chairmen of an
Amt form with the Amtmand and the Fogder (sheriffs) the ' Amtsformandskab '
(county diet), which meets yearly to settle the budget of the Amt. The
Amtmand is the chairman of the diet. The towns and the ports form 58
communes, also governed by a council (4 to 12, Kristiania 15), and represen-
tatives (three times the size of the council). The members of both loral
governing bodies are elected, in towns and rural communes, by voters for the
Storthing.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
Norway has an area of 124,445 English square miles; at the
census of January 1, 1891, the population amounted to 1,988,674
present, and 2,000,917 domiciled inhabitants.
The area and population of the twenty districts (Amter) are as follows :—
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AREA AND POPULATION
981
Amter.
Area: English
square miles
Population
Jan. 1, 1891
Density per
square mile
25,206'5
Kristiania (town) .
6
151,239
Akershtis
2,055
99,111
48-2
Smaalenene
1 1,600
120,360
75*2
Hedemarken .
10,621
119,129
11-2
Kristians
9,793
108,076
11 0
Buskerad
1 5,790
104,769
18-1
Jarlsberg og Larvik
; 896
100,957
112*7
Bratsberg
1 5,865
92,034
157
Nedenes .
J 3,609
81,043 '
22*4
1 Lister og Mandal
2,805
78,738
28-1
1 Stavanger
! 3,532
117,008
33 1
Sondre Bergenhus
1 6,026
128,213
21-3
Bergen (town)
1 5
53,684
10,736 8
Nordre Bergenhus
1 7,132
87,552
123
Romsdal
5,788
127,806
22*1
Sondre Trondhjem
7,184
123,817
17*2
Nordre Trondhjem
8,791 .
81,236
9 2
Nordland
14,517 .
1.31,850
9*1
Tromso .
10,134
65,125
6*4
Finmarken
18,296
29,170
1-6
Total
124,445
2,000,917
16-1
There were 965,911 males, and 1,035,006 females.
Conjugal condition of the domiciled population, 1891 :-
i -
Unmarried
Married
Widowed
Divorced
Not stated
1 Males .
I Females
602,962
627,498
323,935
325,952
37,660
80,263
308
426
1,046
867
The domiciled population, urban and rural, at different periods,
has been as follows : —
Country
1
Increase per cent, per
annum.
J.UUU |
1
Country
Town
Total
1835
1,060,282
134,545
1,194,827 |
1*37
1-30
1-37
1845
1,164,745
163,726
1,328,471 |
•99
2-17
1-12
1855
1,286,782
203,265
1,490,047 |
105
2-41
1-22
1865
1,435,464
266,292
1,701,756 ;
1-16
310
1*42
1875
1,481,026
332,398
1,818,853 1
•32
2'48
•69
1891
1,526,788
474,129
2,000,917 |
•52
714
1*67
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982
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
The population was in 1875 divided as follows according to
occupation, including the families and domestics of those actively
engaged : —
82,030
258,291
7,999
61,454
72,749
21,432
54,244
70,759
1. Employers or independent :
Fanning proprietors. . 567,690
Life farmers . . 51,042
Other agriculturists . . 19,241
Fishing and hunting . 93,085
Mining and manufactures. 4,190
Mechanics . . . 151,764
Trade .... 48,428
Shipowners . . . 2,942
2. Agents and overseers
3. Workpeople :
Small farmers, &c. .
Mines and metal works
Manufacturers
Mechanics
Trade .
Sailors .
Labourers
Of the total population in 1875, 1,782,593 were born in Nor-
way, 28,826 in Sweden, 2,058 in Denmark, 2,570 in Finland,
1,393 in Germany, 435 in Great Britain or Ireland.
The number of Lapps and Finns was : —
Lapps.
1865 . . 17,178
1875 . . 15,718
1891 . . 17,012
Finns.
7,637
7,594
7,420
II. Movement op the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Tear
Average
1878-82
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Marriages
12,894
12,491
12,154
12,416
12,922
13,179
Births
(exc. still-
born)
59,193
60,908
61,277
59,188
60,108
61,721
Stillborn
2,030
1,720
1,583
1,615
1,657
1,751
Illegiti-
mate,
living
4,856
4,669
4,651
4,396
4,225
4,272
Deaths I
excl. still- |
born
31,300
31,675
33,645
34,704
35,492
34,856
Excess of i
Births
27,893
29,233
27,632
24,484
24,616
26,865 {
\
2. Emigration.
Place of Destination
Average' 1887
1868-82 1W'
United States
British North America / ]
South America .
Australasia .
Africa
Asia .
12,270
157
20,706
21
2
12
Total
12,420 20,741
1888 , 1889
1890
1891
21,348
79
4
13
8
12,597 10,898 13,249
79
19
51
8
20
17
21
—
1
1
*~"
21.452 12,642 ' 10,991 \ 13,341
1892 !
I
16,814
223
3
6
17,049
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RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
983
III. Principal Towns.
At the census taken January 1, 1891, the number of towns
with a population of above 100,000 was one, above 20,000
four, above 10,000 five, above 5,000 nine. The population of
the principal towns, January 1, 1891, was : —
Kristiania . . . 151,239
Fredrikstad
. 12,451
Bergen .... 53,684
Larvik .
. 11,261
Trondhjem (after the in-
Fredrikshald .
. 11,217
corporation of suburbs) . 29, 1 62
Kristiansund .
. 10,381
Stavanger . . . 23,899
Skien
. 8,979
Drammen . . . 20,687
Aalesund.
. 8,406
Kristiansand . . .12,813
Moss
. 8,051
Religion.
The evangelical Lutheran religion is the national Church and the only
one endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. All other
Christian sects (except Jesuits) as well as the Jews are tolerated, and free
to exercise their religion within the limits prescribed by the law and public
order. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 6 bishoprics, 83 Provstier
(provostships, or archdeaconries), 470 parishes. In 1891 there were 30,685
dissenters, including 1,004 Roman Catholics, 8,187 Methodists, 4,228 Baptists,
348 Mormons, 231 Quakers.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory, the school age being from six and a half in towns
and seven in the country to fourteen. In 1889 (the latest date for which
there are statistics) there were in the country 6,251 public elementary schools
with 208,960 pupils, and in towns 1,624 classes with 52,995 pupils ; the amount
expended on both being 5,265,117 kroner, raised mostly by a school-rate levied
in each parish. There are 82 secondary schools : 17 public, 40 communal, 25
private. Of the secondary schools 23 have a higher department for classics, or
mathematics, or both, viz. 15 public, 1 communal, 7 private. Most of the
secondary schools are mixed, 17 are for girls alone : 3 communal, 14 private.
The number of pupils in the secondary schools in 1889 was 10,368. Besides
these, 70 private schools have 3,953 pupils more or less advanced. There are
6 normal schools with 321 students. Kristiania has a University, attended in
1892 by 1,366 students. In the financial year 1891-92 it had a subsidy of
540,212 kroner from the State.
Justice and Crime.
For civil justice Norway is divided into 118 districts, each with an
inferior court. Of these 81 are rural courts, divided into 431 circuits. The
other courts are in towns. There are 3 superior courts, having each one
chief justice and two other justices, and one supreme court for the whole
kingdom (HSiesteret), consisting of 1 president and at least 6 other justices.
There is a court of mediation (Forligelseskommission) in each town and Herred
(parish), consisting of two men chosen by the electors, before which, as a
rule, civil cases must first be brought.
According to the law of criminal procedure of July 1, 1887, all criminal
cases (not military, or coming under the Rigsret — the court for impeachments)
shall be tried either by jury {Lagmandsrct), or Meddomsrct.
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i
984
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
The Lagmaiiditret consists of three judges (1 Lagmand, or president), and
10 jurors (Lagrettemand). The Kingdom is divided into 5 jury districts
(Lagddmmer), each having its chief judge (Lagmand). Each district is
divided into circuits, corresponding, as a rule, to the counties {Amter), in
which courts are held at fixed times. The Meddomsret consists of the judge
and is held in the district of the inferior court, and 2 assistant judges (not
professional) summoned for each case. The Lagmandsret takes cognisance of
the higher classes of offences. The Meddomsret is for the trial of other offences,
and is also a court of first instance.
The prosecutions are directed by the State advocates ' (Statsadvokater),
13 in number, subordinate to one Eigsadvokat.
The number of persons convicted of serious crimes was : in 1890, 2,603 ;
in 1889, 2,938 ; 1888, 2,753 ; 1887, 2,932 ; 1886, 2,742. For offences against
public order and police, penalties were, in 1890, inflicted upon 25,248 persons.
There are four convict prisons (1 a penitentiary) ; inmates, June 30, 1890,
678 (521 were males and 157 females).
There are, besides, 55 district prisons, in which, in 1890, 7,940 persons
were detained. There are 3 reformatories for young offenders between 10 and
15 years.
The police force of Kristiania numbers 373 men, including 15 superior
functionaries.
Pauperism.
In Norway the relief of the poor is mostly provided for by local taxation,
but certain expenditure is also borne by the Amter (counties) and by the State.
The number of persons receiving relief amounted to 73,364 in 1890, 77,798 in
1889, 77,555 in 1888, 76,531 in 1887. In 1890 9,142, 1889 9,940, in 1888
9,837, in 1887 9,677 persons are included who have only been medically
relieved.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for each of the
last five years in thousands of kroner : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Years
ending
June 30
i «JU I
1888
1889
1890
I Direct
I Taxes
1,000 kr.
292
306
523
588
585
Indirect
Other
Taxes
Sources
1,000 kr,
1,000 kr.
26,219
17,853
26,229
18,239
30,006
19,803
30,809
20,049
29,475
21,085
Total
Defence
1,000 kr.
44,4931
46,3532
50,332
51,447
51,095
1,000 kr.
8,881
8,834
9,276
9,753
10,436
Debt
1,000 kr.
5,115
3,898
4,191
4,318
4,367
Public
Works
1,000 kr.
9,072
9,593
9,938
10.689
10,918
General
Total
1,000 kr.
21,156
21,279
22,131
24/234
25,510
I
1,000 kr.
| 45,224
43,604
1 45,537
48.904
51,232
i Including 129.0G1 loan.
- Including 1,578,118 loan.
The following table shows the principal heads of the budget for two
years ending June 30.
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FINANCE — DEFENCE
985
Sources of Revenue
Income Tax
Customs .
Excise on spirits
„ ,, malt
Succession tax
Stamps
Judicial fees
i Mines
, Post Office
I Telegraphs
I State property
| Railways .
1 Miscellaneous
I Balance .
Kroner
2,780,000
20,000,000
3,600,000
2,300,000
450,000
525,000
850,000
572,800
3,150,000
1,260,000
2,590,646
7,787,300
5,284,254
1894
Kroner
2,700,000
20,500,000
3,800,000
2,000,000
500,000
545,000
950,000
487,600
3,350,000
| 1,350,000
2,567,074
7,947,500
5,002,828
51,350,000 51,700,000
Branches of Expendi-
ture
Civil list .
Storthing .
The Ministries .
Church & education
Justice
Interior .
Post, telegraphs, Ac.
State railways .
Roads, canals, ports,
&c.
Finance and customs
Mines
Amortisation of debt
Interest ,,
Army
Navy
Foreign affairs .
Miscellaneous .
Balance .
1893
1894
Kroner
Kroner
480.5S2
349,716
471.23S
459,700
1,221,030
1,204,390
5,256,422
5,512,155
.',,227,382
5,327,118
1,711,028
1,808,196
5,540,726
5,811,489
7,078,155
7,392,709
3,514,456
3,631,234
3,445,318
3,271,850
686,900
656,500
591,701
678,506
4,104,974
4,234,884
8,466,500
7,675,181
2,690,900
2,769,900
710,340
750,992
152,348
165,480
51,350,000
51,700,000
The following table shows the amortisation, growth, and interest of the
public debt for the years named, ending June 30 : —
Kroner
3,144,360
54,123,790
356,694
454,776
521,517
Growth
Kroner
64,554,667
1,160,000
10,000,000
Kroner
4,405,331
3,664,745
3,829,872
3,857,521
3,840,264
Amount at the
end of the year
Kroner
105,283^266
115,714,152
115,357,459
116,062,683
125,541,165
In 1892 the unredeemable debt, which amounted to 10,837,410 kroner
in 1885, was reduced by amortisation to 245,472 kroner.
The taxation for communal purposes amounted for the rural communes
to 9,557,762 kroner, and for the towns to 8,163,833 kroner in 1889.
Defence.
The fortresses of Norway are unimportant, Fredriksstad,
Fredriksten, Carljohansvaern, Akershus in Kristiania, Oscars-
borg and Vardohus, with forts at Kristiansand, Bergen, and
Trondhjem.
The troops of the Kingdom are raised mainly by conscription,
and to a small extent by enlistment. By the terms of three laws
voted by the Storthing in 1866, 1876, and 1885, the land forces
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I
986 SWEDEN AND NOttWAY : — NORWAY
are divided into the troops of the Line, the Landvaern, the Land-
storm or final levy. All young men past the twenty-second year
of age are liable to the conscription, with the exception of the
inhabitants of the three northern Amts of the Kingdom, who are
free from military land service. The young men in the line raised
by conscription have to go through a first training in the school
of recruits, extending over 42 days in the infantry, in the fortress
and mountain artillery, 50 days in the engineers, and 70 days in
the field artillery and cavalry. They are then put into the bat-
talions, which in the second, third, and fourth year in the artillery,
cavalry, and engineers, and the second and third year in the
infantry and train, under ordinary circumstances, have an annual
practice of 24 days, after which the men are sent on furlough,
with obligation to meet when ordered. The recruits of the line
and the sixth year in the Landvaern have only a practice of
12 days' extent. The train has a school of recruits, extending
over 25 days for the engineers, and 18 days in the other arms.
The nominal term of service is 13 years, divided between 5 years
in the Line, 4 years in the Landvaern, and 4 years in the
Landstorm. The Landvaern is only liable to service within the
frontiers of the Kingdom. Every man capable of bearing arms,
and not placed in one of the said categories, is in time of war
liable to do service in the reserve of the Landstorm, from the
eighteenth to the fiftieth year of age.
On January 1, 1893, the troops of the line, with its reserves, numbered
about 30,000 men, with 900 officers. The number of troops of the line
actually under amis can never exceed, even in war, 18,000 men without the
consent of the Storthing. The King has permission to transfer, for the
purpose of common military exercises, 3,000 men annually from Norway to
Sweden and from Sweden to Norway.
The infantry consists of 5 brigades of 4 battalions of Line, Landvaern, and
Landstorm, of 4 companies. For each brigade there is a school of non-com-
missioned officers. His Majesty's guard of 2 companies riflemen.
Cavalry. — 3 corps of mounted riflemen of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm,
of 3, 3, and 2 squadrons.
Artillery. — 3 battalions of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 3 batteries
of 6 pieces, and 1 company of equipage field artillery ; 1 battalion of Line,
Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 2 companies of fortress artillery and two bat-
teries of 6 pieces mountain artillery.
Engineers. — 1 battalion of Line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 2 companies
of sappers, 1 company of pontooneers. 1 company of telegraphists, and 1 com-
pany of equipage.
like the Swedish navy, that of Norway is maintained solely for coast
defence. It consists of 4 ironclad monitors ; an armoured gunboat (395 tons)
which is being built ; 2 wooden corvettes launched in 1855 and 1862 ; two
unarmoured gun- vessels of 1,000 and 1,123 tons, built in 1880 and 1891 ; 4
older gun-vessels and gunboats between 393 and 959 tons, 11 between 189 and
280 tons, and 16 smaller (55 tons), besides a small torpedo flotilla. Excluding
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DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 987
the smallest class of gunboats, which have no real value, and a couple of
vedette torpedo-boats, the vessels thus described may be classified as follows,
adopting the uniform system used in this book, and fully described in the
Introductory Table ; 5 port defence armourclads ; 4 third-class cruisers a, and
14 b ; 5 second -class torpedo-boats and 3 of the third-class — in all 31.
These ships call for little description. The monitors, Skorpionen, Tkrud-
vang, and Mjolncr (1447 and 1515 tons) were built in 1866-68. They have
5-inch armour-belts, and 12-inch plating in their turrets, |which carry severally
two 18-ton muzzle-loading Armstrong guns. The TJwr, launched in 1872, is
a little larger (2,003 tons), has 14j-inch turret-plating, amd carries two 20-ton
guns. Of unarmoured ships, the deck-protected gun-vessel Viking is the
largest (1,123 tons). She is steel-built, with a cellulose belt, is 203 ft. 6 in.
in length, and has 30 ft. 6 in. beam, engines of 2,000 I.H.P., and steamed 15
knots at her trials. Her armament consists of two 5*9 in. guns, and four
2*4 in. and four smaller quick-firers. Another new gun- vessel, the Heimdal
(630 tons), armed with four 2*4 in. quick-firing guns, steamed 12 knots at her
trials. The only other new vessel is the gunboat A£qir (393 tons), armed with
one 8*2 in. gun, one 27 in. Q.F. and 1*9 in. Q.F.
In 1892 the navy numbered 125 officers and about 400 petty officers and
seamen on permanent engagement. All seafaring men and inhabitants of sea-
ports, between the ages of twenty-two and thirty-five, are enrolled on the
lists of either the active fleet or the naval militia, and are liable, by a law passed
in 1886, to the maritime conscription. The numbers on the register amounted,
in 1892, to nearly 23,000 men.
Production and Industry.
1. Agriculture.
Of the total area, 75 per cent, is unproductive, 22 per cent, forest, and 3
per cent, under cultivation. Most of the farms are worked by their owners,
as will be seen in the table of Occupations under Population. At the end ot
1875 there were 137,700 farms, of which 11,600 were rented, 538 occupied by
certain State officials, and the remainder used by the owners. The subdivision
of landed property has been carried to a great extent. The latest statistics
available are for 1865, and subdivision has probably increased considerably
since then. At that date there were 133,991 farms, not including Finmarken,
classified as follows : —
Under 2 hectares 34,224 or 25*5 per cent, of the whole.
From 2 to 5 „ 42,984 „ 321 „ „
,, 5 „ 20 „ 48,575 „ 36*2
„ 20 „ 50 „ 7,376 „ 55
„ 50 ,,100 „ 739 „ 0*6
100 or more 93 ,, 0*1 „ „
The latest agricultural statistics are for 1875, when the area under cereals was
191,215 hectares, potatoes 34,879 hectares. The estimated yield, after deduct-
ing seed, of cereals was 6,045,511 hectolitres, of potatoes 7,123,786 hectolitres.
The total value of the produce was for cereals 50,291,200 kroner, for potatoes
26,132,200 kroner. The average annual produce in hectolitres per 10 acres for
1881-85 was, wheat, 2*25 ; rye, 2*39 ; barley, 2*83 ; buckwheat, 3*55 ; oats,
3*45 ; peas, 2*16 ; potatoes, 2077 hectolitres.
On January 1, 1891, there were : — Horses, 150,873 ; cattle, 1,005,203 ; sheep,
1,412,488 ; goats, 272,721 ; swine, 120,937 ; reindeer, 167,774.
The value of cereals imported (including flour) was 36,890,800 kroner in
1892 ; the principal article being rye, 15,042,500 kroner. The import of butter
amounted to 2,135,100 kroner, and of bacon and meat to 6,683,800 kroner.
The export of agricultural produce is insignificant.
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988
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NOBWAY
k
II. FORBSTBY.
The total area covered with forests is estimated at 26,320 square miles, of
which 73 per cent, is under pine trees. The State forests occupy 3,870 square
miles, administered by a forest staff under the supervision of the Ministry of
the Interior. The value of unwrought or partly wrought timber exported
from Norway in 1892 was 27,898,400 kroner, and of wrought timber 18,912,400
kroner.
III. Mines and Minerals.
The mining and ^etal industry of Norway is unimportant. The total
value of mineral products in 1890 (latest available statistics) was 4,013,300
kroner (3,264,400 in 1885) ; of furnace products, 1,315,400 (2,037,500 in 1885)
kroner ; of bar iron and steel, 148,000 kroner. The chief mineral products are
silver, 621,000 kroner in 1890 (1,038,000 in 1885) ; copper ore, 718,000 kroner,
pyrites, 1,010,000 kroner ; nickel, 186,000 kroner (1,565,000 in 1876) ; apatite,
1,000,700 kroner (1,186,100 in 1883). Of the smelting products in 1890 silver
was valued at 622,600 kroner ; copper, 465,000 kroner ; nickel, 175,000
kroner. At the end of 1890 there existed 34 mining establishments employing
2,508 workpeople, and 8 smelting furnaces with 391 workpeople.
IV. Fisheries.
The number of persons in 1891 engaged in cod fishery was 94,836 ; in
herring fishery, 31,130 ; and in mackerel fishery 3,294.
The value of the fisheries in kroner in 1891 was cod, 14,110,852 ; herring,
6,610,991 ; mackerel, 659,021 ; other fisheries, 3,328,222 ; salmon and sea
trout, 874,710 ; lobster, 369,415 ; oysters, 13,388 ; total, 25,966,599. The
total value was in 1890, 22,211,687, in 1889, 23,311,249, in 1888 21,852,000,
1887, 14,762,000, in 1886 2,276,000 kroner.
Other fisheries are the mackerel fisheries in the North Sea, the bank
fisheries off the coast, and the whale, walrus, seal, and shark fisheries in the
northern seas, which in 1891 produced a total of 3,449,000 kroner.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Norway with different
countries in 1892 : —
Country
Sweden .
Denmark, Iceland,
and Faeroe .
Russia and Finland
Germany .
Switzerland .
Netherlands .
Belgium .
Great Britain and
Ireland
France .
Portugal and Madeira
Imports J Exports
Country
Imports
Exports
Kroner
27,253,100
11,980,200
9,869,400
55,294,400
55,300
8,963,700
7,474,000
52,670,100
7,445,400
589,900
I Kroner ;l
119,709,100 1 1
ii
4,823,700
3,537,400 i.
15,690,200 "
- I
5,942,100 ■
3,966,900 |i
43,642,300 !'
7,203,600 i
860,300
.
Kroner
Spain
1,306,500
Italy
1,583,100
Austria and Hungary
8,800
Turkey, Roumania,
and Greece .
4,956,400
Africa .
582,200
Asia
100
Australia
100
America .
9,907,100
Not stated .
96,700
Kroner
12,642,300
3,493,500
186,600
12,800
1,380,100
62,000
560,600
2,491,700
201,100
Total
199,966.600 126,424,800
The total amount of the import duties collected in 1892 was about 19
millions of kroner (about one-tenth in value of the total imports), divided
among the principal articles as follows : — Breadstuff's, 1,803,000 kroner ;
coffee, 2,216,000 kroner; tea, 180,000 kroner; sugar, 4,216,000 kroner;
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COMMERCE
989
tofcicco, 2,940,000 kroner ; spirits and wines, 1,256,000 kroner ; manufactured
goods, 2,151,000 kroner; petroleum, 471,000 kroner; and salt, 396,000
kroner.
Total imports and exports of Norwegian and foreign goods in the last
five years : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891 !
1
1892
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner i
Kroner
Imports of foreign
goods . . . ! 158,396,700 i 191,608,100
208,658,900
228,023,600 199,986,600
Exports of Norwegian !
i
goods . . ; 116,630,500
125,910,400 ; 124,432,100
124,082,300 j 118,779,800
Foreign goods . • 5,726,100
6,758,700 , 6,664,400
6,300,400
7,645,000
Values of imports and exports, divided into classes, for 1890-1892 : —
1890
1891
181
>2
Exports
Classes of Goods
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Imports
of Foreign
Goods
Norwegian
Goods
of Foreign
Goods
Norwegi
Goods
GUI
r
of Foreign
Goods
Norwegian
Goods
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Krone
Kroner
Kroner
Animals, living . ' 1,754,900
1,185,200
1,636,600
839,000
1,119,400
457,700
Animal produce
(malty food) . 13,847,900
43,885,500
12,106,700
45,151,800
12,357,400
43,890,800
Breadstuffs . . 33,557,400
488,800
48,872,300
1,207,900
37,243,900
386,700
Groceries . . 23,217,900
6,700
28,002,100
15,000
28,187,500
13,300
Fruits, plants.Ac. 2,825,500
184,400
2,692,100
224,200
2,728,500
250,400
Spirits, Ac. . . 3,838,800
390,000
5,015,200
266,600
4,257,900
207,200
Yarn, rope, Ac. . 13,804,300
862,800
12,623,100
813,200
11,378,800
704,800
Textile manufac-
tures, Ac. 24,128,600
4,356,200
22,408,400
3,643,500
22,010,400
3,847,600
Hair, skins, Ac. . 8,145,100
Tn.11 ft w nils fjiv
6,966,000
8.389,900
6,169,700
7,351,700
6,764,400
Ac. . . . ' 8,849,700
7,396,100
9,326,700
6,669,700
10,289,000
6,768,500
Timber A wooden j
goods
6,033,400
48,918,400
6,641,600
43,916,000
7,875,200
41,810,800
Dye stuffs .
1,072,800
218,300
1,069,400
117,800
980,900
156,200
Different vege-
table produce .
Paper and paper
manufactures .
2,558,800
998,200
3,252,900
1,505,500
3,259,800
865,700
1,781,500
1,777,600
1,874,400
2,369,700
1,811,400
2,841,000
Minerals, un-
wrought .
Minerals, manu-
16,126,500
3,036,800
17,742,400
2,196,200
17,506,700
1,910,200
factured .
2,513,500
1,829,600
2,686,600
1,585,100
2,669,500
1,759,500
Metals, un-
wrought or
partly wrought
8,091,100
1,537,600
9,564,T00
1,485,600
7,513,100
1,017,900
Metals, manu-
factured .
7,937,000
3,626,900
8,581,600
3,789,400
10,291,700
2,998,100
Vessels, carriages,
machinery, Ac.
Total .
28,574,200
1,772,000
25,537,100
2,166,400
16,653,800
2,633,500
208,658,900
124,482,100
223,023,600
124,082,300
199,986,600
118,779,300
6,664,400
Re-exports
6,300,400
7,645,000
131,096,500
130,382,700
126,424,300
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990
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
\
Imports and exports to and from the principal Norwegian ports in the
last five years : —
Imports.
-
1888 1889
1890
Kroner
105,994,000
33,065,300
16,026,000
1891
1892
Kroner
107,825,700
30,739,800
14,278,400
Kristiania .
Bergen
Trondhjem .
Kroner | Kroner
79,842,200 I 97,848,700
29,212,800 , 31,185,800
11,752,100 14,086,300
Kroner
110,918,100
42,899,200
15,053,100
Exports.
-
1888
| 1
1889 1890 1891
1892
Kristiania .
Bergen
Trondhjem .
Kroner
28,739,100
20,647,500
9,007,900
Kroner Kroner Kroner
31,727,800 32,949,700 34,022,400
20,636,400 i 21,666,800 20,039,000
8,577,600 8,332,100 7,304,200
Kroner
81,449,000
21,102,000
7,859,400
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United Kingdom,
according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table, for
each of the last five years : —
Imports into U. K. from Norway .
Exports of British produce to
Norway
3,061,532
1,370,849
3,497,518
1,724,582
1890
£
3,432,689
£
3,363,629
1,915,808 | 1,901,897
£
3,576,615
1,706,111
In 1892 the imports of timber from Norway into the United Kingdom
amounted to 1,525, 438*. ; fish, 417,518*. ; rags, &c, 492,019*. The minor
imports into Great Britain comprise ice, butter and margarine, and small
quantities of bar iron and copper ore. Iron, wrought and unwrought, of the
value of 247,341*. ; cotton manufactures and yarn of the value of 207,856*. ;
coals, of the value of 455,264*. ; and woollens and worsteds of the value
of 138,345*., formed the chief British exports to Norway in the year 1892.
Shipping and navigation.
_
Sailing
Steam
Total »
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
1,101
2,056
878
283
9
4,327
Tons
Vessels engaged in Fo-
reign Trade (Jan. 1893)
Under 100 tons
From 100-500 tons
„ 500-1,000 „
„ 1,000-2,000 „
Above 2,000 „
Total
1,092
1,815
784
229
5
44,276
542,433
536,728
280,899
11,156
9
241
94
54
4
393
80,677
62,392
73,443
8,641
44,669
623,110
599,120
354,342
19,797 '
3,925 1,415,492
402
225,546
1,641,038
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
991
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
6,671
5,715
6,749
5,695
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Entered
Norwegian .
Foreign
Cleared
Norwegian
Foreign
6,293
4,965
6,513
4,941
1,451,426
851,799
1,581,838
840,218
7,229
5,835
7,027
5,827
1,719,083
986,210
1,649,168
980,009
1,716,006
938,271
1,752,375
947,478
■6,860
5,502
6,542
5,460
1,979,489
942,318
1,922,441
930,955
Vessels entered and cleared in 1891 at the following ports (with cargoes and
in ballast) : —
-
Number
Tonnage
-
Number
Tonnage
Kristiania
Trondhjem
Entered .
2,300
938,829
Entered
328
182,538
Cleared
1,452
628,412
Cleared
343
191,229
Bergen
Frederikstad
Entered .
687
367,300
Entered
1,165
180,592
Cleared
658
352,282
Cleared
2,802
242,752
Internal Communications.
The total length of State railways in 1893 was 929 miles ; that of one
railway worked by a company (Kristiania to Mjosen) 42 miles; total 971
miles.
Total receipts 1891-92, State railways, 7,390,875 kroner ; companies,
1,635,497 kroner. Total expenses 1891-92, State railways, 5,924,545 kroner ;
companies, 865,279 kroner. Goods carried 1891-92, State railways, 1,076,986
tons (of 1,000 kilogs.) ; companies, 500,446. Passengers carried 1891-92,
State railways, 4,381,913 ; companies, 466,485. The State railways have been
constructed partly by subscription in the districts interested and partly at the
expense of Government.
The following are the postal statistics : —
-
1890
1891
1892
Letters ....
27,248,400
28,367,600
31,868,200
Post-cards
2,112,500
2,303,600
2,614,200
Registered letters .
486,600
454,700
593,800
Journals
24,552,300
25,089,600
26,392,200
Other printed matter
3,254,900
3,643,500
4,236,000
Samples and parcels
484,500
486,600
621,600
Length of telegraph lines and wires in January 1893 : —
Belonging to the State 4,887 miles of line, 9,663 miles of wires.
„ railways 985 „ „ 1,742 „
Total
5,872
11,405
The number of messages in the year 1892 was on the State lines 1,649,544,
on the railway lines 76,683, total, 1,726,227, of which 1,139,527 (on the lines
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992 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
of the railways, 76,683) were internal, 271,620 sent abroad, 315,050 received
from abroad, and 30 in transit. The number of telegraph offices in 1892
was :— 178 belonging to the State, 200 to the railways, total 378. Receipts :
State telegraphs 69,06U, railways 3,169Z., total 72,230Z. Expenses :— State
telegraphs 66,383/., railways 10,500Z., total 76,883Z.
Money and Credit.
On December 31, 1892, the Norwegian coins in circulation (the coinage
after the monetary reform deducting the coins melted down) were : —
Gold coin 15,856,000 kroner
Silver coin .... 6,517,292 „
Bronze coin .... 479,983 ,,
Total .' 22,853,275
There exists no Government paper money.
The value of income and property assessed for taxes in 1892 was : —
Income. Property.
The towns 151*0 millions of kroner 629*8 millions of kroner
The rural districts 195*4 ,, „ 1,038*3 „ „
The whole kingdom 346*4 ,, „ 1,668*1 „ „
There are two State banks, the 'Norges Bank' (Bank of Norway) and
the ' Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank.'
The ' Norges Bank ' is a joint-stock bank, of which, however, a considerable
part is owned by the State. The bank is, besides, governed by laws enacted
by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storthing, except the presi-
dent of the head office, who is nominated by the King. There is a head
office at Trondhjem, and 12 branch offices. It is the only bank in Norway
that is authorised to issue bank notes for circulation. The balance-sheets of
the bank for 1892 show the following figures : — Assets at the end of the year —
bullion, 39,362,434 kroner ; outstanding capital, mortgaged estates, foreign
bills, &c, 34,259,869 kroner ; total, 73,622,303 kroner. Liabilities— notes in
circulation, 45,115,155; the issue of notes allowed was 58,335,430 kroner:
deposits, cheques, unclaimed dividends, unsettled losses, &c, 9,328,223
kroner (of which the deposits amounted to 8,570,697 kroner); dividends
payable for the year, 1,252,751 kroner ; total, 55,696,129 ; balance, 17,926,174.
The ' Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank ' was established in 1852 by the
State to meet the demand for loans on mortgage. The capital of the bank
is furnished by the State, and amounted to 10,500,000 kroner in 1892. The
bank has besides a reserve fund amounting in 1892 to 500,000 kroner. At
the end of 1892 the total amount of bonds issued was 83,691,200 kroner. The
loans on mortgage amounted to 87,512,752 kroner.
There were, at the end of 1892, 35 private joint-stock banks, with a
collective subscribed capital of 41,144,810 kroner, and a paid-up capital of
17,106,065. The reserve fund amounted to 6,706,179. The deposits and
withdrawals in the course of the year amounted to 395,104,629 kroner and
386,350,663 kroner respectively. Deposits at the end of the year 123,420,004
kroner, of which 8,777,283 kroner deposits on demand, and 114,642,721
kroner on other accounts.
All savings-banks must be chartered by royal permission. Their operations
are regulated, to a considerable extent, by the law, and controlled by the
Ministry of Finance Their situation is as follows : —
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MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
993
Tear
S^ngl- >.ofDeposi-
Banks • tors
1
Amount to the Credit of Depositors
Deposits
Withdrawals
At end of year '
1892
1891
1890
, 1889
i 1888
360 ! 499,245
353 i 486,168
350 470,799
345 452,736
341 | 432,126
Kroner
86,692,875
85,119,088
88,500,397
83,687,317
71,834,965
Kroner
82,643,399
82,676,155
80,875,998
72,830,155
66,450,603
Kroner
200,925,537 |
196,617 525 '
194,141,420 J
186,554,824 '
175,448,158 '
Sweden and Norway.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
By a treaty signed May 27, 1873, with additional treaty of October 16,
1875, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark adopted the same monetary system.
The Swedish Krona (= Norwegian Krone) of 100 ore is of the value of
Is. l%d.t or about 18 kronor to the pound sterling.
The gold 20-kronor piece weighs 8 '960572 grammes, *900 fine containing
8*0645 grammes of fine gold, and the silver krona weighs 7*5 grammes, '800
fine, containing 6 grammes of fine silver.
The standard of value is gold. In Sweden National Bank notes for 5, 10,
50, 100, and 1000 kronors are legal means of payment, and the Bank is bound
to exchange them for gold on presentation.
Weights and Measures.
The Swedish Sk&lpund =100 ort = 0*937 lb. avoirdupois.
,, ,, Fot = 10 turn = 11*7 English inches.
,, ,, Kanna = 140 kubiktum = 4*6 imperial pints.
,, ,, Mil = 360 re/ = 6 *64 English miles.
,, Norwegian Kilogram = 1,000 gram = 2,204 lbs. avoirdupois.
Meter = 100 centimeter^ 3*28 ft. or39*37Eng. in.
« ,.aa«*r {j* -}-«»«* {: ay^fiSS:
„ „ KiUnneter = 1,000 «*r {= ''T^^0621 °f
The metric system of weights and measures was introduced in 1879, and
became obligatory in Sweden in 1889, in Norway on July 1, 1882.
Sweden and Norway.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Sweden and Norway in Great Britain.
JSnvoy and Minister. — H. Akerman, accredited October 6, 1890.
Secretary. — Ove Gude.
Consul-General in London. — Carl Juhlin Dannfelt.
There are Consular representatives at the following places : — Belfast,
Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow,
Hull, Leith, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Southampton. Also at
Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Bombay, Brisbane, Calcutta, Cape Town, Fiji,
Hobart, Quebec, Rangoon, Singapore, Wellington (N.Z.).
3 s
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\
994 SWEDEN AND NORWAY
2. Of Great Britain in Sweden and Norway.
Erwoy and Minuter. — Sir Spenser St. John appointed Envoy Extra-
ordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to Sweden and Norway, July 1,
1893.
Secretary. — Hon. Hugh Gough.
Consul at Stockholm. — Marmaduke S. Constable.
GonmiUQeneral at Christiania. — Thomas Michell, C.B.
There are also Consular representatives at Gothenburg, Bergen, Trondhjem,
Hammerfest, Vardo, &c.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Sweden and Norway.
1. Official Publications.
Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik: A. Befolknings-statistik. B. Rattsvasendet.
C. Bergshandtering. D. Fabriker och manufakturer. £. Inrikes handel och sjofart.
F. Utrikes handel och sjofiurt G. F&ngvarden. H. K. Majestats befallningshatvandes
femarsberattelser I. Telegrafvasendet. K. Helso- och sjukvarden. L. Statens
jernvagstrafik. M. Postverket. N. Jordbruk och boskapsskbtsel. O. Landtmatcriet. P.
Undervisningsvasendet. Q. Statensdomane. R. Valstatistik. S. Allmanna arbeten. T.
Lots- och fyrinrattningen samt lifraddningsanstalterna a rikets kuster. U. Kominunernas
fattigvard och finanser. V. Branvins tillverkning och forsaljning samt hvitbetssockertill-
verkningen. X. Aflbnings- och pensionsstatistik. 4. Stockholm, 1857-93.
Noi*ges officielle Statistik : Arbeidslbnninger ; Bergvserksdrift ; Den almindelige Brandfor-
sikringsindretning ; Civilretsstatistik ; Distriktsfamgsler ; FabrikenUeg ; Paste Eiendomme ;
Fattigstatistik ; Femaarsberetninger om Amternes bkonoiniske Tilstand; Statskasseus
Finantser ; Fiskerier ; Folkemsngdens Bevaegelse, Folketselling ; Handel ; De offentlige
Jernbaner ; Jordbrug ; Kommunale Finantser ; Kriminalstatistik ; Sundhedstilstanden og
Medicinalforholdene ; Postvsesen ; Rekruteringsstatistik ; Sindssygeasylerne ; Skiba&rt ;
Skoleveesen; Sparebanker; Spedalske; Straferbeidsanstalter ; Statstelegraf ; VeterinsBr-
vaesen. 4. Fra 1881-8. Kristiadnia, 1870-93.
Sveriges statskalender for ar 1893. Utgifven efter Kongl. Majestats nadigste forordnandc
af dess Vetenskaps-Akademi. 8. Stockholm, 1892.
Sveriges officiela statistik i sammandrag, 1893. Stockholm, 1893.
Statistisk Aarbog for Kongeriget Norge. (Annoaire statistiqne de la Norvege.) 12te
Aargang, 1892. Udgivet af det Statistiske Centralbureau. Kristiania, 1893.
Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1894. Efter offentlig Foranstaltning redigeret af N. R.
Bull. 8. Kristiania, 1893.
Statistisk tidskrift, utgifven af Kongl. Statistiska Central-Byran. Stockholm, 1862-93.
Oversigt over Kongeriget Norges civile, geistlige og judicielle Inddeling. Udgi ven af det
Statistiske Centralbureau. 8. Kristiania, 1893.
Meddelelser fra det Statistiske Centralbureau. I.— X. 8. Kristiania, 1883-93.
Norges Land og Folk. Udgivet efter offentlig Foranstaltning. I. Smaalenenes Anit.
Kristiania, 1885. XI. Stavanger Amt Kristiania, 1888.
Report on the Working of the State Bank in Sweden, No. 278 of Foreign Office * Reports
on Subjects of General and Commercial Interest.' London, 1893.
Reports on the 'Gothenburg' Licensing System in Sweden, No. 274, and in Norway,
No. 279 of Foreign Office 'Reports on Subjects of General and Commercial Interest.'
London, 1893.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Sweden and Norway ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in tiie Year
1892.' Imp. 4. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Carlson (F. F.\ Geschichte Bchweden's. 8 vols. Gotha, 1832-75.
Du Chaillu (P. R), The Land of the Midnight Sun. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Dyring (Joh.), Kongeriget Norge, dets Geografl, Samfundsindretninger og Nosringsveie,
Anden Udgave. 8. Porsgrund, 1891.
Hammtur (A.), Historiskt, geografiskt och statistiskt lexicon ofver Sverige. 8 vols. 8.
Stockholm, 1859-70.
Hajjer (M.), Konungariket Sverige, en topografisk-statistisk beskrifning med historiska
anmarkningar. 8. Stockholm, 1875-83.
Kictr (A. N.), Statistisk Haandbog for Kongeriget Norge. 8. Kristiania, 1871.
Nielsen (Dr. Tngvar), Handbook for Travellers in Norway. With Maps. Kristiania, 189S.
Rosenberg (C. M.), Geograflskt-statistiskt handlexikon bfver Sverige. 8. Stockholm, 1881.
Boienberg (C. M.), Ny resehandbok ofver Sverige. 8. Stockholm, 1887.
Rudbeek (J. G.), Forsbk till beskrifning ofver 8veriges stader i historiskt, topographiskt
och statistiskt hanseende. 3 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1855-61.
Sidenbladh (B.), Royaume de 8uede, expose statistiqne. (Exposition univereelle de 1876
a Paris). 8. Stockholm, 1878.
LSfstrom (T. A.\ Sweden, Statistics. (World's Columbian Exposition 1893, Chicago,)
Stockholm, 1893.
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995 ,
SWITZERLAND.
(Schweiz. — Suisse. )
Constitution and Government.
I. Central.
On August 1, 1291, the men of Uri, Schwyz, and Lower Unter-
walden, entered into a defensive League. In 1353 the League
included eight cantons, and in 1513, thirteen. Various associated
and protected territories were acquired, but no addition was
made to the number of cantons forming the League till 1798.
In that year, under the influence of France, the Helvetic
Republic was formed, with a regular constitution. This failed
to satisfy the cantons, and in 1803 Napoleon, in the A.ct of
Mediation, gave a new constitution and increased the number of
cantons to. nineteen. In 1815, the perpetual neutrality of
Switzerland and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed
by Austria, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, and Russia, and
the Federal Pact which had been drawn up at Zurich, and which
included three new cantons, was accepted by the Congress of
Vienna. The Pact remained in force till 1848, when a new
constitution, prepared without foreign interference, was accepted
by general consent. This, in turn, was, on May 29, 1874,
superseded by the constitution which is now in force.
The constitution of the Swiss Confederation may be re- .
vised either in the ordinary forms of Federal legislation, with
compulsory referendvm, or by direct popular vote, a majority
both of the citizens voting and of the cantons being required,
and the latter method may be adopted on the demand (called
the popular initiative) of 50,000 citizens with the right to
vote. The Federal Government is supreme in matters of peace,
war, and treaties ; it regulates the army, the postal and tele-
graph system, the coining of money, the issue and repayment of
bank notes, and the weights and measures of the Republic. It
provides for the revenue in general, and especially decides on the
import and export duties in accordance with principles embodied
in the constitution. It legislates in matters of civil capacity,,
copyright, bankruptcy, patents, sanitary police in dangerous
epidemics, and it may create and subsidise, besides the Polytechnic
School at Zurich, a Federal University and other higher educa-
tional institutions. There has also been entrusted to it the
authority to decide concerning public works for the whole or
great part of Switzerland, such as those relating to rivers,
forests, and the construction of railways.
The supreme legislative and executive authority are vested
in a parliament of two chambers, a ' Standerath,' or State
3 s 2
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996
SWTTZEBLAND
\
Council, and a ' Nationalrath,1 or National Council. The first is
composed of forty-four members, chosen and paid by the twenty-
two cantons of the Confederation, two for each canton. The
mode of their election and the term of membership depend
entirely on the canton. Three of the cantons are politically
divided — Basel into Stadt and Land; Appenzell into Ausser
Rhoden and Inner Rhoden ; and Unterwald into Obwald and
Nidwald. Each of these parts of cantons sends one member to
the State Council, so that there are two members to the divided as
well as to the undivided cantons. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of
147 representatives of the Swiss people, chosen in direct election,
at the rate of one deputy for every 20,000 souls. The members
are paid from Federal funds at the rate of 20 francs for each
day on which they are present, with travelling expenses, at the
rate of 20 centimes (2d.) per kilometre, to and from the capital.
On the basis of the general census of 1888, the cantons are
represented in the National Council as follows : —
Number of
Number of
Canton
Represen-
Canton
Represen-
tatives
tatives
Bern ....
27
Solothurn
4
Zurich .
17
Appenzell — Exterior and
Waadt (Vaud) .
12
Interior
4
Aargau .
St. Gallen
10
Glarus ....
2
11
Schaffhausen .
2
Luzern (Lucerne)
7
Schwyz ....
3
Tessin (Ticino)
6
Unterwald — Upper and
Freiburg (Fribourg)
6
Lower ....
2
Basel — town and country .
7
Uri.
1
Graubiinden (Grisons)
5
Zug ....
1
Wallis (Valais)
5
Thurgau ....
5
Total of representatives in ^
the National Council /
147
Neuenburff (Neuchatel) .
Genf (Geneve) .
5
5
A general election of representatives takes place by ballot
every three years. Every citizen of the Republic who has
entered on his twenty-first year is entitled to a vote ; and any
voter, not a clergyman, may be elected a deputy. Both chambers
united are called the ' Bundes-Versammlung,, or Federal Assembly,
and as such represent the supreme Government of the Republic.
The first step towards legislative action may be taken by means of
the popular initiative, and laws passed by the Federal Assembly may
bo vetoed by the popular voice. Whenever a petition demanding
the revision or annulment of a measure passed by the Legislature
is presented by 30,000 citizens, or the alteration is demanded by
eight cantons, the law in question must be submitted to the direct
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GOVERNMENT 997
vote of the nation. This principle, called the referendum, is fre-
quently acted on. The chief executive authority is deputed to a
* Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven members,
elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. The members
of this council must not hold any other office in the Confedera-
tion or cantons, nor engage in any calling or business. It is
only through this executive body that legislative measures are
introduced in the deliberative councils, and its members are
present at, and take part in their proceedings, but do not vote.
Every citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible
for becoming a member of the executive.
The President and Vice-President of the Federal Council are the first
magistrates of the Confederation. Both are elected by the Federal Assembly
in joint session of the National and State councils for the term of one year,
January 1 to December 31, and are not re-eligible to the same offices till
after the expiration of another year. The Vice-President, however, may bo
and usually is, elected to succeed the out-going President.
President for 1894.— Emile Frey.
Vice-President for 1894. — Joseph Zemp.
The seven members of the Federal Council — each of whom has a salary of
480 J. per annum, while the President has 540Z. — act as ministers, or chiefs of
the seven administrative departments of the Republic. These departments
are : — 1. Foreign Affairs. 2. Interior. 3. Justice and Police. 4. Military.
5. Finance and Customs. 6. Agriculture and Industry. 7. Posts and Rail-
ways. The city of Bern is the seat of the Federal Council and the central
administrative authorities.
IT. Local Government.
Each of the cantons and demi-cantons of Switzerland is 'souverain,' so
far as its independence and legislative powers are not restricted by the federal
constitution ; each has its local government, different in its organisation in
most instances, but all based on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the
people. In a few of the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers
direct, without the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male
citizens of full age assembling together in the open air, at stated periods,
making laws and appointing their administrators. Such assemblies, known as the
Landsgemeinden, exist in Appenzell, Glarus, Unterwald, and Uri. In all the
larger cantons, there is a body chosen by universal suffrage, called der Grosse
Rath, which exercises all the functions of the Landsgemeinden. In all the
cantonal constitutions, however, except that of Freiburg and those of the
cantons which have a Landsgemeinde, the referendum nas a place. This
principle is most fully developed in Zurich, where all laws and concordats, or
agreements with other cantons, and the chief matters of finance, as well as all
revision of the constitution, must be submitted to the popular vote. In many
of the cantons, the popular initiative has also been introduced. The members
of the cantonal councils, as well as most of the magistrates, are either
honorary servants of their fellow-citizens, or receive a merely nominal salary.
In each canton there are districts (Amtsbezirke) consisting of a number of
communes grouped together, each district having a Prefect (Regierungstatt-
halter) representing the canton. In the larger communes, for local affairs,
there is an Assembly (legislative) and a Council (executive) with a president,
maire or syndic, and not less than 4 other members. In the smaller com-
munes there is a council only, with its proper officials.
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Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
A general census of the population of Switzerland was taken
on December 1, 1888, when the ordinary resident population was
found to be 2,917,740, the whole population, in fact, being
2,933,334 (1,427,057 males, 1,506,277 females), showing an in-
crease since the previous census of 0-375 per cent, per annum.
At the census taken December 1, 1880, the people numbered
2,846,102, of whom 1,394,626 were males and 1,451,476 females.
At the preceding census, taken December 1, 1870, the population
numbered 2,669,138, showing an increase of 176,964 inhabitants
during the ten years, or 0*64 per cent, per annum.
The following table gives the area and ordinary resident popu-
lation of each of the cantons and parts of cantons according to the
census of December 1, 1880, and that of December 1, 1888.
The cantons are given in the official order, and the year of the
entrance of each into the league or confederation is stated : —
Area :
Population
Pop.
Oo.ii4*/\n
per square
V* All lAjll
sq. miles
Dec.l, 1880
Dec 1, 1888
mile. 1888
Zurich (Zurich) (1351) .
666
316,074
337,183
506 3
Bern (Berne) (1353) .
2,657
530,411
536,679
2019
Luzern (Lucerne) (1332) .
579
134,708
135,360
233 6
Uri(1291) ....
415
23,744
17,249
41-5
Schwyz(1291)
Obwalden (Unterwalden-le-
351
51,109
50,307
143-0
Haut)(1291)
183
15,329
15,043
82*2!
Nidwalden (Unterwalden-le-
Bas) (1291) ....
112
11,979
12,538
112* j
Glarus (Glaris) (1352)
267
34,242
33,825
1267 .
Zug (Zoug) (1352) .
92
22,829
23,029
250 3
Freiburg (Fribourg) (1481)
644
114,994
119,155
185-0 :
Solothum (Soleure) (1481)
302
80,362
85,621
283-5 '
Basel-Stadt (Bale-V.) (1501)
14
64,207
73,749
5,267*8 ,
Basel-Land (Bale-C.) (1501)
163
59,171
61,941
3800 !
Scbaffhausen (Schaffhouse) (1501)
114
38,241
37,783
3314
Appenzell A.-Rh. (Ext.) (1573)
101
51,953
54,109
535-7
Appenzelll.-Rh. (Int.) (1573) .
61
12,847
12,888
211 *3
St. Gallen (St. Gall) (1803)
779
209,719
228,174
292 9
Graubiinden (Grisons) (1803)
2,773
93,864
94,810
34*2
Aargau (Argovie) (1803) .
Thurgau (Thurgovie) (1803)
542
198,357
193,580
357 1
381
99,231
104,678
274-7
Tessin (Ticino) (1803)
1,088
130,394
126,751
116-4
Waadt (Vaud) (1803)
1,244
235,349
247,655
1991
Wallis (Valais) (1815)
2,027
100,190
101,985
50 3
Neuenburg(Neuchatel)(1815) .
Genf (Geneve) (1815)
Total
312
102,744
108,153
346 6
108
99,712
105,509
976-9
15,976
2,831,787
2,917,754
182*6
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AREA AND POPULATION
The German language is spoken by the majority of inhabitants in fifteen
cantons, the French in five, the Italian in one (Tessin), and the Roumansch
in one (the Grisons). In 1888 2,083,097 spoke German, 634,613 French,
155,130 Italian, and 38,357 Roumansch. The number of foreigners resident
in Switzerland at the date of the census was 229,650, of whom 112,342
were German, 53,627 French, 41,881 Italian, 13,737 Austrian, 2,577 British.
1,354 Russian.
The chief occupations of the population in 1888, with the numbers em-
ployed, their families and domestic servants, were : —
Occupation
Agriculture .
Mining, sylviculture, Ac.
Food manufacture .
Dress, &c.
Building and furniture
Textiles .
Machinery
Chemicals, bookbinding,
&c.
Trade
Transport
Public officials, sciences,
Ac. .
Not determinable .
No relation to occupation
Total .
Men
388,467
10,682
37,363
40,666
105,747
61,087
66,897
15,873
54,087
45,689
35,817
881,612
Women
92,566
28
6,752
67,534
1,620
106,435
15,075
2,743
38,256
2,307
14,836
8,261
36,022
392,435
Men and
Women
481,033
10,710
44,115
108,200
107,367
167,522
81,972
18,616
92,293
47,996
50,653
14,869
48,701
1,274,047
Members
of Family
Domestic
Servants
Total
609,040
16,482
52,531
76,456
162,353
99,723
113,256
16,357
248
4,703
2,041
3,763
2.901
3,274
1,106,430
27,435
101,349
186,697
273,483
270,146
198,502
24,449
103,484
77,825
1,347
17,780
2,175
44,412
213,507
127,996
64,084
12,416
151,804
12,689
1,254
11,827
127,426
28,539
211,832
1,563,403
80,304
2,917,754
II. Movement of Population.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five years
from 1887 to 1891 :—
Tears
Total Births
Stillbirths
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
84,661
84,444
84,279
81,620
86,721
3,374
3,346
3,103
3,072
3,125
20,646
20,701
20,691
20,836
21,264
58,939
58,229
59,715
61,805
61,183
22,348
22,869
21,461
16,743
22,413
In 1891, of the births 3*6 per cent, were stillborn ; the illegitimate births
numbered 3,855, or 4*9 per cent, in 1890. In 1890 the number of divorces
was 880, or 1 *82 per thousand of existing marriages.
The number of emigrants in each of the five years up to 1892 was : —
1888, 8,346; 1889, 8,430; 1890, 7,712; 1891, 7,516; 1892, 7,835.
In 1890 the most numerous class was that of those employed in agricul-
ture, 3,248 ; next, domestic servants, 560 ; then those in trade, 359, watch
and clock makers 136, masons and plasterers 136. Of the whole number,
4,802 were males, of whom 866 were married, and 2,910 were females, of
whom 735 were married. Of the males, 1,741, and of the females 1,161, were
under 20 years of age, while in all, there were 1,391 children under the age of
15. The cantons which supplied the largest contingents of emigrants in
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1000 SWITZERLAND
1892, were Bern, 1,642 ; Zurich, 828 ; St. Gall, 802; Ticino, 636. Of the
whole number in 1892, 7,340 went to the United States, 16 to Central and
South America, 20 to Australia, 9 to Asia, 10 to Africa.
III. Principal Towns.
The population dwell chiefly in small towns, hamlets, and villages. In
1893 the populations (communal) of the following towns were — Geneva,
78,777, including suburbs ; Basel, 75,114 ; Berne 47,620 ; Lausanne, 35,623 ;
Zurich, 103,271 with suburbs ; Chaux-de-Fonds, 27,511 ; St. Gallen, 30,934 ;
Luzern, 21,778 ; Neuchatel, 16,772.
Religion.
According to the Constitution of 1874 there is complete and absolute*
liberty of conscience and of creed. No one can incur any penalties whatso-
ever on account of his religious opinions. No one is bound to pay taxes
specially appropriated to defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does
not belong. No bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the
approbation of the Confederation. The order of Jesuits and its affiliated
societies cannot be received in any part of Switzerland ; all functions clerical
and scholastic are forbidden to its members, and the interdiction can be
extended to any other religious orders whose action is dangerous to the State,
or interferes with the peace of different creeds. The foundation of new con-
vents or religious orders is forbidden.
The population of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism and
Eoman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants adhering to the
former, and 40 per cent, to the latter. According to the census of Decem-
ber 1, 1888, the number of Protestants amounted to 1,716,548, of Roman
Catholics to 1,183,828, and of Jews to 8,069. The Roman Catholic priests
are much more numerous than the Protestant clergy, the former comprising
more than 6,000 regular and secular priests. They are under five bishops, of
Basel, Chur, St. Gall, Lausanne, and Sion, and an Apostolic administrator in
the canton of Tessin. The government of the Protestant Church, Calvin istic
in doctrine and Presbyterian in form, is under the supervision of the magis-
trates of the various cantons, to whom is also entrusted, in the Protestant
districts, the superintendence of public instruction.
Instruction.
In the educational administration of Switzerland there is no centralization.
Before the year 1848 most of the cantons had organized a system of primary
schools, and since that year elementary education has steadily advanced. In
1874 it was made obligatory (the school age varying in the different cantons),
and placed under the civil authority. In some cantons the cost falls almost
entirely on the communes, in others it is divided between the canton and com-
munes. In all the cantons primary instruction is free. In the north-eastern
cantons, where the inhabitants are mostly Protestant, the proportion of the
school-attending children to the whole population is as one to five ; while in the
half- Protestant and half-Roman Catholic cantons it is as one to seven ; and in
the entirely Roman Catholic cantons as one to nine. The compulsory law has
hitherto not always been enforced in the Roman Catholic cantons, but is rigidly
carried out in those where the Protestants form the majority of inhabitants.
In every district there are primary schools, and secondary schools for youths
of from twelve to fifteen. Of the contingent for military service in 1892,
'85 per cent, could not read, and 2*33 per cent, could not write.
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INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
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The following are the statistics of the various classes of educational insti-
utions for 1891 :—
-
Schools
Teachers
Pupils
Infant schools ....
Primary schools ....
Secondary schools
Middle schools (preparatory)
Normal schools (public and private)
Professional and industrial schools
Agricultural schools .
563
3,847
477
28
38
137
703
9,332
1,370
690
368
662
25,202
467,596
28,537
8,013
2,029
11,023
336
There are five universities in Switzerland. Basel has a university, founded
q 1460, and since 1832 universities have been established in Bern, Zurich,
nd Geneva. The academy at Lausanne was formed into a university in
891. These universities are organised on the model of those of Germany,
;overned by a rector and a senate, and divided into four 'faculties' of
heology, jurisprudence, philosophy, and medicine. There is a Polytechnic
Ichool for the whole Confederation at Zurich, founded in 1855, and a Military
Academy at Thun, both maintained by the Federal Government.
There are also academies with faculties similar to those of the Universities
t Fribourg and Neuchatel.
The following table shows the number of matriculated students in the
arious branches of study in each of the four universities and in the academies
.f Fribourg and Neuchatel in 1893 :—
-
Theology
Law
Medicine
Philosophy
Total
Teaching
Staff
Basel
102
46
153
128
429
85
Zurich
42
60
297
201
600
99
Bern
45
108
224
156
533
88
Geneva .
41
100
224
207
572
79
Lausanne .
87
161
84
115
397
47
Fribourg .
81
63
—
26
170
—
Neuchatel
7
11
—
39
57
33
355
549
982
872
2,758
431
Of the total, 1, 126 students were foreigners. These numbers are exclusive
>f 549 'listeners,' of whom 451 were women.
The Federal Polytechnic School consists of sections for architecture, civil
jngineering, industrial mechanics, industrial chemistry, forestry, agriculture,
md a normal section. In 1892 there were 703 regular students (359 Swiss
md 344 foreigners).
Justice and Grime.
The 'Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal, which sits at Lausanne, con-
dsts of 14 members, with 9 supplementary judges, appointed by the
federal Assembly for six years, the President and Vice-President, as such,
or two years. The President has a salary of 13,000 francs a year, and the
tther members 12,000 francs. The Tribunal has two sections, to each of
vhich is assigned the trial of suits in accordance with regulations framed by
he Tribunal itself. It has original and final jurisdiction in suits between the
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1002
SWITZERLAND
Confederation and cantons ; between cantons and cantons ; between the Con-
federation or cantons and corporations or individuals, the value in dispute
being not less than 3,000 francs ; between parties who refer their case to it,
the value in dispute being at least 3,000 francs ; and also in such suits as the
constitution or legislation of cantons places within its authority. There are
also many classes of railway suits which it is called on to decide. It is a
Court of Appeal against decisions of other Federal authorities, and oi can-
tonal authorities applying Federal laws. The Tribunal also tries persons
accused of treason or other offences against the Confederation. For this pur-
pose it is divided into four chambers : the Chamber of Accusation, the
Criminal Chamber (Cour d' Assises), the Federal Penal Court, and the Court of
Cassation. The jurors who serve in the Assize Courts are elected by the
people, and are paid ten francs a day when serving.
Each canton has its own judicial system for ordinary civil and criminal
trials.
On June 1, 1893, there were in Switzerland, in all, 3, 106 convicted prisoners,
of whom 525 were women. The number in prison for criminal offences was
1,317, of whom 165 were women. On the same day 153 beggars and tramps
were detained.
The penalty of death is enacted only in the cantons of Luzern and Uri.
Finance.
The Confederation has no power to levy direct taxes ; its chief
source of revenue is the customs. In extraordinary cases it may
levy a rate upon the various cantons after a scale settled for
twenty years. A considerable income is derived from the postal
and telegraph establishments, but part of the postal revenue,
as well as of the customs dues, has to be paid over to the cantonal
administrations, in compensation for the loss of such sources of
former income. The entire proceeds of the Federal alcohol
monopoly are divided among the cantons, and they have to
expend one-tenth of the amount received in combating alcoholism
in its causes and effects. Various Federal manufactories, and
the military school and laboratory at Thun yield considerable
revenue. Of the proceeds of the tax for exemption from military
service, levied through the cantons, one-half goes to the Con-
federation and the other to the cantons.
The following table gives the total revenue and expenditure
of the Confederation for five years : —
I
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
Francs
1888
59,882,863
58,555,087
1 1889
65,571,700
64,435,605
1890
67,621,251
66,688,381
1891
69,041,928
73,012,038
1892
75,961,135
86,246,942
For 1893, the revenue was estimated at 72,730,000 francs
and expenditure 83,810,000 francs.
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FINANCE
1003
The following table gives the
budget estimates for 1894 : —
Source of Revenue
Francs
Branch of Expenditure
Francs
Real Property
491,214
Interest and Sinking
Capital invested .
703,207
Fund
3,672,440
General administration
40,000
General administration
1,007,400
Departments : —
Departments : —
Foreign Affairs : —
Foreign Affairs : —
Political .
22,000
Political .
523,300
Commercial
57,000
Commercial .
273,500
Emigration
1,200
Emigration
25,500
Copyright office
Bullion Office .
198,200
2,500
Copyright office
Bullion Office .
172,700
16,800
Interior .
4,000
Interior .
1,550,800
Justice and Police .
700
Public Works .
7,084,833
Military .
2,157,600
Justice and Police
157,400
Financial : —
Military
24,422,491
Finance .
3,022,000
Financial : —
Customs .
37,000,000
Finance .
3,243,200
Industry and Agri-
Customs.
3,848,300
culture .
177,000
Industry and Agricul-
Posts and Railways : —
ture : —
Railways .
154,400
Industry .
710,900
Posts
26,326,300
Agriculture .
1,279,610
Telegraphs
5,515,500
Forests .
359,700
Miscellaneous sources .
12,179
Assurances
Posts and Railways : —
57,400
Railways
245,300
Posts
25,594,200
Telegraphs
5,456,000
Miscellaneous
Total .
28,226
Total .
75,885,000
79,730,000
The estimated deficit of 3,845.000 francs arises from extraordinary
expenditure for military purposes, 3,640,000 francs being required to provide
new rifles, &c, for the army. Such expenditure is met out of the proceeds of
loans raised for the purpose in 1889 and 1892.
The public debt of the Confederation amounted, on January 1, 1893, to
64,128,423 francs, mostly at 3£ per cent. On the other hand, there existed
it the same date a so-called 'Federal Fortune,' or State property, valued at :
real property, 20,681.500 francs; stock, &c, 15,398,566 francs; works pro-
ducing interest, 12,717,882 francs; stores not producing interest, 24,467,288
francs ; various debts, 1,469,224 francs ; inventory, 20,276,567 francs ; alcohol
administration, 1,232,347 francs; cash, 2,607,384 francs; total, 98,850,758
francs, the net Fortune being thus 34,722,336 francs.
Local Finance.
The various cantons of Switzerland have their own local administrations
and their own budgets of revenue and expenditure. In 1890 their combined
revenue was 79,152,000 francs, and expenditure 80,178,000 francs. The
I
i
Ih
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1004 SWITZERLAND
cantonal revenues are derived partly from direct taxes on income and property
(on varying scales, and often with progressive rates for the different classes),
and partly from indirect duties, stamps, &c. Several cantons have only
indirect taxation ; and over the whole about 58 per cent, of the revenue is
raised in this form. Most of them have public debts of inconsiderable
amount, and abundantly covered, in every instance, by cantonal property,
chiefly in land. In 1890 their combined debts amounted to 259,483,000
francs. The debt of Berne Canton was 50,789,000 francs ; of Zurich,
30,412,000 francs ; while Bale-C, Schaffhausen, and Appenzell-A.-Rh. were
free of debt. In most of the towns and parishes heavy municipal duties exist.
Defence.
There are fortifications on the south frontier for the defence
of the Gothard ; others are being constructed at St. Maurice on
the west side of the Canton of Valais, and it is proposed to erect
also defensive works at Martigny.
The fundamental laws of the Republic forbid the maintenance
of a standing army within the limits of the Confederation. The
Federal army consists of all men liable to military service, and
both the army and the war material are at the disposal of the
Confederation. In cases of emergency the Confederation has also
the exclusive and undivided right of disposing of the men who do
not belong to the Federal army, and of all the other military
forces of the cantons. The cantons dispose of the defensive force
of their respective territories in so far as their power to do so is
not limited by the constitutional or legal regulations of the Con-
federation. The Confederation enacts all laws relative to the
army, and watches over their due execution ; it also provides for
the education of the troops, and bears the cost of all military
expenditure which is not provided for by the Legislatures of the
cantons. To provide for the defence of the country, every citizen
has to bear arms, in the use of which the children are instructed
at school, from the age of eight, passing through annual exercises
and reviews. Such military instruction is voluntary on the part
of the children, but is participated in by the greater number of
pupils at the upper and middle-class schools.
Every citizen of the Republic of military age, not exempt on account of
bodily defect or other reason, is liable to military service. On January 1,
1891, the number thus liable to serve was 486,845, and the number actually
incorporated was 221,796. Those who are liable but do not perform personal
service are subject to a tax, and the number taxed in 1891 was 252,004, die
sum paid to the Confederation being 1,393,834 francs. Recruits are primarily
liable to serve in the infantry, the best fitted physically and by education and
pecuniary means being selected for other arms. In the first year of service
every man undergoes a recruit's course of training, which lasts from 42 to 80
days, and during the remainder of his service in the Elite, he is called up
every other year for 16 days' training ; rifle practice and cavalry exercise being,
however, annual. The Landwehr forces are also called together periodically
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DEFENCE
1005
for inspection and exercise, and once or twice a year the troops of a number of
cantons assemble in general muster.
The troops of the Republic are divided into three classes, viz. : —
1. The Elite, consisting in general of all men able to bear arms, from the
age of 20 to 32.
2. The Landwehr, comprising all men from the 33rd to the completed 44th
year.
3. The Landsturm, which can only be called out in time of war, consisting
of all citizens not otherwise serving, between the ages of 17 and 50, or (in the
case of ex-officers) 55.
For military purposes Switzerland is divided into 8 divisional districts of
approximately equal population, and the Elite is organised in 8 army divisions,
which are mainly raised each in its own divisional district. The Landwehr is
not grouped in divisions, but classified in the 8 divisional districts to which
the divisions of the Elite belong. Each army division has 2 brigades of
infantry, 1 battalion of carabiniers, 1 regiment of dragoons, 1 company of
guides, 1 brigade of artillery, 1 battalion of train, 1 battalion of engineers, 1
field hospital, 1 administrative company, the normal total of all ranks (in-
cluding 91 officers and 118 horses of the Landwehr train) being 12,808, with
2,284 horses, 42 guns, and 343 other carriages. The 8 divisions are, by a
law of June 26, 1891, formed into 4 army corps, each with its rown staff,
and troops corresponding with those of the united divisions. The Landwehr
is normally of the same strength in infantry, cavalry, and engineers as the
Elite, but the cavalry consists of personnel only. The effective strength of the
Swiss army on January 1, 1893, is as follows : —
-
Elite
Landwehr
Landsturm
Staff of army
19
Staffs of combined troops
849
249
—
Infantry ....
100,490
62,317
69,796
Cavalry
3,245
3,095
—
Artillery
18,660
11,397
3,543
Engineers
4,990
2,565
—
Pioneers
—
—
110,147
Auxiliary troops
—
— »
90,287
Sanitary troops
1,824
1,176
—
Administrative troops
1,287
400
—
Judicial officers, &c.
60
286
81,485
—
Total
131,424
273,161
The whole army is composed of two classes of troops, those of the Con-
federation, and those of the cantons. The Confederation troops are of the
Elite and Landwehr — in cavalry, the guide companies ; in artillery, the park
columns, artificer companies, and train battalions ; all the engineers, and
sanitary and administrative troops. The remainder, consisting of all the
infantry and the bulk of the cavalry and artillery, both of Elite and Land-
wehi, and the whole of the Landsturm, are cantonal troops, and are at the
disposal of the cantons except in so far as is otherwise provided by statute.
In accordance with this arrangement, officers are appointed by the cantons for
the units of the cantonal troops (i.e., up to the rank of captain), and by the
Federal Council for troops of the Confederation and for combined corps. In time
of peace the highest commands are held by colonels. When mobilisation is
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1006 SWITZERLAND
contemplated, one of the colonels is appointed commander-in-chief and is
styled general, but on demobilisation he reverts to his former rank.
The principal training school for officers is that at Thun, near Berne.
Production and Industry.
The soil of the country is very equally divided among the population, it
being estimated that there are nearly 300,000 peasant proprietors, representing
a population of about 2, 000, 000.
Of the total area 28*4 per cent, is unproductive ; of the productive area
35 "8 per cent, is under grass and meadows, 29 per cent, under forest, 18*7 per
cent, under fruit, 16*4 per cent under crops and gardens. Rye, oats, and
potatoes are the chief crops, but the bulk of food crops consumed in the
country is imported. In 1891 the yield of cereals was : wheat, 645,000
quintals ; rye, 300,000 quintals ; oats, 800,000 quintals ; maize and barley,
250,000 quintals ; in all 1,995,000 quintals. In the same year 5,024,230
quintals of cereals were imported. The chief agricultural industries are the
manufacture of cheese and condensed milk. The annual export of cheese
amounts to about 435,400 cwt., and of condensed milk to about 264,350 cwt.
About 22 million gallons of wine are produced annually. At the last enume-
ration (1886) there were in the country 98,333 horses, 1,211,713 cattle of
all kinds, 341,632 sheep, 415,619 goats, 394,451 swine, of the total value of
17,936.8802. In 1892 there were Limported 10,532 horses, 78,866 cattle,
73,872 pigs, 100,583 sheep.
The Swiss Confederation has the right of supervision over the police of the
forests, and of framing regulations for their maintenance. The entire forest
area of Switzerland is 830,299 hectares in extent. The district over which
the Federal supervision extends lies to the south and east of a tolerably
straight line from the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva to the northern end
of the Lake of Constance. It comprises about 452,962 hectares, and the
Federal forest laws apply to all cantonal, communal, and municipal forests
within this area, those belonging to private persons being exempt, except
when from their position they are necessary for protection against climatic
influences. In 1876 it was enacted that this forest area should never
be reduced ; servitudes over it, such as rights of way, of gathering
firewood, &c, should be bought up ; public forests should be surveyed, ana
new wood planted where required, subventions for the purpose being sanc-
tioned. Up to the end of 1892 the cadastration of 96,787 hectares of
forest had been executed, and in the year 1892, 8,521,211 trees were planted.
Subventions are also granted to the free forest districts, comprising 3,827
square kilometres of forest.
There were, in 1892, 94 establishments for pisciculture, which produced
fry of various species to the number of 15,401,200.
Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with a strong
tendency to manufacturing industry. On January 1, 1893, there were alto-
gether in Switzerland 4,606 factories of various kinds, subject to the factory
law. There were (1891) in the various textile industries, 1,943 estab-
lishments, employing 89,901 hands ; leather, caoutchouc, &c, 115
establishments, with 6,445 hands ; articles of food, 410, with 10,702
hands; chemical products, 115, with 2,696 hands; wood industry, 7,234,
with 5,048 hands ; metals, 547, with 33,056 hands ; paper and printing, 272,
with 7,356 hands; building, 102, with 2,751 hands. Under the Federal
alcohol regie there were in 1892,64 distilleries, which produced 22,773 metric
quintals of alcohol, valued at" 2,053,586 francs. In Switzerland there are
about 1,000 hotels, employing about 16,000 persons, the receipts of the hotels
amounting annually to about 2,000,000/.
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COMMERCE
1007
Commerce.
The special commerce, including precious metals, was as
follows in five years : —
Imports
Exports
1888
Francs
I 827,078,595
! 673,060,648
1890
Francs
955,832,624
710,894,848
Francs
1891
Francs
1892
Francs
{1,002,518, 276| 982,021,046 ' 913,163,946 .
1 724,798,038, 703,856,603 I 688,020,282 I
What is known as the effective imports (not inoluding those
deposited in entrep6ts) amounted to 876,647,385 francs in 1892,
and effective exports (not including those taken out of entrepots)
to 668,409,546 francs. The total value of the general imports in
1892 was 1,369,246,800 francs, and exports 1,161,008,961 francs.
The following table shows value of special commerce in 1892 : —
Cottons .
Silk
Wools .
Other textiles
Useful metals
Mineral matters
Animals .
Animal products
Leather and boots
Food stuffs, tobacco, spirits, &c.
Chemical and pharmaceutical colours
Timber ....
I Clocks and watches .
Machinery and carriages .
Oils and fats .
Agricultural products
Literature, science, and art
Paper ....
Glass and pottery .
Manures, &c. .
Colours ....
Various ....
Total merchandise .
Precious metals, not coined
.. ,, coined .
Total .
Imports
Francs
57,691,770
150,959,014
50,416,486
38,912,138
55,211,700
49,150,689
37,491,063
8,070,200
18,480,065
246,613,841
23,291,593
18,565,452
4,041,440
21,662,855
9,945,780
4,437,774
12,941,164
5,762,828
7,438,691
6,916,853
7,489,992
9,417,155
845,085,743
24,901,853
43,176,350
913,163,946
Exports
Francs
131,067,155
206,417,751
15,347,742
21,293,273
8,188,605
3,806,149
15,388,412
8,183,284
7,271,011
79,825,336
5,039,146
5,228,178
88,810,436
21,723,458
398,695
569,930
7,355,615
2,987,985
754.124
2,624,819
13,091,838
1,397,596
646,776,564
10,872,652
30,371,066
688,020,282
In 1892 wheat was imijorted to the value of 72,390,434 francs, and flour
to the value of 8,485,139 francs ; cheese was exported to the value of 38,542,492
francs, and condensed milk to the valueof 15,075,641 francs.
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1008
SWITZERLAND
k
The following table shows the distribution of the special trade of Switzer-
land in 1992 (including bullion but not coin). Much of the trade with the
frontier countries is really of the nature of transit trade : —
Germany .
France
Italy .
Austria-Hungary
Great Britain .
Belgium .
Russia
Holland .
Rest of Europe
TotalJEurope
Africa
Asia
America .
Australia
Not stated
Total .
* Imports from
Francs
227,408,256
179,436,161
139,890,169
67,633,715
41,750,540
19,730,212
49,262,313
2,964,697
19,655,036
747,731,099
15,085,147
39,564,432
62,212,319
5,412,599
869,987,596
Exports to
Francs
162,198,730
102,545,981
45,701,709
37,342,638
117,411,491
9,523,628
13,314,918
3,955,306
30,649,265
522,643,666
5,078,571
27,881,848
97,090,549
2,008,307
2,946,275
657,649,216
Internal Communications.
From official returns, it appears that in January, 1892, 2,082 miles of
railway were open for traffic. The cost of construction of the lines, rolling
stock, &c, up to the end of 1891 was 1,017,738,064 francs. The receipts in
1891 amounted to 93,265,160 francs, and expenses to 56,603,431 francs.
In 1892 there were in Switzerland 1,491 post-offices and 1,751 letter-
boxes; 2,747 higher functionaries, and 4,652 employes (letter carriers, &c.).
By the internal service there were forwarded 70,359,154 letters, 14,576,625
post-cards, 21,396,907 packets of printed matter, 83,605,899 newspapers,
and 2,957,572 sample and other parcels. In the foreign postal service there
were transmitted 13,595,021 letters, 4,296,968 post-cards, and 6,063,889
packets of printed matter. Internal post-office orders were sent to the
amount of 386,772,041 francs, and international sent and received to the
amount of 37,760,575 francs.
Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which, excepting
wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of the State. In 1892
the length of State telegraph lines was 4,515 miles ; the total length of wire
being 11,990 miles. There were transmitted 1,913,133 inland telegrams,
1,236,992 international, and 480,479 in transit through Switzerland. Number
of offices, 1,439. In the telephone service there were 14,369 offices, 3,613
miles of line, and 16,660 miles of wire. The receipts of the telegraph and
telephone services amounted to 4,628,145 francs, and the expenses to
3,780,323 francs.
Money and Credit.
Statistics (admittedly incomplete), published by the Federal Financial
Department, show that of a total nominal value of 24,656,586 francs of silver
coin in Switzerland on July 23, 1892, the values of the coins issued by the
various members of the Latin Union were in the following proportion : —
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MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASUBES
1009
-
Legal Tender
Silver Coin
Fractional
Pieces
Total Silver
Coin
an .
ich .
jian . . .
SB ... .
Jk .
63 per cent.
24 „ „
9 ., „
8 „ „
1 „ »
49 per, cent.
34 „ „
13 „ „
3 „ „
1 „ „
57*4 per cent.
27-5 „ „
9-1 „ „
5*0 „ „
l'O „ „
Total .
100 „
100 „ „
100-0 „ „
a 1892 there were coined in Switzerland 100,000 twenty-franc pieces;
3,000 five-centime pieces ; and 1,000,000 one-centime pieces. On
mber 31, 1892, there were 34 banks with a paid-up capital of 141,600,000
s, and note issue of 177,120,000 francs. For 1892 the average of their
ral monthly balances was : —
Assets
Francs
Liabilities
Francs
hand notes
rt-dated debts .
s of exchange .
Ler debts ....
estments ....
>ital not paid up
115,139,821
30,707,117
206,463,083
619,508,588
12,743,209
11,550,000
Note issue ....
Short dated debts .
Bills of exchange .
Other debts ....
Paid-up capital, reserves, Ac.
Capital not paid up
Total ....
176,855,209
98,516,286
12,558,764
527,446,536
169,180,018
11,550,000
Total ....
996,106,818
996,106,813
'antonal bank notes are guaranteed by 19 cantons.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The Franc, of 10 Batzen, and 100 Happen or Centimes,
Average rate of exchange, 25 *22£ francs = £1 sterling.
Switzerland belongs to the Latin Monetary Union.
Weights and Measures.
The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 IJund = 110 lbs. avoirdupois.
Quintal =100 Kilogrammes = 220 lbs. avoirdupois. The Arpent (Land)
-9ths of an acre.
The Pfund, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal
mines, but the people generally prefer tne use of the old halves and quar-
, named ffalbpfund, and Viertelpfund.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Switzerland in Great Britain.
Chargi d? Affaires and Consul-Qeneral. — Charles D. Bourcart.
Secretary. — Charles Corragioni d'Orelli.
2. Of Great Britain in Switzerland.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Fred. R. St. John,
ointed January 1, 1893.
ttistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland.
1. Official Publications.
Cidgenossische Volkszahlung vom 1. December, 1888. 4. Bern, 1892.
feuille federate Suisse. Bern, 1898. [For the constitution of the Federal courts of justice
No. IS. of the year 1898.]
leschaftsberichte dea Sohweiserischen Bundesraths an die Bundesversammlung. g.
ne, 1898.
3 T
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i
1010
Reports on Labour on the Finances and on the Trade and Agriculture of Switzerland in
No* 248, 244, 1,116, and 1,129 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports." London, 1892.
Resultats du compte d'etat de la Confederation suisse pour l'annee 1892. 4. Berne, 1898.
Schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau des Eidgenoas.
Departments des Innern. Bern, 1893.
Statistique du commerce de la Suisse avec l'etranger en 1892. Berne, 1893.
Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz. Bern, 1893.
Voranschlag der Schweizerischen Bidgenossenschaft fur das Jahr 1892. Bern, 1893.
The Armed Strength of Switzerland, by Colonel C. W. Bowdler Bell ; issued by the
Intelligence Division of the War Office. London, 1889.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adams (Sir F. OA and Cunningham (C. D.), The Swiss Confederation. 1889.
Almanach federal suisse pour 1893. Berne, 1893.
Bericht der Basler Handelskammer. Basel,»1893.
Bericht fiber Handel und Industrie von Zurich. Ztirich, 1894.
Daendliker (Carl), Geschichte der Schweiz. 3 Bde. 8. Zurich, 1884-87.
Dubs (Jacob), Das oeffentliche Recht der schweizereien Eidgenossenschaft. 8. Zurich,
1878.
Orob (C), Sammlung neuer Gesetze und Yerordnungen, nebst statistischen Uebersichten
iiber das gesammte Unterrichtswesen in der Schweiz im Jahr 1886. Zurich, 1887.
Grote (George), Letters on the Politics of Switzerland. 8. London, 1876.
Magnenat (J.), Abrege de l'Histoire de la Suisse. 2nd Ed. 8. Lausanne, 1878.
Maguin (H.), Notes et documents sur l'instruction populaire en Suisse. 8. Paris, 1878.
Oechsli (WA Die Anfange der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. 8. Zurich, 1891.
Offlcieller Katalog der Schweizerischen Landesausstellung. Zurich, 1883.
Billiet (Albert), Les Origines de la Confederation Suisse— Histoire et Legende. 8.
Geneva and Bale, 1868.
Billiet (Albert), Histoire de la Restauration de la Republique de Geneve. 8. Geneva, 1849.
Wirth (Max), Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz. Im Verein mit gegen
60 Schweizerischen Gelehrten und Staatsmannern herausgegeben. 8 vols. 8. Zurich,
1871-1875.
TONGA
King. — George II., born June 18, 1874 ; succeeded his great grandfather,
George Tnbou, in 1893.
There is a Legislative Assembly which meets every two years, composed
one half of nobles hereditary, subject to good behaviour, and half of repre-
sentatives elected for three years by the people, every adult male being
qualified to vote.
Treaties of friendship and trade have been concluded with Great Britain,
Germany, and the United States.
The kingdom consists of 3 groups of islands, called respectively, Tonga,
Haapai, and Vavau, and lies between 15° and 23° 30' south, and 173 and 177°
west, its western boundary being the eastern boundary of Fiji. Area, 374
square miles ; population, 1891, 19,250, including 250 foreigners, mostly
British. Capital, Nukualofa. The revenue, chiefly from customs and a poll
tax on natives, was, in 1891, 126,246 dollars ; expenditure, 95,368 dollars.
Imports, 1892, £40,622, of which £35,155 was from Great Britain and
Colonies ; exports, 1892, £51,433, of which £44,487 was to Germany. The
imports are in the following order : — Drapery, meats, timber, breadstuffs,
ironmongery, the first being three times the value of any other. The im-
ports are from Auckland, New Zealand (60 per cent.) ; Sydney, New South
Wales ; Samoa ; Melbourne ; United Kingdom. Nineteen-twentieths of the
exports are copra, and the remainder mostly fruits. Vessels cleared in 1892 :
67 to 46,549 tons, of which 53 of 31,443 tons were British and 14 of 15,106
tons German.
Gold and silver coins of Great Britain, United States, and Germany are
legal tender. The weights and measures are the same as in Great Britain.
Accounts are kept in dollars, shillings and pence.
H.B.M. Commissioner and Consul-General. — Sir J. B. Thurston, K.C.M.G.
Deputy-Commissioner and Vice-Consul. — B. B. Leefe.
. Report on trade of Tonga for 1890, No. 998 of " Diplomatic and Consular Reports." 8.
London, 1892.
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1011
TURKEY
AND TRIBUTARY STATES.
(Ottoman Empire.)
Reigning Sultan.
Abdnl-Hamid II., born September 21, 1842 (15 Shaban
1245), the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid; succeeded to the
throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan Murad V.,
August 31, 1876.
Children of the Sultan.
I. Mehemmed-Selim Effendi, born January 11, 1870. II.
Zekie Sultana, born January 12, 1871. III. Navirie Sultana,
born August 5, 1876. IV. Abdul-Kadir Effendi, born February
23, 1878. V. Ahmed Effendi, born March 14, 1878. VI.
Naitt Sultana, born January 8, 1884. VII. Mehemmed Burhan
Eddin Effendi, born December 19, 1885.
Brothers and Sisters of the Sultan.
I. Mohammed M%irad Effendi, born September 21, 1840 ; proclaimed
Sultan of Turkey on the deposition of his uncle, Sultan Abdul-Aziz, May
30, 1876 ; declared by the Council of Ministers to be suffering from idiocy,
and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876.
II. Dje'miU Sultana, born August 18, 1843 ; married, June 3, 1858, to
Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha ; wido n.
III. Mehemmed- Reshad Effendi, born November 3, 1844; heir-apparent
to the throne.
IV. Senihi Sultana, born November 21, 1851 ; married to the late
Mahmud Pasha, son of Halil Pasha.
V. Medihe* Sultana, born 1857; married (1) 1879, to Nedjib Pasha;
widow 1885 ; (2) April 30, 1886, to Ferid Pasha.
VI. Wahid-Uddin Effendi, born 1860.
VII. Suleiman Effendi, born January 12, 1861.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-fourth, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and
the twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople.
By the law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the
crown is inherited according to seniority by the male descendants
of Othman, sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is
considered a permanent State institution. All children born in
the Harem, whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are
3 t 2
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1012 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
legitimate and of equal lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his
eldest son, but only in case there are no uncles or cousins of
greater age.
It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some centuries
to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Harem come, by pur-
chase or free will, mostly from districts beyond the limits of the empire, the
majority from Circassia. From among these inmates the Sultan designates a
certain number, generally seven, to be ' Kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the
rest, called 'OdaIik,' remaining under them as servants. The superintendent
of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the Palace, and bearing the title of
' Haznadar-Eadyn,' has to Keep up intercourse with the outer world through
the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called ' Kyzlar- Agassi,' has the same rank
as the Grand Vizier, but has the precedence if present on state occasions.
We first hear of the Turks in the year 844 A.D., when they migrated from
Tartary into Armenia, but they only came into prominence about 1030 a.d.
Under Othman, the founder of the present dynasty, they, under the name of
Othman Turks, made themselves masters of several places in Asia, captured
Nicea, and made Broussa their capital (1326).
The first appearance of the Turks in Europe was in 1080, when a body of
2,000 crossed the Bosphorus to assist the Emperor Botoniates against his rival.
By the end of the fourteenth century they reduced Thessaly, Macedonia, and
Bulgaria, and were acknowledged the rulers of nearly all Western Asia.
Constantinople was first besieged by the Turks in 1392, but was not taken till
1453. It has since been the capital of the Turkish Empire.
Mohammed II., its conqueror, then proceeded to subdue Trebizond,
Wallachia, Bosnia, Illyria, and the Morea.
Under Bajazet II. and Selim I. Egypt was totally subdued, and Syria,
Circassia, and Moldavia passed under Turkish rule. In 1522 Solyman I.
subdued Rhodes, and in 1525 invaded Hungary and invested Vienna. This
siege had to be raised, and was followed by a series of reverses. The territory
under Turkish rule in Europe alone then extended over 230,000 square miles.
Ever since, the glory of the empire has waned. In 1595 the Turks were
driven out of Upper Hungary and Transylvania, and for a time out of
Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1769 war broke out against Russia, ending in
the expulsion of the Turks from the Crimea, the extension of the Russian
frontier to the Bug and Dnieper, the partial independence of the Danubian
principalities, and the acquisition by Russia of the right of a free passage for
their fleet through the Dardanelles.
In 1806 war with Russia was again resumed, and resulted in the extension
of the Russian frontier to the Prutn (1812). The Greek war for independence
(1822-28) ended, owing to the interference of the foreign Powers, in the loss
of that kingdom. In 1833 Russia was successful in arresting the progress of
Mehemet Ali Pasha of Egypt, but the hold of Turkey over Egypt was from
that time nominal. By the Treaty of 1841, Turkey was virtually placed
under the protection of the Great Powers, who guaranteed its integrity and
independence. In 1854 war was declared by Russia, but although assisted by
England and France, and successful in its warlike operations, Turkey derived
no benefit from it. In 1858 Moldavia and Wallachia united to declare what
was practically their independence. The war against Russia in 1876 resulted
in the loss of Bulgaria, Eastern Roumelia, Thessaly, and a strip of Eastern
Armenia, also in the entire independence of Roumania, Servia, and Monte-
negro, and in the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria and
of Cyprus by England.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
1013
The following is a list of the names, with date of accession, of the thirty-
four sovereigns who ruled Turkey since the foundation of the empire and of
the reigning house : —
House of Othman.
Othman .
1299
Murad IV., 'The Intrepid ' .
1623
Orchan .
1326
Ibrahim
1640
MuradI
1360
Mohammed IV.
1649
Bajazet I., 'The Thunder-
bolt'
Solyman II. .
1687
1389
Ahmet II
1691
Interregnum
1402
Mustapha II.
1695
Mohammed I.
1413
Ahmet III. . ♦
1703
Muradll
1421
Mahmoud I. .
1730
Mohammed II., Conqueroi
r
Osman II.
1754
of Constantinople .
1451
Mustapha III.
1757
Bajazet II.
1481
Abdul Hamid I.
. 1774
Selim I. .
1512
Selim III. .
. 1788
Solyman I., 'The Magni
ficent' .
Mustapha IV.
. 1807
1520
Mahmoud II.
. 1808
Selim II. .
1566
Abdul-Medjid
. 1839
Murad III.
1574
Abdul-Aziz .
. 1861
Mohammed III.
1595
Murad V.
Ahmet I. .
1603
May 20— Aug. 31
Abdul-Hamid II. .
. 1876
Mustapha I. J ^
Osman I. )
L7-1618
1876
The civil list of the Sultan is variously reported at from one to two millions
sterling. To the Imperial family belong a great number of crown domains,
the income from which contributes to the revenue. The finances of the civil
list have of late been put into order, but are still reported to be insufficient to
cover the expenditure of the Court and Harem, numbering altogether over
five thousand individuals. The amount charged to the Budget of 1880 was
P. 62,747,116 for the Palace, and P. 23,750,212 for the Crown princes. Total,
about 785,0002.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the
precepts of the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so
far as it is not in opposition to the accepted truths of the
Mahometan religion as laid down in the sacred book of the
Prophet. Next to the Koran, the laws of the ' Multeka/ a code
formed of the supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, and
the sentences and decisions of his immediate successors, are
binding upon the Sovereign as well as his subjects. Another
code of laws, the ' Oahon nameh,' formed by Sultan Solyman the
Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sheriff s,' or decrees,
issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general obedience,
but merely as an emanation of human authority.
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under
the supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the
Sadr-azam,' or Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal Govern-
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1014 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
ment, and the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' the head of the Church. Both
are appointed by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal
concurrence of the ' Ulema, ' a body comprising the clergy and
chief functionaries 01 the law, over which the ' Sheik-ul-Islam '
presides, although he himself does not exercise priestly functions.
Connected with the * Ulema ' are the ' Mufti/ the interpreters of
the Koran. The Ulema comprise all the great judges, theo-
logians, and jurists, and the great teachers of literature and
science «who may be summoned by the Mufti. The principal
civic functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, or Pasha.
Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European
States, were drawn up at various periods by successive Ottoman
Governments, the first of them embodied in the 'Hatti-Huma-
youn' of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856,
and the most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of
November, 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of
reform appears entirely impossible in the present condition of
the Ottoman Empire.
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representa-
tive of the Sovereign, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy
Council, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. The
Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following members: — 1. The
Grand Vizier; 2. The Sheik-ul-Islam; 3. The Minister of the
Interior; 4. The Minister of War; 5. The Minister of Evkaf
(Worship); 6. The Minister of Public Instruction; 7. The
Minister of Public Works; 8. President of Council of State;
9. Minister of Foreign Affairs; 10. Minister of Finance;
11. Minister of Marine; 12. Minister of Justice; 13. Minister
of Civil List.
The whole of the empire is divided into thirty-one Vilayets,
or governments, and subdivided into Sanjaks, or provinces,
Kazas, or districts, Nahies, or subdistricts, and Karies, or
communities. A Vali, or governor-general, who is held to
represent the Sultan, and is assisted by a provincial council, is
placed at the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, districts, <fce.,
are subjected to inferior authorities (Mutesarifs, Caimakams,
Mudirs and Muktars) under the superintendence of the principal
governor. The division of the country into Vilayets has been
frequently modified of late for political reasons. For similar
reasons six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed by
Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan, and are known as
Mutessarifats. All subjects, however humble their origin, are
eligible to, and may fill, the highest offices in the State.
Under the capitulations foreigners residing in Turkey are
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ABEA AND POPULATION
1015
under the laws of their respective countries, and are amenable
for trial (in cases in which Turkish subjects are not concerned)
to a tribunal presided over by their consul. Foreigners who own
real property are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in ques-
tions relative to their landed property. Cases between foreign
and Turkish subjects are tried in the Ottoman courts, a drago-
man of the foreign consulate being present to see that the trial
be according to the law ; the carrying out of the sentence, if
against the foreigner, to be through his consulate. Cases between
two foreign subjects of different nationalities are tried in the
court of the defendant.
Grand Vizier. — General Djevad Pasha, appointed September, \
1891. i -
She'ik-td-Islam. — Djemodledin Effendi, appointed September.
1891.
Minister of Interior. — Rifaat Pasha, September, 1891.
Minister of War. — General Riza Pasha, September, 1891.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. — Said Pasha.
Minister of Finance. — Naz\f Pasha, March 15, 1891.
Area and Population.
The total area of the Ottoman Empire (including States
nominally subject) may be estimated at 1,609,240 square miles,
and its total population at about 39,212,000, viz. : —
Immediate possessions : —
Europe
Asia ....
Africa
I
Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) au-
tonomous province
! Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novibazar —
under Austria-Hungary ....
j Samoa — tributary principality
I Egypt
Total
Square Miles Population
61,200 \ 4,780,000
687,640 , 21,608,000
398,738 j 1,300,000,
1,147,678 ' 27,688,000
1
37,860 1 3,154,375
i
23,570
232
400,000
1,504,091
48,500
6,817,265
461,662 111,524,131
1,609,240
39,212,131
In the following table the subdivision by Vilayets is given
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1016
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
for the immediate possessions according to the census begun
1885, but still incomplete for those marked with an asterisk.
Vilayets
Europe : —
Constantinople (European and
Asiatic)
Adrianople
Salonica .
Monastir .
Servia (Mutessarifat)
Eoasova .
Scutari (Albania)
Janina
Total (Europe)
Asia: —
Asia Minor :—
Ismid (Mutessarifat)
•Broussa
Bigha (Mutessarifat)
Archipelago
•Crete
Smyrna
*Castamouni
Anghora
Eonia
Adana
*Sivas
Trebizond
I
Total (Asia Minor)
Armenia and Khurdistan :—
Erzeroum ....
Mamouret-iil-Aziz
Diarbekir ....
•Bitlis ....
•Van
Area
Sq. Miles
5,867 1
15,015
13,684
7,643
2,895
9,264
4,516
7,025
65,909
4,296
26,248
2,895
4,963
2,949
17,370
19,300
32,339
35,373
14,494
32,308
12,082
204,618
29,614
14,614
18,074
11,522
15,440
Total (Armenia)
Mesopotamia :
Mossul
Bagdad
*Bassora
89,264
Population
(Census)
895,470
836,044
990,400
664,379
100,000
588,282
202,819
509,151
4,786,545
246,824
1,300,000
129,047
325,866
294,192
1,390,783
1,009,460
892,901
1,088,100
402,439
996,120
1,047,700
9,123,432
645,702
575,314
471,462
388,625
376,297
2,457,400
)
29,220
54,503
16,482
300,280
850,000
200,000
per Sq.
Mile
V I
153
56
72
87
34
63
45
72
73
57
49
44
66
96
80
52
27
31
28
31
87
44
22
39
26
34
24
27
10
15
12
Total (Mesopotamia) . 100,205 1,350,280 13
i Of this area, 4,700 square miles are on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus.
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AREA AND POPULATION
1017
Vilayets
Area
Sq. Miles
Population
(Census)
Pop.
perSq.
Mile
Stria : —
Aleppo
•Zor
•Syria
•Beyrouth
Jerusalem (Mutessarifat)
Lebanon (privileged Province) .
30,304
38,600
24,009
11,773
8,222
2,200
994,604
100,000
604,170
400.000
339,169
245,000
32
3
25
34
41
111
Total (Syria)
Arabia : —
Hedjaz (approximate)
Yemen ,,
115,144
2,676,943
23
96,500
77,200
3,500,000
2,500,000
36
32
Total (Arabia)
173,700
6,000,000 »
34
Total (Asia) .
Africa : —
Tripoli (approximate) . )
Benghazi ,, \
682,981
21,608,055
31
398,738
800,000
500,000
} •
Total (Africa)
398,738
1,300,000
3
Total (Turkish Empire).
1,147,578 | 27,694,600
24
l Estimates of the population of Arabia differ widely. In the 'Bevolkerung der Erde '
It is put at 1,050,000, and the entire population of Asiatic Turkey at 15,480,000.
Accurate ethnological statistics of the population do not exist. In the
European provinces under immediate Turkish rule, Turks (of Finno-Tataric
race), Greeks, and Albanians are almost equally numerous, and constitute 70
percent of the population. Other races represented are Serbs, Bulgarians,
Roumanians, Armenians, Magyars, Gipsies, Jews, Circassians. In Asiatic
Turkey there is a large Turkish element, with some four million Arabs, besides
Greeks, Syrians, Kurds, Circassians, Armenians, Jews, and numerous other
races. The following are the returns for Constantinople, arranged in order of
religious beliefs, viz. : —
Mussulmans, 384,910 ; Greeks, 152,741 ; Armenians, 149,590 ; Bulgarians,
4»377 ; Roman Catholics (native), 6,442 ; Greek Latins, 1,082 ; Protestants
(native), 819 ; Jews, 44,361 ; Foreigners, 129,243. Total, 873,565.
The estimated populations of the other largest towns are as follows : —
Adrianople, 100,000 ; Salonica, 60,000 ; Monastir, 45,000 ; Scutari, 30,000 ;
Janina, 20,000 ; Smyrna, 200,000 ; Damascus, 200,000 ; Bagdad, 180,000 ;
Aleppo, 120,000 ; Erzeroum, 60,000 ; Kaisarieh, 60,000 ; Mossul, 45,000 ;
Sana, 50,000; Sivas, 48,000; Mecca, 45,000; Trebizond, 45,000; Adana,
45,000 ; Diarbekir, 40,000 ; Broussa, 60,000 ; Anghora, 30,000 ; Van, 30,000 ;
Jedda, 30,000 ; Jerusalem, 28,000; Eonieh, 25,000; Chios, 25,000; Bitlis,
^,000 ; Canea, 15,000 ; Tripoli, 80,000.
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1018 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
The Lebanon is governed by a Mutessarif (Christian), and has a special
government. Its population is reckoned at 245,000 or about 111 per square
mile.
Religion and Education.
The adherents of the two great religious creeds of the Turkish
dominions in Europe and Asia, as reduced in its limits by the
treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, are estimated to consist of
sixteen millions of Mahometans, and of five millions of Christians.
The Mahometans form the vast majority in Asia, but only one-
half of the population in Europe. In the Arabian and African
Provinces the Mahometans are estimated at about seven millions.
Recognised by the Turkish Government are the adherents of
seven non-Mahometan creeds — namely: 1. Latins, Franks, or
Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of the descend-
ants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the empire, and
proselytes among Armenians ; Bulgarians, and others ; 2. Greeks ;
3. Armenians ; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans ; 5. Maronites,
under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon ; 6. Protestants,
consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians; 7. Jews.
These seven religious denominations are invested with the privi-
lege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and
Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the 'Chacham-
Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those
functions, considerable influence.
The Mahometan clergy are subordinates to the Sheik-ul-Islam.
Their offices are hereditary, and they can only be removed by
Imperial irad£. A priesthood, however, in the strict sense of the
word, meaning a separate class, to whom alone the right of officiat-
ing in religious services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey.
Not only may officers of the State be called upon to perform
the rites, but any member of the congregation, who has the
requisite voice and is of reputable character, may be desired to
take the place of the Imam, and either recite verses of the Koran
or lead in prayer. Owing to the fact that the Koran constitutes
the code of law and charter of rights, as well as the religious
guide, of the followers of Mahomet, there is a close connection
between the ministers of religion and the professors and inter-
preters of the law.
There is an annual pilgrimage to Mecca from all parts of the
Mahometan world; in 1890-91, 21,184 arrived from the Turco-
Persian frontier and 61,172 by sea, against 34,470 and 69,622 on
the previous year.
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as
a consequence, public schools have been long established in most
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RELIGION AND EDUCATION — FINANCE 1019
considerable Turkish towns ; while * medresses,' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the prin
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited.
The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, of which 379 are
in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the
mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied gratis. The
private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was
30,200,000 piastres (251,000Z.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to
20,000,000 piastres (166,000Z.). The expenses are reckoned at 15,000,000
piastres (125,000Z.). The stipend of the sheik-ul-Islam 7,031,520 piastres
(59,000Z.), and those of the Naibs and Muftis 7,876,646 piastres (66,000*.), are
paid by the State. The principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the
sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, and which is known
under the name of Vacouf. Three-fourths of the urban property of the
Empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this
description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die
without direct heirs the property reverts to the Church. The amount paid
direct by the State to the Evkaf in 1880 (the last regular budget) was 6,910,240
piastres (57, 000Z. ). The budget for the same year shows the following amounts
as paid by the State for religious purposes : — Toward the expenses of pilgrim-
age to Mecca and presents, 13,139,529 piastres (109,000Z.) ; for the public
reading of the Koran, 12,747,395 piastres (106,000Z.) ; subvention to Tekes
(monasteries), 776,250 piastres (6,500Z.).
Finance.
An official report from the British Embassy, dated September
1883, estimates the gross revenue at 13,686,000?., and expendi-
ture 14,089,000?. An estimate for 1883-84 gave the receipts
at £T16,313,006, and expenditure £T16,223,016, including
,£T4, 187,005, as a balance available for the State creditors.
For 1889 the Budget Committee returned the following figures
for the financial year from March 1888 to March 1889 : —
Revenue £T1 8,500,000 ; expenditure £T2 1, 400,000 ; deficit
«£T2,900,000. The deficit for 1 889-90, estimated at £T1 ,700,000,
was met by reducing the expenses of the War Department to
£T5,500,000, the Ordnance Department to £T800,000, those of
the Navy to £T600,000, by a reduction of 5 per cent, on the
Budgets of other Ministers, and by the conversion of the
Priority and other debts into 4 per cents. The Budget for
1893-94 has not yet (January, 1893) been estimated. (For
details see Yeae-book, 1886, p. 505.)
According to an international arrangement of 1881, the debt
was reduced to 106,437,234/. The Government agreed to hand
over to an international commission the excise revenues of
Turkey, to be administered by them entirely separate from the
other Government administrations. The decree provided for a
reduction of the capital, and capitalisation of arrears of the Otto-
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1020
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
I
man loans therein enumerated, and authorised a conversion of
the debt by the Council of Administration in accord with the
Government. The Council now consists of seven members, repre-
senting respectively Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria,
Italy, and the Ottoman bondholders, and also the Priority
Obligations of the Galata bankers, the English representative
acting for the Dutch and Belgian bondholders, and the Imperial
and Ottoman Government being represented by an Imperial
Commissioner who attends the meetings of the Council, but is
only entitled to a consultative voice in its discussions. The British
and French delegates act as alternative Presidents of the Council.
The decree provides for the application of the produce of the con-
ceded revenues, on the 13th of March and 13th of September
of each year, to payment of interest and amortisation of the
debt, subject to the preferential deduction for 22 years of
£T5 90,000 for interest and redemption of the 5 per cent.
Privileged Obligations (Priority Bonds) (see Year-book for 1888).
The following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital,
the interest per cent., and the issue price, of the foreign loans of
Turkey : —
\
Year of
Nominal
Inter-
Issue 1
Year of
Nominal
Inter-
Issue
Issue
capital
est
price j
Issue
capital
est
price
£
Pr.cent
1
Pr.cent1
&
Pr.cent.
Pr.cent.
1854
3,000,000
6
85 ,
1870-72
31,680,000
3
45
1 1855
5,000,000
4
102* !
1871
5,700,000
6
73
i 1858
5,000,000
6
85 J
1872
11,126,200
9
a
1860
2,037,220
6
62*
1873
27,777,780
6
1862
8,000,000
6
68
1865-74
87,924,640
5
50
1863
6,000,000
6
72
1877
5,000,000
5
52
1864
2,000,000
5,778,680
6
6
72 1
66 ;
• 1865
1869
22,177,220
6
60* |
Total .
228,196,740
Of the above, those of 1854, 1871, and 1877 (Defence Loan)
were secured on the Egyptian Tribute, payable to Turkey ; that
of 1855 was guaranteed by France and England.
Since September 1882 interest has been paid at the rate of 1 per cent, per
annum on the reduced capital value. Both interest and amortisation will
increase when the Powers determine the amount payable by Montenegro,
Servia, and Greece, in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin.
The net amount of the revenues collected is as follows : —
1883-84 .
1884-85 .
1885-86 .
1886-87 .
1887-88 .
£1,724,979
1,731,638
1,702,938
1,604,277
1,659,889
1888-89 .
1889-90 .
1890-91 .
1891-92 .
1892-93 .
£1,732,510
1,860,033
1,808,294
1,878,945
1,989,888
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FINANCE
1021
The gross amount of the revenues assigned for the service of the debt,
which were collected during the years 1890-92 and 1891-93, was as follows : —
Excise
Salt monopoly .
Stamp dues
Fisheries .
Tobacco monopoly .
Share Profit from above,
i
1
1891-92
1892-93
-
1891-92
1892-93
£288,107
663,958
190,839
44,041
681,818
£231,649
716,041
198,517
40,368
681,818
19,768
Contributions, Cyprus.
Do. Eastern
Roumelia
Tumbeki (Persian)
Tobacco
Arrears
Tobacco Tithe
98,269
188,206
45,455
4,685
84,805
98,268
188,206
45,455
6,514
101,252
£2,220,907
£2,267,856
A consolidation of the various loans (excepting the Railway Bonds,
14,211,4072.) has been effected and the various loans grouped into four
series, viz. : — Series A, 7,183,8722., representing loans of 1858 and 1862 ;
Series B, 10,241,0482., representing loans of 1860, 1863, and 1872 ; Series C,
30,832,5112., representing loans of 1865, 1869, and 1873 ; SeriesD, 43,968,3962.,
representing the General Debt. The Conversion commenced on November 20,
1884, and was closed on May 13, 1888. The amounts converted stand as
follows (Sept. 1£93) :—
-
Bonds converted
Redeemed
Circulating
Series A.
„ B. . . .
„ C. . . .
„ D . .
Registered — to convert .
Bonds not presented for")
conversion and can- J-
celled, May, 1888. J
7,117,782
10,044,116
30,547,471
43,644,325
12,229
5,011,120
1,070,500
739,060
692,300
2,106,662
8,973,616
29,808,411
42,952,025
12,229
£91,365,923
859,904
£92,225,827
7,512,980
83,852,943
For the details of the arrangement, see Year-Book for 1888.
In virtue of an Irade* dated May 29, 1886, the Government compounded its
debt towards the Imperial Ottoman Bank for stock of £T4,500,000, which
along with stock for £T2,000,000 required for State purposes, is now issued.
The stock was identical in type with the Priority Bonds, bearing interest at 5
per cent, per annum, and had a progressive sinking fund of 1 per cent, per
annum, to be applied by purchase in the open market.
This stock, known as '* Douanes," representing in 1892 £4,238,500 at 5
per cent, was then converted into 4 per cent, stock. The sum of £T1,000,000
was also obtained in 1888 from Baron Hirsch in exchange for certain railway
privileges, and a further sum of £T1,188,000 in 1889 as an award for claims on
the railway.
In 1890 a conversion of the 5 per cent. Priority Loan was effected by the
issue of 7,827,2602. privileged 4 per cents.
A further conversion was also made of the Dahlies and the Sehim Annuities
by the issue of 4,545,0002. Consolidation j 4 per cent. Bonds, now known as
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1022
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Osmanies, and in 1891 the 1877 Defence Loan was converted into 6,316,9202.
Bonds bearing interest of 4 per cent, and guaranteed by the Egyptian Tribute.
The following is the position of the Ottoman Debt (Sept. 1898) : —
Year
Denomination
Interest
Per cent.
Capital
£
1854
Egyptian Tribute .
6
1,605,740
1855
Guaranteed
4
3,185,200'
1871
Egyptian Tribute .
6
5,378,700
1872
Railway Lottery Bonds
—
13,488,935
1881
Converted
—
83,852,943
1889
Deutche Bank Loan
5
1,350,700
1890
Privileged
4
7,581,240
1890
Osmanie
4
4,377,000
1891
Egyptian Tribute .
4
6,316,920
1891
Converted Douanes .
4
5,418,580
Total .
—
132,555,958
i Inclusive of £2,125,500 drawn but not paid off.
There is in addition the war indemnity to Russia of 32,000,0001., which by
negotiation it has been agreed to pay at the rate of 320,000/. per annum with*
out interest. The revenues of the Province of Konia have oeen assigned as
guarantee for this annual payment.
The internal debt now consists of £T1, 140,000 owing to savings banks,
£T500,000 advanced by the Pension Fund Department, £T130,000 by the
agricultural banks, £T838,000 in bonds, £T500,000 through old forced loans.
Interest on these advances is very irregularly paid.
Defence.
I. Frontiers.
Turkey occupies the South-Eastern corner of Europe and the
Western portion of Asia.
The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified
of late years. European Turkey has for frontier States in the
north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Eastern
Roumelia. The frontiers are mountainous towards the east, but
at many points passage is easy.
The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by the
Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by
Thessaly, the iEgean Sea, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora,
and the Bosphorus, the shores of which are strongly fortified.
Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea,
the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles.
The boundaries to the west are the Archipelago, the Medi-
terranean, Arabia Petrea, and the Bed Sea. Its limits to the
south are Central Arabia and the Persian Gulf, those to the east
Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold near the
Russian frontier being Erzeroum.
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DEFENCE 1023
II. Army.
In Turkey all Mussulmans over 20 years of age are liable to military ser-
vice, and this liability continues for 20 years. Non-Mahometans are not
liable, but pay an exemption tax of about six shillings per head, levied on
males of all ages. Nomad Arabs, though liable, furnish no recruits, and
many nomad Kurds evade service. The army consists of (1) the Nizam, or
Regular Army, and its reserves ; (2) the Redif or Landwehr ; and (3) the
Mustahfuz or Landsturm. Conscripts are divided into the first and second
levies. The former serve 6 years in the Nizam — 4 with the colours and 2 in
the reserve ; 8 years in the Redif— 4 in the first ban and 4 in the second ; and
6 years in the Mustahfuz ; 20 years in all. The latter consist of those not
drawn for the contingent. They form what is called the Tertib Sani and the
Mainsiz; they constitute part of the reserve, undergoing from 6 to 9 months' drill
in the first year of service, and 30 days' drill at their homes in subsequent years.
The whole empire is divided into 7 army districts, with which are associated
I 7 corps d'armee called Ordus, with their headquarters respectively at : — 1,
I Constantinople ; 2, Adrianople ; 3, Monastir ; 4, Erzinjan ; 5, Damascus ; 6,
Baghdad ; 7, Sanaa (the Yemen). The troops of the 7th district are recruited
chiefly from the 4th and 5th districts, while the garrisons of Crete and Tripoli
are recruited from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th districts.
The Nizam infantry is organised in companies, battalions, regiments,
brigades, and divisions. -It contains 66 regiments of the line, each with 4
battalions, except three which have 3 battalions ; 2 regiments of Zouaves
of 2 battalions each ; 1 regiment of firemen of 4 battalions ; and 15 battalions
of rifles. There are also 12 battalions of Tripoli tan militia for local service.
Each battalion of the line, Zouaves and rifles, consists of 4 companies. Two
line regiments form a brigade, 2 brigades and a rifle battalion form an infantry
division, and 2 divisions form an ordu. Each line and rifle battalion, on a
war footing, has 24 officers, 62 non-commissioned officers, and 836 men, the
total being 922 men of all ranks, with 51 horses. The peace strength varies
from 250 to 550, according to the locality. The total war establishment of a
regiment of 4 battalions is 3,764 men of all ranks, with 207 horses. The
infantry are armed with the Martini-Peabody rifle. There are 220,000 Mauser
magazine rifles (*37) in store, but none have been issued. A small-bore
Mauser ( '3) is being supplied.
The Redif is organised in two bans. (An enactment for their fusion into
one has as yet been only partially applied. ) The first ban consists of 48
regiments ; 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first 6 ordu districts. The
second ban consists of 40 regiments, 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first
5 ordu districts. On a war footing the establishments of the Redif are intended
to be the same as those of the Nizam, but battalions are often 1,200 strong.
The Nizam cavalry consists of 38 regiments of the line, 2 regiments of the
guard, and 2 squadrons of mounted infantry (at Yemen). There is no Redif
cavalry organised. The line and guard regiments each consist of 5 squadrons,
the fifth being a depdt. The guard regiments are quartered at Constantinople,
and belong to the first ordu. Of the line regiments, 36 are formed into 6
cavalry divisions, one to each ordu, and 2 other regiments belong to the
garrison at Tripoli. There are thus 202 squadrons of cavalry, of wnich 40
are depot squadrons. The war establishment of a regiment consists of 39
officers and 647 men, 686 in all, or, adding the depdt squadrons, 854 of all
ranks. Each regiment has 880 horses, inclusive of train. It is proposed to
form in the fourth, fifth, and sixth ordu districts 48 regiments of militia or
Hainadieh cavalry, commanded by tribal leaders, and associated with the
regular army. The tribes will find the men, horses, and equipment, and thf
Government the armament. Each regiment will have from 512 to 1,152 mei
in fxom24 to 6 squadrons.
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TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
The field artillery is being reorganised in accordance with a scheme
sanctioned in 1891, whereby the force will be considerably strengthened. It
is intended that each of the first 5 ordus shall have one battalion with 3
batteries of horse artillery, and six regiments of field and mountain artillery,
comprising 30 batteries of field and 6 batteries of mountain artillery, each
battery having, on war footing, 6 guns. Each of these groups of 6 regiments
will form 3 brigades of which one will be attached to the Nizam, another to
the first ban, and the third to the second ban of their respective ordus. The
sixth ordu will have two regiments of artillery with, altogether, 12 field and
2 mountain batteries. The seventh ordu will have 3 field and 4 mountain
batteries. Crete will have 4 mountain batteries, and Tripoli 4 field and 2
mountain batteries. Turkey will thus have, in all, 15 batteries of horse
artillery, 169 field and 42 mountain batteries with a total of 1,356 guns. To
the first ordu there are two ammunition trains, to the other five only one.
The transport consists generally of pack animals. On a war footing, the
establishment of a field battery consists of about 137 officers and men with 100
horses. Of fortress artillery there are 38 battalions, of which 18 belong to the
ordus, located chiefly at Constantinople and Erzeroum, and 20 to the
Ordnance Department. Of these, 12 companies are in the Bosphorus bat-
teries, 8 in the Bulair lines, and the remainder in Mediterranean fortresses.
There are 19 engineer companies (pioneers), and 4 telegraph companies
distributed among the 7 ordus, the second ordu having, besides, a pontoon
train. There are also 12 engineer companies and 4 torpedo companies belong-
ing to the Ordnance Department. The train service, so far as it exists, consists
of 13 companies. The supply service is almost entirely staff ; extraneous
transport would be required for commissariat supplies. The medical service
consists only of medical officers and apothecaries ; there are no bearers nor
cadres for field hospitals. There are 117 battalions of gendarmerie, a military
organisation under civil control in time of peace.
The following is a summary of the effective combatant services of the
Turkish Army :—
648 battalions 583,200 men
202 squadrons 55,300 „
1,356 guns 54,720 „
39 companies 7,400 ,,
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery ...
Engineers ...
Total
700,620
ni. Navy.
A survey of the Turkish navy reveals it as mainly an obsolescent, and in
great part already an obsolete fighting force, but giving some evidence of
renewed vitality. It was weakened at one time by the sale of some of its
best ships to other powers, and, until recently, all activity was relaxed. With
four exceptions all the armourclad vessels at present on the list were acquired
abroad, mostly in England. Three ships only can now be counted as sea-
going armourclads of fighting value, for the rest are all of such small displace-
ment (the latest of these dating for 1875), or were built so long ago (1864-65)
as to belong now to the classes of convoying cruisers and local defence vessels.
Information concerning the state of advancement of ships in hand, as
generally of the condition of the Turkish navy, is not readily accessible, but
the following table of its strength is based upon such information as is avail-
able. It excludes transports, training ships, and non-effective vessels. On
the whole it probably errs by giving a picture too favourable. The table
is framed upon the plan uniformly adopted in this book, which is explained in
the Introductory Table.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
DEFENCE
1025
Battleship, 1st class
2nd „
Port Defence Ships
Cruisers, 1st class (a)
„ (b)
,, 2nd class
,, 3rd class (a)
„ 9)
Torpedo craft, 1st class
» „ 2nd „
,, ,, 3rd ,,
i I'
I'
9
15
7
}
2
7
10
2
55
31
Total ... 107
The table which follows of the Turkish armourclad fleet is arranged in
chronological order (the cruisers following the battleships and port defence
vessels), like other similar tables in this book. In the first list the ships
named in italics are port defence vessels ; the numbers following the names
of two other ships indicate the battleship classes to which they have been
assigned in the above estimate of strength. In the list of first-class cruisers
all are named in italics because armoured, and those in the b category are
admitted mainly for convoving purposes. Turkey possesses but one vessel
having the qualities here taken to be necessary in a first-class cruiser, a (i.e.
displacement of 5,000 tons or more, and presumed sea speed of at least 15
knots) viz., the unfinished armourclad Abdul Kader. Abbreviations : — a.g.b.
armoured gunboat ; bar., barbette ; c.b., central battery; t, turret ; Q.F., quick-
firing. In the column of armaments, light and machine guns are not given.
a
•&
o
en
<x>
Q
Name
1
i
Up
.2 I
to
fig-s
Armament.
o »
fit?
H
£1
3
.5 S
00
a. g. b.
Feth-eUIslam
1864
330
3
2 7in. (Armstrong) .
290
8-0
a. g. b.
Memdouiyeh
1864
330
3
Ditto
290
80
bar.
Aziziyeh
1864
6,400
H
2 llin. ; 8 5*9in. ; 6 3*9in.
dS£?p): : : :
2
3,740
12 0
bar.
Mahmoudiyeh
1864
6,400
5\
2
3,740
120
bar.
Oman iy eh .
1864
6,400
fit
Ditto
2
3,740
120
bar.
Orkaniyeh
1865
6,400
5*
Ditto
2
3,740
120
e. b.
Mesoudiyeh (2) .
1874
8,990
12
12 lOin. (18- ton, Arm.,
muz.) ; 3 5 9in. (Krupp).
7,800
13 0
a. g. b.
HUber .
1875
400
3
2 5'9in. (Krupp)
400
70
e. b.
Hamidiyeh (1) .
First-class cruiser a :
1885
6,700
9
10 102in.; 2 6'6Jn. (Krupp)
*2
6,800
13 0
bar
Abdul Kader
First-class cruisers b :
8,000
14
4 llin.; 6 5'9in. (Krupp),
10Q.P
10
11,500
...
c. b.
Awar-i-Shefhet .
1868
2,050
6
1 9in. ; 4 7in. (Armstrong)
1,750
11-3
e. b.
Nedjim-i-Shefket.
1868
2,050
6
Ditto
1,900
113
, c. b.
Assar-i-Tevfik
Hufzi-i-Rahman .
1868
4,600
8
8 9-4in.; 2 8'2in. (Krupp) .
3,560
13 3
t
1868
2,500
5*
2 9in.; 27in.(Arm.); lj5In
(Krupp). .
200
nominal
12 0
e. b.
Avni-lllah .
1860
2,310
6
4 9in. (Armstrong)
1
2,200
12*2
e. b.
Idjlaliyeh .
1870
2,240
0
2 9in. ; 2 7in. (Arm.); 1
5'9in. (K.)
1,800
11-0
e. b.
Feth-i-Boulend .
1870
2,720
9
4 9in. (Armstrong) .
"i
4,200
14 0
e. b.
Mouin-i-Zaffer .
1869
2,330
6
4 9in. (Arm.); 1 4 7in.
(Krupp). . . .
Ditto
2,200
125
e. b.
Moukadem-i-Hair
1872
2,680
9
8,000 12'5
3 u
Digitized by
^O
ogle
1026 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
The old sister battleships, named above as port-defence vessels, Aziziyeh,
Mahmoudiyeh, Orkaniyeh, and Osmaniyeh (6,400 tons), are being, or have
been, transformed by having barbette turrets placed at each end of their
batteries for the heavy Krupp guns (the hope being to fit them for something
more than local defence). An armourclad of 6,700 tons, the Hamidiyeh, was
launched at Constantinople in 1885, and is said, after long delays, to have
made her trials, but it is believed that not all her guns are even now mounted.
This vessel, the Mesoudiyeh, and the unfinished armoured barbette cruiser
Abdul Kader, are the largest ships in the Turkish navy. The Mesoudiyeh
is 332 feet long, with extreme beam of 59 feet. She is constructed on the
central battery principle, resembling our own Hercules, and has on the main
deck a 12 -gun battery of 18-ton muzzle-loading Armstrongs, and side plating
12 inches thick at the water-line. The Abdul Kader displaces 8,000 tons, is
340 feet in length, and is to be provided with engines of 11,500 horse-power,
which should give a high speed. The chief armament will be 4 11 inch guns.
The Hundevendighiar, and a sister ship in course of construction, are deck-pro-
tected cruisers of 4,050 tons, intended to steam 12 knots, and it is said that
two others of the same type are ' contemplated.' Three smaller vessels of like
character (1,600 tons) are also in hand, and a composite third class cruiser, the
Loutfi-Humayoun (1,300 tons), and a 22 knot torpedo-catcher, the Shahin-i-
Deryah, were launched in 1892. It is stated that certain small gunboats in
hand are to be made ready by the simpler method of providing them with
engines taken from older vessels.
For the navy of Turkey the crews are raised in the same manner as the
land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary enlistment. The
time of service in the navy is twelve years, five in active service, three in the
reserve, and four in the Redif. The nominal strength of the navy is 6 vice-
admirals, 11 rear-admirals, 208 captains, 289 commanders, 228 lieutenants,
187 ensigns, and 30,000 sailors, besides 9,460 marines.
Production and Industry.
Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure —
namely, 1st, as * Mlri,' or Crown lands ; 2nd, as ' Vacouf,' or pious
foundations ; 3rd, as ' Mulikaneh,1 or Crown grants ; and 4th, as
' Miilk,' or freehold property. The first description, the ' miri/ or
Crown lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the
Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants
the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of cer-
tain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the
land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner
neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to
the Crown. The second form of tenure, the ' vacouf,' was insti-
tuted originally to provide for the religion of the State and the
education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools ;
but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for several
generations, and the ' vacouf ' lands have mostly been seized by
Government officials. The third class of landed property, the
' mulikaneh,' was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in
recompense for the military service required of them, and is here-
ditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form of tenure, the
ci miilk,' or freehold property, does not exist to a great extent.
COMMERCE 1027
Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the neigh-
bourhood of villages, is * miHk,' which the peasants purchase from
time to time from the Government.
Only a small proportion of arable land is under cultivation,
owing principally to the want of roads and means of conveyance,
which preclude the possibility of remunerative exportation.
The system of levying a tithe on all produce leaves no induce-
ment to the farmer to grow more than is required for his own
use, or in his immediate proximity. The agricultural develop-
ment of the country is further crippled by custom dues for the
exportation of produce from one province to another.
The system of agriculture is most primitive. The soil for the most part is
very fertile ; the principal products are tobacco, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs,
nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits. Coffee, madder, opium,
gums are largely exported. It is estimated that 44 million acres of the Empire
in Europe and Asia are under, cultivation. Since the ravages produced by the
phylloxera in France, Turkish wines have been largely exported to that country ;
20,308,521 litres in 1887-88, at an average cost of 31 francs the hectolitre.
The forest laws of the empire are based on those of France, but restrictive
regulations are not enforced, and the country is being rapidly deprived of its
timber. About 21 million acres are under forest, of which 3£ million acres are
in European Turkey. The culture of silkworms, which had fallen off con-
siderably, owing to disease among the worms, is again becoming an important
feature. The value of cocoons iproduced in 1892 was over 800, 000 J., and of
raw silk 1,200,000Z. The produce of 1893 was 20 percent, superior. Most
of the silk produced is exported, but some is used in the manufacturing of
native dress material.
The mining laws of the empire are restrictive, though the country is
rich in minerals, coal, copper, lead, silver, iron, manganese, chrome, bitumen,
sulphur, salt, alum ; coal especially is abundant, but hardly worked. A royalty
of 20 per cent, is paid on all minerals exported. There is a good deal of
brass-turning and beating of copper into utensils for household purposes.
Concessions have also been granted for glass manufactories, paper mills,
and textile looms. Carpets, which constitute a considerable article of export
about 150,000/.), are made on hand-looms, and so also are a number of light
materials for dress. The fisheries of Turkey are important ; the fisheries of the
Bosphorus alone represent a value of upwards of 250, 000 J. The coast of the
Mediterranean produces excellent sponges, the Red Sea mother-of-pearl, and
the Persian Gulf pearls.
Commerce.
All articles of import into Turkey are taxed 8 per cent, ad 'valorem, except
tobacco and salt, which are monopolies ; there is also an export duty of
1 per cent, on native produce if sent abroad, but of 8 per cent, if sent from one
part of the empire to another. This internal duty it is proposed to remove
altogether, and already in 1893 it was removed from wheat and other cereals.
Turkey is (September 1891) negotiating a new treaty of commerce with
Great Britain and some of the other Powers, and it proposes removing the
export custom duty of 1 per cent., and building Bonded Warehouses in some
of the principal seaport towns of the empire. Articles destined for schools,
churches, embassies, consulates, as well as agricultural machines and the plant
for railways are free of duty. The following table gives (100 piastres =£T1),
according to the Turkish Custom House, the value of the trade of Turkey in
1889-90 and 1890-91 (March 13 to March 12) according to countries :—
3 u 2
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1028
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Importation
Exportation
Country
1889-00
1890-91
1889-90
1890-91
Piastres
Piastres
Piastres
Piastres
Great Britain
914,513,943
992,278,000
583,392,001
481,301,671
Austria .
409,144,341
460,669,540
135,432,106
103,944,885
France .
254,368,642
283,360,373
426,951,003
373,208,774
Russia .
173,321,811
170,303,914
32,413,774
29,328,328
Italy .
42,438,053
49,978,045
68,974,556
55,420,776
Bulgaria
112,419,709
95,548,832
38,118,994
40,772,443
Persia .
53,000,764
58,500,608
1,131,444
1,662,096
Greece .
29,435,314
35,651,677
53,115,112
51,205,778
Belgium
41,574,426
50,107,152
1,671,777
1,248,554
Roumania
39,451,054
46,663,198
24,619,330
23,720,997
America
6,028,126
7,469,153
15,735,892
18,262,555
Tunis .
2,608,844
3,977,882
298,044
80,112
Servia .
6,438,071
9,009,334
3,532,669
4,472,880
HoUand
9,349,169
10,952,934
25,030,665
16,740,220 '
Germany
2,648,945
6,325,564
5,358,223
11,660,112 j
Egypt .
Sweden .
1,896,753
6,277,208
98,776,827
68,565,349
4,584,044
3,766,111
—
—
Montenegro .
829,371
532,379
552,717
564,429
Samos .
71,362
57,168
597,954
925,432
Denmark
29,569
5,306
190,779
120,222
Spain .
—
—
1,349,111
441,001 !
2,104,152,311
2,291,434,378
1,517,242,978
1,283,646,614
The revenue of the Custom Houses of the Empire for 1890-91
1,712,000Z., of which for Imports 1,565, 000Z., and for Exports 147,000*.
Of the Turkishimport trade, 43 per cent., is with Great Britain, and of the
export trade, 38 per cent.
Tobacco exported abroad is not included in this table ; the Director of the
General Debt states that the quantity exported in 1884-85 amounted to
8,913,088 kilos. ; in 1885-86 to 11,521,126 kilos. ; in 1886-87, 11,688,052
kilos. ; in 1887-88, 10,373,217 kilos. ; in 1889-90 10,454,427 kilos. ; in
1891-92, 13,391,933 kilos.
The principal exports and imports for 1890-91 were as follows, the £ at 100
piastres : —
Exports, 1890-91
Imports, 1890-91
i
Piastres
| Piastres
! Wheat .
. 127,959,408
Sugar . 151,407,613
Coffee .1 88,680,501
j Rye
10,446,429
Millet .
7,125,293
Butter .
26,366,309
, Maize
14,300,265
Spirits
19,858,486
1 Canary seed .
9,601,210
Flour
45,709,197
I Barley .
35,434,581
Cheeses .
16,759,303
j Sesame .
20,778,818
Rice
72,217,107
Beans, lentils, peas
14,479,431
Persian tobacco
11,470,147
1 Dates
. 24,734,731
Indigo .
13,568,255
j Figs
42,965,381
Drags .
20,152,302
Raisins .
98,645,452
Dyes
10,583,522
1 Oranges and lemons
10,338,763
Timber • Digitized by '
25,893,177
COMMERCE
1029
Exports, 1890-91
Imports, 1890-91
Piastres
Piastres
Nuts
11,876,262
Coal
21,261,500
Other fresh and dried
Petroleum
68,195,281
fruit .
15,836,207
Iron (bar)
34,395,181
Gall nuts
10,387,333
Iron implements
17,221,234
Valonia .
36,197,735
Copper plates and
Seeds
9,930,172
piping .
11,148,320
Drugs and spices .
19,590,449
Nails
10,882,430
Opium .
Olive oil .
70,348,126
Leather .
37,361,540
42,517,919
Skins (oxen) .
13,008,590
Coffee .
52,226,750
Carpets .
20,958,056
Minerals .
30,166,195
Sheep and goats
Cloth .
25,413,284
Mohair .
35,506,556
40,377,180
Cotton .
32,333,096
Cotton — thread
154,091,850
Wool .
48,472,528
Cotton prints .
126,982,306
Sheep and goat
skins .
Cotton and woollen
41,620,376
tissues .
35,403,164
Silk cocoons .
39,485,638
Cashmere
37,893,459
Raw silk .
101,983,194
Woollen dress stuff .
70,855,663
Carpets and rugs
22,343,402
Calico
62,613,638
Smoked and salted
Muslin .
40,344,993
fish .
16,450,745
Sheeting and T. cloth
159,886,092-
Horses, mules (26, 000)
13,457,250
Silken goods .
22,238,411
Kilogrammes.
Ready-made clothes .
25,889,679
Tobacco .
13,391,933
Empty sacks .
20,927,317
Eggs .
20,000,000
Hardware
25,180,063
Glass
13,774,052
The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish
Empire, in Europe and Asia, and Great Britain during the last five years
ccording to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the following table : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U. K. from
Turkey
Exports of British pro-
duce to Turkey .
£
4,242,075
5,073,662
£
5,265,373
6,160,534
£
4,816,883
6,772,061
£
5,442,881
6,553,878
£
5,551,798
6,190,114
Among the articles of import into the United Kingdom from Turkey are
orn, in 1885, 960,401/. ; in 1890, 1,161,961/. ; in 1891, 1,956,426/. ; in
892, 1,715,085; wool and goats' hair, 1,116,985/. in 1889; 735,169?. in
890 ; 871,649/. in 1891 ; 1,020,830/. in 1892 ; valonia (dye stuff), 444,119/.
a 1890 ; 287,658/. in 1891 ; 404,934 in 1892 ; opium, 342,552/. in 1888 ;
27,396/. in 1890 ; 200,556/. in 1891 ; 198,222/. in 1892 ; fruit, chiefly raisins
ndfigs, 799,939/. in 1890 ; 958,382/. in 1891 ; 739,086/. in 1892.
The most important article exported from Great Britain to Turkey is manu-
ictured cotton. The imports of cotton goods in 1892 amounted to 3,633,965/. ;
otton yarn, 1,041,555/. ; woollens, 362,938/. ; iron, wrought and un wrought,
Digitized by
Google
1030
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
158,7812. ; copper, wrought and unwrought, 171,439Z. ; coals, 261,099Z. ;
machinery, 107,800Z.
In 1892 the imports into Smyrna, were valued at 3,010, 472Z. (944,1222.
British), exports 3, 647, 51 21. (1,797,3952. to Great Britain) ; Aleppo, imports
1,800,8302. (1,068,0452. British), exports 866,2162. (67,8332. to GreatBritain);
Jaffa, imports 342,5972., exports 258,4662.; Baghdad, imports, 595,3582.;
exports, 479,7732.
Shipping and Navigation.
The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire, according to Lloyd's Register,
in 1893 consisted of 91 steamers (each of 100 tons or upwards) of 72,120 gross
tons, and 981 sailing vessels of 194,515 tons. In 1890-91 (March to February )
the Ottoman ports of the Mediterranean and Black Sea were visited by 179,317
vessels of 30,509,861 tons, those of the Red Sea by 4,786 vessels of 511,192
tons, and those of the Persian Gulf by 1,262 vessels of 199,485 tons. Constan-
tinople alone (1892) was visited by 15,273 vessels of 8,479,050 tons, of which
3,645 of 4,349,578 tons were British. Arranged according to order of flag, the
tonnage of vessels which visited the Mediterranean ports and those of the Black
Sea in 1891-92 were as follows :— English, 11,245,855 ; Ottoman, 5,444,778 ;
Austro-Hungarian, 3,539,179 ; French, 2,464,066; Greek, 2,462,225 ; Russian,
2,002,485; Italian, 1,227,464; Egyptian, 672,587 ; Swedish, 581,644 ; German,
398,720 ; sundries, 470,858.
In 1890-91 (March 1 to February 28) 14,455 vessels of 9,998,127 tons
entered the Dardanelles.
In 1892, 6,230 vessels of 1,697,119 tons (593 of 362,065 tons British)
entered, and 6,232 of 1,698,363 tons cleared the port of Smyrna.
Internal Communications.
Since the summer of 1888 Turkey has been in direct railway communication
with the rest of Europe. The main lines start from Constantinople and from
Salonica. From this latter port is now the shortest route to Egypt.
Below is a list of the various lines in Europe (including Bulgaria) and Asia
which were open for traffic on 31st December, 1892 : —
Lines of Railway
Length,
English
Miles
Lines of Railway
Length,
TCnglfoh
Miles
European Turkey: —
Constantinople to Adrianople
Adrianople to Saremby
Salonica to Uskub
Uskub to Mitrovitza .
Kulleli to Degeaghatch
Tirnova to Jamboli
Banjalouke to Novi
Zenica to Brod .
Total, European Turkey .
210
152
150
75
70
65
64
118
Asiatic Turkey .—
Scutari to Anghora
Smyrna to Sevdikeni
,, „ Dinair
,, ,, Odemish
,, ,, Alasher
Mersina to Adana
Moudania to Broussa
Jaffa to Jerusalem
Total, Asiatic Turk
Total, Turkish Em]
. 430
9
. 234
68
105
42
32
54
904
ey . 974
Dire . 1,878
\
A concession has been granted for the construction of a railway of 2S6
miles from Salonica to Dedeagatch, to be finished by January 1896. This line
will join the main Constantinople- Vienna line at Kouleli Bourgas.
There are 1,150 Turkish post-offices in the Empire (Europe and Asia).
Digitized by VjOOQIC
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
1031
The length of telegraph lines in Turkey is about 20,380 miles. The
number of telegraph offices amount to 671 in Europe and Asia. Annual
receipts, 51,615,526 piastres; salaries, 17,669,044 piastres.
Honey, Weights, and Measures of Turkey.
On July 31, 1893, the situation of the Imperial Ottoman Bank was as
follows : —
Assets
£T
Liabilities
JET 1
Capital not paid up .
Cash and bills .
Securities .
Current accounts of\
Imperial treasury J
Various current ac- J
counts \
Advances .
Property .
Various
Total.
i
5,500,000
3,394,328
5,526,614
1,431,191
4,289,256
2,748,181
72,822
26,856
Capital
Note issue .
Bills payable
Current accounts ofl
Imperial treasury t
Various current ac-1
counts /
Deposits for fixed term
Various reserves .
Dividends due .
Various
Total.
11,000,000
976,059
1,290,962
6,945,882
1,544,039
483,380
391,040
357,888
22,989,249
22,989,249
Money. £
The Turkish Lira, or gold Medjidie . . .0
Piastre, 100 to the Lira 0
„ ,, beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
averaging 105 to the Lira .... 0
s.
d.
18
0*064
0
2-16
0 2 06
Large accounts are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set down in
* purses ' of 500 Medjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. The * purse ' is calculated
as worth 4J. 10s. sterling. The gold Lira weighs 7 '216 grammes '916 fine,
and thus contains 6*6147 grammes of fine gold. The silver 20-piastre
piece weighs 24*055 grammes "830 fine, and therefore contains 19*965
grammes of fine silver. There exists a large amount of debased silver
currency — which, however, it is stated, is being gradually withdrawn — to
which were added, during the years 1876 to 1881, 600,000,000 piastres of paper
money, known as caime ; but being refused by the Government, owing to its
depreciation, it became in the end of merely nominal value, and altogether
refused in commercial intercourse. The copper currency was likewise re-
pudiated, owing to its depreciation. The beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
was reduced by decree to half its coined value. The former is now being
called in (1889). Silver is in excess of the requirements of trade, and is
generally at 8 per cent, discount. This depreciation is further accounted for
by the fact that the balance of trade is against Turkey, and by the large
amounts of gold which have to be yearly exported for the payment of the
funded debt and the purchase of warlike ammunition.
Old Weights and Measures.
The Oke, of 400 drams . . . = 2*8326 lbs. avoirdupois'.
„ Almud = 1*151 imperial gallon.
„ Kileh = 0*9120 imperial bushel.
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1032 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
44 Okes = 1 Cantar or Kintal
39*44 Okes
180 Okes = 1 Tchekt .
1 Kileh = 20 Okes .
816 Kilehs .
The Andaze" (cloth measure).
„ Arshin (land measure)
,, Ddniim (land measure)
= 125 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 1 cwt.
= 511-380 pounds.
= 0*36 imperial quarter.
= 100 imperial quarters.
= 27 inches.
= 30 inches.
= 40 square paces.
The kileh is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures being definite
weights rather than measures. 100 kilehs are equal to 12*128 British imperial
quarters, or 35*266 hectolitres.
In March 1882 Turkish weights and measures were assimilated to the metric
system, but under the old names, leading to much confusion ; they have not
been generally adopted in practice. Oke= kilogramme, batman = 10 kilo-
grammes, cantar =100 kilogrammes, tcheki = 1,000 kilogrammes, shinik =
decalitre, kileh = hectolitre (2*75 bushels), evlek=are, djeril= hectare (2*47
acres), arshin = metre, nul= kilometre, farsang= 10 kilometres.
In 1889 the metric system of weights was made obligatory for cereals ;
metric weights were decreed obligatory in January 1892, but the decree is not
yet enforced.
TRIBUTAKY STATES.
i
I. BULGABIA.
Ferdinand, Duke of Saxony, youngest son of the late Prince Augustus,
Duke of Saxony, and Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans (daughter of
King Louis Philippe), born Feb. 26, 1861, was elected Prince of Bulgaria by
unanimous vote of the National Assembly, July 7, 1887 ; assumed the govern-
ment August 14, 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who abdicated
Sept. 7, 1886. The election of Prince Ferdinand has not been confirmed by
the Porte and the Great Powers. On January 13, 1886, Prince Alexander
was appointed Governor of Eastern Roumelia, which was thus united to
Bulgaria, though the union has not yet been recognised by the Powers. On
April 20, 1893, he was married to Marie Louise (born January 17, 1870),
eldest daughter of Duke Robert of Parma ; issue, a son, born January 30, 1894.
It is enacted by the Constitution of 1879 that ' the Prince must reside per-
manently in the principality. In case of absence he must appoint a Regent,
whose rights and duties must be determined by a special law. The princely
title is hereditary. By amendments to the Constitution adopted in 1883, a
Regency, if necessary, is provided for, and by a further amendment, May,
1893, the Grand Sobranji confirmed the title of " Royal Highness " to the
Prince of Bulgaria and his heir, who is permitted to retain the Roman Catholic
faith, although his successors to the throne must be of the orthodox religion.
Constitution and Government.
The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed
July 13, 1878. It was ordered by Art. 1 of the Treaty that Bulgaria should
be ' constituted an autonomous and tributary Principality under the suzerainty
of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan. It will have a Christian Government and
a national militia.' Art. 3 ordered, 'The Prince of Bulgaria shall be freely
elected by the population and confirmed by the Sublime Porte, with the con-
sent of the Powers. No member of any of the reigning Houses of the Great
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPTTLATIOtt 1033
European Powers can be elected Prince of Bulgaria. In case of a vacancy in
the princely dignity, the election of the new Prince shall take place under the
same conditions and with the same forms.' On January 31, 1886, Bulgaria
and Eastern Roumelia were united under one government.
Eastern Roumelia (since its union with Bulgaria also known as Southern
Bulgaria) was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878. It was
to remain under the direct political and military authority of the Sultan, under
conditions of administrative autonomy. It was ordered by Art. 17 that l the
Governor-General of Eastern Roumelia shall be named by the Sublime Porte,
with the assent of the Powers, for a term of five years.' On September 17,
1885, the Government was overthrown by a revolution, the Governor deposed
and sent out of the Province, and the union of the latter with Bulgaria pro-
claimed. As the result of the Conference held at Constantinople by the
representatives of the signatory Powers of the Berlin Treaty during the latter
months of 1885, the Sultan, by imperial firman, April 6, 1886, recognised the
following changes in the state of the province : — The government of Eastern
Roumelia to be confided to the Prince of Bulgaria. The Mussulman districts
of Kirjali and the Rupchus (Rhodope) to be re-ceded to the Porte. A com-
mission to be named to examine the Organic Statute in order to modify it
in accordance with the requirements of the situation and local needs. The
interests of the Ottoman Treasury to be considered at the same time. The
other stipulations of the Berlin Treaty to remain intact.
In accordance with the above provisions the rectification of the Organic
Statute — chiefly as concerned the questions 6f the tribute and the customs —
was undertaken by a Turco-Bulgarian commission sitting at Sofia. Its labours
were, however, abruptly brought to a close by the events which overthrew the
Prince on the night of August 20, 1886.
The province has since for all purposes formed part of Bulgaria, and is under
the administration at Sofia, whicn is now the only recognised capital, Philip-
popolis being merely the centre of a prefecture.
By the Constitution of 1879, amended May, 1893, the legislative authority
was vested in a single Chamber, called the National Assembly of Bulgaria. The
members of it are elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rate of one
member to every 20,000 of the population. Those residing in the city
where the National assembly sits receive 15 francs (12s.) a day during
session; others, 20 francs (16s.) a day with travelling expenses. The dura-
tion of the Assembly is five years, but it may be dissolved at any time by the
Prince, when new elections must take place within four months. The
Assembly in 1883 assented to a proposal for the creation of a second Chamber.
The executive power is vested, under the Prince, in a Council of eight
ministers — namely, 1. Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public Worship ; 2.
Minister of the Interior ; 3. Minister of Public Instruction ; 4. Minister of
Finance ; 5. Minister of Justice ; 6. Minister of War ; 7. Minister for Com-
merce and Agriculture ; 8. Minister of Public Works.
Area and Population.
The estimated area of the Principality of Bulgaria proper is 24,360 English
square miles, and of South Bulgaria (or Eastern Roumelia) 13,500 square miles.
By a census taken on January 1, 1893, the population of the whole Principality
was ascertained to be 3,305,458 (1,688,688 males, and 1,616,770 females) ; the
population of Eastern Roumelia being 992,386. Bulgaria has been redivided
into 22 districts (including the six districts of Eastern Roumelia). Of the total
population in 1888 (3,154,375), 2,326,250 were Bulgars, 607,319 Turks, 58,338
Greeks, 23,546 Jews, 50,291 gipsies, 1,069 Russians, 4,699 Servians and other
Slaves, 2 245 Germans. Of the population 2,432,154 belong to the Orthodox
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I
1034 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
Greek Church, which is the State religion, ,668, 173 were Mahometans, 18,539
Catholics, 24,352 Jews. The present capital of the Principality is the city of
Sofia, with a population of 30, 428. The other principal towns are Philippopolis
(capital of Roumelia), 33,442 ; Varna, with a population of 25,256 ; Shumla,
with 23,161 ; Rustchuk, with 27,198 ; Slivno, 20,893 ; Stara-Zagora, 16,039 ;
Tatar-Bazarjik, 15,659 ; Sistova, 12,482 ; Plevna, 14,307 ; Silistria, 11,414 ;
Tirnova, the ancient capital of Bulgaria, with 11,314 ; and Vidin, with
14,772 inhabitants. The great majority of the population live by the cultiva-
tion of the soil and the produce of their flocks and herds. On February 1,
1890, there were 2,626 persons in prison for serious offences.
Instruction.
In 1890 Bulgaria had 3,844 elementary schools, with 129,777 boys and
42,206 girls as pupils. The total number of boys of school age, is 276,756 ;
of girls, 261,968. For education the State grants a yearly subvention of
2,000,000 lev. Education is free and nominally obligatory for a period of four
years. About 81 per cent, of the population cannot read or write. There is a
university at Sofia, with gymnasia in the principal towns, including four for
girls, besides several lower middle-class schools. There is a free public library
at Sofia.
Finance.
The budget estimates for 1893 were : — Revenue 89,369,334 levs (francs),
expenditure, 89,369,334 levs. The chief items of revenue were : — Direct taxes,
41,381,000 levs ; indirect taxes, 19,182,000 levs. The chief items of expendi-
ture were :— Public Debt 14,140,291 levs, Interior 10,030,209 levs, Public In-
struction 9,922,511 levs, Finance 8,171,023 levs, Public Works 10,007,962
levs, Justice 5,601,052 levs, War 23,247,271 levs The public debt consists
of the surplus of the Russian occupation, 21,700,000 levs, to be extinguished
in 1896 ; a loan of 50,000,000 levs in 1887 ; a loan of 30,000,000 levs in
1889 ; besides which Bulgaria has also undertaken to pay £T118,040 as the
annual amount of the Eastern Roumelian Contribution, and £T21,000 in
settlement of arrears under this head.
By the Treaty of Berlin the amount of the annual tribute and the share of
the Turkish debt which Bulgaria should pay to Turkey should be fixed by au
agreement between the signatory Powers. So far (Dec. 1891) no amount has
been fixed upon.
Defence.
The northern frontier of Bulgaria is formed by the Danube, which, ex-
cept on the east (bordering on the Dobruja), separates it from Roumauia ;
here are the three important fortresses of Vidin, Rustchuk, and Silistria.
Varna is a fortress on the Black Sea, and Shumla westward in the interior.
On the west Bulgaria is bordered by Servia, and in the south-west and
south by Turkey Proper.
Military service is obligatory. The army, which since the revolution of
Philippopolis, in 1885, includes the Eastern Roumelian forces, is composed
of 24 regiments of infantry, of 2 battalions and 1 depot battalion each ;
4 regiments of cavalry, besides the Prince's escort, 6 regiments of artillery,
having 4 field-batteries of 4 guns and 120 men (8 guns in time of war),
2 depots of artillery and 1 battery of siege artillery, 1 regiment of engi-
neers of 3 battalions, 1 company of discipline. In peace time 6 regiments
of 6 batteries of 4 guus and 1 division of mountain artillery. Six reserve
regiments cadres, i.e. in peace, 36 batteries of 144 field guns, 6 mountain
divisions of 12 mountain guns, and in war time six reverse cadres of 40 field
guns, 6 regiments of 6 batteries of- 8 guns = 288 field guns and 6 mountaiu
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
1035
batteries of 6 guns = 36 mountain guns. The army- is divided into
3 divisions, consisting of 2 brigades each. The peace strength is about
35,800 officers and men, and the war strength about 175,000. The float-
ing strength of Bulgaria consists of the Prince's yacht Alexander I. (800
tons), the steamships Asjen (400 tons), Krum (650 tons), and Simeon Veliky
(600 tons), besides seven very small steamboats. Two armoured gunboats,
for the defence of the Danube, are being built in Italy.
Production and Industry.
The principal agricultural product is wheat, which is largely exported.
Wine, tobacco, and silk are also produced, and attar of roses largely manu-
factured. There are (1892) 5,359,900 acres arable, 770,600 meadow, 237,120
vineyard, 111,120 market garden, &c, woods and i forests, 3,291,100. The
total cultivated area is 9,770,700 acres ; uncultivated but fit for cultivation.
13,651,300 ; unfit for cultivation, 1,099,150. In 1892 there were in Bulgaria
7,060,300 sheep, 1,453,500 goats, and 441,000 pigs.
The principal mineral productions of the Principality are iron and coal.
The salines near Bourgas yielded 25,000 tons of salt in 1891.
Commerce.
The principal article of trade is wheat. The other exports consist of
wool, tallow, butter, cheese, hides, flax, and timber. The principal imports
are textile manufactures, iron, and coals. The value of the imports of the
whole Principality, in 1890, imports 84,530,497 levs, exports 71,051,123 levs ;
in 1891, imports 81,348,150 levs, exports 71,055,085 levs.
The following table shows the trade by countries for 1892 : —
Country
Imports 1 Exports
from to
Country
Imports
from
Exports
to
United King-
dom .
Austria.
Turkey.
France .
Russia .
Germany
Roumania .
Italy .
Levs
17,929,631
28,102,669
10,233,214
3,225,046
3,040,949
8,297,120
1,480,939
1,526,869
Levs
7,306,703
3,175,955
21,555,872
19,501,833
43,179
13,016,180
1,499,427
2,678,971
Belgium
Switzerland .
Servia .
United States
Greece .
Other States .
Levs
1,333,116
840,922
859,177
95,836
57,662
279,859
Levs
622,735
221
364,421
57,175
149,639
4,668,143
77,303,007
74,640,854
The chief imports in 1892 were textiles 23,111,463 levs ; Colonial goods,
7,044,160 levs; metals, 6,324,890 levs; leather, 3,679,393 levs; wooden
goods, 4,434,617 levs. The chief articles of export were grain 57,943,176
levs, mainly to England, Germany, Austria, and Turkey, and live stock
6,756,391 levs.
According to the Board of Trade Returns the imports from Bulgaria into
Great Britain in 1892 were valued at 50, 824 /., and exports from Great
Britain of British produce, at 158, 001 1. ; the imports into Great Britain were
wheat 21,458/., and barley 29,366/. ; and the principal exports from Great
Britain to Bulgaria were cottons, valued at 64,222/., iron, copper, and tin,
22,626/.
Shipping and Communications.
The number of vessels (chiefly Austrian) entered at the port of Varna in
1892 was 353 of 267,711 tons (75 of 83,000 tons British), and cleared 354 of
267,629 tons (75 of 83,000 tons British) ; at Bourgas (1891), 788 of 148,096
tons (41 of 43,155 tons British) entered, and same number cleared.
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I
1036 TUftKEY AND TRIBUTARY SPATES: — SAMOS
Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) has 520 miles of railway (1893).
In Bulgaria proper three are 312 miles, for which, according to the estimates
for 1892, the receipts should be 4,750,000 levs, and the expenditure 5,347,000
levs. Railways have been constructed so as to connect Sofia with Constantinople
on the one hand, and Belgrade and the general European system on the
other. Ports being constructed at Varna and Bourgas. There were (including
Eastern Roumelia) 2,953 miles of State telegraph lines in 1892, and 147
offices ; the number of messages (1892) was 1,056,610. There were 123 post
offices, and the number of letters, newspapers, &c, carried was 11,422,000.
Honey and Credit.
There is a National Bank of Bulgaria, with headquarters at Sofia and
branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk, and Varna ; its capital is 400,0002.,
provided by the State, a reserve fund of 30,000Z., and 16,0002. notes in
circulation. The Ottoman Bank has a branch at Philippopolis, and in each
district there is an agricultural bank under control of the Government.
There are nickel and ubronze Stotinki (centimes), silver coins of J, 1, 2, and
5 levs (francs) ; the notes of the National Bank circulate at par.
IirSAMOS.
An island off the coast of Asia Minor, forming a principality under the
sovereignty of Turkey, under the guarantee of France, Great Britain, and
Russia, December 11, 1832.
The ruling Prince is Alexander Karatheodori, born 1833, appointed 1885.
Area 180 square miles ; population (1893) 47,992. There are besides,
13,500 natives living on the coast of Asia Minor. There are 614 foreigners,
of whom 565 are Greeks. In 1892 there were 311 marriages, 1,628 births,
813 deaths.
The religion is the Greek Orthodox, all, except 36, of the inhabitants
professing it.
The estimated revenue for 1892-93 was 3,029,902 piastres, and expendi-
ture the same. There is no public debt.
The exports for 1892 were valued at 16,802,522 piastres, and imports
19,079,026 piastres. The chief exports were wines 10,062,000 piastres,
grapes 4,146,000 piastres, hides 1,113,000 piastres, oil 321,000 piastres. The
chief imports were wheat, flour, textiles.
In 1892, 4,738 vessels of 336,773 tons entered and cleared the port, 578
out of 1,382 steamers being British. The vessels belonging to the island
were 342 of 7,813 tons.
In 1892, 62,819 letters passed through the Post Office, and 25,634
packets of printed matter. The number of telegraphic despatches was 9,983.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Turkey in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Rustem Pasha, accredited December 7, 1885.
Councillor of Embassy. — Morel Bey.
Secretary. — Abdul Hak Hamid Bey.
Naval Attache'. — Commander Ismail Bey.
Consul-Qeneral. — Fered' Oulla Effendi.
There are Consular representatives of Turkey at the following places : —
Consuls-General. — Liverpool, Bombay, Cape of Good Hope, Malta.
Consult or Vice-Consuls. — Birmingham, Dublin, Jersey, Newcastle-on-
Tyne, Colombo (Ceylon), Gibraltar, St. Louis (Mauritius), Point de GaJIe,
Cardiff, Glasgow, Hartlepool, Hull, Leith, Manchester, Southampton, Sun-
derland, Swansea.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1037
2. Of Great Britain in Turkey and European Dependencies.
Ambassador. — Sir Philip H. W. Currie, G.C.B. ; Permanent Under-Secre-
tary for Foreign Affairs, 1889 ; appointed Ambassador to Turkey, January,
1894.
Secretary.— Sir A. Nicolson, K.C.I.E.
Military Attache.— Colonel H. C. Chermside, C.B., C.M.G.
Commercial Attache (Asiatic Turkey). — Edward FitzGerald Law.
Consul-General (Acting).— W. H. Wrench, C.M.G.
Bulgaria. — British Agent and Consul-General at Sofia. — Henry Nevill
Dering.
At Sofia there is also a Vice-Consul, and a Vice-Consul at Philippopolis.
There are also British Consular Representatives at the following places : —
Consuls-General. — Bagdad, Beyrout, Bosna Serai, Salonica, Smyrna, Tripoli.
Consuls or Vice-Consuls. — Benghazi (Tripoli), Adrianople, Bassora, Da-
mascus, Crete (Island), Jeddah, Jerusalem, Kurdistan, Samos, Trebizond,
Brussa, Dardanelles, Gallipoli, Scutari, Adana, Antioch, Candia, Van, Burgas,
Philippopolis, Rustchuk, Varna, Rhode, Scala Nuova.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications.
Turkey in Europe.
Salnaine 1307. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire for 1892-93. 8. Constantinople.
1893.
Report of the Health Office, published annually.
Report by Mr. Godfrey Blunt on the Finances of Turkey, in ' Reports of H.M. 's Secretaries
of Embassy.' Fart I. 1884.
CaUvaeU (Captain C. E.), Hand-book of the Turkish Army. Prepared in the Intelligence
Division of the War Office. London, 1892.
Treaty between Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for
the settlement of affairs in the East. Signed at Berlin, July 13, 1878. Fol. London, 1878.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports from Turkey and Possessions for 1892. London, 1893.
Bulgaria. Reports on Trade, Finance, Population, &c, of Bulgaria, in 1892. 'Diplo-
matic and Consular Reports.' London, 1893.
HerUlet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1891.
Trade of Turkey with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the year .1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
Turkey in Asia and Africa.
Correspondence respecting the condition of the population of Asiatic Turkey, 1888-89.
C-5,723 fol. London, 1889.
Reports on the Trade, &c, of Tripoli, No. 1,159; Palestine, No. 1,186; Aleppo, No.
1,200 ; Erzeroura, Nos. 1,242 and 1,271 ; Smyrna, No. 1,254 ; Damascus, No. 1,261 ; Jeddah,
No. 1,264; Beyrout, No. 1,279; Baghdad and Bussorah, No. 1,320 of the Annual Series;
and on Orange Growing in Jaffa in No. 300 of the Miscellaneous Series, Foreign Office
Reports. London, 1893.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Turkey in Europe.
Annual Report of the British Chamber of Commerce, Constantinople.
Barkley (H. C), Between the Danube and the Black Sea. 8. London.
Bath (Marquis of), Observations on Bulgariantlffairs. 8. London, 1880
Bourke R.), Turkish Debt. Report by Rt. Hon. Robert Bourke, M.P., to the English
and Dutch Bondholders. London, January 1882.
Caillard (V.), Memorandum on the History of the Turkish Debt since 1881.
• -Z(Ho - » — - * - « - , , ,-—
Campbell (Hon. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. 8. London, 1877.
Clark (Edson L.), The Races of European Turkey : their History, Condition, and Pro-
spects. 8. New York, 1879.
Creasy (Sir Edward Shepherd), History of the Ottoman Turks, from the beginning of
their Empire to the present time. New ed. 8. London, 1882.
Dunn (Archibald J.), The Rise and Decay of Islam. 8. London, 1877.
ElUot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Constantinople. 8. London, 1893.
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1038 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Freeman (Edward A.), The Ottoman Power in Europe : its Nature, its Growth, and its
Decline. 8. London, 1877.
Goehlert (J. V.), Die Bevolkerung der europaischen Turkey. 8. Wien, 1866.
Hafiz Huueyn (Effendi), Hadikat-ul-dschevami. Description of the Mosques, High
Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.
HerUlet (Sir E.), Treaties and Tariffs between Great Britain and Turkey.
Holland (Thomas Erskine), The European Concert in the Eastern Question. Oxford,
1885.
Hukn (Major A. von), The Struggle of the Balkans for National Independence under
Prince Alexander. London, 1886.
Journal de la Chambre de Commerce de Constantinople. Constantinople. Published
weekly.
Kanitz (F.), The Turks, the Greeks, and the Slavons. 8. London, 1867.
Kanitz (F.% Donan-Bulgarien und der Balkan, 1860-75. 8 vols. 4. Leipzig, 1875-79.
Kanitz (F.), La Bulgarie Danubienne et le Balkan, 1860-80. 8. Paris, 1882.
Kinglahe (Alexander William), The Invasion of the Crimea. 8. Edinburgh and London,
1863-75.
Laveleye (E. A.), The Balkan Peninsula. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Le Jean (Guillaume), Ethnographie de la Turquie d'Enrope. [In French and Germau.]
In Mittheilungen aus J. Perthes' Geogr. Austalt Erganzungshelfb No. 4. 4. Gotha, 1861.
MiUingen (Fred.), La Turquie sous le regne d'Abdul Aziz. 8. Paris, 1868.
Perrin (Dr. T.), L'Islamisme, son institution, son influence et son avenir. 8. Paris,
1878.
Poole (Stanley Lane-), The People of Turkey : Twenty Years' Residence among Bulga-
rians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians. By a Consul's Daughter. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1878.
Poole (Stanley Lane-), Turkey. In Story of the Nations Series. 8. London, 1886.
Reelus (Elisee), Geographic Universale. Vol. I. Paris, 1876.
Bosen (G.), Geschichte der Turkei neuester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866-67.
Samuelzon (J.), Bulgaria Past and Present. 8. London.
St. Clair (S. G. B.) and Brophy (C. A.), Twelve Years' Study of the Eastern Questiou
in Bulgaria. 8. London. 1877.
Tarring (C. J.)i British Consular Jurisdiction in the East. London, 1888.
Tozer (BT. F.), The Highlands of Turkey. London, 1869.
Zinkeisen(J. W.J, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa. 7 vols. 8. Gotha,
1840-63.
Elf Jahre Balkan-Erinnerungen eines Preussischen Offlciers aus den Jahren 1876 bis
1887. J. U. Kern's Verlag. Breslau, 1889.
Turkey in Asia and Africa.
Brinton (J.). Tour in Palestine and Syria. London, 1898.
Bryee (James), Trans-Caucasia and Ararat. 8. London, 1877.
Burton (Sir R. F.) and Drake (C. F. T.% Unexplored Syria. 2 vols. 8. London, 1872.
Cuinet (Vital), La Turquie d'Asie. Geographic administrative, Ac Paris, 1891.
Davit (E.), Asiatic Turkey. London, 1879.
Geary (Grattan), Asiatic Turkey. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Keane (A. H.) and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses or Scenes and Studies in Many Lands. 8. London, 1887.
Rohlft (Gerhard), Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien, 1868-69. 2 vols. 8. Bremen, 1871.
Reise vom Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra. 8. Leipzig, 1881.
Sehwarz (Dr. B.), Quer durcb Bitbynien. 8. Berlin, 1889.
8e\ff. Reisen in der Asiateschen Turkei. 8. Leipzig, 1875.
Tozer (H. F.), Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor. 8. London, 1881.
Ill EGYPT.
\
(KEM#I-
Beigning Khedive.
Abbas, born July 14, 1874; son of Mohamed Tewfik; suc-
ceeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 7, 1892.
He has one brother, Mohamed Aly, born Oct. 28, 1875,
and two sisters, Khadija Hanem, born May 2, 1879, and Nimet-
Hanem, born Nov. 6, 1881.
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GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 1039
The present sovereign of Egypt is the seventh ruler of the dynasty of Mehe-
met Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 1806, who made himself, in 1811,
absolute master of the country by force of arms. The position of his
grandfather, Ismail I. — forced to abdicate, under pressure of the British
and French Governments, in 1879 — was recognised by the Imperial Hatti-
Sheriff of February 13, 1841, issued under the guarantee of the five great
European Powers, which established the hereditary succession to the throne of
Egypt under the same rules and regulations as those to the throne of Turkey.
The title given to Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors was the Turkish
one of 'Vali,' or Viceroy ; but this was changed by an Imperial firman of
May 21, 1866 into the Persian- Arabic of ' Khidewi-Misr,' or, as more commonly
called, Khedive. By the same firman of May 27, 1866, obtained on the con-
dition of the sovereign of Egypt raising his annual tribute to the Sultan's civil
list from 376,000*. to 720,000*., the succession to the throne of Egypt was
made direct from father to son, instead of descending, after the Turkish law,
to the eldest heir. By a firman issued June 8, 1873, the Sultan granted to
Ismail I. the hitherto withheld rights of concluding commercial treaties with
foreign Powers, and of maintaining armies.
The predecessors of the present ruler of Egypt were —
Born Died Reigned
Mehemet Ali, founder of the dynasty 1769 1849 1811-48
Ibrahim, son of Mehemet . . . . 1789 1848 June— Nov. 1848
Abbas, grandson of Mehemet. . . 1813 1854 1848-54
Said, son of Mehemet 1822 1863 1854-63
Ismail, son of Ibrahim 1830 — 1863-79
Mohamed Tewfik, son of Ismail . . 1852 1892 1879-92
The present Khedive of Egypt has an annual allowance of 100,000*.
Government and Constitution.
The administration of Egypt is carried on by native Ministers,
subject to the ruling of the Khedive. Erom 1879 to 1883 two
Controllers-General, appointed by France and England, had con-
siderable powers in the direction of the affairs of the country
(Khedivial Decree, November 10, 1879). In the summer of 1882,
in consequence of a military rebellion, England intervened, sub-
dued the rising, and restored the authority of the Khedive. In
this intervention England was not joined by France, and as a
result, on January 18, 1883, the Khedive signed a decree abolish-
ing the joint control of England and France. In the place of
the Control, the Khedive, on the recommendation of England,
appointed an English financial adviser, without whose concurrence
no financial decision can be taken. The financial adviser has a
right to a seat in the Council of Ministers, but he is not an
executive officer.
The Egyptian Ministry is at present composed of six members, among
whom the departmental work is distributed as follows : — 1. President — Interior
and Instruction ; 2 Finance ; 3. Justice ; 4. War ; 5. Public Works ; 6. Foreign
Affairs.
On May 1, 1883, an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creating
a number of representative institutions, based on universal suffrage, with a view
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1040 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
to carrying on the government of the country in a more constitutional manner.
These institutions included a Legislative Council, a General Assembly, and
provincial boards.
The Legislative Council is a consultative body in matters of legislation, to
which all general laws are submitted for examination ; but the Government is
not obliged to act on its advice. It consists of 30 members, 15 of whom,
residing in Cairo, receive an allowance of 90Z. a year for carriage expenses,
and 15, being delegates from the provinces and provincial towns, receive 2502.
a year for residential expenses in Cairo, besides travelling expenses to and
from Cairo once a month.
The functions of the two other institutions are also of a limited character ;
but no new direct personal or land tax can be imposed without the consent of
the General Assembly, which has to be summoned every two years. Members
of the General Assembly, when convoked, receive an eight days' allowance at
11. a day, with railway expenses.
Egypt Proper is administratively divided into 5 governorships of principal
towns, and 14 mudiriehs, or provinces, subdivided into kisms.
Governorships. Mudiriehs.
Suez Canal, with the towns
of Port Said, Suez, and
Ismailieh.
Lower Egypt : — Upper Egypt : —
1. Kalioubieh. 1. Guizen.
2. Cairo.
3. Alexandria.
4. Rosetta. I 5. Dakahlieh. 5. Assiout.
5. Damietta.
2. Menouneh. 2. Minieh.
3. Gharbieh. 3. Beni Souef.
4. Charkieh. 4. Fayoum.
>
6. Behera. 6. Guerga.
7. Kena.
8. ElHedood.
There are also the governorships of the Red Sea littoral with Suakin, of
Kosseir in the Red Sea, El Arish on the frontier of Syria, and the Sinai penin-
sula under the Governor-General of the Suez Canal.
The governors and moudirs possess very extensive powers.
Area and Population.
Prior to 1884 the sovereign of Egypt claimed rule over
territories extending almost to the Equator. As a result
of the rebellion of the Sudanese, the Sudan provinces were
practically abandoned (though still nominally Egyptian), and
Wady Haifa, about 800 miles up the Nile from Cairo, has
been (provisionally) agreed upon as the boundary of Egypt
to the south (see under British East Africa and Africa,
Central).
At the present time Egypt Proper extends from Wady Haifa,
21° 40' lat. N., to the Mediterranean. The total area, including
the Oases in the Libyan Desert, the region between the Nile and
the Bed Sea, and El- Arish in Syria, is 400,000 square miles ; but
the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile Yalley and Delta,
covers only 12,976 square miles. Canals, roads, date plantations,
<fcc., cover 1,900 square miles; 2,850 square. miles are comprised
in the surface of the Nile, marshes, lakes, and desert. Egypt is
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AREA AND POPULATION
1041
divided into two great districts — ' Masr-el-Bahri/ or Lower Egypt,
and ' El-Said,' or Upper Egypt.
The following table gives the area of the settled land surface,
and the results of the census of May 1882 : —
/ Governorats
Cairo .
Alexandria
Damietta
Rosetta
Mudiriehs
Behera
Charkieh
Dakahlieh
Gharbieh
Kalioubieh
.Menoufieh
§ ( Governorats
J Port Said
tS (Suez .
i— • N
S El-Arish
Kosseir
Mudiriehs
Assiout
Beni Souef
Fayoum
Guizeh
Minieh
Guerga
Kena .
lEsna1.
'W
Total
Area in
sq. m.
Egyptians
Foreigners
Total
Density
per sq. m.
Sedentary
Nomad
6
70
244
932
905
931
2,340
352
639
352,416
181,200
43,501
19,267
364,050
435,380
578,144
908,041
254,198
642,609
772
503
1
33,102
27,471
6,213
18,900
16,596
2,512
21,650
49,693
114
111
1,704
1,804
1,676
2,547
597
892
374,838
231,396
43,616
19,378
398,856
464,655
586,033
929,488
271,391
646,013
62,473
3,305
9,692
790
426
513
629
397
771
1,010
6,204
3,778,806
106,070
80,788
3,965,664
639
101
/ 14,060
\ 9,977
226
8
7,010
1,190
21,296
11,175
| 3,092
104
24,037
234
8,200
32,471
3,092
I
2,629
1,291
3
3,923
19,615
7
840
501
493
370
772
631
544
332
2,190
549,776
193,305
200,967
274,406
294,655
515,972
383,819
221,813
240
11,906
26,119
27,328
8,483
19,824
5,311
22,877
16,096
455
149
414
194
339
130
162
52
2,430
562,137
219,673
228,709
283,083
314,818
521,413
406,858
237,961
17,010
712
438
464
765
407
826
958
717
4,483*
2,636,903
138,184
1,895
2,776,982
619
—
38,225
—
—
—
—
10,698
6,480,600
245,779
90,886
6,817,265
638
i A new province, El Hedood, has been formed on the frontier. Esna as a province no
longer exists, having been merged into the new province (1888).
Of the total population, 3,401,498 were males and 3,415,767 females.
If we arrange the above figures by administrative divisions we have the
following result :—
3 x
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1042
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Egyptians
Foreigners
Total
Sedentary
Nomad
Governorats .
Mudiriehs
Oases ....
Total ....
625,240
5,817,135
38,225
3,041
242,738
79,771
11,115
708,052
6,070,988
38,225
6,480,600
245,779
90,886
6,817,265
.. 1
The families number 1,178,564, and the houses 1,084,384. Taken by
nationalities, the number of foreigners in Egypt is : — Greeks, 37,301 ; Italians,
18,665 ; French, 15,716 ; Austrians, 8,022 ; English, 6,118 ; Germans, 948 ;
other foreign nations, 4,116 ; total, 90,886. Of this total nearly 90 per cent,
reside in Lower Egypt.1
The growth of the general population of the country is exhibited by the
following figures :—
5,203,405
5,251,757
1800 (French estimate)
1846 (Census) . . .
1855 (Colucci Pasha) .
1865 (Colucci Pasha).
2,000,000
4,463,244
4,402,013
4,841,677
1872 <De Regny) . .
1875 (Dr. Rossi Bey)
1882 (Census)
6,806,381
A comparison of the two official returns, 1846 and 1882, shows an average
annual increase in the population of about 1 '25 per cent.
The principal towns, with their populations in 1882, are : — Cairo, 368,108 ;
Alexandria, 208,755 ; Damietta, 34,046 ; Tantah, 33,725 ; Mansourah, 26,784 ;
Zagazig, 19,046 ; Rosetta, 16,671 ; Port Said, 16,560 ; Suez, 10,913.
Religion and Instruction.
The prevailing religion in Egypt is Mohammedanism. There are, however,
about 600,000 Copts, Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Their
highest dignitary is the Patriarch of Egypt and Abyssinia, who resides at Cairo.
There are twelve bishops, besides arcnpriests, priests, deacons, and monks.
The religion is Greek-Orthodox, with peculiar doctrines and practices : priests
must be married before ordained ; monks and high dignitaries only cannot
be married before or after ordination.
In 1875 there were 4,232 elementary schools and 4,343 teachers ; in 1887
there were 6,639 schools and 7,244 teachers. Education is not compulsory,
and the teachers are paid by fees. There are besides 17 schools supported by
the administration of the Wakfs, with 2,000 pupils. In the chief villages the
well-to-do cultivator educates his own children and those of his dependents by
engaging poor students as lecturers. Education is mainly confined to the read-
ing of the Koran. The higher standard is taught in 15 Government Colleges
(schools of law, medicine, arts and crafts, polytechnic, &c), 2 347 pupils ; and
in 21 national schools in the chief towns, 2,431 pupils. Over 100 pupils are
educated in France, England, Austria, and Germany, at the expense of the
Government.
Justice and Crime.
Subsequent to 1882 a body of gendarmerie was formed for the provinces, and
a corps of police for the towns of Alexandria and Cairo. On January 1, 1884,
a new organisation of police came into force, placing both them and the gaol*
l These are old statistics, but no new ones have been compiled. The numbei of reside tit
foreigners has largely increased.
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JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE
1043
—hitherto in the hands of the moudirs — under the control of two English
officials attached to the Ministry of the Interior. Also at the end of February
1884 new criminal codes came into operation, taking away all magisterial
power from the hands of the moudirs, and placing it in the hands of delegates
appointed by a Procureur-G6n6ral, working under the Minister of Justice.
Within the last five years a series of reforms has been inaugurated under
English supervision, and they have resulted in the establishment of new native
tribunals, the reform of the prison system, the partial abolition of the corvte
(forced labour), the reform of the currency, and an improvement in the ad-
ministration of the Finances and of the Public Works. Litigation between
natives and foreigners is conducted before mixed tribunals, established under
the auspices of the European Powers, and possessing very extensive jurisdiction.
The total strength of the police and the gendarmerie is about 7,000.
The following are the criminal statistics of Lower and Upper Egypt for five
years : —
Year
Grimes
Offences
Contraventions
Total
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1,144
1,387
1,979
1,762
1,379
14,968
15,752
16,349
22,141
24,441
17,268
19,172
29,424
51,0761
87,120
33,380
36,311
47,752
74,979
112,940
i This increase is owing to the extension of summary tribunals in various parts
of the country.
Finance.
On April 5, 1880, the Khedive issued a decree appointing an international
commission of liquidation to examine the financial situation of Egypt, and to
draft a law regulating the relations between Egypt and her creditors, and also
between the Daira Sanieh and the Daira Khassa and their creditors. That
commission, in concert with the Egyptian Government, estimated the annual
income of the country as follows : —
-
1880-81
1882 and after
Revenues assigned to the Debt l
,, „ to the Government .
Total ... . .
£E3,463,734
4,897,888
£E3,513,734
4,897,888
8,361,622
8,411,622
i £E equals £1 Of. 64.
The commissioners assigned (1) to the service of the Privileged Debt the
railway and telegraph income and the port dues of Alexandria ; and (2) to the
service of the Unified Stock the customs revenue and the taxes of four pro-
vinces. The charge for the Privileged Debt was a fixed annuity, providing
interest at 5 per cent., and sinking fund calculated to extinguish the debt by
1941. Should the revenues assigned to the Privileged Debt prove insufficient
to meet the annuity, the deficit was to become a first charge on the revenues
assigned to the Unified Debt. The interest of the latter debt was fixed at
4 per cent., guaranteed by the Government in case the assigned revenues were
insufficient. The surplus of the revenues assigned to the debt was to go to the
3x2
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1044 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES; — EGYPT
redemption of the Unified by purchase of stock in the market. In September
1884 a portion of this surplus was appropriated by the Government.
Their estimate of the liabilities of Egypt was : —
Government : £E £E
Tribute 681,486
Moukabalah annuity 150,000
Interest to England on Suez Canal shares . . 193,858
Daira Khassa 34,000
Administrative expenses 3,641,544
Unforeseen expenditure 197,000
4,897,888
Debt:
Privileged Stock 1,157,718
Unified : . 2,263,686
3,421,404
8,319,292
)
The total floating debt at the end of 1884 was about £E8, 000, 000. In
March 1885 the representatives of Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France,
Italy, Russia, and Turkey signed a Convention according to which they agreed
to guarantee a new loan of 9,000,000Z. This sum was to provide for the settle-
ment of the floating debt and the Alexandria Indemnities, with a surplus of
1,000,0002. to be applied to irrigation works. The principal stipulations of
the Convention were : — Rate of interest on the guaranteed loan not to exceed
3 J per cent. ; its service to be a fixed annuity of 315,0002., which is a first
charge on the assigned revenues, and the surplus of the annuity after payment
of interest to be used for redemption. The coupons of the other Egyptian
loans to be taxed in 1885-86 to the extent of 5 per cent. ; the surplus of
revenue over expenditure to be divided between the Government and the
sinking fund.
The tax on the coupons was repaid in 1887, the tax discontinued, and a
reserve fund established, which at the present time amounts to nearly
£E1,736,000. In the early part of 1888 — an arrangement having been come
to with the ex-Khedive Ismail Pasha and certain members of his family for
the commutation of their allocations on the civil list for Domains, and it being
considered desirable to redeem pensions in a similar manner — a loan of
£E2,300,000 was issued in May 1888 to provide for these commutations by
paying off the mortgages on the Domains lands required. A fixed annuity of
£E130,000 was assigned for the service of the new 4} per cent, loan, but, as
an equivalent sum was economized through the reduction of the civil list and
of the pension budget, and the considerable diminution in the interest on the
Domains Loan, the annual burden on Egypt was not increased by the new
issue ; while, as a large sinking fund provides for the rapid extinction of the
4} per cent, loan, a temporary charge has been substituted for a permanent one.
A Khedivial decree was issued on June 6, 1890, with the consent of the
Powers, authorizing the conversion of the 5 per cent. Privileged Loan, of
the Daira Sanieh Loan, and of the Domains Loan, and the reimbursement of
the 4J per cent. Loan of 1888. A new privileged loan was issued in which was
included the 5 per cent. Privileged Loan, the 4 J per cent. Loan, and a sum of
1,333,3332. to be employed on irrigation works, and in the exchange of pen-
sions for land. This new privileged loan bears interest at 34 per cent., and
was issued at 91Z. per 1002. of capital. A new 4 per cent. Daira Sanieh Loan
was issued at par. The capital of the old loan was calculated at 852. for 1002.
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FINANCE
1045
of nominal capital, in accordance with the decree of June 6, 1890. The new
Domains Loan converted at par, 25th March, 1893, bears interest at 4£ per
cent The new loans issued enjoy the same privileges and guarantees as the
loans for which they were substituted.
Table showing the amount of the Egyptian debt at the end of October,
1893 :—
£
Guaranteed Loan, 3 per cent 8,444,100
Privileged Debt, 3£ per cent 29,400,000
Unified Debt, 4 per cent 55,986,140
Daira Sanieh Loan, 4 per cent 7,011,860
Domains Loan, 4± per cent 4,363,960
Total .... 105,606,060
The budgets fixed upon for 1893 and 1894 are set forth in the table
below : —
Revenue
1804
1898
Expenditure
1894
£E
1893
£E
£E
£E
Land tax, date taxes,
Public debt .
3,883,019
4,004,109
Ac.
4,870,000
4,956,000
Tribute to Turkey .
665,041
665,041
Urban taxes, Ac. .
129,000
129,000
Civil List of H. H.
Customs and To-
the Khedive.
100,000
100,000
bacco .
1,410,000
1,410,000
Civil Lists, Khedi-
Octrois .
200,000
210,000
vial family .
106,927
114,127
i Salt and natron
170,000
180,000
Private Cabinet of
Fisheries .
97,000
85,000
H. H. the Khedive
55,984
55,984
Navigation dues
78,000
79,000
PublicWorksHinistry
470,659
460,949
Railways .
1,650,000
1,600,000
Ministry of Justice .
372,317
371,533
Telegraphs
42,000
40,000
Administration of
Fort of Alexandria .
125,000
120,000
Provinces .
323,035
319,989
Post Office
112,000
112,000
Finance Ministry
119,221
119,180
1 Postal Boats Admin-
Ministry of Public
i istration
180,000
110,000
Instruction .
104,289
92,544
1 Lighthouses .
100,000
110,000
Ministry of Interior
122,723
120,515
Ministry of Justice .
870,000
370,000
Other Ministries
Exemption from
specified
117,514
121,112
military service .
90,000
90,000
Customs administra-
Rents on Govern-
tion
184,962
132,376
ment property .
Souakim District .
86,000
86,000
Octrois .
32,946
40,811
16,000
15,000
Salt and natron
45,966
46,896
Pension fund .
54,000
54,000
Fisheries dues col-
Sundries receipts
lection
9,115
7,978
specified
246,000
254,000
Navigation dues col-
lection
8,207
2,979
Railways .
806,258
771,700
Telegraphs
40,200
39,200
Port of Alexandria .
24,500
28,000
Post Office
98,220
93,221
i
Postal boats admin-
1
istration
106,500
110,000
i
Lighthouses .
Public security—
25,142
25,142
'
War,Police,Prisons,
,
Army of Occupation
727,271
712,804
i
Souakim .
119,284
118,860
Pensions .
445,000
435,000
i | Suppression of Corvee
400,000
400,000
10,075,000
.. Sundries specified .
84,500
45,500
'
10,010,000
1
9,545,000
9,550,000
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1046 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The charges on account of debts of all descriptions in 1894 are estimated at :
Guaranteed Loan : 3% fixed annuity 315,000
Privileged Debt : 34% . 1,029,000
Unified Debt: 4% 2,239,463
Daira Sanieh Loan : 4% . 285,315
Domains Loan : 4 \% 185,468
Interest on Suez Canal shares up to 1894 115,900
Daira Khassa : annual payment to Daira Sanieh Loan Com-
missioners 34,871
Moukabala : annuity till 1930 153,846
Total .... 4,358,863
The services of the Domains and Daira are guaranteed by the Domains
and Daira estates, which are administered for the bondholders by com-
missioners; ^should the revenue of these lands prove insufficient to cover
the interest of the loans, the Government has to make good the deficits.
The final accounts for the year 1892 showed the financial result of the
year to be as follows : —
Receipts 10,363,845
Expenditure 9,595,246
Surplus .... 768,599
Of this surplus £E258,689 went to the Reserve Fund of the Caisse de la
Dette, £E178,559 to the Egyptian Government Special Reserve Fund, and
£E331,351, the amount of the economy from the conversions in deposit, to
the Caisse de la Dette.
At the beginning of the year 1893 the Reserve Funds stood as follows : —
£B
Reserve Fund of the Caisse de la Dette 1,957,863
Egyptian Government Reserve Fund ..... 777,376
Amount of the Economy from the Conversion .... 656,011
Total Reserves . . . 3,391,250
Defence.
Army.
On September 19, 1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was
disbanded by Khedivial decree. In December of the same year
the organisation of a new army was entrusted to a British general
officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. The present Sirdar is
Brigadier General Kitchener, C.B., C.M.G., A.D.C. There are
about 60 English officers serving at present in the Egyptian
army. The army has a total strength of 13,000.
Since the rebellion in 1882 an English army of occupation has
remained in Egypt. Its strength on December 1, 1891, was 3,103,
under the command of Major-General Forestier Walker, C.B.
Egypt has now no efficient warships.
Production and Industry.
The total area, land and water, of Egypt is about 8,000,000 feddans
(1 feddan=103 acre), and of this 5,022,000 have been cultivated in 1891.
The agricultural population form 61 per cent, of the total. ^
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1047
The Egyptian agricultural year includes three seasons or crop. The
leading winter crops, sown in November and harvested in May and June, are
cereal produce of all kinds ; the principal summer crops, sown in March and
harvested in October and November, are cotton, sugar, and rice ; the autumn
crops, sown in July and gathered in September and October, are rice, sorgho
(a sort of maize), and vegetables generally. In Lower Egypt the irrigation of
the land is effected by means of a network of canals tapping the Nile and
traversing the Delta in every direction ; while in Upper Egypt the basin
system of irrigation, i.e. the submersion at high Nile of the land to be
cultivated, is adhered to.
The following table refers to the cultivation of cotton : —
---
Year
Area cultivated
Yield
Produce per feddan
Feddans
Kantars
Kantars
1888
1,021,250
2,900,000
2*84
1889
852,829
3,158,000
37
1890
864,400
4,160,000
4-8
1891
851,000
4,765,000
5-5
1892
864,000
4,987,500
5*8
Feddan is equal to 1 03808 acre. Kantar is equal to 99 0492 lbs.
In 1886, 2,444 villages were occupied in the culture of cotton out of a
total of 3,781 ; in 1889 the number was 2,685.
In the following table the agricultural condition of each of the provinces
in Lower and Upper Egypt is indicated : —
-
No. of
Villages
No. of
Feddans
cultivated
No. of
Farm
Animals
No. of
Sheep and
Goats
No. of
FruitTrees
No. of
Date Trees
Per 100
Per 100
Per 100
Per 100
Lower Egypt :
feddans
feddans
feddans
feddans
Behera
403
467,662
12
13
23
22
Charkieh .
451
434,982
12
9
24
116
Dakahlieh .
449
462,367
11
13
13
27
Gharbieh .
552
840,089
17
16
16
25
Kalioubieh .
166
187,180
17
19
325
70
Menoufieh .
Upper Egypt:
338
351,710
33
18
43
8
2,359
2,743,990
17
14
42
40
Assiout
292
419,100
10
30
21
84
1 Beni Souef .
174
231,610
15
16
8
46
I Fayoum
87
231,045
8
13
54
105
Guizeh
168
181,176
19
36
9
195
Minia .
268
397,240
6
9
17
54
Esna .
195
150,459
18
11
7
348
Guerga
110
325,915
16
51
9
96
Kena .
]
Total, Egypt .
126
280,927
10
34
10
92
1,420
2,217,472
13
25
17
106
3,779
4,961,462
14
20
13
69
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1048
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The total number of date trees which yield fruit or seed is about
3,452,674. Cattle and farm animals, including horses and camels, number
1,668,860.
The following table shows (in feddans) the area of the several crops in
1890 and 1891 :—
-
1890
1891
-
1890
Feddans
44,012
13,141
860
8,819
6,050
14,183
1891
Wheat .
Maize and durrah .
Clover
Cotton .
Beans
Barley
Lentils
Rice
4 Helbe ' (Fenugreek)
Vegetables, potatoes
Sngar-cane
'Guilbane' (Chick-
ling vetch) .
Feddans
1,165,676
1,559,906
875,761
864,802
628,211
456,076
77,216
148,095
133,484
87,244
65,505
82,211
Feddans
1,215,841
1,530,983
820,263
871,241
643,751
460,330
75,756
167,164
189,560
34.542
64,589
38,702
Water - melons,
melons,
Lupins, smut .
Tobacco .
Peas, &c
Flax, henna, indigo
Castor plant, sesame
Total crops
Area cultivated
Double cultivation .
Feddans '
43,180 '
17,355
7,169
5,829
9,664
6,180,701
5,022,701
6,145,849
1,108,000
_ 1
In Lower Egypt the soil yields four crops in three years ; in Upper Egypt
seven crops in six years.
Commerce.
The exterior commerce of Egypt, comprising imports and exports of all
kinds of merchandise, is given at the following figures for five years : —
Year
Imports
Exports
Totals
£E
£E
£E
1888
7,738,343
10,418,213
18,156,556
1889
7,020,961
11,953,196
18,974,157
1890
8,081,297
11,876,086
19,957,383
1891
9,201,390
13,878,628
23,080,018
1892
9,091,481
13,341,318
• 22,432,799
The movement of specie during the same period has been —
Year
Imports
Exports
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£E
2,038,956
1,900,418
2,971,461
2,824,861
3,826,400
£B
1,898,062
2,642,900
1,963,700
2,085,455
2,048,900
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COMMERCE
1049
The following table shows the value of the commercial intercourse of
Egypt with different foreign countries for three years : —
1
Exports to
Imports from
1
1890
1891
1892
1890
1891
1892
I
£E
£E
£E
£E
£E
£E
1 Great Britain 1 .
7,704,121
8,940,277
7,867,495
8,111,686
3,427,613
3,200,638
Turkey
334,179
889,053
489,809
1,633,987
1,668,815
1,893,300
France and Algeria .
943,670
1,104,456
1,096,695
804,154
915,366
878,178
Austria-Hungary
829,925
626,187
662,515
775,201
858,419
784,588
Italy . . .
764,756
723,694
611,746
232,018
280,271
277,031
Russia
1,017,411
1,625,040
1,735,486
323,683
354,142
347,346
India, China, Ac.
5,203
36,917
24,938
588,161
779,773
693,595
Greece
24,718
22,719
10,581
121,503
115,840
34,604
America .
24,057
81,295
168,255
42,777
21,439
35,092
Other countries .
Total .
228,047
5,329,100
823,798
448,127
779,712
858,109
11,876,087
18,878,688
18,841,318
8,081,297
9,201,890
9,091,481
* Includes* British possessions in the Mediterranean.
The percentage of Egyptian intercourse with various countries for the last
three years was as follows : —
Imports from
Exports to
1890
1891
1892
1890
1891
1892
Great Britain
Mediterranean possessio
Eastern possessions
Austria.
France and Algeria
Greece .
Italy .
Russia .
Turkey
DS
37
1
7
10
10
1-5
3
4
20
37
8
9
10
1
3
4
18
34
1-6
6-7
8-6
9-7
0*4
3
3*8
21
65
O'l
0-4
7
8
0-2
6
9
3
47
0*2
4
6
O'l
4
8
2
58
0 2
0 2
4*2
8*2
07
4-6
3
The value of the leading exports and imports of Egypt during the last three
years is shown in the following table : —
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1050
TUBKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
'
Exports
Imports
1 -
1890
1891
1892
-
1890
1891
1892
£E
£E
dBE
£E
£E
£E
Cotton .
8,272,226
8,988,826
8,838,034
Cotton goods .
1,674,073
1,943,892
1,541,600
Cotton seed .
1,380,255
1,544,963
1,923,700
Silks, wool-
Sugar .
338,028
572,694
686,500
lens, linen,
Beans .
730,647
908,441
693,000
hemp, Ac. .
755,469
1,187,331
1,303,700
Wheat .
223,906
518,264
288,900
Coal
491,495
473,245
617,500
Rice .
70,696
125,654
137,100
Ho8iery,cloth-
ing, Ac. .
Timber .
Indian corn .
23,457
434,146
119,000
339,284
349,985
876,500
Hides A skins
95,298
85,879
89,100
349,432
426,552
688,300
Onions .
72,834
87,525
114,150
Coffee .
243,575
294,998
286,150
Wool .
52,514
35,740
34,150
Wine, beer, A
Flour and
spirits
265,267
291,570
293,850
bran .
9,350
27,673
13,700
Tobacco and
Lentils .
19,627
80,100
43,400
cigars .
475,475
464,426
349,500 ,
Gumarabic .
469
522
566
Petroleum A
oils .
296,301
802,387
324,250
Machinery .
187,582
167,491
272,500
Iron and steel
goods.
Indigo .
Fruits, fresh A
—
465,649
687,500
191,379
173,680
249,900
preserved .
183,188
267,577
273,000
Animals
91,090
181,552
241,600
Wheat A flour
—
107,933
204,600
Rice
167,905
131,057
152,116
Refined sugar
84,660
56,898
80,600
Statement showing the value of the imports from, and exports to, each
country in 1891 and 1892.
Imports.
Exports
England
British Colonies in the Mediterranean
British Colonies in the Extreme East
Germany
America
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
China and Extreme East .
Egyptian Coasts, Red Sea .
Espany
France .
French Colonies, Mediterranean .
Greece
Italy
Marocco
Persia
Russia * .
Turkey
Other countries
Total
1891
£E
J,427,613
158,673
533,480
150,646
21,439
858,419
256,194
87,620
14,734
887,543
27,913
116,840
280,271
36,888
37,737
854,142
1,668,322
283,513
1892
1891
£E
3,061,426
139,212
609,974
179,858
35,092
784,588
358,972
83,621
7,322
878,178
34,604
277,081
40,478
54,900
347,345
1,893,300
305,580
£E
8,940,277
16,686
18,877
50,541
81,295
626,187
78,526
1,176
34,917
109,309
1,091,279
13,177
22,719
723,594
12,868
1,625,040
389,053
43,617
9,251,390 I 9,091,481
18,878,638
1892 I
£E
7,843,938 '
23,657!
24,938'
812,970
168,255 •
562,515 .
132,095 ,
28,251
157,300 '
1,096,695
10,581
6117746
1,735,486 I
439,809'
193,09-J
13,341,318 I
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COMMERCE
1051
The receipts from tobacco were :— In 1885, £E212,267 ; 1888, £E332,500 ;
1889, £E441,000; 1890, £E475,500 ; 1891, £E464,426 ; 1892, £E655,300.
The subjoined statement shows the total value of the imports from Egypt
into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British produce and
manufactures to Egypt, in five years, according to the Board of Trade
returns : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports from Egypt into U. K.
Exports of British produce to
Egypt
£
7,285,499
2,908,320
£
8,620,602
2,940,445
£
8,368,851
3,381,830
10,658,288
3,789,238
£
10,525,230
3,192,592
The following table shows the values of the principal imports into the
United Kingdom from Egypt, and of the principal exports from the United
Kingdom to Egypt
Tear
British Imports from Egypt
Exports of British Produce to Egypt
Raw
Cotton
Cotton
Seeds
Wheat
Beans
Cotton
Goods
Coal
Iron
Machi-
nery
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
4,297,872
5,704,017
5,316,936
6,468.985
6,700,240
£
1,480,305
1,683,767
1,605,801
1,883,268
2,109,786
£
286,236
104,002
142,852
352,005
139,617
£
891,375
315,358
599,876
800,874
664,763
£
1,401,907
1,270,304
1,580,576
1,745,669
1,349,993
£
609,409
828,928
1,038,523
1,074,238
952,577
£
142,658
134,494
152,712
216,920
177,034
£
117,396
141,390
118,282
134,296
118,642
Shipping and Navigation.
The following tables show the nationality and tonnage of vessels arriving
and clearing at Alexandria. Great facilities have been afforded to steamers
since the completion of the docks, wharfs, and quays ; and in order to still
further facilitate navigation the Government have decided upon constructing
a new pass, 300 feet wide and 30 deep, to enable vessels, which have
often been delayed off the port during stormy weather, to make a direct run
into harbour.
Arrivals and clearances of commercial vessels at Alexandria, 1888-1892.
Year
Arrivals
Clearances
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
2,182
2,224
2,019
2,163
2,312
1,587,558
1,549,961
1,632,220
1,807,717
2,116,123
2,152
2,216
2,020
2,158
2,291
1,587,177
1,528,977
1,613,800
1,765,716
2,072,212
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1052
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The following table shows the nationality of commercial vessels arrived
and cleared in 1892 : —
Nationality
Arrivals
— . . ,
Clearances
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
British ....
French ....
Austrian ....
Ottoman ....
Russian ....
Italian ....
Greek ....
Swedish and Norwegian .
German ....
Spanish ....
Belgian ....
Danish ....
Dutch ....
Portuguese
Jerusalem (flag)
Samiote ....
Montenegrin .
Total for 1892 .
664
127
139
944
79
134
118
36
13
3
5
9
15
23
3
933,911
285,519
197,962
248,284
121,657
201,983
31,935
46,763
16,109
2,747
5,763
20,605
611
1,851
423
658
121
133
954
78
135
119
35
16
3
5
9
12
11
2
922,935
270,022
191,492
238,569
118,394
205,132
31,224
46,960
16,111
2,747
5,763
20,605
565
1,411
282
2,312
2,116,123
2,291
2,072,212
The total arrivals at Port Said, Suez, Damietta, and Rosetta, in 1892, were
6,988 vessels of 7, 922, 652 tons, and clearances, 7,053 vessels of 7,919,634 tons.
Suez Canal.
The following table shows the number and gross tonnage of vessels of the
leading nationalities that passed through the canal in 1892 : —
Country
No.
Tonnage
Country
No.
Tonnage
1 Great Britain .
2,581
8,101,904
Russia
22
74,554
' Germany .
292
809,013
, Turkey
43
66,239
1 France
174
635,585
! Greece
6
13,845
1 Holland
177
433,543
Belgium
4
7,430
Italy
74
198,206
Japan
3
5,941
Austria
61
191,145
China
2
3,455
Norway
66
146,525
Egypt
2
2,462
Spain
26
98,240
Siam
1
2,229
Portugal .
23
74,830
America .
2
1,253
k
The number and gross tonnage of vessels that have passed through the
Suez Canal, and the gross receipts of the company, have been as followsin
six years :—
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SUEZ CANAL
1053
Year
No. of
Vessels
Gross
Tonnage
Receipts
1887
1888
1889
3,137
3,440
3,425
8,430,043
9,437,957
9,605,745
£
2,367,955
2,658,174
2,735,678
Year
1890
1891
1892
No. of
Vessels
3,389
4,207
3,659
Gross
Tonnage
9,749,129
12,217,986
10,866,401
Receipts
£
2,679,360
3,836,884
2,978,097
The number of passengers who went through the canal in 1892 was
189,809.
The Suez Canal is 87 miles long, 66 actual canal and 21 miles" lakes,
connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation
November 17, 1869.
The state of the capital account as regards bonds in circulation and re-
deemed was as follows, on December 31, 1892 , —
Francs Francs
n„«?*-i aaa aaa „!,,,„,, n* KAn *.„„„<, / 393,830 in circulation 196,665,000 \ o^ nAA nAA
Capital, 400,000 shares at 600 francs . . | 6,670 redeemed . 3,385,000/ 200'000'000
Consolidation of unpaid coupons, 400,000 ( 396,658 in circulation "
bonds at 85 francs . \ 8,342 redeemed .
Loan (1867-68), 333,333 obligations at 300 r 260,795 in circulation
francs I 72,538 redeemed .
Loan (1871), 120,000 30-year bonds at 100 ( 61,520 in circulation
francs I 58,480 redeemed
Loan (1880), 73,026 3 per cent, obligations,
various prices 2,089 redeemed
Loan (1887), 195,000 3 per cent, obligations 698 redeemed
"■SSSo} 3*.°<>o,ooo
78,238,5001 on aaa aaa
21,761,400/ w™>wo
26,999,962.7
79,147,540
452,147,402
There were besides, 100,000 founders' shares, with right to participate in
surplus profit under certain conditions. In 1892 the founders' share of sur-
plus profits was 4,172,854 francs.
Of the above 400,000 shares, 176,602 belonged formerly to the Khedive
of Egypt, and were purchased from him by the British Government in
November 1875 for the sum of 3,976,5822. But the Khedive, by a con-
vention passed in 1869 between himself and the Suez Canal Company, for
the settlement of disputed claims and accounts, had alienated all dividends
on his 176,602 shares up to 1894, and placed them at the disposal of the
company. Against these dividends the company issued 120,000 'Delega-
tions,'which are entitled to all sums accruing on the above 176,602 shares
up to 1894; the dividends which the 'Delegations receive are, however,
lessened by an annual sum laid aside to provide a sinking fund, sufficient
to extinguish them all by the end of the year 1894.
The statutes of the Suez Canal Company provide that all net earnings
in excess of the 5 per cent, interest on the shares shall be divided as
follows : —
1. 15 per cent, to the Egyptian Government.
2. 10 ,, to the founders' shares.
3. 2 ,, for the employes of the company.
4. 71 ,, as dividend on the 394,677 shares.
5. 2 ,, to the managing directors.
The net profits in 1892 were 41,728,543 francs.
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1054
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT.
Internal Communications.
Egypt has a railway system of a total length of 1, 226 miles, and 30 miles now
under construction. Gross receipts in 1892, £E1,680,164. Gross expenditure,
1892, £E728,242. The following are the statistics of passengers and goods
carried for five years : —
I
Year
Passengers, Number
Goods, Metrical Tons of
1,000 Kilogrymmes.
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
4,004,882
4,378,463
4,696,286
6,649,202
7,047,295
802,204
817,864
958,496
1,146,952
1,161,896
The telegraphs belonging to the Egyptian Government were, at the end of
1892, of a total length of 1,922 miles, the length of the wire being 6,763 miles.
The Government have also established telephone communication between
Cairo and Alexandria, and have given concessions to a telephone company for
urban telephone lines. The Eastern Telegraph Company, also by concessions,
have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria vid Cairo to Suez, and from
Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to England and India. Number of
telegrams, 1,470,000, as against 1,304,000 in 1891, not including telegrams
sent by the Eastern Telegraph.
The following table gives the number of letters, post-cards, newspapers, &c
which passed through the Egyptian Post Office in the year 1892 : —
Inland
Foreign
Total
Letters and Post-Cards
Newspapers, &c. . .
Total . . .
9,191,000
3,074,000
3,719,000
2,232,000
12,910,000
5,306,000
12,265,000
5,951,000
18,216,000
Registered letters and post office orders were 362,000 in number, and
amounted to the value of £E14,551,000.
Twenty-nine per cent, of the total foreign correspondence was with
Great Britain.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
10 Milliemes
1,000 Milliemes or 100 P.T.
£1 sterling .
Piastre Tarif (written P.T.).
£1 Egyptian.
97J PT.
Napoleon, gold piece of 20 francs . = 77-A P.T.
The Egyptian pound weighs 8*5 grammes *875 fine, and therefore contains
7*4375 grammes of fine gold.
The 10-piastre silver piece weighs 12*5 grammes *900 fine, and therefore
contains 11*25 grammes of fine silver.
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MONEY, ETC.— REPRESENTATIVES — BOOKS 1055
A thorough . reform was effected of the Egyptian silver coinage during
1885 and 1886. Previously the coins of nearly all the countries of Europe
were freely used, but now foreign silver cannot be passed except at a heavy
discount.
By a decree of the Khedive, dated August 1, 1875, the metrical system
of weights and measures was ordered to be introduced into Egypt on the
1st of January, 1876, compulsory only at first in all public and admini-
strative transactions.
Dry Measure.
The Ardeb is used as the unit in all transactions in grain, &c, and is
equal to 5 '44739 bushels.
The approximate weight of the ardeb is as follows : — Wheat, 315
rottles ; beans, 320 rottles ; barley, 250 rottles ; maize, 315 rottles ; cotton
seed, 270.
Weights.
Okieh . = 1*3206 ounce.
Rattle . = "99049 1b.
Okc . . . = 2-7513 lbs.
/Y , for 100 Rottles or) ftfllftjloo1,
Cantar{ 36 0kes f= " 0492 lbs*
Length Measures.
Inches '
Diraa Baladi (town) = 22*8350
Diraa Mimari for building, &c. . . . = 29 5281
Kassabah = 1397663
Measures of Surface.
Feddan, the unit of measure for land, is equal to 1 '03808 acre.
Square Pie. — This measure is generally used for the measuring of
building sites, gardens, and other small plots of ground, and is equal to
about 6 square feet and 7 inches.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Cairo. — Her Majesty's Agent and Consul-General in Egypt, Minist-er
Plenipotentiary.— Lord Cromer, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.C.S.I., CLE.
Second Secretary. — A. Hardinge.
Consul-General and Judge at Alexandria. — Sir Charles Cookson, K. C. M. G. ,
C.B.
There are also Consular representatives at Cairo, Massowah, Zagazig,
Damietta, Port Said, Suez, Suakin.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Egypt.
1. Official Publications.
Le Commerce exterieur de l'Egypte. Annual. Alexandria.
Convention between the Governments of Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
France Italy, Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Finance of Egypt, signed at London.
March 18, 1886. London, 1885.
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1056 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Correspondence respecting the State Domains of Egypt. London, 1883.
Correspondence respecting the Reorganisation of Egypt. London, 1883.
Correspondence respecting the Mixed Courts and Judicial Reforms in Egypt. London
1884.
Correspondence respecting the Finances of Egypt. London, 1884.
Further Correspondence on the Affairs of Egypt (Egypt, Nos. 1 and 17.) London
1885.
Report on the Financial Situation of Egypt, dated June 28, 1884. London, 1884.
Correspondence respecting the proposed International Convention for securing the free
Navigation of the Suez CanaL London, 1888.
Correspondence respecting the Settlement of the Claims of the ex-Khedive Ismail Pasha
and his Family. London, 1888.
Despatch from Lord Dufferin forwarding the Decree constituting the new Political Insti-
tutions of Egypt. London, 1883.
La refonne monetaire en Egypte. Cairo, 1886.
Le Canal de Sue». Paris, published every ten days.
Rencensement general de l'Egypte. Tomes 1 et 2. Le Caire, 1885.
Reports by Sir H. Drummond Wolff on the Administration of Egypt. London, 1887.
Reports by Mr. Villiers Stuart, M.P., respecting Reorganisation of Egypt. London, 1883.
Report on the Egyptian Provinces of the Soudan, Red Sea, and Equator. Compiled in
the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster-General's Department, Horse Guards, War
Office. London, 1884. %
Report on the Soudan, by Lieut-Colonel Stewart. London, 1883.
Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms. London.
1885.
Reports on the Trade of Alexandria, Suakin, Port Said, and Suez, in ' Diplomatic and
Consular Reports. London, 1893.
Report on the Finances of Egypt. London, 1888-92.
Despatch from Sir Evelyn Baring inclosing a Report on the Condition of the Agricultural
Population in Egypt. July, 1888.
Statement of the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the
Egyptian Bonds and the Charges for their Services. London, 1885.
Suez Canal, Returns of Shipping and Tonnage. Annual. London
Suez Canal, Report by the British Directors on the provisional Agreement with M. de
Lesseps. London, 1883.
Vincent (Sir Edgar), Memorandum on the Land Tax of Egypt. Cairo, 1884.— Report on
the Financial Position of Egypt. Cairo, 1884.— Memorandum on the Budget of 1885.
Cairo, 1885.— Note on the Currency of Egypt. Cairo, 1885.— Note on the Revenue State-
ment for 1884. Cairo, 1885. — Note on the Proposed Monetary Law. Cairo, 1885.—
Financial Proposals. Cairo, 1885. — Egyptian Balance-sheet, December 31, 1884. Cairo,
1885.— Report on the Year 1884. Cairo, 1885.— Report on the Finances of Egypt, 1885,
1886, and 1887. Cairo.
L'administration flnanciere 1884-87 et la modification du regime fiscal des tabacs en
Egypte. 1887.
Trade of Egypt with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1892/ Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
Essai de statistique agricole, 1887 and 1888. (Boinet Bey) Le Caire, 1888 and 1889.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baroie (J.), L'irrigation en Egypte. Paris, 1888.
Brugsch-Bey (Henri), Histoire d'Egypte. 2nd edit. Leipzig, 1875.
Chilu (A), Le Nil, le Soudan, l'Egypte. Paris, 1891.
De Leon (Edwin), The Khedive's Egypt. 8. London, 1877.
Duff-Gordon (Lady), Last Letters from Egypt. 8. London, 1875.
Ebers (Georg), Aegypten in Bild und Wort. FoL Stuttgart, 1879.
Edwards (A. B.), A Thousand Miles up the Nile. 8. London, 1877.
Ibrahim-Hilmy (Prince), The Literature of Egypt and the Soudan. 2 vols. London,
1886-88.
Lesseps (Ferdinand de), Le Canal de Suez. 8. Paris, 1875.
Loftie (W. J.), A Ride in Egypt. 8. London, 1879.
Milner (A.), England in Egypt. London, 1891.
Moberly-Bell (C. F.), Khedives and Pashas. London, 1879.
„ „ Egyptian Finance. London, 1886.
„ „ From Pharaoh to Fellah. London, 1887.
MeCoan (J. C), Egypt as it is. London, 1877.
Malortie (Baron de), Egypt : Native Rulers and Foreign Interference. London, 1883.
Miiklbach (L.), Reisebriefe aus Aegypten. 2 vols. 8. Jena, 1871.
Poole (S. Lane), Egypt. In •Foreign Countries and British Colonies' Series. 8.
London, 1881.
„ „ Social Life in Egypt. 4. London, 1884.
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June, 1887.
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Stephan (H.), Das heutige Aegypten. 8. Leipzig, 1872. &,
Stuart (Villiers), Egypt after the War. London, 1883.
fFal2ae« (D. Mackenzie), Egypt and the Egyptian Question. London, 1883.
Wilcock* (W.), Egyptian Irrigation. E. & F. N. Spon, London, 1889. Z
Wilson (C. T.), and Felkin (R. W.), Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan. London, 1882. '.
Wingaie (Major D. 8. O., R.A.), Mahdiism and the Sudan, 1881-90. London, 1891. 5j
Wingate (Major D. S. O.), Ten Years in the Mahdi's Camp (from the original MS. of i
Father Ohrwalder). London, 1892. f
Wylde (A. B.), '83 to '87 in the Soudan. 2 vols. London, 1888. v;
Zincke (F. B.), Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 8. London, 1872. i ;,
\
3 v
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)
1058
UNITED STATES.
(United States of America.)
Constitution and Government.
The Declaration of Independence of the thirteen States of which
the American Union then consisted was adopted by Congress
July 4, 1776. On November 30, 1782, Great Britain acknow-
ledged independence of the United States, and on September 3,
1783, the treaty of peace was concluded.
The form of government of the United States is based on the
Constitution of Sept. 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were
added Dec. 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment, Jan. 8, 1798 ; a
twelfth amendment, Sept. 25, 1804; a thirteenth amendment,
Dec. 18, 1865 ; a fourteenth amendment, July 28, 1868; and a
fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870.
By the Constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted
to three separate authorities, the Executive, the Legislative, and
the Judicial. The executive power is vested in a President, who
holds his office during the term of four years, and is elected, to-
gether with a Vice-President chosen for the same term, in the
mode prescribed as follows : — * Each State shall appoint, in such
manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of elec-
tors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to
which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator
or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.' The
practice is that in every State the electors are chosen by direct
vote of the citizens. In every State except Michigan all the
electors allotted to the State are chosen on a general ticket,
on the system known in France as scrutin de liste. The
Constitution enacts that 'the Congress may determine the time
of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give
their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United
States ; ' and further, that ' no person except a natural-born
citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adop-
tion of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of Presi-
dent ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall
not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four-
teen years a resident within the United States.'
The President is commander-in-chief of the army and
navy, and of the militia in the service of the Union. The
Vice-President is ex-offlcio President of the Senate ; and in case of
Digitized by
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
1059
the death or resignation of the President, he becomes the Presi-
dent for the remainder of the term. The elections for President
and Vice-President are at present held in all the States on Tues-
day next after the first Monday in November, every leap-year ;
and on the 4th of March following the new President-elect
assumes office.
President of the United States. — Grover Cleveland, of New
York, born March 18, 1837, at Caldwell, New Jersey; studied
at Buffalo, New York, for the bar; Sheriff of Erie County, 1870 ;
Mayor of Buffalo, 1881 ; Governor of New York State, 1883-85 ;
President of the Republic, 1885-89 ; re-entered on Presidency
March 4, 1893.
Vice-President. — Adlai Ewing Stevenson, of Illinois, born
October 23, 1835, in Kentucky; was admitted to the bar, 1857 ;
Member of Congress, 1875-77, 1879-81, and 1883-85 ; Assistant
Postmaster-General, 1885.
The President of the United States has an annual salary of
50,000 dollars, and the Vice-President 8,000 dollars.
Since the adoption of the Constitution the offices of President
and Vice-President have been occupied as follows : —
Presidents of the United States.
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
George Washington
Virginia .
1789-1797
1732
1799
John Adams
Massachusetts ,k
1797-1801
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson .
Virginia .
1801-1809
1743
1826
James Madison .
Virginia .
1809-1817
1751
1836
James Monroe
Virginia .
1817-1825
1759
1831
John Quincy Adams
Massachusetts .
1825-1829
1767
1848
Andrew Jackson .
Tennessee
1829-1837
1767
1845
Martin Van Buren
New York
1837-1841
1782
1862
William H. Harrison .
Ohio
March- Apl. 1841
1773
1841
John Tyler .
Virginia .
1841-1845
1790
1862
James K. Polk
Tennessee
1845-1849
1795
1849
Zachary Taylor .
Millard Fillmore .
Louisiana .
1849-1850
1784
1850
New York
1850-1853
1800
1874
Franklin Pierce .
New Hampshire
1853-1857
1804
1869
James Buchanan .
Pennsylvania .
1857-1861
1791
1868
Abraham Lincoln .
Illinois
1861-1865
1809
1865
Andrew Johnson .
Tennessee
1865-1869
1808
1875
Ulysses S. Grant .
Illinois
1869-1877
1822
1885
Rutherford B. Hayes .
Ohio
1877-1881
1822
1893
James A. Garfield
Ohio
March-Sept. 1881
1831
1881
Chester A. Arthur
New York
1881-1885
1830
1886
Grover Cleveland .
New York
1885-1889
1837
—
Benjamin Harrison
Indiana .
1889-1893
1833
—
Grover Cleveland .
New York
1893
1837
—
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1060
UNITED STATES
Vice-Presidents of the United States.
Name
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson ,
Aaron Burr .
George Clinton
Elbridge Gerry
Daniel D. Tompkins
John C. Calhoun .
Martin Van Buren
Richard M. Johnson
John Tyler .
George M. Dallas .
Millard Fillmore .
William R. King .
John C. Breckinridge
Hannibal Hamlin .
Andrew Johnson .
Schuyler Colfax .
Henry Wilson
William A. Wheeler
Chester A. Arthur
Thomas A. Hendricks
Levi P. Morton .
Adlai E. Stevenson
From Statue
Term of Service
Massachusetts
Virginia .
New York
New York
I Massachusetts
I New York
South Carolina
New York
Kentucky
Virginia .
Pennsylvania
New York
Alabama .
Kentucky
Maine
Tennessee
Indiana .
Massachusetts
New York
New York
Indiana .
New York
Born I Died
I
I 1789-1797
j 1797-1801
I 1801-1805
1 1805-1812
' 1813-1814
! 1817-1825
I 1825-1832
1833-1837
' 1837-1841 !
, March-Apl. 1841
! 1845-1849 '
■ 1849-1850
| 1853
1857-1861
: 1861-1865
I March-Apl. 1865 '
: 1869-1873 ,
i 1873-1875
j 1877-1881
; March-Sept. 1881 .
lMar.-Nov.25, 1885
I 1889-1893 !
1893
1735 I
1743 i
1756
1739
1744 I
1774 I
1782 ;
1782 j
1780
1790 !
1792 ;
1800 I
1786 .
1821
1809 |
1808
1823 *
1812 ;
1819 I
1830 :
1819 ,
1826
1826 I
1836
1812
1814
1825
1850
1862
1850
1862 !
1864
1874
1853
1875
1891
1875
1885
1875
1887
1886
1885
1835 —
By a law which came into force Jan. 19, 1886, in case of re-
moval) death, resignation, or inability of both the President and
Vice-President, the Secretary of State, and after him, in their
order, other members of the Cabinet, shall act as President until
the disability of the President is removed or a President shall be
elected. On the death of a Vice-President the duties of the
office fall to the President pro tempore of the Senate, who receives
the salary of the Vice-President.
The administrative business of the nation is conducted by
eight chief officers, or heads of departments, who form what is
called the ' Cabinet/ They are chosen by the President, but
must be approved of by the Senate. Each of them presides over
a separate department, and has to act under the immediate
authority of the President. The heads of departments are (Jan.
1893) :—
1. Secretary of State, — Walter Q. GresJuvm, of Indiana, born
1832 in Indiana ; admitted to the bar, 1853 ; Member of Indiana
Legislature, 1860; served in Federal army; U.S. Judge for
Indiana, 1869 ; Postmaster-General, 1882 ; Secretary to the
Treasury, 1884; U.S. Circuit Judge, 1884-93 ; present appoint-
ment, March 5, 1893.
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1061
2. Secretary of the Treasury. — John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky,
born 1835 in Kentucky ; admitted to the bar, 1858; Member of
Kentucky House of Representatives, 1859, and of State Senate,
1866 ; Lieut. -Governor of Kentucky, 1871 ; Member of U.S.
House of Representatives, 1878-90 ; Speaker, 1883-89; Senator,
1890. Present appointment, March 5, 1893.
3. Secretary of War. — Daniel S. Lamont, of New York,
March 5, 1893.
4. Secretary of the Navy. — Hilary A. Herbert, of Alabama,
born in S. Carolina; served in Confederate army; Member of
Congress, 1877-93. Present appointment, March 5, 1893.
5. Secretary of the Interior. — Hoke Smith, of Georgia,
March 5, 1893.
6. Postmaster-General. — Wilson S. BisseU, of New York,
March 5, 1893.
7. Attorney -General. — Richard Olney, of Massachusetts, born
in Massachusetts, 1835. Present appointment, March 5, 1893.
8. Secretary of Agriculture. — Julius S. Morton, of Nebraska,
March 5, 1893.
Each of the above ministers has an annual salary of 8,000
dollars, and holds office during the pleasure of the President.
The whole legislative power is vested by the Constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
The Senate consists of two members from each State, chosen by
the State Legislatures for six years. Senators must be not less
than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens of the United
States for nine years ; and be residents in the States for which
they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity, the Senate is
entrusted with the power of ratifying or rejecting all treaties
made by the President with foreign powers, a two-thirds majority
of senators present being required for ratification. The Senate
is also invested with the power of confirming or rejecting all
appointments to office made by the President, and its members
constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment in the
latter case extends only to removal from office and disqualification.
The House of Representatives has the sole power of impeachment.
The House of Representatives is composed of members elected
every second year by the vote of citizens who, according to the
laws of their respective States, are qualified to vote. In general
such voters are all male citizens over 2 1 years of age. Neither race
nor colour affects the right of citizens. The franchise is not abso-
lutely universal ; residence for at least one year in most States
(in Rhode Island and Kentucky two years, in Michigan and Maine
three months) is necessary, in some States the payment of taxes,
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1062
UNITED STATES
Alabama
. 9
Arkansas
. 6
California
. 7
Colorado
. 2
Connecticut
. 4
Delaware
. 1
Florida .
. 2
Georgia
. 11
Idaho .
. 1
Illinois .
. 22
Indiana
. 13
Iowa
. 11
Kansas .
. 8
Kentucky
. 11
Louisiana
. 6 :
Ohio .
. 21
Oregon .
. 2
Pennsylvania
. 30
Rhode Island
. 2
South Carolina
. 7
South Dakota
. 2
Tennessee
. 10
Texas .
. 13
Vermont
. 2
Virginia
. 10
Washington .
. 2
West Virginia
. 4
Wisconsin
. 10
Wyoming
. 1
Total .
356
in others registration. Untaxed Indians are excluded from the
franchise, in most States convicts, in some States duellists and
fraudulent voters ; in Massachusetts voters are required to be able
to read English. Wyoming admits women to the franchise on
equal terms with men. The number of members to which each
State is entitled is determined by the census taken every ten
years. By the Apportionment Act consequent on the census
of 1890, the number of representatives was 356, distributed as
follows : —
Maine . . 4
Maryland . 6
Massachusetts . 13
Michigan . .12
Minnesota . . 7
Mississippi . . 7
Missouri . .15
Montana . . 1
Nebraska . . 6
Nevada. . . 1
New Hampshire . 2
New Jersey . . 8
New York . . 34
North Carolina . 9
North Dakota . 1
On the basis of the last census there is one representative to every
173.900 inhabitants. The popular vote for President in 1892 was about
12, i 00, 000, or somewhat under one in five of the entire population. In 1890
there were in the United States 16,940,311 males of voting age — 21 years and
over.
According to the terms of the Constitution, representatives must not be
less than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of the United
States for seven years, and be residents in the States from which they are
chosen. In addition to the representatives from the States, the House
admits a f delegate ' from each organised Territory, who has the right to speak
on any subject and to make motions, but not to vote. The delegates are
elected in the same manner as the representatives.
Each of the two Houses of Congress is made by the Constitution the
'judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members ' ; and
each of the Houses may, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member.
The Congress of the United States has the power to propose alterations
in the Constitution, by the 5th article of the same. The article orders that
the Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary,
shall propose amendments to the Constitution, or, on the application of the
Legislatures of two-thirds of all the States, shall call a convention for pro-
posing the amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents
and purposes as part of the Constitution when ratified by the Legislatures
of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths
thereof, as the one or other mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress.
Under an Act of Congress approved Jan. 20, 1874, the salary of a senator,
representative, or delegate in Congress is 5,000 dollars per annum, with
travelling expenses calculated at the rate of 20 cents per mile, by the most
direct route of usual travel, and similar return, once for each session n of
Congress. There is also an annual allowance of 125 dollars for stationery
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CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1063
&c, for each member. The salary of the Speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives is, under the same Act of Congress, 8,000 dollars per annum.
No senator or representative can, during the time for which he is elected,
be appointed to any civil office under authority of the United States which
shall have been created or the emoluments of which shall [have been in-
creased during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United
States can be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
No religious test is. required as a qualification to any office or public trust
under the United States.
The period usually termed fa Congress' in legislative language, con-,
tinues for two years ; as, for example, from noon, March 4, 1893, until noon,
March 4, 1895, at which latter time the term of the representatives to the
53rd Congress expires, and the term of the new House of Representatives
commences.
The Federal Government has authority in matters of Federal taxation,
treaties and other dealings with foreign powers, army, navy, and (to a certain
extent) militia, commerce, foreign and inter-State, postal service, coinage,
weights and measures, and the trial and punishment of crime against the
United States.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States by the
thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution, passed December 18, 1865. The
vast change in the political and social organisation of the Republic made by
this new fundamental law was completed by the fourteenth and fifteenth
Amendments of the Constitution, passed in 1868 and 1870, which gave to the
former slaves all the rights and privileges of citizenship.
State and Local Government.
Each of the States forming the Union has its own constitution, but the
various constitutions agree in their main features. Each of them provides
for a Governor, a Legislature of two houses, and a State judicial system. The
State legislature is supreme in all matters except those which have been
reserved for the Federal Government. The executive is vested in the Governor,
whose duties are in general analogous to those of the President, as far as the
several State Governments are analogous to that of the Union. In some
States the Governors have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the
Senate, the appointment, of many important officers ; but in most States
appointments in the power of the Governors are comparatively unimportant ;
in New York, for example, nearly all officers and all judges are elected by the
people. Like the President, they make recommendations to the Legislature,
and take care that the laws are executed. Like the President, they may be
impeached and removed for treason, bribery, or other crimes.
In four of the six Territories the Governor and Secretary are appointed by
the President of the United States, as are also the Territorial judges ; but
local laws are passed by an elective legislature. Congress retains the power to
enact either civil or criminal law for any Territory, and also has, and some-
times exercises, the power of disallowing any act passed by the Territorial
legislature. The other two Territories have no power of self-government.
Alaska is governed like a British crown colony, by a governor who is not
assisted by a legislature.
In Indian Territory the native tribes are under the direct control of the
Department of the Interior, but the civilised tribes, with the support of the
national Government, maintain local governments of their own with elective
legislatures and executive officers, whose functions are strictly limited to the
persons and personal property of their own citizens (Indians).
The District of Columbia is the seat of the United States Government,
provided by the State of Maryland for the purposes of government in 1791,
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1064
UNITED STATES
It is co-extensive with the city of Washington, and embraces an area of 60
square miles. The district has no municipal legislative body, and its citizens
have no right to vote either in national or municipal concerns. By an
Act of Congress of 1878, its municipal government is administered by three
commissioners, appointed by the President.
The unit of local government in the North, especially in the New England
States, is the rural township, governed directly by the voters who assemble
annually or oftener if necessary, and legislate in local affairs, levy taxes, make
appropriations, and appoint and instruct the local officials (select men, clerk,
school-committee, &c). Where cities exist the township government is
superseded by the city government. Townships are grouped to form counties,
each with its commissioners and other paid officials who have charge of public
buildings, lay out highways, grant licences , and estimate and apportion the
taxation necessary for county purposes. In the South the counties are them-
selves the units, though subdivided for educational or other special purposes.
Their officials have in general additional functions, as the care of the poor and
the superintendence of schools. In the Middle and North- Western States the
two systems of local government are mixed. In the West all the public land
is already divided into townships six miles square.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table gives the total white and coloured popu-
lation of the United States, at each of the eleven censuses from
1790 to 1890:—
l
^Increase
Year
White
Free Coloured
Slave
Total
percent,
perann.
1790
3,172,006
59,527
697,681
3,929,214
_ 1
1800
4,306,446
108,435
893,602
5,308,483
3 51
1810
5,862,073
186,446
1,191,362
7,239,881
3 63
1820
7,862,166
233,634
1,538,022
9,633,822
3 30
1830
10,537,378
319,599
2,009,043
12,866,020
3 35
1840
14,195,805
386,293
2,487,355
17,069,453
3 26 '
1850
19,553,068
434,495
3,204,313
23,191,876
3 58
1860
26,922,537
488,070
3,953,760
31,443,321
3 55
1870
33,589,377
4,880,009
—
38,558,371
2 *2&
1880
43,402,970
6,580,793
—
50,155,783
3 01
1890
54,983,890
7,470,040
—
62,622,250
2*48
There are also included in the total for 1860, 34,933 Chinese
and 44,021 Indians; for 1870, 63,199 Chinese, 55 Japanese and
25,731 Indians; for 1880, 105,465 Chinese, 148 Japanese, and
66,407 Indians; for 1890. 107,475 Chinese, 2,039 Japanese, and
58,806 Indians.
The following table shows the area and population at the
censuses of 1880 and 1890, and population per square mile in
1890 of the States and Territories arranged in geographical
divisions. The dates indicate the year of formal independence
of the thirteen original States and the year of entrance of each
of the other States into the Union : —
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AREA AND POPULATION
1065
-
L nd Area :
English
square miles
Population in
1880
Population in
1890
Pop. per
sq.mile,
1890
North Atlantic Division :
Maine (1820)
29,895
648,936
661,086
22*1
New Hampshire (1783).
9,005
346,991
376,530
41*8
Vermont (1791) .
9,135
332,286
332,422
36 4
Massachusetts (1783) .
8,040
1,783,085
2,238,943
278-5
Rhode Island (1783) .
1,085
276,531
345,506
318-4
Connecticut (1783)
4,845
622,700
746,258
154 0
New York (1783) .
47,620
5,082,871
5,997,853
126 0
New Jersey (1783)
7,455
1,131,116
1,444,933
193-8
Pennsylvania (1783)
Total .
44,985
4,282,891
5,258,014
116*9
162,065
14,507,407
17,401,545
107*4
South Atlantic Division :
Delaware (1783) .
1,960
146,608
168,493
86-0
Maryland (1783) .
9,860
934,943
1,042,390
1057
D. of Columbia (1790) .
60
177,624
230,392
3839-9
Virginia (1783) .
40,125
1,512,565
1,655,980
41-3
West Virginia (1862) .
24,645
618,457
762,794
31'0
North Carolina (1783) .
48,580
1,399,750
1,617,947
33*3
South Carolina (1783) .
30,170
995,577
1,151,149
38-2
Georgia (1783)
58,980
1,542,180
1,837,353
31-2
. Florida (1845)
Total .
54,240
269,493
391,422
7-2
268,620
7,597,197
8,857,920
33 0
Northern Central Division :
Ohio (1802) .
40,760
3,198,062
3,672,316
90-1
Indiana (1816)
35,910
1,978,301
2,192,404
61-1
Illinois (1818)
56,000
3,077,871
3,826,351
68-3
Michigan (1837) .
57,430
1,636,937
2,093,889
36-5
Wisconsin (1847) .
54,450
1,315,497
1,686,880
31-0
Minnesota (1857) .
79,205
780,773
1,301,826
16-4
Iowa (1845) .
55,475
1,624,615
1,911,896
34-5
Missouri (1821) .
68,735
2,168,380
2,679,184
39-0
North Dakota (1889) .
70,195
36,909
182,719
2-6
South Dakota (1889) .
76,850
98,268
328,808
4-3
Nebraska (1867) .
76,840
452,402
1,058,910
13-8
Kansas (1861)
Total .
81,700
996,096
17,364,111
1,427,096
17*5
753,550
22,362,279
297
Southern Central Division :
Kentucky (1791) .
40,000
1,648,690
1,858,635
46-5
Tennessee (1796) .
41,750
1,542,359
1,767,518
42 3
Alabama (1819) .
51,540
1,262,505
1,513,017
29-4
Mississippi (1817) .
46,340
1,131,597
1,289,600
27'8
Louisiana (1812) .
45,420
939,946
1,118,587
24-6
Texas (1845) .
262,290
1,591,749
2,235.523
85
Oklahoma (Ter.) (1890).
38,830
—
61,834
1-6
Arkansas (1836) ,
Total .
53,045
802,525
1,128,179
10,972,893
21-3
18-9
579,215
8,919,371
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1066
UNITED STATES
-
Land Area :
English
square miles
Population in
1880
Population in
1890
Pop.per,
sq.mile,
1890
Western Division :
Montana (1889) .
145,310
39,159
132,159
0 9
Wyoming (1890) .
Colorado (1875) .
97,575
20,789
60,705
0 6
103,645
194,327
412,198
4*0
New Mexico (Ter.) (1850)
122,460
119,565
153,593
13
Arizona (Ter.) (1863) .
112,920
40,440
59,620
0 5
Utah (Ter.) (1850)
82,190
143,963
207,905
25 t
Nevada (1864) .
109,740
62,266
45,761
0-4
Idaho (1890)
84,290
32,610
84,385
1*0
Washington (1889)
66,880
75,116
349,390
5*2
Oregon (1859)
94,560
174,768
313,767
3 3
California 1850 .
Total .
155,980
864,694
1,208,130
77 ;
1,175,550
1,767,697
3,027,613
2 6
Totals .
2,939,000
50,155,783
62,622,250
213
Indian Territory (1854) .
31,000
Alaska (Ter.) (1868) .
Grand Totals
531,409
33,426
32,052
01
3,501,409
50,189,209
62,654,302
17*9
Not included in the general census of 1890 were : —
Five Nations in Indian Territory 1 78, 097
Reservation Indians 133,517
Indians of New York, of Alabama, and in prisons ... 5,877
Indian Agents, persons at schools, military posts, &c. 5,663
Whites on Indian land's 2,310
Total
... 325,464
>
As regards sex, the total population of the States and Territories at the
census of 1890 comprised 32,067,880 males, and 30,554,370 females.
At the first census of the Union, in 1790, there existed only 13 States
and 4 Territories, the largest of the States, as then constituted, being
Virginia, with a population of 747,610. In 1800 there were 16 States and 4
Territories, Virginia having then a population of 880,200. In 1810 the
same State, with a population of 974,600, took the lead of 17 States and 7
Territories. In 1820 there were 23 States and 3 Territories, New York
standing first with a population of 1,372,111. In 1830 there were 24
States and 3 Territories ; in 1840, 26 States and 3 Territories ; in 1850, 30
States and 5 Territories ; in 1860, 33 States and 8 Territories ; in 1870, 37
States and 9 Territories ; in 1880, 38 States and 8 Territories ; in 1890, 44
States and 4 Territories (including Oklahoma), neither Alaska, the District
of Columbia nor the Indian Territory being included in these numbers.
Of a total population in 1880 of 36,761,607 over ten years of age,
17,392,099 were engaged in the various professional and industrial occupa-
tions, and of these 2,647,157 were females. These were distributed as
follows : —
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
1067
-
Male
Female
Total
Agriculture
Professional and personal services
Trade and transportation
Manufactures, mechanical and min-
ing industries ....
7,075,983
2,712,943
1,750,892
3,205,124
594,510
1,361,295
59,364
631,988
7,670,493
4,074,238
1,810,256
3,837,112
Of those engaged in agriculture, 4,225,945 were returned as farmers and
planters, and 3,323,876 as agricultural labourers. Of the 'professional and
personal* class, 1,859,223 were labourers, and 1,075,655 domestic servants,
67,081 Government officials, 85,671 physicians and surgeons, 64,698 clergy-
men, and 64,137 lawyers. Of those engaged in trade and transportation,
about 280,000 were 'traders and dealers.' Of the last class 234,228 are
returned as miners; 114,539 as engaged in iron and steel works; 169,771
cotton-mill operatives ; saw-mill operatives, 77,050; silk-mill operatives,
18,071 ; woollen-mill operatives, 88,010.
Area of Indian Reservations, Population, and Births and Deaths
of Indians in each State and Territory of the United States
during the year ending june 30, 1892 :—
Area of Indian Reserva-
Population
Vital
States and Territories
on.Reser-
vations
-(Indians)
Acres
Square Miles
Births
Deaths
Arizona ....
6,464,037
10,100
34,962
232
177
California
463,705
725
12,516
60
61
Colorado .
1,094,400
1,710
986
26
20
Idaho
2,088,091
3,263
4,261
45
108
Indian Territoi
y
25,893,812
40,459
70,391
36
19
' Iowa
2,900
4
392
10
8
| Kansas .
89,871
140
1,066
48
44
i Michigan .
19,799
31
7,428
—
—
I Minnesota
2,254,781
3,523
6,685
179
161
I Montana .
9,382,400
14,660
10,604
406
374
Nebraska
126,503
198
3,814
147
113
1 Nevada .
954,135
1,491
8,442
34
42
New Mexico
9,495,645
14,837
9,903
97
104
New York
87,677
137
5,236
161
146
North Carolina
65,211
102
2,885
75
50
North Dakota
3,914,240
6,116
7,865
301
338
Oklahoma
7,605,478
11,883
12,903
454
556
Oregon .
1,929,105
3,014
4,730
130
115
1 South Dakota
10,271,601
16,049
18,454
566
582
Texas
—
—
290
—
—
Utah
3,972,480
6,207
2,260
27
34
Washington
4,045,284
6,821
9,981
213
264
• Wisconsin
446,521
698
9,265
218
287
Wyoming .
1,810,000
2,828
1,719
43
57
Miscellaneous .
i
—
1,302
—
—
Total, 1892 .
92,477,666
144,496
248,340
3,508
3,660
1 Total, 1880 .
154,741,349
241,800
255,327
3,430
2,729
The vital statistics are defective.
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1068
UNITED STATES
In 1892 the United States spent 11,150,578 dollars on the
Indians. There are 66 agencies throughout the States.
Of the population of the States and Territories in 1890, 58,372,703 (or
85*28 per cent.) were natives, and 9,249,547 (or 14*77 per cent.) foreign-bora.
In 1880 there were 43,475,840 natives and 6,679,943 foreign-born (13*32 per
cent). In 1870 the population was 14*44 per cent, foreign-born ; in 1860,
13*16 per cent ; in 1850, 9*68 per cent
The following table shows the origin of the foreign-born population at
the census of 1890 : —
England 1
.
909,092
Wales .... 100,079
Scotland. . . ' . 242,231
Ireland .... 1,871,509
Total United Kingdom 3,122,911
Germany . . . 2,784,894
Canada and Newfoundland 980,938
Sweden .... 478,041
Norway .
322,665
Russia .
182,644
Italy .
182,580
Poland .
147,440
Denmark
. 132,543
Austria .
123,271
Bohemia
118,106
France .
113,174
China
106,688
Switzerland
104,069
Holland . • .
81,828
Mexico .
77,853
Cuba and West Indies
23,256
Hungary
62,435
Belgium .
22,639
Portugal .
15,996
Spain
6,185
South America
5,006
Other foreign countries
54,385
Total .
9,249,547
i Includes Great Britain, not specified.
Thus of the foreign-born population 33*76 per ceDt. were from the United
Kingdom (20*23 per cent, from Ireland, 10*91 percent from England and
Wales, and 2*62 per cent from Scotland) ; 30*11 percent, were from Germany:
10*61 per cent, from Canada ; 10*09 per cent, from Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark ; 1*22 per cent, from France ; and 14 "21 per cent, from other countries.
II. Movement op Population.
There is no systematic registration of births, deaths, and marriages in the
United States as a whole, so that it is not possible to ascertain the growth
of population by the excess of births alone. The death-rate is comparatively
low; in 1880 the death-rate among the whites was 14*74 per 1,000, anil
among coloured 17*28 per 1,000. The highest death-rate among whites was
in New Mexico, 22*04 per 1,000, and the lowest in Arizona, 7*91 per 1,000 :
the highest among coloured in the District of Columbia, 35*25, and the lowest
in Arizona, 1 *89.
From 1775 to 1815 immigration into the United States was very small, on
account of the American Revolution and the European wars, not over 3,000 or
4,000 a year arriving during this period. When peace between England and
America was re-established, in 1815, immigration took a fresh start Prior
to 1820 no official record of arrivals was kept, but it is estimated that, from
the foundation of the Government up to that year, about 250,000 alien pas-
sengers arrived, 98 per cent, of whom were immigrants. The total number of
immigrants from 1820 to 1893 (June 30) was 17,072,361. The following state-
ment, in which, from July 1, 1885, immigrants from Canada and Mexico are
not included, shows the number arrived in the United States from the leading
Digitized by VjOOQIC
AREA AND POPULATION
1069
foreign countries during the decade ending June 30, 1893, with the total
number of immigrants in each year during that period : —
Year
ending
June 30
British
Isles
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
129,294
109,508
112,548
161,748
182,203
153,549
122,754
122,311
117,514
109,101
Germany
179,676
124,443
84,403
106,865
109,717
99,538
92,427
113,554
130,758
96,361
Sweden,
Norway,
Austria-
and
Hungary
Denmark
52,728
35,571
40,704
27,309
46,735
28,680
67,629
40,265
81,924
45,811
57,504
34,174
50,368
56,199
60,107
71,042
68,302
80,136
62,935
56,633
Italy
16,510
13,599
21,315
47,622
51,075
24,848
51,799
76,065
62,137
72,916
Russia
France
17,226
3,608
20,243
3,493
21,739
3,318
36,894
5,034
39,313
6,454
31,889
5,918
33,147
6,585
47,426
6,766 '
79,294
6,521
37,177
5,359 |
Totallm-
migrants
5l8,592i
395,346
334,203!
490,109,
546, 889j
444,427
455,302
560,319
623,084
502,917
Thus the total for the last ten years, including other countries besides
those mentioned, was 4,871,138. Of the total immigrants in 1893, 187,072
were females.
The total number of Chinese immigrants between 1855 and 1885 was
274,399. The total number of Chinese reported in the census of 1880 was
105,465, in 1890, 107,475. By the law passed in 1882, Chinese immigration
was prohibited.
The following table shows the comparative increase of the population
during the last five decades by reproduction and by immigration : —
Year
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
Population
Decade
total
Increase
4,203,433
6,122,423
8,251,445
7,115,050
11,597,412
12,466,467
Decade
Increase by
Immigrants
Percentage of Decade
Increase
Total
By
Immi-
gration
4-66
10-04
11-12
7-25
7-29
10-46
By
Repro-
duction
28-01
25-83
24-46
15-38
2279
14-40
17,069,453
23,191,876
31,443,321
38,558,371
50,155,783
62,622,250
599,125
1,713,251
2,579,580
2,278,425
2,812,191
5,246,613
32*67
35*87
35-58
22 63
30-08
24-86
III. Principal Cities.
In 1880 there were 45, and in 1890, 74 cities with upwards of 40,000
inhabitants. Of the entire population in 1890, 18,284,385, or 29*20 per cent,
(in 1880, 22-57 per cent.) lived in 448 towns (in 1880, 286 towns) of over
8,000 inhabitants. Of these towns, 283 had each from 8,000 to 20,000 in-
habitants; 91 from 20,000 to 40,000; 35 from 40,000 to 75,000; 14 from
75,000 to 125,000 ; 14 from 125,000 to 250,000 ; 7 from 250,000 to 500,000 ;
1 from 500,000 to 1,000,000 ; and 3 over 1,000,000.
The following table shows the fifty principal cities of the United States
giving the population in 1880 and 1890 : —
Digitized by
Google
1070
UNITED STATES
Town
Population
New York
1,206,299
Chicago .
PhiladelpMa .
503,185
847,170
Brooklyn .
Saint Louis
566,663
350,518
Boston
362,839
Baltimore
332,313
San Francisco .
233,959
Cincinnati
255,139
Cleveland
160,146
Buffalo .
155,134
New Orleans .
216,090
Pittsburg .
156,389
Washington
177,624
Detroit .
116,340
Milwaukee
115,587
Newark .
136,508
Minneapolis
Jersey City
46,887
120,722
Louisville
123,758
Omaha ,
30,518
Rochester
89,366
Saint Paul
41,473
Kansas City
55,785
Providence
104,857
1890
1,515,301
1,099,850
1,046,964
806,343
451,770
448,477
434,439
298,997
296,908
261,353
255,664
242,039
238,617
230,392
205,876
204,468
181,830
164,738
163,003
161,129
140,452
133,896
133,156
132,716
132,146
Town
Denver
Indianapolis
Allegheny
Albany .
Columbus
Syracuse.
Worcester
Toledo .
Richmond
New Haven
Paterson .
Lowell
Nashville.
Scranton .
Fall River
Cambridge
Atlanta .
Memphis .
Wilmington
Dayton .
Troy
Grand Rapids
Reading .
Camden .
Trenton .
Population
1880
1890
I
35,629
75,056 |
78,682 !
I 90,758 '
I 61,647
i 51,792 j
58,291 !
, 50,137 ,
63,600
I 62,882
51,031
! 59,475 I
1 43,350 I
45,850
48,961
52,669 !
37,409 I
33,592
42,478
38,678
56,747
32,016
43,278
41,659
29,910
106,713 :
105,436
105,287 1
94,923
88,150 ,
88,143 I
84,655 !
81,434
81,388 j
81,298
78,347 !
77,696 .
76,168 |
75,215 .
74,398
70,028 !
65,533 |
64,495 }
61,431
61,220 I
60,956
60,278
58,661
58,313 |
57,458
Religion.
The Constitution of the United States guarantees the free
exercise of religious profession and worship, and this guaranty is
repeated in the Constitutions of the forty-four States. Nearly
all the sects and religious denominations existing in Europe are
represented in the United States. , At the census of 1880 there
were 86,132 Protestant and 5,975 Roman Catholic churches :
70,864 Protestant ministers, and 6,366 Roman Catholic clergy.
The Protestants returned 8,975,260 ' members,' or communicants ;
adding to this an estimate of the families of members, and of
adherents, the total attached to Protestantism would probably be
about 30,000,000. In 1870 there were in all 63,082 churches, of
which 3,806 were Roman Catholic ; and in the same year the
number of ' sittings ' returned was 21,665,062, of which 1,990,514
were in Roman Catholic churches. There were in all 45 separate
religious bodies returned in 1880.
In 1890 the membership of the most important bodies, as
compiled from official sources, mostly by the New York Inde-
pendent, was as follows : — Roman Catholics, 6,250,045 ; Method-
ists of various sects, 4,980,240 ; Baptists of various sects.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INSTRUCTION 1071
4,292,291 ; Presbyterians, 1,278,815 ; Lutherans, 1,086,048 ;
Congregational, 491,985 ; Episcopal, 480,176 ; Reformed Church
(German and Dutch), 309,458 ; Friends, 107,208 ; Mormons,
144,352; Jews, 130,496.
Instruction.
Each State of the Union has a system of free public schools
established by law. The work of these is largely supplemented
by private and parochial schools. Nevertheless, owing partly to
the former existence of slavery, and partly to the constant influx
of numbers of uneducated immigrants, there exists a large mass
still totally ignorant of the first elements of education. According
to the census of 1880, in the whole country, out of a total popu-
lation above ten years of age of 36,761,607, 4,923,451 were
returned as unable to read, and 6,239,958 as unable to write. The
former is 13*4 per cent., the latter 17 per cent., which, contrasted
with 16 and 20 per cent, (the proportions of the corresponding
classes of 1870), shows a very decided gain in the direction of
rudimentary education. Of the whites above ten years of age, •
the 'cannot writes' formed 9 4 per cent. The native whites,
however, show a proportion of but 8*7 per cent., while foreign
whites show 12 per cent. A very large proportion of the illite-
racy of the country, and especially of the South, is found
among the coloured population, where the ' cannot writes ' form
70 per cent of all above ten years of age. Most of the illiteracy
of the country exists south of Mason and Dixon's line, the Ohio,
and the south boundary of the Missouri. The results of the
census of 1890 have not yet been published.
In 1891-92 there were enrolled in the public schools 13,203,786
pupils of ages varying from 4 to 21. Of this number 239,556
were receiving secondary instruction in graded high schools, in
addition to whom there were probably nearly as many more
studying secondary branches in ungraded or partially graded
rural schools. The average number of school days was 137*1,
and average daily attendance 8,546,173. The pupils enrolled
in private and parochial elementary schools, not included in these
numbers, were estimated at 1,299,600. The private secondary,
pursuing higher studies, in 1891-92, numbered 1,549, with
7,093 teachers and 100,739 pupils. In 1891-92 the number of
colleges and universities, in many of which, however, the course
of study is not advanced, was 442, with 9,326 teachers and
133,683 students.
The United States Government makes no direct appropria-
tion of moneys for the support of the elementary public schools,
but has set aside for that purpose in each of the newer States a
certain portion of the public 4omain> two ' sections ' (or square
Digitized by
Google
1072
UNITED STATES
miles) in each township six miles square, the proceeds from the sale
of which form the chief part of the permanent school funds of those
States, the income alone being used for the support of the schools.
This income is supplemented by State and local taxation, so that
it constitutes on an average only 5*16 per cent, of the total school
revenue of all the States. In 1891-92 the amount expended on
elementary public schools was 155,980,800 dollars. In 1891—92
the universities and colleges had an income of 4,852,907 dollars
from productive funds, exclusive of State appropriations. These
appropriations, which are the chief or sole means of support for
State universities, amounted to 2,276,503 dollars, and the tuition
fees to 4,820,766 dollars.
The following table refers to the public schools in the year 189 1-
92, and colleges in 1890-91, except where otherwise noted : —
\
Public Schools
Universities and
Colleges
PUPIL8
|R
8S " ;
+3 Oi
Teachers
erage num
f School da
!
State
8
■2 l
%
If!
2$
S
-s
c
1 1
•a
5 :
H
eS
1 <^_
m j
North Atlantic
Division.
Dollars.
i
Maine .
New Hamp-
shire .
136,634
90,191
7,686
123
1,393,833
3
52
612 J
61,271
43,508
3,104
121-6
850,886
1
48
462,
Vermont
65,814
45,057
4,351
138
738,058
2
50
442
Massachusetts
383,217
283,648
10,965
171
9,315,657
9
548
4,857
Rhode Island.
52,737
37,001
1,432
188
1,267,369
1
35
852
Connecticut .
130,971
84,887
a 4,252
182-3
2,269,260
3
193
2,031
New York .
1,073,093
665,574
82,161
185
18,365,562
23
831
10,859
New Jersey .
243,254
150,569
4,781
190
3,966,879
5
114
1,854
Pennsylvania.
1,082,118
708,719
25,339
155-4
14,329,140
26
540
0,833
South Atlantic
Divirion.
1
Delaware
6 31,434
b 19,649
c732
clSO
c 286,613
1
8
81
Maryland
189,129
105,063
4,051
184
2,149,972
10
171
1,885
District of
Columbia .
39,678
29,762
845
185
! 964,070
4
170
1,865
Virginia .
335,646
186,026
7,793
118
I 1,690,465
7
' 116
1,593
West Virginia
200,789
128,044
5,747
110
1 1,408,065
8
34
424
North Carolina
335,358
198,747
6,950
62-4
760,991
11
1 126
2,407
South Carolina
205,649
148,761
4,398
73-4
483,698
»
91
1,364
Georgia .
Florida .
397,815
234,231
8,114
100
1,447,245
7
104
2,152
93,780
62,226
2,782
6120
1 537,236
4
86
5451
1
So'ith Central
I
1
Divirion.
i
1 '
Kentucky
1 389,860
243,192
9,502
a 100
2,490,712
13
145
, 2,514 '
Tennessee
487,507
349,483
8,612
96
■ 1,687,058
24
368
6,094
Alabama
6 301,615
b 182,467
c 6,608
678*5
a 6890,000
7
89
1,730
Mississippi .
340,927
197,275
7,922
95
1,266,865
5
52
1,086,
Louisiana
140,233
96,475
8,185
104-4
1,004,741
10
205
i 3,821
Texas
528,314
336,257
11,021
105-9
; 3,799,459
12
, 150
1 8,546,
Arkansas
251,452
140,445
5,641 I 74
1 1,159,653
5
44
1,082
Oklahoma
18,205
7,510
472 a 90
, 71,755
Digitized b
yGc
»oqI<
■>
INSTRUCTION
1073
State
♦
Public Schools.
Universities and
Colleoe8.
Pupils.
e
n
P
VQQ
a>
gjjS
"3 "3
0 0
I
2
X
c
3
|
» e8 a
I
* 1
Ehw
Is
t— 1
0Q
North Centra
I
Dollars.
Division.
Ohio
800,356
563,481
120
165-5
1 98
37
717
12,190
Indiana .
511,823
360,664
49
132
55
15
318
4,281
Illinois .
809,452
574,738
46
155-4
1 08
28
639
10,472
Michigan
447,467
296,671
00
156
61
11
281
5,384
Wisconsin
362,064
a 217,200
155
5158-6
21
9
160
2,602
Minnesota
300,333
141,472
!65
155-2
13
11
250
2,994
Iowa
509,830
321,708
!53
158
22
22
387
7,042
Missouri.
640,799
433,951
145
122 3
32
27
342
5.791
North Dakota
37,916
21,413
!38
117
153
3
21
232
South Dakota
74,070
45,870
28
100-7
27
6
65
1,008
Nebraska
253,909
154,402
.,J85
135
51
8
143
1,801
Kansas .
382,225
239,299
11,888
127
67
16
218
3,945
Western
Division.
Montana
21,768
14,940
754
148
679,394
1
15
127
Wyoming
9,426
a 6,110
367
a 120
216,555
1
15
75
Colorado
76,647
47,946
2,753
1501
1,981,635
4
119
1,160
New Mexico
24,297
16,720
601
90
205,100
—
—
—
Arizona .
b 7,989
b 4,702
5 240
6126
6 181,914
—
—
—
Utah
55,448
31,632
933
153
911,010
1
20
335
Nevada .
7,161
5,152
259
154 4
185,223
1
10
163
Idaho
a 17,360
oll,020
a 558
86-4
232,278
—
—
—
Washington
78,819
50,716
2,763
106-6
2,391,093
4
32
656
Oregon .
75,526
52,724
2,694
112*8
1,102,832
6
86
1,127
California
North Atlanti
238,106
158,875
5,891
159
5,434,216
14
314
3,308
2
Division
3,178,604
2,109,154
94,071
169-1
52,496,544
78
2,411
27,802
South Atlantic
Division
1,829,278
1,112,509
41,412
106*6
9,728,355
56
856
12,316
South Centra
I
Division
2,453,113
1,553,104
52,963
94-5
12,370,243
76
1,053
19,873
North Centra
I
Division
5,130,244
3,370,869
168,172
146-8
67,864,408
198
3,541
57,742
Western Divi-
sion .
612,547
400,537
17,813
138-4
13,521,250
32
611
6,951
United State
s 13,208,786
8,546,173
374,431
137 1
155,980,800
430
8,472
124,684
a Approximately.
b In 1889-90.
c In 1890-91.
Of the public school teachers in 1891-92, 121,551 were male, aud 252,880
emale. In 1891-92 the total number of universities and colleges was 442, of
•rofessors and instructors 9,326, and of students 133,582. Besides these 442
olleges for liberal arts, there were in the States (1892) the following : —
3 z
Digitized by
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1074
UNITED STATES
-
Professional
Schools
Teachers
Students
Theological ....
Law
f Regular .
Medical -[ Eclectic .
\ Homoeopathic .
Female Colleges
141
58
89
8
13
158
854
507
2,423
132
299
2,185
7,729
6,073
14,934
570 '
1,086 '
24,611
I
In 1892 there were in special schools (for deaf mutes, blind, &c.) 17,805
pupils, and in reformatories, 16,871.
There were in 1892 256 Indian schools, with an average attendance of
13,588, costing the United States $1,600,313.
The Bureau of Education, in a circular issued in 1893, gives statistics ot
3,804 public libraries, each containing over 1,000 volumes, the total being
31,167,354 volumes. Of those libraries 2,630 contain between 1,000 and
5,000 volumes each ; 565 between 5,000 and 10,000 each ; 383 between 10,000
and 25,000 each ; 128 between 25,000 and 50,000 each ; 68 betweeen 50,000
and 100,000 each; 26 between 100,000 and 300,000 each ; 1 between 300,000
and 500,000; and 3 over 500,000 each. The increase in the number of
libraries in six years, from 1885 to 1891, was 27 '35 per cent., and the increase
in the number of volumes, over 66 per cent, for the same time. The number
of volumes in the libraries is 50 for every 100 of the population of the United
States, an increase of 16 per cent, greater than the increase of population in
six years.
In 1889 there were in the United States 1,494 daily newspapers, with a
total circulation of 5,713,750 ; 12,234 weeklies, with a total circulation of
19,588,000 ; 1,898 monthlies, with a circulation of 7,472,750 ; and 693 other
periodicals. The total number of periodicals was then 16,819 ; in 1880 the
total number was 11,403.
Justice and Grime.
Each State has its own judicial system, and the Federal Government also
maintains a system of courts for the trial of persons accused of crime against
the United State*?.
In the separate States the lowest courts are those held by Justices of the
Peace, or, in towns and cities, by Police Judges. In the counties, courts of
record are held, some by local county officers, others by District or Circuit
Judges, who go from county to county. In these courts there are usually the
grand and petty jury. The highest court in each State is the Supreme Court,
or Court of Final Appeal, with a Chief Justice and Associate Judges. These
judges are usually elected by the people, but sometimes appointed by the
Governor, with or without the Senate or Council ; they usually hold office
for terms of years, but sometimes practically for life or during good behaviour.
Their salaries vary from 2,500 dollars to 7,500 dollars.
Of the Federal Courts the lowest are those of the districts, of which there
are about 60, eaeh State forming one or more districts. These courts may try
any case of crime against the United States not punishable with death. Above
these are nine Circuit Courts, each with a Circuit Judge, with or without the
local District Judge ; but one or two District Judges may by themselves hold
a Circuit Court. The Circuit Court Judges appoint commissioners, whose
duty it is to arrest, examine, and commit persons accused of crime against the
United States, and to asssist the Circuit and District Judges in taking evidence
for the trial of such persons. These duties may, however, be performed by a
Digitized by LjOOQIC
PAUPERISM — FINANCE
1075
judge or magistrate of either a State or the Federal Government. Each of the
nine Justices of the Supreme Court must hold a Court in one of the nine cir-
cuits at least once every two years, and with each may be associated the Circuit
or District Judge. The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and eight
Associate Judges, appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate.
It deals with appeals from inferior courts, and has original jurisdiction in
cases affecting foreign ministers and consuls, and those in which a State is
a party. The Chief Justice has a salary of 10,500 dollars, and each of the
Associate Judges 10,000 dollars.
Other courts with criminal jurisdiction are the Court of the District of
Columbia and those of the Territories.
In 1890 there were 82,329 prisoners in the United States, of whom 75,924
were men and 6,405 women. Of the total, 57,310 were white and 25,019
coloured. Of the white, 40,471 were native, and 15,932 were foreign-born.
Of the coloured, 24,277 were negroes, 407 Chinese, 822 Indians, and 13
Japanese. In 1890 there were 14,846 inmates of juvenile reformatories.
In 1880 there were 35,538 convicts in penitentiaries ; in 1890, 45,233.
Of the total in 1890, 30,546 were white and 14,687 coloured; of the total
white, 12,842 were born of native parents, 8,331 of (one or both) foreign
parents, and 7,267 were foreign born. Of the total, 1,791 were women In
1880, there were 11,468 inmates of juvenile reformatories ; in 1890, 14,846.
Pauperism.
Although there are poor-laws in the States the statistics of pauperism,
except for indoor paupers, are not recorded. The total number of indoor
paupers in 1880 was 66,203 ; in 1890 the number was 73,045, of whom 40,741
were males and 32,304 females. .Of the total in 1890, 66,578 were white,
and 6,467 coloured; of the white, 36,656 were native, and 27,648 were
foreign-born. Of the coloured 6,418 were negroes, 36 Indians, and 13 Chinese.
The number of out-door paupers reported in 1890 was 24,220 — probably far
below the truth. The expense of the alms-houses is given at 2, 409, 445 dollars.
Finance.
L Federal.
The following table exhibits the total net revenue and the
total ordinary expenditure of the United States in each of the
ten fiscal years, ended June 30, from 1884 to 1893 : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
ending
June 30
Dollars
Dollars
Year
ending
June 30
Dollars
Dollars
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
348,519,869
323,690,706
336,439,727
371,403,277
379,266,074
244,126,244
260,226,935
242,483,138
267,932,180
259,653,958
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
387,050,058
403,080,982
392,612,447
354,937,784
385,819,629
281,996,615
297,736,486
355,372,685
345,023,331
383,477,955
These figures are exclusive of postal revenues and expenditures
as well as of loans and payments on account of the principal of
the public debt.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1076
UNITED STATES
The following tables give the actual sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1893,
and the estimated revenue and expenditure for 1894 : —
1803 !
1808
Eevenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
Customs taxes .
203,355,017 1
Civil Establishment :
Internal revenue
161,027,624 1
Legislative
8,308,057
Coinage, &c. .
2,349,471
Executive
329,616
Sales of public lands .
3,182,090
Dept. of State
2,138,953
Consular, land, and
Treasury Dept. :
patent fees .
3,156,217
Salaries.
7,364,536
Pacific railways, sink-
Collecting Customs
6,756,791
ing fund
2,052,488
Sugar bounty.
Public buildings .
9,375,131
National Bank tax .
1,392,624
5,050,797
Customs fees .
806,920
Various.
25,904,113
I Pacific railways, in-
1 War Dept.
2,382,715
i terest .
971,833
! Navy .
386,854
Sales of Indian lands
779,310 i Interior.
9,751,506
| Immigrant fund
288,220 1 Post Office Dept. :
. Sales of Government
1 Deficiency in rev. .
5,946,795
j property
164,703' Various.
2,477,761
! Surveying public
i Agricultural Dept. .
3,141,851
lands .
156,282
: Labour . . .
179,689
1 Soldiers' Home per-
1 Justice .
7,890,751
manent fund
162,733
Expenses in Utah
114,172
Navy pensions and
,, Columbia.
6,232,681
hospital funds
962,780 i,
--
Revenues of District
3,111,742
Total Civil
' Military Estab. ;
103,732,799
of Columbia
D. C. funding bonds
405,164
1 Pay Dept.
13,615,177
Miscellaneous sources
1,494,410
Quartermaster's Dept
j Ordnance
8,095,768
4,827,733
Total ordinary
Improving harbours
receipts
385,819,629
and rivers .
14,799,836
I Various .
Total Military .
8,303,256
49,641,773
Naval Estab •
| Increase of Navy .
15,030,227
i Pay of Navy .
7,401,863
i
| !; Various .
7,703,994
i
j Total Naval
30,136,084
j Indian service
13,345,347
1
, Pensions
159,357,55$
Interest on debt
| II Total expenditure
t '1
27,264,392
i
383,477,954
Digitized by VjO
OQk
FINANCE
1077
Reveimc
1894
Expenditure
1894 j
Customs .
Internal revenue
Miscellaneous .
Postal service .
Dollars
175,000,000
150,000,000
20,000,000
85,121,365
Civil expenses
Indians .
Pensions .
Military Estab.
Naval Estab. .
Interest on debt
Postal Service .
Dollars
101,000,000
9,000,000
152,000,000
52,000,000
32,500,000
26,500,000
85,121,365
Total ordinary
receipts .
430,121,365 |
Total ordinary
expenditure .
458,121,365
The receipts for 1893-94 are partly actual and partly
estimated, and show an expected deficit of 28,000,000 dollars.
For 1894-95 the estimated revenue is 454,427,748, and the
expenditure 448,306,790 dollars, giving an estimated surplus
of 6,120,958 dollars.
The surpluses are all available for reducing the public debt.
To the surplus of 1893, amounting to 2,341,674 dollars, was
added 2,937,580 dollars, deposited in the Treasury under the Act
of July 14, 1890, for the redemption of national bank notes ;
7,770 dollars received for 4 per cent, bonds issued for interest
accrued on refunding certificates converted during the year, and
4,445,400*21 taken from the cash balance in the Treasury,
making a total of 9,732,424*50 dollars, which was applied to the
payment of the public debt.
The following table shows the total amount of the national
debt on the 1st of July at various periods from 1860 : —
Year
Capital of Debt
Dollars
1860
64,842,287 I
1866
2,773,236,173 |
1877
2,205,301,392
1880
2,120,415,370 1
1883
1,884,171,728
Year
Capital of Debt
1884
1890
1891
1892
1893
Dollars
1,830,528,923
1,552,140,205
1,545,996,592
1,588,464,145
1,545,985,686
The net debt — that is, what remains after deducting the cash in the
Treasury— was 838,969,476 dollars on June 30, 1893. The bulk of the
debt of the United States was originally contracted at 6 and 5 per cent., but
less than five hundred and sixty millions of the interest-bearing debt is
now at 4 per cent, and the rest at 2 per cent.
The assessed valuation of the real and personal property in the States is
returned for 1890 at 24,651,585,465 dollars. In 1880 the assessed value
was 16,902,993,543 dollars, and the estimated true value was 43,642,000,000
dollars.
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t
1078
UNITED STATES
II. State Finance.
The revenues required for the administration of the separate States are de-
rived from direct taxation, chiefly in the form of a tax on property real and
personal ; and the greater part of such revenue is collected and expended by
the local authorities, county, township, or school district.
The following table shows the total State, county, municipal and school
district indebtedness, less the sinking fund in each case, in 1890 : —
State or Territory
State
Debt
County
Debt
Maine
New Hampshire
Vermont .
Massachusetts .
Rhode Island .
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania .
N. Atlantic Div.
Delaware .
Maryland .
District of Columbia
Virginia .
W. Virginia .
N. Carolina
S. Carolina
Georgia .
Florida .
S. Atlantic Div.
Ohio
Indiana .
Illinois .
Michigan .
Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa .
Missouri .
N. Dakota
S. Dakota.
Nebraska .
Kansas
N. Central Div.
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama .
Mississippi
Louisiana .
Texas
Arkansas .
S. Central Div.
Dollars
3,470,908
2,601,019
148,416
7,267,349
422,984
3,740,200
2,308,229
1,022,642
4,068,610
25,140,357
887,573
8,434,367
19,781,050
34,227,234
184,511
7,703,100
6,953.582
10,449,542
1,031,913
89,652,872
7,135,805
8,538,059
1,184,907
5,308,294
2,295,391
2,239,482
245,435
11,759,882
703,069
871,600
253,879
1,119,658
41,656,111
1,671,133
19,695,974
12,413,196
3,503,009
16,008,585
4,317,514
8,671,7821
66,281,193
Dollars
434,346
556,987
5,108
4,051,830
30,547
10,936,638
3,728,130
7,841,484
Municipal
Debt
School
District
Debt
Dollars
11,695,523
4,718,025
3,529,014
I 70,230,848
! 12,499,254
! 18,322,371 |
|187,348,163 '
27,585,070
618,400
42,990,638
54,238,547
405,572.083
1,413,111
Dollars
182,381
102,835
119,880
1,610,860
1,170,186
1,592,479
4,893,034
9,671,105
| Debt
Total Debt per head
I of pop.
Dollars
15,600,777
8,148,362
3,785,373
81,550,027
18,042,117
23,703,478
201,768,217
49,883,589
71,041,675
467,968,615
893,776 32,847,264 —
1,774,535
1,197,462
1,514,600
1,062,750
429,380
334,658
7,825,561
7,797,005
6,406,239
11,016,380
1,257,698
1,529,681
3,317,657
3,416,889
10,390,992
1,372,261 i
2,441,334 '
5,510,175
14,805,052
14,835,546 |
1,132,188 ■
1,899,745 :
5,279,305 i
9,393,173 '
810,048 I
18,299 I
67,610,380 18,299
52,888,263
9,498,333 <
26,456,965 I
8,510,439 ;
6,303,605 I
18,417,891
6,391,772 ,
28,092,103
711,665
1,197,520 '
7,124,506
18,617,384
3,244,312
3,183,397
1,865,497
311,908
2,066,422
1,221,223
1,465,551
1,055,095
2,108,258 '
2,648,212 '
6,086,928 I
2,919,084
42,175,407
19,781,050
50,887,315
2,532,460
11,117,445
13,295,637
20,272,095
2,176,619
165,107,112
71,065,385
24,442,631
41,841,649
16,941,928
10,440,580
26,041,452
11,275,319
51,708,478
3,842,790
6,613,707
15,536,772
40,629,022
Dollars
23-60 .
21*64 1
11-39 ,
86-43 |
37*75 I
31-76 !
88-64
8414 |
13-51
9,261,363 184,210,446 25,251,793
5,712,463
11,880,417
168,872
2,172,059
7,675,810
—
1,433,321
5,084,350
— .
1,230,299
1,278.039
—
177,798
17,149,114
6,891,714
8,928,852
33,982
1,559,497
580,041
17,489
19,177,151
52,576,023
220,343
19,432,885
29,543,843
18,930,867 ,
6,011,347
33,335,497
20,172,062
10,828,809
26-89
17-32
40*46
85-86
30-70
8-82
6-87
11-55
11-03
5-56
18-64
19-85
11-15
10-94
8-09
6*19
20-00
5-90
19-80
21-03
20-11
14-67
28-47
320,379,713 ' 14-33
10*46
16-71
12-51
4-66
29-80
9-02
9-60
:SJ 138,255,310 12-60
Digitized by VjOOQIC
DEFENCE
1079
State or Territory
State
Debt
County
Debt
Municipal
Debt
School
District
Debt
Total Debt
Debt
per head
of pop.
1
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
j Montana .
167,815
2,004,513
614,519
132,046
2,r~ ".93
22 09
Wyoming .
820,000
1,083,790
243,591
—
1,1 181
27-14
i Colorado .
599,851
4,601,588
2,955,962
253,626
8,- 127
20-41
N. Mexico
870,000
1,815,083.
127,085
19,370
2,! i38
18-44
Arizona .
757,159
1,954,414
200,165
26,283
2,! >71
49-88
| Utah.
—
49,859
717,642
—
.01
3-69
1 Nevada
509,525
812,676
—
15,300
i,; .01
29-23
Idaho
218,493
1,234,987
29,211
111,642
1, 133
18-89
Washington
300,000
1,507,786
1,046,510
291,362
3, 158
9-00
Oregon
1,684
905,711
1,386,444
186,020
2, 159
7-90
California.
2,522,325
5,379,403
7,162,922
504,809
15,, 159
12-89
1
Western Div.
6,266,852
21,349,810
14,848,051
1,540,408
43,641,121
14-41
. Grand Total, 1890 .
228,997,385
145,198,955
724,453,583
36,701,948
1,135,351,871
18-13
„ 1880.
297,244,094
124,105,027
684,348,843
17,580,682
1,123,278,646
22-40
i Includes 3,703,757 dollars scrip held in Treasury as cash.
The annual interest charge on the State and local bonded debt combined
was, in 1890, 65,541,776 dollars ; in 1880 it was 68,935,807 dollars.
Defence.
I. Army.
By the eighth section of the first article of the Constitution
of the United States, Congress is empowered in general ' to raise
and support armies ; ? and by the second section of the second
article, the President is appointed commander-in-chief of the
army and navy, and of the militia when called into the service of
the United States. On August 7, 1789, Congress established a
Department of War as the instrument of the President in carry-
ing out the provisions of the Constitution for military affairs.
By Acts of Congress approved July 28, 1866, March 3, 1869,
and July 15, 1870, the number of land forces constituting the
standing army of the United States was strictly limited. It was
subsequently enacted that from the year 1875 there shall be no
more than 25,000 enlisted men at any one time, exclusive of the
signal corps, the authorised strength of which is 50 enlisted
men, the hospital corps, the strength of which is 786 enlisted
men, and of 125 general service clerks and 45 general service
messengers. The actual commissioned and enlisted strength of
Digitized by
Google
1080 UNITED STATES
the army varies very little from that authorised, and is organised
as follows : —
Officers Men
General and General Staff 392 -^
Ordnance Department 58 450
Engineer Department 113 500
10 Regiments of Cavalry 432 6,050
5 Regiments of Artillery 289 3,675
25 Regiments of Infantry 877 12,125
Non-commissioned staff, enlisted men not attached to\ 2 20Q
regiments, Indian scouts, &c. / '
Total . . 2,161 25,000
Of the officers of the regular army there are 19 general officers, 71 colonels,
91 lieutenant colonels, 221 majors, 612 captains.
The 9th and 10th regiments of cavalry, and 24th and 25th regiments of
infantry, are composed of negro soldiers, but with white officers.
Besides the regular army each State is supposed to have a militia in which
all men from 18 to 44 (inclusive) capable of bearing arms ought to be enrolled,
but in several States the organisation is. imperfect. The organised militia
numbers 8,917 officers and 102,397 men. The number of citizens who in
case of war might be enrolled in the militia is upwards of 7£ millions. In
1890 the males of all classes of the militia age numbered 13,230,168. Of
these, 10,424,086 were native born, and 2,806,082 foreign born ; 11,803,964
were white, and 1,426,204 coloured ; 9,086,066 were native white.
The territory of the United States is divided for military purposes into
eight departments, named respectively the Department of the East, of the
Missouri, of Texas, of California, of Dakota, of the Platte, of the Colorado,
of the Columbia. The United States has a military academy at West Point
IT. Navy.
The control of maritime affairs is vested in the 'Secretary of the Navy, a
Cabinet official who is appointed by the President, with the approval of the
Senate. An Assistant-Secretary, a Deputy Judge-Advocate-General, the Com-
mandant of the Corps of Marines, and the chiefs of eight administrative
bureaus are responsible to the Secretary. These administrative bureaus are
those of yards and docks, of equipment, of navigation, of ordnance, of con-
struction and repair, of steam engineering, of supplies and accounts, and of
medicine and surgery.
After the War of Secession, in which it had played a conspicuous part,
the navy was almost wholly neglected and became practically obsolete ; but
in 1881 the First Advisory Board presented a report recommending a scheme
of fresh construction, and the new navy may be said to date from the year
1883. The only earlier ships which can be considered effective are the coast
defence monitors and a few corvettes and sloops. Thus for practical purposes
the whole floating strength of the United States is composed of quite modern
vessels. These have been built wholly in American yards and many of them
by contract. The Government constructive and repairing establishments are at
Portsmouth, N.H. ; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn; League Island, Pennsylvania;
Digitized by
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DEFENCE
1081
Washington ; Norfolk, Virginia ; Pensacola, Florida ; and Mare Island, Cali-
fornia ; and the naval stations are at New London, Connecticut ; Port Royal,
California ; Key West, Florida ; and Puget Sound, Washington.
The fleet is officered by 6 rear-admirals, 10 commodores, 45 captains, 85
commanders 74 lieutenant-commanders, 250 lieutenants (senior), 75 lieu-
tenants (junior), and 177 ensigns, and there are over 60 cadets at sea. The
engineer officers number 192 (including cadets), the medical staff 165, and
the accountant branch 95, while there are 27 constructors and 6 cadet
constructors, and 72 officers of marines. The seamen are recruited both by
enlistment and as apprentices, but the former method is gradually falling
into desuetude. There are some 7,500 enlisted men and 750 boys, and of
marines about 2,200 officers and men.
The following statement of the strength of the United States navy has been
formed according to the system of classification adopted for purposes of com-
parison throughout this book, which is fully explained in the Introductory
Table. Training ships and non-effective vessels are not included : —
Battleships, 1st class
6 1
. nil f ■
6
,, 2nd and 3rd classes .
Port defence ships
. 17
Cruisers, 1st class a .
6 I
. 7
„ „ b .
2j •
„ 2nd class
. 13
,, 3rd class a .
„ b . . .
' &} ■
. 21
Torpedo-craft, 1st class
il •
. 3
,, 3rd class
67
A table follows of the United States armour-clad fleet and of first and
second-class cruisers. All the battle-ships are of the first class according to
the system of classification here adopted. Only the recent port defence
vessels are given (names in italics), there being in addition 12 monitors (1,880
and 2,100 tons), built 1863-65, and carrying severally 2 15-inch 19-ton guns.
In the cruiser list those named in italics are armoured, the others being either
wholly or partially deck-protected. The first-class cruisers are divided into
the a and b categories, these letters being given in the first column. The a
ships are of more than 5,000 tons and exceed 15 knots in sea speed ; the two
first-class cruisers b, though often known as port defence vessels, are admitted
as first-class cruisers because of their better speed and sea-going qualities.
Abbreviations: t turret; Q.F., quick-firing. In the armament column,
light and machine guns are not given.
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1082
UNITED STATES
1
1
Name
T3
•S
I
P
l 1
Armament
5S
u
1
•d SB
•si
ill
CO ,
Battleships :
l
t
Maine
90
6,648
12
4 lOin. ; 6 6in. ; 12 6 pr. Q.F.
7
9,000
17-0|
t.
Texas
92
6,300
12
2 12in. ; 6 6in. ; 12 6 pr. Q.F.
4
8,000
17-0,
t.
t
Oregon
Massachusetts .
92
92
10,200
10,200
17
17
\4 13 in. ; 8 8in. ; 4 6in. ; 20 /
/ 6pr.Q.F. . . . \
7
7
9,000
9,000
15'0
15-0
t.
Indiana
93
10,200
17
7
9,000
15*0
t.
Iowa
Port defence ships :
11,296
15
4 12in. ; 8 8 in. ; 6 4in. ; 20
6 pr. Q.F
7
11,000
16-0 1
t.
Amphitrite
83
8,990
in
4 lOin. ; 2 4in. ; 2 6 pr. Q.F.
—
1,600
12-0 1
t.
t.
Miantonomoh
Terror
83
83
3,990
3,900
111
11*
} 4 lOin. ; 2 6 pr. Q.F. {
1,426
1,600
10-5
12*0
t.
Puritan
83
6,160
14
412in.; 6 4in. ; 2 6 pr. Q.F.
—
8,700
124
ram.
Katahdin .
First-class cruiser :
93
2,188
6
4 6 pr. Q.F
~~
4,800
17*0
a.
New York .
91
8,150
10
6 8in. ; 12 4in. ; 12 smaller Q. F.
4
16,500
20-0
a.
Olympia .
92
5,500
—
4 8in. ; 4 6in. ; 10 Sin. ; 20
smaller Q.F.
6
13,500
20-0
a.
Columbia .
92
7,500
—
\ 1 8in. ; 2 6 in. ; 8 4in. ; 16 f
f smaller Q.F. . 1
b
20,000
21-0
a.
Minneapolis
93
7,500
—
5
20,000
21'0
a.
Brooklyn .
9,150
8
8 8in. ; 12 5in. ; 16 smaller Q.F.
5
16,500
20-0
b.
Monadnock
83
3,900
11*
4 lOin. ; 2 4in. ; 2 6 pr. Q.F.
—
3,000
14 5 ,
b.
Monterey .
Second-class cruisers:
91
4,048
14
2 12in. ; 2 lOin. ; 6 6 pr. Q.F.
—
5,400
16-0
Atalanta .
84
3,189
\ 2 8in. ; 6 6in. ; 6 6 pr. and I
J smaller Q.F. . . 1
—
4,030
156.
Boston
84
3,189
—
4,030
15'6
Chicago .
85
4,500
4 8in.; 8 6in.; 2 5 in.; 4 Q.F. | —
5,084
15*3 ,
Baltimore .
88
4,600
4 8in. ; 6 6in. ; 8 6 pr. and
smaller Q.F.
1
5
10,064
19*6 •
Charleston .
88
4,040
2 Sin. ; 6 6in. ; 8 6 pr., and
smaller Q.F.
4
6,666
18-2
Newark
Philadelphia
90
90
4,083
4,324
)v2 6in.: 4 6pr. and 6 smaller/
1 *F I
8
5
8,869
8,815
19-0
197
San Francisco .
90
4,083
6
10,400
20-2
Cincinatti .
92
3,183
\ 1 6in.; 10 5in.; 8 6 pr. ; 4 I ' 6
J smaller ; all Q.F. \ 6
10,000
19-0
I Raleigh .
92
3,183
10,000
19-0
Detroit
Montgomery
! Marblehead
1
92
92
93
2,000
, 2,000
2,000
|
\2 6in. ; 8 5in. ; 6 6 pr. ; 2/ JJ
j smaUerrallQ.F. . \ £
1
5,400
5,400
5,400
17-0
17-0
17-0
I
The battleships Maine and Texas are built upon a plan not likely to be
repeated. With the view of making their heavy gun-fire very powerful for
their small displacement, the 'turrets are placed en ichclon, so as to
admit of the guns being trained fore and aft. In the Maine the four
10-inch guns are coupled in turrets inclosed in oval barbettes, and a narrow
superstructure (which carries the secondary armament) running from end to
end, is broken abeam of each turret, so as to give each a range of fire on its
opposite beam. In the Texas the guns -are mounted singly in two turrets,
which are sheltered within an oblique redoubt, as in the Italia and other
Italian ships. Both these ships have unprotected ends and also an unpro-
tected band between the base of the turrets and the top of the aide-plating.
The Oregon, Massachusetts, and Indiana are practically identical. They
have a partial belt of 18-inch armour, 7£ feet wide, extending over 56 per
cent, of the whole length. This belt rises 3 feet above the water-line, and
extends 4J feet below ; it is capped by a fore and aft-armoured deck. At
either end of the 18-inch belt are armoured redoubts 17 inches thick rising to
3£ feet above the protective deck ; these redoubts protect the turning gear of
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DEFENCE 1083
the turrets and all the operations of loading. The tubes through which the
ammunition is hoisted are also armoured. Above the belt, and extending
from one redoubt to the other, the side is protected by 5 inches of armour.
The main armament consists of four 13-inch 35-calibre guns mounted in pairs
in two turrets, one forward, one aft, protected with 17-inch armour, placed on
an incline, with a horizontal cover of 20-inch thickness; and eight 8-mch guns
mounted in four turrets, formed of inclined armour from 8£ inches to 6 inches
thick, and placed at the four comers of a deck on a level with the top of the
larger turrets. The length at the water-line is 348 feet, beam 62 feet 3 inches,
and draught 24 feet The Iowa, which is in an earlier stage of construction,
is of similar design. The United States battleships are to carry small torpedo
boats on their decks.
Among the coast defence vessels the ram Katahdin deserves to be noted.
She was designed by Admiral Ammen, and, beyond a small secondary
battery, depends for offensive force upon her ability to ram a foe ; to accom-
plish this purpose she can be submerged until only her turtle back, funnel,
and ventilating shafts, all of which are armoured, remain above water. Her
dimensions are 251 ft. by 42 £ ft. beam, 15 ft. normal draught, and 2,183 tons
displacement. The same system of increasing the immersion by taking in
water ballast is applied in the Monterey, which has much more of the coast
defence than of the cruiser type proper, with all the disadvantages of low free-
board.
The New York, and the Brooklyn, which has been sanctioned, are the
largest cruisers in the United States navy, both armoured and designed on
the same lines. The dimensions of the former are : length 380 ft. 6 in.,
beam 65 ft., draught 23 ft. 3 in. She has a heavily armoured steel deck, in
conjunction with light side plating, besides a cellulose belt. Two 8 -inch
guns are mounted forward and two aft in inclined turrets, and are on either
beam slightly sponsoned out. The 4-inch guns are carried on the deck below,
and so placed as to fire fore and aft.
Special interest attaches to the commerce destroyer or cruiser Columbia,
which made 21£ knots at her trials off the Delaware Cape. Her principal dimen-
sions, &c, are : Length, 412 ft. ; beam, 58 ft. : mean draught, 23 ft. ; displace-
ment, 7,500 tons ; indicated horse power, 20,000, with a maximum of 23,000 ;
coal supply, 750 tons ; maximum coal stowage, 2, 000. She has a double bottom,
and a protective deck, which rises from 4£ feet below the water-line at the sides
to 1 foot above amidships, except at the bow and stern, where it slopes down
below the water-line. The protective deck is 4 inches thick on the slopes
and 2J inches thick elsewhere. There will be also a wall of patent fuel
5 feet thick opposite the boilers. The motive power consists of three sets of
triple expansion vertical inverted direct-acting engines, each placed in a
separate water-tight compartment. Each set of engines drives its own screw.
One screw is placed amidships at the extreme stern just above the keel ; other
two are set one on each quarter considerably forward and outboard of the mid-
ship screw and 4J feet above it. For long distance economical cruising the
midship screw alone will be used, the other two being uncoupled ; for
medium speed the twin screws under each counter will be worked, the mid-
ship screw being uncoupled ; for full speed all three screws will be driven at
their highest power. Her nominal cruising radius is 26,240 miles
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1084 UNITED STATES
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The immense extent of land, forming part of the United States, as yet
uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be national property, at the disposal
of Congress and the executive of the Republic. The public lands of the United
States which are still undisposed of lie in 25 States and 6 Territories. The
public lands are divided into two great classes. The one class have a dollar
and a quarter an acre designated as the minimum price, and the other two
dollars and a half an acre, the latter being the alternate sections, reserved by
the United States in land grants to railroads, &c. Titles to these lands may be
acquired by private entry or location under the homestead, pre-emption, and
timber-culture laws ; or, as to some classes, by purchase for cash. The home-
stead laws give the right to 160 acres of a-dollar-and-a-quarter lands, or to 80
acres of two-dollar-and-a-half lands, to any citizen or applicant for citizenship
over twenty-one who will actually settle upon and cultivate the land. The
title is perfected by the issue of a patent after five years of actual settlement.
The only charges in the case of homestead entries are fees and commissions.
Another large class of free entries of public lands is that provided for under
the Timber-Culture Acts of 1873-78. The purpose of these laws is to promote the
growth of forest trees on the public lands. They give the right to any settler
who has cultivated for two years as much as five acres in trees to an 80-acre
homestead, or, if ten acres, to a homestead of 160 acres, and a free patent for
his land is given him at the end of three years instead of five. In November
of 1893 there were (including Alaska) 1,815,424,388 acres of public lands in
the States and Territories, of which 1,003,904,151 had been surveyed. Of
the public lands in 1893, 369,529,600 acres were in Alaska unsurveyed. Up-
wards of 88 million acres of land are settled under the Homestead and Timber-
Culture Acts. In 1892 there were 7,716,062 acres taken up under the
Homestead Act, while 13,566,552 acres were disposed of for cash, under
the Homestead Acts, under the Timber- Culture Acts, located with Agri-
cultural College and other kinds of scrip, and located with Military Bounty-
land warrants and selected by States and Railroads in the several States and
Territories. It is provided by law that two sections, of 640 acres of land,
in each 'township/ are reserved for common schools, so that the spread of
education may go together with colonisation.
The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive and universal,
except so far as restrained by stipulations in the original cessions.
At the census of 1880 there were 536, 081, 835 acres taken up in farms, being
less than 30 per cent, of the total area, excluding Alaska and the Indian
Territory ; in 1870 the farm acreage was 407, 735, 041. Of this area 284, 771, 042
acres, or a little more than one-half, were returned as improved. The
following table shows the number of farms of different sizes in 1870 and
1880 :—
I
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1085
Acres
1870
1880
Under 3 acres ....
6,875
4,352
3 and under 10
172,021
134,889
10 „ 20
294,607
254,749
20 , 50
847,614
781,474
50 „ 100
754,221
1,032,910
100 „ 500
565,054
1,695,983
500 „ 1,000
15,873
75,972
1,000 and over .
3,720
28,578
Total
•
2,659,985
4,008,907
The total value of farms in 1880 was 2,039,419,355Z., and in 1870
1,852, 560, 772Z. ; but in the latter year gold was at a premium of 25 per cent.
The total value of farm implements in 1880 was 81,304,011?., and the total
value of all agricultural produce was 442,680,5132.
The following are the returns of the crops of corn (maize), wheat and oats,
for five years : —
' i
Year
Acres
Bushels
_
Value
Dollars
1889
146,606,000
3,354,967,000
1,112,191,544
1890
134,489,286 '
2,412,853,000
1,311,255,609
1891
141,703,273
3,410,328,000
1,582,224,206
1892
136,244,923
2,805,448,000
1,173,512,122
1893
133,938,916
2,654,483,000
992,373,100
The areas and produce of the principal cereal crops for three years are
shown in the subjoined tables. Statistics regarding rye, barley, and buck-
wheat are not now prepared.
-
1891
1892
1893
1,000
Acres
76,205
39,917
25,582
1,000
Bushels
Bush,
per
Acre
1,000
Acres
1,000
Bushels
Bush,
per
Acre
1,000
Acres
1,000
Bushels
Bush,
per
Acre
Corn
Wheat .
Oats
Total .
2,060,154
611,780
788,394
27-0
15-3
28-9
70,627
38,554
27,064
1,628,464
515,949
661,085
23*1
13 4
24*4
72,036
34,629
27,273
1,619,496
396,132
638,855
22*5
11-4
28*4
141,704
3,410,828
-
136,245
2,805,448
-
133,938
2,654,483
-
The chief wheat-growing States (1892) were : Kansas (4,071,000 acres
under wheat), Minnesota (3,553,000 acres), California (3,012,000 acres), North
Dakota (2,869,000 acres), Ohio (2,796,000 acres), Indiana (2,713,000 acres),
South Dakota (2,541,000 acres), Missouri, Illinois, Michigan, Pennsylvania,
Nebraska, Kentucky.
Sugar is produced from cane chiefly in Louisiana and Texas, from beet in
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1086
UNITED STATES
California, from sorghum in Kansas, and from maple-sap in the North-Eastern
States. In 1892 the area under cane was 213,841 acres ; beet (1893), 17,314
acres ; sorghum, 2,149 acres ; while there were 2,317,143 maple trees tapped.
The quantity of sugar produced (1891-92) was: Cane, 367,752 lbs.; beet,
12,004,838 lbs. ; sorghum, 1,136,086 lbs.; maple (estimated), 33,000,000 lbs. ;
total, 413,893,230 lbs.
The total area under cotton in 1890 was 19,566,271 acres, and the crop
consisted of 7,452,295 bales, weighing about 3,628,000,000 lbs. In 1891 the
crop consisted of 8,652,597 bales, weighing 4,316,000,000 lbs., of the value
of 366,863,738 dollars. The chief cotton-growing States (1890) were : Texas,
3,498,000 acres under cotton ; Georgia, 3,346,000 acres ; Mississippi, 2,882,000
acres ; Alabama, 2,762,000 acres ; South Carolina, 1,988,000 acres ; Arkansas,
1,701,000 acres; Louisiana, 1,271,000 acres; North Carolina, 1,147,000
acres.
In 1892 702,952 acres were under tobacco ; the crop weighed
483,023,963 lbs., and was valued at 39,155,442 dollars. The chief tobacco-
growing States are Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee.
In 1892 there were, in all, 1,447,361 acres under flax, and 11,104,440
bushels of flax-seed were produced. In the same year 50,212 acres (mostly
in New York State) were under hops, and the yield was 39,171,270 lbs.,
while 25,054 acres (nearly all in Kentucky) were under hemp, producing
11,511 lbs.
The following table exhibits the number of live stock in 1894 and at the
census years 1870, 1880, and 1890, the numbers of cattle, sheep, and swine
for 1890, and all the numbers for 1894, being estimates : —
- •
1870
1880
1890
1894
Horses
Mules
Cattle of all kinds
Sheep
Swine
8,248,800
1,179,500
25,484,100
40,853,000
26,751,400
11,201,800
1,729,500
33,258,000
40,765,900
34,034,100
14,976,017
2,246,936
52,801,907
44,336,072
51,602,780
16,081,139
2,352,231
53,095,568
45,048,017
45,206,498
The total value of farm animals in the United States in 1894 was
2,170,816,754 dollars. The area devoted exclusively to the rearing of cattle
measures 1,365,000 square miles. In 1892 the estimated wool clip was
294,000,000 pounds. In 1889, 15,504,978 lbs. of butter and 84,999,828 lbs.
of cheese were produced ; in 1890, 29,748,042 lbs. of butter, valued at
4,187,489 dollars, and 95,376,053 lbs. of cheese, valued at 8,591,042 dollars.
Viticulture is extending. In 1889 the area under vines was 401,261 acres
(California 200,544 acres) ; 24,306,905 gallons of wine were made (California
14,626,000 gallons) ; and in California 1,372,195 boxes (of 20 lbs.) of raisins
were produced. The number of labourers employed was, in all, 200,780.
New York and Ohio rank next to California as vine-growing States.
II. Forestry.
In connection with the great forests of the country, the preparation of
lumber or timber is important There were 25,708 establishments for this
purpose in 1880, with a capital of 36,237,2242., employing 146,880 hands,
using materials valued at 29,231,077/., the value of the produce being
46,653,7452. For 1888 the total product of lumber was estimated a
30,000,000,000 cubic feet, valued at 120,000,0002.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1087
III. Mining.
The following are the statistics of the metallic products of the United
States in 1892 (long tons, 2,240 lbs. ; short tons, 2,000 lbs.) :—
Metallic Products
Quantity
Value
Pig iron, spot value . . . long tons
Silver, coining value ($1 '2929 per oz. ) troy oz.
Gold, coining value ($20-6718 ,, ) „
Copper,1 value at New York City . pounds
Lead „ ,, „ . short tons
Zinc ,, ,, ,, . ,,
Quicksilver, value at San Francisco flasks
Nickel,2 value at Philadelphia . pounds
Aluminium3,, ,, ,, . ,,
Tin ,, ,, ,, . »»
Antimony, value at San Francisco . short tons
Platinum, value (crude) at New York troy oz.
Total value 1892 ....
Total value 1891 ....
9,157,000
58,000,000
1,596,375
353,275,742
213,262
87,260
27,993
92,252
259,885
162,000
/metallic 150\
lore . 380/
80
Dollars
131,161,039
74,989,900
33,000,000
37,977,142
17,060,960
8,027,920
1,245,689
50,739
172,824
32,400
56,466
550
303,775,629
302,307,922
1 Including copper made from imported pyrites.
2 Including nickel in copper-nickel alloy, and in exported ore and metal.
8 Including aluminium alloys.
The following are statistics of non-metallic minerals for 1892 : —
Non-Metallic Products
Quantity
Value
long tons
Bituminous coal .
Pennsylvania anthracite
Building stone
Lime
Petroleum (crude value)
Natural gas ....
Cement ....
Salt
Limestone for iron flux
S. Carolina phosphate rock .
Zinc-white short tons
Mineral waters . . . gallons sold
All others
Total, 1892
Total, 1891
barrels1
barrels2
s
»*
long tons
113,237,845
46,850,450
65,000,000
50,509,136
8,758,621
11,498,890
5,172,114
616,743
27,500
21,876,604
Dollars
125,195,139
82,442,000
48,706,625
40,000,000
26,034,196
14,800,714
7,152,75Q
5,544,915
3,620,480
2,984,107
2,200,000
4,905,970
6,994,126
370,581,019
354,086,416
i Of 200 lbs. 3 Of 800 lbs. for natural cement, and 400 lbs. for artificial Portland.
* Of 280 lbs. net
The total value of the specified mineral products in 1892 was thus
674,356,648 dollars, the corresponding value for 1891 being 656,394,338
dollars. To each of these sums the official statement adds 10,000,000 dollars
as the estimated value of unspecified jnineral products
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1088
UNITED STATES
The following statement, taken from a census bulletin, shows the con-
dition of the iron ore. mining industry in 1889, as compared with that in
1880 :—
-
Production
Value at
Mines
Capital
Employed
Persons
Employed
1880
1889
Long tons
7,120,362
14,518,041
Dollars
23,156,957
33,351,978
Dollars
61,782,287l
109,766,199
31,668!
38,227
1 In regular establishments.
Of the iron ore produced in 1889, 5,856,169 long tons were from Michigan ;
1,570,319 long tons from Alabama ; 1,560,234 long tons from Pennsylvania.
In the same year 853,573 long tons of iron ore were imported, and the total
consumption was 15,733,465 long tons.
The total production of gold and silver (coining value) in the country was
as follows during each of the years from 1888 to 1892 : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Total
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1888
33,175,000
59,195,000
92,370,000
1889
32,886,744
66,396,988
99,283,732
1890
32,845,000
70,464,645
103,309,645
1891
33,175,000
75,416,565
108,591,565
1892
33,000,000
74,989,900
107,989,900
The precious metals are raised mainly in California for gold, and Colorado,
Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and Montana for silver. The coining value of the
gold produced from mines in the United States from 1792 to 1892 is estimated
at 1,937,881,769 dollars, and of the silver at 1,148,161,465 dollars.
IV. Manufactures.
The following table shows the progress of manufacturing industries in the
United States between 1870 and 1880, excluding petroleum refining and gas
manufacture : —
Year
No. of
Establishments
Capital
Hands
employed
Value of Value at
Materials | Products
1870
1880
252,148
253,852
£
338,913,403
558,054,521
2,053,996
2,732,595
£ 1 £
398,148,358 677,172,070
679,364,710 ! 1,073, 91 5, 838
It will be seen that while the number of establishments had not materially
increased, there had been a very large increase in all the other items, showing
the concentration of manufactures in large establishments, and the increased
use of machinery. More than one-half of the establishments and of the capital
are in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, Illinois,
Indiana, and Michigan.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
'1089
The manufacture of cotton in the United States has been rapidly growing
in recent years. At the census of 1880 there were found to be 756 manu-
factories for materials solely of cotton, with a capital of 41,656,069/. ; the
number of spindles was 10,653,435 (12,000,000 in 1882) ; of looms, 225,759 ;
hands employed, 174,659 ; cotton consumed, 1,570,344 bales (750,343,981 lbs.),
valued at 17,389,1452., producing materials valued at 38, 418, 000 J.
The following are some statistics of cotton : —
Tear ending
June 30
Production
Imports
T - - -
Exports
Retained for
Home Consumption
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1880
2,771,797,596
3,547,792
1,822,295,843
953,049,105
1886
3,182,305,659
5,072,334
2,059,314,405
1,128,063,588
1887
3,157,378,443
3,924,531
2,170,173,701
991,129,273
1888
3,439,172,391
5,497,592
2,264,324,798
1,180,345,185
1889
3,439,934,799
7,973,039
2,385,004,628
1,062,903,210
1890
3,627,366,183
8,606,049
2,472,047,957
1,163,924,275
1891
4,316,043,982
20,908,817
2,907,806,589
1,429,146,210 1
1892
4,506,575,984
28,663,769
2,935,352,588
1,599,887,165 |
The values of cottons of domestic manufacture exported from the United
States were 4,071,882 dollars in 1875, 11,836,591 dollars in 1885, 9,999,277
dollars in 1890, and 13,226,277 dollars in 1892.
In 1890 there were 2,503 manufactories of woollen goods employing
221,087 hands, the value of goods manufactured being 70,464,8102.
Another industry of great importance is that connected with iron and
steel. In the various branches of this industry there were 1,005 establish-
ments in the census year ended May 31, 1880, with a capital of 47,525,0792.
(reckoning the £ at $4*86), and employing 140,978 hands; these produced
7,265,140 short tons of iron and steel in the year, the value of all the
materials used being 39,356,2032., and the total value of the products
61,020,0992.
On June 30, 1890, there were in the United States 562 completed furnace
stacks (in 1880, 681) for the production of pig-iron, and during the year ended
at that date 9,579,779 tons of pig-iron were produced (in 1880, 3,781,021).
Of the furnaces, 224 were in Pennsylvania, where the production was 49 '2 per
cent, of the whole. Included in the total was 4,233,372 tons of Bessemer pig-
iron, of which 60 '6 per cent, was produced in Pennsylvania. Of the total of
pig-iron, Ohio produced 13*6 percent, Alabama 9*3 percent, Illinois 7 per
cent, and New York 37 per cent.
At the same date there were in all 158 (in 1880, 73) steel works (Penn-
sylvania 79), and during the year 4,466,926 (in 1880, 1,145,711) short tons of
steel ingots and castings (including 3,877,039 tons of Bessemer and Clapp-
Griffiths steel) were produced. Of the total, Pennsylvania produced 61*9 per
cent, Illinois 19*4 per cent, and Ohio 10 per cent. The production of
Bessemer steel rails was 2,036,654 tons (Pennsylvania 1,377,119 tons).
The production of pig-iron in 1882 was 5,178,122 short tons; in 1885,
4,529,869; in 1886, 6,365,328; in 1887, 7,187,206; in 1888, 7,266,507; in
1889, 8,516,079 ; in 1890, 10,307,028 short tons. The total number of
furnaces in December, 1887, was 583 ; in 1888, 589 ; in 1889, 570. The num-
ber of furnaces in blast at the end of 1888 was 332 ; at the close of 1889, 344 ;
at the close of 1890, 311. The total quantity of pig-iron consumed in 1888
was 7,491,393 short tons ; in 1889, 8,734,137 short tons. The production of
4 A
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1090'
UNITED STATES
rolled iron in 1889 was 2,586,385 short tons ; in 1890, 2,820,377 short tons.
In 1887 the Bessemer steel ingots produced amounted to 3,288,537 short tons ;
2,812,500 tons in 1888 ; 3,281,829 tons in 1889 ; 4,131,535 short tons in 1890 ;
and Bessemer steel rails, 2,013,188 short tons in 1890. Open-hearth steel
ingots in 1886, 245,250 short tons ; in 1887, 360,717 tons ; in 1888, 352,036
tons ; in 1889, 419,488 tons ; in 1890, 564,873 short tons.
Y.^ Fisheries.
At the census of 1880 the fisheries of the United States employed 131,426
persons, the capital invested was 7,591,700Z., and the value of the products
(including seal and whale fisheries) was 8,600,0002. ; the number of vessels
engaged was 6,605, of 208,297 tons. At the census of 1890 there were
engaged in the fisheries of the great lakes 3,988 vessels and boats with 6,896
men, and the capital invested was 2,615,784 dollars. In 1889 the capital
invested in the whale and seal fisheries was 2,081,636 dollars ; the number of
vessels was 101, of 22,660 tons, valued at 1,791,173 dollars ; the value of
products landed was 1,834,551 dollars; persons employed, 3,513. In the
year 1892-93 the whale-fishing yielded 468,471 gallons of sperm oil, 418,921
gallons of other oil, 334,061 lbs. of whale-bone, and other products, the total
value being 1,077,768 dollars. In 1889 the value of the products of the
Pacific States fisheries, including salmon and whale, and seal products was
6,387, 800 dollars. The canned salmon was of the value of 3, 703, 838 dollars.
Commerce.
The subjoined table gives the total value, in dollars, of the
imports and exports of merchandise in the years ended June 30,
1879 and 1889-93 :—
I Year
i (ended
I June 30)
Imports of
Merchandise
Dollars
1879 ! 445,777,775
1889 745,131,652
1890 i 789,310,409
Exports of
Domestic
Merchandise
Dollars
698,340,790
730,282,609
845,293,828
Imports of
Merchandise
Dollars
844,916,196
827,402,462
866,400,922
Exports of
Domestic
Merchandise
Dollars
872,270,283;
1,015,732,011
831,030,7851
The following table gives the total value of the gold and silver
bullion and specie imported into the United States, and the value
of that exported, being the product of the States, in 5 years
ended June 30, 1889-93 :—
, Year
Gold
Imports
Silver
Dollars
Dollars
1889
10,284,868
18,678,215
1890
12,943,842
21,032,984
1891
18,232,567
18,026,880
1892
49,699,454
19,955,086
1893
21,174,381
23,193,252
Total
Gold
Dollars 1 Dollars
28,963,073 ' 59,952,285
33,976,326 I 17,274,491
36,259,447 ' 86,362,654
69,654,540 j 50,195,327
44,367,633 108,680,844
Exports
Silver
Dollars
36,689,248
34,873,928
22,690,968
32,810,659
40,787,819
Total
Dollars
96,641,533
52,148,420
108,968,642
83,005,886
149,418,163
Digitized by
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COMMERCE
1091
The general imports and the domestic exports of United States
produce are plassified as follows for 1891-92 and 1892-93 : —
Imports
1891-92
1892-93
Exports
1891-92
1892-98
Food and animals
Raw materials .
Articles wholly or
partially manu-
factured .
Manufactured and
ready for con-
sumption
Luxuries, Ac. .
' Total .
Dollars
303,158,928
204,093,996
83,206,471
132,178,815
104,764,252
Dollars
271,585,993
226,711,989
98,753,902
143,493,447
125,855,591
Unmanufactured :
Agriculture .
Mines
Forests .
Fisheries
All others
Total .
Manufactures .
Aggregate .
Dollars
799,328,232
20,692,885
27,957,423
5,403,587
3,838,947
Dollars
615,382,986
20,020,026
28,127,113
5,541,378
3,936,164
857,221,074
158,510,937
673,007,667
158,023,118
827i402,462
866,400,922
1,015,782,011
831,080,785
The following table shows the value of the chief exports of
domestic merchandise for the year ending June 30, 1893 : —
-•
Dollars
-
Dollars
Breadstuff's
200,312,654
Vegetable oils
4,565,355
Cotton, unmanufactured
188,771,445
Furs, hides, and skins
3,699,579
Provisions, including
Fish ....
4,750,769
meat and dairy pro-
Glucose, sugar, and mo-
ducts
138,401,591
lasses
4,208,763
Mineral oils
42,142,058
Paraffin & parafime wax
4,515,534
Animals
27,527,985
Agricultural implements
4,657,333
Iron and steel, and
Fertilizers .
3,927,343
manufactures of
30,106,432
Hops ....
2,695,867
Wood, and manufac-
Spirits, distilled .
Flax, hemp, and jute,
manufactures of
2,724,057
tures of .
26,666,439
Tobacco, and manu-
1,778,746
factures of
26,942,454
Carriages, and horse
Copper, manufactures
of, and ore
cars, and parts of .
1,605,801
9,116,911
Books, maps, engrav-
ings, etchings, and
other printed matter
Vegetables .
India-rubber and gutta-
Cotton, manufactures of
11,809,355
Leather, and manufac-
1,808,873
tures of .
11,912,154
1,897,997
Oil cake and meal
9,688,773
Coal ....
10,004,138
percha, and manu-
factures of . ' .
Naval stores (resin, tar,
• 1,609,406
turpentine, pitch, and
Scientific instruments .
1,345,621
spirits of turpentine)
7,282,301
Paper, and manufac-
Chemicals, drugs, dyes,
tures of .
1,540,886
and medicines .
6,754,068
Railway cars
969,871
Fruits, including nuts
3,918,799
Clocks and watches,
Seeds.
3,993,729
and parts of.
1,204,181
The leading imports into the United States were in
1891-93:— .
4 A2
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1092
UNITED STATES
-
Dollars
-
Dollars
Coffee
80,485,558
Tea ...
13,857,482
Sugar, molasses, &c. .
Silk, raw .
118,301,664
Distilled spirits .
3,002,111
29,836,986
Wines
10,205 353
Silk goods .
38,958,928
Precious stones .
16,235,332
Wools
21,064,180
Leather, and manufac-
Woollen goods .
38,048,515
tures of .
15,987,995
Chemicals, &c. .
52,837,699
Tobacco, and manufac-
Textile fibres, & manu-
tures of .
17 619,146
factures of
49,726,503
Ores, silver bearing .
11,100,747
Cotton, and manufac-
Glass and glassware .
8,021,741
tures of .
38,249,092
Earthenware, &c.
9,529,431
Iron and steel, ore and
Tin ...
12,358,999
manufactures .
36,180,771
Metals, metal compo-
Hides and skins, and
sitions, &c.
7,118,059
furs
27,020,775
Feathers, flowers, per-
Fruits
23,687,422
fumery, &c. .
6,398,641
India-rubber and gutta-
Paper stock, crude
6,272,298
percha, and manufac-
Breadstuffs, &c. .
2,940,575
tures of .
18,384,275
Fish ... .
4,942,172
Wood, and manufac-
Coal, bituminous
3,614,202
tures of .
23,152,599
Animals
4,642,195
In 1889-90 the customs duties amounted to 226,540,037 dollars
in 1890-91 to 216,885,761 dollars, in 1891-92 to 174,124,335
dollars. The following table shows for the years 1891-92 and
1892-93 the values of the exports of domestic merchandise to and
the imports from the following countries, according to the United,
States returns : —
Countries
United Kingdom
Germany
France .
Belgium
Netherlands
Italy .
Spain .
Switzerland
Sweden & Norway
Austria Hungary
Russia on the Baltic
and White Seas
All other Europe
British North Ame
rican possessions
Mexico
Domestic Exports
Imports
1891-92
1892-93
1891-92
1892-98
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
493,957,868
414,966,094
156,300,881
182,859,769
104,180,732
81,992,572
82,907,553
96,210,203
97,896,132
46,006,448
68,554,793
76,076,215
47,713,121
25,859,728
10,273,061
11,166,196
43,556,865
38,118,527
10,886,802
17,448,948
14,223,947
12,792,059
22,161,617
26,250,241
11,522,150
13,427,171
5,207,861
5,694,553
10,397
7,391
13,196,469
16,010,728
6,578,857
4,083,156
3,754,932
4,176,384
1,485,233
542,073
7,718,565
10,054,501
5,379,887
2,005,504
3,011,912
3,031,479
14,582,733
12,180,280
7,654,023' 9,470,876
1 42,580,578
44,830,203
35,334,547
38,186,342
! 13,696,531
18,891 714
28,107,255
33,555,099
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COMMERCE
1093
Countries
Domestic Exports
Imports
1891-92
1892-93
1891-92
1892-93
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
West Indies .
37,600,708
43,446,080
99,606,305
102,703,617
Central American
States
5,872,029
5,265,058
10,219,788
8,304,946
All other N. America
1,713,505
1,519,934
786,016
982,708
Brazil . . .
14,240,009
12,339,584
118,633,604
76,222,138
Venezuela
3,991,908
4,142,051
10,325,338
3,625,118
Argentine Republic
Colombia -
2,643,325
4,786,567
5,343,798
5,239,095
3,065,466
3,047,620
4,116,886
3,572,918
Chile .
3,533,342
2,971,341
3,487,159
3,995,441
Guianas
2,363,326
2,425,741
4,939,247
6,144,853
All other S. America
2,736,546
2,377,967
3,881,727
3,408,252
British India and
East Indies
3,674,141
3,152,679
24,773,107
25,968,554
Japan .
3,288,282
3,189,711
23,790,202
27,454,220
20,636,535
China .
5,663,471
3,900,457
20,488,291
Dutch East Indies .
1,372,035
1,183,599
6,914,743
8,696,588
Hongkong .
4,887,350
4,214,576
763,323
878,078
Turkey in Asia
177,341
132,786
2,898,833
3,533,197
All other Asia N.E.S.
518,436
440,650
509,752
457,274
British Australasia .
11,246,474
7,818,130
8,492,306
7,266,808
Hawaiian Islands .
3,662,018
2,717,338
8,075,882
9,146,767
All other Oceanica .
366,404
429,098
6,564,874
9,583,803
British Africa
3,453,700
3,681,571
816,597
716,376
Turkey in Africa .
All other Africa
136,274
128,651
2,330,639
3,438,925
1,445,188
1,377,045
2,170,816
1,701,731
British Possessions,
all other .
654,328
570,332
2,307,444
2,471,937
All other Countries
Total .
61,374
I 69,299
95,244
59,509
1,015,732,011
1 831,030,785
i
827,402,462
866,400,922
Thus, in the year ended June 30, 1893, 49*69 per cent, of
the exports of the United States went to Great Britain alone,
while 21*12 per cent, of the imports came from that country.
The following is the trade of Great Britain and Ireland with
the United States, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1880 1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports from the
United States.
Exports of Bri-
tish produce .
£
107,081,260
30,865,871
£
79,763,018
28,897,060
£
95,461,475
30,293,942
£
97,283,349
32,068,128
£
104,409,050
27,544,558
£
108,186,317
26,547,284
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1094
UNITED STATES
The value of the total exports from Great Britain to the
United States was, in 1888, 41,211,213*.; in 1889, 43,878,934*. ;
in 1890, 46,340,012*. ; in 1891, 41,066,147*.; in 1892, 41,412,006*.
The total quantity and value of the grain and flour imports
into Great Britain from the United States were as follows in
each of the last five years : —
Year
Quantities
Value
Cwts.
£
1888
37,310,341
15,262,002
1889
50,607,986
18,209,496
1890
56,668,226
19,890,486
1891
47,448,115
22,442,546
1892
75,294,781
30,366,571
The most valuable of the corn imports is that of wheat and
wheat flour, which amounted to 12,520,300*. in 1888 ; 12,480,843*.
in 1889 ; 13,628,815*. in 1890; 19,316,433*. in 1891 ; 23,937,833*.
in 1892. The value of the maize imports into Great Britain
was, in 1888, 2,643,174*.; in 1889, 5,325,498*.; in 1890,
5,153,537*.; in 1891, 2,241,926*.; in 1892, 4,635,268*.
The imports of raw cotton into Great Britain and Ireland
from the United States were of the following quantities and value
in each of the last five years : —
f
1888
1889
1890
1891 | 1892 I
Quantities .
Value .
Cwt8.
12,040,820
31,126,787
Cwts.
12,712,606
£
33,645,271
Cwts.
11,756,758
£
31,395,055
Cwts.
14,442,328
£
36,678,788
Cwta. !
12,549,359 1
* \
29,190,392 ;
>
Other considerable imports into Great Britain were, in 1892
—bacon and hams, 8,023,328*.; cheese, 1,961,407*.; lard,
2,141,533*.; petroleum, 1,823,449*.; oil-cake, 1,440,675*.; oxen
and bulls, 7,470,333*.; fresh beef, 4,206,106*. ; tobacco, 2,704,943*.;
leather, 1,919,989*.; sugar, 425,429*. in 1890, 597,241*. in 1891,
161,965*. in 1892.
The following table gives the total value of the leading
articles exported from the United Kingdom to the United States
in the last five years : —
Digitized by
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SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
1096
tear
Iron
Cotton Goods
Linen Goods
Woollen Goods
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
£
5,936,795
6,187,286
6,410,757
6,198,354
4,735,842
£
2,187,737
2,385,382
2,735,070
2,351,706
2,611,121
£
2,742,425
2,899,414
2,920,198
2,400,971
2,695,800
£
4,600,195
5,189,250
5,147,832
3,178,093
3,681,761
Other exports from the United Kingdom to the United
States are alkali, 1,248,3512.; silk manufactures, 425,3172.;
jute manufactures and yarn, 1,330,3762. ; machinery, 796,5312.
in 1892.
The total trade of the United States (imports and exports of
merchandise) is divided as follows in 1892-93 among the various
coasts and frontiers of the States in percentage of the total : —
Atlantic Coast Gulf Coast Pacific Coast North Boundary Interior Ports
78*27 10*12 5-45 5-62 0*54
The percentage of the leading ports was as follows : —
New York
52*27
Boston
9-62
Philadelphia
6'74
Baltimore
5*11
New Orleans
5-81
San Francisco
4*46
Shipping and Navigation.
The foreign commerce of the United States is at present
largely carried on in foreign bottoms. The shipping belonging to
the United States was classed as follows for 1892 : — Sailing
vessels, 17,991 of 2,690,504 tons; steam vessels, 6,392 of
2,074,417 tons; total, 24,383 vessels of 4,764,921 tons.
Of vessels registered as engaged in the foreign trade, the
aggregate burthen was in 1892 974,624 tons, showing a decrease
of 14,095 tons on 1891 ; while of vessels engaged in the coasting
trade the total burthen was 3,700,773 tons, or 90,897 tons more
than in the preceding year.
The shipping is distributed thus (1892) : —
| Grand
■ Divisions
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels | Canal Boats
i
Barges
Total
!
1 Atlantic and
! Gulf Coasts .
(Pacific Coast .
i Northern Lakes
i Western Rivers .
No.
13,274
695
1,226
Tons
1,603,309
186,216
319,617
No.
3,039
257
1,631
1,122
Tons
901,887
180,440
763,063
207,000
No.
437
731
Tons
48,293
75,580
No.
1,141
]
69
168
Tons
252,428
214
25,321
103,802
No.
17,891
953
3,657
1,290
Tons
2,805,916
316,872
1,883,582
31,080
Totals, 1892 .
„ 1891 .
15,485
15,199
2,178,475
2,171,737
6,392
6,216
2,074,416
2,016,264
1,168
1,146
123,878
120,999
1,388
1,338
388,156
375,758
24,883
23,889
4,764,921
4,684,759
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1096
UNITED STATES
During the year 189i— 92 there were built: — Sailing vessels,
846 of 183,217 tons; steam vessels, 438 of 92,531 tons; canal
boats, 37 of 4,579 tons; barges, 74 of 19,304 tons.
The total tonnage on June 30, 1892, was 2,074,417 steam and
2,690,504 other than steam.
The tonnage entered and cleared in the foreign trade during
the last three fiscal years was as follows : —
-
1891
1892
1893
Entered : —
American
Foreign .
Total .
Cleared :—
American
Foreign .
Total .
No.
11,046
21,532
Tonnage
4,380,804
13,823,491
No.
10,912
22,232
coots
No.
10,678
21,077
Tonnage
4,858,686
15,223,130
32,578
18,204,295
33,144
_
11,085
22,300
21,013,424
4,536,151
16,624,882
31,755
10,463
21,172
19,581,816
11,182
21,521
32,703
4,455,402
13,805,430
4,403,362
15,357,384
18,260,832
33,385
21,161,033
31,635
19,760,746
In 1892-93 74 vessels of 133,374 tons cleared from Atlantic
for Pacific ports of the United States, and 36 vessels of 72,833
tons cleared from Pacific for Atlantic ports, vid Cape Horn.
Of the total foreign trade in 1892-93, only 12*2 per cent, in
value was carried in vessels belonging to the United States.
The proportion has steadily decreased since 1856, when it was
75*2 per cent.
Internal Communications.
The growth of the railway system of the United States dates from 1827,
when the first line was opened for traffic at Quincy, Massachusetts. The
extent of railways in operation in 1830 was 23 miles ; it rose to 2,818 miles
in 1840 ; to 9,021 miles in 1850 ; to 30,635 miles in 1860 ; to 53,399 miles
in 1870 ; to 84,393 miles in 1880 ; to 91,147 miles in 1881 ; and to 171,000
miles in 1892, 4,168 miles having been added during 1891. The railways
are divided as follows among the neat groups of States, the statistics
overlapping to some extent: — New England States, 6,883 miles; Middle
Atlantic, 20,601 miles; Central Northern, 37,470 miles; South Atlantic,
18,307 miles; Gulf and Mississippi Valley, 13,841 miles; South- Western,
33,361 miles ; North-Western, 27,891 miles ; Pacific, 12,695 miles.
The total capital invested in railways in 1891 was 10,389,834,228 dollars.
For 1893 (year ended June 30) the gross earnings were 1,085,685,281 dollars,
and the net earnings, 350,257,749 dollars. In the 56 principal cities of the
United States in 1888-89 there were altogether 3,151 miles of street railway,
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MONEY AND CREDIT
1097
2,851 miles being worked by animal power, 260 miles by electricity, 256
miles by cable, and 283 miles by steam.
The telegraphs of the United States are almost entirely in the hands of
the Western Union Telegraph Company, which had in 1892 189,576 miles of
line, 739,105 miles of wire, and 20,700 offices ; the number of messages
sent in 1892 was 62,387,298 ; the receipts, 23,706,405 dollars ; expenses,
16,307,857 dollars; and profits, 7,398,548 dollars. Including minor com-
panies, there were altogether over 210,000 miles of telegraph line open for
public use in 1892. In 1893 there were 307,748 miles of telephone wire
belonging to one company, with 552,720 telephones, and 812 telephone
exchanges. The length of wires for telephone use is estimated at 440,750
miles.
The postal business of the United States for the fiscal years of 1889-93
was as follows : —
Fiscal Tear
ending
June 30
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
Pieces of Mail
handled
7,027,837,339
7,847,723,600
8,546,370,090
9,227,816,090
9,772,075,810
Registered
Packages
15,866,550
16,576,293
16,671,914
16,879,160
16,487,241
Sacks handled I
Total
1,134,898
1,138,208
1,210,559
1,299,525
1,302,466
7,044,838,787
7,865,438,101
8,564,252,563
9,245,994,775
9,789,865,517
Money orders issued (1892-93) :—
Dollars
Domestic. . . 13,309,735 amounting to 127,576,433.65
International
Postal notes
Total
1,055,999
7,753,210
22,118,944
16,341,837.86
12,903,076.73
156,821,348.24
There are (1893) 68,403 offices. The total expenditure of the department
during the year 1892-93 was 81, 07 4, 104 dollars ; total receipts, 75,896,933
dollars ; excess of expenditure 5,177,171 dollars.
Money and Credit.
The monetary system is theoretically bimetallic, gold being legal tender,
and also silver dollars. In 1853 the fractional silver pieces were reduced to
token money. In 1873 the silver dollar was omitted from the list of
coins to be struck, but in 1878 it was restored by the Bland Act, which
required its coinage to the extent of from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 dollars per
month. In July 1890 the Sherman Act was passed, whereby silver was to
be purchased, and silver certificates issued to the amount of 4,500,000 dollars
per month. The silver purchase clauses were, however, repealed October
30, 1893. The amount of silver purchased under this Act (August 30, 1890,
to November 2, 1893) was 168,674,590 fine ounces, costing 155,930,941
dollars. The total amount of silver purchased by the Government from
March 1, 1873, was 503,008,809 fine ounces, costing 516,623,010 dollars.
Legal tender notes are issued by the Treasury, and silver certificates, being
received in payment of taxes, circulate freely.
The metallic and paper money in the United States was as follows on
January 1, 1894 :—
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1098
UNITED STATES
Coin, Certificates, and Notes
Coined or
issued
In Treasury
In circulation J
Gold coin
Standard silver dollars
Subsidiary silver
Gold certificates
Silver „ „ ....
Treasury notes, Act of July 14, 1890 .
United States notes ....
Currency certificates, Act of June 8, 1872
National bank notes ....
Total
Dollars
58 95
41 77
7 07
7 69
33 04
15 51
34 16
3 00
20 44
Dollars
73,624,284
361,463,188
11,639,467
75,590
5,038,854
1,194,884
44,139,202
40,000
12,357,628
Dollars
508,602,811 1
57,869,589 '
65,854,740
77,412,179
829,545,660 |
151,965,267 :
302,541,814 '
39,045,000 <
196,181,216 1
2,238,591,363
509,578,097
1,729,018,266
i
The coinage in six years was as follows, in dollars : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
189S
Gold
Silver .
Minor
Total .
28,364,170
34,136,095
1,218,977
25,548,910
34,515,546
906,478
22,021,748
36,815,837
1,416,852
24,172,202
38,272,020
1,166,936
35,506,988
14,989,279
1,296,710
30,038,140 1
12,560,935 •
1,086,103
63,917,242
60,965,929
60,254,437
63,611,158
51,792,977
43,685,178 1
The note issue of each of the national banks is by law more than covered
by United States interest, bearing bonds deposited in the department of the
Comptroller of the Currency. The amount of the bonds thus deposited was,
on June 31, 1892, 16,319,050 dollars, while the bonds held for other purposes
amounted to 20,301,600 dollars. The aggregate resources and liabilities of
the national banks, 3,773 in number, on September 80, 1892, were : —
, Resources
Dollars
Liabilities
Dollars
Loans .
Bonds .
Due from banks .
Real estate, &c.
Specie .
U.S. certificates, &c.
Bank notes .
Clearing house ex-
changes
Other resources
Total
2,171,000,000
338,000,000
409,500,000
87,900,000
209,100,000
118,300,000
19,600,000
105,500,000
51,200,000
Capital stock
Surplus fund
Undivided profits
Circulation .
Due to depositors .
Due to other banks
Other liabilities .
Total
686,600,000
238,900,000
101,600,000
143,400,000
1,779,300,000
530,700,000
29,600,000
3,510,100,000
3,510,500,000 J
The following statement regarding other banks refers to the year
1891-92 :—
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DIPLOMATIC BEPBESENTATIVES
1099
Banks
Number
Capital
Stock
Surplus
Undivided
Profits
Deposits
| State Banks .
; Loan and Trust Com-
panies .
Savings Banks (mu-
tual) .
Savings Banks (stock)
Private Banks .
3,191
168
643
416
1,161
Dollars
288,761,171
■80,645,972
37,407,475
34,590,227
Dollars
66,725,191
45,824,747
122,457,267
10,428,457
7,730,587
Dollars
23,632,989
15,943,401
22,804,142
4,644,818
3,528,577
Dollars
648,513,809
411,659,996
1,459,221,779
299,107,889
93,091,148
Total .
5,579
386,894,845
253,161,249
70,558,927
2,911,594,671
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The dollar of 100 cents is of the par value of 49 *32d., or 4*866 dollars to
the pound sterling.
Gold coins in common use are 10 and 5-dollar pieces called eagles and
lialf -eagles. The eagle weighs 258 grains or 16*71818 grammes '900 fine, and
therefore contains 232 '2 grains or 15*0464 grammes of fine gold.
The silver dollar weighs 412*5 grains or 26*729 grammes *900 fine, and
therefore contains 371 '25 grains or 24 0561 grammes of fine silver. Subsidiary
silver coins contain 345*6 grains of fine silver per dollar.
Weights and Measukes.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but he old Win-
chester gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards.
They are : —
Wine Gallon = 0*83333 gallon.
Ale Gallon = 1*01695 „
Bushel . = 0*9692 imperial bushel.
Instead of the British cwt. a Cental, of 100 pounds, is used.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the United States in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Hon. Thomas F. Bayard.
Secretary. — James R. Roosevelt.
Military Attache'. — Major William Ludlow.
Naval Attache. — Lieutenant-Commander William S. Cowles.
Consul-General (London). — P. A. Collins.
There are Consular representatives in Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford,
Bristol, Cardiff, Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow, Hull, Leeds, Leith, Liver-
pool, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Sheffield, Southampton, Antigua,
Auckland (N.Z.), Bombay, Calcutta, Cape Town, Ceylon, Halifax (N.S.),
Hobart, Melbourne, Montreal, Quebec, St. John's (N.F.), Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in the United States.
Ambassador. — Sir Julian Pauncefote, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. Appointed
1889.
Secretary.-
-William £. Goschen.
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I
1100 UNITED STATES
There are Consular representatives at Baltimore, Boston, Charleston,
Chicago, Galveston, New Orleans, New York (C. G.), Philadelphia, San
Francisco.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
United States.
1. Official Publications.
Agriculture, Reports of the Department of. Washington.
Appropriation, Letter from Secretary of Treasury with estimate of Annual. Washington.
Army Register of the United States. Washington.
Census, Tenth. Vols. I.— XXI. 4. Washington, 1883-89.
Census, Eleventh, Bulletins. Washington, 1890-93.
Commerce of the United States, Reports on the Internal. Annual. Washington.
Commerce of the United States, Reports on the Foreign. Annual. Washington.
Congressional Directory. Annual. Washington.
Debt of the United States, Statement of the Public. Annual. Washington.
Education, Annual Reports of Commissioner ot Washington.
Education Bureau, Circulars of. Washington.
Ethnology Bureau, Reports of. Washington.
Foreign Office List. By Sir E. Heistlet. Annual. London.
Foreign Relations of the United States, Papers relating to, transmitted to Congress.
Annual. Washington.
Foreign Office Reports (British). Annual Series and Miscellaneous Series. London.
Geological and Geographical Survey, Annual Reports of. Washington.
Interior, Report of Secretary on Operations of Department of the. Annual Washington.
International Law of the United States, Digest of. 8 vols. Washington, 1886.
Land Office, Report of Commissioner. Annual. Washington.
Loans and Currency, Acts of Congress Relating to, 1846-85. S. New York, 1888.
Labour Laws of the United States. Washington, 1892.
Mineral Resources of the United States. By D. T. Day. Annual. Washington.
Mint, Report of the Director of. Annual. Washington.
Navy Register of the United States. Washington.
Navy, Report of the Secretary of. Annual. Washington.
Official Register of the United States. Washington.
Railways, Report on Statistics of, to Interstate Commerce Commission. Annual.
Washington.
Revenue, Report of Commissioner of Internal. Annual. Washington.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. Annual. Washington.
Statistics Bureau, Quarterly Reports of, on Imports, Exports, Immigration, and Naviga-
tion of the United States. Washington.
Statutes at large, and Treaties of the United States. Published annually. Washington.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, Ac., Statement of. Annual.
Imp. 4. London.
Treasury, Report of the Secretary of, on Finances. Annual. Washington.
War, Report of Secretary on Operations of Department of. Annual. Washington.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adams (Henry), History of the United States of America. 9 vols. New York and
London, 1891.
Appleton. General Guide to the United States and Canada. 8. New York.
Bancroft (George), History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of
America. 2 vols. London, 1882.
Bancroft (George), History of the United States. New ed. 6 vols. 8. London, 1882.
Bolles (A. S.), Financial History of the United States. S vols. New York, 1885.
Brockett (L. R.), Our Western Empire. Philadelphia, 1882.
Bryce (James), The American Commonwealth. 3 vols. London, 1888.
Colange (E.), The National Gazetteer : a Geographical Dictionary of the United States.
8. New York.
Cooley (T. M.), Constitutional Law in the United States. Boston, 1880.
Cooper (T. V.) and Fenton (H. T.), American Politics. New York, 1882.
CurtU (G. T.), History of the Constitution of the United States. New York, 185168.
2 vols.
Doll (W. H.), Alaska and its Resources. 8. Boston, 1870.
De TocqueviUe (A.), Democratic en Amerique. 3 vols. 8. Paris.
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STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1101
Diike (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart, M.P.), Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in
English-speaking Countries in 1866 and 1867. 4th ed. 8. London, 1885.
Donaldson (T.), The Public Domain : its History, with Statistics, Ac. 8. Washington.
Ely (R. T.), Labour Movement in America. 8. London.
EUiot (H. W.), An Arctic Province. London, 1886.
Hildreth (Richard), History of the United States. 6 vols. New York, 1880, Ac
Homatu (B.), The Banker's Almanac and Register for 1892. 8. New York, 1891.
Johnston (Alex.), History of American Politics. New York, 1882.
Kent (J.), Commentaries on American Law (with Notes by O. W. Holmes, jun.). 4
vols. 8. New York.
King (Edward), The Southern States of America. 8. London, 1875.
Lanman (Charles), Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the United States
during its First Century. 8. London, 1876.
Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage, and Banking.
Washington, 1886.
honing (B. J.) Cyclopaedia of United States History. New York, 1888. 2 vols.
McMaster (J. B.X History of the People of the United States. New York, 1883-91. (In
progress.)
Macpherson (E.), The Political History of the United States of America during the Great
Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
Macy (J.), Our Government. 8. Boston, 1886.
Paschal (George W.), The Constitution of the United States. 8. Washington, 1868.
Patton (I. H.), Natural Resources of the United States. 8. New York.
Pomeroy (J. N.), Constitutional Law of the United States. Enlarged by B. H. Bennett,
Boston.
Pool (D. C), Among the Sioux of Dakota. 8. New York, 1881.
Poor (Henry V.), Manual of the Railroads of the United States. 8. New York, 1893.
Porter (R, P.), Gannett (H.), and Jones (W. P.), The West, from the Census of 1880. A
History of the Industrial, Commercial, Social, and Political Development of the States and
Territories of the West, from 1800 to 1880. Chicago, 1882.
Bielus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographic Universelle. Vol. XVI. Paris, 1892.
Spofford (Ainsworth R.), American Almanac 8. New York and Washington, 1889.
Statistical Atlas of the United States. New York, 1884.
Stanford's Compendium. North America. Ed. Hayden and Selwyn. 8. London.
Stanwood (Edward), History of Presidential Elections. Boston, 1884.
Tauaig (F. W.), Tariff History of the United States. 8. New York.
Von Hoist (Dr. H.), The Constitutional and Political History of the United States of
America. 5 vols. 8. New York, 1879-85.
Wharton (Francis), International Law of the United States. 3 vols. Washington, 1887.
Whitney (J. D.), The United States. 8. New York, 1890.
Winsor (Justin), Vols. 6 and 7 of the Narrative and Critical History of America.
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>
1102
URUGUAY.
(Republica Oriental del Ubuguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the viceroyalty of
Spain, and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its inde-
pendence August 25, 1825, which was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The Constitution of the
Republic was sworn July 18, 1830. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament, composed of two Houses,
the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in
annual session, extending from February 15 to July 15. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators
and five members of the Lower House assume the legislative
power, as well as the general control of the administration. The
representatives are chosen for three years, in the proportion of 1
to every 3,000 inhabitants of male adults who can read and
write. The senators are chosen by an Electoral College, whose
members are directly elected by the people ; there is one senator
for each department, chosen for six years, one-third retiring
every two years. There are (1893) 69 representatives and 19
senators.
The executive is given by the Constitution to the President of
the Republic, elected for the term of four years.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Herrera y Obes, for the
term from March 1, 1890, to 1894.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a
council of ministers divided into five departments, namely, that
of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War and Marine, and
the department of Worship, Justice, and Public Instruction.
Area and Population.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 72,110 English square
miles, with a population, in 1892, of 728,447, which, it is stated,
to allow for omissions, should be increased by 6 per cent., the
total estimated population being thus 772,153. The estimated
population in 1879 was 438,245. No regular census has ever
been taken. The country is divided into 19 departments, of
which 6 have been formed since 1880.
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AREA AND POPULATION
1103
The following table shows the estimated area and population of the various
provinces : —
Departments
Area, square
Estimated
Population
Population
per
1
miles
1892
square mile
Montevideo ....
256
238,080
933 9
Canelones
1,833
66,749
36 4
Colonia
2,192
37,162
16-9
Soriano
3,560
33,269
9 3
San Jose
2,687
30,214
11*2
Flores .
1,744
14,106
8-8
Florida.
4,673
29,915
6-4
Rocha .
4,280
22,767
5-3
Maldonado
1,584
20,034
12-6
Cerro-Largo
5,753
26,489
4 6
Minas .
4,844
24,267
5-0
Treinta y Trc
s
3,686
17,773
4-8
Salto .
4,863
33 567
6*9
Artigas
4,392
17,866
4-0
Durazno
5,525
27,044
4 9
Paysandu
5,115
30,507
5 9
Rio Negro
3,269
15,713
4-7
Tacuarembo
8,074
25,838
3 2
Rivera .
3,790
17,087
4 5
Total
•■
72,110
728,447
101
Of the population 52 per cent, are male, and 48 per cent, female. Seventy
per cent of the population is native-born. Of the remainder the greater
number are Spaniards, Italians, French, Brazilians, and Argentines. The
number of English and Germans is small. The Spaniards and French are
mostly Basques.
The Department of Montevideo in 1889 had a population of 114,322
natives and 100,739 foreigners ; the city, with suburbs, had 175,000, one-third
foreigners.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and marriages
for five years : —
1 Years
1
Total Births
Still-Births
Marriages
Deaths
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1888
! 1889
1890
1891
1892
26,337
27,501
28,600
29,423
28,743
505
520
701
727
659
3,976
4,175
4,082
3,524
3,390
11,572
12,362
14,473
12,419
12,663
14,260
14,619
13,426
16,277
15,421
Of the total births in 1891, 5,695 or 19*9 per cent, were illegitimate. In
the department of Montevideo 935 or 11 "3 per cent, of the births were ille-
gitimate.
In 1873 the number of immigrants was 243,391 ; in 1875, 5,298. For the
last five years the figures were ; —
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1104
URUGUAY
1
1888
1889 j 1890
1891 |
1893
Immigrants . .
Emigrants
16,581
7,601
27,349 1 24,117
10,658 j 19,852
11,916
19,809
11,871 ;
8,827 {
Of the immigrants in 1892, 4,966 were Italian; 2,097 Spanish.; 923
Brazilian ; 555 French ; 271 German ; and 201 English.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is complete tolera-
tion. In November, 1889 (census), there were in the Department of Monte-
video 179,468 Catholics, 10,982 Protestants, and 23,911 not declared, &c.
f
Instruction.
Primary education is obligatory. There were in 1892 491 public ele-
mentary schools, with 879 teachers, of whom 591 were female, and 45,953
enrolled pupils. The number of private schools was 41 3, with 948 teachers
and 21,056 pupils. In 1892 the cost of primary education defrayed by the
State was 658,276 dollars. There are at Montevideo a university and other
establishments for secondary and higher education. In 1892 the university
had 74 professors and 781 students. The normal school for girls gave
teaching certificates to 143 students in the years 1887-91. A normal school
for males has recently been formed. There is a school of arts and trades sup-
ported by the State where 163 pupils receive instruction gratuitously. At tie
military college, with 8 professors, there are 61 pupils between the ages of 14
and 18. There are also many religious seminaries throughout the Republic
with a considerable number of pupils.
The national library contains over 22,000 volumes and more than 2,500
manuscripts, maps, &c. There is also a national museum, with more than
33,490 objects. Ninety-seven newspapers and periodicals are published, 91 in
Spanish, 2 in English, 2 in Italian, 2 in Portuguese, and 1 each in German
and French.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure for five years were : —
-
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
13,668,096
13,834,149
Dollars
15,690,294
13,811,30s1
Dollars
17,415,154
Dollars
14,925,363
15,246,1751
Dollars
14,035,821
i Estimates.
The expenditure for recent years has not been published.
The estimates for 1890-91 have been, with slight alterations, adopted for
subsequent years. The estimated revenue from customs was set down at
10,622,000 dollars ; property tax 1,800,000 dollars ; licences 1,000,000 dollars.
The expenditure in "national obligations" was estimated at 8,720,257
dollars, in government 2,100,724 dollars. In view of the deficit of 1,600 000
dollars, it is proposed to reduce the legislative and army expenses and to
increase the revenue by a tax on legacies, a new tariff and municipal taxes.
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PRODUCTION AND INDUSTBY — COMMERCE
1105
The public debt on December 31, 1892, according to the official returns,
was 104,072,739 dollars. This sum is divided as follows: — Railway debt,
94,478 dollars ; railway guarantees, 3,960,000 dollars ; internal unified debt,
7,629,286 dollars ; consolidated, 90,561,950 dollars ; international, 1,827,025 ;
total, 104,072,739.
At the same date the State notes in circulation amounted to 176,659 dollars.
The total debt of the Republic is (at 4 '7 dollars = 17.) equivalent to
22,143,1362., and the service of the debt costs 4,917,718 dollars, or 1,046,3202.
annually.
The total value of the real property of the Republic in 1892 was 271,308,531
dollars.
Of this the department of Montevideo is credited with 129,332,000 dollars,
the next richest provinces being Paysandu and Sal to with 13,967,000 and
12,118,000 dollars respectively.
The revenue of the municipality of Montevideo for 1893-94 was estimated
at 894,680 dollars, and expenditure at 931,587 dollars.
Defence.
The permanent army of Uruguay is officially reported to consist of 225
officers and 3,425 men, including 4 battalions of infantry, 4 regiments of
cavalry, 2 of artillery. There is besides an armed police force of 3,980
men, and an active civilian force of 3,264. The soldiers are armed with
Remington rifles, and there are 67 pieces of artillery. In recent years
there has been an excessive expenditure for the maintenance of an in-
creased military force. Uruguay has three gunboats and six small steamers,
with a complement of 179 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
The rearing of cattle and sheep is the chief industry of Uruguay. The
pastoral establishments in 1890, according to declarations made for fiscal pur-
poses, contained 5,377,315 head of cattle, 363,143 horses, 5,244 mules, and
10,455,170 sheep. The total value of the flocks and herds in Uruguay is
estimated at 73,038,000 dollars. In 1892 636,400 head of cattle were
slaughtered. In 1891 57,000,000 lbs. of wool were exported. Agricultural
industries are said to have advanced recently, in 1892 691,600 acres, and in
1893 910,000 acres being under cultivation ; wheat and maize are the chief
products, the wheat yield for 1893 being estimated at 146,000 tons. Tobacco,
olives, and the vine are also cultivated. The acquisition of land is facilitated
by public companies, through one of which, up to 1891, 52,317 colonists had
settled on 188,000 plots. In the northern Departments several gold mines
are worked, and silver, copper, lead, magnesium, and lignite coal are found.
In the department of Rivera, during the five years 1888-92, the gold yield
was 22,754 oz.
Commerce.
The special trade (merchandise only) was as follows in the last five years : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports .
Exports
Dollars
29,477,448
28,008,254
Dollars
36,828,863
26,964,107
Dollars
32,364,627
29,086,519
Dollars
18,978,417
26,996,268
Dollars
18,404,296
25,961,819
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1106
UBUGUAY
The following table shows the value of the trade of Uruguay in 1891 and
1892, with the countries with which she mainly deals : —
Country
1891
1892
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
Dollars
•Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Great Britain .
5,477,000
4,961,000
5,647,479
4,479,241
France
2,476,000
6,284,000
2,259,361
4,410,379
Germany .
1,844,000
1,473,000
2,091,625
2,006,656
Spain
1,«26,000
227,000
1,774,601
424,737
Italy
1,956,000
562,000
2,020,052
367,955
Brazil
1,685,000
4,712,000
1,313,195
4,514,074
United States
928,000
1,849,000
1,104,772
2,244,398
Belgium .
731,000
3,580,000
835,508
3,164,933
Argentine
1,578,000
2,472,000
1,073,476
2,985,304
The following are the various classes of imports for three years : —
—
1890
1891
1892
Foods and drinks
Tobacco
Textiles . ...
Apparel and haberdashery
Raw materials and machinery .
Various
Dollars
11,186,305
589,595
3,770,977
1,532,206
8,677,114
6,608,430
Dollars
7,379,138
273,131
2,561,546
996,119
3,846,336
3,922,148
Dollars
6,878,138
330,601
3,113,255
1,136,368
4,396,940
2,548,994
Total ....
32,364,627
18,978,418
18,404,296
The following are the various classes of exports for three years : —
The following table gives the principal exports for three years : —
►
-
1890
1891
1892
Living animals
Animal products ...
Agricultural products
Other products .
Dollars
544,709
26,007,091
1,234,934
1,298,785
Dollars
1,510,084
24,804,823
158,982
524,381
Dollars
1,114,926
24,337,741
136,752
362,400
Totals ....
29,085,519
26,998,270
25,951,819
Year
Jerked
Beef
Extract of
Beef
Hides and
Skins
Tallow
Wool
1890
1891
1892
Dollars
3,881,000
3,501,000
4,071,176
Dollars
1,677,000
2,185,000
1,839,979
Dollars
9,413,000
7,624,000
7,899,962
Dollars
1,665,000
1,504,000
1,361,135
Dollars
7,866,000
8,207,000 ,
7,420,295 |
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MONEY AND CREDIT
1107
The imports of gold coin in 1892 amounted to 3,336,508 dollars, and
exports to 3,029,311 dollars.
Of the total imports in 1892, 17,231,102 dollars passed through Monte-
video, and 16,572,908 dollars exports.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United Kingdom is
exhibited in the following tabular statement, according to the Board of Trade
Returns for each of the last five years : —
— | 1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into U. K. from Uru-
guay . .
Exports of British produce to
Uruguay ....
£
458,138
1,771,692
£
450,531
2,408,389
£
341,208
2,043,106
£
374,261
1,165,052
£
288,307
1,280,829
The chief articles of import from Uruguay into the United Kingdom
in 1892 were hides, of the value of 40,440J. ; tallow, 29,3692. ; preserved
meat, 98,9242. ; drugs, 30,888Z. ; wheat, 18,200Z. ; wool, 15,3412. The ex-
ports from the United Kingdom into Uruguay were cotton goods, value
561,4452. ; woollens, 132,6922. ; coal, 121,3672. ; iron, wrought and un wrought,
109,8052.; and machinery, 25,2672.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1893 Uruguay had 21 steamers of a total gross tonnage of 10,774 tons,
and 18 sailing vessels of a total net tonnage of 3,439 tons.
There entered at the port of Montevideo in 1892 from abroad 1,068 sea-
going vessels of 1,420,224 tons, and cleared 805 vessels of 1,166,272 tons.
Of the vessels entered 372 of 594,672 tons were British. In the river and
coasting trade there entered 2,571 vessels of 1,168,916 tons, and cleared 2,899
vessels of 1,440,382 tons.
There are (1892) 974 English miles of railway open for traffic, and 140
miles under construction. There are 89 miles of tramway in operation The
principal telegraph lines in operation in 1892 were of a total length of 3,904
miles, of which 974 miles belonged to the railways. There were 76 offices
(in 1892), and 224,267 telegrams were conveyed.
In 1892 the post office transmitted 6,239,043 letters and post-cards, and
16,723,181 printed papers and other packets. There were 474 post-offices.
Money and Credit.
Consequent on free financial speculation in the years 1887-1889, when
banking, building, tramway, agricultural, and other companies were multiplied
and extravagant schemes undertaken, a commercial crisis followed. In 1890
the National Bank was closed and the Public Works Company was ruined.
In 1891 the English Bank of the River Plate collapsed and other banks went
into liquidation. In July, 1892, the paper money in circulation was 2,388,000
dollars ; the metallic reserves declared by the banks were 7,579,782 dollars ;
the monetary circulation was estimated to be under 5,000,000 dollars ; while
the whole stock of metallic and paper money in the Republic was estimated at
about 20,000,000 dollars. In 1892 the coinage of 3,000,000 dollars in silver
was authorised by law. Of this amount 1,000,000 dollars have been coined
and are now in circulation.
0 4 B 2
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>
1108 URUGUAY
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The silver Peso, or Dollar, of 100 centavos. Approximate value, 4*. 3d. ;
£1 = 4*70 dollars. The Government has been authorised to coin one-peso
silver pieces, nine-tenths fine, weighing 20 grammes (4*72 pesos = £1). The
circulation of foreign silver money is now prohibited, but the only gold coins
that have legal currency are foreign.
Weights and Measubes.
The Quintal =101 '40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba = 25*35 ,, „
,, Fanega = 30 gallons.
„ Cuadra of land = '73 hectare = 1*8 English acre.
,, Square league = 10£ English square miles.
The metric system has been officially adopted, but is not in general use.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Op Uruguay in Great Britain.
Charge' d* Affaires and Consul-General. — Dr. Alberto Nin, appointed
June 1, 1891.
Secretary. — A. J. Zumaran.
2. Op Great Britain in Uruguay.
Minister and Resident Consul-Oeneral. — Walter Baring, appointed June,
1893.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Uruguay.
Agricola Estadistica de la Republics en el afio 1892. Montevideo.
Bella (L. C.), Anuario demografico de la R. O. del Uruguay, for 1892. Montevideo, 1893.
Anuario estadistico de la Bepublica Oriental del Uruguay. Montevideo, 1893.
Comercio exterior de la Bepublica Oriental del Uruguay, 1892. Montevideo, 1893.
Diario oflcial. 1893.
La Bepitblica Oriental del Uruguay. Por Ramon Lopez Lomba. Montevideo, 1884.
Bouatan (Honore), and Pena (C. M. de), La Bepublica Oriental del Uruguay en la Expo-
sition Universal Colombiano de Chicago. Montevideo, 1893.
The Uruguay Republic : Territory and Conditions. Reprinted by authority of the
Consul-General of Uruguay. London, 1888.
Report by Mr. Satow on the Trade, Ac, of Uruguay for the years 1889-91, in No. 1124 of
( Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1892.
Trade of Uruguay with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1892.' Imp. 4.
London, 1893.
Bauza (Francisco), Historia de la domination espanola en el Uruguay. Montevideo,
1880.
MulhaU (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. 8. London, 1885.
Murray (Bev. J. H.), Travels in Uruguay, 8. America. 8. London, 1871.
Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses [chapter entitled 'From Montevideo to Paraguay'!. 8-
London, 1887.
Rumbold (Sir H.), The Great Silver Biver. London, 1888.
Vincent (Frank), Bound and About South America. New York, 1890.
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1109
VENEZUELA.
(Etados Unidos db Venezuela.)
Constitution and Government
The Republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession from the other
members of the Free State founded by Simon Bolivar within the limits of the
Spanish colony of New Granada. The charter of fundamental laws actually
in force, dating from 1830, and re-proclaimed, with alterations, on March 28,
1864, and April 1881, is designed on the model of the Constitution of the
United States of America, but with considerably more independence secured
to provincial and local government. At the head of the central executive
government is the President, elected for the term of two years, exercising his
tunctions through six ministers, and a Federal Council of 19 members. The
Federal Council is appointed by the Congress every two years ; the Council
from its own members, choose a President, who is also President of the Republic.
Neither the President nor members of the Federal Council can be re-elected for
the following period. The President has no veto power. The legislation for
the whole Republic is vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate
(three senators for each of the eight States and the Federal District), and the
House of Representatives (one to every 35, 000 of population). The Senators are
elected for four years by the Legislature of each State, and the Representatives
for a like period by ' popular, direct, and public election. ' The Congresses of
States are elected by universal suffrage. There are 24 Senators and 5.2
Representatives. A revised Constitution has been presented, June 1891, by
the two Chambers to the Legislative Assemblies of the States for their
consideration.
President of the Republic. — Guzman Alvarez.
The provinces, or States, of the Republic have each their own legislature
and executive, as well as their own budgets and judicial officers, and the
main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. The administration
of the territories and colonies is entrusted to the government of the Federation.
Area and Population.
- Until 1881 Venezuela was divided into twenty-one States and their terri-
tories ; but in that year a re-division was made into eight large States, each
subdivided into sections or districts, corresponding to the old States, besides
the Federal District, two national settlements, and eight territories. The
following table gives the area and population of each of the new States and
territories according to the census of 1891 : —
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1110
VENEZUELA
State &c.
Area
Population,
Population per
square miles
1891
sq. mile, 1891
Federal District .
45
89,133
1,9807
Miranda
33,969
484,509
14-2
Carabobo
2,984
198,021
60 6
Bermudez
32,243
300,597
9 3
Zamora
25,212
246,676
9-6
Lara
9,296
246,760
26 5
Los Andes .
14,719
336,146
22-8
Falcon and Zulia
36,212
224,566
6 2
Bolivar
88,701
50,289
0*6
Territories :
Goajira
3,608
65,990
18*3
Alto Orinoco
Amaz6nas
119,780\
90, 928 J
45,197
0*2
i
Colon .
166
129
o-i !
Yuruari1
81,123
22,392
0*2 j
Canra .
22,564 )
7,046 \
In adjoining
Armisticio .
States
"~ i
Delta .
25,347
7,222
03 '
Total
j 593,943
2,323,527
3 9
i Reincorporated with the State of Bolivar in 1891
There were 1,137,139 males and 1,186,388 females.
According to the census of 1881 the population was 2,075,245. This
showed an increase in the population over the census of 1873, of 291,051.
The native Indian population in 1890 numbered 326,000, of whom 66,000
independent, 20,000 submitted, 240,000 civilized. In 1889 the number of
marriages was 6,705 ; of births 76,187 ; of deaths, 55,218. The immigra-
tion (1,555 in 1890) and emigration nearly balance each other.
* The population of Caracas, the capital, in 1888 was 70,466 (72,429 in 1891),
Valencia 38,654, Maracaibo 34,284, Barquisimeto 31,476, Ciudad de Cora
12,198, Barcelone 12,785, Ciudad Bolivar 11,686, Guanare 10,880.
\
Religion and Instruction.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is toleration of all
others, though they are not permitted any external manifestations.
In 1870 education was made free and compulsory ; at that time only 10 per
cent, of the adult population were able to read and write. In 1891 there
were, for primary instruction, 1,415 Federal and 151 State schools. The
number of pupils receiving elementary instruction in 1889 was 100,026. The
sum expended in 1890 on Federal schools was 2,503,797 bolivares. Besides
these there are 9 barrack schools, 4 normal schools, and one school of arts and
trades. Higher education is given in 2 universities, 22 Federal colleges, 1 1
national colleges for girls, 1 school for fine arts, others for music, 1 poly-
technic school, 26 private colleges and 1 nautical school. These institutions
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DEFENCE 1111
have 436 professors and 4,882 students. The cost of the Federal schools
(primary and higher) to the nation in 1890 was 3,345,720 bolivares.
In Caracas is the national library, with 32,000 volumes, and the national
museum.
Justice and Crime, i
Justice is administered by the Supreme Federal Court and the Supreme
Court of Appeal, by special local courts for civil and criminal cases separately,
and by district, borough, and municipal judges.
Finance.
The revenue for 1888-89 was 40,395,329 bolivares, and expenditure
37,423,390 bolivares. The revenue for 1889-90 was 45,031,224 bolivares,
and expenditure 45,670,166. On these two years' finance there was thus
a balance of 2,332,296 bolivares. The chief source of revenue is customs,
33,457,477 bolivares in 1890; and the chief items of expenditure were:
Interior, 7,502,514 bolivares ; Finance, 10,844,733 bolivares; Public Works,
11,166,590 bolivares; War and Marine, 5,489,843 bolivares; Public Instruc-
tion, 3,217,955 bolivares. In the budget for 1890-91 the revenue is estimated
at 35,976,000 bolivares, and the expenditure the same.
The foreign debt, with the unpaid interest of several years, had grown to
10, 869, 563 J. in 1878, when the Government resumed the payment of interest.
New consolidated bonds were issued to the amount of 4,000,000Z. (100,100,000
bolivares) on January 1, 1881, in substitution of all pre-existing internal and
external bonds ; 2,750,0002. to represent the external bonds, bearing 3 percent,
for two years, and after that 4 per cent. Up to 1889 the service of the debt
did not proceed satisfactorily, but the unification of internal and external debt
was accomplished in November, 1889, when the 4 per cent, rate was agreed to.
On December 31, 1892, the amount of the outstanding external debt was
2,659,300Z.
The following is an official summary of the Venezuelan debt, Dec. 31,
1890 :—
Bolivares
Internal national consolidated debt . 38,245,153
External 67,388,462
Diplomatic conventions debt . . 4,310,532
Bonds of 1 per cent, per month . . . 3,365,896
Total
113,310,043
Defence.
In 1893 the army numbered 7,280 officers and men, dispersed in 20 towns
of the Republic, and in Federal garrisons and ships.
Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in which every
citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must be enrolled. In
times of civil war this force has been increased to 60,000 men. The number
of citizens able for military service according to law was 250,000 in 1889.
Venezuela has one iron steamer, the Augusta, built in 1884, and three
sailing vessels.
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1112
VENEZUELA
Production and Industry.
The surface of Venezuela is naturally divided into 3 distinct zones — the
agricultural, the pastoral, and the forest zone. In the first are grown sugar-
cane, coffee, cocoa, cereals, &c. ; the second affords runs for cattle ; and in
the third tropical products, such as caoutchouc, tonca beans, copaiba, vanilla,
growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. All lands within the bounds
of the Republic without a lawful owner (corporate or private) are considered
public lands, and are managed by the Federal executive, who, under certain
regulations, have power to sell or to make grants therefrom for the purpose of
agricultural or mining settlements or to properly certified immigrants, in the
proportion of 2£ acres to every member of the family.
The following table shows the extent, in square miles, of the public
and private land m 1891 : —
[ Zone
Public Land
Private Land
Total
! Agricultural ....
I Pastoral
I Forest
87,286
57,900
298,273
47,626
98,430
4,700
134,862
156,330
302,973
j Total ....
443,409
150,756
594,165
One-fifth of the population is engaged in agriculture. In 1888 there were
in Venezuela 8,476,300 cattle, 5,727,500 sheep and goats, 1,929,700 swine,
387,650 horses, 300,560 mules, and 858,970 asses.
Venezuela is rich in metals and other minerals. Gold is found chiefly in
the Yuruari Territory. The quantity sent from that district in 1885 was
172,037 oz. ; in 1886, 217,135 oz. ; in 1887, 95,352 oz. ; and in 1888, 71,594
oz. ; in 1889, 88,834 oz. ; in 1890, 85,531 oz. ; in 1891, 49,050 oz. ; in 1892,
46,560 oz. There are silver mines in the States of Bermudez, Lara, and Los
Andes. Copper and iron are abundant, while sulphur, coal, asphalt, lead,
kaolin, and tin are also found. The salt mines in various States, under
Government administration, produced in 1889-90 a revenue of 1,478,904 boli-
vares. The total value of the mineral products in 1886 was estimated at
28,560,500 bolivares (gold 24,070,320bolivares, and copper 4, 124, 114 bolivares).
Commerce.
Nearly six-sevenths in value of the imports are subject to duty. The
following table shows the progress of Venezuela commerce in bolivares : —
1873-74
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
Imports
Exports
61,717,188
73,918,122
73,191,880
90,640,000
78,963,288
90,210,000
81,372,256
97,271,306
88,614,411
100,917,838
Of the imports (1887-88) 23,510,113 bolivares came from Great Britain,
19,743,824 from the United States, 12,651,777 from France, 13,460,390 from
Germany, 4,345,477 from Colombia. Of the exports during the year 1887-88
the value of 3,318,615 bolivares went to Great Britain, 45,615,499 to the
United States, 15,209,809 to France, 10,046,886 to Germany, 16,445,723 to
the West Indies. Coin (gold and silver) was exported in 1888 to the
amount of 4,072,739 bolivares; and precious stones, valued at 72,854 boli-
vares. In 1888 there were exported also 14,511 cattle (including 12,582
Digitized hv VjOOQI.C
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATION
1113
horned cattle and 1,138 asses), valued at 1,651,911 bolivares. The coasting
trade for 1887-88 was valued at 90,700,953 bolivares, imports and exports.
In 1889-90 the chief article exported was coffee, valued at 71,167,850
bolivares ; next was cocoa, 9,329,396 bolivares ; virgin and placer gold and
residuum, 8,888,428 bolivares ; then hides and skins, 4,728,074 bolivares ;
cattle, 1,176,000 bolivares.
In 1892 the imports at Ciudad Bolivar amounted to 149, 142?. (3,728,556
bolivares).
In 1892 the exports from Ciudad Bolivar amounted to 7,518,664 bolivares
or 300, 747 J. (gold bullion, 170, 469?.) ; from La Guaira, 1,090,439?. (coffee,
817,069?.) ; from Puerto Cabello, 931,329?. ; and from Maracaibo, besides other
merchandise, there were exported 365,186 bags (21,514,647 kilogrammes)
of coffee.
The value of the trade between Venezuela and the United Kingdom during
the last five years, according to the Board of Trade Returns, was : —
-
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
Imports into United King-
dom from Venezuela
Exports of British produce
to Venezuela
J6
269,969
581,467
£
284,666
785,424
£
308,550
828,978
J6
290,997
821,326
J6
256,739
368,915
The chief article of import from Venezuela into Great Britain in 1892 was
copper ore and regulus, of the value of 242,261?. In 1880 the cocoa imported
into Great Britain was valued at 20,789?. ; in 1890, 4,782?. ; in 1891, 22,501?. ;
in 1892, 5,576?. ; coffee in 1880 was 15,553?. ; in 1890, 1,735?. ; in 1891,
315?. ; in 1892, 2,471?. ; dye-woods imported in 1891 were valued at 1,240?. ;
in 1892, nil; dye-stuffs 8,261?; in 1892, nil. The exports from Great
Britain to Venezuela comprise cotton and linen manufactures, the former of
the value of 192,286?., and the latter of 15,934?., in the year 1892 ;
besides woollens, 12,727?. ; jute goods, 11,814?. ; iron, wrought and un-
wrought, 28,399?. ; machinery, 19,653?.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1892, 83 vessels of 31,856 tons (16 of 7,941 tons British) entered, and
64 of 23,764 tons (16 of 6,996 tons British) cleared at the port of Ciudad,
Bolivar.
Venezuela had in 1893 7 steamers, with total gross tonnage of 2,232 tons,
and 14 sailing vessels, with total net tonnage of 3,409 tons.
There are (1893) 287 miles of railway in operation, and 1,240 miles under
consideration. In 1889-90 there were conveyed 6,071,365 letters and parcels
inland ; and 343,936 abroad. In 1880 Venezuela joined the General Postal
Union. In 1890 there were 3,528 miles of telegraph lines and 102 telegraph
offices ; 419,724 telegrams were sent in 1890 ; receipts, 1890, 326,904 bolivares ;
expenses, 924,607 bolivares. On December 1, 1890, one company had in use
776 telephone instruments, and 1,477 subscribers, while another company was
establishing connections between various centres.
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I
1114 VENEZUELA
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money,
The Venezolano, of 100 Centavas. . approximate value, 3s. ±d.
,, Bolivar ,, ,, 1 fr.
Venezuela has the Latin Union system of coinage with nominally a double
standard of value, gold and silver, the ratio being 15 J to 1.
Weights and Measures.
The Libra =1 '014 lb. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal = 101*40 lbs. „
,, Arroba . . . = 25 35 ,,
The above are the old weights and measures in general use, but the legal
ones are those of the metric system.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Venezuela, in Great Britain.
Political Agent. — M. Michelena.
Consul-General. — Dr. Elias Rodriguez.
Consul. — N. G. Burch.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Dundee, Glasgow, Grimsby,
Liverpool, Manchester, Southampton, Birmingham, Nottingham, Swansea,
Cape Town, Jamaica, Melbourne, Montreal.
2. Op Great Britain in Venezuela.
Minister and Consul-General. — [Diplomatic relations suspended Decem-
ber 1887.]
There are Consular representatives at Caracas, Bolivar, La Guayra,
Maracaibo, Puerto Caballo.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Venezuela.
1. Official Publications.
Segundo censo de la Republics. Caracas, 1881.
Statistical Annuary of the United States of Venezuela. Caracas, 1892.
Reports by Colonel Mansfield on the Trade, Commerce, and General Material Condition
of Venezuela in 1883, in 'Reports from H.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad.'
Part I. Folio. London, 1885.
Report on the consular district of Caracas, No. 1207, Foreign Office Reports, Annual
Series. London, 1893.
Trade of Venezuela with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 1892.' 4. London, 1898.
Venezuela Bulletin No. 34 of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington, 1892.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Appun (C. FA Unter den Tropen. Vol. I. Venezuela. 8. Jena, 1871.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Dance (C. DA Four Tears in Venezuela. 8. London, 1876.
Eastwiek (Edward), Venezuela, or Sketches of Life in a South American Republic; .with
a History of the Loan of 1864. 8. London, 1868.
Ernst (Dr. A.), Les produits de Venezuela. 8. Bremen, 1874.
Meulemans (Auguste), La republique de Venezuela. 8. Bruxelles, 1872.
Spenee(J. M.), The Land of Bolivar: Adventures in Venezuela. 2 vols. 8. London,
1878.
Thirion (C), Les etats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.
Tejera (Miguel), Venezuela pintoresca e ilustntda. 8. Paris, 1875.
Teiera (Miguel), Mapa fisico y politico de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela. Paris, 1877.
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INDEX
AAC
AACHEEN, 538, 612
Aalborg, 452
Aarhaus, 452
Abaco (Bahamas), 227
Abbas, Khedive, 1088
Abdul-HamidlL, 1011
Abdur Rahman Khan, 313
Aberdeen, 22 ; University, 34
Aberystwith College, 34
Abo, 863
Abomey, 321
Abyssinia, 715
Accra, 196
Adana, 1017
Adelaide, 277 ; University, 278
Aden, 100
Adolf, Grand Duke of Luxemburg, 736
Adrar, 753, 959
Adrianople, 1016, 1017
Afghanistan, area, 313
— armv, 314
— books of reference, 316
— currency, 316
— exports, 315
— government, 313
— horticulture, 315
— imports, 315
— justice, 314
— land cultivation, 314
— manufactures, 315
— mining, 315
— origin of the Afghans, 313
— population, 314
— reigning sovereign, 313
— revenue, 314
— trade, 315
Africa, British Central, 179
East, 178
South, 193
— central independent states, 317
— colonies in, British, 166
French, 507, 510
German, 568
Italian, 714
Portuguese, 841
ALG
Africa, colonies in, Spanish, 959
the trade of in 1892, xxx.
— (West), British colonies, 196
Agra, 125
Agram, 344 ; University, 347
Aguascalientes, 739
Ahmadabad, 125
Aitutaki Island, 310
Akkerman, 863
Albany, 1070
Albert, King (Saxony), 622
Albert, Prince (Monaco), 748
Albrecht, Prince (Brunswick), 586
Albury (N.S.W.), 242
Aldabra Island, 185
Alderney, population, 26
Aleppo, 1017
Alessandria, 682
Alexander I. (Servia), 925
Alexander III. (Russia), 851
Alexandria, 1042
Alexandropol, 863
Alfonso XIII. (Spain), 944
Alfred, Duke (Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha), 631
Algeria, agriculture, 512
— area, 511
— books of reference, 514
— commerce, 513
— crime, 511
— defence, 512
— exports, 513, 514
— finance, 512
— government, 510
— imports, 513, 514
— industry, 512
— instruction, 511
— mining, 512
— money, weights, and measures, 514
— population, 51 1
— railways, 51^
— religion, 511
— shipping, 514
— telegraphs, 514
Algiers, 511
Digitized by
Google
1116
THE STATESMAN'S YEAB-BOOK, 1894
ALL
Allahabad, 125 ; University, 127
Alleghany, 1070
Alost, population, 380
Alsace-Lorraine, agriculture, 572
— area, 571
— constitution, 570
— finance, 572
— instruction, 572
— justice and crime, 572
— manufactures, 572
— mining, 572
— poor-relief, 572
— population, 571
— production and industry, 572
— railway, 572
— religion, 572
— representatives in the Bundesrath,
533
Altona, 538, 612
Ambriz, 841
America, British colonies in, 203,
French colonies in, 507, 527
— Spanish colonies in, 959
Amiens, 475
Amritsar, 125
Amsterdam, 765
— Island, 185
Ancona, 682
Andaman Islands, 157
Andidjan, 863
Andorra, 505
Andros Island, 227
Angers, 475
Angola, 841
Anghora, 1016, 1017
Angra Peque&a, 568
Anguilla, 230, 231, 232
Anhalt, area, 573
— constitution, 573
— finance, 574
— population, 573
— reigning duke, 572
Annabon, 959
Annam, area and population, 507,
509
Antananarivo, 517
Antigua, 230, 232-234
Antipodes Islands (N.Z.), 269
Antwerp, population, 380
Aquila, 682
Arab ports ) Persia), 814
Aral Lake, 861
Arequipa, 819
Arezzo, 682
AUC
Argentine Republic, agriculture, 32
— area, 323
— banks, 331
— books of reference, 331
— cattle industry, 327
— commerce, 328
— constitution, 322
— currency and credit, 330
— defence, 326
— diplomatic representatives, 331
— emigration, 324
— exports, 328, 329
— finance, 325
— government, 322
local, 322
— immigration, 324
— imports, 328, 329
— instruction, 324
— justice, 324
— land under cultivation, 327
— money, weights, and measures, 331
— population, 323
— posts and telegraphs, 330
— president, 322
— production and industry, 327
— railways, 380
— religion, 324
— revenue and expenditure, 325
— shipping and navigation, 329
Argos, 648
Arnhem, 765
Aroloen, 637
Aruba Island, 793
Asaba, 191
Ascension Island, 166
Ascoli Piceno, 682
Asia, British colonies in, 100
— French colonies in, 507, 508
— Portuguese colonies in, 841
— Russian dependencies in, 912b
— Spanish colonies in, 959
Assab, 715
Assumption Island, 185
Aston Manor, 19
Astrakhan, 863
Asuncion, 805
Athens, 648
Atjeh (Sumatra), 784
Atlanta, 1070
Atui Island, 310
Auckland Islands, 269
Auckland, N.Z., 256, 257
— trade, 267
— University College, 258
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1117
AUG
Augsburg, 581
Australasia and Oceania, 235
— French colonies in, 528
Australasian federation, 307
— books of reference, 308
Australian defence, 307
Austria-Hungary, agriculture, 358
— area, 340
— banks, 368, 370
— births, deaths, and marriages, 343
— books of reference, 372
— commerce, 363
— constitution, 385
— currency and credit, 368
— customs valuation, xxv
— debt, 353
— defence, frontier, 354
army, 355
navy, 356
— diplomatic representatives, 371
— emigration, 344
— exports, 863-365
— finance, 349
— forestry, 360
— government, 335
central (Austria), 336 ; (Hun-
gary), 339
local (Austria), 338 ; (Hun-
gary), 340
provincial (Austria), 338 ;
(Hungary), 839
— imports, 863-365
— instruction, 346
— justice and crime, 348
— manufactures, 362
— mining, 361
— ministry, 836 ; (Austria), 337 ;
(Hungary), 339
— money, weights, and measures, 370
— occupation of the people, 342
— pauperism, 349
— population, 340
— posts and telegraphs, 367
— railways, 367
— reigning sovereign, 333
— religion, 344
— revenue and expenditure, 351-353
— rivers and canals, 366
— royal family, 333
— schools, &c, 346-348
— sea fisheries, 362
— shipping and navigation, 365
— sovereigns since 1282, 334
— towns, 344
BAB
Austria-Hungary, universities, 347
Avellino, 682
Azores, 831
Azov, Sea of, 860
BADEN, agriculture, 577
• — area, 575
— constitution, 575
— finance, 577
— instruction, 576
— manufactures, 578
— navigation, 578
— population, 575
— production and industry, 577
— railways, 578
— reigning grand-duke, 574
— religion, 576
— royal family, 574
— towns, 576
Bagamoyo, 569
Bagdad, 1016, 1017
Bagirmi, 318-319
Bahamas, 227, 232-234
Bahia, 401
Bahour, 508
Bahr-el-Gazal (Sudan), 320
Bahrein Islands, 100
Baku, 863
Bali, 784
Ballarat, 292
Balta, 863
Baltic (provinces of Russia), 858
Baltimore, 1070
Baluchistan, 154
Banang (Philippines), 961
Banca(E.L)> 784
Bangalore, 125
Bangor College, 34
Banjaluka, 372
Barbados, 227, 232, 233, 234
Barbuda, 230
Barcelona, 949, 1110
Bareilly, 125
Barfurush, 811
Ban, 682
Barmen, 538, 612
Baroda, 121, 125
Barquisimeto, 1110
Barranquilla, 434
Barrow-in-Furness, 19
Basel, 1000 ; University, 1001
Basseterre, 231
Bassora, 1016
Basutoland, 166
A
Digitized by
Google
1118
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
BAT
Batanga (W. Africa), 568
Batavia, 785
Bath, 19
Bathurst (Gambia), 197
Bathurst(N.S.W.), 242
Batum, 863
Bautzen, 624
Bavaria, agriculture, 584
— area, 580
— army, 583
— beer brewing, 584
— births, marriages, and deaths, 582
— constitution, 579
— emigration, 581
— finance, 583
— government, 579
— instruction, 582
— justice and crime, 582
— mining, 584
— pauperism, 582
— population, 580
— railways, 584
— regent, 578
— reigning king, 578
— religion, 582
— royal family, 578
— towns, 581
Beaconsfield (Cape Colony), 171
Bechuanaland, 167, 168
Bedford College, London, 35
Belem, 401
Belfast, 25 ; Queen's College, 34
Belgium, agriculture, 385
— area, 378
— army, 384, 385
— births, deaths, and marriages, 379
— books of reference, 393
— Chamber of Representatives, 377
— commerce, 387
— constitution, 376
— currency and credit, 891
— customs valuation, xxv
— debt, 384
— defence, 384
— diplomatic representatives, 892
— emigration, 379
— exports, 388, 389
— finance, state, 383 ; local, 384
— frontier, 384
— government, 376
local, 377
— immigration, 379
— imports, 388, 389
— instruction, 380
BLA
Belgium, justice and crime, 382
— mining and metals, 386
— ministry, 377
— money, weights, and measures, 392
— occupation of the people, 879
— pauperism, 382
— population, 378
— posts and telegraphs, 391
— railways, 390
— reigning king, 375
— religion, 380
— revenue and expenditure, 383
— royal family, 375
— schools, &c., 381
— Senate, 376
— shipping and navigation, 390
— towns, 380
— universities, 381
Belgrade, 927
Belluno, 682
Benares, 125
Bender Abbas, 814
Bendery, 863
Benevento, 682
Bengal, province, government, 118
Benghazi, 1017
Benguela, 841
Benkulen(E.L), 784
Berbera, 100, 320
Berbice, 228
Berditcheff, 863
Bergamo, 682
Bergen, 983
Berlin, 538, 612 ; University, 541
Bermudas, 203 ; troops at, 97
Berne, 1000 ; University, 1001
Besancon, 475
Bessemer steel, 75
Beyrouth, 1017
Beziers, 475
Bhutan, 394
Bida, 191
Bigha, 1016
Bight of Benin settlement, 523
Bilbao, 949
Billiton (E.I.), 784
Birkenhead, population, 19
Birmingham, 18 ; College, 34
Birui (Central Africa), 818
Bismarck Archipelago, 570
Bitlis, 1016
Blackburn, population, 19
Black Forest, 639
Blagoveschensk, 863
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1119
BLA
tyre (Africa), 178
ah, 511
mfontein, 801, 804
f Harbour shipping, 1892, 267
ruisk, 863
3ta, 434
-le-Duc, 765
hara, 912d
via, area, 395
•ooks of reference, 398
ommerce, 397
ommunications, 397
onstitution, 395
onsular representative, 398
iefence, 396
ixports, 397
inance, 396
government, 395
mports, 397
industry, 896
Instruction, 396
justice, 396
money, weights, and measures, 397
population, 395
production, 396
religion, 396
iogna, 682 ; University, 692
[ton, population, 19
mbay, 125
province, government, 117
University, 127
naire Island, 793
ne, 511
nn University, 541
rdeaux,.475
rgu, 191
rneo, British North, 101
Dutch, 784
rnu, 317
•snia and Herzegovina, 371
•ston, 1070
•tosani, 845
mlogne, 475
mnty Islands (N.Z.), 269
mrges, 475
adford, population, 18
*aga, 831
•azil, area, 401
army, 404
births, deaths, and marriages, 402
books of reference, 408
commerce, 405
constitution, 399
currency and credit, 407
BRU
Brazil, debt, 404
— defence, 404
— diplomatic representatives, 408
— emigration, 402
— exports, 405
— finance, 403
— government, 399
local, 400
— immigration, 402
— imports, 405
— instruction, 402
— justice and crime, 403
— money, weights, and measures, 408
— navy, 404
— population, 401
— posts and telegraphs, 407
— president, 899
— production and industry, 405
— railways, 407
— religion, 402
— revenue and expenditure, 403
— shipping and navigation, 406
Bremen, 585, 586
Breda, 765
— town, 538
Brescia, 682
Breslau, 538, 612 ; University, 541
Brest, 475
Brest-Iitovsk, 863
Bridgetown (Barbados), 227
Brighton, population, 19
Brisbane, 271
Bristol, 18 ; College, 34
British and Foreign School Society, 35
British Columbia, 207-208
— Central Africa, 177
— East Africa, 179
British Empire (see Great Britain
England, Ireland, Scotland,
India, &c). See also pp.
xxx., xxxi.
British Guiana, 223
— New Guinea, 238
— North Borneo, 101
— South Africa, 193
Brooklyn, 1070
Broken Hill (N.S.W.), 242
Broussa, 1016-1017
Bruges, population, 380
Brunei, 102
Brtinn, 344
Brunswick, agriculture, 588
— area, 587
— constitution, 587
Digitized by
Google
1120
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
BRU
Brunswick, finance, 588
— mining, 588
— population, 587
— production and industry, 588
— railways, &c, 588
— regent, 586
— town, 538, 587
Brussels, 380 ; University, 381
Bucaramanga, 434]
Bucharest, 845
Buckeburg, 628
Budapest, 344
— University, 347
Buenos Ayres, 324
Buffalo, 1070
Bulgaria, area, 1033
— commerce, 1035
— constitution, 1032
— currency and credit, 1036
— defence, 1034
— exports, 1035
— finance, 1034
— government, 1032
— imports, 1035
— instruction, 1034
— population, 1033
— posts and telegraphs, 1036
— prince of, 1082
— production and industry, 1035
— railways, 1036
— shipping, 1035
Bulhar, 100
Bundi (Central Africa), 318
Burgh Schools (Scotland), 35
Burnley, 19
Bury, 19
Bushire, 814
Byelostok, 863
GABACERA (Philippines), 961
Cadiz, 949
Cagliari, 682 ; University, 692
Caen, 475
Caicos Island, 229
Cairo, 1042
Calabar, 192
Calais, 475
Calamata, 648
Calcutta, 125 ; University, 127
Callao, 819
Caltanisetta, 682
Cambodia, area and population, 507,
509
Cambridge (Mass.), 1070
CAP
Cambridge University, 34
Camden (U.S.A.), 1070
Camerino University, 692
Cameroons, 567
Campbell Islands (N.Z.), 269
Campofosso, 682
Canada, agriculture, 213
— area, 207
— army, 212
— banks, 219, 220
— books of reference, 220
— commerce, 214
— commissioner, 220
— constitution, 204
— crime, 210
— deaths, 208
— debt, 212
— defence, 212
— education, 209
— expenditure, 210-212
— exports, 214-217
— finance, 210
— fisheries, 214
— government, 206
provincial, 206
— governor-general, 205
— House of Commons, 204
— immigration, 208
— imports, 214-217
— instruction, 209
— internal communications, 218
— justice and crime, 210
— mining, 214
— ministry, 206
— money and credit, 219
— money, weights, and measures, 220
— navy, 213
— parliament, 204
— population, 207
— posts and telegraphs, 219
— production and industry, 213
— Queen's Privy Council, 206
I — railways, 218
— religion, 208
— revenue, 210-212
! — shipping and navigation, 218
I — troops in, 97
1 Canary Islands, 959
Cannstatt, 639
Canterbury (N.Z.), 256
— College, Christchurch, 258
Cape Coast Castle, 196
Cape of Good Hope ; area, 170
— banks, 176
INDEX
1121
CAP
Cape of Good Hope, books of refer-
ence, 177
— commerce, 174
— communications, 176
— constitution and government, 168
— defence, 173
— expenditure and revenue, 172
— exports, 174, 175
— finance and pauperism, 172
— governor, 169
— imports, 174, 175
— instruction and religion, 171
— justice and crime, 172
— money, weights, and measures, 176
— population, 170
— posts and telegraphs, 176
— production and industry, 173
— railways and tramways, 176
— shipping and navigation, 175
Cape Town, 171; University, 171
Cape Verde Islands, 841
Caracas, 1110
Cardenas, 960
Cardiff, 19 ; College, 34
Cargados Islands, 185
Carlos I. (Portugal), 827
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi, 467
Carol I. (Roumania), 844
Caroline Island, 310
— Islands, 959
Carriacou, 232
Cartagena, 434
Carthagena, 949
Casa Blanca, 754
Caserta, 682
Caspian Sea, 861
Castamouni, 1016
Castlemaine, 292
Castries, S. Lucia, 232
Catania, 682 ; University, 692
Catanzaro, 682
Caucasus, 859, 861
Cawnpur, 125
Cayman Islands, 229
Celebes, Island of, 784
Central Africa (British), 177
Cettinje, 750
Ceylon, area, 104
— banks and books of reference, 108
— commerce and currency, 108
— communications, 108
— constitution and government, 103
— defence, 106
— dependency (Maldive Islands), 108
CHI
Ceylon, exports and imports, 107
— finance and pauperism, 105
— governor, 103
— immigration, 104
— industry, 106
— instruction, 104
— justice and crime, 1 05
— money, weights, and measures, 108
— population, 104
— production, 106
— religion and towns, 104
— shipping, 108
— troops in, 97
Chagos Islands, 183
Channel Islands, area and population,
25, 26
— government; 14
Charleroi, population, 380
Charlestown (West Indies), 231
Charter (S. Africa). 194
Chatham Islands, 269
Charlottenburg, 612
Chemnitz, 538, 625
Chesterfield Islands, 528
Chicago, 1070
Chile, area, 411
— books of reference, 418
— births and deaths, 412
— commerce, 415
— constitution and government, 410
— currency and credit, 417
— debt and defence, 413
— diplomatic representatives, 417
— exports, 414-416
— finance, 413
local, 411 ; population, 411
— imports, 414-416
— industry, 414
— instruction, 412
— justice and crime, 412
— money, weights, and measures, 417
— posts and telegraphs, 417
— President, 410
— railways, 417
— religion, 412
— shipping and navigation, 416
China, area, 420
— army and finance, 423
— books of reference, 430
— commerce, 425
— diplomatic representatives, 430
— exports, 425-428
— government, 419
— imports, 425-428
4c
Digitized by
Google
1122
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
CHI
China, instruction, 422
— money, weights, and measures, 429
— navy, 424
— population, 420
— post, 429
— production and industry, 425
— railways, 429
— reigning emperor, 419
— religion, 421
— shipping and navigation, 428
— tea, 428
Chinde, 179
Chisti, 682
Christchurch, N.Z., 257; College,
258
Christian IX. (Denmark), 448
Christmas Island, 165, 310
Chulalongkorn I. (Siam), 934
Cienfuegos, 960
Cincinnati, 1070
Ciracusa, 682
Ciudad Bolivar, 1110
Ciudad de Cura, 1110
Clermont-Ferrand, 475
Cleveland (Grover), President, 1059
Cleveland, 1070
Coban, 658
Cochabamba, 395
Cochin-China (French), 509
Cocos Islands, 165
Coimbra, 831 ; University, 833
Colima (Mexico), 739
Cologne, 538, 612
Colombo, 104
Colombia, area, 433
— books of reference, 438
— commerce, 435
— constitution, 433
— currency and credit, 436
— defence, 485
— diplomatic representatives, 437
— education, 434
— exports, 435-436
— finance, 434
— government, 433
— imports, 435-436
— money, weights, and measures, 437
— Panama Canal, 436
— population, 433
— posts and telegraphs, 436
— production, 435
— railways, 436
— religion, 434
— shipping, 436
CRA
Colonies, three classes of, 97
Columbus, 1070
Como, 682
Comoro Isles, 507, 521
Conakry, 522
Concepcion, 806
Condamine, 748
Congo Independent State, 439
— French, 515
— Portuguese, 841
Connaught, province, population, 23
Constantine, 511
Constantinople, 1016
Cook's Islands, 310
Copenhagen, 452 ; University, 453
Cordoba, 324, 949
Corea, area, 441
— books of reference, 443
Corea, commerce, 442
— defence, 442
— finance, 442
— government, 441
— instruction, 441
— money, 443
— population, 441
— production, 442
— religion, 441
Corisco, 959
Corfu, 648
Cork, 25 ; Queen's College, 34
Cosmoledo Islands, 185
Costa Rica, area, 444
— books of reference, 447
— constitution, 444
— defence, 445
— diplomatic representatives, 446
— exports, 445
— finance, 445
— government, 444
— imports, 445
— industrjr and commerce, 445
— instruction, 444
— justice, 445
— money, weights, and measures, 446
— population, 444
— posts and telegraphs, 446
— railways, 446
— religion 444
— shipping, 448
Courtrai, population, 380
Coventry, 19
Crab Island (W.I.). 281
Cracow University, 347
Cradock, 171
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1123
CRB
Crefeld, 588
Cremona, 682
Crete, 1016
Cronstadt, 863
Croydon, 19
Cuba, 960
Cucuta, 434
Cuenca, 462
Cuneo, 682
Curasao, 793
Cuzco, 819
Customs valuations in different
countries, xxiv
Cyprus, agriculture, 110
— Commissioner, 109
— education, 109
— expenditure, 110
— exports, 110
— imports, 110
— justice and crime, 109, 110
— legislature, 109
— money, 110
— municipal councils, 109
— population, 109
— revenue, 110
— shipping, 110
Cyprus, sponge fishery, 110
Czernowitz, 344 ; University, 347
DAHOMEY, 320
Dakar, 522
Damao, 841
Damaraland, 568
Damascus, 1017
Damietta, 1042
Dampier Island, 569
Danitograd, 750
Danube (province), 639
Danzig, 538, 612
Dar-es-Salaam, 569
Darfur, 319, 320
Darmstadt, 593
Davton (U.S.A.), 1070
Debreczin% 344
Delft, 765
Delhi, 125
Demerara, 223
Denmark, agriculture, 456
— area, 451
— army, 455
— banks, 458
— births, deaths, and marriages, 452
— books of reference, 460
— colonies, 459
DUI
Denmark, commerce, 456
— constitution, 449
— crime, 453
— currency, and credit, 458
— debt, 454
— defence, 458
— diplomatic and other representa-
tives, 459,
— emigration, 452
— expenditure and finance, 453
— exports, 456-458
— government, 450
— imports, 456-458
— instruction and revenue, 453
— kings of, since 1448, 449
— ministry, 450
— money, weights, and measures, 458
— navy, 455
— occupation of the people, 452
— population, 451
— posts and telegraphs, 458
— production and industry, 456
— railways, 458
— reigning king, 448
— religion, 452
— royal family, 449
— shipping and navigation, 458
D'Entrecasteaux Islands, 238
Denver (U.S.A.), 1070
Derby, 19
Dessau, 578
Detmold, 595
Detroit, 1070
Deutsch-Damaraland, 568
Deutsch-Namaland, 568
Deventer, 765
Devonport, 19
Diego Garcia Island, 185
Diego-Suarez, 520
Dyon, 475
Diu, 841
Djizak, 863
Dominica, 230, 231, 232, 233
Dongola, 320
Doloo (Bornu), 318
Dordrecht, 765
Dorpat, 863
Dortmund, 612
Draa (Northern), 753
Dresden, 538, 625
Dublin, 25 ; University, 34
Ducie Island, 309
Dudoza Island, 310
Duisburg, 612
4o2
Digitized by
Google
1124
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
DUK
Duku, 191
Dulcigno, 750
Dunaburg, 863
Dundee, 22 ; College, 34
Dunedin, N.Z., 257; College, 259;
trade, 267
Durban, 187
Durham University, 34
Dusseldorf, 538, 612
Dutch East Indies, agriculture, 788
— area and governor-general, 783
— army, defence, and navy, 787
— births, deaths, and marriages, 784
— books of reference, 794 j
— cinchona culture, 789 ,
— coffee culture, 789 j
— commerce, 790 |
— constitution and government, 782
— consular representatives, 791
— currency and credit, 791 ,
— - exports and imports, 790 j
— finance, justice and crime, 786
— instruction and religion, 785
— mining, 789
— money, weights, and measures, 791
— population, 783, 784
— posts and telegraphs, 791 |
— production and industry, 788, 789 I
— railways and shipping, 791
— revenue and expenditure, 786
— sugar culture, 788
— tobacco culture, 789
Dutch Guiana (Surinam), 792
— West Indies, 792
— Curacao, 793
— Surinam, 792
Dvinsk, 863
EAGLE Islands, 185
East Africa (British), 179
East Indies (Dutch), 782 (see Dutch
East Indies)
East London (Cape Colony), 171
Ecuador, area, 461
— banks, 465
— books of reference, 466
— commerce, 463
— constitution, 461
— currency and credit, 464
— defence, 462
— diplomatic representatives, 465
— exports and imports, 463
— finance and instruction, 462
— government and population, 461
ENG
Ecuador, internal communicatioiK
464
— justice and crime, 462
— money, weights, and measures, 46.">
— President, 451
— railways and telegraphs, 464
— religion, 462
— shipping and navigation, 464
— weights and measures, 465
Edinburgh, 22 ; University, 34
Egypt, agriculture, 1047
— area and governorships, 1040
— army, 1046
— books of reference, 1055
— budgets, 1893, 1894, 1045
— commerce and cultivation, 1048
— constitution and government, 1039
— debt, 1045
— diplomatic representatives, 1055
— exports, 1048-1051
— finance, 1043
— imports, 1048-1051
— instruction and religion, 1042
— justice and crime, 1042
— ministry, 1039
— money, weights, and measures, 1 054
— mudiriehs and population, 1040
— posts and telegraphs, 1054
— production and industry, 1046
— railways, 1054
— reigning Khedive, 1038
— revenue and expenditure, 1045
— shipping and navigation, 1051
— Suez Canal, 1052
Egyptian Sudan, 319
Ekaterinburg, 863
Ekaterinodar, 863
Ekaterinoslav, 863
Elberfeld, 538, 612
El-Fasher (Sudan), 320
Elets, 863
Eleuthera (Bahamas), 227
Elisabethgrad, 863
Eliice Islands, 310
Elmina, 196
El-Obeid (Sudan), 320
Elobey, 959
Emerald Island, 309
England and Wales, agriculture, 66
etseq.
— agricultural holdings, 69
— area, 14-20
— army, 55
— banks, chartered, 95
Digitized by
Googl
INDEX
1125
ENG
England and Wales, banks, joint-stock,
96, 97
post-office, 96
trustee, 96a
— births, deaths, and marriages, 26
— canals, 91
— cities and towns, 18
— coal produce, 73
— commerce, 80
— counties, 16
— criminals, 39
— education, elementary, 35, 36
medical, 34
middle-class, 35
universities, 34
— electorate, 1893, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— expenditure, 50
— fisheries, 71
— illiterates, 9, 33
— immigration, 27, 28
— imports and exports, 80
— income-tax, 48
— ironworks, value of, 49
— justice and crime, 38
— live stock, 67
— local government, 12
— metropolis, 20
— mines, value of, 49
— navigation, 89
— occupation of the people, 20
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 40, 41
— police force, 40
— population, 14-20
counties, 16
metropolis, 20
— property assessed, 49
— posts and telegraphs, 92-94
— railways, 91
value of, 49
— religion, 28
— revenue, 50
— taxation, imperial, 48-50; local, 52
— textile factories, 76
— towns and cities, 18
— universities, 34
Equatorial Province (Sudan), 320
Erfurt, 612
Eritrea, 714
Erlangen University, 541
Ernst, Duke (Saxe-Altenburg), 630
Ernst Ludwig (Hesse \ 592
Erzeroum, 1016, 1017
FR.Y
Essen, 612
Essequibo, 223
Europe, British colonies in, 98, 99
Esslingen, 639
Evora, 831
FALKLAND ISLANDS, 222
Fall River (U.S.A.), 1070
Famagusta, 109
Fanning Island, 310
Farocli (Sudan), 320
Ferdinand, Prince (Bulgaria), 1032
Fernando Po, 959
Ferrara, 682 ; University, 692
Fez, 753, 754
Fiji, area, 235
— births and deaths, 236
— books of reference, 238
— commerce, 237
— communications, 238
— constitution and government, 235
— exports, 237
— finance, 236
— imports, 237, 238
— instruction and religion, 236
— money, weights, and measures, 238
— population, 235
— production and industry, 237
— shipping, 238
Finland, 857, 911
— agriculture, 912a
— area, 860
— army, 879
— banks, 912c
— births, deaths, and marriages,
861, 912
— commerce, 9126
— exports and imports, 9126
— finance, 912
— government, 857
— industry, 912a
— instruction, 912
— mines, 912a
— money, weights, and measures, 9 12c
— pauperism and crime, 912
— population, 860, 911
— posts and telegraphs, 912c
— railways, 912c
— shipping and navigation, 9126
Finschhafen (W, Pacific), 570
Florence, 682
Foggia, 682
ForU, 682
France, agriculture, 492
Digitized by
Google
i
1126
THE STATESMAN'S YEAB-BOOK, 1894
PRA
France, area, 471
— army, 485-487
— banks, 502
— births, marriages, and deaths, 474
— books of reference, 504
— budget, 482
— Chamber of Deputies, 468
— colonies and dependencies, 506
et seq.
trade of, 506
in Africa, 510
America, 527
Asia, 508
Australasia, 528
Oceania, 528
— commerce, external, 496
with United Kingdom, 498
— Oonseil d'etat, 469
— constitution, 467
— cotton industries, 495
— crime, 478
— currency and credit, 502
— defence, 484
— deficits from 1814-1891, 482
— departments, 471
— diplomatic representatives, 504
— emigration and religion, 475
— expenditure, 481, 482
— exports and imports, 496-499
— finance, local, 483
public property, 484
state, 479
— fisheries, 496
— foreigners residing in, 474
— fortresses, 485
— government, central, 467
local, 470
— illegitimacy, 474
— instruction, 476
— internal communications, 501
— ironclads and cruisers, 489
— justice, 478
— land defences, 484
— live stock statistics, 494
— manufactures, 495
— mercantile navy, 500
— mining and minerals, 494
— ministry, 467
— money, weights, and measures, 503
— national debt, 483
— navigation, 500
— navy, 487-492
— occupation of the people, 474
— Paris, yearly expenditure, 484
GAM
France, pauperism, 479
— population, 471
departments, 471
towns, 475
— posts and telegraphs, 501
— President, 467
— production and industry, 492
— protectorates, 506
— railways and rivers, 501
— revenue, 480
— schools, 477-478
— Senate, 469
— shipping and navigation, 499
— silk industries, 494, 495
— sovereigns and governments' from
1589, 468
— sugar works, 495
— textile industries, 495
— towns, 475
— tramways, 501
— universities, 476
— wine statistics, 494
— woollen industries, 495
Frankfort-on-Main, 538, 612
Frankfort-on-Oder, 612
Franz Josef I. (Austria), 333
Freetown (Sierra Leone), 197
Freiburg, 576, 625
— University, 541, 998
Fremantle (W. Australia), 302
French Congo, 515
— India, 508
— Indo-China, 508
— Soudan, 523
Friedrich (Anhalt), 572
Friedrich I. (Baden), 574
Friedrich, Prince (Waldeck), 636
Friedrich Franz III. (Meckleuburg-
Schwerin), 597
Friedrich Wilhelm I. (Mecklenburg-
Strelitz), 600
Fukuoka, 722
Fulah Empire, 190
Funchal, 831
Fiirth, 581
GABUN-CONGO, 515
Galapagos, or Tortoise Islands,
461
Galatz, 845
Galle, 104
Galway, Queen's College, 34
Gambia, 197
Gamtak, 156
Digitized by
Google^
INDEX
GAN
Gando, 191
Gateshead, 19
Geelong, 292
Geneva, 1000 ; University, 1001
Genoa, 682 ; University, 692
Georg II., Duke (Saxe-Meiningen),
632
Georg, Prince(Schaumburg- Lippe), 628
George II. (Tonga), 1010
Georgetown (Guiana), 223
Georgios I., 645
Gerki, 191
German East Africa, 569
— South- West Africa, 568
German Empire, agriculture, 552
— area, 534
— army, 546-548
— beer brewed, 556
— births, deaths, and marriages, 537
— books of reference, 643
— Bundesrath, 532
— colonies and dependencies, 566
— commerce, 556
— constitution and government, 531
— currency and credit, 564
— defence, debt, and fortresses, 545
frontier, 545
army, 546
navy, 548
— diplomatic representatives, 565
— education, 539
— emigration and illegitimacy, 537
— emperor and king, 530
— emperors since 800, 530
— exports and imports, 557-560
— finance, 543
— manufactures and fisheries, 555
— foreign dependencies, 566
— foreigners resident in, 536
— forestry, 554
— inhabited houses, 535
— instruction, 539
— justice and crime, 541
— marriages, 537
— mining, 554
— money, weights, and measures, 565
— navigation, 560
— navy, 548-552
— occupation census, 1882, 536
— pauperism, 542
— population, 534 et seq.
conjugal condition, 535
of states, 534
of towns, 538,
ORE
German Empire, postal statistics, 56
— production ana industry, 552
— railways, 562
— Reichstag, 532
— religion, 538
— religious censuses, 539
— revenue and expenditure, 543, 544
— royal family, 530
— secretaries of state, 533
— schools, 540
— shipping, 560
— states, 532
population, 534
— sugar manufacture, 556
— telegraphs, 563
— towns, 538
— trade and industry, 552
— universities, 541
Garman South-west Africa, 568
Germany, states of, 570 et acq.
— customs valuation, xxiv
Ghent, 380 ; University, 381
Gibraltar, 98
Giessen University, 541, 593
Gilbert Islands, 310
Girgenti, 682
Girton College, Cambridge, 34
Glasgow, 22 ; University, 34
Glauchau, 625
Glorioso Island, 185
Goa, 841
Gold Coast, 196
Gold Coast Settlements (French), 523
Gold production in the world, xxix
Gold and Silver, the World's produc-
tion of, xxix
Goletta, 524
Gomel, 863
Gondor, 716
Gorlitz, 612
Goteborg, 968
Gottingen, University, 541
Goulburn, population, 242
Graaf-Reinet, 171
Graham's Town, 171
Granada, 949
Grand Rapids, 1070
Gratz, 344 ; University, 347
Great Bahama, 227
Great Britain and Ireland, agricul-
ture, 66
— agricultural holdings, 69
— area, 14
cultivable, 66
i
Digitized by
Google —
L128
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
I
GRE
Great Britain, army, 53
distribution, 55
from 1810-1893, 55
— — estimates, 45
in India, 55, 56
regular, 1893-4,
in colonies and Egypt, 55
— banks, chartered, 95
joint-stock, 96
post-office, 96a
trustee, 96a
— barley produce, 1890-1893, 67
— births, deaths, and marriages, 26
— books of reference, 966
— budgets, 42 et aeq.
- canals, 91
annual value, 49
— census, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881,
1891, 14
— Civil Service estimates, 47
— Civil List, 5
— coal raised, 1892, 73
exports since 1851, 73
ports, 74
— colonies and dependencies, 97
etseq.
— commerce, 79
— Commons, House of, 7
— consolidated fund, 5
— constitution, 6
— corn and green crops, 67
— cotton, home consumption, 75
exports, 75
imports, 75
— County Councils, 12
— credit, 95
— crime, 38
— crops, description and produce, 68
— customs, 43
valuation, xxiv
— deaths, 26
— debt, 50-52
— defence, 53
— education, 33
— estimates, 1893-1894, 43
— emigration, 27
— excise, 43
— expenditure, 44
— exports, 80-86
average per head, 1883-1892, 79
coal, &c, since 1851, 73
cotton, 75, 85
foreign and colonial, 79
gold and silver, 1888-1893, 82
GRE
j Great Britain, exports, principal
I articles, 1891-1893, 85
wool, 1874, 1888-1892, 76
• — farm holdings, 1885, 69
— finance, 42
! — fish traffic, 72
j — fisheries, 71
— gas works, annual value, 49
— gold bullion imports and exports,
1888-1893, 82
— government, imperial and cen-
tral, 6
executive, 10
local, 12
— illiteracy, 9, 33
— immigration, 27
— imports, 79-85
average per head, 1883-1892, 79
cotton, 75
flour, 1893, 84
food, 1891-1893, 84
per head, 1888-1892, 86
, -- — foreign and colonial, 1891,
1892, 80
gold and silver, 1888-1893, 82
iron and steel, 74
metals and minerals, 1888-
1892, 75
principal articles, 1891-1893,85
tea, 84
wheat, 1870-1893, 83, 84
wool, 1874, 1888-1892, 76
— income, 42
— -— tax, 48
— industry, 66
— instruction, 33
— iron and steel imports, 74
ore production, 72
value in 1892, 49
I — judicial system, 38
— justice and crime, 38
— land distribution, 66
— live stock, 67
— Local Government Board, 12
taxation, 52
— Lords, House of, 7
— marriages, 26
— military expenditure, colonial con-
tribution, 97
— minerals, 72, 73
— mines, 72 ; value in 1892, 49
— ministries since 1782, 12
— ministry, 10
— money, 95, 966
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1129
GBB
Great Britain, municipal corporations,
13
— national debt, 50-52
— navigation, 87, 90
— navy, 57-66
actual strength, 60
Board of Admiralty, 57
estimates, 46
number of seamen & marines. 58
reserved merchant cruisers, 61
tabulated list of vessels, 62 ; of
first class cruisers, 63
in foreign service, 1893, 61
— oats produce, 1890-1893, 68
— occupations of the people, 20
— parliaments : duration, 9
— pauperism, 40
— population, 14
counties, 16, 21, 24
divisions of United Kingdom,
14
towns, 18, 22, 25
— postal statistics, 92
— production, 66
— quarries, annual value, 49
— Queen and
— railways, 90
value in 1892, 49
— registered electors, 8
— Redistribution of Seats Act,
1885, 8
— Reform Bill, 1832, 1867-1868, and
1884, 8
— religion, 28
— revenue and expenditure, 42
— royal family, 3
grants, 5
— salt and alum works, 49
— schools, middle-class, 35
voluntary and board, 36, 37
— Science and Art Department, 35,38
— shipping, 87
— silver bullion imports and exports,
1888-1893, 82
— sovereigns, list of, 6
— stamps and revenue, 43
— statistical analysis of (introductory
table)
— taxation, 48
local, 52
— technical education, 35
— telegraphs, 94
— textile industry, 75
— tramways, 91
GUA
Great Britain, universities, 34
— waterworks, annual value of, 49
— wheat produce, 67, 68
— wool, exported, imported, and
home consumption, 76
Great Inagua, 227
Greece, agriculture, 652
— area, 647
— army, 651
— births, deaths, and marriages,
648
— books of reference, 656
— budget, 1893, 650
— commerce, 653
— constitution, 646
— currency and credit, 655
— diplomatic representatives, 656
— exports, 653, 654
— finance, 649
— government, 646
— imports, 653, 654
— instruction, 649
— mining, 653
— ministry, 647
— money, weights, and measures,
655
— navigation, 654
— navy, 651
— population, 647
— posts and telegraphs, 655
— railways, 655
— reigning king, 645
— religion, 648
— royal family, 645
— shipping, 654
— towns, 648
Greenland, 459
Greenock, population, 22
Greifswald University, 541
Grenada, 231, 232-234
Grenadines, the, 231, 232
Grenoble, 475
Grimsby, 19
Griqualand, East and West, 170
Grodno, 863
Groningen, 765
Guadalajara, 739
Guadeloupe and dependencies, 527
Guanajuato, 739
Guatemala, area, 658
— books of reference, 661
— commerce, 659
— constitution, 658
— crime, 658
Digitized by
Google
1130
THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
GUA
Guatelama, defence, 659
— diplomatic representatives, 661
— exports, 659, 660
— finance, 659
— government, 658
— imports, 659, 660
— instruction, 658
— money, weights, and measures,
660
— population, 658
— posts and telegraphs, 660
— production and industry, 659
— railways, 660
— religion, 658
— shipping, 660
Guernsey, Herm, and Jethou, popula-
tion, 25, 26
Guatemala la Nueva, 653
Guayaquil, 462
Guiana (British), 223
— (French), 527
Guinea, 841
Gummel (Bornu), 318
Giinther, Prince, 633
Gwalior, 125
Gympie (Queensland), 271
HAARLEM, 765
Hague, 765
Haidarabad, 121, 125
Haiti, area, 662
— books of reference, 664
— commerce, 663
— constitution, 662
— defence, 663
— diplomatic representatives, 664
— exports, 663
— finance, 662
— imports, 663
— instruction, 662
— money, weights, and measures,
664
— population, 662
— religion, 662
Hakodate, 722
Halifax, 19
— Nova Scotia, 208
Halle-on-Saale, 538, 612
— University, 541
Hamadau, 811
Hamburg, 538
— agriculture, 590
— area, 589
HES
Hamburg, births, 589
— commerce and shipping, 590
— constitution, 588
— deaths, 589
— emigration, 589
— exports and imports, 590
— finance, 590
— justice and crime, 590
— marine trade, 590
— marriages, 589
— population, 589
— religion, 590
Hamilton (Bermudas), 203
— (Ontario), 208
Hanley, 19
Hanoi', 510
Hanover, 538, 612
Hartley Hill (S. Africa), 194
Harrar (Sudan), 320
Hastings, 19
Havana, 960
Hawaii, area, 666
— books of reference, 668
— commerce, 668
— communications, 667
— constitution, 665
— currency, 668
— diplomatic representatives, 668
— finance, 666
— government, 665
— instruction, 666
— population, 666
— reigning monarch, 665
— religion, 666
— shipping, 667
Hawkes Bay, 256
Hedjaz, 1017
Heidelberg, 576
— University, 541
Heilbronn, 639
Heinrich, XIV., 629
Heinrich XXII., 629
Helder, 765
Helsingfors, 863
Hervey Islands, 310
Herzegovina, 371
Hesse, agriculture, 594
— area, 593
— constitution, 593
— finance, 594
— grand-duke, 592
— instruction, 593
— population, 593
— production and industry, 594
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INDEX
1131
HES
Hesse, railways, 594
— religion, 593
Hiroshima, 722
Hobart (Tasmania), 284
Hod-Mezo Vasarhely, 344
Honduras, area, 669
— books of reference, 671
— commerce, 669
— constitution, 669
— crime, 669
— diplomatic representatives, 670
— finance, 669
— government, 669
— instruction, 669
— money, weights, and measures,
669
— population, 669
— posts and telegraphs, 670
— production and industry, 669
— railway, 670
Honduras, British, 224
Hong Kong, administration, 111
— area, 111
— births, 112
— books of reference, 115
— commerce, 113
— constitution and government, 111
— deaths, 112
— defence, 113
— emigration, 112
— exports and imports, 114
— finance 112
— governor, 111
— instruction, 112
— justice and crime, 112
— money and credit, 114
— money, weights, and measures, 114
— population, 111
— revenue and expenditure, 113
— shipping, 113
Honolulu, 666
Horsens, 452
Howrah, 125
Huddersfield, population, 19
Hungary (see Austria-Hungary
Huon Islands, 528
IBEA, 179
Iceland, 451, 459
Imi, 959
Illorin, 191
India, agriculture, 136
— area, 118 et seq.
IND
India, army expenditure, 132
European, 55, 133, 134
native, 133
of independent states, 135
— banks, railway, post-office, and
military, 150
— births, 124
— books of reference, 152
— canals, 147
— capital of joint stock companies,
138
— collieries, 140
— commerce, 140
— constitution, 115
— cotton mills, 138
— council, 117
— crime, 1 28
— currency, 151
— deaths, 124
— debt, 132
— defence, 133
— dependent states, 154 et scq.
— emigration, 124
— executive authority, 116
— expenditure, 129, 130, 132
— exports, bullion and specie, 1883,
1889-93, 141
merchandise, 1883, 1889-93,
140
merchandise, 1892, 1893, 142,
143
treasure, 1883, 1889-93, 141
— finance, 129
— forest ground, 1891-92, 138
revenue, 136
— government, 115
local, 118
— governors-general, 116
— imports, bullion and specie, 1883,
1889-93, 141
merchandise, 1893, 140
merchandise, 1893, 1889-93,
142, 143
— instruction, 127
medical colleges, 127
1 normal schools, 127
technical schools, 127
universities, 127
— internal communications, 147
! — justice and crime, 128
— land, cultivated and uncultivated,
1891-92, 139
irrigated, 137
ownership, 136, 137
Digitized by
Google
1132
THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1894
)
I
IND
India, land revenue, 130, 131
— tenure, 136
— languages, 123
— money and credit, 150 ; money,
weights, and measures, 151
— municipal government, 118
— native states, 121
— occupations of the people, 124
— opium revenue, 130, 131
— police, 129
— population, 118 et seq.
British territory, 1841- 1891, 119
civil condition, 122
presidencies, provinces, and
divisions, 119, 120
native states, 121
according to race, 123
British born, distribution of,
1881, 1891, 123
occupations of, 124
of towns, 125
distribution according to re-
ligion, 126
— posts and telegraphs, 149
-- production and industry, 135
— railways, 148
— religion, 125
— revenue, 129, 130, 132
— salt revenue, 130, 131
— Secretary of State, 116
— shipping and navigation, 145
— tenure of land, 136
— towns, 125
— trans-frontier land trade, 145
— Upper Burma, 120
Indianapolis, 1070
Indian, Archipelago, 841
Innsbruck university, 347
Ipswich, 19
Ipswich (Queensland), 271
Ireland, agriculture, 66 et scq.
holdings, 70
— area, 14-16, 23-25
— army, 55
— banks, joint-stock, 96
post-office, 96a
trustee, 96a
— births, deaths, and marriages, 27
— canals, 91
— cities and towns, 25
— coal produce, 73
— commerce, 80
— criminals, 1888-1892, 40
— education, intermediate, 35
ITA
Ireland, education, primary, 37
universities, 34
— electorate, 1893, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 71, 72
— illiterates, 9, 33
— immigration, 27, 28
— imports and exports, 80
— income-tax, 48
— justice and crime, 39, 40
— live stock, 67
— local government, 13
— mines, value of, 49
— occupations of the people, 25
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 41
— police force, 40
— population, 14-1 6, 23-25; towns, 25
provinces, 23
— posts and telegraphs, 92, 94
— property assessed, 49
— railways, 90
value of, 49
— religion, 32
— taxation imperial, 48 ; local, 52
— textile factories, 76
— trade from 1888-1892, 80
— universities, 34
Irkutsk, 863
Isle of Man, area and population,
25, 26
Isle of Pines, 528
Ismid, 1016
Ispahan, 811
Italy, agriculture, 705
— African, 702
— area, 676
— army, 700
mobile militia, 701
permanent, 701
territorial militia, 701
— banks, 712, 713
— births, deaths, and marriages, 681
— books of reference, 717
— commerce, 708
— constitution, 673
— crime, 692, 693
— currency and credit, 712
— customs valuation, xxvi
— debt, 698
— defence, army, 700
frontier, 699
navy, 703
— diplomatic representatives, 713
Digitized by VjOOQIC
INDEX
1133
ITA
Italy, emigration, 681
— expenditure, 694-698
— exports, 708-710
— finance, local, 699
public property, 699
state, 694
— fisheries, 707
— foreign dependencies, 714 et acq
— forestry, 707
— government 673 ; local, 675
— illiterates, 691
— imports, 708-710
— instruction, 690
— internal communications, 711
— justice and crime, 692
— land proprietors, 681
— mines and minerals, 707
— ministry, 675
— money, weights, and measures, 71 3
— navigation, 710
— navy, 703
— occupation of people, 680
— pauperism, 694
— periodicals, 692
— Popes of Rome from 1417, 685
— population, 676
— posts and telegraphs, 711
— prisons, 693
— provinces, 677
— railways, 711
— reigning king, 672
— revenue, 694-698
— religion, 683
— royal family, 672
— schools, 690, 692
— See and Church of Rome, 684 et seq.
— shipping, 710
— towns, 682
— universities. 692
JAFFNA, 104
Jagst, 639
Jaipur, 125
Jamaica, 228, 232-234
Janina, 1016, 1017
Japan, agriculture, 727
— area, 721
— army, 726
— books of reference, 733
— births, deaths, and marriages, 722
— budget, 725
— cities, 722
— commerce, 728
— constitution, 719
KAR
I Japan, currency and credit, 731
! — defence, 726
— diplomatic representatives, 732
— exports, 728-730
— finance, 724 ; local, 725
— government, 719 ; local, 721
— Imperial Diet, 720
— imports, 728-730
— instruction, 723
— justice and crime, 723
— manufactures, 728
I — Mikado, 719
| — minerals, 728
i — money, weights, and measures,
732
| — navy, 726
! — pauperism, 724
! — population, 721
I — posts and telegraphs, 731
— production and industry, 727
— railways, 730
— religion, 723
— shipping and navigation, 730
Jarvis Island, 310
Jassy, 845
Java, 783, 784
Jena University, 541
Jeres de la Frontera, 949
Jersey, population, 25, 26
Jersey City, 1070
Jerusalem, 1017
Jitomir, 863
Johannesburg, 941
Johore, the State of (Straits Settle-
ments), 165
KAGOSHIMA, 722
Kahoolawe, 666
Kaisarieh, 1017
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, 569
Eamaran Island, 157
Kampot, 509
Eanazawa, 722
Kandy, 104
Kanem, 318
Kano, 191
Kansas City, 1070
Karachi, 125
Karagwe, 569
Karatheodori, Prince (Samos), 1036
Karical, 508
Karl Alexander (Saxe-Weimar), 620
Karl Gunther, 633
Karlsruhe, 576
Digitized by
Google
1134
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
KAR
Karshi, 9l2d
Kashfin, 811
Kashmir, 121
Kassel, 612
Katsena, 191
Kauai, 666
Kazan, 863
Kecskemet, 344
Keeling Islands, 165
Kerguelen Island, 529
Kermadec Islands, 269
Kharkoff, 863
Khatmandu, 757
Khartum, 320
Khelat, 155
Kherson, 863
Khiva, 913
Kieff, 863
Kiel, 612 ; University, 541
Kilmarnock, 22
Kimberley, 171
King's College, London, 34
Kingston (Jamaica), 228
Kingston-upon-Hull, 18
Kingstown (S. Vincent), 232
Kioto, 722
Kishineff, 863
Klausenberg University, 347
Kob4 722
Kokand, 863
Konia, 1016
Konigsberg, 538,612 ; University, 541
Kordofan, 319, 320
Kossova, 1016
Kovno, 863
Krakau, 344
Krefeld, 612
Krementchug, 863
Kristiania, 983
Kuka, 318
Kumamoto, 722
Kuria Muria Islands, 100
Kursk, 863
Kyrenia, 109
T ABRADOR, 225
lj Labuan, 101, 158
Laccadive Islands, 157
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, 85
Lagoon Islands, 310
Lagos, 197
La Grande Aldee, 508
Lahore, 125
Lampeter College, 34
LOM
La Paz. 395
Larissa, 648
Larnaca, 109
Lausanne, 1000
Lebanon, 1017
Leeds, 18 ; College, 34
Leeward Islands, 230, 232-234
Leeuwarde, 765
Leghorn, 682
Le Havre, 475
Leicester, population, 19
| Leiden, 765
! Leinster province, population, 23
| Leipzig, 538, 624, 625
I — University, 541, 626
Leith, population, 22
Le Mans, 475
! Lemberg, 344
j — University, 847
! Leon (Mexico), 739
Leone XIII. (Pope), 684
Leopold II. (Belgium), 875
Leyton, 19
I Libau, 863
I Liberia, area, 734
— books of reference, 785
— commerce, 784
— constitution, 734
— diplomatic representatives, 735
— exports, 735
— finance, 734
— government, 784
— imports, 735
— money, weights, and measures,
735
— population, 784
— president, 734
Liege, 380 ; University, 881
Li-Hi, King of Corea, 441
Liliuokalani, Queen (Hawaii), 665
Lille, 475
Limasol, 109
Limerick, 25
Limoges, 475
Lippe, area, 595
— constitution, 594
— finance, 595
— industry, 595
— population, 595
— prince, 594
Lisbon, 831
Liverpool, 18 ; College, 84
Lodz, 863
Lombok, 784
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1135
LON
London, population of, 18 ; divisions
in 1881, 1891, 20 ; night and day
population, 20
— City and Guilds Technical Insti-
tute, 35
— King's College, 34
— University College, 34
London (Ontario), 208
Londonderry, 25
Long Island (Bahamas), 227
Long Island (W. Pacific), 569
Lorca, 949
Lord Howe Island, 253
Louisiade Islands, 238
Louisville, 1070
Louie, 831
Louvain, 380 ; University, 381
Lowell (U.S.A.), 1070
Loyalty Archipelago, 528
Lubeck, 596, 597
Lublin, 863
Lucca, 682
Lucknow, 125
Liideritz Bay, 568
Lund University, 969
Luque, 806
Luxemburg, 736
Luzon Island, 961
Lyons, 475
Lyttelton, trade in 1892, 267
MACAO, 841
Macerata, 682 ; University, 692
Macquarie Island, 309
Madagascar, area, 516
— banks, 519
— books of reference, 520
— commerce, 519
— consular representatives, 519
— currency, 519
— defence, 518
— education, 517
— finance, 518
— French sphere in, 507
— government, 516
— justice, 518
— population, 16 5
— posts and telegraphs, 519
— production and industry, 518
— religion, 517
— shipping, 519
— sovereign, 516
Madeira, 831
Madras, 125
MAU
Madras, province, government, 117
— University, 127
Madrid, 949
Madura, 783, 784
Maestricht, 765
Magdeburg, 538, 612
Mahe, 508
Maitland (N.S.W.), 242
Malacca, 160-164
Malaga, 949
Maiden Island, 310
Mai dive Islands, 108
Malmo, 968
Malta, 99
— contribution for military expendi-
ture, 97
— troops at, 97
Managua, 797
Manameh, 100
Manchester, 18 ; College, 34
Mandalay, 125
Mandara, 318
Mangaia Island, 310
Manihiki Islands, 310
Manila (Philippines), 961
Manitoba, population, 208
Mannheim, 576
Mansourah, 1042
Mantova, 682
Maoris, 257
Maracaibo, 1110
Marburg University, 541
Maria Christina (Spain), 944
Marianne Islands, 959
Maria-Theresiopol, 344
Marlborough (N.Z.), 256
Marseille, 475
Marshall Islands, 570
Martinique, 527
Maryborough (Queensland), 271
Maseru, 166
Mashonaland, 193, 194
Massa, 682
Massawah, 320
Massowah, 714
Matabeleland, 193-195
Matanzas, 960
Maui, 666
Mauritius, area, 182
— books of reference, 185
— commerce, 183
— constitution and government, 181
— contribution for military expendi-
ture, 97
Digitized by
Google
1136
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
MAU
Mauritius, defence, 183
— dependencies, 184
— education, 182
— exports, 183
— finance, 183
— governor, 182
— imports, 183
— money, weights, and measures, 184
— population, 182
— religion, 182
— shipping and communications, 184
Mayaguana Island, 227
Mayence, 593
Mayotte Island, 521
Mazagan, 7M
Mecca, 1017
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, agriculture,
598, 599
— area, 598
— constitution, 598
— crime, 599
— duke, 597
— finance, 599
— instruction, 599
— justice, 599
— pauperism, 599
— population, 598
— production, 599
— railways, 600
— religion, 599
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 600, 601
Mechlin, population, 380
Medellin, 434
Meerane, 625
Meerut, 125
Meetia Island, 528
Melbourne, 292 ; University, 292
Memphis, 1070
Menado(E. I.), 784
Merida (Mexico), 794
Merthyr Tydfil, 19
Meshed, 811
Messina, 682 ; University, 692
Metz, 571
Mexico, agriculture, 742
— area, 738
— army, 741
— banks, 745
— books of reference, 749
— cities, 739
— commerce, 743
— constitution, 737
— currency and credit, 744
— debt, 741
MON
Mexico, defence, 741
— diplomatic representatives, 746
— exports, 743, 744
— finance, state, 740
local, 741
— government, 737
local, 738
— immigration, 739
— imports, 743, 744
— instruction, 739
— justice, 740
— manufactures, 742
— mining, 742
— money, weights, and measures, 745
— navy, 741
— population, 738
— posts and telegraphs, 744
— president, 737
— production and industry, 742
— railways, 744
— religion, 739
— revenue and expenditure, 740
— shipping, 744
Mexico (City), 739
Middlesborough, 19
Milan, 682
Milwaukee, 1070
Mindanao Island, 961
Minneapolis, 1070
Minsk, 863
Miquelon, 528
Miquelon Island, 528
Modena, 682 ; University, 692
Mogador, 754
Moghilev, 863
Mohammarah, 814
Moharek Island, 100
Moianga, 517
Molokai, 666
Molucca Islands, 784
Mombasa, 180, 181
Monaco, 748
Monastir, 1016, 1017
Monrovia, 734
Mons, population, 380
Monte Carlo, 748
Montego Bay (Jamaica), 228
Montenegro, agriculture, 751
— area, 750
— books of reference, 752
— commerce, 752
— communications, 752
— crime, 751
— defence, 751
INDEX
1137
ttOK
Montenegro, finance, 751
— government, 749
— instruction, 751
— justice, 751
— money, 752
— pauperism, 751
— PetrQvic dynasty, 749
— population, 750
— production and industry, 751
— reigning prince, 749
— religion, 750
— royal family, 749
Monterey (Mexico), 734
Montevideo, 1103
Montpellier, 475
Montreal, 208
Montserrat, 230, 232-234
Moorea, 529
Morant Cays, 229
Moreiia, 739
Morocco, area, 753
— army, 754
— books of reference, 756
— commerce, 754
— defence, 754
— diplomatic representatives, 756
— exports, 754, 755
— government, 753
— imports, 754, 755
— money, weights, and measures, 755
— population, 753
— religion, 754
— Sultan, 753
Moscow, 863
Mossamedes, 841, 842
Mossul, 1016, 1017
Mozambique, 841, 842
Muley-Hassan, Sultan (Morocco), 753
Mulhausen, 571
Munich, 538, 581 ; University, 541
Munster province, population, 23
Minister University, 541
Murcia, 949
Muscat, 800
Mutsuhito, Mikado of Japan, 719
Mysore, 121, 125
NAGASAKI, 722
Nagoya, 722
Nagpur, 125
Namur, population, 380
Nancy, 475
Nantes, 475
Naples, 682 ; University, 692
NET
Nashville, 1070
Nasr ed-din, Shah of Persia, 809
Nassau (Bahamas), 227
Natal, area, 186
— books of reference, 189
— commerce, 188
— constitution and government, 185
— defence, 187
— exports, 188
— finance, 187
— imports, 188
— industry, 188
— instruction, 187
— population, 186
— posts and telegraphs, 189
— railways, 189
— shipping, 189
Navies of the world, xxxii
Neckar, 639
Nedounkadou, 508
Nelson (N.Z.), 256
Nepal, 757
Netherlands, agriculture, 772
— area, 763
— army, 770
— banks, 780, 781
— births, deaths, and marriages, 764
— books of reference, 794
— budget, 768, 769
— canals, 778
— colonies, 782
— commerce, 774
— constitution, 760
— crime, 767
— currency and credit, 780
— customs valuation, xxvi
— debt, 769
— defence, army, 770
frontier, 770
navy, 771
— diplomatic representatives, 782
— emigration, 764
— exports, 775-777
— finance, 768
— fisheries, 774
— government, central, 760
local, 762
— imports, 775-777
— instruction, 766
— justice, 767
— manufactures, 774
— mining, 774
— ministry, 761
— money, weights, and measures, 781
4d
Digitized by
Google
1188
THE STATESMAN^ YEAR-BOOK, 1894
NET
Netherlands, navy, 771
— pauperism, 767
— population, 763, 764
— posts and telegraphs, 779
— production and industry, 772
— railways, 778
— reigning sovereign, 759
— religion, 765
— revenue and expenditure, 768
— royal family, 759
— schools, 766
— shipping and navigation, 777
— towns, 765
Neu Strelitz, 601
Neuchatel Academy, 1001
Nevis (Island), 230, 232-234
Newark, 1070
New Brunswick, population, 208
New Caledonia, 528
— prison, population, 479
Newcastle (N.S.W.), population 242
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 18
— College, 34
Newfoundland and Labrador, 225
New Guinea, 238 ; Dutch, 784
New Haven, 1070
Newnham College, Cambridge, 34
New Orleans, 1070
Newport (Mon.), 19
New Providence Island, 227
New South Wales, aborigines, 241
— agriculture, 246
— area, 241
— army, 245
— banks, 252
— births, 242
■ — books of reference, 253
— Chinese poll-tax, 242
— commerce, 249
*— constitution, 239
— crime, 243
— currency and credit, 252
— deaths, 242 .
— debt, 244
— defence, 245
— emigrants, 242
— expenditure, 244
— exports, 249-251
— finance, 244
— government, 239
local, 240
— governor, 240
— illegitimacy, 242
— immigrants, 242
NEW
, New South Wales, imports, 249, 251
— instruction, 243
I — justice and crime, 243, 244
I — manufactures, 249
I — marriages, 242
— mines and minerals, 248
— money and credit, 252
— navy, 246
— occupation of people, 241
— population, 241
— posts and telegraphs, 252
— production and industry, 246
— railways, 251
— religion, 242
— schools, 243
— shipping and navigation, 251
— taxation, 244
— tramways, 252
New York, 1070
New Zealand, agriculture, 262
— area, 256
— banks, 268
— births, deaths, and marriages, 257
— books of reference, 269
— commerce, 264
1 — constitution, 254
— credit, 268
| — deaths, 257
— defence, 262
— emigration, 257
— expenditure, 260
I — exports, 265, 266
I — finance, 260
| local, 262
— government, 254-255
. local, 255
— governor, 255
, — immigration, 257
— imports, 265, 266
I — instruction, 258
— justice and crime, 259
— legislative council, 254
I — manufactures, 264
— marriages, 257
' — mines and minerals, 264
| — ministry, 255
1 — money, 268
j — occupation of people, 257, 264
— pauperism, 259
— population, 256
j — posts and telegraphs, 268
! — production and industry, 262
I — railways, 267
I —religion, 258.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1139
NEW
New Zealand, revenue, 260
— schools, 258, 259
— shipping and navigation, 267
— University, 258
Nicaragua, area, 797
— books of reference, 799
— commerce, 798
— communications, 798
— constitution and government, 799
— diplomatic representatives, 799
— finance, 797
— industry, 798
— instruction, 797
— money, weights, and measures,
798
— population, 797
Nice, 475
Nicholas I. (Montenegro), 749
Nicobar Islands, 157
Nicosia, 109
Niewer Amstel, 765
Niger Territories, 190
Nijni-Novgorod, 863 ; fair, 904
Nikolaieff, 863
Nimeguen, 765
Nimes, 475
Nisch City (Servia), 926
Niue Island, 310
Norfolk Island, 253
Northampton, 19
Norway, agriculture, 987
— area, 980
— army, 985
— banks, 992
— births, deaths, and marriages, 982
— commerce, 988
— constitution, 978
— council of state, 979
— currency and credit, 992
— defence, 985
— emigration, 982
— exports, 988-990
— finance, 984
— fisheries, 988
— forestry, 988
— government, central, 978
local, 980
— Grundlov, the, 978
— imports, 988-990
— instruction, 983
— justice and crime, 983
— mines and minerals, 988
— money, weights, and measures,
993
ORA
Norway, navy, *986
— occupation of people, 982
— pauperism, 984
— population, 980
— posts and telegraphs, 991
— railways, 991
— religion, 983
— revenue and expenditure, 984
— shipping and navigation, 990
— Storthing, the, 979
— towns, 983
— (See also Sweden)
Norwich, population, 19
Nossi-Be Island, 521
Nottingham, 18 ; College, 34
Noumea, 528
Novara, 682
Nova Scotia, population, 208
Nubia (lower), 319
— (upper), 319
Nueva, 658
Nueva San Salvador, 917
Niigata, 722
Nukualofa (Tonga), 1010.
Nunez, Dr. Rafael (Colombia), 433
Nuremberg, 538, 581
0
BOCK, 521
Oceania, French colonies in,
507, 528
Odessa, 863
Offenbach, 593
Oil Islands, 185
Oil Rivers Protectorate (Niger), 192
Okayama, 722
Oldenburg, agriculture, 603
— area, 602
— constitution, 602
— grand-duke, 601
— instruction, 603
— justice, 603
— pauperism, 603
— population, 602
— railways, 603
— religion, 603
— revenue, 602
Oldham, population, 19
Omaha, 1070j
Oman, 800
Omsk, 863
Ontario, population, 208
Oporto, 831
Oran, 511
Orange Free State, area, 801
4 1)2
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1140
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
ORA
Orange Free State, books of reference,
804
— commerce, 803
— communications, 804
— constitution and government, 801
— crime, 802
— - defence, 803
— finance, 802
— instruction, 802
— justice, 802
— population, 801
— president, 801
— production and industry, 803
— religion, 802
— revenue and expenditure, 803
Orel, 863
Orenburg, 863
Orleans, 475
Ormond College, Melbourne, 293
Oruro, 396
Osaka, 722
Oscar II., 963
Ostend, population, 380
Otago, 256 ; University, Dunedin, 258
Ottawa, 208
Otto Wilhelm Luitpold, 578
Oulgaret, 508
Oxford University, 34
PAARL (Cape Colony), 171
Pachuca, 739
Pacific Islands, 309
Padua, 682 ; University, 692
Pahang, 159
Paisley, population, 22
Palembang, 784
Palermo, 682 ; University, 692
Palma (Baleares), 949
Panama Canal, 436
Papeete, 529
Papho, 109
Paraguay, area, 805
— books of reference, 808
— commerce, 807
— communications, 807
— constitution and government, 805
— currency and credit, 807
— defence, 806
— diplomatic representatives, 808
— finance, 806
— instruction, 806
— justice, 806
— money, weights, and measures, 807
— population, 805
PER
Paraguay, president, 805
— production and industry, 806
— railways, 807
— religion, 806
Paramaribo, 792
Paris, 475
Parma, 682 ; University, 692
Parramatta, population, 242
Paterson (U.S.A.), 1070
Patna, 125
Patras, 648
Pavia, 682 ; University, 692
Pedro Cays, 229
Penang, 159-164
Penza, 863
Penrhyn Island, 310
Perak, 159
Perim, 100
Perm, 863
Pernambuco, 401
Persia, area, 811
— books of reference, 818
— cities, 811
— commerce, 813, 814
— currency and credit, 815
— defence, 813
i — diplomatic representatives, 817
— exports, 814, 815
— finance, 812
— government, 810
— imports, 814, 815
— instruction, 812
— justice, 812
— money, weights, and measures, 816
— population, 811
— posts and telegraphs, 816
— production and industry, 813
— railways, 816
— religion, 811
— royal family, 809
Perth (W. Australia), 302
— (Scotland), population, 22
Peru, area, 819, 820
— army, 822
— books of reference, 826
— commerce, 823
— constitution and government, 819
— debt, 821
— defence, 822
— diplomatic representatives, 825
— exports, 823
— finance, 820
— imports, 823
— industry, 822
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1141
PER
Peru, instruction, 820
— money, weights, and measures, 825
— navy, 822
— population, 819, 820
— posts, 825
— president, 819
— railways, 824
— religion, 820
— revenue and expenditure, 821
— shipping and navigation, 824
— telegraphs, 824
Perugia, 682 ; University, 692
Peter I. (Oldenburg), 601
Philadelphia, 1070
Philippe ville, 511
Philippine Islands, 959, 961
Philippopolis, 1034
Phoenix group of islands, 310
Pietermaritzburg, 187
Pilsen, 344
Pines, Isle of, 528
Piraeus, 648
Pisa, 682 ; University, 692
Pitcairn Island, 253
Pittsburg, 1070
Plauen, 625
Plymouth, population, 19
Plymouth, Montserrat, 230
Pnom-Penh, 509
Pointe-a-Pitre, 527
Poland government, 858
— area, 859
— births, deaths, and marriages, 861,
862
— justice, 868
— population, 859
— religion, 864
— sugar works, 897
— (see also Russia)
Pondichery, 508
Pondoland, 170
Ponta Delgada, 831
Poona, 125
Popo, Little, 567
Port Elizabeth, 171
Porto Rico, 959, 960
Portsmouth, population, 18
Portugal, agriculture, 836
— area, 830
— army, 835
— births and deaths, 832
— books of reference, 848
— colonies, 841
— commerce, 837
PRU
Portugal, constitution, 828
— crime, 833
— currency and credit, 839
i — defence, 835
j — diplomatic representatives, 840
i — emigrants, 882
I — exports, 837, 838
— finance, 833
— government, 828
— imports, 837, 838
— instruction, 838
— justice, 838
— king, 827
— marriages, 831
— mines, 836
— ministers, 829
— money, weights, and measures, 840
— navy, 836
— population, 830
— posts and telegraphs, 839
— production and industry, 836
— railways, 839
— religion, 832
— revenue and expenditure, 834
— royal family, 827
— shipping and navigation, 839
— sovereigns since 1095, 828
— wine exports, 1888-1892, 839
Posen, 612
Potenza, 682
Potosi, 395
Potsdam, 612
Prague, 344 ; University, 347
Pressburg, 344
Preston, population, 19
Pretoria, 941
Prince Edward Island, 207
Prince's Islands, 841
Providence, 1070
Prussia, agriculture, 618
— area, 610
— army, 617
— births, deaths, and marriages, 612
— breweries, 618
— commerce, 619
— constitution, 606
— crime, 615
— debt, 617
— distilleries, 618
— educational statistics, 614
— emigration, 612
— expenditure, 616
— finance, 615
— foreigners, 611
Digitized by
Google
XX42
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
FRU
Prussia, government, 606
— — - local, 609
— instruction, 613
— justice, 615
— king, 604
— kings from 1701, 606 j
— minerals, 618 I
— ministry, 608
— pauperism, 615
— population, 610, 611 '
conjugal condition, 61 1 |
— railways, 619 i
— religion, 613 I
— revenue, 616 i
— royal family, 604 i
— schools, 614 I
— sugar manufacture, 618
— towns, 612
— universities, 614 ■
Puebla, 739 !
Puerto Principe, 960
Punakha, 394
Punjab University, 127
Pyrgos, 648
Pyrmont, 637
QUEBEC, population, 208
Queen's College, Belfast, 34 ,
Cork, 34 |
Galway, 34 !
Melbourne, 293 j
Queensland, agriculture, 273 !
— area, 270 '
— banks, 275 ,
— births, deaths, and marriages, 271 |
— books of reference, 275
— commerce, 274 I
— constitution and government, 269
— defence, 273
— emigration, 271
— exports, 274
— finance, 272
— governor, 270
— immigration, 271 '
— - imports, 274 |
- instruction, 272
— justice and crime, 272 |
— mines, 274 !
— navigation, 275 j
— pauperism, 272
— population, 270
— posts and telegraphs, 275
— production and industry, 273
— railways, 275
ROD
Queensland, religion, 271
— shipping and navigation, 275
Quetta, 155
Quezaltenango, 658
Quito, 462
RAJPUTANA, 121
Banavalona, Queen (Madagas-
car), 516
Randers, 452
Rangoon, 125
Raratonga Island, 310
Ratack Islands, 570
Ratisbon, 581
Ravenna, 682
Reading, 19
Reading (U.S.A.), 1070
Redonda Island, 230
Reggio nell' Emilia, 682
Reichenbach, 625
Reims, 475
Rennes, 475
Resht, 811
Reunion Island, 521
Reuss (younger branch), area, 634
— constitution, 630
— crime, 635
— finance, 630
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning prince, 629
— religion, 635
— revenue, 630
Reuss (elder branch), area, 634
— constitution, 629
— crime, 635
— finance, 629
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning prince, 629
— religion, 635
— revenue, 629
Reval, 863
Riau-Lingga Archipelago, 784
Richmond (U.S.A.), 1070
Riga, 863
Riobamba, 462
Rio de Janeiro, 401
Rio de Oro, 959
Rivieres du Sud, 522
Rochdale, 19
Rochester (U.S.A.), 1070
Rockhampton (Queensland), 271
Rodrigues, 182, 184
Digitized by
Google
a
INDEX
1143
ROM
Rome, population, 682
— archbishoprics, 688
— bishoprics, 689
— cardinal bishops, 686
priests, 686
deacons, 688
— ■ patriarchates, 688,
— Pope, election of, 684
— Popes from 1417, 685
— Sacred College, 685
— See and Church, 684
— ■ Supreme Pontiff, 684
— University, 692
Rosetta, 1042
Rostock, 598 ; University, 541
Rostoff-on-Don, 863
Rotterdam, 765
Rotuma Island, 235
Roubaix, 475
Rouen, 475
Roumania, agriculture, 847
— ■ area, 845
— army, 847
— births, deaths, and marriages, 845
— books of reference, 850
— commerce, 848
— constitution, 844
— diplomatic representatives, 850
— exports, 848, 849
— finance, 846
— government, 844
— — local, 845
— imports, 848, 849
— instruction, 846
— king, 844
— money, weights, and measures, 849
— navy, 847
— population, 845
— posts and telegraphs, 849
— production and industry, 847
— railways, 849
— religion, 846
— revenue and expenditure, 846
— shipping, 849
Royal Company Island, 309
Russia, agriculture, 891
— area, 858-860
— army, 879
peace footing, 881
— — war footing, 884
— banks, 908
— births, 861
— books of reference, 914
— commerce, 897
SAI
Russia, constitution, 853
-T- Council of the State, 854
— crime, 869
— currency, 908
— customs valuation, xxvi
— deaths, 861
— debt, 875-878
— defence, army, 879
frontier, 878
navy, 887
— dependencies in Asia, 9126
— diplomatic representatives, 9.10
— emperor, 851
— exports, 897 et seq.
— finance, local, 878
state, 870
— forests, 894
— government, 853
local, 855
— Holy Synod, 854
— imports, 897 et seq.
— instruction, 865
— justice and crime, 868
— loans, 876
— manufactures, 895
— marriages, 861
— mines and minerals, 894
— ministry, 855
— money, weights, and measures, 910
— navy, 887
— population, 858-863
— posts and telegraphs, 908
— press, 868
— prisons, 869
— production and industry, 891
— railways, 906
— religion, 863
— rivers and canals, 905
— revenue and expenditure, 870-875
— royal family, 851
— Ruling Senate, 854
— schools, 865
— shipping and navigation, 904
— state finance, 870
— sugar works, 897
— towns, 862
— Tsars and emperors from 1613, 853
Rustchuk, 1034
Rybinsk, 863
SABA ISLAND, 793
Sam, 754
Sahara, French protectorate, 507
St. Andrews University, 34
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1144
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
SAI
St. Brandon Islands, 185
St. Christopher, 230, 232-234
St. Croix (W.I.), 459
St. Denis, 475
St. Etienne, 475
St. Eustache (Island), 793
St. Helena, 195 ; troops at, 97
St. Helens, 19
St. John (New Brunswick), 208
St. John's (Newfoundland), 225
St. John (W.I.), 230, 459
St. Eitts, 230, 232-234
St. Louis, 1070
St. Louis (Senegal), 522
St. Lucia, 232-284
Ste. Marie, 521
St. Martin (Island), 793
St. Nazaire, 475
St Nicolas, population, 380
St. Paul Island, 185
St. Paul (U.S.A.), 1070
St. Petersburg, 863
St. Pierre, 528
St Quintin, 475
St. Salvador (Bahamas), 227
St. Thomas (Portugal), 841
St. Thomas (W. I.), 459
St. Vincent, 232-234
Sakai, 722
Salerno, 682
Salford, population, 18
Salisbury (South Africa), 194
Salonica, 1016, 1017
Salvador, area, 917
— books of reference, 919
— commerce, 918
— constitution, 917
— diplomatic representatives, 919
— exports and imports, 918
— finance, 917
— government, 917
— industries, 918
— instruction, 917
— justice, 917
— money, weights, and measures, 919
— population, 917
— production, 918
— railways, 918
— shipping, 918
Samara, 863
Samarang (E. I. ), 785
Samarcand, 863
Samoa, 920
Samos, 1086
SAX
Sana, 1017
Sancti Spiritu, 960
Sandakan, 101
Sandhurst Royal Military and Staff
Colleges, 57
Sandhurst (Victoria), 292
San Francisco, 1070
San Juan, 959
San Luis Potosi (Mexico), 739
San Marino, 683
San Salvador, 917
Santa Cruz, 395
Santiago, 412
Santiago de Cuba, 960
Santo Domingo, area, 921
— books of reference, 924
— commerce, 923
— constitution, 921
— defence, 922
— diplomatic representatives, 924
— finance, 922
— government, 921
— industry, 922
— instruction, 922
— justice, 922
— money, weights, and measures, 923
— population, 921
— posts and telegraphs, 923
— president, 921
— production and industry, 922
— railways, 923
— religion, 922
— shipping, 923
Santo Domingo (City), 921
Saratoff, 862
Sarawak, 102
Sark and Brechon, population, 26
Sassari University, 692
Savage Island, 310
Sawakin-Massawah, 320
Saxe-Altenburg, area, 634
— constitution, 630
— crime, 685
— finance, 630
— pauperism, 635
— population, 684
— reigning duke, 680
— religion, 635
— revenue, 630
i Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, agriculture, 636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 681
— crime, |635
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1145
SAX
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, emigration, 635
— finance, 631
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning duke, 631
— religion, 635
— revenue, 632
Saxe-Meiningen, area, 634
— constitution, 632
— crime, 635
— finance, 632
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning duke, 632
— religion, 635
— revenue, 632
Saxe-Weimar, area, 621
— constitution, 620
— government, 620
— grand-duke, 620
— instruction, 621
— justice and crime, 621
— population, 621
— production, 622
— religion, 621
— revenue, 620
Saxony, agriculture, 626
— area, 624
— births, deaths, and marriages, 625
— breweries, 627
— constitution, 623
— distilleries, 627
— emigration, 625
— finance, 626
— government, 623
— instruction, 625
— justice and crime, 626
— king, 622
— mining, 627
— pauperism, 626
— population, 624
— production and industry, 626
— railways, 627
— religion, 625
— royal family, 622
— towns, 625
Schaumberg-Lippe, 628
Schiedam, 765
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, area, 634
— constitution, 633
crime, 635
finance, 688
pauperism, 635
population, 6>84
SCO
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, reigning
prince, 633
— religion, 635
— revenue, 633
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, area, 634
— constitution, 633
— crime, 635
— finance, 683
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning prince, 633
— religion, 635
— revenue, 633
Schwerin, 598
Scotland, agricultural holdings, 69
— agriculture, 66 et seq.
— area, 14-16, 20-22
— army, 55
— banks, joint-stock, 96
post-office, 92-94
trustee, 96a
— births, deaths, and marriages, 27
— canals, 91
— coal produce, 73
— commerce, 80
— counties, 21
— criminals, 40
— education, middle-class, 35
primary, 86
universities, 34
— electorate, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 71, 72
— illiterates, 9, 33*
— immigration, 28
— imports and exports, 80
— income-tax, 48
— ironworks, value, 49
— justice and crime, 38, 39
— live stock, 69
— local government, 13
— mines, value of, 49
— occupations of the people, 23
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 41
— police force, 40
— population, 14-16, 20-23
counties, 21
towns, 22
— posts and telegraphs, 92-94
— property assessed, 49
— railways, 90, 91
— railways, value of, 49
— religion, 31
Digitized by
Google
1146
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
\
SCO
Scotland, taxation, Imperial, 48
local, 52
— textile factories, 76
— towns, 22
— trade, 80
— universities, 34
Scranton (U.S.A.), 1070
Scutaria, 1016, 1017
Sebastopol, 863
Segelmesa, 753
Selangor, 159
Senaar, 319, 320
Sendai, 722
Senegal, 522
Seoul (Corea), 441
Seraing, population, 380
Serghievsk, 863
Servia, agriculture, 930
— area, 926
— army, 929
— births, deaths, and marriages, 927
— books of reference, 933
— budget, 1892, 929
— commerce, 931
— constitution, 925
— currency and credit, 932
— defence, 929
— diplomatic representatives, 932
— exports and imports, 931
— finance, 928
— forests., 930
— government, 925
— instruction, 927
«— justice and crime, 928
— manufacture, 930
— mining, 930
— money, weights, and measures, 932
— pauperism, 928
— population, 926
— posts and telegraphs, 932
— production and industry, 930
— railways, 932
— religion, 927
— revenue and expenditure, 928, 929
— sovereign, 925
Servia, 1016
Sevilla, 949
Seychelles, 184
Shandernagar, 508
Sheffield, 18 ; College, 34
Shiraz, 811, 814
Shire Province, 178
Shoa, 715
Shumla, 1034
SOU
Silver production in the world, xxix
Silver and Gold, the world's pro-
duction of, xxix
Siam, area, 935
— books of reference, 939
— commerce, 937
— defence, 936
— diplomatic representatives, 939
— finance, 936
— government, 934
— instruction, 936
— King, 934
— money, weights, and measures, 938
— population, 935
— posts and telegraphs, 938
— production and industry, 936
— railways, 938
— royal family, 934
— shipping, 938
Siberia, 859, 860, 861, 868
Sidibel-Abbes, 511
Siena, 682 ; University, 692
Sierra Leone, 197
Sikkim, 156
Simbirsk, 863
Simpheropol, 863
Singapore, 159-164
Sivas, 1016, 1017
Slivno, 1034
Smolensk, 863
Smyrna, 1016, 1017
Society Islands, 528
Socotra Island, 100
Soerabaya, 785
Sofia, 1034
Sokoto, 190, 191
Solomon Islands, 310, 570
Somali land, 100
Sombrero Island, 231
Somerville Hall, Oxford, 35
Sondino, 682
South Africa (British), 193
South African Republic, agriculture,
942
— area, 940
— books of reference, 943
-*- commerce, 942
— communications, 942
— constitution, 940
— defence, 941
— finance, 941
— government, 940
— instruction, 941
— mining, 942
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1147
SOU
South African Republic, population,
940
— production and industry, 942
— religion, 941
South Australia, agriculture, 279 I
— area, 277 '
— banks, 282 j
— births, deaths, and marriages, 278
— books of reference, 282
— commerce, 280
— constitution, 276
— debt, 279
— defence, 279
— emigration, 278
— exports, 280, 281
— factories, 280
— finance, 279
— government, 276
local, 277
— governor, 276
— immigration, 278
— imports, 280, 281
— instruction, 278
— justice and crime, 278
— mines, 280
— population, 277
— posts and telegraphs, 281
— production and industry, 279
— railways, 281
— religion, 278
— shipping and navigation, 281
Southampton, 19
South Georgia Island, 222
South Shields, 19
Spain, agriculture, 955
— area, 948
— army, 952
— books of reference, 961
— colonies, 959
— commerce, 955
— constitution, 945
— customs valuation, xxv '
— debt, 952
— defence, army, 952
frontier, 952 !
navy, 953-955 '
— diplomatic representatives, 958
— exports, 955-957 |
— finance, 950 |
— government, central, 945 '
local, 947 I
— imports, 955-957 I
— industry, 955 j
— instruction, 950
SUN
Spain, mining, 955
— ministry, 947
— money, weights, and measures, 958
— navy, 953
— population, 948
— posts and telegraphs, 958
— production, 955
— queen regent, 944
— railways, 958
— religion, 949
— revenue and expenditure, 951
— royal family, 944
— schools, 950
— shipping and navigation, 957
— sovereign, 944
— sovereigns since 1512, 945
— towns, 949
— wines, 957
Spanish Town, Jamaica, 228
Srinagar, 125
Stanley (Falkland), 222
Starbuck Island, 310
Stettin, 538, 612
Stockholm, 968
Stockport, 19
Straits Settlements, area, 159
— books of reference, 165
— commerce, 162
— communications, 164
— constitution, 158
— currency, 164
— defence, 162
— exports, 163, 164
— finance, 161
— government, 158
— governor, 158
— imports, 163, 164
— instruction, 160
— justice and crime, 161
— money, weights, and measures, 164
— navigation, 164
— population, 159
— production and industry, 162
— shipping, 164
Strassburg, 538, 571
— University, 541
Stuttgart, 538, 639
Sucre (Bolivia), 395
Sudan States, Central, 317
— Egyptian, 319
Suez, 1043 ; Canal, 1052
Sulu Islands, 959
Sumatra, Island of, 784
Sunderland, population, 19
Digitized by
Google
1148
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
>
SUR
Surat, 125
Surinam, 792
Suvarof Islands, 310
Swansea, 19
Swaziland, 943
Sweden, agriculture, 973
— area, 966
— army, 971
— banks, 977
— births, deaths, and marriages, 968
— commerce, 974
— constitution, 964
— council of state, 966
— crime, 969
— currency and credit, 976
— defence, 971
— Diet, the, 965
— emigration, 968
— exports, 974-975
— finance, 970
— government, central, 964
local, 966
— imports, 974-975
— instruction, 969
— justice, 969
— mines and minerals, 974
— money, weights, and measures, 993
— navy, 972
— pauperism, 969
— population, 966
— posts and telegraphs, 976
— railways, 976
— religion, 969
— revenue and expenditure, 970
— shipping and navigation, 976
— towns, 968
Sweden and Norway, books of refer-
ence, 994
— diplomatic representatives, 993
— kings and queens since 1521, 964
— money, weights, and measures, 993
— reigning king, 963
— royal family, 963
— (see also Norway)
— (see also Sweden)
Switzerland, agriculture, 1006
— area, 998
— army, 1005
— books of reference, 1009
— births, deaths, and marriages, 999
— Bundesrath, the, 997
— commerce, 1007
— constitution, 995
— crime, 1001
TA8
Switzerland, currency and credit, 1009
— customs valuation, xxvii
— defence, 1004
— diplomatic representatives, 1009
— exports, 1007, 1008
— finance, 1002
local, 1003
— government, central, 995
local, 997
— imports, 1007, 1008
— instruction, 1000
— justice, 1001
— money, weights, and measures, 1009
— Nationalrath, the, 996
— population, 998, 989
— posts and telegraphs, 1008
— president, 997
— production and industry, 1006
— railways, 1008
— religion, 1000
— revenue and expenditure, 1002
— schools, &c, 1001
— towns, 1000
Sydney as a naval station, 307
— population, 242 ; University, 243
Syra, 648
Syracuse (U.S.A.), 1070
Syria, 1017
Syzran, 863
Szegedin, 344
TABRIZ, 811
Taganrog, 863
Tahiti, 529
Tantah, 1042
Tarnaki, 256
Tashkent, 863
Tasmania, agriculture, 286
— area, 283
— births, deaths, and marriages, 284
— books of reference, 289
— commerce, 287
— constitution and government, 282
— defence, 286
— emigration, 284
— exports, 287
— governor, 283
— horticulture, 286
— immigration, 284
— imports, 287
— instruction, 284
— justice and crime, 285
— mines, 287
— pauperism, 285
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1149
TAS
Tasmania, population, 283
— posts and telegraphs, 288, 289
— production and, industry, 286
— railways, 288
— religion, 284
— revenue and expenditure, 285
— shipping and navigation, 288
Technical Institute, City and Guilds
of London, 35
Tegucigalpa, 669
Teherdn, 811
Tembuland, 170
Tetiaroa Islands, 528
Thuringian States, 629 .
— agriculture, 636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— breweries, 636
— crime, 635
— emigration, 635
— minerals, 636
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— religion, 635
Tiflis, 863
Tilburg, 765
Timor (Dutch), 784 ; Portuguese), 841
Tlemcen, 511
Tobago, 231, 232, 233, 234
Togoland, 567
Tokelau Islands, 310
Tokushima, 722
Tokyo, 722
Toledo, 1070
Tonga, 1010
Tongaland, 201
Tongarewa Island, 310
Tonquin, 510
Toronto, 208
Tortoise Islands, 461
Tottenham, 19
Toulon, 475
Toulouse, 475
Tourcoing, 475
Tournai, population, 380
Tours, 475
Toyama, 722
Transkei, 170
Trebizond, 1016, 1017
Trenton (U.S.A.), 1070
Trieste, 344
Trikala, 648
Trincomalee, 104
Trinidad, 231, 232, 233, 234
TUR»
Trinity College, Melbourne, 293
Tripoli, 1017
Tripolitsa, 648
Tristan D'Acunha, 196
Troy (U.S.A.), 1070
Troyes, 475
Tsait'ien (Emperor of China), 419
Tubingen University, 541, 640
Tula, 863
Tumlong, 156
Tunis, area, 507, 524
— Bey, 523
— books of reference, 526
— commerce, 525
— exports, 525
— finance, 524
— government, 523
— imports, 525
— industry, 525
— money, weights, and measures,
526
— population, 507, 524
— posts and telegraphs, 526
— railways, 526
Turin, 683
— University, 692
Turkey, agriculture, 1026
— area, 1015
— army, 1023
— books of reference, 1037
— commerce, 1027
— constitution, 1013
— debt, 1022
— defence, army, 1023
frontier, 1022
navy, 1024
— diplomatic representatives, 1036
— education, 1018
— exports, 1028, 1029
— finance, 1019
— government, 1013
— imports, 1028, 1029
— loans, 1020
— mining, 1027
— money, weights, and measures,
1031
— navy, 1024
— population, 1015
— posts and telegraphs, 1030
— privy council, 1015
— production and industry, 1026
— railways, 1030
— reigning Sultan, 1011
— religion, 1018
Digitized by
Google
1150
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
I
TUB
Turkey, revenues, 1021
— royal family, 1011
— shipping and navigation, 1030
— sovereigns from 1299, 1013
— tributary states, 1032
— vilayets, 1016
Turk's Island, 229, 232, 234
UGANDA, 180
Ulm, 639
Ulster province, population, 23
Umberto I., 672
Union, or Tokelau group of islands, 310
United States, 1058
— agriculture, 1084
— area, 1065
— army, 1079
— banks, 1097
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1068
— books of reference, 1100
— cabinet, 1060
— cereal crops, 1085
— cities, 1069
— commerce, 1090
— Congress, 1061
— constitution, 1058
— corn, 1085
-- cotton, 1086, 1095
— currency and credit, 1097
— customs valuation, xxvi
— debt, 1077
— diplomatic representatives, 1099
— exports, 1090-1095
— finance, Federal, 1075
state, 1078
— fisheries, 1090
— foreign-born population, 1068
— forestry, 1086
— government, 1058
— local, 1064
state, 1063
— House of Representatives, 1061
— immigration, 1068
— imports, 1090-1095
— Indian reservations, 1067
area, 1067
births, 1067
deaths, 1067
population, 1067
— instruction, 1071
— justice and crime, 1074
— live stock, 1086
— manufactures, 1088
— mines and minerals, 1087
VAN
United States, money, weights, and
measures, 1099
— navy, 1080
— occupations of the people, 1067
— pauperism, 1075
— population, 1064-1069
— posts and telegraphs, 1097
— president, 1059
— presidents since 1789, 1059
— production and industry, 1084
— railways, 1096
— religion, 1070
— revenue and expenditure, 1076
— schools, 1071—1074
— Senate, 1061
— shipping and navigation, 1095
— tobacco, 1086
— towns, 1070
— vice-presidents since 1789, 1060
University College, London, 34
Upsala, 968 ; University, 969
Urbino University, 692
Uruguay, area, 1102
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1103
— books of reference, 1108
— commerce, 1105
— constitution, 1102
— currency and credit, 1107
— defence, 1105
— diplomatic representatives, 1108
— emigration, 1104
— exports, 1105-1107
— finance, 1104
— government, 1102
! — immigration, 1104
■ — imports, 1105-1107
» — instruction, 1104
— money, weights, and measures,
1108
j — population, 1102, 1103
— posts and telegraphs, 1107
— production and industry, 1105
| — railways, 1107
• — religion, 1104
1 — shipping and navigation, 1107
| Utrecht, 765
VALENCIA (Spain), 949 ; 1110
— (Venezuela), 1110
Valetta (Malta), 99
ValladoUd, 949
Valparaiso, 412
Vancouver, 208
Digitized by
Google
INDEX
1151
VAN
Vanua Levu Island, 235
Varna, 1034
Varoshia, 109
Vasquez, General Domingo (Hon-
duras), 669
Vatin Island, 310
Venezuela, agriculture, 1112
— area, 1109, 1110
— - books of reference, 1114
— commerce, 1112
— constitution and government, 11 09
—1110
— defence, 1111
— diplomatic representatives, 1114
— exports, 1112, 1113
— finance, 1111
— imports, 1112, 1113
• — instruction, 1110
— justice and crime, 1111
. — mines and minerals, 1112
— money, weights, and measures,
1114
— population, 1109, 1110
— posts and telegraphs, 1113
— President, 1109
— production and industry, 1112
— railways, 1113
— religion, 1110
— shipping, 1113
Venice, 682
Vera Cruz, 739
Verona, 682 »
Versailles, 475
Verviers, population, 380
Vicenza, 682
Victoria, agriculture, 295
— area, 291
— banks, 300
— births, deaths, and marriages, 292
— books of reference, 300
— commerce, 296
— constitution, 289
— currency and credit, 300
— debt, 294
— defence, 295
— emigration, 292
— exports, 296-298
— finance, 294
— governor, 290
— government, 289
local, 290
— immigration, 292
— imports, 296-298
— instruction, 292
WES
Victoria, justice and crime, 293
— manufactures, 296
— mining, 296
— ministry, 290
— occupations of the people, 291
— population, 291
— posts and telegraphs, 299, 300
— production and industiy, 295
— railways, 299
— religion, 292
— revenue and expenditure, 294
— schools and colleges, 293
— shipping and navigation, 299
Victoria, (British Columbia), 208
Victoria, Queen and Empress, 3
Victoria University, 34
— (Australia), 292
Vienna, 344
— University, 347
Villa Rica, 806
Villenour, 508
Vilna, 863
Virgin Islands, 230, 231, 232—234
Vitebsk, 863
Viti Levu Island, 235
Vladikavkaz 863
Volsk, 863
Voronej, 863
Vryburg, 168
WADAI, 318
Wakayama, 722
Waldeck, 636, 637
Waldemar (Prince) Lippe, 594
Wales, live stock, 69
— agricultural holdings, 69
(See also England and Wales).
Walfish Bay, 170
Wallis Archipelago, 528
Walsall, 19
Warrington, 19
Warrnambool, 292
Warsaw, 863
Washington, 1070
— Island, 310
Waterford, 25
Weimar, 621
Wellington (N.Z.), 256, 257
— trade, 267
West African Colonies, 196
West Bromwich, 19
Western Australia, agriculture, 304
— area, 302
306
Digitized by
Google
1152
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1894
WES
Western Australia, books of reference,
306
— commerce, 305
— constitution and government, 301
— debt, 304
— defence, 304
— exports, 305
— finance, 304
— governor, 301
— imports, 305
— instruction, 303
— justice and crime, 303
— money and credit, 306
— pauperism, 303
— population, 302
— posts and telegraphs, 306
— production and industry, 304
— railway, 306
— religion, 302
— schools, 303
— shipping, 306
"Western Pacific (German dependencies
in), 569
West Indies, 227 ; statistics, 233
— Danish, 459
— Dutch, 792
West Ham, 18
Westiand (N.Z.), 256
Wheat crops of the world, xxviii.
Wiesbaden, 612
Wigan, 19
WiBielm II., German Emperor, 530 ;
King of Prussia, 604
Wilhelm II. (Wiirttemberg), 637
Wilhelmina Helena Pauline (Nether-
lands), 759
Willesden, 19
Wilmington, 1070
Windward Islands, 231, 232-234
Winnipeg, 208
Woldemar, Prince (Lippe), 594
Wolverhampton, population, 19
Woolwich, Royal MilitaryAcademy,57
Worcester (U.S.A.), 1070
World's production of gold and silver
in 1892. Int. Table.
Worms, 593
Wurno, 191
Wiirttemberg, agriculture, 642
— area, 639
— army, 642
— births, deaths, and marriages, 639
ZWO
Wiirttemberg, books of reference^ 643
— breweries, 642
— constitution, 638 •
— crime, 640
— emigration, 639
— expenditure, 641
— finance, 640
— government, 638
— industry, 642
— instruction, 640
— pauperism, 640
— population, 639
— railways, 642
— reigning king, 637
— religion, 640
— revenue, 641
— royal family, 638
— towns, 639
Wiirzburg, 581 ; University, 541
YAKOBA, 191
Yanaon, 508
Yaroslav, 863
Yemen, 1017
Yokohama, 722
Yola, 191
York, 19
Ystradyfodwg, 19
ZAGAZIG, 1042
Zaila, 100, 320
Zambesia, 177, 193
Zante, 648
Zanzibar, area, 200
— army, 201
— books of reference, 201
— commerce, 201
— currency, 201
— finance, 201
— government, 199
— justice, 200
— population, 200
— religion, 200
— Sultan, 199
Zaragoza, 949
Zeilah, 320
Zittau, 625
Zor, 1017
Zululand, 202
Zurich, 1000 ; University, 1001
Zwickau, 624, 625
Zwolle, 765
RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, I.IMITED, LONDON* AND BUNGAY.
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FOUNDED 1806.
PROVIDENT LIFE OFFICE.
50 REGENT STREET, W., & 14 CORNHILL, E.C., LONDON.
trustees an& Directors,
Thomas Barney, Esq.
W. S. Beaumont, Esq.
Lieut. -Geo. H. Brackembury, C.B.
Sir Frederic A. Burrows, Bart.
Walter T. Coles, Esq.
Charles F. Cukdy, Esq.
Major Sir D. ©uckworth-Kino, Bart.
Seymour A. Beaumont.
Edward J. Foster, Esq.
William C. Judd, Esq.
The Right Hon. Lord Kinnaird,
Major-General R Mackenzie.
John H. Etherinoton Smith, Esq.
William Philip Snell, Esq.
William H. Spencer, Esq.
Esq., Managing Director.
FINANCIAL POSITION,
Existing: Assurances ... £7,548,589 I Annual Income £336,237
Invested Funds £2.734,180 I Claims & Surrenders Paid £9,604,077
Bonuses Declared £3,288,236
PROGRESSIVE FEATURES IN LIFE ASSURANCE.
Settlement of Claim* on Proof of Death and Title.
Equitable Division of Profits. Liberal Surrender-Values.
Enlarged Free Limits of Foreign Residence and Travel.
Endowment Assurances with Profits. Half-Credit System Policies.
Non-forfeitable Policies. Intermediate Bonuses.
Special Advantages to the Naval and Military Professions.
Further information on application. CHARLES STEVENS, Actuary £ Secretary.
Favourably Reviewed by over 80 influential Newspapers.
" UOW TO SELECT A LIFE OFFICE."
II By Q. M. DENT, F.S.S.
14 Those who are seeking an office for the
purpose of assurance will do well to peruse
this 'dialogue* before deciding upon any
particular company."— StUUonist.
"The statistics as to endowment as-
surance policies as investments are highly
interesting and convincing."— Citizen.
"Explains with singular clearness the
canons by which the security of an office
may be tested and its prosperity gauged,
and shows the immense difference between
the advantages offered by different com-
panies."—Manchester Examiner.
" A valuable pamphlet on life assurance. "
Morning Post.
Price Is.; by post, Is. Id.
JOHN HEYWOOD, Manchester; and Paternoster Buildings, London.
INDISPENSABLE TO EVERT KIND OF WRITER
And are in use, and may be had in erery Country in the World.
THE SWAN FOUNTAIN PEN.
Unrivalled and Incomparable. Broad, Medium, or Fine Pointed.
¥HE " SWAN" is Mabie, Todd & Bard's Gold Fen joined to a rubber reservoir to
hold any kind of ink, which it supplies to the writing point in a continuous flow,
and once filled will do incessant work for thirty hours.
To every class of writer, and particularly Shorthand Writers, they are simply invaluable.
One outwears ninety gross of steel pens costing £11.
In shape they are like the steel pen you are familiar with, which has lasted you only a
few days. One of our Gold Pens will serve you faithfully an ordinary lifetime.
IN 3 8IZE8 10/6, 16/6, AND 25/- EACH WITH FILLER COMPLETE.
Post Free throughout the United Kingdom. Post Free, by Registered Post, to any part of
the World, 11/6, 17/6, 26/-.
MABIE, TODD * BARD, 93 CHEAPSIDE, LONDON, E.C.
West End Branch, 95a Regent Street, W.
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EAGLE INSURANCE COMPANY.
ESTAB. 1 gift 1807
Head Office— 79, PALL MALL, LONDON, S.W.
City Office— SOUTH SEA HOUSE, TEREADNEEDLE STREET, E.C.
MANCHESTER 4, Booth Street.
BIRMINGHAM 104, Colmore Row.
BRISTOL 11, Clare Street
Directors.
Sir George Russell, Bart., M.P., Chairman.
Charles BisoHorr, Esq., Deputy-Chairman.
G bo rgb Brackrnbury, Esq., CM. 6.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Cottesloe.
The Rt Hon. Sir Wm. Hart Dyke, Bart.,M.P.
The Rt. Hon. Sir J. Ferousson, Bart.,
M.P., G.C.S.I.
Richard W. E. Middletok, Esq.
Henry Paull, Esq.
G. A. Lookhart Robertson, M.D.,F.R.C.P.
Henrt Rose, Esq.
Colonel the Hon. W. P. M. C. Talbot.
ACCUMULATED FUNDS £2,650,000
ANNUAL INCOME £290,000
CLAIMS PAID during past 45 years £11,300,000
THE BUSINESS OF THE COMPANY IS NOW VALUED
B7 THE STRINGENT TEST OF THE Hm. TABLE OF* MORTALITY,
WITH INTEREST AT 3* PER GENT.
The Assurance Fund, invested upon First Glass Securities, is now
equal to 14| times the Annual Premiums receivable,
SPECIAL RATES for the Navy and for Officers of Mercantile
Marine and Others.
FIXED TERM (Leasehold Redemption) ASSURANCES effected,,
with Liberal Surrender Value.
ACTIVE AGENTS WANTED IN TOWN AND COUNTRY.
GEORGE HUMPHREYS,
Bcrtiar? an* Secretary
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Largest Selection of PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS
in the World. The Best Value. Before buying
Opera or Field Glasses, Microscopes, or other
Optical Instruments*
WRITE FOR CATALOGUE, WHICH IS SUNT POST FRBB.
"OPTIMUS PHOTOGRAPHIC OUTFIT
Rayment's Wide Angle, Long Foous, Rack Camera,
Three Double Dark Slides, "Optimus" Rapid Rectilinear
Lens, Instantaneous Shutter, Tripod, and best Water-
proof Case.
For Plates 4* by S±, I 6*by4f, I 8$ by 6*, I 10 by 8, | 12 by 10, I 15>y 12 inches
£10 I £12 I £15 I £20 | £25 I £30.
kk
OPTIMUS " MAGIC LANTERNS.
~ Each Lantern is efficient for Drawing-room and Lecture Hall Exhibitions. The Lens
gives crisp definition, being a superior Achromatic Photographic Combination, with Raclc
and Pinion, Compound Condenser of 4 inches diameter, 3-wick Refulgent Lamp.
£ s. d.
Japanned Metal, Complete
in Box 1 10 0
Russian Iron Body, Brass
Sliding Tubes 2 5 O
Russian Iron Body, Perfor-
ated Tubes 2 10 0
Mahogany OutsideBody, Pan-
elled Door, Brass Stages,
and Sliding Tubes ... 4 2 0
Same as above, with, 3-draw
tube and long baseboard 5 5 0*
"OPTIMUS" ENLARGING APPARATUS. Constructed
ON THE MOST APPROVED Scientific Principles.
PERKEN, SON, & RAYMENT,«sW- LONDON.
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NORTH BRITISH AND MERCANTILE
INSURANCE COMPANY,
FIRE, LIFE, AND ANNUITIE8.
Incorporated by Royal Charter and Special AeU of Parliament.
ESTABLISHED 18Q9.
TOTAL ASSETS at 31st December, 1892, £11,141,294.
I. Authorised Capital £8,000,000 0 0
Subscribed Capital 2,750,000
0 0
Paid-up Capital
II. Fire Funds— Reserves (including Balance of Profit and Loss Account)
III. Life Funds— Accumulated Fund of the Life Branch £6,800,105 6 9
„ „ Annuity Branch 1,474,750 2 2
£687,500 0
2,678,938 12
Revenue for the Year 1892.
From Fire Department : —
Net Premiums, Interest, <fcc
From Life Department :—
Net Premiums, Interest, Ac. £879,786 8
Annuity Premiums (including £280,964 3«. Qd.
by single payments) and Interest 836,949 13
7,774,855 8 11
£11,141,294 1 1
£1,577,276 7 9
1,216,786 1 10
£2,704,012 9 7
The Accumulated Funds of the Life Department are free from liability in respect of the
Fire Department, and in like manner the Accumulated Funds of the Fire Department are
free from liability in respect of the Life Department.
Chairman of the General Court : The Rt Hon. Sir MATTHEW WHITE RIDLEY, Br., M.P,
lonoon Directors,
Chairman: Baron SCHRODER. Deputy-Chairman: Pasooe Du Pre Grenfbll, Esq.
Charles Morrison, Esq. Quintin Hooo, Esq. l Alex. D. Kleinwort, Esq.
George Garden Niool, Esq. Hon. C. W. Mills. I Geo. E. Scaramanga, Esq.
Alex. H. Campbell, Esq. Hon. C. N. Lawrence. I Chas. J. C. Scott, Esq.
John Sanderson, Esq. I
Manager of Fire Department: GEORGE HENRY BURNETT.
Manager of Life Department and Actuary: HENRY COCK BURN. Secretary: F.W.LANCE.
Foreign Sub-Managen : PHILIP WINSOR and E. A. de PAIVA.
[Medical Officer*: HERMANN WEBER, M.D., and H. PORT. M.D.
Solicitor* : BIRCHAM * CO. | Auditor . JAMES HALDANE, Chartered Accountant.
fiofnburgb HHrectors.
J. F. Walker-Drummond, Esq.
David B. Wauchope, Esq.
Sir James Gardiner Baird, Bt.
George Auldjo Jamieson, Esq.
Frederick Pitman, Esq.
Charles GAiRDNBR,Esq.
Ralph Dundas, Esq.
JohnWharton ToD,Esq.
Charles C. Maoonochie. Esq.
Sir J. H. Gibson-Craig, Bt.
Right Hon. Earl of Elgin.
Sir Thomas Clark, Bart
Charles B. Logan, Esq.
Manager: A. GILLIES SMITH, F.RS.E.
Secretary : PHILIP R. D. MACLAGAN.
Actuary : THOMAS WALLACE.
MedicalOJficer: J.PLAYFAIR,M.D.,F.R.C.P.E.
Solicitor* : J. & F. ANDERSON, W.S.
Auditor: JAMES HALDANE, Chart Account
>
LIFE DEPARTMENT.
The principles on which this Company was founded, and on which it continues to act,
combine the system of Mutual Assurance with the safety of a large Protecting Capital and
Accumulated Funds.
Ninety per Cent of the IAfe Assurance Profits is divided among the Assurers on the
Participating Scale.
The Profit* are divided every five years. Next division of Profits, 31st December, 1895.
Cheap and simple arrangements for Naval and Military Officers.
Annuities of all kinds are granted, and the rates fixed on the most favourable terms.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.
Property of nearly every description, at Home and Abroad, insured at the lowest rate of
premium corresponding to the risk.
Net Fire Premiums for 1892 amounted to £1.467.318 12«. Ad.
Prospectuses and every information can be obtained at the Chief Offices : —
LONDON— 61 THREADNEEDLE STREET, EC.
EDINBURGH— 64 PRINCES STREET.
LONDON— {West End Branch)— % WATERLOO PLACE, 8.W.
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ADDITIONAL FEATURES
I
J
Edinburgh, 22 George Street
London Office, 11 King William Street, E.C.
PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION
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178th YEAR.
WESTMINSTER
FIRE OFFICE.
ZBlOTTOSriDIElID .A.. 3D. 1717.
CHIEF OFFICES:—
KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
LONDON, W.C.
CITY OFFICE ...5 KING WILLIAM ST. E.C.
BRANCHES:—
BIRMINGHAM ...35 COLMORE ROW.
GLASGOW SAINT VINCENT PLACE.
LEEDS 28 EAST PARADE.
LIVERPOOL .6 CHAPEL STREET.
MAwrm?cn?p I WESTMINSTER BUILD-
JflAJMLHliMliK ...( INGS, BROWN STREET.
t
RATES OF PREMIUM MODERATE.
LOSSES PROMPTLY AND LIBERALLY
SETTLED.
Forms of Proposal and every information on
application at the Chief Offices or Branches.
CHARLES ROUSE BROWNE,
Secretary.
W. COUTTS FYEE,
Assistant Secretary.
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NORTHERN
Assurance Co.
Income & Funds
(1892)
Fire Premiums,
£710,000.
life Premiums,
£224,000
Interest,
£165,000
Accumulated
Funds,
£4,146,000
NORTHERN
Assurance Go.
HEAD OPFICB3
LOHDON—
1 Moorgate Street.
ABERDEEN—
1 Union Terrace.
BRANCHES:
BIRMINGHAM.
BRISTOL.
DUBLIN.
DUNDEE.
EDINBURGH.
GLASGOW.
LIVERPOOL.
MANCHESTER.
NEWCASTLE.
NOTTINGHAM.
BOSTON, U.S.
CHICAGO.
NEW YORK.
SAN PRANCISCO.
MONTREAL.
MELBOURNE.
LONDON BOARD OF DIRECTORS.
•Colonel Robert Baking.
Henry Cosmo Obmk Bonsor, Esq., M.P.
Ernest Chaplin, Esq.
Sir Philip Corbie, G.C.B.
Alexander Pearson Fletcher, Esq.
Alexander Heun Goschen, Esq.
William Egerton Hubbard, Esq.
Ferdinand Marshall Huth, Esq.
Henry James Lubbock, Esq.
Charles James Lucas, Esq.
William .Walkinshaw, [Esq.
Secretary— H.. E. Wilson.
Fire Department — James Robb, Manager. Life Department— F. Laing, Actuary*
General Manager— J as. Valentine.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.— Insurances are granted on Property situate in all parts
of the British Dominions, and in most foreign Countries, at rates which are computed
according to the actual risk incurred. The Company has already paid over £7,500,000
in tbe settlement of claims under its Fire Policies.
LIFE DEPARTMENT.— The Company offers the advantages of perfect security,
with great economy in management and moderate rates of premium. The total expenses
in the year 1892 were slightly over 7 per cent, of the Income from Premiums and Interest,
or, excluding commission paid to Agents, less than 4 per cent.
In the Participation Branch the whole of the ascertained surplus at each valuation
belongs to the Assured. The amount for the Quinquennium ending 81st December, 1890,
was sufficient to provide a Bonus of £1 lit. per cent, per annum upon the sum assured,
or £7 15«. per cent, for the whole Quinquennium, besides leaving £11,182 to be carried
forward. The Liabilities were ascertained by the well knpwn combination of the Institute
•of Actuaries HM(5) and HM Tables of Mortality, with only 3 per cent, assumed as the
rate of Interest to be in future earned by the funds, which are acknowledged to be very
vigorous data for the purpose.
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THE LONDON ASSURANCE
Incorporated by Royal Charter, A.D. 1720.
FOR FIRE, LIFE, AND MARINE ASSURANCES.
Head Office ;— No. ^^OYAjTeXOHANGB, LONDON.
Governor.
George William Campbell. Esq.
Sub-Governor. I Deputy-Governor.
Henry J. B. Kkndall, Esq. | Howard Galliat, Esq.
Directors.
Charles G. Arbuthnot, Esq.
Otto August Benecke, Esq.
Robert Henry Benson, Esq.
William Thomas Brand, Esq.
Alfred Clayton Cole, Esq.
Henry Lloyd Gibbs, Esq.
Sir Robert Gillespie.
Hekry Goschen, Esq.
Howard Potter, Esq.
Robert Ryrie, Esq.
Albert G. Sandeman, Esq.
David P. Sellar, Esq.
Colonel Leopold R. Seymour.
General SirD. M. Stewart, Bart., G.C.B.
Lewis A. Wallace, Esq.
John Young, Esq.
Edwin Gower, Esq.
A. C. Guthrie, Esq.
Robert Henderson, Esq.
Louis Huth, Esq.
Frederic Lubbock, Esq.
Admiral Sir F. L. McCli stock.
F.R.S.
Greville H. Palmer, Esq.
Secretary.
Charles A. Denton, Esq.
Actuary.
Arthur H. Bailey, Esq.
Underwriter.
John Stewart Mackintosh, Esq.
Manager of the Fire Department.
James Clunes, Esq.
The Corporation has granted Fire, Life, and Marine Assurances for more than a Century
and a half ; daring that long period it has endeavoured to introduce into its practice all the-
real improvements that have from time to time been suggested, and to afford every facility
for the transaction of business.
INCOME, 1892.
£ 9. d.
Life Premiums 145,988 2 1
Fire Premiums 443,967 10 0
Marine Premiums 828,647 16 2
Interest 135,482 0 2
Other Receipts 12,898 13 8
1,066,984 2 6
FUNDS, 31st Dec, 1802.
£ s. d.
Shareholders' Capital paid up 448,275 0 0
General Reserve Fund 810,000 0 0
Life Assurance Funds 2,006,573 11 7
Fire Fund 556,420 10 0
Marine Fund > 207,509 5 3
Profit and Loss 101,626 10 9
Provision for Accrued Liabilities 102,749 0 1
8,733,153 17 8
Prospectuses and copies of the Accounts can be had on application, personally or by
letter.
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Established 1851.
BIRKBECK BANK,
Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, London.
TWO- AND- A-HALF PER CENT. INTEREST allowed on DEPOSITS,
repayable on demand.
TWO PER CENT, on CURRENT ACCOUNTS, on the minimum monthly
balances, when not drawn below £100.
STOCKS, SHARES, and ANNUITIES purchased and sold.
SAVINGS DEPARTMENT.
For the encouragement of Thrift the Bank receives small sums on deposit,
and allows Interest monthly on each completed £1.
Absteact of Forty-second Annual Balance Sheet, March, 1893.
Amount at Credit of Subscriptions, Current and Deposit Accounts £5, 883, 572
Investments in the English Funds and other Negotiable
Securities, and Cash in hand 5,727,331
Permanent Guarantee Fund, invested in Consols 150,000
Amount of Assets in Excess of Liabilities 312, 983
Number of Members' Current and Deposit Accounts 67,244
The BIRKBECK ALMANACK, with full particulars, post free.
FRANCIS RAVENSCROFT, Manager.
Telephone No. 2508. Telegraphic Address : " BIRKBECK, LONDON."
A WEEKLY REVIEW OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART.
PRICE THREEPENCE; FREE BY POST THREEPENCE-HALFPENNY.
Terms of Subscription, payable in advance (including postage) :
12 Months, 15*. 2d.; 6 Months, Is. Id, Foreign : 12 Months, Vis. id. ; 6 Months, 8«. Sd.
PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY IN TIME FOR THAT DAY'S POST.
CONTAINING EVERY WEEK
Signed Reviews of important new books, English and Foreign, in Belles-Lettres, Travel,
History, Biography, Philosophy, Natural Science, Philology, the Fine Arts, and Archaeology..
Periodical News-Letters from Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Rome, Florence, Berlin, and
other Centres of Learning and Literary Activity.
Obituaries of Distinguished Men. Transactions of Learned Societies. Correspondence.
Notes and News, Literary, Geographical, Scientific, and Artistic. Jottings respecting
rare Books, Sales, and Curiosities. Publishers' Announcements, Ac.
Notices of Exhibitions in London and the Provinces, and of Music and the Drama.
Original Articles on Current. Topics of Literary Interest.
THE ACADEMY has always maintained the principle of Signed Articles as affording the
best guarantee of fairness and competence. In the list of its contributors will be found
the recognised Authorities in their several departments of Knowledge. Its half-yearly
Volumes are of permanent value for purposes of Reference, especially to those interested in
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A NEW VOLUME COMMENCED JANUARY 6, 1894.
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Science, and Art. All advertisements are bound in the volumes of the ' Academy.'
Publishing Office : 27 CHANCERY LANE, LONDON, W.C.
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PARLIAMENTARY AND GENERAL BOOKSELLERS, --*:«
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8 KING STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.
Agents appointed for the Sale of the Reports and Publications of the - . .
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Gentlemen interested in any particular subjects, can, by forwarding their instructions to
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Catalogues issued by P. S. KING & SON.
Annual Lists of the Parliamentary Papers published in each year, 1879
to 1887. Post free, id. each. Ditto in the years 1888 to 1893. Post free.
Monthly Lists. — At the beginning of each Month we publish a List of
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Lords and House of Commons, and of Miscellaneous Books, Pamphlets, &c.,
on Questions of the Day— Political, Economical, and Social. Post free, on
receipt of Address.
Special Lists—
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8.
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cords, &c.
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5. Sanitary and Public Health.
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6. India, Afghanistan and
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Central Asia.
13.
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7. London.
14.
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boozkhbhstdiictq-.
Books well and cheaply bound. Good workmanship only.
Also High-class Morocco and Fine Bindings at moderate Prices.
HANSARD'S PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES.
n the winding up of the Hansard Union, Limited (in Liquidation), we purchased the enti
remainder of the stock of Hansard's Debates.
Complete Bets, and Various Periods. Odd volumes supplied. Runs of Recent Fears.
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STANFORD'S
jndon Atlas of Universal Geography.
FOLIO EDITION.
HIBITINQ THE PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF
THE VARIOUS COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD.
rE HUNDRED MAPS, with an Alphabetical List of Vamei with
Latitudes and Longitudes,
CONTENTS:—
The World in Hemispheres.
61. The Sea of Marmora.
The World on Mercator's Projection.— East
52. Malta and the Ionian Islands.
TheWorld on Mercator'sPrqJection.— West
58. Cyprus.
The Countries round the North Pole.
54. Russia and Poland.
The World.— British Possessions.
55. The Acquisitions of Russia.
Europe.
British Isles.-»Stereographical.
56. Asia,
57. Asia-Minor, the Caucasus, Ac.
„ „ Hydrographies!.
„ „ GeologicaL
58. The Euphrates Valley.
59. Central Asia.
„ „ Parliamentary.
60. The North- West Frontier of India.
„ „ Railway.
61. Palestine.
,, ,, Rainfall and Temperature.
62. India, Northern Part.
England.
68. India, Southern Part.
„ N.E.
64. Burma.
„ N.W.
65. Ceylon.
„ S.E.
66. Siam, Burma and Anam.
„ 8.W.
67. China.
Central London.— N.E.
68. Japan.
N.W.
69. The Asiatic Archipelago.
,, ,, S.E.
70. Borneo.
,, „ S.W.
71. Africa.
. Outer London.
72. Egypt.
. Scotland.
73. Central Africa.
„ N.E.
74. South Africa.
„ N.W.
75. Madagascar.
>i 8.E.
76. North America.
,, S.W.
77. Newfoundland
i. Ireland.
78. Quebec, New Brunswick, Ac.
». „ N.E.
79. Ontario and Western Quebec.
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80. Manitoba.
.. „ S.E.
81. British Columbia.
I. „ S.W.
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83. The West Indies.
1. Denmark.— Iceland.
34. Jamaica.
'). Sweden and Norway.
85. The Bahamas.
5. German Empire. — West.
1 86. The Leeward Islands.
7. German Empire.— East.
87. The Windward Islands.
3. Austria— Hungary.
88. South America.
9. Switzerland.
89. The Argentine Republic, Ac.
90. The Falkland Islands.
0. The Netherlands and Belgium.
1. The Mediterranean Sea.
91. Australia, East.
2. France.
92. New Guinea.
3. Spain and Portugal
93. Queensland
4. The Canary Islands.
94. New South Wales.
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Funds to carry on this most necessary work are much needed, and will be gratefully
acknowledged by the Treasurer, F. A. Bevan, Esq., or by the Secretaries, Rev. T. S.
Hutchinson, M.A., and Rev. Robert Dawson, B.A.
Office, 3 Bridewell Placet E.C.
Bankers— Messrs. BARCLAY, BEVAN, dc CO.,
RUPTURE
THE LATEST
INVENTION AND
IMPROVEMENT.
WILLIAM COLES & CO. (late 3 Charing Cress)
INVENTORS AND PATENTEES OF TBE
SFIBAL SIPIRJICsra- TZRTCTSS.
226 PIGGADlIfLY, "W.
(Near the "Criterion.' )
Established] Read " COBBETT'S LEGACY, " gratis per post. [1821.
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JWutrte's Select Utfcrarg,
Booksellers, Book Exporters,
Bookbinders, and Librarians.
English, French, Italian, German, and Spanish Books.
THE LARGEST STOCK IN THE WORLD.
MUDIE'S SELECT LIBRARY, Limited,
30 to 84, Mew Oxford Street,
24-1 Brompton Road, S.W., and
4-8 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
LONDON.
And 10 to 12 BARTON ARCADE, MANCHESTER.
HENRY SOTHERAN & CO.,
JBooftsellers, Booftbinbers & publishers*
GENERAL AGENTS FOR ALL BOOK-BUYERS IN INDIA, THE
COLONIES, AMERICA, AND ABROAD.
ALL NEW BOOKS OP THE DAT, MAGAZINES, and NEWSPAPERS (including
. Foreign), supplied, promptly at best discount prices.
""BOOKBINDING in every style; a speciality of Plain-Strong Binding for Reading
Clubs and Public Libraries. A Large Selection of BOUND BOOKS always in stock.
BOOKS SOUGHT FOR in Weekly Lists free of charge, and Commissions at Saxes
executed with care and judgment.
SECOND- HAND BOOKS.— Their stock of these is one of the largest in England, and is
especially rich in the publications of learned societies and scientific and other periodicals,
besides every department of general literature. Their Monthly Catalogue of new pur-
chases (published for over forty years) sent post free.
COLONIAL AND EXPORT DEPART ME NT. -Although to this all
the foregoing remarks apply, they wo old direct especial attention
to their facilities for acting as Literary Agents in Europe for
all classes of Book-buyers abroad. They can furnish references
to many of the largest Public Libraries and Book Clubs in India,
the Colonies, America, and elsewhere ; and will send with pleasure
any information as to terms and mode of doing business.
140 Strand, W.C., & 37 Piccadilly, W., London.
Telegraphic Address— BOOKMEN, LONDON. Code— UNICODE. Estd. 1816.
[To face Advertisement Sheet.
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REMINGTON
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TYPEWRITER.
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Illustrated Dlustrated
Catalogue. Catalogue.
ABSOLUTELY UNRIVALLED FOR EXCELLENCE
of Workmanship, Superiority of Design, Durability,
Great Simplicity, Easy Manipulation, Speed, Mani-
folding Ability, and all the essentials of a First-class
Writing Machine.
UNANIMOUSLY adopted, after a searching investigation, in May 1892,
by the American Newspaper Publishers' Association. Over 500
Machines sold to its members since that date.
UNANIMOUSLY adopted as .the Official Writing-Machine of the World's
Columbian Exposition.
USED and endorsed as the best in upwards of Fifty different departments
of Her Majesty's Civil Service.
USED and endorsed as the best by upwards of Thirty of the leading
British Railway Companies, after an exhaustive test by their princi-
pal Engineers.
WYCKOFF, SEAMANS & BENEDICT,
100, GRACECHURCH STREET, LONDON, E.C.
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THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
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